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diff --git a/35398.txt b/35398.txt new file mode 100644 index 0000000..6bedd7b --- /dev/null +++ b/35398.txt @@ -0,0 +1,20889 @@ +The Project Gutenberg EBook of Encyclopaedia Britannica, 11th Edition, +Volume 9, Slice 7, by Various + +This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with +almost no restrictions whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or +re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included +with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org + + +Title: Encyclopaedia Britannica, 11th Edition, Volume 9, Slice 7 + "Equation" to "Ethics" + +Author: Various + +Release Date: February 25, 2011 [EBook #35398] + +Language: English + +Character set encoding: ASCII + +*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK ENCYC. BRITANNICA, VOL 9 SL 7 *** + + + + +Produced by Marius Masi, Don Kretz and the Online +Distributed Proofreading Team at https://www.pgdp.net + + + + + + + + + +Transcriber's notes: + +(1) Numbers following letters (without space) like C2 were originally + printed in subscript. Letter subscripts are preceded by an + underscore, like C_n. + +(2) Characters following a carat (^) were printed in superscript. + +(3) Side-notes were relocated to function as titles of their respective + paragraphs. + +(4) Macrons and breves above letters and dots below letters were not + inserted. + +(5) [root] stands for the root symbol; [oo] for infinity; [alpha], + [beta], etc. for greek letters. + +(6) The following typographical errors have been corrected: + + ARTICLE ESTEBANEZ CALDERON, SERAFIN: "His most interesting work, + Escenas andaluzas (1847), is in a curiously affected style ..." + 'curiously' amended from 'curiouly'. + + ARTICLE ESTERHAZY OF GALANTHA: "He was minister for foreign affairs + in the first responsible Hungarian ministry (1848), but resigned + his post in September because he could see no way of reconciling + the court with the nation." 'because' amended from 'bcause'. + + ARTICLE ETHER: "The principal symptoms symptons of chronic + ether-drinking are a weakening of the activity of the special + senses ..." 'symptons' amended from 'symptons'. + + ARTICLE ETHEREDGE, SIR GEORGE: "It is partly in rhymed rhymned + heroic verse, like the stilted tragedies of the Howards and + Killigrews ..." 'rhymned' amended from 'rhymned'. + + ARTICLE ETHICS: "... or the glory of merely secular gifts and + acquirements, it is one aspect of the unworldliness which we have + already noticed ..." 'unworldliness' amended from 'unwordliness'. + + ARTICLE ETHICS: "It will be seen that these changes, however + profoundly important, were, ethically considered, either negative + or quite general, relating to the tone and attitude of mind in + which all duty should be done." 'relating' amended from 'ralating'. + + + + + ENCYCLOPAEDIA BRITANNICA + + A DICTIONARY OF ARTS, SCIENCES, LITERATURE + AND GENERAL INFORMATION + + ELEVENTH EDITION + + + VOLUME IX, SLICE VII + + Equation to Ethics + + + + +ARTICLES IN THIS SLICE: + + + EQUATION ESCHEAT + EQUATION OF THE CENTRE ESCHENBURG, JOHANN JOACHIM + EQUATION OF TIME ESCHENMAYER, ADAM KARL AUGUST VON + EQUATOR ESCHER VON DER LINTH, ARNOLD + EQUERRY ESCHSCHOLTZ, JOHANN FRIEDRICH + EQUIDAE ESCHWEGE + EQUILIBRIUM ESCHWEILER + EQUINOX ESCOBAR Y MENDOZA, ANTONIO + EQUITES ESCOIQUIZ, JUAN + EQUITY ESCOMBE, HARRY + EQUIVALENT ESCORIAL + ERARD, SEBASTIEN ESCOVEDO, JUAN DE + ERASMUS, DESIDERIUS ESCUINTLA + ERASTUS, THOMAS ESCUTCHEON + ERATOSTHENES OF ALEXANDRIA ESHER, WILLIAM BALIOL BRETT + ERBACH ESHER + ERBIUM ESKER + ERCILLA Y ZUNIGA, ALONSO DE ESKILSTUNA + ERCKMANN-CHATRIAN ESKIMO + ERDELYI, JANOS ESKI-SHEHR + ERDMANN, JOHANN EDUARD ESMARCH, JOHANNES FRIEDRICH AUGUST VON + ERDMANN, OTTO LINNE ESNA + EREBUS ESOTERIC + ERECH ESPAGNOLS SUR MER, LES + ERECHTHEUM ESPALIER + ERECHTHEUS ESPARTERO, BALDOMERO + ERESHKIGAL ESPARTO + ERETRIA ESPERANCE + ERETRIAN SCHOOL OF PHILOSOPHY ESPERANTO + ERFURT ESPINAY, TIMOLEON D' + ERGOT ESPINEL, VICENTE MARTINEZ + ERIC XIV ESPIRITO SANTO + ERICACEAE ESPRONCEDA, JOSE IGNACIO ENCARNACION DE + ERICHSEN, SIR JOHN ERIC ESQUIRE + ERICHT, LOCH ESQUIROL, JEAN ETIENNE DOMINIQUE + ERICSSON, JOHN ESQUIROS, HENRI FRANCOIS ALPHONSE + ERIDANUS ESS, JOHANN HEINRICH VAN + ERIDU ESSAY, ESSAYIST + ERIE (lake) ESSEG + ERIE (city) ESSEN + ERIGENA, JOHANNES SCOTUS ESSENES + ERIGONE ESSENTUKI + ERIN ESSEQUIBO + ERINNA ESSEX, EARLS OF + ERINYES ESSEX, ARTHUR CAPEL + ERIPHYLE ESSEX, ROBERT DEVEREUX + ERIS ESSEX, ROBERT DEVEREUX + ERITH ESSEX, WALTER DEVEREUX + ERITREA ESSEX + ERIVAN (government of Russia) ESSEX, KINGDOM OF + ERIVAN (town of Russia) ESSLINGEN + ERLANGEN ESTABLISHMENT + ERLE, SIR WILLIAM ESTABLISHMENT OF A PORT + ERLKONIG ESTAING, CHARLES HECTOR + ERMAN, PAUL ESTATE + ERMANARIC ESTATE AND HOUSE AGENTS + ERMELAND ESTATE DUTY + ERMELO ESTCOURT, RICHARD + ERMINE ESTE (family) + ERMINE STREET ESTE (town) + ERMOLDUS NIGELLUS ESTEBANEZ CALDERON, SERAFIN + ERNE ESTELLA + ERNEST I ESTERHAZY OF GALANTHA + ERNEST II ESTERS + ERNEST AUGUSTUS ESTHER + ERNESTI, JOHANN AUGUST ESTHONIA + ERNESTI, JOHANN GOTTLIEB ESTIENNE + ERNST, HEINRICH WILHELM ESTON + ERODE ESTOPPEL + EROS (planet) ESTOUTEVILLE, GUILLAUME D' + EROS (god of love) ESTOVERS + ERPENIUS, THOMAS ESTRADA, LA + ERROLL, FRANCIS HAY ESTRADE + ERROR ESTRADES, GODEFROI + ERSCH, JOHANN SAMUEL ESTREAT + ERSKINE, EBENEZER ESTREES, GABRIELLE D' + ERSKINE, HENRY ESTREMADURA + ERSKINE, JOHN (Scottish divine) ESTREMOZ + ERSKINE, JOHN (of Carnock) ESTUARY + ERSKINE, JOHN (of Dun) ESZTERGOM + ERSKINE, RALPH ETAGERE + ERSKINE, THOMAS (of Linlathen) ETAH + ERSKINE, THOMAS ERSKINE ETAMPES, ANNE DE PISSELEU D'HEILLY + ERUBESCITE ETAMPES + ERYSIPELAS ETAPLES + ERYTHRAE ETAWAH + ERYTHRITE ETCHING + ERZERUM ETEOCLES + ERZGEBIRGE ETESIAN WIND + ERZINGAN ETEX, ANTOINE + ESAR-HADDON ETHER + ESAU ETHEREDGE, SIR GEORGE + ESBJERG ETHERIDGE, JOHN WESLEY + ESCANABA ETHERIDGE, ROBERT + ESCAPE ETHERS + ESCHATOLOGY ETHICS + + + + +EQUATION (from Lat. _aequatio_, _aequare_, to equalize), an expression +or statement of the equality of two quantities. Mathematical equivalence +is denoted by the sign =, a symbol invented by Robert Recorde +(1510-1558), who considered that nothing could be more equal than two +equal and parallel straight lines. An equation states an equality +existing between two classes of quantities, distinguished as known and +unknown; these correspond to the data of a problem and the thing sought. +It is the purpose of the mathematician to state the unknowns separately +in terms of the knowns; this is called solving the equation, and the +values of the unknowns so obtained are called the roots or solutions. +The unknowns are usually denoted by the terminal letters, ... x, y, z, +of the alphabet, and the knowns are either actual numbers or are +represented by the literals a, b, c, &c..., i.e. the introductory +letters of the alphabet. Any number or literal which expresses what +multiple of term occurs in an equation is called the coefficient of that +term; and the term which does not contain an unknown is called the +absolute term. The degree of an equation is equal to the greatest index +of an unknown in the equation, or to the greatest sum of the indices of +products of unknowns. If each term has the sum of its indices the same, +the equation is said to be homogeneous. These definitions are +exemplified in the equations:-- + + (1) ax^2 + 2bx + c = 0, + (2) xy^2 + 4a^2x = 8a^3, + (3) ax^2 + 2hxy + by^2 = 0. + +In (1) the unknown is x, and the knowns a, b, c; the coefficients of x^2 +and x are a and 2b; the absolute term is c, and the degree is 2. In (2) +the unknowns are x and y, and the known a; the degree is 3, i.e. the sum +of the indices in the term xy^2. (3) is a homogeneous equation of the +second degree in x and y. Equations of the first degree are called +_simple_ or _linear_; of the second, _quadratic_; of the third, _cubic_; +of the fourth, _biquadratic_; of the fifth, _quintic_, and so on. Of +equations containing only one unknown the number of roots equals the +degree of the equation; thus a simple equation has one root, a quadratic +two, a cubic three, and so on. If one equation be given containing two +unknowns, as for example ax + by = c or ax^2 + by^2 = c, it is seen that +there are an infinite number of roots, for we can give x, say, any value +and then determine the corresponding value of y; such an equation is +called _indeterminate_; of the examples chosen the first is a linear and +the second a quadratic indeterminate equation. In general, an +indeterminate equation results when the number of unknowns exceeds by +unity the number of equations. If, on the other hand, we have two +equations connecting two unknowns, it is possible to solve the equations +separately for one unknown, and then if we equate these values we obtain +an equation in one unknown, which is soluble if its degree does not +exceed the fourth. By substituting these values the corresponding values +of the other unknown are determined. Such equations are called +_simultaneous_; and a simultaneous system is a series of equations equal +in number to the number of unknowns. Such a system is not always +soluble, for it may happen that one equation is implied by the others; +when this occurs the system is called _porismatic_ or _poristic_. An +_identity_ differs from an equation inasmuch as it cannot be solved, the +terms mutually cancelling; for example, the expression x^2 - a^2 = (x - +a)(x + a) is an identity, for on reduction it gives 0 = 0. It is usual +to employ the sign [Identical to] to express this relation. + + An equation admits of description in two ways:--(1) It may be regarded + purely as an algebraic expression, or (2) as a geometrical locus. In + the first case there is obviously no limit to the number of unknowns + and to the degree of the equation; and, consequently, this aspect is + the most general. In the second case the number of unknowns is limited + to three, corresponding to the three dimensions of space; the degree + is unlimited as before. It must be noticed, however, that by the + introduction of appropriate hyperspaces, i.e. of degree equal to the + number of unknowns, any equation theoretically admits of geometrical + visualization, in other words, every equation may be represented by a + geometrical figure and every geometrical figure by an equation. + Corresponding to these two aspects, there are two typical methods by + which equations can be solved, viz. the algebraic and geometric. The + former leads to exact results, or, by methods of approximation, to + results correct to any required degree of accuracy. The latter can + only yield approximate values: when theoretically exact constructions + are available there is a source of error in the draughtsmanship, and + when the constructions are only approximate, the accuracy of the + results is more problematical. The geometric aspect, however, is of + considerable value in discussing the theory of equations. + +_History._--There is little doubt that the earliest solutions of +equations are given, in the Rhind papyrus, a hieratic document written +some 2000 years before our era. The problems solved were of an +arithmetical nature, assuming such forms as "a mass and its 1/7th makes +19." Calling the unknown mass x, we have given x + (1/7)x = 19, which is +a simple equation. Arithmetical problems also gave origin to equations +involving two unknowns; the early Greeks were familiar with and solved +simultaneous linear equations, but indeterminate equations, such, for +instance, as the system given in the "cattle problem" of Archimedes, +were not seriously studied until Diophantus solved many particular +problems. Quadratic equations arose in the Greek investigations in the +doctrine of proportion, and although they were presented and solved in +a geometrical form, the methods employed have no relation to the +generalized conception of algebraic geometry which represents a curve by +an equation and vice versa. The simplest quadratic arose in the +construction of a mean proportional (x) between two lines (a, b), or in +the construction of a square equal to a given rectangle; for we have the +proportion a:x = x:b; i.e. x^2 = ab. A more general equation, viz. x^2 +-ax + a^2 = 0, is the algebraic equivalent of the problem to divide a +line in medial section; this is solved in _Euclid_, ii. 11. It is +possible that Diophantus was in possession of an algebraic solution of +quadratics; he recognized, however, only one root, the interpretation of +both being first effected by the Hindu Bhaskara. A simple cubic equation +was presented in the problem of finding two mean proportionals, x, y, +between two lines, one double the other. We have a:x = x:y = y:2a, which +gives x^2 = ay and xy = 2a^2; eliminating y we obtain x^3 = 2a^3, a +simple cubic. The Greeks could not solve this equation, which also arose +in the problems of duplicating a cube and trisecting an angle, by the +ruler and compasses, but only by mechanical curves such as the cissoid, +conchoid and quadratrix. Such solutions were much improved by the Arabs, +who also solved both cubics and biquadratics by means of intersecting +conics; at the same time, they developed methods, originated by +Diophantus and improved by the Hindus, for finding approximate roots of +numerical equations by algebraic processes. The algebraic solution of +the general cubic and biquadratic was effected in the 16th century by S. +Ferro, N. Tartaglia, H. Cardan and L. Ferrari (see ALGEBRA: _History_). +Many fruitless attempts were made to solve algebraically the quintic +equation until P. Ruffini and N.H. Abel proved the problem to be +impossible; a solution involving elliptic functions has been given by C. +Hermite and L. Kronecker, while F. Klein has given another solution. + +In the geometric treatment of equations the Greeks and Arabs based their +constructions upon certain empirically deduced properties of the curves +and figures employed. Knowing various metrical relations, generally +expressed as proportions, it was found possible to solve particular +equations, but a general method was wanting. This lacuna was not filled +until the 17th century, when Descartes discovered the general theory +which explained the nature of such solutions, in particular those +wherein conics were employed, and, in addition, established the most +important facts that every equation represents a geometrical locus, and +conversely. To represent equations containing two unknowns, x, y, he +chose two axes of reference mutually perpendicular, and measured x along +the horizontal axis and y along the vertical. Then by the methods +described in the article GEOMETRY: _Analytical_, he showed that--(1) a +linear equation represents a straight line, and (2) a quadratic +represents a conic. If the equation be homogeneous or break up into +factors, it represents a number of straight lines in the first case, and +the loci corresponding to the factors in the second. The solution of +simultaneous equations is easily seen to be the values of x, y +corresponding to the intersections of the loci. It follows that there is +only one value of x, y which satisfies two linear equations, since two +lines intersect in one point only; two values which satisfy a linear and +quadratic, since a line intersects a conic in two points; and four +values which satisfy two quadratics, since two conics intersect in four +points. It may happen that the curves do not actually intersect in the +theoretical maximum number of points; the principle of continuity (see +GEOMETRICAL CONTINUITY) shows us that in such cases some of the roots +are imaginary. To represent equations involving three unknowns x, y, z, +a third axis is introduced, the z-axis, perpendicular to the plane xy +and passing through the intersection of the lines x, y. In this notation +a linear equation represents a plane, and two linear simultaneous +equations represent a line, i.e. the intersection of two planes; a +quadratic equation represents a surface of the second degree. In order +to graphically consider equations containing only one unknown, it is +convenient to equate the terms to y; i.e. if the equation be [f](x) = 0, +we take y = [f](x) and construct this curve on rectangular Cartesian +co-ordinates by determining the values of y which correspond to chosen +values of x, and describing a curve through the points so obtained. The +intersections of the curve with the axis of x gives the real roots of +the equation; imaginary roots are obviously not represented. + +In this article we shall treat of: (1) Simultaneous equations, (2) +indeterminate equations, (3) cubic equations, (4) biquadratic equations, +(5) theory of equations. Simple, linear simultaneous and quadratic +equations are treated in the article ALGEBRA; for differential equations +see DIFFERENTIAL EQUATIONS. + + + I. _Simultaneous Equations._ + + Simultaneous equations which involve the second and higher powers of + the unknown may be impossible of solution. No general rules can be + given, and the solution of any particular problem will largely depend + upon the student's ingenuity. Here we shall only give a few typical + examples. + + 1. _Equations which may be reduced to linear equations.--Ex._ To solve + x(x - a) = yz, y(y - b) = zx, z(z - c)=xy. Multiply the equations by + y, z and x respectively, and divide the sum by xyz; then + + a b c + -- + -- + -- = 0 ... (1). + z x y + + Multiply by z, x and y, and divide the sum by xyz; then + + a b c + -- + -- + -- = 0 ... (2). + y z x + + From (1) and (2) by cross multiplication we obtain + + 1 1 1 1 + ----------- = ----------- = ----------- = -------- (suppose)(3). + y(b^2 - ac) z(c^2 - ab) x(a^2 - bc) [lambda] + + Substituting for x, y and z in x(x - a) = yz we obtain + + 1 3abc - (a^3 + b^3 + c^3) + -------- = ------------------------------; + [lambda] (a^2 - bc)(b^2 - ac)(c^2 - ab) + + and therefore x, y and z are known from (3). The same artifice solves + the equations x^2 - yz = a, y^2 - xz = b, z^2 - xy = c. + + 2. _Equations which are homogeneous and of the same degree._--These + equations can be solved by substituting y = mx. We proceed to explain + the method by an example. + + _Ex._ To solve 3x^2 + xy + y^2 = 15, 31xy - 3x^2 - 5y^2 = 45. + Substituting y = mx in both these equations, and then dividing, we + obtain 31m - 3 - 5m^2 = 3(3 + m + m^2) or 8m^2 - 28m + 12 = 0. The + roots of this quadratic are m = 1/2 or 3, and therefore 2y = x, or y = + 3x. + + Taking 2y = x and substituting in 3x^2 + xy + y^2 = 0, we obtain + y^2(12 + 2 + 1) = 15; :. y^2 = 1, which gives y = [+-]1, x = [+-]2. + Taking the second value, y = 3x, and substituting for y, we obtain + x^2(3 + 3 + 9) = 15; :. x^2 = 1, which gives x = [+-]1, y = [+-]3. + Therefore the solutions are x = [+-]2, y = [+-]1 and x = [+-]1, y = + [+-]3. Other artifices have to be adopted to solve other forms of + simultaneous equations, for which the reader is referred to J.J. + Milne, _Companion to Weekly Problem Papers_. + + + II. _Indeterminate Equations._ + + 1. When the number of unknown quantities exceeds the number of + equations, the equations will admit of innumerable solutions, and are + therefore said to be _indeterminate_. Thus if it be required to find + two numbers such that their sum be 10, we have two unknown quantities + x and y, and only one equation, viz. x + y = 10, which may evidently + be satisfied by innumerable different values of x and y, if fractional + solutions be admitted. It is, however, usual, in such questions as + this, to restrict values of the numbers sought to positive integers, + and therefore, in this case, we can have only these nine solutions, + + x = 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9; + y = 9, 8, 7, 6, 5, 4, 3, 2, 1; + + which indeed may be reduced to five; for the first four become the + same as the last four, by simply changing x into y, and the contrary. + This branch of analysis was extensively studied by Diophantus, and is + sometimes termed the Diophantine Analysis. + + 2. Indeterminate problems are of different orders, according to the + dimensions of the equation which is obtained after all the unknown + quantities but two have been eliminated by means of the given + equations. Those of the first order lead always to equations of the + form + + ax [+-] by = [+-]c, + + where a, b, c denote given whole numbers, and x, y two numbers to be + found, so that both may be integers. That this condition may be + fulfilled, it is necessary that the coefficients a, b have no common + divisor which is not also a divisor of c; for if a = md and b = me, + then ax + by = mdx + mey = c, and dx + ey = c/m; but d, e, x, y are + supposed to be whole numbers, therefore c/m is a whole number; hence m + must be a divisor of c. + + Of the four forms expressed by the equation ax [+-] by = [+-]c, it is + obvious that ax + by = -c can have no positive integral solutions. + Also ax - by = -c is equivalent to by - ax = c, and so we have only to + consider the forms ax [+-] by = c. Before proceeding to the general + solution of these equations we will give a numerical example. + + To solve 2x + 3y = 25 in positive integers. From the given equation + we have x = (25 - 3y)/2 = 12 - y - (y - 1)/2. Now, since x must be a + whole number, it follows that (y - 1)/2 must be a whole number. Let us + assume (y - 1)/2 = z, then y = 1 + 2z; and x = 11 - 3z, where z might + be any whole number whatever, if there were no limitation as to the + signs of x and y. But since these quantities are required to be + positive, it is evident, from the value of y, that z must be either 0 + or positive, and from the value of x, that it must be less than 4; + hence z may have these four values, 0, 1, 2, 3. + + If z = 0, z = 1, z = 2, z = 3; + + Then x = 11, x = 8, x = 5, x = 2, + y = 1, y = 3, y = 5, y = 7. + + 3. We shall now give the solution of the equation ax - by = c in + positive integers. + + Convert a/b into a continued fraction, and let p/q be the convergent + immediately preceding a/b, then aq - bp = [+-]1 (see CONTINUED + FRACTION). + + ([alpha]) If aq - bp = 1, the given equation may be written + + ax - by = c(aq - bp); + :. a(x - cq) = b(y - cp). + + Since a and b are prime to one another, then x - cq must be divisible + by b and y - cp by a; hence + + (x - cq) / b = (y - cq)/a = t. + + That is, x = bt + cq and y = at + cp. + + Positive integral solutions, unlimited in number, are obtained by + giving t any positive integral value, and any negative integral value, + so long as it is numerically less than the smaller of the quantities + cq/b, cp/a; t may also be zero. + + ([beta]) If aq - bp = -1, we obtain x = bt - cq, y = at - cp, from + which positive integral solutions, again unlimited in number, are + obtained by giving t any positive integral value which exceeds the + greater of the two quantities cq/b, cp/a. + + If a or b is unity, a/b cannot be converted into a continued fraction + with unit numerators, and the above method fails. In this case the + solutions can be derived directly, for if b is unity, the equation may + be written y = ax - c, and solutions are obtained by giving x positive + integral values greater than c/a. + + 4. To solve ax + by = c in positive integers. Converting a/b into a + continued fraction and proceeding as before, we obtain, in the case of + aq - bp = 1, + + x = cq - bt, y = at - cp. + + Positive integral solutions are obtained by giving t positive integral + values not less than cp/a and not greater than cq/b. + + In this case the number of solutions is limited. If aq - bp = -1 we + obtain the general solution x = bt - cq, y = cp - at, which is of the + same form as in the preceding case. For the determination of the + number of solutions the reader is referred to H.S. Hall and S.R. + Knight's _Higher Algebra_, G. Chrystal's _Algebra_, and other + text-books. + + 5. If an equation were proposed involving three unknown quantities, as + ax + by + cz = d, by transposition we have ax + by = d - cz, and, + putting d - cz = c', ax + by = c'. From this last equation we may find + values of x and y of this form, + + x = mr + nc', y = mr + n'c', + + or x = mr + n(d - cz), y = m'r + n'(d - cz); + + where z and r may be taken at pleasure, except in so far as the values + of x, y, z may be required to be all positive; for from such + restriction the values of z and r may be confined within certain + limits to be determined from the given equation. For more advanced + treatment of linear indeterminate equations see COMBINATORIAL + ANALYSIS. + + 6. We proceed to indeterminate problems of the second degree: limiting + ourselves to the consideration of the formula y^2 = a + bx + cx^2, + where x is to be found, so that y may be a rational quantity. The + possibility of rendering the proposed formula a square depends + altogether upon the coefficients a, b, c; and there are four cases of + the problem, the solution of each of which is connected with some + peculiarity in its nature. + + _Case_ 1. Let a be a square number; then, putting g^2 for a, we have + y^2 = g^2 + bx + cx^2. Suppose [root](g^2 + bx + cx^2) = g + mx; then + g^2 + bx + cx^2 = g^2 + 2gmx + m^2 x^2, or bx + cx^2 = 2gmx + m^2 x^2, + that is, b + cx = 2gm + m^2x; hence + + 2gm - b cg - bm + gm^2 + x = --------, y = [root](g^2 + bx + cx^2) = --------------, + c - m^2 c - m^2 + + _Case_ 2. Let c be a square number = g^2; then, putting [root](a + bx + + g^2 x^2) = m + gx, we find a + bx + g^2x^2 = m^2 + 2mgx + g^2 x^2, + or a + bx = m^2 + 2mgx; hence we find + + m^2 - a bm - gm^2 - ag + x = -------, y = [root](a + bx + g^2 x^2) = --------------. + b - 2mg b - 2mg + + _Case_ 3. When neither a nor c is a square number, yet if the + expression a + bx + cx^2 can be resolved into two simple factors, as f + + gx and h + kx, the irrationality may be taken away as follows:-- + + Assume [root](a + bx + cx^2)=[root]{(f + gx)(h + kx)} = m(f + gx), + then (f + gx)(h + kx) = m^2(f + gx)^2, or h + kx = m^2(f + gx); hence + we find + + fm^2 - h (fk - gh)m + x = --------, y = [root]{(f + gx)(h + kx)} = ----------; + k - gm^2 k - gm^2 + + and in all these formulae m may be taken at pleasure. + + _Case_ 4. The expression a + bx + cx^2 may be transformed into a + square as often as it can be resolved into two parts, one of which is + a complete square, and the other a product of two simple factors; for + then it has this form, p^2 + qr, where p, q and r are quantities which + contain no power of x higher than the first. Let us assume [root](p^2 + + qr) = p + mq; thus we have p^2 + qr = p^2 + 2mpq + m^2q^2 and r = + 2mp + m^2q, and as this equation involves only the first power of x, + we may by proper reduction obtain from it rational values of x and y, + as in the three foregoing cases. + + The application of the preceding general methods of resolution to any + particular case is very easy; we shall therefore conclude with a + single example. + + _Ex._ It is required to find two square numbers whose sum is a given + square number. + + Let a^2 be the given square number, and x^2, y^2 the numbers required; + then, by the question, x^2 + y^2 = a^2, and y = [root](a^2 - x^2). + This equation is evidently of such a form as to be resolvable by the + method employed in case 1. Accordingly, by comparing [root](a^2 - x^2) + with the general expression [root](g^2 + bx + cx^2), we have g = a, b + = 0, c = -1, and substituting these values in the formulae, and also + -n for +m, we find + + 2an a(n^2 - 1) + x = -------, y = ----------. + n^2 + 1 n^2 + 1 + + If a = n^2 + 1, there results x = 2n, y = n^2 - 1, a = n^2 + 1. Hence + if r be an even number, the three sides of a rational right-angled + triangle are r, (1/2r)^2 - 1, (1/2r)^2 + 1. If r be an odd number, + they become (dividing by 2) r, 1/2(r^2 - 1), 1/2(r^2 + 1). + + For example, if r = 4, 4, 4 - 1, 4 + 1, or 4, 3, 5, are the sides of a + right-angled triangle; if r = 7, 7, 24, 25 are the sides of a + right-angled triangle. + + + III. _Cubic Equations_. + + 1. Cubic equations, like all equations above the first degree, are + divided into two classes: they are said to be _pure_ when they contain + only one power of the unknown quantity; and _adfected_ when they + contain two or more powers of that quantity. + + Pure cubic equations are therefore of the form x^3 = r; and hence it + appears that a value of the simple power of the unknown quantity may + always be found without difficulty, by extracting the cube root of + each side of the equation. Let us consider the equation x^3 - c^3 = 0 + more fully. This is decomposable into the factors x - c = 0 and x^2 + + cx + c^2 = 0. The roots of this quadratic equation are 1/2(-1 [+-] + [root]-3)c, and we see that the equation x^3 = c^3 has three roots, + namely, one real root c, and two imaginary roots 1/2(-1 [+-] + [root]-3)c. By making c equal to unity, we observe that 1/2(-1 [+-] + [root]-3) are the imaginary cube roots of unity, which are generally + denoted by [omega] and [omega]^2, for it is easy to show that (1/2(-1 + - [root]-3))^2 = 1/2(-1 + [root]-3). + + 2. Let us now consider such cubic equations as have all their terms, + and which are therefore of this form, + + x^3 + Ax^2 + Bx + C = 0, + + where A, B and C denote known quantities, either positive or negative. + + This equation may be transformed into another in which the second term + is wanting by the substitution x = y - A/3. This transformation is a + particular case of a general theorem. Let x^n + Ax^(n - 1) + Bx^(n - + 2) ... = 0. Substitute x = y + h; then (y + h)^n + A(y + h)^(n - 1) + ... = 0. Expand each term by the binomial theorem, and let us fix our + attention on the coefficient of y^(n - 1). By this process we obtain 0 + = y^n + y^(n - 1)(A + nh) + terms involving lower powers of y. + + Now h can have any value, and if we choose it so that A + nh = 0, then + the second term of our derived equation vanishes. + + Resuming, therefore, the equation y^3 + qy + r = 0, let us suppose y = + v + z; we then have y^3 = v^3 + z^3 + 3vz(v + z) = v^3 + z^3 + 3vzy, + and the original equation becomes v^3 + z^3 + (3vz + q)y + r = 0. Now + v and z are any two quantities subject to the relation y = v + z, and + if we suppose 3vz + q = 0, they are completely determined. This leads + to v^3 + z^3 + r = 0 and 3vz + q = 0. Therefore v^3 and z^3 are the + roots of the quadratic t^2 + rt - q^2/27 = 0. Therefore + + v^3 = -1/2 r + [root][(1/27)q^3 + 1/4 r^2]; + z^3 = -1/2 r - [root][(1/27)q^3 + 1/4 r^2]; + + v = [root 3]{-1/2 r + [root][(1/27)q^3 + 1/4 r^2]}; + z = [root 3]{-1/2 r - [root][(1/27)q^3 + 1/4 r^2]}; + + and + + y = v + z = [root 3]{-1/2 r + [root][(1/27)q^3 + 1/4 r^2]} + + [root 3]{-1/2 r - [root][(1/27)q^3 + 1/4 r^2]}. + + Thus we have obtained a value of the unknown quantity y, in terms of + the known quantities q and r; therefore the equation is resolved. + + 3. But this is only one of three values which y may have. Let us, for + the sake of brevity, put + + A = -1/2 r + [root]((1/27)q^3 + 1/4 r^2), B = -1/2 r - + [root]((1/27)q^3 + 1/4 r^2), + + and put + + [alpha] = 1/2(-1 + [root]-3), + [beta] = 1/2(-1 - [root]-3). + + Then, from what has been shown (S 1), it is evident that v and z have + each these three values, + + v = [root 3]A, v = [alpha][root 3]A, v = [beta][root 3]A; + z = [root 3]B, z = [alpha][root 3]B, z = [beta][root 3]B. + + To determine the corresponding values of v and z, we must consider + that vz = -(1/3)q = [root 3](AB). Now if we observe that [alpha][beta] + = 1, it will immediately appear that v + z has these three values, + + v + z = [root 3]A + [root 3]B, + v + z = [alpha][root 3]A + [beta][root 3]B, + v + z = [beta][root 3]A + [alpha][root 3]B, + + which are therefore the three values of y. + + The first of these formulae is commonly known by the name of Cardan's + rule (see ALGEBRA: _History_). + + The formulae given above for the roots of a cubic equation may be put + under a different form, better adapted to the purposes of + arithmetical calculation, as follows:--Because vz = -(1/3)q, therefore + z = -(1/3)q X 1/v = -(1/3)q / [root 3]A; hence v + z = [root 3]A - + (1/3)q / [root 3]A; thus it appears that the three values of y may + also be expressed thus: + + y = [root 3]A - (1/3)q / [root 3]A + y = [alpha][root 3]A - (1/3)q[beta] / [root 3]A + y = [beta][root 3]A - (1/3)q[alpha] / [root 3]A. + + See below, _Theory of Equations_, SS 16 et seq. + + + IV. _Biquadratic Equations_. + + 1. When a biquadratic equation contains all its terms, it has this + form, + + x^4 + Ax^3 + Bx^2 + Cx + D = 0, + + where A, B, C, D denote known quantities. + + We shall first consider pure biquadratics, or such as contain only the + first and last terms, and therefore are of this form, x^4 = b^4. In + this case it is evident that x may be readily had by two extractions + of the square root; by the first we find x^2 = b^2, and by the second + x = b. This, however, is only one of the values which x may have; for + since x^4 = b^4, therefore x^4 - b^4 = 0; but x^4 - b^4 may be + resolved into two factors x^2 - b^2 and x^2 + b^2, each of which + admits of a similar resolution; for x^2 - b^2 = (x - b)(x + b) and x^2 + + b^2 = (x - b[root]-1)(x + b[root]-1). Hence it appears that the + equation x^4 - b^4 = 0 may also be expressed thus, + + (x - b)(x + b)(x - b[root]-1)(x + b[root]-1) = 0; + + so that x may have these four values, + + +b, -b, +b[root]-1, -b[root]-1, + + two of which are real, and the others imaginary. + + 2. Next to pure biquadratic equations, in respect of easiness of + resolution, are such as want the second and fourth terms, and + therefore have this form, + + x^4 + qx^2 + s = 0. + + These may be resolved in the manner of quadratic equations; for if we + put y = x^2, we have + + y^2 + qy + s = 0, + + from which we find y = 1/2{-q [+-] [root](q^2 - 4s)}, and therefore + + x = [+-][root]1/2{-q [+-] [root](q^2 - 4s)}. + + 3. When a biquadratic equation has all its terms, its resolution may + be always reduced to that of a cubic equation. There are various + methods by which such a reduction may be effected. The following was + first given by Leonhard Euler in the _Petersburg Commentaries_, and + afterwards explained more fully in his _Elements of Algebra_. + + We have already explained how an equation which is complete in its + terms may be transformed into another of the same degree, but which + wants the second term; therefore any biquadratic equation may be + reduced to this form, + + y^4 + py^2 + qy + r = 0, + + where the second term is wanting, and where p, q, r denote any known + quantities whatever. + + That we may form an equation similar to the above, let us assume y = + [root]a + [root]b + [root]c, and also suppose that the letters a, b, c + denote the roots of the cubic equation + + z^3 + Pz^2 + Qz - R = 0; + + then, from the theory of equations we have + + a + b + c = -P, ab + ac + bc = Q, abc = R. + + We square the assumed formula + + y = [root]a + [root]b + [root]c, + + and obtain + + y^2 = a + b + c + 2([root]ab + [root]ac + [root]bc); + + or, substituting -P for a + b + c, and transposing, + + y^2 + P = 2([root]ab + [root]ac + [root]bc). + + Let this equation be also squared, and we have + + y^4 + 2Py^2 + P^2 = 4(ab + ac + bc) + 8([root]a^2 bc + [root]ab^2 c + + [root]abc^2); + + and since + + ab + ac + bc = Q, + + and + + [root]a^2 bc + [root]ab^2 c + [root]abc^ 2 = [root]abc([root]a + + [root]b + [root]c) = [root]R.y, + + the same equation may be expressed thus: + + y^4 + 2Py^2 + P^2 = 4Q + 8[root]R.y. + + Thus we have the biquadratic equation + + y^4 + 2Py^2 - 8[root]R.y + P^2 - 4Q = 0, + + one of the roots of which is y = [root]a + [root]b + [root]c, while a, + b, c are the roots of the cubic equation z^3 + Pz^2 + Qz - R = 0. + + 4. In order to apply this resolution to the proposed equation y^4 + + py^2 + qy + r = 0, we must express the assumed coefficients P, Q, R by + means of p, q, r, the coefficients of that equation. For this purpose + let us compare the equations + + y^4 + py^2 + qy + r = 0, + y^4 + 2Py^2 - 8[root]Ry + P^2 - 4Q = 0, + + and it immediately appears that + + 2P = p, -8[root]R = q, P^2 - 4Q = r; + + and from these equations we find + + P = 1/2 p, Q = (1/16)(p^2 - 4r), R = (1/64)q^2. + + Hence it follows that the roots of the proposed equation are generally + expressed by the formula + + y = [root]a + [root]b + [root]c; + + where a, b, c denote the roots of this cubic equation, + + p p^2 - 4r q^2 + z^3 + -- z^2 + -------- z - --- = 0. + 2 16 64 + + But to find each particular root, we must consider, that as the square + root of a number may be either positive or negative, so each of the + quantities [root]a, [root]b, [root]c may have either the sign + or - + prefixed to it; and hence our formula will give eight different + expressions for the root. It is, however, to be observed, that as the + product of the three quantities [root]a, [root]b, [root]c must be + equal to [root]R or to -(1/8)q; when q is positive, their product must + be a negative quantity, and this can only be effected by making either + one or three of them negative; again, when q is negative, their + product must be a positive quantity; so that in this case they must + either be all positive, or two of them must be negative. These + considerations enable us to determine that four of the eight + expressions for the root belong to the case in which q is positive, + and the other four to that in which it is negative. + + 5. We shall now give the result of the preceding investigation in the + form of a practical rule; and as the coefficients of the cubic + equation which has been found involve fractions, we shall transform it + into another, in which the coefficients are integers, by supposing z = + 1/4 v. Thus the equation + + p p^2 - 4r q^2 + z^3 + -- z^2 + -------- z - --- = 0 + 2 16 64 + + becomes, after reduction, + + v^3 + 2pv^2 + (p^2 - 4r)v - q^2 = 0; + + it also follows, that if the roots of the latter equation are a, b, c, + the roots of the former are 1/4 a, 1/4 b, 1/4 c, so that our rule may + now be expressed thus: + + Let y^4 + py^2 + qy + r = 0 be any biquadratic equation wanting its + second term. Form this cubic equation + + v^3 + 2pv^2 + (p^2 - 4r)v - q^2 = 0, + + and find its roots, which let us denote by a, b, c. + + Then the roots of the proposed biquadratic equation are, + + when q is negative, when q is positive, + + y = 1/2([root]a + [root]b + [root]c), y = 1/2(-[root]a - [root]b - [root]c), + y = 1/2([root]a - [root]b - [root]c), y = 1/2(-[root]a + [root]b + [root]c), + y = 1/2(-[root]a + [root]b - [root]c), y = 1/2([root]a - [root]b + [root]c), + y = 1/2(-[root]a - [root]b + [root]c), y = 1/2([root]a + [root]b - [root]c). + + See also below, _Theory of Equations_, S 17 et seq. (X.) + + +V. _Theory of Equations_. + +1. In the subject "Theory of Equations" the term _equation_ is used to +denote an equation of the form x^n - p1x^(n - 1) ... [+-] p_n = 0, where +p1, p2 ... p_n are regarded as known, and x as a quantity to be +determined; for shortness the equation is written [f](x) = 0. + +The equation may be _numerical_; that is, the coefficients p1, p2^n, ... +p_n are then numbers--understanding by number a quantity of the form +[alpha] + [beta]i ([alpha] and [beta] having any positive or negative +real values whatever, or say each of these is regarded as susceptible of +continuous variation from an indefinitely large negative to an +indefinitely large positive value), and i denoting [root]-1. + +Or the equation may be _algebraical_; that is, the coefficients are not +then restricted to denote, or are not explicitly considered as denoting, +numbers. + +1. We consider first numerical equations. (Real theory, 2-6; Imaginary +theory, 7-10.) + + +_Real Theory_. + +2. Postponing all consideration of imaginaries, we take in the first +instance the coefficients to be real, and attend only to the real roots +(if any); that is, p1, p2, ... p_n are real positive or negative +quantities, and a root a, if it exists, is a positive or negative +quantity such that a^n - p1a^(n - 1) ... [+-] p_n = 0, or say, [f](a) = +0. + +It is very useful to consider the curve y = [f](x),--or, what would come +to the same, the curve Ay = [f](x),--but it is better to retain the +first-mentioned form of equation, drawing, if need be, the ordinate y on +a reduced scale. For instance, if the given equation be x^3 - 6x^2 + 11x +-6.06 = 0,[1] then the curve y = x^3 - 6x^2 + 11x - 6.06 is as shown in +fig. 1, without any reduction of scale for the ordinate. + +It is clear that, in general, y is a continuous one-valued function of +x, finite for every finite value of x, but becoming infinite when x is +infinite; i.e., assuming throughout that the coefficient of x^n is +1, +then when x = [oo], y = +[oo]; but when x = -[oo], then y = +[oo] or +-[oo], according as n is even or odd; the curve cuts any line whatever, +and in particular it cuts the axis (of x) in at most n points; and the +value of x, at any point of intersection with the axis, is a root of the +equation [f](x) = 0. + +If [beta], [alpha] are any two values of x ([alpha] > [beta], that is, +[alpha] nearer +[oo]), then if [f]([beta]), [f]([alpha]) have opposite +signs, the curve cuts the axis an odd number of times, and therefore at +least once, between the points x = [beta], x = [alpha]; but if +[f]([beta]), [f]([alpha]) have the same sign, then between these points +the curve cuts the axis an even number of times, or it may be not at +all. That is, [f]([beta]), [f]([alpha]) having opposite signs, there are +between the limits [beta], [alpha] an odd number of real roots, and +therefore at least one real root; but [f]([beta]), [f]([alpha]) having +the same sign, there are between these limits an even number of real +roots, or it may be there is no real root. In particular, by giving to +[beta], [alpha] the values -[oo], +[oo] (or, what is the same thing, any +two values sufficiently near to these values respectively) it appears +that an equation of an odd order has always an odd number of real roots, +and therefore at least one real root; but that an equation of an even +order has an even number of real roots, or it may be no real root. + +If [alpha] be such that for x = or > a (that is, x nearer to +[oo]) +[f](x) is always +, and [beta] be such that for x = or < [beta] (that +is, x nearer to -[oo]) [f](x) is always -, then the real roots (if any) +lie between these limits x = [beta], x = [alpha]; and it is easy to find +by trial such two limits including between them all the real roots (if +any). + +3. Suppose that the positive value [delta] is an inferior limit to the +difference between two real roots of the equation; or rather (since the +foregoing expression would imply the existence of real roots) suppose +that there are not two real roots such that their difference taken +positively is = or < [delta]; then, [gamma] being any value whatever, +there is clearly at most one real root between the limits [gamma] and +[gamma] + [delta]; and by what precedes there is such real root or there +is not such real root, according as [f]([gamma]), [f]([gamma] + [delta]) +have opposite signs or have the same sign. And by dividing in this +manner the interval [beta] to [alpha] into intervals each of which is = +or < [delta], we should not only ascertain the number of the real roots +(if any), but we should also separate the real roots, that is, find for +each of them limits [gamma], [gamma] + [delta] between which there lies +this one, and only this one, real root. + + In particular cases it is frequently possible to ascertain the number + of the real roots, and to effect their separation by trial or + otherwise, without much difficulty; but the foregoing was the general + process as employed by Joseph Louis Lagrange even in the second + edition (1808) of the _Traite de la resolution des equations + numeriques_;[2] the determination of the limit [delta] had to be + effected by means of the "equation of differences" or equation of the + order 1/2 n(n - 1), the roots of which are the squares of the + differences of the roots of the given equation, and the process is a + cumbrous and unsatisfactory one. + +4. The great step was effected by the theorem of J.C.F. Sturm +(1835)--viz. here starting from the function [f](x), and its first +derived function [f]'(x), we have (by a process which is a slight +modification of that for obtaining the greatest common measure of these +two functions) to form a series of functions + + [f](x), [f]'(x), [f]2(x), ... [f]_n(x) + +of the degrees n, n - 1, n - 2 ... 0 respectively,--the last term +[f]_n(x) being thus an absolute constant. These lead to the immediate +determination of the number of real roots (if any) between any two given +limits [beta], [alpha]; viz. supposing [alpha] > [beta] (that is, +[alpha] nearer to +[oo]), then substituting successively these two +values in the series of functions, and attending only to the signs of +the resulting values, the number of the changes of sign lost in passing +from [beta] to [alpha] is the required number of real roots between the +two limits. In particular, taking [beta], [alpha] = -[oo], +[oo] +respectively, the signs of the several functions depend merely on the +signs of the terms which contain the highest powers of x, and are seen +by inspection, and the theorem thus gives at once the whole number of +real roots. + +And although theoretically, in order to complete by a finite number of +operations the separation of the real roots, we still need to know the +value of the before-mentioned limit [delta]; yet in any given case the +separation may be effected by a limited number of repetitions of the +process. The practical difficulty is when two or more roots are very +near to each other. Suppose, for instance, that the theorem shows that +there are two roots between 0 and 10; by giving to x the values 1, 2, 3, +... successively, it might appear that the two roots were between 5 and +6; then again that they were between 5.3 and 5.4, then between 5.34 and +5.35, and so on until we arrive at a separation; say it appears that +between 5.346 and 5.347 there is one root, and between 5.348 and 5.349 +the other root. But in the case in question [delta] would have a very +small value, such as .002, and even supposing this value known, the +direct application of the first-mentioned process would be still more +laborious. + +5. Supposing the separation once effected, the determination of the +single real root which lies between the two given limits may be effected +to any required degree of approximation either by the processes of W.G. +Horner and Lagrange (which are in principle a carrying out of the method +of Sturm's theorem), or by the process of Sir Isaac Newton, as perfected +by Joseph Fourier (which requires to be separately considered). + + First as to Horner and Lagrange. We know that between the limits + [beta], [alpha] there lies one, and only one, real root of the + equation; [f]([beta]) and [f]([alpha]) have therefore opposite signs. + Suppose any intermediate value is [theta]; in order to determine by + Sturm's theorem whether the root lies between [beta], [theta], or + between [theta], [alpha], it would be quite unnecessary to calculate + the signs of [f]([theta]),[f]'([theta]), [f]2([theta]) ...; only the + sign of [f]([theta]) is required; for, if this has the same sign as + [f]([beta]), then the root is between [beta], [theta]; if the same + sign as [f]([alpha]), then the root is between [theta], [alpha]. We + want to make [theta] increase from the inferior limit [beta], at which + [f]([theta]) has the sign of [f]([beta]), so long as [f]([theta]) + retains this sign, and then to a value for which it assumes the + opposite sign; we have thus two nearer limits of the required root, + and the process may be repeated indefinitely. + + Horner's method (1819) gives the root as a decimal, figure by figure; + thus if the equation be known to have one real root between 0 and 10, + it is in effect shown say that 5 is too small (that is, the root is + between 5 and 6); next that 5.4 is too small (that is, the root is + between 5.4 and 5.5); and so on to any number of decimals. Each figure + is obtained, _not_ by the successive trial of all the figures which + precede it, but (as in the ordinary process of the extraction of a + square root, which is in fact Horner's process applied to this + particular case) it is given presumptively as the first figure of a + quotient; such value may be too large, and then the next inferior + integer must be tried instead of it, or it may require to be further + diminished. And it is to be remarked that the process not only gives + the approximate value [alpha] of the root, but (as in the extraction + of a square root) it includes the calculation of the function + [f]([alpha]), which should be, and approximately is, = 0. The + arrangement of the calculations is very elegant, and forms an integral + part of the actual method. It is to be observed that after a certain + number of decimal places have been obtained, a good many more can be + found by a mere division. It is in the progress tacitly assumed that + the roots have been first separated. + + Lagrange's method (1767) gives the root as a continued fraction a + + 1/b + 1/c + ..., where a is a positive or negative integer (which may + be = 0), but b, c, ... are positive integers. Suppose the roots have + been separated; then (by trial if need be of consecutive integer + values) the limits may be made to be consecutive integer numbers: say + they are a, a + 1; the value of x is therefore = a + 1/y, where y is + positive and greater than 1; from the given equation for x, writing + therein x = a + 1/y, we form an equation of the same order for y, and + this equation will have one, and only one, positive root greater than + 1; hence finding for it the limits b, b + 1 (where b is = or > 1), we + have y = b + 1/z, where z is positive and greater than 1; and so + on--that is, we thus obtain the successive denominators b, c, d ... of + the continued fraction. The method is theoretically very elegant, but + the disadvantage is that it gives the result in the form of a + continued fraction, which for the most part must ultimately be + converted into a decimal. There is one advantage in the method, that a + commensurable root (that is, a root equal to a rational fraction) is + found accurately, since, when such root exists, the continued fraction + terminates. + + 6. Newton's method (1711), as perfected by Fourier(1831), may be + roughly stated as follows. If x = [gamma] be an approximate value of + any root, and [gamma] + h the correct value, then [f]([gamma] + h) = + 0, that is, + + h h^2 + [f]([gamma]) + -- [f]'([gamma]) + --- [f]"([gamma]) + ... = 0; + 1 1.2 + + and then, if h be so small that the terms after the second may be + neglected, [f]([gamma]) + h[f]'([gamma]) = 0, that is, h = + {-[f]([gamma])/[f]'([gamma])}, or the new approximate value is x = + [gamma] - {[f]([gamma])/[f]'([gamma])}; and so on, as often as we + please. It will be observed that so far nothing has been assumed as to + the separation of the roots, or even as to the existence of a real + root; [gamma] has been taken as the approximate value of a root, but + no precise meaning has been attached to this expression. The question + arises, What are the conditions to be satisfied by [gamma] in order + that the process may by successive repetitions actually lead to a + certain real root of the equation; or that, [gamma] being an + approximate value of a certain real root, the new value [gamma] - + {[f]([gamma])/[f]'([gamma])} may be a more approximate value. + + [Illustration: FIG. 1.] + + Referring to fig. 1, it is easy to see that if OC represent the + assumed value [gamma], then, drawing the ordinate CP to meet the curve + in P, and the tangent PC' to meet the axis in C', we shall have OC' as + the new approximate value of the root. But observe that there is here + a real root OX, and that the curve beyond X is convex to the axis; + under these conditions the point C' is nearer to X than was C; and, + starting with C' instead of C, and proceeding in like manner to draw a + new ordinate and tangent, and so on as often as we please, we + approximate continually, and that with great rapidity, to the true + value OX. But if C had been taken on the other side of X, where the + curve is concave to the axis, the new point C' might or might not be + nearer to X than was the point C; and in this case the method, if it + succeeds at all, does so by accident only, i.e. it may happen that C' + or some subsequent point comes to be a point C, such that CO is a + _proper_ approximate value of the root, and then the subsequent + approximations proceed in the same manner as if this value had been + assumed in the first instance, all the preceding work being wasted. It + thus appears that for the proper application of the method we require + _more_ than the mere separation of the roots. In order to be able to + approximate to a certain root [alpha], =OX, we require to know that, + between OX and some value ON, the curve is always convex to the axis + (analytically, between the two values, [f](x) and [f]"(x) must have + always the same sign). When this is so, the point C may be taken + anywhere on the proper side of X, and within the portion XN of the + axis; and the process is then the one already explained. The + approximation is in general a very rapid one. If we know for the + required root OX the two limits OM, ON such that from M to X the curve + is always _concave_ to the axis, while from X to N it is always convex + to the axis,--then, taking D anywhere in the portion MX and (as + before) C in the portion XN, drawing the ordinates DQ, CP, and joining + the points P, Q by a line which meets the axis in D', also + constructing the point C' by means of the tangent at P as before, we + have for the required root the new limits OD', OC'; and proceeding in + like manner with the points D', C', and so on as often as we please, + we obtain at each step two limits approximating more and more nearly + to the required root OX. The process as to the point D', translated + into analysis, is the ordinate process of interpolation. Suppose OD = + [beta], OC = [alpha], we have approximately [f]([beta] + h) = + [f]([beta]) + h{[f]([alpha]) - [f]([beta])} / ([alpha] - [beta]), + whence if the root is [beta] + h then h = - ([alpha] - + [beta])[f]([beta]) / {[f]([alpha]) - [f]([beta])}. + + Returning for a moment to Horner's method, it may be remarked that the + correction h, to an approximate value [alpha], is therein found as a + quotient the same or such as the quotient [f]([alpha]) / [f]'([alpha]) + which presents itself in Newton's method. The difference is that with + Horner the integer part of this quotient is taken as the presumptive + value of h, and the figure is verified at each step. With Newton the + quotient itself, developed to the proper number of decimal places, is + taken as the value of h; if too many decimals are taken, there would + be a waste of work; but the error would correct itself at the next + step. Of course the calculation should be conducted without any such + waste of work. + + +_Imaginary Theory_. + +7. It will be recollected that the expression _number_ and the +correlative epithet _numerical_ were at the outset used in a wide +sense, as extending to imaginaries. This extension arises out of the +theory of equations by a process analogous to that by which number, in +its original most restricted sense of positive integer number, was +extended to have the meaning of a real positive or negative magnitude +susceptible of continuous variation. + +If for a moment number is understood in its most restricted sense as +meaning positive integer number, the solution of a simple equation leads +to an extension; ax - b = 0 gives x = (b/a), a positive fraction, and we +can in this manner represent, not accurately, but as nearly as we +please, any positive magnitude whatever; so an equation ax + b = 0 gives +x = -(b/a), which (approximately as before) represents any negative +magnitude. We thus arrive at the extended signification of number as a +continuously varying positive or negative magnitude. Such numbers may be +added or subtracted, multiplied or divided one by another, and the +result is always a number. Now from a quadric equation we derive, in +like manner, the notion of a complex or imaginary number such as is +spoken of above. The equation x^2 + 1 = 0 is not (in the foregoing +sense, number = real number) satisfied by any numerical value whatever +of x; but we assume that there is a number which we call i, satisfying +the equation i^2 + 1 = 0, and then taking a and b any real numbers, we +form an expression such as a + bi, and use the expression number in this +extended sense: any two such numbers may be added or subtracted, +multiplied or divided one by the other, and the result is always a +number. And if we consider first a quadric equation x^2 + px + q = 0 +where p and q are real numbers, and next the like equation, where p and +q are any numbers whatever, it can be shown that there exists for x a +numerical value which satisfies the equation; or, in other words, it can +be shown that the equation has a numerical root. The like theorem, in +fact, holds good for an equation of any order whatever; but suppose for +a moment that this was not the case; say that there was a cubic equation +x^3 + px^2 + qx + r = 0, with numerical coefficients, not satisfied by +any numerical value of x, we should have to establish a new imaginary j +satisfying some such equation, and should then have to consider numbers +of the form a + bj, or perhaps a + bj + cj^2 (a, b, c numbers [alpha] + +[beta]i of the kind heretofore considered),--first we should be thrown +back on the quadric equation x^2 + px + q = 0, p and q being now numbers +of the last-mentioned extended form--_non constat_ that every such +equation has a numerical root--and if not, we might be led to _other_ +imaginaries k, l, &c., and so on _ad infinitum_ in inextricable +confusion. + +But in fact a numerical equation of any order whatever has always a +numerical root, and thus numbers (in the foregoing sense, number = +quantity of the form [alpha] + [beta]i) form (_what real numbers do +not_) a universe complete in itself, such that starting in it we are +never led out of it. There may very well be, and perhaps are, numbers in +a more general sense of the term (quaternions are not a case in point, +as the ordinary laws of combination are not adhered to), but in order to +have to do with such numbers (if any) we must start with them. + +8. The capital theorem as regards numerical equations thus is, every +numerical equation has a numerical root; or for shortness (the meaning +being as before), every equation has a root. Of course the theorem is +the reverse of self-evident, and it requires proof; but provisionally +assuming it as true, we derive from it the general theory of numerical +equations. As the term root was introduced in the course of an +explanation, it will be convenient to give here the formal definition. + + A number a such that substituted for x it makes the function x1^n - + p1x^(n - 1) ... [+-]p_n to be = 0, or say such that it satisfies the + equation [f](x) = 0, is said to be a root of the equation; that is, a + being a root, we have + + a^n - p1a^(n - 1) ... [+-]p_n = 0, or say [f](a) = 0; + + and it is then easily shown that x - a is a factor of the function + [f](x), viz. that we have [f](x) = (x - a)[f]1(x), where [f]1(x) is a + function x^(n - 1) - q1x^(n - 2) ... [+-]q_(n - 1) of the order n - 1, + with numerical coefficients q1, q2 ... q_(n - 1). + + In general a is not a root of the equation [f]1(x) = 0, but it may be + so--i.e. [f]1(x) may contain the factor x - a; when this is so, [f](x) + will contain the factor (x - a)^2; writing then [f](x) = (x - + a)^2[f]2(x), and assuming that a is not a root of the equation [f]2(x) + = 0, x = a is then said to be a double root of the equation [f](x) = + 0; and similarly [f](x) may contain the factor (x - a)^3 and no higher + power, and x = a is then a triple root; and so on. + + Supposing in general that [f](x) = (x - a)^[alpha] F(x) ([alpha] being + a positive integer which may be = 1, (x - a)^[alpha] the highest power + of x - a which divides [f](x), and F(x) being of course of the order n + - [alpha]), then the equation F(x) = 0 will have a root b which will + be different from a; x - b will be a factor, in general a simple one, + but it may be a multiple one, of F(x), and [f](x) will in this case be + = (x - a)^[alpha] (x - b)^[beta] [Phi](x) ([beta] a positive integer + which may be = 1, (x-b)^[beta] the highest power of x - b in F(x) or + [f](x), and [Phi](x) being of course of the order n - [alpha] - + [beta]). The original equation [f](x) = 0 is in this case said to have + [alpha] roots each = a, [beta] roots each = b; and so on for any other + factors (x - c)^[gamma], &c. + + We have thus the _theorem_--A numerical equation of the order n has in + every case n roots, viz. there exist n numbers, a, b, ... (in general + all distinct, but which may arrange themselves in any sets of equal + values), such that [f](x) = (x - a)(x - b)(x - c) ... identically. + + If the equation has equal roots, these can in general be determined, + and the case is at any rate a special one which may be in the first + instance excluded from consideration. It is, therefore, in general + assumed that the equation [f](x) = 0 has all its roots unequal. + + If the coefficients p1, p2, ... are all or any one or more of them + imaginary, then the equation [f](x) = 0, separating the real and + imaginary parts thereof, may be written F(x) + i[Phi](x) = 0, where + F(x), [Phi](x) are each of them a function with real coefficients; and + it thus appears that the equation [f](x) = 0, with imaginary + coefficients, has not in general any real root; supposing it to have a + real root a, this must be at once a root of each of the equations F(x) + = 0 and [Phi](x) = 0. + + But an equation with real coefficients may have as well imaginary as + real roots, and we have further the _theorem_ that for any such + equation the imaginary roots enter in pairs, viz. [alpha] + [beta]i + being a root, then [alpha] - [beta]i will be also a root. It follows + that if the order be odd, there is always an odd number of real roots, + and therefore at least one real root. + +9. In the case of an equation with real coefficients, the question of +the existence of real roots, and of their separation, has been already +considered. In the general case of an equation with imaginary (it may be +real) coefficients, the like question arises as to the situation of the +(real or imaginary) roots; thus, if for facility of conception we regard +the constituents [alpha], [beta] of a root [alpha] + [beta]i as the +co-ordinates of a point _in plano_, and accordingly represent the root +by such point, then drawing in the plane any closed curve or "contour," +the question is how many roots lie within such contour. + + This is solved theoretically by means of a theorem of A.L. Cauchy + (1837), viz. writing in the original equation x + iy in place of x, + the function [f](x + iy) becomes = P + iQ, where P and Q are each of + them a rational and integral function (with real coefficients) of (x, + y). Imagining the point (x, y) to travel along the contour, and + considering the number of changes of sign from - to + and from + to - + of the fraction corresponding to passages of the fraction through zero + (that is, to values for which P becomes = 0, disregarding those for + which Q becomes = 0), the difference of these numbers gives the number + of roots within the contour. + + It is important to remark that the demonstration does not presuppose + the existence of any root; the contour may be the infinity of the + plane (such infinity regarded as a contour, or closed curve), and in + this case it can be shown (and that very easily) that the difference + of the numbers of changes of sign is = n; that is, there are within + the infinite contour, or (what is the same thing) there are in all n + roots; thus Cauchy's theorem contains really the proof of the + fundamental theorem that a numerical equation of the nth order (not + only has a numerical root, but) has precisely n roots. It would appear + that this proof of the fundamental theorem in its most complete form + is in principle identical with the last proof of K.F. Gauss (1849) of + the theorem, in the form--A numerical equation of the nth order has + always a root.[3] + + But in the case of a finite contour, the actual determination of the + difference which gives the number of real roots can be effected only + in the case of a rectangular contour, by applying to each of its sides + separately a method such as that of Sturm's theorem; and thus the + actual determination ultimately depends on a method such as that of + Sturm's theorem. + + Very little has been done in regard to the calculation of the + imaginary roots of an equation by approximation; and the question is + not here considered. + +10. A class of numerical equations which needs to be considered is that +of the binomial equations x^n - a = 0 (a = [alpha] + [beta]i, a complex +number). + + The foregoing conclusions apply, viz. there are always n roots, which, + it may be shown, are all unequal. And these can be found numerically + by the extraction of the square root, and of an nth root, of _real_ + numbers, and by the aid of a table of natural sines and cosines.[4] + For writing + + / [alpha] [beta] \ + [alpha] + [beta]i = [root]([alpha]^2 + [beta]^2) ( ---------------------------- + ----------------------------i ), + \[root]([alpha]^2 + [beta]^2) [root]([alpha]^2 + [beta]^2) / + + there is always a real angle [lambda] (positive and less than 2[pi]), + such that its cosine and sine are = [alpha] / [root]([alpha]^2 + + [beta]^2) and [beta] / [root]([alpha]^2 + [beta]^2) respectively; that + is, writing for shortness [root]([alpha]^2 + [beta]^2) = [rho], we have + [alpha] + [beta]i = [rho](cos[lambda] + i sin[lambda]), or the + equation is x^n = [rho](cos[lambda] + i sin [lambda]); hence observing + that (cos [lambda]/n + i sin [lambda]/n )^n = cos[lambda] + i + sin[lambda], a value of x is = [root n][rho] (cos [lambda]/n + i sin + [lambda]/n). The formula really gives all the roots, for instead of + [lambda] we may write [lambda] + 2s[pi], s a positive or negative + integer, and then we have + + / [lambda] + 2s[pi] [lambda] + 2s[pi] \ + x = [root n][rho] ( cos ----------------- + i sin ----------------- ), + \ n n / + + which has the n values obtained by giving to s the values 0, 1, 2 ... + n - 1 in succession; the roots are, it is clear, represented by points + lying at equal intervals on a circle. But it is more convenient to + proceed somewhat differently; taking one of the roots to be [theta], + so that [theta]^n = a, then assuming x = [theta]y, the equation + becomes y^n - 1 = 0, which equation, like the original equation, has + precisely n roots (one of them being of course = 1). And the original + equation x^n - a = 0 is thus reduced to the more simple equation x^n - + 1 = 0; and although the theory of this equation is included in the + preceding one, yet it is proper to state it separately. + + The equation x^n - 1 = 0 has its several roots expressed in the form + 1, [omega], [omega]^2, ... [omega]^(n - 1), where [omega] may be taken + = cos 2[pi]/n + i sin 2[pi]/n; in fact, [omega] having this value, any + integer power [omega]^k is = cos 2[pi]k/n + i sin 2[pi]k/n, and we + thence have ([omega]^k)^n = cos 2[pi]k + i sin 2[pi]k, = 1, that is, + [omega]^k is a root of the equation. The theory will be resumed + further on. + + By what precedes, we are led to the notion (a numerical) of the + radical a^(1/n) regarded as an n-valued function; any one of these + being denoted by [root n]a, then the series of values is [root n]a, + [omega][root n]a, ... [omega]^(n - 1)[root n]a; or we may, if we + please, use [root n]a instead of a^(1/n) as a symbol to denote the + n-valued function. + + As the coefficients of an algebraical equation may be numerical, all + which follows in regard to algebraical equations is (with, it may be, + some few modifications) applicable to numerical equations; and hence, + concluding for the present this subject, it will be convenient to pass + on to algebraical equations. + + +_Algebraical Equations._ + +11. The equation is + + x^n - p1x^(n-1) + ... [+-]p_n = 0, + +and we here _assume_ the existence of roots, viz. we assume that there +are n quantities a, b, c ... (in general all of them different, but +which in particular cases may become equal in sets in any manner), such +that + + x^n - p1x^(n - 1) + ... [+-] p_n = 0; + +or looking at the question in a different point of view, and starting +with the roots a, b, c ... as given, we express the product of the n +factors x - a, x - b, ... in the foregoing form, and thus arrive at an +equation of the order n having the n roots a, b, c.... In either case we +have + + p1 = [Sigma]a, p2 = [Sigma]ab, ... p_n = abc ...; + +i.e. regarding the coefficients p1, p2 ... p_n as given, then we assume +the existence of roots a, b, c, ... such that p1 = [Sigma]a, &c.; or, +regarding the roots as given, then we write p1, p2, &c., to denote the +functions [Sigma]a, [Sigma]ab, &c. + + As already explained, the epithet algebraical is not used in + opposition to numerical; an algebraical equation is merely an equation + wherein the coefficients are not restricted to denote, or are not + explicitly considered as denoting, numbers. That the abstraction is + legitimate, appears by the simplest example; in saying that the + equation x^2 - px + q = 0 has a root x = 1/2{p + [root](p^2 - 4q)}, we + mean that writing this value for x the equation becomes an identity, + [1/2{p + [root](p^2 - 4q)}]^2 - p[1/2{p + [root](p^2 - 4q)}] + q = 0; + and the verification of this identity in nowise depends upon p and q + meaning numbers. But if it be asked what there is beyond numerical + equations included in the term algebraical equation, or, again, what + is the full extent of the meaning attributed to the term--the latter + question at any rate it would be very difficult to answer; as to the + former one, it may be said that the coefficients may, for instance, be + symbols of operation. As regards such equations, there is certainly no + proof that every equation has a root, or that an equation of the nth + order has n roots; nor is it in any wise clear what the precise + signification of the statement is. But it is found that the assumption + of the existence of the n roots can be made without contradictory + results; conclusions derived from it, if they involve the roots, rest + on the same ground as the original assumption; but the conclusion may + be independent of the roots altogether, and in this case it is + undoubtedly valid; the reasoning, although actually conducted by aid + of the assumption (and, it may be, most easily and elegantly in this + manner), is really independent of the assumption. In illustration, we + observe that it is allowable to express a function of p and q as + follows,--that is, by means of a rational symmetrical function of a + and b, this can, as a fact, be expressed as a rational function of a + + b and ab; and if we prescribe that a + b and ab shall then be changed + into p and q respectively, we have the required function of p, q. That + is, we have F([alpha], [beta]) as a representation of [f](p, q), + obtained as if we had p = a + b, q = ab, but without in any wise + assuming the existence of the a, b of these equations. + +12. Starting from the equation + + x^n - p1x^(n - 1) + ... = x - a.x - b. &c. + +or the equivalent equations p1 = [Sigma]a, &c., we find + + a^n - p1a^(n - 1) + ... = 0, + b^n - p1b^(n - 1) + ... = 0; + . . . + . . . + . . . + +(it is as satisfying these equations that a, b ... are said to be the +roots of x^n - p1x^(n - 1) + ... = 0); and conversely from the +last-mentioned equations, assuming that a, b ... are all different, we +deduce + + p1 = [Sigma]a, p2 = [Sigma]ab, &c. + +and + + x^n - p1x^(n - 1) + ... = x - a.x - b. &c. + +Observe that if, for instance, a = b, then the equations a^n - p1a^(n - +1) + ... = 0, b^n - p1b^(n - 1) + ... = 0 would reduce themselves to a +single relation, which would not of itself express that a was a double +root,--that is, that (x - a)^2 was a factor of x^n - p1x^(n - 1) +, &c; +but by considering b as the limit of a + h, h indefinitely small, we +obtain a second equation + + na^(n - 1) - (n - 1)p1a^(n - 2) + ... = 0, + +which, with the first, expresses that a is a double root; and then the +whole system of equations leads as before to the equations p1 = +[Sigma]a, &c. But the existence of a double root implies a certain +relation between the coefficients; the general case is when the roots +are all unequal. + +We have then the _theorem_ that every rational symmetrical function of +the roots is a rational function of the coefficients. This is an easy +consequence from the less general theorem, every rational and integral +symmetrical function of the roots is a rational and integral function of +the coefficients. + +In particular, the sums of the powers [Sigma]a^2, [Sigma]a^3, &c., are +rational and integral functions of the coefficients. + + The process originally employed for the expression of other functions + [Sigma]a^[alpha] b^[beta], &c., in terms of the coefficients is to + make them depend upon the sums of powers: for instance, + [Sigma]a^[alpha] b^[beta] = [Sigma]a^[alpha] [Sigma]a^[beta] - + [Sigma]a^([alpha] + [beta]); but this is very objectionable; the true + theory consists in showing that we have systems of equations + + p1 = [Sigma]a, + + p2 = [Sigma]ab, + p1^2 = [Sigma]a^2 + 2[Sigma]ab, + + p3 = [Sigma]abc, + p1p2 = [Sigma]a^2 b + 3[Sigma]abc, + p1^3 = [Sigma]a^3 + 3[Sigma]a^2 b + 6[Sigma]abc, + + where in each system there are precisely as many equations as there + are root-functions on the right-hand side--e.g. 3 equations and 3 + functions [Sigma]abc, [Sigma]a^2 b, [Sigma]a^3. Hence in each system + the root-functions can be determined linearly in terms of the powers + and products of the coefficients: + + [Sigma]ab = p2, + [Sigma]a^2 = p1^2 - 2p2, + + [Sigma]abc = p3, + [Sigma]a^2 b = p1p2 - 3p3, + [Sigma]a^3 = p1^3 - 3p1p2 + 3p3, + + and so on. The other process, if applied consistently, would derive + the originally assumed value [Sigma]ab = p2, from the two equations + [Sigma]a = p, [Sigma]a^2 = p1^2 - 2p2; i.e. we have 2[Sigma]ab = + [Sigma]a.[Sigma]a - [Sigma]a^2,= p1^2 - (p1^2 - 2p2), = 2p2. + +13. It is convenient to mention here the theorem that, x being +determined as above by an equation of the order n, any rational and +integral function whatever of x, or more generally any rational function +which does not become infinite in virtue of the equation itself, can be +expressed as a rational and integral function of x, of the order n - 1, +the coefficients being rational functions of the coefficients of the +equation. Thus the equation gives x^n a function of the form in +question; multiplying each side by x, and on the right-hand side writing +for x^n its foregoing value, we have x^(n + 1), a function of the form +in question; and the like for any higher power of x, and therefore also +for any rational and integral function of x. The proof in the case of a +rational non-integral function is somewhat more complicated. The final +result is of the form [phi](x)/[psi](x) = I(x), or say [phi](x) +-[psi](x)I(x) = 0, where [phi], [psi], I are rational and integral +functions; in other words, this equation, being true if only [f](x) = 0, +can only be so by reason that the left-hand side contains [f](x) as a +factor, or we must have identically [phi](x) - [psi](x)I(x) = +M(x)[f](x). And it is, moreover, clear that the equation +[phi](x)/[psi](x) = I(x), being satisfied if only [f](x) = 0, must be +satisfied by each root of the equation. + + From the theorem that a rational symmetrical function of the roots is + expressible in terms of the coefficients, it at once follows that it + is possible to determine an equation (of an assignable order) having + for its roots the several values of any given (unsymmetrical) function + of the roots of the given equation. For example, in the case of a + quartic equation, roots (a, b, c, d), it is possible to find an + equation having the roots ab, ac, ad, bc, bd, cd (being therefore a + sextic equation): viz. in the product + + (y - ab)(y - ac)(y - ad)(y - bc)(y - bd)(y - cd) + + the coefficients of the several powers of y will be symmetrical + functions of a, b, c, d and therefore rational and integral functions + of the coefficients of the quartic equation; hence, supposing the + product so expressed, and equating it to zero, we have the required + sextic equation. In the same manner can be found the sextic equation + having the roots (a - b)^2, (a - c)^2, (a - d)^2, (b - c)^2, (b - + d)^2, (c - d)^2, which is the equation of differences previously + referred to; and similarly we obtain the equation of differences for a + given equation of any order. Again, the equation sought for may be + that having for its n roots the given rational functions [phi](a), + [phi](b), ... of the several roots of the given equation. Any such + rational function can (as was shown) be expressed as a rational and + integral function of the order n - 1; and, retaining x in place of any + one of the roots, the problem is to find y from the equations x^n - p1 + x^(n - 1) ... = 0, and y = M0x^(n - 1) + M1x^(n - 2) + ..., or, what + is the same thing, from these two equations to eliminate x. This is in + fact E.W. Tschirnhausen's transformation (1683). + +14. In connexion with what precedes, the question arises as to the +number of values (obtained by permutations of the roots) of given +unsymmetrical functions of the roots, or say of a given set of letters: +for instance, with roots or letters (a, b, c, d) as before, how many +values are there of the function ab + cd, or better, how many functions +are there of this form? The answer is 3, viz. ab + cd, ac + bd, ad + bc; +or again we may ask whether, in the case of a given number of letters, +there exist functions with a given number of values, 3-valued, 4-valued +functions, &c. + + It is at once seen that for any given number of letters there exist + 2-valued functions; the product of the differences of the letters is + such a function; however the letters are interchanged, it alters only + its sign; or say the two values are [Delta] and -[Delta]. And if P, Q + are symmetrical functions of the letters, then the general form of + such a function is P + Q[Delta]; this has only the two values P + + Q[Delta], P - Q[Delta]. + + In the case of 4 letters there exist (as appears above) 3-valued + functions: but in the case of 5 letters there does not exist any + 3-valued or 4-valued function; and the only 5-valued functions are + those which are symmetrical in regard to four of the letters, and can + thus be expressed in terms of one letter and of symmetrical functions + of all the letters. These last theorems present themselves in the + demonstration of the non-existence of a solution of a quintic equation + by radicals. + +The theory is an extensive and important one, depending on the notions +of _substitutions_ and of _groups_ (q.v.). + +15. Returning to equations, we have the very important theorem that, +given the value of any unsymmetrical function of the roots, e.g. in the +case of a quartic equation, the function ab + cd, it is in general +possible to determine rationally the value of any similar function, such +as (a + b)^3 + (c + d)^3. + + The _a priori_ ground of this theorem may be illustrated by means of a + numerical equation. Suppose that the roots of a quartic equation are + 1, 2, 3, 4, then if it is given that ab + cd = 14, this in effect + determines a, b to be 1, 2 and c, d to be 3, 4 (viz. a = 1, b = 2 or a + = 2, b = 1, and c = 3, d = 4 or c = 3, d = 4) or else a, b to be 3, 4 + and c, d to be 1, 2; and it therefore in effect determines (a + b)^3 + + (c + d)^3 to be = 370, and not any other value; that is, (a + b)^3 + (c + + d)^3, as having a single value, must be determinable rationally. And + we can in the same way account for cases of failure as regards + particular equations; thus, the roots being 1, 2, 3, 4 as before, a^2 b + = 2 determines a to be = 1 and b to be = 2, but if the roots had been + 1, 2, 4, 16 then a^2 b = 16 does not uniquely determine a, b but only + makes them to be 1, 16 or 2, 4 respectively. + + As to the _a posteriori_ proof, assume, for instance, + + t1 = ab + cd, y1 = (a + b)^3 + (c + d)^3, + t2 = ac + bd, y2 = (a + c)^3 + (b + d)^3, + t3 = ad + bc, y3 = (a + d)^3 + (b + c)^3: + + then y1 + y2 + y3, t1y1 + t2y2 + t3y3, t1^2 y1 + t2^2y2 + t3^2y3 will + be respectively symmetrical functions of the roots of the quartic, and + therefore rational and integral functions of the coefficients; that + is, they will be known. + + Suppose for a moment that t1, t2, t3 are all known; then the equations + being linear in y1, y2, y3 these can be expressed rationally in terms + of the coefficients and of t1, t2, t3; that is, y1, y2, y3 will be + known. But observe further that y1 is obtained as a function of t1, + t2, t3 symmetrical as regards t2, t3; it can therefore be expressed as + a rational function of t1 and of t2 + t3, t2t3, and thence as a + rational function of t1 and of t1 + t2 + t3, t1t2 + t1t3 + t2t3, + t1t2t3; but these last are symmetrical functions of the roots, and as + such they are expressible rationally in terms of the coefficients; + that is, y1 will be expressed as a rational function of t1 and of the + coefficients; or t1 (alone, not t2 or t3) being known, y1 will be + rationally determined. + +16. We now consider the question of the algebraical solution of +equations, or, more accurately, that of the _solution of equations by +radicals_. + + In the case of a quadric equation x^2 - px + q = 0, we can by the + assistance of the sign [root]( ) or ( )^1/2 find an expression for x + as a 2-valued function of the coefficients p, q such that substituting + this value in the equation, the equation is thereby identically + satisfied; it has been found that this expression is + + x = 1/2{p [+-] [root](p^2 - 4q)}, + + and the equation is on this account said to be algebraically solvable, + or more accurately solvable by radicals. Or we may by writing x = + -1/2 p + z reduce the equation to z^2 = 1/4(p^2 - 4q), viz. to an + equation of the form x^2 = a; and in virtue of its being thus + reducible we say that the original equation is solvable by radicals. + And the question for an equation of any higher order, say of the order + n, is, can we by means of radicals (that is, by aid of the sign [root + m]( ) or ( )^(1/m), using as many as we please of such signs and with + any values of m) find an n-valued function (or any function) of the + coefficients which substituted for x in the equation shall satisfy it + identically? + + It will be observed that the coefficients p, q ... are not explicitly + considered as numbers, but even if they do denote numbers, the + question whether a numerical equation admits of solution by radicals + is wholly unconnected with the before-mentioned theorem of the + existence of the n roots of such an equation. It does not even follow + that in the case of a numerical equation solvable by radicals the + algebraical solution gives the numerical solution, but this requires + explanation. Consider first a numerical quadric equation with + imaginary coefficients. In the formula x = 1/2{p [+-] [root](p^2 - + 4q)}, substituting for p, q their given numerical values, we obtain + for x an expression of the form x = [alpha] + [beta]i [+-] + [root]([gamma] + [delta]i), where [alpha], [beta], [gamma], [delta] + are real numbers. This expression substituted for x in the quadric + equation would satisfy it identically, and it is thus an algebraical + solution; but there is no obvious _a priori_ reason why + [root]([gamma]+[delta]i) should have a value = c + di, where c and d + are real numbers calculable by the extraction of a root or roots of + real numbers; however the case is (what there was no _a priori_ right + to expect) that [root]([gamma] + [delta]i) has such a value calculable + by means of the radical expressions [root]{[root]([gamma]^2 + + [delta]^2) [+-] [gamma]} : and hence the algebraical solution of a + numerical quadric equation does in every case give the numerical + solution. The case of a numerical cubic equation will be considered + presently. + +17. A cubic equation can be solved by radicals. + + Taking for greater simplicity the cubic in the reduced form x^3 + qx - + r = 0, and assuming x = a + b, this will be a solution if only 3ab = q + and a^3 + b^3 = r, equations which give (a^3 - b^3)^2 = r^2 - + (4/27)q^3, a quadric equation solvable by radicals, and giving a^3 - + b^3 = [root](r^2 - (4/27)q^3), a 2-valued function of the + coefficients: combining this with a^3 + b^3 = r, we have a^3 = 1/2{r + + [root](r^2 - (4/27)q^3)}, a 2-valued function: we then have a by means + of a cube root, viz. + + a = [root 3][1/2{r + [root](r^2 - (4/27)q^3)}], + + a 6-valued function of the coefficients; but then, writing q = b/3a, + we have, as may be shown, a + b a 3-valued function of the + coefficients; and x = a + b is the required solution by radicals. It + would have been wrong to complete the solution by writing + + b = [root 3][1/2{r - [root](r^2 - (4/27)q^3)}], + + for then a + b would have been given as a 9-valued function having + only 3 of its values roots, and the other 6 values being irrelevant. + Observe that in this last process we make no use of the equation 3ab + = q, in its original form, but use only the derived equation 27a^3 b^3 + = q^3, implied in, but not implying, the original form. + + An interesting variation of the solution is to write x = ab(a + b), + giving a^3 b^3(a^3 + b^3) = r and 3a^3 b^3 = q, or say a^3 + b^3 = + 3r/q, a^3 b^3 = (1/3)q; and consequently + + 3/2 4 3/2 4 + a^3 = --- {r + [root](r^2 - --q^3)}, b^3 = --- {r - [root](r^2 - --q^3)}, + q 27 q 27 + + i.e. here a^3, b^3 are each of them a 2-valued function, but as the + only effect of altering the sign of the quadric radical is to + interchange a^3, b^3, they may be regarded as each of them 1-valued; a + and b are each of them 3-valued (for observe that here only a^3 b^3, + not ab, is given); and ab(a + b) thus is in appearance a 9-valued + function; but it can easily be shown that it is (as it ought to be) + only 3-valued. + + In the case of a numerical cubic, even when the coefficients are real, + substituting their values in the expression + + x = [root 3][1/2{r + [root](r^2 - (4/27)q^3)}] + (1/3)q / + [root 3][1/2{r + [root](r^2 - (4/27)q^3)}], + + this may depend on an expression of the form [root 3]([gamma] + + [delta]i) where [gamma] and [delta] are real numbers (it will do so if + r^2 - (4/27)q^3 is a negative number), and then we _cannot_ by the + extraction of any root or roots of real positive numbers reduce [root + 3]([gamma] + [delta]i) to the form c + di, c and d real numbers; hence + here the algebraical solution does not give the numerical solution, + and we have here the so-called "irreducible case" of a cubic equation. + By what precedes there is nothing in this that might not have been + expected; the algebraical solution makes the solution depend on the + extraction of the cube root of a number, and there was no reason for + expecting this to be a real number. It is well known that the case in + question is that wherein the three roots of the numerical cubic + equation are all real; if the roots are two imaginary, one real, then + contrariwise the quantity under the cube root is real; and the + algebraical solution gives the numerical one. + + The irreducible case is solvable by a trigonometrical formula, but + this is not a solution by radicals: it consists in effect in reducing + the given numerical cubic (not to a cubic of the form z^3 = a, solvable + by the extraction of a cube root, but) to a cubic of the form 4x^3 - 3x + = a, corresponding to the equation 4 cos^3 [theta] - 3 cos[theta] = cos + 3[theta] which serves to determine cos[theta] when cos 3[theta] is + known. The theory is applicable to an algebraical cubic equation; say + that such an equation, if it can be reduced to the form 4x^3 - 3x = a, + is solvable by "trisection"--then the general cubic equation is + solvable by trisection. + +18. A quartic equation is solvable by radicals, and it is to be remarked +that the existence of such a solution depends on the existence of +3-valued functions such as ab + cd of the four roots (a, b, c, d): by +what precedes ab + cd is the root of a cubic equation, which equation is +solvable by radicals: hence ab + cd can be found by radicals; and since +abcd is a given function, ab and cd can then be found by radicals. But +by what precedes, if ab be known then any similar function, say a + b, +is obtainable rationally; and then from the values of a + b and ab we +may by radicals obtain the value of a or b, that is, an expression for +the root of the given quartic equation: the expression ultimately +obtained is 4-valued, corresponding to the different values of the +several radicals which enter therein, and we have thus the expression by +radicals of each of the four roots of the quartic equation. But when the +quartic is numerical the same thing happens as in the cubic, and the +algebraical solution does not in every case give the numerical one. + + It will be understood from the foregoing explanation as to the quartic + how in the next following case, that of the quintic, the question of + the solvability by radicals depends on the existence or non-existence + of k-valued functions of the five roots (a, b, c, d, e); the + fundamental theorem is the one already stated, a rational function of + five letters, if it has less than 5, cannot have more than 2 values, + that is, there are no 3-valued or 4-valued functions of 5 letters: and + by reasoning depending in part upon this theorem, N.H. Abel (1824) + showed that a general quintic equation is not solvable by radicals; + and _a fortiori_ the general equation of any order higher than 5 is + not solvable by radicals. + + 19. The general theory of the solvability of an equation by radicals + depends fundamentally on A.T. Vandermonde's remark (1770) that, + supposing an equation is solvable by radicals, and that we have + therefore an algebraical expression of x in terms of the coefficients, + then substituting for the coefficients their values in terms of the + roots, the resulting expression must reduce itself to any one at + pleasure of the roots a, b, c ...; thus in the case of the quadric + equation, in the expression x = 1/2{p + [root](p^2 - 4q)}, + substituting for p and q their values, and observing that (a + b)^2 - + 4ab = (a - b)^2, this becomes x = 1/2{a + b + [root](a - b)^2}, the + value being a or b according as the radical is taken to be +(a - b) or + -(a - b). + + So in the cubic equation x^3 - px^2 + qx - r = 0, if the roots are a, + b, c, and if [omega] is used to denote an imaginary cube root of + unity, [omega]^2 + [omega] + 1 = 0, then writing for shortness p = a + + b + c, L = a + [omega]b + [omega]^2 c, M = a + [omega]^2 b + [omega]c, + it is at once seen that LM, L^3 + M^3, and therefore also (L^3 - + M^3)^2 are symmetrical functions of the roots, and consequently + rational functions of the coefficients: hence + + 1/2{L^3 + M^3 + [root](L^3 - M^3)^2} + + is a rational function of the coefficients, which when these are + replaced by their values as functions of the roots becomes, according + to the sign given to the quadric radical, = L^3 or M^3; taking it = + L^3, the cube root of the expression has the three values L, [omega]L, + [omega]^2 L; and LM divided by the same cube root has therefore the + values M, [omega]^2M, [omega]M; whence finally the expression + + (1/3)[p + [root 3]{1/2(L^3 + M^3 + [root](L^3 - M^3)^2)} + LM / + [root 3]{1/2L^3 + M^3 + [root](L^3 - M^3)^2}] + + has the three values + + (1/3)(p + L + M), (1/3)(p + [omega]L + [omega]^2 M), + (1/3)(p + [omega]^2 L + [omega]M); + + that is, these are = a, b, c respectively. If the value M^3 had been + taken instead of L^3, then the expression would have had the same + three values a, b, c. Comparing the solution given for the cubic x^3 + + qx - r = 0, it will readily be seen that the two solutions are + identical, and that the function r^2 - (4/27)q^3 under the radical + sign must (by aid of the relation p = 0 which subsists in this case) + reduce itself to (L^3 - M^3)^2; it is only by each radical being equal + to a rational function of the roots that the final expression _can_ + become equal to the roots a, b, c respectively. + +20. The formulae for the cubic were obtained by J.L. Lagrange +(1770-1771) from a different point of view. Upon examining and comparing +the principal known methods for the solution of algebraical equations, +he found that they all ultimately depended upon finding a "resolvent" +equation of which the root is a + [omega]b + [omega]^2 c + [omega]^3 d + +..., [omega] being an imaginary root of unity, of the same order as the +equation; e.g. for the cubic the root is a + [omega]b + [omega]^2 c, +[omega] an imaginary cube root of unity. Evidently the method gives for +L^3 a quadric equation, which is the "resolvent" equation in this +particular case. + +For a quartic the formulae present themselves in a somewhat different +form, by reason that 4 is not a prime number. Attempting to apply it to +a quintic, we seek for the equation of which the root is (a + [omega]b + +[omega]^2 c + [omega]^3 d + [omega]^4 e), [omega] an imaginary fifth +root of unity, or rather the fifth power thereof (a + [omega]b + +[omega]^2 c + [omega]^3d + [omega]^4 e)^5; this is a 24-valued function, +but if we consider the four values corresponding to the roots of unity +[omega], [omega]^2, [omega]^3, [omega]^4, viz. the values + + (a + [omega]b + [omega]^2 c + [omega]^3 d + [omega]^4 e)^5, + (a + [omega]^2 b + [omega]^4 c + [omega]d + [omega]^3e)^5, + (a + [omega]^3 b + [omega]c + [omega]^4 d + [omega]^2e)^5, + (a + [omega]^4 b + [omega]^3 c + [omega]^2 d + [omega]e)^5, + +any symmetrical function of these, for instance their sum, is a 6-valued +function of the roots, and may therefore be determined by means of a +sextic equation, the coefficients whereof are rational functions of the +coefficients of the original quintic equation; the conclusion being that +the solution of an equation of the fifth order is made to depend upon +that of an equation of the sixth order. This is, of course, useless for +the solution of the quintic equation, which, as already mentioned, does +not admit of solution by radicals; but the equation of the sixth order, +Lagrange's resolvent sextic, is very important, and is intimately +connected with all the later investigations in the theory. + +21. It is to be remarked, in regard to the question of solvability by +radicals, that not only the coefficients are taken to be arbitrary, but +it is assumed that they are represented each by a single letter, or say +rather that they are not so expressed in terms of other arbitrary +quantities as to make a solution possible. If the coefficients are not +all arbitrary, for instance, if some of them are zero, a sextic equation +might be of the form x^6 + bx^4 + cx^2 + d = 0, and so be solvable as a +cubic; or if the coefficients of the sextic are given functions of the +six arbitrary quantities a, b, c, d, e, f, such that the sextic is +really of the form (x^2 + ax + b)(x^4 + cx^3 + dx^2 + ex + f) = 0, then +it breaks up into the equations x^2 + ax + b = 0, x^4 + cx^3 + dx^2 + ex ++ f = 0, and is consequently solvable by radicals; so also if the form +is (x -a)(x - b)(x - c)(x - d)(x - e)(x - f) = 0, then the equation is +solvable by radicals,--in this extreme case rationally. Such cases of +solvability are self-evident; but they are enough to show that the +general theorem of the non-solvability by radicals of an equation of the +fifth or any higher order does not in any wise exclude for such orders +the existence of particular equations solvable by radicals, and there +are, in fact, extensive classes of equations which are thus solvable; +the binomial equations x^n - 1 = 0 present an instance. + + 22. It has already been shown how the several roots of the equation + x^n - 1 = 0 can be expressed in the form cos 2s[pi]/n + i sin + 2s[pi]/n, but the question is now that of the algebraical solution (or + solution by radicals) of this equation. There is always a root = 1; if + [omega] be any other root, then obviously [omega], [omega]^2, ... + [omega]^(n - 1) are all of them roots; x^n - 1 contains the factor x - + 1, and it thus appears that [omega], [omega]^2, ... [omega]^(n - 1) are + the n - 1 roots of the equation + + x^(n - 1) + x^(n - 2) + ... x + 1 = 0; + + we have, of course, [omega]^(n - 1) + [omega]^(n - 2) + ... + [omega] + + 1 = 0. + + It is proper to distinguish the cases n prime and n composite; and in + the latter case there is a distinction according as the prime factors + of n are simple or multiple. By way of illustration, suppose + successively n = 15 and n = 9; in the former case, if [alpha] be an + imaginary root of x^3 - 1 = 0 (or root of x^2 + x + 1 = 0), and [beta] + an imaginary root of x^5 - 1 = 0 (or root of x^4 + x^3 + x^2 + x + 1 = + 0), then [omega] may be taken = [alpha][beta]; the successive powers + thereof, [alpha][beta], [alpha]^2 [beta]^2, [beta]^3, [alpha][beta]^4, + [alpha]^2, [beta], [alpha][beta]^2, [alpha]^2[beta]^3, [beta]^4, + [alpha], [alpha]^2 [beta], [beta]^2, [alpha][beta]^3, [alpha]^2 + [beta]^4, are the roots of x^14 + x^13 + ... + x + 1 = 0; the solution + thus depends on the solution of the equations x^3 - 1 = 0 and x^5 - 1 + = 0. In the latter case, if [alpha] be an imaginary root of x^3 - 1 = + 0 (or root of x^2 + x + 1 = 0), then the equation x^9 - 1 = 0 gives + x^3 = 1, [alpha], or [alpha]^2; x^3 = 1 gives x = 1, [alpha], or + [alpha]^2; and the solution thus depends on the solution of the + equations x^3 - 1 = 0, x^3 - [alpha] = 0, x^3 - [alpha]^2 = 0. The + first equation has the roots 1, [alpha], [alpha]^2; if [beta] be a + root of either of the others, say if [beta]^3 = [alpha], then assuming + [omega] = [beta], the successive powers are [beta], [beta]^2, [alpha], + [alpha][beta], [alpha][beta]^2, [alpha]^2, [alpha]^2[beta], [alpha]^2 + [beta]^2, which are the roots of the equation x^8 + x^7 + ... + x + 1 + = 0. + + It thus appears that the only case which need be considered is that of + n a prime number, and writing (as is more usual) r in place of + [omega], we have r, r^2, r^3, ... r^(n - 1) as the (n - 1) roots of + the reduced equation + + x^(n - 1) + x^(n - 2) + ... + x + 1 = 0; + + then not only r^n - 1 = 0, but also r^(n - 1) + r^(n - 2) + ... + r + + 1 = 0. + +23. The process of solution due to Karl Friedrich Gauss (1801) depends +essentially on the arrangement of the roots in a certain order, viz. not +as above, with the indices of r in arithmetical progression, but with +their indices in geometrical progression; the prime number n has a +certain number of prime roots g, which are such that g^(n - 1) is the +lowest power of g, which is [equivalent to] 1 to the modulus n; or, what +is the same thing, that the series of powers 1, g, g^2, ... g^(n - 2), +each divided by n, leave (in a different order) the remainders 1, 2, 3, +... n - 1; hence giving to r in succession the indices 1, g, g^2, ... +g^(n - 2), we have, in a different order, the whole series of roots r, +r^2, r^3, ... r^(n - 1). + + In the most simple case, n = 5, the equation to be solved is x^4 + x^3 + + x^2 + x + 1 = 0; here 2 is a prime root of 5, and the order of the + roots is r, r^2, r^4, r^3. The Gaussian process consists in forming an + equation for determining the periods P1, P2, = r + r^4 and r^2 + r^3 + respectively;--these being such that the symmetrical functions P1 + + P2, P1P2 are rationally determinable: in fact P1 + P2 = -1, P1P2 = (r + + r^4)(r^2 + r^3), = r^3 + r^4 + r^6 + r^7, = r^3 + r^4 + r + r^2, = + -1. P1, P2 are thus the roots of u^2 + u - 1 = 0; and taking them to + be known, they are themselves broken up into subperiods, in the + present case single terms, r and r^4 for P1, r^2 and r^3 for P2; the + symmetrical functions of these are then rationally determined in terms + of P1 and P2; thus r + r^4 = P1, r.r^4 = 1, or r, r^4 are the roots of + u^2 - P1u + 1 = 0. The mode of division is more clearly seen for a + larger value of n; thus, for n = 7 a prime root is = 3, and the + arrangement of the roots is r, r^3, r^2, r^6, r^4, r^5. We may form + either 3 periods each of 2 terms, P1, P2, P3 = r + r^6, r^3 + r^4, r^2 + + r^5 respectively; or else 2 periods each of 3 terms, P1, P2 = r + + r^2 + r^4, r^3 + r^6 + r^5 respectively; in each ease the symmetrical + functions of the periods are rationally determinable: thus in the case + of the two periods P1 + P2 = -1, P1P2 = 3 + r + r^2 + r^3 + r^4 + r^5 + + r^6, = 2; and the periods being known the symmetrical functions of + the several terms of each period are rationally determined in terms of + the periods, thus r + r^2 + r^4 = P1, r.r^2 + r.r^4 + r^2.r^4 = P2, + r.r^2.r^4 = 1. + +The theory was further developed by Lagrange (1808), who, applying his +general process to the equation in question, x^(n - 1) + x^(n - 2) + ... ++ x + 1 = 0 (the roots a, b, c ... being the several powers of r, the +indices in geometrical progression as above), showed that the function +(a + [omega]b + [omega]^2 c + ...)^(n - 1) was in this case a given +function of [omega] with integer coefficients. + + Reverting to the before-mentioned particular equation x^4 + x^3 + x^2 + + x + 1 = 0, it is very interesting to compare the process of solution + with that for the solution of the general quartic the roots whereof + are a, b, c, d. + + Take [omega], a root of the equation [omega]^4 - 1 = 0 (whence [omega] + is = 1, -1, i, or -i, at pleasure), and consider the expression + + (a + [omega]b + [omega]^2 c + [omega]^3 d)^4, + + the developed value of this is + + = a^4 + b^4 + c^4 + d^4 + 6(a^2 c^2 + b^2 d^2) + 12(a^2 bd + b^2 ca + c^2 db + d^2ac) + +[omega] {4(a^3 b + b^3 c + c^3 + d^3 a) + 12(a^2 cd + b^2 da + c^2 ab + d^2 bc)} + +[omega]^2{6(a^2 b^2 + b^2 c^2 + c^2 d^2 + d^2 a^2) + 4(a^3 c + b^3 d + c^3 a + d^3 b) + 24abcd} + +[omega]^3{4(a^3 d + b^3 a + c^3 b + d^3 c) + 12(a^2 bc + b^2 cd + c^2 da + d^2 ab)} + + that is, this is a 6-valued function of a, b, c, d, the root of a + sextic (which is, in fact, solvable by radicals; but this is not here + material). + + If, however, a, b, c, d denote the roots r, r^2, r^4, r^3 of the + special equation, then the expression becomes + + r^4 + r^3 + r + r^2 + 6(1 + 1)+12(r^2 + r^4 + r^3 + r) + + [omega] {4(1 + 1 + 1 + 1) + 12(r^4 + r^3 + r + r^2)} + + [omega]^2{6(r + r^2 + r^4 + r^3) + 4(r^2 + r^4 + r^3 + r)} + + [omega]^3{4(r + r^2 + r^4 + r^3) + 12(r^3 + r + r^2 + r^4)} + + viz. this is + + = -1 + 4[omega] + 14[omega]^2 - 16[omega]^3, + + a completely determined value. That is, we have + + (r + [omega]r^2 + [omega]^2 r^4 + [omega]^3 r^3) = -1 + 4[omega] + + 14[omega]^2 - 16[omega]^3, + + which result contains the solution of the equation. If [omega] = 1, we + have (r + r^2 + r^4 + r^3)^4 = 1, which is right; if [omega] = -1, + then (r + r^4 - r^2 - r^3)^4 = 25; if [omega] = i, then we have {r - + r^4 + i(r^2 - r^3)}^4 = -15 + 20i; and if [omega] = -i, then {r - r^4 + - i(r^2 - r^3)}^4 = -15 - 20i; the solution may be completed without + difficulty. + +The result is perfectly general, thus:--n being a prime number, r a root +of the equation x^(n - 1) + x^(n - 2) + ... + x + 1 = 0, [omega] a root +of [omega]^(n - 1) - 1 = 0, and g a prime root of g^(n - 1) [equivalent] +1 (mod. n), then + + {r + [omega]r^g + ... + [omega]^(n - 2) r^g^(n - 2)}^(n - 1) + +is a given function M0 + M1[omega] ... + M_(n - 2)[omega]^(n - 2) with +integer coefficients, and by the extraction of (n - 1)th roots of this +and similar expressions we ultimately obtain r in terms of [omega], +which is taken to be known; the equation x^n - 1 = 0, n a prime number, +is thus solvable by radicals. In particular, if n - 1 be a power of 2, +the solution (by either process) requires the extraction of square roots +only; and it was thus that Gauss discovered that it was possible to +construct geometrically the regular polygons of 17 sides and 257 sides +respectively. Some interesting developments in regard to the theory were +obtained by C.G.J. Jacobi (1837); see the memoir "Ueber die +Kreistheilung, u.s.w.," _Crelle_, t. xxx. (1846). + +The equation x^(n - 1) + ... + x + 1 = 0 has been considered for its own +sake, but it also serves as a specimen of a class of equations solvable +by radicals, considered by N.H. Abel (1828), and since called Abelian +equations, viz. for the Abelian equation of the order n, if x be any +root, the roots are x, [theta]x, [theta]^2 x, ... [theta]^(n - 1)x +([theta]x being a rational function of x, and [theta]^nx = x); the +theory is, in fact, very analogous to that of the above particular case. + + A more general theorem obtained by Abel is as follows:--If the roots + of an equation of any order are connected together in such wise that + _all_ the roots can be expressed rationally in terms of any one of + them, say x; if, moreover, [theta]x, [theta]1x being any two of the + roots, we have [theta][theta]1x = [theta]1[theta]x, the equation will + be solvable algebraically. It is proper to refer also to Abel's + definition of an _irreducible_ equation:--an equation [phi]x = 0, the + coefficients of which are rational functions of a certain number of + known quantities a, b, c ..., is called irreducible when it is + impossible to express its roots by an equation of an inferior degree, + the coefficients of which are also rational functions of a, b, c ... + (or, what is the same thing, when [phi]x does not break up into + factors which are rational functions of a, b, c ...). Abel applied his + theory to the equations which present themselves in the division of + the elliptic functions, but not to the modular equations. + +24. But the theory of the algebraical solution of equations in its most +complete form was established by Evariste Galois (born October 1811, +killed in a duel May 1832; see his collected works, _Liouville_, t. xl., +1846). The definition of an irreducible equation resembles Abel's,--an +equation is reducible when it admits of a rational divisor, irreducible +in the contrary case; only the word _rational_ is used in this extended +sense that, in connexion with the coefficients of the given equation, or +with the irrational quantities (if any) whereof these are composed, he +considers any number of other irrational quantities called "adjoint +radicals," and he terms rational any rational function of the +coefficients (or the irrationals whereof they are composed) and of these +adjoint radicals; the epithet irreducible is thus taken either +absolutely or in a relative sense, according to the system of adjoint +radicals which are taken into account. For instance, the equation x^4 + +x^3 + x^2 + x + 1 = 0; the left hand side has here no rational divisor, +and the equation is irreducible; but this function is = (x^2 + 1/2 x + +1)^2 -(5/4)x^2, and it has thus the irrational divisors x^2 + 1/2(1 + +[root]5)x + 1, x^2 + 1/2(1 - [root]5)x + 1; and these, if we _adjoin_ +the radical [root]5, are rational, and the equation is no longer +irreducible. In the case of a given equation, assumed to be irreducible, +the problem to solve the equation is, in fact, that of finding radicals +by the adjunction of which the equation becomes reducible; for instance, +the general quadric equation x^2 + px + q = 0 is irreducible, but it +becomes reducible, breaking up into rational linear factors, when we +adjoin the radical [root](1/4 p^2 - q). + + The fundamental theorem is the Proposition I. of the "Memoire sur les + conditions de resolubilite des equations par radicaux"; viz. given an + equation of which a, b, c ... are the m roots, there is always a group + of permutations of the letters a, b, c ... possessed of the following + properties:-- + + 1. Every function of the roots invariable by the substitutions of the + group is rationally known. + + 2. Reciprocally every rationally determinable function of the roots is + invariable by the substitutions of the group. + + Here by an invariable function is meant not only a function of which + the form is invariable by the substitutions of the group, but further, + one of which the value is invariable by these substitutions: for + instance, if the equation be [phi](x) = 0, then [phi](x) is a function + of the roots invariable by any substitution whatever. And in saying + that a function is rationally known, it is meant that its value is + expressible rationally in terms of the coefficients and of the adjoint + quantities. + + For instance in the case of a general equation, the group is simply + the system of the 1.2.3 ... n permutations of all the roots, since, in + this case, the only rationally determinable functions are the + symmetric functions of the roots. + + In the case of the equation x^(n - 1) ... + x + 1 = 0, n a prime + number, a, b, c ... k = r, r^g, r^g^2 ... r^g^(n - 2), where g is a + prime root of n, then the group is the cyclical group abc ... k, bc + ... ka, ... kab ... j, that is, in this particular case the number of + the permutations of the group is equal to the order of the equation. + + This notion of the group of the original equation, or of the group of + the equation as varied by the adjunction of a series of radicals, + seems to be the fundamental one in Galois's theory. But the problem of + solution by radicals, instead of being the sole object of the theory, + appears as the first link of a long chain of questions relating to the + transformation and classification of irrationals. + + Returning to the question of solution by radicals, it will be readily + understood that by the adjunction of a radical the group may be + diminished; for instance, in the case of the general cubic, where the + group is that of the six permutations, by the adjunction of the square + root which enters into the solution, the group is reduced to abc, bca, + cab; that is, it becomes possible to express rationally, in terms of + the coefficients and of the adjoint square root, any function such as + a^2 b + b^2 c + c^2 a which is not altered by the cyclical + substitution a into b, b into c, c into a. And hence, to determine + whether an equation of a given form is solvable by radicals, the + course of investigation is to inquire whether, by the successive + adjunction of radicals, it is possible to reduce the original group of + the equation so as to make it ultimately consist of a single + permutation. + + The condition in order that an equation of a given prime order n may + be solvable by radicals was in this way obtained--in the first + instance in the form (scarcely intelligible without further + explanation) that every function of the roots x1, x2 ... x_n, + invariable by the substitutions x_(ak + b) for x_k, must be rationally + known; and then in the equivalent form that the resolvent equation of + the order 1.2 ... (n - 2) must have a rational root. In particular, + the condition in order that a quintic equation may be solvable is that + Lagrange's resolvent of the order 6 may have a rational factor, a + result obtained from a direct investigation in a valuable memoir by E. + Luther, _Crelle_, t. xxxiv. (1847). + + Among other results demonstrated or announced by Galois may be + mentioned those relating to the modular equations in the theory of + elliptic functions; for the transformations of the orders 5, 7, 11, + the modular equations of the orders 6, 8, 12 are depressible to the + orders 5, 7, 11 respectively; but for the transformation, n a prime + number greater than 11, the depression is impossible. + + The general theory of Galois in regard to the solution of equations + was completed, and some of the demonstrations supplied by E. Betti + (1852). See also J.A. Serret's _Cours d'algebre superieure_, 2nd ed. + (1854); 4th ed. (1877-1878). + +25. Returning to quintic equations, George Birch Jerrard (1835) +established the theorem that the general quintic equation is by the +extraction of only square and cubic roots reducible to the form x^5 + ax ++ b = 0, or what is the same thing, to x^5 + x + b = 0. The actual +reduction by means of Tschirnhausen's theorem was effected by Charles +Hermite in connexion with his elliptic-function solution of the quintic +equation (1858) in a very elegant manner. It was shown by Sir James +Cockle and Robert Harley (1858-1859) in connexion with the Jerrardian +form, and by Arthur Cayley (1861), that Lagrange's resolvent equation of +the sixth order can be replaced by a more simple sextic equation +occupying a like place in the theory. + +The theory of the modular equations, more particularly for the case n = +5, has been studied by C. Hermite, L. Kronecker and F. Brioschi. In the +case n = 5, the modular equation of the order 6 depends, as already +mentioned, on an equation of the order 5; and conversely the general +quintic equation may be made to depend upon this modular equation of the +order 6; that is, assuming the solution of this modular equation, we can +solve (not by radicals) the general quintic equation; this is Hermite's +solution of the general quintic equation by elliptic functions (1858); +it is analogous to the before-mentioned trigonometrical solution of the +cubic equation. The theory is reproduced and developed in Brioschi's +memoir, "Uber die Auflosung der Gleichungen vom funften Grade," _Math. +Annalen_, t. xiii. (1877-1878). + + 26. The modern work, reproducing the theories of Galois, and + exhibiting the theory of algebraic equations as a whole, is C. + Jordan's _Traite des substitutions et des equations algebriques_ + (Paris, 1870). The work is divided into four books--book i., + preliminary, relating to the theory of congruences; book ii. is in two + chapters, the first relating to substitutions in general, the second + to substitutions defined analytically, and chiefly to linear + substitutions; book iii. has four chapters, the first discussing the + principles of the general theory, the other three containing + applications to algebra, geometry, and the theory of transcendents; + lastly, book iv., divided into seven chapters, contains a + determination of the general types of equations solvable by radicals, + and a complete system of classification of these types. A glance + through the index will show the vast extent which the theory has + assumed, and the form of general conclusions arrived at; thus, in book + iii., the algebraical applications comprise Abelian equations, + equations of Galois; the geometrical ones comprise Q. Hesse's + equation, R.F.A. Clebsch's equations, lines on a quartic surface + having a nodal line, singular points of E.E. Kummer's surface, lines + on a cubic surface, problems of contact; the applications to the + theory of transcendents comprise circular functions, elliptic + functions (including division and the modular equation), hyperelliptic + functions, solution of equations by transcendents. And on this last + subject, solution of equations by transcendents, we may quote the + result--"the solution of the general equation of an order superior to + five cannot be made to depend upon that of the equations for the + division of the circular or elliptic functions"; and again (but with a + reference to a possible case of exception), "the general equation + cannot be solved by aid of the equations which give the division of + the hyperelliptic functions into an odd number of parts." (See also + GROUPS, THEORY OF.) (A. Ca.) + + BIBLIOGRAPHY.--For the general theory see W.S. Burnside and A.W. + Panton, _The Theory of Equations_ (4th ed., 1899-1901); the Galoisian + theory is treated in G.B. Matthews, _Algebraic Equations_ (1907). See + also the _Ency. d. math. Wiss._ vol. ii. + + +FOOTNOTES: + + [1] The coefficients were selected so that the roots might be nearly + 1, 2, 3. + + [2] The third edition (1826) is a reproduction of that of 1808; the + first edition has the date 1798, but a large part of the contents is + taken from memoirs of 1767-1768 and 1770-1771. + + [3] The earlier demonstrations by Euler, Lagrange, &c, relate to the + case of a numerical equation with real coefficients; and they consist + in showing that such equation has always a real quadratic divisor, + furnishing two roots, which are either real or else conjugate + imaginaries [alpha] + [beta]i (see Lagrange's _Equations + numeriques_). + + [4] The square root of [alpha] + [beta]i can be determined by the + extraction of square roots of positive real numbers, without the + trigonometrical tables. + + + + +EQUATION OF THE CENTRE, in astronomy, the angular distance, measured +around the centre of motion, by which a planet moving in an ellipse +deviates from the mean position which it would occupy if it moved +uniformly. Its amount is the correction which must be applied positively +or negatively to the mean anomaly in order to obtain the true anomaly. +It arises from the ellipticity of the orbit, is zero at pericentre and +apocentre, and reaches its greatest amount nearly midway between these +points. (See ANOMALY and ORBIT.) + + + + +EQUATION OF TIME, the difference between apparent time, determined by +the meridian passage of the real sun, and mean time, determined by the +passage of the mean sun. It goes through a double period in the course +of a year. Its amount varies a fraction of a minute for the same date, +from year to year and from one longitude to another, on the same day. +The following table shows an average value for any date and for the +Greenwich meridian for a number of years, from which the actual value +will seldom deviate more than 20 seconds until after 1950. The + sign +indicates that the real sun reaches the meridian _after_ mean noon; the +- sign _before_ mean noon. + + _Table of the Equation of Time._ + + m. s. m. s. m. s. + Jan. 1 +3 26 Mar. 1 +12 39 May 1 -2 55 + 6 5 45 6 11 35 6 -3 27 + 11 7 51 11 10 20 11 -3 46 + 16 9 43 16 8 58 16 -3 51 + 21 11 19 21 7 30 21 -3 40 + 26 12 36 26 5 59 26 -3 16 + + Feb. 1 +13 42 Apr. 1 +4 9 June 1 -2 32 + 6 14 14 6 2 40 6 -1 44 + 11 14 25 11 +1 15 11 -0 48 + 16 14 17 16 -0 3 16 +0 14 + 21 13 52 21 -1 12 21 1 19 + 26 13 11 26 -2 10 26 2 24 + + July 1 +3 26 Sept. 1 +0 9 Nov. 1 -16 18 + 6 4 21 6 -1 28 6 -16 19 + 11 5 8 11 -3 10 11 -15 58 + 16 5 44 16 -4 55 16 -15 15 + 21 6 8 21 -6 41 21 -14 12 + 26 6 18 26 -8 25 26 -12 49 + + Aug. 1 +6 10 Oct. 1 -10 5 Dec. 1 -11 7 + 6 5 47 6 -11 38 6 - 9 9 + 11 5 9 11 -13 2 11 - 6 57 + 16 4 17 16 -14 14 16 - 4 35 + 21 3 12 21 -15 11 21 - 2 7 + 26 1 55 26 -15 52 26 + 0 23 + + + + +EQUATOR (Late Lat. _aequator_, from _aequare_, to make equal), in +geography, that great circle of the earth, equidistant from the two +poles, which divides the northern from the southern hemisphere and lies +in a plane perpendicular to the axis of the earth; this is termed the +"geographical" or "terrestrial equator." In astronomy, the "celestial +equator" is the name given to the great circle in which the plane of the +terrestrial equator intersects the celestial sphere; it is consequently +equidistant from the celestial poles. The "magnetic equator" is an +imaginary line encircling the earth, along which the vertical component +of the earth's magnetic force is zero; it nearly coincides with the +terrestrial equator. + + + + +EQUERRY (from the Fr. _ecurie_, a stable, through its older form +_escurie_, from the Med. Lat. _scuria_, a word of Teutonic origin for a +stable or shed, cf. Ger. _Scheuer_; the modern spelling has confused the +word with the Lat. _equus_, a horse), a contracted form of "gentleman of +the equerry," an officer in charge of the stables of a royal household. +At the British court, equerries are officers attached to the department +of the master of the horse, the first of whom is called chief equerry +(see HOUSEHOLD, ROYAL). + + + + +EQUIDAE, the family of perissodactyle ungulate mammals typified by the +horse (_Equus caballus_); see HORSE. According to the older +classification this family was taken to include only the forms with +tall-crowned teeth, more or less closely allied to the typical genus +_Equus_. There is, however, such an almost complete graduation from the +former to earlier and more primitive mammals with short-crowned +cheek-teeth, at one time included in the family _Lophiodontidae_ (see +PERISSODACTYLA), that it has now become a very general practice to +include the whole "phylum" in the family _Equidae_. The _Equidae_, in +this extended sense, together with the extinct _Palaeotheriidae_, are +indeed now regarded as forming one of four main groups into which the +Perissodactyla are divided, the other groups being the Tapiroidea, +Rhinocerotoidea and Titanotheriide. For the horse-group the name +Hippoidea is employed. All four groups were closely connected in the +Lower Eocene, so that exact definition is almost impossible. + +In the Hippoidea there is generally the full series of 44 teeth, but the +first premolar is often deciduous or wanting in the lower or in both +jaws. The incisors are chisel-shaped, and the canines tend to become +isolated so as in the now specialized forms to occupy nearly the middle +of a longer or shorter gap between the incisors and premolars. In the +upper molars the two outer columns of the primitive tubercular molar +coalesce to form an outer wall, from which proceed two crescentic +transverse crests; the connexion between the crests and the wall being +imperfect or slight, and the crests themselves sometimes tubercular. +Each of the lower molars carries two crescentic ridges. The number of +toes ranges from four to one in the fore-foot, and from three to one in +the hind-foot. The paroccipital, postglenoid and post-tympanic processes +of the skull are large, and the latter always distinct. Normally there +are no traces of horn-cores. The calcaneum lacks the facet for the +fibula found in the Titanotheroidea. + +In the earlier _Equidae_ the teeth were short-crowned, with the +premolars simpler than the molars; but there is a gradual tendency to an +increase in the height of the crowns of the teeth, accompanied by +increasing complexity of structure and the filling up of the hollows +with cement. Similarly the gap on each side of the canine tooth in each +jaw continues to increase in length; while in all the later forms the +orbit is surrounded by a ring of bone. A third modification is the +increasing length of limb (as well as in general bodily size), +accompanied by a gradual reduction in the number of toes from three or +four to one. + +[Illustration: FIG. 1.--a, Side view of second upper molar tooth of +_Anchitherium_ (brachyodont form); b, corresponding tooth of horse +(hypsidont form).] + +All the existing members of the family, such as the domesticated horse +(_Equus caballus_) and its wild or half-wild relatives, the asses and +the zebras, are included in the typical genus. In all these the crowns +of the cheek-teeth are very tall (fig. 1, b) and only develop roots late +in life; while their grinding-surfaces (fig. 2, b and c) are very +complicated and have all the hollows filled with cement. The summits of +the incisors are infolded, producing, when partially worn, the "mark." +In the skull the orbit is surrounded by bone, and there is no distinct +depression in front of the same. Each limb terminates in one large toe; +the lateral digits being represented by the splint-bones, corresponding +to the lateral metacarpals and metatarsals of _Hipparion_. Not +unfrequently, however, the lower ends of the splint-bones carry a small +expansion, representing the phalanges. + +Remains of horses indistinguishable from _E. caballus_ occur in the +Pleistocene deposits of Europe and Asia; and it is from them that the +dun-coloured small horses of northern Europe and Asia are probably +derived. The ancestor of these Pleistocene horses is probably _E. +stenonis_, of the Upper Pliocene of Europe, which has a small depression +in front of the orbit, while the skull is relatively larger, the feet +are rather shorter, and the splint-bones somewhat more developed. In +India a nearly allied species (_E. sivalensis_), occurs in the Lower +Pliocene, and may have been the ancestor of the Arab stock, which shows +traces of the depression in front of the orbit characteristic of the +earlier forms. In North America species of _Equus_ occur in the +Pleistocene and from that continent others reached South America during +the same epoch. In the latter country occurs _Hippidium_, in which the +cheek-teeth are shorter and simpler, and the nasal bones very long and +slender, with elongated slits at the side. The limbs, especially the +cannon-bones, are relatively short, and the splint-bones large. The +allied Argentine _Onohippidium_, which is also Pleistocene, has still +longer nasal bones and slits, and a deep double cavity in front of the +orbit, part of which probably contained a gland. _Onohippidium_ is +certainly off the direct line of descent of the modern horses, and, on +account of the length of the nasals and their slits, the same probably +holds good for _Hippidium_. + +[Illustration: FIG. 2.--a, Grinding surface of unworn right upper molar +tooth of _Anchitherium_; b, corresponding surface of unworn molar of +young horse; c, the same tooth after it has been some time in use. The +uncoloured portions are the dentine or ivory, the shaded parts the +cement filling the cavities and surrounding the exterior. The black line +separating these two structures is the enamel or hardest constituent of +the tooth.] + +Species from the Pliocene of Texas and the Upper Miocene (Loup Fork) of +Oregon were at one time assigned to _Hippidium_, but this is incorrect, +that genus being exclusively South American. The name _Pliohippus_ has +been applied to species from the same two formations on the supposition +that the foot-structure was similar to that of _Hippidium_, but Mr J.W. +Gidley is of opinion that the lateral digits may have been fully +developed. + +Apparently there is here some gap in the line of descent of the horse, +and it may be suggested that the evolution took place, not as commonly +supposed, in North America, but in eastern central Asia, of which the +palaeontology is practically unknown; some support is given to this +theory by the fact that the earliest species with which we are +acquainted occur in northern India. + +[Illustration: FIG. 3.--Successive stages of modification of the left +fore-feet of extinct forms of horse-like animals, showing gradual +reduction of the outer and enlargement of the middle toe (III). + + a, _Hyracotherium_ (Eocene). + b, _Mesohippus_ (Oligocene). + c, _Anchitherium_ (Miocene). + d, _Hipparion_ (Pliocene). + e, _Equus_ (Pleistocene).] + +Be this as it may, the next North American representatives of the family +constitute the genera _Protohippus_ and _Merychippus_ of the Miocene, in +both of which the lateral digits are fully developed and terminate in +small though perfect hoofs. In both the cheek-teeth have moderately tall +crowns, and in the first named of the two those of the milk-series are +nearly similar to their permanent successors. In _Merychippus_, on the +other hand, the milk-molars have short crowns, without any cement in the +hollows, thus resembling the permanent molars of the under-mentioned +genus _Anchitherium_. From the well-known _Hipparion_, or +_Hippotherium_, typically from the Lower Pliocene of Europe, but also +occurring in the corresponding formation in North Africa, Persia, India +and China, and represented in the Upper Miocene Loup Fork beds of the +United States by species which it has been proposed to separate +generically as _Neohipparion_, we reach small horses which are now +generally regarded as a lateral offshoot from the _Merychippus_ type. +The cheek-teeth, which have crowns of moderate height, differ from those +of all the foregoing in that the postero-internal pillar (the projection +on the right-hand top corner of c in fig. 2) is isolated in place of +being attached by a narrow neck to the adjacent crescent. The skull, +which is relatively short, has a large depression in front of the orbit, +commonly supposed to have contained a gland, but this may be doubtful. +In the typical, and also in the North American forms these were +complete, although small, lateral toes in both feet (fig. 3, d), but it +is possible that in _H. antilopinum_ of India the lateral toes had +disappeared. If this be so, we have the development of a monodactyle +foot in this genus independently of _Equus_. + +The foregoing genera constitute the subfamily _Equinae_, or the +_Equidae_ as restricted by the older writers. In all the dentition is of +the hypsodont type, with the hollows of the cheek-teeth filled by +cement, the premolars molariform, and the first small and generally +deciduous. The orbit is surrounded by a bony ring; the ulna and radius +in the fore, and the tibia and fibula in the hind-limb are united, and +the feet are of the types described above. Between this subfamily and +the second subfamily, _Hyracotheriinae_, a partial connexion is formed +by the North American Upper Miocene genera _Desmatippus_ and _Anchippus_ +or _Parahippus_. The characteristics of the group will be gathered from +the remarks on the leading genera; but it may be mentioned that the +orbit is open behind, the cheek-teeth are short-crowned and without +cement (fig. 1, a), the gap between the canine and the outermost +incisor is short, the bones of the middle part of the leg are separate, +and there are at least three toes to each foot. + +The longest-known genus and the one containing the largest species is +_Anchitherium_, typically from the Middle Miocene of Europe, but also +represented by one species from the Upper Miocene of North America. The +European _A. aurelianense_ was of the size of an ordinary donkey. The +cheek-teeth are of the type shown in a of figs. 1 and 2; the premolars, +with the exception of the small first one, being molar-like; and the +lateral toes (fig. 3, c) were to some extent functional. The summits of +the incisors were infolded to a small extent. Nearly allied is the +American _Mesohippus_, ranging from the Lower Miocene to the Lower +Oligocene of the United States, of which the earliest species stood only +about 18 in. at the shoulder. The incisors were scarcely, if at all, +infolded, and there is a rudiment of the fifth metacarpal (fig. 3, b). +By some writers all the species of _Mesohippus_ are included in the +genus _Miohippus_, but others consider that the two genera are distinct. + +_Mesohippus_ and _Miohippus_ are connected with the earliest and most +primitive mammal which it is possible to include in the family _Equidae_ +by means of _Epihippus_ of the Uinta or Upper Eocene of North America, +and _Pachynolophus_, or _Orohippus_, of the Middle and Lower Eocene of +both halves of the northern hemisphere. The final stage, or rather the +initial stage, in the series is presented by _Hyracotherium_ +(_Protorohippus_), a mammal no larger than a fox, common to the Lower +Eocene of Europe and North America. The general characteristics of this +progenitor of the horses are those given above as distinctive of the +group. The cheek-teeth are, however, much simpler than those of +_Anchitherium_; the transverse crests of the upper molars not being +fully connected with the outer wall, while the premolars in the upper +jaw are triangular, and thus unlike the molars. The incisors are small +and the canines scarcely enlarged; the latter having a gap on each side +in the lower, but only one on their hinder aspect in the upper jaw. The +fore-feet have four complete toes (fig. 3, a), but there are only three +hind-toes, with a rudiment of the fifth metatarsal. The vertebrae are +simpler in structure than in _Equus_. From _Hyracotherium_, which is +closely related to the Eocene representatives of the ancestral stocks of +the other three branches of the Perissodactyla, the transition is easy +to _Phenacodus_, the representative of the common ancestor of all the +Ungulata. + + See also H.F. Osborn, "New Oligocene Horses," _Bull. Amer. Mus._ vol. + xx. p. 167 (1904); J.W. Gidley, _Proper Generic Names of Miocene + Horses_, p. 191; and the article PALAEONTOLOGY. (R. L.*) + + + + +EQUILIBRIUM (from the Lat. _aequus_, equal, and _libra_, a balance), a +condition of equal balance between opposite or counteracting forces. By +the "sense of equilibrium" is meant the sense, or sensations, by which +we have a feeling of security in standing, walking, and indeed in all +the movements by which the body is carried through space. Such a feeling +of security is necessary both for maintaining any posture, such as +standing, or for performing any movement. If this feeling is absent or +uncertain, or if there are contradictory sensations, then definite +muscular movements are inefficiently or irregularly performed, and the +body may stagger or fall. When we stand erect on a firm surface, like a +floor, there is a feeling of resistance, due to nervous impulses +reaching the brain from the soles of the feet and from the muscles of +the limbs and trunk. In walking or running, these feelings of resistance +seem to precede and guide the muscular movements necessary for the next +step. If these are absent or perverted or deficient, as is the case in +the disease known as locomotor ataxia, then, although there is no loss +of the power of voluntary movement, the patient staggers in walking, +especially if he is not allowed to look at his feet, or if he is +blind-folded. He misses the guiding sensations that come from the limbs; +and with a feeling that he is walking on a soft substance, offering +little or no resistance, he staggers, and his muscular movements become +irregular. Such a condition maybe artificially brought about by washing +the soles of the feet with chloroform or ether. And it has been observed +to exist partially after extensive destruction of the skin of the soles +of the feet by burns or scalds. This shows that tactile impulses from +the skin take a share in generating the guiding sensation. In the +disease above mentioned, however, tactile impressions may be nearly +normal, but the guiding sensation is weak and inefficient, owing to the +absence of impulses from the muscles. The disease is known to depend on +morbid changes in the posterior columns of the spinal cord, by which +impulses are not freely transmitted upwards to the brain. These facts +point to the existence of impulses coming from the muscles and tendons. +It is now known that there exist peculiar spindles, in muscle, and +rosettes or coils or loops of nerve fibres in close proximity to +tendons. These are the end organs of the sense. The transmission of +impulses gives rise to the _muscular sense_, and the guiding sensation +which precedes co-ordinated muscular movements depends on these +impulses. Thus from the limbs streams of nervous impulses pass to the +sensorium from the skin and from muscles and tendons; these may or may +not arouse consciousness, but they guide or evoke muscular movements of +a co-ordinated character, more especially of the limbs. + +In animals whose limbs are not adapted for delicate touch nor for the +performance of complicated movements, such as some mammals and birds and +fishes, the guiding sensations depend largely on the sense of vision. +This sense in man, instead of assisting, sometimes disturbs the guiding +sensation. It is true that in locomotor ataxia visual sensations may +take the place of the tactile and muscular sensations that are +inefficient, and the man can walk without staggering if he is allowed to +look at the floor, and especially if he is guided by transverse straight +lines. On the other hand, the acrobat on the wire-rope dare not trust +his visual sensations in the maintenance of his equilibrium. He keeps +his eyes fixed on one point instead of allowing them to wander to +objects below him, and his muscular movements are regulated by the +impulses that come from the skin and muscles of his limbs. The feeling +of insecurity probably arises from a conception of height, and also from +the knowledge that by no muscular movements can a man avoid a +catastrophe if he should fall. A bird, on the other hand, depends +largely on visual impressions, and it knows by experience that if +launched into the air from a height it can fly. Here, probably, is an +explanation of the large size of the eyes of birds. Cover the head, as +in hooding a falcon, and the bird seems to be deprived of the power of +voluntary movement. Little effect will be produced if we attempt to +restrain the movements of a cat by covering its eyes. A fish also is +deprived of the power of motion if its eyes are covered. But both in the +bird and in the fish tactile and muscular impressions, especially the +latter, come into play in the mechanism of equilibrium. In flight the +large-winged birds, especially in soaring, can feel the most delicate +wind-pressures, both as regards direction and force, and they adapt the +position of their body so as to catch the pressure at the most efficient +angle. The same is true of the fish, especially of the flat-fishes. In +mammals the sense of equilibrium depends, then, on streams of tactile, +muscular and visual impressions pouring in on the sensorium, and calling +forth appropriate muscular movements. It has also been suggested that +impulses coming from the abdominal viscera may take part in the +mechanism. The presence in the mesentery of felines (cats, &c.) of large +numbers of Pacinian corpuscles, which are believed to be modified +tactile bodies, favours this supposition. Such animals are remarkable +for the delicacy of such muscular movements, as balancing and leaping. + +There is another channel by which nervous impulses reach the sensorium +and play their part in the sense of equilibrium, namely, from the +semicircular canals, a portion of the internal ear. It is pointed out in +the article HEARING that the appreciation of sound is in reality an +appreciation of variations of pressure. The labyrinth consists of the +vestibule, the cochlea and the semicircular canals. The cochlea receives +the sound-waves (variations of pressure) that constitute musical tones. +This it accomplishes by the structures in the ductus cochlearis. In the +vestibule we find two sacs, the saccule next to and communicating with +the ductus cochlearis, and the utricle communicating with the +semicircular canals. The base of the stapes communicates pressures to +the utricle. The membranous portion of the semicircular canals consists +of a tube, dilated at one end into a swelling or pouch, termed the +ampulla, and each end communicates freely with the utricle. On the +posterior wall of both the saccule and of the utricle there is a ridge, +termed in each case the macula acustica, bearing a highly specialized +epithelium. A similar structure exists in each ampulla. This would +suggest that all three structures have to do with hearing; but, on the +other hand, there is experimental evidence that the utricle and the +canals may transmit impressions that have to do with equilibrium. +Pressure of the base of the stapes is exerted on the utricle. This will +compress the fluid in that cavity, and tend to drive the fluid into the +semicircular canals that communicate with that cavity by five openings. +Each canal is surrounded by a thin layer of perilymph, so that it may +yield a little to this pressure, and exert a pull or pressure on the +nerve-endings in each ampulla. Thus impulses may be generated in the +nerves of the ampullae. + +The three semicircular canals lie in the three directions in space, and +it has been suggested that they have to do with our appreciation of the +direction of sound. But our appreciation of sound is very inaccurate: we +look with the eyes for the source of a sound, and instinctively direct +the ears or the head, or both, in the direction from which the sound +appears to proceed. But the relationship of the canals on the two sides +must have a physiological significance. Thus (1) the six canals are +parallel, two and two; or (2) the two horizontal canals are in the same +plane, while the superior canal on one side is nearly parallel with the +posterior canal of the other. These facts point to the two sets of +canals and ampullae acting as one organ, in a manner analogous to the +action of two retinae for single vision. + +We have next to consider how the canals may possibly act in connexion +with the sense of equilibrium. In 1820 J. Purkinje studied the vertigo +that follows rapid rotation of the body in the erect position on a +vertical axis. On stopping the rotation there is a sense of rotation in +the opposite direction, and this may occur even when the eyes are +closed. Purkinje noticed that the position of the imaginary axis of +rotation depends on the axis around which the head revolves. In 1828 +M.J.P. Flourens discovered that injury to the canals causes disturbance +to the equilibrium and loss of co-ordination, and that sections of the +canals produce a rotatory movement of a kind corresponding to the canal +that had been divided. Thus division of a membranous canal causes +rotatory movements round an axis at right angles to the plane of the +divided canal. The body of the animal always moves in the direction of +the cut canal. Many other observers have corroborated these experiments. +F. Goltz was the first who formulated the conditions necessary for +equilibration. He put the matter thus:--(1) A central co-ordinating +organ--in the brain; (2) centripetal fibres, with their peripheral +terminations--in the ampullae; and (3) centrifugal fibres, with their +terminal organs--in the muscular mechanisms. A lesion of any one of +these portions of the mechanism causes loss or impairment of balancing. +Cyon also investigated the subject, and concluded:--(1) To maintain +equilibrium, we must have an accurate notion of the position of the head +in space; (2) the function of the semicircular canals is to communicate +impressions that give a representation of this position--each canal +having a relation to one of the dimensions of space; (3) disturbance of +equilibrium follows section; (4) involuntary movements following section +are due to abnormal excitations; (5) abnormal movements occurring a few +days after the operation are caused by irritation of the cerebellum. + +On theoretical considerations of a physical character, E. Mach, +Crum-Brown and Breuer have advanced theories based on the idea of the +canals being organs for sensations of acceleration of movement, or for +the sense of rotation. Mach first pointed out that Purkinje's phenomena, +already alluded to, were in all probability related to the semicircular +canals. "He showed that when the body is moved in space, in a straight +line, we are not conscious of the velocity of motion, but of variations +in this velocity. Similarly, if a body is rotated round a vertical axis, +we perceive only angular acceleration and not angular velocity. The +sensations produced by angular acceleration last longer than the +acceleration itself, and the position of the head during the movements +enables us to determine direction." Both Mach and Goltz state that +varying pressures of the fluid in the canals produced by angular +rotation produce sensations of movement (always in a direction opposite +to the rotation of the body), and that these, in turn, cause the vertigo +of Purkinje and the phenomena of Flourens. Mach, Crum-Brown and Breuer +advance hydrodynamical theories in which they assume that the fluids +move in the canals. Goltz, on the other hand, supports a hydrostatical +theory in which he assumes that the phenomena can be accounted for by +varying pressures. Crum-Brown differs from Mach and Breuer as +follows:--(1) In attributing movement or variation of pressure not +merely to the endolymph, but also to the walls of the membranous canals +and to the surrounding perilymph; and (2) in regarding the two +labyrinths as one organ, all the six canals being required to form a +true conception of the rotating motion of the head. He sums up the +matter thus: "We have two ways in which a relative motion can occur +between the endolymph and the walls of the cavity containing it--(1) +When the head begins to move, here the walls leave the fluid behind; (2) +when the head stops, here the fluid flows on. In both cases the +sensation of rotation is felt. In the first this sensation corresponds +to a real rotation, in the second it does not, but in both it +corresponds to a real acceleration (positive or negative) of rotation, +using the word acceleration in its technical kinematical sense." + +Cyon states that the semicircular canals only indirectly assist in +giving a notion of spatial relations. "He holds that knowledge of the +position of bodies in space depends on nervous impulses coming from the +contracting ocular muscles; that the oculomotor centres are in intimate +physiological relationship with the centres receiving impulses from the +nerves of the semicircular canals; and that the oculomotor centres, thus +excited, produce the movements of the eyeballs, which then determine our +notions of spatial relations." These views are supported by experiments +of Lee on dog-fish. When the fish is rotated round different axes there +are compensating movements of the eyes and fins. "It was observed that +if the fish were rotated in the plane of one of the canals, exactly the +same movements of the eyes and fins occurred as were produced by +experimental operation and stimulation of the ampulla of that canal." +Sewall, in 1883, carried out experiments on young sharks and skates with +negative results. Lee returned to the subject in 1894, and, after +numerous experiments on dog-fish, in which the canals or the auditory +nerves were divided, obtained evidence that the ampullae contain +sense-organs connected with the sense of equilibrium. + +It has been found by physicians and aurists that disease or injury of +the canals, occurring rapidly, produces giddiness, staggering, nystagmus +(a peculiar twitching movement of the muscles of the eyeballs), +vomiting, noises in the ear and more or less deafness. It is said, +however, that if pathological changes come on slowly, so that the canals +and vestibule are converted into a solid mass, none of these symptoms +may occur. On the whole, the evidence is in favour of the view that from +the semicircular canals nervous impulses are transmitted, which, +co-ordinated with impulses coming from the visual organs, from the +muscles and from the skin, form the bases of these guiding sensations on +which the sense of equilibrium depends. These impulses may not reach the +level of consciousness, but they call into action co-ordinated +mechanisms by which complicated muscular movements are effected. + + Full bibliographical references are given in the article on "The Ear" + by J.G. McKendrick, in Schafer's _Textbook of Physiology_, vol. ii. p. + 1194. (J. G. M.) + + + + +EQUINOX (from the Lat. _aequus_, equal, and _nox_, night), a term used +to express either the moment at which, or the point at which, the sun +apparently crosses the celestial equator. Since the sun moves in the +ecliptic, it is in the last-named sense the point of intersection of the +ecliptic and the celestial equator. This is the usual meaning of the +term in astronomy. There are two such points, opposite each other, at +one of which the sun crosses the equator toward the north and at the +other toward the south. They are called vernal and autumnal +respectively, from the relation of the corresponding times to the +seasons of the northern hemisphere. The line of the equinoxes is the +imaginary diameter of the celestial sphere which joins them. + +The vernal equinox is the initial point from which the right ascensions +and the longitudes of the heavenly bodies are measured (see ASTRONOMY: +_Spherical_). It is affected by the motions of Precession and Nutation, +of which the former has been known since the time of Hipparchus. The +actual equinox is defined by first taking the conception of a fictitious +point called the Mean Equinox, which moves at a nearly uniform rate, +slow varying, however, from century to century. The true equinox then +moves around the mean equinox in a period equal to that of the moon's +nodes. These two motions are defined with greater detail in the articles +PRECESSION OF THE EQUINOXES and NUTATION. + +_Equinoctial Gales._--At the time of the equinox it is commonly believed +that strong gales may be expected. This popular idea has no foundation +in fact, for continued observations have failed to show any unusual +prevalence of gales at this season. In one case observations taken for +fifty years show that during the five days from the 21st to the 25th of +March and September, there were fewer gales and storms than during the +preceding and succeeding five days. + + + + +EQUITES ("horsemen" or "knights," from _equus_, "horse"), in Roman +history, originally a division of the army, but subsequently a distinct +political order, which under the empire resumed its military character. +According to the traditional account, Romulus instituted a cavalry +corps, consisting of three _centuriae_ ("hundreds"), called after the +three tribes from which they were taken (Ramnes, Tities, Luceres), +divided into ten _turmae_ ("squadrons") of thirty men each. The +collective name for the corps was _celeres_ ("the swift," or possibly +from [Greek: keles], "a riding horse"); Livy, however, restricts the +term to a special body-guard of Romulus. The statements in ancient +authorities as to the changes in the number of the equites during the +regal period are very confusing; but it is regarded as certain that +Servius Tuillus found six centuries in existence, to which he added +twelve, making eighteen in all, a number which remained unchanged +throughout the republican period. A proposal by M. Porcius Cato the +elder to supplement the deficiency in the cavalry by the creation of +four additional centuries was not adopted. The earlier centuries were +called _sex suffragia_ ("the six votes"), and at first consisted +exclusively of patricians, while those of Servius Tullius were entirely +or for the most part plebeian. Until the reform of the comitia +centuriata (probably during the censorship of Gaius Flaminius in 220 +B.C.; see COMITIA), the equites had voted first, but after that time +this privilege was transferred to one century selected by lot from the +centuries of the equites and the first class. The equites then voted +with the first class, the distinction between the _sex suffragia_ and +the other centuries being abolished. + +Although the equites were selected from the wealthiest citizens, service +in the cavalry was so expensive that the state gave financial +assistance. A sum of money (_aes equestre_) was given to each eques for +the purchase of two horses (one for himself and one for his groom), and +a further sum for their keep (_aes hordearium_); hence the name _equites +equo publico_. In later times, pay was substituted for the _aes +hordearium_, three times as much as that of the infantry. If competent, +an eques could retain his horse and vote after the expiration of his ten +years' service, and (till 129 B.C.) even after entry into the senate. + +As the demands upon the services of the cavalry increased, it was +decided to supplement the regulars by the enrolment of wealthy citizens +who kept horses of their own. The origin of these _equites equo privato_ +dates back, according to Livy (v. 7), to the siege of Veii, when a +number of young men came forward and offered their services. According +to Mommsen, although the institution was not intended to be permanent, +in later times vacancies in the ranks were filled in this manner, with +the result that service in the cavalry, with either a public or a +private horse, became obligatory upon all Roman citizens possessed of a +certain income. These _equites equo privato_ had no vote in the +centuries, received pay in place of the _aes equestre_, and did not form +a distinct corps. + +Thus, at a comparatively early period, three classes of equites may be +distinguished: (a) The patrician equites _equo publico_ of the _sex +suffragia_; (b) the plebeian equites in the twelve remaining centuries; +(c) the equites _equo privato_, both patrician and plebeian. + +The equites were originally chosen by the curiae, then in succession by +the kings, the consuls, and (after 443 B.C.) by the censors, by whom +they were reviewed every five years in the Forum. Each eques, as his +name was called out, passed before the censors, leading his horse. Those +whose physique and character were satisfactory, and who had taken care +of their horses and equipments, were bidden to lead their horse on +(_traducere equum_), those who failed to pass the scrutiny were ordered +to sell it, in token of their expulsion from the corps. This inspection +(_recognitio_) must not be confounded with the full-dress procession +(_transvectio_) on the 15th of July from the temple of Mars or Honos to +the Capitol, instituted in 304 B.C. by the censor Q. Fabius Maximus +Rullianus to commemorate the miraculous intervention of Castor and +Pollux at the battle of Lake Regillus. Both inspection and procession +were discontinued before the end of the republic, but revived and in a +manner combined by Augustus. + +In theory, the twelve plebeian centuries were open to all freeborn +youths of the age of seventeen, although in practice preference was +given to the members of the older families. Other requirements were +sound health, high moral character and an honourable calling. At the +beginning of the republican period, senators were included in the +equestrian centuries. The only definite information as to the amount of +fortune necessary refers to later republican and early imperial times, +when it is known to have been 400,000 sesterces (about L3500 to L4000). +The insignia of the equites were, at first, distinctly military--such as +the purple-edged, short military cloak (_trabea_) and decorations for +service in the field. + +With the extension of the Roman dominions, the equites lost their +military character. Prolonged service abroad possessed little attraction +for the pick of the Roman youth, and recruiting for the cavalry from the +equestrian centuries was discontinued. The equites remained at home, or +only went out as members of the general's staff, their places being +taken by the _equites equo privato_, the cavalry of the allies and the +most skilled horsemen of the subject populations. The first gradually +disappeared, and Roman citizens were rarely found in the ranks of the +effective cavalry. In these circumstances there grew up in Rome a class +of wealthy men, whose sole occupation it was to amass large fortunes by +speculation, and who found a most lucrative field of enterprise in state +contracts and the farming of the public revenues. These tax-farmers (see +PUBLICANI) were already in existence at the time of the Second Punic +War; and their numbers and influence increased as the various provinces +were added to the Roman dominions. The change of the equites into a body +of financiers was further materially promoted (a) by the lex Claudia +(218 B.C.), which prohibited senators from engaging in commercial +pursuits, especially if (as seems probable) it included public contracts +(cf. FLAMINIUS, GAIUS); (b) by the enactment in the time of Gaius +Gracchus excluding members of the senate from the equestrian centuries. +These two measures definitely marked off the aristocracy of birth from +the aristocracy of wealth--the landed proprietor from the capitalist. +The term equites, originally confined to the purely military equestrian +centuries of Servius Tullius, now came to be applied to all who +possessed the property qualification of 400,000 sesterces. + +As the equites practically monopolized the farming of the taxes, they +came to be regarded as identical with the _publicani_, not, as Pliny +remarks, because any particular rank was necessary to obtain the farming +of the taxes, but because such occupation was beyond the reach of all +except those who were possessed of considerable means. Thus, at the time +of the Gracchi, these _equites-publicani_ formed a close financial +corporation of about 30,000 members, holding an intermediate position +between the nobility and the lower classes, keenly alive to their own +interests, and ready to stand by one another when attacked. Although to +some extent looked down upon by the senate as following a dishonourable +occupation, they had as a rule sided with the latter, as being at least +less hostile to them than the democratic party. To obtain the support of +the capitalists, Gaius Gracchus conceived the plan of creating friction +between them and the senate, which he carried out by handing over to +them the control (a) of the jury-courts, and (b) of the revenues of +Asia. + +(a) Hitherto, the list of jurymen for service in the majority of +processes, both civil and criminal, had been composed exclusively of +senators. The result was that charges of corruption and extortion +failed, when brought against members of that order, even in cases where +there was little doubt of their guilt. The popular indignation at such +scandalous miscarriages of justice rendered a change in the composition +of the courts imperative. Apparently Gracchus at first proposed to +create new senators from the equites and to select the jurymen from this +mixed body, but this moderate proposal was rejected in favour of one +more radical (see W.W. Fowler in _Classical Review_, July 1896). By the +lex Sempronia (123 B.C.) the list was to be drawn from persons of free +birth over thirty years of age, who must possess the equestrian census, +and must not be senators. Although this measure was bound to set +senators and equites at variance, it in no way improved the lot of those +chiefly concerned. In fact, it increased the burden of the luckless +provincials, whose only appeal lay to a body of men whose interests were +identical with those of the _publicani_. Provided he left the +tax-gatherer alone, the governor might squeeze what he could out of the +people, while on the other hand, if he were humanely disposed, it was +dangerous for him to remonstrate. + +(b) The taxes of Asia had formerly been paid by the inhabitants +themselves in the shape of a fixed sum. Gracchus ordered that the taxes, +direct and indirect, should be increased, and that the farming of them +should be put up to auction at Rome. By this arrangement the provincials +were ignored, and everything was left in the hands of the capitalists. + +From this time dates the existence of the equestrian order as an +officially recognized political instrument. When the control of the +courts passed into the hands of the property equites, all who were +summoned to undertake the duties of judices were called equites; the +_ordo judicum_ (the official title) and the _ordo equester_ were +regarded as identical. It is probable that certain privileges of the +equites were due to Gracchus; that of wearing the gold ring, hitherto +reserved for senators; that of special seats in the theatre, +subsequently withdrawn (probably by Sulla) and restored by the lex +Othonis (67 B.C.); the narrow band of purple on the tunic as +distinguished from the broad band worn by the senators. + +Various attempts were made by the senate to regain control of the +courts, but without success. The lex Livia of M. Livius Drusus (q.v.), +passed with that object, but irregularly and by the aid of violence, was +annulled by the senate itself. In 82 Sulla restored the right of serving +as judices to the senate, to which he elevated 300 of the most +influential equites, whose support he thus hoped to secure; at the same +time he indirectly dealt a blow at the order generally, by abolishing +the office of the censor (immediately revived), in whom was vested the +right of bestowing the public horse. To this period Mommsen assigns the +regulation, generally attributed to Augustus, that the sons of senators +should be knights by right of birth. By the lex Aurelia (70 B.C.) the +judices were to be chosen in equal numbers from senators, equites and +tribuni aerarii (see AERARIUM), (the last-named being closely connected +with the equites), who thus practically commanded a majority. About this +time the influence of the equestrian order reached its height, and +Cicero's great object was to reconcile it with the senate. In this he +was successful at the time of the Catilinarian conspiracy, in the +suppression of which he was materially aided by the equites. But the +union did not last long; shortly afterwards the majority ranged +themselves on the side of Julius Caesar, who did away with the tribuni +aerarii as judices, and replaced them by equites. + +Augustus undertook the thorough reorganization of the equestrian order +on a military basis. The _equites equo privato_ were abolished +(according to Herzog, not till the reign of Tiberius) and the term +equites was officially limited to the _equites equo publico_, although +all who possessed the property qualification were still considered to +belong to the "equestrian order." For the _equites equo publico_ high +moral character, good health and the equestrian fortune were necessary. +Although free birth was considered indispensable, the right of wearing +the gold ring (_jus anuli aurei_) was frequently bestowed by the emperor +upon freedmen, who thereby became _ingenui_ and eligible as equites. +Tiberius, however, insisted upon free birth on the father's side to the +third generation. Extreme youth was no bar; the emperor Marcus Aurelius +had been an eques at the age of six. The sons of senators were eligible +by right of birth, and appear to have been known as _equites illustres_. +The right of bestowing the _equus publicus_ was vested in the emperor; +once given, it was for life, and was only forfeitable through +degradation for some offence or the loss of the equestrian fortune. + +Augustus divided the equites into six _turmae_ (regarded by Hirschfeld +as a continuation of the _sex suffragia_). Each was under the command of +a _sevir_ ([Greek: hilarchos]), who was appointed by the emperor and +changed every year. During their term of command the _seviri_ had to +exhibit games (_ludi sevirales_). Under these officers the equites +formed a kind of corporation, which, although not officially recognized, +had the right of passing resolutions, chiefly such as embodied acts of +homage to the imperial house. It is not known whether the _turmae_ +contained a fixed number of equites; there is no doubt that, in +assigning the public horse, Augustus went far beyond the earlier figure +of 1800. Thus, Dionysius of Halicarnassus mentions 5000 equites as +taking part in a review at which he himself was present. + +As before, the equites wore the narrow, purple-striped tunic, and the +gold ring, the latter now being considered the distinctive badge of +knighthood. The fourteen rows in the theatre were extended by Augustus +to seats in the circus. + +The old _recognitio_ was replaced by the _probatio_, conducted by the +emperor in his censorial capacity, assisted by an advisory board of +specially selected senators. The ceremony was combined with a +procession, which, like the earlier _transvectio_, took place on the +15th of July, and at such other times as the emperor pleased. As in +earlier times, offenders were punished by expulsion. + +In order to provide a supply of competent officers, each eques was +required to fill certain subordinate posts, called _militiae equestres_. +These were (1) the command of an auxiliary cohort; (2) the tribunate of +a legion; (3) the command of an auxiliary cavalry squadron, this order +being as a rule strictly adhered to. To these Septimius Severus added +the centurionship. Nomination to the _militiae equestres_ was in the +hands of the emperor. After the completion of their preliminary military +service, the equites were eligible for a number of civil posts, chiefly +those with which the emperor himself was closely concerned. Such were +various procuratorships; the prefectures of the corn supply, of the +fleet, of the watch, of the praetorian guards; the governorships of +recently acquired provinces (Egypt, Noricum), the others being reserved +for senators. At the same time, the abolition of the indirect method of +collecting the taxes in the provinces greatly reduced the political +influence of the equites. Certain religious functions of minor +importance were also reserved for them. In the jury courts, the equites, +thanks to Julius Caesar, already formed two-thirds of the judices; +Augustus, by excluding the senators altogether, virtually gave them the +sole control of the tribunals. One of the chief objects of the emperors +being to weaken the influence of the senate by the opposition of the +equestrian order, the practice was adopted of elevating those equites +who had reached a certain stage in their career to the rank of senator +by _adlectio_. Certain official posts, of which it would have been +inadvisable to deprive senators, could thus be bestowed upon the +promoted equites. + +The control of the imperial correspondence and purse was at first in +the hands of freedmen and slaves. The emperor Claudius tentatively +entrusted certain posts connected with these to the equites; in the time +of Hadrian this became the regular custom. Thus a civil career was open +to the equites without the obligation of preliminary military service, +and the emperor was freed from the pernicious influence of freedmen. +After the reign of Marcus Aurelius (according to Mommsen) the equites +were divided into: (a) _viri eminentissimi_, the prefects of the +praetorian guard; (b) _viri perfectissimi_, the other prefects and the +heads of the financial and secretarial departments; (c) _viri egregii_, +first mentioned in the reign of Antoninus Pius, a title by right of the +procurators generally. + +Under the empire the power of the equites was at its highest in the time +of Diocletian; in consequence of the transference of the capital to +Constantinople, they sank to the position of a mere city guard, under +the control of the prefect of the watch. Their history may be said to +end with the reign of Constantine the Great. + +Mention may also be made of the _equites singulares Augusti_. The +body-guard of Augustus, consisting of foreign soldiers (chiefly Germans +and Batavians), abolished by Galba, was revived from the time of Trajan +or Hadrian under the above title. It was chiefly recruited from the pick +of the provincial cavalry, but contained some Roman citizens. It formed +the imperial "Swiss guard," and never left the city except to accompany +the emperor. In the time of Severus, these equites were divided into two +corps, each of which had its separate quarters, and was commanded by a +tribune under the orders of the prefect of the praetorian guard. They +were subsequently replaced by the _protectores Augusti_. + + See further article ROME: _History_; also T. Mommsen, _Romisches + Staatsrecht_, iii.; J.N. Madvig, _Die Verfassung des romischen + Staates_, i.; R. Cagnat in Daremberg and Saglio's _Dictionnaire des + antiquites_, where full references to ancient authorities are given in + the footnotes; A.S. Wilkins in Smith's _Dictionary of Greek and Roman + Antiquities_ (3rd ed., 1891); E. Belot, _Histoire des chevaliers + romains_ (1866-1873); H.O. Hirschfeld, _Untersuchungen auf dem Gebiete + der romischen Verwaltungsgeschichte_ (Berlin, 1877); E. Herzog, + _Geschichte und System der romischen Staatsverfassung_ (Leipzig, + 1884-1891); A.H. Friedlander, _Sittengeschichte Roms_, i. (1901); + A.H.J. Greenidge, _History of Rome_, i. (1904); J.B. Bury, _The + Student's Roman Empire_ (1893); T.M. Taylor, _Political and + Constitutional History of Rome_ (1899). For a concise summary of + different views of the _sex suffragia_ see A. Bouche-Leclercq's + _Manuel des antiquites romaines_, quoted in Daremberg and Saglio; and + on the _equites singulares_, T. Mommsen in _Hermes_, xvi. (1881), p. + 458. (J. H. F.) + + + + +EQUITY (Lat. _aequitas_), a term which in its most general sense means +equality or justice; in its most technical sense it means a system of +law or a body of connected legal principles, which have superseded or +supplemented the common law on the ground of their intrinsic +superiority. Aristotle (_Ethics_, bk. v. c. 10) defines equity as a +better sort of justice, which corrects legal justice where the latter +errs through being expressed in a universal form and not taking account +of particular cases. When the law speaks universally, and something +happens which is not according to the common course of events, it is +right that the law should be modified in its application to that +particular case, as the lawgiver himself would have done, if the case +had been present to his mind. Accordingly the equitable man ([Greek: +epieikes]) is he who does not push the law to its extreme, but, having +legal justice on his side, is disposed to make allowances. Equity as +thus described would correspond rather to the judicial discretion which +modifies the administration of the law than to the antagonistic system +which claims to supersede the law. + +The part played by equity in the development of law is admirably +illustrated in the well-known work of Sir Henry Maine on _Ancient Law_. +Positive law, at least in progressive societies, is constantly tending +to fall behind public opinion, and the expedients adopted for bringing +it into harmony therewith are three, viz. legal fictions, equity and +statutory legislation. Equity here is defined to mean "any body of rules +existing by the side of the original civil law, founded on distinct +principles, and claiming incidentally to supersede the civil law in +virtue of a superior sanctity inherent in those principles." It is thus +different from legal fiction, by which a new rule is introduced +surreptitiously, and under the pretence that no change has been made in +the law, and from statutory legislation, in which the obligatory force +of the rule is not supposed to depend upon its intrinsic fitness. The +source of Roman equity was the fertile theory of natural law, or the law +common to all nations. Even in the Institutes of Justinian the +distinction is carefully drawn in the laws of a country between those +which are peculiar to itself and those which natural reason appoints for +all mankind. The connexion in Roman law between the ideas of equity, +nature, natural law and the law common to all nations, and the influence +of the Stoical philosophy on their development, are fully discussed in +the third chapter of the work we have referred to. The agency by which +these principles were introduced was the edicts of the praetor, an +annual proclamation setting forth the manner in which the magistrate +intended to administer the law during his year of office. Each +successive praetor adopted the edict of his predecessor, and added new +equitable rules of his own, until the further growth of the irregular +code was stopped by the praetor Salvius Julianus in the reign of +Hadrian. + +The place of the praetor was occupied in English jurisprudence by the +lord high chancellor. The real beginning of English equity is to be +found in the custom of handing over to that officer, for adjudication, +the complaints which were addressed to the king, praying for remedies +beyond the reach of the common law. Over and above the authority +delegated to the ordinary councils or courts, a reserve of judicial +power was believed to reside in the king, which was invoked as of grace +by the suitors who could not obtain relief from any inferior tribunal. +To the chancellor, as already the head of the judicial system, these +petitions were referred, although he was not at first the only officer +through whom the prerogative of grace was administered. In the reign of +Edward III. the equitable jurisdiction of the court appears to have been +established. Its constitutional origin was analogous to that of the star +chamber and the court of requests. The latter, in fact, was a minor +court of equity attached to the lord privy seal as the court of chancery +was to the chancellor. The successful assumption of extraordinary or +equitable jurisdiction by the chancellor caused similar pretensions to +be made by other officers and courts. "Not only the court of exchequer, +whose functions were in a peculiar manner connected with royal +authority, but the counties palatine of Chester, Lancaster and Durham, +the court of great session in Wales, the universities, the city of +London, the Cinque Ports and other places silently assumed extraordinary +jurisdiction similar to that exercised in the court of chancery." Even +private persons, lords and ladies, affected to establish in their +honours courts of equity. + +English equity has one marked historical peculiarity, viz. that it +established itself in a set of independent tribunals which remained in +standing contrast to the ordinary courts for many hundred years. In +Roman law the judge gave the preference to the equitable rule; in +English law the equitable rule was enforced by a distinct set of judges. +One cause of this separation was the rigid adherence to precedent on the +part of the common law courts. Another was the jealousy prevailing in +England against the principles of the Roman law on which English equity +to a large extent was founded. + +When a case of prerogative was referred to the chancellor in the reign +of Edward III., he was required to grant such remedy as should be +consonant to honesty (_honestas_). And honesty, conscience and equity +were said to be the fundamental principles of the court. The early +chancellors were ecclesiastics, and under their influence not only moral +principles, where these were not regarded by the common law, but also +the equitable principles of the Roman law were introduced into English +jurisprudence. Between this point and the time when equity became +settled as a portion of the legal system, having fixed principles of its +own, various views of its nature seem to have prevailed. For a long time +it was thought that precedents could have no place in equity, inasmuch +as it professed in each case to do that which was just; and we find this +view maintained by common lawyers after it had been abandoned by the +professors of equity themselves. G. Spence, in his book on the +_Equitable Jurisdiction of the Court of Chancery_, quotes a case in +the reign of Charles II., in which chief justice Vaughan said: + + "I wonder to hear of citing of precedents in matter of equity, for if + there be equity in a case, that equity is an universal truth, and + there can be no precedent in it; so that in any precedent that can be + produced, if it be the same with this case, the reason and equity is + the same in itself; and if the precedent be not the same case with + this it is not to be cited." + +But the lord keeper Bridgeman answered: + + "Certainly precedents are very necessary and useful to us, for in them + we may find the reasons of the equity to guide us, and besides the + authority of those who made them is much to be regarded. We shall + suppose they did it upon great consideration and weighing of the + matter, and it would be very strange and very ill if we should disturb + and set aside what has been the course for a long series of times and + ages." + +Selden's description is well known: "Equity is a roguish thing. 'Tis all +one as if they should make the standard for measure the chancellor's +foot." Lord Nottingham in 1676 reconciled the ancient theory and the +established practice by saying that the conscience which guided the +court was not the natural conscience of the man, but the civil and +political conscience of the judge. The same tendency of equity to settle +into a system of law is seen in the recognition of its limits--in the +fact that it did not attempt in all cases to give a remedy when the rule +of the common law was contrary to justice. Cases of hardship, which the +early chancellors would certainly have relieved, were passed over by +later judges, simply because no precedent could be found for their +interference. The point at which the introduction of new principles of +equity finally stopped is fixed by Sir Henry Maine in the chancellorship +of Lord Eldon, who held that the doctrines of the court ought to be as +well settled and made as uniform almost as those of the common law. From +that time certainly equity, like common law, has professed to take its +principles wholly from recorded decisions and statute law. The view +(traceable no doubt to the Aristotelian definition) that equity +mitigates the hardships of the law where the law errs through being +framed in universals, is to be found in some of the earlier writings. +Thus in the _Doctor and Student_ it is said: + + "Law makers take heed to such things as may often come, and not to + every particular case, for they could not though they would; + therefore, in some cases it is necessary to leave the words of the law + and follow that reason and justice requireth, and to that intent + equity is ordained, that is to say, to temper and mitigate the rigour + of the law." + +And Lord Ellesmere said: + + "The cause why there is a chancery is for that men's actions are so + divers and infinite that it is impossible to make any general law + which shall aptly meet with every particular act and not fail in some + circumstances." + +Modern equity, it need hardly be said, does not profess to soften the +rigour of the law, or to correct the errors into which it falls by +reason of its generality. + +To give any account, even in outline, of the subject matter of equity +within the necessary limits of this article would be impossible. It will +be sufficient to say here that the classification generally adopted by +text-writers is based upon the relations of equity to the common law, of +which some explanation is given above. Thus equitable jurisdiction is +said to be exclusive, concurrent or auxiliary. Equity has _exclusive_ +jurisdiction where it recognizes rights which are unknown to the common +law. The most important example is trusts. Equity has _concurrent_ +jurisdiction in cases where the law recognized the right but did not +give adequate relief, or did not give relief without circuity of action +or some similar inconvenience. And equity has _auxiliary_ jurisdiction +when the machinery of the courts of law was unable to procure the +necessary evidence. + +"The evils of this double system of judicature," says the report of the +judicature commission (1863-1867), "and the confusion and conflict of +jurisdiction to which it has led, have been long known and +acknowledged." A partial attempt to meet the difficulty was made by +several acts of parliament (passed after the reports of commissions +appointed in 1850 and 1851), which enabled courts of law and equity both +to exercise certain powers formerly peculiar to one or other of them. A +more complete remedy was introduced by the Judicature Act 1873, which +consolidated the courts of law and equity, and ordered that law and +equity should be administered concurrently according to the rules +contained in the 26th section of the act. At the same time many matters +of equitable jurisdiction are still left to the chancery division of the +High Court in the first instance. (See CHANCERY.) + + AUTHORITIES.--The principles of equity as set out by the following + writers may be consulted: J. Story, J.W. Smith, H.A. Smith and W. + Ashburner; and for the history see G. Spence, _The Equitable + Jurisdiction of the Court of Chancery_ (2 vols., 1846-1849); D.M. + Kerly, _Historical Sketch of the Equitable Jurisdiction of the Court + of Chancery_ (1890). + + + + +EQUIVALENT, in chemistry, the proportion of an element which will +combine with or replace unit weight of hydrogen. When multiplied by the +valency it gives the atomic weight. The determination of equivalent +weights is treated in the article STOICHIOMETRY. (See also CHEMISTRY.) +In a more general sense the term "equivalent" is used to denote +quantities of substances which neutralize one another, as for example +NaOH, HCl, 1/2 H2SO4, 1/2 Ba(OH)2. + + + + +ERARD, SEBASTIEN (1752-1831), French manufacturer of musical +instruments, distinguished especially for the improvements he made upon +the harp and the pianoforte, was born at Strassburg on the 5th of April +1752. While a boy he showed great aptitude for practical geometry and +architectural drawing, and in the workshop of his father, who was an +upholsterer, he found opportunity for the early exercise of his +mechanical ingenuity. When he was sixteen his father died, and he +removed to Paris where he obtained employment with a harpsichord maker. +Here his remarkable constructive skill, though it speedily excited the +jealousy of his master and procured his dismissal, almost equally soon +attracted the notice of musicians and musical instrument makers of +eminence. Before he was twenty-five he set up in business for himself, +his first workshop being a room in the hotel of the duchesse de +Villeroi, who gave him warm encouragement. Here he constructed in 1780 +his first pianoforte, which was also one of the first manufactured in +France. It quickly secured for its maker such a reputation that he was +soon overwhelmed with commissions, and finding assistance necessary, he +sent for his brother, Jean Baptiste, in conjunction with whom he +established in the rue de Bourbon, in the Faubourg St Germain, a piano +manufactory, which in a few years became one of the most celebrated in +Europe. On the outbreak of the Revolution he went to London where he +established a factory. Returning to Paris in 1796, he soon afterwards +introduced grand pianofortes, made in the English fashion, with +improvements of his own. In 1808 he again visited London, where, two +years later, he produced his first double-movement harp. He had +previously made various improvements in the manufacture of harps, but +the new instrument was an immense advance upon anything he had before +produced, and obtained such a reputation that for some time he devoted +himself exclusively to its manufacture. It has been said that in the +year following his invention he made harps to the value of L25,000. In +1812 he returned to Paris, and continued to devote himself to the +further perfecting of the two instruments with which his name is +associated. In 1823 he crowned his work by producing his model grand +pianoforte with the double escapement. Erard died at Passy, on the 5th +of August 1831. (See also HARP and PIANOFORTE.) + + + + +ERASMUS, DESIDERIUS (1466-1536), Dutch scholar and theologian, was born +on the night of the 27/28th of October, probably in 1466; but his +statements about his age are conflicting, and in view of his own +uncertainty (_Ep._ x. 29: 466) and the weakness of his memory for dates, +the year of his birth cannot be definitely fixed. His father's name +seems to have been Rogerius Gerardus. He himself was christened +Herasmus; but in 1503, when becoming familiar with Greek, he assimilated +the name to a fancied Greek original, which he had a few years before +Latinized into Desyderius. A contemporary authority states that he was +born at Gouda, his father's native town; but he adopted the style +_Rotterdammensis_ or _Roterodamus_, in accordance with a story to which +he himself gave credence. His first schooling was at Gouda under Peter +Winckel, who was afterwards vice-pastor of the church. In the dull round +of instruction in "grammar" he did not distinguish himself, and was +surpassed by his early friend and companion, William Herman, who was +Winckel's favourite pupil. From Gouda the two boys went to the school +attached to St Lebuin's church at Deventer, which was one of the first +in northern Europe to feel the influence of the Renaissance. Erasmus was +at Deventer from 1475 to 1484, and when he left, had learnt from +Johannes Sinthius (Syntheim) and Alexander Hegius, who had come as +headmaster in 1483, the love of letters which was the ruling passion of +his life. At some period, perhaps in an interval of his time at +Deventer, he was a chorister at Utrecht under the famous organist of the +cathedral, Jacob Obrecht. + +About 1484 Erasmus' father died, leaving him and an elder brother Peter, +both born out of wedlock, to the care of guardians, their mother having +died shortly before. Erasmus was eager to go to a university, but the +guardians, acting under a perhaps genuine enthusiasm for the religious +life, sent the boys to another school at Hertogenbosch; and when they +returned after two or three years, prevailed on them to enter +monasteries. Peter went to Sion, near Delft; Erasmus after prolonged +reluctance became an Augustinian canon in St Gregory's at Steyn, a house +of the same Chapter near Gouda. There he found little religion and less +refinement; but no serious difficulty seems to have been made about his +reading the classics and the Fathers with his friends to his heart's +content. The monastery once entered, there was no drawing back; and +Erasmus passed through the various stages which culminated in his +ordination as priest on the 25th of April 1492. + +But his ardent spirit could not long be content with monastic life. He +brought his attainments somehow to the notice of Henry of Bergen, bishop +of Cambrai, the leading prelate at the court of Brussels; and about 1494 +permission was obtained for him to leave Steyn and become Latin +secretary to the bishop, who was then preparing for a visit to Rome. But +the journey was abandoned, and after some months Erasmus found that even +with occasional chances to read at Groenendael, the life of a court was +hardly more favourable to study than that of Steyn. At the suggestion of +a friend, James Batt, he applied to his patron for leave to go to Paris +University. The bishop consented and promised a small pension; and in +August 1495 Erasmus entered the "domus pauperum" of the college of +Montaigu, which was then under the somewhat rigid rule of the reformer +Jan Standonck. He at once introduced himself to the distinguished French +historian and diplomatist Robert Gaguin (1425-1502) and published a +small volume of poems; and he became intimate with Johann Mauburnus +(Mombaer), the leader of a mission summoned from Windesheim in 1496 to +reform the abbey of Chateau-Landon. But the life at Montaigu was too +hard for him. Every Lent he fell ill and had to return to Holland to +recover. He continued to read nevertheless for a degree in theology, and +at some time completed the requirements for the B.D. After a year or two +he left Montaigu and eked out his money from the bishop by taking +pupils. One of these, a young Englishman, William Blount, 4th Baron +Mountjoy (d. 1534), persuaded him to visit England in the spring of +1499. + +Being without a benefice, he had no settled income to look to, and apart +from the precarious profits of teaching and writing books, could only +wait on the generosity of patrons to supply him with the leisure he +craved. The faithful Batt had sought a pension for him from his own +patroness, Anne of Borsselen, the Lady of Veere, who resided at the +castle of Tournehem near Calais, and whose son Batt was now teaching. +But as nothing promised at once, Erasmus accepted Mountjoy's offer, and +thus a tie was formed which led Mountjoy then or a few years later to +grant him a pension of L20 for life. Otherwise the visit to England gave +no hope of preferment; and in the summer Erasmus prepared to leave. He +was delayed, and used the interval to spend two or three months at +Oxford, where he found John Colet lecturing on the Epistle to the +Romans. Discussions between them on theological questions soon convinced +Colet of Erasmus' worth, and he sought to persuade him to stay and teach +at Oxford. But Erasmus could not be content with the Bible in Latin. +Oxford could teach him no Greek, so away he must go. + +In January 1500 he returned to Paris, which though it could offer no +Greek teacher better than George Hermonymus, was at least a better +centre for buying and for printing books. The next few years were spent +still in preparation, supported by pupils' fees and the dedications of +books; the _Collectanea adagiorum_ in June 1500 to Mountjoy, and some +devotional and moral compositions to Batt's patroness and her son. When +the plague drove him from Paris, he went to Orleans or Tournehem or St +Omer, as the way opened. From 1502 to 1504 he was at Louvain, still +declining to teach publicly; among his friends being the future Pope +Adrian VI. In January 1504 the archduke Philip gave him fifty livres for +the Panegyric which "_ung religieux de l'ordre de St Augustin_" had +composed on his Spanish journey; and in October, ten more, for the +maintenance of his studies. + +He had been working hard at Greek, of which he now felt himself master, +at the Fathers (above all at Jerome), and at the Epistles of St Paul, +fulfilling the promise made to Colet in Oxford, to give himself to +sacred learning. But the bent of his reading is shown by the manuscript +with which he returned to Paris at the close of 1504--Valla's +_Annotations on the New Testament_, which Badius printed for him in +1505. + +Shortly afterwards Lord Mountjoy invited him again to England, and this +visit was more successful. He found in London a circle of learned +friends through whom he was introduced to William Warham, archbishop of +Canterbury, Richard Foxe, bishop of Winchester and other dignitaries. +John Fisher (bishop of Rochester), who was then superintending the +foundation of Christ's College for the Lady Margaret, took him down to +Cambridge for the king's visit; and at length the opportunity came to +fulfil his dream of seeing Italy. Baptista Boerio, the king's physician, +engaged him to accompany his two sons thither as supervisor of their +studies. In September 1506 he set foot on that sacred soil, and took his +D.D. at Turin. For a year he remained with his pupils at Bologna, and +then, his engagement completed, negotiated with Aldus Manutius for a new +edition of his _Adagia_ upon a very different scale. The volume of 1500 +had been jejune, written when he knew nothing of Greek; 800 adages put +together with scanty elucidations. In 1508 he had conceived a work on +lines more to the taste of the learned world, full of apt and recondite +learning, and now and again relieved by telling comments or lively +anecdotes. Three thousand and more collected justified a new +title--_Chiliades adagiorum_; and the author's reputation was now +established. So secure in public favour did the book in time become, +that the council of Trent, unable to suppress it and not daring to +overlook it, ordered the preparation of a castrated edition. + +To print the _Adagia_ he had gone to Venice, where he lived with Andrea +Torresano of Asola (Asulanus) and did the work of two men, writing and +correcting proof at the same time. When it was finished, with an ample +re-dedication to Mountjoy, a new pupil presented himself, Alexander +Stewart, natural son of James IV. of Scotland--perhaps through a +connexion formed in early days at Paris. They went together to Siena and +Rome and then on to Campania, thirsty under the summer sun. When they +returned to Rome, his pupil departed to Scotland, to fall a few years +later by his father's side at Flodden; Erasmus also found a summons to +call him northwards. + +On the death of Henry VII. Lord Mountjoy, who had been companion to +Prince Henry in his studies, had become a person of influence. He wrote +to Erasmus of a land flowing with milk and honey under the "divine" +young king, and with Warham sent him L10 for journey money. At first +Erasmus hesitated. He had been disappointed in Italy, to find that he +had not much to learn from its famed scholarship; but he had made many +friends in Aldus's circle--Marcus Musurus, John Lascaris, Baptista +Egnatius, Paul Bombasius, Scipio Carteromachus; and his reception had +been flattering, especially in Rome, where cardinals had delighted to +honour him. But to remain in Rome was to sell himself. He might have the +leisure which was so indispensable, but at price of the freedom to read, +think, write what he liked. He decided, therefore, to go, though with +regrets; which returned upon him sometimes in after years, when the +English hopes had not borne fruit. + +In the autumn he reached London, and in Thomas More's house in +Bucklersbury wrote the witty satire which Milton found "in every one's +hands" at Cambridge in 1628, and which is read to this day. The _Moriae +encomium_ was a sign of his decision. In it kings and princes, bishops +and popes alike are shown to be in bondage to Folly; and no class of men +is spared. Its author was willing to be beholden to any one for leisure; +but he would be no man's slave. For the next eighteen months he is +entirely lost to view; when he reappears in April 1511, he is leaving +More's house and taking the _Moria_ to be printed privily in Paris. +Wherever they were spent, these must have been months of hard work, as +were the years that followed. His time was now come. The long +preparation and training, bought by privation and uncongenial toil, was +over, and he was ready to apply himself to the scientific study of +sacred letters. His English patrons were liberal. Fisher sent him in +August 1511 to teach in Cambridge; Warham gave him a benefice, Aldington +in Kent, worth _L_33, 6_s._ 8_d._ a year, and in violation of his own +rule commuted it for a pension of L20 charged on the living; and the +dedications of his books were fruitful. In Cambridge he completed his +work on the New Testament, the Letters of Jerome, and Seneca; and then +in 1514, when there seemed no prospect of ampler preferment, he +determined to transfer himself to Basel and give the results of his +labours to the world. + +The origin of Erasmus's connexion with Johann Froben is not clear. In +1511 he was preparing to reprint his _Adagia_ with Jodocus Badius, who +in the following year was to have also Seneca and Jerome. But in 1513 +Froben, who had just reprinted the Aldine _Adagia_, acquired through a +bookseller-agent Erasmus' amended copy which had been destined for +Badius. That the agent was acting entirely on his own responsibility may +be doubted; for within a few months Erasmus had decided to betake +himself to Basel, bearing with him Seneca and Jerome, the latter to be +incorporated in the great edition which Johannes Amerbach and Froben had +had in hand since 1510. In Germany he was widely welcomed. The +Strassburg Literary Society feted him, and Johannes Sapidus, headmaster +of the Latin school at Schlettstadt, rode with him into Basel. Froben +received him with open arms, and the presses were soon busy with his +books. Through the winter of 1514-1515 Erasmus worked with the strength +of ten; and after a brief visit to England in the spring, the New +Testament was set up. Around him was a circle of students, some young, +some already distinguished--the three sons of Froben's partner, Johannes +Amerbach, who was now dead, Beatus Rhenanus, Wilhelm Nesen, Ludwig Ber, +Heinrich Glareanus, Nikolaus Gerbell, Johannes Oecolampadius--who looked +to him as their head and were proud to do him service. + +Though from this time forward Basel became the centre of occupation and +interest for Erasmus, yet for the next few years he was mainly in the +Netherlands. On the completion of the New Testament in 1516 he returned +to his friends in England; but his appointment, then recent, as +councillor to the young king Charles, brought him back to Brussels in +the autumn. In the spring of 1517 he went for the last time to England, +about a dispensation from wearing his canonical dress, obtained +originally from Julius II. and recently confirmed by Leo X., and in May +1518 he journeyed to Basel for three months to set the second edition of +the New Testament in progress. But with these exceptions he remained in +proximity to the court, living much at Louvain, where he took great +interest in the foundation of Hieronymus Busleiden's Collegium +Trilingue. His circumstances had improved so much, by pensions, the +presents which were showered upon him, and the sale of his books, that +he was now in a position to refuse all proposals which would have +interfered with his cherished independence. The general ardour for the +restoration of the arts and of learning created an aristocratic public, +of which Erasmus was supreme pontiff. Luther spoke to the people and the +ignorant; Erasmus had the ear of the educated class. His friends and +admirers were distributed over all the countries of Europe, and presents +were continually arriving from small as well as great, from a donation +of 200 florins, made by Pope Clement VII., down to sweetmeats and +comfits contributed by the nuns of Cologne (_Ep._ 666). From England, in +particular, he continued to receive supplies of money. In the last year +of his life Thomas Cromwell sent him 20 angels, and Archbishop Cranmer +18. Though Erasmus led a very hard-working and far from luxurious life, +and had no extravagant habits, yet he could not live upon little. The +excessive delicacy of his constitution, not pampered appetite, exacted +some unusual indulgences. He could not bear the stoves of Germany, and +required an open fireplace in the room in which he worked. He was +afflicted with the stone, and obliged to be particular as to what he +drank. Beer he could not touch. The white wines of Baden or the Rhine +did not suit him; he could only drink those of Burgundy or +Franche-Comte. He could neither eat, nor bear the smell of, fish. "His +heart," he said, "was Catholic, but his stomach was Lutheran." For his +constant journeys he required two horses, one for himself and one for +his attendant. And though he was almost always found in horse-flesh by +his friends, the keep had to be paid for. For his literary labours and +his extensive correspondence he required one or more amanuenses. He +often had occasion, on his own business, or on that of Froben's press, +to send special couriers to a distance, employing them by the way in +collecting the free gifts of his tributaries. + +Precarious as these means of subsistence seem, he preferred the +independence thus obtained to an assured position which would have +involved obligations to a patron or professional duties which his weak +health would have made onerous. The duke of Bavaria offered to dispense +with teaching, if he would only reside, and would have named him on +these terms to a chair in his new university of Ingolstadt, with a +salary of 200 ducats, and the reversion of one or more prebendal stalls. +The archduke Ferdinand offered a pension of 400 florins, if he would +only come to reside at Vienna. Adrian VI. offered him a deanery, but the +offer seems to have been of a possible and not an actual deanery. +Offers, flattering but equally vague, were made from France, on the part +of the bishop of Bayeux, and even of Francis I. "Invitor amplissimis +conditionibus; offeruntur dignitates et episcopatus; plane rex essem, si +juvenis essem" (_Ep._ xix. 106; 735). Erasmus declined all, and in +November 1521 settled permanently at Basel, in the capacity of general +editor and literary adviser of Froben's press. As a subject of the +emperor, and attached to his court by a pension, it would have been +convenient to him to have fixed his residence in Louvain. But the +bigotry of the Flemish clergy, and the monkish atmosphere of the +university of Louvain, overrun with Dominicans and Franciscans, united +for once in their enmity to the new classical learning, inclined Erasmus +to seek a more congenial home in Basel. To Froben his arrival was the +advent of the very man whom he had long wanted. Froben's enterprise, +united with Erasmus's editorial skill, raised the press of Basel, for a +time, to be the most important in Europe. The death of Froben in 1527, +the final separation of Basel from the Empire, the wreck of learning in +the religious disputes, and the cheap paper and scamped work of the +Frankfort presses, gradually withdrew the trade from Basel. But during +the years of Erasmus's co-operation the Froben press took the lead of +all the presses in Europe, both in the standard value of the works +published and in style of typographical execution. Like some other +publishers who preferred reputation to returns in money, Froben died +poor, and his impressions never reached the splendour afterwards +attained by those of the Estiennes, or of Plantin. The series of the +Fathers alone contains Jerome (1516), Cyprian (1520), Pseudo-Arnobius +(1522), Hilarius (1523), Irenaeus (Latin, 1526), Ambrose (1527), +Augustine (1528), Chrysostom (Latin, 1530), Basil (Greek, 1532, the +first Greek author printed in Germany), and Origen (Latin, 1536). In +these editions, partly texts, partly translations, it is impossible to +determine the respective shares of Erasmus and his many helpers. The +prefaces and dedications are all written by him, and some of them, as +that to the Hilarius, are of importance for the history as well of the +times as of Erasmus himself. Of his most important edition, that of the +Greek text of the New Testament, something will be said farther on. + +In this "mill," as he calls it, Erasmus continued to grind incessantly +for eight years. Besides his work as editor, he was always writing +himself some book or pamphlet called for by the event of the day, some +general fray in which he was compelled to mingle, or some personal +assault which it was necessary to repel. But though painfully conscious +how much his reputation as a writer was damaged by this extempore +production, he was unable to resist the fatal facility of print. He was +the object of those solicitations which always beset the author whose +name upon the title page assures the sale of a book. He was besieged for +dedications, and as every dedication meant a present proportioned to the +circumstances of the dedicatee, there was a natural temptation to be +lavish of them. Add to this a correspondence so extensive as to require +him at times to write forty letters in one day. "I receive daily," he +writes, "letters from remote parts, from kings, princes, prelates and +men of learning, and even from persons of whose existence I was +ignorant." His day was thus one of incessant mental activity; but hard +work was so far from breeding a distaste for his occupation, that +reading and writing grew ever more delightful to him (_literarum +assiduitas non modo mihi fastidium non parit, sed voluptatem; crescit +scribendo scribendi studium_). + +Shortly after Froben's death the disturbances at Basel, occasioned by +the zealots for the religious revolution which was in progress +throughout Switzerland, began to make Erasmus desirous of changing his +residence. He selected Freiburg in the Breisgau, as a city which was +still in the dominion of the emperor, and was free from religious +dissension. Thither he removed in April 1529. He was received with +public marks of respect by the authorities, who granted him the use of +an unfinished residence which had been begun to be built for the late +emperor Maximilian. Erasmus proposed only to remain at Freiburg for a +few months, but found the place so suited to his habits that he bought a +house of his own, and remained there six years. A desire for change of +air--he fancied Freiburg was damp--rumours of a new war with France, and +the necessity of seeing his _Ecclesiastes_ through the press, took him +back to Basel in 1535. He lived now a very retired life, and saw only a +small circle of intimate friends. A last attempt was made by the papal +court to enlist him in some public way against the Reformation. On the +election of Paul III. in 1534, he had, as usual, sent the new pope a +congratulatory letter. After his arrival in Basel, he received a +complimentary answer, together with the nomination to the deanery of +Deventer, the income of which was reckoned at 600 ducats. This +nomination was accompanied with an intimation that more was in store for +him, and that steps would be taken to provide for him the income, viz., +3000 ducats, which was necessary to qualify for the cardinal's hat. But +Erasmus was even less disposed now than he had been before to barter his +reputation for honours. His health had been for some years gradually +declining, and disease in the shape of gout gaining upon him. In the +winter of 1535-1536 he was confined entirely to his chamber, many days +to his bed. Though thus afflicted he never ceased his literary activity, +dictating his tract _On the Purity of the Church_, and revising the +sheets of a translation of Origen which was passing through the Froben +press. His last letter is dated the 28th of June 1536, and subscribed +"Eras. Rot. aegra manu." "I have never been so ill in my life before as +I am now,--for many days unable even to read." Dysentery setting in +carried him off on the 12th of July 1536, in his 70th year. + +By his will, made on the 12th of February 1536, he left what he had to +leave, with the exception of some legacies, to Bonifazius Amerbach, +partly for himself, partly in trust for the benefit of the aged and the +infirm, or to be spent in portioning young girls, and in educating young +men of promise. He left none of the usual legacies for masses or other +clerical purposes, and was not attended by any priest or confessor in +his last moments. + +Erasmus's features are familiar to all, from Holbein's many portraits or +their copies. Beatus Rhenanus, "summus Erasmi observator," as he is +called by de Thou, describes his person thus: "In stature not tall, but +not noticeably short; in figure well built and graceful; of an extremely +delicate constitution, sensitive to the slightest changes of climate, +food or drink. After middle life he suffered from the stone, not to +mention the common plague of studious men, an irritable mucous membrane. +His complexion was fair; light blue eyes, and yellowish hair. Though his +voice was weak, his enunciation was distinct; the expression of his face +cheerful; his manner and conversation polished, affable, even charming." +His highly nervous organization made his feelings acute, and his brain +incessantly active. Through his ready sympathy with all forms of life +and character, his attention was always alive. The active movement of +his spirit spent itself, not in following out its own trains of thought, +but in outward observation. No man was ever less introspective, and +though he talks much of himself, his egotism is the genial egotism which +takes the world into its confidence, not the selfish egotism which feels +no interest but in its own woes. He says of himself, and justly, "that +he was incapable of dissimulation" (_Ep._ xxvi. 19; 1152). There is +nothing behind, no pose, no scenic effect. It may be said of his letters +that in them "tota patet vita senis." His nature was flexible without +being faultily weak. He has many moods and each mood imprints itself in +turn on his words. Hence, on a superficial view, Erasmus is set down as +the most inconsistent of men. Further acquaintance makes us feel a unity +of character underlying this susceptibility to the impressions of the +moment. His seeming inconsistencies are reconciled to apprehension, not +by a formula of the intellect, but by the many-sidedness of a highly +impressible nature. In the words of J. Nisard, Erasmus was one of those +"dont la gloire a ete de beaucoup comprendre et d'affirmer peu." + +This equal openness to every vibration of his environment is the key to +all Erasmus's acts and words, and among them to the middle attitude +which he took up towards the great religious conflict of his time. The +reproaches of party assailed him in his lifetime, and have continued to +be heaped upon his memory. He was loudly accused by the Catholics of +collusion with the enemies of the faith. His powerful friends, the pope, +Wolsey, Henry VIII., the emperor, called upon him to declare against +Luther. Theological historians from that time forward have perpetuated +the indictment that Erasmus sided with neither party in the struggle for +religious truth. The most moderate form of the censure presents him in +the odious light of a trimmer; the vulgar and venomous assailant is sure +that Erasmus was a Protestant at heart, but withheld the avowal that he +might not forfeit the worldly advantages he enjoyed as a Catholic. When +by study of his writings we come to know Erasmus intimately, there is +revealed to us one of those natures to which partisanship is an +impossibility. It was not timidity or weakness which kept Erasmus +neutral, but the reasonableness of his nature. It was not only that his +intellect revolted against the narrowness of party, his whole being +repudiated its clamorous and vulgar excesses. As he loathed fish, so he +loathed clerical fanaticism. Himself a Catholic priest--"the glory of +the priesthood and the shame"--the tone of the orthodox clergy was +distasteful to him; the ignorant hostility to classical learning which +reigned in their colleges and convents disgusted him. In common with all +the learned men of his age, he wished to see the power of the clergy +broken, as that of an obscurantist army arrayed against light. He had +employed all his resources of wit and satire against the priests and +monks, and the superstitions in which they traded, long before Luther's +name was heard of. The motto which was already current in his lifetime, +"that Erasmus laid the egg and Luther hatched it," is so far true, and +no more. Erasmus would have suppressed the monasteries, put an end to +the domination of the clergy, and swept away scandalous and profitable +abuses, but to attack the church or re-mould received theology was far +from his thoughts. And when out of Luther's revolt there arose a new +fanaticism--that of evangelism, Erasmus recoiled from the violence of +the new preachers. "Is it for this," he writes to Melanchthon (_Ep._ +xix. 113; 703), "that we have shaken off bishops and popes, that we may +come under the yoke of such madmen as Otto and Farel?" Passages have +been collected, and it is an easy task, from the writings of Erasmus to +prove that he shared the doctrines of the Reformers. Passages equally +strong might be culled to show that he repudiated them. The truth is +that theological questions in themselves had no attraction for him. And +when a theological position was emphasized by party passion it became +odious to him. In the words of Drummond: "Erasmus was in his own age the +apostle of common sense and of rational religion. He did not care for +dogma, and accordingly the dogmas of Rome, which had the consent of the +Christian world, were in his eyes preferable to the dogmas of +Protestantism.... From the beginning to the end of his career he +remained true to the purpose of his life, which was to fight the battle +of sound learning and plain common sense against the powers of ignorance +and superstition, and amid all the convulsions of that period he never +once lost his mental balance." + +Erasmus is accused of indifference. But he was far from indifferent to +the progress of the revolution. He was keenly alive to its pernicious +influence on the cherished interest of his life, the cause of learning. +"I abhor the evangelics, because it is through them that literature is +everywhere declining, and upon the point of perishing." He had been born +with the hopes of the Renaissance, with its anticipation of a new +Augustan age, and had seen this fair promise blighted by the irruption +of a new horde of theological polemics, worse than the old scholastics, +inasmuch as they were revolutionary instead of conservative. Erasmus +never flouted at religion nor even at theology as such, but only at +blind and intemperate theologians. + +In the mind of Erasmus there was no metaphysical inclination; he was a +man of letters, with a general tendency to rational views on every +subject which came under his pen. His was not the mind to originate, +like Calvin, a new scheme of Christian thought. He is at his weakest in +defending free will against Luther, and indeed he can hardly be said to +enter on the metaphysical question. He treats the dispute entirely from +the outside. It is impossible in reading Erasmus not to be reminded of +the rationalist of the 18th century. Erasmus has been called the +"Voltaire of the Renaissance." But there is a vast difference in the +relations in which they respectively stood to the church and to +Christianity. Voltaire, though he did not originate, yet adopted a moral +and religious scheme which he sought to substitute for the church +tradition. He waged war, not only against the clergy, but against the +church and its sovereigns. Erasmus drew the line at the first of these. +He was not an anticipation of the 18th century; he was the man of his +age, as Voltaire of his; though Erasmus did not intend it, he +undoubtedly shook the ecclesiastical edifice in all its parts; and, as +Melchior Adam says of him, "pontifici Romano plus nocuit jocando quam +Lutherus stomachando." + +But if Erasmus was unlike the 18th century rationalist in that he did +not declare war against the church, but remained a Catholic and mourned +the disruption, he was yet a true rationalist in principle. The +principle that reason is the one only guide of life, the supreme arbiter +of all questions, politics and religion included, has its earliest and +most complete exemplar in Erasmus. He does not dogmatically denounce the +rights of reason, but he practically exercises them. Along with the +charm of style, the great attraction of the writings of Erasmus is this +unconscious freedom by which they are pervaded. + +It must excite our surprise that one who used his pen so freely should +have escaped the pains and penalties which invariably overtook minor +offenders in the same kind. For it was not only against the clergy and +the monks that he kept up a ceaseless stream of satiric raillery; he +treated nobles, princes and kings with equal freedom. No 18th century +republican has used stronger language than has this pensioner of Charles +V. "The people build cities, princes pull them down; the industry of +the citizens creates wealth for rapacious lords to plunder; plebeian +magistrates pass good laws for kings to violate; the people love peace, +and their rulers stir up war." Such outbursts are frequent in the +_Adagia_. These freedoms are part cause of Erasmus's popularity. He was +here in sympathy with the secret sore of his age, and gave utterance to +what all felt but none dared to whisper but he. It marks the difference +between 1513 and 1669 that, in a reprint of the _Julius Exclusus_ +published in 1669 at Oxford, it was thought necessary to leave out a +sentence in which the writer of that dialogue, supposed by the editor to +be Erasmus, asserts the right of states to deprive and punish bad kings. +It is difficult to say to what we are to ascribe his immunity from +painful consequences. We have to remember that he was removed from the +scene early in the reaction, before force was fully organized for the +suppression of the revolution. And his popular works, the _Adagia_, and +the _Colloquia_ (1524), had established themselves as standard books in +the more easy going age, when power, secure in its unchallenged +strength, could afford to laugh with the laughers at itself. At the date +of his death the Catholic revival, with its fell antipathy to art and +letters, was only in its infancy; and when times became dangerous, +Erasmus cautiously declined to venture out of the protection of the +Empire, refusing repeated invitations to Italy and to France. "I had +thought of going to Besancon," he said, "ne non essem in ditione +Caesaris" (_Ep._ xxx. 74; 1299). In Italy a Bembo and a Sadoleto wrote a +purer Latin than Erasmus, but contented themselves with pretty phrases, +and were careful to touch no living chord of feeling. In France it was +necessary for a Rabelais to hide his free-thinking under a disguise of +revolting and unintelligible jargon. It was only in the Empire that such +liberty of speech as Erasmus used was practicable, and in the Empire +Erasmus passed for a moderate man. Upon the strength of an established +character for moderation he enjoyed an exceptional licence for the +utterance of unwelcome truths; and in spite of his flings at the rich +and powerful, he remained through life a privileged person with them. + +But though the men of the keys and the sword let him go his way +unmolested, it was otherwise with his brethren of the pen. A man who is +always launching opinions must expect to be retorted on. And when these +judgments were winged by epigram, and weighted by the name of Erasmus, +who stood at the head of letters, a widespread exasperation was the +consequence. Disraeli has not noticed Erasmus in his _Quarrels of +Authors_, perhaps because Erasmus's quarrels would require a volume to +themselves. "So thin-skinned that a fly would draw blood," as the prince +of Carpi expressed it, he could not himself restrain his pen from +sarcasm. He forgot that though it is safe to lash the dunces, he could +not with equal impunity sneer at those who, though they might not have +the ear of the public as he had, could yet contradict and call names. +And when literary jealousy was complicated with theological differences, +as in the case of the free-thinkers, or with French vanity, as in that +of Budaeus, the cause of the enemy was espoused by a party and a nation. +The quarrel with Budaeus was strictly a national one. Cosmopolitan as +Erasmus was, to the French literati he was still the Teuton. Etienne +Dolet calls him "enemy of Cicero, and jealous detractor of the French +name." The only contemporary name which could approach to a rivalry with +his was that of Budaeus (Bude), who was exactly contemporary, having +been born in the same year as Erasmus. Rivals in fame, they were unlike +in accomplishment, each having the quality which the other wanted. +Budaeus, though a Frenchman, knew Greek well; Erasmus, though a +Dutchman, very imperfectly. But the Frenchman Budaeus wrote an execrable +Latin style, unreadable then as now, while the Teuton Erasmus charmed +the reading world with a style which, though far from good Latin, is the +most delightful which the Renaissance has left us. + +The style of Erasmus is, considered as Latin, incorrect, sometimes even +barbarous, and far removed from any classical model. But it has +qualities far above purity. The best Italian Latin is but an echo and an +imitation; like the painted glass which we put in our churches, it is +an anachronism. Bembo, Sadoleto and the rest write purely in a dead +language. Erasmus's Latin was a living and spoken tongue. Though Erasmus +had passed nearly all his life in England, France and Germany, his +conversation was Latin; and the language in which he talked about common +things he wrote. Hence the spontaneity and naturalness of his page, its +flavour of life and not of books. He writes from himself, and not out of +Cicero. Hence, too, he spoiled nothing by anxious revision in terror +lest some phrase not of the golden age should escape from his pen. He +confesses apologetically to Christopher Longolius (_Ep._ iii. 63; 402) +that it was his habit to extemporize all he wrote, and that this habit +was incorrigible; "effundo verius quam scribo omnia." He complains that +much reading of the works of St Jerome had spoiled his Latin; but, as +Scaliger says (_Scalig^a 2^a_), "Erasmus's language is better than St +Jerome's." The same critic, however, thought Erasmus would have done +better "if he had kept more closely to the classical models." + +In the annals of classical learning Erasmus may be regarded as +constituting an intermediate stage between the humanists of the Latin +Renaissance and the learned men of the age of Greek scholarship, between +Angelo Poliziano and Joseph Scaliger. Erasmus, though justly styled by +Muretus (_Varr. Lectt._ 7, 15) "eruditus sane vir, ac multae lectionis," +was not a "learned" man in the special sense of the word--not an +"erudit." He was more than this; he was the "man of letters"--the first +who had appeared in Europe since the fall of the Roman empire. His +acquirements were vast, and they were all brought to bear upon the life +of his day. He did not make a study apart of antiquity for its own sake, +but used it as an instrument of culture. He did not worship, imitate and +reproduce the classics, like the Latin humanists who preceded him; he +did not master them and reduce them to a special science, as did the +French Hellenists who succeeded him. He edited many authors, it is true, +but he had neither the means of forming a text, nor did he attempt to do +so. In editing a father, or a classic, he had in view the practical +utility of the general reader, not the accuracy required by the gild of +scholars. "His Jerome," says J. Scaliger, "is full of sad blunders" +(_Scalig^a 2^a_). Even Julien Garnier could discover that Erasmus "falls +in his haste into grievous error in his Latin version of St Basil, +though his Latinity is superior to that of the other translators" (Pref. +in _Opp. St. Bas._, 1721). It must be remembered that the commercial +interests of Froben's press led to the introduction of Erasmus's name on +many a title page when he had little to do with the book, e.g. the Latin +_Josephus_ of 1524 to which Erasmus only contributed one translation of +14 pages; or the _Aristotle_ of 1531, of which Simon Grynaeus was the +real editor. Where Erasmus excelled was in prefaces--not philological +introductions to each author, but spirited appeals to the interest of +the general reader, showing how an ancient book might be made to +minister to modern spiritual demands. + +Of Erasmus's works the Greek Testament is the most memorable. It has no +title to be considered as a work of learning or scholarship, yet its +influence upon opinion was profound and durable. It contributed more to +the liberation of the human mind from the thraldom of the clergy than +all the uproar and rage of Luther's many pamphlets. As an edition of the +Greek Testament it has no critical value. But it was the first, and it +revealed the fact that the Vulgate, the Bible of the church, was not +only a second-hand document, but in places an erroneous document. A +shock was thus given to the credit of the clergy in the province of +literature, equal to that which was given in the province of science by +the astronomical discoveries of the 17th century. Even if Erasmus had +had at his disposal the MSS. subsidia for forming a text, he had not the +critical skill required to use them. He had at hand a few late Basel +MSS., one of which he sent straight to press, correcting them in places +by collations of others which had been sent to him by Colet in England. +In four reprints, 1519, 1522, 1527, 1535, Erasmus gradually weeded out +many of the typographical errors of his first edition, but the text +remained essentially such as he had first printed it. The Greek text +indeed was only a part of his scheme. An important feature of the +volume was the new Latin version, the original being placed alongside as +a guarantee of the translator's good faith. This translation, with the +justificatory notes which accompanied it, though not itself a work of +critical scholarship, became the starting-point of modern exegetical +science. Erasmus did nothing to solve the problem, but to him belongs +the honour of having first propounded it. + +Besides translating and editing the New Testament, Erasmus paraphrased +the whole, except the Apocalypse, between 1517 and 1524. The paraphrases +were received with great applause, even by those who had little +appreciation for Erasmus. In England a translation of them made in 1548 +was ordered to be placed in all parish churches beside the Bible. His +correspondence is perhaps the part of his works which has the most +permanent value; it comprises about 3000 letters, which form an +important source for the history of that period. For the same purpose +his _Colloquia_ may be consulted. They are a series of dialogues, +written first for pupils in the early Paris days as formulae of polite +address, but afterwards expanded into lively conversations, in which +many of the topics of the day are discussed. Later in the century they +were read in schools, and some of Shakespeare's lines are direct +reminiscences of Erasmus. + + His complete works have been printed twice; by the Froben firm under + the direction of his literary executors (9 vols., Basel, 1540); and by + Leclerc at Leiden (11 vols., 1703-1706). For his life the chief + contemporary sources are a _Compendium vitae_ written by himself in + 1524, and a sketch prefixed by Beatus Rhenanus to the Basel edition of + 1540. Of his writings he gives an account in his _Catalogus + lucubrationum_, composed first in January 1523 and enlarged in + September 1524; and also in a letter to Hector Boece of Aberdeen, + written in 1530. An elaborate bibliography, entitled _Bibliotheca + Erasmiana_, was undertaken by the officials of the Ghent University + Library; it is divided into three sections, for Erasmus's writings, + the books he edited, and the literature about him. _Listes sommaires_ + were issued in 1893; and since 1897 the completed volumes have been + appearing at intervals. There is an excellent sketch of Erasmus's life + down to 1519 in F. Seebohm's _Oxford Reformers_ (3rd ed., 1887); and + of the many biographies those by S. Knight (1726), J. Jortin (2 vols., + 1758-1760) and R.B. Drummond (2 vols., 1873) may be mentioned. There + are also two volumes (1901-1904) of translations by F.M. Nichols from + Erasmus's letters down to 1517, with an ample commentary which amounts + almost to a biography; and an edition of the letters, in Latin, was + begun by the Oxford University Press in 1906 (vol. ii., 1910). + (M. P.; P. S. A.) + + + + +ERASTUS, THOMAS (1524-1583), German-Swiss theologian, whose surname was +Luber, Lieber, or Liebler, was born of poor parents on the 7th of +September 1524, probably at Baden, canton of Aargau, Switzerland. In +1540 he was studying theology at Basel. The plague of 1544 drove him to +Bologna and thence to Padua as student of philosophy and medicine. In +1553 he became physician to the count of Henneberg, Saxe-Meiningen, and +in 1558 held the same post with the elector-palatine, Otto Heinrich, +being at the same time professor of medicine at Heidelberg. His patron's +successor, Frederick III., made him (1559) a privy councillor and member +of the church consistory. In theology he followed Zwingli, and at the +sacramentarian conferences of Heidelberg (1560) and Maulbronn (1564) he +advocated by voice and pen the Zwinglian doctrine of the Lord's Supper, +replying (1565) to the counter arguments of the Lutheran Johann Marbach, +of Strassburg. He ineffectually resisted the efforts of the Calvinists, +led by Caspar Olevianus, to introduce the Presbyterian polity and +discipline, which were established at Heidelberg in 1570, on the Genevan +model. One of the first acts of the new church system was to +excommunicate Erastus on a charge of Socinianism, founded on his +correspondence with Transylvania. The ban was not removed till 1575, +Erastus declaring his firm adhesion to the doctrine of the Trinity. His +position, however, was uncomfortable, and in 1580 he returned to Basel, +where in 1583 he was made professor of ethics. He died on the 31st of +December 1583. He published several pieces bearing on medicine, +astrology and alchemy, and attacking the system of Paracelsus. His name +is permanently associated with a posthumous publication, written in +1568. Its immediate occasion was the disputation at Heidelberg (1568) +for the doctorate of theology by George Wither or Withers, an English +Puritan (subsequently archdeacon of Colchester), silenced (1565) at Bury +St Edmunds by Archbishop Parker. Withers had proposed a disputation +against vestments, which the university would not allow; his thesis +affirming the excommunicating power of the presbytery was sustained. +Hence the treatise of Erastus. It was published (1589) by Giacomo +Castelvetri, who had married his widow, with the title _Explicatio +gravissimae quaestionis utrum excommunicatio, quatenus religionem +intelligentes et amplexantes, a sacramentorum usu, propter admissum +facinus arcet, mandato nitatur divino, an excogitata sit ab hominibus_. +The work bears the imprint Pesclavii (i.e. Poschiavo in the Grisons) but +was printed by John Wolfe in London, where Castelvetri was staying; the +name of the alleged printer is an anagram of Jacobum Castelvetrum. In +the Stationers' Register (June 20, 1589) the printing is said to have +been "alowed" by Archbishop Whitgift. It consists of seventy-five +_Theses_, followed by a _Confirmatio_ in six books, and an appendix of +letters to Erastus by Bullinger and Gualther, showing that his _Theses_, +written in 1568, had been circulated in manuscript. An English +translation of the _Theses_, with brief life of Erastus (based on +Melchior Adam's account), was issued in 1659, entitled _The Nullity of +Church Censures_; it was reprinted as _A Treatise of Excommunication_ +(1682), and, as revised by Robert Lee, D.D., in 1844. The aim of the +work is to show, on Scriptural grounds, that sins of professing +Christians are to be punished by civil authority, and not by withholding +of sacraments on the part of the clergy. In the Westminster Assembly a +party holding this view included Selden, Lightfoot, Coleman and +Whitelocke, whose speech (1645) is appended to Lee's version of the +_Theses_; but the opposite view, after much controversy, was carried, +Lightfoot alone dissenting. The consequent chapter of the Westminster +Confession ("Of Church Censures") was, however, not ratified by the +English parliament. "Erastianism," as a by-word, is used to denote the +doctrine of the supremacy of the state in ecclesiastical causes; but the +problem of the relations between church and state is one on which +Erastus nowhere enters. What is known as "Erastianism" would be better +connected with the name of Grotius. The only direct reply made to the +_Explicatio_ was the _Tractatus de vera excommunicatione_ (1590) by +Theodore Beza, who found himself rather savagely attacked in the +_Confirmatio thesium_; e.g. "Apostolum et Mosen adeoque Deum ipsum audes +corrigere." + + See A. Bonnard, _Thomas Eraste et la discipline ecclesiastique_ + (1894); Gass, in _Allgemeine deutsche Biog._ (1877); G.V. Lechler and + R. Stahelin, in A. Hauck's _Realencyklop. fur prot. Theol. u. Kirche_ + (1898). (A. Go.*) + + + + +ERATOSTHENES OF ALEXANDRIA (c. 276-c. 194 B.C.), Greek scientific +writer, was born at Cyrene. He studied grammar under Callimachus at +Alexandria, and philosophy under the Stoic Ariston and the Academic +Arcesilaus at Athens. He returned to Alexandria at the summons of +Ptolemy III. Euergetes, by whom he was appointed chief librarian in +place of Callimachus. He is said to have died of voluntary starvation, +being threatened with total blindness. Eratosthenes was one of the most +learned men of antiquity, and wrote on a great number of subjects. He +was the first to call himself Philologos (in the sense of the "friend of +learning"), and the name Pentathlos was bestowed upon him in honour of +his varied accomplishments. He was also called _Beta_ as being second in +all branches of learning, though not actually first in any. In +mathematics he wrote two books _On means_ ([Greek: Peri mesoteton]) +which are lost, but appear, from a remark of Pappus, to have dealt with +"loci with reference to means." He devised a mechanical construction for +two mean proportionals, reproduced by Pappus and Eutocius (Comm. on +Archimedes). His [Greek: koskinon] or _sieve_ (_cribrum Eratosthenis_) +was a device for discovering all prime numbers. He laid the foundation +of mathematical geography in his _Geographica_, in three books. His +greatest achievement was his measurement of the earth. Being informed +that at Syene (Assuan), on the day of the summer solstice at noon, a +well was lit up through all its depth, so that Syene lay on the tropic, +he measured, at the same hour, the zenith distance of the sun at +Alexandria. He thus found the distance between Syene and Alexandria +(known to be 5000 stadia) to correspond to 1/50th of a great circle, and +so arrived at 250,000 stadia (which he seems subsequently to have +corrected to 252,000) as the circumference of the earth. He is credited +by Ptolemy and his commentator Theon with having found the distance +between the tropics to be 11/83 rds. of the meridian circle, which gives +23 deg. 51' 20" for the obliquity of the ecliptic. His astronomical poem +_Hermes_ began apparently with the birth and exploits of Hermes, then +passed to the legend of his having ordered the heavens, the zones and +the stars, and gave a history of the latter. His _Erigone_, of which a +few fragments are also preserved, is sometimes spoken of as a separate +poem, but it may have belonged to the _Hermes_, which appears also to +have been known by other names such as _Catalogi_. The still extant +_Catasterismi_, containing the story of certain stars in prose, is +probably not by Eratosthenes. + +Eratosthenes was the founder of scientific chronology in his [Greek: +chronographia] in which he endeavoured to fix the dates of the chief +literary and political events from the conquest of Troy. An important +work was his treatise on the old comedy, dealing with theatres and +theatrical apparatus generally, and discussing the works of the +principal comic poets themselves. Works on moral philosophy, history, +and a number of letters were also attributed to him. + + There is a complete edition of the fragments of Eratosthenes by + Bernhardy (1822); poetical fragments, Hillier (1872); geographical, + Seidel (1799) and Berger (1880); [Greek: katasterismoi], Schaubach + (1795) and Robert (1878). See Sandys, _Hist. Class. Schol._ i. (1906). + (T. L. H.) + + + + +ERBACH, a town of Germany, in the grand-duchy of Hesse-Darmstadt, on the +Mumling, 22 m. S.E. of Darmstadt. It has cloth mills and ivory-turning, +for which last branch it possesses a technical school. Wool and cattle +fairs are held twice a year. Pop. 2800. The castle contains an +interesting collection of weapons and pictures, and in the chapel are +the coffins of Einhard, the friend and biographer of Charlemagne, and +his wife, Emma. + +Erbach has long been the residence of the counts of Erbach, who trace +their descent back to the 12th century, and who held the office of +cupbearer to the electors palatine of the Rhine until 1806. In 1532 the +emperor Charles V. made the county a direct fief of the Empire, on +account of the services rendered by Count Eberhard during the Peasants' +War. Since 1717 the family has been divided into the three lines of +Erbach-Furstenau, Erbach-Erbach and Erbach-Schonberg, who rank for +precedence, not according to the age of their descent, but according to +the age of the chief of their line. In 1818 the counts of Erbach-Erbach +inherited the county of Wartenberg-Roth, and in 1903 the count of +Erbach-Schonberg was granted the title of prince. The county was +mediatized in 1806, and is now incorporated with the duchy of +Hesse-Darmstadt. + + See Simon, _Die Geschichte der Dynasten und Grafen zu Erbach_ + (Frankfort, 1858). + + + + +ERBIUM (symbol, Er; atomic weight, 165-166), one of the metals of the +rare earths. The first of the rare earth minerals was discovered in 1794 +by J. Gadolin and was named gadolinite from its discoverer. In 1797 +Ekeberg showed that gadolinite contained another rare earth, which was +given the name yttria. Yttria is an exceedingly complex mixture, which +has been decomposed, yielding as an intermediate product terbia. This +latter substance in its turn has been split by J.L. Soret, P.T. Cleve, +Lecoq de Boisbaudran and others into erbia, holmia, thulia and +dysprosia, but it is still doubtful whether any one of these four +splitting products is a single substance. The rare earth metals are +found in the minerals gadolinite, samarskite, fergusonite, euxenite and +cerite. They are separated from the minerals by converting them into +oxalates, which by ignition give the corresponding oxides. The oxides +are then converted into double sulphates which are separated from each +other by repeated fractional crystallization or by fractional +precipitation with ammonia or some other base. Erbium forms +rose-coloured salts and a rose-coloured oxide. The oxide dissolves +slowly in acids; it is not reduced by hydrogen and is infusible. The +salts show a characteristic absorption spectrum. + + See J.F. Bahr and R. Bunsen (_Ann._, 1866, 137, p. 1); A. v. Welsbach + (_Monats._, 1883, 4, p. 641; 1884, 5, p. 508; 1885, 6, p. 477); P.T. + Cleve (_Comptes rendus_, 1879, 89, p. 478; 1880, 91, pp. 328, 381; + 1882, 95, p. 1225; _Bull. de la soc. chim._, 1874, 21, p. 196; 1883, + 39, p. 287); C. Marignac (_Ann. Chim. phys._, 1849 [3] 27, p. 226); B. + Brauner (_Monats._, 1882, 3, p. 13); W. Crookes (_Proc. Roy. Soc._, + 1886, 40, p. 502); Lecoq de Boisbaudran (_Comptes rendus_, 1886, 102, + p. 1005); A. Bettendorf (_Ann._, 1892, 270, p. 376); M. Muthmann + (_Ber._, 1898, 31, p. 1718; 1900, 33, p. 42); G. Kruss (_Zeit. f. + anorg. Chem._, 1893, 3, p. 108). + + + + +ERCILLA Y ZUNIGA, ALONSO DE (1533-1595), Spanish soldier and poet, was +born in Madrid on the 7th of August 1533. In 1548 he was appointed page +to the heir-apparent, afterwards Philip II. In this capacity Ercilla +visited Italy, Germany and the Netherlands, and was present in 1554 at +the marriage of his master to Mary of England. Hearing that an +expedition was preparing to subdue the Araucanians of Chile, he joined +the adventurers. He distinguished himself in the ensuing campaign; but, +having quarrelled with a comrade, he was condemned to death in 1558 by +his general, Garcia Hurtado de Mendoza. The sentence was commuted to +imprisonment, but Ercilla was speedily released and fought at the battle +of Quipeo (14th of December 1558). He returned to Spain in 1562, visited +Italy, France, Germany, Bohemia, and in 1570 married Maria de Bazan, a +lady distantly connected with the Santa Cruz family; in 1571 he was made +knight of the order of Santiago, and in 1578 he was employed by Philip +II. on a mission to Saragossa. He complained of living in poverty but +left a modest fortune, and was obviously disappointed at not being +offered the post of secretary of state. His principal work is _La +Araucana_, a poem based on the events of the wars in which he had been +engaged. It consists of three parts, of which the first, composed in +Chile and published in 1569, is a versified narrative adhering strictly +to historic fact; the second, published in 1578, is encumbered with +visions and other romantic machinery; and the third, which appeared in +1589-1590, contains, in addition to the subject proper, a variety of +episodes mostly irrelevant. This so-called epic lacks symmetry, and has +been over-praised by Cervantes and Voltaire; but it is written in +excellent Spanish, and is full of vivid rhetorical passages. An analysis +of the poem was given by Hayley in his _Essay on Epic Poetry_ (1782). + + A good biography precedes the _Morceaux choisis_ (Paris, 1900) by Jean + Ducamin. + + + + +ERCKMANN-CHATRIAN, the joint names of two French writers whose +collaboration made their work that of, so to speak, one personality. +EMILE ERCKMANN (1822-1899) was born on the 20th of May 1822 at +Phalsbourg, and LOUIS GRATIEN CHARLES ALEXANDRE CHATRIAN (1826-1890) on +the 18th of December 1826 at Soldatenthal, Lorraine. In 1847 they began +to write together, and continued doing so till 1889. Chatrian died in +1890 at Villemomble near Paris, and Erckmann at Luneville in 1899. The +list of their publications is a long one, ranging from the _Histoires et +contes fantastiques_ (1849; reprinted from the _Democrate du Rhin_), +_L'Illustre Docteur Matheus_ (1859), _Madame Therese_ (1863), _L'Ami +Fritz_ (1864), _Histoire d'un conscrit de 1813_ (1864), _Waterloo_ +(1865), _Le Blocus_ (1867), _Histoire d'un paysan_ (4 vols., 1868-1870), +_L'Histoire du plebiscite_ (1872), to _Le Grand-pere Lebigue_ (1880); +besides dramas like _Le Juif polonais_ (1869) and _Les Rantzau_ (1882). +Without any special literary claim, their stories are distinguished by +simplicity and genuine descriptive power, particularly in the battle +scenes and in connexion with Alsatian peasant life. They are marked by a +genuine democratic spirit, and by real patriotism, which developed after +1870 into hatred of the Germans. The authors attacked militarism by +depicting the horrors of war in the plainest terms. + + See also J. Claretie, _Erckmann-Chatrian_ (1883), in the series of + "Celebrites contemporaines." + + + + +ERDELYI, JANOS (1814-1868), Hungarian poet and author, was born in 1814 +at Kapos, in the county of Ungvar, and educated at the Protestant +college of Sarospatak. In 1833 he removed to Pest, where he was, in +1839, elected member of the Hungarian Academy of Sciences. His literary +fame was made by his collection of Hungarian national poems and +folk-tales, _Magyar Nepkoltesi Gyujtemeny, Nepdalok es Mondak_ (Pest, +1846-1847). This work, published by the Kisfaludy Society, was +supplemented by a dissertation upon Hungarian national poetry, +afterwards partially translated into German by Stier (Berlin, 1851). +Erdelyi also compiled for the Kisfaludy Society an extensive collection +of Hungarian proverbs--_Magyar Kozmondasok konyve_ (Pest, 1851),--and +was for some time editor of the _Szepirodalmi Szemle_ (_Review of Polite +Literature_). In 1848 he was appointed director of the national theatre +at Pest; but after 1849 he resided at his native town. He died on the +23rd of January 1868. A collection of folklore was published the year +after his death, entitled _A Nep Kolteszete nepdalok, nepmesek es +kozmondasok_ (Pest, 1869). This work contains 300 national songs, 19 +folk-tales and 7362 Hungarian proverbs. + + + + +ERDMANN, JOHANN EDUARD (1805-1892), German philosophical writer, was +born at Wolmar in Livonia on the 13th of June 1805. He studied theology +at Dorpat and afterwards at Berlin, where he fell under the influence of +Hegel. From 1829 to 1832 he was a minister of religion in his native +town. Afterwards he devoted himself to philosophy, and qualified in that +subject at Berlin in 1834. In 1836 he was professor-extraordinary at +Halle, became full professor in 1839, and died there on the 12th of June +1892. He published many philosophical text-books and treatises, and a +number of sermons; but his chief claim to remembrance rests on his +elaborate _Grundriss der Geschichte der Philosophie_ (2 vols., 1866), +the 3rd edition of which has been translated into English. Erdmann's +special merit is that he does not rest content with being a mere +summarizer of opinions, but tries to exhibit the history of human +thought as a continuous and ever-developing effort to solve the great +speculative problems with which man has been confronted in all ages. His +chief other works were: _Leib und Seele_ (1837), _Grundriss der +Psychologie_ (1840), _Grundriss der Logik und Metaphysik_ (1841), and +_Psychologische Briefe_ (1851). + + + + +ERDMANN, OTTO LINNE (1804-1869), German chemist, son of Karl Gottfried +Erdmann (1774-1835), the physician who introduced vaccination into +Saxony, was born at Dresden on the 11th of April 1804. In 1820 he began +to attend the medico-chirurgical academy of his native place, and in +1822 he entered the university of Leipzig where in 1827 he became +extraordinary professor, and in 1830 ordinary professor of chemistry. +This office he held until his death, which happened at Leipzig on the +9th of October 1869. He was particularly successful as a teacher, and +the laboratory established at Leipzig under his direction in 1843 was +long regarded as a model institution. As an investigator he is best +known for his work on nickel and indigo and other dye-stuffs. With R.F. +Marchand (1813-1850) he also carried out a number of determinations of +atomic weights. In 1828, in conjunction with A.F.G. Werther (1815-1869), +he founded the _Journal fur technische und okonomische Chemie_, which +became in 1834 the _Journal fur praktische Chemie_. He was also the +author of _Uber das Nickel_ (1827), _Lehrbuch der Chemie_ (1828), +_Grundriss der Waarenkunde_ (1833), and _Uber das Studium der Chemie_ +(1861). + + + + +EREBUS, in Greek mythology, son (according to Hesiod, _Theog._ 123) of +Chaos, and father of Aether (upper air) and Hemera (day) by his sister +Nyx (night). The word, which signifies darkness, is in Homer the gloomy +subterranean region through which the departed shades pass into Hades. +The entrance to it was in the extreme west, on the borders of Ocean, in +the mythical land of the Cimmerians. It is to be distinguished from +Tartarus, the place of punishment for the wicked. + + + + +ERECH (_Uruk_ in the Babylonian inscriptions; Gr. _Orchoe_), the +Biblical name of an ancient city of Babylonia, situated E. of the +present bed of the Euphrates, on the line of the ancient Nil canal, in a +region of marshes, about 140 m. S.S.E. from Bagdad. It was one of the +oldest and most important cities of Babylonia, and the site of a famous +temple, called E-Anna, dedicated to the worship of Nana, or Ishtar. +Erech played a very important part in the political history of the +country from an early time, exercising hegemony in Babylonia at a period +before the time of Sargon. Later it was prominent in the national +struggles of the Babylonians against Elam (2000 B.C. and earlier), in +which it suffered severely; recollections of these conflicts are +embodied in the Gilgamesh epic, as it has come down to us through the +library of Assur-bani-pal. Erech enjoyed much distinction in the later +times, as a seat of learning and of the worship of Ishtar, and +Assur-bani-pal drew largely on its literary stores for his library at +Nineveh, from which we derive our principal information concerning +ancient Babylonian literature. The inscriptions found here show that it +continued in existence through the Persian and Seleucid periods. The +ruins of the ancient site, known as Warka, which are among the largest +in all Babylonia, forming an irregular circle nearly 6 m. in +circumference, bounded by a wall, still standing in some places to the +height of 40 ft., were explored and partially excavated by W.K. Loftus +in 1850 and 1854. The most conspicuous ruin, now called Abu-Berdi, +"Father of Marsh Grass," or Buwariye, "reed matting," because of the +layers of reeds between each twelve courses of unbaked brick, is the +_ziggurat_ (tower) of the ancient temple of E-Anna. It is about 100 ft. +in height, and strikingly resembles in general appearance the ruins of +the ziggurat of the temple of Enlil at Nippur. Second to this in size +was the ruin called Wuswas, a walled quadrangle, including an area of +more than seven and a half acres, within which was an edifice 246 ft. +long and 174 ft. wide, elevated on an artificial platform 50 ft. in +height. The south-west facade, still standing in some places to the +height of 23 ft., exhibited an interesting use of half columns, and +stepped recesses for purposes of decoration. In another ruin Loftus +found a wall, 30 ft. long, composed entirely of small yellow terra-cotta +nail-headed cones, such as have been discovered in great numbers, +inscribed and uninscribed, used for votive purposes in connexion with +walls at Tello and elsewhere in Babylonia. His excavations being +superficial, the Babylonian inscriptions found by him, about one hundred +in all, exclusive of the ancient Ur-Gur bricks from the temple, belong +in general to the neo-Babylonian, Persian and Seleucid periods. The +older remains are buried deep beneath the huge mass of later debris. +Loftus also discovered at Erech, almost everywhere within and without +the walls, great numbers of clay coffins, piled one above another, to +the height of over 30 ft., forming a vast and, on the whole, +well-ordered cemetery belonging to the Persian, Parthian and later +occupations of Babylonia, during which period Erech, like other cities +of the south, evidently became a necropolis for a large extent of +country. After Loftus's time the mounds were visited by various +travellers, but no further excavations have been conducted. Work on this +important part of the site is attended with very great difficulties, +owing to the inaccessible position of the ruins, the unsettled character +of the country, the frequent sand-storms, and above all, the immense +mass of material of later periods which must be removed before a +systematic excavation of the more ancient and interesting ruins could be +undertaken. A curious feature of the Warka neighbourhood is the +existence of conical sand-hills, rising to a considerable height, so +compact as to be almost like stone. These hills extend from Warka +northward as far as Tel Ede. + + See W.K. Loftus, _Chaldaea and Susiana_ (1857); J.P. Peters, _Nippur_ + (1897); E. Sachau, _Am Euphrat und Tigris_ (1900). Cf. also NIPPUR and + authorities there quoted. (J. P. Pe.) + + + + +ERECHTHEUM, a temple (commonly called after Erechtheus, to whom a +portion of it was dedicated) on the acropolis at Athens, unique in plan, +and in its execution the most refined example of the Ionic order. There +is no clear evidence as to when the building was begun, some placing it +among the temples projected by Pericles, others assigning it to the time +after the peace of Nicias in 421 B.C. The work was interrupted by the +stress of the Peloponnesian War, but in 409 B.C. a commission was +appointed to make a report on the state of the building and to undertake +its completion, which was carried out in the following year. + +The peculiar plan of the Erechtheum has given rise to much speculation. +It may be due partly to the natural conformation of the rock and the +differences of level, partly to the necessity of enclosing within a +single building several objects of ancient sanctity, such as the mark of +Poseidon's trident and the spring that arose from it, the sacred olive +tree of Athena, and the tomb of Cecrops. But there are some features +which cannot be so explained, and which have led Professor W. Dorpfeld +and others to believe that the plan, as we now have it, is a +modification or abridgment of the original design, due to the same +conservative influences as led to the curtailment of the plan of the +Propylaea (q.v.). + +[Illustration: Plan pf the Erechtheum.] + +The building as completed consisted of a temple of the ordinary type, +opening by a door and two windows to the east front, before which stood +a portico of six Ionic columns. This part was the temple of Athena +Polias. Adjoining it on the west was the central chamber, on a lower +level; this chamber was separated by a partition, originally of wood and +later of marble, from the western compartment of the temple, which was +of peculiar construction. The west end was formed by a wall, on which +stood four columns between antae; but the main entrance to this western +compartment was through a large and very ornate doorway on the north; +and a large Ionic portico, consisting of four columns in the front, and +one in the return on each side, was placed in front of this door. At the +south end of the western compartment was a smaller door, with steps +leading up to the higher level, within a projecting space enclosed by a +low wall and covered with a projecting porch carried by six "maidens" or +caryatides. The construction of the building at this south-western +corner shows that there was some sacred object that had to be bridged +over by a huge block of marble; this we know from inscriptions to have +been the Cecropeum or tomb of Cecrops. In the north portico a square +hole in the floor, with a corresponding hole in the roof above it, must +have given access to another sacred object, the mark of Poseidon's +trident in the rock. The sacred olive tree probably stood just outside +the temple to the west in the Pandroseion. The Ionic order, as used in +this temple, is of the most ornate Attic type. The bases of the columns +are either reeded or decorated with a plait-pattern; the capital has the +broad channel between the volutes subdivided by a carefully-profiled +incision; and the top of the shafts is ornamented by a broad band of +palmette or honeysuckle pattern. A similar band of ornament runs round +the top of the walls outside, and at their base is a reeded torus. The +frieze consisted of white marble figures in relief, affixed to a +background of black Eleusinian stone. + +The contents of the Erechtheum are described by Pausanias. It contained +the ancient image of Athena Polias, and three altars, one to Poseidon +and Erechtheus, one to Butes and one to Hephaestus; there were portraits +of the family of the Butadae on the walls. Within it was also the gold +lamp of Callimachus, which burnt for a year without refilling, and had a +chimney in the form of a palm-tree. + +The Erechtheum was damaged by a fire, soon after its completion, in 406 +B.C., but was repaired early in the following century. The west end +appears to have been damaged in Roman times and to have been replaced by +the attached columns with windows between them which appear in old +drawings and are still partially extant. It was used as a church in +Christian times, and under Turkish rule as the harem of the governor of +Athens. Lord Elgin carried off to London, about 1801-1803, one of the +columns of the east portico and one of the caryatides; these were +replaced later by terra-cotta casts. During the siege of the Acropolis +in 1827, the roof of the north portico was thrown down and the building +was otherwise much damaged. It was partially rebuilt between 1838 and +1846; the west front was blown down in a storm in 1852. Since 1900 the +project of rebuilding the Erechtheum as far as possible with the +original blocks has again been undertaken. + + See Stuart, _Antiquities of Athens_; Inwood, _The Erechtheum_; H. + Forster in _Papers of American School at Athens_, i. (1882-1883); J.H. + Middleton, _Plans and Drawings of Athenian Buildings_ (1900), pls. + xiv.-xxii.; E.A. Gardner, _Ancient Athens_, chap. viii.; W. Dorpfeld, + "Der ursprungliche Plan des Erechtheion" in _Mitteil. Athen._, 1904, + p. 101, taf. 6; G.P. Stevens, "The East Wall of the Erechtheum," in + _American Journ. Arch._, 1906, pls. vi.-ix. (E. Gr.) + + + + +ERECHTHEUS, in Greek legend, a mythical king of Athens, originally +identified with Erichthonius, but in later times distinguished from him. +According to Homer, who knows nothing of Erichthonius, he was the son of +Aroura (Earth), brought up by Athena, with whom his story is closely +connected. In the later story, Erichthonius (son of Hephaestus and +Atthis or Athena herself) was handed over by Athena to the three +daughters of Cecrops--Aglauros (or Agraulos), Herse and Pandrosos--in a +chest, which they were forbidden to open. Aglauros and Herse disobeyed +the injunction, and when they saw the child (which had the form of a +snake, or round which a snake was coiled) they went mad with fright, and +threw themselves from the rock of the Acropolis (or were killed by the +snake). Athena herself then undertook the care of Erichthonius, who, +when he grew up, drove out Amphictyon and took possession of the kingdom +of Athens. Here he established the worship of Athena, instituted the +Panathenaea, and built an Erechtheum. The Erechtheus of later times was +supposed to be the grandson of Erechtheus-Erichthonius, and was also +king of Athens. When Athens was attacked by the Thracian Eumolpus (or by +the Eleusinians assisted by Eumolpus) victory was promised Erechtheus if +he sacrificed one of his daughters. Eumolpus was slain and Erechtheus +was victorious, but was himself killed by Poseidon, the father of +Eumolpus, or by a thunderbolt from Zeus. The contest between Erechtheus +and Eumolpus formed the subject of a lost tragedy by Euripides; +Swinburne has utilized the legend in his _Erechtheus_. The scene of the +opening of the chest is represented on a Greek vase in the British +Museum. The name Erichthonius is connected with [Greek: chthon] +("earth") and the representation of him as half-snake, like Cecrops, +indicates that he was regarded as one of the autochthones, the ancestors +of the Athenians who sprung from the soil. + + See Apollodorus iii. 14. 15; Euripides, _Ion_; Ovid, _Metam._ ii. 553; + Hyginus, _Poet. astron._ ii. 13; Pausanias i. 2. 5. 8; E. Ermatinger, + _Die attische Autochthonensage_ (1897); article by J.A. Hild in + Daremberg and Saglio's _Dictionnaire des antiquites_; B. Powell in + _Cornell Studies_, xvii. (1906), who identifies Erechtheus, + Erichthonius, Poseidon and Cecrops, all denoting the sacred serpent of + Athena, whose cult she first contested, but then amalgamated with her + own. The birth of Erichthonius (as a corn-spirit) is interpreted by + Mannhardt as a mythical way of describing the growth of the corn, and + by J.E. Harrison (_Myths and Monuments of Ancient Athens_, + xxvii.-xxxvi.) as a fiction to explain the ceremony performed by the + two maidens called Arrephori. See also Farnell, _Cults of the Greek + States_, i. 270; and Frazer's _Pausanias_, ii. 169. + + + + +ERESHKIGAL, also known as ALLATU, the name of the chief Babylonian +goddess of the nether-world where the dead are gathered. Her name +signifies "lady of the nether-world." She is known to us chiefly through +two myths, both symbolizing the change of seasons, but intended also to +illustrate certain doctrines developed in the temple-schools of +Babylonia. One of these myths is the famous story of Ishtar's descent to +Irkalla or Aralu, as the lower world was called, and her reception by +her sister who presides over it; the other is the story of Nergal's +offence against Ereshkigal, his banishment to the kingdom controlled by +the goddess and the reconciliation between Nergal and Ereshkigal +through the latter's offer to have Nergal share the honours of the rule +over Irkalla. The story of Ishtar's descent is told to illustrate the +possibility of an escape from Irkalla, while the other myth is intended +to reconcile the existence of two rulers of Irkalla--a goddess and a +god. + +It is evident that it was originally a goddess who was supposed to be in +control of Irkalla, corresponding to Ishtar in control of fertility and +vegetation on earth. Ereshkigal is therefore the sister of Ishtar and +from one point of view her counterpart, the symbol of nature during the +non-productive season of the year. As the doctrine of two kingdoms, one +of this world and one of the world of the dead, becomes crystallized, +the dominions of the two sisters are sharply differentiated from one +another. The addition of Nergal represents the harmonizing tendency to +unite with Ereshkigal as the queen of the nether-world the god who, in +his character as god of war and of pestilence, conveys the living to +Irkalla and thus becomes the one who presides over the dead. (M. Ja.) + + + + +ERETRIA (mod. _Aletria_), an ancient coast town of Euboea about 15 m. +S.E. of Chalcis, opposite to Oropus. Eretria, like its neighbour Chalcis +(q.v.), early entered upon a commercial and colonizing career. Besides +founding townships in the west and north of Greece, it acquired +dependencies among the Cyclades and joined the great mercantile alliance +of Miletus and Aegina. Since the so-called Lelantine War (7th century +B.C.) against the coming league of Chalcis, it began to be overshadowed +by its rivals. The interference of Eretria in the Ionian revolt (498) +brought upon it the vengeance of the Persians, who captured and +destroyed it shortly before the battle of Marathon (490). The city was +soon rebuilt, and as a member of both the Delian Leagues attached itself +by numerous treaties to the Athenians. The latter, through their general +Phocion, rescued it from the tyrants suborned by Philip of Macedon (354 +and 341). Under Macedonian and Roman rule Eretria fell into +insignificance; for a short period under Mark Antony, the triumvir, it +became a possession of Athens. Eretria was the birthplace of the +tragedian Achaeus and of the "Megarian" philosopher Menedemus. + +The modern village, which is sometimes called Nea Psara because the +inhabitants of Psara were transferred there in 1821, is on unhealthy +low-lying ground near the sea. The excavation of the site was carried +out by the American School of Athens (1890-1895). At the foot of the +Acropolis Hill, where the ground begins to rise, the theatre lies; and +though the material of which this was built is rough, and only seven +imperfect rows of seats remain, a good part of the scena and of the +chambers behind it is preserved, and beneath these there runs a tunnel, +which, together with other peculiar features, has raised interesting +questions in connexion with the arrangement of the Greek theatre, the +orchestra being at present on a level about 12 ft. below that of the +rooms in the scena. Near by are the substructions of a temple of +Dionysus and a large altar, and also a gymnasium with arrangements for +bathing. Besides these, in 1900 the substructions of a temple of Apollo +Daphnephoros were unearthed. Both the northern and the southern side of +the hill are flanked by walls, which seem to have reached the sea, where +there was a mole and a harbour; and the wall of the acropolis itself +remains in one part to the height of eight courses. + + AUTHORITIES.--Strabo x. 447 f.; Herodotus v. 99, vi. 101; _Corpus + Inscr. Atticarum_, i. 339, iv. (2), pp. 5, 10, 22; H. Heinze, _De + rebus Eretriensium_ (Gottingen, 1869); W.M. Leake, _Travels in + Northern Greece_ (London, 1835), ii. 266, 443; B.V. Head, _Historia + numorum_ (Oxford, 1887), pp. 305-308; _Papers of the American School + at Athens_, vol. vi. (E. Gr.) + + + + +ERETRIAN SCHOOL OF PHILOSOPHY. This Greek school was the continuation of +the Elian school, which was transferred to Eretria by Menedemus. It was +of small importance, and in the absence of certain knowledge must be +supposed to have adhered to the doctrines of Socrates. (See MENEDEMUS.) + + + + +ERFURT, a city of Germany, in Prussian Saxony, on the Gera, and the +railway Halle-Bebra, about midway between Gotha and Weimar, which are 14 +m. distant. Pop. (1875) 48,025; (1905) 100,065. The city, which is +dominated on the west by the two citadels of Petersberg and Cyriaxburg, +is irregularly built, the only feature in its plan, or want of plan, +being the Friedrich Wilhelmsplatz, a broad open space of irregular shape +abutting on the Petersberg. On the south-western side of this square, +which contains a monument to the elector Frederick Charles Joseph of +Mainz (1719-1802), is the Domberg, an eminence on which stand, side by +side, the cathedral and the great church of St Severus with its three +spires (14th century). The churches are approached by a flight of +forty-eight stone steps, the grouping of the whole mass of buildings +being exceedingly impressive. The cathedral (_Beatae Mariae Virginis_) +is one of the finest churches in Germany. It was begun in the 12th +century, but the nave was rebuilt in the 13th in the Gothic style. The +magnificent chancel (1349-1372), with the 14th-century crypt below, +rests on massive substructures, known as the _Cavate_. The twin towers +are set between the chancel and nave. The cathedral contains, besides +fine 15th-century glass, some very rich portal sculptures and bronze +castings, among others the coronation of the Virgin by Peter Vischer. In +one of its towers is the famous bell, called Maria Gloriosa, which bears +the date 1497, and weighs 270 cwt. Besides the cathedral and St Severus, +which are Roman Catholic, Erfurt possesses several very interesting +medieval churches, now Evangelical. Among these may be mentioned the +Predigerkirche, dating from the latter half of the 12th century; the +Reglerkirche, a Romanesque building (restored in 1859) with a +12th-century tower; and the Barfusserkirche, a Gothic building +containing fine 14th-century monuments. All these were originally +monastic churches. Of the former religious houses there survive a +Franciscan convent, with a girls' school attached, and an Ursuline +convent. The Augustinian monastery, in which Luther lived as a friar, is +now used as an orphanage, under the name of the _Martinsstift_. The cell +of Luther was destroyed by fire in 1872. A bronze statue of the reformer +was erected in the Anger, the chief street of the town, in 1890. At one +time Erfurt had a university, of which the charter dated from 1392; but +it was suppressed in 1816, and its funds devoted to other purposes, +among these being the endowment of an institution founded in 1758 and +now called the royal academy of sciences, and the support of the royal +library, which now contains 60,000 volumes and over 1000 manuscripts. On +the W. and S.W. extensive new quarters have grown up within recent +years, e.g. Hirschbruhl. The interior of the town hall (1869-1875) is +adorned with legendary and historical frescoes by Kampfer and Peter +Janssen. Erfurt possesses also a picture gallery and an antiquarian +collection. + +The educational establishments of the town include a gymnasium, a +realgymnasium, a realschule, technical schools for building and +handicrafts, a high-class commercial school, a school of agriculture, +and an academy of music. The most notable industry of Erfurt is the +culture of flowers and of vegetables, which is very extensively carried +on. This industry had its origin in the large gardens attached to the +monasteries. It has also important and growing manufactures of ladies' +mantles, boots and shoes, machines, furniture, woollen goods, musical +instruments, agricultural machinery and implements, leather, tobacco, +chemicals, &c. Brewing, bleaching and dyeing are also carried on on a +large scale, and there are extensive railway works and a government +rifle factory. + +Erfurt (Med. _Erpesfurt_, _Erphorde_, Lat. _Erfordia_) is a town of +great antiquity. Its origin is obscure, but in 741 it was sufficiently +important for St Boniface to found a bishopric here, which was, however, +after the martyrdom of the first bishop, Adolar, in 755, reabsorbed in +that of Mainz. In 805 the place received certain market rights from the +emperor Charlemagne. Later the overlordship was claimed by the +archbishops of Mainz, on the strength of charters granted by the emperor +Otto I., and their authority in Erfurt was maintained by a burgrave and +an _advocatus_, the office of the latter becoming in the 12th century +hereditary in the family of the counts of Gleichen. In spite of many +vicissitudes (from 1109 to 1137, for instance, the town was subject to +the landgraves of Thuringia), and of a charter granted in 1242 by the +emperor Frederick II., the archbishops succeeded in upholding their +claims. In 1255, however, Archbishop Gerhard I. had to grant the city +municipal rights, the burgraviate disappeared, and Erfurt became +practically a free town. Its power was at its height early in the 15th +century, when it joined the Hanseatic League. It had acquired by force +or purchase various countships and other fiefs in the neighbourhood, and +ruled a considerable territory; and its wealth was so great that in 1378 +it established a university, the first in Europe that embraced the four +faculties. By the end of the century, however, its prosperity had sunk +owing to the perpetual feud with Mainz, the internecine war in Saxony, +and the consequent dwindling of trade. By the convention of Amorbach in +1483 the overlordship of Erfurt was ultimately transferred by the +electors of Mainz to Saxony. The political and religious quarrels of the +16th century still further depressed the city, in which the reformed +religion was established in 1521. Then came the Thirty Years' War, +during which Erfurt was for a while occupied by the Swedes. After the +peace of Westphalia (1648) the city was assigned by the emperor to the +elector of Mainz, and, on its refusal to submit, it was placed under the +ban of the Empire (1660). In 1664 it was captured by the troops of the +archbishop of Mainz, and remained in the possession of the electorate +till 1802, when it came into the possession of Prussia. In 1808 it was +the scene of the memorable interview between Napoleon and the emperor +Alexander I. of Russia, at which the kings of Bavaria, Saxony, +Westphalia and Wurttemberg also assisted, which is known as the congress +of Erfurt. Here in 1850 the parliament of the short-lived Prussian +Northern Union (known as the Erfurt parliament) held its sittings. In +1902 the 100th anniversary of the city's incorporation with Prussia was +celebrated. + + See W.J.A. von Tettau, _Erfurt in seiner Vergangenheit und Gegenwart_ + (Erfurt, 1880); C. Beyer, _Geschichte der Stadt Erfurt_ (Erfurt, + 1900); and F.W. Kampschulte, _Die Universitat Erfurt in ihrem + Verhaltnisse zu dem Humanismus und der Reformation_ (1856-1858). For a + detailed bibliography see U. Chevalier, _Repertoire des sources. + Topo-bibliographie_ (Montebeliard, 1894-1899), s.v. + + + + +ERGOT, or SPURRED RYE, the drug _ergota_ or _Secale cornutum_ (Ger. +_Mutterkorn_; Fr. _seigle ergote_), consisting of the sclerotium (or +hard resting condition) of a fungus, _Claviceps purpurea_, parasitic on +the pistils of many members of the Grass family, but obtained almost +exclusively from rye, _Secale cereale_. In the ear of rye that is +infected with ergot a species of fermentation takes place, and there +exudes from it a sweet yellowish mucus, which after a time disappears. +The ear loses its starch, and ceases to grow, and its ovaries become +penetrated with the white spongy tissue of the mycelium of the fungus +which towards the end of the season forms the sclerotium, in which state +the fungus lies dormant through the winter. + +The drug consists of grains, usually curved (hence the name, from the O. +Fr. _argot_, a cock's spur), which are violet-black or dark-purple +externally, and whitish with a tinge of pink within, are between 1/3 and +1-1/2 in. long, and from 1 to 4 lines broad, and have two lateral furrows, +a close fracture, a disagreeable rancid taste, and a faint, fishy odour, +which last becomes more perceptible when the powder of the drug is mixed +with potash solution. Ergot should be kept in stoppered bottles in order +to preserve it from the attacks of a species of mite, and to prevent the +oxidation of its fatty oil. + +The extremely complex composition of this drug has been studied in great +detail, and with such important results that instead of giving ergot +itself by the mouth in doses of 20 to 60 grains, it is now possible to +obtain much more rapid and certain results by giving one three-hundredth +of a grain of one of its constituents hypodermically. This constituent +is the alkaloid cornutine, which is the valuable ingredient of the drug. +Other ingredients are a fixed oil, present to the extent of 30%, +ergotinic acid, a glucoside, trimethylamine, which gives the drug its +unpleasant odour, and sphacelinic acid, a non-nitrogenous resinoid body. +Of the numerous preparations only two need be mentioned--the liquid +extract (dose 10 minims to 2 drachms or more), and the hypodermic +injection. The latter does not keep well, and the best way of using +ergot is to dissolve tablets obtained from a reputable maker, and +containing some of the active principles, in pure water, the solution +being injected subcutaneously. + +Ergot has no external action. Given internally it stimulates the +intestinal muscles and may cause diarrhoea. After absorption it slows +the pulse by stimulation of the vagus nerves. It has indeed been +asserted that the slow pulse characteristic of the puerperal period is +really due to the common administration of ergot at that time. This is +probably an exaggeration. The important actions of ergot are on the +blood-vessels and the uterus. The drug greatly raises the blood-pressure +by causing extreme contraction of the arteries. This is mainly due to a +direct action on the muscular coats of the vessels, but is also partly +of central origin, since the drug also stimulates the vaso-motor centre +in the medulla oblongata. This action on the vessels is so marked as to +constitute the drug a haemostatic, not only locally but also remotely. +It may arrest bleeding from the nose, for instance, when injected +hypodermically. Nearly all the constituents share in causing this +action, but the sphacelinic acid is probably the most potent. Ergot is +the most powerful known stimulant of the pregnant uterus. The action is +a double one. At least four of its constituents act directly on the +muscular fibre of the uterus, whilst the cornutine acts through the +nerves. Of great practical importance is the fact that the cornutine +causes rhythmic contractions such as naturally occur, whilst the +sphacelinic acid produces a _tonic_ contraction of the uterus, which is +unnatural and highly inimical to the life of the foetus. Ergot is used +in therapeutics as a haemostatic, and is very valuable in haemoptysis +and sometimes in haematemesis. But its great use is in obstetrics. The +drug should regularly be given hypodermically, and it is important to +note that if the injection be made immediately under the skin, an +abscess, or considerable discomfort, may ensue. The injection should be +intra-muscular, the needle being boldly plunged into a muscular mass, +such as that of the deltoid or the gluteal region. The indications for +the use of ergot in obstetrics are highly complex and demand detailed +treatment. It can only be said here that the drug should only in the +rarest possible cases be given whilst the child is still _in utero_. +This rule is necessitated by the sphacelinic acid, which causes an +unnatural state of the organ. When it is possible to obtain pure +cornutine, which is unfortunately very expensive, the precautions +necessary in other cases may be abrogated. + +_Chronic poisoning_, or _ergotism_, used frequently to occur amongst the +poor fed on rye infected with the _Claviceps_. As it is practically +impossible to reproduce the symptoms of ergotism nowadays, whether +experimentally in the lower animals, or when the drug is being +administered to a human being for some therapeutic purpose, it is +believed that the symptoms of ergotism were rendered possible only by +the semi-starvation which must have ensued from the use of such +rye-bread; for the grain disappears as the fungus develops. There were +two types of ergotism. In the gangrenous form various parts of the body +underwent gangrene as a consequence of the arrest of blood-supply +produced by the action of sphacelinic acid on the arteries. In the +spasmodic form the symptoms were of a nervous character. The initial +indications of the disease were cutaneous itching, tingling and +formication, which gave place to actual loss of cutaneous sensation, +first observed in the extremities. Amblyopia and some loss of hearing +also occurred, as well as mental failure. With weakness of the voluntary +muscles went intermittent spasms which weakened the patient and +ultimately led to death by implication of the respiratory muscles. The +last-known "epidemic" of ergotism occurred in Lorraine and Burgundy in +the year 1816. + + + + +ERIC XIV. (1533-1577), king of Sweden, was the only son of Gustavus Vasa +and Catherine of Saxe-Lauenburg. The news of his father's death reached +Eric as he was on the point of embarking for England to press in person +his suit for the hand of Queen Elizabeth. He hastened back to Stockholm, +after burying his father, summoned a _Riksdag_, which met at Arboga on +the 15th of April 1561, and adopted the royal propositions known as the +Arboga articles, considerably curtailing the authority of the royal +dukes, John and Charles, in their respective provinces. Two months +later Eric was crowned at Upsala, on which occasion he first introduced +the titles of baron and count into Sweden, by way of attaching to the +crown the higher nobility, these new counts and barons receiving +lucrative fiefs adequate to the maintenance of their new dignities. + +From the very beginning of his reign Eric's morbid fear of the upper +classes drove him to give his absolute confidence to a man of base +origin and bad character, though, it must be admitted, of superior +ability. This was Goran Persson, born about 1530, who had been educated +abroad in Lutheran principles, and after narrowly escaping hanging at +the hands of Gustavus Vasa for some vile action entered the service of +his son. This powerful upstart was the natural enemy of the nobility, +who suffered much at his hands, though it is very difficult to determine +whether the initiative in these prosecutions proceeded from him or his +master. Goran was also a determined opponent of Duke John, with whom +Eric in 1563 openly quarrelled, because John, contrary to the royal +orders, had married (Oct. 4, 1562) Catherine, daughter of Sigismund I. +of Poland, engaging at the same time to assist the Polish king to +conquer Livonia. This act was a flagrant breach of that paragraph of the +Arboga articles which forbade the royal dukes to contract any political +treaty without the royal assent. An army of 10,000 men was immediately +sent by Eric to John's duchy of Finland, and John and his consort were +seized, brought over to Sweden and detained as prisoners of state in +Gripsholm Castle. But Eric did not stop here. His suspicion suggested to +him that, if his own brother failed him, the loyalty of the great +nobles, especially the members of the ancient Sture family, who had been +notable in Sweden when the Vasas were unknown, could not be depended +upon. The head of the Sture family at this time was Count Svante, who +had married a sister of Gustavus Vasa's second wife, and had by her a +numerous family, of whom two sons, Nils and Eric, still survived. The +dark tragedy, known as the Sture murders, began with Eric XIV.'s strange +treatment of young Count Nils. In 1566 he was summoned before a newly +erected tribunal and condemned to death for gross neglect of duty, +though not one of the frivolous charges brought against him could be +substantiated. The death penalty was commuted into a punishment worse +because more shameful than death. On the 15th of June 1566 the +unfortunate youth, bruised and bleeding from shocking ill-treatment, was +placed upon a wretched hack, with a crown of straw on his head, and led +in derision through the streets of Stockholm. The following night he was +sent a prisoner to the fortress of Orbyhus. A few days later he was +appointed ambassador extraordinary, and despatched to Lorraine to resume +the negotiations for Eric's marriage with the princess Renata. Before he +returned, however, Eric had resolved to marry Karin, or Kitty +Mansdatter, the daughter of a common soldier, who had been his mistress +since 1565. In January 1567 Eric extorted a declaration from two of his +senators that they would assist him to punish all who should try to +prevent his projected marriage; and, in the middle of May, a _Riksdag_ +was summoned to Upsala to judge between the king and those of the +aristocracy whom he regarded as his personal enemies. Eric himself +arrived at Upsala on the 16th in a condition of incipient insanity. On +the 19th he opened parliament in a speech which, as he explained, he had +to deliver extempore owing to "the treachery" of his secretary. Two days +later Nils Sture arrived at Upsala fresh from his embassy to Lorraine, +and was at once thrown into prison, where other members of the nobility +were already detained. On the following day Eric murdered Nils in his +cell with his own hand, and by his order the other prisoners were +despatched by the royal provost marshal forthwith. These murders were +committed so promptly and secretly that it is doubtful whether the +estates, actually in session at the same place, knew what had been done +when, on the 26th of May, under violent pressure from Goran Persson, +they signed a document declaring that all the accused gentlemen under +detention had acted like traitors, and confirming all sentences already +passed or that might be passed upon them. + +During the greater part of 1567 Eric was so deranged that a committee +of senators was appointed to govern the kingdom. One of his illusions +was that not he was king but his brother John, whom he now set at +liberty. When, at the beginning of 1568, Eric recovered his reason, a +reconciliation was effected between the king and the duke, on condition +that John recognized the legality of his brother's marriage with Karin +Mansdatter, and her children as the successors to the throne. A month +later, on the 4th of July, he was solemnly married to Karin at Stockholm +by the primate. The next day Karin was crowned queen of Sweden and her +infant son Gustavus proclaimed prince-royal. Shortly after his marriage +Eric issued a circular ordering a general thanksgiving for his delivery +from the assaults of the devil. This document, in every line of which +madness is legible, convinced most thinking people that Eric was unfit +to reign. The royal dukes, John and Charles, had already taken measures +to depose him; and in July the rebellion broke out in Ostergotland. Eric +at first offered a stout resistance and won two victories; but on the +17th of September the dukes stood before Stockholm, and Eric, after +surrendering Goran Persson to the horrible vengeance of his enemies, +himself submitted, and resigned the crown. On the 30th of September 1568 +John III. was proclaimed king by the army and the nobility; and a +_Riksdag_, summoned to Stockholm, confirmed the choice and formally +deposed Eric on the 25th of January 1569. For the next seven years the +ex-king was a source of the utmost anxiety to the new government. No +fewer than three rebellions, with the object of releasing and +reinstating him, had to be suppressed, and his prison was changed half a +dozen times. On the 10th of March 1575, an assembly of notables, lay and +clerical, at John's request, pronounced a formal sentence of death upon +him. Two years later, on the 24th of February 1577, he died suddenly in +his new prison at Orbyhus, poisoned, it is said, by his governor, Johan +Henriksen. + + See _Sveriges Historia_, vol. iii. (Stockholm, 1880); Robert Nisbet + Bain, _Scandinavia_, cap. 4-6 (Cambridge, 1905); Eric Tegel, _Konung + Eriks den XIV. historia_ (Stockholm, 1751). (R. N. B.) + + + + +ERICACEAE, in botany, a natural order of plants belonging to the higher +or gamopetalous division of Dicotyledons. They are woody plants, +sometimes with a slender creeping stem as in bilberry, _Vaccinium_ (fig. +1), or _Andromeda_ (fig. 2), or forming low bushes as in the heaths, or +larger, sometimes becoming tree-like, as in species of _Rhododendron_. +The leaves are alternate, opposite or whorled in arrangement, and in +their form and structure show well-marked adaptation for life in dry or +exposed situations. Thus in the true heaths they are needle-like, with +the margins often rolled back to form a groove or an almost closed +chamber on the under side. In others such as _Rhododendron_ or _Arbutus_ +they are often leathery and evergreen, the strongly cuticularized upper +surface protecting a water-storing tissue situated above the green +layers of the leaf. The flowers are sometimes solitary and axillary or +terminal as in _Andromeda_, but are generally arranged in racemose +inflorescences at the end of the branches as in _Arbutus_ and +_Rhododendron_, or on small lateral shoots as in _Erica_. They are +hermaphrodite and generally regular with parts in 4 or 5, thus: sepals +4 or 5, petals 4 or 5, stamens 8 or 10 in two series, the outer of which +is opposite the petals, and carpels 4 or 5. The corolla is usually more +or less bell-shaped, and in the heaths persists in a dry state in the +fruit. The petals with the stamens are situated on the outer edge of a +honey-secreting disk. The anthers show a very great variety in shape, +the halves are often more or less free and often appendaged; they open +to allow the escape of the pollen by a terminal pore or slit. The +carpels are united to form a 4- to 5-chambered ovary, which bears a +simple elongated style ending in a capitate stigma; each ovary-chamber +contains one to many ovules attached to a central placenta. The brightly +coloured corolla, the presence of nectar and the scent render the +flowers attractive to insects, and the projection of the stigma beyond +the anthers favours crossing. The fruit is generally a capsule +containing many seeds, as in _Erica_ (fig. 3) or _Rhododendron_; +sometimes a berry as in _Arbutus_. + +[Illustration: FIG. 1.--_Vaccinium vitis-idaea_, with leaf and flower, +nat. size. 1, Flower of _V. myrtillus_, cut lengthwise. 2, Fruit of +same.] + +[Illustration: FIG. 2.--_Andromeda Hypnoides_, nat. size. 1, Flower; 2, +Unripe fruit cut across; 3, Stamen--all enlarged.] + +[Illustration: FIG. 3. + + 1, Flowering shoot of _Erica cinerea_, about 1-1/2 nat. size. + 2, Flower cut lengthwise. + 3, Stamen showing appendages and porous dehiscence of anther. + 4, Capsule showing the loculicidal dehiscence; a few seeds remain + attached to the central axis. + 5, Diagram of the flower having four sepals, four divisions of the + corolla, eight stamens in two rows, and four divisions of the + pistil.] + +The order falls into four distinct tribes, which are characterized by +the relative position of the ovary and by the fruit and seed. They are +as follows:-- + +1. _Rhododendron tribe_, characterized by capsular fruit, seed with a +loose coat, deciduous petals and anthers without appendages. It consists +mainly of the great genus _Rhododendron_ (in which _Azalea_ is included +by recent botanists), which is chiefly developed in the mountains of +eastern Asia, many species occurring on the Himalayas. _Dabeocia_, St +Dabeoc's heath, occurs in Ireland. + +2. _Arbutus Tribe._--Fruit a berry or capsule, petals deciduous and +anthers with bristle-like appendages, chiefly north temperate to arctic +in distribution. _Arbutus Unedo_, the strawberry-tree, so called from +its large scarlet berry, is a southern European species which extends +into south Ireland. _Arctostaphylos_ (bearberry) and _Andromeda_ are +arctic and alpine genera occurring in Britain. _Epigaea repens_ is the +trailing arbutus or mayflower of Atlantic America. + +3. _Vaccinium Tribe._--Ovary inferior, fruit a berry. Extends from the +north temperate zone to the mountains of the tropics. _Vaccinium_, the +largest genus, has four British species: _V. Myrtillus_ is the bilberry +(q.v.), blaeberry or whortleberry, _V. Vitis-Idaea_ the cowberry, and +_V. Oxycoccos_ the cranberry (q.v.). This tribe is sometimes regarded as +a separate order Vacciniaceae, distinguished by its inferior ovary. + +4. _Erica Tribe._--Fruit usually a capsule, seeds round, not winged; +corolla persisting round the ripe fruit; anthers often appendaged. The +largest genus is _Erica_, the true heath (q.v.), with over 400 species, +the great majority of which are confined to the Cape; others occur on +the mountains of tropical Africa and in Europe and North Africa, +especially the Mediterranean region. _E. cinerea_ (purple heather) and +_E. Tetralix_ (cross-leaved heath) are common British heaths. _Calluna_ +is the ling or Scotch heather. + + + + +ERICHSEN, SIR JOHN ERIC, Bart. (1818-1896), British surgeon, born on the +19th of July 1818 at Copenhagen, was the son of Eric Erichsen, a member +of a well-known Danish family. He studied medicine at University +College, London, and at Paris, devoting himself in the early years of +his career to physiology, and lecturing on general anatomy and +physiology at University College hospital. In 1844 he was secretary to +the physiological section of the British Association, and in 1845 he was +awarded the Fothergillian gold medal of the Royal Humane Society for his +essay on asphyxia. In 1848 he was appointed assistant surgeon at +University College hospital, and in 1850 became full surgeon and +professor of surgery, his lectures and clinical teaching being much +admired; and in 1875 he joined the consulting staff. His _Science and +Art of Surgery_ (1853) went through many editions. He rose to be +president of the College of Surgeons in 1880. From 1879 to 1881 he was +president of the Royal Medical and Chirurgical Society. He was created a +baronet in 1895, having been for some years surgeon-extraordinary to +Queen Victoria. As a surgeon his reputation was world-wide, and he +counts (says Sir W. MacCormac in his volume on the Centenary of the +Royal College of Surgeons) "among the makers of modern surgery." He was +a recognized authority on concussion of the spine, and was often called +to give evidence in court on obscure cases caused by railway accidents, +&c. He died at Folkestone on the 23rd of September 1896. + + + + +ERICHT, LOCH, a lake partly in Inverness-shire and partly in Perthshire, +Scotland, lying between the districts of Badenoch on the N. and Rannoch +on the S. The boundary line is drawn from a point opposite to the mouth +of the Alder, and follows the centre of the longitudinal axis +north-eastwards to 56 deg. 50' N., where it strikes eastwards to the +shore. All of the lake to the S. and E. of this line belongs to +Perthshire, the rest, forming the major portion, to Inverness-shire. It +is a lonely lake, situated in extremely wild surroundings at a height of +1153 ft. above the sea, being thus the loftiest lake of large size in +the United Kingdom. It is over 14-1/2 m. long, with a mean breadth of +half a mile and over 1 m. at its maximum. Its area amounts to some 7-1/4 +sq. m., and it receives the drainage of an area of nearly 50-1/2 sq. m. +The mean depth is 189 ft., and the maximum 512 ft. It has a general +trend from N.E. to S.W., the head lying 1 m. from Dalwhinnie station on +the Highland railway. It receives many streams, and discharges at the +south-western extremity by the Ericht. Salmon and trout afford good +fishing. The surrounding mountains are lofty and rugged. Ben Alder (3757 +ft.) on the west shore is the chief feature of the great Corrour deer +forest. The only point of interest on the banks is the cavern, near the +mouth of the Alder, in which Prince Charles Edward concealed himself for +a time after the battle of Culloden. + + + + +ERICSSON, JOHN (1803-1889), Swedish-American naval engineer, was born at +Langbanshyttan, Wermland, Sweden, on the 31st of July 1803. He was the +second son of Olaf Ericsson, an inspector of mines, who died in 1818. +Showing from his earliest years a strong mechanical bent, young +Ericsson, at the age of twelve, was employed as a draughtsman by the +Swedish Canal Company. From 1820 to 1827 he served in the army, where +his drawing and military maps attracted the attention of the king, and +he soon attained the rank of captain. In 1826 he went to London, at +first on leave of absence from his regiment, and in partnership with +John Braithwaite constructed the "Novelty," a locomotive engine for the +Liverpool & Manchester railway competition at Rainhill in 1829, when the +prize, however, was won by Stephenson's "Rocket." The number of +Ericsson's inventions at this period was very great. Among other things +he worked out a plan for marine engines placed entirely below the +water-line. Such engines were made for the "Victory," for Captain +(afterwards Sir) John Ross's voyage to the Arctic regions in 1829, but +they did not prove satisfactory. In 1833 his caloric engine was made +public. In 1836 he took out a patent for a screw-propeller, and though +the priority of his invention could not be maintained, he was afterwards +awarded a one-fifth share of the L20,000 given by the Admiralty for it. +At this time Captain Stockton, of the United States navy, gave an order +for a small iron vessel to be built by Laird of Birkenhead, and to be +fitted by Ericsson with engines and screw. This vessel reached New York +in May 1839. A few months later Ericsson followed his steamer to New +York, and there he resided for the rest of his life, establishing +himself as an engineer and a builder of iron ships. In 1848 he was +naturalized as a citizen of the United States. He had many difficulties +to contend with, and it was only by slow degrees that he established his +fame and won his way to competence. At his death he seems to have been +worth about L50,000. The provision of defensive armour for ships of war +had long occupied his attention, and he had constructed plans and a +model of a vessel lying low in the water, carrying one heavy gun in a +circular turret mounted on a turntable. In 1854 he sent his plans to the +emperor of the French. Louis Napoleon, however, acting probably on the +advice of Dupuy de Lome, declined to use them. The American Civil War, +and the report that the Confederates were converting the "Merrimac" into +an ironclad, caused the navy department to invite proposals for the +construction of armoured ships. Among others, Ericsson replied, and as +it was thought that his design might be serviceable in inland waters, +the first armoured turret ship, the "Monitor," was ordered; she was +launched on the 30th of January 1862, and on the 9th of March she fought +the celebrated action with the Confederate ram "Merrimac." The peculiar +circumstances in which she was built, the great importance of the +battle, and the decisive nature of the result gave the "Monitor" an +exaggerated reputation, which further experience did not confirm. In +later years Ericsson devoted himself to the study of torpedoes and sun +motors. He published _Solar Investigations_ (New York, 1875) and +_Contributions to the Centennial Exhibition_ (New York, 1877). He died +in New York on the 8th of March 1889, and in the following year, on the +request of the Swedish government, his body was sent to Stockholm and +thence into Wermland, where, at Filipstad, it was buried on the 15th of +September. + + A _Life of Ericsson_ by William Conant Church was published in + New York in 1890 and in London in 1893. + + + + +ERIDANUS, or FLUVIUS ("the river"), in astronomy, a constellation of the +southern hemisphere, mentioned by Eudoxus (4th century B.C.) and Aratus +(3rd century B.C.); Ptolemy catalogued 34 stars in it. [theta] +_Eridani_, a fine double star of magnitudes 3.5 and 5.5, is now of the +third magnitude. It is supposed to be identical with the _Achernar_ of +Al-Sufi, who described it as of the first magnitude; this star has +therefore decreased in brilliancy in historic times. The star [omicron]2 +_Eridani_ (numbered 40 by Flamsteed) was discovered to be a ternary +star group by Herschel in 1783; it consists of a close pair, of +magnitudes 9.2 and 10.9, revolving in a period of 180 years, associated +with a star of magnitude 4.5, which is distant from the pair by 82"; +these stars have an exceptionally swift proper motion, about 4" per +annum. Eridanus was the ancient name of the river Po. + + + + +ERIDU, one of the oldest religious centres of the Sumerians, described +in the ancient Babylonian records as the "city of the deep." The special +god of this city was Ea (q.v.), god of the sea and of wisdom, and the +prominence given to this god in the incantation literature of Babylonia +and Assyria suggests not only that many of our magical texts are to be +traced ultimately to the temple of Ea at Eridu, but that this side of +the Babylonian religion had its origin in that place. Certain of the +most ancient Babylonian myths, especially that of Adapa, may also be +traced back to the shrine of Ea at Eridu. But while of the first +importance in matters of religion, there is no evidence in Babylonian +literature of any special political importance attaching to Eridu, and +certainly at no time within our knowledge did it exercise hegemony in +Babylonia. The site of Eridu was discovered by J.E. Taylor in 1854, in a +ruin then called by the natives Abu-Shahrein, a few miles +south-south-west of Moghair, ancient Ur, nearly in the centre of the dry +bed of an inland sea, a deep valley, 15 m. at its broadest, covered for +the most part with a nitrous incrustation, separated from the alluvial +plain about Moghair by a low, pebbly, sandstone range, called the Hazem, +but open toward the north to the Euphrates and stretching southward to +the Khanega wadi below Suk-esh-Sheiukh. In the rainy season this valley +becomes a sea, flooded by the discharge of the Khanega; in summer the +Arabs dig holes here which supply them with brackish water. The ruins, +in which Taylor conducted brief excavations, consist of a platform of +fine sand enclosed by a sandstone wall, 20 ft. high, the corners toward +the cardinal points, on the N.W. part of which was a pyramidal tower of +two stages, constructed of sun-dried brick, cased with a wall of +kiln-burned brick, the whole still standing to a height of about 70 ft. +above the platform. The summit of the first stage was reached by a +staircase on the S.E. side, 15 ft. wide and 70 ft. long, constructed of +polished marble slabs, fastened with copper bolts, flanked at the foot +by two curious columns. An inclined road led up to the second stage on +the N.W. side. Pieces of polished alabaster and marble, with small +pieces of pure gold and gold-headed copper nails, found on and about the +top of the second stage, indicated that a small but richly adorned +sacred chamber, apparently plated within or without in gold, formerly +crowned the top of this structure. Around the whole tower was a pavement +of inscribed baked bricks, resting on a layer of clay 2 ft. thick. On +the S.E. part of the terrace were the remains of several edifices, +containing suites of rooms. Inscriptions on the bricks identified the +site as that of Eridu. Since Taylor's time the place has not been +visited by any explorer, owing to the unsafe condition of the +neighbourhood; but T.K. Loftus (1854) and J.P. Peters (1890) both report +having seen it from the summit of Moghair. The latter states that the +Arabs at that time called the ruin Nowawis, and apparently no longer +knew the name Abu-Shahrein. Through an error, in many recent maps and +Assyriological publications Eridu is described as located in the +alluvial plain, between the Tigris and the Euphrates. It was, in fact, +an island city in an estuary of the Persian Gulf, stretching up into the +Arabian plateau. Originally "on the shore of the sea," as the old +records aver, it is now about 120 m. from the head of the Persian Gulf. +Calculating from the present rate of deposit of alluvium at the head of +that gulf, Eridu should have been founded as early as the seventh +millennium B.C. It is mentioned in historical inscriptions from the +earliest times onward, as late as the 6th century B.C. From the evidence +of Taylor's excavations, it would seem that the site was abandoned about +the close of the Babylonian period. + + See J.E. Taylor, _Journal of the Royal Asiatic Society_, vol. xv. + (1855); F. Delitzsch, _Wo lag das Paradies?_ (1881); J.P. Peters, + _Nippur_ (1897); M. Jastrow, _The Religion of Babylonia and Assyria_ + (1898); H.V. Hilprecht, _Excavations in Assyria and Babylonia_ (1904); + L.W. King, _A History of Sumer and Akkad_ (1910). (J. P. Pe.) + + + + + +ERIE, the most southerly of the Great Lakes of North America, between 41 +deg. 23' and 42 deg. 53' N., and 78 deg. 51' and 83 deg. 28' W., bounded +W. by the state of Michigan, S. and S.E. by Ohio, Pennsylvania and New +York, and N. by the province of Ontario. It is nearly elliptical, the +major axis, 250 m. long, lying east and west; its greatest breadth is 60 +m.; its area about 10,000 sq. m.; and the total area of its basin 34,412 +sq. m. Its elevation above mean sea-level is 573 ft.; and its surface is +nearly 9 ft. below that of Lake Huron, which discharges into it through +St Clair river, Lake St Clair and Detroit river, and is 327 ft. above +that of Lake Ontario, this great difference being absorbed by the rapids +and falls in the Niagara river, which joins the two lakes. Lake Erie is +very shallow, and may be divided into three basins, the western +extending to Point Pelee and including all the islands, containing about +1200 sq. m., with a comparatively flat bottom at 5 to 6 fathoms; the +main basin, between Point Pelee and the narrows at Long Point, +containing about 6700 sq. m., and having a marked shelving bottom +deepening gradually to 14 fathoms; and the portion east of the narrows, +containing about 2100 sq. m., having a depression 30 fathoms deep just +east from Long Point, with an extensive flat of 11 fathoms depth between +it and the main basin. The Canadian shore is low and flat throughout, +the United States shore is low but bordered by an elevated plateau +through which the rivers have cut deep channels. The lake basin is +relatively so small that the rivers are without importance; Grand river, +on the north shore, is the largest tributary. The flat alluvial soil +bordering on the lake is very fertile, and the climate is well adapted +for fruit cultivation. Large quantities of peaches, grapes and small +fruits are grown; the islands in the west end have a climate much warmer +and more equable than the adjoining mainland, and are practically +covered with vineyards. The low clayey or sandy shores are subject to +erosion by waves. In severe storms the water near shore is filled with +sand, which is deposited where the currents are checked around the ends +of jetties in such a way as to form bars out into the lake across +improved channels. This shoaling has rendered continuous dredging +necessary at every harbour on the lake west of Erie, Pa. In consequence +of the shallowness of the lake its waters are easily disturbed, making +navigation very rough and dangerous, and causing large fluctuations of +surface. Strong winds are frequent, as nearly every cyclonic depression +traversing North America, either from the westward or the Gulf of +Mexico, passes near enough to Lake Erie to be felt. Westerly gales are +more frequent, and have more effect on the water surface than easterly +ones, lowering the water as much as 7 to 8 ft. at the west end and +raising it 5 to 8 ft. at the east end. The worst storms occur in autumn, +when the immense quantity of shipping on the lake makes them specially +destructive. There are no tides, and usually only a slight current +towards the outlet, though powerful currents are temporarily produced by +the rapid return of waters after a storm, and during the height of a +westerly gale there is invariably a reflex current into the west end of +the lake. There is an annual fluctuation in the level of the lake, +varying from a minimum of 9 in. to a maximum of 2 ft., the normal low +level occurring in February and the high level in midsummer. Standard +high water (of 1838) is 575.11 ft. above mean sea-level, and the lowest +record was 570.8 in November 1895. The harbours and exits of the lake +freeze over, but the body of the lake never freezes completely. + +Ice-breaking car ferries run across the lake all winter. General +navigation opens as a rule in the middle of April and closes in the +middle of December. The volume of traffic is immense, because +practically all freight from the more westerly lakes finds terminal +harbours in Lake Erie. Official statistics of commerce passing through +the Detroit river into the lake during the season of 1906 show that +35,128 vessels, having a net register of 50,673,897 tons, carried +63,805,571 (short) tons of freight, valued at $662,971,053. The 1175 +vessels engaged in this business were valued at $106,223,000. Over 90% +of the whole traffic is in United States ships to United States ports. +Fine passenger steamers run nightly between Buffalo and Cleveland and +Detroit, and there are many shorter passenger routes. + +The large traffic on Lake Erie has brought into existence a number of +important harbours on the south shore, nearly all artificially made and +deepened, with entrances between two breakwaters running into the lake +at right angles to the coast line. The principal of these are Toledo, +Sandusky, Huron, Vermilion, Lorain, Cleveland, Fairport, Ashtabula, +Conneaut, Erie (a natural harbour), Dunkirk and Buffalo, Rondeau, Port +Stanley, Port Burwell, Port Dover, Port Maitland and Port Colborne. The +Miami and Erie canal, leading from Maumee river to Cincinnati, 244-1/2 +m., with a branch to Port Jefferson, 14 m., with locks 90 by 15 by 4 +ft., connects with Lake Erie through Toledo. The Erie canal leading from +Buffalo to the Hudson river at Troy, and connecting with Lake Ontario at +Oswego, had a capacity for boats 98 ft. long, 17 ft. 10 in. beam, with 6 +ft. draught, until in 1907 the State of New York undertook its deepening +to accommodate boats of 1000 tons capacity. Buffalo from its position at +the eastern limit of deep draught lake navigation is a city of first +rate commercial importance. Its harbour is formed by an artificial +breakwater, built parallel with the shore about half a mile distant from +it. It receives practically all the Lake Erie grain shipments besides +large quantities of iron ore, lumber and copper, and is a large shipping +port for coal, principally anthracite. It has over 600 m. of railway +tracks to accommodate lake freights. The Welland canal, 26-3/4 m. long, +connecting Lake Ontario and Lake Erie, with locks 270 by 45 by 14 ft., +leaves Lake Erie at Port Colborne, where the Canadian government have +constructed an artificial harbour and elevators for transhipment of +grain from upper lake freighters to lighters of canal capacity. + +Fishing operations are carried on extensively in Lake Erie, the fish +being taken with gill nets, seines and pound nets. Each state touching +the lake has its own fishery regulations, which differ amongst +themselves as well as from those of the Dominion. Both nations maintain +a Fishery Protection Service, and the fisheries are replenished from +artificial hatcheries. The most numerous and valuable fish are the +lesser white fish (_Coregonus artedi_, Le Sueur), pickerel +(_Stizostedion vitreum_, Walb.), pike (_Lucius lucius_, L.), and white +fish (_Coregonus clupeiformis_, Mitchill), in the order named. The fish +caught are estimated to be worth annually $1,000,000. They are collected +in fishing tugs and distributed by rail throughout the United States and +Canada. + + _Bibliography._--_Bulletin No. 17, Survey of Northern and + North-western Lakes_, U.S. Lake Survey Office, War Dept. (Detroit, + 1907); _U.S. Hydrographic Office, Publication No. 108D, Sailing + Directions for Lake Erie, &c._ (Washington, 1902); _Sailing Directions + for the Canadian Shore of Lake Erie_, Department of Marine and + Fisheries (Ottawa, 1897); J.O. Curwood, _The Great Lakes_ (New York, + 1909); E. Channing and M.F. Lansing, _The Great Lakes_ (New York, + 1909). (W. P. A.) + + + + +ERIE, a city, a port of entry, and the county-seat of Erie county, +Pennsylvania, U.S.A., on Lake Erie, 148 m. by rail N. of Pittsburg and +near the N.W. corner of the state. Pop. (1890) 40,634; (1900) 52,733, of +whom 11,957 were foreign-born, including 5226 from Germany and 1468 from +Ireland, and 26,797 were of foreign parentage (both parents +foreign-born), including 13,316 of German parentage and 4203 of Irish +parentage; (1910 census) 66,525. Erie is served by the New York, Chicago +& St Louis, the Lake Shore & Michigan Southern, the Erie & Pittsburg +(Pennsylvania Company), the Philadelphia & Erie (Pennsylvania railway), +and the Bessemer & Lake Erie railways, and by steamboat lines to many +important lake ports. The city extends over an area of about 7 sq. m., +which for the most part is quite level and is from 50 to 175 ft. above +the lake. Erie has a fine harbour about 4 m. in length, more than 1 m. +in width, and with an average depth of about 20 ft.; it is nearly +enclosed by Presque Isle, a long narrow strip of land of about 3000 +acres from 300 ft. to 1 m. in width, and the national government has +protected its entrance and deepened its channel by constructing two long +breakwaters. Most of the streets of the city are 60 ft. wide--a few are +100 ft.--and nearly all intersect at right angles; they are paved with +brick and asphalt, and many in the residential quarters are shaded with +fine elms and maples. The city has four parks, in one of which is a +soldiers' and sailors' monument of granite and bronze, and not far away, +along the shore of lake and bay, are several attractive summer resorts. +Among Erie's more prominent buildings are the United States government +building, the city hall, the public library, and the county court house. +The city's charitable institutions consist of two general hospitals, +each of which has a training school for nurses; a municipal hospital, an +orphan asylum, a home for the friendless, two old folks' homes, and a +bureau of charities; here, also, on a bluff, within a large enclosure +and overlooking both lake and city, is the state soldiers' and sailors' +home, and near by is a monument erected to the memory of General Anthony +Wayne, who died here on the 15th of December 1796. + +Erie is the commercial centre of a large and rich grape-growing and +agricultural district, has an extensive trade with the lake ports and by +rail (chiefly in coal, iron ore, lumber and grain), and is an important +manufacturing centre, among its products being iron, engines, boilers, +brass castings, stoves, car heaters, flour, malt liquors, lumber, +planing mill products, cooperage products, paper and wood pulp, cigars +and other tobacco goods, gas meters, rubber goods, pipe organs, pianos +and chemicals. In 1905 the city's factory products were valued at +$19,911,567, the value of foundry and machine-shop products being +$6,723,819, of flour and grist-mill products $1,444,450, and of malt +liquors $882,493. The municipality owns and operates its water-works. + +On the site of Erie the French erected Fort Presque Isle in 1753, and +about it founded a village of a few hundred inhabitants. George +Washington, on behalf of the governor of Virginia, came in the same year +to Fort Le Boeuf (on the site of the present Waterford), 20 m. distant, +to protest against the French fortifying this section of country. The +protest, however, was unheeded. The village was abandoned in or before +1758, owing probably to an epidemic of smallpox, and the fort was +abandoned in 1759. It was occupied by the British in 1760, but on the +22nd of June 1763 this was one of the several forts captured by the +Indians during the Conspiracy of Pontiac. In 1764 the British regained +nominal control and retained it until 1785, when it passed into the +possession of the United States. The place was laid out as a town in +1795; in 1800 it became the county-seat of the newly-erected county of +Erie; it was incorporated as a borough in 1805, the charter of that year +being revised in 1833; and in 1851 it was incorporated as a city. At +Erie were built within less than six months most of the vessels with +which Commodore Oliver H. Perry won his naval victory over the British +off Put-in-Bay on the 10th of September 1813. + + + + +ERIGENA, JOHANNES SCOTUS (c. 800-c. 877), medieval philosopher and +theologian. His real name was Johannes Scotus (Scottus) or John the +Scot. The combination Johannes Scotus Erigena has not been traced +earlier than Ussher and Gale; even Gale uses it only in the heading of +the version of St Maximus. The date of Erigena's birth is very +uncertain, and there is no evidence to show definitely where he was +born. The name Scotus, which has often been taken to imply Scottish +origin, really favours the theory that he was an Irishman according to +the then usage of _Scotus_ or _Scotigena_. Prudentius, bishop of Troyes, +definitely states that he was of Irish extraction. The pseudonym +commonly read Erigena, used by himself in the titles of his versions of +Dionysius the Areopagite, is _Ierugena_ (in later MSS. Erugena and +Eriugena), formed apparently on the analogy of _Graiugena_ +("Greek-born"), which he applies to St Maximus. There seems no reason to +doubt that Eriugena is connected with Erin, the name for Ireland, and +Ierugena suggests the Greek [Greek: hieros, hieros nesos] being a common +name for Ireland. On the other hand, William of Malmesbury prefers to +read Heruligena, which would make Scotus a Pannonian, while Bale says he +was born at St David's, Dempster connects him with Ayr, and Gale with +Eriuven in Hereford. Some early writers thought there were two persons, +John Scotus and John Erigena. + +Of Erigena's early life nothing is known. Bale quotes the story that he +travelled in Greece, Italy and Gaul, and studied not only Greek, but +also Arabic and Chaldaean. Since, however, Bale describes him as "ex +patricio genitore natus," it is a reasonable inference (so R.L. Poole) +that Bale confused him with one John, the son of Patricius, a Spaniard, +who tells much the same story of his own travels. The knowledge of Greek +displayed in Erigena's works is not such as to compel us to conclude +that he had actually visited Greece. That he had a competent +acquaintance with Greek is manifest from his translations of Dionysius +the Areopagite and of Maximus, from the manner in which he refers to +Aristotle, and from his evident familiarity with Neoplatonist writers +and the fathers of the early church. Roger Bacon, in his severe +criticism on the ignorance of Greek displayed by the most eminent +scholastic writers, expressly exempts Erigena, and ascribes to him a +knowledge of Aristotle in the original. + +Among other legends which have at various times been attached to Erigena +are that he was invited to France by Charlemagne, and that he was one of +the founders of the university of Paris. The only portion of Erigena's +life as to which we possess accurate information was that spent at the +court of Charles the Bald. Charles invited him to France soon after his +accession to the throne, probably in the year 843, and placed him at the +head of the court school (_schola palatina_). The reputation of this +school seems to have increased greatly under Erigena's leadership, and +the philosopher himself was treated with indulgence by the king. William +of Malmesbury's amusing story illustrates both the character of Scotus +and the position he occupied at the French court. The king having asked, +"Quid distat inter sottum et Scottum?" Erigena replied, "Mensa tantum." + +The first of the works known to have been written by Erigena during this +period was a treatise on the eucharist, which has not come down to us +(by some it has been identified with a treatise by Ratramnus, _De +corpore et sanguine Domini_). In it he seems to have advanced the +doctrine that the eucharist was merely symbolical or commemorative, an +opinion for which Berengarius was at a later date censured and +condemned. As a part of his penance Berengarius is said to have been +compelled to burn publicly Erigena's treatise. So far as we can learn, +however, Erigena's orthodoxy was not at the time suspected, and a few +years later he was selected by Hincmar, archbishop of Reims, to defend +the doctrine of liberty of will against the extreme predestinarianism of +the monk Gottschalk (Gotteschalchus). The treatise _De divina +praedestinatione_, composed on this occasion, has been preserved, and +from its general tenor one cannot be surprised that the author's +orthodoxy was at once and vehemently suspected. Erigena argues the +question entirely on speculative grounds, and starts with the bold +affirmation that philosophy and religion are fundamentally one and the +same--"Conficitur inde veram esse philosophiam veram religionem, +conversimque veram religionem esse veram philosophiam." Even more +significant is his handling of authority and reason, to which we shall +presently refer. The work was warmly assailed by Drepanius Florus, canon +of Lyons, and Prudentius, and was condemned by two councils--that of +Valence in 855, and that of Langres in 859. By the former council his +arguments were described as _Pultes Scotorum_ ("Scots porridge") and +_commentum diaboli_ ("an invention of the devil"). + +Erigena's next work was a Latin translation of Dionysius the Areopagite +(see DIONYSIUS AREOPAGITICUS) undertaken at the request of Charles the +Bald. This also has been preserved, and fragments of a commentary by +Erigena on Dionysius have been discovered in MS. A translation of the +Areopagite's pantheistical writings was not likely to alter the opinion +already formed as to Erigena's orthodoxy. Pope Nicholas I. was offended +that the work had not been submitted for approval before being given to +the world, and ordered Charles to send Erigena to Rome, or at least to +dismiss him from his court. There is no evidence, however, that this +order was attended to. + +The latter part of his life is involved in total obscurity. The story +that in 882 he was invited to Oxford by Alfred the Great, that he +laboured there for many years, became abbot at Malmesbury, and was +stabbed to death by his pupils with their "styles," is apparently +without any satisfactory foundation, and doubtless refers to some other +Johannes. Erigena in all probability never left France, and Haureau has +advanced some reasons for fixing the date of his death about 877. + +Erigena is the most interesting figure among the middle-age writers. The +freedom of his speculation, and the boldness with which he works out his +logical or dialectical system of the universe, altogether prevent us +from classing him along with the scholastics properly so called. He +marks, indeed, a stage of transition from the older Platonizing +philosophy to the later and more rigid scholasticism. In no sense +whatever can it be affirmed that with Erigena philosophy is in the +service of theology. The above-quoted assertion as to the substantial +identity between philosophy and religion is indeed repeated almost +_totidem verbis_ by many of the later scholastic writers, but its +significance altogether depends upon the selection of one or other term +of the identity as fundamental or primary. Now there is no possibility +of mistaking Erigena's position: to him philosophy or reason is first, +is primitive; authority or religion is secondary, derived. "Auctoritas +siquidem ex vera ratione processit, ratio vero nequaquam ex auctoritate. +Omnis enim auctoritas, quae vera ratione non approbatur, infirma videtur +esse. Vera autem ratio, quum virtutibus suis rata atque immutabilis +munitur, nullius auctoritatis adstipulatione roborari indiget" (_De +divisione naturae_, i. 71). F.D. Maurice, the only historian of note who +declines to ascribe a rationalizing tendency to Erigena, obscures the +question by the manner in which he states it. He asks his readers, after +weighing the evidence advanced, to determine "whether he (Erigena) used +his philosophy to explain away his theology, or to bring out what he +conceived to be the fullest meaning of it." These alternatives seem to +be wrongly put. "Explaining away theology" is something wholly foreign +to the philosophy of that age; and even if we accept the alternative +that Erigena endeavours speculatively to bring out the full meaning of +theology, we are by no means driven to the conclusion that he was +primarily or principally a theologian. He does not start with the datum +of theology as the completed body of truth, requiring only elucidation +and interpretation; his fundamental thought is that of the universe, +nature, [Greek: to pan], or God, as the ultimate unity which works +itself out into the rational system of the world. Man and all that +concerns man are but parts of this system, and are to be explained by +reference to it; for explanation or understanding of a thing is +determination of its place in the universal or all. Religion or +revelation is one element or factor in the divine process, a stage or +phase of the ultimate rational life. The highest faculty of man, reason, +_intellectus_, _intellectualis visio_, is that which is not content with +the individual or partial, but grasps the whole and thereby comprehends +the parts. In this highest effort of reason, which is indeed God +thinking in man, thought and being are at one, the opposition of being +and thought is overcome. When Erigena starts with such propositions, it +is clearly impossible to understand his position and work if we insist +on regarding him as a scholastic, accepting the dogmas of the church as +ultimate data, and endeavouring only to present them in due order and +defend them by argument. + + Erigena's great work, _De divisione naturae_, which was condemned by a + council at Sens, by Honorius III. (1225), who described it as + "swarming with worms of heretical perversity," and by Gregory XIII. in + 1585, is arranged in five books. The form of exposition is that of + dialogue; the method of reasoning is the syllogistic. The leading + thoughts are the following. _Natura_ is the name for the universal, + the totality of all things, containing in itself being and non-being. + It is the unity of which all special phenomena are manifestations. But + of this nature there are four distinct classes:--(1) that which + creates and is not created; (2) that which is created and creates; (3) + that which is created and does not create; (4) that which neither is + created nor creates. The first is God as the ground or origin of all + things, the last is God as the final end or goal of all things, that + into which the world of created things ultimately returns. The second + and third together compose the created universe, which is the + manifestation of God, God _in processu_, _Theophania_. Thus we + distinguish in the divine system beginning, middle and end; but these + three are in essence one--the difference is only the consequence of + our finite comprehension. We are compelled to envisage this eternal + process under the form of time, to apply temporal distinctions to that + which is extra- or supra-temporal. The universe of created things, as + we have seen, is twofold:--_first_, that which is created and + creates--the primordial ideas, archetypes, immutable relations, divine + acts of will, according to which individual things are formed; + _second_, that which is created and does not create, the world of + individuals, the effects of the primordial causes, without which the + causes have no true being. Created things have no individual or + self-independent existence; they are only in God; and each thing is a + manifestation of the divine, _theophania_, _divina apparitio_. + + God alone, the uncreated creator of all, has true being. He is the + true universal, all-containing and incomprehensible. The lower cannot + comprehend the higher, and therefore we must say that the existence of + God is above being, above essence; God is above goodness, above + wisdom, above truth. No finite predicates can be applied to him; his + mode of being cannot be determined by any category. True theology is + negative. Nevertheless the world, as the _theophania_, the revelation + of God, enables us so far to understand the divine essence. We + recognize his being in the being of all things, his wisdom in their + orderly arrangement, his life in their constant motion. Thus God is + for us a Trinity--the Father as substance or being ([Greek: ousia]), + the Son as wisdom ([Greek: dynamis]), the Spirit as life ([Greek: + energeia]). These three are realized in the universe--the Father as + the system of things, the Son as the word, i.e. the realm of ideas, + the Spirit as the life or moving force which introduces individuality + and which ultimately draws back all things into the divine unity. In + man, as the noblest of created things, the Trinity is seen most + perfectly reflected; _intellectus_ ([Greek: nous]), _ratio_ ([Greek: + logos]) and _sensus_ ([Greek: dianoia]) make up the threefold thread + of his being. Not in man alone, however, but in all things, God is to + be regarded as realizing himself, as becoming incarnate. + + The infinite essence of God, which may indeed be described as + _nihilum_ (nothing) is that from which all is created, from which all + proceeds or emanates. The first procession or emanation, as above + indicated, is the realm of ideas in the Platonic sense, the word or + wisdom of God. These ideas compose a whole or inseparable unity, but + we are able in a dim way to think of them as a system logically + arranged. Thus the highest idea is that of _goodness_; things are, + only if they are good; being without well-being is naught. _Essence_ + participates in goodness--that which is good has being, and is + therefore to be regarded as a species of good. _Life_, again, is a + species of essence, _wisdom_ a species of life, and so on, always + descending from genus to species in a rigorous logical fashion. + + The ideas are the eternal causes, which, under the moving influence of + the spirit, manifest themselves in their effects, the individual + created things. Manifestation, however, is part of the being or + essence of the causes, that is to say, if we interpret the expression, + God of necessity manifests himself in the world and is not without the + world. Further, as the causes are eternal, timeless, so creation is + eternal, timeless. The Mosaic account, then, is to be looked upon + merely as a mode in which is faintly shadowed forth what is above + finite comprehension. It is altogether allegorical, and requires to be + interpreted. Paradise and the Fall have no local or temporal being. + Man was originally sinless and without distinction of sex. Only after + the introduction of sin did man lose his spiritual body, and acquire + the animal nature with its distinction of sex. Woman is the + impersonation of man's sensuous and fallen nature; on the final return + to the divine unity, distinction of sex will vanish, and the spiritual + body will be regained. + + The most remarkable and at the same time the most obscure portion of + the work is that in which the final return to God is handled. + Naturally sin is a necessary preliminary to this redemption, and + Erigena has the greatest difficulty in accounting for the fact of sin. + If God is true being, then sin can have no substantive existence; it + cannot be said that God knows of sin, for to God knowing and being are + one. In the universe of things, _as_ a universe, there can be no sin; + there must be perfect harmony. Sin, in fact, results from the will of + the individual who falsely represents something as good which is not + so. This misdirected will is punished by finding that the objects + after which it thirsts are in truth vanity and emptiness. Hell is not + to be regarded as having local existence; it is the inner state of the + sinful will. As the object of punishment is not the will or the + individual himself, but the misdirection of the will, so the result of + punishment is the final purification and redemption of all. Even the + devils shall be saved. All, however, are not saved at once; the stages + of the return to the final unity, corresponding to the stages in the + creative process, are numerous, and are passed through slowly. The + ultimate goal is _deificatio_, _theosis_ or resumption into the divine + being, when the individual soul is raised to a full knowledge of God, + and where knowing and being are one. After all have been restored to + the divine unity, there is no further creation. The ultimate unity is + that which neither is created nor creates. + + EDITIONS.--There is a complete edition of Erigena's works in J.P. + Migne's _Patrologiae cursus completus_ (vol. cxxii.), edited by H.J. + Floss (Paris, 1853). The _De divina praedestinatione_ was published in + Gilbert Mauguin's _Veterum auctorum qui nono saeculo de + praedestinatione et gratia scripserunt opera et fragmenta_ (Paris, + 1650). The commentary ("Expositiones") on Dionysius' _Hierarchiae + caelestes_ appeared in the _Appendix ad opera edita ab A. Maio_ (ed. + J. Cozza, Rome, 1871). Of the _De divisione naturae_, editions have + been published by Thomas Gale (Oxford, 1681); C.B. Schluter (Munster, + 1838); and in Floss's _Opera omnia_; there is a German translation by + Ludwig Noack, _Johannes Scotus Erigena uber die Eintheilung der Natur_ + (3 vols., 1874-1876). Erigena was also the author of some poems edited + by L. Traube in _Monumenta Germaniae historica. Poetae Latini aevi + Carolini_, iii. (1896). A commentary on the _Opuscula sacra_ of + Boetius is attributed to him and edited by E.K. Rand (1906). + Monographs on Erigena's life and works are numerous; see St Rene + Taillandier, _Scot Erigene et la philosophie scholastique_ (1843); T. + Christlieb, _Leben u. Lehre des Johannes Scotus Erigena_ (Gotha, + 1860); J.N. Huber, _Johannes Scotus Erigena_ (Munich, 1861); W. + Kaulich, _Das speculative System des Johannes Scotus Erigena_ (Prague, + 1860); A. Stockl, _De Joh. Scoto Erigena_ (1867); L. Noack, _Uber + Leben und Schriften des Joh. Scotus Erigena: die Wissenschaft und + Bildung seiner Zeit_ (Leipzig, 1876); R.L. Poole, _Medieval Thought_ + (1884), and article in _Dictionary of National Biography_; T. + Wotschke, _Fichte und Erigena_ (Halle, 1896); M. Baumgartner in Wetzer + and Welte's _Kirchenlexikon_, x. (1897); Alice Gardner's _Studies in + John the Scot_ (1900); J. Draseke, _Joh. Scotus Erigena und seine + Gewahrsmanner_ (Leipzig, 1902); S.M. Deutsch in Herzog-Hauck's + _Realencyklopadie fur protestantische Theologie_, xviii. (1906); J.E. + Sandys, _Hist. of Classical Scholarship_ (1906), pp. 491-495. See also + the general works on scholastic philosophy, especially Haureau, Stockl + and Kaulich. An admirable resume is given by F.D. Maurice, _Medieval + Phil._ pp. 45-79. (R. Ad.; J. M. M.) + + + + +ERIGONE, in Greek mythology, daughter of Icarius, the hero of the Attic +deme Icaria. Her father, who had been taught by Dionysus to make wine, +gave some to some shepherds, who became intoxicated. Their companions, +thinking they had been poisoned, killed Icarius and buried him under a +tree on Mount Hymettus (or threw his body into a well). Erigone, guided +by her faithful dog Maera, found his grave, and hanged herself on the +tree. Dionysus sent a plague on the land, and all the maidens of Athens, +in a fit of madness, hanged themselves like Erigone. Icarius, Erigone +and Maera were set among the stars as Bootes (or Arcturus), Virgo and +Procyon. The festival called Aeora (the "swing") was subsequently +instituted to propitiate Icarius and Erigone. Various small images (in +Lat. _oscilla_) were suspended on trees and swung backwards and +forwards, and offerings of fruit were made (Hyginus, _Fab._ 130, _Poet. +astron._ ii. 4; Apollodorus iii. 14). The story was probably intended to +explain the origin of these _oscilla_, by which Dionysus, as god of +trees (Dendrites), was propitiated, and the baneful influence of the +dog-star averted (see also OSCILLA). + + + + +ERIN, an ancient name for Ireland. The oldest form of the word is Eriu, +of which Erinn is the dative case. Eriu was itself almost certainly a +contraction from a still more primitive form _Iberiu_ or _Iveriu_; for +when the name of the island was written in ancient Greek it appeared as +[Greek: Iouernia] (Ivernia), and in Latin as _Iberio_, _Hiberio_ or +_Hibernia_, the first syllable of the word Eriu being thus represented +in the classical languages by two distinct vowel sounds separated by _b_ +or _v_. Of the Latin variants, _Iberio_ is the form found in the most +ancient Irish MSS., such as the _Confession_ of St Patrick, and the same +saint's _Epistle to Coroticus_. Further evidence to the same effect is +found in the fact that the ancient Breton and Welsh names for Ireland +were Ywerddon or Iverdon. In later Gaelic literature the primitive form +Eriu became the dissyllable Eire; hence the Norsemen called the island +the land of Eire, i.e. Ireland, the latter word being originally +pronounced in three syllables. (See IRELAND: _Notices of Ireland in +Greek and Roman writers_.) Nothing is known as to the meaning of the +word in any of its forms, and Whitley Stokes's suggestion that it may +have been connected with the Sanskrit _avara_, meaning "western," is +admittedly no more than conjecture. There was, indeed, a native Irish +legend, worthless from the standpoint of etymology, to account for the +origin of the name. According to this myth there were three kings of the +Dedannans reigning in Ireland at the coming of the Milesians, named +MacColl, MacKecht and MacGrena. The wife of the first was Eire, and from +her the name of the country was derived. Curiously, Ireland in ancient +Erse poetry was often called "Fodla" or "Bauba," and these were the +wives of the other two kings in the legend. + + + + +ERINNA, Greek poet, contemporary and friend of Sappho, a native of +Rhodes or the adjacent island of Telos, flourished about 600 (according +to Eusebius, 350 B.C.). Although she died at the early age of nineteen, +her poems were among the most famous of her time and considered to rank +with those of Homer. Of her best-known poem, [Greek: Elakate] (the +_Distaff_), written in a mixture of Aeolic and Doric, which contained +300 hexameter lines, only 4 lines are now extant. Three epigrams in the +Palatine anthology, also ascribed to her, probably belong to a later +date. + + The fragments have been edited (with those of Alcaeus) by J. + Pellegrino (1894). + + + + +ERINYES (Lat. _Furiae_), in Greek mythology, the avenging deities, +properly the angry goddesses or goddesses of the curse pronounced upon +evil-doers. According to Hesiod (_Theog._ 185) they were the daughters +of Earth, and sprang from the blood of the mutilated Uranus; in +Aeschylus (_Eum._ 321) they are the daughters of Night, in Sophocles +(_O.C._ 40) of Darkness and Earth. Sometimes one Erinys is mentioned, +sometimes several; Euripides first spoke of them as three in number, to +whom later Alexandrian writers gave the names Alecto (unceasing in +anger), Tisiphone (avenger of murder), Megaera (jealous). Their home is +the world below, whence they ascend to earth to pursue the wicked. They +punish all offences against the laws of human society, such as perjury, +violation of the rites of hospitality, and, above all, the murder of +relations. But they are not without benevolent and beneficent +attributes. When the sinner has expiated his crime they are ready to +forgive. Thus, their persecution of Orestes ceases after his acquittal +by the Areopagus. It is said that on this occasion they were first +called Eumenides ("the kindly"), a euphemistic variant of their real +name. At Athens, however, where they had a sanctuary at the foot of the +Areopagus hill and a sacred grove at Colonus, their regular name was +Semnae (venerable). Black sheep were sacrificed to them during the night +by the light of torches. A festival was held in their honour every year, +superintended by a special priesthood, at which the offerings consisted +of milk and honey mixed with water, but no wine. In Aeschylus, the +Erinyes are represented as awful, Gorgon-like women, wearing long black +robes, with snaky locks, bloodshot eyes and claw-like nails. Later, they +are winged maidens of serious aspect, in the garb of huntresses, with +snakes or torches in their hair, carrying scourges, torches or sickles. +The identification of Erinyes with Sanskrit Saranyu, the swift-speeding +storm cloud, is rejected by modern etymologists; according to M. Breal, +the Erinyes are the personification of the formula of imprecation +([Greek: ara]), while E. Rohde sees in them the spirits of the dead, the +angry souls of murdered men. + + See C.O. Muller, _Dissertations on the Eumenides of Aeschylus_, (Eng. + tr., 1835); A. Rosenberg, _Die Erinyen_ (1874); J.E. Harrison, + _Prolegomena to the Study of Greek Religion_ (1903); and _Journal of + Hellenic Studies_, xix. p. 205, according to whom the Erinyes were + primarily local ancestral ghosts, potent for good or evil after death, + earth genii, originally conceived as embodied in the form of snakes, + whose primitive haunt and sanctuary was the omphalos at Delphi; E. + Rohde, _Psyche_ (1903); A. Rapp in Roscher's _Lexikon der Mythologie_, + and J.A. Hild in Daremberg and Saglio's _Dictionnaire des antiquites_, + s.v. FURIAE. + + + + +ERIPHYLE, in Greek mythology, sister of Adrastus and wife of Amphiaraus. +Having been bribed by Polyneices with the necklace of Harmonia, she +persuaded her husband to take part in the expedition of the Seven +against Thebes, although he knew it would prove fatal to him. Before +setting out, the seer charged his sons to slay their mother as soon as +they heard of his death. The attack on Thebes was repulsed, and during +the flight the earth opened and swallowed up Amphiaraus together with +his chariot. His son Alcmaeon, as he had been bidden, slew his mother, +and was driven from place to place by the Erinyes, seeking purification +and a new home (Apollodorus iii. 6. 7). + + + + +ERIS, in Greek mythology, a sister of the war-god Ares (Homer, _Iliad_, +iv. 440), and in the Hesiodic theogony (225) a daughter of Night. In the +later legends of the Trojan War, Eris, not having been invited to the +marriage festival of Peleus and Thetis, flings a golden apple (the +"apple of discord") among the guests, to be given to the most beautiful. +The claims of the three deities Hera, Aphrodite and Athena are decided +by Paris in favour of Aphrodite, who as a reward assists him to gain +possession of Helen (Hyginus, _Fab._ 92; Lucian, _Charidemus_, 17). +Hesiod also mentions (_W. and D._ 24) a beneficent Eris, the +personification of honourable rivalry. In Virgil (_Aeneid_, viii. 702) +and other Roman poets Eris is represented by Discordia. + + + + +ERITH, an urban district in the north-western parliamentary division of +Kent, England, 14 m. E. by S. of London, on the South Eastern & Chatham +railway. Pop. (1891) 13,414; (1901) 25,296. It lies on the south bank of +the Thames and extends up the hills above the shore, many villas having +been erected on the higher ground. The park of a former seat, Belvedere, +was thus built over (c. 1860), and the mansion became a home for +disabled seamen. The church of St John the Baptist, though largely +altered by modern restoration, retains Early English to Perpendicular +portions, and some early monuments and brasses. Erith has large +engineering and gun factories, and in the neighbourhood are gunpowder, +oil, glue and manure works. The southern outfall works of the London +main drainage system are at Crossness in the neighbouring lowland called +Plumstead Marshes. Erith is the headquarters of several yacht clubs. +Erith, the name of which is commonly derived from A.S. _Aerra-hythe_ (old +haven), was anciently a borough, and was granted a market and fairs in +1313. Down to the close of the 17th century it was of some importance as +a naval station. + + + + +ERITREA, an Italian colony on the African coast of the Red Sea. It +extends from Ras Kasar, a cape 110 m. S. of Suakin, in 18 deg. 2' N., as +far as Ras Dumeira (12 deg. 42' N.), in the Strait of Bab-el-Mandeb, a +coast-line of about 650 m. The colony is bounded inland by the +Anglo-Egyptian Sudan, Abyssinia and French Somaliland. It consists of +the coast lands lying between the capes named and of part of the +northern portion of the Abyssinian plateau. The total area is about +60,000 sq. m. The population is approximately 450,000, of which, +exclusive of soldiers, not more than 3000 are whites. + +The land frontier starting from Ras Kasar runs in a south-westerly +direction until in about 14 deg. 15' N., 36 deg. 35' E. it reaches the +river Setit, some distance above the junction of that stream with the +Atbara. This, the farthest point inland, is 198 m. S.W. of Massawa. The +frontier now turns east, following for a short distance the course of +the river Setit; thence it strikes north-easterly to the Mareb, and from +38 deg. E. follows that river and its tributaries the Belesa and Muna, +until within 42 m. of the sea directly south of Annesley Bay. At this +point the frontier turns south and east, crossing the Afar or Danakil +country at a distance of 60 kilometres (37.28 m.) from the coast-line. +About 12 deg. 20' N. the French possessions in Somaliland are reached. +Here the frontier turns N.E. and so continues until the coast of the Red +Sea is again reached at a point south of the town of Raheita. In the +southern part of the colony are small sultanates, such as those of Aussa +and Raheita, which are under Italian protection. The Dahlak archipelago +and other groups of islands along the coast belong to Eritrea. + + _Physical Features._--The coast-line is of coral formation and is, in + the neighbourhood of Massawa, thickly studded with small islands. The + chief indentations are Annesley Bay, immediately south of Massawa, and + Assab Bay in the south. The colony consists of two widely differing + regions. The northern division is part of the Abyssinian highlands. + The southern division, part of the Afar or Danakil country, includes + all the territory of the colony south of Annesley Bay. These two + regions are connected by a narrow strip of land behind Annesley Bay, + where the Abyssinian hills approach close to the sea. From this bay + the coast-line trends S.E. so that at Tajura Bay the distance between + the Abyssinian hills and the sea is over 200 m. The Afar country is + part of the East African rift-valley, and in the southern parts of the + valley its surface is diversified by ranges of hills, frequently + volcanic, and by lakes. The plains, however, extend over large areas, + they are generally arid and are often covered with mimosa trees which + form a kind of jungle called by the natives _khala_. The torrents + which descend from the Abyssinian plateau usually fail to reach the + sea. They are mostly bordered by dense vegetation; in the dry season + water is found in pools in the river beds or can be obtained by + digging. The principal rivers enter and are lost in one or other of + two salt plains or basins, that of Asali in the north and that of + Aussa in the south. The Hawash flows through the Aussa country in a + N.E. direction, but is lost in lakes Abbebad and Aussa (see + ABYSSINIA). The Raguali and other rivers drain into the Asali basin. + This basin, like that of Aussa, is in places 200 ft. below sea-level. + On the west the Asali basin reaches to the Abyssinian foot-hills; in + its southern part is the small lake Alelbad. The eastern edge of the + basin is formed by a ridge of gypsum and on its margin grow palms. In + parts the salt lies thick on the plain, which then has the appearance + of a lake frozen over. South of Lake Alelbad is a volcano called + Artali or Erta-ale ("the smoky"), and farther to the S.E., in about 13 + deg. 15' N., is the peak of Afdera, which was in eruption in June + 1907. The hills, 1000 to 4000 ft. in height, which run more or less + parallel to and a few miles from the coast, include the volcano of + Dubbi (reported active in 1861), some 30 m. S. of the port of Edd + (Eddi). In 14 deg. 52' N., 39 deg. 53' E. and near the northern end of + the zone of depression the volcano of Alid (2985 ft.) rises from the + trough. Its chief crest forms an elongated ring and encloses a crater + over half a mile in diameter and with walls 350 ft. high. North and + south of Alid extends a vast lava field. Dubbi and Alid are in Italian + territory; the greater part of Afar belongs to Abyssinia. + + At Annesley Bay the narrow coast plain is succeeded by foothills + separated by small valleys through which flow innumerable streams. + From these hills the ascent to the plateau which constitutes northern + Eritrea is very steep. This tableland, which has a general elevation + of about 6500 ft., is fairly fertile despite a desert region--Sheb--to + the S.E. of Keren. It is characterized by rich, well-watered valleys, + verdant plains and flat-topped hills with steep sides, running in + ranges or isolated. The highest hills in Eritrean territory rise to + about 10,000 ft. The plateau is known by various names, the region + directly west of Massawa being called Hamasen. To the west and north + the plateau sinks in terraces to the plains of the Sudan, and eastward + falls more abruptly to the Red Sea, the coast plain, known as the + Samhar, consisting of sandy country covered with mimosa and, along the + khors, with a somewhat richer vegetation. + + The colony contains no navigable streams. For a short distance the + Setit (known in its upper course as the Takazze), a tributary of the + Atbara, forms the frontier, as does also in its upper course the Gash + or Mareb (see ABYSSINIA). The Mareb, often dry in summer, in the + floods is a large and impassable river. Both the Setit and Mareb have + a general westerly course across the Abyssinian plateau. The Baraka + (otherwise Barka) and Anseba rise in the Hamasen plateau near Asmara + within a short distance of each other. The Baraka flows west and then + north; the Anseba, which has a more easterly course, also flows + northward and joins the Baraka a little N. of 17 deg. N. A few miles + below the confluence the Baraka leaves Italian territory. It is (as is + the Anseba) an intermittent stream. After heavy rain it discharges + some of its water into the Red Sea north of Tokar. The whole of the + hill country north of Asmara belongs to the drainage area of the + Baraka or Anseba. Of the numerous streams which, north of the Danakil + country, run direct from the hills to the Red Sea, the Hadas may be + mentioned, as along the valley of that stream is one of the most + frequented routes to the tableland. The Hadas, in time of flood, + reaches the ocean near Adulis in Annesley Bay. + + _Climate._--The climate in different parts of the colony varies + greatly. Three distinct climatic zones are found:--(1) that of the + coastlands, including altitudes up to 1650 ft., (2) that of the + escarpments and valleys, and (3) that of the high plateau and alpine + summits. In the coast zone the heat and humidity are excessive during + most of the year, June, September and October being the hottest + months. Rains occur between November and April, during which time the + temperature is lower. In this zone malarial fevers prevail in winter. + The heat is greatest at Massawa, where the mean temperature averages + 88 deg. F., but where, in summer, the thermometer often rises to 120 + deg. F. in the shade. In the second zone the climate is more temperate + and there is considerable variation in temperature owing to nocturnal + radiation. This zone falls within the regime of the summer monsoon + rains, while those districts adjoining the coast zone enjoy also + winter rains. August is the most rainy and May the hottest month. On + the high plateau, i.e. the third zone, the climate is generally + moderately cool. Slight rain falls in the spring and abundant monsoon + rains from June to September. The heat is greatest in the dry season, + November to April. Above 8500 ft. the climate becomes sub-alpine in + character. + + _Flora and Fauna._--In the low country the flora differs little from + that of tropical Africa generally, whilst on the plateau the + vegetation is characteristic of the temperate zone. The olive tree + grows on the high plateau and covers the flanks of the hills to within + 3000 ft. of sea-level. The sycamore-fig tree grows to enormous + proportions in parts of the plateau. Lower down durra, maize and + bultuc grow in profusion. In the northern part of the colony, + especially along the Khor Baraka, the dom palm flourishes. The fauna + includes, in the low country, the lion, panther, elephant, camel, and + antelope of numerous species. On the plateau the fauna is that of + Abyssinia (q.v.). + + _Inhabitants._--The inhabitants of the plains and foothills are for + the most part semi-nomad shepherds, living on durra and milk. In the + north these people are largely of Arab or Hamitic stock, such as the + Beni-Amer, but include various negro tribes. Afar and Somali form the + population of the southern regions. The inhabitants of the plateau are + Abyssinians. The nomads are Mussulmans and are, as a rule, docile and + pacific, though the Danakils are given to occasional raiding. The + Abyssinians are more warlike, but they have settled down under Italian + rule. Among the native industries are mat-weaving, cotton-weaving, + silver-working and rudimentary iron and leather working. (See AFARS; + SOMALILAND and ABYSSINIA.) + + _Towns._--The principal places on the coast are Massawa (q.v.), pop. + about 10,000, the chief seaport of the colony, Assab, chief town of + the Danakil region, to which converges the trade from Abyssinia across + the Aussa country, and Zula (q.v.), identified with the ancient + Adulis. The chief town in the interior is Asmara (q.v.), the capital + of the colony and under the Abyssinians capital of the province of + Hamasen, and favourite headquarters of Ras Alula (see below and also + ABYSSINIA). It is situated 7800 ft. above the sea, and has something + of the aspect of a European town. Keren, 50 m. N.W. of Asmara, is the + centre for a district (Bogos) fertilized by the upper course of the + Anseba; Agordat, on the river Baraka, on the road from Keren to + Kassala, is the centre of the Beni-Amer, Algheden and Sabderat tribes; + Mogolo, on the lower Mareb, is the rendezvous of the Baria and Baza + tribes. Towards Abyssinia the chief towns are Saganeiti (capital of + the Okule-Kusai province), Godofelassi and Adi-Ugri, the two latter + situated in the fertile plain of the Serae; Adiquala, on the edge of + the Mareb gorge; and Arrasa, the centre of the districts constituting + the province of Deki-Tesfa. + + _Agriculture and Trade._--The nomads of the plains possess large herds + of cattle and camels. The low country is almost entirely pastoral and + unsuited for the cultivation of crops. On the other hand almost all + European cereals flourish in the intermediate zone and on the high + plateau, and the Abyssinian is a good agriculturist and understands + irrigation. Numbers of emigrants from Italy possess farms on the + plateau. Experiments in the cultivation of coffee, tobacco and cotton + have given good results in the intermediate zone. Besides camels and + oxen, sheep and goats are numerous, and meat, hides and butter are + articles of local trade. Hides are the principal export (about L50,000 + a year). Wax, gum, coffee and ivory are also exported. Pearl fishing + is carried on at Massawa and the Dahlak islands. The annual value of + the fisheries is about L40,000 (pearls L10,000, mother of pearl + L30,000). Gold mines are worked near Asmara. Salt, obtained from the + salt lakes in the Aussa and Danakil countries, is a valuable article + of commerce. Cotton goods are the chief imports. There is a little + trade with northern Abyssinia, but it is undeveloped. For the five + years 1901-1905 the average value of the external trade was L456,000 + per annum. The imports more than doubled the exports. + + _Communications._--A railway, 65 m. long, connects Massawa with + Asmara. An extension of the line is planned from Asmara to Sabderat + and Kassala. The whole territory is crossed by camel and mule paths + between the sea and the high plateau, and between the various centres + of population. Every valley that brings water to the Red Sea has a + route leading to the high plateau. The great arteries, however, number + three, which, starting from Massawa by way of Asmara, run, two to + Abyssinia, and one to Kassala and Khartum. They are all more or less + practicable for carts, and are flanked by a good telegraph line as + long as they lie in Italian territory. There are also two caravan + routes from Assab Bay, across the Danakil country to southern + Abyssinia. The northern leads by a comparatively easy ascent to Yejju, + the more southern follows the valley of the Hawash. A telegraph line + 500 m. long connects Massawa with Adis Ababa via Asmara. Massawa is + also telegraphically connected with the outside world by a cable to + Perim via Assab. There is regular steamship communication with Italy. + + _Administration._--Eritrea is administered by a civil governor + responsible to the ministry of foreign affairs at Rome. It is divided + into six provinces, each governed by a regional commissioner. Some + tracts of frontier territory are detached from the various regions and + entrusted to political residents, as, for instance, on the Sudan + frontier and also on the Abyssinian boundary, where strict + surveillance is necessary to repress raiding incursions from Tigre, + and where the chief intelligence department is established. The six + regions or principal provinces are:--Asmara, which includes Hamasen + and other small districts; Keren, which comprises the high territories + to the north of Asmara, i.e. the Bogos country; Massawa, extending + over all the tribes between the high plateau and the sea from the + Hababs to the Danakil; Assab, which extends from Edd to Raheita; + Okule-Kusai, the plateau country S.E. of Asmara; Serae, including + Deki-Tesfa, the country S.W. of Asmara. The regional commissioners and + the political residents act either by means of the village headmen + (_Shum_ or _Chicca_), by the chiefs of districts in the few localities + where villages are still organized in districts, or by the headmen of + tribes, and by the councils of the elders wherever these remain. + + Revenue is derived from customs duties, direct taxation and tribute + paid by the nomad tribes. The local revenue, which for the period + 1897-1907 was about L100,000 a year, is supplemented by grants from + Italy, the total cost of the administration being about L400,000 + yearly. Nearly half the expenditure is on the military force + maintained. + + _Justice._--Civil justice for natives is administered, in the first + instance, by the headmen of villages, provinces, tribes, or by + councils of notables (_Shumagalle_); in appeal, by the residents and + regional tribunals, and, in the last instance, by the colonial court + of appeal. Europeans are entirely under Italian jurisdiction. Penal + justice is administered by Italian judges only. An administrative + tribunal settles, without appeal, questions of tribute, disputes + concerning family, village or tribal landmarks, as well as suits + involving the colonial government. The civil laws for the natives are + those established by local usage. Europeans are answerable to the + Italian civil code. Penal laws are the same as in Italy, except where + modified by local usages. Appeal to the Rome court of cassation is + admitted against all penal and civil sentences. + + _Defence._--Defence is entrusted to a corps of colonial troops, partly + Italian and partly native; to a militia (_milizia mobile_) formed by + natives who have already served in the colonial corps; and to the + _chitet_ or general levy which, in time of war, places all male + able-bodied inhabitants under arms. The regional commissioners and + political residents have at their disposal some hundreds of irregular + paid soldiers under native chiefs. In war time these irregulars form + part of the colonial corps, but in time of peace serve as frontier + police. The colonial corps, about 5000 strong, garrisons the chief + places of strategic importance, such as Asmara, Keren and Saganeiti. + The irregular troops, on foot, or mounted on camels, number about 1000 + men. The militia consists of 3500 men of all arms, and is intended in + time of war to reinforce the various divisions of the colonial corps. + The _chitet_ yields between 3000 and 4000 men, to be employed on the + lines of communication or in caravan service. All these troops are + intended to ward off a first attack, so as to allow time for the + arrival of reinforcements from Italy. The customs and political + surveillance along the coast is entrusted, afloat, to the Massawa + naval station, and, ashore, to a coastguard company 400 strong + stationed at Meder, with detachments at Assab, Massawa, Raheita, Edd + and Taclai. + +_History._--Traces of the ancient Eritrean civilization are scarce. +During the prosperous periods of ancient Egypt, Egyptian squadrons +asserted their rule over the west Red Sea coast, and under the Ptolemies +the port of Golden Berenice (Adulis?) was an Egyptian fortress, +afterwards abandoned. During the early years of the Roman empire, +Eritrea formed part of an important independent state--that of the +Axumites (Assamites). At the end of the reign of Nero, and perhaps even +earlier, the king of the Axumites ruled over the Red Sea coast from +Suakin to the strait of Bab-el-Mandeb, and traded constantly with Egypt. +This potentate called himself "king of kings," commanded an army and a +fleet, coined money, adopted Greek as the official language, and lived +on good terms with the Roman empire. The Axumites belonged originally to +the Hamitic race, but the immigration of the Himyaritic tribes of +southern Arabia speedily imposed a new language and civilization. +Therefore the ancient Abyssinian language, Geez, and its living +dialects, Amharic and Tigrina, are Semitic, although modified by the +influence of the old Hamitic Agau or Agao. Adulis (Adovlis), slightly to +the north of Zula (q.v.), was the chief Axumite port. From Adulis +started the main road, which led across the high plateau to the capital +Axomis (Axum). Along the road are still to be seen vestiges of cities +and inscribed monuments, such as the Himyaritic inscriptions on the high +plateau of Kohait, the six obelisks with a Saban inscription at Toconda, +and an obelisk with an inscription at Amba Sait. Other monuments exist +elsewhere, as well as coins of the Axumite period with Greek and +Ethiopian inscriptions. After the rise of the Ethiopian empire the +history of Eritrea is bound up with that of Ethiopia, but not so +entirely as to be completely fused. The documents of the Portuguese +expedition of the 16th century and other Ethiopian records show that all +the country north of the Mareb enjoyed relative autonomy under a vassal +of the Ethiopian emperor. + +Michael, counsellor of Solomon, who was king of the country north of the +Mareb, usurped the throne of Solomon during the reign of the Emperor +Atzie Jasu II. (1729-1753), and, after proclaiming himself ras of Tigre +and "protector of the empire," ceded the North Mareb country to an enemy +of the rightful dynasty. Hence a long struggle between the dispossessed +family and the occupants of the North Mareb throne. The coast regions +had meantime passed from the control of the Abyssinians. In the 16th +century the Turks made themselves masters of Zula, Massawa, &c., and +these places were never recovered by the Abyssinians. In 1865 Massawa +and the neighbouring coast was acquired by Egypt, the khedive Ismail +entertaining projects for connecting the port by railway with the Nile. +The Egyptians took advantage of civil war in Abyssinia to seize Keren +and the Bogos country in 1872[1], an action against which the negus +Johannes (King John), newly come to the throne, did not at the time +protest. In 1875 and 1876 the Egyptians, who sought to increase their +conquests, were defeated by the Abyssinians at Gundet and Gura. Walad +Michael, the hereditary ruler of Bogos, fought as ally of King John at +Gundet and of the Egyptians at Gura. For two years Walad Michael +continued to harass the border, but in December 1878 he submitted to +King John, by whose orders he was (Sept. 1879) imprisoned upon an amba, +or flat-topped mountain, whence he only succeeded in escaping in 1890. +In 1879 his territory was given by King John to Ras Alula, who retained +it until, in August 1889, the Italians occupied Asmara (see ABYSSINIA: +_History_). + +An Egyptian garrison remained at Keren in the Bogos country until 1884, +when in consequence of the revolt of the Mahdi it was withdrawn, Bogos +being occupied by Abyssinia on the 12th of September of that year. On +the 5th of February 1885 an Italian force, with the approval of Great +Britain, occupied Massawa, the Egyptian garrison returning to Egypt. +This occupation led to wars with Abyssinia and finally to the +establishment of the colony in its present limits. The history of the +Italian-Abyssinian relations is fully told in the articles ITALY and +ABYSSINIA (history sections). + +It was not, however, at Massawa that Italy first obtained a foothold in +eastern Africa. The completion of the Suez Canal led Italy as well as +Great Britain and France to seek territorial rights on the Red Sea +coasts. The purchase of Assab and the neighbouring region for L1880, +from the sultan Berehan of Raheita for use as a coaling station by the +Italian Rubattino Steamship Company, in March 1870, formed the nucleus +of Italy's colonial possessions. This purchase was protested against by +Egypt, Turkey and Great Britain; the last named power being willing to +recognize an Italian commercial settlement, but nothing more. (The +Indian government viewed the establishment of the Italians on the new +highway to the East with a good deal of ill-humour.) Eventually, the +British opposition being overcome and that of Egypt and Turkey +disregarded, Assab, by a decree of the 5th of July 1882, was declared an +Italian colony. Between 1883 and 1888 various treaties were concluded +with the sultan of Aussa ceding the Danakil coast to Italy and +recognizing an Italian protectorate over the whole of his +country--through which passes the trade route from Assab Bay to Shoa. + +On the 1st of January 1890 the various Italian possessions on the coast +of the Red Sea were united by royal decree into one province under the +title of the Colony of Eritrea--so named after the Erythraeum Mare of +the Romans. At first the government of the colony was purely military, +but after the defeat of the Italians by the Abyssinians at Adowa, the +administration was placed upon a civil basis (1898-1900). The frontiers +were further defined by a French-Italian convention (24th of January +1900) fixing the frontier between French Somaliland and the Italian +possessions at Raheita, and also by various agreements with Great +Britain and Abyssinia. A tripartite agreement between Italy, Abyssinia +and Great Britain, dated the 15th of May 1902, placed the territory of +the Kanama tribe, on the north bank of the Setit, within Eritrea. A +convention of the 16th of May 1908 settled the Abyssinian-Eritrean +frontier in the Afar country, the boundary being fixed at 60 kilometres +from the coast. The task of reconstructing the administration on a civil +basis and of developing the commerce of the colony was entrusted to +Signor F. Martini, who was governor for nine years (1898-1906). Under +civil rule the colony made steady though somewhat slow progress. + + AUTHORITIES.--See B. Melli, _La Colonia Eritrea dalle sue origini al + anno 1901_ (Parma, 1901); G.B. Penne, _Per l'Italia Africana. Studio + critico_ (Rome, 1906); R. Perini, _Di qua dal Mareb_ (Florence, 1905), + a monograph on the Asmara zone; F. Martini, _Nell' Africa Italiana_ + (3rd ed., Milan, 1891); A.B. Wylde, _Modern Abyssinia_, chaps. v.-ix. + (London, 1901); E.D. Schoenfeld, _Erythraa und der agyptische Sudan_, + chaps. i.-xii. (Berlin, 1904); Luigi Chiala, _La Spedizione di + Massana_ (Turin, 1888); _Abyssinian Green Books_ published at + intervals in 1895 and 1896, covering the period from 1870 to the end + of the Italo-Abyssinian War; Vico Mantegazza, _La Guerra in Africa_ + (Florence, 1896); General Baratieri, _Memorie d'Africa_ (Rome, 1898); + C. de la Jonquiere, _Les Italiens en Erythree_ (Paris, 1897); G.F.H. + Berkeley, _The Campaign of Adowa_ (London, 1902). For orography and + geology see an article by P. Verri in _Boll. Soc. geog. italiana_, + 1909, and for climate an article in _Rivista coloniale_ (1906), by A. + Tancredi. A. Allori compiled a _Piccolo Dizionario eritreo, + italiano-arabo-amarico_ (Milan, 1895). + + For Afar consult W. Munzinger, "A Journey through the Afar Country" in + _Journ. Royal Geog. Soc._ for 1869; V. Bottego, "Nella Terra dei + Danakil," in _Boll. Soc. Geog. Italiana_, 1892; Count C. Rossini, "Al + Ragali" in _L'Espl. Comm._ of Milan, 1903-1904; and articles by G. + Dainelli and O. Marinelli in the _Riv. Geog. Italiana_ of Florence for + 1906-1908, dealing with the volcanic regions. + + Bibliographies will be found in G. Fumagalli's _Bibliografia Etiopica_ + (Milan, 1893) and in the _Riv. Geog. Italiana_ for 1907. + + +FOOTNOTE: + + [1] During the Second Empire unsuccessful efforts were made by France + to obtain a Red Sea port and a foothold in northern Abyssinia. (See + SOMALILAND: _French_.) + + + + +ERIVAN, a government of Russia, Transcaucasia, having the province of +Kars on the W., the government of Tiflis on the N., that of Elisavetpol +on the N. and E., and Persia and Turkish Armenia on the S. It occupies +the top of an immense plateau (6000-8000 ft.). Continuous chains of +mountains are met with only on its borders, and in the E., but the whole +surface is thickly set with short ridges and isolated mountains of +volcanic origin, of which Alagoz (14,440 ft.) and Ararat (16,925 ft.) +are the most conspicuous and the most important. Both must have been +active in Tertiary times. Lake Gok-cha (540 sq. m.) is encircled by such +volcanoes, and the neighbourhood of Alexandropol is a "volcanic +amphitheatre," being entirely buried under volcanic deposits. The same +is true of the slopes leading down to the river Aras; and the valley of +the upper Aras is a stony desert, watered only by irrigation, which is +carried on with great difficulty owing to the character of the soil. The +government is drained by the Aras, which forms the boundary with Persia +and flows with great velocity down its stony bed, the fall being 17-22 +ft. per mile in its upper course, and 9 ft. at Ordubad, where it quits +the government, while lower down it again increases to 23 ft. Many of +the small lakes, filling volcanic craters, are of great depth. Timber is +very scarce. A variety of useful minerals exists, but only rock-salt is +obtained, at Nakhichevan and Kulp. The climate is extremely varied, the +following being the average temperatures and mean annual rainfall at +Alexandropol (alt. 5078 ft.) and Aralykh (2755 ft.) respectively: year +42 deg., January 12 deg., July 65 deg., mean rainfall 16.2 in.; and year +53 deg., January 20.5 deg., July 79 deg., rainfall 6.3 in. The +population numbered 829,578 in 1897 (only 375,086 women), of whom 82,278 +lived in the towns. An estimate in 1906 gave a total of 909,100. They +consist chiefly of Armenians (441,000), Tatars (40%), Kurds (49,389), +with Russians, Greeks and Tates. Most of the Armenians belong to the +Gregorian (Christian) Church, and only 4020 to the Armenian Catholic +Church. The Tatars are mostly Shiite Mussulmans, only 27,596 being +Sunnites; 7772 belong to the peculiar faith of the Yezids. While barley +only can be grown on the high parts of the plateau, cotton, mulberry, +vines and all sorts of fruit are cultivated in the valley of the Aras. +Cattle-breeding is extensively carried on; camels also are bred, and +leeches are collected out of the swamps and exported to Persia. Industry +is in its infancy, but cottons, carpets, and felt goods are made in the +villages. A considerable trade is carried on with Persia, but trade with +Asia Minor is declining. The government is divided into seven +districts--Erivan, Alexandropol, Echmiadzin (chief town, Vagarshapat), +Nakhichevan, Novobayazet, Surmali (chief town, Igdyr), and +Sharur-daralagoz (chief town, Norashen). The principal towns are Erivan +(see below), Alexandropol (32,018 inhabitants in 1897), Novobayazet +(8507), Nakhichevan (8845), and Vagarshapat (3400). + + + + +ERIVAN, or IRWAN, in Persian, _Rewan_, a town of Russia, capital of the +government of the same name, situated in 40 deg. 14' N., 44 deg. 38' E., +234 m. by rail S.S.W. of Tiflis, on the Zanga river, from which a great +number of irrigation canals are drawn. Altitude, 3170 ft. Pop. (1873) +11,938; (1897) 29,033. The old Persian portion of the town consists +mainly of narrow crooked lanes enclosed by mud walls, which effectually +conceal the houses, and the modern Russian portion is laid out in long +ill-paved streets. On a steep rock, rising about 600 ft. above the +river, stand the ruins of the 16th-century Turkish fortress, containing +part of the palace of the former Persian governors, a handsome but +greatly dilapidated mosque, a modern Greek church and a cannon foundry. +One chamber, called the Hall of the Sardar, bears witness to former +splendour in its decorations. The finest building in the city is the +mosque of Hussein Ali Khan, familiarly known as the Blue Mosque from the +colour of the enamelled tiles with which it is richly encased. At the +mosque of Zal Khan a passion play is performed yearly illustrative of +the assassination of Hussein, the son of Ali. Erivan is an Armenian +episcopal see, and has a theological seminary. The only manufactures are +a little cotton cloth, leather, earthenware and blacksmiths' work. The +fruits of the district are noted for their excellence--especially the +grapes, apples, apricots and melons. Armenians, Persians and Tatars are +the principal elements in the population, besides some Russians and +Greeks. The town fell into the power of the Turks in 1582, was taken by +the Persians under Shah Abbas in 1604, besieged by the Turks for four +months in 1615, and reconquered by the Persians under Nadir Shah in the +18th century. In 1780 it was successfully defended against Heraclius, +prince of Georgia; and in 1804 it resisted the Russians. At length in +1827 Paskevich took the fortress by storm, and in the following year the +town and government were ceded to Russia by the peace of Turkman-chai. A +Tatar poem in celebration of the event has been preserved by the +Austrian poet, Bodenstedt, in his _Tausend und ein Tage im Orient_ +(1850). + + + + +ERLANGEN, a town of Germany, in the kingdom of Bavaria, on a fertile +plain, at the confluence of the Schwabach and the Regnitz, 11 m. N.W. of +Nuremberg, on the railway from Munich to Bamberg. Pop. (1905) 23,720. It +is divided into an old and a new town, the latter consisting of wide, +straight and well-built streets. The market place is a fine square. Upon +it stand the town-hall and the former palace of the margraves of +Bayreuth, now the main building of the university. The latter was +founded by the margrave Frederick (d. 1763), who, in 1742, established a +university at Bayreuth, but in 1743 removed it to Erlangen. A statue of +the founder, erected in 1843 by King Louis I. of Bavaria, stands in the +centre of the square and faces the university buildings. The university +has faculties of philosophy, law, medicine and Protestant theology. +Connected with it are a library of over 200,000 volumes, geological, +anatomical and mineralogical institutions, a hospital, several clinical +establishments, laboratories and a botanical garden. Among the churches +of the town (six Protestant and one Roman Catholic), only the new town +church, with a spire 220 ft. high, is remarkable. The chief industries +of Erlangen are spinning and weaving, and the manufacture of glass, +paper, brushes and gloves. The brewing industry is also important, the +beer of Erlangen being famous throughout Germany and large quantities +being exported. + +Erlangen owes the foundation of its prosperity chiefly to the French +Protestant refugees who settled here on the revocation of the edict of +Nantes and introduced various manufactures. In 1017 the place was +transferred from the bishopric of Wurzburg to that of Bamberg; in 1361 +it was sold to the king of Bohemia. It became a town in 1398 and passed +into the hands of the Hohenzollerns, burgraves of Nuremberg, in 1416. +There for nearly three centuries it was the property of the margraves of +Bayreuth, being ceded with the rest of Bayreuth to Prussia in 1791. In +1810 it came into the possession of Bavaria. Erlangen was for many years +the residence of the poet Friedrich Ruckert, and of the philosophers +Johann Gottlieb Fichte and Friedrich Wilhelm von Schnelling. + + See Stein and Muller, _Die Geschichte von Erlangen_ (1898). + + + + +ERLE, SIR WILLIAM (1793-1880), English lawyer and judge, was born at +Fifehead-Magdalen, Dorset, on the 1st of October 1793, and was educated +at Winchester and at New College, Oxford. Having been called to the bar +at the Middle Temple in 1819 he went the western circuit, became counsel +to the Bank of England, sat in parliament from 1837 to 1841 for the city +of Oxford, and, although of opposite politics to Lord Lyndhurst, was +made by him a judge of the common pleas in 1845. He was transferred to +the queen's bench in the following year, and in 1859 came back to the +common pleas as chief justice upon the promotion of Sir Alexander +Cockburn. He retired in 1866, receiving the highest eulogiums for the +ability and impartiality with which he had discharged the judicial +office. He died at his estate at Bramshott, Hampshire, on the 28th of +January 1880, and a monument without his name but in his memory +(sometimes erroneously supposed to mark the place where an old gibbet +was) stands on the top of Hindhead. + + See E. Manson, _Builders of our Law_ (1904). + + + + +ERLKONIG, or ERL-KING, a mythical character in modern German literature, +represented as a gigantic bearded man with a golden crown and trailing +garments, who carries children away to that undiscovered country where +he himself abides. There is no such personage in ancient German +mythology, and the name is linguistically nothing more than the +perpetuation of a blunder. It first appeared in Herder's _Stimmen der +Volker_ (1778), where it is used in the translation of the Danish song +of the _Elf-King's Daughter_ as equivalent to the Danish _ellerkonge_, +or _ellekonge_, that is, _elverkonge_, the king of the elves; and the +true German word would have been _Elbkonig_ or _Elbenkonig_, afterwards +used under the modified form of _Elfenkonig_ by Wieland in his _Oberon_ +(1780). Herder was probably misled by the fact that the Danish word +_elle_ signifies not only elf, but also alder tree (Ger. _Erle_). His +mistake at any rate has been perpetuated by both English and French +translators, who speak of a "king of the alders," "un roi des aunes," +and find an explanation of the myth in the tree-worship of early times, +or in the vapoury emanations that hang like weird phantoms round the +alder trees at night. The legend was adopted by Goethe as the subject of +one of his finest ballads, rendered familiar to English readers by the +translations of Lewis and Sir Walter Scott; and since then it has been +treated as a musical theme by Reichardt and Schubert. + + + + +ERMAN, PAUL (1764-1851), German physicist, was born in Berlin on the +29th of February 1764. He was the son of the historian Jean Pierre Erman +(1735-1814), author of _Histoire des refugies_. He became teacher of +science successively at the French gymnasium in Berlin, and at the +military academy, and on the foundation of the university of Berlin in +1810 he was chosen professor of physics. He died at Berlin on the 11th +of October 1851. His work was mainly concerned with electricity and +magnetism, though he also made some contributions to optics and +physiology. His son, GEORG ADOLF ERMAN (1806-1877), was born in Berlin +on the 12th of May 1806, and after studying natural science at Berlin +and Konigsberg, spent from 1828 to 1830 in a journey round the world, an +account of which he published in _Reise um die Erde durch Nordasien und +die beiden Ozeane_ (1833-1848). The magnetic observations he made during +his travels were utilized by C.F. Gauss in his theory of terrestrial +magnetism. He was appointed professor of physics at Berlin in 1839, and +died there on the 12th of July 1877. From 1841 to 1865 he edited the +_Archiv fur wissenschaftliche Kunde von Russland_, and in 1874 he +published, with H.J.R. Petersen, _Die Grundlagen der Gauss'schen Theorie +und die Erscheinungen des Erdmagnetismus im Jahre 1829_. + +His son JOHANN PETER ADOLF ERMAN (1854- ), a famous Egyptologist, was +born in Berlin on the 31st of October 1854. Educated at Leipzig and +Berlin, he became extraordinary professor in 1883 and ordinary professor +in 1892 of Egyptology in the university of Berlin, and in 1885 he was +appointed director of the Egyptian department of the royal museum. For +an account of the Egyptological work of Erman and his school, see EGYPT: +_Language_. + + + + +ERMANARIC (fl. 350-376), king of the East Goths, belonged to the Amali +family, and was the son of Achiulf. His name occurs as Ermanaricus +(Jordanes), Airmanareiks (Gothic), _Eormenric_ (A. Sax.), Jormunrek +(Norse), Ermenrich (M.H. German). Ermanaric built up for himself a vast +kingdom, which eventually extended from the Danube to the Baltic and +from the Don to the Theiss. He drove the Vandals out of Dacia, compelled +the allegiance of the neighbouring tribes of West Goths, procured the +submission of the Herules, of many Slav and Finnish tribes, and even of +the Esthonians on the shores of the Gulf of Bothnia. In his later days +the west Goths threw off his yoke, and, on the invasion of the Huns, +rather than witness the downfall of his kingdom he is said by Ammianus +Marcellinus to have committed suicide. His fate early became the centre +of popular tradition, which found its way into the narrative of +Jordanes or Jornandes (_De rebus geticis_, chap. 24), who compared him +to Alexander the Great and certainly exaggerated the extent of his +kingdom. He is there said to have caused a certain Sunilda or Sanielh to +be torn asunder by wild horses on account of her husband's traitorous +conduct. Her brothers Sarus and Ammius sought to avenge her. They +succeeded in wounding, not in killing the Gothic king, whose death +supervened in his one hundred and tenth year from the joint effects of +his wound and fear of the Hunnish invasion. This is evidently a +paraphrase of popular story which sought to supply plausible reasons for +Ermanaric's end. In German legend Ermanaric became the typical cruel +tyrant, and references to his crimes abound in German epic and in +Anglo-Saxon poetry. He is made to replace Odoacer as the enemy of +Dietrich of Bern, his nephew, and his history is related in the Norse +_Vilkina_ or _Thidrekssaga_, which chiefly embodies German tradition. +His evil genius, Sifka, Sibicho or Bicci, brings about the death of his +three sons. The Harlungs, Imbrecke and Fritile,[1] are his nephews, whom +he has strangled for the sake of their treasure, the Brisingo meni. +Sonhild or Svanhild becomes the wife of Ermanaric, and the motive for +her murder is replaced by an accusation of adultery between Svanhild and +her stepson. The story was already connected with the Nibelungen when it +found its way to the Scandinavian north by way of Germany. In the +_Volsunga Saga_ Svanhild is the daughter of Sigurd and Gudrun. She is +given in marriage to the Gothic king Jormunrek (Ermanaric), who sends +his son Randver as proxy wooer in company of Bicci, the evil counsellor. +Randver is persuaded by Bicci to take his father's bride for himself. +Randver is hanged and Svanhild trampled to death by horses in the gate +of the castle. Gudrun eggs on Sorli and Hamdir or Hamtheow, her two sons +by her third husband, Jonakr the Hun, to avenge their sister. On the way +they slay their half-brother Erp, whom they suspect of lukewarmness in +the cause; arrived in the hall of Ermanaric they make a great slaughter +of the Goths, and hew off the hands and feet of Ermanaric, but they +themselves are slain with stones. The tale is told with variations by +Saxo Grammaticus (_Historia Danica_, ed. Muller, p. 408, &c.), and in +the Icelandic poems, the _Lay of Hamtheow_, _Gudrun's Chain of Woe_, and +in the prose _Edda_. + + BIBLIOGRAPHY.--W. Grimm, in _Die deutsche Heldensage_ (2nd ed., + Berlin, 1867), quotes the account given by Jordanes, references in + Beowulf, in the _Wanderer's Song_, _Exeter Book_, in _Parcival_, in + _Dietrichs Flucht_, the account given in the _Quedlinburg Chronicle_, + by Ekkehard in the _Chronicon Urspergense_, by Saxo Grammaticus, &c. + See also Vigfusson and Powell, _Corpus poeticum boreale_, vol. i. + (Oxford, 1883), and H. Symons, "Die deutsche Heldensage" in Paul's + _Grundriss d. german. Phil._ vol. iii. (Strassburg, 1900). + + +FOOTNOTE: + + [1] Emerka and Fridla (Beowulf, _Quedlingburg Chron._), Aki and + Etgard (_Vilkina Saga_). In the original myth the Harlungs, who are + not to be confused with the Hartung brothers, were sent to bring home + Surya, the bride of the sky-god, Irmintiu. + + + + +ERMELAND, or ERMLAND (_Varmia_), a district of Germany, in East Prussia, +extending from the Frisches Haff, a bay in the Baltic, inland towards +the Polish frontier. It is a well-wooded sandy tract of country, has an +area of about 1650 sq. m., a population of 240,000, and is divided into +the districts of Braunsberg, Heilsberg, Rossel and Allenstein. + +Ermeland was originally one of the eleven districts of old Prussia and +was occupied by the Teutonic Knights (_Deutscher Orden_), being made in +1250 one of the four bishoprics of the country under their sway. The +bishop of Ermeland shortly afterwards declared himself independent of +the order, and became a prince of the Empire. In 1466 Ermeland, together +with West Prussia, was by the peace of Thorn attached to the crown of +Poland, and the bishop had a seat in the Polish senate. In 1772 it was +again incorporated with Prussia. Among the bishops of the see, which +still exists, with its seat in Frauenberg, may be mentioned Aeneas +Sylvius Piccolomini, afterwards Pope Pius II., and Cardinal Stanislaus +Hosius (1504-1579), the founder of the Jesuit college in Braunsberg. + + See Hipler, _Literaturgeschichte des Bisthums Ermeland_ (Braunsberg, + 1873); the _Monumenta historiae Warmiensis_ (Mainz, 1860-1864, and + Braunsberg, 1866-1872, 4 vols.); and Buchholz, _Abriss einer + Geschichte des Ermlands_ (Braunsberg, 1903.) + + + + +ERMELO, a district and town of the Transvaal. The district lies in the +south-east of the province and is traversed by the Drakensberg. In it +are Lake Chrissie, the only true lake in the country, and the sources of +the Vaal, Olifants, Komati, and Usuto rivers, which rise within 30 m. of +one another. The region has a general elevation of about 5500 ft. and is +fine agricultural and pastoral country, besides containing valuable +minerals, including coal and gold. Ermelo town, pop. (1904) 1451, is by +rail 175 m. S.E. of Johannesburg, and 74 m. S.S.W. of Machadodorp on the +Pretoria-Delagoa Bay railway. A government experimental farm, with some +1000 acres of plantations, is maintained here. + + + + +ERMINE, an alternative name for the stoat (_Putorius ermineus_), +apparently applicable in its proper sense only when the animal is in its +white winter coat. This animal measures 10 in. in length exclusive of +the tail, which is about 4 in. long, and becomes bushy towards the +point. The fur in summer is reddish brown above and white beneath, +changing in the winter of northern latitudes to snowy whiteness, except +at the tip of the tail, which at all seasons is black. In Scottish +specimens this change in winter is complete, but in those found in the +southern districts of England it is usually only partial, the ermine +presenting during winter a piebald appearance. The white colour is +evidently protective, enabling the animals to elude the observations of +their enemies, and to steal unobserved on their prey. It also retains +heat better than a dark covering, and may thus serve to maintain an +equable temperature at all seasons within the body. The colour change +seems to be due to phagocytes devouring the pigment-bodies of the hair, +and not to a moult. + +[Illustration: Ermine or Stoat (_Putorius ermineus_).] + +The species is a native of the temperate and subarctic zones of the Old +World, and is represented in America by a form which can scarcely be +regarded as specifically distinct. It inhabits thickets and stony +places, and frequently makes use of the deserted burrows of moles and +other underground mammals. Exceedingly sanguinary in disposition, and +agile in its movements, it feeds principally on rats, water-rats and +rabbits, which it pursues with pertinacity and boldness, hence the name +_stoat_, signifying bold, by which it is commonly known. It takes +readily to water, and will even climb trees in pursuit of prey. It is +particularly destructive to poultry and game, and has often been known +to attack hares, fixing itself to the throat of its victim, and defying +all the efforts of the latter to disengage it. The female brings forth +five young ones about the beginning of summer. The winter coat of the +ermine forms one of the most valuable of commercial furs, and is +imported in enormous quantities from Norway, Sweden, Russia and Siberia. +It is largely used for muffs and tippets, and as a trimming for state +robes, the jet black points of the tails being inserted at regular +intervals as an ornament. In the reign of Edward III. the wearing of +ermine was restricted to members of the royal family; but it now enters +into almost all state robes, the rank and position of the wearer being +in many cases indicated by the presence or absence, and the disposition, +of the black spots. (See also FUR.) + + + + +ERMINE STREET. Documents and writers of the 11th and succeeding +centuries occasionally mention four "royal roads" in Britain--Icknield +Street, Erning or Ermine Street, Watling Street and Foss Way--as +standing apart from all other existing roads and enjoying the special +protection of the king. Unfortunately these authorities are not at all +agreed as to their precise course; the roads themselves do not occur as +specially privileged in actual legal or other practice, and it is likely +that the category of Four Roads is the invention of a lawyer or an +antiquary. The names are, however, attested to some extent by early +charters which name them among other roads, as boundaries. From these +charters we know that Icknield Street ran along the Berkshire downs and +the Chilterns, that Ermine Street ran more or less due north through +Huntingdonshire, that Watling Street ran north-west across the midlands +from London to Shrewsbury, and Foss diagonally to it from Lincoln or +Leicester to Bath and mid-Somerset. This evidence only proves the +existence of these roads in Saxon and Norman days. But they all seem to +be much older. Icknield Street is probably a prehistoric ridgeway along +the downs, utilized perhaps by the Romans near its eastern end, but in +general not Roman. Ermine Street coincides with part of a line of Roman +roads leading north from London through Huntingdon to Lincoln. This line +is followed by the Old North Road through Cheshunt, Buntingford, +Royston, and Huntingdon to Castor near Peterborough; and thence it can +be traced through lanes and byways past Ancaster to Lincoln. Watling +Street is the Roman highway from London by St Alban's (Verulamium) to +Wroxeter near Shrewsbury (Viroconium). Foss is the Roman highway from +Lincoln to Bath and Exeter. Hence it has been supposed, and is still +frequently alleged, that the Four Roads were the principal highways of +Roman Britain. This, however, is not the case. Icknield Street is not +Roman and the three roads which follow Roman lines, Ermine Street, +Watling Street, and Foss, held no peculiar position in the +Romano-British road system (see BRITAIN: _Roman_). In later times, the +names Ermine Street, Icknield Street and Watling Street have been +applied to other roads of Roman or supposed Roman origin. This, however, +is wholly the work of Elizabethan or subsequent antiquaries and deserves +no credence. + +The derivations of the four names are unknown. Icknield, Ermine and +Watling may be from English personal names; Foss, originally Fos, seems +to be the Lat. _fossa_ in its occasional medieval sense of a bank of +upcast earth or stones, such as the _agger_ of a road. (F. J. H.) + + + + +ERMOLDUS NIGELLUS, or ERMOLD THE BLACK, was a monk of Aquitaine, who +accompanied King Pippin, son of the emperor Louis I., on a campaign into +Brittany in 824. Subsequently he was banished from Pippin's court on a +charge of inciting the king against his father, and retired to +Strassburg, where he sought to regain the emperor's favour by writing a +poem on his life and deeds. About 830 he obtained his recall, and has +been identified with Hermoldus, who appears as Pippin's chancellor in +838. Ermoldus was a cultured man with a knowledge of the Latin poets, +and this poem, _In honorem Hludovici imperatoris_, has some historical +value. It consists of four books and deals with the life and exploits of +Louis from 781 to 826. He also wrote two poems in imitation of Ovid, +which were addressed to Pippin. + + His writings are published in the _Monumenta Germaniae historica, + Scriptores_, Band 2 (Hanover, 1826 fol.); by J.P. Migne in the + _Patrologia Latina_, tome 105 (Paris, 1844); and by E. Dummler in the + _Poetae Latini aevi Carolini_, Band 2 (Berlin, 1881-1884). See W.O. + Henkel, _Uber den historischen Werth der Gedichte des Ermoldus + Nigellus_ (Eilenburg, 1876); W. Wattenbach, _Deutschlands + Geschichtsquellen_, Band 1 (Berlin, 1904); and A. Potthast, + _Bibliotheca historica_, pp. 430-431 (Berlin, 1896). + + + + +ERNE, the name of a river and two lakes in the north-west of Ireland. +The river rises in Lough Gowna, county Longford, 214 ft. above +sea-level, flows north through Lough Oughter with a serpentine course +and a direction generally northward, and then broadens into the Upper +Lough Erne, a shallow irregular sheet of water 13 m. long, so beset with +islands as to present the appearance of a number of water-channels +ramifying through the land. The river then winds past the town of +Enniskillen on its island, and enters Lough Erne, a beautiful lake +nearly 18 m. long and 5 m. in extreme width, containing many islands, +but less closely covered with them than the upper lough. One of them, +Devenish, is celebrated for its antiquarian remains (see ENNISKILLEN). +The river then runs westward to Donegal Bay, forming a fine fall at +Ballyshannon (q.v.). Lough Erne contains trout and pike. These waters +admit of navigation by small steamers, but little trade is carried on. +The area of the Erne basin, which includes a vast number of small +loughs, is about 1600 sq. m., and it covers part of the counties Cavan, +Longford, Leitrim, Fermanagh and Donegal. The length of the Erne valley +is about 70 m. + + + + +ERNEST I. [ERNST ANTON KARL LUDWIG], duke of Saxe-Coburg-Gotha +(1784-1844), was the son of Francis, duke of Saxe-Coburg-Saalfeld, and +was born on the 2nd of January 1784. At the time of his father's death +(9th of December 1806) the duchy of Coburg was occupied by Napoleon as +conquered territory, and Ernest did not come into his inheritance till +after the peace of Tilsit (July 1807). Owing to the part he had played +in assisting the Prussians at the battle of Auerstadt he continued out +of favour with Napoleon, and he threw himself with vigour into the war +of liberation against the French. After the battle of Leipzig he was +given the command of the V. army corps and reduced Mainz by blockade; he +also commanded the Saxon troops during the campaign of 1815. By the +congress of Vienna he was rewarded with the principality of Lichtenberg +on the left bank of the Rhine, which received a slight augmentation +after the second peace of Paris. These territories he sold to Prussia in +1834. In 1826, in the division of the territories of the duchy of +Saxe-Gotha which followed the death of its last duke (February 1825), he +received the duchy of Gotha, ceding that of Saalfeld to the duke of +Meiningen; and he now exchanged his style of Ernest III. of +Saxe-Coburg-Saalfeld for that of Ernest I. of Saxe-Coburg-Gotha. In 1821 +he had given a constitution to Coburg, but he did not interfere with the +traditional system of estates at Gotha. He died on the 29th of January +1844. + +Duke Ernest, who was not only a good soldier and keen sportsman, but an +enlightened patron of the arts and sciences, did much for the economic, +educational and constitutional development of his territories; and his +advice always carried great weight in the councils of the other German +sovereigns. It was, however, for the splendid international position +attained by the house of Coburg under him that his reign is chiefly +distinguished. His younger brother Leopold (q.v.) became king of the +Belgians; his brother Ferdinand (b. 1785) married the wealthy princess +Antoinette von Kohary (1816) and was the father of the duchess of +Nemours and of the future King Ferdinand of Portugal. Of his sisters, +Antoinette (1779-1824) married Duke Alexander of Wurttemberg; Juliane +[Alexandra Feodorovna] (1781-1860) married the Russian cesarevich +Constantine, from whom she was, however, divorced in 1820; and Victoria +(1786-1861), wife of Edward Augustus, duke of Kent, became the mother of +Queen Victoria. Duke Ernest was twice married: (1) in 1817 to Louise, +daughter of Duke Augustus of Saxe-Gotha, whom he finally divorced in +1826; (2) in 1831 to Maria, daughter of Duke Alexander of Wurttemberg. +Of his sons, by his first wife, Ernest succeeded him in the duchy, and +Albert married Queen Victoria. + + + + +ERNEST II., duke of Saxe-Coburg-Gotha (1818-1893), was born at Coburg on +the 21st of June 1818, being the eldest son of Duke Ernest I. He enjoyed +a varied education; he studied at the university of Bonn with his +brother Albert; his military training he received in the Saxon army. The +widespread connexions of his family opened to him many courts of Europe, +and after he became of age he travelled much. The position of his uncle +Leopold, who was king of the Belgians, and especially the marriage of +his brother Albert to the queen of England, his cousin, gave him +peculiar opportunities for becoming acquainted with the political +problems of Europe. In 1840-1841 he undertook a journey to Spain and +Portugal; in the latter country another cousin, Ferdinand, was +king-consort. In 1844 he succeeded his father. His own character and the +influence of the king of the Belgians made him one of the most Liberal +princes in Germany. He was able to bring to a satisfactory conclusion +disputes with the Coburg estates. He passed through the ordeal of the +revolution of 1848 with little trouble, for he anticipated the demands +of the people of Gotha for a reform, and in 1852 introduced a new +constitution by which the administration of his two duchies was +assimilated in many points. The government of his small dominions did +not afford sufficient scope for his restless and versatile ambition; +his desire to play a great part in German affairs was probably increased +by the feeling that, though he was the head of his house, he was to some +extent overshadowed by the younger branches of the family which ruled in +Belgium, England and Portugal. He was one of the foremost supporters of +every attempt made to reform the German constitution and bring about the +unity of Germany. He took a warm interest in the proceedings of the +Frankfort parliament, and it was often said, probably without reason, +that he hoped to be chosen emperor himself. However that may be, he +strongly urged the king of Prussia to accept that position when it was +offered him in 1849; he took a very prominent part in the complicated +negotiations of the following year, and it was at his suggestion that a +congress of princes met at Berlin in 1850. He highly valued the +opportunities which this and similar meetings gave him for exercising +political influence, and he would have felt most at home as a member of +a permanent council of the German princes. + +Ambitious also of military distinction, and sympathizing with the rising +of the people of Schleswig-Holstein against the Danes in 1849, Ernest +accepted a command in the federal army. In the engagement of Eckernforde +in April 1849 the troops under his orders succeeded in capturing two +Danish frigates, a remarkable feat of which he was justly proud. His +greatest services to Germany were performed during the years of reaction +which followed; almost alone among the German princes he remained +faithful to the Liberal and National ideals, and he allowed his +dominions to be used as an asylum by the writers and politicians who had +to leave Prussia and Saxony. The reactionary parties looked on him with +great suspicion, and it was at this time that he formed a friendship +with Gustav Freytag, the celebrated novelist, whom he protected when the +Prussian government demanded his arrest. His connexion with the English +court gave him a position of much influence, but no one was more purely +German in his feelings and opinions. The marriage of his niece Victoria +with Frederick, the heir to the Prussian throne, strengthened his +connexion with Prussia, but caused the Conservative party to look with +increased suspicion on the Coburg influence. He was the first German +prince to visit Napoleon III., and was present when Orsini made his +celebrated attempt on the emperor's life. After 1860 he became the chief +patron and protector of the _National Verein_; he encouraged the +newly-formed rifle clubs, and notwithstanding the strong disapproval of +his fellow-monarchs, allowed his court to become the centre of the +rising national agitation. Still a warm adherent of Prussia, in 1862 he +set an example to the other princes by voluntarily making an agreement +by which his troops were placed in war under the command of the king of +Prussia. Like all the other Nationalists, he was much embarrassed by the +policy of Bismarck, and the democratic opinions of the Coburg court, +which were shared by the crown prince Frederick, were a serious +embarrassment to that minister. The opposition became more accentuated +when the duke allowed his dominions to be used as the headquarters of +the agitation in favour of Frederick, duke of Augustenburg, who claimed +the duchies of Schleswig and Holstein, and it was at this time that +Bismarck is reported to have said that if Frederick the Great had been +alive the duke would have been in the fortress of Spandau. In 1863 he +was present at the _Furstentag_ in Frankfort, and from this time was in +more frequent communication with the Austrian court, where his cousin +Alexander, Count Mensdorff, was minister. However, when war broke out in +1866, he at once placed his troops at the disposition of Prussia; +Bismarck had in an important letter explained to him his policy and +tactics. He was personally concerned in one of the most interesting +events of the war; for the Hanoverian army, in its attempt to march +south and join the Bavarians, had to pass through Thuringia, and the +battle of Langensalza was fought in the immediate neighbourhood of +Gotha. His troops took part in the battle, which ended in the rout of +the Prussians, the duke, who was not present during the fight, in vain +attempting to stop it. He bore an important share in the negotiations +before and after the battle, and his action at this time has been the +subject of much controversy, for it was suggested that while he offered +to mediate he really acted as a partisan of Prussia. For his services to +Prussia he received as a present the forest of Schmalkalden. He was with +the Prussian headquarters in Bohemia during the latter part of the war. + +With the year 1866 the political role which Ernest had played ended. The +result was perhaps not quite equal to his expectations, but it must be +remembered how difficult was the position of the minor German princes; +and he quoted with great satisfaction the words used in 1871 by the +emperor William at Versailles, that "to him in no small degree was due +the establishment of the empire." He was a man of varied tastes, a good +musician--he composed several operas and songs--and a keen sportsman, a +quality in which he differed from his brother. Notwithstanding his +Liberalism, he had a great regard for the dignity of his rank and +family, and in his support of constitutional government would never have +sacrificed the essential prerogatives of sovereignty. He died at +Reinhardsbrunn on the 22nd of August 1893. In 1842 the duke married +Alexandrine, daughter of the grandduke of Baden; there were no children +by this marriage and the succession to Saxe-Coburg-Gotha passed +therefore to the children of his younger brother Albert. By Albert's +marriage contract the duchy could not be held together with the English +crown; thus his eldest son, afterwards Edward VII., was passed over and +it came to his second son, Alfred, duke of Edinburgh (1844-1900). When +Alfred died without sons in July 1900 the succession to the duchy passed +to a younger brother Arthur, duke of Connaught; but the duke and his +son, Arthur, passed on their claim to Charles Edward, duke of Albany (b. +1884), who became duke of Saxe-Coburg-Gotha in succession to his uncle +Alfred. In 1905 Charles Edward married Victoria Adelaide (b. 1885), +princess of Schleswig-Holstein, by whom he has a son John Leopold (b. +1906). + +Duke Ernest was something of a writer. He brought out an account of the +travels in Egypt and Abyssinia which he undertook in 1862 as _Reise des +Herzogs Ernst von Sachsen-Koburg-Gotha nach Agypten_ (Leipzig, 1864); +and he published his memoirs, _Aus meinem Leben und aus meiner Zeit_ +(Berlin, 1887-1889). This work is in three volumes and contains much +valuable information on a most critical period of German history; there +is an English translation by P. Andreae (1888-1890). + + See also Sir T. Martin, _Life of H.R.H. the Prince Consort_ + (1875-1880); Hon. C. Grey, _Early Years of the Prince Consort_ (1867); + A. Ohorn, _Herzog Ernst II., ein Lebensbild_ (Leipzig, 1894); and E. + Tempeltey, _Herzog Ernst von Koburg und das Jahr 1866_ (Berlin, 1898). + (J. W. He.) + + + + +ERNEST AUGUSTUS (1771-1851), king of Hanover and duke of Cumberland, +fifth son of the English king George III., was born at Kew on the 5th of +June 1771. Having studied at the university of Gottingen, he entered the +Hanoverian army, serving as a leader of cavalry when war broke out +between Great Britain and France in 1793, and winning a reputation for +bravery. He lost the sight of one eye at the battle of Tournai in May +1794, and when Hanover withdrew from the war in 1795 he returned to +England, being made lieutenant-general in the British army in 1799. In +the same year he was created duke of Cumberland and Teviotdale and +granted an allowance of L12,000 a year, after which he held several +lucrative military positions in England, and began to attend the +sittings of the House of Lords and to take part in political life. A +stanch Tory, the duke objected to all proposals of reform, especially to +the granting of any relief to the Roman Catholics, and had great +influence with his brother the prince regent, afterwards King George +IV., in addition to being often consulted by the Tory leaders. In 1810 +he was severely injured by an assassin, probably his valet Sellis, who +was found dead; and subsequently two men were imprisoned for asserting +that the duke had murdered his valet. Recovering from his wounds, +Cumberland again proceeded to the seat of war; and having been made a +British field-marshal, was in command of the Hanoverian army during the +campaigns of 1813 and 1814, being present, although not in action, at +the battle of Leipzig. In May 1815 Ernest married his cousin, Frederica +(1778-1841), daughter of Charles II. duke of Mecklenburg-Strelitz and +widow of Frederick, prince of Solms-Braunfels, a union which was very +repugnant to his mother Queen Charlotte, and was disliked in England, +where the duke's strong Toryism had made him unpopular. Parliament +refused to increase his allowance from L18,000, to which it had been +raised in 1804, to L24,000 a year, and indignant at the treatment he +received the duke spent some years in Berlin. Returning to England after +the accession of George IV. in 1820, his political power was again +considerable, while deaths in the royal family made it likely that he +would succeed to the throne. Although his personal influence with the +sovereign ceased upon the death of George IV. in 1830, the duke +continued to oppose all measures for the extension of civil and +religious liberty, including the Reform Bill of 1832; and his +unpopularity was augmented by suspicions that he had favoured the +formation of Orange lodges in the army. When William IV. died in June +1837, the crowns of Great Britain and Hanover were separated; and +Ernest, as the nearest male heir of the late king, became king of +Hanover. At once cancelling the constitution which William had given to +his kingdom in 1833, he acted as an absolute monarch, and the +constitution which he sanctioned in 1840 was permeated with his own +illiberal ideas. In German politics he was vigilant and active, and +mindful of the material interests of his country. His reign, however, +was a stormy one, and serious trouble between king and people had arisen +when he died at Herrenhausen on the 18th of November 1851 (see HANOVER: +_History_). In spite of his arbitrary rule and his reactionary ideas the +king was popular among his subjects, and his statue in Hanover bears the +words "_Dem Landes Vater sein treues Volk_." Ernest, who is generally +regarded as the ablest of the sons of George III., left an only child, +George, who succeeded him as king of Hanover. + + See C.A. Wilkinson, _Reminiscences of the Court and Times of King + Ernest of Hanover_ (London, 1886); von Malortie, _Konig Ernst August_ + (Hanover, 1861); and the various histories of Great Britain and + Hanover for the period. + + + + +ERNESTI, JOHANN AUGUST (1707-1781), German theologian and philologist, +was born on the 4th of August 1707, at Tennstadt in Thuringia, of which +place his father was pastor, besides being superintendent of the +electoral dioceses of Thuringia, Salz and Sangerhausen. At the age of +sixteen he was sent to the celebrated Saxon cloister school of Pforta +(Schulpforta). At twenty he entered the university of Wittenberg, and +studied afterwards at the university of Leipzig. In 1730 he was made +master in the faculty of philosophy. In the following year he accepted +the office of conrector in the Thomas school of Leipzig, of which J.M. +Gesner was then rector, an office to which Ernesti succeeded in 1734. He +was, in 1742, named professor _extraordinarius_ of ancient literature in +the university of Leipzig, and in 1756 professor _ordinarius_ of +rhetoric. In the same year he received the degree of doctor of theology, +and in 1759 was appointed professor _ordinarius_ in the faculty of +theology. Through his learning and his manner of discussion, he +co-operated with S.J. Baumgarten of Halle (1706-1757) in disengaging the +current dogmatic theology from its many scholastic and mystical +excrescences, and thus paved a way for a revolution in theology. He +died, after a short illness, in his seventy-sixth year, on the 11th of +September 1781. + +It is perhaps as much from the impulse which Ernesti gave to sacred and +profane criticism in Germany, as from the intrinsic excellence of his +own works in either department, that he must derive his reputation as a +philologist or theologian. With J.S. Semler he co-operated in the +revolution of Lutheran theology, and in conjunction with Gesner he +instituted a new school in ancient literature. He detected grammatical +niceties in Latin, in regard to the consecution of tenses which had +escaped preceding critics. His canons are, however, not without +exceptions. As an editor of the Greek classics, Ernesti hardly deserves +to be named beside his Dutch contemporaries, Tiberius Hemsterhuis +(1685-1766), L.C. Valckenaer (1715-1785), David Ruhnken (1723-1798), or +his colleague J.J. Reiske (1716-1774). The higher criticism was not even +attempted by Ernesti. But to him and to Gesner is due the credit of +having formed, by discipline and by example, philologists greater than +themselves, and of having kindled the national enthusiasm for ancient +learning. It is chiefly in hermeneutics that Ernesti has any claim to +eminence as a theologian. But here his merits are distinguished, and, at +the period when his _Institutio Interpretis N. T._ was published (1761), +almost peculiar to himself. In it we find the principles of a general +interpretation, formed without the assistance of any particular +philosophy, but consisting of observations and rules which, though +already enunciated, and applied in the criticism of the profane writers, +had never rigorously been employed in biblical exegesis. He was, in +fact, the founder of the grammatico-historical school. He admits in the +sacred writings as in the classics only one acceptation, and that the +grammatical, convertible into and the same with the logical and +historical. Consequently he censures the opinion of those who in the +illustration of the Scriptures refer everything to the illumination of +the Holy Spirit, as well as that of others who, disregarding all +knowledge of the languages, would explain words by things. The "analogy +of faith," as a rule of interpretation, he greatly limits, and teaches +that it can never afford of itself the explanation of words, but only +determine the choice among their possible meanings. At the same time he +seems unconscious of any inconsistency between the doctrine of the +inspiration of the Bible as usually received and his principles of +hermeneutics. + + Among his works the more important are:--I. In classical literature: + _Initia doctrinae Solidioris_ (1736), many subsequent editions; + _Initia rhetorica_ (1730); editions, mostly annotated, of Xenophon's + _Memorabilia_ (1737), Cicero (1737-1739), Suetonius (1748), Tacitus + (1752), the _Clouds_ of Aristophanes (1754), Homer (1759-1764), + Callimachus (1761), Polybius (1764), as well as of the _Quaestura_ of + Corradus, the Greek lexicon of Hedericus, and the _Bibliotheca Latina_ + of Fabricius (unfinished); _Archaeologia litteraria_ (1768), new and + improved edition by Martini (1790); Horatius Tursellinus _De + particulis_ (1769). II. In sacred literature: _Antimuratorius sive + confutatio disputationis Muratorianae de rebus liturgicis_ + (1755-1758); _Neue theologische Bibliothek_, vols. i. to x. + (1760-1769); _Institutio interpretis Nov. Test._ (3rd ed., 1775); + _Neueste theologische Bibliothek_, vols. i. to x. (1771-1775). Besides + these, he published more than a hundred smaller works, many of which + have been collected in the three following publications:--_Opuscula + oratoria_ (1762, 2nd ed., 1767); _Opuscula philologica et critica_ + (1764, 2nd ed., 1776); _Opuscula theologica_ (1773). See Herzog-Hauck, + _Realencyklopadie_; J.E. Sandys, _Hist. of Class. Schol._ iii. (1908). + + + + +ERNESTI, JOHANN CHRISTIAN GOTTLIEB (1756-1802), German classical +scholar, was born at Arnstadt, Thuringia, and studied under his uncle, +J.A. Ernesti, at the university of Leipzig. On the 5th of June, 1782, he +was made supplementary professor of philosophy at his own university; +and on the death of his cousin August Wilhelm in 1801 he was for five +months professor of rhetoric. He died on the 5th of June of the +following year. + + His principal works are:--Editions of Aesop's _Fabulae_ (1781); of the + _Glossae sacrae of Hesychius_ (1785) and _Suidas and Phavorinus_ + (1786); and of _Silius Italicus Punica_ (1791-1792); _Lexicon + Technologiae Graecorum rhetoricae_ (1795); _Lexicon technologiae + Latinorum rhetoricae_ (1797), and Cicero's _Geist und Kunst_ + (1799-1802). + + + + +ERNST, HEINRICH WILHELM (1814-1865), German violinist and composer, was +born at Brunn, in Moravia, in 1814. He was educated at the +Conservatorium of Vienna, studying the violin under Joseph Bohm and +Joseph Mayseder, and composition under Ignaz von Seyfried. At the age of +sixteen he made a concert tour in south Germany, which established his +reputation as a violinist of the highest promise. In 1832 he went to +Paris, where he lived for several years. During this period he formed an +intimacy with Stephen Heller, which resulted in their charming joint +compositions--the _Pensees fugitives_ for piano and violin. In 1843 he +paid his first visit to London. The impression which he then made as a +violinist was more than confirmed in the following year, when his rare +powers were recognized by the musical public. Thenceforward he visited +England nearly every year, until his health broke down owing to +long-continued neuralgia of a most severe kind. The last seven years of +his life were spent in retirement, chiefly at Nice, where he died on the +8th of October 1865. As a violinist Ernst was distinguished by his +almost unrivalled executive power, loftiness of conception, and +intensely passionate expression. As a composer he wrote chiefly for his +own instrument, and his _Elegie_ and _Otello Fantasia_ rank among the +most treasured works for the violin. + + + + +ERODE, a town of British India, in the Coimbatore district of Madras, +situated on the right bank of the river Cauvery, which is here crossed +by an iron railway girder bridge of 22 spans. Pop. (1901) 15,529. Here +the South Indian railway joins the South-Western line of the Madras +railway, 243 m. from Madras. There are exports of cotton and saltpetre; +and the town has a steam cotton press. + + + + +EROS, a minor planet discovered by Witt at Berlin on the 14th of August +1898, and, so far as yet known, unique in that its perihelion lies far +within the orbit of Mars. + + + + +EROS, in Greek mythology, the god of love. He is not mentioned in Homer; +in Hesiod (_Theog._ 120) he is one of the oldest and the most beautiful +of the gods, whose power neither gods nor men can resist. He also +evolves order and harmony out of Chaos by uniting the separated +elements. This cosmic Eros, who in Orphic cosmogony sprang from the +world-egg which Chronos, or Time, laid in the bosom of Chaos, and which +is the origin of all created beings, degenerated in later mythology into +the capricious god of sexual passion, the son of Aphrodite and Zeus, +Ares or Hermes. He is commonly represented as a mischievous boy, the +tormentor of gods and men, even his own mother not being proof against +his attacks. His brother is Anteros, the god of mutual love, who +punishes those who do not return the love of others, without which Eros +could not thrive; he is sometimes described as the opponent of Eros. The +chief associates of Eros are Pothos and Himeros (Longing and Desire), +Peitho (Persuasion), the Muses and the Graces; he himself is in constant +attendance on Aphrodite. Later writers (Euripides being the first) +assumed the existence of a number of Erotes (like the Roman Amores and +Cupidines) with similar attributes. According to the philosophers, Eros +was not only the god of sexual love, but also of the loyal and devoted +friendship of men; hence the Theban "Sacred Band" was devoted to him, +and the Cretans and Spartans offered sacrifice to him before going into +battle (Athenaeus xiii. p. 561). In Alexandrian poetry Eros is at one +time the powerful god who conquers all, at another the elfish god of +love. For the Roman adaptation of Eros see Cupid, and for the later +legend of Cupid and Psyche see PSYCHE. + +In art Eros is represented as a beautiful youth or a winged child. His +attributes are the bow and arrows and a burning torch. The rose, the +hare, the cock and the goat are frequently associated with him. The most +celebrated statue of him was at Thespiae, the work of Praxiteles. Other +famous representations are the Vatican torso and Eros trying his bow (in +the Capitoline museum). + + See J.E. Harrison, _Prolegomena to the Study of Greek Religion_ + (1903); G.F. Schomann, _De Cupidine Cosmogonico_ (1852); E. Gerhard, + _Uber den Gott Eros_ (1850); articles in Roscher's _Lexikon der + Mythologie_, Daremberg and Saglio's _Dictionnaire des antiquites_, and + Pauly-Wissowa's _Realencyclopadie_. + + + + +ERPENIUS (original name VAN ERPE), THOMAS (1584-1624), Dutch +Orientalist, was born at Gorcum, in Holland, on the 11th of September +1584. After completing his early education at Leiden, he entered the +university of that city, and in 1608 took the degree of master of arts. +By the advice of Scaliger he studied Oriental languages whilst taking +his course of theology. He afterwards travelled in England, France, +Italy and Germany, forming connexions with learned men, and availing +himself of the information which they communicated. During his stay at +Paris he contracted a friendship with Casaubon, which lasted during his +life, and also took lessons in Arabic from an Egyptian, Joseph Barbatus, +otherwise called Abu-dakni. At Venice he perfected himself in the +Turkish, Persic and Ethiopic languages. After a long absence, Erpenius +returned to his own country in 1612, and on the 10th of February 1613 he +was appointed professor of Arabic and other Oriental languages, Hebrew +excepted, in the university of Leiden. Soon after his settlement at +Leiden, animated by the example of Savary de Breves, who had established +an Arabic press at Paris at his own charge, he caused new Arabic +characters to be cut at a great expense, and erected a press in his own +house. In 1619 the curators of the university of Leiden instituted a +second chair of Hebrew in his favour. In 1620 he was sent by the States +of Holland to induce Pierre Dumoulin or Andre Rivet to settle in that +country; and after a second journey he was successful in inducing Rivet +to comply with their request. Some time after the return of Erpenius, +the states appointed him their interpreter; and in this capacity he had +the duty imposed upon him of translating and replying to the different +letters of the Moslem princes of Asia and Africa. His reputation had now +spread throughout all Europe, and several princes, the kings of England +and Spain, and the archbishop of Seville made him the most flattering +offers; but he constantly refused to leave his native country. He was +preparing an edition of the Koran with a Latin translation and notes, +and was projecting an Oriental library, when he died prematurely on the +13th of November 1624. + + Among his works may be mentioned his _Grammatica Arabica_, published + originally in 1613 and often reprinted; _Rudimenta linguae Arabicae_ + (1620); _Grammatica Ebraea generalis_ (1621); _Grammatica Chaldaica et + Syria_ (1628); and an edition of Elmacin's _History of the Saracens_. + + + + +ERROLL (or ERROL), FRANCIS HAY, 9TH EARL OF (d. 1631), Scottish +nobleman, was the son of Andrew, 8th earl, and of Lady Jean Hay, +daughter of William, 6th earl. The date of his birth is unrecorded, but +he succeeded to the earldom (cr. 1453) in 1585, was early converted to +Roman Catholicism, and as the associate of Huntly joined in the Spanish +conspiracies against the throne of Elizabeth. A letter written by him, +declaring his allegiance to the king of Spain, having been intercepted +and sent by Elizabeth to James in February 1589, he was declared a rebel +by the council. He engaged with Huntly and Crawford in a rebellion in +the north of Scotland, but their forces surrendered at Aberdeen on the +arrival of the king in April; and in July Erroll gave himself up to +James, who leniently refrained from exacting any penalty. In September +of the same year he entered into a personal bond with Huntly for mutual +assistance; and in 1590 displeased the king by marrying, in spite of his +prohibition, Lady Elizabeth Douglas, daughter of the earl of Morton. He +was imprisoned on suspicion of complicity in the attempt made by Gray +and Bothwell to surprise the king at Falkland in June 1592; and though +he obtained his release, he was again proclaimed a rebel on account of +the discovery of his signature to two of the "Spanish Blanks," unwritten +sheets subscribed with the names of the chief conspirators in a plot for +a Spanish invasion of Scotland, to be filled up later with the terms of +the projected treaty. After a failure to apprehend him in March 1593, +Erroll and his companions were sentenced to abjure Romanism or leave the +kingdom; and on their non-compliance were in 1594 declared traitors. On +the 3rd of October they defeated at Glenlivet a force sent against them +under Argyll; though Erroll himself was severely wounded, and Slains +Castle, his seat, razed to the ground. The rebel lords left Scotland in +1595, and Erroll, on report of his further conspiracies abroad, was +arrested by the states of Zealand, but was afterwards allowed to escape. +He returned to Scotland secretly in 1596, and on the 20th of June 1597 +abjured Romanism and made his peace with the Kirk. He enjoyed the favour +of the king, and in 1602 was appointed a commissioner to negotiate the +union with England. His relations with the Kirk, however, were not so +amicable. The reality of his conversion was disputed, and on the 21st of +May 1608 he was confined to the city of Perth "for the better resolution +of his doubts," being subsequently declared an obstinate "papist," +excommunicated, deprived of his estate, and imprisoned at Dumbarton; and +after some further vacillation was finally released in May 1611. Lord +Erroll died on the 16th of July 1631, and was buried in the church of +Slains. He married (1) Anne, daughter of John, 4th earl of Atholl; (2) +Margaret, daughter of the regent Murray; and (3) Elizabeth, daughter of +William, 6th earl of Morton. By his third wife he had several children, +of whom his eldest son, William, succeeded him. The dispute which began +in his lifetime concerning the hereditary office of lord high constable +between the families of Erroll and of the Earl Marischal was settled +finally in favour of the former; thus establishing the precedence +enjoyed by the earls of Erroll next after the royal family over all +other subjects in Scotland. + + See _The Erroll Papers_ (Spalding Club Miscellany, vol. ii. 211); + Andrew Lang, _Hist. of Scotland_, vol. ii.; _Hist. MSS. Comm. MSS. of + Earl of Mar and Kellie_; D. Calderwood's _Hist. of the Church of + Scotland_; John Spalding's _Memorials_ (Spalding Club, 1850); + _Collected Essays_ of T.G. Law, ed. by P.H. Brown (1904); _Treason and + Plot_, by M.A.S. Hume (1901). + + + + +ERROR (Lat. _error_, from _errare_, to wander, to err), a mistake, a +departure or deviation from what is true, exact or right. For the legal +process by which a judgment could be reversed on the ground of error, +known as a "writ of error," see WRIT and APPEAL. The words "error +excepted" or "errors and omissions excepted" (contracted to "E.E." "E. & +O.E."), are frequently placed at the end of a statement of account or an +invoice, so that the accounting party may reserve the right to correct +any errors or omissions which may be subsequently discovered, or make +further claims in respect of them. In mathematics, "error" is the +deviation of an observed or calculated quantity from its true value. The +calculus of errors leads to the formulation of the "law of error," which +is an analytical expression of the most probably true value of a series +of discordant values (see PROBABILITY). + + + + +ERSCH, JOHANN SAMUEL (1766-1828), the founder of German bibliography, +was born at Grossglogau, in Silesia, on the 23rd of June 1766. In 1785 +he entered the university of Halle with the view of studying theology; +but soon his whole attention became engrossed by history, bibliography +and geography. At Halle he made the acquaintance of J.E. Fabri, +professor of geography; and when the latter was made professor of +history and statistics at Jena, Ersch accompanied him thither, and aided +him in the preparation of several works. In 1788 he published the +_Verzeichnis aller anonymischen Schriften_, as a supplement to the 4th +edition of Meusel's _Gelehrtes Deutschland_. The researches required for +this work suggested to him the preparation of a _Repertorium uber die +allgemeinen deutschen Journale und andere periodische Sammlungen fur +Erdbeschreibung, Geschichte, und die damit verwandten Wissenschaften_ +(Lemgo, 1790-1792). The fame which this publication acquired him led to +his being engaged by Schutz and Hufeland to prepare an _Allgemeines +Repertorium der Literatur_, published in 8 vols. (Jena and Weimar, +1793-1809), which condensed the literary productions of 15 years +(1785-1800), and included an account not merely of the books published +during that period, but also of articles in periodicals and magazines, +and even of the criticisms to which each book had been subjected. While +engaged in this great work he also projected _La France litteraire_, +which was published at Hamburg in 5 vols., from 1797 to 1806. In 1795 he +went to Hamburg to edit the _Neue Hamburger Zeitung_, founded by Victor +Klopstock, brother of the poet, but returned in 1800 to Jena to take +active part in the _Allgemeine Literaturzeitung_. He also obtained in +the same year the office of librarian in the university, and in 1802 was +made professor of philosophy. In 1803 he accepted the chair of geography +and statistics at Halle, and in 1808 was made principal librarian. He +here projected a _Handbuch der deutschen Literatur seit der Mitte des +18. Jahrh. bis auf die neueste Zeit_ (Leipzig, 1812-1814) and, along +with Johann Gottfried Gruber (q.v.), the _Allgemeine Encyklopadie der +Wissenschaften und Kunste_ (Leipzig, 1818 ffg.) which he continued as +far as the 21st volume. The accuracy and thoroughness of this monumental +encyclopaedia make it still an indispensable book of reference. Ersch +died at Halle on the 16th of January 1828. + + + + +ERSKINE, EBENEZER (1680-1754), Scottish divine, the chief founder of the +Secession Church (formed of dissenters from the Church of Scotland), was +born on the 22nd of June 1680, most probably at Dryburgh, Berwickshire. +His father, Henry Erskine, who was at one time minister at Cornhill, +Durham, was ejected in 1662 by the Act of Uniformity, and, after +suffering some years' imprisonment, was after the Revolution appointed +to the parish of Chirnside, Berwickshire. After studying at the +university of Edinburgh, Ebenezer became minister of Portmoak, +Kinross-shire. There he remained for twenty-eight years, after which, +in the autumn of 1731, he was translated to the West Church, Stirling. +Some time before this, he, along with some other ministers, was "rebuked +and admonished," by the general assembly, for defending the doctrines +contained in the _Marrow of Modern Divinity_ (see BOSTON, THOMAS). A +sermon which he preached on lay patronage before the synod of Perth in +1733 furnished new grounds of accusation, and he was compelled to shield +himself from rebuke by appealing to the general assembly. Here, however, +the sentence of the synod was confirmed, and after many fruitless +attempts to obtain a hearing, he, along with William Wilson of Perth, +Alexander Moncrieff of Abernethy and James Fisher of Kinclaven, was +suspended from the ministry by the commission in November of that year. +Against this sentence they protested, and constituted themselves into a +separate church court, under the name of the associate presbytery. In +1739 they were again summoned before the assembly, and in their +corporate capacity declined to acknowledge the authority of the church, +and were deposed in the following year. They received numerous +accessions to their communion, and remained in harmony with each other +till 1747, when a division took place in regard to the nature of the +oath administered to burgesses. Erskine joined with the "burgher" +section, and became their professor of theology. He continued also to +preach to a numerous congregation in Stirling till his death, which took +place on the 2nd of June 1754. Erskine was a very popular preacher, and +a man of considerable force of character; he acted throughout on +principle with honesty and courage. The burgher and anti-burgher +sections of the Secession Church were reunited in 1820, and in 1847 they +united with the relief synod in forming the United Presbyterian Church. + + Erskine's published works consist chiefly of sermons. His _Life and + Diary_, edited by the Rev. Donald Fraser, was published in 1840. His + _Works_ were published in 1785. + + + + +ERSKINE, HENRY (1746-1817), lord advocate of Scotland, the second son of +Henry David, 10th earl of Buchan and brother of the lord chancellor +Erskine, was born in Edinburgh on the 1st of November 1746. He was +educated at the universities of St Andrews, Glasgow and Edinburgh, and +was admitted a member of the faculty of advocates in 1768. His +reputation as a clever and fluent speaker was first made in the debates +of the general assembly, of which he had been early elected an elder. In +1783 he was appointed to the office of lord advocate, which he held +during the brief coalition ministry of Fox and North. In 1785 he was +elected dean of the faculty of advocates, and was re-elected annually +till 1796, when his conduct in moving a series of resolutions at a +public meeting, condemning the government's sedition and treason bills, +brought on him the opposition of the ministerial party, and he was +deposed in favour of Robert Dundas. On the formation of the Grenville +ministry in 1806 he again became lord advocate and was returned to +parliament for the Haddington burghs, which he exchanged at the general +election of the same year for the Dumfries burghs. His tenure of the +lord advocateship ended in March 1807 on the downfall of the ministry. +In 1811 he gave up his practice at the bar and retired to his country +residence of Almondel, in Linlithgowshire, where he died on the 8th of +October 1817. + +His eldest son, Henry David (1783-1857), succeeded as 12th earl of +Buchan on his uncle's death in 1829. + +Erskine's reputation will survive as the finest and most eloquent orator +of his day at the Scottish bar; added to a charming forensic style was a +most captivating wit, which, as Lord Jeffrey said, was "all argument, +and each of his delightful illustrations a material step in his +reasoning." Erskine was also the author of some poems, of which the best +known is "The Emigrant" (1783). + + See Lieut.-Col. A. Fergusson's _Henry Erskine_ (1882). + + + + +ERSKINE, JOHN (1721-1803), Scottish divine, son of John Erskine of +Carnock, was born on the 2nd of June 1721. He studied law for a time +after completing his course in arts at the university of Edinburgh, but +was eventually licensed to preach in 1743; and was successively parish +minister of Kirkintilloch, near Glasgow, Culross, in Fifeshire (1753), +New Greyfriars church in Edinburgh (1758), and Old Greyfriars church in +1768, where he became the colleague of Principal Robertson, the +historian. Here he remained until his death, which took place on the +19th of January 1803. Dr Erskine's writings consist chiefly of +controversial pamphlets on theological subjects. His sermons are clear, +vigorous expositions of a moderate Calvinism, in which metaphysical +argument and practical morality are happily blended. In church politics +he was the leader of the evangelical party; and was much beloved for his +high character and amiability. + + For his life and works see Sir H. Moncreiff Wellwood, _Life and + Writings of J. Erskine, D.D._ (Edinburgh, 1818). + + + + +ERSKINE, JOHN, of Carnock (1695-1768), Scottish jurist, son of +Lieut.-Colonel John Erskine, was born in 1695. He was admitted a member +of the faculty of advocates in 1719. Although he never enjoyed much +practice at the bar, he acquired a high reputation as a sound and +learned lawyer, and in 1737 was appointed professor of Scots law in the +university of Edinburgh. In 1754 he published his _Principles of the Law +of Scotland_. He retired from his chair in 1765; and during the +remainder of his uneventful life he occupied himself with the +preparation of his great work, the _Institutes of the Law of Scotland_, +which he did not live to publish. He died at Cardross, Perthshire, on +the 1st of March 1768. + +Erskine's _Institutes_, although not exhibiting the grasp of principle +which distinguished his great predecessor Lord Stair, is so conspicuous +for learning, accuracy and sound good sense, that it has always been +esteemed of the highest authority on the law of Scotland. The first +edition appeared in 1773 and it has been many times reprinted. The +_Principles_, although published first, is substantially an abridgment +of the larger work, and is in some respects superior to it, being more +concise and direct. It retains its place as the text-book on Scots law, +and is frequently being re-edited. + + + + +ERSKINE, JOHN, of Dun (1509-1591), Scottish reformer, the son of Sir +John Erskine, laird of Dun, was born in 1509, and was educated at King's +College, Aberdeen. At the age of twenty-one Erskine was the +cause--probably by accident--of a priest's death, and was forced to go +abroad, where he came under the influence of the new learning. It was +through his agency that Greek was first taught in Scotland by Petrus de +Marsiliers at Montrose. This fact counted for much in the progress of +the Reformation. Erskine was also drawn towards the new faith, being a +close friend of George Wishart, the reformer, from whose fate he was +saved by his wealth and influence, and of John Knox, whose advice openly +to discountenance the mass was given in the lodgings of the laird of +Dun. In the stormy controversies of the time of Mary Stuart and James +VI. Erskine was a conspicuous figure and a moderating influence. He was +able to soothe the queen when her feelings had been outraged by Knox's +denunciations--being a man "most gentill of nature"--and frequently +acted as mediator both between the catholic and reforming parties, and +among the reformers themselves. In 1560 he was appointed--though a +layman--superintendent of the reformed church of Scotland for Angus and +Mearns, and in 1572 he gave his assent to the modified episcopacy +proposed by Morton at the Leith convention. Though never himself +ordained, he was held in such high esteem by the leaders of the church +as to be more than once elected moderator of the general assembly (first +in 1564), and he was amongst those who in 1578 drew up the _Second Book +of Discipline_. From 1579 he was a member of the king's council. He died +in 1591. Erskine owed his peculiar influence among the Scottish +reformers to the union--rare in those days--of steadfast convictions +with a conciliatory manner; Queen Mary described him as "a mild and +sweet-natured man, with true honesty and uprightness." + + See the "Dun Papers" in the _Spalding Club Miscellany_, vol. iv. + (1849), and the article by T.F. Henderson in the _Dict. Nat. Biog._ + + + + +ERSKINE, RALPH (1685-1752), Scottish divine, brother of Ebenezer Erskine +(q.v.), was born on the 18th of March 1685. After studying at the +university of Edinburgh, he was in 1711 ordained assistant minister at +Dunfermline. He homologated the protests which his brother laid on the +table of the assembly after being rebuked for his synod sermon, but he +did not formally withdraw from the establishment till 1737. He was also +present, though not as a member, at the first meeting of the associate +presbytery. When the severance took place on account of the oath +administered to burgesses, he adhered, along with his brother, to the +burgher section. He died after a short illness on the 6th of November +1752. + + His works consist of sermons, poetical paraphrases and gospel sonnets. + The _Gospel Sonnets_ have frequently appeared separately. His _Life + and Diary_, edited by the Rev. D. Fraser, was published in 1842. + + + + +ERSKINE, THOMAS, of Linlathen (1788-1870), Scottish theologian, youngest +son of David Erskine, writer to the signet in Edinburgh, and of Anne +Graham, of the Grahams of Airth, was born on the 13th of October 1788. +He was a descendant of John, 1st or 6th earl of Mar, regent of Scotland +in the reign of James VI., a grandson of Colonel John Erskine of +Carnock. After being educated at the high school of Edinburgh and at +Durham, he attended the literary and law classes at the university of +Edinburgh, and becoming in 1810 a member of the Edinburgh faculty of +advocates, he for some time enjoyed the intimate acquaintance of +Cockburn, Jeffrey, Scott and other distinguished men whose talent then +lent lustre to the Scottish bar. In 1816 he succeeded to the family +estate of Linlathen, near Dundee, and devoted himself to theology. The +writings of Erskine, especially his published letters, are distinguished +by a graceful style, and possess originality and interest. His +theological views have a considerable similarity to those of Frederick +Denison Maurice, who acknowledges having been indebted to him for his +first true conception of the meaning of Christ's sacrifice. Erskine had +little interest in the "historical criticism" of Christianity, and +regarded as the only proper criterion of its truth its conformity or +nonconformity with man's spiritual nature, and its adaptability or +non-adaptability to man's spiritual needs. He considered the incarnation +of Christ as the necessary manifestation to man of an eternal sonship in +the divine nature, apart from which those filial qualities which God +demands from man could have no sanction; by _faith_ as used in Scripture +he understood to be meant a certain moral or spiritual activity or +energy which virtually implied salvation, because it implied the +existence of a principle of spiritual life possessed of an immortal +power. This faith, he believed, could be properly awakened only by the +manifestation, through Christ, of love as the law of life, and as +identical with an eternal righteousness which it was God's purpose to +bestow on every individual soul. As an interpreter of the mystical side +of Calvinism and of the psychological conditions which correspond with +the doctrines of grace Erskine is unrivalled. During the last +thirty-three years of his life Erskine ceased from literary work. Among +his friends were Madame Vernet, the duchess de Broglie, the younger Mdme +de Stael, M. Vinet of Lausanne, Edward Irving, Frederick D. Maurice, +Dean Stanley, Bishop Ewing, Dr John Brown and Thomas Carlyle. His wide +influence was due to his high character and unassuming earnestness. He +died at Edinburgh on the 20th of March 1870. + + His principal works are _Remarks on the Internal Evidence for the + Truth of Revealed Religion_ (1820), an _Essay on Faith_ (1822), and + the _Unconditional Freeness of the Gospel_ (1828). These have all + passed through several editions, and have also been translated into + French. He is also the author of the _Brazen Serpent_ (1831), the + _Doctrine of Election_ (1839), several "Introductory Essays" to + editions of _Christian Authors_, and a posthumous work entitled + _Spiritual Order and Other Papers_ (1871). Two vols. of his letters, + edited by William Hanna, D.D., with reminiscences by Dean Stanley and + Principal Shairp, appeared in 1877. + + + + +ERSKINE, THOMAS ERSKINE, 1ST BARON (1750-1823), lord chancellor of +England, was the third and youngest son of Henry David, 10th earl of +Buchan, and was born in Edinburgh on the 10th of January 1750. From an +early age he showed a strong desire to enter one of the learned +professions; but his father, owing to his straitened circumstances, was +unable to do more than give him a good school education at the high +school of Edinburgh and the grammar school of St Andrews. In 1764 he +was sent as a midshipman on board the "Tartar," but on finding, when he +returned to this country after four years' absence in North America and +the West Indies, that there was little immediate chance of his rank of +acting lieutenant being confirmed, he quitted the service and entered +the army, purchasing a commission in the 1st Royals with the meagre +patrimony which had been left to him. But promotion here was as slow as +in the navy; while in 1770 he had added greatly to his difficulties by +marrying the daughter of Daniel Moore, M.P. for Marlow, an excellent +wife, but as poor as himself. However, an accidental visit to an assize +court in the town in which he was quartered, and an interview with Lord +Mansfield, the presiding judge, confirmed his resolve to quit the army +for the law. Accordingly on the 26th of April 1775 he was admitted a +student of Lincoln's Inn. He also on the 13th of January following +entered himself as a gentleman commoner on the books of Trinity College, +Cambridge, but merely that by graduating he might be called two years +earlier. + +He read in the chambers of Francis Buller (afterwards Mr Justice Buller) +and George (afterwards Baron) Wood, and was called to the bar on the 3rd +of July 1778. His success was immediate and brilliant. An accident was +the means of giving him his first case, _Rex_ v. _Baillie_, in which he +appeared for Captain Thomas Baillie, the lieutenant-governor of +Greenwich hospital, who had published a pamphlet animadverting in severe +terms upon the abuses which Lord Sandwich, the first lord of the +admiralty, had introduced into the management of the hospital, and +against whom a rule had been obtained from the court of king's bench to +show cause why a criminal information for libel should not be filed. +Erskine was the junior of five counsel; and it was his good fortune that +the prolixity of his leaders consumed the whole of the first day, +thereby giving the advantage of starting afresh next morning. He made +use of this opportunity to deliver a speech of wonderful eloquence, +skill and courage, which captivated both the audience and the court. The +rule was discharged, and Erskine's fortune was made. He received, it is +said, thirty retainers before he left the court. In 1781 he delivered +another remarkable speech, in defence of Lord George Gordon--a speech +which gave the death-blow to the doctrine of constructive treason. In +1783, when the Coalition ministry came into power, he was returned to +parliament as member for Portsmouth. His first speech in the House of +Commons was a failure; and he never in parliamentary debate possessed +anything like the influence he had at the bar. He lost his seat at the +dissolution in the following year, and remained out of parliament until +1790, when he was again returned for Portsmouth. But his success at the +bar continued unimpaired. In 1783 he received a patent of precedence. +His first special retainer was in defence of Dr W.D. Shipley, dean of St +Asaph, who was tried in 1784 at Shrewsbury for seditious libel--a +defence to which was due the passing of the Libel Act 1792, laying down +the principle that it is for the jury, and not for the judge to decide +the question whether or no a publication is a libel. In 1789 he was +counsel for John Stockdale, a bookseller, who was charged with seditious +libel in publishing a pamphlet in favour of Warren Hastings, whose trial +was then proceeding; and his speech on this occasion, probably his +greatest effort, is a consummate specimen of the art of addressing a +jury. Three years afterwards he brought down the opposition alike of +friends and foes by defending Thomas Paine, author of _The Rights of +Man_--holding that an advocate has no right, by refusing a brief, to +convert himself into a judge. As a consequence he lost the office of +attorney-general to the prince of Wales, to which he had been appointed +in 1786; the prince, however, subsequently made amends by making him his +chancellor. Among Erskine's later speeches may be mentioned those for +Horne Tooke and the other advocates of parliamentary reform, and that +for James Hadfield, who was accused of shooting at the king. On the +accession of the Grenville ministry in 1806 he was made lord chancellor, +an office for which his training had in no way prepared him, but which +he fortunately held only during the short period his party was in +power. Of the remainder of his life it would be well if nothing could +be said. Occasionally speaking in parliament, and hoping that he might +return to office should the prince become regent, he gradually +degenerated into a state of useless idleness. Never conspicuous for +prudence, he aggravated his increasing poverty by an unfortunate second +marriage. + +His first wife had died in 1805, and he married at Gretna Green a Miss +Mary Buck. The date of this marriage is not definitely known. Once +only--in his conduct in the case of Queen Caroline--does he recall his +former self. He died at Almondell, Linlithgowshire, on the 17th of +November 1823, of pneumonia, caught on the voyage to Scotland. + +Erskine's great forensic reputation was, to a certain extent, a +concomitant of the numerous political trials of the day, but it was also +due to his impassioned eloquence and undaunted courage, which so often +carried audience and jury and even the court along with him. As a judge +he did not succeed; and it has been questioned whether under any +circumstances he could have succeeded. For the office of chancellor he +was plainly unfit. As a lawyer he was well read, but by no means +profound. His strength lay in the keenness of his reasoning faculty, in +his dexterity and the ability with which he disentangled complicated +masses of evidence, and above all in his unrivalled power of fixing and +commanding the attention of juries. To no department of knowledge but +law had he applied himself systematically, with the single exception of +English literature, of which he acquired a thorough mastery in early +life, at intervals of leisure in college, on board ship, or in the army. +Vanity is said to have been his ruling personal characteristic; but +those who knew him, while they admit the fault, say that in him it never +took an offensive form, even in old age, while the singular grace and +attractiveness of his manner endeared him to all with whom he came in +contact. + +By his first wife he had four sons and four daughters. His eldest son, +David Montagu (1776-1855), was a well-known diplomatist; his second son, +Henry David (1786-1859), was dean of Ripon; and his third son, Thomas +(1788-1864), became a judge of the court of common pleas. By his second +wife he had one son, born in 1821. + + In 1772 Erskine published _Observations on the Prevailing Abuses in + the British Army_, a pamphlet which had a large circulation, and in + later life, _Armata_, an imitation of _Gulliver's Travels_. His most + noted speeches have repeatedly appeared in a collected form. See + Campbell's _Lives of the Chancellors_; Moore's _Diaries_; Fergusson's + _Henry Erskine_ (1882); Dumerit's _Henry Erskine, a Study_ (Paris, + 1883); Lord Brougham's _Memoir_, prefixed to Erskine's _Speeches_ + (1847); Romilly's _Memoirs_; the _Croker Papers_; Lord Holland's + _Memoirs_. + + + + +ERUBESCITE, a native copper-iron sulphide, Cu5FeS4, of importance as an +ore of copper. It crystallizes in the cubic system, the usual form being +that of interpenetrating cubes twinned on an octahedral plane. The faces +are usually curved and rough, and the crystals confusedly aggregated +together. Compact and granular masses are of more frequent occurrence. +The colour on a freshly fractured surface is bronzy or coppery, but in +moist air this rapidly tarnishes with iridescent blue and red colours; +hence the names purple copper ore, variegated copper ore (Ger. +_Buntkupfererz_), horse-flesh ore, and erubescite (from the Lat. +_erubescere_, "to grow red"). The lustre is metallic, and the streak +greyish-black; hardness 3; sp. gr. 5.0. Bornite (after Baron Ignaz von +Born, b. 1742, d. 1791) is a name in common use for this mineral, and it +predates erubescite, the name given by J.D. Dana in 1850, but afterwards +rejected by him; French authors use the name phillipsite, after the +English mineralogist, R. Phillips, who analysed the mineral; both these +earlier names had, however, been previously used for other minerals. + +Owing to the frequent presence of mechanically admixed chalcopyrite and +chalcocite, the published analyses of erubescite show wide variations, +the copper, for example, varying from 50 to 70%. Even the best Cornish +crystals enclose a nucleus of chalcopyrite (CuFeS2), and an analysis of +these made in 1839 led to the long-accepted formula Cu3FeS3. Recently, +B.J. Harrington has analysed carefully selected material and obtained +the formula Cu5FeS4. + +Erubescite occurs in copper-bearing veins, and has been mined as an ore +of copper at Redruth in Cornwall, Montecatini in the province of Pisa, +Tuscany, Bristol in Connecticut, Acton in Canada, and other localities +in North America. The best crystallized specimens are from the Carn Brea +mine and other copper mines in the neighbourhood of Redruth, and from +Bristol in Connecticut. Recently a few large isolated crystals with the +form of icositetrahedra have been found with calcite and albite in a +gold-vein on Frossnitz-Alpe in the Gross-Venediger, Tirol. + (L. J. S.) + + + + +ERYSIPELAS (a Greek word, probably derived from [Greek: erythros], red, +and [Greek: pella], skin)--synonyms, _the Rose_, _St Anthony's Fire_--an +acute contagious disease, characterized by a special inflammation of the +skin, caused by a streptococcus. Erysipelas is endemic in most +countries, and epidemic at certain seasons, particularly the spring of +the year. The poison is not very virulent, but it certainly can be +conveyed by bedding and the clothes of a third person. Two varieties are +occasionally described, a traumatic and an idiopathic, but the disease +seems to depend in all cases upon the existence of a wound or abrasion. +In the so-called idiopathic variety, of which _facial erysipelas_ is the +best known, the point of entry is probably an abrasion by the lachrymal +duct. + +When the erysipelas is of moderate character there is simply a redness +of the integument, which feels somewhat hard and thickened, and upon +which there often appear small vesications. This redness, though at +first circumscribed, tends to spread and affect the neighbouring sound +skin, until an entire limb or a large area of the body may become +involved in the inflammatory process. There is usually considerable +pain, with heat and tingling in the affected part. As the disease +advances the portions of skin first attacked become less inflamed, and +exhibit a yellowish appearance, which is followed by slight desquamation +of the cuticle. The inflammation in general gradually disappears. +Sometimes, however, it breaks out again, and passes over the area +originally affected the second time. But besides the skin, the subjacent +tissues may become involved in the inflammation, and give rise to the +formation of pus. This is termed _phlegmonous erysipelas_, and is much +more apt to occur in connexion with the traumatic variety of the +disease. Occasionally the affected parts become gangrenous. Certain +complications are apt to arise in erysipelas affecting the surface of +the body, particularly inflammation of serous membranes, such as the +pericardium or pleura. + +Erysipelas of the face usually begins with symptoms of general illness, +the patient feeling languid, drowsy and sick, while frequently there is +a distinct rigor followed with fever. Sore throat is sometimes felt, but +in general the first indication of the local affection is a red and +painful spot at the side of the nose or on one of the cheeks or ears. +Occasionally it would appear that the inflammation begins in the throat, +and reaches the face through the nasal fossae. The redness gradually +spreads over the whole surface of the face, and is accompanied with +swelling, which in the lax tissues of the cheeks and eyelids is so great +that the features soon become obliterated and the countenance wears a +hideous expression. Advancing over the scalp, the disease may invade the +neck and pass on to the trunk, but in general the inflammation remains +confined to the face and head. While the disease progresses, besides the +pain, tenderness and heat of the affected parts, the constitutional +symptoms are very severe. The temperature rises often to 105 deg. or +higher, remains high for four or five days, and then falls by crisis. +Delirium is a frequent accompaniment. The attack in general lasts for a +week or ten days, during which the inflammation subsides in the parts of +the skin first attacked, while it spreads onwards in other directions, +and after it has passed away there is, as already observed, some slight +desquamation of the cuticle. + +Although in general the termination is favourable, serious and +occasionally fatal results follow from inflammation of the membranes of +the brain, and in some rare instances sudden death has occurred from +suffocation arising from oedema glottidis, the inflammatory action +having spread into and extensively involved the throat. One attack of +this disease, so far from protecting from, appears rather to predispose +to others. It is sometimes a complication in certain forms of exhausting +disease, such as phthisis or typhoid fever, and is then to be regarded +as of serious import. A very fatal form occasionally attacks new-born +infants, particularly in the first four weeks of their lives. In +epidemics of puerperal fever this form of erysipelas has been specially +found to prevail. + +The treatment of erysipelas is best conducted on the expectant system. +The disease in most instances tends to a favourable termination; and +beyond attention to the condition of the stomach and bowels, which may +require the use of some gentle laxative, little is necessary in the way +of medicine. The employment of preparations of iron in large doses is +strongly recommended by many physicians. But the chief point is the +administration of abundant nourishment in a light and digestible form. +Of the many local applications which may be employed, hot fomentations +will be found among the most soothing. Dusting the affected part with +powdered starch, and wrapping it in cotton wadding, is also of use. + +In the case of phlegmonous erysipelas complicating wounds, free +incisions into the part are necessary. + + + + +ERYTHRAE [mod. _Litri_], one of the Ionian cities of Asia Minor, +situated on a small peninsula stretching into the Bay of Erythrae, at an +equal distance from the mountains Mimas and Corycus, and directly +opposite the island of Chios. In the peninsula excellent wine was +produced. The town was said to have been founded by Ionians under +Knopos, son of Codrus. Never a large city, it sent only eight ships to +the battle of Lade. The Erythraeans owned for a considerable time the +supremacy of Athens, but towards the close of the Peloponnesian war they +threw off their allegiance to that city. After the battle of Cnidus, +however, they received Conon, and paid him honours in an inscription, +still extant. Erythrae was the birthplace of two prophetesses--one of +whom, Sibylla, is mentioned by Strabo as living in the early period of +the city; the other, Athenais, lived in the time of Alexander the Great. +The ruins include well-preserved Hellenistic walls with towers, of which +five are still visible. The acropolis (280 ft.) has the theatre on its +N. slope, and eastwards lie many remains of Byzantine buildings. Modern +Litri is a considerable place and port, extending from the ancient +harbour to the acropolis. The smaller coasting steamers call, and there +is an active trade with Chios and Smyrna. + + + + +ERYTHRITE, the name given to (1) a mineral composed of a hydrated cobalt +arsenate, and (2) in chemistry, a tetrahydric alcohol. (1) The mineral +erythrite has the formula Co3(AsO4)2.8H2O, and crystallizes in the +monoclinic system and is isomorphous with vivianite. It sometimes occurs +as beautiful radially-arranged groups of blade-shaped crystals with a +bright crimson colour and brilliant lustre. On exposure to light the +colour and lustre deteriorate. There is a perfect cleavage parallel to +the plane of symmetry, on which the lustre is pearly. Cleavage flakes +are soft (H = 2), sectile and flexible; specific gravity 2.95. The +mineral is, however, more often found as an earthy encrustation with a +peach-blossom colour, and in this form was early (1727) known as +cobalt-bloom (Ger. _Kobaltbluthe_). The name erythrite, from [Greek: +erythros], "red," was given by F.S. Beudant in 1382. Erythrite occurs as +a product of alteration of smaltite (CoAs2) and other cobaltiferous +arsenides. The finest crystallized specimens are from Schneeberg in +Saxony. The earthy variety has been found in Thuringia and Cornwall and +some other places. (2) The alcohol erythrite has the constitutional +formula HO.H2C.CH(OH).CH(OH).CH2OH; it is also known as erythrol, +erythroglucin and phycite. It corresponds to tartaric acid, and, like +this substance, it occurs in four stereo-isomeric forms. The internally +compensated modification, _i_-erythrite, corresponding to mesotartaric +acid, occurs free in the algae _Protococcus vulgaris_, and as the +orsellinate, erythrin, C4H6(OH)2(O.C8H7O3)2, in many lichens and algae, +especially _Roccella montagnei_. It has a sweet taste, melts at 126 +deg., and boils at 330 deg. Careful oxidation with dilute nitric acid +gives erythrose or tetrose, which is probably a mixture of a +trioxyaldehyde and trioxyketone. Energetic oxidation gives erythritic +acid and mesotartaric acid. _i_-Erythrite and the racemic mixture of the +dextro and laevo varieties were synthesized by Griner in 1893 from +divinyl. + + + + +ERZERUM, or ARZRUM (Arm. _Garin_), the chief town of an important +vilayet of the same name in Asiatic Turkey. It is a military station and +a fortress of considerable strategical value, closing the roads from +Kars, Olti and other parts of the frontier. Several important routes +from Trebizond and various parts of Anatolia converge towards it from +the west. It is situated at the eastern end of an open bare plain, 30 m. +long and about 12 wide, bordered by steep, rounded mountains and +traversed by the Kara Su, or western Euphrates, which has its source in +the Dumlu Dagh a few miles north of that town, which lies at an +elevation of 6250 ft. above sea-level, while the near hills rise to +10,000 ft. The scenery in the neighbourhood is striking, lofty bare +mountains being varied by open plains and long valleys dotted with +villages. Just east of the town is the broad ridge of the Deveboyun +("Camel's Neck"), across which the road passes to Kars. To the south is +the Palanduken range, from which emerge numerous streams, supplying the +town with excellent water. In the plain to the north the Kara Su +traverses extensive marshes which afford good wildfowl-shooting in the +spring. + +The town is surrounded by an earthen enceinte or rampart with some forts +on the hills just above it, and others on the Deveboyun ridge facing +east, the whole forming a position of considerable strength. The old +walls and the citadel have disappeared. Inside the ramparts the town +lies rather cramped, with narrow, crooked streets, badly drained and +dirty; the houses are generally built of dark grey volcanic stone with +flat roofs, the general aspect, owing to the absence of trees, being +somewhat gloomy. The water-supply from Palanduken is distributed by +wooden pipes to numerous public fountains. The town has a population of +about 43,000, including about 10,000 Armenians, 2000 Persians and a few +Jews. It has a garrison in peace of about 5000 men. It is the seat of +the British consulate for Kurdistan, and there are other European +consulates besides an American mission with schools. The great altitude +accounts for very severe winter cold, occasionally 10 deg. to 25 deg. +below zero F., accompanied by blizzards (_tipi_) sometimes fatal to +travellers overtaken by them. The summer heat is moderate (59 deg. to 77 +deg.). + +There are several well-built mosques (none older than the 16th century), +public baths, and several good khans. There are Armenian and Catholic +churches, but the most beautiful building is a _medresse_ erected in the +12th century by the Seljuks, with ornamental doorway and two graceful +minarets known as the _Chifte Minare_. + +Situated on the main road from Trebizond into north-west Persia, the +town has always a large caravan traffic, principally of camels, but +since the improvement of communications in Russia this has declined. A +good carriage-road leads to the coast at Trebizond, the journey being +made in five or six days. There are also roads to Kars, Bayazid, +Erzingan and Kharput. Blacksmiths' and coppersmiths' work is better here +than in most Turkish towns; horse-shoes and brasswork are also famous. +There are several tanneries, and Turkish boots and saddles are largely +made. Jerked beef (_pasdirma_) is also prepared in large quantities for +winter use. The plain produces wheat, barley, millet and vegetables. +Wood fuel is scarce, the present supply being from the Tortum district, +whence surface coal and lignite are also brought; but the usual fuel is +_tezek_ or dried cow-dung. The bazaars are of no great interest. Good +Persian carpets and similar goods can be obtained. + +Erzerum is a town of great antiquity, and has been identified with the +Armenian Garin Kalakh, the Arabic Kalikale, and the Byzantine +Theodosiopolis of the 5th century, when it was a frontier fortress of +the empire--hence its name _Erzen-er-Rum_. It was captured by the +Seljuks in 1201, when it was an important city, and it fell into Turkish +possession in 1517. In July 1829 it was captured by the Russian general +Paskevich, and the occupation continued until the peace of Adrianople +(September 1829). The town was unsuccessfully attacked by the Russians +on the 9th of November 1877 after a victory gained by them a short time +previously on the Deveboyun heights; it was occupied by them during the +armistice (7th of February 1878) and restored to Turkey after the treaty +of Berlin. In 1859 a severe earthquake destroyed much of the town, and +another in November 1901 caused much damage. + +The Erzerum vilayet extends from the Persian frontier at Bayazid, all +along the Russian frontier and westward into Anatolia at Baiburt and +Erzingan. It is divided into the three sanjaks of Bayazid, Erzerum, and +Erzingan. It includes the highest portion of the Armenian plateau, and +consists of bare undulating uplands varied by lofty ranges. The deep +gorges of the Chorokh and Tortum streams north of the town alone have a +different appearance, being well wooded in places. Both arms of the +Euphrates have their rise in this country as well as the Aras (Araxes) +and the Chorokh (Acampsis). It is an agricultural country with few +industries. Besides forests, iron, salt, sulphur and other mineral +springs are found. Some of the coal and lignite mines in Tortum have +been recently worked to supply fuel for Erzerum. The population is +largely Armenian and Kurd with some Turks (Moslems 500,000, Christians +140,000). (C. W. W.; F. R. M.) + + + + +ERZGEBIRGE, a mountain chain of Germany, extending in a W.S.W. direction +from the Elbe to the Elstergebirge along the frontier between Saxony and +Bohemia. Its length from E.N.E. to W.S.W. is about 80 m., and its +average breadth about 25 m. The southern declivity is generally steep +and rugged, forming in some places an almost perpendicular wall of the +height of from 2000 to 2500 ft.; while the northern, divided at +intervals into valleys, sometimes of great fertility and sometimes +wildly romantic, slopes gradually towards the great plain of northern +Germany. The central part of the chain forms a plateau of an average +height of more than 3000 ft. At the extremities of this plateau are +situated the highest summits of the range:--in the south-east the +Keilberg (4080 ft.); in the north-east the Fichtelberg (3980 ft.); and +in the south-west the Spitzberg (3650 ft.). Between the Keilberg and the +Fichtelberg, at the height of about 3300 ft., is situated Gottesgab, the +highest town in Bohemia. Geologically, the Erzgebirge range consists +mainly of gneiss, mica and phyllite. As its name (Ore Mountains) +indicates, it is famous for its mineral ores. These are chiefly silver +and lead, the layers of both of which are very extensive, tin, nickel, +copper and iron. Gold is found in several places, and some arsenic, +antimony, bismuth, manganese, mercury and sulphur. The Erzgebirge is +celebrated for its lace manufactures, introduced by Barbara Uttmann in +1541, embroideries, silk-weaving and toys. The climate is in winter +inclement in the higher elevations, and, as the snow lies deep until the +spring, the range is largely frequented by devotees of winter sport, +ski, toboganning, &c. In summer the air is bracing, and many climatic +health resorts have sprung into existence, among which may be mentioned +Kipsdorf, Barenfels and Oberwiesenthal. Communication with the +Erzgebirge is provided by numerous lines of railway, some, such as that +from Freiberg to Brux, that from Chemnitz to Komotau, and that from +Zwickau to Carlsbad, crossing the range, while various local lines serve +the higher valleys. + +The Elstergebirge, a range some 16 m. in length, in which the Weisse +Elster has its source, runs S.W. from the Erzgebirge to the +Fichtelgebirge and attains a height of 2630 ft. + + See Grohmann, _Das Obererzgebirge und seine Stadte_ (1903), and + Schurtz, _Die Passe des Erzgebirges_ (1891); also Daniel, + _Deutschland_, vol. ii., and Gebauer, _Lander und Volkerkunde_, vol. + i. + + + + +ERZINGAN, or ERZINJAN (_Arsinga_ of the middle ages), the chief town of +a sanjak in the Erzerum vilayet of Asiatic Turkey. It is the +headquarters of the IV. army corps, being a place of some military +importance, with large barracks and military factories. It is situated +at an altitude of 3900 ft., near the western end of a rich well-watered +plain through which runs the Kara Su or western Euphrates. It is +surrounded by orchards and gardens, and is about a mile from the right +bank of the river, which here runs in two wide channels crossed by +bridges. One wide street traverses the town from east to west, but the +others are narrow, unpaved and dirty, except near the new government +buildings and the large modern mosque of Hajji Izzet Pasha to the north, +which are the only buildings of note. The principal barracks, military +hospital and clothing factory are at Karateluk on the plain and along +the foot-hills to the north 3 m. off, one recent addition to the +business buildings having electric power and modern British machinery; +some older barracks and a military tannery and boot factory being in the +town. The population numbers about 15,000, of whom about half are +Armenians living in a separate quarter. The principal industries are the +manufacture of silk and cotton and of copper dishes and utensils. The +climate is hot in summer but moderate in winter. A carriage-road leads +to Trebizond, and other roads to Sivas, Karahissar, Erzerum and Kharput. +The plain, almost surrounded by lofty mountains, is highly productive +with many villages on it and the border hills. Wheat, fruit, vines and +cotton are largely grown, and cattle and sheep are bred. Water is +everywhere abundant, and there are iron and hot sulphur springs. The +battle in which the sultan of Rum (1243) was defeated by the Mongols +took place on the plain, and the celebrated Armenian monastery of St +Gregory, "the Illuminator," lies on the hills 11 m. S.W. of the town. + +Erzingan occupies the site of an early town in which was a temple of +Anaitis. It was an important place in the 4th century when St Gregory +lived in it. The district passed from the Byzantines to the Seljuks +after the defeat of Romanus, 1071, and from the latter to the Mongols in +1243. After having been held by Mongols, Tatars and Turkomans, it was +added to the Osmanli empire by Mahommed II. in 1473. In 1784 the town +was almost destroyed by an earthquake. (C. W. W.; F. R. M.) + + + + +ESAR-HADDON [Assur-akhi-iddina, "Assur has given a brother"], Assyrian +king, son of Sennacherib; before his accession to the throne he had also +borne another name, Assur-etil-ilani-yukin-abla. At the time of his +father's murder (the 20th of Tebet, 681 B.C.) he was commanding the +Assyrian army in a war against Ararat. The conspirators, after holding +Nineveh for 42 days, had been compelled to fly northward and invoke the +aid of the king of Ararat. On the 12th of Iyyar (680 B.C.) a decisive +battle was fought near Malatia, in which the veterans of Assyria won the +day, and at the close of it saluted Esar-haddon as king. He returned to +Nineveh, and on the 8th of Sivan was crowned king. A good general, +Esar-haddon was also an able and conciliatory administrator. His first +act was to crush a rebellion among the Chaldaeans in the south of +Babylonia and then to restore Babylon, the sacred city of the West, +which had been destroyed by his father. The walls and temple of Bel were +rebuilt, its gods brought back, and after his right to rule had been +solemnly acknowledged by the Babylonian priesthood Esar-haddon made +Babylon his second capital. A year or two later Media was invaded and +Median chiefs came to Nineveh to offer homage to their conqueror. He now +turned to Palestine, where the rebellion of Abdi-milkutti of Zidon was +suppressed, its leader beheaded, and a new Zidon built out of the ruins +of the older city (676-675 B.C.). All Palestine now submitted to +Assyria, and 12 Syrian and 10 Cyprian princes (including Manasseh of +Judah) came to pay him homage and supply him with materials for his +palace at Nineveh. But a more formidable enemy had appeared on the +Assyrian frontier (676 B.C.). The Cimmerii (see SCYTHIA) under Teuspa +poured into Asia Minor; they were, however, overthrown in Cilicia, and +the Cilician mountaineers who had joined them were severely punished. It +was next necessary to secure the southern frontier of the empire. +Esar-haddon accordingly marched into the heart of Arabia, to a distance +of about 900 m., across a burning and waterless desert, and struck +terror into the Arabian tribes. At last he was free to complete the +policy of his predecessors by conquering Egypt, which alone remained to +threaten Assyrian dominion in the West. Baal of Tyre had transferred his +allegiance from Esar-haddon to the Egyptian king Tirhaka and opened to +the latter the coast road of Palestine; leaving a force, therefore, to +invest Tyre, Esar-haddon led the main body of the Assyrian troops into +Egypt on the 5th of Adar, 673 B.C. The desert was crossed with the help +of the Arabian sheikh. Egypt seems to have submitted to the invader and +was divided into twenty satrapies. Another campaign, however, was needed +before it could be finally subdued. In 670 B.C. Esar-haddon drove the +Egyptian forces before him in 15 days (from the 3rd to the 18th of +Tammuz) all the way from the frontier to Memphis, thrice defeating them +with heavy loss and wounding Tirhaka himself. Three days after Memphis +fell, and this was soon afterwards followed by the surrender of Tyre and +its king. In 668 B.C. Egypt again revolted, and while on the march to +reduce it Esar-haddon fell ill and died on the 10th of Marchesvan. His +empire was divided between his two sons Assur-bani-pal and +Samas-sum-yukin, Assur-bani-pal receiving Assyria and his brother +Babylonia, an arrangement, however, which did not prove to be a success. +Esar-haddon was the builder of a palace at Nineveh as well as of one +which he erected at Calah for Assur-bani-pal. + + AUTHORITIES.--E.A.W. Budge, _History of Esarhaddon_ (1880); E. + Schrader, _Keilinschriftliche Bibliothek_, ii. (1889) (Abel and + Winckler in ii. pp. 120-153); G. Maspero, _Passing of the Empires_, + pp. 345 sqq.; F. von Luschan, "Ausgrabungen in Sendschirli," i. + (_Mitteilungen aus den orientalischen Sammlungen_, 1893). + (A. H. S.) + + + + +ESAU, the son of Isaac and Rebecca, in the Bible, and the elder twin +brother of Jacob. He was so called because he was red (_admoni_) and +hairy when he was born, and the name Edom (red) was given to him when he +sold his birthright to Jacob for a meal of _red_ lentil pottage (Gen. +xxv. 21-34). Another story of the manner in which Jacob obtained the +superiority is related in Gen. xxvii. Here the younger brother +impersonated the elder, and succeeded in deceiving his blind father by +imitating the hairiness of his brother. He thus gained the blessing +intended for the first-born, and Esau, on hearing how he had been +forestalled, vowed to kill him. Jacob accordingly fled to his mother's +relatives, and on his return, many years later, peace was restored +between them (xxxii. sq.). These primitive stories of the relations +between the eponymous heads of the Edomites and Israelites are due to +the older (Judaean) sources; the late notices of the Priestly school +(see GENESIS) preserve a different account of the parting of the two +(Gen. xxxvi. 6-8), and lay great stress upon Esau's marriages with the +Canaanites of the land, unions which were viewed (from the writer's +standpoint) with great aversion (Gen. xxvi. 34 sq., xxvii. 46). For +"Esau" as a designation of the Edomites, cf. Jer. xlix. 8, Obad. _vv._ +6, 8, and on their history, see EDOM. + + Esau's characteristic hairiness (Gen. xxv. 25, xxvii. 11) has given + rise to the suggestion that his name is properly _'eshav_, from a root + corresponding to the Arab. _'athiya_, to have thick or matted hair. Mt + Seir, too, where he resided, etymologically suggests a "shaggy" + mountain-land. According to Hommel (_Sud-arab. Chrestom._ p. 39 sq.) + the name Esau has S. Arabian analogies. On the possible identity of + the name with Usoos, the Phoenician demi-god (Philo of Byblus, ap. + Eusebius, _Praep. Evang._ i. 10), see Cheyne, _Encyc. Bib._ col. 1333; + Lagrange, _Etudes sur les religions semitiques_, p. 416 (Paris, 1905); + Ed. Meyer, _Israeliten_, 278 sq. (and, on general questions, _ib._ 128 + sq., 329 sqq.). (S. A. C.) + + + + +ESBJERG, a seaport of Denmark in the _amt_ (county) of Ribe, 18 m. from +the German frontier on the west coast of Jutland. It has railway +communication with the east and north of Jutland, and with Germany. It +was granted municipal rights in 1900, having grown with astonishing +rapidity from 13 inhabitants in 1868 to 13,355 in 1901. This growth it +owes to the construction of a large harbour in 1868-1888. It is the +principal outlet westward for S. Jutland; exports pork and meat, butter, +eggs, fish, cattle and sheep, skins, lard and agricultural seeds, and +has regular communication with Harwich and Grimsby in England. Three +miles S.E. is Nordby on the island of Fano, the northernmost of the +North Frisian chain. It is an arid bank of heathland and dunes, but both +Nordby and Sonderho in the south are frequented as seaside resorts. The +former has a school of navigation. The fisheries are valuable. + + + + +ESCANABA, a city and the county-seat of Delta county, Michigan, U.S.A., +on Little Bay de Noquette, an inlet of Green Bay, about 60 m. S. of +Marquette. Pop. (1890) 6808; (1900) 9549, of whom 3214 were +foreign-born; (1910 census) 13,194. It is served by the Chicago & +North-Western and the Escanaba & Lake Superior railways. It is built on +a picturesque promontory which separates the waters of Green Bay from +Little Bay de Noquette, and its delightful summer climate, wild +landscape scenery and facilities for boating and trout fishing make it a +popular summer resort. Escanaba has a water front of 8 m., and is an +important centre for the shipment of iron-ore, for which eight large and +well-equipped docks are provided--there is an ore-crushing plant here; +considerable quantities of lumber and fish are also shipped, and +furniture, flooring (especially of maple) and wooden ware (butter-dishes +and clothes-pins) are manufactured. There is a large tie-preserving +plant here. Good water power is supplied by the Escanaba river. Escanaba +was settled in 1863, was incorporated as a village in 1883, and was +first chartered as a city in the same year. + + + + +ESCAPE (in mid. Eng. _eschape_ or _escape_, from the O. Fr. _eschapper_, +modern _echapper_, and _escaper_, low Lat. _escapium_, from _ex_, out +of, and _cappa_, cape, cloak; cf. for the sense development the Gr. +[Greek: ekduesthai], literally to put off one's clothes, hence to slip +out of, get away), a verb meaning to get away from, especially from +impending danger or harm, to avoid capture, to regain one's liberty +after capture. As a substantive, "escape," in law, is the regaining of +liberty by one in custody contrary to due process of law. Such escape +may be by force, if out of prison it is generally known as +"prison-breach" or "prison-breaking," or by the voluntary or negligent +act of the custodian. Where the escape is caused by the force or fraud +of others it is termed "rescue" (q.v.). "Escape" is used in botany of a +cultivated plant found growing wild. The word is also used of a means of +escape, e.g. "fire-escape," and of a loss or leakage of gas, current of +electricity or water. + + + + +ESCHATOLOGY (Gr. [Greek: eschatos], last, and [Greek: logos], science; +the "doctrine of last things"), a theological term derived from the New +Testament phrases "the last day" ([Greek: en te eschate hemera], John +vi. 39), "the last times" ([Greek: ep eschaton ton chronon], 1 Peter i. +20), "the last-state" ([Greek: ta eschata], Matt. xii. 45), a conception +taken over from ancient prophecy (Is. ii. 2; Mal. iv. 1). It was the +common belief in the apostolic age that the second advent of Christ was +near, and would give the divine completion to the world's history. The +use of the term, however, has been extended so as to include all that is +taught in the Scriptures about the future life of the individual as well +as the final destiny of the world. The reasons for the belief in a life +after death are discussed in the article IMMORTALITY. The present +article, after a brief glance at the conceptions of the future of the +individual or the world found in other religions, will deal with the +teaching of the Old and New Testaments, the Jewish and the Christian +Church regarding the hereafter. + +There is a bewildering variety in the views of the future life and world +held by different peoples. The future life may be conceived as simply a +continuation of the present life in its essential features, although +under conditions more or less favourable. It may also be thought of as +retributive, as a reversal of present conditions so that the miserable +are comforted, and the prosperous laid low, or as a reward or punishment +for good or evil desert here. Personal identity may be absorbed, as in +the transmigration of souls, or it may even be denied, while the good or +bad result of one life is held to determine the weal or woe of another. +The scene of the future life may be thought of on earth, in some distant +part of it, or above the earth, in the sky, sun, moon or stars, or +beneath the earth. The abodes of bliss and the places of torment may be +distinguished, or one last dwelling-place may be affirmed for all the +dead. Sometimes the good find their abiding home with the gods; +sometimes a number of heavens of varying degrees of blessedness is +recognized (see F.B. Jevons, _An Introduction to the History of +Religion_, chs. xxi. and xxii., 1902; and J.A. MacCulloch's _Comparative +Theology_, xiv., 1902). + + + Eastern Religions. + +(1) Confucius, though unwilling to discuss any questions concerning the +dead, by approving ancestor-worship recognized a future life. (2) Taoism +promises immortality as the reward of merit. (3) _The Book of the +Dead_--a guide-book for the departed on his long journey in the unseen +world to the abode of the blessed--shows the attention the Egyptian +religion gave to the state of the dead. (4) Although the Babylonian +religion presents a very gloomy view of the world of the dead, it is not +without a few faint glimpses of a hope that a few mortals at least may +gain deliverance from the dread doom. (5) A characteristic feature of +Indian thought is the transmigration of the soul from one mode of life +to another, the physical condition of each being determined by the moral +and religious character of the preceding. But deliverance from this +cycle of existences, which is conceived as misery, is promised by means +of speculation and asceticism. Denying the continuance of the soul, +Buddhism affirmed a continuity of moral consequences (_Karma_), each +successive life being determined by the total moral result of the +preceding life. Its doctrine of salvation was a guide to, if not +absolute non-existence, yet cessation of all consciousness of existence +(_Nirvana_). Later Buddhism has, however, a doctrine of many heavens and +hells. (6) In Zoroastrianism not only was continuance of life +recognized, but a strict retribution was taught. Heaven and hell were +very clearly distinguished, and each soul according to its works passed +to the one or to the other. But this faith did not concern itself only +with the future lot of the individual soul. It was also interested in +the close of the world's history, and taught a decisive, final victory +of Ormuzd over Ahriman, of the forces of good over the forces of evil. +It is not at all improbable that Jewish eschatology in its later +developments was powerfully influenced by the Persian faith. (7) +Mahommedanism reproduces and exaggerates the lower features of popular +Jewish and Christian eschatology (see the separate articles on these +religions). + + + Old Testament. + +In the Old Testament we can trace the gradual development of an ever +more definite doctrine of "the final condition of man and the world." +This is regarded as the last stage in a moral process, a redemptive +purpose of God. The eschatology of the Old Testament is thus closely +connected with, but not limited by, Messianic hope, as there are +eschatological teachings that are not Messianic. As the Old Testament +revelation is concerned primarily with the elect nation, and only +secondarily (in the later writings) with the individual persons +composing it, we follow the order of importance as well as of time in +dealing first with the people. The universalism which marks the promise +to the seed of the woman (Gen. iii. 15) appears also in the blessing of +Noah (ix. 25). In the promise to Abraham (xii. 3) this universal good is +directly related to God's particular purpose for His chosen people; so +also in the blessing of Jacob (xlix.) and of Moses (Deut. xxxiii.). +David's last words (2 Sam. xxiii.) blend together his desire that his +family should retain the kingship, and his aspiration for a kingdom of +righteousness on earth. The conception of the "Day of the Lord" is +frequent and prominent in the prophets, and the sense given to the +phrase by the people and by the prophets throws into bold relief the +contrast between popular beliefs and the prophetic faith. The people +simply expected deliverance from their miseries and burdens by the +intervention of Yahweh, because He had chosen Israel for His people. The +prophets had an ethical conception of Yahweh; the sin of His own people +and of other nations called for His intervention in judgment as the +moral ruler of the world. But judgment they conceived as preparing for +redemption. The day of the Lord is always an eschatological conception, +as the term is applied to the final and universal judgment, and not to +any less decisive intervention of God in the course of human history. In +the pre-exilic prophets the judgment of God is "primarily on Israel, +although it also embraces the nations"; during the Exile and at the +Restoration the judgment is represented as falling on the nations while +redemption is being wrought for God's people; after the Restoration the +people of God is again threatened, but still the warning of judgment is +mainly directed towards the nations and deliverance is promised to +Israel. As the manifestation of God in grace as well as judgment, the +day of the Lord will bring joy to Israel and even to the world. As a +day of judgment it is accompanied by terrible convulsions of nature (not +to be taken figuratively, but probably intended literally by the +prophets in accordance with their view of the absolute subordination of +nature to the divine purpose for man). It ushers in the Messianic age. +While the moral issues are finally determined by this day, yet the world +of the Messianic age is painted with the colours of the prophet's own +surroundings. Israel is restored to its own land, and to it the other +nations are brought into subjugation, by force or persuasion. The +contributions of the Old Testament to Christian eschatology embrace +these features: "(1) The manifestation or advent of God; (2) the +universal judgment; (3) behind the judgment the coming of the perfect +kingdom of the Lord, when all Israel shall be saved and when the nations +shall be partakers of their salvation; and (4) the finality and eternity +of this condition, that which constitutes the blessedness of the saved +people being the Presence of God in the midst of them--this last point +corresponding to the Christian idea of heaven" (A.B. Davidson, in +Hastings's _Bible Dictionary_, i. p. 738). This hope is for the people +on this earth though transfigured. + +To the individual it would seem at first only old age is promised (Is. +lxv. 20; Zech. viii. 4), but the abolition of death itself is also +declared (Is. xxv. 8). The resurrection, which appears at first as a +revival of the dead nation (Hos. vi. 2; Ez. xxxvii. 12-14), is +afterwards promised for the pious individuals (Is. xxvi. 19), so that +they too may share in the national restoration. Only in Daniel xii. 2 is +taught a resurrection of the wicked "to shame and everlasting contempt" +as well as of the righteous to "everlasting life." It was only at the +Exile, when the nation ceased to be, that the worth of the individual +came to be recognized, and the hopes given to the nation were claimed +for the individual. In dealing with the individual eschatology we must +carefully distinguish the popular ideas regarding death and the +hereafter which Israel shared with the other Semitic peoples, from the +intuitions, inferences, aspirations evoked in the pious by the divine +revelation itself. The former have not the moral significance or the +religious value of the latter. The starting-point of the development was +the common belief that the dead continued to exist in an unsubstantial +mode of life, but cut off from fellowship with God and man; but faith +left this far behind. Sheol is the common abode of the righteous and the +ungodly: life there is shadowy and feeble, but seems to continue in a +wavering and dim reflection features of this life. As the present life +is, however, determined by moral issues, and as death does not change +man's relation to God, moral considerations could not be absolutely +excluded from the future life. A forward step had to be taken. Pious +men, in fellowship with God, when they faced the fact of death, were led +either to challenge its right, or to give a new meaning to it. Either +there was a protest against death itself, and a demand for immortality +(Ps. xvi. 9-11), or death was conceived as something different for the +saint and for the sinner; fellowship with God would not and could not be +interrupted (Ps. xlix. 14, 15, lxxiii. 17-28). The vision of God is +anticipated after death's sleep (Ps. xvii. 15; Job xix. 25-27). This +belief in individual immortality is expressed poetically and obscurely: +it is later than the eschatology of the people. It assumes the moral +distinction of the righteous and the ungodly, and seeks a solution for +the problem of the lack of harmony of present character and condition. +Its deepest motive, however, is religious. The soul once in fellowship +with God cannot even by death be separated from God. The individual +hoped that he would live to share the nation's good, and thus the two +streams of Old Testament eschatology at last flow together. + + + Apocryphal and Apocalyptic books. + +It is in the apocryphal and apocalyptic literature of Judaism that the +fullest development of eschatology can be traced. Four words may serve +to express the difference of the doctrine of these writings and the +teaching of the Old Testament. Eschatology was _universalized_ (God was +recognized as the creator and moral governor of all the world), +_individualized_ (God's judgment was directed, not to nations in a +future age, but to individuals in a future life), _transcendentalized_ +(the future age was more and more contrasted with the present, and the +transition from the one to the other was not expected as the result of +historical movements, but of miraculous divine acts), and _dogmatized_ +(the attempt was made to systematize in some measure the vague and +varied prophetic anticipations). Only a very brief summary of the +conceptions current in these writings can be given. The coming of the +Messiah will be preceded by the Last Woes. The Messiah is very variously +conceived: (1) "a passive, though supreme member of the Messianic +Kingdom"; (2) "an active warrior who slays his enemies with his own +hand"; (3) "one who slays his enemies by the word of his mouth, and +rules by virtue of his justice, faith and holiness"; (4) a supernatural +person, "eternal Ruler and Judge of Mankind" (R.H. Charles in Hastings's +_Bible Dictionary_, i. p. 748). In some of the writings no Messianic +kingdom is looked for; in others only a temporal duration on earth is +assigned to it; in others still it abides for ever either on earth as it +is, or on earth transformed. The dispersion among the nations is to +return home. Sometimes the Resurrection is narrowed down to the +resurrection of the righteous, at others widened out to the resurrection +of all mankind for the last judgment. A blessed immortality after +judgment, or even after death itself, is sometimes taught without +reference to any resurrection. Retribution in human history is +recognized, but attention is specially concentrated on the final +judgment, which is usually conceived as taking place in two stages. (1) +The Messianic is executed by the Messiah or the saints by victory in +war, or by judicial sentence. (2) The final remains in God's hands; but +in one writing (the _Ethiopic Enoch_) is represented as Messiah's +function. This judgment either closes the Messianic age, if thought of +as temporal, or ushers it in, if conceived as eternal, or closes the +world's history, if no Messianic age is expected. The place of torment +for the wicked was called Gehenna (the valley of Hinnom or the Sons of +Hinnom, where the bodies of criminals were cast out, is described in Is. +lxvi. 24). Here corporal as well as spiritual punishment was endured; it +was inflicted on apostate Jews or the wicked generally; the righteous +witnessed its initial stages but not its final form. In later Judaism it +was the purgatory of faithless Jews, who at last reached Paradise, but +it remained the place of eternal torment for the Gentiles. Paradise was +sometimes regarded as the division of Sheol to which the righteous +passed after death, but at others it was conceived as the heavenly abode +of Moses, Enoch and Elijah, to which other saints would pass after the +last judgment. + + + New Testament. + + Pharisees and Sadducees. + +The eschatology of the New Testament attaches itself not only to that of +the Old Testament but also to that of contemporary Judaism, but it +avoids the extravagances of the latter. Not at all systematic, it is +occasional, practical, poetical and dominantly evangelical, laying +stress on the hope of the righteous rather than the doom of the wicked. +The teaching of Jesus centres, according to the Synoptists, in the great +idea of the "Kingdom of God," which is already present in the teacher +Himself, but also future as regards its completion. In some parables a +gradual realization of the kingdom is indicated (Matt. xiii.); in other +utterances its consummation is connected with Christ's own return, His +Parousia (Matt. xxiv. 3, 37, 39), the time of which, however, is unknown +even to Himself (Mark xiii. 32). In this eschatological discourse (Matt. +xxiv., xxv.) He speaks of the destruction of Jerusalem and of the end of +the world as near, and seemingly as one. This is in accordance with the +characteristic of prophecy, which sees in "timeless sequence" events +which are historically separated from one another. While the Return is +represented in the Synoptists as an external event, it is conceived in +the fourth gospel as an internal experience in the operation of the +Spirit on the believer (John xiv. 16-21); nevertheless here also the +Parousia in the synoptic sense is looked for (John xxi. 22; cf. 1 John +ii. 28). The object of the Second Coming is the execution of judgment by +Christ (Matt. xxv. 31), both individual (xxii. 1-14) and universal +(xiii. 36-42). The present subjective judgment, in which men determine +their destiny by their attitude to Christ, on which the fourth gospel +lays stress (John iii. 17-21, ix. 39), is not inconsistent with the +anticipation of a final judgment (John xii. 48, v. 27). This judgment +presupposes the resurrection, belief in which was rejected by the +Sadducees, but accepted by the Pharisees and the majority of the Jewish +people, and confirmed by Christ, not only as an individual spiritual +renovation (John v. 25, 26), but as a universal physical resuscitation +(28 and 29; Matt. xxii. 30). This resurrection is of the unjust as well +as the just (Matt. v. 29, 30, x. 28; Luke xiv. 14). On the _Intermediate +State_ Jesus does not speak clearly. He uses the term Hades twice +metaphorically (Matt. xi. 23, xvi. 18), and once in a parable, the "Rich +Man and Lazarus" (Luke xvi. 23), in which he employs the current phrases +such as "Abraham's bosom" (verse 22), without any definite doctrinal +intention, to unveil the secrets of the hereafter by confirming with His +authority the common beliefs of His time. The term Paradise (Luke xxiii. +43) seems to be used "in a large and general sense as a word of hope and +comfort," and we need not attach to it any of the more definite +associations which it had in Jewish eschatology. When he speaks of death +as "sleep" (Luke viii. 52; John xi. 11) it is to give men gentler and +sweeter thoughts of it, not to inculcate the doctrine of an intermediate +state as an unconscious condition. There are words which suggest rather +the hope of an immediate entrance of the just into the Father's house +and glory (John xiv. 2, 3, xvii. 24). He spoke frequently and distinctly +both of final reward for the righteous and final penalty for the wicked. +"The recompense of the righteous is described as an inheritance, +entrance into the kingdom, treasure in heaven, an existence like the +angelic, a place prepared, the Father's house, the joy of the Lord, +life, eternal life and the like; and there is no intimation that the +reward is capable of change, that the condition is a terminable one. The +retribution of the wicked is described as death, outer darkness, weeping +and wailing and gnashing of teeth, the undying worm, the quenchless +fire, exclusion from the kingdom, eternal punishment and the like" +(S.D.J. Salmond in Hastings's _Bible Dictionary_, p. 752). Degrees of +award are recognized (Luke xii. 47, 48). Gehenna is applied to the +condition of the lost (Matt. xviii. 9). Two sayings are held to point to +a terminable penalty (Matt. v. 25, 26, xii. 31, 32), but the one is so +figurative and the other so obscure, that we are not warranted in +drawing any such definite conclusion from either of them. The finality +of destiny seems to be unmistakably expressed (Matt. vii. 23, x. 33, +xiii. 30, xxv. 46, xxvi. 24; Mark ix. 43-48, viii. 36; Luke ix. 26; John +iii. 16, viii. 21, 24). No second opportunity for deciding the issue of +life or death is recognized by Jesus. + +The apostolic eschatology presents resemblance amid difference. Jude (v. +6), as well as 2 Peter (ii. 4), refers to the judgment of the fallen +angels. 2 Peter describes the place of their detention as Tartarus, and +teaches that Christ's _Parousia_ is to bring the whole present system of +things to its conclusion, and the world itself to an end (iii. 10, 13). +After the destruction of the existing order by fire, "a new heaven and a +new earth" will appear as the abode of righteousness. The question of +greatest interest in 1 Peter is the relation of two passages in it, the +preaching to the spirits in prison (iii. 18-22) and the preaching of the +Gospel to the dead (iv. 6) to the "larger hope." Peter's discourse also +contains a phrase which suggests the belief of a descent of Christ into +Hades in the interval between His death and His resurrection (Acts ii. +31). No certainty has been reached in the interpretation of these +passages, but they may suggest to the Christian mind the expectation +that the final destiny of no soul can be fixed until in some way or +other, in this life or the next, the opportunity of decision for or +against Christ has been given. The phrase "the times of restoration of +all things" (iii. 21) is too vague in itself, and is too isolated in its +context to warrant the dogmatic teaching of universalism, although there +are other passages which seem to point towards the same goal. While +John's Apocalypse is distinctly eschatological, the Epistles and the +Gospels often give these conceptions an ethical and spiritual import, +without, however, excluding the eschatological. Life is present while +eternal (1 John v. 12, 13), but it is also future (ii. 25). There is +expected a future manifestation of Christ as He is, and what the +believer himself will be does not yet appear (iii. 2). The writer speaks +of the last hour (ii. 18), the Antichrist that cometh (ii. 22, iv. 3), +and the Christian's full reward (2 John v. 8) as well as the Parousia (1 +John ii. 28). The Apocalypse reproduces much of the current Jewish +eschatology. A millennial reign of Christ on earth is interposed between +the first resurrection, confined to the saints and especially the +martyrs, and the second resurrection for the rest of the dead. A final +outburst of Satan's power is followed by his overthrow and the Last +Judgment. + +Although Paul sometimes describes the Kingdom of God as present (Rom. +xiv. 17; 1 Cor. iv. 20; Col. i. 13), it is usually represented as +future. The Parousia fills a large place in his thought, and, if more +prominent in his earlier writings, is not altogether absent from his +later, although the expectation of personal survival does seem to grow +less confident (cf. 1 Cor. xv. 51 and Phil. i. 20-24). The doctrines of +the Resurrection, the Last Judgment, the Reward of the Righteous and the +Punishment of the Wicked are not less distinctly expressed than in the +other apostolic writings. Peculiar elements in Paul's eschatology are +the doctrines of the Rapture of the Saints (1 Thess. iv. 17) and the Man +of Sin (2 Thess. ii. 3-6), but these have affinities elsewhere. A +reference to the millennial reign of Christ in the period between the +two resurrections is sometimes sought in 1 Cor. xv. 22-24; but it is not +a chronology of the last things Paul is here giving. So also a +justification for the doctrine of purgatory is sought in iii. 12-15; but +the day and the fire are of the last judgment. A descent of Christ into +Hades, implying an extension of the opportunity of grace such as is +supposed to be taught in 1 Peter, is also discovered in the obscure +statements in Rom. x. 7 (where Paul is freely quoting Deut. xxx. 11-14), +and Eph. iv. 10 (where he is commenting on Ps. lxviii. 18). Universal +restoration is inferred from 1 Cor. xv. 24-28, "God all in all," Phil. +ii. 10-11, every knee bowing to, and every tongue confessing Jesus +Christ, Eph. i. 9, 10, the summing up of all things in Christ, Col. i. +20, God reconciling all things unto Himself in Christ. These passages +inspire a hope, but do not sustain a certainty. Paul's shrinking from +the disembodied state and longing to be clothed upon at death in 2 Cor. +v. 1-8, cannot be regarded as a proof of an _interim_ body prior to and +preparatory for the resurrection body. Paul links the human resurrection +with a universal renovation (Rom. viii. 19-23). Paul's eschatology is +not free of obscurities and ambiguities; and in the New Testament +eschatology generally we are forced to recognize a mixture of inherited +Jewish and original Christian elements (see ANTICHRIST). + +During the first century of the existence of the Gentile Christian +Church, "the hope of the approaching end of the world and the glorious +kingdom of Christ" was dominant, although warnings had to be given +against doubt and indifference. Redemption was thought of as still +future, as the power of the devil had not been broken but rather +increased by the First Advent, and the Second Advent was necessary to +his complete overthrow. The expectations were often grossly +materialistic, as is evidenced by Papias's quotation as the words of the +Lord of a group of sayings from the Apocalypse of Baruch, setting forth +the amazing fruitfulness of the earth in the Messianic time. + + + Gnostics. + + Montanism. + +The Gnostics rejected this eschatology as in their view the enlightened +spirit already possessed immortality. Marcion expected that the Church +would be assailed by Antichrist; a visible return of Christ he did not +teach, but he recognized that human history would issue in a separation +of the good from the bad. Montanism sought to form a new Christian +commonwealth which, separated from the world, should prepare itself for +the descent of the Jerusalem from above, and its establishment in the +spot which by the direction of the Spirit had been chosen in Phrygia. +While Irenaeus held fast the traditional eschatological beliefs, yet his +conception of the Christian salvation as a deification of man tended to +weaken their hold on Christian thought. The Alogi in the 2nd century +rejected the Apocalypse on account of its chiliasm, its teaching of a +visible reign of Christ on earth for a thousand years. Montanism also +brought these apocalyptic expectations into discredit in orthodox +ecclesiastical circles. The Alexandrian theology strengthened this +movement against chiliasm. Clement of Alexandria taught that justice is +not merely retributive, that punishment is remedial, that probation +continues after death till the final judgment, that Christ and the +apostles preached the Gospel in Hades to those who lacked knowledge, but +whose heart was right, that a spiritual body will be raised. Origen +taught that a germ of the spiritual body is in the present body, and its +development depends on the character, that perfect bliss is reached only +by stages, that the evil are purified by pain, conscience being +symbolized by fire, and that all, even the devil himself, will at last +be saved. Both regarded chiliasm with aversion. But in the 5th century +there were rejected as heretical (1) "the doctrine of universalism, and +the possibility of the redemption of the devil; (2) the doctrine of the +complete annihilation of evil; (3) the conception of the penalties of +hell as tortures of conscience; (4) the spiritualizing version of the +resurrection of the body; (5) the idea of the continued creation of new +worlds" (A. Harnack, _History of Dogma_, iii. p. 186). + +Epiphanius, following Methodius, insisted on the most perfect identity +between the resurrection body and the material body; and this belief, +enforced in the West by Jerome, soon established itself as alone +orthodox. Augustine made experiments on the flesh of a peacock in order +to find physical evidence for the doctrine. He held fast to eternal +punishment, but allowed the possibility of mitigations. Some believers, +he taught, may pass through purgatorial fires; and this middle class may +be helped by the sacraments and the alms of the living. "There are many +souls not good enough to dispense with this provision, and not bad +enough to be benefited by it" (op. cit. v. 233). This doctrine was +sanctioned and developed by Gregory the Great. "After God has changed +eternal punishments into temporary, the justified must expiate these +temporary penalties for sin in purgatory" (p. 268). This view was +inferred indirectly from Matt. xii. 31, and directly from 1 Cor. iii. +12-15. Afterwards purgatory took more and more the place of hell, and +was subject to the control of the church. As regards the saints, +different degrees of blessedness were recognized; they were supposed to +wait in Hades for the return of Christ, but gradually the belief gained +ground, especially in regard to the martyrs, that their souls at once +entered Paradise. The primitive Christian eschatology was preserved in +the West as it was not in the East, and in times of exceptional distress +the expectation of Antichrist emerged again and again. In the middle +ages there was an extravagance of speculation on this subject, which may +be seen in the last division of Aquinas' _Summa Theologiae_. He proposes +thirty questions on these matters, among which are the following: +"whether souls are conducted to heaven or hell immediately after death"; +"whether the limbus of hell is the same as Abraham's bosom"; "whether +the sun and moon will be really obscured at the day of judgment"; +"whether all the members of the human body will rise with it"; "whether +the hair and nails will reappear"; could thought become "more lawless +and uncertain"? + + + In Protestant Theology. + +While rejecting purgatory, Protestantism took over this eschatology. +Souls passed at once to heaven or to hell; a doctrine even less adequate +to the complex quality of human life. Luther himself looked for the +passing away of the present evil world. Socinianism taught a new +spiritual body, an intermediate state in which the soul is near +non-existence, an annihilation of the wicked, as immortality is the gift +of God. Swedenborg discards a physical resurrection, as at death the +eyes of men are opened to the spiritual world in which we exist now, and +they continue to live essentially as they lived here, until by their +affinities they are drawn to heaven or hell. The doctrine of _eternal +punishment_ has been opposed on many grounds, such as the disproportion +between the offence and the penalty, the moral and religious immaturity +of the majority of men at death, the diminution of the happiness of +heaven involved in the knowledge of the endless suffering of others +(Schleiermacher), the defeat of the divine purpose of righteousness and +grace that the continued antagonism of any of God's creatures would +imply, the dissatisfaction God as Father must feel until His whole +family is restored. It has been argued that the term "eternal" has +reference not to duration of time but quality of being (Maurice); but it +does seem certain that the writers in the Holy Scriptures who used it +did not foresee an end either to the life or to the death to which they +applied the term. The contention should not be based on the meaning of a +single word, but on such broader considerations as have been indicated +above. The doctrine of _conditional_ immortality taught by Socinianism +was accepted by Archbishop Whately, and has been most persistently +advocated by Edward White, who "maintains that immortality is a truth, +not of reason, but of revelation, a gift of God" bestowed only on +believers in Christ; but he admits a continued probation after death for +such as have not hardened their hearts by a rejection of Christ. +According to Albrecht Ritschl "the _wrath_ of God means the resolve of +God to annihilate those men who finally oppose themselves to redemption, +and the final purpose of the kingdom of God." He thus makes immortality +conditional on inclusion in the kingdom of God. The doctrine of +_universal restoration_ was maintained by Thomas Erskine of Linlathen on +the ground of the Fatherhood of God, and Archdeacon Wilson anticipates +such discipline after death as will restore all souls to God. C.I. +Nitzsch argues against the doctrine of the annihilation of the wicked, +regards the teaching of Scripture about eternal damnation as +hypothetical, and thinks it possible that Paul reached the hope of +universal restoration. I.A. Dorner maintains that hopeless perdition can +be the penalty only of the deliberate rejection of the Gospel, that +those who have not had the opportunity of choice fairly and fully in +this life will get it hereafter, but that the right choice will in all +cases be made we cannot be confident. The attitude of theologians +generally regarding individual destiny is well expressed by Dr James +Orr, "The conclusion I arrive at is that we have not the elements of a +complete solution, and we ought not to attempt it. What visions beyond +there may be, what larger hopes, what ultimate harmonies, if such there +are in store, will come in God's good time; it is not for us to +anticipate them, or lift the veil where God has left it down" (_The +Christian View of God and the World_, 1893, p. 397). + +Although in recent theological thought attention has been mainly +directed to individual destiny, yet the other elements of Christian +eschatology must not be altogether passed over. History has offered the +authoritative commentary on the prophecy of the Parousia of Christ. The +presence and power of His Spirit, the spread of His Gospel, the progress +of His kingdom have been as much a fulfilment of the eschatological +teaching of the New Testament as His life and work on earth were a +fulfilment of Messianic prophecy, for fulfilment always transcends +prophecy. Even if the common beliefs of the apostolic age have not +modified the evangelist's reports of Jesus' teaching, it must be +remembered that He used the common prophetic phraseology, the literal +fulfilment of which is not to be looked for. Some parables (the leaven, +the mustard seed) suggest a gradual progressive realization of His +kingdom. The Fourth Gospel interprets both judgment and resurrection +spiritually. Accordingly the general resurrection and the last judgment +may be regarded as the temporal and local forms of thought to express +the universal permanent truths that life survives death in the +completeness of its necessary organs and essential functions, and that +the character of that continued life is determined by personal choice of +submission or antagonism to God's purpose of grace in Christ, the +perfect realization of which is the Christian's hope for himself, +mankind and the world. + + BIBLIOGRAPHY.--In addition to the works referred to above the + following will be found useful: S.D.F. Salmond, _The Christian + Doctrine of Immortality_ (4th ed., 1901); R.H. Charles, _A Critical + History of the Doctrine of a Future Life in Israel, in Judaism, and in + Christianity_ (1899); L.N. Dahle, _Life after Death and the Future of + the Kingdom of God_ (Eng. tr. by J. Beveridge, 1895); J.A. Beet, _The + Last Things_ (new ed., 1905); W.G.T. Shedd, _Doctrine of Endless + Punishment_ (New York, 1886); F.W. Farrar, _The Eternal Hope_ (1892); + E. Petavel, _The Problem of Immortality_ (Eng. tr. by F.A. Freer, + 1892); E. White, _Life in Christ_ (3rd ed., 1878); also the relevant + sections in books on biblical and systematic theology. (A. E. G.*) + + + + +ESCHEAT (O. Fr. _eschete_, from _escheoir_, to fall to one's share; Lat. +_excidere_, to fall out), in English law, the reversion of lands to the +next lord on the failure of heirs of the tenant. "When the tenant of an +estate in fee simple dies without having alienated his estate in his +lifetime or by his will, and without leaving any heirs either lineal or +collateral, the lands in which he held his estate escheat, as it is +called, to the lord of whom he held them" (Williams on the _Law of Real +Property_). This rule is explained by the conception of a freehold +estate as an interest in lands held by the freeholder from some lord, +the king being lord paramount. (See ESTATE.) The granter retains an +interest in the land similar to that of the donor of an estate for life, +to whom the land reverts after the life estate is ended. As there are +now few freehold estates traceable to any mesne or intermediate lord, +escheats, when they do occur, fall to the king as lord paramount. +Besides escheat for defect of heirs, there was formerly also escheat +_propter delictum tenentis_, or by the corruption of the blood of the +tenant through attainder consequent on conviction and sentence for +treason or felony. The blood of the tenant becoming corrupt by attainder +was decreed no longer inheritable, and the effect was the same as if the +tenant had died without heirs. The land, therefore, escheated to the +next heir, subject to the superior right of the crown to the forfeiture +of the lands,--in the case of treason for ever, in the case of felony +for a year and a day. All this was abolished by the Felony Act 1870, +which provided for the appointment of an administrator to the property +of the convict. Escheat is also an incident of copyhold tenure. Trust +estates were not subject to escheat until the Intestates' Estates Act +1884, but now by that act the law of escheat applies in the same manner +as if the estate or interest were a legal estate in corporeal +hereditaments. + + + + +ESCHENBURG, JOHANN JOACHIM (1743-1820), German critic and literary +historian, was born at Hamburg on the 7th of December 1743. After +receiving his early education in his native town, he studied at Leipzig +and Gottingen. In 1767 he was appointed tutor, and subsequently +professor, at the Collegium Carolinum in Brunswick. The title of +"Hofrat" was conferred on him in 1786, and in 1814 he was made one of +the directors of the Carolinum. He is best known by his efforts to +familiarize his countrymen with English literature. He published a +series of German translations of the principal English writers on +aesthetics, such as J. Brown, D. Webb, Charles Burney, Joseph Priestley +and R. Hurd; and Germany owes also to him the first complete translation +(in prose) of Shakespeare's plays (_William Shakespear's Schauspiele_, +13 vols., Zurich, 1775-1782). This is virtually a revised edition of the +incomplete translation published by Wieland between 1762 and 1766. +Eschenburg died at Brunswick on the 29th of February 1820. + +Besides editing, with memoirs, the works of Hagedorn, Zacharia and other +German poets, he was the author of a _Handbuch der klassischen +Literatur_ (1783); _Entwurf einer Theorie und Literatur der schonen +Wissenschaften_ (1783); _Beispielsammlung zur Theorie und Literatur der +schonen Wissenschaften_ (8 vols., 1788-1795); _Lehrbuch der +Wissenschaftskunde_ (1792); and _Denkmaler altdeutscher Dichtkunst_ +(1799). Most of these works have passed through several editions. +Eschenburg was also a poet of some pretensions, and some of his +religious hymns, e.g. _Ich will dich noch im Tod erheben_ and _Dir trau' +ich, Gott, und wanke nicht_, are contained in many hymnals to this day. + + + + +ESCHENMAYER, ADAM KARL AUGUST VON (1768-1852), German philosopher and +physicist, was born at Neuenburg in Wurttemberg in July 1768. After +receiving his early education at the Caroline academy of Stuttgart, he +entered the university of Tubingen, where he received the degree of +doctor of medicine. He practised for some time as a physician at Sulz, +and then at Kirchheim, and in 1811 he was chosen extraordinary professor +of philosophy and medicine at Tubingen. In 1818 he became ordinary +professor of practical philosophy, but in 1836 he resigned and took up +his residence at Kirchheim, where he devoted his whole attention to +philosophical studies. Eschenmayer's views are largely identical with +those of Schelling, but he differed from him in regard to the knowledge +of the absolute. He believed that in order to complete the arc of truth +philosophy must be supplemented by what he called "non-philosophy," a +kind of mystical illumination by which was obtained a belief in God that +could not be reached by mere intellectual effort (see Hoffding, _Hist. +of Mod. Phil._, Eng. trans. vol. 2, p. 170). He carried this tendency to +mysticism into his physical researches, and was led by it to take a deep +interest in the phenomena of animal magnetism. He ultimately became a +devout believer in demoniacal and spiritual possession; and his later +writings are all strongly impregnated with the lower supernaturalism. + + His principal works are--_Die Philosophie in ihrem Ubergange zur + Nichtphilosophie_ (1803); _Versuch die scheinbare Magie des + thierischen Magnetismus aus physiol. und psychischen Gesetzen zu + erklaren_ (1816); _System der Moralphilosophie_ (1818); _Psychologie + in drei Theilen, als empirische, reine, angewandte_ (1817, 2nd ed. + 1822); _Religionsphilosophie_ (3 vols., 1818-1824); _Die Hegel'sche + Religionsphilosophie verglichen mit dem christl. Princip_ (1834); _Der + Ischariotismus unserer Tage_ (1835) (directed against Strauss's _Life + of Jesus_); _Konflikt zwischen Himmel und Holle, an dem Damon eines + besessenen Madchens beobachtet_ (1837); _Grundriss der + Naturphilosophie_ (1832); _Grundzuge der christl. Philosophie_ (1840); + and _Betrachtungen uber den physischen Weltbau_ (1852). + + + + +ESCHER VON DER LINTH, ARNOLD (1807-1872), Swiss geologist, the son of +Hans Conrad Escher (1767-1823), was born at Zurich on the 8th of June +1807. In 1856 he became professor of geology at the Ecole Polytechnique +at Zurich. His researches led him to be regarded as one of the founders +of Swiss geology. With B. Studer he produced (1852-1853) the first +elaborate geological map of Switzerland. He was the author also of +_Geologische Bemerkungen uber das nordliche Vorarlberg und einige +angrenzenden Gegenden_, published at Zurich in 1853. He died on the 12th +of July 1872. + + + + +ESCHSCHOLTZ, JOHANN FRIEDRICH (1793-1831), Russian traveller and +naturalist, was born in November 1793, at Dorpat, where he died in May +1831. He was naturalist and physician to Otto von Kotzebue's exploring +expedition during 1815-1818. On his return he was appointed +extraordinary professor of anatomy (1819) and director of the zoological +museum of the university at Dorpat (1822), and in 1823-1826 he +accompanied Kotzebue on his second voyage of discovery. He became +ordinary professor of anatomy at Dorpat in 1828. Among his publications +were the _System der Akalephen_ (1829), and the _Zoologischer Atlas_ +(1829-1833). The botanical genus _Eschscholtzia_ was named by Adelbert +von Chamisso in his honour. + + + + +ESCHWEGE, a town of Germany, in the Prussian province of Hesse-Nassau, +on the Werra, and the railway Treysa-Leinefelde, 28 m. S.E. of Cassel. +Pop. (1905) 11,113. It consists of the old town on the left, the new +town on the right, bank of the Werra, and Bruckenhausen on a small +island connected with the old and new town by bridges. It is a thriving +manufacturing town, its chief industries being leather-making, +yarn-spinning, cotton- and linen-weaving, the manufactures of cigars, +brushes, liquors and oil, and glue- and soap-boiling. It has two ancient +buildings, the Nikolai-turm, built in 1455, and the old castle. After +being part of Thuringia, Eschwege passed to Hesse in 1263. It was +recovered by the landgrave of Thuringia in 1388, but soon reverted to +Hesse, and it became the residence of one of the branches of the Hessian +royal house, a branch which died out in 1655. + + + + +ESCHWEILER, a town of Germany, in the Prussian Rhine province, on the +Inde, and the railways Cologne-Herbesthal and Munich-Gladbach-Stolberg, +about 8 m. E.N.E. from Aix-la-Chapelle. Pop. (1905) 20,643. The town has +an Evangelical and four Roman Catholic churches, a gymnasium and an +orphanage. The manufacture of iron and steel goods is carried on; other +industries include the manufacture of zinc wares, tanning, distilling +and brewing. In the neighbourhood there are valuable coal mines. + + See Koch, _Geschichte der Stadt Eschweiler_ (Frankfort, 1890). + + + + + +ESCOBAR Y MENDOZA, ANTONIO (1589-1669), Spanish churchman of illustrious +descent, was born at Valladolid in 1589. He was educated by the Jesuits, +and at the age of fifteen took the habit of that order. He soon became a +famous preacher, and his facility was so great that for fifty years he +preached daily, and sometimes twice a day. In addition he was a +voluminous writer, and his works fill eighty-three volumes. His first +literary efforts were Latin verses in praise of Ignatius Loyola (1613) +and the Virgin Mary (1618); but he is best known as a writer on +casuistry. His principal works belong to the fields of exegesis and +moral theology. Of the latter the best known are _Summula casuum +conscientiae_ (1627); _Liber theologiae moralis_ (1644), and _Universae +theologiae moralis problemata_ (1652-1666). The first mentioned of these +was severely criticised by Pascal in the fifth and sixth of his +_Provincial Letters_, as tending to inculcate a loose system of +morality. It contains the famous maxim that purity of intention may be a +justification of actions which are contrary to the moral code and to +human laws; and its general tendency is to find excuses for the majority +of human frailties. His doctrines were disapproved of by many Catholics, +and were mildly condemned by Rome. They were also ridiculed in witty +verses by Moliere, Boileau and La Fontaine, and gradually the name +Escobar came to be used in France as a synonym for a person who is +adroit in making the rules of morality harmonize with his own interests. +Escobar himself is said to have been simple in his habits, a strict +observer of the rules of his order, and unweariedly zealous in his +efforts to reform the lives of those with whom he had to deal. It has +been said of him that "he purchased heaven dearly for himself, but gave +it away cheap to others." He died on the 4th of July 1669. + + + + +ESCOIQUIZ, JUAN (1762-1820), Spanish ecclesiastic, politician and +writer, was born in Navarre in 1762. His father was a general officer +and he began life as a page in the court of King Charles III. He entered +the church and was provided for by a prebend at Saragossa. Godoy in his +memoirs asserts that Escoiquiz sought to gain his favour by flattery. +There is every reason to believe that this is an accurate statement of +the case. The mere fact that he was selected to be the tutor of the +heir-apparent, Ferdinand, afterwards King Ferdinand VII., is of itself a +proof that he exerted himself to gain the goodwill of the reigning +favourite. In 1797 he published a translation of Young's _Night +Thoughts_, which does not of itself show that he was well acquainted +with English, for the version may have been made with the help of the +French. In 1798 he published a long and worthless so-called epic on the +conquest of Mexico. Escoiquiz was in fact a busy and pushing member of +the literary clique which looked up to Godoy as its patron. But his +position as tutor to the heir to the throne excited his ambition. He +began to hope that he might play the part of those court ecclesiastics +who had often had an active share in the government of Spain. As +Ferdinand grew up, and after his marriage with a Neapolitan princess, he +became the centre of a court opposition to Godoy and to his policy of +alliance with France. Escoiquiz was the brains, as far as there were any +brains, of the intrigue. His activity was so notorious that he was +exiled from court, but was consoled by a canonry at Toledo. This half +measure was as ineffective as was to have been expected. Escoiquiz +continued to be in constant communication with the prince. Toledo is +close to Madrid, and the correspondence was easily maintained. He had a +large share in the conspiracy of the Escorial which was detected on the +28th of October 1807. He was imprisoned and sent for trial with other +conspirators. But as they had appealed to Napoleon, who would not suffer +his name to be mentioned, the government had to allow the matter to be +hushed up, and the prisoners were acquitted. After the outbreak at +Aranjuez on the 17th of March 1808, in which he had a share, he became +one of the most trusted advisers of Ferdinand. The new king's decision +to go to meet Napoleon at Bayonne was largely inspired by him. In 1814 +Escoiquiz published at Madrid his _Idea Sencilla de las razones que +motivaron el viage del Rey Fernando VII. a Bayona_ (Honest +representation of the causes which inspired the journey of King +Ferdinand VII. to Bayonne). It is a valuable historical document, and +contains a singularly vivid account of an interview with Napoleon. +Escoiquiz was far too firmly convinced of his ingenuity and merits to +conceal the delusions and follies of himself and his associates. He +displays his own vanity, frivolity and futile cleverness with much +unconscious humour, but, it is only fair to allow, with some literary +dexterity. When the Spanish royal family was imprisoned by Napoleon, +Escoiquiz remained with Ferdinand at Valencay. In 1813 he published at +Bourges a translation of Milton's _Paradise Lost_. When Ferdinand was +released in 1814 he came back to Madrid in the hope that his ambition +would now be satisfied, but the king was tired of him, and was moreover +resolved never to be subjected by any favourite. After a very brief +period of office in 1815 he was sent as a prisoner to Murcia. Though he +was afterwards recalled, he was again exiled to Ronda, where he died on +the 27th of November 1820. + + + + +ESCOMBE, HARRY (1838-1899), South African statesman, a member of a +Somersetshire family, was born at Notting Hill, London, on the 25th of +July 1838, and was educated at St Paul's school. After four years in a +stockbroker's office, he emigrated, in 1859, to the Cape. The following +year he moved to Natal, and, after trying other occupations, qualified +as an attorney. He became recognized as the ablest pleader in the +colony, and, in 1872, was elected for Durban as a member of the +legislative council, and subsequently was also placed on the executive +council. In 1880 he secured the appointment of a harbour board for +Natal, and was himself made chairman. The transformation of the port of +Durban into a harbour available for ocean liners was due entirely to his +energy. In 1888-1889 he defended Dinizulu and other Zulu chiefs against +a charge of high treason. For several years he opposed the grant of +responsible government to Natal, but by 1890 had become convinced of its +desirability, and on its conferment in 1893 he joined the first ministry +formed, serving under Sir John Robinson as attorney-general. In February +1897, on Sir John's retirement, Escombe became premier, remaining +attorney-general and also holding the office of minister of education +and minister of defence. In the summer of that year he was in London +with the other colonial premiers at the celebration of the Diamond +Jubilee of Queen Victoria, and was made a member of the privy council. +Cambridge University conferred upon him the honorary degree of LL.D. The +election that followed his return to Natal proved unfavourable to his +policy, and he resigned office (October 1897). Throughout his life he +took an active interest in national defence. He had served in the Zulu +War of 1879, was commander of the Natal Naval Volunteers and received +the volunteer long service decoration. In October 1899 he went to the +northern confines of the colony to take part in preparing measures of +defence against the invasion by the Boers. He died on the 27th of +December 1899. + + The _Speeches of the late Right Hon. Harry Escombe_ (Maritzburg, + 1903), edited by J.T. Henderson, contains brief biographical notes by + Sir John Robinson and the editor. + + + + +ESCORIAL, or ESCURIAL, in Spain, one of the most remarkable buildings in +Europe, comprising at once a convent, a church, a palace and a +mausoleum. The Escorial is situated 3432 ft. above the sea, on the +south-western slopes of the Sierra de Guadarrama, and thus within the +borders of the province of Madrid and the kingdom of New Castile. By the +Madrid-Avila railway it is 31 m. N.W. of Madrid. The surrounding country +is a sterile and gloomy wilderness exposed to the cold and blighting +blasts of the Sierra. + +According to the usual tradition, which there seems no sufficient reason +to reject, the Escorial owes its existence to a vow made by Philip II. +of Spain (1556-1598), shortly after the battle of St Quentin, in which +his forces succeeded in routing the army of France. The day of the +victory, the 10th of August 1557, was sacred to St Laurence; and +accordingly the building was dedicated to that saint, and received the +title of _El real monasterio de San Lorenzo del Escorial_. The last +distinctive epithet was derived from the little hamlet in the vicinity +which furnished shelter, not only to the workmen, but to the monks of St +Jerome who were afterwards to be in possession of the monastery; and +the hamlet itself is generally but perhaps erroneously supposed to be +indebted for its name to the _scoriae_ or dross of certain old iron +mines. The preparation of the plans and the superintendence of the work +were entrusted by the king to Juan Bautista de Toledo, a Spanish +architect who had received most of his professional education in Italy. +The first stone was laid in April 1563; and under the king's personal +inspection the work rapidly advanced. Abundant supplies of _berroquena_, +a granite-like stone, were obtained in the neighbourhood, and for rarer +materials the resources of both the Old and the New World were put under +contribution. The death of Toledo in 1567 threatened a fatal blow at the +satisfactory completion of the enterprise, but a worthy successor was +found in Juan Herrera, Toledo's favourite pupil, who adhered in the main +to his master's designs. On the 13th of September 1584 the last stone of +the masonry was laid, and the works were brought to a termination in +1593. Each successive occupant of the Spanish throne has done something, +however slight, to the restoration or adornment of Philip's +convent-palace, and Ferdinand VII. (1808-1833) did so much in this way +that he has been called a second founder. In all its principal features, +however, the Escorial remains what it was made by the genius of Toledo +and Herrera working out the grand, if abnormal, desires of their master. + +The ground plan of the building is estimated to occupy an area of +396,782 sq. ft., and the total area of all the storeys would form a +causeway 1 metre in breadth and 95 m. in length. There are seven towers, +fifteen gateways and, according to Los Santos, no fewer than 12,000 +windows and doors. The general arrangement is shown by the accompanying +plan. Entering by the main entrance the visitor finds himself in an +atrium, called the Court of the Kings (_Patio de los reyes_), from the +16th-century statues of the kings of Judah, by Juan Bautista Monegro, +which adorn the facade of the church. The sides of the atrium are +unfortunately occupied by plain ungainly buildings five storeys in +height, awkwardly accommodating themselves to the upward slope of the +ground. Of the grandeur of the church itself, however, there can be no +question: it is the finest portion of the whole Escorial, and, according +to Fergusson, deserves to rank as one of the great Renaissance churches +of Europe. It is about 340 ft. from east to west by 200 from north to +south, and thus occupies an area of about 70,000 sq. ft. The dome is 60 +ft. in diameter, and its height at the centre is about 320 ft. In +glaring contrast to the bold and simple forms of the architecture, which +belongs to the Doric style, were the bronze and marbles and pictures of +the high altar, the masterpiece of the Milanese Giacomo Trezzo, almost +ruined by the French in 1808. Directly under the altar is situated the +pantheon or royal mausoleum, a richly decorated octagonal chamber with +upwards of twenty niches, occupied by black marble _urnas_ or +sarcophagi, kept sacred for the dust of kings or mothers of kings. There +are the remains of Charles V. (1516-1556), of Philip II., and of all +their successors on the Spanish throne down to Ferdinand VII., with the +exception of Philip V. (1700-1746) and Ferdinand VI. (1746-1759). +Several of the sarcophagi are still empty. For the other members of the +royal family there is a separate vault, known as the _Panteon de los +Infantes_, or more familiarly by the dreadfully suggestive name of _El +Pudridero_. The most interesting room in the palace is Philip II.'s +cell, from which through an opening in the wall he could see the +celebration of mass while too ill to leave his bed. + +[Illustration: Views and Plan of the Escorial.[1] + + CHURCH + + 1. Principal entrance and portico. + 2. Court of the kings (_Patio de los reyes_). + 3. Vestibule of the church. + 4. Choir of the seminarists. + 5. Centre of the church and projection of the dome. + 6. Greater chapel. + 7. High altar. + 8. Chapel of St John. + 9. Chapel of St Michael. + 10. Chapel of St Maurice. + 11. Chapel of the Rosary. + 12. Tomb of Louisa Carlota. + 13. Chapel of the _Patrocinio_. + 14. Chapel of the _Cristo de la buena muerte_. + 15. Chapel of the Eleven Thousand Virgins. + 16. Former Chapel of the _Patrocinio_. + 17. Sacristy. + + PALACE + + 18. Principal court of the palace. + 19. Ladies' tower. + 20. Court of the masks. + 21. Apartments of the royal children. + 22. Royal oratory. + 23. Oratory where Philip II. died. + + SEMINARY + + 24. Entrance to seminary. + 25. Classrooms. + 26. Old philosophical hall. + 27. Old theological hall. + 28. Chamber of secrets. + 29. Old refectory. + 30. Entrance to the college. + 31. College yard. + + CONVENT + + 32. Clock tower. + 33. Principal cloister. + 34. Court of the evangelists. + 35. Prior's cell. + 36. Archives. + 37. Old church. + 38. Visitors' hall. + 39. Manuscript library. + 40. Convent refectory.] + +The library, situated above the principal portico, was at one time one +of the richest in Europe, comprising the king's own collection, the +extensive bequest of Diego de Mendoza, Philip's ambassador to Rome, the +spoils of the emperor of Morocco, Muley Zidan (1603-1628) and various +contributions from convents, churches and cities. It suffered greatly in +the fire of 1671, and has since been impoverished by plunder and +neglect. Among its curiosities still extant are two New Testament +Codices of the 10th century and two of the 11th; various works by +Alphonso the Wise (1252-1284), a Virgil of the 14th century, a Koran of +the 15th, &c. Of the Arabic manuscripts which it contained in the 17th +century a catalogue was given in J.H. Hottinger's _Promptuarium sive +bibliotheca orientalis_, published at Heidelberg in 1658, and another in +the 18th, in M. Casiri's _Bibliotheca Arabico-Hispanica_ (2 vols., +Madrid, 1760-1770). Of the artistic treasures with which the Escorial +was gradually enriched, it is sufficient to mention the frescoes of +Peregrin or Pellagrino Tibaldi, Luis de Carbajal, Bartolommeo Carducci +or Carducho, and Luca Giordano, and the pictures of Titian, Tintoretto +and Velasquez. These paintings all date from the 15th or the 17th +century. Many of those that are movable have been transferred to Madrid, +and many others have perished by fire or sack. The conflagration of +1671, already mentioned, raged for fifteen days, and only the church, a +part of the palace, and two towers escaped uninjured. In 1808 the whole +building was exposed to the ravages of the French soldiers under General +La Houssaye. On the night of the 1st of October 1872, the college and +seminary, a part of the palace and the upper library were devastated by +fire; but the damage was subsequently repaired. In 1885 the conventual +buildings were occupied by Augustinian monks. + + The reader will find a remarkable description of the emotional + influence of the Escorial in E. Quinet's _Vacances en Espagne_ (Paris, + 1846), and for historical and architectural details he may consult the + following works:--Fray Juan de San Geronimo, _Memorias sobre la + fundacion del Escorial y su fabrica_, in the _Coleccion de documentos + ineditos para la historia de Espana_, vol. vii.; Y. de Herrera, + _Sumario y breve declaracion de los disenos y estampas de la fab. de + S. Lorencio el Real del Escurial_ (Madrid, 1589); Jose de Siguenza, + _Historia de la orden de San Geronyno_, &c. (Madrid, 1590). L. de + Cabrera de Cordova, _Felipe Segundo_ (Madrid, 1619); James Wadsworth, + _Further Observations of the English Spanish Pilgrime_ (London, 1629, + 1630); Ilario Mazzorali de Cremona, _Le Reali Grandezze del Escuriale_ + (Bologna, 1648); De los Santos, _Descripcion del real monasterio_, &c. + (Madrid, 1657); Andres Ximenes, _Descripcion_, &c. (Madrid, 1764); Y. + Quevedo, _Historia del Real Monasterio_, &c. (Madrid, 1849); A. + Rotondo, _Hist. artistica, ... del monasterio de San Lorenzo_ (Madrid, + 1856-1861); W.H. Prescott, _Life of Philip II._ (London, 1887); J. + Fergusson, _History of the Modern Styles of Architecture_ (London, + 1891-1893); Sir W. Stirling-Maxwell, _Annals of the Artists of Spain_ + (London, 1891). + + +FOOTNOTE: + + [1] Reduced from a large plan of the Escorial in the British Museum, + _Monasterio del Escorial_, published at Madrid in 1876. + + + + +ESCOVEDO, JUAN DE (d. 1578), Spanish politician, secretary of Don John +of Austria, and chiefly notable as having been the victim of one of the +mysteries of the 16th century, began life in the household of Ruy Gomez +de Silva, prince of Eboli, the most trusted minister of the early years +of the reign of Philip II. By the will of the prince he was endowed for +life with the post of _Regidor_, or legal representative of the king in +the municipality of Madrid. He was also associated with Antonio Perez as +one of the secretaries who acted as the agents of the king in all +dealings with the various governing boards which formed the Spanish +administration. When Don John of Austria, after the battle of Lepanto in +1571, began to launch on a policy of self-seeking adventure, Escovedo +was appointed as his secretary with the intention that he should act as +a check on these follies. Unhappily for himself and for Don John he went +heart and soul into all the prince's schemes. He began to disobey orders +from Madrid and became entangled in intrigues to manage or even to +coerce the king. In July 1577, and contrary to the king's orders, he +came to Spain from Flanders, where Don John was then governor. It is +said that he discovered the love intrigue between Antonio Perez and the +widowed princess of Eboli, Ana Mendoza de la Cerda. This is, however, +mere gossip and supposition. There can be no doubt that he was a busy +intriguer, or that the king, acting on the then very generally accepted +doctrine that the sovereign has a right to act for the public interest +without regard to forms of law, gave orders to Antonio Perez that he was +to be put out of the way. After two clumsy attempts had been made to +poison him at Perez's table, he was killed by bravos on the night of +Easter Monday, the 31st of March 1578. According to an old tradition the +murder took place outside the church of St Maria in Madrid, which was +pulled down in 1868. + + See Gaspar Muro, _La Princesse d'Eboli_ (Paris, 1878); and W.H. + Prescott, _Reign of Philip II._ (1855-59). + + + + +ESCUINTLA, the capital of the department of Escuintla, Guatemala; on the +southern slope of the Sierra Madre, 45 m. S.W. of Guatemala city. Pop. +(1905) about 12,000. Escuintla is locally celebrated for its hot mineral +springs. It is the commercial centre of a fertile district, which +produces coffee, cane-sugar and cocoa; it has also a brisk transit trade +in most of the products of Guatemala, owing to its position on the +interoceanic railway between Puerto Barrios on the Atlantic and San Jose +(30 m. S.) on the Pacific. A branch railway which goes westward to San +Augustin meets this line at Escuintla. + + + + +ESCUTCHEON (O. Fr. _escucheon_, _escusson_, modern _ecusson_, through a +Late Lat. form from Lat. _scutum_, shield), an heraldic term for a +shield with armorial bearings displayed (see HERALDRY). The word is also +applied to the shields used on tombs, in the spandrils of doors or in +string-courses, and to the ornamented plates from the centre of which +door-rings, knockers, &c., are suspended, or which protect the wood of +the key-hole from the wear of the key. In medieval times these were +often worked in a very beautiful manner. + + + + +ESHER, WILLIAM BALIOL BRETT, 1ST VISCOUNT (1817-1899), English lawyer +and master of the rolls, was a son of the Rev. Joseph G. Brett, of +Chelsea, and was born on the 13th of August 1817. He was educated at +Westminster and at Caius College, Cambridge. Called to the bar in 1840, +he went the northern circuit, and became a Q.C. in 1861. On the death of +Richard Cobden he unsuccessfully contested Rochdale as a Conservative, +but in 1866 was returned for Helston in unique circumstances. He and his +opponent polled exactly the same number of votes, whereupon the mayor, +as returning officer, gave his casting vote for the Liberal candidate. +As this vote was given after four o'clock, however, an appeal was +lodged, and the House of Commons allowed both members to take their +seats. Brett rapidly made his mark in the House, and in 1868 he was +appointed solicitor-general. On behalf of the crown he prosecuted the +Fenians charged with having caused the Clerkenwell explosion. In +parliament he took a leading part in the promotion of bills connected +with the administration of law and justice. He was (August 1868) +appointed a justice in the court of common pleas. Some of his sentences +in this capacity excited much criticism, notably so in the case of the +gas stokers' strike, when he sentenced the defendants to imprisonment +for twelve months, with hard labour, which was afterwards reduced by the +home secretary to four months. On the reconstitution of the court of +appeal in 1876, Brett was elevated to the rank of a lord justice. After +holding this position for seven years, he succeeded Sir George Jessel as +master of the rolls in 1883. In 1885 he was raised to the House of Lords +as Baron Esher. He opposed the bill proposing that an accused person or +his wife might give evidence in their own case, and supported the bill +which empowered lords of appeal to sit and vote after their retirement. +The Solicitors Act of 1888, which increased the powers of the +Incorporated Law Society, owed much to his influence. In 1880 he +delivered a remarkable speech in the House of Lords, deprecating the +delay and expense of trials, which he regarded as having been increased +by the Judicature Acts. Lord Esher suffered, perhaps, as master of the +rolls from succeeding a lawyer of such eminence as Jessel. He had a +caustic tongue, but also a fund of shrewd common sense, and one of his +favourite considerations was whether a certain course was "business" or +not. He retired from the bench at the close of 1897, and a viscounty was +conferred upon him on his retirement, a dignity never given to any +judge, lord chancellors excepted, "for mere legal conduct since the time +of Lord Coke." He died in London on the 24th of May 1899. + +Lord Esher was succeeded in the title by his only surviving son, +Reginald Baliol Brett (b. 1852), who was secretary to the office of +works from 1895 to 1902, but subsequently came into far greater public +prominence in 1904 as Chairman of the war office reconstitution +committee after the South African War. + + + + +ESHER, a township in the Epsom parliamentary division of Surrey, +England, 14-1/2 m. S.W. of London by the London & South Western railway +(Esher and Claremont station). It is pleasantly situated on rising +ground above the river Mole, 3 m. from its junction with the Thames. To +the north-west lie the grounds of Esher Place. Of the mansion-house +founded by William of Waynflete, bishop of Winchester (c. 1450), in +which Cardinal Wolsey resided for three or four weeks after his sudden +fall from power in 1529, only the gatehouse remains. It is known as +Wolsey's Tower, but is apparently part of Waynflete's foundation. A new +mansion was erected in 1803. To the south is Claremont Palace, built by +the great Lord Clive (1769) on the site of a mansion of Sir John +Vanbrugh. In 1816 it was the residence of Princess Charlotte, wife of +Prince (afterwards King) Leopold. She died here in 1817, and on the +death of her husband in 1865 the property passed to the crown. Louis +Philippe, ex-king of the French, resided here from 1848 until his death +in 1850. In 1882 Claremont became the private property of Queen +Victoria. Christ Church, Esher, contains fine memorials of King Leopold +and others, and one of its three bells is said to have been brought from +San Domingo by Sir Francis Drake. To the north near the railway station +is Sandown Park, where important race meetings are held. Esher is +included in the urban district of Esher and The Dittons, of which Thames +Ditton is a favourite riverside resort. The whole district is largely +residential. Pop. (1901) 9489. + + + + +ESKER (O. Irish _eiscir_), a local name for long mounds of glacial +gravel frequently met with in Ireland. Eskers (the Swedish _asar_) are +among the occasionally puzzling relics of the British glacial period. +They wind from side to side across glaciated country and have evidently +been formed by channels upon or under the ice. "Where streams of +considerable size form tunnels under or in the ice these may become more +or less filled with wash, and when the ice melts the aggraded channels +appear as long ridges of gravel and sand known as _eskers_. It has been +thought that similar ridges are sometimes formed in valleys cut in the +ice from top to bottom, and even that they rise from gravel and sand +lodged in super-glacial channels. The latter at least is probably rare, +as the surface streams have usually high gradients, swift currents and +smooth bottoms, and hence give little opportunity for lodgment. In the +case of ice-sheets, too, in which eskers are chiefly developed, there is +usually no surface material except at the immediate edge, where the ice +is thin and its layers upturned" (T.C. Chamberlin and R.D. Salisbury, +_Geology, Processes and their Results_). Eskers are to be distinguished +from kames (q.v.). + + + + +ESKILSTUNA, a town of Sweden in the district (_lan_) of Sodermanland, on +the Hjelmar river, which unites lakes Hjelmar and Malar, 65 m. W. of +Stockholm by rail. Pop. (1900) 13,663. The place is mentioned in the +13th century, and is said to derive its name from Eskil, an English +missionary who suffered martyrdom on the spot. It rose into importance +in the reign of Charles X., who bestowed on it considerable privileges, +and gave the first impulse to its manufacturing activity. It is the +chief seat in Sweden of the iron and steel industries, its cutlery being +especially noted, while damascened work is a specialty. There is a +technical school for the metal industries. There are, in the town or its +neighbourhood, great engineering, gun-making, and rolling and polishing +works and breweries. The largest mechanical works are those of Munktell +and Tunafors. The Karl Gustaf Stads rifle factory was established in +1814. + + + + +ESKIMO, ESKIMOS or ESQUIMAUX (a corruption of the Abnaki Indian +_Eskimantsic_ or the Ojibway _Ashkimeq_, both terms meaning "those who +eat raw flesh": they call themselves "Innuit," "the people"), a North +American Indian people, inhabiting the arctic coast of America from +Greenland to Alaska, and a small portion of the Asiatic shore of Bering +Strait. On the American shores they are found, in broken tribes, from +East Greenland to the western shores of Alaska--never far inland, or +south of the region where the winter ice allows seals to congregate. +Even on hunting expeditions they never travel more than 30 m. from the +coast. Save a slight admixture of European settlers, they are the only +inhabitants of both sides of Davis Strait and Baffin Bay. They extend as +far south as about 50 deg. N. lat. on the eastern side of America, and +in the west to 60 deg. on the eastern shore of Bering Strait, while 55 +deg. to 60 deg. are their southern limits on the shore of Hudson Bay. +Throughout all this range there are no other tribes save where the +Kennayan and Ugalenze Indians (of western America) come down to the +shore to fish. The Aleutians are closely allied to the Eskimo in habits +and language. H.J. Rink divides the Eskimo into the following groups, +the most eastern of which would have to travel nearly 5000 m. to reach +the most western: (1) The East Greenland Eskimo, few in number, every +year advancing farther south, and coming into contact with the next +section. (2) The West Greenlanders, civilized, living under the Danish +crown, and extending from Cape Farewell to 74 deg. N. lat. (3) The +Northern-most Greenlanders--the Arctic Highlanders of Sir John +Ross--confined to Smith, Whale, Murchison and Wolstenholme Sounds, north +of the Melville Bay glaciers. These--the most isolated and uncivilized +of all the Eskimo--had no boats or bows and arrows until about 1868. (4) +The Labrador Eskimo, mostly civilized. (5) The Eskimo of the middle +regions, occupying the coasts from Hudson Bay to Barter Island, beyond +Mackenzie river, inhabiting a stretch of country 2000 m. in length and +800 in breadth. (6) The Western Eskimo, from Barter Island to the +western limits in America. (7) The Asiatic Eskimo. + +The Eskimo are not a tall race, their height varying from 5 ft. 4 in. to +5 ft. 10 in., but men of 6 ft. are met. Both men and women are muscular +and active, the former often inclining to fat. The faces of both have a +pleasing, good-humoured expression, and not infrequently are even +handsome. The typical face is broadly oval, flat, with fat cheeks; +forehead not high, and rather retreating; teeth good, though, owing to +the character of the food, worn down to the gums in old age; nose very +flat; eyes rather obliquely set, small, black and bright; head largish, +and covered with coarse black hair, which the women fasten up into a +knot on the top, and the men clip in front and allow to hang loose and +unkempt behind. Their skulls are of the mesocephalic type, the height +being greater than the breadth; according to Davis, 75 is the index of +the latter and 77 of the former. Some of the tribes slightly compress +the skulls of their new-born children laterally (Hall), but this +practice is a very local one. The men have usually a slight moustache, +but no whiskers, and rarely any beard. The skin has generally a "bacony" +feel, and when cleaned of the smoke, grease and other dirt--the +accumulation of which varies according to the age of the individual--is +only so slightly brown that red shows in the cheeks of the children and +young women. The hands and feet are small and well formed. The Eskimo +dress entirely in skins of the seal, reindeer, bear, dog, or even fox, +the first two being, however, the most common. The men's and women's +dress is much the same, a jacket suit, the trousers tucked into +seal-skin boots. The jacket has a hood, which in cold weather is used to +cover the head, leaving only the face exposed. The women's jacket has a +large hood for carrying a child and an absurd-looking tail behind, which +is, however, usually tucked up. The women's trousers are usually +ornamented with eider-duck neck feathers or embroidery of native dyed +leather; their boots, which are of white leather, or (in Greenland) dyed +of various colours, reach over the knees, and in some tribes are very +wide at the top, thus giving them an awkward appearance and a clumsy +waddling walk. In winter two suits are worn, one with the hair inside, +the other with it outside. They also sometimes wear shirts of +bird-skins, and stockings of dog or young reindeer skins. Their clothes +are very neatly made, fit beautifully, and are sewn with "sinew-thread," +with a bone needle if a steel one cannot be had. In person the Eskimo +are usually filthy, and never wash. Infants are, however, sometimes +cleaned by being licked by their mother before being put into the bag of +feathers which serves as their bed, cradle and blankets. + +In summer the Eskimo live in conical skin tents, and in winter usually +in half-underground huts of stone, turf, earth and bones, entered by a +long tunnel-like passage, which can only be traversed on all fours. +Sometimes, if residing temporarily at a place, they will erect neat +round huts of blocks of snow with a sheet of ice for a window. In the +roof are deposited their spare harpoons, &c; and from it is suspended +the steatite basin-like lamp, the flame of which, the wick being of +moss, serves as fire and light. On one side of the hut is the bench +which is used as sofa, seats and common sleeping place. The floor is +usually very filthy, a pool of blood or a dead seal being often to be +seen there. Ventilation is almost non-existent; and after the lamp has +blazed for some time, the heat is all but unbearable. In the summer the +wolfish-looking dogs lie outside on the roof of the huts, in the winter +in the tunnel-like passage just outside the family apartment. The +Western Eskimo build their houses chiefly of planks, merely covered on +the outside with green turf. The same Eskimo have, in the more populous +places, a public room for meetings. "Council chambers" are also said to +exist in Labrador, but are only known in Greenland by tradition. +Sometimes in south Greenland and in the Western Eskimo country the +houses are made to accommodate several families, but as a rule each +family has a house to itself. + +The Eskimo are solely hunters and fishers, and derive most of their food +from the sea. Their country allows of no cultivation; and beyond a few +berries, roots, &c., they use no vegetable food. The seal, the reindeer +and the whale supply the bulk of their food, as well as their clothing, +light, fuel, and frequently also, when driftwood is scarce or +unavailable, the material for various articles of domestic economy. Thus +the Eskimo canoe is made of seal-skin stretched on a wooden or whalebone +frame, with a hole in the centre for the paddler. It is driven by a +bone-tipped double-bladed paddle. A waterproof skin or entrail dress is +tightly fastened round the mouth of the hole so that, should the canoe +overturn, no water can enter. A skilful paddler can turn a complete +somersault, boat and all, through the water. The Eskimo women use a +flat-bottomed skin luggage-boat. The Eskimo sledge is made of two +runners of wood or bone--even, in one case on record, of frozen salmon +(Maclure)--united by cross bars tied to the runners by hide thongs, and +drawn by from 4 to 8 dogs harnessed abreast. Some of their weapons are +ingenious--in particular, the harpoon, with its detachable point to +which an inflated sealskin is fastened. When the quarry is struck, the +floating skin serves to tire it out, marks its course, and buoys it up +when dead. The bird-spears, too, have a bladder attached, and points at +the sides which strike the creature should the spear-head fail to wound. +An effective bow is made out of whale's rib. Altogether, with meagre +material the Eskimo show great skill in the manufacture of their +weapons. Meat is sometimes boiled, but, when it is frozen, it is often +eaten raw. Blood, and the half-digested contents of the reindeer's +paunch, are also eaten; and sometimes, but not habitually, blubber. As a +rule this latter is too precious: it must be kept for winter fuel and +light. The Eskimo are enormous eaters; two will easily dispose of a seal +at a sitting; and in Greenland, for instance, each individual has for +his daily consumption, on an average, 2-1/2 lb. of flesh with blubber, +and 1 lb. of fish, besides mussels, berries, sea-weed, &c., to which in +the Danish settlements may be added 2 oz. of imported food. Ten pounds +of flesh, in addition to other food, is not uncommonly consumed in a day +in time of plenty. A man will lie on his back and allow his wife to feed +him with tit-bits of blubber and flesh until he is unable to move. + +The Eskimo cannot be strictly called a wandering race. They are nomadic +only in so far that they have to move about from place to place during +the fishing and shooting season, following the game in its migrations. +They have, however, no regular property. They possess only the most +necessary utensils and furniture, with a stock of provisions for less +than one year; and these possessions never exceed certain limits fixed +upon by tradition or custom. Long habit and the necessities of their +life have also compelled those having food to share with those having +none--a custom which, with others, has conduced to the stagnant +conditions of Eskimo society and to their utter improvidence. + +Their intelligence is considerable, as their implements and folk-tales +abundantly prove. They display a taste for music, cartography and +drawing, display no small amount of humour, are quick at picking up +peculiar traits in strangers, and are painfully acute in detecting the +weak points or ludicrous sides of their character. They are excellent +mimics and easily learn the dances and songs of the Europeans, as well +as their games, such as chess and draughts. They gamble a little--but in +moderation, for the Eskimo, though keen traders, have a deep-rooted +antipathy to speculation. When they offer anything for sale--say at a +Danish settlement in Greenland--they always leave it to the buyer to +settle the price. They have also a dislike to bind themselves by +contract. Hence it was long before the Eskimo in Greenland could be +induced to enter into European service, though when they do they pass to +almost the opposite extreme--they have no will of their own. Public +licentiousness or indecency is rare among them. In their private life +their morality is, however, not high. The women are especially erring; +and in Greenland, at places where strangers visit, their extreme laxity +of morals, and their utter want of shame, are not more remarkable than +the entire absence of jealousy or self-respect on the part of their +countrymen and relatives. Theft in Greenland is almost unknown; but the +wild Eskimo make very free with strangers' goods--though it must be +allowed that the value they attach to the articles stolen is some excuse +for the thieves. Among themselves, on the other hand, they are very +honest--a result of their being so much under the control of public +opinion. Lying is said to be as common a trait of the Eskimo as of other +savages in their dealings with Europeans. They have naturally not made +any figure in literature. Their folk-lore is, however, extensive, and +that collected by Dr Rink shows considerable imagination and no mean +talent on the part of the story-tellers. In Greenland and Labrador most +of the natives have been taught by the missionaries to read and write +in their own language. Altogether, the literature published in the +Eskimo tongue is considerable. Most of it has been printed in Denmark, +but some has been "set up" in a small printing-office in Greenland, from +which about 280 sheets have issued, beside many lithographic prints. A +journal (_Atuagagldliutit nalinginarmik tusaruminasassumik univkat_, +i.e. "something for reading, accounts of all entertaining subjects") has +been published since 1861. + +The Eskimo in Greenland and Labrador are, with few exceptions, nominally +at least, Christians. The native religion is a vague animism, and +consists of a belief in good and evil spirits, limited each to its own +sphere; in a Heaven and Hell; and a childish faith is placed in the +native wizards, who are regarded as intermediaries between mankind and +the spirit-powers. The worship of the whale-spirit, so important a +factor in their daily economy, is prevalent. + +As regards language, the idiom spoken from Greenland to north-eastern +Siberia is, with a few exceptions, the same; any difference is only that +of dialect. It differs from the whole group of European languages, not +merely in the sound of the words, but more especially, according to +Rink, in the construction. Its most remarkable feature is that a +sentence of a European language is expressed in Eskimo by a single word +constructed out of certain elements, each of which corresponds in some +degree to one of our words. One specimen commonly given to visitors to +Greenland may suffice: _Savigiksiniariartokasuaromaryotittogog_, which +is equivalent to "He says that you also will go away quickly in like +manner and buy a pretty knife." Here is one word serving in the place of +17. It is made up as follows: _Savig_ a knife, _ik_ pretty, _sini_ buy, +_ariartok_ go away, _asuar_ hasten, _omar_ wilt, _y_ in like manner, +_otit_ thou, _tog_ also, _og_ he says. + +The Eskimo have no chiefs or political and military rulers. Fabricius +concisely described them in his day: "_Sine Deo, domino, reguntur +consuetudine_." The government is mainly a family one, though a man +distinguished for skill in the chase, and for strength and shrewdness, +often has considerable power in the village. No political or social tie +is recognized between the villages, though general good-fellowship seems +to mark their relations. They never go to war with each other; and +though revengeful and apt to injure an enemy secretly, they rarely come +to blows, and are morbidly anxious not to give offence. Indeed, in their +intercourse with each other, all Eskimo indulge in much hyperbolical +compliment. But they are not without courage. On the Coppermine and +Mackenzie rivers, where they sometimes come into collision with their +American-Indian kinsmen, they fight fiercely. Polygamy is rare, but the +rights of divorce and re-marriage are unrestricted. The Eskimo have +intricate rules governing the ownership of property and the rights of +the hunter. As a race they are singularly undemonstrative. When they met +each other they used to rub noses together, but this, though a common +custom still among the wild Eskimo, is entirely abandoned in Greenland +except for the petting of children. There is, in Greenland at least, no +national mode of salutation, either on meeting or parting. When a guest +enters a house, commonly not the least sign is made either by him or his +host. On leaving a place they sometimes say "inuvdluaritse," i.e. live +well, and to a European "aporniakinatit," i.e. do not hurt thy head, +viz. against the upper part of the doorway. The Eskimo, excluding the +few on the Asiatic coast, are estimated at about 29,000. + + BIBLIOGRAPHY.--Dr H.J. Rink, _Tales and Traditions of the Eskimo_ + (1875); _Danish Greenland; its People and its Products_ (1877); + _Eskimo Tribes_ (1887); J. Richardson, _Polar Regions_ (1861), pp. + 298-331; Sir Clements Markham, _Arctic Papers of the R. G. S._ (1875), + pp. 163-232; Simpson, _ibid._ pp. 233-275; "Hans Hendriks the Eskimo's + Memoirs," _Geographical Magazine_ (Feb. 1878, et seq.); Fridtjof + Nansen, _Eskimo Life_ (1894); R.E. Peary, _Northward over the Great + Ice_, vol. i. appendix ii.; F. Boas, "The Central Eskimo," _Sixth + Annual Report of Bureau of Ethnology_ (1884-1885); J. Murdoch, "The + Point Barrow Eskimo," _Ninth Annual Report_ (1887-1888); E.W. Nelson, + "The Eskimo about Bering Strait," _Eighteenth Annual Report_, part 1 + (1896-1897). + + + + +ESKI-SHEHR, a town of Asia Minor, in the Kutaiah sanjak of the Brusa +(Khudavendikiar) vilayet. It is a station on the Haidar Pasha-Angora +railway, 194-1/2 m. from the former and 164 m. from Angora, and the +junction for Konia; and is situated on the right bank of the Pursak Su +(_Tembris_), a tributary of the Sakaria, at the foot of the hills that +border the broad treeless valley. Pop. 20,000 (Moslems 15,000, +Christians 5000). Eski-Shehr, i.e. "the old town," lies about a mile +from the ruins of the ancient Phrygian Dorylaeum. The latter is +mentioned in connexion with the wars of Lysimachus and Antigonus (about +302 B.C.), and frequently figures in Byzantine history as an imperial +residence and military rendezvous. It was the scene of the defeat of the +Turks under Kilij-Arslan by the crusaders in 1097, and fell finally to +the Turks of Konia in 1176. The town is divided by a small stream into a +commercial quarter on low ground, in which are the bazaars, khans and +the hot sulphur springs (122 deg. F.) which are mentioned as early as +the 3rd century by Athenaeus; and a residential quarter on the higher +ground. The town is noted for its good climate, the Pursak Su for the +abundance of its fish, and the plain for its fertility. About 18 m. to +the E. are extensive deposits of meerschaum. The clay is partly +manufactured into pipes in the town, but the greater proportion finds +its way to Europe and especially to Germany. The annual output is valued +at L272,000. + + See Murray's _Hdbk. to Asia Minor_ (1893); V. Cuinet, _Turquie d'Asie_ + (Paris, 1894). + + + + +ESMARCH, JOHANNES FRIEDRICH AUGUST VON (1823-1908), German surgeon, was +born at Tonning, in Schleswig-Holstein, on the 9th of January 1823. He +studied at Kiel and Gottingen, and in 1846 became B.R.K. von Langenbeck's +assistant at the Kiel surgical hospital. He served in the +Schleswig-Holstein War of 1848 as junior surgeon, and this directed his +attention to the subject of military surgery. He was taken prisoner, but +afterwards exchanged, and was then appointed as surgeon to a field +hospital. During the truce of 1849 he qualified as _Privatdocent_ at +Kiel, but on the fresh outbreak of war he returned to the troops and was +promoted to the rank of senior surgeon. In 1854 he became director of the +surgical clinic at Kiel, and in 1857 head of the general hospital and +professor at the university. During the Schleswig-Holstein War of 1864 +Esmarch rendered good service to the field hospitals of Flensburg, +Sundewitt and Kiel. In 1866 he was called to Berlin as member of the +hospital commission, and also to take the superintendence of the surgical +work in the hospitals there. When the Franco-German War broke out in 1870 +he was appointed surgeon-general to the army, and afterwards consulting +surgeon at the great military hospital near Berlin. In 1872 he married +Princess Henrietta of Schleswig-Holstein-Sonderburg-Augustenburg, aunt of +the Empress Auguste Victoria. In 1887 a patent of nobility was conferred +on him. He died at Kiel on the 23rd of February 1908. Esmarch was one of +the greatest authorities on hospital management and military surgery. His +_Handbuch der kriegschirurgischen Technik_ was written for a prize +offered by the empress Augusta, on the occasion of the Vienna Exhibition +of 1877, for the best handbook for the battlefield of surgical appliances +and operations. This book is illustrated by admirable diagrams, showing +the different methods of bandaging and dressing, as well as the surgical +operations as they occur on the battlefield. Esmarch himself invented an +apparatus, which bears his name, for keeping a limb nearly bloodless +during amputation. No part of Esmarch's work is more widely known than +that which deals with "First Aid," his _First Aid on the Battlefield_ and +_First Aid to the Injured_ being popular manuals on the subject. The +latter is the substance of a course of lectures delivered by him in 1881 +to a "Samaritan School," the first of the kind in Germany, founded by +Esmarch in 1881, in imitation of the St John's Ambulance classes which +had been organized in England in 1878. These lectures were very generally +adopted as a manual for first aid students, edition after edition having +been called for, and they have been translated into numerous languages, +the English version being the work of H.R.H. Princess Christian. No +ambulance course would be complete without a demonstration of the +Esmarch bandage. It is a three-sided piece of linen or cotton, of which +the base measures 4 ft. and the sides 2 ft. 10 in. It can be used folded +or open, and applied in thirty-two different ways. It answers every +purpose for temporary dressing and field-work, while its great +recommendation is that the means for making it are always at hand. + + + + +ESNA, or ESNEH, a town of Upper Egypt on the W. bank of the Nile, 454 m. +S.S.E. of Cairo by rail, the railway station being on the opposite side +of the river. Pop. (1897) 16,000, mostly Copts. Esna, one of the +healthiest towns in Egypt, is noted for its manufactures of pottery and +its large grain and live stock markets. It formerly had a large trade +with the Sudan. A caravan road to the south goes through the oasis of +Kurkur. The trade, almost stopped by the Mahdist Wars, is now largely +diverted by railway and steamboat routes. There is, however, +considerable traffic with the oasis of Kharga, which lies almost due +west of the town. Nearly in the centre of the town is the Ptolemaic and +Roman temple of the ram-headed Khnum, almost buried in rubbish and +houses. The interior of the pronaos is accessible to tourists, and +contains the latest known hieroglyphic inscription, dating from the +reign of Decius (A.D. 249-251). With Khnum are associated the goddesses +Sati and Neith. In the neighbourhood are remains of Coptic buildings, +including a subterranean church (discovered 1895) in the desert half a +mile beyond the limits of cultivation. The name Esna is from the Coptic +_Sne_. By the Greeks the place was called Latopolis, from the worship +here of the latus fish. In the persecutions under Diocletian A.D. 303, +the Christians of Esna, a numerous body, suffered severely. In later +times the town frequently served as a place of refuge for political +exiles. The so-called Esna barrage across the Nile (built 1906-1908) is +30 m. higher up stream at Edfu. + + + + +ESOTERIC, having an inner or secret meaning. This term, and its +correlative "exoteric," were first applied in the ancient Greek +mysteries to those who were initiated ([Greek: eso], within) and to +those who were not ([Greek: exo], outside), respectively. It was then +transferred to a supposed distinction drawn by certain philosophers +between the teaching given to the whole circle of their pupils and that +containing a higher and secret philosophy which was reserved for a +select number of specially advanced or privileged disciples. This +distinction was ascribed by Lucian (_Vit. Auct._ 26) to Aristotle +(q.v.), who, however, uses [Greek: exoterikoi logoi] (_Nic. Ethics_) +merely of "popular treatises." It was probably adopted by the +Pythagoreans and was also attributed to Plato. In the sense of mystic it +is used of a secret doctrine of theosophy, supposed to have been +traditional among certain disciples of Buddhism. + + + + +ESPAGNOLS SUR MER, LES, the name given to the naval victory gained by +King Edward III. of England over a Spanish fleet off Winchelsea, on the +29th of August 1350. Spanish ships had fought against England as the +allies or mercenaries of France, and there had been instances of +piratical violence between the trading ships of both nations. A Spanish +merchant fleet was loading cargoes in the Flemish ports to be carried to +the Basque coast. The ships were armed and had warships with them. They +were all under the command of Don Carlos de la Cerda, a soldier of +fortune who belonged to a branch of the Castilian royal family. On its +way to Flanders the Spanish fleet had captured a number of English +trading ships, and had thrown the crews overboard. Piratical violence +and massacre of this kind was then universal on the sea. On the 10th of +August, when the king was at Rotherhithe, he announced his intention of +attacking the Spaniards on their way home. The rendezvous of his fleet +was at Winchelsea, and thither the king went by land, accompanied by his +wife and her ladies, by his sons, the Black Prince and John of Gaunt, as +well as by many nobles. The ladies were placed in a convent and the king +embarked on his flagship, the "Cog Thomas," on the 28th of August. The +English fleet did not put to sea but remained at anchor, waiting for the +appearance of the Spaniards. Its strength is not known with certainty, +but Stow puts it at 50 ships and pinnaces. Carlos de la Cerda was +obviously well disposed to give the king a meeting. He might easily +have avoided the English if he had kept well out in the Channel. But he +relied on the size and strength of his 40 large ships, and in +expectation of an encounter had recruited a body of mercenaries--mostly +crossbowmen--in the Flemish ports. In the afternoon of the 29th of +August he bore down boldly on King Edward's ships at anchor at +Winchelsea. When the Spaniards hove in sight, the king was sitting on +the deck of his ship, with his knights and nobles, listening to his +minstrels who played German airs, and to the singing of Sir John +Chandos. When the look-out in the tops reported the enemy in sight, the +king and his company drank to one another's health, the trumpet was +sounded, and the whole line stood out. All battles at that time, whether +on land or sea, were finally settled by stroke of sword. The English +steered to board the Spaniards. The king's own ship was run into by one +of the enemy with such violence that both were damaged, and she began to +sink. The Spaniard stood on, and the "Cog Thomas" was laid alongside +another, which was carried by boarding. It was high time, for the king +and his following had barely reached the deck of the Spaniard before the +"Cog Thomas" went to the bottom. Other Spaniards were taken, but the +fight was hot. La Cerda's crossbowmen did much execution, and the +higher-built Spaniards were able to drop bars of iron or other weights +on the lighter English vessels, by which they were damaged. The conflict +was continued till twilight. At the close the large English vessel +called "La Salle du Roi," which carried the king's household, and was +commanded by the Fleming, Robert of Namur, afterwards a knight of the +Garter, was grappled by a big Spaniard, and was being dragged off by +him. The crew called loudly for a rescue, but were either not heard or, +if heard, could not be helped. The "Salle du Roi" would have been taken +if a Flemish squire of Robert of Namur, named Hannequin, had not +performed a great feat of arms. He boarded the Spaniard and cut the +halyards of her mainsail with his sword. The Spanish ship was taken. +King Edward is said to have captured 14 of the enemy. What his own loss +was is not stated, but as his own vessel, and also the vessel carrying +the Black Prince, were sunk, and from the peril of "La Salle du Roi," we +may conclude that the English fleet suffered heavily. There was no +pursuit, and a truce was made with the Basque towns the next year. + +The battle with "the Spaniards on the sea" is a very typical example of +a medieval sea-fight, when the ships were of the size of a small coaster +or a fishing smack, were crowded with men, and when the personal prowess +of a single knight or squire was an important element of strength. + + The only real authority for the battle is Froissart, who was at + different times in the service of King Edward or of his wife, Philippa + of Hainaut, and of the counts of Namur. He repeated what was told him + by men who had been present, and dwells as usual on the "chivalry" of + his patrons. See his _Chroniques_, iv. 91. (D. H.) + + + + +ESPALIER (a French word, derived from the Ital. _spalliera_, something +to rest the _spalla_ or shoulder against; the word is ultimately the +same as _epauliere_, a shoulder-piece), a lattice-work or row of stakes, +originally shoulder high, on which fruit trees, shrubs and flowers, +particularly roses and creepers, are trained. Espaliers are usually made +of larch or other wood, iron and metal rails being too great conductors +of heat and cold. The advantage of this method of training is that the +fruit, &c, is more easily got at, and while protected from wind, is +freely exposed to sun and air, and not so open to extreme changes of +temperature as when trained on a wall. (See HORTICULTURE.) + + + + +ESPARTERO, BALDOMERO (1792-1879), duke of Vitoria, duke of Morella, +prince of Vergara, Count Luchana, knight of the Toison d'Or, &c. &c., +Spanish soldier and statesman, was born at Granatulu, a town of the +province of Ciudad Real, on the 27th of February 1792. He was the ninth +child of a carter, who wanted to make him a priest, but the lad at +fifteen enlisted in a battalion of students to fight against the armies +of Napoleon I. In 1811 Espartero was appointed a lieutenant of Engineers +in Cadiz, but having failed to pass his examination he entered a line +regiment. In 1815 he went to America as a captain under General Morillo, +who had been made commander-in-chief to quell the risings of the +colonies on the Spanish Main. For eight years Espartero distinguished +himself in the struggle against the colonists. He was several times +wounded, and was made major and colonel on the battlefields of +Cochabamba and Sapachni. He had to surrender to Sucre at the final +battle of Ayacucho, which put an end to Castilian rule. He returned to +Spain, and, like most of his companions in arms, remained under a cloud +for some time. He was sent to the garrison town of Logrono, where he +married the daughter of a rich landowner, Dona Jacinta Santa Cruz, who +eventually survived him. Henceforth Logrono became the home of the most +prominent of the Spanish political generals of the 19th century. +Espartero became in 1832, on the death of King Ferdinand VII., one of +the most ardent defenders of the rights of his daughter, Isabella II. +The government sent him to the front, directly the Carlist War broke +out, as commandant of the province of Biscay, where he severely defeated +the Carlists in many encounters. He was quickly promoted to a divisional +command, and then made a lieutenant-general. At times he showed +qualities as a _guerillero_ quite equal to those of the Carlists, like +Zumalacarregui and Cabrera, by his daring marches and surprises. When he +had to move large forces he was greatly superior to them as an organizer +and strategist, and he never disgraced his successes by cruelty or +needless severity. Twice he obliged the Carlists to raise the siege of +Bilbao before he was appointed commander-in-chief of the northern army +on the 17th of September 1836, when the tide of war seemed to be setting +in favour of the pretender in the Basque provinces and Navarre, though +Don Carlos had lost his ablest lieutenant, the Basque Zumalacarregui. +His military duties at the head of the principal national army did not +prevent Espartero from showing for the first time his political +ambition. He displayed such radical and reforming inclinations that he +laid the foundations of his popularity among the lower and middle +classes, which lasted more than a quarter of a century, during which +time the Progressists, Democrats and advanced Liberals ever looked to +him as a leader and adviser. In November 1836 he again forced the +Carlists to raise the siege of Bilbao. His troops included the British +legion under Sir de Lacy Evans. This success turned the tide of war +against Don Carlos, who vainly attempted a raid towards Madrid. +Espartero was soon at his heels, and obliged him to hurry northwards, +after several defeats. In 1839 Espartero carefully opened up +negotiations with Maroto and the principal Carlist chiefs of the Basque +provinces. These ended in their accepting his terms under the famous +convention of Vergara, which secured the recognition of their ranks and +titles for nearly 1000 Carlist officers. Twenty thousand Carlist +volunteers laid down their arms at Vergara; only the irreconcilables led +by Cabrera held out for a while in the central provinces of Spain. +Espartero soon, however, in 1840, stamped out the last embers of the +rising, which had lasted seven years. He was styled "El pacificador de +Espana," was made a grandee of the first class, and received two +dukedoms. + +During the last three years of the war Espartero, who had been elected a +deputy, exercised from his distant headquarters such influence over +Madrid politics that he twice hastened the fall of the cabinet, and +obtained office for his own friends. At the close of the war the queen +regent and her ministers attempted to elbow out Espartero and his +followers, but a _pronunciamiento_ ensued in Madrid and other large +towns which culminated in the marshal's accepting the post of prime +minister. He soon became virtually a dictator, as Queen Christina took +offence at his popularity and resigned, leaving the kingdom very soon +afterwards. Directly the Cortes met they elected Espartero regent by 179 +votes to 103 in favour of Arguelles, who was appointed guardian of the +young queen. For two years Espartero ruled Spain in accordance with his +Radical and conciliatory dispositions, giving special attention to the +reorganization of the administration, taxation and finances, declaring +all the estates of the church, congregations and religious orders to be +national property, and suppressing the _diezma_, or tenths. He +suppressed the Republican risings with as much severity as he did the +military _pronunciamientos_ of Generals Concha and Diego de Leon. The +latter was shot in Madrid. Espartero crushed with much energy a +revolutionary rising in Barcelona, but on his return to Madrid was so +coldly welcomed that he perceived that his prestige was on the wane. The +advanced Progressists coalesced with the partisans of the ex-regent +Christina to promote _pronunciamientos_ in Barcelona and many cities. +The rebels declared Queen Isabel of age, and, led by General Narvaez, +marched upon Madrid. Espartero, deeming resistance useless, embarked at +Cadiz on the 30th of July 1843 for England, and lived quietly apart from +politics until 1848, when a royal decree restored to him all his honours +and his seat in the senate. He retired to his house in Logrono, which he +left six years later, in 1854, when called upon by the queen to take the +lead of the powerful Liberal and Progressist movement which prevailed +for two years. The old marshal vainly endeavoured to keep his own +Progressists within bounds in the Cortes of 1854-1856, and in the great +towns, but their excessive demands for reforms and liberties played into +the hands of a clerical and reactionary court and of the equally +retrograde governing classes. The growing ambition of General O'Donnell +constantly clashed with the views of Espartero, until the latter, in +sheer disgust, resigned his premiership and left for Logrono, after +warning the queen that a conflict was imminent between O'Donnell and the +Cortes, backed by the Progressist militia. O'Donnell's _pronunciamiento_ +in 1856 put an end to the Cortes, and the militia was disarmed, after a +sharp struggle in the streets of the capital. After 1856 Espartero +resolutely declined to identify himself with active politics, though at +every stage in the onward march of Spain towards more liberal and +democratic institutions he was asked to take a leading part. He refused +to allow his name to be brought forward as a candidate when the Cortes +of 1868, after the Revolution, sought for a ruler. Espartero, strangely +enough, adopted a laconic phrase when successive governments on their +advent to power invariably addressed themselves to the venerable +champion of liberal ideas. To all--to the Revolution of 1868, the +Constituent Cortes of 1869, King Amadeus, the Federal Republic of 1873, +the nameless government of Marshal Serrano in 1874, the Bourbon +restoration in 1875--he simply said: "Cumplase la voluntad nacional" +("Let the national will be accomplished"). King Amadeus made him prince +of Vergara. The Restoration raised a statue to him near the gate of the +Retiro Park in Madrid. Spaniards of all shades, except Carlists and +Ultramontanes, paid homage to his memory when he passed away at his +Logrono residence on the 8th of January 1879. His tastes were singularly +modest, his manners rather reserved, but always kind and considerate for +humble folk. He was a typical Spanish soldier-politician, though he had +more of the better traits of the soldier born and bred than of the arts +of the statesman. His military instincts did not always make it easy for +him to accommodate himself to courtiers and professional politicians. + (A. E. H.) + + + + +ESPARTO, or SPANISH GRASS, _Stipa tenacissima_, a grass resembling the +ornamental feather-grass of gardens. It is indigenous to the south of +Spain and the north of Africa (where it is known as Halfa or Alfa), and +is especially abundant in the sterile and rugged parts of Murcia and +Valencia, and in Algeria, flourishing best in sandy, ferruginous soils, +in dry, sunny situations on the sea coast. Pliny (_N.H._ xix. 2) +described what appears to have been the same plant under the name of +_spartum_, whence the designation _campus spartarius_ for the region +surrounding New Carthage. It attains a height of 3 or 4 ft. The stems +are cylindrical, and clothed with short hair, and grow in clusters of +from 2 to 10 ft. in circumference; when young they serve as food for +cattle, but after a few years' growth acquire great toughness of +texture. The leaves vary from 6 in. to 3 ft. in length, and are +grey-green in colour; on account of their tenacity of fibre and +flexibility they have for centuries been employed for the making of +ropes, sandals, baskets, mats and other articles. Ships' cables of +esparto, being light, have the quality of floating on water, and have +long been in use in the Spanish navy. + +Esparto leaves contain 56% by weight of fibre, or about 10% more than +straw, and hence have come into requisition as a substitute for linen +rags in the manufacture of paper. For this purpose they were first +utilized by the French, and in 1857 were introduced into Great Britain. +When required for paper-making the leaves should be gathered before they +are quite matured; if, however, they are obtained too young, they +furnish a paper having an objectionable semi-transparent appearance. The +leaves are gathered by hand, and from 2 to 3 cwt. may be collected in a +day by a single labourer. They are generally obtained during the dry +summer months, as at other times their adherence to the stems is so firm +as often to cause the uprooting of the plants in the attempt to remove +them. Esparto may be raised from seed, but cannot be harvested for +twelve or fifteen years after sowing. + +Another grass, _Lygeum Spartum_, with stiff rush-like leaves, growing in +rocky soil on the high plains of countries bordering on the +Mediterranean, especially of Spain and Algeria, is also a source of +esparto. + +For the processes of the paper manufacturer esparto is used in the dry +state, and without cutting; roots and flowers and stray weeds are first +removed, and the material is then boiled with caustic soda, washed, and +bleached with chlorine solution. Sundry experiments have been made to +adapt esparto for use in the coarser textile fabrics. Messrs A. Edger +and B. Proctor in 1877 directed attention to the composition of the slag +resulting from the burning of esparto, which they found to be strikingly +similar to that of average medical bottle glass, the latter yielding on +analysis 66.3% of silica and 25.1% of alkalies and alkaline earths, and +the slag 64.6 and 27.45% of the same respectively. + + + + +ESPERANCE, a small seaport on a fine natural harbour on the south coast +of West Australia, 275 m. north-east from Albany. It is a summer resort, +and in the neighbourhood are interesting caves. Its importance as a +seaport is due to its being on the high road between the eastern states +and the gold-fields, and the nearest place for the shipment of gold from +the Coolgardie fields. + + + + +ESPERANTO, an artificial international auxiliary language (see UNIVERSAL +LANGUAGES), first published in 1887, seven years after the appearance of +its predecessor Volapuk (q.v.), which it has now completely supplanted. +Its author was a Russian physician, Dr L. Zamenhof, born in 1859 at +Bielostok, where the spectacle of the feuds of the four races--each +speaking different languages--which inhabit it (Russians, Poles, Germans +and Jews) at an early date suggested to him the idea of remedying the +evil by the introduction of a neutral language, standing apart from the +existing national languages. His first idea was to resuscitate some dead +language. Then he tried to construct a new language on an a priori +basis. At the same time he made what he appears to have considered the +great discovery that the bulk of the vocabulary of a language consists +not of independent roots, but of compounds and derivatives formed from a +comparatively small number of roots. + +At first he tried to construct his roots a priori by arbitrary +combinations of letters. Then he fell back on the plan of taking his +roots ready-made from existing languages, as the inventor of Volapuk had +done before him. But instead of taking them mainly from one language, he +has selected them from the chief European languages, but not +impartially. Like all inventors of artificial languages, he is more +ready to experiment with foreign languages than with his own; and hence +the Slavonic roots in Esperanto are much less numerous than those taken +from the other European languages. Here his choice has been to some +extent guided by considerations of internationality, although he has not +fully grasped the importance of the principle of maximum +internationality, so well worked out in the latest rival of +Esperanto--Idiom Neutral (see UNIVERSAL LANGUAGES). Thus he adopts a +large number of international words--generally unaltered except in +spelling--such as _teatr_, _tabak_, even when it would be easy to form +equivalent terms from the roots already existing in the language. Where +there is no one international word, he selects practically at random, +keeping, however, a certain balance between the Romance words, taken +chiefly from Latin (_tamen_) and French (_trotuar_), on the one hand, +and the Germanic on the other hand, the latter being taken sometimes +from German (_nur_, "only"), sometimes from English, the words being +generally written more or less phonetically (_rajt_ = right). Most of +the Germanic words are badly chosen from the international point of +view. Thus the German word quoted above would not be intelligible to any +one ignorant of German. Indeed, from the international point of view all +specially German words ought to be excluded, or else reduced to the +common Germanic form; thus _trink_ ought to be made into _drink_, the +_t_ being a specially German modification of the _d_, preserved not only +in English but in all the remaining Germanic languages. This incongruous +mixture of languages is not only jarring and repulsive, but adds greatly +to the difficulty of mastering the vocabulary for the polyglot as well +as the monolingual learner. + +The inventor has taken great pains to reduce the number of his roots to +a minimum; there are 2642 of them in his dictionary, the _Universala +Vortaro_ (from Ger. _Wort_, "word"), which does not include such +international words as _poezio_, _telefono_; these the learner is +supposed to recognize and form without help. The most eccentric feature +of the vocabulary, and the one to which it owes much of its brevity, is +the extensive use of the prefix _mal-_ to reverse the meaning of a word, +as in _malamiko_, "enemy," and even _malbona_, "bad." + +The phonology of the language is very simple. The vowels are only five +in number, _a_, _e_, _i_, _o_, _u_, used without any distinction of +quantity, as in Russian. There are six diphthongs, expressed by an +unnecessarily complicated notation. The consonant-system is simple +enough in itself, but is greatly complicated in writing by the excessive +and mostly unnecessary use made of diacritical letters not only for +simple sounds but also for consonant-groups. _c_ is used for _ts_, as in +Polish. + +The grammar is, like that of Volapuk, partly borrowed from existing +languages, partly _a priori_ and arbitrary. The use of the final vowels +belongs to the latter category. The use of _-a_ to indicate adjectives +and of _-o_ to indicate nouns as in _kara amiko_, "dear (male) friend," +is a source of confusion to those familiar with the Romance languages, +and has proved a bar to the diffusion of Esperanto among the speakers of +these languages. On the other hand, the following paradigm will show how +faithfully Esperanto can reproduce the defects of conventional European +grammar:-- + + Singular. Plural. + Nominative _la bona patro_ _la bonaj patroj_ + Accusative _la bonan patron_ _la bonajn patrojn._ + +It is difficult to see why the accusative should be kept when all the +other cases are replaced by prepositions. + +The verb is better than the noun. Its inflections are _-as_ present, +_-is_ preterite, _-os_ future, _-us_ conditional, _-u_ imperative and +subjunctive, _-i_ infinitive, together with the following participles:-- + + Active. Passive. + Present _-anta_ _-ata_ + Preterite _-inta_ _-ita_ + Future _-onta_ _-ota_ + +The inventor has followed the good example of his native language in +using _esti_, "to be," as the auxiliary verb both in the passive, where +it is combined with passive participles, and in the secondary tenses of +the active (perfect, pluperfect, &c.), where it is of course combined +with the active participles. The participles can be made into nouns and +adverbs by changing the final _-a_ into _-o_ and _-e_ respectively: thus +_tenonto_, "the future holder," _perdinte_, "through having lost." + +The table of the forty-five correlative pronouns, adjectives and adverbs +is also elaborate and ingenious. + +Much ingenuity is displayed in the syntax, as well as some happy +simplifications. But, on the other hand, there is much in it that is +fanciful, arbitrary and vague, as in the use of the definite +article--where the author has unfortunately followed French rather than +English usage--and in the moods of the verb. + +The following specimens will show the general character of this +easy-flowing but somewhat heavy and monotonous language--"bad Italian," +as it is called by its detractors:-- + + Patro nia, kiu estas en la cielo, sankta estu via nomo; venu regeco + via; estu volo via, kiel en la cielo, tiel ankau sur la tero. Panon + nian ciutagan donu al ni hodiau; kaj pardonu al ni suldojn niajn, kiel + ni ankau pardonas al niaj suldantoj; kaj ne konduku nin en tenton, sed + liberigu nin de la malbono. + + Estimata Sinjoro. Per tiu ci libreto mi havas la honoron prezenti al + vi la lingvon internacian Esperanto. Esperanto tute ne havas la + intencon malfortigi la lingvon naturan de ia popolo. Gi devas nur + servi por la rilatoj internaciaj kaj por tiuj verkoj au produktoj, + kiuj interesas egale la tutan mondon. + +In summing up the merits and defects of Esperanto we must begin by +admitting that it is the most reasonable and practical artificial +language that has yet appeared. Its inventor has had the double +advantage of being able to profit by the mistakes of his predecessors, +and of being himself, by force of circumstances, a better linguist. It +must further be admitted that he has made as good a use of these +advantages as was perhaps possible without systematic training in +scientific philology in its widest sense. This last defect explains why +the enthusiasm which his work has excited in the great world of +linguistic dilettantes has not been shared by the philologists: in spite +of its superiority to Volapuk, they see in it the same radical defects. +Whether they are rash or not in predicting for it a similar fate, +remains to be seen. The Esperantists, warned by the fate of Volapuk, +have adopted the wise policy of suppressing all internal disunion by +submitting to the dictatorship of the inventor, and so presenting a +united front to the enemy. One thing is clear: either Esperanto must be +taken as it is without change, or else it must crumble to pieces; its +failure to work out consistently the principle of the maximum of +internationality for its root-words is alone enough to condemn it as +hopelessly antiquated even from the narrow point of view which regards +"international" as synonymous with "European"--a view which political +development in the Far East has made equally obsolete. (H. Sw.) + + + + +ESPINAY, TIMOLEON D' (1580-1644), French soldier, was the eldest of the +four sons of Francois d'Espinay, seigneur de Saint Luc (1554-1597), and +was himself marquis de Saint Luc. In 1603 he accompanied Sully in his +embassy to London. In 1622, in his capacity as vice-admiral of France, +he gained some advantages over the defenders of La Rochelle, obliging +the Huguenot commander, Benjamin de Rohan, seigneur de Soubise, to +evacuate the islands of Re and Oleron. In 1627 he was named +lieutenant-general of Guienne and marshal of France. + + + + +ESPINEL, VICENTE MARTINEZ (1551-1624), Spanish poet and novelist, was +baptized on the 28th of December 1551, and educated at Salamanca. He was +expelled from the university in 1572, and served as a soldier in +Flanders, returning to Spain in 1584 or thereabouts. He took orders in +1587, and four years later became chaplain at Ronda, absented himself +from his living, and was deprived of his cure; but his musical skill +obtained for him the post of choirmaster at Plasencia. His _Diversas +Rimas_ (1591) are undeniably good examples of technical accomplishment +and caustic wit. Espinel, however, survives as the author of a clever +picaresque novel entitled _Relaciones de la vida del Escudero Marcos de +Obregon_ (1618). It is, in many passages, an autobiography of Espinel +with picturesque embellishments. Marcos is not a chivalresque "esquire," +but an adventurer who seeks his fortune by attaching himself to great +men; and the object of the author is to warn young men against such a +life. Apart from the unedifying confessions of the hero, the book +contains curious anecdotes concerning prominent contemporaries, and the +episodical stories are told with great spirit; the style is extremely +correct, though somewhat diffuse. Le Sage has not scrupled to borrow +from _Marcos de Obregon_ many of the incidents and characters in _Gil +Blas_--a circumstance which induced Isla to give to his Spanish +translation of Le Sage's work the jesting title, _Gil Blas restored to +his Country and his Native Tongue_. In the 1775 edition of the _Siecle +de Louis XIV._ Voltaire grossly exaggerates in saying that _Gil Blas_ is +taken entirely from _Marcos de Obregon_. Espinel was a clever musician +and added a fifth string to the guitar. He revived the measure known as +_decimas_ or _espinelas_, consisting of a stanza of ten octosyllabic +lines. Most of the poems which he left in manuscript remain unpublished +owing to their licentious character. + + BIBLIOGRAPHY.--J. Perez de Guzman's edition of _Marcos de Obregon_ + (Barcelona, 1881) includes a valuable introduction; Leo Claretie, _Le + Sage romancier_ (Paris, 1890), discusses exhaustively the question of + Le Sage's indebtedness to Espinel. For some previously unpublished + poems see Pedro Salva y Mallen, _Catalogo de la biblioteca de Salva_ + (Valencia, 1872). + + + + +ESPIRITO SANTO, a maritime state of Brazil, bounded N. by Bahia, E. by +the Atlantic Ocean, S. by Rio de Janeiro, and W. by Minas Geraes. Pop. +(1890) 135,997; (1900) 209,783; area, 17,316 sq. m. With the exception +of Sergipe it is the smallest of the Brazilian states. The western +border of the state is traversed by low ranges of mountains forming a +northward continuation of the Serra do Mar. The longest and most +prominent of these ranges, which are for the most part the eastern +escarpments of the great Brazilian plateau, is the Serra dos Aymores, +which extends along fully two-thirds of the western frontier. Farther S. +the ranges are much broken and extend partly across the state toward the +seaboard; the more prominent are known as the Serra do Espigao, Serra da +Chibata, Serra dos Piloes and Serra dos Purys. The eastern and larger +part of the state belongs to the coastal plain, in great part low and +swampy, with large areas of sand barrens, and broken by isolated groups +and ranges of hills. With the exception of these sandy plains the +country is heavily forested, even the mountain sides being covered with +vegetation to their summits. The northern and southern parts are +fertile, but the central districts are comparatively poor. The coastal +plain comprises a sandy, unproductive belt immediately on the coast, +back of which is a more fertile tertiary plain, well suited, near the +higher country, to the production of sugar and cotton. The inland +valleys and slopes are very fertile and heavily forested, and much of +the Brazilian export of rosewood and other cabinet woods is drawn from +this state. There is only one good bay on the coast, that of Espirito +Santo, on which the port of Victoria is situated. The river-mouths are +obstructed by sand bars and admit small vessels only. The principal +rivers of the state are the Mucury, which rises in Minas Geraes and +forms the boundary line with Bahia, the Itaunas, Sao Domingos, Sao +Matheus, Doce, Timbuhy, Santa Maria, Jucu, Benevente, Itapemirim, and +Itabapoana, the last forming the boundary line with Rio de Janeiro. The +Doce, Sao Matheus, and Itapemirim rise in Minas Geraes and flow entirely +across the state. The lower courses of these rivers are generally +navigable, that of the Rio Doce for a distance of 90 m. The climate of +the coastal zone and deeper valleys is hot, humid and unhealthy, +malarial fevers being prevalent. In the higher country the temperature +is lower and the climate is healthy. Espirito Santo is almost +exclusively agricultural, sugar-cane, coffee, rice, cotton, tobacco, +mandioca and tropical fruits being the principal products. Agriculture +is in a very backward condition, however, and the state is classed as +one of the poorest and most unprogressive in the republic. The rivers +and shallow coast waters are well stocked with fish, but there are no +fishing industries worthy of mention. There are three railway lines in +operation in the state--one running from Victoria to Cachoeira do +Itapemirim (50 m.), and thence, by another line, to Santo Eduardo in Rio +de Janeiro (58 m.), where connexion is made with the Leopoldina system +running into the national capital, and a third running north-westerly +from Victoria to Diamantina, Minas Geraes, about 450 m. The chief cities +and towns of the state, with their populations in 1890, are Victoria, +Sao Matheus (municipality, 7761) on a river of the same name 16 m. from +the sea, Serra (municipality, 6274), Guarapary (municipality, 5310), a +small port S. by W. of the capital, Conceicao da Barra (municipality, +5628), the port of Sao Matheus and Cachoeira do Itapemirim (4049), an +important commercial centre in the south. + +Espirito Santo formed part of one of the original captaincies which were +given to Vasco Fernandes Coutinho by the Portuguese crown. The first +settlement (1535) was at the entrance to the bay of Espirito Santo, and +its name was afterwards given to the bay and captaincy. It once included +the municipality of Campos, now belonging to the state of Rio de +Janeiro. + +The islands of Trinidade and Martim Vaz, which lie about 715 m. E. of +Victoria, belong politically to this state. They are uninhabited, but +considerable importance is attached to the former because Great Britain +has twice attempted to take possession of it. It rises 1200 ft. above +sea-level and is about 6 m. in circumference, but it has no value other +than that of an ocean cable station. An excellent description of this +singular island is to be found in E.F. Knight's _Cruise of the "Alerte"_ +(London, 1895). + + + + +ESPRONCEDA, JOSE IGNACIO JAVIER ORIOL ENCARNACION DE (1808-1842), +Spanish poet, son of an officer in the Bourbon regiment, was born at or +near Almendralejo de los Barros on the 25th of March 1808. On the close +of the war he was sent to the preparatory school of artillery at +Segovia, and later became a pupil of the poet Lista, then professor of +literature at St Matthew's College in Madrid. In his fourteenth year he +had attracted his master's attention by his verses, and had joined a +secret society. Sentenced to five years' seclusion in the Franciscan +convent at Guadalajara, he began an epic poem entitled _Pelayo_, of +which fragments survive. He escaped to Portugal and thence to England, +where he found the famous Teresa whom he had met at Lisbon; here, too, +he became a student of Shakespeare, Milton and Byron. In 1830 he eloped +with Teresa to Paris, took part in the July revolution, and soon after +joined the raid of Chapalangarra on Navarre. In 1833 he returned to +Spain and obtained a commission in the queen's guards. This, however, he +soon forfeited by a political song, and he was banished to Cuellar, +where he wrote a poor novel entitled _Sancho Saldana o el Castellano de +Cuellar_ (1834). He took an active part in the revolutionary risings of +1835 and 1836, and, on the accession to power of the Liberal party in +1840, was appointed secretary of legation at the Hague; in 1842 he was +elected deputy for Almeria, and seemed likely to play a great part in +parliamentary life. But his constitution was undermined, and, after a +short illness, he died at Madrid on the 23rd of May 1842. His poems, +first published in 1840, at once gained for him a reputation which still +continues undiminished. The influence of Byron pervades Espronceda's +life and work. It is present in an ambitious variant on the Don Juan +legend, _El Estudiante de Salamanca_, Elvira's letter being obviously +modelled on Julia's letter in _Don Juan_; the _Cancion del Pirata_ is +suggested by _The Corsair_; and the Byronic inspiration is not wanting +even in the noble fragment entitled _El Diablo Mundo_, based on the +story of Faust. But in _El Mendigo_, in _El Reo de Muerte_, in _El +Verdugo_, and in the sombre vehement lines, _A Jarifa en una orgia_, +Espronceda approves himself the most potent and original lyrical poet +produced by Spain during the 19th century. + + BIBLIOGRAPHY.--_Obras poeticas y escritos en prosa_ (Madrid, 1884), + edited by Blanca Espronceda de Escosura, the poet's daughter (the + second volume has not been published); E. Rodriguez Solis, + _Espronceda; su tiempo, su vida, y sus obras_ (Madrid, 1883); E. + Pineyro, _El Romanticismo en Espana_ (Paris, 1904). + + + + +ESQUIRE (O. Fr. _escuyer_, Mod. Fr. _ecuyer_, derived through the form +_escudier_ from Med. Lat. _scutarius_, "shield-bearer"), originally the +attendant on a knight, whose helm, shield and lance he carried at the +tournament or in the field of battle. The esquire ranked immediately +below the knight bachelor, and his office was regarded as the apprentice +stage of knighthood. The title was regarded as one of function, not of +birth, and was not hereditary. In time, however, its original +significance was lost sight of, and it came to be a title of honour, +implying a rank between that of knight and valet or gentleman, as it +technically still remains. Thus in the later middle ages esquire +(_armiger_) was the customary description of holders of knight's fees +who had not taken up their knighthood, whence the surviving custom of +entitling the principal landowner in a parish "the squire" (see SQUIRE). +Camden, at the close of the 16th century, distinguished four classes +entitled to bear the style: (1) The eldest sons of knights, and their +eldest sons, in perpetual succession; (2) the eldest sons of the younger +sons of peers, and their eldest sons, in like perpetual succession; (3) +esquires created by royal letters patent or other investiture, and their +eldest sons; (4) esquires by office, e.g. justices of the peace and +others who bear any office of trust under the crown. To these the +writer in the 3rd edition of the _Encyclopaedia Britannica_ (1797) added +Irish peers and the eldest sons of British peers, who, though they bear +courtesy titles, have in law only the right to be styled esquires. +Officers of the king's courts, and of the royal household, counsellors +at law and justices of the peace he described as esquires only "by +reputation"; and justices of the peace have the title only as long as +they are in commission; while certain heads of great landed families are +styled "esquires" by prescription. "But the meaner ranks of people," he +adds indignantly, "who know no better, do often basely prostitute this +title; and, to the great confusion of all rank and precedence, every man +who makes a decent appearance, far from thinking himself in any way +ridiculed by finding the superscription of his letters thus decorated, +is fully gratified by such an address." + +It is clear, however, that the title of esquire was very loosely used at +a much earlier date. On this point Selden is somewhat scornfully +explicit. "To whomsoever, either by blood, place in the State or other +eminency, we conceive some higher attribute should be given, than that +sole Title of Gentleman, knowing yet that he hath no other honorary +title legally fixed upon him, we usually style him an _Esquire_, in such +passages as require legally that his degree or state be mentioned; as +especially in Indictments and Actions whereupon he may be outlawed. +Those of other nations who are Barons or great Lords in their own +Countries, and no knights, are in legal proceedings stiled with us, +Esquires only. Some of our greatest Heralds have their divisions of +Esquires applied to this day. I leave them as I see them, where they may +easily be found." Coke, too, says that every one is entitled to be +termed esquire who has the legal right to call himself a gentleman (2. +_Institutes_, 688). + +At the present time the following classes are recognized as esquires on +occasions of ceremony or for legal purposes:--(1) All sons of peers and +lords of parliament during their fathers' lives, and the younger sons of +such peers, &c., after their fathers' deaths; the eldest sons of peers' +younger sons, and their eldest sons for ever. (2) Noblemen of all other +nations. (3) The eldest sons of baronets and knights. (4) Persons +bearing arms and the title of esquire by letters patent. (5) Esquires of +the Bath and their eldest sons. (6) Barristers-at-law. (7) Justices of +the peace and mayors while in commission or office. (8) The holders of +any superior office under the crown. (9) Persons styled esquires by the +sovereign in their patents, commissions or appointments.[1] (10) +Attorneys in colonies where the functions of counsel and attorney are +united (in England solicitors are "gentlemen," not "esquires"). + +In practice, however, the title of esquire, now to all intents and +purposes meaningless, is given to any one who "can bear the port, charge +and countenance of a gentleman." The word has followed the same course +as that of "gentleman" (q.v.), and for very similar reasons. It is still +not customary in Great Britain to address e.g. a well-to-do person +engaged in trade as esquire at his shop; it would be offensive not to do +so at his private residence. In America, on the other hand, the use of +the word "esquire" is practically obsolete, "Mr" ("Mister" or "Master," +at one time the title special to a "gentleman") being the general form +of address. + + See Selden, _Titles of Honor_ (1672); Camden, _Britannia_ (ed. London, + 1594); Coke, _Institutes_; _Enc. of the Laws of England_, s. + "Esquire"; Du Cange, _Glossarium_ (ed. 1886), s. "Scutarius," + "Scutifer" and "Armiger"; _New English Dictionary_, s. "Esquire." + (W. A. P.) + + +FOOTNOTE: + + [1] In practice this means every one receiving such a patent, + commission or appointment. + + + + +ESQUIROL, JEAN ETIENNE DOMINIQUE (1772-1840), French alienist, was born +at Toulouse on the 3rd of February 1772. In 1794 he became a pupil of +the military hospital of Narbonne, and subsequently studied in Paris at +the Salpetriere under P. Pinel, whose assistant he became. In 1811 he +was chosen physician to the Salpetriere, and in 1817 he began a course +of lectures on the treatment of the insane, in which he made such +revelations of the abuses existing in the lunatic asylums of France that +the government appointed a commission to inquire into the subject. +Esquirol in this and other ways greatly assisted Pinel's efforts for the +introduction of humaner methods. The asylums of Rouen, Nantes and +Montpellier were built in accordance with his plans. In 1823 he became +inspector-general of the university of Paris for the faculties of +medicine, and in 1826 chief physician of the asylum at Charenton. He +died at Paris on the 13th of December 1840. Besides contributing to the +_Dictionnaire des sciences medicales_ and the _Encyclopedie des gens du +monde_, Esquirol wrote _Des maladies mentales, considerees sous les +rapports medical, hygienique, et medico-legal_ (2 vols., Paris, 1838). + + + + +ESQUIROS, HENRI FRANCOIS ALPHONSE (1812-1876), French writer, was born +in Paris on the 23rd of May 1812. After some minor publications he +produced _L'Evangile du peuple_ (1840), an exposition of the life and +character of Jesus as a social reformer. This work was considered an +offence against religion and decency, and Esquiros was fined and +imprisoned. He was elected in 1850 as a social democrat to the +Legislative Assembly, but was exiled in 1851 for his opposition to the +Empire. Returning to France in 1869 he was again a member of the +Legislative Assembly, and in 1876 was elected to the senate. He died at +Versailles on the 12th of May 1876. He turned to account his residence +in England in _L'Angleterre et la vie anglaise_ (5 vols., 1859-1869). +Among his numerous works on social subjects may be noted:--_Histoire des +Montagnards_ (2 vols., 1847); _Paris, ou les sciences, les institutions +et les moeurs au XIX^e siecle_ (2 vols., 1847); and _Histoire des +martyrs de la liberte_ (1851). + + + + +ESS, JOHANN HEINRICH VAN (1772-1847), German Catholic theologian, was +born at Warburg, Westphalia, on the 15th of February 1772. He was +educated at the Dominican gymnasium of his native town, and in 1790 +entered, as a novice, the Benedictine abbey of Marienmunster, in the +bishopric of Paderborn. His Benedictine name was Leander. He was priest +at Schwalenberg from 1799 to 1812, after which he became extraordinary +professor of theology and joint-director of the teachers' seminary at +Marburg. In 1818 he received the doctorate of theology and of canonical +law. In 1807, in conjunction with his cousin Karl van Ess, he had +published a German translation of the New Testament, and, as its +circulation was discountenanced by his superiors, he published in 1808 a +defence of his views, entitled _Auszuge aus den heiligen Vatern und +anderen Lehrern der katholischen Kirche uber das nothwendige und +nutzliche Bibellesen_. An improved edition of this tractate was +published in 1816, under the title _Gedanken uber Bibel und Bibellehre_, +and in the same year appeared _Was war die Bibel den ersten Christen?_ +In 1822 he published the first part of a German translation of the Old +Testament, which was completed in 1836. In 1822 he resigned his offices +at Marburg in order to devote his whole time to the defence of his views +regarding Bible reading by the people, and to endeavour to promote the +circulation of the scriptures. He was associated first with the Catholic +Bible Society of Regensburg, and then with the British and Foreign Bible +Society. He died at Affolderbach in the Odenwald on the 13th of October +1847. + + + + +ESSAY, ESSAYIST (Fr. _essai_, Late Lat. _exagium_, a weighing or +balance; _exigere_, to examine; the term in general meaning any trial or +effort). As a form of literature, the essay is a composition of moderate +length, usually in prose, which deals in an easy, cursory way with the +external conditions of a subject, and, in strictness, with that subject, +only as it affects the writer. Dr Johnson, himself an eminent essayist, +defines an essay as "an irregular, undigested piece"; the irregularity +may perhaps be admitted, but want of thought, that is to say lack of +proper mental digestion, is certainly not characteristic of a fine +example. It should, on the contrary, always be the brief and light +result of experience and profound meditation, while "undigested" is the +last epithet to be applied to the essays of Montaigne, Addison or Lamb. +Bacon said that the Epistles of Seneca were "essays," but this can +hardly be allowed. Bacon himself goes on to admit that "the word is +late, though the thing is ancient." The word, in fact, was invented for +this species of writing by Montaigne, who merely meant that these were +experiments in a new kind of literature. This original meaning, namely +that these pieces were attempts or endeavours, feeling their way towards +the expression of what would need a far wider space to exhaust, was lost +in England in the course of the eighteenth century. This is seen by the +various attempts made in the nineteenth century to coin a word which +should express a still smaller work, as distinctive in comparison with +the essay as the essay is by the side of the monograph; none of these +linguistic experiments, such as _essayette_, _essaykin_ (Thackeray) and +_essaylet_ (Helps) have taken hold of the language. As a matter of fact, +the journalistic word _article_ covers the lesser form of essay, +although not exhaustively, since the essays in the monthly and quarterly +reviews, which are fully as extended as an essay should ever be, are +frequently termed "articles," while many "articles" in newspapers, +dictionaries and encyclopaedias are in no sense essays. It may be said +that the idea of a detached work is combined with the word "essay," +which should be neither a section of a disquisition nor a chapter in a +book which aims at the systematic development of a story. Locke's _Essay +on the Human Understanding_ is not an essay at all, or cluster of +essays, in this technical sense, but refers to the experimental and +tentative nature of the inquiry which the philosopher was undertaking. +Of the curious use of the word so repeatedly made by Pope mention will +be made below. + +The essay, as a species of literature, was invented by Montaigne, who +had probably little suspicion of the far-reaching importance of what he +had created. In his dejected moments, he turned to rail at what he had +written, and to call his essays "inepties" and "sottises." But in his +own heart he must have been well satisfied with the new and beautiful +form which he had added to literary tradition. He was perfectly aware +that he had devised a new thing; that he had invented a way of +communicating himself to the world as a type of human nature. He +designed it to carry out his peculiar object, which was to produce an +accurate portrait of his own soul, not as it was yesterday or will be +to-morrow, but as it is to-day. It is not often that we can date with +any approach to accuracy the arrival of a new class of literature into +the world, but it was in the month of March 1571 that the essay was +invented. It was started in the second story of the old tower of the +castle of Montaigne, in a study to which the philosopher withdrew for +that purpose, surrounded by his books, close to his chapel, sheltered +from the excesses of a fatiguing world. He wrote slowly, not +systematically; it took nine years to finish the two first books of the +essays. In 1574 the manuscript of the work, so far as it was then +completed, was nearly lost, for it was confiscated by the pontifical +police in Rome, where Montaigne was residing, and was not returned to +the author for four months. The earliest imprint saw the light in 1580, +at Bordeaux, and the Paris edition of 1588, which is the fifth, contains +the final text of the great author. These dates are not negligible in +the briefest history of the essay, for they are those of its revelation +to the world of readers. It was in the delightful chapters of his new, +strange book that Montaigne introduced the fashion of writing briefly, +irregularly, with constant digressions and interruptions, about the +world as it appears to the individual who writes. The _Essais_ were +instantly welcomed, and few writers of the Renaissance had so instant +and so vast a popularity as Montaigne. But while the philosophy, and +above all the graceful stoicism, of the great master were admired and +copied in France, the exact shape in which he had put down his thoughts, +in the exquisite negligence of a series of essays, was too delicate to +tempt an imitator. It is to be noted that neither Charron, nor Mlle de +Gournay, his most immediate disciples, tried to write essays. But +Montaigne, who liked to fancy that the Eyquem family was of English +extraction, had spoken affably of the English people as his "cousins," +and it has always been admitted that his genius has an affinity with the +English. He was early read in England, and certainly by Bacon, whose is +the second great name connected with this form of literature. It was in +1597, only five years after the death of Montaigne, that Bacon published +in a small octavo the first ten of his essays. These he increased to 38 +in 1612 and to 58 in 1625. In their first form, the essays of Bacon had +nothing of the fulness or grace of Montaigne's; they are meagre notes, +scarcely more than the headings for discourses. It is possible that when +he wrote them he was not yet familiar with the style of his predecessor, +which was first made popular in England, in 1603, when Florio published +that translation of the _Essais_ which Shakespeare unquestionably read. +In the later editions Bacon greatly expanded his theme, but he never +reached, or but seldom, the freedom and ease, the seeming formlessness +held in by an invisible chain, which are the glory of Montaigne, and +distinguish the typical essayist. It would seem that at first, in +England, as in France, no lesser writer was willing to adopt a title +which belonged to so great a presence as that of Bacon or Montaigne. The +one exception was Sir William Cornwallis (d. 1631), who published essays +in 1600 and 1617, of slight merit, but popular in their day. No other +English essayist of any importance appeared until the Restoration, when +Abraham Cowley wrote eleven "Several Discourses by way of Essays," which +did not see the light until 1668. He interspersed with his prose, +translations and original pieces in verse, but in other respects Cowley +keeps much nearer than Bacon to the form of Montaigne. Cowley's essay +"Of Myself" is a model of what these little compositions should be. The +name of Bacon inspires awe, but it is really not he, but Cowley, who is +the father of the English essay; and it is remarkable that he has had no +warmer panegyrists than his great successors, Charles Lamb and Macaulay. +Towards the end of the century, Sir George Mackenzie (1636-1691) wrote +witty moral discourses, which were, however, essays rather in name than +form. Whenever, however, we reach the eighteenth century, we find the +essay suddenly became a dominant force in English literature. It made +its appearance almost as a new thing, and in combination with the +earliest developments of journalism. On the 12th of April 1709 appeared +the first number of a penny newspaper, entitled the _Tatler_, a main +feature of which was to amuse and instruct fashionable readers by a +series of short papers dealing with the manifold occurrences of life, +_quicquid agunt homines_. But it was not until Steele, the founder of +the _Tatler_, was joined by Addison that the eighteenth-century essay +really started upon its course. It displayed at first, and indeed it +long retained, a mixture of the manner of Montaigne with that of La +Bruyere, combining the form of the pure essay with that of the +character-study, as modelled on Theophrastus, which had been so popular +in England throughout the seventeenth century. Addison's early _Tatler_ +portraits, in particular such as those of "Tom Folio" and "Ned Softly," +are hardly essays. But Steele's "Recollections of Childhood" is, and +here we may observe the type on which Goldsmith, Lamb and R.L. Stevenson +afterwards worked. In January 1711 the _Tatler_ came to an end, and was +almost immediately followed by the _Spectator_, and in 1713 by the +_Guardian_. These three newspapers are storehouses of admirable and +typical essays, the majority of them written by Steele and Addison, who +are the most celebrated eighteenth-century essayists in England. Later +in the century, after the publication of other less successful +experiments, appeared Fielding's essays in the _Covent Garden Journal_ +(1752) and Johnson's in the _Rambler_ (1750), the _Adventurer_ (1752) +and the _Idler_ (1759). There followed a great number of polite +journals, in which the essay was treated as "the bow of Ulysses in which +it was the fashion for men of rank and genius to try their strength." +Goldsmith reached a higher level than the Chesterfields and Bonnel +Thorntons had dreamed of, in the delicious sections of his _Citizen of +the World_ (1760). After Goldsmith, the eighteenth-century essay +declined into tamer hands, and passed into final feebleness with the +pedantic Richard Cumberland and the sentimental Henry Mackenzie. The +_corpus_ of eighteenth-century essayists is extremely voluminous, and +their reprinted works fill some fifty volumes. There is, however, a +great sameness about all but the very best of them, and in no case do +they surpass Addison in freshness, or have they ventured to modify the +form he adopted for his lucubrations. What has survived of them all is +the lightest portion, but it should not be forgotten that a very large +section of the essays of that age were deliberately didactic and +"moral." A great revival of the essay took place during the first +quarter of the nineteenth century, and foremost in the history of this +movement must always be placed the name of Charles Lamb. He perceived +that the real business of the essay, as Montaigne had conceived it, was +to be largely personal. The famous _Essays of Elia_ began to appear in +the _London Magazine_ for August 1820, and proceeded at fairly regular +intervals until December 1822; early in 1823 the first series of them +were collected in a volume. The peculiarity of Lamb's style as an +essayist was that he threw off the Addisonian and still more the +Johnsonian tradition, which had become a burden that crushed the life +out of each conventional essay, and that he boldly went back to the rich +verbiage and brilliant imagery of the seventeenth century for his +inspiration. It is true that Lamb had great ductility of style, and +that, when he pleases, he can write so like Steele that Steele himself +might scarcely know the difference, yet in his freer flights we are +conscious of more exalted masters, of Milton, Thomas Browne and Jeremy +Taylor. He succeeded, moreover, in reaching a poignant note of personal +feeling, such as none of his predecessors had ever aimed at; the essays +called "Dream Children" and "Blakesmoor" are examples of this, and they +display a degree of harmony and perfection in the writing of the pure +essay such as had never been attempted before, and has never since been +reached. Leigh Hunt, clearing away all the didactic and pompous elements +which had overgrown the essay, restored it to its old _Spectator_ grace, +and was the most easy nondescript writer of his generation in +periodicals such as the _Indicator_ (1819) and the _Companion_ (1828). +The sermons, letters and pamphlets of Sydney Smith were really essays of +an extended order. In Hazlitt and Francis Jeffrey we see the form and +method of the essay beginning to be applied to literary criticism. The +writings of De Quincey are almost exclusively essays, although many of +the most notable of them, under his vehement pen, have far outgrown the +limits of the length laid down by the most indulgent formalist. His +biographical and critical essays are interesting, but they are far from +being trustworthy models in form or substance. In a sketch, however +rapid, of the essay in the nineteenth century, prominence must be given +to the name of Macaulay. His earliest essay, that on Milton, appeared in +the _Edinburgh Review_ in 1825, very shortly after the revelation of +Lamb's genius in "Elia." No two products cast in the same mould could, +however, be more unlike in substance. In the hands of Macaulay the essay +ceases to be a confession or an autobiography; it is strictly +impersonal, it is literary, historical or controversial, vigorous, +trenchant and full of party prejudice. The periodical publication of +Macaulay's Essays in the _Edinburgh Review_ went on until 1844; when we +cast our eyes over this mass of brilliant writing we observe with +surprise that it is almost wholly contentious. Nothing can be more +remarkable than the difference in this respect between Lamb and +Macaulay, the former for ever demanding, even cajoling, the sympathy of +the reader, the latter scanning the horizon for an enemy to controvert. +In later times the essay in England has been cultivated in each of these +ways, by a thousand journalists and authors. The "leaders" of a daily +newspaper are examples of the popularization of the essay, and they +point to the danger which now attacks it, that of producing a purely +ephemeral or even momentary species of effect. The essay, in its best +days, was intended to be as lasting as a poem or a historical monograph; +it aimed at being one of the most durable and precious departments of +literature. We still occasionally see the production of essays which +have this more ambitious aim; within the last quarter of the nineteenth +century the essays of R.L. Stevenson achieved it. His _Familiar Studies_ +are of the same class as those of Montaigne and Lamb, and he approached +far more closely than any other contemporary to their high level of +excellence. We have seen that the tone of the essay should be personal +and confidential; in Stevenson's case it was characteristically so. But +the voices which please the public in a strain of pure self-study are +few at all times, and with the cultivation of the analytic habit they +tend to become less original and attractive. It is possible that the +essay may die of exhaustion of interest, or may survive only in the +modified form of accidental journalism. + +The essay, although invented by a great French writer, was very late in +making itself at home in France. The so-called _Essais_ of Leibnitz, +Nicole, Yves Marie Andre and so many others were really treatises. +Voltaire's famous _Essai sur les moeurs des nations_ is an elaborate +historical disquisition in nearly two hundred chapters. Later, the +voluminous essays of Joseph de Maistre and of Lamennais were not essays +at all in the literary sense. On the other hand, the admirable +_Causeries du lundi_ of Sainte-Beuve (1804-1869) are literary essays in +the fulness of the term, and have been the forerunners of a great army +of brilliant essay-writing in France. Among those who have specially +distinguished themselves as French essayists may be mentioned Theophile +Gautier, Paul de Saint-Victor, Anatole France, Jules Lemaitre, Ferdinand +Brunetiere and Emile Faguet. All these are literary critics, and it is +in the form of the analysis of manifestations of intellectual energy +that the essay has been most successfully illustrated in France. All the +countries of Europe, since the middle of the 19th century, have adopted +this form of writing; such monographs or reviews, however, are not +perfectly identical with the essay as it was conceived by Addison and +Lamb. This last, it may be supposed, is a definitely English thing, and +this view is confirmed by the fact that in several European languages +the word "essayist" has been adopted without modification. + +In the above remarks it has been taken for granted that the essay is +always in prose. Pope, however, conceived an essay in heroic verse. Of +this his _Essay on Criticism_ (1711) and his _Essay on Man_ (1732-1734) +are not good examples, for they are really treatises. The so-called +_Moral Essays_ (1720-1735), on the contrary, might have been +contributed, if in prose, either to the _Spectator_ or the _Guardian_. +The idea of pure essays, in verse, however, did not take any root in +English literature. (E. G.) + + + + +ESSEG, ESSEGG or ESSEK (Hung. _Esszek_; Croatian _Osjek_), a royal free +town, municipality, and capital of the county of Virovitica (_Verocze_), +in Croatia-Slavonia, on the right bank of the Drave, 9 m. W. of its +confluence with the Danube, and 185 m. S. of Buda-Pest by rail. Pop. +(1900) 24,930; chiefly Magyars and Croats, with a few Germans and Jews. +At Esseg the Drave is crossed by two bridges, and below these it is +navigable by small steamers. The upper town, with the fortress, is under +military authority; the new town and the lower town, which is the +headquarters of commerce, are under civil authority. The only buildings +of note are the Roman Catholic and Orthodox churches, Franciscan and +Capuchin monasteries, synagogue, gymnasium, modern school, hospital, +chamber of commerce, and law-courts. Esseg has a thriving trade in +grain, fruit, live-stock, plum-brandy and timber. Tanning, silk-weaving +and glass-blowing are also carried on. + +Esseg owes its origin to its fortress, which existed as early as the +time of the Romans under the name of _Mursia_; though the present +structure dates only from 1720. At the beginning of the Hungarian +revolution of 1848 the town was held by the Hungarians, but on the 4th +of February 1849 it was taken by the Austrians under General Baron +Trebersberg. + + + + +ESSEN, a manufacturing town of Germany, in the Prussian Rhine province, +22 m. N.E. from Dusseldorf, on the main line of railway to Berlin, in an +undulating and densely populated district. Pop. (1849) 8813; (1875) +54,790; (1905) 229,270. It lies at the centre of a network of railways +giving it access to all the principal towns of the Westphalian iron and +coal fields. Its general aspect is gloomy; it possesses few streets of +any pretensions, though those in the old part, which are mostly narrow, +present, with their grey slate roofs and green shutters, a picturesque +appearance. Of its religious edifices (twelve Roman Catholic, one Old +Catholic, six Protestant churches, and a synagogue) the minster, dating +from the 10th century, with fine pictures, relics and wall frescoes, is +alone especially remarkable. This building is very similar to the +Pfalz-Kapelle (_capella in palatio_) at Aix-la-Chapelle. Among the +town's principal secular buildings are the new Gothic town-hall, the +post office and the railway station. There are several high-grade +(classical and modern) schools, technical, mining and commercial +schools, a theatre, a permanent art exhibition, and hospitals. Essen +also has a beautiful public park in the immediate vicinity. The town +originally owed its prosperity to the large iron and coal fields +underlying the basin in which it is situated. Chief among its industrial +establishments are the famous iron and steel works of Krupp (q.v.), and +the whole of Essen may be said to depend for its livelihood upon this +firm, which annually expends vast sums in building and supporting +churches, schools, clubs, hospitals and philanthropic institutions, and +in other ways providing for the welfare of its employees. There are also +manufactories of woollen goods and cigars, dyeworks and breweries. + +Essen was originally the seat of a Benedictine nunnery, and was formed +into a town about the middle of the 10th century by the abbess Hedwig. +The abbess of the nunnery, who held from 1275 the rank of a princess of +the Empire, was assisted by a chapter of ten princesses and countesses; +she governed the town until 1803, when it was secularized and +incorporated with Prussia. In 1807 it came into the possession of the +grand dukes of Berg, but was transferred to Prussia in 1814. + + See Funcke, _Geschichte des Furstenthums und der Stadt Essen_ + (Elberfeld, 1851); Kellen, _Die Industriestadt Essen in Wort und Bild_ + (Essen, 1902); and A. Shadwell, _Industrial Efficiency_ (London, + 1906). + + + + +ESSENES, a monastic order among the Jews prior to Christianity. Their +first appearance in history is in the time of Jonathan the Maccabee +(161-144 B.C.). How much older they may have been we have no means of +determining, but our authorities agree in assigning to them a dateless +antiquity. The name occurs in Greek, in the two forms [Greek: Essenoi] +and [Greek: Essaioi]. [Greek: Essenoi] is used by Josephus fourteen +times, [Greek: Essaioi] six, but the latter is the only form used by +Philo (ii. 457, 471, 632). [Greek: Essenoi] is also used by Synesius and +Hippolytus, and its Latin equivalent by Pliny and Solinus; [Greek: +Essaioi] by Hegesippus and Porphyry. In Epiphanius we find the forms +[Greek: Ossaioi, Ossenoi], and [Greek: Iessaioi]. There is a place named +Essa mentioned by Josephus (Ant. xiii. 15, S 3), from which the name may +have been formed, just as the Christians were originally called [Greek: +Nazarenoi] or [Greek: Nazoraioi], from Nazara. This etymology, however, +is not much in favour now. Lightfoot explains the name as meaning "the +silent ones," others as meaning "physicians." Perhaps there is most +authority in favour of deriving it from the Syriac [Hebrew: chseich], +which in the emphatic state becomes [Hebrew: chaseia], so that we have a +Semitic correspondence to both the Greek forms [Greek: Essenoi] and +[Greek: Essaioi]. This etymology makes the word mean "pious." It has +also been urged in excuse for Philo's absurd derivation from [Greek: +hosios]. + +The original accounts we have of them are confined to three +authors--Philo, Pliny the Elder, and Josephus. Philo describes them in +his treatise known as _Quod omnis probus liber_ (SS 12, 13; ii. +457-460), and also in his "Apology for the Jews," a fragment of which +has been preserved by Eusebius (_Praep. Ev._ viii. 11, 12). Pliny +(_N.H._ v. 17) has a short but striking sketch of them, derived in all +probability from Alexander Polyhistor, who is mentioned among the +authorities for the fifth book of his _Natural History_. This historian, +of whom Eusebius had a very high opinion (_Praep. Ev._ ix. 17, S 1), +lived in the time of Sulla. Josephus treats of them at length in his +_Jewish War_ (ii. 8), and more briefly in two passages of his +_Antiquities_ (xiii. 5, S 9; xviii. 1, S 5). He has also interesting +accounts of the prophetic powers possessed by three individual members +of the sect--Judas (_B.J._ i. 3, S 5; _Ant._ xiii. 11, S 2), Menahem +(_Ant._ xv. 10, S 5), and Simon (_B.J._ ii. 7, S 3; _Ant._ xvii. 13, S +3). Besides this he mentions an Essene Gate in Jerusalem (_B.J._ v. 4, S +2) and a person called John the Essene, one of the bravest and most +capable leaders in the war against the Romans (_B.J._ ii. 20, S 4; iii. +2, S 1). Josephus himself made trial of the sect of Essenes in his +youth; but from his own statement it appears that he must have been a +very short time with them, and therefore could not have been initiated +into the inner mysteries of the society (_De vita sua_, 2). After this +the notices that we have of the Essenes from antiquity are mere +reproductions, except in the case of Epiphanius (died A.D. 402), who, +however, is so confused a writer as to be of little value. Solinus, who +was known as "Pliny's Ape," echoed the words of his master about a +century after that writer's death, which took place in A.D. 79. +Similarly Hippolytus, who lived in the reign of Commodus (A.D. 180-192), +reproduced the account of Josephus, adding a few touches of his own. +Porphyry (A.D. 233-306) afterwards did the same, but had the grace to +mention Josephus in the context. Eusebius quoted the account as from +Porphyry, though he must have known that _he_ had derived it from +Josephus (_Praep. Ev._ ix. 3, SS 1, 13). But Porphyry's name would +impress pagan readers. There is also a mention of the Essenes by +Hegesippus (Eus. _H.E._ iv. 22) and by Synesius in his life of Dio +Chrysostom. It has been conjectured that the Clementine literature +emanated from Essenes who had turned Christian. (See EBIONITES.) + +The Essenes were an exclusive society, distinguished from the rest of +the Jewish nation in Palestine by an organization peculiar to +themselves, and by a theory of life in which a severe asceticism and a +rare benevolence to one another and to mankind in general were the most +striking characteristics. They had fixed rules for initiation, a +succession of strictly separate grades within the limits of the society, +and regulations for the conduct of their daily life even in its minutest +details. Their membership could be recruited only from the outside +world, as marriage and all intercourse with women were absolutely +renounced. They were the first society in the world to condemn slavery +both in theory and practice; they enforced and practised the most +complete community of goods. They chose their own priests and public +office-bearers, and even their own judges. Though their prevailing +tendency was practical, and the tenets of the society were kept a +profound secret, it is perfectly clear from the concurrent testimony of +Philo and Josephus that they cultivated a kind of speculation, which not +only accounts for their spiritual asceticism, but indicates a great +deviation from the normal development of Judaism, and a profound +sympathy with Greek philosophy, and probably also with Oriental ideas. +At the same time we do our Jewish authorities no injustice in imputing +to them the patriotic tendency to idealize the society, and thus offer +to their readers something in Jewish life that would bear comparison at +least with similar manifestations of Gentile life. + +There is some difficulty in determining how far the Essenes separated +themselves locally from their fellow-countrymen. Josephus informs us +that they had no single city of their own, but that many of them dwelt +in every city. While in his treatise _Quod omnis_, &c., Philo speaks of +their avoiding towns and preferring to live in villages, in his "Apology +for the Jews" we find them living in many cities, villages, and in great +and prosperous towns. In Pliny they are a perennial colony settled on +the western shore of the Dead Sea. On the whole, as Philo and Josephus +agree in estimating their number at 4000 (Philo, _Q.O.P.L._ S 12; Jos. +_Ant._ xviii. 1, S 5), we are justified in suspecting some exaggeration +as to the many cities, towns and villages where they were said to be +found. As agriculture was their favourite occupation, and as their +tendency was to withdraw from the haunts and ordinary interests of +mankind, we may assume that with the growing confusion and corruption of +Jewish society they felt themselves attracted from the mass of the +population to the sparsely peopled districts, till they found a +congenial settlement and free scope for their peculiar view of life by +the shore of the Dead Sea. While their principles were consistent with +the neighbourhood of men, they were better adapted to a state of +seclusion. + +The Essenes did not renounce marriage because they denied the validity +of the institution or the necessity of it as providing for the +continuance of the human race, but because they had a low opinion of the +character of women (Jos. _B.J._ ii. 8, S 2; Philo, "Apol. for the Jews" +in Eus. _Praep. Ev._ viii. 11, S 8). They adopted children when very +young, and brought them up on their own principles. Pleasure generally +they rejected as evil. They despised riches not less than pleasure; +neither poverty nor wealth was observable among them; at initiation +every one gave his property into the common stock; every member in +receipt of wages handed them over to the funds of the society. In +matters of dress the asceticism of the society was very pronounced. They +regarded oil as a defilement, even washing it off if anointed with it +against their will. They did not change their clothes or their shoes +till they were torn in pieces or worn completely away. The colour of +their garments was always white. Their daily routine was prescribed for +them in the strictest manner. Before the rising of the sun they were to +speak of nothing profane, but offered to it certain traditional forms of +prayer as if beseeching it to rise. Thereafter they went about their +daily tasks, working continuously at whatever trade they knew till the +fifth hour, when they assembled, and, girding on a garment of linen, +bathed in cold water. They next seated themselves quietly in the dining +hall, where the baker set bread in order, and the cook brought each a +single dish of one kind of food. Before meat and after it grace was said +by a priest. After dinner they resumed work till sunset. In the evening +they had supper, at which guests of the order joined them, if there +happened to be any such present. Withal there was no noise or confusion +to mar the tranquillity of their intercourse; no one usurped more than +his share of the conversation; the stillness of the place oppressed a +stranger with a feeling of mysterious awe. This composure of spirit was +owing to their perfect temperance in eating and drinking. Not only in +the daily routine of the society, but generally, the activity of the +members was controlled by their presidents. In only two things could +they take the initiative, helpfulness and mercy; the deserving poor and +the destitute were to receive instant relief; but no member could give +anything to his relatives without consulting the heads of the society. +Their office-bearers were elected. They had also their special courts of +justice, which were composed of not less than a hundred members, and +their decisions, which were arrived at with extreme care, were +irreversible. Oaths were strictly forbidden; their word was stronger +than an oath. They were just and temperate in anger, the guardians of +good faith, and the ministers of peace, obedient to their elders and to +the majority. But the moral characteristics which they most earnestly +cultivated and enjoined will best appear in their rules of initiation. +There was a novitiate of three years, during which the intending member +was tested as to his fitness for entering the society. If the result was +satisfactory, he was admitted, but before partaking of the common meal +he was required to swear awful oaths, that he would reverence the deity, +do justice to men, hurt no man voluntarily or at the command of another, +hate the unjust and assist the just, and that he would render fidelity +to all men, but especially to the rulers, seeing that no one rules but +of God. He also vowed, if he should bear rule himself, to make no +violent use of his power, nor outshine those set under him by superior +display, to make it his aim to cherish the truth and unmask liars, to be +pure from theft and unjust gain, to conceal nothing from his +fellow-members, nor to divulge any of their affairs to other men, even +at the risk of death, to transmit their doctrines unchanged, and to keep +secret the books of the society and the names of the angels. + +Within the limits of the society there were four grades so distinct that +if any one touched a member of an inferior grade he required to cleanse +himself by bathing in water; members who had been found guilty of +serious crimes were expelled from the society, and could not be received +again till reduced to the very last extremity of want or sickness. As +the result of the ascetic training of the Essenes, and of their +temperate diet, it is said that they lived to a great age, and were +superior to pain and fear. During the Roman war they cheerfully +underwent the most grievous tortures rather than break any of the +principles of their faith. In fact, they had in many respects reached +the very highest moral elevation attained by the ancient world; they +were just, humane, benevolent, and spiritually-minded; the sick and +aged were the objects of a special affectionate regard; and they +condemned slavery, not only as an injustice, but as an impious violation +of the natural brotherhood of men (Philo ii. 457). There were some of +the Essenes who permitted marriage, but strictly with a view to the +preservation of the race; in other respects they agreed with the main +body of the society. + +It will be apparent that the predominant tendency of the society was +practical. Philo tells us expressly that they rejected logic as +unnecessary to the acquisition of virtue, and speculation on nature as +too lofty for the human intellect. Yet they had views of their own as to +God, Providence, the soul, and a future state, which, while they had a +practical use, were yet essentially speculative. On the one hand, +indeed, they held tenaciously by the traditional Judaism: blasphemy +against their lawgiver was punished with death, the sacred books were +preserved and read with great reverence, though not without an +allegorical interpretation, and the Sabbath was most scrupulously +observed. But in many important points their deviation from the strait +path of Judaic development was complete. They rejected animal sacrifice +as well as marriage; the oil with which priests and kings were anointed +they accounted unclean; and the condemnation of oaths and the community +of goods were unmistakable innovations for which they found no hint or +warrant in the old Hebrew writings. Their most singular feature, +perhaps, was their reverence for the sun. In their speculative hints +respecting the soul and a future state, we find another important +deviation from Judaism, and the explanation of their asceticism. They +held that the body is mortal, and its substance transitory; that the +soul is immortal, but, coming from the subtlest ether, is lured as by a +sorcery of nature into the prison-house of the body. At death it is +released from its bonds, as from long slavery, and joyously soars aloft. +To the souls of the good there is reserved a life beyond the ocean, and +a country oppressed by neither rain, nor snow, nor heat, but refreshed +by a gentle west wind blowing continually from the sea (cf. Hom. _Od._ +iv. 566-568), but to the wicked a region of wintry darkness and of +unceasing torment. Josephus tells us too that the Essenes believed in +fate; but in what sense, and what relation it bore to Divine Providence, +does not appear. + +The above evidence has left students in doubt as to whether Essenism is +to be regarded as a pure product of the Jewish mind or as due in part to +some foreign influence. On the one hand it might be maintained that the +Essenes out-Pharisee'd the Pharisees. They had in common with that sect +their veneration for Moses and the Law, their Sabbatarianism, their +striving after ceremonial purity, and their tendency towards fatalism. +But if the Pharisees abstained from good works on the Sabbath, the +Essenes abstained even from natural necessities (Jos. _B.J._ ii. 8, S +9); if the Pharisees washed, the Essenes bathed before dinner; if the +Pharisees ascribed some things to Fate, the Essenes ascribed all (Jos. +_Ant._ xiii. 5, S 9). But on the other hand the Essenes avoided +marriage, which the Pharisees held in honour; they offered no +animal-sacrifices in the Temple; they refrained from the use of oil, +which was customary among the Pharisees (Luke vii. 46); above all, they +offered prayers to the sun, after the manner denounced in Ezekiel (viii. +16). These and other points of divergences are not explained by +Ritschl's interesting theory that Essenism was an organized attempt to +carry out the idea of "a kingdom of priests and an holy nation" (Ex. +xix. 6). + +Granting then that some foreign influence was at work in Essenism, we +have four theories offered to us--that this influence was Persian, +Buddhist, Pythagorean, or lastly, as maintained by Lipsius, that of the +surrounding Syrian heathenism. Each of these views has had able +advocates, but it must not be supposed that they are mutually exclusive. +If we consider how Philo, while remaining a devout Jew in religion, yet +managed to assimilate the whole Stoic philosophy, we can well believe +that the Essenes might have been influenced, as Zeller maintained that +they were, by Neo-Pythagoreanism. But as Pythagoras himself came from +Samos, and his doctrines have a decidedly Oriental tinge, it may very +well be that both he and the Essenes drew from a common source; for +there is no need to reject, as is so commonly done, the statements of +our authorities as to the antiquity of the Essenes. This common source +we may believe with Lightfoot to have been the Persian religion, which +we know to have profoundly influenced that of Israel, independently of +the Essenes. + +The fact that the Pharisees and Sadducees so often figure in the pages +of the New Testament, while the Essenes are never mentioned, might +plausibly be interpreted to show that the New Testament emanated from +the side of the Essenes. So far as concerns the Epistle of St James this +interpretation would probably be correct. That work contains the +doctrine common to the Essenes with Plato, and suggestive of Persian +Dualism, that God is the author of good only. There are also certain +obvious points of resemblance between the Essenes and the early +Christians. Both held property in common; both had scattered communities +which received guests one from the other; both avoided a light use of +oaths; both taught passive obedience to political authority. The list +might be enlarged, but it would not necessarily prove more than that the +early Christians shared in the ideas of their age. Christianity was to +some extent a popularization of Essenism, but there is little reason for +believing that Jesus himself was an Essene. De Quincey's contention that +there were no Essenes but the early Christians is now a literary +curiosity. + + The original sources of our knowledge of the Essenes have been + mentioned at the beginning of this paper; the best modern discussions + of them are to be found in such works as Zeller's _Philosophie der + Griechen_, vol. iii.; Ewald, _Geschichte d. V. Israel_, iii. 419-428; + Reuss, _La Theologie chretienne au siecle apostolique_, i. 122-131; + Keim, _Life of Jesus of Nazara_, vol. i.; Lightfoot on the Colossians; + Lucius, _Der Essenismus in seinem Verhaltniss zum Judenthum_; + Wellhausen, _Israelitische und judische Geschichte_; Ed. Schurer, _The + Jewish People in the Time of Jesus Christ_, div. ii. vol. ii. S 30. + The copious bibliography in Conybeare's edition of Philo's _De vita + contemplativa_ bears upon the Essenes as well as upon the Therapeutes. + For a specially Jewish view of the Essenes see Kohler's article in the + _Jewish Encyclopaedia_. They are there regarded as being "simply the + rigorists among the Pharisees." But we are also told that "the + Pharisees characterized the Essene as 'a fool who destroyed the + world.'" (T. K.; St G. S.) + + + + +ESSENTUKI, a watering-place of south Russia, in the government of Terek, +11 m. by rail W. from Pyatigorsk; altitude, 2096 ft. Its alkaline and +sulphur-alkaline mineral waters, similar to those of Ems, Selters and +Vichy, are much visited in summer. The climate shows great variations in +temperature. Pop. (1897) 9974. + + + + +ESSEQUIBO, or ESSEQUEBO, one of the three settlements of British Guiana, +taking its name from the river Essequibo. (See GUIANA.) + + + + +ESSEX, EARLS OF. The first earl of Essex was probably Geoffrey de +Mandeville (q.v.), who became earl about 1139, the earldom being +subsequently held by his two sons, Geoffrey and William, until the death +of the latter in 1189. In 1199 Geoffrey Fitzpeter or Fitzpiers (d. +1213), who was related to the Mandevilles through his wife Beatrice, +became earl of Essex, and on the death of Geoffrey's son William in 1227 +the earldom reverted for the second time to the crown. Then the title to +the earldom passed by marriage to the Bohuns, earls of Hereford, and +before 1239 Humphrey de Bohun (d. 1275) had been recognized as earl of +Essex. With the earldom of Hereford the earldom of Essex became extinct +in 1373; afterwards it was held by Thomas of Woodstock, duke of +Gloucester, a son of Edward III. and the husband of Eleanor de Bohun; +and from Gloucester it passed to the Bourchiers, Henry Bourchier (d. +1483), who secured the earldom in 1461, being one of Gloucester's +grandsons. The second and last Bourchier earl was Henry's grandson +Henry, who died early in 1540. A few weeks before his execution in 1540 +Thomas Cromwell (q.v.) was created earl of Essex; then in 1543 William +Parr, afterwards marquess of Northampton, obtained the earldom by right +of his wife Anne, a daughter of the last Bourchier earl. Northampton +lost the earldom when he was attainted in 1553; and afterwards it passed +to the famous family of Devereux, Walter Devereux, who was created earl +of Essex in 1572, being related to the Bourchiers. Robert, the 3rd and +last Devereux earl, died in 1646. In 1661 Arthur Capel was created earl +of Essex, and the earldom is still held by his descendants. + + + + +ESSEX, ARTHUR CAPEL, 1ST[1] EARL OF (1632-1683), English statesman, son +of Arthur, 1st Baron Capel of Hadham (c. 1641), executed in 1649, and +of Elizabeth, daughter and heir of Sir Charles Morrison of Cashiobury in +Hertfordshire, was baptized on the 28th of January 1632. In June 1648, +then a sickly boy of sixteen, he was taken by Fairfax's soldiers from +Hadham to Colchester, which his father was defending, and carried every +day round the works with the hope of inducing Lord Capel to surrender +the place. At the restoration he was created Viscount Malden and earl of +Essex (20th of April 1661), with special remainder to the male issue of +his father, and was made lord-lieutenant of Hertfordshire and a few +years later of Wiltshire.[2] + +He early showed himself antagonistic to the court, to Roman Catholicism, +and to the extension of the royal prerogative, and was coupled by +Charles II. with Holles as "stiff and sullen men," who would not yield +against their convictions to his solicitations. In 1669 he was sent as +ambassador to King Christian V. of Denmark, in which capacity he gained +credit by refusing to strike his flag to the governor of Kronborg. In +1672 he was made a privy councillor and lord-lieutenant of Ireland. He +remained in office till 1677, and his administration was greatly +commended by Burnet and Ormonde,[3] the former describing it "as a +pattern to all that come after him." He identified himself with Irish +interests, and took immense pains to understand the constitution and the +political necessities of the country, appointing men of real merit to +office, and maintaining an exceptional independence from solicitation +and influence. He held a just balance between the Roman Catholics, the +English Church and the Presbyterians, protecting the former as far as +public opinion in England would permit, and governing the native Irish +with firmness and moderation. The purity and patriotism of his +administration were in strong contrast to the hopeless corruption +prevalent in that at home and naturally aroused bitter opposition, as an +obstacle to the unscrupulous employment of Irish revenues for the +satisfaction of the court and the king's expenses. In particular he came +into conflict with Lord Ranelagh, to whom had been assigned the Irish +revenues on condition of his supplying the requirements of the crown, +and whose accounts Essex refused to pass. He opposed strongly the lavish +gifts of forfeited estates to court favourites and mistresses, prevented +the grant of Phoenix Park to the duchess of Cleveland, and refused to +encumber the administration by granting reversions. Finally the +intrigues of his enemies at home, and Charles's continual demands for +money, which Ranelagh undertook to satisfy, brought about his recall in +April 1677. He immediately joined the country party and the opposition +to Danby's government, and on the latter's fall in 1679 was appointed a +commissioner of the treasury, and the same year a member of Sir William +Temple's new-modelled council. He followed the lead of Halifax, who +advocated not the exclusion of James, but the limitation of his +sovereign powers, and looked to the prince of Orange rather than to +Monmouth as the leader of Protestantism, incurring thereby the hostility +of Shaftesbury, but at the same time gaining the confidence of Charles. +He was appointed by Charles together with Halifax to hear the charges +against Lauderdale. In July he wrote a wise and statesmanlike letter to +the king, advising him to renounce his project of raising a new company +of guards. Together with Halifax he urged Charles to summon the +parliament, and after his refusal resigned the treasury in November, the +real cause being, according to one account,[4] a demand upon the +treasury by the duchess of Cleveland for L25,000, according to another +"the niceness of touching French money," "that makes my Lord Essex's +squeasy stomach that it can no longer digest his employment."[5] + +Subsequently his political attitude underwent a change, the exact cause +of which is not clear--probably a growing conviction of the dangers +threatened by a Roman Catholic sovereign of the character of James. He +now, in 1680, joined Shaftesbury's party and supported the Exclusion +Bill, and on its rejection by the Lords carried a motion for an +association to execute the scheme of expedients promoted by Halifax. On +the 25th of January 1681 at the head of fifteen peers he presented a +petition to the king, couched in exaggerated language, requesting the +abandonment of the session of parliament at Oxford. He was a jealous +prosecutor of the Roman Catholics in the popish plot, and voted for +Stafford's attainder, on the other hand interceding for Archbishop +Plunket, implicated in the pretended Irish plot. He, however, refused to +follow Shaftesbury in his extreme courses, declined participation in the +latter's design to seize the Tower in 1682, and on Shaftesbury's +consequent departure from England became the leader of Monmouth's +faction, in which were now included Lord Russell, Algernon Sidney, and +Lord Howard of Escrick. Essex took no part in the wilder schemes of the +party, but after the discovery of the Rye House Plot in June 1683, and +the capture of the leaders, he was arrested at Cashiobury and imprisoned +in the Tower. His spirits and fortitude appear immediately to have +abandoned him, and on the 13th of July he was discovered in his chamber +with his throat cut. His death was attributed, quite groundlessly, to +Charles and James, and the evidence points clearly if not conclusively +to suicide, his motive being possibly to prevent an attainder and +preserve his estate for his family. He was, however, undoubtedly a +victim of the Stuart administration, and the antagonism and tragic end +of men like Essex, deserving men, naturally devoted to the throne, +constitutes a severe indictment of the Stuart rule. + +He was a statesman of strong and sincere patriotism, just and unselfish, +conscientious and laborious in the fulfilment of public duties, +blameless in his official and private life. Evelyn describes him as "a +sober, wise, judicious and pondering person, not illiterate beyond the +rule of most noblemen in this age, very well versed in English history +and affairs, industrious, frugal, methodical and every way +accomplished"; and declares he was much deplored, few believing he had +ever harboured any seditious designs.[6] He married Lady Elizabeth +Percy, daughter of Algernon, 10th earl of Northumberland, by whom, +besides a daughter, he had an only son Algernon (1670-1710), who +succeeded him as 2nd earl of Essex. + + BIBLIOGRAPHY.--See the Lives in the _Dict. of Nat. Biography_ and in + _Biographia Britannica_ (Kippis), with authorities there collected; + Essex's Irish correspondence is in the _Stow Collection_ in the + British Museum, Nos. 200-217, and selections have been published in + _Letters written by Arthur Capel, Earl of Essex_ (1770) and in the + _Essex Papers_ (Camden Society, 1890), to which can now be added the + _Calendars of State Papers, Domestic_, which contain a large number of + his letters and which strongly support the opinion of his + contemporaries concerning his unselfish patriotism and industry; see + also _Somers Tracts_ (1813), x., and for other pamphlets relating to + his death the catalogue of the British Museum. + + +FOOTNOTES: + + [1] i.e. in the Capel line. + + [2] _Hist. MSS. Comm. ser._; _Duke of Beaufort's MSS._ 45. + + [3] _Life of Ormonde_, by T. Carte, viii. 468 (1851), vol. iv. p. 529. + + [4] _Hist. MSS. Comm._ 7th Rep. app. 477b. + + [5] _Ib._ 6th Rep. app. 741b. + + [6] _Diary and Corresp._ (1850), ii. 141, 178. + + + + +ESSEX, ROBERT DEVEREUX, 2ND[1] EARL OF (1566-1601), son of the 1st +Devereux earl, was born at Netherwood, Herefordshire, on the 19th of +November 1566. He entered the university of Cambridge and graduated in +1581. In 1585 he accompanied his stepfather, the earl of Leicester, on +an expedition to Holland, and greatly distinguished himself at the +battle of Zutphen. He now took his place at court, where so handsome a +youth soon found favour with Queen Elizabeth, and in consequence was on +bad terms with Raleigh. In 1587 he was appointed master of the horse, +and in the following year was made general of the horse and installed +knight of the Garter. On the death of Leicester he succeeded him as +chief favourite of the queen, a position which injuriously affected his +whole subsequent life, and ultimately resulted in his ruin. While +Elizabeth was approaching the mature age of sixty, Essex was scarcely +twenty-one. Though well aware of the advantages of his position, and +somewhat vain of the queen's favour, his constant attendance on her at +court was irksome to him beyond all endurance; and when he could not +make his escape to the scenes of foreign adventure after which he +longed, he varied the monotony of his life at court by intrigues with +the maids of honour. He fought a duel with Sir Charles Blount, a rival +favourite of the queen, in which the earl was disarmed and slightly +wounded in the thigh. + +In 1589, without the queen's consent, he joined the expedition of Drake +and Sir John Norris against Spain, but in June he was compelled to obey +a letter enjoining him at his "uttermost peril" to return immediately. +In 1590 Essex married the widow of Sir Philip Sidney, but in dread of +the queen's anger he kept the marriage secret as long as possible. When +it was necessary to avow it, her rage at first knew no bounds, but as +the earl did "use it with good temper," and "for her majesty's better +satisfaction was pleased that my lady should live retired in her +mother's house," he soon came to be "in very good favour." In 1591 he +was appointed to the command of a force auxiliary to one formerly sent +to assist Henry IV. of France against the Spaniards; but after a +fruitless campaign he was finally recalled from the command in January +1592. For some years after this most of his time was spent at court, +where he held a position of unexampled influence, both on account of the +favour of the queen and from his own personal popularity. In 1596 he +was, after a great many "changes of humour" on the queen's part, +appointed along with Lord Howard of Effingham, Raleigh and Lord Thomas +Howard, to the command of an expedition, which was successful in +defeating the Spanish fleet, capturing and pillaging Cadiz, and +destroying 53 merchant vessels. It would seem to have been shortly after +this exploit that the beginnings of a change in the feelings of the +queen towards him came into existence. On his return she chided him that +he had not followed up his successes, and though she professed great +pleasure at again seeing him in safety, and was ultimately satisfied +that the abrupt termination of the expedition was contrary to his advice +and remonstrances, she forbade him to publish anything in justification +of his conduct. She doubtless was offended at his growing tendency to +assert his independence, and jealous of his increasing popularity with +the people; but it is also probable that her strange infatuation +regarding her own charms, great as it was, scarcely prevented her from +suspecting either that his professed attachment had all along been +somewhat alloyed with considerations of personal interest, or that at +least it was now beginning to cool. Francis Bacon, at that time his most +intimate friend, endeavoured to prevent the threatened rupture by +writing him a long letter of advice; and although perseverance in a long +course of feigned action was for Essex impossible, he for some time +attended pretty closely to the hints of his mentor, so that the queen +"used him most graciously." In 1597 he was appointed master of the +ordnance, and in the following year he obtained command of an expedition +against Spain, known as the Islands or Azores Voyage. He gained some +trifling successes, but as the Plate fleet escaped him he failed of his +main purpose; and when on his return the queen met him with the usual +reproaches, he retired to his home at Wanstead. This was not what +Elizabeth desired, and although she conferred on Lord Howard of +Effingham the earldom of Nottingham for services at Cadiz, the main +merit of which was justly claimed by Essex, she ultimately held out to +the latter the olive branch of peace, and condescended to soothe his +wounded honour by creating him earl marshal of England. That, +nevertheless, the irritated feelings neither of Essex nor of the queen +were completely healed was manifested shortly afterwards in a manner +which set propriety completely at defiance. In a discussion on the +appointment of a lord deputy to Ireland, Essex, on account of some +taunting words of Elizabeth, turned his back upon her with a gesture +indicative not only of anger but of contempt, and when she, unable to +control her indignation, slapped him on the face, he left her presence +swearing that such an insult he would not have endured even from Henry +VIII. + +In 1599, while Ulster was in rebellion under the earl of Tyrone, the +office of lieutenant and governor-general of Ireland was conferred on +Essex, and a large force put at his command. His campaign was an +unsuccessful one, and by acting in various ways in opposition to the +commands of the queen and the council, agreeing with Tyrone on a truce +in September, and suddenly leaving the post of duty with the object of +privately vindicating himself before the queen, he laid himself open to +charges more serious than that of mere incompetency. For these +misdemeanours he was brought in June 1600 before a specially constituted +court, deprived of all his high offices, and ordered to live a prisoner +in his own house during the queen's pleasure. Chiefly through the +intercession of Bacon his liberty was shortly afterwards restored to +him, but he was ordered not to return to court. For some time he hoped +for an improvement in his prospects, but when he was refused the renewal +of his patent for sweet wines, hope was succeeded by despair, and half +maddened by wounded vanity, he made an attempt (Feb. 7, 1601) to incite +a revolution in his behalf, by parading the streets of London with 300 +retainers, and shouting, "For the queen! a plot is laid for my life!" +These proceedings awakened, however, scarcely any other feelings than +mild perplexity and wonder; and finding that hope of assistance from the +citizens was vain, he returned to Essex House, where after defending +himself for a short time he surrendered. After a trial--in which Bacon, +who prosecuted, delivered a speech against his quondam friend and +benefactor, the bitterness of which was quite unnecessary to secure a +conviction entailing at least very severe punishment--he was condemned +to death, and notwithstanding many alterations in Elizabeth's mood, the +sentence was carried out on the 25th of February 1601. + +Essex was in person tall and well proportioned, with a countenance +which, though not strictly handsome, possessed, on account of its bold, +cheerful and amiable expression, a wonderful power of fascination. He +was a patron of literature, and himself a poet. His carriage was not +very graceful, but his manners are said to have been "courtly, grave and +exceedingly comely." He was brave, chivalrous, impulsive, imperious +sometimes with his equals, but generous to all his dependants and +incapable of secret malice; and these virtues, which were innate and +which remained with him to the last, must be regarded as somewhat +counterbalancing, in our estimation of him, the follies and vices +created by temptations which were exceptionally strong. + + See Hon. W.B. Devereux, _Lives of the Earls of Essex_ (1853); and + _Bacon and Essex_, by E.A. Abbott (1877). Also the article BACON, + FRANCIS, and authorities there. + + +FOOTNOTE: + + [1] i.e. in the Devereux line. + + + + +ESSEX, ROBERT DEVEREUX, 3RD[1] EARL OF (1591-1646), son of the +preceding, was born in 1591. He was educated at Eton and at Merton +College, Oxford. Shortly after the arrival of James I. in London, Essex +(whose title was restored, and the attainder on his father removed, in +1604) was placed about the prince of Wales, as a sharer both in his +studies and amusements. At the early age of fifteen he was married to +Frances Howard, daughter of the earl of Suffolk, but she was his wife +only in name; during his absence abroad (1607-1609) she fell in love +with Sir Robert Carr (afterwards earl of Somerset), and on her charging +her husband with physical incapacity, the marriage was annulled in 1613. +A second marriage which he contracted in 1631 with Elizabeth, daughter +of Sir William Paulet, also ended unhappily. From 1620 to 1623 he served +in the wars of the Palatinate, and in 1625 he was vice-admiral of a +fleet which made an unsuccessful attempt to capture Cadiz. In 1639 he +was lieutenant-general of the army sent by Charles against the Scottish +Covenanters; but on account of the irresolution of the king no battle +occurred, and the army was disbanded at the end of the year. Essex was +discharged "without ordinary ceremony," and refused an office which at +that time fell vacant, "all which," says Clarendon, "wrought very much +upon his rough, proud nature, and made him susceptible of some +impressions afterwards which otherwise would not have found such easy +admission." Having taken the side of the parliament against Charles, he +was, on the outbreak of the civil war in 1642, appointed to the command +of the parliamentary army. At the battle of Edgehill he remained master +of the field, and in 1643 he captured Reading, and relieved Gloucester; +but in the campaign of the following year, on account of his hesitation +to fight against the king in person, nearly his whole army fell into the +hands of Charles. In 1645, on the passing of the self-denying ordinance, +providing that no member of parliament should hold a public office, he +resigned his commission; but on account of his past services his annuity +of L10,000 was continued to him for life. He died on the 14th of +September 1646, of a fever brought on by over-exertion in a stag-hunt in +Windsor Forest; his line becoming extinct. + + See the "Life of Robert Earl of Essex," by Robert Codrington, M.A., + printed in _Hart. Misc._; Clarendon's _History of the Rebellion_, and + Hon. W.B. Devereux, _Lives of the Earls of Essex_ (1853). + + +FOOTNOTE: + + [1] i.e. in the Devereux line. + + + + +ESSEX, WALTER DEVEREUX, 1ST[1] EARL OF (1541-1576), the eldest son of +Sir Richard Devereux, was born in 1541. His grandfather was the 2nd +Baron Ferrers, who was created Viscount Hereford in 1550 and by his +mother was a nephew of Henry Bourchier, a former earl of Essex. Walter +Devereux succeeded as 2nd Viscount Hereford in 1558, and in 1561 or 1562 +married Lettice, daughter of Sir Francis Knollys. In 1569 he served as +high marshal of the field under the earl of Warwick and Lord Clinton, +and materially assisted them in suppressing the northern insurrection. +For his zeal in the service of Queen Elizabeth on this and other +occasions, he in 1572 received the Garter and was created earl of Essex, +the title which formerly belonged to the Bourchier family. Eager to give +proof of "his good devotion to employ himself in the service of her +majesty," he offered on certain conditions to subdue and colonize, at +his own expense, a portion of the Irish province of Ulster, at that time +completely under the dominion of the rebel O'Neills, under Sir Brian +MacPhelim and Tirlogh Luineach, with the Scots under their leader Sorley +Boy MacDonnell. His offer, with certain modifications, was accepted, and +he set sail for Ireland in July 1573, accompanied by a number of earls, +knights and gentlemen, and with a force of about 1200 men. The beginning +of his enterprise was inauspicious, for on account of a storm which +dispersed his fleet and drove some of his vessels as far as Cork and the +Isle of Man, his forces did not all reach the place of rendezvous till +late in the autumn, and he was compelled to entrench himself at Belfast +for the winter. Here, by sickness, famine and desertions, his troops +were diminished to little more than 200 men. Intrigues of various sorts, +and fighting of a guerilla type, followed with disappointing results, +and Essex had difficulties both with the deputy Fitzwilliam and with the +queen. Essex was in straits himself, and his offensive movements in +Ulster took the form of raids and brutal massacres among the O'Neills; +in October 1574 he treacherously captured MacPhelim at a conference in +Belfast, and after slaughtering his attendants had him and his wife and +brother executed at Dublin. Elizabeth, instigated apparently by +Leicester, after encouraging Essex to prepare to attack the Irish chief +Tirlogh Luineach, suddenly commanded him to "break off his enterprise"; +but, as she left him a certain discretionary power, he took advantage of +it to defeat Tirlogh Luineach, chastise Antrim, and massacre several +hundreds of Sorley Boy's following, chiefly women and children, +discovered hiding in the caves of Rathlin. He returned to England in the +end of 1575, resolved "to live henceforth an untroubled life"; but he +was ultimately persuaded to accept the offer of the queen to make him +earl marshal of Ireland. He arrived in Dublin in September 1576, and +three weeks afterwards died of dysentery. There were suspicions that he +had been poisoned by Leicester, who shortly after his death married his +widow, but these were not confirmed by the post-mortem examination. The +endeavours of Essex to better the condition of Ireland were a dismal +failure; and the massacres of the O'Neills and of the Scots of Rathlin +leave a dark stain on his reputation. + + See Sidney Lee's article in the _Dict. Nat. Biog.; Lives of the + Devereux Earls of Essex_, by Hon. Walter B. Devereux (1853); Froude's + _History of England_, vol. x.; J.S. Brewer, _Athenaeum_ (1870), part + i. pp. 261, 326. + + +FOOTNOTE: + + [1] i.e. in the Devereux line. + + + + +ESSEX, an eastern county of England, bounded N. by Cambridgeshire and +Suffolk, E. by the North Sea, S. by the Thames, dividing it from Kent, +W. by the administrative county of London and by Hertfordshire. Its area +is 1542 sq. m. Its configuration is sufficiently indicated by the +direction of its rivers. Except that in the N.W. the county includes the +heads of a few valleys draining northward to the Cam and so to the Great +Ouse, all the streams, which are never of great size, run southward and +eastward, either into the Thames, or into the North Sea by way of the +broad, shallow estuaries which ramify through the flat coast lands. The +highest ground lies consequently in the north-west, between the Cam +basin and the rivers of the county. Its principal southward extension is +that between the Lea (which with its tributary the Stort forms a great +part of the western boundary) and the Roding, and east of the Roding +valley. The other chief rivers may be specified according to their +estuaries, following the coast northward from Shoeburyness at the Thames +mouth. That of the Roach ramifies among several islands of which +Foulness is the largest, but its main branch joins the Crouch estuary. +Next follows the Blackwater, which receives the Chelmer, the Brain and +other streams. Following a coast of numerous creeks and islets, with the +large island of Mersea, the Colne estuary is reached. The Colne and +Blackwater may be said to form one large estuary, as they enter the sea +by a well-marked common mouth, 5 m. in width, between Sales Point and +Colne Point. There is a great irregular inlet (Hamford Water) receiving +no large stream, W. of the Naze promontory, and then the Stour, bounding +the county on the north, joins its estuary to that of the Orwell near +the sea. There are several seaside watering-places in favour owing to +their proximity to London, of which Southend-on-Sea above the mouth of +the Thames, Clacton-on-Sea, Walton-on-the-Naze, and Dovercourt adjoining +Harwich are the chief. These and other stations on the estuaries are +also in favour with yachtsmen. The sea has at some points seriously +encroached upon the land within historic times. The low soft cliffs at +various points are liable to give way against the waves; in other parts +dykes and embankments are necessary to prevent inundation. Inland, that +is apart from the flat coast-district, the country is pleasantly +undulating and for the most part well wooded. It was formerly, indeed, +almost wholly forested, the great Waltham Forest stretching from +Colchester to the confines of London. Of this a fragment is preserved in +Epping Forest (see EPPING) between the Lea and the Roding. On the other +side of the Roding Hainault Forest is traceable, but was disafforested +in 1851. The oak is the principal tree; a noteworthy example was that of +Fairlop in Hainault, which measured 45 ft. in girth, but was blown down +in 1820. + + _Geology._--The geological structure of the county is very simple: the + greater part is occupied by the London clay with underlying Reading + beds and Thanet sands, with here and there small patches of Bagshot + gravels on elevated tracts, as at High Beech, Langdon Hill, Brentwood + and Rayleigh; and occasionally the same beds are represented by the + large boulder-like Sarsen stones on the lower ground. In the north, + the chalk, which underlies the Tertiary strata over the whole county, + appears at the surface and forms the downs about Saffron Walden, + Birdbrook and Great Yeldham; it is brought up again by a small + disturbance at Grays Thurrock where it is quarried on a large scale + for lime, cement and whiting. Small patches of Pleistocene Red Crag + rest upon the Eocene strata at Beaumont and Oakley, and are very well + exposed at Walton-on-the-Naze where they are very fossiliferous. Most + of the county is covered by a superficial deposit of glacial drifts, + sands, gravel and in places boulder clay, as at Epping, Dunmow and + Hornchurch where the drift lies beneath the Thames gravel. An + interesting feature in relation to the glacial drift is a deep trough + in the Cam valley revealed by borings to be no less than 340 ft. deep + at Newport; this ancient valley is filled with drift. In the southern + part of the county are broad spreads of gravel and brick earth, formed + by the Thames; these have been excavated for brick-making and building + purposes about Ilford, Romford and Grays, and have yielded the remains + of hippopotamus, rhinoceros and mammoth. More recent alluvial deposits + are found in the valley at Walthamstow and Tilbury, in which the + remains of the beaver have been discovered. + + The roads of this county with a clay soil foundation were for + generations repaired with flints picked by women and children from the + surface of the fields. Gravel is difficult of access. With the + exception of chalk for lime (mainly obtained at Ballingdon in the + north and Grays in the south), septaria for making cement, and clay + for bricks, the underground riches of the county are meagre. + +_Agriculture._--As an agricultural county Essex ranks high. Some +four-fifths of the total area is under cultivation, and about one-third +of that area is in permanent pasture. Wheat, barley and oats, in that +relative order, are the principal grain crops, Essex being one of the +chief grain-producing counties. The wheat and barley are in particularly +high favour, the wheat of various standard species being exported for +seed purposes, while the barley is especially useful in malting. Beans +and peas are largely grown, as are vegetables for the London market. +Hop-growing was once important. From the comparative dryness of the +climate Essex does not excel in pasturage, and winter grazing receives +the more attention. The numbers of cattle increase steadily, and store +bullocks are introduced in large numbers from Norfolk, Lincolnshire, +Ireland and Wales. Of sheep there are but few distinct flocks, and the +numbers decrease. Pigs are generally of a high-class Berkshire type. + +_Other Industries._--The south-west of the county, being contiguous to +London, is very densely populated, and is the seat of large and varied +industries. For example, there are numbers of chemical works, the +extensive engine shops and works of the Great Eastern railway at +Stratford, government powder works in the vicinity of Waltham Abbey, and +powder stores at Purfleet on the Thames. The extensive water-works for +east London, by the Lea near Walthamstow, may also be mentioned. The +docks at Plaistow and Tilbury on the Thames employ many hands. Apart +from this industrial district, there are considerable engineering works, +especially for agricultural implements, at Chelmsford, Colchester and +elsewhere; several silk works, as at Braintree and Halstead; large +breweries, as at Brentwood, Chelmsford and Romford; and lime and cement +works at Grays Thurrock. The oyster-beds of the Colne produce the famous +Colchester natives, and there are similar beds in the Crouch and Roach, +for which Burnham-on-Crouch is the centre; and in the Blackwater +(Maldon). + +_Communications._--Railway communications are supplied principally by +the Great Eastern railway, of which the main line runs by Stratford, +Ilford, Romford, Brentwood, Chelmsford, Witham, Colchester, and +Manningtree. The Cambridge and northern line of this company, following +the Lea valley, does not touch the county until it diverges along the +valley of the Stort. The chief branches are those to Southend and +Burnham, Witham to Maldon, Colchester to Brightlingsea, to Clacton and +to Walton, and Manningtree to Harwich, on the coast; and Witham to +Braintree and Bishop's Stortford, and Mark's Tey to Sudbury and beyond, +inland; while there are several branch lines among the manufacturing and +residential suburbs in the south-west, to Walthamstow and Buckhurst +Hill, Chigwell, Loughton, Epping, Ongar, &c. The London, Tilbury & +Southend railway, following the Thames, serves the places named, and the +Colne Valley railway runs from Chappel junction near Mark's Tey by +Halstead to Haverhill. + +On the Thames, besides the great docks at Plaistow (Victoria and Albert) +and the deep-water docks at Tilbury, the principal calling places for +vessels are Grays, Purfleet and Southend, while Barking on the Roding +has also shipping trade, and the Lea affords important water-connexions. +Elsewhere, the principal port is Harwich, at the mouth of the Stour, one +of the chief ports of England for European passenger traffic. Other +towns ranking as lesser estuarine ports are: Brightlingsea and Wivenhoe +on the Colne, forming a member of the Cinque Port of Sandwich; +Colchester, Maldon on the Blackwater, and Burnham-on-Crouch. The Stour, +Chelmer, and Lea and Stort are the principal navigable inland waterways. + +_Population and Administration._--The area of the ancient county is +986,975 acres, with a population in 1891 of 785,445 and in 1901 of +1,085,771. The area of the administrative county is 979,532 acres. The +county contains nineteen hundreds. It is divided into eight +parliamentary divisions, and it also includes the parliamentary boroughs +of Colchester and West Ham, the latter consisting of two divisions. Each +of these returns one member. The county divisions are--Northern or +Saffron Walden, North-eastern or Harwich, Eastern or Maldon, Western or +Epping, Mid or Chelmsford, South-eastern, Southern or Romford, +South-western or Walthamstow, returning one member each. The municipal +boroughs are--Chelmsford (12,580), Colchester (38,373), East Ham +(96,018), Harwich (10,070), Maldon(5565), Saffron Walden (5896), +Southend-on-Sea (28,857), and one county borough, West Ham (267,358). +The following are the other urban districts--Barking Town (21,547), +Braintree (5330), Brentwood (4932), Brightlingsea (4501), Buckhurst Hill +(4786), Burnham-on-Crouch (2919), Chingford (4373), Clacton (7456), +Epping (3789), Frinton-on-Sea (644), Grays Thurrock (13,834), Halstead +(6073), Ilford (41,234), Leigh-on-Sea (3667), Leyton (98,912), Loughton +(4730), Romford (13,656), Shoeburyness (4081), Waltham Holy Cross +(6549), Walthamstow (95,131), Walton-on-the-Naze (2014), Wanstead +(9179), Witham (3454), Wivenhoe (2560), Woodford (13,798). Essex is in +the South-eastern circuit, and assizes are held at Chelmsford. The +boroughs of Harwich and Southend-on-Sea have separate commissions of the +peace, and the boroughs of Colchester, Maldon, Saffron Walden and West +Ham have, in addition, separate courts of quarter sessions. The county +is ecclesiastically within the diocese of St Albans (with a small +portion within that of Ely) and is divided into two archdeaconries; +containing 452 parishes or districts wholly or in part. There are 399 +civil parishes. + +There is a military station and depot for recruits at Warley, and a +garrison at Tilbury. At Shoeburyness there are a school of gunnery and +an extensive ground for testing government artillery of the largest +calibre. + +_History_ (see also below under ESSEX, KINGDOM OF).--ESSEX probably +originated as a shire in the time of Aethelstan. According to the +Domesday Survey it comprised nineteen hundreds, corresponding very +closely in extent and in name with those of the present day. The +additional half-hundred of Thunreslan on the Suffolk border has +disappeared; Witbrictesherna is now Dengie; and the liberty of +Havering-atte-Bower appears to have been taken out of Becontree. Essex +and Hertfordshire were under one sheriff until the time of Elizabeth. At +the time of the Survey Count Eustace held a vast fief in Essex, and the +court of the Honour of Boulogne was held at Witham. Bentry Heath in +Dagenham, Hundred Heath in Tendring and Castle Hedingham in Hinckford +were the meeting-places of their respective hundreds. The stewardship of +the forest of Essex was held by the earls of Oxford until deprived of it +for adherence to the Lancastrian cause. In 1421 certain parts of Essex +inherited by Henry V. from his mother were brought under the +jurisdiction of the duchy of Lancaster. + +Essex was part of the see of London from the time of the foundation of +the bishopric in the 7th century. The archdeaconries are first mentioned +in 1108; that of Essex extended over the south of the county and in 1291 +included eight deaneries; the north of the county was divided between +the archdeaconries of Middlesex and Colchester, comprising three and six +deaneries respectively. Colchester was constituted a suffragan bishopric +by Henry VIII. In 1836 Essex was transferred to the diocese of +Rochester, with the exception of nine parishes which remained in London. +In 1845 the archdeacon of Middlesex ceased to exercise control in Essex, +and the deaneries were readjusted. In 1875 Essex was transferred to the +newly created diocese of St Albans, and in 1877 the archdeaconry of +Essex was subdivided into eighteen deaneries and that of Colchester into +sixteen. + +Owing to its proximity to the capital Essex was intimately associated +with all the great historical struggles. The nobility of Essex took a +leading part in the struggle for the charter, and of the twenty-four +guardians of the charter, four were Essex barons. The castles of +Pleshey, Colchester, and Hedingham were held against the king in the +Barons' War of the reign of Henry III., and 5000 Essex men joined the +peasant rising of 1381. During the Wars of the Roses the Lancastrian +cause was supported by the de Veres, while the Bourchiers and Lord +Fitz-Walter were among the Yorkist leaders. Several Essex men were +concerned in the Gunpowder Plot, and in the Civil War of the 17th +century the county rendered valuable aid to the parliament. + +After the Conquest no Englishman retained estates in Essex of any +importance, and the chief lay barons at the time of the Survey were +Geoffrey de Mandeville and Aubrey de Vere. The de Veres, earls of +Oxford, were continuously connected with the county until the extinction +of the title two centuries ago. Pleshey was the stronghold of the +Mandevilles, and, although the house became extinct in 1189, its +descendants in the female line retained the title of earls of Essex. The +Honour of Hatfield Peverel held by Ranulf Peverel after the Conquest +escheated to the crown in the reign of Henry I., and in the same reign +the fief of Robert Gernon passed to the house of Mountfichet. + +Essex has always been mainly an agricultural county, and the ordinary +agricultural pursuits were carried on at the time of the Domesday +Survey, which also mentions salt-making, wine-making, bee-culture and +cheese-making, while the oyster fisheries have been famous from the +earliest historic times. The woollen industry dates back to Saxon times, +and for many centuries ranked as the most important industry. +Cloth-weaving was introduced in the 14th century, and in the 16th +century Colchester was noted for its "bays and says." Colchester also +possessed a valuable leather industry in the 16th century, at which +period Essex was considered an exceptionally wealthy and prosperous +county; Norden, writing in 1594, describes it as "moste fatt, frutefull, +and full of all profitable things." The decline of the cloth industry in +the 17th century caused great distress, but a number of smaller +industries began to take its place. Saffron-culture and silk-weaving +were extensively carried on in the 17th century, and the 18th century +saw the introduction of the straw-plait industry, potash-making, +calico-printing, malting and brewing, and the manufacture of Roman +cement. + +The county returned four members to parliament in 1290. From 1295 it +returned two members for the county and two for Colchester. Maldon +acquired representation in 1331 and Harwich in 1604. Under the Reform +Act of 1832 the county returned four members in four divisions. Under +the Representation of the People Act of 1868 Maldon and Harwich each +lost one member, and the county returned six members in three divisions. + +_Antiquities._--It is supposed by many antiquaries that Saxon masonry +can be detected in the foundations of several of the Essex churches, +but, with the exception of Ashingdon church tower, believed to have been +erected by Canute after his victory over Edmund Ironside, there is no +obviously recognizable building belonging to that period. This is +probably to be in part ascribed to the fact that the comparative +scarcity of stone and the unusual abundance of timber led to the +extensive employment of the latter material. Several of the Essex +churches, as Blackmore, Mountnessing, Margaretting, and South Benfleet, +have massive porches and towers of timber; and St Andrew's church, +Greenstead, with its walls of solid oak, continues an almost unique +example of its kind. Of the four round churches in England one is in +Essex at Little Maplestead; it is both the smallest and the latest. The +churches of South Weald, Hadleigh, Blackmore, Heybridge and Hadstock may +be mentioned as containing Norman work; with the church of Castle +Hedingham for its fine Transitional work; Southchurch, Danbury and +Boreham as being partly Early English; Ingatestone, Stebbing and Tilty +for specimens of Decorated architecture; and Messing, Thaxted, Saffron +Walden, and the church of St Peter ad Vincula at the small town of +Coggeshall, near Colchester, as specimens of Perpendicular. Stained +glass windows have left their traces in several of the churches, the +finest remains being those of Margaretting, which represent a tree of +Jesse and the daisy or herb Margaret. Paintings have evidently been +largely used for internal decoration: a remarkable series, probably of +the 12th century, but much restored in the 14th, exists in the chancel +of Copford church; and in the church at Ingatestone there was discovered +in 1868 an almost unique fresco representation of the seven deadly sins. +The oldest brasses preserved in the county are those of Sir William +Fitz-Ralph at Pebmarsh, about 1323; Richard of Beltown, at Corringham, +1340; Sir John Gifford, at Bowers Gifford, 1348; Ralph de Kneyton, at +Aveley, 1370; Robert de Swynbourne, at Little Horkesley, 1391; and Sir +Ingelram de Bruyn, at South Ockendon, 1400. The brass of Thomas Heron, +aged 14, at Little Ilford, though dating only from 1517, is of interest +as a picture of a schoolboy of the period. Ancient wooden effigies are +preserved at Danbury, Little Leighs and Little Horkesley. + +Essex was rich in monastic foundations, though the greater number have +left but meagre ruins behind. The Benedictines had an abbey at Saffron +Walden, nunneries at Barking and Wickes, and priories at Earl's or +Monk's Colne and Castle Hedingham; the Augustinian canons had an abbey +at Waltham (see WALTHAM ABBEY; the portion remaining shows Norman work +of the finest character), priories at Thoby, Blackmore, Bicknacre, +Little Leighs, Little Dunmow and St Osyth (see BRIGHTLINGSEA); there +were Cistercian abbeys at Coggeshall, Stratford and Tilty; the Cluniac +monks were settled at Prittlewell, the Premonstratensians at Beleigh +Abbey, and the Knights Hospitallers at Little Maplestead. Barking Abbey +is said to date its first origin from the 7th century; most of the +others arose in the 12th and 13th centuries. Besides the keep at +Colchester there is a fine Norman castle at Castle Hedingham, and two +dilapidated round towers still stand at Hadleigh near Southend. Ongar, +the house of the de Lacys, and Pleshey, the seat of the earls of Essex, +have left only mounds. Havering-atte-Bower, the palace that was occupied +by many queens, is replaced by a modern house; Wickham, the mansion of +the bishops of London, no longer stands. New Hall, which was +successively occupied by Henry VIII., Elizabeth, the earl of Essex, +George Villiers, duke of Buckingham, and Cromwell, is now a nunnery of +the order of the Holy Sepulchre. Audley End, the mansion of Lord +Braybrooke, is a noble example of the domestic architecture of the +Jacobean period; Layer Marney is an interesting proof of the Italian +influences that were at work in the time of Wolsey. Horeham Hall was +built by Sir John Cutt in the reign of Henry VII., and Gosfield Hall is +of about the same date. + + See Norden, _Speculi Britanniae Pars: an Hist. and Geogr. Descrip. of + the County of Essex_ (1594) (edited for the Camden Society by Sir + Henry Ellis, 1840, from the original MS. in the Marquis of Salisbury's + library at Hatfield); Nicholas Tindal, _Hist. of Essex_ (1720); N. + Salmon, _The Hist. and Antiq. of Essex_ (London, 1740)--based on the + collections of James Strangman of Hadleigh (v. _Trans. of Essex Arch. + Soc._ vol. ii.); P. Morant, _Hist. and Antiq. of the County of Essex_ + (London, 1768); P. Muilman, _New and Complete Hist. of Essex from a + late Survey, by a Gentleman_ (Chelmsford, 6 vols., 1770-1772, London, + 1779); Elizabeth Ogbourne, _Hist. of Essex_ (London, part i., 1814); + _Excursions through Essex, illustrated with one hundred engravings_ (2 + vols., London, 1818); T. Wright, _Hist. and Topography of Essex_ + (1831); W. Berry, _Pedigrees of Families in Essex_ (1841); A. + Suckling, _Memorials of the Antiquities, &c., of the County of Essex_ + (London, 1845); W. Andrews (ed.), _Bygone Essex_ (London, 1892); J.T. + Page (ed.), _Essex in the Days of Old_ (London, 1898); _Victoria + County History, Essex; Transactions of the Essex Arch. Soc._ from + 1858. An account of various MS. collections connected with the county + is given by H.W. King in vol. ii. of the _Transactions_ (1863). + + + + +ESSEX, KINGDOM OF, one of the kingdoms into which Anglo-Saxon Britain +was divided, properly the land of the East Saxons. Of its origin and +early history we have no record except the bare statement of Bede that +its settlers were of the Old Saxon race. In connexion with this it is +interesting to notice that the East Saxon dynasty claimed descent from +Seaxneat, not Woden. The form Seaxneat is identical with Saxnot, one of +three gods mentioned in a short continental document probably of Old +Saxon origin. Bede does not mention this kingdom in his narrative until +604, the year of the consecration of Mellitus to the see of London. The +boundaries of Essex were in later times the rivers Stour and Thames, but +the original limits of the kingdom are quite uncertain; towards the west +it probably included most if not the whole of Hertfordshire, and in the +7th century the whole of Middlesex. In 604 we find Essex in close +dependence upon Kent, being ruled by Saberht, sister's son of +Aethelberht, under whom the East Saxons received Christianity. The three +sons of Saberht, however, expelled Mellitus from his see, and even after +their death in battle against the West Saxons, Eadbald of Kent was +unable to restore him. In the year 653 we find North-umbrian influence +paramount in Essex, for King Sigeberht at the instance of Oswio became a +Christian and received Cedd, the brother of St Chad, in his kingdom as +bishop, Tilbury and _Ythanceastere_ (on the Blackwater) being the chief +scenes of his work. Swithhelm, the successor of Sigeberht, was on terms +of friendship with the East Anglian royal house, King Aethelwald being +his sponsor at his baptism by Cedd. It was probably about this time that +Erconwald, afterwards bishop of London, founded the monastery of +Barking. Swithhelm's successors Sigehere and Sebbe were dependent on +Wulfhere, the powerful king of Mercia, who on the apostasy of Sigehere +sent Bishop Jaruman to restore the faith. There are grounds for +believing that an East Saxon conquest of Kent took place in this reign. +A forged grant of Ceadwalla speaks of the fall of Kent before Sigehere +as a well-known event; and in a Kentish charter dated 676 a king of Kent +called Swebhard grants land with the consent of his father King Sebbe. +In 692 or 694 Sebbe abdicated and received the monastic vows from +Waldhere, the successor of Erconwald at London. His sons Sigeheard and +Swefred succeeded him as kings of Essex, Sigehere being apparently dead. +As the laws of Ine of Wessex speak of Erconwald as "my bishop," it is +possible that the influence of Wessex for a short time prevailed in +Essex; but a subsequent charter of Swefred is approved by Coenred of +Mercia, and Offa, the son of Sigehere, accompanied the same king to Rome +in 709. From this time onwards the history of Essex is almost a blank. +In 743 or 745 Aethelbald of Mercia is found granting privileges at the +port of London, and perhaps the western portion of the kingdom had +already been annexed, for henceforward London is frequently the +meeting-place of the Mercian council. The violent death of Selred, king +of Essex, is mentioned in the _Saxon Chronicle_ under the year 746; but +we have no more information of historical importance until the defeat of +the Mercian king Beornwulf in 825, when Essex, together with Kent, +Sussex and Surrey, passed into the hands of Ecgbert, king of Wessex. +After 825 we hear of no more kings of Essex, but occasionally of earls. +About the year 870 Essex passed into the hands of the Danes and was left +to them by the treaty between Alfred and Guthrum. It was reconquered by +Edward the Elder. The earldom in the 10th century apparently included +several other counties, and its most famous holder was the ealdorman +Brihtnoth, who fell at the battle of Maldon in 991. + +The following is a list of kings of Essex of whom there is record: +Saberht (d. c. 617); three sons of Saberht, including probably Saweard +and Seaxred; Sigeberht (Parvus); Sigeberht II.; Swithhelm (d. c. 664); +Sigehere (reigned perhaps 664-689); Sebbe, son of Seaxred (664-694); +Sigeheard (reigning in 693-694); Swefred (reigning in 693-694 and in +704); the two last being sons of Sebbe; Swebriht (d. 738); Selred (d. +746); Swithred, grandson of Sigeheard (succ. 746); Sigeric, son of +Selered (abd. 798); Sigered, son of Sigeric (reigning in 823). + + See Bede, _Hist. Eccl._, edited by C. Plummer (Oxford, 1896), ii. 3, + 5; _Saxon Chronicle_ (Earle and Plummer, Oxford, 1899), _s.a._ 823, + 894, 904, 913, 921, 994; William of Malmesbury, _Gesta Regum_, Rolls + Series (ed. Stubbs, 1887-1889); _Simeon of Durham, s.a._ 746 (ed. T. + Arnold, 1882) and appendix, _s.a._ 738; Florence of Worcester (ed. B. + Thorpe, London, 1848-1849); H. Sweet, _Oldest English Texts_, p. 179 + (London, 1885). (F. G. M. B.) + + + + +ESSLINGEN, a town of Germany, in the kingdom of Wurttemberg, in a +fertile district on the Neckar, 9 m. S.E. from Stuttgart, on the railway +to Ulm. Pop. (1905) 29,750. It is surrounded by medieval walls with +towers and bastions, and has thirteen suburbs, one lying on an island in +the river. On a commanding height above the town lies the old citadel. +The inner town has an old (1430) and a new Rathaus, the latter, formerly +a palace, an exceedingly handsome edifice. The church of Our Lady +(Frauenkirche) is a fine Gothic building of the 15th century, and has a +beautifully sculptured doorway and a lattice spire 240 ft. high. The +church of St Dionysius dated from the 13th century, and possesses a fine +screen and a ciborium of 1486. Esslingen possesses several schools, a +theatre and a richly endowed hospital, while its municipal archives +contain much valuable literature bearing especially on the period of the +Reformation. The town has railway, machine and electrical works; cloth, +gloves and buttons are also manufactured here, and there are +spinning-mills. There is a large lithographic establishment, and a +considerable trade is done in wine and fruit, the wines of Esslingen +being very famous. + +Esslingen, which dates from the 8th century, became a town in 886. It +was soon a place of importance; it became a free imperial city in 1209 +and was surrounded with walls by order of the emperor Frederick II. Its +liberty was frequently threatened by the rulers of Wurttemberg, but it +did not become part of that country until 1802. + + See K.H.S. Pfaff, _Geschichte der Reichsstadt Esslingen_ (Esslingen, + 1852); and Strohmfeld, _Esslingen in Wort und Bild_ (Esslingen, 1902). + + + + +ESTABLISHMENT (O. Fr. _establissement_, Fr. _etablissement_, late Norm. +Fr. _establishement_, from O. Fr. _establir_, Fr. _etablir_, Lat. +_stabilire_, to make stable), generally the act of establishing or fact +of being established, and so by transference a thing established. Thus +we may speak of the establishment (i.e. setting up) of a business, the +"long establishment" of a business, and of the manager of "the +establishment." In a special sense the word is applied, with something +of all the three above-mentioned connotations, to certain religious +bodies in their relation to the state. It is with this latter that the +present article is concerned. + +Perhaps the best definition which can be given, and which will cover all +cases, is that establishment implies the existence of some definite and +distinctive relation between the state and a religious society (or +conceivably more than one) other than that which is shared in by other +societies of the same general character. Of course, a certain +relationship must needs exist between the state and every society, +religious or secular, by virtue of the sovereignty of the state over +each and all of its members. Every society must possess certain +principles or perform certain acts, and the state may make the +profession of such principles unlawful, or impose a penalty upon the +performance of such acts; and, moreover, every society is liable before +the law as to the fulfilment of its obligations towards its members and +the due administration of its property should it possess any. With all +this establishment has nothing to do. It is not concerned with what +pertains to the religious society _qua_ society, or with what is common +to all religious societies, but with what is exceptional. It denotes any +special connexion with the state, or privileges and responsibilities +before the law, possessed by one religious society to the exclusion of +others; in a word, establishment is of the nature of a monopoly. But it +does not imply merely privilege. The state and the Church have mutual +obligations towards one another: each is, to some extent, tied by the +existence of this relationship, and each accepts the limitations for the +sake of the advantages which accrue to itself. The state does so in view +of what it believes to be the good of all its members; for "the true end +for which religion is established is not to provide for the true faith, +but for civil utility" (Warburton), even if the latter be held to be +implied in the former. On the other hand, the Church accepts these +relations for the facilities which they involve, i.e. for its own +benefit. It will be seen that this definition excludes, and rightly, +many current presuppositions. Establishment affirms the _fact_, but does +not determine the precise _nature_, of the connexion between the state +and the religious society. It does not tell us, for example, when or how +it began, whether it is the result of an unconscious growth (as with the +Gallican Church previous to the French Revolution), or of a determinate +legislative act (as with the same Church re-established by the Concordat +of 1801). It does not tell us whether an endowment of the religious +society by the state is included; what particular privileges are enjoyed +by the religious society; and what limitations are placed upon the free +exercise of its life. These things can only be ascertained by actual +inquiry; for the conditions are precisely similar in no two cases. + +To proceed to details. At the present day there is no established +religion in the United States, the German empire as a whole, Holland, +Belgium, France and Austria-Hungary (saving, indeed, "the rights of the +sovereign arising from ecclesiastical dignity"[1]); whereas there are +religious establishments in Russia, Greece, Sweden, Norway, Denmark, +Prussia,[2] Spain, Portugal and even in Italy, as well as in England and +Scotland. These, however, differ greatly amongst themselves. In Russia +the "Orthodox Catholic Eastern" is the state religion. The emperor is, +by the fundamental laws of the empire, "the sovereign defender and +protector of the dogmas of the dominant faith, who maintains orthodoxy +and holy discipline within the Church," although, of course, he cannot +modify either its dogmas or its outward order. Further, "the autocratic +(i.e. imperial) power acts in the ecclesiastical administration by means +of the Most Holy Ruling Synod, created by it"; and all the officers of +the Church are appointed by it. The enactments of the Synod do not +become law till they have received the emperor's sanction, and are then +published, not in its name but in his; and a large part of the revenues +of the Church is derived from state subsidies. In Greece "the dominant +religion ([Greek: Eh epikratousa threskeia]) is that of the Eastern +Orthodox Church of Christ"; and although toleration is otherwise +complete, no proselytism from the Church of Greece is allowed. The king +swears to protect it, but no powers pertain to him with regard to it +such as those which the tsar enjoys; the present king is not a member of +it, but his successors must be. In Sweden, Lutheranism was adopted as +the state religion by the synod of Upsala (_Upsala mote_) in 1593, and +the king must profess it. The "Lutheran Protestant Church" retains an +episcopal order, and is supported out of its own revenues. Archbishops +and bishops are chosen by the king out of those names submitted to him, +and he also nominates to royal peculiars. The ecclesiastical law +(_Kyrkolag_), first constituted in 1686, is part of the law of the +state, but may not be modified or abrogated without consent of a General +Synod; and although _ad interim_ interpretations of that law may be +given by the king on the advice of the Supreme Court, since 1866 these +have been subject to review and rejection by the next General Synod. In +Norway the "Evangelical-Lutheran" is the "official religion," but the +Church is supported by the state, its property having been secularized. +It is also more subject to the king, who by the constitution is to +"regulate all that concerns divine service and the clergy," and to see +that the prescribed order is carried out. It is much the same in +Denmark, where, however, the "Evangelical-Lutheran Church" has since the +fundamental constitutional law of the 5th of June 1849 been officially +described as the National Church (_Folkekirche_) instead of the State +Church (_Statskirche_) as formerly, and the constitution provides for +its regulation by further legislation, which has not yet been passed. +For Prussia, see under that heading; it need only be added that +self-government still tends to increase, but that the emperor William +II. has exercised his office as _summus episcopus_ more freely than most +of his predecessors. In Spain the "Catholic, Apostolic and Roman" +religion is that of the state, "the nation binds itself to maintain its +worship and its ministers," and the rites of any other religion are only +permitted in private. The patriarch of the Indies and the archbishops +are senators by right, and the king may nominate others from amongst the +bishops; only laymen may sit in the chamber of deputies. Convents were +suppressed, and their property confiscated, in 1835 and 1836; in 1859 +the remaining ecclesiastical property was exchanged for untransferable +government securities and the support of the clergy of the State Church +is assured by an unrepealed law previous to the present constitution. In +Portugal it is much the same, but all the home bishops sit in the upper +chamber as peers (_Pares do Reino_) by right, and there is no +restriction on membership of the chamber of deputies. A more important +point is that the king confers all ecclesiastical benefices and +nominates the bishops, instead of their being chosen, as in Spain, by +agreement between the civil power and the papacy. In Italy, in spite of +the feud between the papacy and the civil power, the fact remains that, +by the _Statuto fondamentale_, "the Catholic, Apostolic and Roman +religion is the sole religion of the state," and the king may nominate +"archbishops and bishops of the state" to be senators. The _Legge sulle +prerogative del Summo Pontifice_, &c., or "Law of Guarantees," by which +the papal prerogatives are secured, has been declared by the Council of +State to be a fundamental law; and while many civil restrictions upon +the activities of the Church are removed by it, outside Rome and the +suburbicarian dioceses the royal _exequatur_ is still required before a +bishop is installed. Moreover, the bulk of Church property having been +secularized, the Italian clergy receive a stipend from the state. + + + Church and State in Britain. + +Establishment is, of course, a distinctively English term, but it +implies precisely the same thing as "Staatsreligion" or "eglise +dominante" does elsewhere, neither more nor less. It denotes the +existence of a special relationship between Church and state without +defining its precise nature. The statement that the Church of England or +the Scottish Kirk is "established by law" denotes that it has a peculiar +status before the law; but that is all. (a) There is no basis whatever +for the once popular assumption that the word "established" as applied +to the Church means "created," or the like; on the contrary, the modern +use of the word in this sense is a misleading perversion. To _establish_ +is to make firm or stable; and a thing cannot be established unless it +is already in existence. A few examples will make it clear that this is +the true sense of the word, and that in which it is used here. "Stablish +the thing, O God, that thou hast wrought in us" (Ps. lxviii. 28, P.B.; +A.V. and R.V. "strengthen") implies that the thing is already wrought; +it could not be "stablished" else. "Stablish your hearts" (Jas v. 8) +implies that the hearts are already in existence. "Until he had her +settled in her raine With safe assuraunce and establishment" (_Faerie +Queene_, v. xi. 35) would have been impossible unless the reign had +already begun. This is the meaning of the words in many Tudor acts of +parliament, "be it enacted, ordained and established," or the like (21 +Hen. VIII. c. 1; 27 Hen. VIII. c. 28, s. 9; 28 Hen. VIII. c. 13 +[Ireland]; 28 Hen. VIII. c. 18 [Ireland]; 33 Hen. VIII. c. 27; 1 Eliz. +c. 1, ss. 15, 17; 1 Eliz. c. 4, s. 4); that which is then and there +enacted is to be valid for the future. (b) Nor is it necessarily implied +that establishment is a process completed once for all. Every law +touching the Church slightly alters its conditions; everything that +affects the relations of Church and state may be regarded as a measure +of establishment or the reverse. When the two Houses of Parliament, in +an address to William III. after his coronation, spoke of their proposed +measures of toleration, the king said in his reply, "I do hope that the +ease which you design to Dissenters will contribute very much to the +establishment of the Church" (Cobbett, _Parl. Hist._ v. 218). And Defoe +(in 1702) published an ironical tract with the title, _The Shortest Way +with the Dissenters, or Proposals for the Establishment of the Church_. +(c) Nor is it necessarily implied that there was any specific time at +which establishment took place. Such may indeed be the case, as with the +Kirk in Scotland; but it certainly cannot be said that the English +Church was established at any particular time, or by any particular +legislative act. There were, no doubt, periods when the existing +relations between Church and state were modified or re-defined, notably +in the 16th and 17th centuries; but the relations themselves are far +older. In fact, they existed from the very first: the English Church and +state grew up side by side, and from the beginning they were in close +relations with one another. But although the state of things which it +represented was there from the first, the term "established" or +"established by law" only came into use at a later date. Until there was +some other religious society to be compared with it such a distinctive +epithet would have had no point. As, however, there arose religious +societies which had no status before the law, it became more natural; +and yet more so when the formularies of the Church came to be +"established" by civil sanctions (the Books of Common Prayer by 5 and 6 +Edw. VI. c. 1, s. 4, &c; the Articles by 13 Eliz. c. 12; the new Ordinal +by 13 and 14 Car. II. c. 4, title). Accordingly the Church itself came +to be spoken of as established by law; first, it would seem, in the +Canons of 1604, and subsequently in many statutes (Act of Settlement, 6 +Anne, c. 8 and c. 11, &c). In all such cases the Church is described as +already established, not as being established by the particular canon or +statute. In other words, the constitutional status of the Church is +affirmed, but nothing is said as to how it arose. + +The legislative changes of the 16th and 17th centuries brought +"establishment" into greater prominence and greatly modified its +conditions, but a moment's thought will show that it did not begin then. +If, e.g., all post-Reformation ecclesiastical statutes were +non-existent, the relations between Church and state would be very +different, but there would still be an "establishment." The bishops +would sit in the House of Lords, the clergy would tax themselves in +convocation, the Church courts would possess coercive jurisdiction, and +so on. The present relations of Church and state in England may be +briefly summed up as follows:--(1) _The personal relation of the crown +to the Church_, including (a) restraints upon the action of convocation +(formulated by 25 Hen. VIII. c. 19); (b) nomination of bishops, &c. (25 +Hen. VIII. c. 20); (c) power of supervision as visitor, long disused (26 +Hen. VIII. c. 1; 1 Eliz. c. 1, s. 17); (d) power of receiving appeals as +the fount of civil justice (25 Hen. VIII. c. 19, &c). In connexion with +these, it must be borne in mind that (a) the holder of the crown +receives coronation from the church and takes an oath having reference +to it (1 Will. III. c. 6), and (b) the crown is held on the condition of +communion with the Church of England (Act of Settlement; the conditions +of communion are laid down in the Prayer Book, which itself is +sanctioned by law). (2) _The relation of the Church to the crown in +parliament._ No change has been permitted in its doctrine or formularies +without the sanction of an act of parliament. (3) _Privileges of the +Church and clergy._ Of these may be mentioned (a) the coercive +jurisdiction of the Church courts; (b) the right of bishops to sit in +the House of Lords. It need hardly be said that establishment in England +does not include an endowment of the Church by the state. Nothing of the +kind ever took place on any large scale, and the grants for Church +purposes in the 18th century are comparable with the _regium donum_ to +Nonconformists. + +The position of the Church of Ireland until its disestablishment (see +below) was not dissimilar. With Scotland the case is different. The +establishment of the Kirk was an entirely new process, carried out by a +more or less definite series of legislative and administrative acts. The +Convention of Estates which met at Edinburgh in 1560 ordered the drawing +up of a new Confession of Faith, which was done in four days by a +committee of preachers, and on the 24th of August it passed three acts, +one abolishing the pope's authority and all jurisdiction of Catholic +prelates, another repealing the old statutes in favour of the Old +Church, the third forbidding the celebrating and hearing of mass under +penalty of imprisonment, exile and death. The intention was to make a +clean sweep of the Old Church, which was denounced as "the Kirk +Malignant."[3] The new model thus set up was confirmed by the Scottish +act of 1567, c. 6, which declared it to be "the onely true and halie +kirk of Jesus Christ within this realme." Again, after the revolution of +1688 had put an end to the attempts of the Stuart kings to impose the +episcopal model on Scotland, by the act of 1690, c. 5, the crown and +estates "ratifie and establish the Confession of Faith, ... as also they +do establish, ratifie and confirm the Presbyterian government and +discipline." The "Act of Security" of 1705, as incorporated in the Act +of Union 1706, speaking of it "as now by law established," says that +"Her Majesty ... doth hereby establish and confirm" it, and finally +declares this act, "with the Establishment therein contained," to be "a +fundamental and essential condition of the Union." Nevertheless, the +conditions of establishment in the Scottish Kirk are much easier than +those of the Church of England. It is bound by the statutes sanctioning +its doctrine and order, but within these limits its legislative and +judicial freedom is unimpaired. A royal commissioner is present at the +meetings of the general assembly, but he need not be a member of the +Kirk; and there is no constitutional tie between the crown and the Kirk +such as there is in England. There is what may accurately be described +as a state endowment, the bulk of the property of the Old Church having +been conferred upon the Scottish Kirk. + + + The Colonies. + +Not unnaturally the organization of Anglican Churches in the colonies +was followed in some cases by their establishment, which included +endowment. It was so, for example, in the East and West Indies; and the +disestablishment of the West Indian Church in 1868 was followed, in +1873, by a re-establishment of the Church in Barbados by the colonial +legislature. India is the only other part of the empire (outside Great +Britain) in which there is to-day a religious establishment. + + + Disestablishment. + +_Disestablishment_ is in theory the annulling of establishment; but +since an established Church is usually rich, disestablishment generally +includes disendowment, even where there is no state endowment of +religion. It is, in short, the abrogation of establishment, coupled with +such a confiscation of Church property as the state thinks good in the +interests of the community. The disestablishment of the West Indian +Church in 1868 has already been referred to; in 1869 the Irish Church +Disestablishment Bill was passed. Private bills relating to Scotland +have more than once been brought forward. In 1895 the Liberal government +introduced a suspensory bill, intended as the preliminary step towards +disestablishing and disendowing the Church in Wales; it was withdrawn, +however, in the same session, and the question of Welsh disestablishment +slumbered until in 1906 a royal commission was appointed by the Liberal +government to inquire into the subject, and in 1909 a bill was +introduced on much the same lines as in 1895. + +The case of the Irish Church will illustrate the process of +disestablishment, although, of course, the precise details would vary in +other cases. The Irish Church Act was passed in 1869 by Gladstone's +first government, after considerable opposition, and provided that from +January 1, 1871, the union created by statute between the Churches of +England and Ireland should be dissolved, and the Church of Ireland +should "cease to be established by law." Existing ecclesiastical +corporations were dissolved, and their rights ceased, compensation being +given to all individuals and their personal precedence being secured for +life. All rights of patronage, including those of the crown, were +abolished, with compensation in the case of private patrons; and the +archbishops and bishops ceased to have the right of summons to the House +of Lords. All laws restraining the freedom of action of the Church were +repealed; the ecclesiastical law, however, to subsist by way of contract +amongst the members of the Church (until altered by a representative +body). Provision was made for the incorporation by charter of the +representative body of the Church, should such a body be found, with +power to hold landed property. All existing ecclesiastical property was +vested in a commission, which was to give compensation for life +interests, to transfer to the new representative body the churches, +glebe houses, and L500,000 in compensation for endowments by private +persons since 1660, and to hold the rest for such purposes as parliament +might thereafter determine. + + AUTHORITIES.--F.R. Dareste, _Les Constitutions modernes_ (Paris, + 1891); H. Geffcken, _Church and State_, trans. by E.F. Taylor (London, + 1877); P. Schaff, _Church and State in the United States_ (Papers of + the American Hist. Association, vol. ii. No. 4), (New York, 1888); L. + Minghetti, _Stato e Chiesa_ (Milan, 1878), French translation, with + Introd. by E. de Laveleye (Paris, 1882); C. Cadorna, _Religione, + diritto, liberta_ (Milan, 1893); F. Nippold, _Die Theorie der + Trennung von Kirche und Staat_ (Bern, 1881); W. Warburton, _Alliance + between Church and State_ (London, 1741) (_Works_, vol. iv., ed. Hurd, + London, 1788); _Church Problems_ (ed. by H.H. Henson) (London, 1900); + Essays on "Establishment" and "Disendowment"; W.R. Anson, _Law and + Custom of the Constitution_, vol. ii. chap. ix. (Oxford, 1892); + Phillimore, _Ecclesiastical Law_ (London, 1895); J.S. Brewer, + _Endowments and Establishment of the Church of England_ (ed. by L.T. + Dibdin, London, 1885); A.T. Innes, _Law of Creeds in Scotland_ + (Edinburgh, 1867); E.A. Freeman, _Disestablishment and Disendowment_ + (London, 1883); G. Harwood, _Disestablishment_ (London, 1876); + _Annales de l'ecole libre des Sciences politiques_, tom. i. (Paris, + 1885), art. "La Separation de l'Eglise et de l'Etat en Angleterre," by + L. Ayral. (W. E. Co.) + + +FOOTNOTES: + + [1] In effect this involves the establishment of all religious + denominations, for none can exist without the express authorization + of the state, and all are subject to more or less interference on its + part. Thus the emperor-king is, in his capacity of head of the state, + technically "bishop" of the Evangelical Church, the constitution of + which was fixed by an imperial patent in 1866 and modified by. + another in 1891 (see Herzog-Hauck, _Realencykl._ ed. 1904, _s._ + "Osterreich").--[ED.] + + [2] Also in the other German Protestant states. The relations of the + Roman Catholic Church with the various governments are settled by + separate concordats with the papacy (see CONCORDAT). + + [3] Andrew Lang, _Hist. of Scotland_, ii. p. 75 ff. Compare with this + the position of the reformers generally in England, where even so + stout a Puritan as William Harrison (_Description of England_, 1570) + does not dream of separating the organic life of the Church of + England from that of the pre-Reformation Church. (Ed). + + + + +ESTABLISHMENT OF A PORT, the technical expression for the time that +elapses between the moon's transit across the meridian at new or full +moon at a given place and the time of high water at that place. The +interval (constant at any one place) may vary from 6 mins. (Harwich) to +11 hrs. 45 mins. (North Foreland). At London Bridge it is 1 hr. 58 mins. +(See also TIDE.) + + + + +ESTAING, CHARLES HECTOR, COMTE D' (1729-1794), French admiral, was born +at the chateau of Ruvel, Auvergne, in 1729. He entered the army as a +colonel of infantry, and in 1757 he accompanied count de Lally to the +East Indies, with the rank of brigadier-general. In 1759 he was made +prisoner at the siege of Madras, but was released on parole. Before the +ratification of his exchange he obtained command of some vessels, and +conducted various naval attacks against the English; and having, on his +return to France in 1760, fallen accidentally into their hands, he was, +on the ground of having broken his parole, thrown into prison at +Portsmouth, but as the charge could not be properly substantiated he was +soon afterwards released. In 1763 he was named lieutenant-general in the +navy, and in 1777 vice-admiral; and in 1778 he obtained the command of a +fleet intended to assist the United States against Great Britain. He +sailed on the 13th of April, and between the 11th and the 22nd of July, +blockaded Howe at Sandy Hook, but did not venture to attack him, though +greatly superior in force. In concert with the American generals, he +planned an attack on Newport, preparatory to which he compelled the +British to destroy some war vessels that were in the harbour; but before +the concerted attack could take place, he put to sea against the English +fleet, under Lord Howe, when owing to a violent storm, which arose +suddenly and compelled the two fleets to separate before engaging in +battle, many of his vessels were so shattered that he found it necessary +to put into Boston for repairs. He then sailed for the West Indies on +the 4th of November. After a feeble attempt to retake Santa Lucia from +Admiral Barrington, he captured St Vincent and Grenada. On the 6th of +July 1779 he fought a drawn battle with Admiral John Byron, who retired +to St Christopher. Though superior in force, D'Estaing would not attack +the English in the roadstead, but set sail to attack Savannah. All his +attempts, as well as those of the Americans, against the town were +repulsed with heavy loss, and he was finally compelled to retire. He +returned to France in 1780. He was in command of the combined fleet +before Cadiz when the peace was signed in 1783; but from that time his +chief attention was devoted to politics. In 1787 he was elected to the +assembly of the notables; in 1789 he was appointed commandant of the +national guard; and in 1792 he was chosen admiral by the National +Assembly. Though in favour of national reform he continued to cherish a +strong feeling of loyalty to the royal family, and on the trial of Marie +Antoinette in 1793 bore testimony in her favour. On this account, and +because of certain friendly letters which had passed between him and the +queen, he was himself brought to trial, and was executed on the 28th of +April 1794. + + See _Marins et soldats francais en Amerique_, by the Viscomte de + Noailles (1903); Beatson, _Naval and Military Memoirs of Great + Britain_, vol. v. + + + + +ESTATE (through O. Fr. _estat_, mod. _etat_, from Lat. _status_, state, +condition, position, _stare_, to stand), the state or condition in which +a man lives, now chiefly used poetically and in such phrases as "man's +estate," or "of high estate"; "state" has superseded most of the uses of +the word except (1) in property and (2) in constitutional law. + +1. In the law of property the word is employed in several senses. In the +widest sense a man's estate comprises his entire belongings; so much of +it as consists of land and certain other interests associated therewith +is his "real estate"; the rest is his "personal estate." The word is +more particularly applied to interests in land, and in popular and +general use "an estate" means the land itself. The strict technical +meaning of "an estate" is an interest in lands, and this conception lies +at the root of the English theory of property in land. "The first thing +that the student has to do," says Joshua Williams (_Law of Real +Property_), "is to get rid of the idea of absolute ownership. Such an +idea is quite unknown to the English law. No man is in law the absolute +owner of lands. He can only hold an estate in them." That is, the notion +of tenure, of holding by a tenant from a lord, prevails. The last lord +of all from whom all land was ultimately held was the king. Persons +holding directly from the king and granting to others were the king's +tenants _in capite_, and were the mesne lords of their tenants. + +Estates in land may be classified according to (1) the quantity of their +interest or duration, (2) the time of enjoyment, and (3) the number and +connexion of the tenants. According to (1), an estate may be either a +freehold of inheritance or a freehold not of inheritance. A freehold of +inheritance may be (_a_) an estate in fee simple, which is the largest +estate a man can hold in English law, and comes close to the idea of +absolute ownership, repudiated by Williams; an estate in fee simple is +inheritable by a man's heirs generally, he has full powers of +disposition over it, and may alienate the whole or part. (_b_) It may +also be in limited fees, which are again subdivided into (i.) qualified +or base fee, (ii.) fee conditional, so called at the common law, +afterwards, on the passing of the statute _De Donis Conditionalibus_, +fee tail, which may be general as to the heirs of a man's body, or +special, as to the heirs _male_ (or _female_) of his body. A freehold +not of inheritance may be either (1) conventional, as an estate for +life, which may be either an estate for one's own life or for the life +of another (_pur autre vie_); (2) legal, or created by operation of law, +as tenancy in tail after possibility of issue extinct (i.e. where an +estate is given to a man and the heirs of his body by his present wife, +and the wife dies without issue, the husband becomes tenant in tail +after possibility of issue extinct); tenancy by curtesy (see CURTESY); +tenancy in dower (see DOWER). + +Estates not of freehold or less than freehold are subdivided into (i.) +estates for years (often called estates for a term of years, the +instrument creating it being termed a _lease_ or demise, and the estate +itself a _leasehold interest_); (ii.) estates at will, that is, where +lands or tenements are let by one man to another to have and to hold at +the will of the lessor; (iii.) estates at sufferance, where one comes +into possession of land under a lawful title, and continues in +possession after his title has determined. + +According to (2), estates are either in possession or in expectancy. +Estates in expectancy are either (_a_) in remainder, which may be vested +or contingent, or (_b_) in reversion (see REMAINDER, REVERSION). + +According to (3), estates may be either (i.) in severalty, that is, the +holding of an estate by a person in his own right only, without any +other person being joined or connected with him in point of interest +therein; (ii.) estates in joint tenancy (see JOINT); (iii.) coparcenary +(q.v.); and (iv.) tenancy in common, where two or more hold the same +land, by several and distinct titles, but with unity of possession. (See +also REAL PROPERTY.) + +2. In constitutional law an estate is an order or class having a +definite share as such in the body politic, and participating either +directly or by its representatives in the government. The system of +representation by estates took its rise in western Europe during the +13th century, at a time when the feudal system was being broken up +through various causes, notably the growing wealth and power of the +towns. In the feudal council the clergy and the territorial nobles had +alone had a voice; but the 13th century, to quote Stubbs (_Const. Hist_. +ii. 168, ed. 1875), "turns the feudal council into an assembly of +estates, and draws the constitution of the third estate from the ancient +local machinery which it concentrates." This is, allowing for +differences of detail, true of other countries as well as England. To +the two estates already existing, clergy and nobles, is added a third, +that of the commons (burgesses and knights of the shire) in England, +that of the _roturiers_ in France (known as the _tiers etat_). This +division into three estates became the norm, but it was not universal, +nor inevitable.[1] Even in England there was a tendency to create other +estates, the king for instance treating with the merchants separately +for grants of money to be raised by taxing the general body of merchants +in the country; and there was a similar tendency on the part of the +lawyers. But for the accident of their sitting and voting together, the +burgesses and knights of the shire would also have formed separate +estates. In Aragon the cortes contained four estates (_brazos_ or arms), +the clergy, the great barons (_ricos hombres_), the minor barons +(knights or _infanzones_), and the towns. The Swedish diet had also +four--clergy, barons, burghers and peasants. + +The system of estates, based on the medieval conception of society as +divided into definite orders, formed the basis of whatever +constitutional forms survived in Europe till the French Revolution. In +England, of course, it had early become obscured, the House of Commons +representing the whole nation outside the narrow order of the peers. The +creation of an estate of lesser nobles or landowners had been prevented +by the fusion of the knights of the shire with the burgesses; the +spiritual estate was ruled out by the determination of the clergy to +deliberate and tax themselves in their own convocation, leaving the +bishops, as spiritual peers, to represent their interests in parliament. + +The phrase "the three estates of the realm" still survives, but to most +men it conveys no clear meaning. The erroneous conception early +arose--Hallam says it was current among the popular lawyers of the 17th +century--that the "three estates" were king, lords and commons, as +representing the three great divisions of legislative authority. Such a +conception might be possible in Hungary, where the crown of St. Stephen +symbolizes not so much the royal power as the co-ordination of the +powers of all the organs of the state, including the king; but in +England the king represents the whole nation and in no sense a separate +interest within it, which is the essence of an estate. The phrase "three +estates" as applied to the English constitution at present is, in fact, +misleading. It is now usually understood of the lords spiritual, the +lords temporal, and the commons. + +The conception of the "three estates of the realm" as the great +divisions of legislative authority led in England to the coining of the +phrase "fourth estate," to indicate some power of corresponding +magnitude in the state distinct from them. Fielding thus spoke of "the +mob," and Hazlitt of Cobbett; but the phrase is now usually applied to +the press, a usage originating in a speech by Burke (Carlyle, +_Hero-worship_, Lect. v.). + +In the constitutional struggles of the European continent, from the +Revolution onward, the rival theories of representation by estates and +of popular representation have played a great part. The crucial moment +of the French Revolution was when the vote according to "order" was +rejected and the estates of the clergy and nobles were merged with the +_tiers etat_, the states-general thus becoming the National Assembly. +This was the precedent followed, generally speaking, during the 19th +century in the other countries in which constitutional government was +established. In most of them the medieval estates lingered on in +provincial diets (_Landtage_),[2] and the famous Article XIII. of the +Federal Act (_Bundesakte_) of Vienna decreed that "assemblies of +estates" should be set up, wherever not already existing, in the German +states. The efforts of Metternich and the statesmen of his school were +directed, not so much to abolishing the constitutional model, as to +establishing it, if need were, on traditional and conservative lines. +This is what was meant by the famous reply of the emperor Francis I. to +the Magyar deputation; "All the world is playing the fool and demanding +fanciful constitutions." When the need for making constitutional +concessions became urgent, the attempt was accordingly made to base them +on the system of estates. But the central diet convoked in 1847 by +Frederick William IV. to Berlin, technically a concentration of +provincial estates, quickly converted itself as Metternich had +prophesied--into a national assembly; and precisely the same thing +happened in the case of the first Austrian parliament in 1848. In +Hungary the revolution was in some respects more conservative in +character. The March Laws of 1848 preserved the general character of the +House of Magnates, comparable to the British House of Lords, but +converted the Lower House from what was practically representative of +the estate of the lesser nobles into a national representative assembly. +Of all the sovereign states of Europe only the grand-duchies of +Mecklenburg still (1909) retain the ancient system of estates untouched. +The diet, which is common to the two duchies, consists of the +_Ritterschaft_, in which all tenants in chivalry (_Rittergutsbesitzer_), +whether noble or non-noble, have a voice, and the _Landschaft_, which +consists of the chief magistrates of the towns. The former is taken as +representative of the peasant proprietors and copy-holders +(_Hintersassen_), the latter of the burghers. + +The plural form ESTATES or STATES (Fr. _etats_, Ger. _Stande_) is the +name commonly given to an assembly of estates (_assemblee des etats_, +_Standeversammlung_). When such an assembly is not merely local or +provincial it is called the estates-general or states-general (_etats +generaux_), e.g. in France the assembly of the deputies of the three +estates of the realm as distinct from the provincial estates which met +periodically in the so-called _pays d'etats_. + + For further details about the estates in England and elsewhere see W. + Stubbs, _Constitutional History_, vol. ii. (1896); H. Hallam, _The + Middle Ages_ (1855); F.W. Maitland, _Constitutional History of + England_ (1908); A. Luchaire, _Histoire des institutions monarchiques + de la France_ (1883-1885); G. Waitz, _Deutsche Verfassungsgeschichte_ + (Kiel, 1865-1878); and A.S. Rait, _The Scottish Parliament_ (1901). + See also REPRESENTATION. + + +FOOTNOTES: + + [1] In Scotland the three estates were the prelates, the + tenants-in-chief and the burgesses, the third estate joining the + others for the first time about the beginning of the 14th century. In + 1428 commissioners of shires, men elected by the minor + tenants-in-chief, were ordered to appear in parliament; the greater + tenants-in-chief then coalesced with the prelates and the three + estates were the lords, clerical and lay, the commissioners of shires + and the burgesses. From 1640 to 1660 parliament was reorganized, the + prelates being excluded, but at the Restoration the old order was + re-established. The Scottish parliament was accustomed to depute much + of its work to a committee, composed of members from each of the + three orders, and the committee of the estates was very prominent + during the struggle between Charles I. and his people. + + [2] These diets are, wherever they still exist, survivals of the + "parliaments" of separate territorial units. + + + + +ESTATE AND HOUSE AGENTS. A person exercising the calling of a house +agent in England is required, under a penalty of L20, to take out yearly +a licence upon which L2 is charged as a duty of excise, unless he is +licensed as an auctioneer or appraiser, or is an agent employed in the +management of landed estates, or a solicitor or conveyancer who has +taken out his annual certificate as such. In this connexion a person is +deemed to be a house agent if he advertises for sale or for letting, or +in any way negotiates for the selling or letting of any furnished house +or part of any furnished house (any storey or flat rated and let as a +separate tenement being for this purpose a house); subject, however, to +the qualification that no one is to be deemed to be a house agent by +reason of his letting, or offering to let, or in any way negotiating for +the letting of, any house the annual rent or value of which does not +exceed L25. + +A house agent who is merely instructed to act in the usual way of his +calling has no authority to bind his employer by a contract. His +business is to endeavour to find a person willing to become a purchaser +or tenant and then to communicate his offer to the owner. Unless express +authority is given to the agent to sell or let, and for that purpose to +enter into a binding contract, the principal reserves his right to +accept or refuse the offer. As a rule, a house or estate agent has no +authority to receive payment on behalf of the principal. Where he is +employed to procure a tenant, he must use reasonable diligence to +ascertain that the person to whom the property is let through his agency +is fit to be a tenant. He does not, however, in any way guarantee the +payment of the rent. A house agent may not, for or in expectation of +payment, prepare any deed relating to the sale or letting of real or +personal estate. There is, however, no similar prohibition as to +agreements not under seal, and it is a common practice for house agents +to charge for the preparation of them. + +House agents are usually remunerated by way of commission. The scale +adopted by the Institute of Estate and House Agents embodies the rates +usually charged. In the absence of express provision upon the subject +between the principal and the agent, commission is payable only when the +latter has found a purchaser or tenant. If, however, he had found a +person willing to buy or take property upon the terms upon which the +principal intimated to him his willingness to sell or let it, the +principal will be liable to pay the amount of the commission, even +though in fact he refuses or is unable to sell or let it. Where the +agent can show that he has brought about a sale or tenancy he will be +entitled to the commission notwithstanding the fact that another agent +has been paid, or has recovered in an action, commission in respect of +the same sale or tenancy. The agent's authority may be revoked at any +time; but, where he has already performed the service for which he was +employed, the principal cannot defeat his right to be paid the amount of +the commission by subsequently revoking his authority. If the agent is +unsuccessful in finding a purchaser or tenant, as the case may be, he +will not, as a rule, have any right to remuneration for his efforts in +the matter. + +Most auctioneers, in addition to holding auctions, carry on the business +of house and estate agency. The number of licences issued to house +agents and appraisers in England for the year ended 31st March 1899 was +4429, and for the year ended 31st March 1909, 4618. The number of +licences issued to auctioneers in England for the corresponding periods +was 6389 and 6543 respectively. (H. Ha.) + + + + +ESTATE DUTY. For purposes of the national revenue in the United Kingdom, +the Finance Act 1894 imposed on all property passing by death after the +1st of August 1894 a duty called estate duty, in lieu of certain other +duties previously payable. The objects of the act were--(1) +simplification of the death duties and equalization as between real and +personal property, and (2) aggregation of all the property passing on a +death, and taxation at rates graduated according to the value of the +whole. Before the act a duty (probate duty) was taken on the free +personal property of deceased persons in the hands of the executor or +administrator, without regard to the subsequent distribution. The legacy +and succession duties were levied on distribution of the property +passing on the death, from the persons taking any property under the +will or intestacy of the deceased, or under settlement, or by devolution +of title on his death. These two latter duties were mutually exclusive, +and together covered practically all property passing by death. They +were levied at rates graduated according to consanguinity. In 1888 an +attempt was made to equalize the rates of the death duties as between +property which paid the probate and legacy duties, and property which +paid succession duty only. But the Finance Act 1894 replaced the probate +duty by a duty extending to all property real or personal passing on or +by reference to death, whether by disposition of the deceased or not, +without regard to its tenure or destination. The Finance Acts of 1907 +and 1909-1910 increased the scale of duties laid down in 1894. + +For this purpose all property passing on a death is aggregated to form +one estate, on the capital value of which the duty is charged, at rates +graduated from 1 to 15% according to the aggregate value. Besides the +property of which the deceased was competent to dispose at his death, +the aggregated estate includes property in which he had an interest +ceasing on his death, from the cesser of which a benefit accrues, or +which was disposed of by him within twelve months of death, or at any +time, with reservation of an interest to himself. The extent to which +property is deemed to pass on the cesser of a limited interest is +measured by the proportion of the income to which the interest extended, +without regard to the tenure of the deceased or his successor. Property +may therefore be included in the aggregate estate at its capital value +owing to the passing of a life-interest only, the property being settled +so that the absolute ownership does not pass at all. But when the duty +has once been paid on property passing under a settlement, the property +does not again become chargeable until it passes on the death of a +person who is or has been competent to dispose of it. To compensate for +this advantage, when property passing under a settlement made after the +act pays the estate duty, a further duty of 2% (settlement estate duty) +is taken, except where the only subsequent life-interest is that of the +wife or husband of the deceased. + +The rate of duty being fixed according to the aggregate capital value of +the whole estate, the charge is distributed according to the different +modes of disposition of the property comprised in the estate. The duty +on the personalty which passes to the executor as such is paid by him, +as the probate duty was, and comes out of the general estate. For the +other property passing, trustees, or any person to whom it passes for a +beneficial interest in possession, are made accountable, and are +required to bring in an account of the property and pay the duty. The +duty is a first charge on such property, and, when it is paid by a +person having a life-interest only, he may charge the _corpus_ of the +property with it. The duty on real property included in an account is +payable by eight yearly or sixteen half-yearly instalments, becoming due +twelve months after the death, and bearing interest at 3% from that +date. On other property, except in a few special cases, the duty bears +interest at 3% from the date of the death. When the estate duty has been +paid no further duty is chargeable on property comprised in the estate +which passes to lineal relations of the deceased. But on property +passing to collaterals or strangers legacy or succession duty, as the +case may be, is payable by the devisees or successors, at a rate (which +is the same whichever duty be payable) fixed according to consanguinity. + + For a detailed account of the provisions of the act of 1894 and + subsequent amending acts, and of the practical working of the duty, + reference is made to Austen-Cartmell, _Finance Acts_ (1894-1907); + Hanson, _Death Duties_ (London, 1904); Soward, _Handbook to the Estate + Duty_ (4th ed., London, 1900); and to the reports of the commissioners + of Inland Revenue for 1894-1895 and subsequent years. + + + + +ESTCOURT, RICHARD (1668-1712), English actor, began by playing comedy +parts in Dublin. His first London appearance was in 1704 as Dominick, in +Dryden's _Spanish Friar_, and he continued to take important parts at +Drury Lane, being the original Pounce in Steele's _Tender Husband_ +(1705), Sergeant Kite in Farquhar's _Recruiting Officer_, and Sir +Francis Gripe in Mrs Centlivre's _Busybody_. He was an excellent mimic +and a great favourite socially. Estcourt wrote a comedy, _The Fair +Example, or the Modish Citizen_ (1703), and _Prunella_ (1704), an +interlude. + + + + +ESTE, one of the oldest of the former reigning houses of Italy. It is in +all probability of Lombard origin, and descended, according to Muratori, +from the princes who governed in Tuscany in Carolingian times. The +lordship of the town of Este was first acquired by Alberto Azzo II., who +also bore the title of marquis of Italy[1] (d. c. 1097); he married +Kunitza or Kunegonda, sister of Welf or Guelph III., duke of Carinthia. +Welf died without issue, and was succeeded by Welf IV., son of Kunitza, +who married a daughter of Otto II., duke of Bavaria, and who obtained +the duchy of Bavaria in 1070. Through him the house of Este became +connected with the princely houses of Brunswick and Hanover, from which +the sovereigns of England are descended. The Italian titles and estates +were inherited by Folco I. (1060-1135), son of Alberto Azzo by his +second wife Gersende, daughter of Herbert I., count of Maine.[2] The +house of Este played a great part in the history of medieval and +Renaissance Italy, and it first comes to the front in the wars between +the Guelphs and Ghibellines; as leaders of the former party its princes +received at different times Ferrara, Modena, Reggio and other fiefs and +territories. + +Obizzo I., son of Folco, was the first to bear the title of marquis of +Este. He entered into the Guelphic league against the emperor Frederick +I., and was comprehended in the treaty of Venice of 1177 by which +municipal _podestas_ (foreigners chosen as heads of cities to administer +justice impartially) were instituted. He was elected podesta of Padua in +1178, and in 1184 he was reconciled with Frederick, who created him +marquis of Genoa and Milan, a dignity somewhat similar to that of +imperial vicar. By the marriage of his son Azzo to the heiress of the +Marchesella family (the story that she was carried off to prevent her +marrying an enemy of the Este is a pure legend), he came to acquire +great influence in Ferrara, although he was opposed by the hardly less +powerful house of Torelli. + +Obizzo died in 1194 and Azzo V. having predeceased him, the marquisate +devolved on his grandson Azzo VI. (1170-1212), who became head of the +Guelph party, and to him the people of Ferrara sacrificed their liberty +by making him their first lord (1208). But during his lifetime civil war +raged in the city, between the Este and the Torelli, each party being +driven out again and again. Azzo (also called Azzolino) died in 1212 and +was succeeded by Aldobrandino I., who in 1213 concluded a treaty with +Salinguerra Torelli, the head of that house, to divide the government of +the city between them. On his death in 1215 he was succeeded by his +brother Azzo VII. (1205-1264), surnamed Novello, but Salinguerra Torelli +usurped all power in Ferrara and expelled Azzo (1222). In 1240 Pope +Gregory IX. determined on another war against the emperor Frederick II., +but deemed it wise to begin by crushing the chief Ghibelline houses. +Thus Azzo found himself in league with the pope and various Guelph +cities in his attempt to regain Ferrara. That town underwent a four +months' siege, and was at last compelled to surrender; Salinguerra was +sent to Venice as a prisoner, and Azzo ruled in Ferrara once more. The +Ghibelline party was annihilated, but the city enjoyed peace and +happiness within, although her citizens took part in the wars raging +outside. The Guelph cause triumphed, Frederick being defeated several +times, and after his death Azzo helped in crushing the terrible Eccelino +da Romano (q.v.) who upheld the imperial cause, at the battle of Cassano +(1259). He died in 1264 and was succeeded by Obizzo II. (1240-1293) his +grandson, who in 1288 received the lordship of Modena, and that of +Reggio in 1289. He was a capable but cruel ruler, and while professing +devotion to the Guelph cause, did homage to the German king Rudolph I. +when he descended into Italy. + +Obizzo II. died in 1293 and was succeeded by his son Azzo VIII., but the +latter's brothers, Aldobrandino and Francesco, who were to have shared +in the government, were expelled and became his bitter enemies. The +misgovernment of Azzo led to the revolt of Reggio and Modena, which +shook off his yoke. Enemies arose on all sides, and he spent his last +years in perpetual fighting. He died in 1308, and having no legitimate +children, his brothers, his natural son Fresco, and others disputed the +succession. A papal legate was appointed, and though the Este returned +they were placed under pontifical tutelage. + +The history of the house now becomes involved and of little interest +until we come to Nicholas III. (1384-1441), who exercised sway over +Ferrara, Modena, Parma and Reggio, waged many wars, was made general of +the army of the Church, and in his later years governor of Milan, where +he died, not without suspicion of poison. To him succeeded Lionello +(1407-1450), a wise and virtuous ruler and a patron of literature and +art; then Borso (1413-1471), his brother, who was created duke of Modena +and Reggio by the emperor Frederick III., and duke of Ferrara by the +pope. In spite of the wars by which all Italy was torn, Ferrara enjoyed +a period of peace and prosperity under Borso; he patronized literature, +established a printing-press at Ferrara, surrounded himself with learned +men, and his court was of unparalleled splendour. He also protected +industry and commerce, and ruled with great wisdom. His brother Ercole +I. (1431-1505), who succeeded him in 1471, was less fortunate, and had +to engage in a war with Venice, owing to a dispute about the salt +monopoly, with the result that by the peace of 1484 he was forced to +cede the district of Polesine to the republic. But the last years of his +life were peaceful and prosperous, so that afterwards men looked back to +the days of Ercole I. as to a golden age; his capital was noted both for +its luxury and as the resort of men eminent in literature and art. +Boiardo the poet was his minister, and Ariosto obtained his patronage. + +Ercole's daughter Beatrice d'Este (1475-1497), duchess of Milan, one of +the most beautiful and accomplished princesses of the Italian +Renaissance, was bethrothed at the age of five to Lodovico Sforza (known +as _il Moro_), duke of Bari, regent and afterwards duke of Milan, and +was married to him in January 1491. She had been carefully educated, and +availed herself of her position as mistress of one of the most splendid +courts of Italy to surround herself with learned men, poets and artists, +such as Niccolo da Correggio, Bernardo Castiglione, Bramante, Leonardo +da Vinci and many others. In 1492 she visited Venice as ambassador for +her husband in his political schemes, which consisted chiefly in a +desire to be recognized as duke of Milan. On the death of Gian Galeazzo +Sforza, Lodovico's usurpation was legalized, and after the battle of +Fornovo (1495) both he and his wife took part in the peace congress of +Vercelli between Charles VIII. of France and the Italian princes, at +which Beatrice showed great political ability. But her brilliant career +was cut short by death through childbirth, on the 3rd of January 1497. +She belongs to the best class of Renaissance women, and was one of the +culture influences of the age; to her patronage and good taste are due +to a great extent the splendour of the Castello of Milan, of the Certosa +of Pavia and of many other famous buildings in Lombardy. + +Her sister Isabella d'Este (1474-1539), marchioness of Mantua, was +carefully educated both in letters and in the arts like Beatrice, and +was married when barely sixteen to Francesco Gonzaga, marquis of Mantua +(1490). She showed great diplomatic and political skill, especially in +her negotiations with Cesare Borgia (q.v.), who had dispossessed +Guidobaldo da Montefeltro, duke of Urbino, the husband of her +sister-in-law and intimate friend Elisabetta Gonzaga (1502). She +received the deposed duke and duchess, as well as other princes in the +same condition, at her court of Mantua, which was one of the most +brilliant in Italy, and like her sister she gathered together many +eminent men of letters and artists, Raphael, Andrea Mantegna and Giulio +Romano being among those whom she employed. Both she and her husband +were greatly influenced by Baldassare Castiglione (1478-1529), author of +_Il Cortigiano_, and it was at his suggestion that Giulio Romano was +summoned to Mantua to enlarge the Castello and other buildings. Isabella +was "undoubtedly, among all the princesses of the 15th and 16th +centuries, the one who most strikingly and perfectly personified the +aspirations of the Renaissance" (Eugene Muntz); but her character was +less attractive than that of her sister, and in her love of collecting +works of art she showed a somewhat grasping nature, being ever anxious +to cut down the prices of the artists who worked for her. + +To Ercole I. succeeded his son Alphonso I. (1486-1534), the husband of +Lucrezia Borgia (q.v.), daughter of Pope Alexander VI. During nearly the +whole of his reign he was engaged in the Italian wars, but by his +diplomatic skill and his military ability he was for many years almost +always successful. He was gifted with great mechanical skill, and his +artillery was of world-wide reputation. On the formation of the league +of Cambrai against Venice in 1508, he was appointed to the supreme +command of the papal troops by Julius II.; but after the Venetians had +sustained a number of reverses they made peace with the pope and joined +him against the French. Alphonso was invited to co-operate in the new +combination, and on his refusal war was declared against him; but +although he began by losing Modena and Reggio, he subsequently inflicted +several defeats on the papal troops. He fought on the side of the +French at the battle of Ravenna (1512), from which, although victorious, +they derived no advantage. Soon afterwards they retired from Italy, and +Alphonso, finding himself abandoned, tried to make his peace with the +pope, through the mediation of Fabrizio Colonna. He went to Rome for the +purpose and received absolution, but on discovering that Julius meant to +detain him a prisoner, he escaped in disguise, and the pope's death in +1513 gave him a brief respite. But Leo X. proved equally bent on the +destruction of the house of Este, when he too was cut off by death. +Alphonso availed himself of the troubles of the papacy during the reign +of the equally hostile Clement VII. to recapture Reggio (1523) and +Modena (1527), and was confirmed in his possession of them by the +emperor Charles V., in spite of Clement's opposition. + +He died in 1534, and was succeeded by his son Ercole II. (1508-1559), +who married Renee, daughter of Louis XII. of France, a princess of +Protestant proclivities and a friend of Calvin. On joining the league of +France and the papacy against Spain, Ercole was appointed +lieutenant-general of the French army in Italy. The war was prosecuted, +however, with little vigour, and peace was made with Spain in 1558. The +duke and his brother, Cardinal Ippolito the Younger, were patrons of +literature and art, and the latter built the magnificent Villa d' Este +at Tivoli. He was succeeded by Alphonso II. (1533-1597), remembered for +his patronage of Tasso, whom he afterwards imprisoned. He reorganized +the army, enriched the public library, encouraged agriculture, but was +extravagant and dissipated. With him the main branch of the family came +to an end, and although at his death he bequeathed the duchy to his +cousin Cesare (1533-1628), Pope Clement VIII., renewing the Church's +hostility to the house of Este, declared that prince to be of +illegitimate birth (a doubtful contention), and by a treaty with +Lucrezia, Alphonso's sister, Ferrara was made over to the Holy See. +Cesare held Modena and Reggio, but with him the Estensi cease to play an +important part in Italian politics. For two centuries this dynasty had +been one of the greatest powers in Italy, and its court was perhaps the +most splendid in Europe, both as regards pomp and luxury and on account +of the eminent artists, poets and scholars which it attracted. + +The subsequent heads of the family were: Alphonso III., who retired to a +monastery in 1629 and died in 1644; Francis I. (1610-1658), who +commanded the French army in Italy in 1647; Alphonso IV. (1634-1662), +the father of Mary Beatrice, the queen of James II. of England, who +fought in the French army during the Spanish War, and founded the +picture gallery of Modena; Francis II. (1660-1694), who originated the +Este library, also at Modena, and founded the university; Rinaldo +(1655-1737), through whose marriage with Charlotte Felicitas of +Brunswick-Luneburg the long-separated branches of the house of Este were +reunited; Francis III. (1698-1780), who married the daughter of the +regent Philip of Orleans. Francis III. wished to remain neutral during +the war between Spain and Austria (1740), but the imperialists having +occupied and devastated his duchy, he took the Spanish side and was +appointed _generalissimo_ of the Spanish army in Italy. He was +re-established in his possessions by the treaty of Aix-la-Chapelle +(1748), and on being reconciled with the empress Maria Theresa, he +received from her the title of governor of Lombardy in 1754. With his +son Ercole III. Rinaldo (1727-1803), who at the peace of Campoformio +lost his duchy, the male line of the Estensi came to an end. His only +daughter, Marie Beatrice (d. 1829), was married to the archduke +Ferdinand, third son of the emperor Francis I. Ferdinand was created +duke of Breisgau in 1803, and at his death in 1806 he was succeeded by +his son Francis IV. (q.v.), to whom the duchy of Modena was given at the +treaty of Vienna in 1814. He died in 1846 and was succeeded by Francis +V. (q.v.), who lost his possessions by the events of 1859. With his +death in 1875 the title and estates passed to the archduke Francis +Ferdinand, heir to the Austro-Hungarian throne. The children of Lady +Augusta Murray, daughter of the earl of Dunmore, by her marriage with +Augustus Frederick, duke of Sussex, sixth son of George III. of Great +Britain, assumed the old name of d' Este, and claimed recognition as +members of the royal family; but as the marriage was in violation of the +royal marriages act of 1773, it was declared invalid, and their claims +were set aside. + + BIBLIOGRAPHY.--G. Antonelli, _Saggio di una bibliografia storica + ferrarese_ (Ferrara, 1851); L.A. Muratori, _Delle antichita estensi ed + italiane_ (3 vols., 1717, &c.), the chief and most reliable authority + on the subject, containing a quantity of documents; A. Frizzi, + _Memorie per la storia di Ferrara_ (2nd ed., Ferrara, 1847); A. + Solerti, _Ferrara e la corte estense nella seconda meta del sec. XVI._ + (Citta di Castello, 1900); C. Antolini, _Il dominio estense in + Ferrara_ (Ferrara, 1896), which deals with the siege of 1240 and other + special points; E.G. Gardner, _Princes and Poets of Ferrara_ (London, + 1904), a bulky volume dealing only with the Renaissance period, full + of interesting and unpublished matter, especially about the literary + and artistic associations of the house, but not well put together + (contains good bibliography); G. Bertoni, _La Biblioteca estense e la + coltura ferrarese ai tempi del duca Ercole I._ (Turin, 1903), useful + for the literary aspect of the subject; P. Litta, _Le Celebri Famiglie + italiane_, vol. iii. (Milan, 1831), still a valuable work; E. Noyes, + _The Story of Ferrara_ (London, 1904); Julia Cartwright's _Isabella + d'Este_ (London, 1903), and _Beatrice d'Este_ (1899), pleasantly + written but amateurish volumes based on A. Luzio's _Mantova e Urbino_ + (Turin, 1893); A. Luzio and R. Renier, "Delle relazioni di Isabella + d'Este Gonzaga con Lodovico e Beatrice Sforza" (Milan, 1890, _Archivio + Storico Lombardo_, xvii.). (L. V.*) + + +FOOTNOTES: + + [1] i.e. Margrave of the Empire (_marchio Sancti Imperii_) in Italy. + (See MARQUESS.) + + [2] Another son of Azzo and Gersende became count of Maine as Hugh + III. (d. 1131). + + + + +ESTE (anc. Ateste, q.v.), a town and episcopal see of Venetia, Italy, in +the province of Padua, 20 m. S.S.W. of it by rail. Pop. (1901) 8671 +(town); 10,779 (commune). It lies 49 ft. above sea-level below the +southern slopes of the Euganean Hills. The external walls of the castle +still rise above the town on the N., but the interior is now occupied by +the cattle-market. A fragment of the once enormous Palazzo Mocenigo, of +the 16th century, is now occupied by the important archaeological museum +(see ATESTE). The cathedral was erected in 1690-1720, on the site of an +older building destroyed by an earthquake in 1688. S. Martino is a +church in the Lombard Romanesque style. The archives in the Palazzo +Comunale are important. + +After the Roman period the history of Este is a blank until the Lombard +period, in which it was dependent on Monselice. In the 10th century the +family of Este (see above) established itself in the castle above the +town. At the end of the 13th century Padua, which had already captured +Este more than once, became definitely mistress of it. When the Carrara +family succumbed in 1405, Este voluntarily surrendered to Venice and was +allowed its independence, under a podesta; and thenceforth it followed +the fortunes of Venetia. + + + + +ESTEBANEZ CALDERON, SERAFIN (1799-1867), a Spanish author, best known by +the pseudonym of "El Solitario," was born at Malaga on the 27th of +December 1799. His first literary effort was _El Liston verde_, a poem +signed "Safinio" and written to celebrate the revolution of 1820. He was +called to the bar, and settled for some time at Madrid, where he +published a volume of verses in 1831 under the assumed name of "El +Solitario." He obtained an exaggerated reputation as an Arabic scholar, +and played a minor part in the political movements of his time. He died +at Madrid on the 5th of February 1867. His most interesting work, +_Escenas andaluzas_ (1847), is in a curiously affected style, the +vocabulary being partly archaic and partly provincial; but, despite its +eccentric mannerisms, it is a vivid record of picturesque scenes and +local customs. Estebanez Calderon is also the author of an unfinished +history, _De la conquista y perdida de Portugal_ (1883), issued +posthumously under the editorship of his nephew, Antonio Canovas del +Castillo. + + + + +ESTELLA, a town of northern Spain, in the province of Navarre, on the +left bank of the river Ega, 15 m. W.S.W. of Pamplona. Pop. (1900) 5736. +Estella, which occupies the site of a Roman town of uncertain name, +contains several monasteries and churches, a medieval citadel, and a +college which was formerly a university. Its principal industries are +the manufacture of woollen and linen fabrics and brandy-making; and it +has a considerable trade in fruit, wine and cattle. Estella commands +several defiles on the roads from Castile and Aragon, and on that +account occupies a position of considerable strategic importance. It was +long the headquarters of Don Carlos, who was proclaimed king here in +1833. In 1873 it was the chief stronghold of the Carlists, and in 1874, +when driven from other places, they succeeded in retiring to Estella. On +the 16th of February 1876 the Carlists in the town surrendered +unconditionally. For an account of the Carlist rising see SPAIN: +_History_. + + + + +ESTERHAZY OF GALANTHA, a noble Magyar family. Its origin has been +traced, not without some uncertainty, to Salamon of Estoras, whose sons +Peter and Illyes divided their patrimony in 1238. Peter founded the +family of Zerhazy, and Illyes that of Illyeshazy, which became extinct +in the male line in 1838. The first member of the family to emerge +definitely into history was Ferencz Zerhazy (1563-1594), vice +lord-lieutenant of the county of Pressburg, who took the name of +Esterhazy when he was created _Freiherr_ of Galantha, an estate acquired +by the family in 1421. His eldest son, Daniel (d. 1654), founded the +house of Czesznek, the third, Pal (d. 1641), the line of Zolyom +(Altsohl), and the fourth, Miklos, that branch of the family which +occupies the most considerable place in Hungarian history, that of +Frakno or Forchtenstein. + +This MIKLOS [Nicholas] ESTERHAZY of Galantha (1582-1645) was born at +Galantha on the 8th of April 1582. His parents were Protestants, and he +himself, at first, followed the Protestant persuasion; but he +subsequently went over to Catholicism and, along with Cardinal Pazmany, +his most serious rival at court, became a pillar of Catholicism, both +religiously and politically, and a worthy opponent of the two great +Protestant champions of the period, Gabriel Bethlen and George I. +Rakoczy. In 1611 he married Orsolya, the widow of the wealthy Ferencz +Magocsy, thus coming into possession of her gigantic estates, and in +1622 he acquired Frakno. Matthias II. made him a baron (1613), count of +Beregh (1617), and lord-lieutenant of the county of Zolyom and _magister +curiae regiae_ (1618). At the coronation of Ferdinand II., when he +officiated as grand-standard-bearer, he received the order of the Golden +Fleece and fresh donations. At the diet of Sopron, 1625, he was elected +palatine of Hungary. As a diplomatist he powerfully contributed to bring +about the peace of Nikolsburg (1622) and the peace of Linz (1645) (see +HUNGARY: _History_). His political ideal was the consolidation of the +Habsburg dynasty as a means towards freeing Hungary from the Turkish +yoke. He himself, on one occasion (1623), defeated the Turks on the +banks of the Nyitra; but anything like sustained operations against them +was then impossible. He was also one of the most eminent writers of his +day. He died at Nagy-Heflan on the 11th of September 1645, leaving five +sons. + + See _Works of Nicholas Esterhazy_, with a biography by Ferencz Toldi + (Hung.) (Pest, 1852); _Nicholas Count Esterhazy, Palatine of Hungary_ + (a biography, Hung.) (Pest, 1863-1870). + +His third son PAL [Paul] (1635-1713), prince palatine, founded the +princely branch of the family of Esterhazy. He was born at Kis Marton +(Eisenstadt) on the 7th of September 1635. In 1663 he fought, along with +Miklos Zrinyi, against the Turks, and distinguished himself under +Montecuculi. In 1667 he was appointed commander-in-chief in south +Hungary, where he defeated the malcontents at Leutschau and Gyork. In +1681 he was elected palatine. In 1683 he participated in the deliverance +of Vienna from the Turks, and entered Buda in 1686 at the head of 20,000 +men. Thoroughly reactionary, and absolutely devoted to the Habsburgs, he +contributed more than any one else to the curtailing of the privileges +of the Magyar gentry in 1687, when he was created a prince of the +Empire, with (in 1712) succession to the first-born of his house. His +"aulic tendencies" made him so unpopular that his offer of mediation +between the Rakoczy insurgents and the government was rejected by the +Hungarian diet, and the negotiations, which led to the peace of Szatmar +(see HUNGARY: _History_), were entrusted to Janos Pallfy. He died on the +26th of March 1713. He loved the arts and sciences, wrote several +religious works, and was one of the chief compilers of the _Trophaeum +Domus Inclytae Estoratianae_. + + See Lajos Merenyi, _Prince Paul Esterhazy_ (Hung.) (Budapest, 1895). + +Prince PAL ANTAL, grandson of the prince palatine Pal, was a +distinguished soldier, who rose to the rank of field-marshal in 1758. On +his death in 1762 he was succeeded by his brother. + +Prince MIKLOS JOZSEF [Nicholas Joseph] (1714-1790), also a brilliant +soldier, is perhaps best remembered as a patron of the fine arts. For +his services in command of an infantry brigade at Kolin (1757) he was +specially mentioned by Count Daun, and became one of the original +members of the order of Maria Theresa. In 1762 he was appointed captain +of Maria Theresa's Hungarian body-guard, in 1764 _Feldzeugmeister_, and +in 1768 field marshal. His other honours included the Golden Fleece and +the grade of commander in the order of Maria Theresa. Joseph II. +conferred the princely title, which had previously been limited to the +eldest-born of the house, on all his descendants, male and female. +Esterhazy died in Vienna on the 28th of September 1790. He rebuilt in +the Renaissance style Schloss Esterhazy, the splendour of which won for +it the name of the Hungarian Versailles. Haydn was for thirty years +conductor of his private orchestra and general musical director, and +many of his compositions were written for the private theatre and the +concerts of this prince. + +His grandson, Prince MIKLOS [Nicholas] (1765-1833) was born on the 12th +of December 1765. He began life as an officer in the guards, +subsequently making the grand tour, which first awakened his deep +interest in art. He quitted the army for diplomacy after reaching the +rank of _Feldzeugmeister_, and was employed as extraordinary ambassador, +on special occasions, when he displayed a magnificence extraordinary +even for the Esterhazys. He made at Vienna an important collection of +paintings and engravings, which came into the possession of the +Hungarian Academy at Budapest in 1865. At his summer palace of Kis +Marton (Eisenstadt) he erected a monument to Haydn. His immense +expenditure on building and the arts involved the family in financial +difficulties for two generations. When the French invaded Austria in +1797, he raised a regiment of 1000 men at his own expense. In 1809, when +Napoleon invited the Magyars to elect a new king to replace the +Habsburgs, overtures were made to Prince Nicholas, who refused the +honour and, further, raised a regiment of volunteers in defence of +Austrian interests. He died at Como on the 24th of November 1833. + +His son, Prince PAL ANTAL [Paul Anthony] (1786-1866), entered the +diplomatic service. In 1806 he was secretary of the embassy in London, +and in 1807 worked with Prince Metternich in the same capacity in Paris. +In 1810 he was accredited to the court of Dresden, where he tried in +vain to detach Saxony from Napoleon, and in 1814 he accompanied his +father on a secret mission to Rome. He took a leading part in all the +diplomatic negotiations consequent upon the wars of 1813-1815, +especially at the congress of Chatillon, and on the conclusion of peace +was, at the express desire of the prince regent, sent as ambassador to +London. In 1824 he represented Austria as ambassador extraordinary at +the coronation of Charles X., and was the premier Austrian commissioner +at the London conferences of 1830-1836. In 1842 he quitted diplomacy for +politics and attached himself to "the free-principles party." He was +minister for foreign affairs in the first responsible Hungarian ministry +(1848), but resigned his post in September because he could see no way +of reconciling the court with the nation. The last years of his life +were spent in comparative poverty and isolation, as even the +Esterhazy-Forchtenstein estates were unequal to the burden of supporting +his fabulous extravagance and had to be placed in the hands of curators. + +The cadet branch of the house of Frakno, the members of which bear the +title of count, was divided into three lines by the sons of Ferencz +Esterhazy (1641-1683). + +The eldest of these, Count ANTAL (1676-1722), distinguished himself in +the war against Rakoczy in 1703, but changed sides in 1704 and commanded +the left wing of the Kuruczis at the engagements of Nagyszombat (1704) +and Veresko (1705). In 1706 he defeated the imperialist general Guido +Stahremberg and penetrated to the walls of Vienna. Still more successful +were his operations in the campaign of 1708, when he ravaged Styria, +twice invaded Austria, and again threatened Vienna, on which occasion +the emperor Joseph narrowly escaped falling into his hands. In 1709 he +was routed by the superior forces of General Sigbert Heister at Palota, +but brought off the remainder of his arms very skilfully. In 1710 he +joined Rakoczy in Poland and accompanied him to France and Turkey. He +died in exile at Rodosto on the shores of the Black Sea. His son Balint +Jozsef [Valentine Joseph], by Anna Maria Nigrelli, entered the French +army, and was the founder of the Hallewyll, or French, branch of the +family, which became extinct in the male line in 1876 with Count +Ladislas. + + See _Count Esterhazy's Campaign Diary_ (Hung.), ed. by K. Thaly (Pest, + 1901). + +Count BALINT MIKLOS (1740-1805), son of Balint Jozsef, was an +enthusiastic partisan of the duc de Choiseul, on whose dismissal, in +1764, he resigned the command of the French regiment of which he was the +colonel. It was Esterhazy who conveyed to Marie Antoinette the portrait +of Louis XVI. on the occasion of their betrothal, and the close +relations he maintained with her after her marriage were more than once +the occasion of remonstrance on the part of Maria Theresa, who never +seems to have forgotten that he was the grandson of a rebel. At the +French court he stood in high favour with the comte d'Artois. He was +raised to the rank of marechal de camp, and made inspector of troops in +the French service in 1780. At the outbreak of the French Revolution, he +was stationed at Valenciennes, where he contrived for a time to keep +order, and facilitated the escape of the French _emigres_ by way of +Namur; but, in 1790, he hastened back to Paris to assist the king. At +the urgent entreaty of the comte d'Artois in 1791 he quitted Paris for +Coblenz, accompanied Artois to Vienna, and was sent to the court of St +Petersburg the same year to enlist the sympathies of Catherine II. for +the Bourbons. He received an estate from Catherine II., and although the +gift was rescinded by Paul I., another was eventually granted him. He +died at Grodek in Volhynia on the 23rd of July 1805. + + See _Memoires_, ed. by E. Daudet (Fr.) (Paris, 1905), and _Lettres_ + (Paris, 1906). + +Two other sons of Count Ferencz (d. 1685), Ferencz and Jozsef, founded +the houses of Dotis and Cseklesz (Landschutz) respectively. Of their +descendants, Count MORICZ (1807-1890) of Dotis, Austrian ambassador in +Rome until 1856, became in 1861 a member of the ministry formed by Anton +Schmerling and in 1865 joined the clerical cabinet of Richard Belcredi. +His bitter hostility to Prussia helped to force the government of Vienna +into the war of 1866. His official career closed in 1866, but he +remained one of the leaders of the clerical party. + + See also Count Janos Esterhazy, _Description of the Esterhazy Family_ + (Hung., Budapest, 1901). (R. N. B.) + + + + +ESTERS, in organic chemistry, compounds formed by the condensation of an +alcohol and an acid, with elimination of water; they may also be +considered as derivatives of alcohols, in which the hydroxylic hydrogen +has been replaced by an acid radical, or as acids in which the hydrogen +of the carboxyl group has been replaced by an alkyl or aryl group. In +the case of the polybasic acids, all the hydrogen atoms can be replaced +in this way, and the compounds formed are known as "neutral esters." If, +however, some of the hydrogen of the acid remain undisplaced, then "acid +esters" result. These acid esters retain some of the characteristic +properties of the acids, forming, for example, salts, with basic oxides. +Esters may be prepared by heating the silver salt of an acid with an +alkyl iodide; by heating the alcohols or alcoholates with an acid +chloride; by distilling the anhydrous sodium salt of an acid with a +mixture of the alcohol and concentrated sulphuric acid; or by heating +for some hours on the water bath, a mixture of an acid and an alcohol, +with a small quantity of hydrochloric or sulphuric acids (E. Fischer and +A. Speier, _Ber_., 1896, 28, p. 3252). + +The esters of the aliphatic and aromatic acids are colourless neutral +liquids, which are generally insoluble in water, but readily dissolve in +alcohol and ether. Many possess a fragrant odour and are prepared in +large quantities for use as artificial fruit essences. They hydrolyse +readily when boiled with solutions of caustic alkalies or mineral acids, +yielding the constituent acid and alcohol. When heated with ammonia, +they yield acid amides (q.v.). They form unstable addition products with +sodium ethylate or methylate. With the Grignard reagent, they form +addition compounds which on the addition of water yield tertiary +alcohols, except in the case of ethyl formate, where a secondary alcohol +is obtained. + + OMgBr OMgBr R' + / / \ + R.CO2C2H5 --> R.C--OC2H5 --> R.C--R' --> R'--C.OH. + \ \ / + R' R' R' + + OMgBr OMgBr R' + / / \ + H.CO2C2H5 --> H.C--OC2H5 --> H.C--R' --> CH.OH. + \ \ / + R' R' R' + + N. Menschutkin (_Ber._, 1882, 15, p. 1445; _Ann._, 1879, 195, p. 334) + examined the rate of esterification of many acids with alcohols. It + was found that the normal primary alcohols were all esterified at + about the same rate, the secondary alcohols more slowly than the + primary, and the tertiary alcohols still more slowly. The + investigation also showed that the nature of the acid used affected + the result, for in an homologous series of acids it was found that as + the molecule of the acid became more complex, the rate of + esterification became less. The formation of an ester by the + interaction of an acid with an alcohol is a "reversible" or "balanced" + action, for as M. Berthelot and L. Pean de St Gilles (_Ann. Chim. + Phys._, 1862 (3), 65, p. 385 et seq.) have shown in the case of the + formation of ethyl acetate from ethyl alcohol and acetic acid, a point + of equilibrium is reached, beyond which the reacting system cannot + pass, unless the system be disturbed in some way by the removal of one + of the products of the reaction. V. Meyer (_Ber._, 1894, 27, p. 510 et + seq.) showed that in benzenoid compounds ortho-substituents exert a + great hindering effect on the esterification of alcohols by acids in + the presence of hydrochloric acid, this hindering being particularly + marked when two substituents are present in the ortho positions to the + carboxyl group. In such a case the ester is best prepared by the + action of an alkyl halide on the silver salt of the acid, and when + once prepared, can only be hydrolysed with great difficulty. + + Ethyl formate, H.CO2C2H5, boils at 55 deg. C. and has been used in the + artificial preparation of rum. Ethyl acetate (acetic ether), + CH3.CO2C2H5, boils at 75 deg. C. Isoamylisovalerate, C4H9.CO2C5H11, + boils at 196 deg. C. and has an odour of apples. Ethyl butyrate, + C3H7.CO2C2H5, boils at 121 deg. C. and has an odour of pineapple. The + fats (q.v.) and waxes (q.v.) are the esters of the higher fatty acids + and alcohols. The esters of the higher fatty acids, when distilled + under atmospheric pressure, are decomposed, and yield an olefine and a + fatty acid. + + Esters of the mineral acids are also known and may be prepared by the + ordinary methods as given above. The neutral esters are as a rule + insoluble in water and distil unchanged; on the other hand, the acid + esters are generally soluble in water, are non-volatile, and form + salts with bases. _Ethyl hydrogen sulphate_ (sulphovinic acid), + C2H5.HSO4, is obtained by the action of concentrated sulphuric acid on + alcohol. The ester is separated from the solution by means of its + barium salt, and the salt decomposed by the addition of the calculated + amount of sulphuric acid. It is a colourless oily liquid of strongly + acid reaction; its aqueous solution decomposes on standing and on + heating it forms diethyl sulphate and sulphuric acid. _Dimethyl + sulphate_, (CH3)2SO4, is a colourless liquid which boils at 187 + deg.-188 deg. C., with partial decomposition. It is used as a + methylating agent (F. Ullmann). Great care should be taken in using + dimethyl and diethyl sulphates, as the respiratory organs are affected + by the vapours, leading to severe attacks of pneumonia. _Ethyl + nitrate_, C2H5.ONO2, is a colourless liquid which boils at 86.3 deg. + C. It is prepared by the action of nitric acid on ethyl alcohol (some + urea being added to the nitric acid, in order to destroy any nitrous + acid that might be produced in secondary reactions and which, if not + removed, would cause explosive decomposition of the ethyl nitrate). It + burns with a white flame and is soluble in water. When heated with + ammonia it yields ethylamine nitrate, and when reduced with tin and + hydrochloric acid it forms hydroxylamine (q.v.) (W.C. Lossen). _Ethyl + nitrite_, C2H5.ONO, is a liquid which boils at 18 deg. C.; the crude + product obtained by distilling a mixture of alcohol, sulphuric and + nitric acids and copper turnings is used in medicine under the name of + "sweet spirits of nitre." _Amyl nitrite_, C5H11.ONO, boils at 96 deg. + C. and is used in the preparation of the anhydrous diazonium salts (E. + Knoevenagel, _Ber._, 1890, 23, p. 2094). It is also used in medicine. + + + + +ESTHER. The _Book of Esther_, in the Bible, relates how a Jewish maiden, +Esther, cousin and foster-daughter of Mordecai, was made his queen by +the Persian king Ahasuerus (Xerxes) after he had divorced Vashti; next, +how Esther and Mordecai frustrated Haman's endeavour to extirpate the +Jews; how Haman, the grand-vizier, fell, and Mordecai succeeded him; how +Esther obtained the king's permission for the Jews to destroy all who +might attack them on the day which Haman had appointed by lot for their +destruction; and lastly, how the feast of Purim (Lots?) was instituted +to commemorate their deliverance. Frequent incidental references are +made to Persian court-usages (explanations are given in i. 13, viii. 8), +while on the other hand the religious rites of the Jews (except +fasting), and even Jerusalem and the temple, and the name of Israel, +are studiously ignored. Even the name of God is not once mentioned, +perhaps from a dread of its profanation during the Saturnalia of Purim. +The early popularity of the book is shown by the interpolated passages +in the Septuagint and the Old Latin versions. + +The criticism of _Esther_ began in the 18th century. As soon as the +questioning spirit arose, the strangeness of many statements in the book +leaped into view. A moderate scholar of our day can find no historical +nucleus, and calls it a sort of historical romance.[1] The very first +verses in the book startle the reader by their exaggerations, e.g. a +banquet lasting 180 days, "127 provinces." Farther on, the +improbabilities of the plot are noticeable. Esther, on her elevation, +keeps her Jewish origin secret (ii. 10; cf. vii. 3 ff.), although she +has been taken from the house of her uncle, who is known to be a Jew +(iii. 4; cf. vi. 13), and has remained in constant intercourse with him +(ii. 11, 19, 20, 22; cf. iv. 4-17). We are further told that the +grand-vizier was an Agagite or Amalekite (iii. 1, &c.); would the +nobility of Persia have tolerated this? Or did Haman too keep his +non-Persian origin secret? Also that Mordecai offered a gross affront to +Haman, for which no slighter punishment would satisfy Haman than the +destruction of the whole Jewish race (iii. 2-6). Of this savage design +eleven months' notice is given (iii. 12-14); and when the danger has +been averted by the cleverness of Esther, the provincial Jews are +allowed to butcher 75,000, and those in the capital 800 of their Persian +fellow-subjects (ix. 6-16). + +It is urged, on the other hand, that the assembly mentioned in i. 3 may +be that referred to by Herodotus (vii. 8) as having preceded the +expedition against Greece. This hypothesis, however, requires us to +suppose that Xerxes had returned from Sardis to Susa by the tenth month +of the seventh year of his reign, which is barely credible. In the +reckoning of 127 provinces (cf. Dan. vi. 1; 1 Esd. iii. 2) satrapies and +sub-satrapies may be confounded. It is at any rate correct to include +India among the provinces; this is justified, not only by Herodotus +(iii. 94), but by the inscriptions of Darius at Persepolis and +Naksh-i-Rustam. Herodotus again (vii. 8) confirms the custom referred to +in Esth. ii. 12. But what authority can make the conduct of Mordecai +credible? To-day the harem is impenetrable, while "any one declining to +stand as the grand-vizier passes is almost beaten to death."[2] This, +surely, is what a real Mordecai would have suffered from a real Haman. +Even the capricious Xerxes would never have permitted the entire +destruction of one of the races of the empire, nor would a vizier have +proposed it. + +Serious difficulties of another kind remain. Mordecai is represented as +a fellow-captive of Jeconiah (597 B.C.), and grand-vizier in Xerxes's +twelfth year (474 B.C.)! This is parallel to the strange statement in +Tobit xiv. 15. And how can we find room for Esther as queen by the side +of Amestris (Herod. vii. 14, ix. 112)? How, too, can a Jewess have been +a legal queen (see Herod. iii. 84)? Then take the supposed Persian +proper names. "Ahasuerus" may no doubt stand, but very few of the rest +(see Noldeke, _Ency. Bib._ col. 1402). As to the style, the general +verdict is that it points to a late date (see Driver, Introd.^6, p. +484). Altogether, critics decline to date the book earlier than the 3rd +or even 2nd century B.C. + +So far we have only been carrying on 18th-century criticism. In more +recent years, however, new lines of inquiry have been opened up. First +of all by the great Semitic scholar Lagarde. His thesis (seldom defended +now) was that Purim corresponds to Furdigan, the name of the old Persian +New Year's and All Souls' festival held in spring, on which the Persians +were wont to exchange presents (cf. Esth. ix. 19). In 1891 came a new +explanation of Esther from Zimmern. It is true that in its earlier form +his theory was very incomplete. But in justice to this scholar we may +notice that from the first he looked for light to Babylonia, and that +many other critics now take up the same position. There is also another +new point which has to be mentioned, viz. that, judging from our +experience elsewhere, the Book of Esther has probably passed through +various stages of development. Here, then, are two points which call for +investigation, viz. (1) a possible mythological element in Esther, and +(2) possible stages of development prior to that represented by the +Hebrew text. + +As to the first point. The Second Targum (on Esth. ii. 7) long ago +declared that Esther was so called "because she was like the planet +Venus." Recent scholars have expressed the same idea more critically. +Esther is a modification of Ishtar, the name of the Babylonian goddess +of fertility and of the planet Venus, whose myth must have been +partially known to the Israelites even in pre-exilic times,[3] and after +the fall of the state must have acquired a still stronger hold on Jewish +exiles. A general knowledge of the myth of Marduk among the Israelites +cannot indeed be proved. Singularly enough, the Babylonian colonists in +the cities of Samaria are said to have made idols, not of Marduk, but of +a deity called Succoth-benoth[4] (2 Kings xvii. 30). Nor does the Second +Targum help us here; it gives a wild explanation of Mordecai as "pure +myrrh." Still it is plain that the name of the god Marduk (Merodach) was +known to the Jews, and the Cosmogony in Gen. i. is considered by critics +to have ultimately arisen out of the myth of Marduk's conflict with the +dragon (see COSMOGONY). At any rate the name Mordecai (the vocalization +is uncertain) looks very much like Marduk, which, with terminations +added, often occurs in cuneiform documents as a personal name.[5] Add to +this, that, according to Jensen, Ishtar in mythology was the cousin of +Marduk, just as the legend represents Esther as the cousin of +Mordecai.[6] The same scholar also accounts for Esther's other name +Hadassah (Esth. ii. 7); _hadasshatu_ in Babylonian means "bride," which +may have been a title of Ishtar. + +But we cannot stop short here. Unless the mythological key can also +explain Haman and Vashti, it is of no use. Jensen, now followed by +Zimmern, is equal to the occasion. Haman, he says, is a corruption of +Hamman or Humman or Uman, the name of the chief deity of the Elamites, +in whose capital (Susa) the scene of the narrative is laid, while Vashti +is Mashti (or Vashti), probably the name of an Elamite goddess. + +Following the real or fancied light of these names, Prof. Jensen holds +that the Esther-legend is based on a mythological account of the victory +of the Babylonian deities over those of Elam, which in plain prose means +the deliverance of ancient Babylonia from its Elamite oppressors, and +that such an account was closely connected with the Babylonian New +Year's festival, called Zagmuk, just as the Esther-legend is connected +with the festival of Purim. + +We are bound, however, to mention some critical objections. (1) The +Babylonian festival corresponding to Purim was not the spring festival +of Zagmuk, but the summer festival of Ishtar, which is probably the +Sacaea of Berossus, an orgiastic festival analogous to Purim. (2) +According to Jensen's theory, Mordecai, and not Esther, ought to be the +direct cause of Haman's ruin. (3) No such Babylonian account as Jensen +postulates can be indicated. (4) The identifications of names are +hazardous. Fancy a descendant of Kish called Marduk, and an "Agagite" +called Hamman! Elsewhere Mordecai (Ezra ii. 2; Neh. vii. 7) occurs among +names which are certainly not Persian (Bigvai is no exception), and +Haman (Tobit xiv. 10) appears as a nephew of Achiachar, which is not a +Persian name. Esther, moreover, ought to be parallel to Judith; fancy +likening the representative of Israel to the goddess Ishtar! + +Next, as to the preliminary literary phases of Esther. Such phases are +probable, considering the later phases represented in the Septuagint. +There may have once existed in Hebrew a story of the deadly feud between +Mordecai (if that be the original name) and Haman, with elements +suggested by the story of the battle between the Supreme God and the +dragon (see COSMOGONY). As the legend stands, Mordecai and Esther seem +to be in each other's way. In a passage (i. 5 in LXX.) only found in the +Septuagint, but which may have belonged to the original Esther, +reference is made to a dream of Mordecai respecting two great dragons, +i.e. Mordecai and Haman (x. 7). This seems to confirm the view here +mentioned. If so, however, there must also have been an Esther-legend, +which was afterwards worked up with that of Mordecai. This is, in fact, +the view of Erbt. Winckler takes a different line. Linguistic facts and +certain points in the contents seem to him to show that our Esther is a +work of the age of the Seleucidae; more precisely he thinks of the time +of the revolt of Molon under Antiochus III. Of course there was a Book +of Esther before this, and even in its redacted form our Esther reflects +the period of three Persian kings, viz. Cyrus, Cambyses and Darius. +Lastly, Cheyne (_Ency. Bib._ "Purim," S 7), while agreeing with Winckler +that the book is based on an earlier narrative, holds that that earlier +text differed more widely from the present in its geographical and +historical setting than Winckler seems to suppose. The problem of the +origin of the name Purim, however, can hardly be said to have received a +final solution. + + BIBLIOGRAPHY.--Kuenen, _History of Israel_, iii. (1875), 148-153; + Lagarde, _Purim_ (1887); Zimmern in Stade's _Zeitschrift_, xi. (1891), + pp. 157-169, and _Keilinschriften und das Alte Testament_^(3), 485, + 515-520, Jensen in Wildeboer's _Esther_ (in Marti's series, 1898), pp. + 173-175; Winckler, _Keilinschriften und das Alte Testament_^(3), p. + 288, _Altorientalische Forschungen_, 3rd ser. i. 1-64; Erbt, _Die + Purimsage_ (1900); _Ency. Biblica_, articles "Esther" and "Purim" (a + composite article). (T. K. C.) + +ADDITIONS TO BOOK OF ESTHER. These "additions" were written originally +in Greek and subsequently interpolated in the Greek translation of the +Book of Esther. Here the principle of interpolation has reached its +maximum. Of 270 verses, 107 are not to be found in the Hebrew text. +These additions are distributed throughout the book in the Greek, but in +the Latin Bible they were relegated to the end of the canonical book by +Jerome--an action that has rendered them meaningless. In the Greek the +additions form with the canonical text a consecutive history. They were +made probably in the time of the Maccabees, and their aim was to supply +the religious element which is so completely lacking in the canonical +work. The first, which gives the dream of Mordecai and the events which +led to his advancement at the court of Artaxerxes, precedes chap. i. of +the canonical text: the second and fifth, which follow iii. 13 and viii. +12, furnish copies of the letters of Artaxerxes referred to in these +verses; the third and fourth, which are inserted after chap. iv., +consist of the prayers of Mordecai and Esther, with an account of +Esther's approach to the king. The last, which closes the book, tells of +the institution of the feast of Purim. The Greek text appears in two +widely-differing recensions. The one is supported by AB[Hebrew: alef], +and the other--a revision of the first--by codices 19, 93a, 108b. The +latter is believed to have been the work of Lucian. Swete, _Old Test. in +Greek_, ii. 755, has given the former, while Lagarde has published both +texts with critical annotations in his _Librorum Veteris Testamenti +Canonicorum_, i. 504-541 (1883), and Scholz in his _Kommentar uber das +Buch Esther_ (1892). + + For an account of the Latin and Syriac versions, the Targums, and the + later Rabbinic literature connected with this subject, and other + questions relating to these additions, see Fritzsche, _Exeget. + Handbuch zu den Apok._ (1851), i. 67-108; Schurer^(3), iii. 330-332; + Fuller in _Speaker's Apocr._ i. 360-402; Ryssel in Kautzsch's _Apok. + u. Pseud._ i. 193-212; Siegfried in _Jewish Encyc._ v. 237 sqq.; + Swete, _Introd. to the Old Test. in Greek_, 257 seq.; L.B. Paton, "A + Text-Critical Apparatus to the Book of Esther" in _O.T. and Semitic + Studies in Memory of W.R. Harper_ (Chicago, 1908). (R. H. C.) + + +FOOTNOTES: + + [1] Kautzsch, _Old Testament Literature_ (1898), p. 130. + + [2] So Morier, the English minister to the Persian court, quoted by + Dean Stanley. + + [3] See Zimmern, _Die Keilinschriften und das Alte Test_.^(3), p. 438. + + [4] _Ibid._ p. 396. + + [5] Johns, _Assyrian Deeds_, iii. 198-199; _Amer. Journ. of Sem. + Languages_ (April 1902), p. 158. + + [6] So too Zimmern, in Gunkel's _Schopfung und Chaos_, p. 313, note 2. + + + + +ESTHONIA (Ger. _Ehstland_ and _Esthland_, Esthonian _Eestimaa_ and +_Meie-maa_, also _Viroma_ and _Rahvama_; Lettish _Iggaun Senna_), a +Baltic province of Russia, stretching along the south coast of the Gulf +of Finland, and having Lake Peipus and Livonia on the S. and the +government of St Petersburg on the E. An archipelago of islands, of +which Dago is the largest, belongs to this government (Oesel belongs to +Livonia). The area is 7818 sq. m., 503 sq. m. of this being insular. The +surface is low, not exceeding 100 ft. in altitude along the coast and +alongside Lake Peipus, while in the interior the average elevation +ranges from 200 to 300 ft., and nowhere exceeds 450 ft. It was entirely +covered with the bottom moraine of the great ice-sheet of the Glacial +Epoch, resting upon Silurian sandstones and limestones. In places sands +and clays overlie the glacial deposits. The principal stream is the +Narova, which issues from Lake Peipus, flows along the eastern border, +and empties into the Gulf of Finland. The other drainage arteries are +all small, but many in number; while lakes and marshes aggregate fully +22-1/2% of the total surface. The climate is severe, great cold being +experienced in winter, though moist west winds exercise a moderating +influence. Nevertheless the annual mean temperature ranges between 39 +deg. and 43 deg. Fahr. In 1878 the nobility, mostly of German descent, +owned and farmed 52% of the land; 42% was farmed, but not owned, by the +peasants, mostly Esths or Ehsts, and only 3% was owned by persons +outside the ranks of the nobility. Since then one-fourth of the +peasantry have been enabled to purchase their holdings, more than half a +million acres having passed into their possession. Agriculture is the +chief occupation, and it is, on all the larger holdings, carried on with +greater scientific knowledge than in any other part of Russia. Of the +total area about 16.6% is under cultivation; meadows and grass-lands +amount to 41.7%; and forests cover 19%. The principal crops are rye, +oats, barley and potatoes, with large quantities of vegetables. +Cattle-breeding flourishes, and meat and butter are constantly +increasing items of export. The manufactories consist chiefly of +distilleries (over 13,500,000 gallons annually), cotton (at Kranholm +falls on the Narova), woollen, flour, paper and saw mills, iron and +machinery works, and match factories. Fishing is active along the coast, +especially for anchovies. The province is intersected by a railway +running from St Petersburg to Reval, with branches from the latter city +westwards to Baltic Port and southwards into Livonia, and from Taps +south to Yuryev (Dorpat). The chief seaports are Reval, Baltic Port, +Hapsal, Kunda and Dago. Esthonia is divided into four districts, the +chief towns of which are Reval (pop. in 1897, 66,292), the capital of +the province; Hapsal, a lively watering-place (3238); Weissenstein +(2509); and Wesenberg (5560). The population, which consists chiefly of +Ehstes (365,959 in 1897), Russians (18,000), Germans (16,000), Swedes +(5800), and some Jews, is growing fairly fast: in 1870 it numbered +323,960, and in 1897 413,747, of whom 210,199 were women and 76,315 +lived in towns; in 1906 it was estimated at 451,700. Ninety-six per +cent. of the whole belong to the Lutheran Church. Education is, for +Russia, relatively high. + +The Esths, Ehsts or Esthonians, who call themselves Tallopoeg and +Maamees, are known to the Russians as Chukhni or Chukhontsi, to the +Letts as Iggauni, and to the Finns as Virolaiset. They belong to the +Finnish family, and consequently to the Ural-Altaic division of the +human race. Altogether they number close upon one million, and are thus +distributed: 365,959 in Esthonia (in 1897), 518,594 in Livonia, 64,116 +in the government of St Petersburg, 25,458 in that of Pskov, and 12,855 +in other parts of Russia. As a race they exhibit manifest evidences of +their Ural-Altaic or Mongolic descent in their short stature, absence of +beard, oblique eyes, broad face, low forehead and small mouth. In +addition to that they are an under-sized, ill-thriven people, with long +arms and thin, short legs. They cling tenaciously to their native +language, which is closely allied to the Finnish, and divisible into +two, or according to some authorities into three, principal +dialects--Dorpat Esthonian and Reval Esthonian, with Pernau Esthonian. +Reval Esthonian, which preserves more carefully the full inflectional +forms and pays greater attention to the laws of euphony, is recognized +as the literary language. Since 1873 the cultivation of their +mother-tongue has been sedulously promoted by an Esthonian Literary +Society (_Eesti Korjameeste Selts_), which publishes _Toimetused_, or +"Instructions" in all sorts of subjects. They have a decided love of +poetry, and exhibit great facility in improvising verses and poems on +all occasions, and they sing, everywhere, from morning to night. Like +the Finns they possess rich stores of national songs. These, which bear +an unmistakable family likeness to those of the great Finnish epic of +the _Kalevala_, were collected as the Kalevi Poeg, and edited by +Kreutswald (1857), and translated into German by Reinthal (1857-1859) +and Bertram (1861) and by Lowe (1900). Other collections of _Esthnische +Volkslieder_ have been published by Neuss (1850-1852) and Kreutzwald and +Neuss (1854); while Kreutzwald (1866) and Jannsen (1888) have published +collections of legends and national tales. The earliest publication in +Esthonian was a Lutheran catechism in the 16th century. An Esthonian +translation of the New Testament was printed at Reval in 1715. Between +1813 and 1832 there appeared at Pernau twenty volumes of _Beitrage zur +genauern Kenntniss der esthnischen Sprache_, by Rosenplanter, and from +1840 onwards many valuable papers on Esthonian subjects were contributed +to the _Verhandlungen der gelehrten esthnischen Gesellschaft zu Dorpat_. +F.J. Wiedemann, who laboured indefatigably in the registration and +preservation of matters connected with Esthonian language and lore, +published an _Esthnisch-deutsches Worterbuch_ (1865; 2nd ed. by Hurt, +1891, &c.), and in 1903 there appeared at Reval a _Deutsch-esthnisches +Worterbuch_, by Ploompun and Kann. + +The Esthonians first appear in history as a warlike and predatory race, +the terror of the Baltic seamen in consequence of their piracies. More +than one of the Danish kings made serious attempts to subdue them. +Canute VI. invaded their country (1194-1196) and forced baptism upon +many of them, but no sooner did his war-ships disappear than they +reverted to their former heathenism. In 1219 Waldemar II. undertook a +more formidable crusade against them, in the course of which he founded +the town and episcopal see of Reval. By his efforts the northern portion +of the race were made submissive to the Danish crown; but, though +conquered, they were by no means subdued, and were incessantly in +revolt, until, after a great rebellion in 1343, Waldemar IV. Atterdag +sold for 19,000 marks his portion of Esthonia in 1346, to the order of +the Knights of the Sword. These German crusaders had already, after a +quarter of a century's fighting, in 1224 gained possession of the +regions inhabited by the southern portion of the race, that is those now +included in Livonia. From that time for nearly six hundred years or more +the Esthonians were practically reduced to a state of serfdom to the +German landowners. In 1521 the nobles and cities of Esthonia voluntarily +placed themselves under the protection of the crown of Sweden; but after +the wars of Charles XII., Esthonia was formally ceded to his victorious +rival, Peter the Great, by the peace of Nystad (1721). Serfdom was +abolished in 1817 by Tsar Alexander I.; but the condition of the +peasants was so little improved that they rose in open revolt in 1859. +Since 1878, however, a vast change for the better has been effected in +their economic position (see above). The determining feature of their +recent history has been the attempt made by the Russian government +(since 1881) and the Orthodox Greek Church (since 1883) to russify and +convert the inhabitants of the province, Germans and Esths alike, by +enforcing the use of Russian in the schools and by harsh and repressive +measures aimed at their native language. + + See Merkel, _Die freien Letten und Esthen_ (1820); Parrot, _Versuch + einer Entwickelung der Sprache, Abstammung, &c., der Liwen, Latten, + Eesten_ (1839); F. Kruse, _Urgeschichte des esthnischen Volksstammes_ + (1846); Wiedemann, _Grammatik der esthnischen Sprache_ (1875), and + _Aus dem innern und aussern Leben der Esthen_ (1876); Koppen, _Die + Bewohner Esthlands_ (1847); F. Muller, _Beitrage zur Orographie und + Hydrographie von Esthland_ (1869-1871); Bunge, _Das Herzogthum + Esthland unter den Konigen von Danemark_ (1877); and Seraphim, + _Geschichte Liv-, Est-, und Kurlands_ (2nd ed., 1897) and various + papers in the _Finnisch-Ugrische Forschungen_. + (P. A. K.; J. T. Be.; C. El.) + + + + +ESTIENNE (or ETIENNE; the French form of the name; anglicized to +Stephens, and latinized to Stephanus), a French family of scholars and +printers. + +The founder of the race was HENRI ESTIENNE (d. 1520), the scion of a +noble family of Provence, who came to Paris in 1502, and soon afterwards +set up a printing establishment at the top of the rue Saint-Jean de +Beauvais, on the hill of Saint-Genevieve opposite the law school. He +died in 1520, and, his three sons being minors, the business was +carried on by his foreman Simon de Colines, who in 1521 married his +widow. + +ROBERT ESTIENNE (1503-1559) was Henri's second son. After his father's +death he acted as assistant to his stepfather, and in this capacity +superintended the printing of a Latin edition of the New Testament in +16mo (1523). Some slight alterations which he had introduced into the +text brought upon him the censures of the faculty of theology. It was +the first of a long series of disputes between him and that body. It +appears that he had intimate relations with the new Evangelical +preachers almost from the beginning of the movement, and that soon after +this time he definitely joined the Reformed Church. In 1526 he entered +into possession of his father's printing establishment, and adopted as +his device the celebrated olive-tree (a reminiscence doubtless of his +grandmother's family of Montolivet), with the motto from the epistle to +the Romans (xi. 20), _Noli altum sapere_, sometimes with the addition +_sed time_. In 1528 he married Perrette, a daughter of the scholar and +printer Josse Bade (Jodocus Badius), and in the same year he published +his first Latin Bible, an edition in folio, upon which he had been at +work for the last four years. In 1532 appeared his _Thesaurus linguae +Latinae_, a dictionary of Latin words and phrases, upon which for two +years he had toiled incessantly, with no other assistance than that of +Thierry of Beauvais. A second edition, greatly enlarged and improved, +appeared in 1536, and a third, still further improved, in 3 vols. folio, +in 1543. Though the _Thesaurus_ is now superseded, its merits must not +be forgotten. It was vastly superior to anything of the kind that had +appeared before; it formed the basis of future labours, and even as late +as 1734 was considered worthy of being re-edited. In 1539 Robert was +appointed king's printer for Hebrew and Latin, an office to which, after +the death of Conrad Neobar in 1540, he united that of king's printer for +Greek. In 1541 he was entrusted by Francis I. with the task of procuring +from Claude Garamond, the engraver and type-founder, three sets of Greek +type for the royal press. The middle size were the first ready, and with +these Robert printed the _editio princeps_ of the _Ecclesiasticae +Historiae_ of Eusebius and others (1544). The smallest size were first +used for the 16mo edition of the New Testament known as the _O +mirificam_ (1546), while with the largest size was printed the +magnificent folio of 1550. This edition involved the printer in fresh +disputes with the faculty of theology, and towards the end of the +following year he left his native town for ever, and took refuge at +Geneva, where he published in 1552 a caustic and effective answer to his +persecutors under the title _Ad censuras theologorum Parisiensium, +quibus Biblia a R. Stephano, Typographo Regio, ex usa calumniose +notarunt, eiusdem R. S. responsio_. A French translation, which is +remarkable for the excellence of its style, was published by him in the +same year (printed in Renouard's _Annales de l'imprimerie des +Estienne_). At Geneva Robert proved himself an ardent partisan of +Calvin, several of whose works he published. He died there on the 7th of +September 1559. + + It is by his work in connexion with the Bible, and especially as an + editor of the New Testament, that he is on the whole best known. The + text of his New Testament of 1550, either in its original form or in + such slightly modified form as it assumed in the Elzevir text of 1634, + remains to this day the traditional text. But this is due rather to + its typographical beauty than to any critical merit. The readings of + the fifteen MSS. which Robert's son Henri had collated for the purpose + were merely introduced into the margin. The text was still almost + exactly that of Erasmus. It was, however, the first edition ever + published with a critical apparatus of any sort. Of the whole Bible + Robert printed eleven editions--eight in Latin, two in Hebrew and one + in French; while of the New Testament alone he printed twelve--five in + Greek, five in Latin and two in French. In the Greek New Testament of + 1551 (printed at Geneva) the present division into verses was + introduced for the first time. The _editiones principes_ which issued + from Robert's press were eight in number, viz. _Eusebius_, including + the _Praeparatio evangelica_ and the _Demonstratio evangelica_ as well + as the _Historia ecclesiastica_ already mentioned (1544-1546), + _Moschopulus_ (1545), _Dionysius of Halicarnassus_ (February 1547), + _Alexander Trallianus_ (January 1548), _Dio Cassius_ (January 1548), + _Justin Martyr_ (1551), _Xiphilinus_ (1551), _Appian_ (1551), the last + being completed, after Robert's departure from Paris, by his brother + Charles, and appearing under his name. These editions, all in folio, + except the _Moschopulus_, which is in 4to, are unrivalled for beauty. + Robert also printed numerous editions of Latin classics, of which + perhaps the folio _Virgil_ of 1532 is the most noteworthy, and a large + quantity of Latin grammars and other educational works, many of which + were written by Maturin Cordier, his friend and co-worker in the cause + of humanism. + +CHARLES ESTIENNE (1504 or 1505-1564), the third son of Henri, was, like +his brother Robert, a man of considerable learning. After the usual +humanistic training he studied medicine, and took his doctor's degree at +Paris. He was for a time tutor to Jean Antoine de Baif, the future poet. +In 1551, when Robert Estienne left Paris for Geneva, Charles, who had +remained a Catholic, took charge of his printing establishment, and in +the same year was appointed king's printer. In 1561 he became bankrupt, +and he is said to have died in a debtors' prison. + + His principal works are _Praedium Rusticum_ (1554), a collection of + tracts which he had compiled from ancient writers on various branches + of agriculture, and which continued to be a favourite book down to the + end of the 17th century; _Dictionarium historicum ac poeticum_ (1553), + the first French encyclopaedia; _Thesaurus Ciceronianus_ (1557), and + _De dissectione partium corporis humani libri tres_, with well-drawn + woodcuts (1548). He also published a translation of an Italian comedy, + _Gli Ingannati_, under the title of _Le Sacrifice_ (1543; republished + as _Les Abusez_, 1549), which had some influence on the development of + French comedy; and _Paradoxes_ (1553), an imitation of the _Paradossi_ + of Ortensio Landi. + +HENRI ESTIENNE (1531-1598), sometimes called Henri II., was the eldest +son of Robert. In the preface to his edition of Aulus Gellius (1585), +addressed to his son Paul, he gives an interesting account of his +father's household, in which, owing to the various nationalities of +those who were employed on the press, Latin was used as a common +language. Henri thus picked up Latin as a child, but by his own request +he was allowed to learn Greek as a serious study before Latin. At the +age of fifteen he become a pupil of Pierre Danes, at that time the first +Greek scholar in France. Two years later he began to attend the lectures +of Jacques Toussain, one of the royal professors of Greek, and in the +same year (1545) was employed by his father to collate a MS. of +Dionysius of Halicarnassus. In 1547 he went to Italy, where he spent +three years in hunting for and collating MSS. and in intercourse with +learned men. In 1550 he visited England, where he was favourably +received by Edward VI., and then Flanders, where he learnt Spanish. In +1551 he joined his father at Geneva, which henceforth became his home. +In 1554 he gave to the world, as the first fruits of his researches, two +first editions, viz. a tract of Dionysius of Halicarnassus and the +so-called "Anacreon." In 1556 he discovered at Rome ten new books +(xi.-xx.) of Diodorus Siculus. In 1557 he issued from the press which in +the previous year he had set up at Geneva three first editions, viz. +_Athenagoras, Maximus Tyrius_, and some fragments of Greek historians, +including Appian's [Greek: Annibalike], and [Greek: Iberike] and an +edition of Aeschylus, in which for the first time the _Agamemnon_ was +printed in entirety and as a separate play. In 1559 he printed a Latin +translation from his own pen of Sextus Empiricus, and an edition of +Diodorus Siculus with the new books. His father dying in the same year, +he became under his will owner of his press, subject, however, to the +condition of keeping it at Geneva. In 1566 he published his best-known +French work, the _Apologie pour Herodote_, or, as he himself called it, +_L'Introduction au traite de la conformite des merveilles anciennes avec +les modernes ou Traite preparatif a l'Apologie pour Herodote_. Some +passages being considered objectionable by the Geneva consistory, he was +compelled to cancel the pages containing them. The book became highly +popular, and within sixteen years twelve editions were printed. In 1572 +he published the great work upon which he had been labouring for many +years, the _Thesaurus Graecae linguae_, in 5 vols. fol. The publication +in 1578 of his _Deux Dialogues du nouveau francois ilalianize_ brought +him into a fresh dispute with the consistory. To avoid their censure he +went to Paris, and resided at the French court for a year. On his return +to Geneva he was summoned before the consistory, and, proving +contumacious, was imprisoned for a week. From this time his life became +more and more of a nomad one. He is to be found at Basel, Heidelberg, +Vienna, Pest, everywhere but at Geneva, these journeys being undertaken +partly in the hope of procuring patrons and purchasers, for the large +sums which he had spent on such publications as the _Thesaurus_ and the +_Plato_ of 1578 had almost ruined him. His press stood nearly at a +standstill. A few editions of classical authors were brought out, but +each successive one showed a falling off. Such value as the later ones +had was chiefly due to the notes furnished by Casaubon, who in 1586 had +married his daughter Florence. His last years were marked by +ever-increasing infirmity of mind and temper. In 1597 he left Geneva for +the last time. After visiting Montpellier, where Casaubon was now +professor, he started for Paris, but was seized with sudden illness at +Lyons, and died there at the end of January 1598. + + Few men have ever served the cause of learning more devotedly. For + over thirty years the amount which he produced, whether as printer, + editor or original writer, was enormous. The productions of his press, + though printed with the same beautiful type as his father's books, + are, owing to the poorness of the paper and ink, inferior to them in + general beauty. The best, perhaps, from a typographical point of view, + are the _Poetae Graeci principes_ (folio, 1566), the _Plutarch_ (13 + vols. 8vo, 1572), and the _Plato_ (3 vols. folio, 1578). It was rather + his scholarship which gave value to his editions. He was not only his + own press-corrector but his own editor. Though by the latter half of + the 16th century nearly all the important Greek and Latin authors that + we now possess had been published, his untiring activity still found + some gleanings. Eighteen first editions of Greek authors and one of a + Latin author are due to his press. The most important have been + already mentioned. Henri's reputation as a scholar and editor has + increased of late years. His familiarity with the Greek language has + always been admitted to have been quite exceptional; but he has been + accused of want of taste and judgment, of carelessness and rashness. + Special censure has been passed on his _Plutarch_, in which he is said + to have introduced conjectures of his own into the text, while + pretending to have derived them from MS. authority. But a late editor, + Sintenis, has shown that, though like all the other editors of his day + he did not give references to his authorities, every one of his + supposed conjectures can be traced to some MS. Whatever may be said as + to his taste or his judgment, it seems that he was both careful and + scrupulous, and that he only resorted to conjecture when authority + failed him. And, whatever the merit of his conjectures, he was at any + rate the first to show what conjecture could do towards restoring a + hopelessly corrupt passage. The work, however, on which his fame as a + scholar is most surely based is the _Thesaurus Graecae linguae_. After + making due allowance for the fact that considerable materials for the + work had been already collected by his father, and that he received + considerable assistance from the German scholar Sylburg, he is still + entitled to the very highest praise as the producer of a work which + was of the greatest service to scholarship and which in those early + days of Greek learning could have been produced by no one but a giant. + Two editions of the _Thesaurus_ were published in the 19th century--at + London by Valpy (1815-1825) and at Paris by Didot (1831-1863). + + It was one of Henri Estienne's great merits that, unlike nearly all + the French scholars who preceded him, he did not neglect his own + language. In the _Traite de la conformite du langage francois avec le + Grec_ (published in 1565, but without date; ed. L. Feugere, 1850), + French is asserted to have, among modern languages, the most affinity + with Greek, the first of all languages. _Deux Dialogues du nouveau + francois italianize_ (Geneva, 1578; ed. P. Ristelhuber, 2 vols., 1885) + was directed against the fashion prevailing in the court of Catherine + de' Medici of using Italian words and forms. The _Project du livre + intitule de la Precellence du langage francois_ (Paris, 1579; ed. E. + Huguet, 1896) treats of the superiority of French to Italian. An + interesting feature of the _Precellence_ is the account of French + proverbs, and, Henry III. having expressed some doubts as to the + genuineness of some of them, Henri Estienne published, in 1594, _Les + Premices ou le I. livre des Proverbes epigrammatizez_ (never reprinted + and very rare). + + Finally, there remains the _Apologie pour Herodote_, his most famous + work. The ostensible object of the book is to show that the strange + stories in Herodotus may be paralleled by equally strange ones of + modern times. Virtually it is a bitter satire on the writer's age, + especially on the Roman Church. Put together without any method, its + extreme desultoriness makes it difficult to read continuously, but the + numerous stories, collected partly from various literary sources, + notably from the preachers Menot and Maillard, partly from the + writer's own multifarious experience, with which it is packed, make it + an interesting commentary on the manners and fashions of the time. But + satire, to be effective, should be either humorous or righteously + indignant, and, while such humour as there is in the _Apologie_ is + decidedly heavy, the writer's indignation is generally forgotten in + his evident relish for scandal. The style is, after all, its chief + merit. Though it bears evident traces of hurry, it is, like that of + all Henri Estienne's French writings, clear, easy and vigorous, + uniting the directness and sensuousness of the older writers with a + suppleness and logical precision which at this time were almost new + elements in French prose. An edition of the _Apologie_ has recently + been published by Liseux (ed. Ristelhuber, 2 vols., 1879), after one + of the only two copies of the original uncancelled edition that are + known to exist. The very remarkable political pamphlet entitled + _Discours merveilleux de la vie et actions et deportemens de Catherine + de Medicis_, which appeared in 1574, has been ascribed to Henri + Estienne, but the evidence both internal and external is conclusive + against his being the author of it. Of his Latin writings the most + worthy of notice are the _De Latinitate falso suspecta_ (1576), the + _Pseudo-Cicero_ (1577) and the _Nizoliodidascalus_ (1578), all three + written against the Ciceronians, and the _Francofordiense Emporium_ + (1574), a panegyric on the Frankfort fair (reprinted with a French + translation by Liseux, 1875). He also wrote a large quantity of + indifferent Latin verses, including a long poem entitled _Musa + monitrix Principum_ (Basel, 1590). + + The primary authorities for an account of the Estiennes are their own + works. In the garrulous and egotistical prefaces which Henri was in + the habit of prefixing to his editions will be found many scattered + biographical details. Twenty-seven letters from Henri to John Crato of + Crafftheim (ed. F. Passow, 1830) have been printed, and there is one + of Robert's in Herminjard's _Correspondence des Reformateurs dans de + pays de langue francaise_ (9 vols. published 1866-1897), while a few + other contemporary references to him will be found in the same work. + The secondary authorities are Janssen van Almeloveen, _De vitis + Stephanorum_ (Amsterdam, 1683); Maittaire, _Stephanorum historia_ + (London, 1709); A.A. Renouard, _Annales de l'imprimerie des Estienne_ + (2nd ed., Paris, 1843); the article on Estienne by A.F. Didot in the + _Nouv. Biog. gen._; Mark Pattison, _Essays_, i. 67 ff. (1889); L. + Clement, _Henri Estienne et son oeuvre francaise_ (Paris, 1899). There + is a good account of Henri's _Thesaurus_ in the _Quart. Rev._ for + January 1820, written by Bishop Bromfield. (A. A. T.) + + + + +ESTON, an urban district in the Cleveland parliamentary division of the +North Riding of Yorkshire, England, 4 m. S.E. of Middlesbrough, on a +branch of the North Eastern railway. Pop. (1901) 11,199. This is one of +the principal centres from which the great ironstone deposits of the +Cleveland Hills are worked, and there are extensive blast-furnaces, +iron-foundries and steam sawing-mills in the district. Immediately W. of +Eston lies the urban district of Ormesby (pop. 9482), and the whole +district is densely populated (see MIDDLESBROUGH). Marton, west of +Ormesby, was the birthplace of Captain Cook (1728). Numerous early +earthworks fringe the hills to the south. + + + + +ESTOPPEL (from O. Fr. _estopper_, to stop, bar; _estoupe_, mod. +_etoupe_, a plug of tow; Lat. _stuppa_), a rule in the law of evidence +by which a party in litigation is prohibited from asserting or denying +something, when such assertion or denial would be inconsistent with his +own previous statements or conduct. Estoppel is said to arise in three +ways--(1) by record or judgment, (2) by deed, and (3) by matter _in +pais_ or conduct. (1) Where a cause of action has been tried and final +judgment has been pronounced, the judgment is conclusive--either party +attempting to renew the litigation by a new action would be estopped by +the judgment. "Every judgment is conclusive proof as against parties and +privies, of facts directly in issue in the case, actually decided by the +court, and appearing from the judgment itself to be the ground on which +it was based."--Stephen's _Digest of the Law of Evidence_, Art. 41. (2) +It is one of the privileges of _deeds_ as distinguished from simple +contracts that they operate by way of estoppel. "A man shall always be +estopped by his own deed, or not permitted to aver or prove anything in +contradiction to what he has once so solemnly and deliberately avowed" +(Blackstone, 2 _Com._ 295); e.g. where a bond recited that the +defendants were authorized by acts of parliament to borrow money, and +that under such authority they had borrowed money from a certain person, +they were estopped from setting up as a defence that they did not in +fact so borrow money, as stated by their deed. (3) Estoppel by conduct, +or, as it is still sometimes called, estoppel by matter _in pais_, is +the most important head. The rule practically comes to this that, when a +person in his dealings with others has acted so as to induce them to +believe a thing to be true and to act on such belief, he may not in any +proceeding between himself and them deny the thing to be true: e.g. a +partner retiring from a firm without giving notice to the customers, +cannot, as against a customer having no knowledge of his retirement, +deny that he is a partner. As between landlord and tenant the principle +operates to prevent the denial by the tenant of the landlord's title. So +if a person comes upon land by the licence of the person in possession, +he cannot deny that the licenser had a title to the possession at the +time the licence was given. Again, if a man accepts a bill of exchange +he may not deny the signature or the capacity of the drawer. So a person +receiving goods as baillee from another cannot deny the title of that +other to the goods at the time they were entrusted to him. + +Estoppel of whatever kind is subject to one general rule, that it cannot +override the law of the land; for example, a corporation would not be +estopped as to acts which are _ultra vires_. + + See L.F. Everest and E. Strode, _The Law of Estoppel_; M. Cababe, + _Principles of Estoppel_. + + + + +ESTOUTEVILLE, GUILLAUME D' (1403-1483), French ecclesiastic, was bishop +of Angers, of Digne, of Porto and Santa Rufina, of Ostia and Velletri, +archbishop of Rouen, prior of Saint Martin des Champs, abbot of Mont St +Michel, of St Ouen at Rouen, and of Montebourg. He was sent to France as +legate by Pope Nicholas V. to make peace between Charles VII. and +England (1451), and undertook, _ex officio_, the revision of the trial +of Joan of Arc; he afterwards reformed the statutes of the university of +Paris. He then went to preside over the assembly of clergy which met at +Bourges to discuss the observation of the Pragmatic Sanction (see BASEL, +COUNCIL OF), finally returning to Rome, where he passed almost all the +rest of his life. He was a great builder, Rouen, Mont St Michel, +Pontoise and Gaillon owing many noble buildings to his initiative. + + + + +ESTOVERS (from the O. Fr. _estover_, _estovoir_, a verb used as a +substantive in the sense of that which is necessary; the word is of +disputed origin; it has been referred to the Lat. _stare_, to stand, or +_studere_, to desire), a term, in English law, for the wood which a +tenant for life or years may take from the land he holds for repair of +his house, the implements of husbandry, and the hedges and fences, and +for firewood. The O. Eng. word for estover was _bote_ or _boot_ +(literally meaning "good," "profit," the same word as seen in "better"). +The various kinds of estovers were thus known as house-bote, cart or +plough-bote, hedge or hay-bote, and fire-bote respectively. These rights +may, of course, be restricted by express covenants. Copyholders have +similar rights over the land they occupy and over the waste of the +manor, in which case the rights are known as "Commons of estovers." (See +COMMONS.) + + + + +ESTRADA, LA, a town of north-western Spain, in the province of +Pontevedra, 15 m. S. by E. of Santiago de Compostela. Pop. (1900) +23,916. La Estrada is the chief town of a densely-populated mountainous +district; its industries are agriculture, stock-breeding, and the +manufacture of linen and woollen cloth. Timber from the mountain forests +is conveyed from La Estrada to the river Ulla, 4 m. N., and thence +floated down to the seaports on Arosa Bay. The nearest railway-station +is Requeijo, 7 m. W., on the Pontevedra-Santiago railway. There are +mineral springs at La Estrada and at Caldas de Reyes, 11 m. W.S.W. + + + + +ESTRADE, a French architectural term for a raised platform (see DAIS). +In the Levant the estrade of a divan is called Sopha (Blondel), from +which comes our "sofa." + + + + +ESTRADES, GODEFROI, COMTE D' (1607-1686), French diplomatist and +marshal, was born at Agen. He was the son of Francois d'Estrades (d. +1653), a partisan of Henry IV., and brother of Jean d'Estrades, bishop +of Condom. He became a page to Louis XIII., and at the age of nineteen +was sent on a mission to Maurice of Holland. In 1646 he was named +ambassador extraordinary to Holland, and took part in the conferences at +Munster. Sent in 1661 to England, he obtained in 1662 the restitution of +Dunkirk. In 1667 he negotiated the treaty of Breda with the king of +Denmark, and in 1678 the treaty of Nijmwegen, which ended the war with +Holland. Independently of these diplomatic missions, he took part in the +principal campaigns of Louis XIV., in Italy (1648), in Catalonia (1655), +in Holland (1672); and was created marshal of France in 1675. He left +_Lettres, memoires et negociations en qualite d'ambassadeur en Hollande +depuis 1663 jusqu' en 1668_, of which the first edition in 1700 was +followed by a nine-volume edition (London (the Hague), 1743). + +Of the sons of Godefroi d'Estrades, Jean Francois d'Estrades was +ambassador to Venice and Piedmont; Louis, marquis d'Estrades (d. 1711), +succeeded his father as governor of Dunkirk, and was the father of +Godefroi Louis, comte d'Estrades, lieutenant-general, who was killed at +the siege of Belgrade, 1717. + + See Felix Salomon, _Frankreichs Beziehungen zu dem Scottischen + Aufstand_ (1637-1640), containing an excursus on the falsification of + the letters of the comte d'Estrades; Philippe Lauzun, _Le Marechal + d'Estrades_ (Agen, 1896). + + + + +ESTREAT (O. Fr. _estrait_, Lat. _extracta_), originally, a true copy or +duplicate of some original writing or record; now used only with +reference to the enforcement of a forfeited recognizance. At one time it +was the practice to extract and certify into the exchequer copies of +entries in court roils which contained provisions or orders in favour of +the treasury, hence the estreating of a recognizance was the taking out +from among the other records of the court in which it was filed and +sending it to the exchequer to be enforced, or sending it to the sheriff +to be levied by him, and then returned by the clerk of the peace to the +lords of the treasury. (See RECOGNIZANCE.) + + + + +ESTREES, GABRIELLE D' (1573-1599), mistress of Henry IV. of France, was +the daughter of Antoine d'Estrees, marquis of Coeuvres, and Francoise +Babou de la Bourdaisiere. Henry IV., who in November 1590 stayed at the +castle of Coeuvres, became violently enamoured of her. Her father, +anxious to save his daughter from so perilous an entanglement, married +her to Nicholas d'Amerval, seigneur de Liancourt, but the union proved +unhappy, and in December 1592, Gabrielle, whose affection for the king +was sincere, became his mistress. She lived with him from December 1592 +onwards, and bore him several children, who were recognized and +legitimized by him. She possessed the king's entire confidence; he +willingly listened to her advice, and created her marchioness of +Monceaux, duchess of Beaufort (1597) and Etampes (1598), a peeress of +France. The king even proposed to marry her in the event of the success +of his suit for the nullification by the Holy See of his marriage with +Margaret of Valois; but before the question was settled Gabrielle died, +on the 10th of April 1599. Poison was of course suspected; but her death +was really caused by puerperal convulsions (_eclampsia_). + + See Adrien Desclozeaux, _Gabrielle d'Estrees, Marquise de Monceaux, + &c_. (Paris, 1889). + + + + +ESTREMADURA, or EXTREMADURA, an ancient territorial division of central +and western Portugal, and of western Spain; comprising the modern +districts of Leiria, Santarem and Lisbon, in Portugal, and the modern +provinces of Badajoz and Caceres in Spain. Pop. (1900) 2,095,818; area, +23,055 sq. m. The name of Estremadura appears to be of early Romance or +Late Latin origin, and probably was applied to all the far western lands +(_extrema ora_) bordering upon the lower Tagus, as far as the Atlantic +Ocean. It is thus equivalent to _Land's End_, or _Finistere_. In popular +speech it is more commonly used than the names of the modern divisions +mentioned above, which were created in the 19th century. As, however, +there are many racial, economic and historic differences between +Portuguese and Spanish Estremadura, the two provinces are separately +described below. + +1. Portuguese Estremadura is bounded on the N. by Beira, E. and S. by +Alemtejo, and W. by the Atlantic Ocean. Pop. (1900) 1,221,418; area, +6937 sq. m. The greatest length of the province, from N. to S., is 165 +m.; its greatest breadth, from E. to W., is 72 m. The general uniformity +of the coast-line is broken by the broad and deep estuaries of the Tagus +and the Sado, and by the four conspicuous promontories of Cape +Carvoeiro, Cape da Roca, Cape Espichel and Cape de Sines. The Tagus is +the great navigable waterway of Portuguese Estremadura, flowing from +north-east to south-west, and fed by many minor tributaries, notably the +Zezere on the right and the Zatas on the left. It divides the country +into two nearly equal portions, wholly dissimilar in surface and +character. South of the Tagus the land is almost everywhere low, flat +and monotonous, while in several places it is rendered unhealthy by +undrained marshes. The Sado, which issues into Setubal Bay, is the only +important river of this region. North of the Tagus, and parallel with +its right bank, extends the mountain chain which is known at its +northern extremity as the Serra do Aire and, where it terminates above +Cape da Roca, as the Serra da Cintra. This ridge, which is buttressed on +all sides by lesser groups of hills, and includes part of the famous +lines of Torres Vedras (q.v.), exceeds 2200 ft. in height, and +constitutes the watershed between the right-hand tributaries of the +Tagus and the Liz, Sizandro and other small rivers which flow into the +Atlantic. On its seaward side, except for the line of sheer and lofty +cliffs between Cape Carvoeiro and Cape da Roca, the country is mostly +flat and sandy, with extensive heaths and pine forests; but along the +fertile and well-cultivated right bank of the Tagus the river scenery, +with its terraced hills of vines, olives and fruit trees, often +resembles that of the Rhine in Germany. The natural resources of +Portuguese Estremadura, with its inhabitants, industries, commerce, +communications, &c., are described under PORTUGAL; for on such matters +there is little to be said of this central and most characteristic +province which does not apply to the whole kingdom. Separate articles +are also devoted to Lisbon, the capital, and Abrantes, Cintra, Leiria, +Mafra, Santarem, Setubal, Thomar, Torres Novas and Torres Vedras, the +other chief towns. The women of Peniche, a small fishing village on the +promontory of Cape Carvoeiro, have long been celebrated throughout +Portugal for their skill in the manufacture of fine laces. + +2. Spanish Estremadura is bounded on the N. by Leon and Old Castile, E. +by New Castile, S. by Andalusia, and W. by the Portuguese province of +Beira and Alemtejo, which separate it from Portuguese Estremadura. Pop. +(1900) 882,410; area, 16,118 sq. m. Spanish Estremadura consists of a +tableland separated from Leon and Old Castile by the lofty Sierra de +Gredos, the plateau of Bejar and the Sierra de Gata, which form an +almost continuous barrier along the northern frontier, with its summits +ranging from 6000 to more than 8500 ft. in altitude. On the south the +comparatively low range of the Sierra Morena constitutes the frontier of +Andalusia; on the east and west there is a still more gradual transition +to the plateau of New Castile and the central plains of Portugal. The +tableland of Spanish Estremadura is itself bisected from east to west by +a line of mountains, the Sierras of San Pedro, Montanchez and Guadalupe +(4000-6000 ft.), which separate its northern half, drained by the river +Tagus, from its southern half, drained by the Guadiana. These two halves +are respectively known as Alta or Upper Estremadura (the modern +Caceres), and Baja or Lower Estremadura (the modern Badajoz). The Tagus +and Guadiana flow from east to west through a monotonous country, level +or slightly undulating, often almost uninhabited, and covered with a +thin growth of shrubs and grass. Perhaps the most characteristic feature +of this tableland is the vast heaths of gum-cistus, which in spring +colour the whole landscape with leagues of yellow blossom, and in summer +change to a brown and arid wilderness. + +The climate in summer is hot but not unhealthy, except in the swamps +which occur along the Guadiana. The rainfall is scanty; dew, however, is +abundant and the nights are cool. Although the high mountains are +covered with snow in November, the winters are not usually severe. The +soil is naturally fertile, but drought, floods and locusts render +agriculture difficult, and sheep-farming is the most important of +Estremaduran industries. (See SPAIN: _Agriculture_.) In the 19th +century, however, this industry lost much of its former importance owing +to foreign competition. + +Immense herds of swine are bred and constitute a great source of support +to the inhabitants, not only supplying them with food, but also forming +a great article of export to other provinces--the pork, bacon and hams +being in high esteem. The beech, oak and chestnut woods afford an +abundance of food for swine, and there are numerous plantations of +olive, cork and fruit trees, but a far greater area of forest has been +destroyed. For an account of commerce, mining, communications, &c., in +Spanish Estremadura, with a list of the chief towns, see CACERES and +BADAJOZ. In character and physical type, the people of this region are +less easily classified than those of other Spanish provinces. They lack +the endurance and energy of the Galicians, the independent and +enterprising spirit of the Asturians, Basques and Catalans, the culture +of the Castilians and Andalusians. Their failure to develop a +distinctive local type of character and civilization is perhaps due to +the adverse economic history of their country. The two great waterways +which form the natural outlet for Estremaduran commerce flow to the +Atlantic through a foreign and, for centuries, a hostile territory. Like +other parts of Spain, Estremadura suffered severely from the expulsion +of the Jews and Moors (1492-1610), while the compensating treasure, +derived during the same period from Spanish America, never reached a +province so remote at once from the sea and from the chief centres of +national life. Although Cortes (1485-1547), the conqueror of Mexico and +Pizarro (c. 1471-1541), the conqueror of Peru, were both born in +Estremadura, their exploits, far from bringing prosperity to their +native province, only encouraged the emigration of its best inhabitants. +Heavy taxation and harsh land-laws prevented any recovery, while the +felling of the forests reduced many fertile areas to waste land, and +rendered worse a climate already unfavourable to agriculture. Few +countries leave upon the mind of the traveller a deeper impression of +hopeless poverty. + + + + +ESTREMOZ, a town of Portugal, in the district of Evora, formerly +included in the province of Alemtejo; 104 m. by rail E. of Lisbon, on +the Casa Branca-Evora-Elvas railway. Pop. (1900) 7920. Estremoz is built +at the base of a hill crowned by a large dismantled citadel; its +fortifications, which in the 17th century accommodated 20,000 troops and +rendered the town one of the principal defences of the frontier, are now +obsolete. There are marble quarries in the neighbourhood, and the +Estremoz _bilhas_, red earthenware jars, are used throughout Portugal as +water-holders and exported to Spain. At Ameixial (1188) and Monies +Claros, near Estremoz, the Spanish were severely defeated by the +Portuguese in 1663 and 1665. Villa Vicosa (3841), 10 m. S.E., is a town +of pre-Roman origin, containing a royal palace. The altars with Latin +inscriptions to the Iberian god Endovellicus, found at Villa Vicosa, are +preserved in the museum of the Royal Academy of Sciences, Lisbon. + + + + +ESTUARY (from the Lat. _aestuarium_, a place reached by _aestus_, the +tide), an arm of the sea narrowing inwards at the mouth of a river where +sea and fresh water meet and are mixed, i.e. the tidal portion of a +river's mouth. Structurally the estuary may represent the long-continued +action of river erosion and tidal erosion confined to a narrow channel, +most effective where most concentrated, or an estuary may be the drowned +portion of the lower part of a river-valley. In a map of Britain showing +sea-depths it will be observed that under the Severn estuary the sea +deepens in a number of steps descending by concentric V's that become +blunter towards deep water until the last is a mere indentation pointing +towards the long narrow termination of the present estuary. In this and +in similar cases the progress of the estuary is indicated upon what is +now the continental shelf. The chief interest in estuarine conditions is +the mingling of sea and fresh water. Where, as in the Severn and the +Thames, the fresh water meets the sea gradually the water is mixed, and +there is very little change in salinity at high tide. The fresh water +flows over the salt water and there is a continuous rapid change, in +salinity towards the sea, for the currents sweeping in and out mix the +water constantly. Where the river brings down a great quantity of fresh +water in a narrow channel, the change of salinity at high and low water +is very marked. "When, however, the inlet is very large compared with +the river, and there is no bar at the opening, the estuarine character +is only shown at the upper end. In the Firth of Forth, for example, the +landward half is an estuary, but in the seaward half the water has +become more thoroughly mixed, the salinity is almost uniform from +surface to bottom, and increases very gradually towards the sea. The +river-water meets the sea diffused uniformly through a deep mass of +water scarcely fresher than the sea itself, so that the two mix +uniformly, and the sea becomes slightly freshened throughout its whole +depth for many miles from land" (H.R. Mill, _Realm of Nature_, 1897). + + + + +ESZTERGOM (Ger. _Gran_; Lat. _Strigonium_), a town of Hungary, capital +of the county of the same name, 36 m. N.W. of Budapest by rail. Pop. +(1900) 16,948, mostly Magyars and Roman Catholics. It is situated on the +right bank of the Danube, nearly opposite the confluence of the Gran, +and is divided into the town proper and three suburbs. The town is the +residence of the primate of Hungary, and its cathedral, built in +1821-1870, after the model of St Peter's at Rome, is one of the finest +and largest in the country. It is picturesquely built on an elevated and +commanding position, 215 ft. above the Danube, and its dome, visible +from a long distance, is 260 ft. high, and has a diameter of 52 ft. The +interior is very richly decorated, notably with fine frescoes, and its +treasury and fine library of over 60,000 volumes are famous. Besides +several other churches and two monastic houses, the principal buildings +include the handsome palace of the primate, erected in 1883; the +archiepiscopal library, with valuable incunabula and old MSS.; the +seminary for the education of Roman Catholic priests; the residences of +the chapter; and the town-hall. The population is chiefly employed in +cloth-weaving, wine-making and agricultural pursuits. An iron bridge, +1664 ft. long, connects Esztergom with the market town of Parkany (pop. +2836) on the opposite bank of the Danube. + +Esztergom is one of the oldest towns of Hungary, and is famous as the +birthplace of St Stephen, the first prince crowned "apostolic king" of +Hungary. During the early times of the Hungarian monarchy it was the +most important mercantile centre in the country, and it was the +meeting-place of the diets of 1016, 1111, 1114 and 1256. It was almost +completely destroyed by Tatar hordes in 1241, but was rebuilt and +fortified by King Bela IV. In 1543 it fell into the hands of the Turks, +from whom it was recovered, in 1595, by Carl von Mansfeld. In 1604 it +reverted to the Turks, who held it till 1683, when it was regained by +the united forces of John Sobieski, king of Poland, and Prince Charles +of Lorraine. It was created an archbishopric in 1001. During the Turkish +occupation of the town the archbishopric was removed to Tyrnau, while +the archbishop himself had his residence in Pressburg. Both returned to +Esztergom in 1820. In 1708 it was declared a free city by Joseph I. On +the 13th of April 1818 it was partly destroyed by fire. + + For numerous authorities on the see and cathedral of Esztergom see V. + Chevalier, _Repertoire des sources_. _Topo-bibliogr._ s.v. "Gran." Of + these may be mentioned especially F. Knauz, _Monumenta Ecclesiae + Strigoniensis_ (3 vols., Eszterg, 1874); Joseph Danko, + _Geschichtliches ... aus dem Graner Domschatz_ (Gran, 1880). + + + + +ETAGERE, a piece of light furniture very similar to the English +what-not, which was extensively made in France during the latter part of +the 18th century. As the name implies, it consists of a series of stages +or shelves for the reception of ornaments or other small articles. Like +the what-not it was very often cornerwise in shape, and the best Louis +XVI. examples in exotic woods are exceedingly graceful and elegant. + + + + +ETAH, a town and district of British India, in the Agra division of the +United Provinces. The town is situated on the Grand Trunk road. Pop. +(1901) 8796. The district has an area of 1737 sq. m. The district +consists for the most part of an elevated alluvial plateau, dipping down +on its eastern slope into the valley of the Ganges. The uplands are +irrigated by the Ganges canal. Between the modern bed of the Ganges and +its ancient channel lies a belt of fertile land, covered with a rich +deposit of silt, and abundantly supplied with natural moisture. A long +line of swamps and hollows still marks the former course of the river; +and above it rises abruptly the original cliff which now forms the +terrace of the upland plain. The Kali Nadi, a small stream flowing in a +deep and narrow gorge, passes through the centre of the district, and +affords an outlet for the surface drainage. Etah was at an early date +the seat of a primitive Aryan civilization, and the surrounding country +is mentioned by Hsuan Tsang, the Chinese Buddhist pilgrim of the 7th +century A.D., as rich in temples and monasteries. But after the bloody +repression of Buddhism before the 8th century, the district seems to +have fallen once more into the hands of aboriginal tribes, from whom it +was wrested a second time by Rajputs during the course of their great +migration eastward. With the rest of upper India it passed under the +sway of Mahmud of Ghazni in 1017, and thenceforth followed the fortunes +of the Mahommedan empire. At the end of the 18th century it formed part +of the territory over which the wazir of Oudh had made himself ruler, +and it came into the possession of the British government in 1801, under +the treaty of Lucknow. During the mutiny of 1857 it was the scene of +serious disturbances, coupled with the usual anarchic quarrels among the +native princes. In 1901 the population was 863,948, showing an increase +of 23% in the decade due to the extension of canal irrigation. It is +traversed by a branch of the Rajputana railway from Agra to Cawnpore, +with stations at Kasganj and Soron, which are the two largest towns. It +has several printing presses, indigo factories, and factories for +pressing cotton, and there is a considerable agricultural export trade. + + + + +ETAMPES, ANNE DE PISSELEU D'HEILLY, DUCHESSE D' (1508-c. 1580), +mistress of Francis I. of France, daughter of Guillaume de Pisseleu, +sieur d'Heilly, a nobleman of Picardy. She came to court before 1522, +and was one of the maids of honour of Louise of Savoy. Francis I. made +her his mistress, probably on his return from his captivity at Madrid +(1526), and soon gave up Madame de Chateaubriant for her. Anne was +sprightly, pretty, witty and cultured, and succeeded in keeping the +favour of the king till the end of the reign (1547). The liaison +received some official recognition; when Queen Eleanor entered Paris +(1530), the king and Anne occupied the same window. In 1533 Francis gave +her in marriage to Jean de Brosse, whom he created duc d'Etampes. The +influence of the duchesse d'Etampes, especially in the last years of the +reign, was considerable. She upheld Admiral Chabot against the constable +de Montmorency, who was supported by her rival, Diane de Poitiers, the +dauphin's mistress. She was a friend to new ideas, and co-operated with +the king's sister, Marguerite d'Angouleme. She used her influence to +elevate and enrich her family, her uncle, Antoine Sanguin (d. 1559), +being made bishop of Orleans in 1535 and a cardinal in 1539.[1] The +accusations made against her of having allowed herself to be won over by +the emperor Charles V. and of playing the traitor in 1544 rest on no +serious proof. After the death of Francis I. (1547) she was dismissed +from the court by Diane de Poitiers, humiliated in every way, and died +in obscurity much later, probably in the reign of Henry III. + + See Paulin Paris, _Etudes sur Francois I^er_ (Paris, 1885). + + +FOOTNOTE: + + [1] The chateau of Meudon, belonging to the Sanguin family, was + handed over to the duchesse d'Etampes in 1539. Sanguin was translated + to Limoges in 1546, and became archbishop of Toulouse in 1550. + + + + +ETAMPES, a town of northern France, capital of an arrondissement in the +department of Seine-et-Oise, on the Orleans railway, 35 m. S. by W. of +Paris. Pop. (1906) 8720. Etampes is a long straggling town hemmed in +between the railway on the north and the Chalouette on the south; the +latter is a tributary of the Juine which waters the eastern outskirts of +the town. A fine view of Etampes is obtained from the Tour Guinette, a +ruined keep built by Louis VI. in the 12th century on an eminence on the +other side of the railway. Notre-Dame du Fort, the chief church, dates +from the 11th and 12th centuries; irregular in plan, it is remarkable +for a fine Romanesque tower and spire, and for the crenellated wall +which partly surrounds it. The interior contains ancient paintings and +other artistic works. St Basile (12th and 16th centuries), which +preserves a Romanesque doorway, and St Martin (12th and 13th centuries), +with a leaning tower of the 16th century, are of less importance. The +civil buildings offer little interest, but two houses named after Anne +de Pisseleu (see above), mistress of Francis I., and Diane de Poitiers, +mistress of Henry II., are graceful examples of Renaissance +architecture. In the square there is a statue of the naturalist, +Geoffroy Saint-Hilaire, who was born in Etampes. The subprefecture, a +tribunal of first instance, and a communal college are among the public +institutions of Etampes. Flour-milling, metal-founding, +leather-dressing, printing and the manufacture of boots and shoes and +hosiery are carried on; there are quarries of paving-stone, nurseries +and market gardens in the vicinity, and the town has important markets +for cereals and sheep. + +Etampes (Lat. _Stampae_) existed at the beginning of the 7th century and +in the early middle ages belonged to the crown domain. During the middle +ages it was the scene of several councils, the most notable of which +took place in 1130 and resulted in the recognition of Innocent II. as +the legitimate pope. In 1652, during the war of the Fronde it suffered +severely at the hands of the royal troops under Turenne. + +_Lords, Counts and Dukes of Etampes._--The lordship of Etampes, in what +is now the department of Seine et Oise in France, belonged to the royal +domain, but was detached from it on several occasions in favour of +princes, or kings' favourites. St Louis gave it to his mother Blanche of +Castile, and then to his wife Marguerite of Provence. Louis, the brother +of Philip the Fair, became lord of Etampes in 1317 and count in 1327; he +was succeeded by his son and his grandson. Francis I. raised the +countship of Etampes to the rank of a duchy for his mistress Anne de +Pisseleu D'Heilly. The new duchy passed to Diane de Poitiers (1553), to +Catherine of Lorraine, duchess of Montpensier (1578), to Marguerite of +Valois (1582) and to Gabrielle d'Estrees (1598). The latter transmitted +it to her son, Cesar of Vendome, and his descendants held it till 1712. +It then passed by inheritance to the families of Bourbon-Conti and of +Orleans. + + + + +ETAPLES, a town of northern France, in the department of Pas-de-Calais, +on the right bank of the estuary of the Canche, 3 m. from the Straits of +Dover, 17 m. S. of Boulogne by rail. Pop. (1906) 5136. Etaples has a +small fishing and commercial port which enjoyed a certain importance +during the middle ages. Boat-building is carried on. There is an old +church with a statue of the Virgin much revered by the sailors. The +Canche is crossed by a bridge over 1600 ft. in length. Le Touquet, in +the midst of pine woods, and the neighbouring watering-place of +Paris-Plage, 3-1/2 m. W. of Etaples at the mouth of the estuary, are +much frequented by English and French visitors for golf, tennis and +bathing, and Etaples itself is a centre for artists. Antiquarian +discoveries in the vicinity of Etaples have led to the conjecture that +it occupies the site of the Gallo-Roman port of _Quentovicus_. In 1492 a +treaty was signed here between Henry VII., king of England, and Charles +VIII., king of France. + + + + +ETAWAH, a town and district of British India, in the Agra division of +the United Provinces. The town is situated on the left bank of the +Jumna, and has a station on the East Indian railway, 206 m. from +Allahabad. Pop. (1901) 42,570. Deep fissures intersect the various +quarters of the town, over which broad roads connect the higher portions +by bridges and embankments. The Jama Masjid (Great Mosque) is the chief +architectural ornament of Etawah. It was originally a Hindu temple, and +was adapted to its present use by the Mahommedan conquerors. Several +fine Hindu temples also stand about the mound on which are the ruins of +the ancient fort. Etawah is now only the civil headquarters of the +district, the military cantonment having been abandoned in 1861. +Considerable trade is carried on by rail and river. The manufactures +include cotton cloth, skin-bottles, combs and horn-ware and sweetmeats. + +The DISTRICT OF ETAWAH has an area of 1691 sq. m. It forms a purely +artificial administrative division, stretching across the level plain of +the Doab, and beyond the valley of the Jumna, to the gorges of the +Chambal, and the last rocky outliers of the Vindhyan range. The district +exhibits a striking variety of surface and scenery. The greater portion +lies within the Doab or level alluvial plain between the Ganges and the +Jumna. This part falls naturally into two sections, divided by the deep +and fissured valley of the river Sengar. The tract to the north-east of +that stream is rich and fertile, being watered by the Cawnpore and +Etawah branches of the Ganges canal, and other important works. The +south-western region has the same natural advantages, but possesses no +great irrigation system, and is consequently less fruitful than the +opposite slopes. Near the banks of the Jumna, the plain descends into +the river valley by a series of wild ravines and terraces, inhabited +only by a scattered race of hereditary herdsmen. Beyond the Jumna again +a strip of British territory extends along the tangled gorges of the +Chambal and the Kuari Nadi, far into the borders of the Gwalior state. +This outlying tract embraces a series of rocky glens and mountain +torrents, crowned by the ruins of native strongholds, and interspersed +with narrow ledges of cultivable alluvium. The climate, once hot and +sultry, has now become comparatively moist and equable under the +influence of irrigation and the planting of trees. + +Etawah was marked out by its physical features as a secure retreat for +the turbulent tribes of the Upper Doab, and it was not till the 12th +century that any of the existing castes settled on the soil. After the +Mussulman conquests of Delhi and the surrounding country, the Hindus of +Etawah appear to have held their own for many generations against the +Mahommedan power; but in the 16th century Baber conquered the district, +with the rest of the Doab, and it remained in the hands of the Moguls +until the decay of their empire. After passing through the usual +vicissitudes of Mahratta and Jat conquests during the long anarchy which +preceded the British rule, Etawah was annexed by the wazir of Oudh in +1773. The wazir ceded it to the East India Company in 1801, but it still +remained so largely in the hands of lawless native chiefs that some +difficulty was experienced in reducing it to orderly government. During +the mutiny of 1857 serious disturbances occurred in Etawah, and the +district was occupied by the rebels from June to December; order was not +completely restored till the end of 1858. In 1901 the population was +806,798, showing an increase of 11% in the decade. The district is +partly watered by branches of the Ganges canal, and is traversed +throughout by the main line of the East Indian railway from Cawnpore to +Agra. Cotton, oilseeds and other agricultural produce are exported, and +some indigo is made, but manufacturing industry is slight. + + + + +ETCHING (Dutch, _etsen_, to eat), a form of engraving (q.v.) in which, +in contradistinction to line engraving (q.v.), where the furrow is +produced by the ploughing of the burin, the copper is eaten away or +corroded by acid. + +To prepare a plate for etching it is first covered with etching-ground, +a composition which resists acid. The qualities of a ground are to be so +adhesive that it will not quit the copper when a small quantity is left +isolated between lines, yet not so adhesive that the etching point +cannot easily and entirely remove it; at the same time a good ground +will be hard enough to bear the hand upon it, or a sheet of paper, yet +not so hard as to be brittle. The ground used by Abraham Bosse, the +French painter and engraver (1602-1676) was composed as follows:--Melt 2 +oz. of white wax; then add to it 1 oz. of gum-mastic in powder, a little +at a time, stirring till the wax and the mastic are well mingled; then +add, in the same manner, 1 oz. of bitumen in powder. There are three +different ways of applying an etching-ground to a plate. The +old-fashioned way was to wrap a ball of the ground in silk, heat the +plate, and then rub the ball upon the surface, enough of the ground to +cover the plate melting through the silk. To equalize the ground a +dabber was used, which was made of cotton-wool under horsehair, the +whole inclosed in silk. This method is still used by many artists, from +tradition and habit, but it is far inferior in perfection and +convenience to that which we will now describe. When the etching-ground +is melted, add to it half its volume of essential oil of lavender, mix +well, and allow the mixture to cool. You have now a paste which can be +spread upon a cold plate with a roller; these rollers are covered with +leather and made (very carefully) for the purpose. You first spread a +little paste on a sheet of glass (if too thick, add more oil of lavender +and mix with a palette knife), and roll it till the roller is quite +equally charged all over, when the paste is easily transferred to the +copper, which is afterwards gently heated to expel the oil of lavender. +In both these methods of grounding a plate, the work is not completed +until the ground has been smoked, which is effected as follows. The +plate is held by a hand-vice if a small one, or if large, is fixed at +some height, with the covered side downwards. A smoking torch, composed +of many thin bees-wax dips twisted together, is then lighted and passed +repeatedly under the plate in every direction, till the ground has +incorporated enough lampblack to blacken it. The third way of covering a +plate for etching is to apply the ground in solution as collodion is +applied by photographers. The ground may be dissolved in chloroform, or +in oil of lavender. The plate being grounded, its back and edges are +protected from the acid by Japan varnish, which soon dries, and then the +drawing is traced upon it. The best way of tracing a drawing is to use +sheet gelatine, which is employed as follows. The gelatine is laid upon +the drawing, which its transparence allows you to see perfectly, and you +trace the lines by scratching the smooth surface with a sharp point. You +then fill these scratches with fine black-lead, in powder, rubbing it in +with the finger, turn the tracing with its face to the plate, and rub +the back of it with a burnisher. The black-lead from the scratches +adheres to the etching ground and shows upon it as pale grey, much more +visible than anything else you can use for tracing. Then comes the work +of the etching-needle, which is merely a piece of steel sharpened more +or less. J.M.W. Turner used a prong of an old steel fork which did as +well as anything, but neater etching-needles are sold by artists' +colour-makers. The needle removes the ground or cover and lays the +copper bare. Some artists sharpen their needles so as to present a +cutting edge which, when used sideways, scrapes away a broad line; and +many etchers use needles of various degrees of sharpness to get thicker +or thinner lines. It may be well to observe, in connexion with this part +of the subject, that whilst thick lines agree perfectly well with the +nature of woodcut, they are very apt to give an unpleasant heaviness to +plate engraving of all kinds, whilst thin lines have generally a clear +and agreeable appearance in plate engraving. Nevertheless, lines of +moderate thickness are used effectively in etching when covered with +finer shading, and very thick lines indeed were employed with good +results by Turner when he intended to cover them with mezzotint (q.v.), +and to print in brown ink, because their thickness was essential to +prevent them from being overwhelmed by the mezzotint, and the brown ink +made them print less heavily than black. Etchers differ in opinion as to +whether the needle ought to scratch the copper or simply to glide upon +its surface. A gliding needle is much more free, and therefore +communicates a greater appearance of freedom to the etching, but it has +the inconvenience that the etching-ground may not always be entirely +removed, and then the lines may be defective from insufficient biting. A +scratching needle, on the other hand, is free from this serious +inconvenience, but it must not scratch irregularly so as to _engrave_ +lines of various depth. The _biting_ in former times was generally done +with a mixture of nitric acid and water, in equal proportions; but in +the present day a Dutch mordant is a good deal used, which is composed +as follows: Hydrochloric acid, 100 grammes; chlorate of potash, 20 +grammes; water, 880 grammes. To make it, heat the water, add the +chlorate of potash, wait till it is entirely dissolved, and then add the +acid. The nitrous mordant acts rapidly and causes ebullition; the Dutch +mordant acts slowly and causes no ebullition. The nitrous mordant widens +the lines; the Dutch mordant bites in depth, and does not widen the +lines to any perceptible degree. The time required for both depends upon +temperature. A mordant bites slowly when cold, and more and more rapidly +when heated. To obviate irregularity caused by difference of +temperature, it is a good plan to heat the Dutch mordant artificially to +95 deg. Fahr. by lamps under the bath (for which a photographer's +porcelain tray is most convenient), and keep it steadily to that +temperature; the results may then be counted upon; but whatever the +temperature fixed upon, the results will be regular if it is regular. To +get different degrees of biting on the same plate the lines which are to +be pale are "stopped out" by being painted over with Japan varnish or +with etching ground dissolved in oil of lavender, the darkest lines +being reserved to the last, as they have to bite longest. When the acid +has done its work properly the lines are bitten in such various degrees +of depth that they will print with the degree of blackness required; but +if some parts of the subject require to be made paler, they can be +lowered by rubbing them with charcoal and olive oil, and if they have +to be made deeper they can be rebitten, or covered with added shading. +Rebiting is done with the roller above mentioned, which is now charged +very lightly with paste and rolled over the copper with no pressure but +its own weight, so as to cover the smooth surface but not fill up any of +the lines. The oil of lavender is then expelled as before by gently +heating the plate, but it is not smoked. The lines which require +rebiting may now be rebitten, and the others preserved against the +action of the acid by stopping out. These are a few of the most +essential technical points in etching, but there are many matters of +detail for which the reader is referred to the special works on the +subject. + +There are many varieties in the processes of etching, and it is only +necessary here to indicate the essential facts. A brief analysis of +different styles may be given. + +(1) _Pure Line._ As there is line engraving, so there is line etching; +but as the etching-needle is a freer instrument than the burin, the line +has qualities which differ widely from those of the burin line. Each of +the two has its own charm and beauty; the liberty of the one is +charming, and the restraint of the other is admirable also in its right +place. In line etching, as in line engraving, the great masters +purposely exhibit the line and do not hide it under too much shading. +(2) _Line and Shade._ This answers exactly in etching to Mantegna's work +in engraving. The most important lines are drawn first throughout, and +the shade thrown over them like a wash with the brush over a pen sketch +in indelible ink. (3) _Shade and Texture._ This is used chiefly to +imitate oil-painting. Here the line (properly so called) is entirely +abandoned, and the attention of the etcher is given to texture and +chiaroscuro. He uses lines, of course, to express these, but does not +exhibit them for their own beauty; on the contrary, he conceals them. + +Of these three styles of etching the first is technically the easiest, +and being also the most rapid, is adopted for sketching on the copper +from nature; the second is the next in difficulty; and the third the +most difficult, on account of the biting, which is never easy to manage +when it becomes elaborate. The etcher has, however, many resources; he +can make passages paler by burnishing them, or by using charcoal, or he +can efface them entirely with the scraper and charcoal; he can darken +them by rebiting or by regrounding the plate and adding fresh work; and +he need not run the risk of biting the very palest passages of all, +because these can be easily done with the _dry point_, which is simply a +well-sharpened stylus used directly on the copper without the help of +acid. It is often asserted that any one can etch who can draw, but this +is a mistaken assertion likely to mislead. Without requiring so long an +apprenticeship as the burin, etching is a very difficult art indeed, the +two main causes of its difficulty being that the artist does not see his +work properly as he proceeds, and that mistakes or misfortunes in the +biting, which are of frequent occurrence to the inexperienced, may +destroy all the relations of tone. + +Etching, like line engraving, owed much to the old masters, but whereas, +with the exception of Albert Durer, the painters were seldom practical +line engravers, they advanced etching not only by advice given to others +but by the work of their own hands. Rembrandt did as much for etching as +either Raphael or Rubens for line engraving; and in landscape the +etchings of Claude had an influence which still continues, both +Rembrandt and Claude being practical workmen in etching, and very +skilful workmen. Ostade, Ruysdael, Berghem, Paul Potter, Karl Dujardin, +etched as they painted, and so did a greater than any of them, Vandyck. +In the earlier part of the 19th century etching was almost a defunct +art, except as it was employed by engravers as a help to get faster +through their work, of which "engraving" got all the credit, the public +being unable to distinguish between etched lines and lines cut with the +burin. But from the middle of the century dates a great revival of +etching as an independent art, a revival which has extended all over +Europe. + +Apart from the copying of pictures by etching--which was found +commercially preferable to the use of line engraving--a number of +artists and amateurs gradually practised original etching with +increasing success, notably Sir Seymour Haden, J.M. Whistler, Samuel +Palmer and others in England, Felix Bracquemond, C.F. Daubigny, Charles +Jacque, Adolphe Appian, Maxime Lalanne, Jules Jacquemart and others on +the continent, besides that singular and remarkable genius, Charles +Meryon. Etching clubs, or associations of artists for the publication of +original etchings, were gradually founded in England, France, Germany +and Belgium. Meryon and Whistler are two of the greatest modern etchers. +Among earlier names mention may be made of Andrew Geddes (1783-1844) and +of Sir David Wilkie (1785-1841). Geddes was the finer artist with the +needle; he it was whom Rembrandt best inspired; his work was in the +grand manner. Of the rich and rare dry-points "At Peckham Rye" and "At +Halliford-on-Thames," the deepest and most brilliant master of landscape +would have no need to be ashamed. David Wilkie's prints were, naturally, +not less dramatic than his pictures, but the etcher's particular gift +was possessed by him more intermittently: it is shown best in "The +Receipt," a strong and vivid, dexterous sketch, quite full of character. +J.S. Cotman's (1782-1842) etchings are also historically interesting +though they were "soft ground" for the most part. They show all his +qualities of elegance and freedom as a draughtsman, and much of his +large dignity in the distribution of light and shade. T. Girtin +(1775-1802), in the preparations for his views of Paris, was notably +happy. The work of Sir Francis Seymour Haden (b. 1818) had a powerful +influence on the art in England. Between 1858 and 1879 Seymour +Haden--the first president of the Royal Society of Painter +Etchers--produced the vast majority of his plates, which have always +good draughtsmanship, unity of effect and a personal impression. They +show a strong feeling for nature. If, amongst some two hundred subjects, +it were necessary to select one or two for peculiar praise, they might +be the "Breaking up of the _Agamemnon_," the almost perfect "Water +Meadow," the masterly presentment of "Erith Marshes," and the later +dry-point of "Windmill Hill." Another great etcher--Frenchman by birth, +but English by long residence--is Alphonse Legros (q.v.). Great in +expression and suggestive draughtsmanship, austere and economical in +line, Legros's work is the grave record of the observation and the fancy +of an imaginative mind. In poetic portraiture nothing can well exceed +his etched vision of G.F. Watts; "La Mort du Vagabond" is noticeable for +terror and homely pathos; "Communion dans l'Eglise St Medard" is perhaps +the best instance of the dignity, vigour and grave sympathy with which +he addresses himself to ecclesiastical themes. Something of these latter +qualities, in dealing with similar themes, Legros passed on to his +pupil, Sir Charles Holroyd (b. 1861)--an etcher in the true vein; whilst +an earlier pupil, prolific as himself, as imaginative, and sometimes +more deliberately uncouth--William Strang, A.R.A. (b. 1859)--carried on +in his own way the tradition of that part of Legros's practice, the +preoccupation with the humble, for which Legros himself found certain +warrant in a portion of the great _oeuvre_ of Rembrandt. Frank Short, +A.R.A. (b. 1857), as with the very touch of Turner, carried to +completion great designs that Turner left unfinished for the _Liber +studiorum_. The delicacy of "Sleeping till the Flood," the curiously +suggestive realism of "Wrought Nails"--a scene in the Black +Country--entitle him to a lasting place in the list of the fine wielders +of the etching-needle. D.Y. Cameron (b. 1865) betrays the influence of +Rembrandt in a noble etching, "Border Towers," and the influence of +Meryon in such a print as that of "The Palace, Stirling." His "London +Set" is particularly fine. The individuality of C.J. Watson is less +marked, but his skill, chiefly in architectural work, is noticeable. +Admirers of the studiously accurate portraiture of a great monument may +be able to set Watson's print of "St Etienne du Mont" by the side of +Meryon's august and mysterious and ever-memorable vision. Paul Helleu +(b. 1859) in his brilliant sketches, particularly of women, has used the +art of etching in a peculiarly individual and delightful way. Among the +numerous other modern etchers only a bare mention can be made of Oliver +Hall, Minna Bolingbroke and Elizabeth Armstrong (Mrs Watson and Mrs +Stanhope Forbes), Alfred East, Robert Macbeth, Walter Sickert, Robert +Goff, Mortimer Menpes, Percy Thomas, Raven Hill, and Prof. H. von +Herkomer, in England; in France, Roussel, J.F. Raffaelli (b. 1850), +Besnard and J.J.J. Tissot (1836-1902). + + The oldest treatise on etching is that of Abraham Bosse (1645). See + also P.G. Hamerton, _Etching and Etchers_ (1868), and _Etchers' + Handbook_ (1881); F. Wedmore, _Etching in England_ (1895); Singer and + Strang, _Etching, Engraving, &c._ (1897). + + + + +ETEOCLES, in Greek legend, king of Thebes, son of Oedipus and Jocasta +(Iocaste). After their father had been driven out of the country, he and +his brother Polyneices agreed to reign alternately for a year. Eteocles, +however, refused to keep the agreement, and Polyneices fled to Adrastus, +king of Argos, whom he persuaded to undertake the famous expedition +against Thebes on his behalf. The two brothers met in single combat, and +both were slain. The Theban rulers decreed that only Eteocles should +receive the honour of burial, but the decree was set at naught by +Antigone (q.v.), the sister of Polyneices. The fate of Eteocles and +Polyneices forms the subject of the _Seven against Thebes_ of Aeschylus +and the _Phoenissae_ of Euripides. + + + + +ETESIAN WIND (Lat. _etesius_, annual; Gr. [Greek: etos], year), a +Mediterranean wind blowing from the north and west in summer for about +six weeks annually. + + + + +ETEX, ANTOINE (1808-1888), French sculptor, painter and architect, was +born in Paris on the 20th of March 1808. He first exhibited in the salon +of 1833, his work including a reproduction in marble of his "Death of +Hyacinthus," and the plaster cast of his "Cain and his race cursed by +God." Thiers, who was at this time minister of public works, now +commissioned him to execute the two groups of "Peace" and "War," placed +at each side of the Arc de Triomphe. This last, which established his +reputation, he reproduced in marble in the salon of 1839. The French +capital contains numerous examples of the sculptural works of Etex, +which included mythological and religious subjects besides a great +number of portraits. His paintings include the subjects of Eurydice and +the martyrdom of Saint Sebastian, and among the best known of his +architectural productions are the tomb of Napoleon I. in the Invalides +and a monument of the revolution of 1848. Etex wrote a number of essays +on subjects connected with the arts. The last year of his life was spent +at Nice, and he died at Chaville (Seine-et-Oise) on the 14th of July +1888. + + See P.E. Mangeant, _Antoine Etex, peintre, sculpteur et architecte, + 1808-1888_ (Paris, 1894). + + + + +ETHER, (C2H5)2O, the _Aether_ of pharmacy, a colourless, volatile, +highly inflammable liquid, of specific gravity 0.736 at 0 deg., +boiling-point 35 deg. C., and freezing-point -117 deg. .4 C. (K. +Olszewski). It has a strong and characteristic odour, and a hot sweetish +taste, is soluble in ten parts of water, and in all proportions in +alcohol, and dissolves bromine, iodine, and, in small quantities, +sulphur and phosphorus, also the volatile oils, most fatty and resinous +substances, guncotton, caoutchouc and certain of the vegetable +alkaloids. The vapour mixed with oxygen or air is violently explosive. +The making of ether by the action of sulphuric acid on alcohol was known +in about the 13th century; and later Basil Valentine and Valerius Cordus +described its preparation and properties. The name ether appears to have +been applied to the drug only since the times of Frobenius, who in 1730 +termed it _spiritus aethereus or vini vitriolatus_. It was considered to +be a sulphur compound, hence its name sulphur ether; this idea was +proved to be erroneous by Valentine Rose in about 1800. Ether is +manufactured by the distillation of 5 parts of 90% alcohol with 9 parts +of concentrated sulphuric acid at a temperature of 140 deg.-145 deg. C., +a constant stream of alcohol being caused to flow into the mixture +during the operation. The distillate is purified by treatment with lime +and calcium chloride, and subsequent distillation. The mechanism of this +reaction was explained by A. Williamson in 1850. For other methods of +preparation see ETHERS.[1] + +The presence of so small a quantity as 1% of alcohol may be detected in +ether by the colour imparted to it by aniline violet; if water or acetic +acid be present, the ether must be shaken with anhydrous potassium +carbonate before the application of the test. When heated with zinc +dust, it yields ethylene and water. Chromic acid oxidizes it to acetic +acid and ozone oxidizes it to ethyl peroxide. In contact with hydriodic +acid gas at 0 deg. C., it forms ethyl iodide (R.D. Silva, _Ber._, 1875, +8, p. 903), and with water and a little sulphuric acid at 180 deg. C., +it yields alcohol (E. Erlenmeyer, _Zeit. f. chemie_, 1868, p. 343). It +forms crystalline compounds with bromine and with many metallic salts. + +_Medicine._--For the anaesthetic properties of ether see ANAESTHESIA. +Applied externally, ether evaporates very rapidly, producing such +intense cold as to cause marked local anaesthesia. For this purpose it +is best applied as a fine spray, but ethyl chloride is generally found +more efficient and produces less subsequent discomfort. It aids the +absorption of fats and may be used with cod liver oil when the latter is +administered by the skin. If it be rubbed in or evaporation be +prevented, it acts, like alcohol and chloroform, as an irritant. Ten to +twenty minims of ether, subcutaneously injected, constitute perhaps the +most rapid and powerful cardiac stimulant known, and are often employed +for this purpose in cases of syncope under anaesthesia. Taken +internally, ether acts in many respects similarly to alcohol and +chloroform, but its stimulant action on the heart is much more marked, +being exerted both reflexly from the stomach and directly after its +rapid absorption. Ether is thus the type of a rapidly diffusible +stimulant. It is also useful in relieving the paroxysms of asthma. The +dose for repeated administration is from 10 to 30 minims and for a +single administration up to a drachm. + +_Chronic Poisoning._--A dose of a little more than a drachm (a +teaspoonful) will produce a condition of inebriation lasting for +one-half to one hour, but the dose must soon be greatly increased. The +after-effects are, if anything, rather pleasant, and the habit of ether +drinking is certainly not so injurious as alcoholism. The principal +symptoms symptons of chronic ether-drinking are a weakening of the +activity of the special senses, and notably sight and hearing, a +lowering of the intelligence and a degree of general paresis (partial +paralysis) of motion. + + +FOOTNOTE: + + [1] See also J. v. Liebig, _Ann. Chem. Pharm._, 1837, 23, p. 39; + 1839, 30, p. 129; E. Mitscherlich, _Pogg. Ann._, 1836, 31, p. 273; + 1841, 53, p. 95; A.W. Williamson, _Phil. Mag._, 1850 (3), 37, p. 350. + + + + +ETHEREDGE [or ETHEREGE], SIR GEORGE (c. 1635-1691), English dramatist, +was born about the year 1635, and belonged to an Oxfordshire family. He +is said to have been educated at Cambridge, but Dennis assures us that +"to his certain knowledge he understood neither Greek nor Latin." He +travelled abroad early, and seems to have resided in France. It is +possible that he witnessed in Paris the performances of some of +Moliere's earliest comedies; and he seems, from an allusion in one of +his plays, to have been personally acquainted with Bussy Rabutin. On his +return to London he studied the law at one of the Inns of Court. His +tastes were those of a fine gentleman, and he indulged freely in +pleasure. + +Sometime soon after the Restoration he composed his comedy of _The +Comical Revenge_ or _Love in a Tub_, which introduced him to Lord +Buckhurst, afterwards the earl of Dorset. This was brought out at the +Duke's theatre in 1664, and a few copies were printed in the same year. +It is partly in rhymed rhymned heroic verse, like the stilted tragedies +of the Howards and Killigrews, but it contains comic scenes that are +exceedingly bright and fresh. The sparring between Sir Frederick and the +Widow introduced a style of wit hitherto unknown upon the English stage. +The success of this play was very great, but Etheredge waited four years +before he repeated his experiment. Meanwhile he gained the highest +reputation as a poetical beau, and moved in the circle of Sir Charles +Sedley, Lord Rochester and the other noble wits of the day. In 1668 he +brought out _She would if she could_, a comedy in many respects +admirable, full of action, wit and spirit, although to the last degree +frivolous and immoral. But in this play Etheredge first shows himself a +new power in literature; he has nothing of the rudeness of his +predecessors or the grossness of his contemporaries. We move in an airy +and fantastic world, where flirtation is the only serious business of +life. At this time Etheredge was living a life no less frivolous and +unprincipled than those of his Courtals and Freemans. He formed an +alliance with the famous actress Mrs Elizabeth Barry; she bore him a +daughter, on whom he settled L6000, but who, unhappily, died in her +youth. His wealth and wit, the distinction and charm of his manners, won +Etheredge the general worship of society, and his temperament is best +known by the names his contemporaries gave him, of "gentle George" and +"easy Etheredge." Rochester upbraided him for inattention to literature; +and at last, after a silence of eight years, he came forward with one +more play, unfortunately his last. _The Man of Mode or Sir Fopling +Flutter_, indisputably the best comedy of intrigue written in England +before the days of Congreve, was acted and printed in 1676, and enjoyed +an unbounded success. Besides the merit of its plot and wit, it had the +personal charm of being supposed to satirize, or at least to paint, +persons well known in London. Sir Fopling Flutter was a portrait of Beau +Hewit, the reigning exquisite of the hour; in Dorimant the poet drew the +earl of Rochester, and in Medley a portrait of himself; while even the +drunken shoemaker was a real character, who made his fortune from being +thus brought into public notice. After this brilliant success Etheredge +retired from literature; his gallantries and his gambling in a few years +deprived him of his fortune, and he looked about for a rich match. He +was knighted before 1680, and gained the hand and the money of a rich +widow. He was sent by Charles II. on a mission to the Hague, and in +March 1685 was appointed resident minister in the imperial German court +at Regensburg. He was very uncomfortable in Germany, and after three and +a half years' residence left for Paris. He had collected a library at +Regensburg, some volumes of which are in the theological college there. +His MS. despatches are preserved in the British Museum, where they were +discovered and described by Mr Gosse in 1881; they add very largely to +our knowledge of Etheredge's career. He died in Paris, probably in 1691, +for Narcissus Luttrell notes in February 1692 that "Sir George Etherege, +the late King James' ambassador to Vienna, died lately in Paris." + +Etheredge deserves to hold a more distinguished place in English +literature than has generally been allotted to him. In a dull and heavy +age, he inaugurated a period of genuine wit and sprightliness. He +invented the comedy of intrigue, and led the way for the masterpieces of +Congreve and Sheridan. Before his time the manner of Ben Jonson had +prevailed in comedy, and traditional "humours" and typical +eccentricities, instead of real characters, had crowded the comic stage. +Etheredge paints with a light, faint hand, but it is from nature, and +his portraits of fops and beaux are simply unexcelled. No one knows +better than he how to present a gay young gentleman, a Dorimant, "an +unconfinable rover after amorous adventures." His genius is as light as +thistle-down; he is frivolous, without force of conviction, without +principle; but his wit is very sparkling, and his style pure and +singularly picturesque. No one approaches Etheredge in delicate touches +of dress, furniture and scene; he makes the fine airs of London +gentlemen and ladies live before our eyes even more vividly than +Congreve does; but he has less insight and less energy than Congreve. +Had he been poor or ambitious, he might have been to England almost what +Moliere was to France, but he was a rich man living at his ease, and he +disdained to excel in literature. Etheredge was "a fair, slender, +genteel man, but spoiled his countenance with drinking." His +contemporaries all agree in acknowledging that he was the soul of +affability and sprightly good-nature. + + The life of Etheredge was first given in detail by Edmund Gosse in + _Seventeenth Century Studies_ (1883). His works were edited by A.W. + Verity, in 1888. (E. G.) + + + + +ETHERIDGE, JOHN WESLEY (1804-1866), English nonconformist divine, was +born near Newport, Isle of Wight, on the 24th of February 1804. He +received most of his early education from his father. Though he never +attended any university he acquired ultimately a thorough knowledge of +Greek, Latin, Hebrew, Syriac, French and German. In 1824 he was placed +on the Wesleyan Methodist plan as a local preacher. In 1826 his offer to +enter the ministry was accepted, and after the usual probationary trial +he was received into full connexion at the conference of 1831. For two +years after this he remained at Brighton, and in 1833 he removed to +Cornwall, being stationed successively at the Truro and Falmouth +circuits. From Falmouth he removed to Darlaston, where in 1838 his +health gave way. For a good many years he was a supernumerary, and lived +for a while at Caen and Paris, where in the public libraries he found +great facilities for prosecuting his favourite Oriental studies. His +health having considerably improved, he became, in 1843, pastor of the +Methodist church at Boulogne. He returned to England in 1847, and was +appointed successively to the circuits of Islington, Bristol, Leeds, +Penzance, Penryn, Truro and St Austell in east Cornwall. Shortly after +his return to England he received the degree of Ph.D. from the +university of Heidelberg. He was a patient, modest, hard-working and +accurate scholar. He died at Camborne on the 24th of May 1866. + + His principal works are _Horae Aramaicae_ (1843); _History, Liturgies + and Literature of the Syrian Churches_ (1847); _The Apostolic Acts and + Epistles, from the Peshito or Ancient Syriac_ (1849); _Jerusalem and + Tiberias, a Survey of the Religious and Scholastic Learning of the + Jews_ (1856); _The Targums of Onkelos and Jonathan ben Uzziel_ (1st + vol. in 1862, 2nd in 1865). See _Memoir_, by Rev. Thornley Smith + (1871). + + + + +ETHERIDGE, ROBERT (1819-1903), English geologist and palaeontologist, +was born at Ross, in Herefordshire, on the 3rd of December 1819. After +an ordinary school education in his native town, he obtained employment +in a business house in Bristol. There he devoted his spare time to +natural history pursuits, and in 1850 was appointed curator of the +museum attached to the Bristol Philosophical Institution. He also became +lecturer on botany in the Bristol medical school. In 1857, through the +influence of Sir Roderick I. Murchison, he was appointed to a post in +the Museum of Practical Geology in London, and eventually became +palaeontologist to the Geological Survey. In 1865 he assisted Prof. +Huxley in the preparation of a _Catalogue of Fossils in the Museum of +Practical Geology_. His chief work for many years was in naming the +fossils collected during the progress of the Geological Survey, and in +supplying the lists that were appended to numerous official memoirs. In +this way he acquired an exceptional knowledge of British fossils, and he +ultimately prepared an elaborate work entitled _Fossils of the British +Islands, Stratigraphically and Zoologically arranged_. Only the first +volume dealing with the Palaeozoic species was published (1888). +Etheridge also was author of several papers on the Rhaetic Beds, and of +an important essay on the Physical Structure of North Devon, and on the +Palaeontological Value of the Devonian Fossils (1867). He edited, and in +the main rewrote, the second part of a new edition of John Phillips' +Manual of Geology--entitled _Stratigraphical Geology and Palaeontology_ +(1885). He was elected F.R.S. in 1871, and was president of the +Geological Society in 1881-1882. In 1881 Etheridge was transferred from +the Geological Survey to the geological department of the British +Museum, where he served as assistant keeper until 1891. He died at +Chelsea, London, on the 18th of December 1903. + + Memoir by Dr Henry Woodward (with list of works and portrait) in + _Geological Magazine_, January 1904; also Memoir by H.B. Woodward + (with portrait) in _Proc. Bristol Nat. Soc._ x. 175. + + + + +ETHERS, in organic chemistry, compounds of the general formula R.O.R', +where R, R' = alkyl or aryl groups. They may be regarded as the +anhydrides of the alcohols, being formed by elimination of one molecule +of water from two molecules of the alcohols; those in which the two +hydrocarbon radicals are similar are known as _simple_ ethers, and those +in which they are dissimilar as _mixed_ ethers. They may be prepared by +the action of concentrated sulphuric acid on the alcohols, alkyl +sulphuric acids being first formed, which yield ethers on heating with +alcohols. The process may be made a continuous one by running a thin +stream of alcohol continually into the heated reaction mixture of +alcohol and sulphuric acid. Benzene sulphonic acid has been used in +place of sulphuric acid (F. Krafft, _Ber._, 1893, 26, p. 2829). A.W. +Williamson (_Ann._, 1851, 77, p. 38; 1852, 81, p. 77) prepared ether by +the action of sodium ethylate on ethyl iodide, and showed that all +ethers must possess the structural formula given above (see also _Brit. +Assoc. Reports_, 1850, p. 65). They may also be prepared by heating the +alkyl halides with silver oxide. + +The ethers are neutral volatile liquids (the first member, methyl ether, +is a gas at ordinary temperature). Phosphorus pentachloride converts +them into alkyl chlorides, a similar decomposition taking place when +they are heated with the haloid acids. Nitric acid and chromic acid +oxidize them in such a mariner that they yield the same products as the +alcohols from which they are derived. With chlorine they yield +substitution products. + +_Methyl ether_, (CH3)2O, was first prepared by J. B. Dumas and E. +Peligot (_Ann. chim. phys._, 1835, [2] 58, p. 19) by heating methyl +alcohol with sulphuric acid. It is best prepared by heating methyl +alcohol and sulphuric acid to 140 deg. C. and leading the evolved gas +into sulphuric acid. The sulphuric acid solution is then allowed to drop +slowly into an equal volume of water, when the methyl ether is liberated +(E. Erlenmeyer and A. Kriechbaumer, _Ber._, 1874, 7, p. 699). It is a +pleasant-smelling gas, which burns when ignited, and may be condensed to +a liquid which boils at 23.6 deg. C. It is somewhat soluble in water and +readily soluble in alcohol, and concentrated sulphuric acid. It combines +with hydrochloric acid gas to form a compound (CH3)2O.HCl (C. Friedel, +_Comptes rendus_, 1875, 81, p. 152). _Methyl ethyl ether_, CH3.O.C2H5, +is prepared from methyl iodide and sodium ethylate, or from ethyl iodide +and sodium methylate (A. W. Williamson, _Ann._, 1852, 81, p. 77). It is +a liquid which boils at 10.8 deg. C. + + For diethyl ether see ETHER, and for methyl phenyl ether (anisole) and + ethyl phenyl ether (phenetole) see CARBOLIC ACID. + + + + +ETHICS, the name generally given to the science of moral philosophy. The +word "ethics" is derived from the Gr. [Greek: ethikos], that which +pertains to [Greek: ethos], character. + +For convenience in reference, the arrangement followed in this article +may be explained at the outset:-- + + PAGE + I. DEFINITION AND SCOPE 809 + + II. HISTORICAL SKETCH 810 + + A. Greek and Graeco-Roman Ethics 810 + The Age of the Sophists 811 + Socrates and his Disciples 811 + Plato 812 + Plato and Aristotle 814 + Aristotle 815 + Stoicism 816 + Hedonism (Epicurus) 818 + Later Greek and Roman Ethics 818 + Neoplatonism 819 + + B. Christianity and Medieval Ethics 820 + Christian and Jewish "Law of God" 820 + Christian and Pagan Inwardness 820 + (Knowledge, Faith, Love, Purity) + Distinctive Particulars of Christian Morality 821 + Development of Opinion in Early Christianity, + Augustine, Ambrose 823 + Medieval Morality and Moral Philosophy 824 + Thomas Aquinas 824 + Casuistry and Jesuitry 826 + The Reformation; and birth of Modern Thought 826 + + C. Modern Ethics 827 + Grotius 827 + Hobbes 827 + The Cambridge Moralists 828 + (Cudworth, More) + Cumberland 829 + Locke 829 + Clarke 829 + Shaftesbury 830 + Mandeville 830 + Butler 831 + Wollaston 831 + Hutcheson 831 + Hume 832 + Adam Smith 833 + The Intuitional School 833 + (Price, Reid, Stewart, Whewell) + The Utilitarian School 835 + (Paley, Bentham, Mill) + Association and Evolution 837 + Free-will 837 + French Influence on English Ethics 838 + (Helvetius, Comte) + German Influence on English Ethics 839 + (Kant, Hegel) + + D. Ethics since 1879 840 + + III. BIBLIOGRAPHY 845 + + Section I. contains a general survey of the subject; it shows in what + sense ethics is to be regarded as a special field of philosophical + investigation--its relations to other departments of thought, + especially to psychology, religion and modern physical science. The + article makes no attempt to give a detailed, casuistical examination + of the matter of ethical theory. For this, reference must be made to + special articles on philosophic schools, writers and terms. + + Section II. is a historical sketch in four parts tracing the main + lines of development in ethical speculation from its birth to the + present day. Here again it has been possible to notice only the + salient points or landmarks, leaving all detail to special articles as + above. All important writers whose names occur in this sketch are + treated in special biographical articles, and references are given as + often as possible to supplementary articles which illustrate and + explain points which cannot be fully treated here. This is especially + the case in connexion with technical terms (whose history and meaning + are inevitably taken for granted) and biographical information about + minor ethical writers. + + +I. DEFINITION AND SUBJECT-MATTER OF ETHICS + +In its widest sense, the term "ethics" would imply an examination into +the general character or habits of mankind, and would even involve a +description or history of the habits of men in particular societies +living at different periods of time. Such a field of study would +obviously be too wide for any particular science or philosophy to +investigate, and moreover portions of the field are already occupied by +history, by anthropology and by the particular sciences (e.g. +physiology, anatomy, biology), in so far as the habits and character of +men depend upon the material processes which these sciences examine. +Even philosophies such as logic and aesthetic would be necessary for +such an investigation, if thought and artistic production are normal +human habits and elements in character. Ethics then is usually confined +to the particular field of human character and conduct so far as they +depend upon or exhibit certain general principles commonly known as +moral principles. Men in general characterize their own conduct and +character and that of other men by such general adjectives as good, bad, +right and wrong, and it is the meaning and scope of these adjectives, +primarily in relation to human conduct, and ultimately in their final +and absolute sense, that ethics investigates. + +A not uncommon definition of ethics as the "science of conduct" is +inexact for various reasons. (1) The sciences are descriptive or +experimental. But a description of what acts or what ends of action men +in the present or the past call, or have called, "good" or "bad" is +clearly beyond human powers. And experiments in morality (apart from the +inconvenient practical consequences likely to ensue) are useless for +purposes of ethics, because the moral consciousness would itself at one +and the same time be required to make the experiment and to provide the +subject upon which the experiment is performed. (2) Ethics is a +philosophy and not a science. Philosophy is a process of reflection upon +the presuppositions involved in unreflective thought. In logic and +metaphysics it investigates either the process of apprehension itself, +or conceptions such as cause, substance, space, time, which the ordinary +scientific consciousness never criticizes. In moral philosophy the place +of the body of sciences, which philosophy as the theory of knowledge +investigates, is taken by the developed moral consciousness, which +already pronounces moral judgment without hesitation, and claims +authority to subject to continual criticism the institutions and forms +of social life which it has itself helped to create. + +When ethical speculation first begins, conceptions such as those of +duty, responsibility, the will as the ultimate subject of moral +approbation and disapprobation, are already in existence and already +operative. Moral philosophy in a certain sense adds nothing to these +conceptions, though it sets them in a clearer light. The problems of the +moral consciousness at the time at which it first becomes reflective +are not strictly speaking philosophical problems at all. It is occupied +with just such questions as each individual man who wishes to act +rightly is constantly called upon to answer, e.g. questions such as +"What particular action will meet the claims of justice under such and +such circumstances?" or "What degree of ignorance will excuse this +particular person in this particular case from his responsibility?" It +tries to attain a knowledge as complete as possible of the circumstances +under which the act contemplated must be performed, the personalities of +the persons whom it may affect, and the consequences (so far as they can +be foreseen) which it will produce, and then by virtue of its own power +of moral discrimination pronounces judgment. And the ever-recurring +problem of the moral consciousness, "What ought to be done?" is one +which receives a clearer and more definite answer as men become more +able in the course of moral experience to apply those principles of the +moral consciousness which are yet employed in that experience from the +outset. Nevertheless there is a sense in which moral philosophy may be +said to originate out of difficulties inherent in the nature of morality +itself, although it remains true that the questions which ethics +attempts to answer are never questions with which the moral +consciousness as such is confronted. The fact that men give different +answers to moral problems which seem similar in character, or even the +mere fact that men disregard, when they act immorally, the dictates and +implicit principles of the moral consciousness is certain sooner or +later to produce the desire either, on the one hand, to justify immoral +action by casting doubt upon the authority of the moral consciousness +and the validity of its principles, or, on the other hand, to justify +particular moral judgments either by (the only valid method) an analysis +of the moral principle involved in the judgment and a demonstration of +its universal acceptation, or by some attempted proof that the +particular moral judgment is arrived at by a process of inference from +some universal conception of the Supreme Good or the Final End from +which all particular duties or virtues may be deduced. It may be that +criticism of morality first originates with a criticism of existing +moral institutions or codes of ethics; such a criticism may be due to +the spontaneous activity of the moral consciousness itself. But when +such criticism passes into the attempt to find a universal criterion of +morality--such an attempt being in effect an effort to make morality +scientific--and especially when the attempt is seen, as it must in the +end be seen, to fail (the moral consciousness being superior to all +standards of morality and realizing itself wholly in particular +judgments), then ethics as a _process of reflection_ upon the nature of +the moral consciousness may be said to begin. If this be true it follows +that one of the chief function of ethics must be criticism of mistaken +attempts to find a criterion of morality superior to the pronouncements +of the moral consciousness itself. The ultimate superiority of the moral +consciousness over all other standards is recognized, even by those who +impugn its authority, whenever they claim that all men ought to +recognize the superior value of the standards which they themselves wish +to substitute. Similarly, their opponents refute their arguments by +showing that they are based ultimately upon a recognition of certain +distinctions which are moral distinctions (i.e. imply a moral +consciousness capable of discriminating between right and wrong in +particular cases), and that these moral distinctions conflict with the +conclusions which they reach. + +This may briefly be illustrated by reference to some of the great +fundamental controversies of ethics. None of these originates out of +conflicting statements of the moral consciousness, i.e. there is no +fundamental contradiction in morality itself. No one (if +unsophisticated) ever confused the conception of pleasure with the +conception of the Good, or thought that the claims of selfish interest +were identical with those of duty. But the controversy between hedonists +and anti-hedonists originates as soon as men reflect that a good which +is not in some sense "my" good is not good at all, or that no act can be +said to be moral which does not satisfy "me." Or, again, the reflection +that the mark or sign of the perfect performance of a particular +virtuous act or function is the presence of a characteristic pleasure +which always accompanies it, is opposed to the reflection that it is a +mark of the highest morality never to rest satisfied, and out of these +seemingly contradictory statements of the reflective consciousness might +arise a multitude of controversies either concerning pleasure and duty, +or the even more difficult and complex conceptions of merit, progress, +and the nature of the Supreme Good or Final End. + + + The Sciences. + + Theology. + +When and how fresh controversies in ethics will begin it would be +impossible for any one to foretell. Sometimes the dominance of a +particular science or branch of study is the occasion of an attempt to +apply to ethics ideas borrowed from or analogous to the conceptions of +that science. False analogies drawn between ethics and mathematics or +between morality and the perception of beauty have wrought much mischief +in modern and to some degree even in ancient ethics. The influence of +ideas borrowed from biology is everywhere manifest in the ethical +speculations of modern times. Sometimes, again, whole theories of ethics +have been formulated which can be seen in the end to be efforts to +subordinate moral conceptions to conceptions belonging properly to +institutions or departments of human thought and activity which the +moral consciousness has itself originated. Law, for instance, depends, +or at least ought to depend, upon men's need for and consciousness of +justice. And such institutions as the family and the state are created +by the social consciousness, which is the moral consciousness from +another aspect. Yet morality has been subordinated to legal and social +sanctions, and moral advance has been held to be conditioned by +political and social necessities which are not moral needs. Similarly no +one since civilization emerged from barbarism has ever really been +willing to yield allegiance to a deity who is not moral in the fullest +and highest sense of the word. God is not superior to moral law. Yet +there have been whole systems of theological ethics which have attempted +to base human morality upon the arbitrary will of God or upon the +supreme authority of a divinely inspired book or code of laws. One of +the greatest of all ethical controversies, that concerning the freedom +of the will, arose directly out of what was in reality a theological +problem--the necessity, namely, of reconciling God's foreknowledge with +human freedom. The unreflective moral consciousness never finds it +difficult to distinguish between a man's power of willing and all the +forces of circumstance, heredity and the like, which combine to form the +temptations to which he may yield or bid defiance; and such facts as +"remorse" and "penitence" are a continual testimony to man's sense of +freedom. But so soon as men perceive upon reflection an apparent +discrepancy between the utterances of their moral consciousness and +certain conclusions to which theological speculation (or at a later +period metaphysical and scientific inquiries) seems inevitably to lead +them, they will not rest satisfied until the belief in the will's +freedom (hitherto unquestioned) is upon further reflection justified or +condemned. It is clear then that the complexity of the subject-matter of +ethics is such that no sharply defined boundary lines can be drawn +between it and other branches of inquiry. Just in so far as it +presupposes the apprehension of moral facts, it must presuppose a +knowledge of the system of social relationships upon which some at least +of those facts depend. No one, for instance, could inquire into the +nature of justice without being further compelled to undertake an +examination of the nature of the state. + + + Psychology. + +It would be difficult to decide how much of the dispute between the +advocates of pleasure theories and their opponents turns upon vexed +questions of psychology, and how much is strictly relevant to ethics. +If, as has already been said, one of the chief tasks of ethics is to +prevent the intrusion into its own sphere of inquiry of ideas borrowed +from other and alien sources, then obviously these sources must be +investigated. One example of this necessity may be given. It is +sometimes maintained that the proper method of ethics is the +psychological method; ethics, we are told, should examine as its +subject-matter moral sentiments wherever found, without raising +ultimate questions as to the nature of obligation or moral authority in +general. Now if in opposition to such arguments the ultimate character +of moral obligation be defended, it will be necessary to point out that +no one feels moral sentiments except in connexion with particular +objects of moral approbation or disapprobation (e.g. gratitude is +inexplicable apart from a particular relationship existing between two +or more persons), and that these objects are objects of the moral +consciousness alone. But such a line of argument is certain to make +necessary an inquiry into the nature of the objects of psychological +study which may produce quite unforeseen results for psychology. + +Nothing therefore is to be gained by confining ethics within limits +which must from the nature of the case be arbitrary. The defender at all +events of the supremacy of moral intuitions must be prepared to follow +whither the argument leads, into whatever strange quarters it may direct +him. But this much may be said by way of delimitation of the scope of +ethics: however complicated and involved its arguments and processes of +inference may become, the facts from which they start and the +conclusions to which they point are such as the moral consciousness +alone can understand or warrant. (H. H. W.) + + +II. HISTORICAL SKETCH + +A. _Greek and Graeco-Roman Ethics._--The ethical speculation of Greece, +and therefore of Europe, had no abrupt and absolute beginning. The naive +and fragmentary precepts of conduct, which are everywhere the earliest +manifestation of nascent moral reflection, are a noteworthy element in +the gnomic poetry of the 7th and 6th centuries B.C. Their importance is +shown by the traditional enumeration of the Seven Sages of the 6th +century, and their influence on ethical thought is attested by the +references of Plato and Aristotle. But from these unscientific +utterances to a philosophy of morals was a long process. In the +practical wisdom of Thales (q.v.), one of the seven, we cannot discern +any systematic theory of morality. In the case of Pythagoras, +conspicuous among pre-Socratic philosophers as the founder not merely of +a school, but of a sect or order bound by a common rule of life, there +is a closer connexion between moral and metaphysical speculation. The +doctrine of the Pythagoreans that the essence of justice (conceived as +equal retribution) was a square number, indicates a serious attempt to +extend to the region of conduct their mathematical view of the universe; +and the same may be said of their classification of good with unity, +straightness and the like, and of evil with the opposite qualities. +Still, the enunciation of the moral precepts of Pythagoras appears to +have been dogmatic, or even prophetic, rather than philosophic, and to +have been accepted by his disciples with an unphilosophic reverence as +the _ipse dixit_[1] of the master. Hence, whatever influence the +Pythagorean blending of ethical and mathematical notions may have had on +Plato, and, through him, on later thought, we cannot regard the school +as having really forestalled the Socratic inquiry after a completely +reasoned theory of conduct. The ethical element in the "dark" +philosophizing of Heraclitus (c. 530-470 B.C.), though it anticipates +Stoicism in its conceptions of a law of the universe, to which the wise +man will carefully conform, and a divine harmony, in the recognition of +which he will find his truest satisfaction, is more profound, but even +less systematic. It is only when we come to Democritus, a contemporary +of Socrates, the last of the original thinkers whom we distinguish as +pre-Socratic, that we find anything which we can call an ethical system. +The fragments that remain of the moral treatises of Democritus are +sufficient, perhaps, to convince us that the turn of Greek philosophy in +the direction of conduct, which was actually due to Socrates, would have +taken place without him, though in a less decided manner; but when we +compare the Democritean ethics with the post-Socratic system to which it +has most affinity, Epicureanism, we find that it exhibits a very +rudimentary apprehension of the formal conditions which moral teaching +must fulfil before it can lay claim to be treated as scientific. + +The truth is that no system of ethics could be constructed until +attention had been directed to the vagueness and inconsistency of the +common moral opinions of mankind. For this purpose was needed the +concentration of a philosophic intellect of the first order on the +problems of practice. In Socrates first we find the required combination +of a paramount interest in conduct and an ardent desire for knowledge. +The pre-Socratic thinkers were all primarily devoted to ontological +research; but by the middle of the 5th century B.C. the conflict of +their dogmatic systems had led some of the keenest minds to doubt the +possibility of penetrating the secret of the physical universe. This +doubt found expression in the reasoned scepticism of Gorgias, and +produced the famous proposition of Protagoras, that human apprehension +is the only standard of existence. The same feeling led Socrates to +abandon the old physico-metaphysical inquiries. In his ease, moreover, +it was strengthened by a naive piety that forbade him to search into +things of which the gods seemed to have reserved the knowledge to +themselves. The regulation of human action, on the other hand (except on +occasions of special difficulty, for which omens and oracles might be +vouchsafed), they had left to human reason. On this accordingly Socrates +concentrated his efforts. + + + The Sophists. + + Socrates. + +Though, however, Socrates was the first to arrive at a proper conception +of the problems of conduct, the general idea did not originate with him. +The natural reaction against the metaphysical and ethical dogmatism of +the early thinkers had reached its climax in the Sophists (q.v.). +Gorgias and Protagoras are only representatives of what was really a +universal tendency to abandon dogmatic theory and take refuge in +practical matters, and especially, as was natural in the Greek +city-state, in the civic relations of the citizen. The education given +by the Sophists aimed at no general theory of life, but professed to +expound the art of getting on in the world and of managing public +affairs. In their eulogy of the virtues of the citizen, they pointed out +the prudential character of justice and the like as a means of obtaining +pleasure and avoiding pain. The Greek conception of society was such +that the life of the free-born citizen consisted mainly of his public +function, and, therefore, the pseudo-ethical disquisitions of the +Sophists satisfied the requirements of the age. None thought of [Greek: +arete] (virtue or excellence) as a unique quality possessed of an +intrinsic value, but as the virtue of the citizen, just as good +flute-playing was the virtue of the flute-player. We see here, as in +other activities of the age, a determination to acquire technical +knowledge, and to apply it directly to the practical issue; just as +music was being enriched by new technical knowledge, architecture by +modern theories of plans and T-squares (sc. Hippodamus), the handling of +soldiers by the new technique of "tactics" and "hoplitics," so +citizenship must be analysed afresh, systematized and adapted in +relation to modern requirements. The Sophists had studied these matters +superficially indeed but with thoroughness as far as they went, and it +is not remarkable that they should have taken the methods which were +successful in rhetoric, and applied them to the "science and art" of +civic virtues. Plato's _Protagoras_ claims, not unjustly, that in +teaching virtue they simply did systematically what every one else was +doing at haphazard. But in the true sense of the word, they had no +ethical system at all, nor did they contribute save by contrast to +ethical speculation. They merely analysed conventional formulae, much in +the manner of certain modern so-called "scientific" moralists. Into this +arena of hazy popular common sense Socrates brought a new critical +spirit, showing that these popular lecturers, in spite of their fertile +eloquence, could not defend their fundamental assumptions, nor even give +rational definitions of what they professed to explain. Not only were +they thus "ignorant," but they were also perpetually inconsistent with +themselves in dealing with particular instances. Thus, by the aid of his +famous "dialectic," Socrates arrived first at the negative result that +the professed teachers of the people were as ignorant as he himself +claimed to be, and in a measure justified the eulogy of Aristotle that +he rendered to philosophy the service of "introducing induction and +definitions." This description of his work is, however, both too +technical and too positive, if we may judge from those earlier dialogues +of Plato in which the real Socrates is found least modified. The +pre-eminent wisdom which the Delphic oracle attributed to him was held +by himself to consist in a unique consciousness of ignorance. Yet it is +equally clear from Plato that there was a most important positive +element in the teaching of Socrates in virtue of which it is just to say +with Alexander Bain, "the first important name in ancient ethical +philosophy is Socrates." The union of the negative and the positive +elements in his work has caused historians no little perplexity, and we +cannot quite save the philosopher's consistency unless we regard some of +the doctrines attributed to him by Xenophon as merely tentative and +provisional. Still the positions of Socrates that are most important in +the history of ethical thought not only are easy to harmonize with his +conviction of ignorance, but even render it easier to understand his +unwearied cross-examination of common opinion. While he showed clearly +the difficulty of acquiring knowledge, he was convinced that knowledge +alone could be the source of a coherent system of virtue, as error of +evil. Socrates, therefore, first in the history of thought, propounds a +positive scientific law of conduct. Virtue is knowledge. This principle +involved the paradox that no man, knowing good, would do evil. But it +was a paradox derived from his unanswerable truisms, "Every one wishes +for his own good, and would get it if he could," and "No one would deny +that justice and virtue generally are goods, and of all goods the best." +All virtues are, therefore, summed up in knowledge of the good. But this +good is not, for Socrates, duty as distinct from interest. The force of +the paradox depends upon a blending of duty and interest in the single +notion of good, a blending which was dominant in the common thought of +the age. This it is which forms the kernel of the positive thought of +Socrates according to Xenophon. He could give no satisfactory account of +Good in the abstract, and evaded all questions on this point by saying +that he knew "no good that was not good _for something in particular_," +but that good is consistent with itself. For himself he prized above all +things the wisdom that is virtue, and in the task of producing it he +endured the hardest penury, maintaining that such life was richer in +enjoyment than a life of luxury. This many-sidedness of view is +illustrated by the curious blending of noble and merely utilitarian +sentiment in his account of friendship: a friend who can be of no +service is valueless; yet the highest service that a friend can render +is moral improvement. + +The historically important characteristics of his moral philosophy, if +we take (as we must) his teaching and character together, may be +summarized as follows:--(1) an ardent inquiry for knowledge nowhere to +be found, but which, if found, would perfect human conduct; (2) a demand +meanwhile that men should act as far as possible on some consistent +theory; (3) a provisional adhesion to the commonly received view of +good, in all its incoherent complexity, and a perpetual readiness to +maintain the harmony of its different elements, and demonstrate the +superiority of virtue by an appeal to the standard of self-interest; (4) +personal firmness, as apparently easy as it was actually invincible, in +carrying out consistently such practical convictions as he had attained. +It is only when we keep all these points in view that we can understand +how from the spring of Socratic conversation flowed the divergent +streams of Greek ethical thought. + + + The Socratic Schools. + +Four distinct philosophical schools trace their immediate origin to the +circle that gathered round Socrates--the Megarian, the Platonic, the +Cynic and the Cyrenaic. The impress of the master is manifest on all, in +spite of the wide differences that divide them; they all agree in +holding the most important possession of man to be wisdom or knowledge, +and the most important knowledge to be knowledge of Good. Here, however, +the agreement ends. The more philosophic part of the circle, forming a +group in which Euclid of Megara (see MEGARIAN SCHOOL) seems at first to +have taken the lead, regarded this Good as the object of a still +unfulfilled quest, and were led to identify it with the hidden secret +of the universe, and thus to pass from ethics to metaphysics. Others +again, whose demand for knowledge was more easily satisfied, and who +were more impressed with the positive and practical side of the master's +teaching, made the quest a much simpler affair. They took the Good as +already known, and held philosophy to consist in the steady application +of this knowledge to conduct. Among these were Antisthenes the Cynic and +Aristippus of Cyrene. It is by their recognition of the duty of living +consistently by theory instead of mere impulse or custom, their sense of +the new value given to life through this rationalization, and their +effort to maintain the easy, calm, unwavering firmness of the Socratic +temper, that we recognize both Antisthenes and Aristippus as "Socratic +men," in spite of the completeness with which they divided their +master's positive doctrine into systems diametrically opposed. Of their +contrasted principles we may perhaps say that, while Aristippus took the +most obvious logical step for reducing the teaching of Socrates to clear +dogmatic unity, Antisthenes certainly drew the most natural inference +from the Socratic life. + + + Aristippus. + +Aristippus (see CYRENAICS) argued that, if all that is beautiful or +admirable in conduct has this quality as being useful, i.e. productive +of some further good; if virtuous action is essentially action done with +insight, or rational apprehension of the act as a means to this good, +this good must be pleasure. Bodily pleasures and pains Aristippus held +to be the keenest, though he does not seem to have maintained this on +any materialistic theory, as he admitted the existence of purely mental +pleasures, such as joy in the prosperity of one's native land. He fully +recognized that his good was capable of being realized only in +successive parts, and gave even exaggerated emphasis to the rule of +seeking the pleasure of the moment, and not troubling oneself about a +dubious future. It was in the calm, resolute, skilful culling of such +pleasures as circumstances afforded from moment to moment, undisturbed +by passion, prejudices or superstition, that he conceived the quality of +wisdom to be exhibited; and tradition represents him as realizing this +ideal to an impressive degree. Among the prejudices from which the wise +man was free he included all regard to customary morality beyond what +was due to the actual penalties attached to its violation; though he +held, with Socrates, that these penalties actually render conformity +reasonable. Thus early in the history of ethical theory appeared the +most thorough-going exposition of hedonism. + + + The Cynics. + +Far otherwise was the Socratic spirit understood by Antisthenes and the +Cynics (q.v.). They equally held that no speculative research was needed +for the discovery of good and virtue, and maintained that the Socratic +wisdom was exhibited, not in the skilful pursuit, but in the rational +disregard of pleasure,--in the clear apprehension of the intrinsic +worthlessness of this and most other objects of men's ordinary desires +and aims. Pleasure, indeed, Antisthenes declared roundly to be an evil; +"Better madness than a surrender to pleasure." He did not overlook the +need of supplementing merely intellectual insight by "Socratic force of +soul"; but it seemed to him that, by insight and self-mastery combined, +an absolute spiritual independence might be attained which left nothing +wanting for perfect well-being (see also DIOGENES). For as for poverty, +painful toil, disrepute, and such evils as men dread most, these, he +argued, were positively useful as means of progress in spiritual freedom +and virtue. There is, however, in the Cynic notion of wisdom, no +positive criterion beyond the mere negation of irrational desires and +prejudices. We saw that Socrates, while not claiming to have found the +abstract theory of good or wise conduct, practically understood by it +the faithful performance of customary duties, maintaining always that +his own happiness was therewith bound up. The Cynics more boldly +discarded both pleasure and mere custom as alike irrational; but in so +doing they left the freed reason with no definite aim but its own +freedom. It is absurd, as Plato urged, to say that knowledge is the +good, and then when asked "knowledge of what?" to have no positive reply +but "of the good"; but the Cynics do not seem to have made any serious +effort to escape from this absurdity. + +The ultimate views of these two Socratic schools we shall have to notice +presently when we come to the post-Aristotelian schools. We must now +proceed to trace the fuller development of the Socratic theory in the +hands of Plato and Aristotle. + + + Plato. + +The ethics of Plato cannot properly be treated as a finished result, but +rather as a continual movement from the position of Socrates towards the +more complete, articulate system of Aristotle; except that there are +ascetic and mystical suggestions in some parts of Plato's teaching which +find no counterpart in Aristotle, and in fact disappear from Greek +philosophy soon after Plato's death until they are revived and +fantastically developed in Neopythagoreanism and Neoplatonism. The first +stage at which we can distinguish Plato's ethical view from that of +Socrates is presented in the _Protagoras_, where he makes a serious, +though clearly tentative effort to define the object of that knowledge +which he with his master regards as the essence of all virtue. Such +knowledge, he here maintains, is really mensuration of pleasures and +pains, whereby the wise man avoids those mistaken under-estimates of +future feelings in comparison with present which we commonly call +"yielding to fear or desire." This hedonism has perplexed Plato's +readers needlessly (as we have said in speaking of the Cyrenaics), +inasmuch as hedonism is the most obvious corollary of the Socratic +doctrine that the different common notions of good--the beautiful, the +pleasant and the useful--were to be somehow interpreted by each other. +By Plato, however, this conclusion could have been held only before he +had accomplished the movement of thought by which he carried the +Socratic method beyond the range of human conduct and developed it into +a metaphysical system. + +This movement may be expressed thus. "If we know," said Socrates, "what +justice is, we can give an account or definition of it"; true knowledge +must be knowledge of the general fact, common to all the individual +cases to which we apply our general notion. But this must be no less +true of other objects of thought and discourse; the same relation of +general notions to particular examples extends through the whole +physical universe; we can think and talk of it only by means of such +notions. True or scientific knowledge then must be general knowledge, +relating, not to individuals primarily, but to the general facts or +qualities which individuals exemplify; in fact, our notion of an +individual, when examined, is found to be an aggregate of such general +qualities. But, again, the object of true knowledge must be what really +exists; hence the reality of the universe must lie in general facts or +relations, and not in the individuals that exemplify them. + +So far the steps are plain enough; but we do not yet see how this +logical Realism (as it was afterwards called) comes to have the +essentially ethical character that especially interests us in Platonism. +Plato's philosophy is now concerned with the whole universe of being; +yet the ultimate object of his philosophic contemplation is still "the +good," now conceived as the ultimate ground of all being and knowledge. +That is, the essence of the universe is identified with its end,--the +"formal" with the "final" cause of things, to use the later Aristotelian +phraseology. How comes this about? + +Perhaps we may best explain this by recurring to the original +application of the Socratic method to human affairs. Since all rational +activity is for some end, the different arts or functions of human +industry are naturally defined by a statement of their ends or uses; and +similarly, in giving an account of the different artists and +functionaries, we necessarily state their end, "what they are good for." +In a society well ordered on Socratic principles, every human being +would be put to some use; the essence of his life would consist in doing +what he was good for (his proper [Greek: ergon]). But again, it is easy +to extend this view throughout the whole region of organized life; an +eye that does not attain its end by seeing is without the essence of an +eye. In short, we may say of all organs and instruments that they are +what we think them in proportion as they fulfil their function and +attain their end. If, then, we conceive the whole universe organically, +as a complex arrangement of means to ends, we shall understand how +Plato might hold that all things really _were_, or (as we say) "realized +their idea," in proportion as they accomplished the special end or good +for which they were adapted. Even Socrates, in spite of his aversion to +physics, was led by pious reflection to expound a teleological view of +the physical world, as ordered in all its parts by divine wisdom for the +realization of some divine end; and, in the metaphysical turn which +Plato gave to this view, he was probably anticipated by Euclid of +Megara, who held that the one real being is "that which we call by many +names, Good, Wisdom, Reason or God," to which Plato, raising to a +loftier significance the Socratic identification of the beautiful with +the useful, added the further name of Absolute Beauty, explaining how +man's love of the beautiful finally reveals itself as the yearning for +the end and essence of being. + +Plato, therefore, took this vast stride of thought, and identified the +ultimate notions of ethics and ontology. We have now to see what +attitude he will adopt towards the practical inquiries from which he +started. What will now be his view of wisdom, virtue, pleasure and their +relation to human well-being? + +The answer to this question is inevitably somewhat complicated. In the +first place we have to observe that philosophy has now passed definitely +from the market-place into the lecture-room. The quest of Socrates was +for the true art of conduct for a man living a practical life among his +fellows. But if the objects of abstract thought constitute the real +world, of which this world of individual things is but a shadow, it is +plain that the highest, most real life must lie in the former region and +not in the latter. It is in contemplating the abstract reality which +concrete things obscurely exhibit, the type or ideal which they +imperfectly imitate, that the true life of the mind in man must consist; +and as man is most truly man in proportion as he is mind, the desire of +one's own good, which Plato, following Socrates, held to be permanent +and essential in every living thing, becomes in its highest form the +philosophic yearning for knowledge. This yearning, he held, +springs--like more sensual impulses--from a sense of want of something +formerly possessed, of which there remains a latent memory in the soul, +strong in proportion to its philosophic capacity; hence it is that in +learning any abstract truth by scientific demonstration we merely make +explicit what we already implicitly know; we bring into clear +consciousness hidden memories of a state in which the soul looked upon +Reality and Good face to face, before the lapse that imprisoned her in +an alien body and mingled her true nature with fleshly feelings and +impulses. We thus reach the paradox that the true art of living is +really an "art of dying" as far as possible to mere sense, in order more +fully to exist in intimate union with absolute goodness and beauty. On +the other hand, since the philosopher must still live and act in the +concrete sensible world, the Socratic identification of wisdom and +virtue is fully maintained by Plato. Only he who apprehends good in the +abstract can imitate it in such transient and imperfect good as may be +realized in human life, and it is impossible that, having this +knowledge, he should not act on it, whether in private or public +affairs. Thus, in the true philosopher, we shall necessarily find the +practically good man, who being "likest of men to the gods is best loved +by them"; and also the perfect statesman, if only the conditions of his +society allow him a sphere for exercising his statesmanship. + + + Virtue a harmony. + +The characteristics of this practical goodness in Plato's matured +thought correspond to the fundamental conceptions in his view of the +universe. The soul of man, in its good or normal condition, must be +ordered and harmonized under the guidance of reason. The question then +arises, "Wherein does this order or harmony precisely consist?" In +explaining how Plato was led to answer this question, it will be well to +notice that, while faithfully maintaining the Socratic doctrine that the +highest virtue was inseparable from knowledge of the good, he had come +to recognize an inferior kind of virtue, possessed by men who were not +philosophers. It is plain that if the good that is to be known is the +ultimate ground of the whole of things, it is attainable only by a +select and carefully trained few. Yet we can hardly restrict all virtue +to these alone. What account, then, was to be given of ordinary "civic" +bravery, temperance and justice? It seemed clear that men who did their +duty, resisting the seductions of fear and desire, must have right +opinions, if not knowledge, as to the good and evil in human life; but +whence comes this right "opinion"? Partly, Plato said, it comes by +nature and "divine allotment," but for its adequate development "custom +and practice" are required. Hence the paramount importance of education +and discipline for civic virtue; and even for future philosophers such +moral culture, in which physical and aesthetic training must co-operate, +is indispensable; no merely intellectual preparation will suffice. His +point is that perfect knowledge cannot be implanted in a soul that has +not gone through a course of preparation including much more than +physical training. What, then, is this preparation? A distinct step in +psychological analysis was taken when Plato recognized that its effect +was to produce the "harmony" above mentioned among different parts of +the soul, by subordinating the impulsive elements to reason. These +non-rational elements he further distinguished as appetitive ([Greek: to +epithumetikon]) and spirited ([Greek: to thumoeides] or [Greek: +thumos])--the practical separateness of which from each other and from +reason he held to be established by our inner experience. + +On this triple division of the soul he founded a systematic view of the +four kinds of goodness recognized by the common moral consciousness of +Greece, and in later times known as the Cardinal Virtues (q.v.). Of +these the two most fundamental were (as has been already indicated) +wisdom--in its highest form philosophy--and that harmonious and +regulated activity of all the elements of the soul which Plato regards +as the essence of uprightness in social relations ([Greek: dikaiosyne]). +The import of this term is essentially social; and we can explain +Plato's use of it only by reference to the analogy which he drew between +the individual man and the community. In a rightly ordered polity social +and individual well-being alike would depend on that harmonious action +of diverse elements, each performing its proper function, which in its +social application is more naturally termed [Greek: dikaiosyne]. We see, +moreover, how in Plato's view the fundamental virtues, Wisdom and +Justice in their highest forms, are mutually involved. Wisdom will +necessarily maintain orderly activity, and this latter consists in +regulation by wisdom, while the two more special virtues of Courage +([Greek: andreia]) and Temperance ([Greek: sophrosyne]) are only +different sides or aspects of this wisely regulated action of the +complex soul. + +Such, then, are the forms in which essential good seemed to manifest +itself in human life. It remains to ask whether the statement of these +gives a complete account of human well-being, or whether pleasure also +is to be included. On this point Plato's view seems to have gone through +several oscillations. After apparently maintaining (_Protagoras_) that +pleasure is the good, he passes first to the opposite extreme, and +denies it (_Phaedo, Gorgias_) to be a good at all. For (1), as concrete +and transient, it is obviously not the real essential good that the +philosopher seeks; (2) the feelings most prominently recognized as +pleasures are bound up with pain, as good can never be with evil; in so +far, then, as common sense rightly recognizes some pleasures as good, it +can only be from their tendency to produce some further good. This view, +however, was too violent a divergence from Socratism for Plato to remain +in it. That pleasure is not the real absolute good, was no ground for +not including it in the good of concrete human life; and after all only +coarse and vulgar pleasures were indissolubly linked to the pains of +want. Accordingly, in the _Republic_ he has no objection to trying the +question of the intrinsic superiority of philosophic or virtuous[2] life +by the standard of pleasure, and argues that the philosophic (or good) +man alone enjoys real pleasure, while the sensualist spends his life in +oscillating between painful want and the merely neutral state of +painlessness, which he mistakes for positive pleasure. Still more +emphatically is it declared in the _Laws_ that when we are "discoursing +to men, not to gods," we must show that the life which we praise as best +and noblest is also that in which there is the greatest excess of +pleasure over pain. But though Plato holds this inseparable connexion of +best and pleasantest to be true and important, it is only for the sake +of the vulgar that he lays this stress on pleasure. For in the most +philosophical comparison in the _Philebus_ between the claims of +pleasure and wisdom the former is altogether worsted; and though a place +is allowed to the pure pleasures of colour, form and sound, and of +intellectual exercise, and even to the "necessary" satisfaction of +appetite, it is only a subordinate one. At the same time, in his later +view, Plato avoids the exaggeration of denying all positive quality of +pleasure even to the coarser sensual gratifications; they are +undoubtedly cases of that "replenishment" or "restoration" to its +"natural state" of a bodily organ, in which he defines pleasure to +consist (see _Timaeus_, pp. 64, 65); he merely maintains that the common +estimate of them is to a large extent illusory, or a false appearance of +pleasure is produced by contrast with the antecedent or concomitant +painful condition of the organ. It is not surprising that this somewhat +complicated and delicately balanced view of the relations of "good" and +"pleasure" was not long maintained within the Platonic school, and that +under Speusippus, Plato's successor, the main body of Platonists took up +a simply anti-hedonistic position, as we learn from the polemic of +Aristotle. In the _Philebus_, however, though a more careful +psychological analysis leads him to soften down the exaggerations of +this attack on sensual pleasure, the antithesis of knowledge and +pleasure is again sharpened, and a desire to depreciate even good +pleasures is more strongly shown; still even here pleasure is recognized +as a constituent of that philosophic life which is the highest human +good, while in the _Laws_, where the subject is more popularly treated, +it is admitted that we cannot convince man that the just life is the +best unless we can also prove it to be the pleasantest. + + + Plato and Aristotle. + +When a student passes from Plato to Aristotle, he is so forcibly +impressed by the contrast between the habits of mind of the two authors, +and the literary manners of the two philosophers, that it is easy to +understand how their systems have come to be popularly conceived as +diametrically opposed to each other; and the uncompromising polemic +which Aristotle, both in his ethical and in his metaphysical treatises, +directs against Plato and the platonists, has tended strongly to confirm +this view. Yet a closer inspection shows us that when a later president +of the Academy (Antiochus of Ascalon) repudiated the scepticism which +for two hundred years had been accepted as the traditional Platonic +doctrine, he had good grounds for claiming Plato and Aristotle as +consentient authorities for the ethical position which he took up. For +though Aristotle's divergence from Plato is very conspicuous when we +consider either his general conception of the subject of ethics, or the +details of his system of virtues, still his agreement with his master is +almost complete as regards the main outline of his theory of human good; +the difference between the two practically vanishes when we view them in +relation to the later controversy between Stoics and Epicureans. Even on +the cardinal point on which Aristotle entered into direct controversy +with Plato, the definite disagreement between the two is less than at +first appears; the objections of the disciple hit that part of the +master's system that was rather imagined than thought; the main positive +result of Platonic speculation only gains in distinctness by the +application of Aristotelian analysis. + +Plato, we saw, held that there is one supreme science or wisdom, of which +the ultimate object is absolute good; in the knowledge of this, the +knowledge of all particular goods--that is, of all that we rationally +desire to know--is implicitly contained; and also all practical virtue, +as no one who truly knows what is good can fail to realize it. But in +spite of the intense conviction with which he thus identified +metaphysical speculation and practical wisdom, we find in his writings no +serious attempt to deduce the particulars of human well-being from his +knowledge of absolute good, still less to unfold from it the particular +cognitions of the special arts and sciences. Indeed, we may say that the +distinction which Aristotle explicitly draws between speculative science +or wisdom and practical wisdom (on its political side statesmanship) is +really indicated in Plato's actual treatment of the subjects, although +the express recognition of it is contrary to his principles. The +discussion of good (e.g.) in his _Philebus_ relates entirely to human +good, and the respective claims of Thought and Pleasure to constitute +this; he only refers in passing to the Divine Thought that is the good of +the ordered world, as something clearly beyond the limits of the present +discussion. So again, in his last great ethico-political treatise (the +_Laws_) there is hardly a trace of his peculiar metaphysics. On the other +hand, the relation between human and divine good, as presented by +Aristotle, is so close that we can hardly conceive Plato as having +definitely thought it closer. The substantial good of the universe, in +Aristotle's view, is the pure activity of universal abstract thought, at +once subject and object, which, itself changeless and eternal, is the +final cause and first source of the whole process of change in the +concrete world. And both he and Plato hold that a similar activity of +pure speculative intellect is that in which the philosopher will seek to +exist, though he must, being a man, concern himself with the affairs of +ordinary human life, a region in which his highest good will be attained +by realizing perfect moral excellence. No doubt Aristotle's demonstration +of the inappropriateness of attributing moral excellence to the Deity +seems to contradict Plato's doctrine that the just man as such is "likest +the gods," but here again the discrepancy is reduced when we remember +that the essence of Plato's justice ([Greek: dikaiosune]) is harmonious +activity. No doubt, too, Aristotle's attribution of pleasure to the +Divine Existence shows a profound metaphysical divergence from Plato; but +it is a divergence which has no practical importance. Nor, again, is +Aristotle's divergence from the Socratic principle that all "virtue is +knowledge" substantially greater than Plato's, though it is more plainly +expressed. Both accept the paradox in the qualified sense that no one can +deliberately act contrary to what appears to him good, and that perfect +virtue is inseparably bound up with perfect wisdom or moral insight. +Both, however, recognize that this actuality of moral insight is not a +function of the intellect only, but depends rather on careful training in +good habits applied to minds of good natural dispositions, though the +doctrine has no doubt a more definite and prominent place in Aristotle's +system. The disciple certainly takes a step in advance by stating +definitely, as an essential characteristic of virtuous action, that it is +chosen for its own sake, for the beauty of virtue alone; but herein he +merely formulates the conviction that his master inspires. Nor, finally, +does Aristotle's account of the relation of pleasure to human well-being +(although he has to combat the extreme anti-hedonism to which the +Platonic school under Speusippus had been led) differ materially from the +outcome of Plato's thought on this point, as the later dialogues present +it to us. Pleasure, in Aristotle's view, is not the primary constituent +of well-being, but rather an inseparable accident of it; human well-being +is essentially well-doing, excellent activity of some kind, whether its +aim and end be abstract truth or noble conduct; knowledge and virtue are +objects of rational choice apart from the pleasure attending them; still +all activities are attended and in a manner perfected by pleasure, which +is better and more desirable in proportion to the excellence of the +activity. He no doubt criticizes Plato's account of the nature of +pleasure, arguing that we cannot properly conceive pleasure either as a +"process" or as "replenishment"--the last term, he truly says, denotes a +material rather than a psychical fact. But this does not interfere with +the general ethical agreement between the two thinkers; and the doctrine +that vicious pleasures are not true or real pleasures is so +characteristically Platonic that we are almost surprised to find it in +Aristotle. + + + Aristotle's ethics. + +In so far as there is any important difference between the Platonic and +the Aristotelian views of human good, we may observe that the latter has +substantially a closer correspondence to the positive element in the +ethical teaching of Socrates, though it is presented in a far more +technical and scholastic form, and involves a more distinct rejection of +the fundamental Socratic paradox. The same result appears when we +compare the methods of the three philosophers. Although the Socratic +induction forms a striking feature of Plato's dialogues, his ideal +method of ethics is purely deductive; he admits common sense only as +supplying provisional steps and starting-points from which the mind is +to ascend to knowledge of absolute good, through which knowledge alone, +as he conceives, the lower notions of particular goods are to be truly +conceived. Aristotle, discarding the transcendentalism of Plato, +naturally retained from Plato's teaching the original Socratic method of +induction from and verification by common opinion. Indeed, the windings +of his exposition are best understood if we consider his literary manner +as a kind of Socratic dialogue formalized and reduced to a monologue. He +first leads us by an induction to the fundamental notion of ultimate end +or good for man. All men, in acting, aim at some result, either for its +own sake or as a means to some further end; but obviously not everything +can be sought merely as a means; there must be some ultimate end. In +fact men commonly recognize such an end, and agree to call it +well-being[3] ([Greek: eudaimonia]). But they take very different views +of its nature; how shall we find the true view? We observe that men are +classified according to their functions; all kinds of man, and indeed +all organs of man, have their special functions, and are judged as +functionaries and organs according as they perform their functions well +or ill. May we not then infer that man, as man, has his proper function, +and that the well-being or "doing well" that all seek really lies in +fulfilling well the proper function of man,--that is, in living well +that life of the rational soul which we recognize as man's distinctive +attribute? + +Again, this Socratic deference to common opinion is not shown merely in +the way by which Aristotle reaches his fundamental conception; it +equally appears in his treatment of the conception itself. In the first +place, though in Aristotle's view the most perfect well-being consists +in the exercise of man's "divinest part," pure speculative reason, he +keeps far from the paradox of putting forward this and nothing else as +human good; so far, indeed, that the greater part of his treatise is +occupied with an exposition of the inferior good which is realized in +practical life when the appetitive or impulsive (semi-rational) element +of the soul operates under the due regulation of reason. Even when the +notion of "good performance of function" was thus widened, and when it +had further taken in the pleasure that is inseparably connected with +such functioning, it did not yet correspond to the whole of what a Greek +commonly understood as "human well-being." We may grant, indeed, that a +moderate provision of material wealth is indirectly included, as an +indispensable pre-requisite of a due performance of many functions as +Aristotle conceives it--his system admits of no beatitudes for the poor; +still there remain other goods, such as beauty, good birth, welfare of +progeny, the presence or absence of which influenced the common view of +a man's well-being, though they could hardly be shown to be even +indirectly important to his "well-acting." These Aristotle attempts +neither to exclude from the philosophic conception of well-being nor to +include in his formal definition of it. The deliberate looseness which +is thus given to his fundamental doctrine characterizes more or less his +whole discussion of ethics. He plainly says that the subject does not +admit of completely scientific treatment; his aim is to give not a +definite theory of human good, but a practically adequate account of its +most important constituents. + +The most important element, then, of well-being or good life for +ordinary men Aristotle holds to consist in well-doing as determined by +the notions of the different moral excellences. In expounding these, he +gives throughout the pure result of analytical observation of the common +moral consciousness of his age. Ethical truth, in his view, is to be +attained by careful comparison of particular moral opinions, just as +physical truth is to be obtained by induction from particular physical +observations. On account of the conflict of opinion in ethics we cannot +hope to obtain certainty upon all questions; still reflection will lead +us to discard some of the conflicting views and find a reconciliation +for others, and will furnish, on the whole, a practically sufficient +residuum of moral truth. This adhesion to common sense, though it +involves a sacrifice of both depth and completeness in Aristotle's +system, gives at the same time an historical interest which renders it +deserving of special attention as an analysis of the current Greek ideal +of "fair and good life" ([Greek: kalokagathia]). His virtues are not +arranged on any clear philosophic plan; the list shows no serious +attempt to consider human life exhaustively, and exhibit the standard of +excellence appropriate to its different departments or aspects. He seems +to have taken as a starting-point Plato's four cardinal virtues. The two +comprehensive notions of Wisdom and Justice ([Greek: dikaiosune]) he +treats separately. As regards both his analysis leads him to diverge +considerably from Plato. As we saw, his distinction between practical +and speculative Wisdom belongs to the deepest of his disagreements with +his master; and in the case of [Greek: dikaiosune] again he +distinguishes the wider use of the term to express Law-observance, which +(he says) coincides with the social side of virtue generally, and its +narrower use for the virtue that "aims at a kind of equality," whether +(1) in the distribution of wealth, honour, &c., or (2) in commercial +exchange, or (3) in the reparation of wrong done. Then, in arranging the +other special virtues, he begins with courage and temperance, which +(after Plato) he considers as the excellences of the "irrational +element" of the soul. Next follow two pairs of excellences, concerned +respectively with wealth and honour: (1) liberality and magnificence, of +which the latter is exhibited in greater matters of expenditure, and (2) +laudable ambition and highmindedness similarly related to honour. Then +comes gentleness--the virtue regulative of anger; and the list is +concluded by the excellences of social intercourse, friendliness (as a +mean between obsequiousness and surliness), truthfulness and decorous +wit. + +The abundant store of just and close analytical observation contained in +Aristotle's account of these notions give it a permanent interest, even +beyond its historical value as a delineation of the Greek ideal of "fair +and good" life.[4] But its looseness of arrangement and almost grotesque +co-ordination of qualities widely differing in importance are obvious. +Thus his famous general formula for virtue, that it is a mean or middle +state, always to be found somewhere between the vices which stand to it +in the relation of excess and defect, scarcely avails to render his +treatment more systematic. It was important, no doubt, to express the +need of observing due measure and proportion, in order to attain good +results in human life no less than in artistic products; but the +observation of this need was no new thing in Greek literature; indeed, +it had already led the Pythagoreans and Plato to find the ultimate +essence of the ordered universe in number. But Aristotle's purely +quantitative statement of the relation of virtue and vice is misleading, +even where it is not obviously inappropriate; and sometimes leads him to +such eccentricities as that of making simple veracity a mean between +boastfulness and mock-modesty.[5] + +It ought to be said that Aristotle does not present the formula just +discussed as supplying a criterion of good conduct in any particular +case; he expressly leaves this to be determined by "correct reasoning, +and the judgment of the practically-wise man ([Greek: ho phronimos])." +We cannot, however, find that he has furnished any substantial +principles for its determination; indeed, he hardly seems to have formed +a distinct general idea of the practical syllogism by which he conceives +it to be effected.[6] The kind of reasoning which his view of virtuous +conduct requires is one in which the ultimate major premise states a +distinctive characteristic of some virtue, and one or more minor +premises show that such characteristic belongs to a certain mode of +conduct under given circumstances; since it is essential to good conduct +that it should contain its end in itself, and be chosen for its own +sake. But he has not failed to observe that practical reasonings are not +commonly of this kind, but are rather concerned with actions as means to +ulterior ends; indeed, he lays stress on this as a characteristic of the +"political" life, when he wishes to prove its inferiority to the life of +pure speculation. Though common sense will admit that virtues are the +best of goods, it still undoubtedly conceives practical wisdom as +chiefly exercised in providing those inferior goods which Aristotle, +after recognizing the need or use of them for the realization of human +well-being, has dropped out of sight; and the result is that, in trying +to make clear his conception of practical wisdom, we find ourselves +fluctuating continually between the common notion, which he does not +distinctly reject, and the notion required as the keystone of his +ethical system. + + + Transition to Stoicism. + +On the whole, there is probably no treatise so masterly as Aristotle's +_Ethics_, and containing so much close and valid thought, that yet +leaves on the reader's mind so strong an impression of dispersive and +incomplete work. It is only by dwelling on these defects that we can +understand the small amount of influence that his system exercised +during the five centuries after his death, as compared with the effect +which it has had, directly or indirectly, in shaping the thought of +modern Europe. Partly, no doubt, the limited influence of his disciples, +the Peripatetics (q.v.), is to be attributed to that exaltation of the +purely speculative life which distinguished the Aristotelian ethics from +other later systems, and which was too alien from the common moral +consciousness to find much acceptance in an age in which the ethical +aims of philosophy had again become paramount. Partly, again, the +analytical distinctness of Aristotle's manner brings into special +prominence the difficulties that attend the Socratic effort to reconcile +the ideal aspirations of men with the principles on which their +practical reasonings are commonly conducted. The conflict between these +two elements of Common Sense was too profound to be compromised; and the +moral consciousness of mankind demanded a more trenchant partisanship +than Aristotle's. Its demands were met by the Stoic school which +separated the moral from the worldly view of life, with an absoluteness +and definiteness that caught the imagination; which regarded practical +goodness as the highest manifestation of its ideal of wisdom; and which +bound the common notions of duty into an apparently coherent system, by +a formula that comprehended the whole of human life, and exhibited its +relation to the ordered process of the universe. The intellectual +descent of its ethical doctrines is principally to be traced to Socrates +through the Cynics, though an important element in them seems +attributable to the school that inherited the "Academy" of Plato. Both +Stoic and Cynic maintained, in its sharpest form, the fundamental tenet +that the practical knowledge which is virtue, with the condition of soul +that is inseparable from it, is alone to be accounted good. He who +exercises this wisdom or knowledge has complete well-being; all else is +indifferent to him. It is true that the Cynics were more concerned to +emphasize the negative side of the sage's well-being, while the Stoics +brought into more prominence its positive side. This difference, +however, did not amount to disagreement. The Stoics, in fact, seem +generally to have regarded the eccentricities of Cynicism as an emphatic +manner of expressing the essential antithesis between philosophy and the +world; a manner which, though not necessary or even normal, might yet be +advantageously adopted by the sage under certain circumstances.[7] + + + Stoicism. + +Wherein, then, consists this knowledge or wisdom that makes free and +perfect? Both Cynics and Stoics (q.v.) agreed that the most important +part of it was the knowledge that the sole good of man lay in this +knowledge or wisdom itself. It must be understood that by wisdom they +meant wisdom realized in act; indeed, they did not conceive the +existence of wisdom as separable from such realization. We may observe, +too, that the Stoics rejected the divergence which we have seen +gradually taking place in Platonic-Aristotelian thought from the +position of Socrates, "that no one aims at what he knows to be bad." The +stress that their psychology laid on the essential unity of the rational +self that is the source of voluntary action prevented them from +accepting Plato's analysis of the soul into a regulative element and +elements needing regulation. They held that what we call passion is a +morbid condition of the rational soul, involving erroneous judgment as +to what is to be sought or shunned. From such passionate errors the +truly wise man will of course be free. He will be conscious indeed of +physical appetite; but he will not be misled into supposing that its +object is really a good; he cannot, therefore, hope for the attainment +of this object or fear to miss it, as these states involve the +conception of it as a good. Similarly, though like other men he will be +subject to bodily pain, this will not cause him mental grief or +disquiet, as his worst agonies will not disturb his clear conviction +that it is really indifferent to his true reasonable self. + +That this impassive sage was a being not to be found among living men +the later Stoics at least were fully aware. They faintly suggested that +one or two moral heroes of old time might have realized the ideal, but +they admitted that all other philosophers (even) were merely in a state +of progress towards it. This admission did not in the least diminish the +rigour of their demand for absolute loyalty to the exclusive claims of +wisdom. The assurance of its own unique value that such wisdom involved +they held to be an abiding possession for those who had attained it;[8] +and without this assurance no act could be truly wise or virtuous. +Whatever was not of knowledge was of sin; and the distinction between +right and wrong being absolute and not admitting of degrees all sins +were equally sinful; whoever broke the least commandment was guilty of +the whole law. Similarly, all wisdom was somehow involved in any one of +the manifestations of wisdom, commonly distinguished as particular +virtues; though whether these virtues were specifically distinct, or +only the same knowledge in different relations, was a subtle question on +which the Stoics do not seem to have been agreed. + +Aristotle had already been led to attempt a refutation of the Socratic +identification of virtue with knowledge; but his attempt had only shown +the profound difficulty of attacking the paradox, so long as it was +admitted that no one could of deliberate purpose act contrary to what +seemed to him best. Now, Aristotle's divergence from Socrates had not +led him so far as to deny this; while for the Stoics who had receded to +the original Socratic position, the difficulty was still more patent. +This theory of virtue led them into two dilemmas. Firstly, if virtue is +knowledge, does it follow that vice is involuntary? If not, it must be +that ignorance is voluntary. This alternative is the less dangerous to +morality, and as such the Stoics chose it. But they were not yet at the +end of their perplexities; for while they were thus driven to an extreme +extension of the range of human volition, their view of the physical +universe involved an equally thorough-going determinism. How could the +vicious man be responsible if his vice were strictly pre-determined? The +Stoics answered that the error which was the essence of vice was so far +voluntary that it could be avoided if men chose to exercise their +reason. No doubt it depended on the innate force and firmness[9] of a +man's soul whether his reason was effectually exercised; but moral +responsibility was saved if the vicious act proceeded from the man +himself and not from any external cause. + +With all this we have not ascertained the positive practical content of +this wisdom. How are we to emerge from the barren circle of affirming +(1) that wisdom is the sole good and unwisdom the sole evil, and (2) +that wisdom is the knowledge of good and evil; and attain some method +for determining the particulars of good conduct? The Cynics made no +attempt to solve this difficulty; they were content to mean by virtue +what any plain man meant by it, except in so far as their sense of +independence led them to reject certain received precepts and +prejudices. The Stoics, on the other hand, not only worked out a +detailed system of duties--or, as they termed them, "things meet and +fit" ([Greek: kathekonta]) for all occasions of life; they were further +especially concerned to comprehend them under a general formula. They +found this by bringing out the positive significance of the notion of +Nature, which the Cynic had used chiefly in a negative way, as an +antithesis to the "consentions" ([Greek: nomos]), from which his +knowledge had made him free. Even in this negative use of the notion it +is necessarily implied that whatever active tendencies in man are found +to be "natural"--that is, independent of and uncorrupted by social +customs and conventions--will properly take effect in outward acts, but +the adoption of "conformity to nature" as a general positive rule for +outward conduct seems to have been due to the influence on Zeno of +Academic teaching. Whence, however, can this authority belong to the +natural, unless nature be itself an expression or embodiment of divine +law and wisdom? The conception of the world, as organized and filled by +divine thought, was common, in some form, to all the philosophies that +looked back to Socrates as their founder,--some even maintaining that +this thought was the sole reality. This pantheistic doctrine harmonized +thoroughly with the Stoic view of human good; but being unable to +conceive substance idealistically, they (with considerable aid from the +system of Heraclitus) supplied a materialistic side to their +pantheism,--conceiving divine thought as an attribute of the purest and +most primary of material substances, a subtle fiery aether. This +theological view of the physical universe had a double effect on the +ethics of the Stoic. In the first place it gave to his cardinal +conviction of the all-sufficiency of wisdom for human well-being a root +of cosmical fact, and an atmosphere of religious and social emotion. The +exercise of wisdom was now viewed as the pure life of that particle of +divine substance which was in very truth the "god within him"; the +reason whose supremacy he maintained was the reason of Zeus, and of all +gods and reasonable men, no less than his own; its realization in any +one individual was thus the common good of all rational beings as such; +"the sage could not stretch out a finger rightly without thereby +benefiting all other sages,"--nay, it might even be said that he was "as +useful to Zeus as Zeus to him."[10] But again, the same conception +served to harmonize the higher and the lower elements of human life. For +even in the physical or non-rational man, as originally constituted, we +may see clear indications of the divine design, which it belongs to his +rational will to carry into conscious execution; indeed, in the first +stage of human life, before reason is fully developed, uncorrupted +natural impulse effects what is afterwards the work of reason. Thus the +formula of "living according to nature," in its application to man as +the "rational animal," may be understood both as directing that reason +is to govern, and as indicating how that government is to be practically +exercised. In man, as in every other animal, from the moment of birth +natural impulse prompts to the maintenance of his physical frame; then, +when reason has been developed and has recognized itself as its own sole +good, these "primary ends of nature" and whatever promotes these still +constitute the outward objects at which reason is to aim; there is a +certain value ([Greek: axia]) in them, in proportion to which they are +"preferred" ([Greek: proegmena]) and their opposites "rejected" ([Greek: +apoproegmena]); indeed it is only in the due and consistent exercise of +such choice that wisdom can find its practical manifestation. In this +way all or most of the things commonly judged to be "goods"--health, +strength, wealth, fame,[11] &c.,--are brought within the sphere of the +sage's choice, though his real good is solely in the wisdom of the +choice, and not in the thing chosen. + +The doctrine of conformity to Nature as the rule of conduct was not +peculiar to Stoicism. It is found in the theories of Speusippus, +Xenocrates, and also to some extent in those of the Peripatetics. The +peculiarity of the Stoics lay in their refusing to use the terms "good +and evil" in connexion with "things indifferent," and in pointing out +that philosophers, though independent of these things, must yet deal +with them in practical life. + +So far we have considered the "nature" of the individual man as apart +from his social relations; but the sphere of virtue, as commonly +conceived, lies chiefly in these, and this was fully recognized in the +Stoic account of duties ([Greek: kathekonta]); indeed, in their +exposition of the "natural" basis of justice, the evidence that man was +born not for himself but for mankind is the most important part of their +work in the region of practical morality. Here, however, we especially +notice the double significance of "natural," as applied to (1) what +actually exists everywhere or for the most part, and (2) what would +exist if the original plan of man's life were fully carried out; and we +find that the Stoics have not clearly harmonized the two elements of the +notion. That man was "naturally" a social animal Aristotle had already +taught; that all rational beings, in the unity of the reason that is +common to all, form naturally one community with a common law was (as we +saw) an immediate inference from the Stoic conception of the universe as +a whole. That the members of this "city of Zeus" should observe their +contracts, abstain from mutual harm, combine to protect each other from +injury, were obvious points of natural law; while again, it was clearly +necessary to the preservation of human society that its members should +form sexual unions, produce children, and bestow care on their rearing +and training. But beyond this nature did not seem to go in determining +the relations of the sexes; accordingly, we find that community of wives +was a feature of Zeno's ideal commonwealth, just as it was of Plato's; +while, again, the strict theory of the school recognized no government +or laws as true or binding except those of the sage; he alone is the +true ruler, the true king. So far, the Stoic "nature" seems in danger of +being as revolutionary as Rousseau's. Practically, however, this +revolutionary aspect of the notion was kept for the most part in the +background; the rational law of an ideal community was not distinguished +from the positive ordinances and customs of actual society; and the +"natural" ties that actually bound each man to family, kinsmen, +fatherland, and to unwise humanity generally, supplied the outline on +which the external manifestation of justice was delineated. It was a +fundamental maxim that the sage was to take part in public life; and it +does not appear that his political action was to be regulated by any +other principles than those commonly accepted in his community. +Similarly, in the view taken by the Stoics of the duties of social +decorum, and in their attitude to the popular religion, we find a +fluctuating compromise between the disposition to repudiate what is +conventional, and the disposition to revere what is established, each +tendency expressing in its own way the principle of "conforming to +nature." + + + Stoics and hedonists. + +Among the primary ends of nature, in which wisdom recognized a certain +preferability, the Stoics included freedom from bodily pain; but they +refused, even in this outer court of wisdom, to find a place for +pleasure. They held that the latter was not an object of uncorrupted +natural impulse, but an "aftergrowth" ([Greek: epigennema]). They thus +endeavoured to resist Epicureanism even on the ground where the latter +seems prima facie strongest; in its appeal, namely, to the natural +pleasure-seeking of all living things. Nor did they merely mean by +pleasure ([Greek: hedone]) the gratification of bodily appetite; we find +(e.g.) Chrysippus urging, as a decisive argument against Aristotle, that +pure speculation was "a kind of amusement; that is, pleasure." Even the +"joy and gladness" ([Greek: chara, euphrosyne]) that accompany the +exercise of virtue seem to have been regarded by them as merely an +inseparable accident, not the essential constituent of well-being. It is +only by a later modification of Stoicism that cheerfulness or peace of +mind is taken as the real ultimate end, to which the exercise of virtue +is merely a means. At the same time it is probable that the serene joys +of virtue and the grieflessness which the sage was conceived to maintain +amid the worst tortures, formed the main attractions of Stoicism for +ordinary minds. In this sense it may be fairly said that Stoics and +Epicureans made rival offers to mankind of the same kind of happiness; +and the philosophical peculiarities of either system may be traced to +the desire of being undisturbed by the changes and chances of life. The +Stoic claims on this head were the loftiest; as the well-being of their +sage was independent, not only of external things and bodily conditions, +but of time itself; it was fully realized in a single exercise of wisdom +and could not be increased by duration. This paradox is violent, but it +is quite in harmony with the spirit of Stoicism; and we are more +startled to find that the Epicurean sage, no less than the Stoic, is to +be happy even on the rack; that his happiness, too, is unimpaired by +being restricted in duration, when his mind has apprehended the natural +limits of life; that, in short, Epicurus makes no less strenuous efforts +than Zeno to eliminate imperfection from the conditions of human +existence. This characteristic, however, is the key to the chief +differences between Epicureanism and the more naive hedonism of +Aristippus. The latter system gave the simplest and most obvious answer +to the inquiry after ultimate good for man; but besides being liable, +when developed consistently, to offend the common moral consciousness, +it conspicuously failed to provide the "completeness" and "security" +which, as Aristotle says, "one divines to belong to man's true Good." +Philosophy, in the Greek view, should be the art as well as the science +of good life; and hedonistic philosophy would seem a bungling and +uncertain art of pleasure, as pleasure is ordinarily conceived. Nay, it +would even be found that the habit of philosophical reflection often +operated adversely to the attainment of this end, by developing the +thinker's self-consciousness, so as to disturb that normal relation to +external objects on which the zest of ordinary enjoyment depends. Hence +we find that later thinkers of the Cyrenaic school felt themselves +compelled to change their fundamental notion; thus Theodorus defined the +good as "gladness" ([Greek: chara]) depending on wisdom, as distinct +from mere pleasure, while Hegesias proclaimed that happiness was +unattainable, and that the chief function of wisdom was to render life +painless by producing indifference to all things that give pleasure. But +by such changes their system lost the support that it had had in the +pleasure-seeking tendencies of ordinary men. It was clear that if +philosophic hedonism was to be established on a broad and firm basis, it +must in its notion of good combine what the plain man naturally sought +with what philosophy could plausibly offer. Such a combination was +effected, with some little violence, by Epicurus; whose system with all +its defects showed a remarkable power of standing the test of time, as +it attracted the unqualified adhesion of generation after generation of +disciples for a period of some six centuries. + + + Epicurus. + +In the fundamental principle of his philosophy Epicurus is not original. +Aristippus (cf. also Plato in the _Protagoras_ and Eudoxus) had already +maintained that pleasure is the sole ultimate good, and pain the sole +evil; that no pleasure is to be rejected except for its painful +consequences, and no pain to be chosen except as a means to greater +pleasure; that the stringency of all laws and customs depends solely on +the legal and social penalties attached to their violation; that, in +short, all virtuous conduct and all speculative activity are empty and +useless, except as contributing to the pleasantness of the agent's life. +And Epicurus assures us that he means by pleasure what plain men mean by +it; and that if the gratifications of appetite and sense are discarded, +the notion is emptied of its significance. So far the system would seem +to suit the inclinations of the most thorough-going voluptuary. The +originality of Epicurus lay in his theory that the highest point of +pleasure, whether in body or mind, is to be attained by the mere removal +of pain or disturbance, after which pleasure admits of variation only +and not of augmentation; that therefore the utmost gratification of +which the body is capable may be provided by the simplest means, and +that "natural wealth" is no more than any man can earn. When further he +teaches that the attainment of happiness depends almost entirely upon +insight and right calculation, fortune having very little to do with it; +that the pleasures and pains of the mind are far more important than +those of the body, owing to the accumulation of feeling caused by memory +and anticipation; and that an indispensable condition of mental +happiness lies in relieving the mind of all superstitions, which can be +effected only by a thorough knowledge of the physical universe--he +introduces an ample area for the exercise of the philosophic intellect. +So again, in the stress that he lays on the misery which the most secret +wrong-doing must necessarily cause from the perpetual fear of discovery, +and in his exuberant exaltation of the value of disinterested +friendship, he shows a sincere, though not completely successful, effort +to avoid the offence that consistent egoistic hedonism is apt to give to +ordinary human feeling. As regards friendship, Epicurus was a man of +peculiarly unexclusive sympathies.[12] The genial fellowship of the +philosophic community that he collected in his garden remained a +striking feature in the traditions of his school; and certainly the +ideal which Stoics and Epicureans equally cherished of a brotherhood of +sages was most easily realized on the Epicurean plan of withdrawing from +political and dialectical conflict to simple living and serene leisure, +in imitation of the gods apart from the fortuitous concourse of atoms +that we call a world. No doubt it was rather the practical than the +theoretical side of Epicureanism which gave it so strong a hold on +succeeding generations. + + + Later Greek philosophy. Stoicism in Rome. + +The two systems that have just been described were those that most +prominently attracted the attention of the ancient world, so far as it +was directed to ethics, from their almost simultaneous origin to the end +of the 2nd century A.D., when Stoicism almost vanishes from our view. +But side by side with them the schools of Plato and Aristotle still +maintained a continuity of tradition, and a more or less vigorous life; +and philosophy, as a recognized element of Graeco-Roman culture, was +understood to be divided among these four branches. The internal +history, however, of the four schools was very different. We find no +development worthy of notice in Aristotelian ethics (see PERIPATETICS). +The Epicureans, again, from their unquestioning acceptance of the +"dogmas"[13] of their founder, almost deserve to be called a sect rather +than a school. On the other hand, the changes in Stoicism are very +noteworthy; and it is the more easy to trace them, as the only original +writings of this school which we possess are those of the later Roman +Stoics. These changes may be attributed partly to the natural inner +development of the system, partly to the reaction of the Roman mind on +the essentially Greek doctrine which it received,--a reaction all the +more inevitable from the very affinity between the Stoic sage and the +ancient Roman ideal of manliness. It was natural that the earlier Stoics +should be chiefly occupied with delineating the inner and outer +characteristics of ideal wisdom and virtue, and that the gap between the +ideal sage and the actual philosopher, though never ignored, should yet +be somewhat overlooked. But when the question "What is man's good?" had +been answered by an exposition of perfect wisdom, the practical question +"How may a man emerge from the folly of the world, and get on the way +towards wisdom?" naturally attracted attention; and the preponderance of +moral over scientific interest, which was characteristic of the Roman +mind, gave this question especial prominence. The sense of the gap +between theory and fact gives to the religious element of Stoicism a new +force; the soul, conscious of its weakness, leans on the thought of God, +and in the philosopher's attitude towards external events, pious +resignation preponderates over self-poised indifference; the old +self-reliance of the reason, looking down on man's natural life as a +mere field for its exercise, makes room for a positive aversion to the +flesh as an alien element imprisoning the spirit; the body has come to +be a "corpse which the soul sustains,"[14] and life a "sojourn in a +strange land";[15] in short, the ethical idealism of Zeno has begun to +borrow from the metaphysical idealism of Plato. + + + History of Plato's school. + +In no one of these schools was the outward coherence of tradition so +much strained by inner changes as it was in Plato's. The alterations, +however, in the metaphysical position of the Academics had little effect +on their ethical teaching, as, even during the period of Scepticism, +they appear to have presented as probable the same general view of human +good which Antiochus afterwards dogmatically announced as a revival of +the common doctrine of Plato and Aristotle. And during the period of a +century and a half between Antiochus and Plutarch, we may suppose the +school to have maintained the old controversy with Stoicism on much the +same ground, accepting the formula of "life according to nature," but +demanding that the "good" of man should refer to his nature as a whole, +the good of his rational part being the chief element, and always +preferable in case of conflict, but yet not absolutely his sole good. In +Plutarch, however, we see the same tendencies of change that we have +noticed in later Stoicism. The conception of a normal harmony between +the higher and lower elements of human life has begun to be disturbed, +and the side of Plato's teaching that deals with the inevitable +imperfections of the world of concrete experience becomes again +prominent. For example, we find Plutarch amplifying the suggestion in +Plato's latest treatise (the _Laws_) that this imperfection is due to a +bad world-soul that strives against the good,--a suggestion which is +alien to the general tenor of Plato's doctrine, and had consequently +been unnoticed during the intervening centuries. We observe, again, the +value that Plutarch attaches, not merely to the sustainment and +consolation of rational religion, but to the supernatural communications +vouchsafed by the divinity to certain human beings in dreams, through +oracles, or by special warnings, like those of the genius of Socrates. +For these flashes of intuition, he holds, the soul should be prepared by +tranquil repose and the subjugation of sensuality through abstinence. +The same ascetic effort to attain by aloofness from the body a pure +receptivity for supernatural influences, is exhibited in +Neo-Pythagoreanism. But the general tendency that we are noting did not +find its full expression in a reasoned system until we come to the +Egyptian Plotinus. + + + Neoplatonism. + +The system of Plotinus (205-270 A.D.) is a striking development of that +element of Platonism which has had most fascination for the medieval and +even for the modern mind, but which had almost vanished out of sight in +the controversies of the post-Aristotelian schools. At the same time the +differences are the more noteworthy from the reverent adhesion which the +Neoplatonists always maintain to Plato. Plato identified good with the +real essence of things; with that in them which is definitely +conceivable and knowable. It belongs to this view to regard the +imperfection of things as devoid of real being, and so incapable of +being definitely thought or known; accordingly, we find that Plato has +no technical term for that in the concrete sensible world which hinders +it from perfectly expressing the abstract ideal world, and which in +Aristotle's system is distinguished as absolutely formless matter +([Greek: hule]). And so, when we pass from the ontology to the ethics of +Platonism, we find that, though the highest life is only to be realized +by turning away from concrete human affairs and their material +environment, still the sensible world is not yet an object of positive +moral aversion; it is rather something which the philosopher is +seriously concerned to make as harmonious, good and beautiful as +possible. But in Neoplatonism the inferiority of the condition in which +the embodied human soul finds itself is more intensely and painfully +felt; hence an express recognition of formless matter ([Greek: hule]) as +the "first evil," from which is derived the "second evil," body ([Greek: +soma]), to whose influence all the evil in the soul's existence is due. +Accordingly the ethics of Plotinus represent, we may say, the moral +idealism of the Stoics cut loose from nature. The only good of man is +the pure existence of the soul, which in itself, apart from the +contagion of the body, is perfectly free from error or defect; if only +it can be restored to the untrammelled activity of its original being, +nothing external, nothing bodily, can positively impair its perfect +welfare. It is only the lowest form of virtue--the "civic" virtue of +Plato's _Republic_--that is employed in regulating those animal impulses +whose presence in the soul is due to its mixture with the body; higher +or philosophic wisdom, temperance, courage and justice are essentially +purifications from this contagion; until finally the highest mode of +goodness is reached, in which the soul has no community with the body, +and is entirely turned towards reason. It should be observed that +Plotinus himself is still too Platonic to hold that the absolute +mortification of natural bodily appetites is required for purifying the +soul; but this ascetic inference was drawn to the fullest extent by his +disciple Porphyry. + +There is, however, a yet higher point to be reached in the upward ascent +of the Neoplatonist from matter; and here the divergence of Plotinus +from Platonic idealism is none the less striking, because it is a _bona +fide_ result of reverent reflection on Plato's teaching. The cardinal +assumption of Plato's metaphysic is, that the real is definitely +thinkable and knowable in proportion as it is real; so that the further +the mind advances in abstraction from sensible particulars and +apprehension of real being, the more definite and clear its thought +becomes. Plotinus, however, urges that, as all thought involves +difference or duality of some kind, it cannot be the primary fact in the +universe, what we call God. He must be an essential unity prior to this +duality, a Being wholly without difference or determination; and, +accordingly, the highest mode of human existence, in which the soul +apprehends this absolute, must be one in which all definite thought is +transcended, and all consciousness of self lost in the absorbing +ecstasy. Porphyry tells us that his master Plotinus attained the highest +state four times during the six years which he spent with him. + +Neoplatonism, originally Alexandrine, is often regarded as Hellenistic +rather than Hellenic, a product of the mingling of Greek with Oriental +civilization. But however Oriental may have been the cast of mind that +welcomed this theosophic asceticism, the forms of thought by which these +views were philosophically reached are essentially Greek; and it is by a +thoroughly intelligible process of natural development, in which the +intensification of the moral consciousness represented by Stoicism plays +an important part, that the Hellenic pursuit of knowledge culminates in +a preparation for ecstasy, and the Hellenic idealization of man's +natural life ends in a settled antipathy to the body and its works. At +the same time we ought not to overlook the affinities between the +doctrine of Plotinus and that remarkable combination of Greek and Hebrew +thought which Philo Judaeus had expounded two centuries before; nor the +fact that Neoplatonism was developed in conscious antagonism to the new +religion which had spread from Judea, and was already threatening the +conquest of the Graeco-Roman world, and also to the Gnostic systems (see +GNOSTICISM); nor, finally, that it furnished the chief theoretical +support in the last desperate struggle that was made under Julian to +retain the old polytheistic worship. + +B. _Christianity and Medieval Ethics._--In the present article we are +not concerned with the origin of the Christian religion, nor with its +outward history. Nor have we to consider the special doctrines that have +formed the bond of union of the Christian communities except in their +ethical aspect, their bearing on the systematization of human aims and +activities. This aspect, however, must necessarily be prominent in +discussing Christianity, which cannot be adequately treated merely as a +system of theological beliefs divinely revealed, and special observances +divinely sanctioned; for it claims to regulate the whole man, in all +departments of his existence. It was not till the 4th century A.D. that +the first attempt was made to offer a systematic exposition of Christian +morality; and nine centuries more had passed away before a genuinely +philosophic intellect, trained by a full study of Aristotle, undertook +to give complete scientific form to the ethical doctrine of the Catholic +church. Before, however, we take a brief survey of the progress of +systematic ethics from Ambrose to Thomas Aquinas, it may be well to +examine the chief features of the new moral consciousness that had +spread through Graeco-Roman civilization, and was awaiting philosophic +synthesis. It will be convenient to consider first the new _form_ or +universal characteristics of Christian morality, and afterwards to note +the chief points in the _matter_ or particulars of duty and virtue which +received development or emphasis from the new religion. + + + Christian and Jewish "law of God." + +The first point to be noticed is the new conception of morality as the +positive law of a theocratic community possessing a written code imposed +by divine revelation, and sanctioned by divine promises and +threatenings. It is true that we find in ancient thought, from Socrates +downwards, the notion of a law of God, eternal and immutable, partly +expressed and partly obscured by the shifting codes and customs of +actual human societies. But the sanctions of this law were vaguely and, +for the most part, feebly imagined; its principles were essentially +unwritten, and thus referred not to the external will of an Almighty +Being who claimed unquestioning submission, but rather to the reason +that gods and men shared, by the exercise of which alone they could be +adequately known and defined. Hence, even if the notion of law had been +more prominent than it was in ancient ethical thought, it could never +have led to a juridical, as distinct from a philosophical, treatment of +morality. In Christianity, on the other hand, we early find that the +method of moralists determining right conduct is to a great extent +analogous to that of juris-consults interpreting a code. It is assumed +that divine commands have been implicitly given for all occasions of +life, and that they are to be ascertained in particular cases by +interpretation of the general rules obtained from texts of scripture, +and by inference from scriptural examples. This juridical method +descended naturally from the Jewish theocracy, of which Christendom was +a universalization. Moral insight, in the view of the most thoughtful +Jews of the age immediately preceding Christianity, was conceived as +knowledge of a divine code, emanating from an authority external to +human reason which had only the function of interpreting and applying +its rules. This law was derived partly from Moses, partly from the +utterances of the later prophets, partly from oral tradition and from +the commentaries and supplementary maxims of generations of students. +Christianity inherited the notion of a written divine code acknowledged +as such by the "true Israel"--now potentially including the whole of +mankind, or at least the chosen of all nations,--on the sincere +acceptance of which the Christian's share of the divine promises to +Israel depended. And though the ceremonial part of the old Hebrew code +was altogether rejected, and with it all the supplementary jurisprudence +resting on tradition and erudite commentary, still God's law was +believed to be contained in the sacred books of the Jews, supplemented +by the teaching of Christ and his apostles. By the recognition of this +law the church was constituted as an ordered community, essentially +distinct from the State; the distinction between the two was emphasized +by the withdrawal of the early Christians from civic life, to avoid the +performance of idolatrous ceremonies imposed as official expressions of +loyalty, and by the persecutions which they had to endure, when the +spread of an association apparently so hostile to the framework of +ancient society had at length alarmed the imperial government. Nor was +the distinction obliterated by the recognition of Christianity as the +state religion under Constantine. + +Thus the jural form in which morality was conceived only emphasized the +fundamental difference between it and the laws of the state. The +ultimate sanctions of the moral code were the infinite rewards and +punishments awaiting the immortal soul hereafter; but the church early +felt the necessity of withdrawing the privileges of membership from +apostates and allowing them to be gradually regained only by a solemn +ceremonial expressive of repentance, protracted through several years. +This formal and regulated "penitence" was extended from apostasy to +other grave--or, as they were subsequently called, "deadly"--sins; while +for minor offences all Christians were called upon to express contrition +by fasting and abstinence from ordinarily permitted pleasures, as well +as verbally in public and private devotions. "Excommunication" and +"penance" thus came to be temporal ecclesiastical sanctions of the moral +law. As the graduation of these sanctions naturally became more minute, +a correspondingly detailed classification of offences was rendered +necessary, and thus a system of ecclesiastical jurisprudence was +gradually produced, somewhat analogous to that of Judaism. At the same +time this tendency to make prominent a scheme of external duties has +always been counteracted in Christianity by the remembrance of its +original antithesis to Jewish legalism. We find that this antithesis, as +exaggerated by some of the Gnostic sects of the 2nd and 3rd centuries +A.D., led, not merely to theoretical antinomianism, but even (if the +charges of their orthodox opponents are not entirely to be discredited) +to gross immorality of conduct. A similar tendency has shown itself at +other periods of church history. And though such antinomianism has +always been sternly repudiated by the moral consciousness of +Christendom, it has never been forgotten that "inwardness," rightness of +heart or spirit, is the pre-eminent characteristic of Christian +goodness. It must not, of course, be supposed that the need of something +more than mere fulfilment of external duty was ignored even by the later +Judaism. Rabbinic erudition could not forget the repression of vicious +desires in the tenth commandment, the stress laid in Deuteronomy on the +necessity of service to God, or the inculcation by later prophets of +humility and faith. "The real and only Pharisee," says the Talmud, "is +he who does the will of his Father because he loves Him." But it remains +true that the contrast with the "righteousness of the scribes and +pharisees" has always served to mark the requirement of "inwardness" as +a distinctive feature of the Christian code--an inwardness not merely +negative, tending to the repression of vicious desires as well as +vicious acts, but also involving a positive rectitude of the inner state +of the soul. + + + Christian and Pagan inwardness. + + Faith. + +In this aspect Christianity invites comparison with Stoicism, and indeed +with pagan ethical philosophy generally, if we except the hedonistic +schools. Rightness of purpose, preference of virtue for its own sake, +suppression of vicious desires, were made essential points by the +Aristotelians, who attached the most importance to outward circumstances +in their view of virtue, no less than by the Stoics, to whom all outward +things were indifferent. The fundamental differences between pagan and +Christian ethics depend not on any difference in the value set on +rightness of heart, but on different views of the essential form or +conditions of this inward rightness. In neither case is it presented +purely and simply as moral rectitude. By the pagan philosophers it was +always conceived under the form of Knowledge or Wisdom, it being +inconceivable to all the schools sprung from Socrates that a man could +truly know his own good and yet deliberately choose anything else. This +knowledge, as Aristotle held, might be permanently precluded by vicious +habits, or temporarily obliterated by passion, but if present in the +mind it must produce rightness of purpose. Or even if it were held with +some of the Stoics that true wisdom was out of the reach of the best men +actually living, it none the less remained the ideal condition of +perfect human life. By Christian teachers, on the other hand, the inner +springs of good conduct were generally conceived as Faith and Love. Of +these notions the former has a somewhat complex ethical import; it seems +to blend several elements differently prominent in different minds. Its +simplest and commonest meaning is that emphasized in the contrast of +"faith" with "sight"; where it signifies belief in the invisible divine +order represented by the church, in the actuality of the law, the +threats, the promises of God, in spite of all the influences in man's +natural life that tend to obscure this belief. Out of this contrast +there ultimately grew an essentially different opposition between faith +and knowledge or reason, according to which the theological basis of +ethics was contrasted with the philosophical; the theologians +maintaining sometimes that the divine law is essentially arbitrary, the +expression of will, not reason; more frequently that its reasonableness +is inscrutable, and that actual human reason should confine itself to +examining the credentials of God's messengers, and not the message +itself. But in early Christianity this latter antithesis was as yet +undeveloped; faith means simply force in clinging to moral and religious +conviction, whatever their rational grounds may be; this force, in the +Christian consciousness, being inseparably bound up with personal +loyalty and trust towards Christ, the leader in the battle with evil, +the ruler of the kingdom to be realized. So far, however, there is no +ethical difference between Christian faith and that of Judaism, or its +later imitation, Mahommedanism; except that the personal affection of +loyal trust is peculiarly stirred by the blending of human and divine +natures in Christ, and the rule of duty impressively taught by the +manifestation of his perfect life. A more distinctively Christian, and a +more deeply moral, significance is given to the notion in the antithesis +of "faith" and "works." Here faith means more than loyal acceptance of +the divine law and reverent trust in the lawgiver; it implies a +consciousness, at once continually present and continually transcended, +of the radical imperfection of all human obedience to the law, and at +the same time of the irremissible condemnation which this imperfection +entails. The Stoic doctrine of the worthlessness of ordinary human +virtue, and the stern paradox that all offenders are equally, in so far +as all are absolutely, guilty, find their counterparts in Christianity; +but the latter (maintaining this ideal severity in the moral standard, +with an emotional consciousness of what is involved in it quite unlike +that of the Stoic) overcomes its practical exclusiveness through faith. +This faith, again, may be conceived in two modes, essentially distinct +though usually combined. In one view it gives the believer strength to +attain, by God's supernatural aid or "grace," a goodness of which he is +naturally incapable; in the other view it gives him an assurance that, +though he knows himself a sinner deserving of utter condemnation, a +perfectly just God still regards him with favour on account of the +perfect services and suffering of Christ. Of these views the former is +the more catholic, more universally present in the Christian +consciousness; the latter more deeply penetrates the mystery of the +Atonement, as expounded in the Pauline epistles. + + + Love. + + Purity. + +But faith, however understood, is rather an indispensable pre-requisite +than the essential motive principle of Christian good conduct. This +motive is supplied by the other central notion, love. On love depends +the "fulfilling of the law," and the sole moral value of Christian +duty--that is, on love to God, in the first place, which in its fullest +development must spring from Christian faith; and, secondly, love to all +mankind, as the objects of divine love and sharers in the humanity +ennobled by the incarnation. This derivative philanthropy characterizes +the spirit in which all Christian performance of social duty is to be +done; loving devotion to God being the fundamental attitude of mind that +is to be maintained throughout the whole of the Christian's life. But +further, as regards abstinence from unlawful acts and desires prompting +to them, we have to notice another form in which the inwardness of +Christian morality manifests itself, which, though less distinctive, +should yet receive attention in any comparison of Christian ethics with +the view of Graeco-Roman philosophy. The profound horror with which the +Christian's conception of a suffering as well as an avenging divinity +tended to make him regard all condemnable acts was tinged with a +sentiment which we may perhaps describe as a ceremonial aversion +moralized--the aversion, that is, to foulness or impurity. In Judaism, +as in other, especially Oriental, religions, the natural dislike of +material defilement has been elevated into a religious sentiment, and +made to support a complicated system of quasi-sanitary abstinences and +ceremonial purifications; then, as the ethical element predominated in +the Jewish religion, a moral symbolism was felt to reside in the +ceremonial code, and thus aversion to impurity came to be a common form +of the ethico-religious sentiment. Then, when Christianity threw off the +Mosaic ritual, this religious sense of purity was left with no other +sphere besides morality; while, from its highly idealized character, it +was peculiarly well adapted for that repression of vicious desires which +Christianity claimed as its special function. + + + Distinctive particulars of Christian morality. + +The distinctive features of Christian ethics are obedience, +unworldliness, benevolence, purity and humility. They are naturally +connected with the more general characteristics just stated; though many +of them may also be referred directly to the example and precepts of +Christ, and in several cases they are clearly due to both causes, +inseparably combined. + +1. We may notice, in the first place, that the conception of morality as +a code which, if not in itself arbitrary, is yet to be accepted by men +with unquestioning submission, tends naturally to bring into prominence +the virtue of _obedience to authority_; just as the philosophic view of +goodness as the realization of reason gives a special value to +_self-determination_ and independence (as we see more clearly in the +post-Aristotelian schools where ethics is distinctly separated from +politics). + +2. Again, the opposition between the natural world and the spiritual +order into which the Christian has been born anew led not merely to a +contempt equal to that of the Stoic for wealth, fame, power, and other +objects of worldly pursuit, but also, for some time at least, to a +comparative depreciation of the domestic and civic relations of the +natural man. This tendency was exhibited most simply and generally in +the earliest period of the church's history. In the view of primitive +Christians, ordinary human society was a world temporarily surrendered +to Satanic rule, over which a swift and sudden destruction was +impending; in such a world the little band who were gathered in the ark +of the church could have no part or lot,--the only attitude they could +maintain was that of passive alienation. On the other hand, it was +difficult practically to realize this alienation, and a keen sense of +this difficulty induced the same hostility to the body as a clog and +hindrance, that we find to some extent in Plato, but more fully +developed in Neoplatonism, Neopythagoreanism, and other products of the +mingling of Greek with Oriental thought. This feeling is exhibited in +the value set on fasting in the Christian church from the earliest +times, and in an extreme form in the self-torments of later monasticism; +while both tendencies, anti-worldliness and anti-sensualism, seem to +have combined in causing the preference of celibacy over marriage which +is common to most early Christian writers.[16] Patriotism, again, and +the sense of civic duty, the most elevated of all social sentiments in +the Graeco-Roman civilization, tended, under the influence of +Christianity, either to expand itself into universal philanthropy, or to +concentrate itself on the ecclesiastical community. "We recognize one +commonwealth, the world," says Tertullian; "we know," says Origen, "that +we have a fatherland founded by the word of God." We might further +derive from the general spirit of Christian unworldliness that +repudiation of the secular modes of conflict, even in a righteous cause, +which substituted a passive patience and endurance for the old pagan +virtue of courage, in which the active element was prominent. Here, +however, we clearly trace the influence of Christ's express prohibition +of violent resistance to violence, and his inculcation, by example and +precept, of a love that was to conquer even natural resentment. An +extreme result of this influence is shown in Tertullian's view, that no +Christian could properly hold the office of a secular magistrate in +which he would have to doom to death, chains, imprisonment; but even +more sober writers, such as Ambrose, extend Christian passivity so far +as to preclude self-defence even against a murderous assault. The common +sense of Christendom gradually shook off these extravagances; but the +reluctance to shed blood lingered long, and was hardly extinguished even +by the growing horror of heresy. We have a curious relic of this in the +later times of ecclesiastical persecution, when the heretic was doomed +to the stake that he might be punished in some manner "short of +bloodshed."[17] + + + Benevolence. + +3. It is, however, in the impulse given to practical beneficence in all +its forms, by the exaltation of love as the root of all virtues, that +the most important influence of Christianity on the particulars of +civilized morality is to be found; although the exact amount of this +influence is here somewhat difficult to ascertain, since it merely +carries further a development traceable in the history of pagan +morality. This development appears when we compare the different +post-Socratic systems of ethics. In Plato's exposition of the different +virtues there is no mention whatever of benevolence, although his +writings show a keen sense of the importance of friendship as an element +of philosophic life, especially of the intense personal affection +naturally arising between master and disciple. Aristotle goes somewhat +further in recognizing the moral value of friendship [Greek: (philia)]; +and though he considers that in its highest form it can be realized only +by the fellowship of the wise and good, he yet extends the notion so as +to include the domestic affections, and takes notice of the importance +of mutual kindness in binding together all human societies. Still in his +formal statement of the different virtues, positive beneficence is +discernible only under the notion of "liberality," in which form its +excellence is hardly distinguished from that of graceful profusion in +self-regarding expenditure (_Nic. Eth_. iv. 1). Cicero, on the other +hand, in his paraphrase of a Stoic treatise on external duties (_De +officiis_), ranks the rendering of positive services to other men as a +chief department of social duty; and the Stoics generally recognized the +universal fellowship and natural mutual claims of human beings as such. +Indeed, this recognition in later Stoicism is sometimes expressed with +so much warmth of feeling as to be hardly distinguishable from Christian +philanthropy. Nor was this regard for humanity merely a doctrine of the +school. Partly through the influence of Stoic and other Greek +philosophy, partly from the natural expansion of human sympathies, the +legislation of the Empire, during the first three centuries, shows a +steady development in the direction of natural justice and humanity; and +some similar progress may be traced in the general tone of moral +opinion. Still the utmost point that this development reached fell +considerably short of the standard of Christian charity. Without +dwelling on the immense impetus given to the practice of social duty +generally by the religion that made beneficence a form of divine +service, and identified "piety" with "pity," we have to put down as +definite changes introduced by Christianity--(1) the severe condemnation +and final suppression of the practice of exposing infants; (2) effective +abhorrence of the barbarism of gladiatorial combats; (3) immediate moral +mitigation of slavery, and a strong encouragement of emancipation; (4) +great extension of the eleemosynary provision made for the sick and the +poor. As regards almsgiving, however--the importance of which has +caused it to usurp, in modern languages, the general name of +"charity"--it ought to be observed that Christianity merely +universalized a duty which has always been inculcated by Judaism, within +the limits of the chosen people. + +4. The same may be said of the stricter regulation which Christianity +enforced on the relations of the sexes; except so far as the prohibition +of divorce is concerned, and the stress laid on "purity of heart" as +contrasted with merely outward chastity. + +5. Even the peculiarly Christian virtue of humility, which presents so +striking a contrast to the Greek "highmindedness," was to some extent +anticipated in the Rabbinic teaching. Its far greater prominence under +the new dispensation may be partly referred to the express teaching and +example of Christ; partly, in so far as the virtue is manifested in the +renunciation of external rank and dignity, or the glory of merely +secular gifts and acquirements, it is one aspect of the unworldliness +which we have already noticed; while the deeper humility that represses +the claim of personal merit even in the saint belongs to the strict +self-examination, the continual sense of imperfection, the utter +reliance on strength not his own, which characterize the inner moral +life of the Christian. Humility in this latter sense, "before God," is +an essential condition of all truly Christian goodness. + +We have, however, yet to notice the enlargement of the sphere of ethics +due to its close connexion with theology; for while this added religious +force and sanction to ordinary moral obligations, it equally tended to +impart a moral aspect to religious belief and worship. "Duty to God"--as +distinct from duty to man--had not been altogether unrecognized by pagan +moralists; but the rather dubious relations of even the more orthodox +philosophy to the established polytheism had generally prevented them +from laying much stress upon it. Again,--just as the Stoics held wisdom +to be indispensable to real rectitude of conduct, while at the same time +they included under the notion of wisdom a grasp of physical as well as +ethical truth,--so the similar emphasis laid on inwardness in Christian +ethics caused orthodoxy or correctness of religious belief to be +regarded as essential to goodness, and heresy as the most fatal of +vices, corrupting as it did the very springs of Christian life. To the +philosophers (with the single exception of Plato), however, convinced as +they were that the multitude must necessarily miss true well-being +through their folly and ignorance, it could never occur to guard against +these evils by any other method than that of providing philosophic +instruction for the few; whereas the Christian clergy, whose function it +was to offer truth and eternal life to all mankind, naturally regarded +theological misbelief as insidious preventible contagion. Indeed, their +sense of its deadliness was so keen that, when they were at length able +to control the secular administration, they rapidly overcame their +aversion to bloodshed, and initiated that long series of religious +persecutions to which we find no parallel in the pre-Christian +civilization of Europe. It was not that Christian writers did not feel +the difficulty of attributing criminality to sincere ignorance or error. +But the difficulty is not really peculiar to theology; and the +theologians usually got over it (as some philosophers had surmounted a +similar perplexity in the region of ethics proper) by supposing some +latent or antecedent voluntary sin, of which the apparently involuntary +heresy was the fearful fruit. + +Lastly, we must observe that, in proportion as the legal conception of +morality as a code of which the violation deserves supernatural +punishment predominated over the philosophic view of ethics as the +method for attaining natural felicity, the question of man's freedom of +will to obey the law necessarily became prominent. At the same time it +cannot be broadly said that Christianity took a decisive side in the +metaphysical controversy on free-will and necessity; since, just as in +Greek philosophy the need of maintaining freedom as the ground of +responsibility clashes with the conviction that no one deliberately +chooses his own harm, so in Christian ethics it clashes with the +attribution of all true human virtue to supernatural grace, as well as +with the belief in divine foreknowledge. All we can say is that in the +development of Christian thought the conflict of conceptions was far +more profoundly felt, and far more serious efforts were made to evade or +transcend it. + + + Development of opinion in early Christianity. + + Augustine. + +In the preceding account of Christian morality, it has been already +indicated that the characteristics delineated did not all exhibit +themselves simultaneously to the same extent, or with perfect uniformity +throughout the church. Changes in the external condition of +Christianity, the different degrees of civilization in the societies of +which it was the dominant religion, and the natural process of internal +development, continually brought different features into prominence; +while again, the important antagonisms of opinion within Christendom +frequently involved ethical issues--even in the Eastern Church--until in +the 4th century it began to be absorbed in the labour of a dogmatic +construction. Thus, for example, the anti-secular tendencies of the new +creed, to which Tertullian (160-220) gave violent and rigid expression, +were exaggerated in the Montanist heresy which he ultimately joined; on +the other hand, Clement of Alexandria, in opposition to the general tone +of his age, maintained the value of pagan philosophy for the development +of Christian faith into true knowledge (Gnosis), and the value of the +natural development of man through marriage for the normal perfecting of +the Christian life. So again, there is a marked difference between the +writers before Augustine and those that succeeded him in all that +concerns the internal conditions of Christian morality. By Justin and +other apologists the need of redemption, faith, grace is indeed +recognized, but the theological system depending on these notions is not +sufficiently developed[18] to come into even apparent antagonism with +the freedom of the will. Christianity is for the most part conceived as +essentially a proclamation through the Divine Word, to immortal beings +gifted with free choice, of the true code of conduct sanctioned by +eternal rewards and punishments. This legalism contrasts strikingly with +the efforts of pagan philosophy to exhibit virtue as its own reward; and +the contrast is triumphantly pointed out by more than one early +Christian writer. Lactantius (_circa_ 300 A.D.), for example, roundly +declares that Plato and Aristotle, referring everything to this earthly +life, "made virtue mere folly"; though himself maintaining, with +pardonable inconsistency, that man's highest good did not consist in +mere pleasure, but in the consciousness of the filial relation of the +soul to God. It is plain, however, that on this external legalistic view +of duty it was impossible to maintain a difference in kind between +Christian and pagan morality; the philosopher's conformity to the rules +of chastity and beneficence, so far as it went, was indistinguishable +from the saint's. But when this inference was developed in the teaching +of Pelagius, it was repudiated as heretical by the church, under the +powerful leadership of Augustine (354-430); and the doctrine of man's +incapacity to obey God's law by his unaided moral energy was pressed to +a point at which it was difficult to reconcile it with the freedom of +the will. Augustine is fully aware of the theoretical indispensability +of maintaining Free Will, from its logical connexion with human +responsibility and divine justice; but he considers that these latter +points are sufficiently secured if actual freedom of choice between good +and evil is allowed in the single case of our progenitor Adam.[19] For +since the _natura seminalis_ from which all men were to arise already +existed in Adam, in his voluntary preference of self to God, humanity +chose evil once for all; for which ante-natal guilt all men are justly +condemned to perpetual absolute sinfulness and consequent punishment, +unless they are elected by God's unmerited grace to share the benefits +of Christ's redemption. Without this grace it is impossible for man to +obey the "first greatest commandment" of love to God; and, this +unfulfilled, he is guilty of the whole law, and is only free to choose +between degrees of sin; his apparent external virtues have no moral +value, since inner rightness of intention is wanting. "All that is not +of faith is of sin"; and faith and love are mutually involved and +inseparable; faith springs from the divinely imparted germ of love, +which in its turn is developed by faith to its full strength, while from +both united springs hope, joyful yearning towards ultimate perfect +fruition of the object of love. These three Augustine (after St Paul) +regards as the three essential elements of Christian virtue; along with +these he recognizes the fourfold division of virtue into prudence, +temperance, courage and justice according to their traditional +interpretation; but he explains these virtues to be in their true +natures only the same love to God in different aspects or exercises. The +uncompromising mysticism of this view may be at once compared and +contrasted with the philosophical severity of Stoicism. Love of God in +the former holds the same absolute and unique position as the sole +element of moral worth in human action, which, as we have seen, was +occupied by knowledge of Good in the latter; and we may carry the +parallel further by observing that in neither case is this severity in +the abstract estimate of goodness necessarily connected with extreme +rigidity in practical precepts. Indeed, an important part of Augustine's +work as a moralist lies in the reconciliation which he laboured to +effect between the anti-worldly spirit of Christianity and the +necessities of secular civilization. For example, we find him arguing +for the legitimacy of judicial punishments and military service against +an over-literal interpretation of the Sermon on the Mount; and he took +an important part in giving currency to the distinction between +evangelical "counsels" and "commands," and so defending the life of +marriage and temperate enjoyment of natural good against the attacks of +the more extravagant advocate of celibacy and self-abnegation; although +he fully admitted the superiority of the latter method of avoiding the +contamination of sin. + + + Ambrose. + +The attempt to Christianize the old Platonic list of virtues, which we +have noticed in Augustine's system, was probably due to the influence of +his master Ambrose, in whose treatise _De officiis ministrorum_ we find +for the first time an exposition of Christian duty systematized on a +plan borrowed from a pre-Christian moralist. It is interesting to +compare Ambrose's account of what subsequently came to be known as the +"four cardinal virtues" with the corresponding delineations in +Cicero's[20] _De officiis_ which served the bishop as a model. Christian +Wisdom, so far as it is speculative, is of course primarily theological; +it has God, as the highest truth, for its chief object, and is therefore +necessarily grounded on faith. Christian Fortitude is essentially +firmness in withstanding the seductions of good and evil fortune, +resoluteness in the conflict perpetually waged against wickedness +without carnal weapons--though Ambrose, with the Old Testament in his +hand, will not quite relinquish the ordinary martial application of the +term. "Temperantia" retains the meaning of "observance of due measure" +in all conduct, which it had in Cicero's treatise; though its notion is +partly modified by being blended with the newer virtue of humility. +Finally in the exposition of Christian Justice the Stoic doctrine of the +natural union of all human interests is elevated to the full height and +intensity of evangelical philanthropy; the brethren are reminded that +the earth was made by God a common possession of all, and are bidden to +administer their means for the common benefit; Ambrose, we should +observe, is thoroughly aware of the fundamental union of these different +virtues in Christianity, though he does not, like Augustine, resolve +them all into the one central affection of love of God. + + + Ecclesiastical morality in the "Dark Ages." + +Under the influence of Ambrose and Augustine, the four cardinal virtues +furnished a basis on which the systematic ethical theories of subsequent +theologians were built. With them the triad of Christian graces, Faith, +Hope and Love, and the seven gifts of the Spirit (Isaiah xi. 2) were +often combined. In antithesis to this list, an enumeration of the +"deadly sins" obtained currency. These were at first commonly reckoned +as eight; but a preference for mystical numbers characteristic of +medieval theologians finally reduced them to seven. The statement of +them is variously given,--Pride, Avarice, Anger, Gluttony, Unchastity, +are found in all the lists; the remaining two (or three) are variously +selected from among Envy, Vainglory, and the rather singular sins +Gloominess (_tristitia_) and Languid Indifference (_acidia_ or _acedia_, +from Gr. [Greek: _akedia_]). These latter notions show plainly, what +indeed might be inferred from a study of the list as a whole, that it +represents the moral experience of the monastic life, which for some +centuries was more and more unquestioningly regarded as in a peculiar +sense "religious." It should be observed that the (also Augustinian) +distinction between "deadly" and "venial" sins had a technical reference +to the quasi-jural administration of ecclesiastical discipline, which +grew gradually more organized as the spiritual power of the church +established itself amid the ruins of the Western empire, and slowly +developed into the theocracy that almost dominated Europe during the +latter part of the middle ages. "Deadly" sins were those for which +formal ecclesiastical penance was held to be necessary, in order to save +the sinner from eternal damnation; for "venial" sins he might obtain +forgiveness, through prayer, almsgiving, and the observance of the +regular fasts. We find that "penitential books" for the use of the +confessional, founded partly on traditional practice and partly on the +express decrees of synods, come into general use in the 7th century. At +first they are little more than mere inventories of sins, with their +appropriate ecclesiastical punishments; gradually cases of conscience +come to be discussed and decided, and the basis is laid for that system +of casuistry which reached its full development in the 14th and 15th +centuries. This ecclesiastical jurisprudence, and indeed the general +relation of the church to the ruder races with which it had to deal +during this period, necessarily tended to encourage a somewhat external +view of morality. But a powerful counterpoise to this tendency was +continually maintained by the fervid inwardness of Augustine, +transmitted through Gregory the Great, Isidore of Seville, Alcuin, +Hrabanus Maurus, and other writers of the philosophically barren period +between the destruction of the Western empire and the rise of +Scholasticism. + + + Medieval moral philosophy. + +Scholastic ethics, like scholastic philosophy, attained its completest +result in the teaching of Thomas Aquinas. But before giving a brief +account of the ethical part of his system, it will be well to notice the +salient points in the long and active discussion that led up to it. In +the pantheistic system of Erigena (q.v.) (_circa_ 810-877) the chief +philosophic element is supplied by the influence of Plato and Plotinus, +transmitted through an unknown author of the 5th century, who assumed +the name of Dionysius the Areopagite. Accordingly the ethical side of +this doctrine has the same negative and ascetic character that we have +observed in Neoplatonism. God is the only real Being; evil is +essentially unreal and incognizable; the true aim of man's life is to +return to perfect union with God out of the degraded material existence +into which he has fallen. This doctrine found little acceptance among +Erigena's contemporaries, and was certainly unorthodox enough to justify +the condemnation which it subsequently received from Honorius III.; but +its influence, together with that of the Pseudo-Dionysius, had a +considerable share in developing the more emotional orthodox mysticism +of the 12th and 13th centuries; and Neoplatonism (or Platonism received +through a Neoplatonic tradition) remained a distinct element in medieval +thought, though obscured in the period of mature scholasticism by the +predominant influence of Aristotle. Passing on to Anselm (1033-1109), we +observe that the Augustinian doctrine of original sin and man's absolute +need of unmerited grace is retained in his theory of salvation; he also +follows Augustine in defining freedom as the "power not to sin"; though +in saying that Adam fell "spontaneously" and "by his free choice," +though not "through its freedom," he has implicitly made the distinction +that Peter the Lombard afterwards expressly draws between the freedom +that is opposed to necessity and freedom from the slavery to sin. Anselm +further softens the statement of Augustinian predestinationism by +explaining that the freedom to will is not strictly lost even by fallen +man; it is inherent in a rational nature, though since Adam's sin it +only exists potentially in humanity, except where it is made actual by +grace. + +In a more real sense Abelard (1079-1142) tries to establish the +connexion between man's ill desert and his free consent. He asserts that +the inherited propensity to evil is not strictly a sin, which is only +committed when the conscious self yields to vicious inclination. With a +similar stress on the self-conscious side of moral action, he argues +that rightness of conduct depends solely on the intention, at one time +pushing this doctrine to the paradoxical assertion that all outward acts +as such are indifferent.[21] In the same spirit, under the reviving +influence of ancient philosophy (with which, however, he was imperfectly +acquainted and the relation of which to Christianity he extravagantly +misunderstood), he argues that the old Greek moralists, as inculcating a +disinterested love of good--and so implicitly love of God as the highest +good--were really nearer to Christianity than Judaic legalism was. Nay, +further, he required that the Christian "love to God" should be regarded +as pure only if purged from the self-regarding desire of the happiness +which God gives. The general tendency of Abelard's thought was +suspiciously regarded by contemporary orthodoxy;[22] and the +over-subtlety of the last-mentioned distinction provoked vehement +replies from orthodox mystics of the age. Thus, Hugo of St Victor +(1077-1141) argues that all love is necessarily so far "interested" that +it involves a desire for union with the beloved; and since eternal +happiness consists in this union, it cannot truly be desired apart from +God; while Bernard of Clairvaux (1091-1153) more elaborately +distinguishes four stages by which the soul is gradually led from (1) +merely self-regarding desire for God's aid in distress, to (2) love him +for his loving-kindness to it, then also (3) for his absolute goodness, +until (4) in rare moments this love for himself alone becomes the sole +all-absorbing affection. This controversy Peter the Lombard endeavoured +to compose by the scholastic art of taking distinctions, of which he was +a master. In his treatise, _Libri sententiarum_, mainly based on +Augustinian doctrine, we find a distinct softening of the antithesis +between nature and grace and an anticipation of the union of +Aristotelian and Christian thought, which was initiated by Albert the +Great and completed by Thomas Aquinas. + + + Thomas Aquinas. + +The moral philosophy of Aquinas is Aristotelianism with a Neoplatonic +tinge, interpreted and supplemented by a view of Christian dogma derived +chiefly from Augustine. All action or movement of all things irrational +as well as rational is directed towards some end or good,--that is, +really and ultimately towards God himself, the ground and first cause of +all being, and unmoved principle of all movement. This universal though +unconscious striving after God, since he is essentially intelligible, +exhibits itself in its highest form in rational beings as a desire for +knowledge of him; such knowledge, however, is beyond all ordinary +exercise of reason, and may be only partially revealed to man here +below. Thus the _summum bonum_ for man is objectively God, subjectively +the happiness to be derived from loving vision of his perfections; +although there is a lower kind of happiness to be realized here below +in a normal human existence of virtue and friendship, with mind and body +sound and whole and properly trained for the needs of life. The higher +happiness is given to man by free grace of God; but it is given to those +only whose heart is right, and as a reward of virtuous actions. Passing +to consider what actions are virtuous, we first observe generally that +the morality of an act is in part, but only in part, determined by its +particular motive; it partly depends on its external object and +circumstances, which render it either objectively in harmony with the +"order of reason" or the reverse. In the classification of particular +virtues and vices we can distinguish very clearly the elements supplied +by the different teachings which Aquinas has imbibed. He follows +Aristotle closely in dividing the "natural" virtues into intellectual +and moral, giving his preference to the former class, and the +intellectual again into speculative and practical; in distinguishing +within the speculative class the "intellect" that is conversant with +principles, the "science" that deduces conclusions, and the "wisdom" to +which belongs the whole process of knowing the sublimest objects of +knowledge; and in treating practical wisdom as inseparably connected +with moral virtues, and therefore in a sense moral. His distinction +among moral virtues of the justice that renders others their due from +the virtues that control the appetites and passions of the agent +himself, represents his interpretation of the _Nicomachean Ethics_; +while his account of these latter virtues is a simple transcript of +Aristotle's, just as his division of the non-rational element of the +soul into "concupiscible" and "irascible" is the old Platonic one. In +arranging his list, however, he defers to the established doctrine of +the four cardinal virtues (derived from Plato and the Stoics through +Cicero); accordingly, the Aristotelian ten have to stand under the +higher genera of (1) the prudence which gives reasoned rules of conduct, +(2) the temperance which restrains misleading desire, and (3) the +fortitude that resists misleading fear of dangers or toils. But before +these virtues are ranked the three "theologic" virtues, faith, love and +hope, supernaturally "instilled" by God, and directly relating to him as +their object. By faith we obtain that part of our knowledge of God which +is beyond the range of mere natural wisdom or philosophy; naturally +(e.g.), we can know God's existence, but not his trinity in unity, +though philosophy is useful to defend this and other revealed verities; +and it is essential for the soul's welfare that all articles of the +Christian creed, however little they can be known by natural reason, +should be apprehended through faith; the Christian who rejects a single +article loses hold altogether of faith and of God. Faith is the +substantial basis of all Christian morality, but without love--the +essential form of all the Christian virtues--it is "formless" +(_informis_). Christian love is conceived (after Augustine) as primarily +love to God (beyond the natural yearning of the creature after its +ultimate good), which expands into love towards all God's creatures as +created by him, and so ultimately includes even self-love. But creatures +are only to be loved in their purity as created by God; all that is bad +in them must be an object of hatred till it is destroyed. In the +classification of sins the Christian element predominates; still we find +the Aristotelian vices of excess and defect, along with the modern +divisions into "sins against God, neighbour and self," "mortal and +venial sins," and so forth. + +From the notion of sin--treated in its jural aspect--Aquinas passes +naturally to the discussion of Law. The exposition of this conception +presents to a great extent the same matter that was dealt with by the +exposition of moral virtues, but in a different form; the prominence of +which may perhaps be attributed to the growing influence of Roman +jurisprudence, which attained in the 12th century so rapid and brilliant +a revival in Italy. This side of Thomas's system is specially important, +since it is just this blending of theological conceptions with the +abstract theory of the later Roman law that gave the starting-point for +independent ethical thought in the modern world. Under the general idea +of law, defined as an "ordinance of reason for the common good, +promulgated by him who has charge of the community," Thomas +distinguishes (1) the eternal law or regulative reason of God which +embraces all his creatures, rational and irrational; (2) "natural law," +being that part of the eternal law that relates to rational creatures as +such; (3) human law, which properly consists of more particular +deductions from natural law particularized and adapted to the varying +circumstances of actual communities; (4) divine law specially revealed +to man. As regards natural law, he teaches that God has implanted in the +human mind a knowledge of its immutable general principles; and not only +knowledge, but a disposition, to which he applies the peculiar +scholastic name _synderesis_,[23] that unerringly prompts to the +realization of these principles in conduct, and protests against their +violation. All acts of natural virtue are implicitly included within the +scope of this law of nature; but in the application of its principles to +particular cases--to which the term "conscience" should be +restricted--man's judgment is liable to err, the light of nature being +obscured and perverted by bad education and custom. Human law is +required, not merely to determine the details for which natural law +gives no intuitive guidance, but also to supply the force necessary for +practically securing, among imperfect men, the observance of the most +necessary rules of mutual behaviour. The rules of this law must be +either deductions from principles of natural law, or determinations of +particulars which it leaves indeterminate; a rule contrary to nature +could not be valid as law at all. Human law, however, can deal with +outward conduct alone, and natural law, as we have seen, is liable to be +vague and obscure in particular applications. Neither natural nor human +law, moreover, takes into account that supernatural happiness which is +man's highest end. Hence they need to be supplemented by a special +revelation of divine law. This revelation is distinguished into the law +of the old covenant and the law of the gospel; the latter of these is +productive as well as imperative since it carries with it the divine +grace that makes its fulfilment possible. We have, however, to +distinguish in the case of the gospel between (1) absolute commands and +(2) "counsels," which latter recommend, without positively ordering the +monastic life of poverty, celibacy and obedience as the best method of +effectively turning the will from earthly to heavenly things. + + + Duns Scotus. + + William of Occam. + +But how far is man able to attain either natural or Christian +perfection? This is the part of Thomas's system in which the cohesion of +the different elements seems weakest. He is scarcely aware that his +Aristotelianized Christianity inevitably combines two different +difficulties in dealing with this question: first, the old pagan +difficulty of reconciling the proposition that will is a rational desire +always directed towards apparent good, with the freedom of choice +between good and evil that the jural view of morality seems to require; +and, secondly, the Christian difficulty of harmonizing this latter +notion with the absolute dependence on divine grace which the religious +consciousness affirms. The latter difficulty Thomas, like many of his +predecessors, avoids by supposing a "co-operation" of free-will and +grace, but the former he does not fully meet. It is against this part of +his doctrines that the most important criticism, in ethics, of his rival +Duns Scotus (c. 1266-1308) was directed. He urged that will could not be +really free if it were bound to reason, as Thomas (after Aristotle) +conceives it; a really free choice must be perfectly indeterminate +between reason and unreason. Scotus consistently maintained that the +divine will is similarly independent of reason, and that the divine +ordering of the world is to be conceived as absolutely arbitrary. On +this point he was followed by the acute intellect of William of Occam +(d. c. 1347). This doctrine is obviously hostile to all reasoned +morality; and in fact, notwithstanding the dialectical ability of Scotus +and Occam, the work of Thomas remained indubitably the crowning result +of the great constructive effort of medieval philosophy. The effort was, +indeed, foredoomed to failure, since it attempted the impossible task of +framing a coherent system out of the heterogeneous data furnished by +Scripture, the fathers, the church and Aristotle--equally unquestioned, +if not equally venerated, authorities. Whatever philosophic quality is +to be found in the work of Thomas belongs to it in spite of, not in +consequence of, its method. Still, its influence has been great and +long-enduring,--in the Catholic Church primarily, but indirectly among +Protestants, especially in England, since the famous first book of +Hooker's _Ecclesiastical Polity_ is to a great extent taken from the +_Summa theologiae_. + + + Medieval mysticism. + +Partly in conscious antagonism to the schoolmen, yet with close affinity +to the central ethico-theological doctrine which they read out of or +into Aristotle, the mystical manner of thought continued to maintain +itself in the church. Philosophically it rested upon Neoplatonism, but +its development in strict connexion with Christian orthodoxy begins in +the 12th century with Bernard of Clairvaux and Hugo of St Victor. It +blended the Christian element of love with the ecstatic vision of +Plotinus, sometimes giving the former a decided predominance. In its +more moderate form, keeping wholly within the limits of ecclesiastical +orthodoxy, this mysticism is represented by Bonaventura and Gerson; +while it appears more independent and daringly constructive in the +German Eckhart, advancing in some of his followers to open breach with +the church, and even to practical immorality. + + + Casuistry. + + The Jesuits. + +In the brief account above given of the general ethical view of Thomas +Aquinas no mention has been made of the detailed discussion of +particular duties included in the _Summa theologiae_; in which, for the +most part, an excellent combination of moral elevation with sobriety of +judgment is shown, though on certain points the scholastic pedantry of +definition and distinction is unfavourable to due delicacy of treatment. +As the properly philosophic interest of scholasticism faded in the 14th +and 15th centuries, the quasi-legal treatment of morality came again +into prominence, borrowing a good deal of matter from Thomas and other +schoolmen. One result of this was a marked development and +systematization of casuistry. The best known _Summae casuum +conscientiae_, compiled for the conduct of auricular confession, belong +to the 14th and 15th centuries. The oldest, the _Astesana_, from Asti in +Piedmont, is arranged as a kind of text-book of morality on a scholastic +basis; later manuals are merely lists of questions and answers. It was +inevitable that, in proportion as this casuistry assumed the character +of a systematic penal jurisprudence, its precise determination of the +limits between the prohibited and the allowable, with all doubtful +points closely scrutinized and illustrated by fictitious cases, would +have a tendency to weaken the moral sensibilities of ordinary minds; the +greater the industry spent in deducing conclusions from the diverse +authorities, the greater necessarily became the number of points on +which doctors disagreed; and the central authority that might have +repressed serious divergences was wanting in the period of moral +weakness[24] that the church went through after the death of Boniface +VIII. A plain man perplexed by such disagreements might naturally hold +that any opinion maintained by a pious and orthodox writer must be a +safe one to follow; and thus weak consciences were subtly tempted to +seek the support of authority for some desired relaxation of a moral +rule. It does not, however, appear that this danger assumed formidable +proportions until after the Reformation; when, in the struggle made by +the Catholic church to recover its hold on the world, the principle of +authority was, as it were, forced into keen, balanced and prolonged +conflict with that of reliance on private judgment. To the Jesuits, the +foremost champions in this struggle, it seemed indispensable that the +confessional should be made attractive; for this purpose +ecclesiastico-moral law must be somehow "accommodated" to worldly needs; +and the theory of "Probabilism" supplied a plausible method for +effecting this accommodation. The theory proceeded thus: A layman could +not be expected to examine minutely into a point on which the learned +differed; therefore he could not fairly be blamed for following any +opinion that rested on the authority of even a single doctor; therefore +his confessor must be authorized to hold him guiltless if any such +"probable" opinion could be produced in his favour; nay, it was his duty +to suggest such an opinion, even though opposed to his own, if it would +relieve the conscience under his charge from a depressing burden. The +results to which this Probabilism, applied with an earnest desire to +avoid dangerous rigour, led in the 17th century were revealed to the +world in the immortal _Lettres provinciales_ of Pascal. + + + The Reformation. Transition to modern ethical philosophy. + +In tracing the development of casuistry we have been carried beyond the +great crisis through which Western Christianity passed in the 16th +century. The Reformation which Luther initiated may be viewed on several +sides, even if we consider only its ethical principles and effects. It +maintained the simplicity of Apostolic Christianity against the +elaborate system of a corrupt hierarchy, the teaching of Scripture alone +against the commentaries of the fathers and the traditions of the +church, the right of private judgment against the dictation of +ecclesiastical authority, the individual responsibility of every human +soul before God in opposition to the papal control over purgatorial +punishments, which had led to the revolting degradation of venal +indulgences. Reviving the original antithesis between Christianity and +Jewish legalism, it maintained the inwardness of faith to be the sole +way to eternal life, in contrast to the outwardness of works; returning +to Augustine, and expressing his spirit in a new formula, to resist the +Neo-Pelagianism that had gradually developed itself within the apparent +Augustinianism of the church, it maintained the total corruption of +human nature, as contrasted with that "congruity" by which, according to +the schoolmen, divine grace was to be earned; renewing the fervent +humility of St Paul, it enforced the universal and absolute +imperativeness of all Christian duties, and the inevitable unworthiness +of all Christian obedience, in opposition to the theory that "condign" +merit might be gained by "supererogatory" conformity to evangelical +"counsels." It will be seen that these changes, however profoundly +important, were, ethically considered, either negative or quite general, +relating to the tone and attitude of mind in which all duty should be +done. As regards all positive matter of duty and virtue, and most of the +prohibitive code for ordinary men, the tradition of Christian teaching +was carried on substantially unchanged by the Reformed churches. Even +the old method of casuistry was maintained[25] during the 16th and 17th +centuries; though Scriptural texts, interpreted and supplemented by the +light of natural reason, now furnished the sole principles on which +cases of conscience were decided. + + + Humanism. + +In the 17th century, however, the interest of this quasi-legal treatment +of morality gradually faded; and the ethical studies of educated minds +were occupied with the attempt, renewed after so many centuries, to find +an independent philosophical basis for the moral code. The renewal of +this attempt was only indirectly due to the Reformation; it is rather to +be connected with the more extreme reaction from the medieval religion +which was partly caused by, partly expressed in, that enthusiastic study +of the remains of old pagan culture that spread from Italy over Europe +in the 15th and 16th centuries. To this "humanism" the Reformation +seemed at first more hostile than the Roman hierarchy; indeed, the +extent to which this latter had allowed itself to become paganized by +the Renaissance was one of the points that especially roused the +Reformers' indignation. Not the less important is the indirect stimulus +given by the Reformation towards the development of a moral philosophy +independent alike of Catholic and Protestant assumptions. Scholasticism, +while reviving philosophy as a handmaid to theology, had metamorphosed +its method into one resembling that of its mistress; thus shackling the +renascent intellectual activity which it stimulated by the double +bondage to Aristotle and to the church. When the Reformation shook the +traditional authority in one department, the blow was necessarily felt +in the other. Not twenty years after Luther's defiance of the pope, the +startling thesis "that all that Aristotle taught was false" was +prosperously maintained by the youthful Ramus before the university of +Paris; and almost contemporaneously the group of remarkable thinkers in +Italy who heralded the dawn of modern physical science--Cardanus, +Telesio, Patrizzi, Campanella, Bruno--began to propound their +Aristotelian theories of the constitution of the physical universe. It +was to be foreseen that a similar assertion of independence would make +itself heard in ethics also; and, indeed, amid the clash of dogmatic +convictions, and the variations of private judgment, it was natural to +seek for an ethical method that might claim universal acceptance from +all sects. + + + Grotius. + +C. _Modern Ethics._--The need of such independent principles was most +strongly felt in the region of man's civil and political relations, +especially the mutual relations of communities. Accordingly we find that +modern ethical controversy began in a discussion of the law of nature. +Albericus Gentilis (1557-1611) and Hugo Grotius (1583-1645) were the +first to give a systematic account. Natural law, according to Grotius +and other writers of the age, is that part of divine law which follows +from the essential nature of man, who is distinguished from animals by +his "appetite" for tranquil association with his fellows, and his +tendency to act on general principles. It is therefore as unalterable, +even by God himself, as the truths of mathematics, although its effect +may be overruled in any particular case by an express command of God; +hence it is cognizable _a priori_, from the abstract consideration of +human nature, though its existence may be known _a posteriori_ also from +its universal acceptance in human societies. The conception, as we have +seen, was taken from the later Roman jurists; by them, however, the law +of nature was conceived as something that underlay existing law, and was +to be looked for through it, though it might ultimately supersede it, +and in the meanwhile represented an ideal standard, by which +improvements in legislation were to be guided. Still the language of the +jurists in some passages (cf. _Inst. of Justinian_, ii. 1, 2) clearly +implied a period of human history in which men were governed by natural +law alone, prior to the institution of civil society. Posidonius had +identified this period with the mythical "golden age"; and such ideas +easily coalesced with the narrative in Genesis. Thus there had become +current the conception of a "state of nature" in which individuals or +single families lived side by side--under none other than those +"natural" laws which prohibited mutual injury and interference in the +free use of the goods of the earth common to all, and upheld parental +authority, fidelity of wives, and the observance of compacts freely +made. This conception Grotius took, and gave it additional force and +solidity by using the principles of this natural law for the +determination of international rights and duties, it being obvious that +independent nations, in their corporate capacities, were still in that +"state of nature" in their mutual relations. It was not, of course, +assumed that these laws were universally obeyed; indeed, one point with +which Grotius is especially concerned is the natural right of private +war, arising out of the violation of more primary rights. Still a +general observance was involved in the idea of a natural law as a +"dictate of right reason indicating the agreement or disagreement of an +act with man's rational and social nature"; and we may observe that it +was especially necessary to assume such a general observance in the case +of contracts, since it was by an "express or tacit pact" that the right +of property (as distinct from the mere right to non-interference during +use) was held by him to have been instituted. A similar "fundamental +pact" had long been generally regarded as the normal origin of +legitimate sovereignty. + +The ideas above expressed were not peculiar to Grotius; in particular +the doctrine of the "fundamental pact" as the jural basis of government +had long been maintained, especially in England, where the constitution +historically established readily suggested such a compact. At the same +time the rapid and remarkable success of Grotius's treatise (_De jure +belli et pacis_) brought his view of Natural Right into prominence, and +suggested such questions as--"What is man's ultimate reason for obeying +these laws? Wherein exactly does this their agreement with his rational +and social nature consist? How far, and in what sense, is his nature +really social?" + + + Hobbes. + +It was the answer which Hobbes (1588-1679) gave to these fundamental +questions that supplied the starting-point for independent ethical +philosophy in England. The nature of this answer was determined by the +psychological views to which Hobbes had been led, possibly to some +extent under the influence of Bacon,[26] partly perhaps through +association with his younger contemporary Gassendi, who, in two +treatises, published between the appearance of Hobbes's _De cive_ (1642) +and that of the _Leviathan_ (1651), endeavoured to revive interest in +Epicurus. Hobbes's psychology is in the first place materialistic; he +holds, that is, that in any of the psycho-physical phenomena of human +nature the reality is a material process of which the mental feeling is +a mere "appearance." Accordingly he regards pleasure as essentially +motion "helping vital action," and pain as motion "hindering" it. There +is no logical connexion between this theory and the doctrine that +appetite of desire has always pleasure (or the absence of pain) for its +object; but a materialist, framing a system of psychology, will +naturally direct his attention to the impulses arising out of bodily +wants, whose obvious end is the preservation of the agent's organism; +and this, together with a philosophic wish to simplify, may lead him to +the conclusion that all human impulses are similarly self-regarding. +This, at any rate, is Hobbes's cardinal doctrine in moral psychology, +that each man's appetites or desires are naturally directed either to +the preservation of his life, or to that heightening of it which he +feels as pleasure.[27] Hobbes does not distinguish instinctive from +deliberate pleasure-seeking; and he confidently resolves the most +apparently unselfish emotions into phases of self-regard. Pity he finds +to be grief for the calamity of others, arising from imagination of the +like calamity befalling oneself; what we admire with seeming +disinterestedness as beautiful (_pulchrum_) is really "pleasure in +promise"; when men are not immediately seeking present pleasure, they +desire power as a means to future pleasure, and thus have a derivative +delight in the exercise of power that prompts to what we call benevolent +action. Since, then, all the voluntary actions of men tend to their own +preservation or pleasure, it cannot be reasonable to aim at anything +else; in fact, nature rather than reason fixes this as the end of human +action; it is reason's function to show the means. Hence if we ask why +it is reasonable for any individual to observe the rules of social +behaviour that are commonly called moral, the answer is obvious that +this is only indirectly reasonable, as a means to his own preservation +or pleasure. It is not, however, in this, which is only the old Cyrenaic +or Epicurean answer, that the distinctive point of Hobbism lies. It is +rather in the doctrine that even this indirect reasonableness of the +most fundamental moral rules is entirely conditional on their general +observance, which cannot be secured apart from government. For example, +it is not reasonable for me to perform my share of a contract, unless I +have reason for believing that the other party will perform his; and +this I cannot have, except in a society in which he will be punished for +non-performance. Thus the ordinary rules of social behaviour are only +hypothetically obligatory; they are actualized by the establishment of a +"common power" that may "use the strength and means of all" to enforce +on all the observance of rules tending to the common benefit. On the +other hand Hobbes yields to no one in maintaining the paramount +importance of moral regulations. The precepts of good faith, equity, +requital of benefits, forgiveness of wrong so far as security allows, +the prohibition of contumely, pride, arrogance,--which may all be summed +up in the formula, "Do not that to another which thou wouldest not have +done to thyself" (i.e. the negative of the "golden rule")--he still +calls "immutable and eternal laws of nature"--meaning that, though a man +is not unconditionally bound to realize them, he is, as a reasonable +being, bound to desire that they should be realized. The pre-social +state of man, in his view, is also pre-moral; but it is therefore +utterly miserable. It is a state in which every one has a right to +everything that may conduce to his preservation;[28] but it is therefore +also a state of war--a state so wretched that it is the first dictate of +rational self-love to emerge from it into social peace and order. Hence +Hobbes's ideal constitution naturally comes to be an unquestioned and +unlimited--though not necessarily monarchical--despotism. Whatever the +government declares to be just or unjust must be accepted as such, since +to dispute its dictates would be the first step towards anarchy, the one +paramount peril outweighing all particular defects in legislation and +administration. It is perhaps easy to understand how, in the crisis of +1640, when the ethico-political system of Hobbes first took written +shape, a peace-loving philosopher should regard the claims of individual +conscience as essentially anarchical, and dangerous to social +well-being; but however strong might be men's yearning for order, a view +of social duty, in which the only fixed positions were selfishness +everywhere and unlimited power somewhere, could not but appear +offensively paradoxical. + +There was, however, in his theory an originality, a force, an apparent +coherence which rendered it undeniably impressive; in fact, we find that +for two generations the efforts to construct morality on a philosophical +basis take more or less the form of answers to Hobbes. From an ethical +point of view Hobbism divides itself naturally into two parts, which by +Hobbes's peculiar political doctrines are combined into a coherent +whole, but are not otherwise necessarily connected. Its theoretical +basis is the principle of egoism; while, for practically determining the +particulars of duty it makes morality entirely dependent on positive law +and institution. It thus affirmed the relativity of good and evil in a +double sense; good and evil, for any individual citizen, may from one +point of view be defined as the objects respectively of his desire and +his aversion; from another, they may be said to be determined for him by +his sovereign. It is this latter aspect of the system which is primarily +attacked by the first generation of writers that replied to Hobbes. This +attack, or rather the counter-exposition of orthodox doctrine, is +conducted on different methods by the Cambridge moralists and by +Cumberland respectively. Cumberland is content with the legal view of +morality, but endeavours to establish the validity of the laws of nature +by taxing them on the single supreme principle of rational regard for +the "common good of all," and showing them, as so based, to be +adequately supported by the divine sanction. The Cambridge school, +regarding morality primarily as a body of truth rather than a code of +rules, insist on its absolute character and intuitive certainty. + + + The Cambridge moralists, Cudworth. + +Cudworth was the most distinguished of the little group of thinkers at +Cambridge in the 17th century, commonly known as the Cambridge +Platonists (q.v.). In his treatise on _Eternal and Immutable Morality_ +his main aim is to maintain the "essential and eternal distinctions of +good and evil" as independent of mere will, whether human or divine. +These distinctions, he insists, have an objective reality, cognizable by +reason no less than the relations of space or number; and he endeavours +to refute Hobbism--which he treats as a "novantique philosophy," a mere +revival of the relativism of Protagoras--chiefly by the following +_argumentum ad hominem_. He argues that Hobbes's atomic materialism +involves the conception of an objective physical world, the object not +of passive sense that varies from man to man, but of the active +intellect that is the same in all; there is therefore, he urges, an +inconsistency in refusing to admit a similar exercise of intellect in +morals, and an objective world of right and wrong, which the mind by its +normal activity clearly apprehends as such. + + + More. + +Cudworth, in the work above mentioned, gives no systematic exposition of +the ethical principles which he holds to be thus intuitively +apprehended. But we may supply this deficiency from the _Enchiridion +Ethicum_ of Henry More, another thinker of the same school. More gives a +list of 23 _Noemata Moralia_, the truth of which will, he says, be +immediately manifest. Some of these admit of a purely egoistic +application, and appear to be so understood by the author--as (e.g.) +that goods differ in quality as well as in duration, and that the +superior good or the lesser evil is always to be preferred; that absence +of a given amount of good is preferable to the presence of equivalent +evil; that future good or evil is to be regarded as much as present, if +equally certain, and nearly as much if very probable. Objections, both +general and special, might be urged by a Hobbist against these modes of +formulating man's natural pursuit of self-interest; but the serious +controversy between Hobbism and modern Platonism related not to such +principles as these, but to others which demand from the individual a +(real or apparent) sacrifice for his fellows. Such are the evangelical +principle of "doing as you would be done by"; the principle of justice, +or "giving every man his own, and letting him enjoy it without +interference"; and especially what More states as the abstract formula +of benevolence, that "if it be good that one man should be supplied with +the means of living well and happily, it is mathematically certain that +it is doubly good that two should be so supplied, and so on." The +question, however, still remains, what motive any individual has to +conform to these social principles when they conflict with his natural +desires. To this Cudworth gives no explicit reply, and the answer of +More is hardly clear. On the one hand he maintains that these principles +express an absolute good, which is to be called intellectual because its +essence and truth are apprehended by the intellect. We might infer from +this that the intellect, so judging, is itself the proper and complete +determinant of the will, and that man, as a rational being, ought to aim +at the realization of absolute good for its own sake. In spite, however, +of possible inferences from his definition of virtue, this does not seem +to be really More's view. He explains that though absolute good is +discerned by the intellect, the "sweetness and flavour" of it is +apprehended, not by the intellect proper, but by what he calls a +"boniform faculty"; and it is in this sweetness and flavour that the +motive to virtuous conduct lies; ethics is the "art of living well and +happily," and true happiness lies in "the pleasure which the soul +derives from the sense of virtue." In short, More's Platonism appears to +be really as hedonistic as Hobbism; only the feeling to which it appeals +as ultimate motive is of a kind that only a mind of exceptional moral +refinement can habitually feel with the decisive intensity required. + + + Cumberland. + +It is to be observed that though More lays down the abstract principle +of regarding one's neighbour's good as much as one's own with the full +breadth with which Christianity inculcates it, yet when he afterwards +comes to classify virtues he is too much under the influence of +Platonic-Aristotelian thought to give a distinct place to benevolence, +except under the old form of liberality. In this respect his system +presents a striking contrast to Cumberland's, whose treatise _De Legibus +Naturae_ (1672), though written like More's in Latin, is yet in its +ethical matter thoroughly modern. Cumberland is a thinker both original +and comprehensive, and, in spite of defects in style and clearness, he +is noteworthy as having been the first to lay down that "regard for the +common good of all" is the supreme rule of morality or law of nature. So +far he may be fairly called the precursor of later utilitarianism. His +fundamental principle and supreme "Law of Nature" is thus stated: "The +greatest possible benevolence of every rational agent towards all the +rest constitutes the happiest state of each and all, so far as depends +on their own power, and is necessarily required for their happiness; +accordingly Common Good will be the Supreme Good." It is, however, +important to notice that in his "good" is included not merely happiness +but "perfection"; and he does not even define perfection so as to +exclude from it the notion of absolute moral perfection and save his +theory from an obvious logical circle. A notion so vague could not +possibly be used with any precision for determining the subordinate +rules of morality; but in fact Cumberland does not attempt this; his +supreme principle is designed not to rectify, but merely to support and +systematize, common morality. This principle, as was said, is conceived +as strictly a law, and therefore referred to a lawgiver, God, and +provided with a sanction in its effects on the agent's happiness. That +the divine will is expressed by it, Cumberland, "not being so fortunate +as to possess innate ideas," tries to prove by a long inductive +examination of the evidences of man's essential sociality exhibited in +his physical and mental constitution. His account of the sanction, +again, is sufficiently comprehensive, including both the internal and +the external rewards of virtue and punishments of vice; and he, like +later utilitarians, explains moral obligation to lie in the force +exercised on the will by these sanctions; but as to the precise manner +in which individual is implicated with universal good, and the operation +of either or both in determining volition, his view is indistinct if not +actually inconsistent. + + + Locke. + +The clearness which we seek in vain from Cumberland is found to the +fullest extent in Locke, whose _Essay on the Human Understanding_ (1690) +was already planned when Cumberland's treatise appeared. Yet Locke's +ethical opinions have been widely misunderstood; since from a confusion +between "innate ideas" and "intuitions," which has been common in recent +ethical discussion, it has been supposed that the founder of English +empiricism must necessarily have been hostile to "intuitional" ethics. +The truth is that, while Locke agrees entirely with Hobbes as to the +egoistic basis of rational conduct, and the interpretation of "good" and +"evil" as "pleasure" and "pain," or that which is productive of pleasure +and pain, he yet agrees entirely with Hobbes's opponents in holding +ethical rules to be actually obligatory independently of political +society, and capable of being scientifically constructed on principles +intuitively known,--though he does not regard these principles as +implanted in the mind at birth. The aggregate of such rules he conceives +as the law of God, carefully distinguishing it, not only from civil law, +but from the law of opinion or reputation, the varying moral standard by +which men actually distribute praise and blame; as being divine it is +necessarily sanctioned by adequate rewards and punishments. He does not, +indeed, speak of the scientific construction of this code as having been +actually effected, but he affirms its possibility in language remarkably +strong and decisive. "The idea," he says, "of a Supreme Being, infinite +in power, goodness, and wisdom, whose workmanship we are, and upon whom +we depend, and the idea of ourselves, as understanding rational beings, +being such as are clear in us, would, I suppose, if duly considered and +pursued, afford such foundations of our duty and rules of action, as +might place morality among the sciences capable of demonstration; +wherein, I doubt not, but from self-evident propositions, by necessary +consequences as incontestable as those in mathematics, the measure of +right and wrong might be made out." As Locke cannot consistently mean by +God's "goodness" anything but the disposition to give pleasure, it might +be inferred that the ultimate standard of right rules of action ought to +be the common happiness of the beings affected by the action; but Locke +does not explicitly adopt this standard. The only instances which he +gives of intuitive moral truths are the purely formal propositions, "No +government allows absolute liberty," and "Where there is no property +there is no injustice,"--neither of which has any evident connexion with +the general happiness. As regards his conception of the Law of Nature, +he takes it in the main immediately from Grotius and Pufendorf, more +remotely from the Stoics and the Roman jurists. + + + Clarke. + +We might give, as a fair illustration of Locke's general conception of +ethics, a system which is frequently represented as diametrically +opposed to Lockism; namely, that expounded in Clarke's Boyle lectures on +the _Being and Attributes of God_ (1704). It is true that Locke is not +particularly concerned with the ethico-theological proposition which +Clarke is most anxious to maintain,--that the fundamental rules of +morality are independent of arbitrary will, whether divine or human. But +in his general view of ethical principles as being, like mathematical +principles,[29] essentially truths of relation, Clarke is quite in +accordance with Locke; while of the four fundamental rules that he +expounds, Piety towards God, Equity, Benevolence and Sobriety (which +includes self-preservation), the first is obtained, just as Locke +suggests, by "comparing the idea" of man with the idea of an infinitely +good and wise being on whom he depends; and the second and third are +axioms self-evident on the consideration of the equality or similarity +of human individuals as such. The principle of equity--that "whatever I +judge reasonable or unreasonable for another to do for me, that by the +same I declare reasonable or unreasonable that I in the like case should +do for him," is merely a formal statement of the golden rule of the +gospel. We may observe that, in stating the principle of benevolence, +"since the greater good is always most fit and reasonable to be done, +every rational creature ought to do all the good it can to its +fellow-creatures," Clarke avowedly follows Cumberland, from whom he +quotes the further sentence that "universal love and benevolence is as +plainly the most direct, certain and effectual means to this good as the +flowing of a point is to produce a line." The quotation may remind us +that the analogy between ethics and mathematics ought to be traced +further back than Locke; in fact, it results from the influence +exercised by Cartesianism over English thought generally, in the latter +half of the 17th century. It must be allowed that Clarke is misled by +the analogy to use general ethical terms ("fitness," "agreement" of +things, &c.), which overlook the essential distinction between what is +and what ought to be; and even in one or two expressions to overleap +this distinction extravagantly, as (e.g.) in saying that the man who +"wilfully acts contrary to justice wills things to be what they are not +and cannot be." What he really means is less paradoxically stated in the +general proposition that "originally and in reality it is natural and +(morally speaking) necessary that the will should be determined in every +action by the reason of the thing and the right of the case, as it is +natural and (absolutely speaking) necessary that the understanding +should submit to a demonstrated truth." But though it is an essential +point in Clarke's view that what is right is to be done as such, apart +from any consideration of pleasure or pain, it is to be inferred that he +is not prepared to apply this doctrine in its unqualified form to such a +creature as man, who is partly under the influence of irrational +impulses. At least when he comes to argue the need of future rewards and +punishments we find that his claim on behalf of morality is startlingly +reduced. He now only contends that "virtue deserves to be chosen for its +own sake, and vice to be avoided, though a man was sure for his own +particular neither to gain nor lose anything by the practice of either." +He fully admits that the question is altered when vice is attended by +pleasure and profit to the vicious man, virtue by loss and calamity; and +even that it is "not truly reasonable that men by adhering to virtue +should part with their lives, if thereby they deprived themselves of +all possibility of receiving any advantage from their adherence." + +Thus, on the whole, the impressive earnestness with which Clarke +enforces the doctrine of rational morality only rendered more manifest +the difficulty of establishing ethics on an independent philosophical +basis; so long at least as the psychological egoism of Hobbes is not +definitely assailed and overthrown. Until this is done, the utmost +demonstration of the abstract reasonableness of social duty only leaves +us with an irreconcilable antagonism between the view of abstract reason +and the self-love which is allowed to be the root of man's appetitive +nature. Let us grant that there is as much intellectual absurdity in +acting unjustly as in denying that two and two make four; still, if a +man has to choose between absurdity and unhappiness, he will naturally +prefer the former; and Clarke, as we have already seen, is not really +prepared to maintain that such preference is irrational.[30] + + + Shaftesbury. + +It remains to try another psychological basis for ethical construction; +instead of presenting the principle of social duty as abstract reason, +liable to conflict to any extent with natural self-love, we may try to +exhibit the naturalness of man's social affections, and demonstrate a +normal harmony between these and his self-regarding impulses. This is +the line of thought which Shaftesbury (1671-1713) may be said to have +initiated. This theory had already been advanced by Cumberland and +others, but Shaftesbury was the first to make it the cardinal point in +his system; no one had yet definitely transferred the centre of ethical +interest from the Reason, conceived as apprehending either abstract +moral distinctions or laws of divine legislation, for the emotional +impulses that prompt to social duty; no one had undertaken to +distinguish clearly, by analysis of experience, the disinterested and +self-regarding elements of our appetitive nature, or to prove +inductively their perfect harmony. In his _Inquiry concerning Virtue and +Merit_ he begins by attacking the egoism of Hobbes, which, as we have +seen, was not necessarily excluded by the doctrine of rational +intuitions of duty. This interpretation, he says, would be true only if +we considered man as a wholly unrelated individual. Such a being we +might doubtless call "good," if his impulses were adapted to the +attainment of his own felicity. But man we must and do consider in +relation to a larger system of which he forms a part, and so we call him +"good" only when his impulses and dispositions are so balanced as to +tend towards the good of this whole. And again we do not attribute +goodness to him merely because his outward acts have beneficial results. +When we speak of a man as good, we mean that his dispositions or +affections are such as tend of themselves to promote the good or +happiness of human society. Hobbes's moral man, who, if let loose from +governmental constraint, would straightway spread ruin among his +fellows, is not what we commonly agree to call good. Moral goodness, +then, in a "sensible creature" implies primarily disinterested +affections, whose direct object is the good of others; but Shaftesbury +does not mean (as he has been misunderstood to mean) that only such +benevolent social impulses are good, and that these are always good. On +the contrary, he is careful to point out, first, that immoderate social +affections defeat themselves, miss their proper end, and are therefore +bad; secondly, that as an individual's good is part of the good of the +whole, "self-affections" existing in a duly limited degree are morally +good. Goodness, in short, consists in due combination, in just +proportion, of both sorts of "affections," tendency to promote general +good being taken as the criterion of the right degrees and proportions. +This being established, the main aim of Shaftesbury's argument is to +prove that the same balance of private and social affections, which +tends naturally to public good, is also conducive to the happiness of +the individual in whom it exists. Taking the different impulses in +detail, he first shows how the individual's happiness is promoted by +developing his social affections, mental pleasures being superior to +bodily, and the pleasures of benevolence the richest of all. In +discussing this he distinguishes, with well-applied subtlety, between +the pleasurableness of the benevolent emotions themselves, the +sympathetic enjoyment of the happiness of others, and the pleasure +arising from a consciousness of their love and esteem. He then exhibits +the unhappiness that results from any excess of the self-regarding +impulses, bodily appetite, desire of wealth, emulation, resentment, even +love of life itself; and ends by dwelling on the intrinsic painfulness +of all malevolence.[31] + +One more special impulse remains to be noticed. We have seen that +goodness of character consists in a certain harmony of self-regarding +and social affections. But virtue, in Shaftesbury's view, is something +more; it implies a recognition of moral goodness and immediate +preference of it for its own sake. This immediate pleasure that we take +in goodness (and displeasure in its opposite) is due to a susceptibility +which he calls the "reflex" or "moral" sense, and compares with our +susceptibility to beauty and deformity in external things; it furnishes +both an additional direct impulse to good conduct, and an additional +gratification to be taken into account in the reckoning which proves the +coincidence of virtue and happiness. This doctrine of the moral sense is +sometimes represented as Shaftesbury's cardinal tenet; but though +characteristic and important, it is not really necessary to his main +argument; it is the crown rather than the keystone of his ethical +structure. + + + Mandeville. + +The appearance of Shaftesbury's _Characteristics_ (1713) marks a +turning-point in the history of English ethical thought. With the +generation of moralists that followed, the consideration of abstract +rational principles falls into the background, and its place is taken by +introspective study of the human mind, observation of the actual play of +its various impulses and sentiments. This empirical psychology had not +indeed been neglected by previous writers. More, among others, had +imitated Descartes in a discussion of the passions, and Locke's essay +had given a still stronger impulse in the same direction; still, +Shaftesbury is the first moralist who distinctly takes psychological +experience as the basis of ethics. His suggestions were developed by +Hutcheson into one of the most elaborate systems of moral philosophy +which we possess; through Hutcheson, if not directly, they influenced +Hume's speculations, and are thus connected with later utilitarianism. +Moreover, the substance of Shaftesbury's main argument was adopted by +Butler, though it could not pass the scrutiny of that powerful and +cautious intellect without receiving important modifications and +additions. On the other hand, the ethical optimism of Shaftesbury, +rather broadly impressive than exactly reasoned, and connected as it was +with a natural theology that implied the Christian scheme to be +superfluous, challenged attack equally from orthodox divines and from +cynical freethinkers. Of these latter Mandeville, the author of _The +Fable of the Bees, or Private Vices Public Benefits_ (1723), was a +conspicuous if not a typical specimen. He can hardly be called a +"moralist"; and though it is impossible to deny him a considerable share +of philosophic penetration, his anti-moral paradoxes have not even +apparent coherence. He is convinced that virtue (where it is more than a +mere pretence) is purely artificial; but not quite certain whether it is +a useless trammel of appetites and passions that are advantageous to +society, or a device creditable to the politicians who introduced it by +playing upon the "pride and vanity" of the "silly creature man." The +view, however, to which he gave audacious expression, that moral +regulation is something alien to the natural man, and imposed on him +from without, seems to have been very current in the polite society of +his time, as we learn both from Berkeley's _Alciphron_ and from Butler's +more famous sermons. + + + Butler. + +The view of "human nature" against which Butler preached was not exactly +Mandeville's, nor was it properly to be called Hobbist, although Butler +fairly treats it as having a philosophical basis in Hobbes's psychology. +It was, so to say, Hobbism turned inside out,--rendered licentious and +anarchical instead of constructive. Hobbes had said "the natural state +of man is non-moral, unregulated; moral rules are means to the end of +peace, which is a means to the end of self-preservation." On this view +morality, though dependent for its actuality on the social compact which +establishes government, is actually binding on man as a reasonable +being. But the quasi-theistic assumption that what is natural must be +reasonable remained in the minds of Hobbes's most docile readers, and in +combination with his thesis that egoism is natural, tended to produce +results which were dangerous to social well-being. To meet this view +Butler does not content himself, as is sometimes carelessly supposed, +with insisting on the natural claim to authority of the conscience which +his opponent repudiated as artificial; he adds a subtle and effective +argument _ad hominem_. He first follows Shaftesbury in exhibiting the +social affections as no less natural than the appetites and desires +which tend directly to self-preservation; then reviving the Stoic view +of the _prima naturae_, the first objects of natural appetites, he +argues that pleasure is not the primary aim even of the impulses which +Shaftesbury allowed to be "self-affections"; but rather a result which +follows upon their attaining their natural ends. We have, in fact, to +distinguish self-love, the "general desire that every man hath of his +own happiness" or pleasure, from the particular affections, passions, +and appetites directed towards objects other than pleasure, in the +satisfaction of which pleasure consists. The latter are "necessarily +presupposed" as distinct impulses in "the very idea of an interested +pursuit"; since, if there were no such pre-existing desires, there would +be no pleasure for self-love to aim at. Thus the object of hunger is not +the pleasure of eating but food; hunger is therefore, strictly speaking, +no more "interested" than benevolence; granting that the pleasures of +the table are an important element in the happiness at which self-love +aims, the same at least may be said for the pleasures of love and +sympathy. Further, so far from bodily appetites (or other particular +desires) being forms of self-love, there is no one of them which under +certain circumstances may not come into conflict with it. Indeed, it is +common for men to sacrifice to passion what they know to be their true +interests; at the same time we do not consider such conduct "natural" in +man as a rational being; we rather regard it as natural for him to +govern his transient impulses. Thus the notion of natural unregulated +egoism turns out to be a psychological chimera. Indeed, we may say that +an egoist must be doubly self-regulative, since rational self-love ought +to restrain not only other impulses, but itself also; for as happiness +is made up of feelings that result from the satisfaction of impulses +other than self-love, any over-development of the latter, enfeebling +these other impulses, must proportionally diminish the happiness at +which self-love aims. If, then, it be admitted that human impulses are +naturally under government, the natural claim of conscience or the moral +faculty to be the supreme governor will hardly be denied. + +But has not self-love also, by Butler's own account, a similar +authority, which may come into conflict with that of conscience? Butler +fully admits this, and, in fact, grounds on it an important criticism of +Shaftesbury. We have seen that in the latter's system the "moral sense" +is not absolutely required, or at least is necessary only as a +substitute for enlightened self-regard; since if the harmony between +prudence and virtue, self-regarding and social impulses, is complete, +mere self-interest will prompt a duly enlightened mind to maintain +precisely that "balance" of affections in which goodness consists. But +to Butler's more cautious mind the completeness of this harmony did not +seem sufficiently demonstrable to be taken as a basis of moral teaching; +he has at least to contemplate the possibility of a man being convinced +of the opposite; and he argues that unless we regard conscience as +essentially authoritative--which is not implied in the term "moral +sense"--such a man is really bound to be vicious; "since interest, one's +own happiness, is a manifest obligation." Still on this view, even if +the authority of conscience be asserted, we seem reduced to an ultimate +dualism of our rational nature. Butler's ordered polity of impulses +turns out to be a polity with two independent governments. Butler does +not deny this, so far as mere claim to authority is concerned;[32] but +he maintains that, the dictates of conscience being clear and certain, +while the calculations of self-interest lead to merely probable +conclusions, it can never be practically reasonable to disobey the +former, even apart from any proof which religion may furnish of the +absolute coincidence of the two in a future life. + + + Wollaston. + +This dualism of governing principles, conscience and self-love, in +Butler's system, and perhaps, too, his revival of the Platonic +conception of human nature as an ordered and governed community of +impulses, is perhaps most nearly anticipated in Wollaston's _Religion of +Nature Delineated_ (1722). Here, for the first time, we find "moral +good" and "natural good" or "happiness" treated separately as two +essentially distinct objects of rational pursuit and investigation; the +harmony between them being regarded as matter of religious faith, not +moral knowledge. Wollaston's theory of moral evil as consisting in the +practical contradiction of a true proposition, closely resembles the +most paradoxical part of Clarke's doctrine, and was not likely to +approve itself to the strong common sense of Butler; but his statement +of happiness or pleasure as a "justly desirable" end at which every +rational being "ought" to aim corresponds exactly to Butler's conception +of self-love as a naturally governing impulse; while the "moral +arithmetic" with which he compares pleasures and pains, and endeavours +to make the notion of happiness quantitatively precise, is an +anticipation of Benthamism. + + + Hutcheson. + +There is another side of Shaftesbury's harmony which Butler was +ultimately led to oppose in a more decided manner,--the opposition, +namely, between conscience or the moral sense and the social affections. +In the _Sermons_, indeed (1729), Butler seems to treat conscience and +calm benevolence as permanently allied though distinct principles, but +in the _Dissertation on Virtue_, appended to the _Analogy_ (1739), he +maintains that the conduct dictated by conscience will often differ +widely from that to which mere regard for the production of happiness +would prompt. We may take this latter treatise as representing the first +in the development of English ethics, at which what were afterwards +called "utilitarian" and "intuitional" morality were first formally +opposed; in earlier systems the antithesis is quite latent, as we have +incidentally noticed in the case of Cumberland and Clarke. The argument +in Butler's dissertation was probably directed chiefly against +Hutcheson, who in his _Inquiry into the Original of our Ideas of Beauty +and Virtue_ had definitely identified virtue with benevolence. The +identification is slightly qualified in Hutcheson's posthumously +published _System of Moral Philosophy_ (1755), in which the general view +of Shaftesbury is more fully developed, with several new psychological +distinctions, including Butler's separation of "calm" benevolence--as +well as, after Butler, "calm self-love"--from the "turbulent" passions, +selfish or social. Hutcheson follows Butler again in laying stress on +the regulating and controlling function of the moral sense; but he still +regards "kind affections" as the principal objects of moral +approbation--the "calm" and "extensive" affections being preferred to +the turbulent and narrow--together with the desire and love of moral +excellence which is ranked with universal benevolence, the two being +equally worthy and necessarily harmonious. Only in a secondary sense is +approval due to certain "abilities and dispositions immediately +connected with virtuous affections," as candour, veracity, fortitude, +sense of honour; while in a lower grade still are placed sciences and +arts, along with even bodily skills and gifts; indeed, the approbation +we give to these is not strictly moral, but is referred to the "sense of +decency or dignity," which (as well as the sense of honour) is to be +distinguished from the moral sense. Calm self-love Hutcheson regards as +morally indifferent; though he enters into a careful analysis of the +elements of happiness,[33] in order to show that a true regard for +private interest always coincides with the moral sense and with +benevolence. While thus maintaining Shaftesbury's "harmony" between +public and private good, Hutcheson is still more careful to establish +the strict disinterestedness of benevolent affections. Shaftesbury had +conclusively shown that these were not in the vulgar sense selfish; but +the very stress which he lays on the pleasure inseparable from their +exercise suggests a subtle egoistic theory which he does not expressly +exclude, since it may be said that this "intrinsic reward" constitutes +the real motive of the benevolent man. To this Hutcheson replies that no +doubt the exquisite delight of the emotion of love is a motive to +sustain and develop it; but this pleasure cannot be directly obtained, +any more than other pleasures, by merely desiring it; it can be sought +only by the indirect method of cultivating and indulging the +disinterested desire for others' good, which is thus obviously distinct +from the desire for the pleasure of benevolence. He points to the fact +that the imminence of death often intensifies instead of diminishing a +man's desire for the welfare of those he loves, as a crucial experiment +proving the disinterestedness of love; adding, as confirmatory evidence, +that the sympathy and admiration commonly felt for self-sacrifice +depends on the belief that it is something different from refined +self-seeking. + +It remains to consider how, from the doctrine that affection is the +proper object of approbation, we are to deduce moral rules or "natural +laws" prescribing or prohibiting outward acts. It is obvious that all +actions conducive to the general good will deserve our highest +approbation if done from disinterested benevolence; but how if they are +not so done? In answering this question, Hutcheson avails himself of the +scholastic distinction between "material" and "formal" goodness. "An +action," he says, "is _materially_ good when in fact it tends to the +interest of the system, so far as we can judge of its tendency, or to +the good of some part consistent with that of the system, whatever were +the affections of the agent. An action is _formally_ good when it flowed +from good affection in a just proportion." On the pivot of this +distinction Hutcheson turns round from the point of view of Shaftesbury +to that of later utilitarianism. As regards "material" goodness of +actions, he adopts explicitly and unreservedly the formula afterwards +taken as fundamental by Bentham; holding that "that action is best which +procures the greatest happiness for the greatest numbers, and the worst +which in a like manner occasions misery." Accordingly his treatment of +external rights and duties, though decidedly inferior in methodical +clearness and precision, does not differ in principle from that of Paley +or Bentham, except that he lays greater stress on the immediate +conduciveness of actions to the happiness of individuals, and more often +refers in a merely supplementary or restrictive way to their tendencies +in respect of general happiness. It may be noticed, too, that he still +accepts the "social compact" as the natural mode of constituting +government, and regards the obligations of subjects to civil obedience +as normally dependent on a tacit contract; though he is careful to state +that consent is not absolutely necessary to the just establishment of +beneficent government, nor the source of irrevocable obligation to a +pernicious one. + + + Hume. + +An important step further in political utilitarianism was taken by Hume +in his _Treatise on Human Nature_ (1739). Hume concedes that a compact +is the natural means of peacefully instituting a new government, and may +therefore be properly regarded as the ground of allegiance to it at the +outset; but he urges that, when once it is firmly established the duty +of obeying it rests on precisely the same combination of private and +general interests as the duty of keeping promises; it is therefore +absurd to base the former on the latter. Justice, veracity, fidelity to +compacts and to governments, are all co-ordinate; they are all +"artificial" virtues, due to civilization, and not belonging to man in +his "ruder and more natural" condition; our approbation of all alike is +founded on our perception of their useful consequences. It is this last +position that constitutes the fundamental difference between Hutcheson's +ethical doctrine and Hume's.[34] The former, while accepting utility as +the criterion of "material goodness," had adhered to Shaftesbury's view +that dispositions, not results of action, were the proper object of +moral approval; at the same time, while giving to benevolence the first +place in his account of personal merit, he had shrunk from the paradox +of treating it as the sole virtue, and had added a rather undefined and +unexplained train of qualities,--veracity, fortitude, activity, +industry, sagacity,--immediately approved in various degrees by the +"moral sense" or the "sense of dignity." This naturally suggested to a +mind like Hume's, anxious to apply the experimental method to +psychology, the problem of reducing these different elements of personal +merit--or rather our approval of them--to some common principle. The old +theory that referred this approval entirely to self-love, is, he holds, +easy to disprove by "crucial experiments" on the play of our moral +sentiments; rejecting this, he finds the required explanation in the +sympathetic pleasure that attends our perception of the conduciveness of +virtue to the interests of human beings other than ourselves. He +endeavours to establish this inductively by a survey of the qualities, +commonly praised as virtues, which he finds to be always either useful +or immediately agreeable, either (1) to the virtuous agent himself or +(2) to others. In class (2) he includes, besides the Benevolence of +Shaftesbury and Hutcheson, the useful virtues, Justice, Veracity and +Fidelity to compacts; as well as such immediately agreeable qualities as +politeness, wit, modesty and even cleanliness. The most original part of +his discussion, however, is concerned with qualities immediately useful +to their possessor. The most cynical man of the world, he says, with +whatever "sullen incredulity" he may repudiate virtue as a hollow +pretence, cannot really refuse his approbation to "discretion, caution, +enterprise, industry, frugality, economy, good sense, prudence, +discernment"; nor again, to "temperance, sobriety, patience, +perseverance, considerateness, secrecy, order, insinuation, address, +presence of mind, quickness of conception, facility of expression." It +is evident that the merit of these qualities in our eyes is chiefly due +to our perception of their tendency to serve the person possessed of +them; so that the cynic in praising them is really exhibiting the +unselfish sympathy of which he doubts the existence. Hume admits the +difficulty that arises, especially in the case of the "artificial" +virtues, such as justice, &c., from the undeniable fact that we praise +them and blame their opposites without consciously reflecting on useful +or pernicious consequences; but considers that this may be explained as +an effect of "education and acquired habits."[35] + +So far the moral faculty has been considered as contemplative rather +than active; and this, indeed, is the point of view from which Hume +mainly regards it. If we ask what actual motive we have for virtuous +conduct, Hume's answer is not quite clear. On the one hand, he speaks of +moral approbation as derived from "humanity and benevolence," while +expressly recognizing, after Butler, that there is a strictly +disinterested element in our benevolent impulses (as also in hunger, +thirst, love of fame and other passions). On the other hand, he does not +seem to think that moral sentiment or "taste" can "become a motive to +action," except as it "gives pleasure or pain, and thereby constitutes +happiness or misery." It is difficult to make these views quite +consistent; but at any rate Hume emphatically maintains that "_reason_ +is no motive to action," except so far as it "directs the impulse +received from appetite or inclination"; and recognizes--in his later +treatise at least--no "obligation" to virtue, except that of the agent's +interest or happiness. He attempts, however, to show, in a summary way, +that all the duties which his moral theory recommends are also "the true +interest of the individual,"--taking into account the importance to his +happiness of "peaceful reflection on one's own conduct." + + + Adam Smith. + +But even if we consider the moral consciousness merely as a particular +kind of pleasurable emotion, there is an obvious question suggested by +Hume's theory, to which he gives no adequate answer. If the essence of +"moral taste" is sympathy with the pleasure of others, why is not this +specific feeling excited by other things beside virtue that tend to +cause such pleasure? On this point Hume contents himself with the vague +remark that "there are a numerous set of passions and sentiments, of +which thinking rational beings are by the original constitution of +nature the only proper objects." The truth is, that Hume's notion of +moral approbation was very loose, as is sufficiently shown by the list +of "useful and agreeable" qualities which he considers worthy of +approbation.[36] It is therefore hardly surprising that his theory +should leave the specific quality of the moral sentiments a fact still +needing to be explained. An original and ingenious solution of this +problem was offered by his contemporary Adam Smith, in his _Theory of +Moral Sentiments_ (1759). Without denying the actuality or importance of +that sympathetic pleasure in the perceived or inferred effects of +virtues and vices he yet holds that the essential part of common moral +sentiment is constituted rather by a more direct sympathy with the +impulses that prompt to action or expression. The spontaneous play of +this sympathy he treats as an original and inexplicable fact of human +nature, but he considers that its action is powerfully sustained by the +pleasure that each man finds in the accord of his feelings with +another's. By means of this primary element, compounded in various ways, +Adam Smith explains all the phenomena of the moral consciousness. He +takes first the semi-moral notion of "propriety" or "decorum," and +endeavours to show inductively that our application of this notion to +the social behaviour of another is determined by our degree of sympathy +with the feeling expressed in such behaviour. Thus the prescriptions of +good taste in the expression of feeling may be summed up in the +principle, "reduce or raise the expression to that with which spectators +will sympathize." When the effort to restrain feeling is exhibited in a +degree which surprises as well as pleases, it excites admiration as a +virtue or excellence; such excellences Adam Smith quaintly calls the +"awful and respectable," contrasting them with the "amiable virtues" +which consist in the opposite effort to sympathize, when exhibited in a +remarkable degree. From the sentiments of propriety and admiration we +proceed to the sense of merit and demerit. Here a more complex +phenomenon presents itself for analysis; we have to distinguish in the +sense of merit--(1) a direct sympathy with the sentiments of the agent, +and (2) an indirect sympathy with the gratitude of those who receive the +benefit of his actions. In the case of demerit there is a direct +antipathy to the feelings of the misdoer, but the chief sentiment +excited is sympathy with those injured by the misdeed. The object of +this sympathetic resentment, impelling us to punish, is what we call +injustice; and thus the remarkable stringency of the obligation to act +justly is explained since the recognition of any action as unjust +involves the admission that it may be forcibly obstructed or punished. +Moral judgments, then, are expressions of the complex normal sympathy of +an impartial spectator with the active impulses that prompt to and +result from actions. In the case of our own conduct what we call +conscience is really sympathy with the feelings of an imaginary +impartial spectator. + +Adam Smith gives authority to his moral system by saying that "moral +principles are justly to be regarded as the laws of the Deity"; but this +he never proves. So Hume insists emphatically on the "reality of moral +obligation"; but is found to mean no more by this than the real +existence of the likes and dislikes that human beings feel for each +other's qualities. The fact is that amid the analysis of feelings +aroused by the sentimentalism of Shaftesbury's school, the fundamental +questions "What is right?" and "Why?" had been allowed to drop into the +background, and the consequent danger to morality was manifest. The +binding force of moral rules becomes evanescent if we admit, with +Hutcheson, that the "sense" of them may properly vary from man to man as +the palate does; and it seems only another way of putting Hume's +doctrine, that reason is not concerned with the ends of action, to say +that the mere existence of a moral sentiment is in itself no reason for +obeying it. A reaction, in one form or another, against the tendency to +dissolve ethics into psychology was inevitable; since mankind generally +could not be so far absorbed by the interest of psychological hypothesis +as to forget their need of establishing practical principles. It was +obvious, too, that this reaction might take place in either of the two +lines of thought, which, having been peacefully allied in Clarke and +Cumberland, had become distinctly opposed to each other in Butler and +Hutcheson. It might either fall back on the moral principles commonly +accepted, and, affirming their objective validity, endeavour to exhibit +them as a coherent and complete set of ultimate ethical truths; or it +might take the utility or conduciveness to pleasure, to which Hume had +referred for the origin of most sentiments, as an ultimate end and +standard by which these sentiments might be judged and corrected. The +former is the line adopted with substantial agreement by Price, Reid, +Stewart and other members of the still existing Intuitional school; the +latter method, with considerably more divergence of view and treatment, +was employed independently and almost simultaneously by Paley and +Bentham in both ethics and politics, and is at the present time widely +maintained under the name of Utilitarianism. + + + Price. + +Price's _Review of the Chief Questions and Difficulties of Morals_ was +published in 1757, two years before Adam Smith's treatise. In regarding +moral ideas as derived from the "intuition of truth or immediate +discernment of the nature of things by the understanding," Price revives +the general view of Cudworth and Clarke; but with several specific +differences. Firstly, his conception of "right" and "wrong" as "single +ideas" incapable of definition or analysis--the notions "right," "fit," +"ought," "duty," "obligation," being coincident or identical--at least +avoids the confusions into which Clarke and Wollaston had been led by +pressing the analogy between ethical and physical truth. Secondly, the +emotional element of the moral consciousness, on which attention had +been concentrated by Shaftesbury and his followers, though distinctly +recognized as accompanying the intellectual intuition, is carefully +subordinated to it. While right and wrong, in Price's view, are "real +objective qualities" of actions, moral "beauty and deformity" are +subjective ideas; representing feelings which are partly the necessary +effects of the perceptions of right and wrong in rational beings as +such, partly due to an "implanted sense" or varying emotional +susceptibility. Thus, both reason and sense of instinct co-operate in +the impulse to virtuous conduct, though the rational element is primary +and paramount. Price further follows Butler in distinguishing the +perception of merit and demerit in agents as another accompaniment of +the perception of right and wrong in actions; the former being, however, +only a peculiar species of the latter, since, to perceive merit in any +one is to perceive that it is right to reward him. It is to be observed +that both Price and Reid are careful to state that the merit of the +agent depends entirely on the intention or "formal rightness" of his +act; a man is not blameworthy for unintended evil, though he may of +course be blamed for any wilful neglect (cf. Arist., _Eth. Nic_., iii. +1), which has caused him to be ignorant of his real duty. When we turn +to the subject matter of virtue, we find that Price, in comparison with +More or Clarke is decidedly laxer in accepting and stating his ethical +first principles; chiefly owing to the new antithesis to the view of +Shaftesbury and Hutcheson by which his controversial position is +complicated. What Price is specially concerned to show is the existence +of ultimate principles _beside_ the principle of universal benevolence. +Not that he repudiates the obligation either of rational benevolence or +self-love; on the contrary, he takes more pains than Butler to +demonstrate the reasonableness of either principle. "There is not +anything," he says, "of which we have more undeniably an intuitive +perception, than that it is 'right to pursue and promote happiness,' +whether for ourselves or for others." Finally, Price, writing after the +demonstration by Shaftesbury and Butler of the actuality of +disinterested impulses in human nature, is bolder and clearer than +Cudworth or Clarke in insisting that right actions are to be chosen +because they are right by virtuous agents as such, even going so far as +to lay down that an act loses its moral worth in proportion as it is +done from natural inclination. + + + Reid. + +On this latter point Reid, in his _Essays on the Active Powers of the +Human Mind_ (1788), states a conclusion more in harmony with common +sense, only maintaining that "no act can be morally good in which regard +for what is right has not _some_ influence." This is partly due to the +fact that Reid builds more distinctly than Price on the foundation laid +by Butler; especially in his acceptance of that duality of governing +principles which we have noticed as a cardinal point in the latter's +doctrine. Reid considers "regard for one's good on the whole" (Butler's +self-love) and "sense of duty" (Butler's conscience) as two essentially +distinct and co-ordinate rational principles, though naturally often +comprehended under the one term, Reason. The rationality of the former +principle he takes pains to explain and establish; in opposition to +Hume's doctrine that it is no part of the function of reason to +determine the ends which we ought to pursue, or the preference due to +one end over another. He urges that the notion of "good[37] on the +whole" is one which only a reasoning being can form, involving as it +does abstraction from the objects of all particular desires, and +comparison of past and future with present feelings; and maintains that +it is a contradiction to suppose a rational being to have the notion of +its Good on the Whole without a desire for it, and that such a desire +must naturally regulate all particular appetites and passions. It cannot +reasonably be subordinated even to the moral faculty; in fact, a man who +doubts the coincidence of the two--which on religious grounds we must +believe to be complete in a morally governed world--is reduced to the +"miserable dilemma whether it is better to be a fool or a knave." As +regards the moral faculty itself, Reid's statement coincides in the main +with Price's; it is both intellectual and active, not merely perceiving +the "rightness" or "moral obligation" of actions (which Reid conceives +as a simple unanalysable relation between act and agent), but also +impelling the will to the performance of what is seen to be right. Both +thinkers hold that this perception of right and wrong in actions is +accompanied by a perception of merit and demerit in agents, and also by +a specific emotion; but whereas Price conceives this emotion chiefly as +pleasure or pain, analogous to that produced in the mind by physical +beauty or deformity, Reid regards it chiefly as benevolent affection, +esteem and sympathy (or their opposites), for the virtuous (or vicious) +agent. This "pleasurable good-will," when the moral judgment relates to +a man's own actions, becomes "the testimony of a good conscience--the +purest and most valuable of all human enjoyments." Reid is careful to +observe that this moral faculty is not "innate" except in germ; it +stands in need of "education, training, exercise (for which society is +indispensable), and habit," in order to the attainment of moral truth. +He does not with Price object to its being called the "moral sense," +provided we understand by this a source not merely of feelings or +notions, but of "ultimate truths." Here he omits to notice the important +question whether the premises of moral reasoning are universal or +individual judgments; as to which the use of the term "sense" seems +rather to suggest the second alternative. Indeed, he seems himself quite +undecided on this question; since, though he generally represents +ethical method as deductive, he also speaks of the "original judgment +that this action is right and that wrong." + +The truth is that the construction of a scientific method of ethics is a +matter of little practical moment to Reid. Thus, though he offers a list +of first principles, by deduction from which these common opinions may +be confirmed, he does not present it with any claim to completeness. +Besides maxims relating to virtue in general,--such as (1) that there is +a right and wrong in conduct, but (2) only in voluntary conduct, and +that we ought (3) to take pains to learn our duty, and (4) fortify +ourselves against temptations to deviate from it--Reid states five +fundamental axioms. The first of these is merely the principle of +rational self-love, "that we ought to prefer a greater to a lesser good, +though more distinct, and a less evil to a greater,"--the mention of +which seems rather inconsistent with Reid's distinct separation of the +"moral faculty" from "self-love." The third is merely the general rule +of benevolence stated in the somewhat vague Stoical formula, that "no +one is born for himself only." The fourth, again, is the merely formal +principle that "right and wrong must be the same to all in all +circumstances," which belongs equally to all systems of objective +morality; while the fifth prescribes the religious duty of "veneration +or submission to God." Thus, the only principle which ever appears to +offer definite guidance as to social duty is the second, "that so far as +the intention of nature appears in the constitution of man, we ought to +act according to that intention," the vagueness[38] of which is obvious. +(For Reid's views on moral freedom see A. Bain, _Mental Science_, pp. +422, seq.) + + + Dugald Stewart. + +A similar incompleteness in the statement of moral principles is found +if we turn to Reid's disciple, Dugald Stewart, whose _Philosophy of the +Active and Moral Powers of Man_ (1828) contains the general view of +Butler and Reid, and to some extent that of Price,--expounded with more +fulness and precision, but without important original additions or +modifications. Stewart lays stress on the obligation of justice as +distinct from benevolence; but his definition of justice represents it +as essentially impartiality,--a virtue which (as was just now said of +Reid's fourth principle) must equally find a place in the utilitarian or +any other system that lays down universally applicable rules of +morality. Afterwards, however, Stewart distinguishes "integrity or +honesty" as a branch of justice concerned with the rights of other men, +which form the subject of "natural jurisprudence." In this department he +lays down the moral axiom "that the labourer is entitled to the fruit of +his own labour" as the principle on which complete rights of property +are founded; maintaining that occupancy alone would only confer a +transient right of possession during use. The only other principles +which he discusses are veracity and fidelity to promises, gratitude +being treated as a natural instinct prompting to a particular kind of +just actions. + + + Whewell. + +It will be seen that neither Reid nor Stewart offers more than a very +meagre and tentative contribution to that ethical science by which, as +they maintain, the received rules of morality may be rationally deduced +from self-evident first principles. A more ambitious attempt in the same +direction was made by Whewell in his _Elements of Morality_ (1846). +Whewell's general moral view differs from that of his Scottish +predecessors chiefly in a point where we may trace the influence of +Kant--viz. in his rejection of self-love as an independent rational and +governing principle, and his consequent refusal to admit happiness, +apart from duty, as a reasonable end for the individual. The moral +reason, thus left in sole supremacy, is represented as enunciating five +ultimate principles,--those of benevolence, justice, truth, purity and +order. With a little straining these are made to correspond to five +chief divisions of Jus,--personal security (benevolence being opposed to +the ill-will that commonly causes personal injuries), property, +contract, marriage and government; while the first, second and fourth, +again, regulate respectively the three chief classes of human +motives,--affections, mental desires and appetites. Thus the list, with +the addition of two general principles, "earnestness" and "moral +purpose," has a certain air of systematic completeness. When, however, +we look closer, we find that the principle of order, or obedience to +government, is not seriously intended to imply the political absolutism +which it seems to express, and which English common sense emphatically +repudiates; while the formula of justice is given in the tautological or +perfectly indefinite proposition "that every man ought to have his own." +Whewell, indeed, explains that this latter formula must be practically +interpreted by positive law, though he inconsistently speaks as if it +supplied a standard for judging laws to be right or wrong. The principle +of purity, again, "that the lower parts of our nature ought to be +subject to the higher," merely particularizes that supremacy of reason +over non-rational impulses which is involved in the very notion of +reasoned morality. Thus, in short, if we ask for a clear and definite +fundamental intuition, distinct from regard for happiness, we find +really nothing in Whewell's doctrine except the single rule of veracity +(including fidelity to promises); and even of this the axiomatic +character becomes evanescent on closer inspection, since it is not +maintained that the rule is practically unqualified, but only that it is +practically undesirable to formulate its qualifications. + + + Intuitional and utilitarian schools. + +On the whole, it must be admitted that the doctrine of the intuitional +school of the 18th and 19th centuries has been developed with less care +and consistency than might have been expected, in its statement of the +fundamental axioms or intuitively known premises of moral reasoning. And +if the controversy which this school has conducted with utilitarianism +had turned principally on the determination of the matter of duty, there +can be little doubt that it would have been forced into more serious and +systematic effort to define precisely and completely the principles and +method on which we are to reason deductively to particular rules of +conduct.[39] But in fact the difference between intuitionists and +utilitarians as to the method of determining the particulars of the +moral code was complicated with a more fundamental disagreement as to +the very meaning of "moral obligation." This Paley and Bentham (after +Locke) interpreted as merely the effect on the will of the pleasures or +pains attached to the observance or violation of moral rules, combining +with this the doctrine of Hutcheson that "general good" or "happiness" +is the final end and standard of these rules; while they eliminated all +vagueness from the notion of general happiness by defining it to consist +in "excess of pleasure over pain"--pleasures and pains being regarded as +"differing in nothing but continuance or intensity." The utilitarian +system gained an attractive air of simplicity by thus using a single +perfectly clear notion--pleasure and its negative quantity pain--to +answer both the fundamental questions of mortals, "What is right?" and +"Why should I do it?" But since there is no logical connexion between +the answers that have thus come to be considered as one doctrine, this +apparent unity and simplicity has really hidden fundamental +disagreements, and caused no little confusion in ethical debate. + + + Paley. + +In Paley's _Principles of Moral and Political Philosophy_[40] (1785), +the link between general pleasure (the standard) and private pleasure or +pain (the motive) is supplied by the conception of divine legislation. +To be "obliged" is to be "urged by a violent motive resulting from the +command of another"; in the case of moral obligation, the command +proceeds from God, and the motive lies in the expectation of being +rewarded and punished after this life. The commands of God are to be +ascertained "from scripture and the light of nature combined." Paley, +however, holds that scripture is given less to teach morality than to +illustrate it by example and enforce it by new sanctions and greater +certainty, and that the light of nature makes it clear that God wills +the happiness of his creatures. Hence, his method in deciding moral +questions is chiefly that of estimating the tendency of actions to +promote or diminish the general happiness. To meet the obvious +objections to this method, based on the immediate happiness caused by +admitted crimes (such as "knocking a rich villain on the head"), he lays +stress on the necessity of general rules in any kind of legislation;[41] +while, by urging the importance of forming and maintaining good habits, +he partly evades the difficulty of calculating the consequences of +particular actions. In this way the utilitarian method is freed from the +subversive tendencies which Butler and others had discerned in it; as +used by Paley, it merely explains the current moral and jural +distinctions, exhibits the obvious basis of expediency which supports +most of the received rules of law and morality and furnishes a simple +solution, in harmony with common sense, of some perplexing casuistical +questions. Thus (e.g.) "natural rights" become rights of which the +general observance would be useful apart from the institution of civil +government; as distinguished from the no less binding "adventitious +rights," the utility of which depends upon this institution. Private +property is in this sense "natural" from its obvious advantages in +encouraging labour, skill, preservative care; though actual rights of +property depend on the general utility of conforming to the law of the +land by which they are determined. We observe, however, that Paley's +method is often mixed with reasonings that belong to an alien and older +manner of thought; as when he supports the claim of the poor to charity +by referring to the intention of mankind "when they agreed to a +separation of the common fund," or when he infers that monogamy is a +part of the divine design from the equal numbers of males and females +born. In other cases his statement of utilitarian considerations is +fragmentary and unmethodical, and tends to degenerate into loose +exhortation on rather trite topics. + + + Bentham and his school. + +In unity, consistency and thoroughness of method, Bentham's +utilitarianism has a decided superiority over Paley's. He considers +actions solely in respect of their pleasurable and painful consequences, +expected or actual; and he recognizes the need of making a systematic +register of these consequences, free from the influences of common moral +opinion, as expressed in the "eulogistic" and "dyslogistic" terms in +ordinary use. Further, the effects that he estimates are all of a +definite, palpable, empirically ascertainable quality; they are such +pleasures and pains as most men feel and all can observe, so that all +his political or moral inferences lie open at every point to the test of +practical experience. Every one, it would seem, can tell what value he +sets on the pleasures of alimentation, sex, the senses generally, +wealth, power, curiosity, sympathy, antipathy (malevolence), the +goodwill of individuals or of society at large, and on the corresponding +pains, as well as the pains of labour and organic disorders;[42] and can +guess the rate at which they are valued by others; therefore if it be +once granted that all actions are determined by pleasures and pains, and +are to be tried by the same standard, the art of legislation and private +conduct is apparently placed on an empirical, basis. Bentham, no doubt, +seems to go beyond the limits of experience proper in recognizing +"religious" pains and pleasures in his fourfold division of sanctions, +side by side with the "physical," "political," and "moral" or "social"; +but the truth is that he does not seriously take account of them, except +in so far as religious hopes and fears are motives actually operating, +which therefore admit of being observed and measured as much as any +other motives. He does not himself use the will of an omnipotent and +benevolent being as a means of logically connecting individual and +general happiness. He thus undoubtedly simplifies his system, and avoids +the doubtful inferences from nature and Scripture in which Paley's +position is involved; but this gain is dearly purchased. For in answer +to the question that immediately arises, How then are the sanctions of +the moral rules which it will most conduce to the general happiness for +men to observe, shown to be always adequate in the case of all the +individuals whose observance is required? he is obliged to admit that +"the only interests which a man is at all times sure to find adequate +motives for consulting are his own." Indeed, in many parts of his work, +in the department of legislative and constitutional theory, it is rather +assumed that the interests of some men will continually conflict with +those of their fellows, unless we alter the balance of prudential +calculation by a readjustment of penalties. But on this assumption a +system of private conduct on utilitarian principles cannot be +constructed until legislative and constitutional reform has been +perfected. And, in fact, "private ethics," as conceived by Bentham, does +not exactly expound such a system; but rather exhibits the coincidence, +_so far as it extends_, between private and general happiness, in that +part of each man's conduct that lies beyond the range of useful +legislation. It was not his place, as a practical philanthropist, to +dwell on the defects in this coincidence;[43] and since what men +generally expect from a moralist is a completely reasoned account of +what they ought to do, it is not surprising that some of Bentham's +disciples should have either ignored or endeavoured to supply the gap in +his system. One section of the school even maintained it to be a +cardinal doctrine of utilitarianism that a man always gains his own +greatest happiness by promoting that of others; another section, +represented by John Austin, apparently returned to Paley's position, and +treated utilitarian morality[44] as a code of divine legislation; +others, with Grote, are content to abate the severity of the claims made +by "general happiness" on the individual, and to consider utilitarian +duty as practically limited by reciprocity; while on the opposite side +an unqualified subordination of private to general happiness was +advocated by J.S. Mill, who did more than any other member of the school +to spread and popularize utilitarianism in ethics and politics. + + + Varieties of utilitarian doctrine. + + J.S. Mill. + +The fact is that there are several different ways in which a utilitarian +system of morality may be used, without deciding whether the sanctions +attached to it are always adequate. (1) It may be presented as practical +guidance to all who choose "general good" as their ultimate end, whether +they do so on religious grounds, or through the predominance in their +minds of impartial sympathy, or because their conscience acts in harmony +with utilitarian principles, or for any combination of these or any +other reasons; or (2) it may be offered as a code to be obeyed not +absolutely, but only so far as the coincidence of private and general +interest may in any case be judged to extend; or again (3) it may be +proposed as a standard by which men may reasonably agree to praise and +blame the conduct of others, even though they may not always think fit +to act on it. We may regard morality as a kind of supplementary +legislation, supported by public opinion, which we may expect the +public, when duly enlightened, to frame in accordance with the public +interest. Still, even from this point of view, which is that of the +legislator or social reformer rather than the moral philosopher, our +code of duty must be greatly influenced by our estimate of the degrees +in which men are normally influenced by self-regard (in its ordinary +sense of regard for interests not sympathetic) and by sympathy or +benevolence, and of the range within which sympathy may be expected to +be generally effective. Thus, for example, the moral standard for which +a utilitarian will reasonably endeavour to gain the support of public +opinion must be essentially different in quality, according as he holds +with Bentham that nothing but self-regard will "serve for diet," though +"for a dessert benevolence is a very valuable addition"; or with J.S. +Mill that disinterested public spirit should be the prominent motive in +the performance of all socially useful work, and that even hygienic +precepts should be inculcated, not chiefly on grounds of prudence, but +because "by squandering our health we disable ourselves from rendering +services to our fellow-creatures." + +Not less important is the interval that separates Bentham's polemical +attitude towards the moral sense from Mill's conciliatory position, that +"the mind is not in a state conformable to utility unless it loves +virtue as a thing desirable in itself." Such love of virtue Mill holds +to be in a sense natural, though not an ultimate and inexplicable fact +of human nature; it is to be explained by the "Law of Association" of +feelings and ideas, through which objects originally desired as a means +to some further end come to be directly pleasant or desirable. Thus, the +miser first sought money as a means to comfort, but ends by sacrificing +comfort to money; and similarly though the first promptings to justice +(or any other virtue) spring from the non-moral pleasures gained or +pains avoided by it, through the link formed by repeated virtuous acts +the performance of them ultimately comes to have that immediate +satisfaction attached to it which we distinguished as moral. Indeed, the +acquired tendency to virtuous conduct may become so strong that the +habit of willing it may continue, "even when the reward which the +virtuous man receives from the consciousness of well-doing is anything +but an equivalent for the sufferings he undergoes or the wishes he may +have to renounce." It is thus that the before-mentioned self-sacrifice +of the moral hero is conceived by Mill to be possible and actual. The +moral sentiments, on this view, are not phases of self-love as Hobbes +held; nor can they be directly identified with sympathy, either in +Hume's way or in Adam Smith's; in fact, though apparently simple they +are really derived in a complex manner from self-love and sympathy +combined with more primitive impulses. Justice (e.g.) is regarded by +Mill as essentially resentment moralized by enlarged sympathy and +intelligent self-interest; what we mean by injustice is harm done to an +assignable individual by a breach of some rule for which we desire the +violator to be punished, for the sake both of the person injured and of +society at large, including ourselves. As regards moral sentiments +generally, the view suggested by Mill is more definitely given by the +chief living representative of the associationist school, Alexander +Bain; by whom the distinctive characteristics of conscience are traced +to "education under government or authority," though prudence, +disinterested sympathy and other emotions combine to swell the mass of +feeling vaguely denoted by the term moral. The combination of +antecedents is somewhat differently given by different writers; but all +agree in representing the conscience of any individual as naturally +correlated to the interests of the community of which he is a member, +and thus a natural ally in enforcing utilitarian rules, or even a +valuable guide when utilitarian calculations are difficult and +uncertain. + + + Association and evolution. + +This substitution of hypothetical history for direct analysis of the +moral sense is really older than the utilitarianism of Paley and +Bentham, which it has so profoundly modified. The effects of association +in modifying mental phenomena were noticed by Locke, and made a cardinal +point in the metaphysic of Hume; who also referred to the principle +slightly in his account of justice and other "artificial" virtues. Some +years earlier, Gay,[45] admitting Hutcheson's proof of the actual +disinterestedness of moral and benevolent impulses, had maintained that +these (like the desires of knowledge or fame, the delight of reading, +hunting and planting, &c.) were derived from self-love by "the power of +association." But a thorough and systematic application of the principle +to ethical psychology is first found in Hartley's _Observations on Man_ +(1748). Hartley, too, was the first to conceive association as +producing, instead of mere cohesion of mental phenomena, a +quasi-chemical combination of these into a compound apparently different +from its elements. He shows elaborately how the pleasures and pains of +"imagination, ambition, self-interest, sympathy, theopathy, and the +moral sense" are developed out of the elementary pleasures and pains of +sensation; by the coalescence into really complex but apparently single +ideas of the "miniatures" or faint feelings which the repetition of +sensations contemporaneously or in immediate succession tends to produce +in cohering groups. His theory assumes the correspondence of mind and +body, and is applied _pari passu_ to the formation of ideas from +sensations, and of "compound vibratiuncules in the medullary substance" +from the original vibrations that arise in the organ of sense.[46] The +same general view was afterwards developed with much vigour and +clearness on the psychical side alone by James Mill in his _Analysis of +the Human Mind_. The whole theory has been persistently controverted by +writers of the intuitional school, who (unlike Hartley) have usually +thought that this derivation of moral sentiments from more primitive +feelings would be detrimental to the authority of the former. The chief +argument against this theory has been based on the early period at which +these sentiments are manifested by children, which hardly allows time +for association to produce the effects ascribed to it. This argument has +been met in recent times by the application to mind of the physiological +theory of heredity, according to which changes produced in the mind +(brain) of a parent, by association of ideas or otherwise, tend to be +inherited by his offspring; so that the development of the moral sense +or any other faculty or susceptibility of existing man may be +hypothetically carried back into the prehistoric life of the human race, +without any change in the manner of derivation supposed. At present, +however, the theory of heredity is usually held in conjunction with +Darwin's theory of natural selection; according to which different kinds +of living things in the course of a series of generations come gradually +to be endowed with organs, faculties and habits tending to the +preservation of the individual or species under the conditions of life +in which it is placed. Thus we have a new zoological factor in the +history of the moral sentiments; which, though in no way opposed to the +older psychological theory of their formation through coalescence of +more primitive feelings, must yet be conceived as controlling and +modifying the effects of the law of association by preventing the +formation of sentiments other than those tending to the preservation of +human life. The influence of the Darwinian theory, moreover, has +extended from historical psychology to ethics, tending to substitute +"preservation of the race under its conditions of existence" for +"happiness" as the ultimate end and standard of virtue. + + + Free-will. + +Before concluding this sketch of the development of English ethical +thought from Hobbes to the thinkers of the 19th century, it will be well +to notice briefly the views held by different moralists on the question +of free-will,--so far, that is, as they have been put forward as +ethically important. We must first distinguish three meanings in which +"freedom" is attributed to the will or "inner self" of a human being, +viz. (1) the general power of choosing among different alternatives of +action without a motive, or against the resultant force of conflicting +motives; (2) the power of choice between the promptings of reason and +those of appetites (or other non-rational impulses) when the latter +conflict with reason; (3) merely the quality of acting rationally in +spite of conflicting impulses, however strong, the _non posse peccare_ +of the medieval theologians.[47] It is obvious that "freedom" in this +third sense is in no way incompatible with complete determination; and, +indeed, is rather an ideal state after which the moral agent ought to +aspire than a property which the human will can be said to possess. In +the first sense, again, as distinct from the second, the assertion of +"freedom" has no ethical significance, except in so far as it introduces +a general uncertainty into all our inferences respecting human conduct. +Even in the second sense it hardly seems that the freedom of a man's +will can be an element to be considered in examining what it is right or +best for him to do (though of course the clearest convictions of duty +will be fruitless if a man has not sufficient self-control to enable him +to act on them); it is rather when we ask whether it is just to punish +him for wrong-doing that it seems important to know whether he could +have done otherwise. But in spite of the strong interest taken in the +theological aspect of this question by the Protestant divines of the +17th century, it does not appear that English moralists from Hobbes to +Hume laid any stress on the relation of free-will either to duty +generally or to justice in particular. Neither the doctrine of Hobbes, +that deliberation is a mere alternation of competing desires, voluntary +action immediately following the "last appetite," nor the hardly less +decided Determinism of Locke, who held that the will is always moved by +the greatest present uneasiness, appeared to either author to require +any reconciliation with the belief in human responsibility. Even in +Clarke's system, where Indeterminism is no doubt a cardinal notion, its +importance is metaphysical rather than ethical; Clarke's view being +that the apparently arbitrary particularity in the constitution of the +cosmos is really only explicable by reference to creative free-will. In +the ethical discussion of Shaftesbury and sentimental moralists +generally this question drops naturally out of sight; and the cautious +Butler tries to exclude its perplexities as far as possible from the +philosophy of practice. But since the reaction, led by Price and Reid, +against the manner of philosophizing that had culminated in Hume, +free-will has been generally maintained by the intuitional school to be +an essential point of ethics; and, in fact, it is naturally connected +with the judgment of good and ill desert which these writers give as an +essential element in their analysis of the moral consciousness. An +irresistible motive, it is forcibly said, palliates or takes away guilt; +no one can blame himself for yielding to necessity, and no one can +properly be punished for what he could not have prevented. In answer to +this argument some necessarians have admitted that punishment can be +legitimate only if it be beneficial to the person punished; others, +again, have held that the lawful use of force is to restrain lawless +force; but most of those who reject free-will defend punishment on the +ground of its utility in deterring others from crime, as well as in +correcting or restraining the criminal on whom it falls. + + + French influence on English ethics. + + Helvetius. + +In the preceding sketch we have traced the course of English ethical +speculation without bringing it into relation with contemporary European +thought on the same subject. And in fact almost all the systems +described, from Hobbes downward, have been of essentially native growth, +showing hardly any traces of foreign influence. We may observe that +ethics is the only department in which this result appears. The physics +and psychology of Descartes were much studied in England, and his +metaphysical system was certainly the most important antecedent of +Locke's; but Descartes hardly touched ethics proper. So again the +controversy that Clarke conducted with Spinoza, and afterwards with +Leibnitz, was entirely confined to the metaphysical region. Catholic +France was a school for Englishmen in many subjects, but not in +morality; the great struggle between Jansenists and Jesuits had a very +remote interest for them. It was not till near the close of the 18th +century that the impress of the French revolutionary philosophy began to +manifest itself in England; and even then its influence was mostly +political rather than ethical. It is striking to observe how even in the +case of writers such as Godwin, who were most powerfully affected by the +French political movement, the moral basis, on which the new social +order of rational and equal freedom is constructed, is almost entirely +of native origin; even when the tone and spirit are French, the forms of +thought and manner of reasoning are still purely English. In the +derivation of Benthamism alone--which, it may be observed, first becomes +widely known in the French paraphrase of Dumont--an important element is +supplied by the works of a French writer, Helvetius; as Bentham himself +was fully conscious. It was from Helvetius that he learnt that, men +being universally and solely governed by self-love, the so-called moral +judgments are really the common judgments of any society as to its +common interests; that it is therefore futile on the one hand to propose +any standard of virtue, except that of conduciveness to general +happiness, and on the other hand useless merely to lecture men on duty +and scold them for vice; that the moralist's proper function is rather +to exhibit the coincidence of virtue with private happiness; that, +accordingly, though nature has bound men's interests together in many +ways, and education by developing sympathy and the habit of mutual help +may much extend the connexion, still the most effective moralist is the +legislator, who by acting on self-love through legal sanctions may mould +human conduct as he chooses. These few simple doctrines give the ground +plan of Bentham's indefatigable and lifelong labours. + + + Comte. + +So again, in the modified Benthamism which the persuasive exposition of +J.S. Mill afterwards made popular in England, the influence of Auguste +Comte (_Philosophie positive_, 1829-1842, and _Systeme de politique +positive_, 1851-1854) appears as the chief modifying element. This +influence, so far as it has affected moral as distinct from political +speculation, has been exercised primarily through the general conception +of human progress; which, in Comte's view, consists in the ever-growing +preponderance of the distinctively human attributes over the purely +animal, social feelings being ranked highest among human attributes, and +highest of all the most universalized phase of human affection, the +devotion to humanity as a whole. Accordingly, it is the development of +benevolence in man, and of the habit of "living for others," which Comte +takes as the ultimate aim and standard of practice, rather than the mere +increase of happiness. He holds, indeed, that the two are inseparable, +and that the more _altruistic_ any man's sentiments and habits of action +can be made, the greater will be the happiness enjoyed by himself as +well as by others. But he does not seriously trouble himself to argue +with egoism, or to weigh carefully the amount of happiness that might be +generally attained by the satisfaction of egoistic propensities duly +regulated; a supreme unquestioning self-devotion, in which all personal +calculations are suppressed, is an essential feature of his moral ideal. +Such a view is almost diametrically opposed to Bentham's conception of +normal human existence; the newer utilitarianism of Mill represents an +endeavour to find the right middle path between the two extremes. + +It is to be observed that, in Comte's view, devotion to humanity is the +principle not merely of morality, but of religion; i.e. it should not +merely be practically predominant, but should be manifested and +sustained by regular and partly symbolical forms of expression, private +and public. This side of Comte's system, however, and the details of his +ideal reconstruction of society, in which this religion plays an +important part, have had but little influence either in England or +elsewhere. It is more important to notice the general effect of his +philosophy on the method of determining the particulars of morality as +well as of law (as it ought to be). In the utilitarianism of Paley and +Bentham the proper rules of conduct, moral and legal, are determined by +comparing the imaginary consequences of different modes of regulation on +men and women, conceived as specimens of a substantially uniform and +unchanging type. It is true that Bentham expressly recognizes the +varying influences of climate, race, religion, government, as +considerations which it is important for the legislator to take into +account; but his own work of social construction was almost entirely +independent of such considerations, and his school generally appear to +have been convinced of their competence to solve all important ethical +and political questions for human beings of all ages and countries, +without regard to their specific differences. But in the Comtian +conception of social science, of which ethics and politics are the +practical application, the knowledge of the laws of the evolution of +society is of fundamental and continually increasing importance; +humanity is regarded as having passed through a series of stages, in +each of which a somewhat different set of laws and institutions, customs +and habits, is normal and appropriate. Thus present man is a being that +can only be understood through a knowledge of his past history; and any +effort to construct for him a moral and political ideal, by a purely +abstract and unhistorical method, must necessarily be futile; whatever +modifications may at any time be desirable in positive law and morality +can only be determined by the aid of "social dynamics." This view +extends far beyond the limits of Comte's special school or sect, and has +been widely accepted. + + + German influence on English ethics. + +When we turn from French philosophy to German, we find the influence of +the latter on English ethical thought almost insignificant until a very +recent period. In the 17th century, indeed, the treatise of Pufendorf on +the _Law of Nature_, in which the general view of Grotius was restated +with modifications, partly designed to effect a compromise with the +doctrine of Hobbes, seems to have been a good deal read at Oxford and +elsewhere. Locke includes it among the books necessary to the complete +education of a gentleman. But the subsequent development of the theory +of conduct in Germany dropped almost entirely out of the cognizance of +Englishmen; even the long dominant system of Wolff (d. 1754) was hardly +known. Nor had Kant any serious influence in England until the second +quarter of the 19th century. We find, however, distinct traces of +Kantian influence in Whewell and other writers of the intuitional +school, and at a later date it became so strong that its importance on +subsequent ethical thought can scarcely be over-estimated. + + + Kant. + + Categorical Imperative. + +The English moralist with whom Kant has most affinity is Price; in fact, +Kantism, in the ethical thought of modern Europe, holds a place somewhat +analogous to that formerly occupied by the teaching of Price and Reid +among English moralists. Kant, like Price and Reid, holds that man as a +rational being is unconditionally bound to conform to a certain rule of +right, or "categorical imperative" of reason. Like Price he holds that +an action is not good unless done from a good motive, and that this +motive must be essentially different from natural inclination of any +kind; duty, to be duty, must be done for duty's sake; and he argues, +with more subtlety than Price or Reid, that though a virtuous act is no +doubt pleasant to the virtuous agent, and any violation of duty painful, +this moral pleasure (or pain) cannot strictly be the motive to the act, +because it follows instead of preceding the recognition of our +obligation to do it.[48] With Price, again, he holds that rightness of +intention and motive is not only an indispensable condition or element +of the rightness of an action, but actually the sole determinant of its +moral worth; but with more philosophical consistency he draws the +inference--of which the English moralist does not seem to have +dreamt--that there can be no separate rational principles for +determining the "material" rightness of conduct, as distinct from its +"formal" rightness; and therefore that all rules of duty, so far as +universally binding, must admit of being exhibited as applications of +the one general principle that duty ought to be done for duty's sake. +This deduction is the most original part of Kant's doctrine. The +dictates of reason, he points out, must necessarily be addressed to all +rational beings as such; hence, my intention cannot be right unless I am +prepared to will the principle on which I act to be a universal law. He +considers that this fundamental rule or imperative "act on a maxim which +thou canst will to be law universal" supplies a sufficient criterion for +determining particular duties in all cases. The rule excludes wrong +conduct with two degrees of stringency. Some offences, such as making +promises with the intention of breaking them, we cannot even conceive +universalized; as soon as every one broke promises no one would care to +have promises made to him. Other maxims, such as that of leaving persons +in distress to shift for themselves, we can easily conceive to be +universal laws, but we cannot without contradiction will them to be +such; for when we are ourselves in distress we cannot help desiring that +others should help us. + +Another important peculiarity of Kant's doctrine is his development of +the connexion between duty and free-will. He holds that it is through +our moral consciousness that we know that we are free; in the cognition +that I ought to do what is right because it is right and not because I +like it, it is implied that this purely rational volition is possible; +that my action can be determined, not "mechanically," through the +necessary operation of the natural stimuli of pleasurable and painful +feelings, but in accordance with the laws of my true, reasonable self. +The realization of reason, or of human wills so far as rational, thus +presents itself as the absolute end of duty; and we get, as a new form +of the fundamental practical rule, "act so as to treat humanity, in +thyself or any other, as an end always, and never as a means only." We +may observe, too, that the notion of freedom connects ethics with +jurisprudence in a simple and striking manner. The fundamental aim of +jurisprudence is to realize external freedom by removing the hindrances +imposed on each one's free action through the interferences of other +wills. Ethics shows how to realize internal freedom by resolutely +pursuing rational ends in opposition to those of natural inclination. If +we ask what precisely are the ends of reason, Kant's proposition that +"all rational beings as such are ends in themselves for every rational +being" hardly gives a clear answer. It might be interpreted to mean that +the result to be practically sought is simply the development of the +rationality of all rational beings--such as men--whom we find to be as +yet imperfectly rational. But this is not Kant's view. He holds, indeed, +that each man should aim at making himself the most perfect possible +instrument of reason; but he expressly denies that the perfection of +others can be similarly prescribed as an end to each. It is, he says, "a +contradiction to regard myself as in duty bound to promote the +perfection of another, ... a contradiction to make it a duty for me to +do something for another which no other but himself can do." In what +practical sense, then, am I to make other rational beings my ends? +Kant's answer is that what each is to aim at in the case of others is +not Perfection, but Happiness, i.e. to help them to attain those purely +subjective ends that are determined for each not by reason, but by +natural inclination. He explains also that to seek one's own happiness +cannot be prescribed as a duty, because it is an end to which every man +is inevitably impelled by natural inclination: but that just because +each inevitably desires his own happiness, and therefore desires that +others should assist him in time of need, he is bound to make the +happiness of others his ethical end, since he cannot _morally_ demand +aid from others, without accepting the obligation of aiding them in like +case. The exclusion of private happiness from the ends at which it is a +duty to aim contrasts strikingly with the view of Butler and Reid, that +man, as a rational being, is under a "manifest obligation" to seek his +own interest. The difference, however, is not really so great as it +seems; since in another part of his system Kant fully recognizes the +reasonableness of the individual's regard for his own happiness. Though +duty, in his view, excludes regard for private happiness, the _summum +bonum_ is not duty alone, but happiness combined with moral worth; the +demand for happiness as the reward of duty is so essentially reasonable +that we must postulate a universal connexion between the two as the +order of the universe; indeed, the practical necessity of this postulate +is the only adequate rational ground that we have for believing in the +existence of God. + + + Hegel. + +Before the ethics of Kant had begun to be seriously studied in England, +the rapid and remarkable development of metaphysical view and method of +which the three chief stages are represented by Fichte, Schelling and +Hegel respectively had already taken place; and the system of the latter +was occupying the most prominent position in the philosophical thought +of Germany.[49] Hegel's ethical doctrine (expounded chiefly in his +_Philosophie des Rechts_, 1821) shows a close affinity, and also a +striking contrast, to Kant's. He holds, with Kant, that duty or good +conduct consists in the conscious realization of the free reasonable +will, which is essentially the same in all rational beings. But in +Kant's view the universal content of this will is only given in the +formal condition of "only acting as one can desire all to act," to be +subjectively applied by each rational agent to his own volition; whereas +Hegel conceives the universal will as objectively presented to each man +in the laws, institutions and customary morality of the community of +which he is a member. Thus, in his view, not merely natural inclinations +towards pleasures, or the desires for selfish happiness, require to be +morally resisted; but even the prompting of the individual's conscience, +the impulse to do what seems to him right, if it comes into conflict +with the common sense of his community. It is true that Hegel regards +the conscious effort to realize one's own conception of good as a higher +stage of moral development than the mere conformity to the jural rules +establishing property, maintaining contract and allotting punishment to +crime, in which the universal will is first expressed; since in such +conformity this will is only accomplished accidentally by the outward +concurrence of individual wills, and is not essentially realized in any +of them. He holds, however, that this conscientious effort is +self-deceived and futile, is even the very root of moral evil, except it +attains its realization in harmony with the objective social relations +in which the individual finds himself placed. Of these relations the +first grade is constituted by the family, the second by civil society, +and the third by the state, the organization of which is the highest +manifestation of universal reason in the sphere of practice. + +Hegelianism appears as a distinct element in modern English ethical +thought; but the direct influence of Hegel's system is perhaps less +important than that indirectly exercised through the powerful stimulus +which it has given to the study of the historical development of human +thought and human society. According to Hegel, the essence of the +universe is a process of thought from the abstract to the concrete; and +a right understanding of this process gives the key for interpreting the +evolution in time of European philosophy. So again, in his view, the +history of mankind is a history of the necessary development of the free +spirit through the different forms of political organization: the first +being that of the Oriental monarchy, in which freedom belongs to the +monarch only; the second, that of the Graeco-Roman republics, in which a +select body of free citizens is sustained on a basis of slavery; while +finally in the modern societies, sprung from the Teutonic invasion of +the decaying Roman empire, freedom is recognized as the natural right of +all members of the community. The effect of the lectures (posthumously +edited) in which Hegel's "Philosophy of History" and "History of +Philosophy" were expounded, has extended far beyond the limits of his +special school; indeed, the predominance of the historical method in all +departments of the theory of practice is not a little due to their +influence. (H. S.; X.) + +D. _Ethics since 1879._--Ethical controversies, like most other +speculative disputes, have, during the latter part of the 19th and the +beginning of the 20th century, centred round Darwinian theories. The +chief characteristic of English moral philosophy in its previous history +has been its comparative isolation from great movements, sometimes +contemporary movements, of philosophical or scientific thought. Ethics +in England no less than on the continent of Europe suffered until the +time of Bacon from the excessive domination of theological dogma and the +traditional scholastic and Aristotelian philosophy. But the moral +philosophy of the 18th century, freed from scholastic trammels, was a +genuine native product, arising out of the real problem of conduct and +reaching its conclusions, at least ostensibly, by an analysis of, and an +appeal to, the facts of conduct and the nature of morality. Even at the +beginning of the 19th century, when the main interest of writers who +belonged to the Utilitarian school was mainly political, the influence +of political theories upon contemporary moral philosophy was upon the +whole an influence of which the moral philosophers themselves were +unconscious; and from the nature of things moral and political +philosophy have a tendency to become one and the same inquiry. Mill, it +is true, and Comte both encouraged the idea that society and conduct +alike were susceptible of strictly scientific investigation. But the +attempt not only to treat ethics scientifically, but actually to +subordinate the principles of conduct to the principles of existing +biological science or group of sciences biological in character, was +reserved for post-Darwinian moral philosophers. That attempt has not, in +the opinion of the majority of critics, been successful, and perhaps +what is most permanent in the contribution of modern times to ethical +theory will ultimately be attributed to philosophers antagonistic to +evolutionary ethics. Nevertheless the application of the historical +method to inquiries concerning the facts of morality and the moral +life--itself part of the great movement of thought to which Darwin gave +the chief impetus--has caused moral problems to be presented in a novel +aspect; while the influence of Darwinism upon studies which have +considerable bearing upon ethics, e.g. anthropology or the study of +comparative religion, has been incalculable. + +The other great movement in modern moral philosophy due to the influence +of German, and especially Hegelian, idealism followed naturally for the +most part from the revival of interest in metaphysics noticeable in the +latter half of the 19th century. + +But metaphysical systems of ethics are no novelty even in England, and, +while the increased interest in ultimate issues of philosophy has +enormously deepened and widened men's appreciation of moral problems and +the issues involved in conduct, the actual advance in ethical theory +produced by such speculations has been comparatively slight. What is of +lasting importance is the re-affirmation upon metaphysical grounds of +the right of the moral consciousness to state and solve its own +difficulties, and the successful repulsion of the claims of particular +sciences such as biology to include the sphere of conduct within their +scope and methods. And both evolutionary and idealistic ethics agree in +repudiating the standpoint of narrow individualism, alike insist upon +the necessity of regarding the self as social in character, and regard +the end of moral progress as only realizable in a perfect society. + +It is perhaps too much to hope that the long-continued controversy +between hedonists and anti-hedonists has been finally settled. But +certainly few modern moral philosophers would be found in the present +day ready to defend the crudities of hedonistic psychology as they +appear in Bentham and Mill. A certain common agreement has been reached +concerning the impossibility of regarding pleasure as the sole motive +criterion and end of moral action, though different opinions still +prevail as to the place occupied by pleasure in the summum bonum, and +the possibility of a hedonistic calculus. + +The failure of "laissez-faire" individualism in politics to produce that +common prosperity and happiness which its advocates hoped for caused men +to question the egoistic basis upon which its ethical counterpart was +constructed. Similarly the comparative failure of science to satisfy +men's aspirations alike in knowledge and, so far as the happiness of the +masses is concerned, in practice has been largely instrumental in +producing that revolt against material prosperity as the end of conduct +which is characteristic of idealist moral philosophy. To this revolt, +and to the general tendency to find the principle of morality in an +ideal good present to the consciousness of all persons capable of acting +morally, the widespread recognition of reason as the ultimate court of +appeal alike in religion or politics, and latterly in economics also, +has no doubt contributed largely. In the main the appeal to reason has +followed the traditional course of such movements in ethics, and has +reaffirmed in the light of fuller reflection the moral principles +implicit in the ordinary moral consciousness. It is only in the present +day that there are noticeable signs of dissatisfaction with current +morality itself, and a tendency to substitute or advocate a new morality +based ostensibly upon conclusions derived from the facts of scientific +observation. + + + Darwin. + +Darwin himself seems never to have questioned, in the sceptical +direction in which his followers have applied his principles, the +absolute character of moral obligation. What interested him chiefly, in +so far as he made a study of morality, was the development of moral +conduct in its preliminary stages. He was principally concerned to show +that in morality, as in other departments of human life, it was not +necessary to postulate a complete and abrupt gap between human and +merely animal existence, but that the instincts and habits which +contribute to survival in the struggle for existence among animals +develop into moral qualities which have a similar value for the +preservation of human and social life. Regarding the social tendency as +originally itself an instinct developed out of parental or filial +affection, he seems to suggest that natural selection, which was the +chief cause of its development in the earlier stages, may very probably +influence the transition from purely tribal and social morality into +morality in its later and more complex forms. But he admits that natural +selection is not necessarily the only cause, and he refrains from +identifying the fully developed morality of civilized nations with the +"social instinct." Moreover, he recognizes that qualities, e.g. loyalty +and sympathy, which may have been of great service to the tribe in its +primitive struggle for existence, may become a positive hindrance to +physical efficiency (leading as they do to the preservation of the +unfit) at a later stage. Nevertheless to check our sympathy would lead +to the "deterioration of the noblest part of our nature," and the +question, which is obviously of vital importance, whether we should obey +the dictates of reason, which would urge us only to such conduct as is +conducive to natural selection, or remain faithful to the noblest part +of our nature at the expense of reason, he leaves unsolved. + + + Spencer. + +It was in Herbert Spencer, the triumphant "buccinator novi temporis," +that the advocates of evolutionary ethics found their protagonist. +Spencer looked to ideas derived from the biological sciences to provide +a solution of all the enigmas of morality, as of most other departments +of life; and he conceived it "to be the business of moral science to +deduce from the laws of life and the conditions of existence what kinds +of action necessarily tend to produce happiness and what kinds to +produce unhappiness." It is clear, therefore, that any moral science +which is to be of value must wait until the "laws of life" and +"conditions of existence" have been satisfactorily determined, +presumably by biology and the allied sciences; and there are few more +melancholy instances of failure in philosophy than the paucity of the +actual results attained by Spencer in his lifetime in his application of +the so-called laws of evolution to human conduct--a failure recognized +by Spencer himself. His own contribution to ethics was vitiated at the +outset by the fact that he never shook himself free from the trammels of +the philosophy which his own system was intended to supersede. He began +by disclaiming any affinity to Utilitarianism on the part of his own +philosophy. He pointed out that the principle of the greatest happiness +of the greatest number is a principle without any definite meaning, +since men are nowhere unanimous in their standard of happiness, but +regard the conception of happiness rather as a problem to be solved than +a test to be applied. Universal happiness would require omniscience to +legislate for it and the "normal" or, as some would say, "perfect" man +to desire it; neither of these conditions of its realization is at +present in existence. Further, the principle that "everybody is to count +for one, nobody for more than one," is equally unsatisfactory. It may be +taken to imply that the useless and the criminal should be entitled to +as much happiness as the useful and the virtuous. While it gives no rule +for private as distinct from public conduct, it provides no real +guidance for the legislator. For neither happiness, nor the concrete +means to happiness, nor finally the conditions of its realization can be +distributed; and in the end "not general happiness becomes the ethical +standard by which legislative action is to be guided, but universal +justice." Yet the implications of this latter conclusion Spencer never +fully thought out. He accepted bodily without farther questioning the +hedonistic psychology by which the Utilitarians sought to justify their +theory while he rejected the theory itself. Good, e.g. defined by him +"as conduct conducive to life," is also further defined as that which is +"conducive to a surplus of pleasures over pains." Happiness, again, is +always regarded as consisting in feeling, ultimately in pleasant +feeling, and there is no attempt to apply the same principles of +criticism which he had successfully applied to the Utilitarians' +"happiness" to the conception of "pleasure." And, though he maintains as +against the Utilitarians the existence of certain fundamental moral +intuitions which have come to be quite independent of any present +conscious experience of their utility, he yet holds that they are the +results of accumulated racial experiences gradually organized and +inherited. Finally, side by side with a theory of the nature of moral +obligation thus fundamentally empirical and a posteriori in its outlook, +he maintains in his account of justice the existence of the idea of +justice as distinct from a mere sentiment, carrying with it an a priori +belief in its existence and identical in its a priori and intuitive +character with the ultimate criterion of Utilitarianism itself. The fact +is that any close philosophical analysis of Spencer's system of ethics +can only result in the discovery of a multitude of mutually conflicting +and for the most part logically untenable theories. It is frequently +impossible to discover whether he wishes by an appeal to evolutionary +principles to reinforce the sanctions and emphasize the absolute +character of the traditional morality which in the main he accepts +without question from the current opinions about conduct of his age, or +whether he wishes to discredit and disprove the validity of that +morality in order to substitute by the aid of the biological sciences a +new ethical code. The argument, for instance, that intuitive and a +priori beliefs gain their absolute character from the fact that they are +the result of continued transmission and accumulation of past nervous +modifications in the history of the race would, if taken seriously, lead +us to the belief that ultimate ethical sanctions are to be sought, not +by an appeal to the moral consciousness, but by the investigation of +brain tissue and the relation of man's bodily organism to its +environment. Yet such a view would be totally at variance with much that +Spencer says (especially in his treatment of justice) concerning the +trustworthiness and inevitable character of men's constant appeal to the +intuitions of their moral consciousness. Moreover, the very fact itself +of the possibility of inheriting acquired moral characteristics is still +hotly debated by those biologists with whom should rest the ultimate +verdict. Again, the argument that "conduct is good or bad according as +its total effects are pleasurable or painful," and that ultimately +"pleasure-giving acts are life-sustaining acts," seems to involve +Spencer in a multitude of unverified assumptions and contradictory +theories. In the first place it is never clear whether Spencer regards +the fact that a particular course of conduct is accompanied by a feeling +of pleasure as a test of its life-preserving and life-sustaining +character, or whether he wishes us to use as our criterion of what is +pleasant in conduct the fact that the conduct in question seems +conducive to the continued existence of man's organic life. He +apparently passes from one criterion to the other as best suits the +purpose of the moment. He does not prove the coincidence of +life-sustaining and pleasant activities. He assumes throughout that the +pleasant is the opposite of what is painful, and seems unaware of the +difficulty of determining by means of terms so highly abstract the +specific character of moral action. We find in his theory no +satisfactory attempt to discriminate between the pleasure aimed at by +the altruist and the immediate pleasure of egoistic action. Similarly he +disregards the distinction between pleasant feeling as an immediate +motive of conduct and the idea of the attainment of future pleasure +whether by the race or by the individual. Spencer is involved in effect +in most of the confusions and contradictions of hedonistic psychology. + +Nor is his attempt to construct a scientific criterion out of data +derived from the biological sciences productive of satisfactory results. +He is hampered by a distinction between "absolute" and "relative" ethics +definitely formulated in the last two chapters of The _Data of Ethics_. +Absolute ethics would deal with such laws as would regulate the conduct +of ideal man in an ideal society, i.e. a society where conduct has +reached the stage of complete adjustment to the needs of social life. +Relative ethics, on the other hand, is concerned only with such conduct +as is advantageous for that society which has not yet reached the end of +complete adaptation to its environment, i.e. which is at present +imperfect. It is hardly necessary to say that Spencer does not tell us +how to bring the two ethical systems into correlation. And the actual +criteria of conduct derived from biological considerations are almost +ludicrously inadequate. Conduct, e.g., is said to be more moral in +proportion as it exhibits a tendency on the part of the individual or +society to become more "definite," "coherent" and "heterogeneous." Or, +again, we should recognize as a test of the "authoritative" character of +moral ideas or feelings the fact that they are complex and +representative, referring to a remote rather than to a proximate good, +remembering the while that "the sense of duty is transitory, and will +diminish as fast as moralization increases." In fact, no acceptable +scientific criterion emerges, and the outcome of Spencer's attempt to +ascertain the laws of life and the conditions of existence is either a +restatement of the dictates of the moral consciousness in vague and +cumbrous quasi-scientific phraseology, or the substitution of the +meaningless test of "survivability" as a standard of perfection for the +usual and intelligible standards of "good" and "right." + + + Leslie Stephen. + +A similar criticism might fairly be passed upon the majority of +philosophers who approach ethics from the standpoint of evolution. Sir +Leslie Stephen, for instance, wishes to substitute the conception of +"social health" for that of universal happiness, and considers that the +conditions of social health are to be discovered by an examination of +the "social organism" or of "social tissue," the laws of which can be +studied apart from those laws by which the individuals composing society +regulate their conduct. "The social evolution means the evolution of a +strong social tissue; the best type is the type implied by the strongest +tissue." But on the important question as to what constitutes the +strongest social tissue, or to what extent the analogy between society +as at present constituted and organic life is really applicable, we are +left without certain guidance. The fact is that with few exceptions +evolutionary moral philosophers evade the choice between alternatives +which is always presented to them. They begin, for the most part, with a +belief that in ethics as in other departments of human knowledge "the +more developed must be interpreted by the less developed"--though +frequently in the sequel complexity or posteriority of development is +erected as a standard by means of which to judge the process of +development itself. They are not content to write a _history_ of moral +development, applying to it the principles by which Darwinians seek to +explain the development of animal life. But the search of origins +frequently leads them into theories of the nature of that moral conduct +whose origin they are anxious to find quite at variance with current and +accepted beliefs concerning its nature. The discovery of the so-called +evolution of morality out of non-moral conditions is very frequently an +unconscious subterfuge by which the evolutionist hides the fact that he +is making a priori judgments upon the value of the moral concepts held +to be evolved. To accept such theories of the origin of morality would +carry with it the conviction that what we took for "moral" conduct was +in reality something very different, and has been so throughout its +history. The legitimate inference which should follow would be the +denial of the validity of those moral laws which have hitherto been +regarded as absolute in character, and the substitution for all +customary moral terms of an entirely new set based upon biological +considerations. But it is precisely this, the only logical inference, +which most evolutionary philosophers are unwilling to draw. They cannot +give up their belief in customary morality. Professor Huxley maintained, +for example, in a famous lecture that "the ethical progress of society +depends not on imitating the cosmic process, still less in running away +from it, but in combating it" (_Romanes Lecture, ad fin_.). And very +frequently arguments are adduced by evolutionists to prove that men's +belief in the absolute character of moral precepts is one of the +necessary means adopted by nature to carry out her designs for the +social welfare of mankind. Yet the other alternative, to which such +reasoning points, they are reluctant to accept. For the belief that +moral obligation is absolute in character, that it is alike impossible +to explain its origin and transcend its laws, would make the search for +a scientific criterion of conduct to be deduced from the laws of life +and conditions of existence meaningless, if not absurd. + + + Nietzsche. + +Perhaps the one European thinker who has carried evolutionary principles +in ethics to their logical conclusion is Friedrich Nietzsche. Almost any +system of morality or immorality might find some justification in +Nietzsche's writings, which are extraordinarily chaotic and full of the +wildest exaggerations. Yet it has been a true instinct which has led +popular opinion as testified to by current literature to find in +Nietzsche the most orthodox exponent of Darwinian ideas in their +application to ethics. For he saw clearly that to be successful +evolutionary ethics must involve the "transvaluation of all values," the +"demoralization" of all ordinary current morality. He accepted frankly +the glorification of brute strength, superior cunning and all the +qualities necessary for success in the struggle for existence, to which +the ethics of evolution necessarily tend. He proclaimed himself, before +everything else, a physiologist, and looked to physiology to provide the +ultimate standard for everything that has value; and though his own +ethical code necessarily involves the disappearance of sympathy, love, +toleration and all existing altruistic emotions, he yet in a sense finds +room for them in such altruistic self-sacrifice as prepares the way for +the higher man of the future. Thus, after a fashion, he is able to +reconcile the conflicting claims of egoism and altruism and succeed +where most apostles of evolution fail. The Christian virtues, sympathy +for the weak, the suffering, &c., represent a necessary stage to be +passed through in the evolution of the _Ubermensch_, i.e. the stage when +the weak and suffering combine in revolt against the strong. They are to +be superseded, not so much because all social virtues are to be scorned +and rejected, as because in their effects, i.e. in their tendency to +perpetuate and prolong the existence of the weak and those who are least +well equipped and endowed by nature, they are anti-social in character +and inimical to the survival of the strongest and most vigorous type of +humanity. Consequently Nietzsche in effect maintains the following +paradoxical position: he explains the existence of altruism upon +egoistical principles; he advocates the total abolition of all altruism +by carrying these same egoistical principles to their logical +conclusion; he nevertheless appeals to that moral instinct which makes +men ready to sacrifice their own narrow personal interests to the higher +good of society--an instinct profoundly altruistic in character--as the +ultimate justification of the ethics he enunciates. Such a position is a +_reductio ad absurdum_ of the attempt to transcend the ultimate +character of those intuitions and feelings which prompt men to +benevolence. Thus, though incidentally there is much to be learned from +Nietzsche, especially from his criticism of the ethics of pessimism, or +from the strictures he passes upon the negative morality of extreme +asceticism or quietism, his system inevitably provides its own +refutation. For no philosophy which travesties the real course of +history and distorts the moral facts is likely to commend itself to the +sober judgment of mankind however brilliant be its exposition or +ingenious its arguments. Finally, the conceptions of strength, power and +masterfulness by which Nietzsche attempts to determine his own moral +ideal, become, when examined, as relative and unsatisfactory as other +criteria of moral action said to be deduced from evolutionary +principles. Men desire strength or power not as ends but as means to +ends beyond them; Nietzsche is most convincing when the _Ubermensch_ is +left undefined. Imagined as ideal man, i.e. as morality depicts him, he +becomes intelligible; imagined as Nietzsche describes him he reels back +into the beast, and that distinction which chiefly separates man from +the animal world out of which he has emerged, viz. his unique power of +self-consciousness and self-criticism, is obliterated. + + + T.H. Green. + +It was upon this crucial difficulty, i.e. the transition in the +evolution of morality from the stage of purely animal and unconscious +action to specifically human action,--i.e. action directed by +self-conscious and purposive intelligence to an end conceived as +good,--that the polemic of T.H. Green and his idealistic followers +fastened. And it is perhaps unfortunate that metaphysical doctrines +enunciated chiefly for the purposes of criticism not in themselves +vitally necessary to the theory of morality propounded should have been +regarded as the main contribution to ethical theory of idealist writers, +and as such treated severely by hostile critics. Green's principal +objection to evolutionary moral philosophy is contained in the argument +that no merely "natural" explanation of the facts of morality is +conceivable. The knowing consciousness,--i.e. so far as conduct is +concerned the moral consciousness,--can never become an object of +knowledge in the sense in which natural phenomena are objects of +scientific knowledge. For such knowledge implies the existence of a +knowing consciousness as a relating and uniting intelligence capable of +distinguishing itself from the objects to which it relates. And more +particularly the existence of the moral consciousness implies "the +transition from mere want to consciousness of wanted object, from +impulse to satisfy the want to effort for the realization of the wanted +objects, implies the presence of the want to a subject which +distinguishes itself from it." Consequently the facts of moral +development imply with the emergence of human consciousness the +appearance of something qualitatively different from the facts with +which physiology for instance deals, imply a stratum as it were in +development which no examination of animal tissues, no calculation of +consequences with regard to the preservation of the species can ever +satisfactorily explain. However far back we go in the history of +humanity, if the presence of consciousness be admitted at all, it will +be necessary to admit also the presence to consciousness of an ideal +which can be accepted or rejected, of a power of looking before and +after, and aiming at a future which is not yet fully realized. But +unfortunately the temporary exigencies of criticism made it necessary +for Green to emphasize the metaphysic of the self, i.e. to insist upon +the necessity of a critical examination of the pre-requisites of any +form of self-consciousness and especially of the knowing consciousness, +to such an extent that critics have lost sight of the real dependence of +his metaphysic upon the direct evidence of the moral consciousness. The +philosophic value, the sincerity, the breadth and depth of his treatment +of moral facts and institutions have been fully recognized. What has not +been adequately realized is that the metaphysical basis of his system of +ethics--the argument, for example, contained in the introduction to the +_Prolegomena_--is unfairly treated if divorced from his treatment of +morals as a whole, and that it can be justly estimated only if +interpreted as much as the conclusion as the starting-point of moral +theory. The doctrine of the eternity of the self, for instance, against +which much criticism (e.g. Taylor, _The Problem of Conduct_, chap. ii.) +has been directed, though it is chiefly expressed in the language of +epistemology, has its roots nevertheless in the direct testimony of +moral experience. For morality implies a power in the individual of +rising above the interests of his own narrower self and identifying +himself in the pursuit of a universal good with the true interests of +all other selves. Similarly the conception of the self as a moral unity +arises naturally out of the impossibility of finding the summum bonum in +a succession of transient states of consciousness such as hedonism for +example postulates. Good as a true universal can only be realized by a +true self, and both imply a principle of unity not wholly expressible in +terms of the particulars which it unifies. But whether the idealistic +interpretation of the nature of universal good be the true one, i.e. +whether we are justified in identifying that self-consciousness which is +capable of grasping the principle of unity with the principle of unity +which it grasps is a metaphysical and theistic problem comparatively +irrelevant to Green's moral theory. It would be quite possible to accept +his criticisms of naturalism and hedonism while rejecting many of the +metaphysical inferences which he draws. A somewhat similar answer might +be returned to those critics who find Green's use of the term +"self-realization" or "self-development" as characteristic of the moral +ideal unsatisfactory. It is quite easy to exhibit the futility of such a +conception if understood formally for the practical purposes of moral +philosophy. If the phrase be understood to mean the realization of some +capacities of the self it does not appear to discriminate sufficiently +between the good and bad capacities; while the realization under present +conditions of all the capacities of a self is impossible. And to aim so +far as is possible at all-round development would again ignore the +distinction between vice and virtue. But used in the sense in which +Green habitually uses it self-realization implies, as he puts it, the +fulfilment by the good man of his rational capacity or the idea of a +best that is in time, i.e. the distinction between the good and the bad +self is never ignored, but is the fundamental assumption of his theory. +And if it be urged that the expression is in any case tautological, i.e. +that the good is defined in terms of self-realization and +self-realization in terms of the good, it may be doubted whether any +rational system of ethics can avoid a similar imputation. Green would +admit that in a certain sense the conception of "good" is indefinable, +i.e. that it can only be recognized in the particulars of conduct of +which it is the universal form. Only, therefore, to those philosophers +who believe in the existence of a criterion of morality, i.e. a +universal test such as that of pleasure, happiness and the like, by +which we can judge of the worth of actions, will Green's position seem +absurd; since, on the contrary, such conceptions as those of +"self-development" or "self-realization" seem to have a definite and +positive value if they call attention to the metaphysical implications +of morality and accurately characterize the moral facts. What ambiguity +they possess arises from the ambiguity of morality itself. For moral +progress consists in the actualization of what is already potentially in +existence. The striking merit of Green's moral philosophy is that the +idealism which he advocates is rooted and grounded in moral habits and +institutions: and the metaphysic in which it culminates is based upon +principles already implicitly recognized by the moral consciousness of +the ordinary man. Nothing could be farther from Green's teaching than +the belief that constructive metaphysics could, unaided by the +intuitions of the moral consciousness, discover laws for the regulation +of conduct. + + + Taylor. + +But although Green's loyalty to the primary facts of the moral +consciousness prevented him from constructing a rationalistic system of +morals based solely upon the conclusions of metaphysics, it was perhaps +inevitable that the revival of interest in metaphysics so prominent in +his own speculations should lead to a more daring criticism of ethical +first principles in other writers. Bradley's _Ethical Studies_ had +presented with great brilliancy an idealist theory of morality not very +far removed from that of Green's _Prolegomena_. But the publication of +_Appearance and Reality_ by the same author marked a great advance in +philosophical criticism of ethical postulates, and a growing +dissatisfaction with current reconciliations between moral first +principles and the conclusions of metaphysics. _Appearance and Reality_ +was not primarily concerned with morals, yet it inevitably led to +certain conclusions affecting conduct, and it was no very long time +before these conclusions were elaborated in detail. Professor A.E. +Taylor's _Problem of Conduct_ (1901) is one of the most noteworthy and +independent contributions to Moral Philosophy published in recent years. +But it nevertheless follows in the main Bradley's line of criticism and +may therefore be regarded as representative of his school. There are two +principal positions in Professor Taylor's work:--(1) a refusal to base +ethics upon metaphysics, and (2) the discovery of an irreconcilable +dualism in the nature of morality which takes many shapes, but may be +summarized roughly as consisting in an ultimate opposition between +egoism and altruism. With regard to the first of these Taylor says (_op. +cit._ p. 4) that his object is to show that "ethics is as independent of +metaphysical speculation for its principles and methods as any of the +so-called 'natural sciences'; that its real basis must be sought not in +philosophical theories about the nature of the Absolute or the ultimate +constitution of the Universe, but in the empirical facts of human life +as they are revealed to us in our concrete everyday experience of the +world and mankind, and sifted and systematized by the sciences of +psychology and sociology.... Ethics should be regarded as a purely +'positive' or 'experimental' and not as a 'speculative' science." With +regard to the second position one quotation will suffice (_op. cit._ p. +183). "Altruism and egoism are divergent developments from the common +psychological root of primitive ethical sentiment. Both developments are +alike unavoidable, and each is ultimately irreconcilable with the other. +Neither egoism nor altruism can be made the sole basis of moral theory +without mutilation of the facts, nor can any higher category be +discovered by the aid of which their rival claims may be finally +adjusted." + +Professor Taylor expounds these two theories with great brilliance of +argument and much ingenuity, yet neither of them will perhaps carry +complete conviction to the minds of the majority of his critics. It is +curious, in the first place, to find the independence of moral +philosophy upon metaphysics supported by metaphysical arguments. For +whatever may be the real character of the interrelation of moral and +metaphysical first principles it is obvious that Taylor's own +dissatisfaction with current moral principles arises from an inability +to believe in their ultimate rationality, i.e. a belief that they are +untenable from the standpoint of ultimate metaphysics; and perhaps the +most interesting portion of his book is the chapter entitled "Beyond +Good and Bad," in which the highest and final form of the ethical +consciousness of mankind is subjected to searching criticism. But +further, it is becoming increasingly apparent that psychology (upon +which Taylor would base morality) itself involves metaphysical +assumptions; its position in fact cannot be stated except as a +metaphysical position, whether that of subjective idealism or any other. +And the need which most philosophers have felt for some philosophical +foundation for morality arises, not from any desire to subordinate moral +insight to speculative theory, but because the moral facts themselves +are inexplicable except in the light of first principles which +metaphysics alone can criticize. + +Taylor himself attempts to find the roots of ethics in the moral +sentiments of mankind, the moral sentiments being primarily feelings or +emotions, though they imply and result in judgments of approval and +disapproval upon conduct. But it may be doubted whether he succeeds in +clearly distinguishing ethical feelings from ethical judgments, and if +they are to be treated as synonymous it seems difficult to avoid the +conclusion that the implications of moral "judgment" must involve a +reference to metaphysics. + +Moreover, it is obvious that a great part of Taylor's quarrel with +current moral ideals arises from the fact that they do not commend +themselves to the moral judgment, i.e. from the standpoint of real +goodness they are unsatisfactory, being tainted with evil. Hence it +appears difficult to reconcile what is in effect a belief in the +validity of the judgments of the moral consciousness with a belief that +the real source and justification of that consciousness are to be found +in the very sentiments and vague mass of floating feelings upon which it +pronounces. Scepticism seems to be the only possible result of such a +position. Taylor's polemic against metaphysical systems of ethics is +based throughout upon an alleged discrepancy and separation between the +facts of moral "experience," the judgments of the moral consciousness, +and theories as to the nature of these which the philosophers whom he +attacks would by no means accept. There is no doubt a distinction +between morality as a form of consciousness and reflection upon that +morality. But such a distinction neither corresponds to, nor testifies +to, the existence of a distinction between morality as "experience" and +morality as "theory" or "idea." + +Taylor is more persuasive when he is developing his second main +thesis--that of the alleged existence of an ultimate dualism in the +nature of morality. His accounts of the genesis of the conceptions of +obligation and responsibility as of most of the ultimate conceptions +with which moral philosophy deals will be accepted or rejected to the +extent to which the main contention concerning the psychological basis +of ethics commends itself to the reader. But in his exposition of the +fundamental contradiction involved in morality elaborated with much care +and illustrative argument he appeals for the most part to facts familiar +to the unphilosophical moral consciousness. He begins by finding an +ultimate opposition between the instincts of self-assertion and +instincts which secure the production and protection of the coming +generation even in the infra-ethical world with which biology deals. He +traces this opposition into the forms in which it appears in the social +life of mankind (as, e.g., in the difficulty of reconciling the +conflicting claims of individual self-development and self-culture and +social service), and finds "a hidden root of insincerity and hypocrisy +beneath all morality" (p. 243), inasmuch as it is not possible to pursue +any one type of ideal without some departure from singleness of purpose. +And he finds all the conceptions by which men have hoped to reconcile +admitted antagonisms and divergencies between moral ideals claiming to +be ultimate and authoritative alike unsatisfactory (p. 285). Progress is +illusory; there is no satisfactory goal to which moral development +inevitably tends; religion in which some take refuge when distressed by +the inexplicable contradictions of moral conduct itself "contains and +rests upon an element of make believe" (p. 489). + +With Taylor's presentation of the difficulties with which morality is +expected to grapple probably few would be found seriously to disagree, +though they might consider it unduly pessimistic. But when he turns what +is in effect a statement of certain forms of moral difficulty into an +attack upon the logical and coherent character of morality itself, he is +not so likely to command assent. For the difficulty all men meet with in +realizing goodness, or in being moral, is not in itself evidence of an +inherent contradiction in the nature of goodness as such. And what +perhaps would first strike an unprejudiced critic in Taylor's examples +of conflicting ideals or antagonistic yet ultimate moral judgments would +be the perception that they are not necessarily moral ideas or judgments +at all, and hence necessarily not ultimate. + +The claims of self-culture and of social service may when considered in +the abstract or in some hypothetical case appear antagonistic and +irreconcilable. But when they present themselves to the individual moral +consciousness it may be safely asserted (1) that there can be only one +moral choice possible, i.e. that their opposition (where they are +opposed) involves no conflict of duties; and (2) that whichever ideal is +in the end preferred, opportunities will nevertheless be provided within +its realization for the concurrent realization of activities and +capacities ordinarily associated with the ideal alleged to be +contradictory. For just as there is no self-realization which does not +involve self-sacrifice, so there is no room for that species of egoism +within the confines of morality which is incompatible with social +service. + +It will be clear from the foregoing account of Taylor's work that the +tendency of his thought, as of that of Bradley, is by no means directed +to the confirmation or re-establishment of those principles of conduct +recognized by the ordinary moral consciousness. Psychology or +metaphysics tend in their systems to usurp the place of authority +formerly assigned to ethics proper. + + + Martineau. + +It would be true on the whole to assert that evolutionary systems of +ethics such as those of Herbert Spencer, Sir Leslie Stephen or Professor +S. Alexander (_Moral Order and Progress_, 1899), together with the +metaphysical theories of morals of which T.H. Green and Bradley and +Taylor are the chief representatives, have dominated the field of +ethical speculation since 1870. Nevertheless it is only necessary to +mention such a work as Martineau's _Types of Ethical Theory_ to dispel +the notion that the type of moral philosophy most characteristically +English, i.e. consisting in the patient analysis of the form and nature +of the moral consciousness itself, has given way or is likely to give +way to more ambitious and constructive efforts. Martineau's chief +endeavour was, as he himself says, to interpret, to vindicate, and to +systematize the moral sentiments, and if the actual exhibition of what +is involved, e.g., in moral choice is the vindication of morality +Martineau may be said to have been successful. It is with his +interpretation and systematization of the moral sentiments that most of +Martineau's critics have found fault. It is impossible, e.g., to accept +his ordered hierarchy of "springs of action" without perceiving that the +real principle upon which they can be arranged in order at all must +depend upon considerations of circumstances and consequences, of +stations and duties, with which a strict intuitionalism such as that of +Martineau would have no dealing.[50] Similarly the notion of Conscience +as a special faculty giving its pronouncements immediately and without +reflection cannot be maintained in the face of modern psychological +analysis and is untrue to the nature of moral judgment itself. And +Martineau is curiously unsympathetic to the universal and social aspect +of morality with which evolutionary and idealist moral philosophers are +so largely occupied. Nevertheless there have been few moral philosophers +who have, apart from the idiosyncrasies of their special prepossessions, +set forth with clearer insight or with greater nobility of language the +essential nature of the moral consciousness. + + + Sidgwick. + +Equal in importance to Martineau's work is Professor Sidgwick's _Methods +of Ethics_ which appeared in 1874. The two works are alike in loftiness +of outlook and in the fact that they are devoted to the re-examination +of the nature of the moral consciousness to the exclusion of alien +branches of inquiry. In most other respects they differ. Martineau is +much more in sympathy with idealism than Sidgwick, whose work consists +in a restatement from a novel and independent standpoint of the +Utilitarian position. And Sidgwick has been far more successful than any +other moral philosopher with the exception of T.H. Green and Bradley in +founding a school of thought. Many of his most acute critics would be +the first to admit how much they owe to his teaching. Chief among the +more recent of these is G.E. Moore, whose book _Principia Ethica_ is an +important original contribution to ethical thought. And although Dr +Hastings Rashdall (_The Theory of Good and Evil_ Oxford, 1907) is not in +agreement with Sidgwick's own particular type of hedonistic theory in +his own philosophical position, he occupies a point of view somewhat +similar to that of Sidgwick's main attitude of Rational Utilitarianism. +Rashdall's two volumes exhibit also a welcome return on the part of +English thought to the proper business of the moral philosopher--the +examination of the nature of moral conduct. Other works, such as +Professor L.T. Hobhouse's _Morals in Evolution_ or Professor E.A. +Westermarck's _Origin and Development of the Moral Ideas_, testify to a +continued interest in the history of morality and in the anthropological +inquiries with which moral philosophy is closely connected. + +Much that is of importance for moral philosophy has recently been +written upon problems that more properly belong to the philosophy of +religion and the theory of knowledge. J.F. M'Taggart's _Studies in +Hegelian Cosmology_, and his later work, _Some Dogmas of Religion_, +contain interesting contributions to the theory of pleasure and of the +problem of free will and determinism. A notable instance of this +tendency is seen in the developments of the theory of pragmatism (q.v.), +for which F.C.S. Schiller has proposed the general term "humanism." Such +aspects as concern ethics include, for example, the limited +indeterminism involved in the theory, the attitude of the religious +consciousness expressed by William James (_Will to Believe_ and +_Pragmatism_), and the pragmatic conception of the good. And the +widespread interest in social problems has produced a revival of +speculation concerning questions partly political and party ethical in +character, e.g. the nature of justice. Finally it has become apparent +that many problems hitherto left for political economy to solve belong +more properly to the moralist, if not to the moral philosopher, and it +may be confidently expected that with the increased complexity of social +life and the disappearance of many sanctions of morality hitherto +regarded as inviolable, the future will bring a renewed and practical +interest in the theory of conduct likely to lead to fresh developments +in ethical speculation. + + BIBLIOGRAPHY.--The literature of the subject is so large in all + languages that only a small selection can be given here. For further + works reference may be made to subsidiary articles. See also Baldwin's + _Dict. of Philos. and Psychol._ vol. iii. (1905), pp. 812 foll. + (bibliography). + + I. _Historical._--Sir L. Stephen, _History of English Thought in the + 18th Century_ (1876, 3rd ed. 1892); W.E.H. Lecky, _History of European + Morals from Augustus to Charlemagne_ (1869, many editions); works of + Ed. Zeller (q.v.); G.H. Lewes, _History of Philosophy_ (1880); W. + Gass, _Geschichte der christlichen Ethik_ (1881); A.W. Benn, _The + Greek Philosophers_ (1882); F. Jodl, _Geschichte der Ethik in der + neueren Philos_. (2 vols., 1882-1889); L. Schmidt, _Ethik der alten + Griechen_ (1882); E. Howley, _The Old Morality traced Historically_ + (1885); J. Martineau, _Types of Ethical Theory_ (Oxford, 1885, 3rd ed. + 1891); Th. Ziegler, _Gesch. d. christl. Ethik_ (1886); Ch. + Letourneaux, _L'Evolution de la morale_ (1887); K. Kostlin, _Gesch. + der Ethik_ (1887); C.E. Luthardt, _Die antike Ethik in ihrer + geschichtlichen Entwicklung_ (1887), and _Hist. of Christian Ethics_ + (1888); C.M. Williams, _A Review of the Systems of Ethics founded on + the Theory of Evolution_ (1893); J. Watson, _Hedonistic Theories from + Aristippus to Spencer_ (1895); L.A. Selby-Bigge, _British Moralists_ + (1897); R. Mackintosh, _From Comte to Benjamin Kidd_ (1899); S. + Patten, _The Development of English Thought_ (1899); A.B. Bruce, _The + Moral Order of the World in Ancient and Modern Thought_ (1899); Sir L. + Stephen, _The English Utilitarians_ (1901); Henry Sidgwick, _Outlines + of the History of Ethics_ (5th ed., 1902); Paul Janet, _History of the + Problems of Philosophy_ (1902-1903), Eng. trans. Ada Monahan, vol. ii. + "Ethics"; W.R. Sorley, _Recent Tendencies in Ethics_ (1904). + + II. _Constructive and Critical._--Besides the works mentioned above + the following may be mentioned:--J.M. Guyau, _La Morale anglaise_ + (1879), _Education et heredite_ (1889; Eng. trans. Greenstreet, with + introd. by G.F. Stout, 1891), _Esquisse d'une morale sans obligation + ni sanction_ (Eng. trans., 1898); G.H. Lewes, _Problems of Life and + Mind_ (1879); Sir L. Stephen, _Science of Ethics_ (1882); P. Janet, + _The Theory of Morals_ (Eng. trans., 1884); W.R. Sorley, _On the + Ethics of Naturalism_ (1885); W.L. Courtney, _Constructive Ethics_ + (1886); Wilson and Fowler, _Principles of Morals_ (1886); H. Hoffding, + _Ethik_ (1888), _Psychologie_ (1882, 1892; trans. Lowndes, 1892); W. + Wundt, _Ethik_ (1886; trans. Titchener and others, 1897); F. Paulsen, + _Ethik_ (1889, 1893; trans. Thilly, 1899); H. Sidgwick, _Method of + Ethics_ (1890); J.T. Bixby, _The Crisis in Morals: An Examination of + Rational Ethics_ (1891); J. Seth, _Freedom an Ethical Postulate_ + (1891); J.H. Muirhead, _Elements of Ethics_ (1892); G. Simnel, + _Einleitung in die Moralwissenschaft_ (1892, 1893); T. Ziegler, + _Social Ethics_ (1892); T.H. Huxley, _Evolution and Ethics_ (1893); W. + Knight, _The Christian Ethic_ (1893); J.S. Mackenzie, _Manual of + Ethics_ (1893); F. Ryland, _Ethics_ (1893); J. Seth, _A Study of + Ethical Principles_ (1894, 6th ed. 1902); C.F. D'Arcy, _Short Study of + Ethics_ (1895); J.H. Hyslop, _The Elements of Ethics_ (1895); J. Kidd, + _Morality and Religion_ (1895); Sir L. Stephen, _Social Rights and + Duties_ (1896); J.M. Baldwin, _Social and Ethical Interpretations in + Mental Development_ (1897); Th. Ribot, _Psychology of Emotions_ + (1897); A. Seth Pringle-Pattison, _Man's Place in the Cosmos_ (1897); + H.R. Marshall, _Instinct and Reason_ (1898); W. Wallace, _Natural + Theology and Ethics_ (1898); F. Paulsen, _Partei-politik und Moral_ + (1900); A.E. Taylor, _Problem of Conduct_ (1901); G.T. Ladd, + _Philosophy of Conduct_ (1902); H. Sidgwick, _Ethics of Green, + Spencer, Martineau_ (1902); D. Irons, _Study in Psychology of Ethics_ + (1903); G.E. Moore, _Principia Ethica_ (1903); R. Eucken, _Geistige + Stromungen der Gegenwart_ (1904), and other works (see EUCKEN, + RUDOLF); works of A. Fouillee (q.v.); G. Santayana, _Life of Reason_ + (1905); E.A. Westermarck, _Origin and Development of Moral Ideas_ + (1906); George Gore, _Scientific Basis of Morality_ (1899), and _New + Scientific Basis of Morality_ (1906), containing an interesting if + unconvincing attempt to explain ethics on purely physical principles. + (H. H. W.) + + +FOOTNOTES: + + [1] This well-known phrase was originally attributed to the + Pythagoreans. + + [2] + It is highly characteristic of Platonism that the issue in this + dialogue, as originally stated, is between virtue and vice, whereas, + without any avowed change of ground, the issue ultimately discussed + is between the philosophic life and the life of vulgar ambition or + sensual enjoyment. + + [3] This cardinal term is commonly translated "happiness"; and it + must be allowed that it is the most natural term for what we (in + English) agree to call "our being's end and aim." But happiness so + definitely signifies a state of feeling that it will not admit the + interpretation that Aristotle (as well as Plato and the Stoics) + expressly gives to [Greek: eudaimonia]; the confusion is best avoided + by rendering the word by the less familiar "well-being." + + [4] Aristotle follows Plato and Socrates in identifying the notions + of [Greek: kalos] ("fair," "beautiful") and [Greek: agathos] ("good") + in their application to conduct. We may observe, however, that while + the latter term is used to denote the virtuous man, and (in the + neuter) equivalent to End generally, the former is rather chosen to + express the quality of virtuous acts which in any particular case is + the end of the virtuous agent. Aristotle no doubt faithfully + represents the common sense of Greece in considering that, in so far + as virtue is in itself good to the virtuous agent, it belongs to that + species of good which we distinguish as beautiful. In later Greek + philosophy the term [Greek: kalon] ("honestum") became still more + technical in the signification of "morally good." + + [5] The above account is considerably expanded in H. Sidgwick's + _Hist. of Ethics_ (5th ed., 1902), pp. 59-70. + + [6] There is a certain difficulty in discussing Aristotle's views on + the subject of practical wisdom, and the relation of the intellect to + moral action, since it is most probable that the only accounts that + we have of these views are not part of the genuine writings of + Aristotle. Still books vi. and vii. of the _Nicomachean Ethics_ + contain no doubt as pure Aristotelian doctrine as a disciple could + give, and appear to supply a sufficient foundation for the general + criticism expressed in the text. + + [7] It has been suggestively said that Cynicism was to Stoicism what + monasticism was to early Christianity. The analogy, however, must not + be pressed too far, since orthodox Stoics do not ever seem to have + regarded Cynicism as the more perfect way. + + [8] The Stoics were not quite agreed as to the immutability of + virtue, but they were agreed that, when once possessed, it could only + be lost through the loss of reason itself. + + [9] Hence some members of the school, without rejecting the + definition of virtue = knowledge, also defined it as "strength and + force." + + [10] It is apparently in view of this union in reason of rational + beings that friends are allowed to be "external goods" to the sage, + and that the possession of good children is also counted a good. + + [11] The Stoics seem to have varied in their view of "good repute," + [Greek: eudoxia]; at first, when the school was more under the + influence of Cynicism, they professed an outward as well as an inward + indifference to it; ultimately they conceded the point to common + sense, and included it among [Greek: proegmena]. + + [12] It is noted of him that he did not disdain the co-operation + either of women or of slaves in his philosophical labours. + + [13] The last charge of Epicurus to his disciples is said to have + been, [Greek: ton dogmaton memnesthai]. + + [14] Epictetus. + + [15] Marcus Aurelius. + + [16] E.g. Justin Martyr, Origen, Tertullian, Cyprian. + + [17] Citra sanguinis effusionem. + + [18] To show the crudity of the notion of redemption in early + Christianity, it is sufficient to mention that many fathers represent + Christ's ransom as having been paid to the devil; sometimes adding + that by the concealment of Christ's divinity under the veil of + humanity a certain deceit was (fairly) practised on the great + deceiver. + + [19] It is to be observed that Augustine prefers to use "freedom" not + for the power of willing either good or evil, but the power of + willing good. The highest freedom, in his view, excludes the + possibility of willing evil. + + [20] Cicero's works are unimportant in the history of ancient ethics, + as their philosophical matter was entirely borrowed from Greek + treatises now lost; but the influence exercised by them (especially + by the _De officiis_) over medieval and even modern readers was very + considerable. + + [21] Abelard afterwards retracted this view, at least in its extreme + form; and in fact does not seem to have been fully conscious of the + difference between (1) unfulfilled intention to do an act objectively + right, and (2) intention to do what is merely believed by the agent + to be right. + + [22] He was condemned by two synods, in 1121 and 1140. + + [23] _Synderesis_ (Gr. [Greek: sunteresis], from [Greek: sunterein], + to watch closely, observe) is used in this sense in Jerome (_Com. in + Ezek_. i. 4-10). + + [24] The refusal of the council of Constance to condemn Jean Petit's + advocacy of assassination is a striking example of this weakness. Cf. + Milman, _Lat. Christ_. book xiii. c. 9. + + [25] As the chief English casuists we may mention Perkins, Hall, + Sanderson, as well as the more eminent Jeremy Taylor, whose _Ductor + dubitantium_ appeared in 1660. + + [26] This influence was not exercised in the region of ethics. + Bacon's brief outline of moral philosophy (in the _Advancement of + Learning_, ii. 20-22) is highly pregnant and suggestive. But Bacon's + great task of reforming scientific method was one which, as he + conceived it, left morals on one side; he never made any serious + effort to reduce his ethical views to a coherent system, methodically + reasoned on an independent basis. The outline given in the + _Advancement_ was never filled in, and does not seem to have had any + effect on the subsequent course of ethical speculation. + + [27] He even identifies the desire with the pleasure, apparently + regarding the stir of appetite and that of fruition as two parts of + the same "motion." + + [28] In spite of Hobbes's uncompromising egoism, there is a + noticeable discrepancy between his theory of the ends that men + naturally seek and his standard for determining their natural rights. + This latter is never Pleasure simply, but always Preservation--though + on occasion he enlarges the notion of "preservation" into + "preservation of life so as not to be weary of it." His view seems to + be that in a state of nature _most_ men _will_ fight, rob, &c., "for + delectation merely" or "for glory," and that hence all men must be + allowed an indefinite right to fight, rob, &c., "for preservation." + + [29] It should be noticed, however, that it is only in his treatment + of Equity and Benevolence that he really follows out the mathematical + analogy (cf. Sidgwick's _History of Ethics_, 5th ed., pp. 180-181). + + [30] It should be observed that, while Clarke is sincerely anxious to + prove that most principles are binding independently of Divine + appointment, he is no less concerned to show that morality requires + the practical support of revealed religion. + + [31] Three classes of impulses are thus distinguished by + Shaftesbury:--(1) "Natural Affections," (2) "Self-affections," and + (3) "Un-natural Affections." Their characteristics are further + considered in the _History of Ethics_, p. 186 seq. + + [32] In a remarkable passage near the close of his eleventh sermon + Butler seems even to allow that conscience would have to give way to + self-love, if it were possible (which it is not) that the two should + come into ultimate and irreconcilable conflict. + + [33] It is worth noticing that Hutcheson's express definition of the + object of self-love includes "perfection" as well as "happiness"; but + in the working out of his system he considers private good + exclusively as happiness or pleasure. + + [34] Hume's ethical view was finally stated in his _Inquiry into the + Principles of Morals_ (1751), which is at once more popular and more + purely utilitarian than his earlier work. + + [35] Hume remarks that in some cases, by "association of ideas," the + rule by which we praise and blame is extended beyond the principle of + utility from which it arises; but he allows much less scope to this + explanation in his second treatise than in his first. + + [36] In earlier editions of the _Inquiry_ Hume expressly included all + approved qualities under the general notion of "virtue." In later + editions he avoided this strain on usage by substituting or adding + "merit" in several passages--allowing that some of the laudable + qualities which he mentions would be more commonly called "talents," + but still maintaining that "there is little distinction made in our + internal estimation" of "virtues" and "talents." + + [37] It is to be observed that whereas Price and Stewart (after + Butler) identify the object of self-love with happiness or pleasure, + Reid conceives this "good" more vaguely as including perfection and + happiness; though he sometimes uses "good" and happiness as + convertible terms, and seems practically to have the latter in view + in all that he says of self-love. + + [38] E.g. Reid proposes to apply this principle in favour of + monogamy, arguing from the proportion of males and females born; + without explaining why, if the intention of nature hence inferred + excludes occasional polygamy, it does not also exclude occasional + celibacy. + + [39] We may observe that some recent writers, who would generally be + included in this school, avoid in various ways the difficulty of + constructing a code of external conduct. Sometimes they consider + moral intuition as determining the comparative excellence of + conflicting motives (James Martineau), or the comparative quality of + pleasures chosen (Laurie), which seems to be the same view in a + hedonistic garb; others hold that what is intuitively perceived is + the rightness or wrongness of individual acts--a view which obviously + renders ethical reasoning practically superfluous. + + [40] The originality--such as it is--of Paley's system (as of + Bentham's) lies in its method of working out details rather than in + its principles of construction. Paley expressly acknowledges his + obligations to the original and suggestive, though diffuse and + whimsical, work of Abraham Tucker (_Light of Nature Pursued_, + 1768-1774). In this treatise, as in Paley's, we find "every man's own + satisfaction, the spring that actuates all his motives," connected + with "general good, the root whereout all our rules of conduct and + sentiments of honour are to branch," by means of natural theology + demonstrating the "unniggardly goodness of the author of nature." + Tucker is also careful to explain that satisfaction or pleasure is + "one and the same in kind, however much it may vary in degree, ... + whether a man is pleased with hearing music, seeing prospects, + tasting dainties, performing laudable actions, or making agreeable + reflections," and again that by "general good" he means "quantity of + happiness," to which "every pleasure that we do to our neighbour is + an addition." There is, however, in Tucker's theological link between + private and general happiness a peculiar ingenuity which Paley's + common sense has avoided. He argues that men having no free will have + really no desert; therefore the divine equity must ultimately + distribute happiness in equal shares to all; therefore I must + ultimately increase my own happiness most by conduct that adds most + to the general fund which Providence administers. + + But in fact the outline of Paley's utilitarianism is to be found a + generation earlier--in Gay's dissertation prefixed to Law's edition + of King's _Origin of Evil_--as the following extracts will + show:--"The idea of virtue is the conformity to a rule of life, + directing the actions of all rational creatures with respect to each + other's happiness; to which every one is always obliged.... + Obligation is the necessity of doing or omitting something in order + to be happy.... Full and complete obligation which will extend to all + cases can only be that arising from the authority of God.... The will + of God [so far as it directs behaviour to others] is the immediate + rule or criterion of virtue ... but it is evident from the nature of + God that he could have no other design in creating mankind than their + happiness; and therefore he wills their happiness; therefore that my + behaviour so far as it may be a means to the happiness of mankind + should be such; so this happiness of mankind may be said to be the + criterion of virtue once removed." + + The same dissertation also contains the germ of Hartley's system, as + we shall presently notice. + + [41] It must be allowed that Paley's application of this argument is + somewhat loosely reasoned, and does not sufficiently distinguish the + consequence of a single act of beneficent manslaughter from the + consequences of a general permission to commit such acts. + + [42] This list gives twelve out of the fourteen classes in which + Bentham arranges the springs of action, omitting the religious + sanction (mentioned afterwards), and the pleasures and pains of + self-interest, which include all the other classes except sympathy + and antipathy. + + [43] In the _Deontology_ published by Bowring from MSS. left after + Bentham's death, the coincidence is asserted to be complete. + + [44] It should be observed that Austin, after Bentham, more + frequently uses the term "moral" to connote what he more distinctly + calls "positive morality," the code of rules supported by common + opinion in any society. + + [45] In the before-mentioned dissertation. Cf. note 2 to p. 835. + Hartley refers to this treatise as having supplied the starting-point + for his own system. + + [46] It should be noticed that Hartley's sensationalism is far from + leading him to exalt the corporeal pleasures. On the contrary, he + tries to prove elaborately that they (as well as the pleasures of + imagination, ambition, self-interest) cannot be made an object of + primary pursuit without a loss of happiness on the whole--one of his + arguments being that these pleasures occur earlier in time, and "that + which is prior in the order of nature is always less perfect than + that which is posterior." + + [47] It may be observed that in the view of Kant and others (2) and + (3) are somewhat confusingly blended. + + [48] Singularly enough, the English writer who approaches most nearly + to Kant on this point is the utilitarian Godwin, in his _Political + Justice_. In Godwin's view, reason is the proper motive to acts + conducive to general happiness: reason shows me that the happiness of + a number of other men is of more value than my own; and the + perception of this truth affords me at least _some_ inducement to + prefer the former to the latter. And supposing it to be replied that + the motive is really the moral uneasiness involved in choosing the + selfish alternative, Godwin answers that this uneasiness, though a + "constant step" in the process of volition, is a merely "accidental" + step--"I feel pain in the neglect of an act of benevolence, because + benevolence is judged by me to be conduct which it becomes me to + adopt." + + [49] In Kantism, as we have partly seen, the most important + ontological beliefs--in God, freedom and immortality of the soul--are + based on necessities of ethical thought. In Fichte's system the + connexion of ethics and metaphysics is still more intimate; indeed, + we may compare it in this respect to Platonism; as Plato blends the + most fundamental notions of each of these studies in the one idea of + good, so Fichte blends them in the one idea free-will. "Freedom," in + his view, is at once the foundation of all being and the end of all + moral action. In the systems of Schelling and Hegel ethics falls + again into a subordinate place; indeed, the ethical view of the + former is rather suggested than completely developed. Neither Fichte + nor Schelling has exercised more than the faintest and most indirect + influence on ethical philosophy in England; it therefore seems best + to leave the ethical doctrines of each to be explained in connexion + with the rest of his system. + + [50] Cf. A. Seth Pringle-Pattison, _The Philosophical Radicals. + Martineau's Philosophy_, p. 92. + + + + + + +End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of Encyclopaedia Britannica, 11th +Edition, Volume 9, Slice 7, by Various + +*** END OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK ENCYC. BRITANNICA, VOL 9 SL 7 *** + +***** This file should be named 35398.txt or 35398.zip ***** +This and all associated files of various formats will be found in: + https://www.gutenberg.org/3/5/3/9/35398/ + +Produced by Marius Masi, Don Kretz and the Online +Distributed Proofreading Team at https://www.pgdp.net + + +Updated editions will replace the previous one--the old editions +will be renamed. + +Creating the works from public domain print editions means that no +one owns a United States copyright in these works, so the Foundation +(and you!) can copy and distribute it in the United States without +permission and without paying copyright royalties. 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