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You may copy it, give it away or +re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included +with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org + + +Title: Encyclopaedia Britannica, 11th Edition, Volume 9, Slice 7 + "Equation" to "Ethics" + +Author: Various + +Release Date: February 25, 2011 [EBook #35398] + +Language: English + +Character set encoding: ISO-8859-1 + +*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK ENCYC. BRITANNICA, VOL 9 SL 7 *** + + + + +Produced by Marius Masi, Don Kretz and the Online +Distributed Proofreading Team at https://www.pgdp.net + + + + + + +</pre> + + + +<table border="0" cellpadding="10" style="background-color: #dcdcdc; color: #696969; " summary="Transcriber's note"> +<tr> +<td style="width:25%; vertical-align:top"> +Transcriber’s note: +</td> +<td class="norm"> +A few typographical errors have been corrected. They +appear in the text <span class="correction" title="explanation will pop up">like this</span>, and the +explanation will appear when the mouse pointer is moved over the marked +passage. Sections in Greek will yield a transliteration +when the pointer is moved over them, and words using diacritic characters in the +Latin Extended Additional block, which may not display in some fonts or browsers, will +display an unaccented version. <br /><br /> +<a name="artlinks">Links to other EB articles:</a> Links to articles residing in other EB volumes will +be made available when the respective volumes are introduced online. +</td> +</tr> +</table> +<div style="padding-top: 3em; "> </div> + +<h2>THE ENCYCLOPÆDIA BRITANNICA</h2> + +<h2>A DICTIONARY OF ARTS, SCIENCES, LITERATURE AND GENERAL INFORMATION</h2> + +<h3>ELEVENTH EDITION</h3> +<div style="padding-top: 3em; "> </div> + +<hr class="full" /> +<h3>VOLUME IX SLICE VII<br /><br /> +Equation to Ethics</h3> +<hr class="full" /> +<div style="padding-top: 3em; "> </div> + +<p class="center1" style="font-size: 150%; font-family: 'verdana';">Articles in This Slice</p> +<table class="reg" style="width: 90%; font-size: 90%; border: gray 2px solid;" cellspacing="8" summary="Contents"> + +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar1">EQUATION</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar97">ESCHEAT</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar2">EQUATION OF THE CENTRE</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar98">ESCHENBURG, JOHANN JOACHIM</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar3">EQUATION OF TIME</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar99">ESCHENMAYER, ADAM KARL AUGUST VON</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar4">EQUATOR</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar100">ESCHER VON DER LINTH, ARNOLD</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar5">EQUERRY</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar101">ESCHSCHOLTZ, JOHANN FRIEDRICH</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar6">EQUIDAE</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar102">ESCHWEGE</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar7">EQUILIBRIUM</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar103">ESCHWEILER</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar8">EQUINOX</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar104">ESCOBAR Y MENDOZA, ANTONIO</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar9">EQUITES</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar105">ESCOIQUIZ, JUAN</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar10">EQUITY</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar106">ESCOMBE, HARRY</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar11">EQUIVALENT</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar107">ESCORIAL</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar12">ÉRARD, SÉBASTIEN</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar108">ESCOVEDO, JUAN DE</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar13">ERASMUS, DESIDERIUS</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar109">ESCUINTLA</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar14">ERASTUS, THOMAS</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar110">ESCUTCHEON</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar15">ERATOSTHENES OF ALEXANDRIA</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar111">ESHER, WILLIAM BALIOL BRETT</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar16">ERBACH</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar112">ESHER</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar17">ERBIUM</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar113">ESKER</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar18">ERCILLA Y ZÚNIGA, ALONSO DE</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar114">ESKILSTUNA</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar19">ERCKMANN-CHATRIAN</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar115">ESKIMO</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar20">ERDÉLYI, JÁNOS</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar116">ESKI-SHEHR</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar21">ERDMANN, JOHANN EDUARD</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar117">ESMARCH, JOHANNES FRIEDRICH AUGUST VON</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar22">ERDMANN, OTTO LINNÉ</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar118">ESNA</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar23">EREBUS</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar119">ESOTERIC</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar24">ERECH</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar120">ESPAGNOLS SUR MER, LES</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar25">ERECHTHEUM</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar121">ESPALIER</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar26">ERECHTHEUS</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar122">ESPARTERO, BALDOMERO</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar27">ERESHKIGAL</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar123">ESPARTO</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar28">ERETRIA</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar124">ESPERANCE</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar29">ERETRIAN SCHOOL OF PHILOSOPHY</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar125">ESPERANTO</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar30">ERFURT</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar126">ESPINAY, TIMOLÉON D’</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar31">ERGOT</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar127">ESPINEL, VICENTE MARTINEZ</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar32">ERIC XIV</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar128">ESPIRITO SANTO</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar33">ERICACEAE</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar129">ESPRONCEDA, JOSÉ IGNACIO JAVIER ORIOL ENCARNACIÓN DE</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar34">ERICHSEN, SIR JOHN ERIC</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar130">ESQUIRE</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar35">ERICHT, LOCH</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar131">ESQUIROL, JEAN ÉTIENNE DOMINIQUE</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar36">ERICSSON, JOHN</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar132">ESQUIROS, HENRI FRANÇOIS ALPHONSE</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar37">ERIDANUS</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar133">ESS, JOHANN HEINRICH VAN</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar38">ERIDU</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar134">ESSAY, ESSAYIST</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar39">ERIE</a> (lake)</td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar135">ESSEG</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar40">ERIE</a> (city)</td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar136">ESSEN</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar41">ERIGENA, JOHANNES SCOTUS</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar137">ESSENES</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar42">ERIGONE</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar138">ESSENTUKI</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar43">ERIN</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar139">ESSEQUIBO</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar44">ERINNA</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar140">ESSEX, EARLS OF</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar45">ERINYES</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar141">ESSEX, ARTHUR CAPEL</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar46">ERIPHYLE</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar142">ESSEX, ROBERT DEVEREUX</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar47">ERIS</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar143">ESSEX, ROBERT DEVEREUX</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar48">ERITH</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar144">ESSEX, WALTER DEVEREUX</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar49">ERITREA</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar145">ESSEX</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar50">ERIVAN</a> (government of Russia)</td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar146">ESSEX, KINGDOM OF</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar51">ERIVAN</a> (town of Russia)</td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar147">ESSLINGEN</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar52">ERLANGEN</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar148">ESTABLISHMENT</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar53">ERLE, SIR WILLIAM</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar149">ESTABLISHMENT OF A PORT</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar54">ERLKÖNIG</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar150">ESTAING, CHARLES HECTOR</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar55">ERMAN, PAUL</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar151">ESTATE</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar56">ERMANARIC</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar152">ESTATE AND HOUSE AGENTS</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar57">ERMELAND</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar153">ESTATE DUTY</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar58">ERMELO</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar154">ESTCOURT, RICHARD</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar59">ERMINE</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar155">ESTE (family)</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar60">ERMINE STREET</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar156">ESTE (town)</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar61">ERMOLDUS NIGELLUS</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar157">ESTÉBANEZ CALDERÓN, SERAFÍN</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar62">ERNE</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar158">ESTELLA</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar63">ERNEST I</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar159">ESTERHÁZY OF GALÁNTHA</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar64">ERNEST II</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar160">ESTERS</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar65">ERNEST AUGUSTUS</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar161">ESTHER</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar66">ERNESTI, JOHANN AUGUST</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar162">ESTHONIA</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar67">ERNESTI, JOHANN CHRISTIAN GOTTLIEB</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar163">ESTIENNE</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar68">ERNST, HEINRICH WILHELM</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar164">ESTON</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar69">ERODE</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar165">ESTOPPEL</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar70">EROS</a> (planet)</td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar166">ESTOUTEVILLE, GUILLAUME D’</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar71">EROS</a> (god of love)</td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar167">ESTOVERS</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar72">ERPENIUS, THOMAS</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar168">ESTRADA, LA</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar73">ERROLL, FRANCIS HAY</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar169">ESTRADE</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar74">ERROR</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar170">ESTRADES, GODEFROI</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar75">ERSCH, JOHANN SAMUEL</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar171">ESTREAT</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar76">ERSKINE, EBENEZER</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar172">ESTRÉES, GABRIELLE D’</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar77">ERSKINE, HENRY</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar173">ESTREMADURA</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar78">ERSKINE, JOHN</a> (Scottish divine)</td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar174">ESTREMOZ</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar79">ERSKINE, JOHN</a> (of Carnock)</td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar175">ESTUARY</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar80">ERSKINE, JOHN</a> (of Dun)</td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar176">ESZTERGOM</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar81">ERSKINE, RALPH</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar177">ÉTAGÈRE</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar82">ERSKINE, THOMAS</a> (of Linlathen)</td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar178">ETAH</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar83">ERSKINE, THOMAS ERSKINE</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar179">ÉTAMPES, ANNE DE PISSELEU D’HEILLY</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar84">ERUBESCITE</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar180">ÉTAMPES</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar85">ERYSIPELAS</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar181">ÉTAPLES</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar86">ERYTHRAE</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar182">ETAWAH</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar87">ERYTHRITE</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar183">ETCHING</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar88">ERZERUM</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar184">ETEOCLES</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar89">ERZGEBIRGE</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar185">ETESIAN WIND</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar90">ERZINGAN</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar186">ÉTEX, ANTOINE</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar91">ESAR-HADDON</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar187">ETHER</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar92">ESAU</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar188">ETHEREDGE, SIR GEORGE</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar93">ESBJERG</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar189">ETHERIDGE, JOHN WESLEY</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar94">ESCANABA</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar190">ETHERIDGE, ROBERT</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar95">ESCAPE</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar191">ETHERS</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar96">ESCHATOLOGY</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar192">ETHICS</a></td></tr> +</table> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">EQUATION<a name="ar1" id="ar1"></a></span> (from Lat. <i>aequatio</i>, <i>aequare</i>, to equalize), an +expression or statement of the equality of two quantities. +Mathematical equivalence is denoted by the sign =, a symbol +invented by Robert Recorde (1510-1558), who considered that +nothing could be more equal than two equal and parallel straight +lines. An equation states an equality existing between two +classes of quantities, distinguished as known and unknown; +these correspond to the data of a problem and the thing sought. +It is the purpose of the mathematician to state the unknowns +separately in terms of the knowns; this is called solving the +equation, and the values of the unknowns so obtained are called +the roots or solutions. The unknowns are usually denoted by +the terminal letters, ... x, y, z, of the alphabet, and the knowns +are either actual numbers or are represented by the literals +a, b, c, &c..., <i>i.e.</i> the introductory letters of the alphabet. +Any number or literal which expresses what multiple of term +occurs in an equation is called the coefficient of that term; +and the term which does not contain an unknown is called the +absolute term. The degree of an equation is equal to the greatest +index of an unknown in the equation, or to the greatest sum of the +indices of products of unknowns. If each term has the sum of its +indices the same, the equation is said to be homogeneous. These +definitions are exemplified in the equations:—</p> + +<table class="reg" summary="poem"><tr><td> <div class="poemr"> +<p>(1) ax² + 2bx + c = 0,</p> +<p>(2) xy² + 4a²x = 8a³,</p> +<p>(3) ax² + 2hxy + by² = 0.</p> +</div> </td></tr></table> + +<p class="noind">In (1) the unknown is x, and the knowns a, b, c; the coefficients +of x² and x are a and 2b; the absolute term is c, and the degree is +2. In (2) the unknowns are x and y, and the known a; the degree +is 3, <i>i.e.</i> the sum of the indices in the term xy². (3) is a homogeneous +equation of the second degree in x and y. Equations of +the first degree are called <i>simple</i> or <i>linear</i>; of the second, +<i>quadratic</i>; of the third, <i>cubic</i>; of the fourth, <i>biquadratic</i>; of the +fifth, <i>quintic</i>, and so on. Of equations containing only one +unknown the number of roots equals the degree of the equation; +thus a simple equation has one root, a quadratic two, a cubic +three, and so on. If one equation be given containing two unknowns, +as for example ax + by = c or ax² + by² = c, it is seen that +there are an infinite number of roots, for we can give x, say, any +value and then determine the corresponding value of y; such an +equation is called <i>indeterminate</i>; of the examples chosen the +first is a linear and the second a quadratic indeterminate equation. +In general, an indeterminate equation results when the number +of unknowns exceeds by unity the number of equations. If, on +the other hand, we have two equations connecting two unknowns, +it is possible to solve the equations separately for one unknown, +and then if we equate these values we obtain an equation in one +unknown, which is soluble if its degree does not exceed the fourth. +By substituting these values the corresponding values of the +other unknown are determined. Such equations are called +<i>simultaneous</i>; and a simultaneous system is a series of equations +equal in number to the number of unknowns. Such a system is +not always soluble, for it may happen that one equation is +implied by the others; when this occurs the system is called +<i>porismatic</i> or <i>poristic</i>. An <i>identity</i> differs from an equation inasmuch +as it cannot be solved, the terms mutually cancelling; +for example, the expression x² − a² = (x − a)(x + a) is an identity, +for on reduction it gives 0 = 0. It is usual to employ the sign ≡ +to express this relation.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>An equation admits of description in two ways:—(1) It may be +regarded purely as an algebraic expression, or (2) as a geometrical +locus. In the first case there is obviously no limit to the number of +unknowns and to the degree of the equation; and, consequently, +this aspect is the most general. In the second case the number of +unknowns is limited to three, corresponding to the three dimensions +of space; the degree is unlimited as before. It must be noticed, +however, that by the introduction of appropriate hyperspaces, <i>i.e.</i> +of degree equal to the number of unknowns, any equation theoretically +admits of geometrical visualization, in other words, every equation +may be represented by a geometrical figure and every geometrical +figure by an equation. Corresponding to these two aspects, there +are two typical methods by which equations can be solved, viz. +the algebraic and geometric. The former leads to exact results, or, +by methods of approximation, to results correct to any required +degree of accuracy. The latter can only yield approximate values: +when theoretically exact constructions are available there is a source +of error in the draughtsmanship, and when the constructions are +only approximate, the accuracy of the results is more problematical. +The geometric aspect, however, is of considerable value in discussing +the theory of equations.</p> +</div> + +<p><i>History.</i>—There is little doubt that the earliest solutions of +equations are given, in the Rhind papyrus, a hieratic document +written some 2000 years before our era. The problems solved +were of an arithmetical nature, assuming such forms as “a +mass and its <span class="spp">1</span>⁄<span class="suu">7</span>th makes 19.” Calling the unknown mass x, +we have given x + <span class="spp">1</span>⁄<span class="suu">7</span> x = 19, which is a simple equation. Arithmetical +problems also gave origin to equations involving two +unknowns; the early Greeks were familiar with and solved +simultaneous linear equations, but indeterminate equations, +such, for instance, as the system given in the “cattle problem” +of Archimedes, were not seriously studied until Diophantus +solved many particular problems. Quadratic equations arose +in the Greek investigations in the doctrine of proportion, and +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page710" id="page710"></a>710</span> +although they were presented and solved in a geometrical form, +the methods employed have no relation to the generalized +conception of algebraic geometry which represents a curve by an +equation and vice versa. The simplest quadratic arose in the +construction of a mean proportional (x) between two lines (a, b), +or in the construction of a square equal to a given rectangle; for +we have the proportion a:x = x:b; <i>i.e.</i> x² = ab. A more general +equation, viz. x² − ax + a² = 0, is the algebraic equivalent of +the problem to divide a line in medial section; this is solved in +<i>Euclid</i>, ii. 11. It is possible that Diophantus was in possession +of an algebraic solution of quadratics; he recognized, however, +only one root, the interpretation of both being first effected by +the Hindu Bhaskara. A simple cubic equation was presented +in the problem of finding two mean proportionals, x, y, between +two lines, one double the other. We have a:x = x:y = y:2a, +which gives x² = ay and xy = 2a²; eliminating y we obtain +x³ = 2a³, a simple cubic. The Greeks could not solve this equation, +which also arose in the problems of duplicating a cube and +trisecting an angle, by the ruler and compasses, but only by +mechanical curves such as the cissoid, conchoid and quadratrix. +Such solutions were much improved by the Arabs, who also solved +both cubics and biquadratics by means of intersecting conics; +at the same time, they developed methods, originated by Diophantus +and improved by the Hindus, for finding approximate +roots of numerical equations by algebraic processes. The +algebraic solution of the general cubic and biquadratic was +effected in the 16th century by S. Ferro, N. Tartaglia, H. Cardan +and L. Ferrari (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Algebra</a></span>: <i>History</i>). Many fruitless attempts +were made to solve algebraically the quintic equation until +P. Ruffini and N.H. Abel proved the problem to be impossible; +a solution involving elliptic functions has been given by C. +Hermite and L. Kronecker, while F. Klein has given another +solution.</p> + +<p>In the geometric treatment of equations the Greeks and Arabs +based their constructions upon certain empirically deduced +properties of the curves and figures employed. Knowing various +metrical relations, generally expressed as proportions, it was +found possible to solve particular equations, but a general method +was wanting. This lacuna was not filled until the 17th century, +when Descartes discovered the general theory which explained +the nature of such solutions, in particular those wherein conics +were employed, and, in addition, established the most important +facts that every equation represents a geometrical locus, and +conversely. To represent equations containing two unknowns, +x, y, he chose two axes of reference mutually perpendicular, +and measured x along the horizontal axis and y along the vertical. +Then by the methods described in the article <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Geometry</a></span>: +<i>Analytical</i>, he showed that—(1) a linear equation represents a +straight line, and (2) a quadratic represents a conic. If the +equation be homogeneous or break up into factors, it represents +a number of straight lines in the first case, and the loci corresponding +to the factors in the second. The solution of simultaneous +equations is easily seen to be the values of x, y corresponding to +the intersections of the loci. It follows that there is only one +value of x, y which satisfies two linear equations, since two lines +intersect in one point only; two values which satisfy a linear +and quadratic, since a line intersects a conic in two points; +and four values which satisfy two quadratics, since two conics +intersect in four points. It may happen that the curves do not +actually intersect in the theoretical maximum number of points; +the principle of continuity (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Geometrical Continuity</a></span>) shows +us that in such cases some of the roots are imaginary. To represent +equations involving three unknowns x, y, z, a third axis is +introduced, the z-axis, perpendicular to the plane xy and passing +through the intersection of the lines x, y. In this notation a linear +equation represents a plane, and two linear simultaneous equations +represent a line, <i>i.e.</i> the intersection of two planes; a +quadratic equation represents a surface of the second degree. +In order to graphically consider equations containing only one +unknown, it is convenient to equate the terms to y; <i>i.e.</i> if the +equation be ƒ(x) = 0, we take y = ƒ(x) and construct this curve on +rectangular Cartesian co-ordinates by determining the values of +y which correspond to chosen values of x, and describing a curve +through the points so obtained. The intersections of the curve +with the axis of x gives the real roots of the equation; imaginary +roots are obviously not represented.</p> + +<p>In this article we shall treat of: (1) Simultaneous equations, +(2) indeterminate equations, (3) cubic equations, (4) biquadratic +equations, (5) theory of equations. Simple, linear simultaneous +and quadratic equations are treated in the article <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Algebra</a></span>; +for differential equations see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Differential Equations</a></span>.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p class="pt2 center">I. <i>Simultaneous Equations.</i></p> + +<p>Simultaneous equations which involve the second and higher +powers of the unknown may be impossible of solution. No general +rules can be given, and the solution of any particular problem will +largely depend upon the student’s ingenuity. Here we shall only +give a few typical examples.</p> + +<p>1. <i>Equations which may be reduced to linear equations.—Ex.</i> To +solve x(x − a) = yz, y (y − b) = zx, z (z − c) = xy. Multiply the equations +by y, z and x respectively, and divide the sum by xyz; then</p> + +<table class="math0" summary="math"> +<tr><td>a</td> +<td rowspan="2">+</td> <td>b</td> +<td rowspan="2">+</td> <td>c</td> +<td rowspan="2">= 0</td></tr> +<tr><td class="denom">z</td> <td class="denom">x</td> +<td class="denom">y</td></tr></table> + +<div class="author">(1).</div> + +<p class="noind">Multiply by z, x and y, and divide the sum by xyz; then</p> + +<table class="math0" summary="math"> +<tr><td>a</td> +<td rowspan="2">+</td> <td>b</td> +<td rowspan="2">+</td> <td>c</td> +<td rowspan="2">= 0</td></tr> +<tr><td class="denom">y</td> <td class="denom">z</td> +<td class="denom">x</td></tr></table> + +<div class="author">(2).</div> + +<p class="noind">From (1) and (2) by cross multiplication we obtain</p> + +<table class="math0" summary="math"> +<tr><td>1</td> +<td rowspan="2">=</td> <td>1</td> +<td rowspan="2">=</td> <td>1</td> +<td rowspan="2">=</td> <td>1</td> +<td rowspan="2">(suppose)</td></tr> +<tr><td class="denom">y (b² − ac)</td> <td class="denom">z (c² − ab)</td> +<td class="denom">x (a² − bc)</td> <td class="denom">λ</td></tr></table> + +<div class="author">(3).</div> + +<p class="noind">Substituting for x, y and z in x (x − a) = yz we obtain</p> + +<table class="math0" summary="math"> +<tr><td>1</td> +<td rowspan="2">=</td> <td>3abc − (a³ + b³ + c³)</td> +<td rowspan="2">;</td></tr> +<tr><td class="denom">λ</td> <td class="denom">(a² − bc) (b² − ac) (c² − ab)</td></tr></table> + +<p class="noind">and therefore x, y and z are known from (3). The same artifice +solves the equations x² − yz = a, y² − xz = b, z² − xy = c.</p> + +<p>2. <i>Equations which are homogeneous and of the same degree.</i>—These +equations can be solved by substituting y = mx. We proceed to +explain the method by an example.</p> + +<p><i>Ex.</i> To solve 3x² + xy + y² = 15, 31xy − 3x² − 5y² = 45. Substituting +y = mx in both these equations, and then dividing, we obtain +31m − 3 − 5m² = 3 (3 + m + m²) or 8m² − 28m + 12 = 0. The roots of this +quadratic are m = ½ or 3, and therefore 2y = x, or y = 3x.</p> + +<p>Taking 2y = x and substituting in 3x² + xy + y² = 0, we obtain +y² (12 + 2 + 1) = 15; ∴ y² = 1, which gives y = ±1, x = ±2. Taking +the second value, y = 3x, and substituting for y, we obtain +x² (3 + 3 + 9) = 15; ∴ x² = 1, which gives x = ±1, y = ±3. Therefore +the solutions are x = ±2, y = ±1 and x = ±1, y = ±3. Other +artifices have to be adopted to solve other forms of simultaneous +equations, for which the reader is referred to J.J. Milne, <i>Companion +to Weekly Problem Papers</i>.</p> + +<p class="pt2 center">II. <i>Indeterminate Equations.</i></p> + +<p>1. When the number of unknown quantities exceeds the number +of equations, the equations will admit of innumerable solutions, +and are therefore said to be <i>indeterminate</i>. Thus if it be required +to find two numbers such that their sum be 10, we have two unknown +quantities x and y, and only one equation, viz. x + y = 10, which may +evidently be satisfied by innumerable different values of x and y, if +fractional solutions be admitted. It is, however, usual, in such +questions as this, to restrict values of the numbers sought to positive +integers, and therefore, in this case, we can have only these nine +solutions,</p> + +<table class="reg" summary="poem"><tr><td> <div class="poemr"> +<p>x = 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9;</p> +<p>y = 9, 8, 7, 6, 5, 4, 3, 2, 1;</p> +</div> </td></tr></table> + +<p class="noind">which indeed may be reduced to five; for the first four become the +same as the last four, by simply changing x into y, and the contrary. +This branch of analysis was extensively studied by Diophantus, +and is sometimes termed the Diophantine Analysis.</p> + +<p>2. Indeterminate problems are of different orders, according to +the dimensions of the equation which is obtained after all the unknown +quantities but two have been eliminated by means of the given +equations. Those of the first order lead always to equations of +the form</p> + +<p class="center">ax ± by = ±c,</p> + +<p class="noind">where a, b, c denote given whole numbers, and x, y two numbers +to be found, so that both may be integers. That this condition may +be fulfilled, it is necessary that the coefficients a, b have no common +divisor which is not also a divisor of c; for if a = md and b = me, +then ax + by = mdx + mey = c, and dx + ey = c/m; but d, e, x, y are +supposed to be whole numbers, therefore c/m is a whole number; +hence m must be a divisor of c.</p> + +<p>Of the four forms expressed by the equation ax ± by = ±c, it is +obvious that ax + by = −c can have no positive integral solutions. +Also ax − by = −c is equivalent to by − ax = c, and so we have only to +consider the forms ax ± by = c. Before proceeding to the general +solution of these equations we will give a numerical example.</p> + +<p>To solve 2x + 3y = 25 in positive integers. From the given equation +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page711" id="page711"></a>711</span> +we have x = (25 − 3y) / 2 = 12 − y − (y − 1) / 2. Now, since x must be a +whole number, it follows that (y − 1)/2 must be a whole number. +Let us assume (y − 1) / 2 = z, then y = 1 + 2z; and x = 11 − 3z, where +z might be any whole number whatever, if there were no limitation +as to the signs of x and y. But since these quantities are required +to be positive, it is evident, from the value of y, that z must be +either 0 or positive, and from the value of x, that it must be less than +4; hence z may have these four values, 0, 1, 2, 3.</p> + +<table class="ws" summary="Contents"> +<tr><td class="tcl">If</td> <td class="tcl">z = 0,</td> <td class="tcl">z = 1,</td> <td class="tcl">z = 2,</td> <td class="tcl">z = 3;</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl pt1">Then</td> <td class="tcl pt1">x = 11,</td> <td class="tcl pt1">x = 8,</td> <td class="tcl pt1">x = 5,</td> <td class="tcl pt1">x = 2,</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"> </td> <td class="tcl">y = 1,</td> <td class="tcl">y = 3,</td> <td class="tcl">y = 5,</td> <td class="tcl">y = 7.</td></tr> +</table> + +<p>3. We shall now give the solution of the equation ax − by = c in +positive integers.</p> + +<p>Convert a/b into a continued fraction, and let p/q be the convergent +immediately preceding a/b, then aq − bp = ±1 (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Continued +Fraction</a></span>).</p> + +<p>(α) If aq − bp = 1, the given equation may be written</p> + +<p class="center">ax − by = c (aq − bp);<br /> +∴ a (x − cq) = b (y − cp).</p> + +<p>Since a and b are prime to one another, then x − cq must be divisible +by b and y − cp by a; hence</p> + +<p class="center">(x − cq) / b = (y − cq) / a = t.</p> + +<p class="noind">That is, x = bt + cq and y = at + cp.</p> + +<p>Positive integral solutions, unlimited in number, are obtained by +giving t any positive integral value, and any negative integral value, +so long as it is numerically less than the smaller of the quantities +cq/b, cp/a; t may also be zero.</p> + +<p>(β) If aq − bp = −1, we obtain x = bt − cq, y = at − cp, from which +positive integral solutions, again unlimited in number, are obtained +by giving t any positive integral value which exceeds the greater of +the two quantities cq/b, cp/a.</p> + +<p>If a or b is unity, a/b cannot be converted into a continued fraction +with unit numerators, and the above method fails. In this case the +solutions can be derived directly, for if b is unity, the equation may +be written y = ax − c, and solutions are obtained by giving x positive +integral values greater than c/a.</p> + +<p>4. To solve ax + by = c in positive integers. Converting a b into a +continued fraction and proceeding as before, we obtain, in the case of +aq − bp = 1,</p> + +<p class="center">x = cq − bt, y = at − cp.</p> + +<p>Positive integral solutions are obtained by giving t positive integral +values not less than cp/a and not greater than cq/b.</p> + +<p>In this case the number of solutions is limited. If aq − bp = −1 +we obtain the general solution x = bt − cq, y = cp − at, which is of +the same form as in the preceding case. For the determination of +the number of solutions the reader is referred to H.S. Hall and +S.R. Knight’s <i>Higher Algebra</i>, G. Chrystal’s <i>Algebra</i>, and other +text-books.</p> + +<p>5. If an equation were proposed involving three unknown quantities, +as ax + by + cz = d, by transposition we have ax + by = d − cz, and, +putting d − cz = c′, ax + by = c′. From this last equation we may find +values of x and y of this form,</p> + +<p class="center">x = mr + nc′, y = mr + n′c′,<br /> +or x = mr + n (d − cz), y = m′r + n′ (d − cz);</p> + +<p class="noind">where z and r may be taken at pleasure, except in so far as the values +of x, y, z may be required to be all positive; for from such restriction +the values of z and r may be confined within certain limits to be +determined from the given equation. For more advanced treatment +of linear indeterminate equations see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Combinatorial Analysis</a></span>.</p> + +<p>6. We proceed to indeterminate problems of the second degree: +limiting ourselves to the consideration of the formula y² = a + bx + cx², +where x is to be found, so that y may be a rational quantity. The +possibility of rendering the proposed formula a square depends +altogether upon the coefficients a, b, c; and there are four cases of +the problem, the solution of each of which is connected with some +peculiarity in its nature.</p> + +<p><i>Case</i> 1. Let a be a square number; then, putting g² for a, we have +y² = g² + bx + cx². Suppose √(g² + bx + cx²) = g + mx; then g² + bx + cx² += g² + 2gmx + m²x², or bx + cx² = 2gmx + m²x², that is, b + cx = 2gm + +m²x; hence</p> + +<table class="math0" summary="math"> +<tr><td rowspan="2">x =</td> <td>2gm − b</td> +<td rowspan="2">, y = √(g² + bx + cx²)=</td> <td>cg − bm + gm²</td> +<td rowspan="2">.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="denom">c − m²</td> <td class="denom">c − m²</td></tr></table> + +<p>Case 2. Let c be a square number = g²; then, putting √(a + bx + +g²x²) = m + gx, we find a + bx + g²x² = m² + 2mgx + g²x², or a + bx = +m² + 2mgx; hence we find</p> + +<table class="math0" summary="math"> +<tr><td rowspan="2">x =</td> <td>m² − a</td> +<td rowspan="2">, y = √(a + bx + g²x²) =</td> <td>bm − gm² − ag</td> +<td rowspan="2">.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="denom">b − 2mg</td> <td class="denom">b − 2mg</td></tr></table> + +<p>Case 3. When neither a nor c is a square number, yet if the expression +a + bx + cx² can be resolved into two simple factors, as +f + gx and h + kx, the irrationality may be taken away as follows:—</p> + +<p>Assume √(a + bx + cx²) = √{ (f + gx) (h + kx) } = m (f + gx), then +(f + gx) (h + kx) = m² (f + gx)², or h + kx = m² (f + gx); hence we find</p> + +<table class="math0" summary="math"> +<tr><td rowspan="2">x =</td> <td>fm² − h</td> +<td rowspan="2">, y = √{ (f + gx) (h + kx) } =</td> <td>(fk − gh) m</td> +<td rowspan="2">;</td></tr> +<tr><td class="denom">k − gm²</td> <td class="denom">k − gm²</td></tr></table> + +<p class="noind">and in all these formulae m may be taken at pleasure.</p> + +<p>Case 4. The expression a + bx + cx² may be transformed into a +square as often as it can be resolved into two parts, one of which is +a complete square, and the other a product of two simple factors; +for then it has this form, p² + qr, where p, q and r are quantities +which contain no power of x higher than the first. Let us assume +√(p² + qr) = p + mq; thus we have p² + qr = p² + 2mpq + m²q² and +r = 2mp + m²q, and as this equation involves only the first power of +x, we may by proper reduction obtain from it rational values of +x and y, as in the three foregoing cases.</p> + +<p>The application of the preceding general methods of resolution to +any particular case is very easy; we shall therefore conclude with +a single example.</p> + +<p><i>Ex.</i> It is required to find two square numbers whose sum is a +given square number.</p> + +<p>Let a² be the given square number, and x², y² the numbers required; +then, by the question, x² + y² = a², and y = √(a² − x²). This equation +is evidently of such a form as to be resolvable by the method employed +in case 1. Accordingly, by comparing √(a² − x²) with the +general expression √(g² + bx + cx²), we have g = a, b = 0, c = −1, and +substituting these values in the formulae, and also −n for +m, we +find</p> + +<table class="math0" summary="math"> +<tr><td rowspan="2">x =</td> <td>2an</td> +<td rowspan="2">, y =</td> <td>a (n² − 1)</td> +<td rowspan="2">.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="denom">n² + 1</td> <td class="denom">n² + 1</td></tr></table> + +<p class="noind">If a = n² + 1, there results x = 2n, y = n² − 1, a = n² + 1. Hence if r +be an even number, the three sides of a rational right-angled triangle +are r, (½ r)² − 1, (½ r)² + 1. If r be an odd number, they become +(dividing by 2) r, ½ (r² − 1), ½ (r² + 1).</p> + +<p>For example, if r = 4, 4, 4 − 1, 4 + 1, or 4, 3, 5, are the sides of a +right-angled triangle; if r = 7, 7, 24, 25 are the sides of a right-angled +triangle.</p> + +<p class="pt2 center">III. <i>Cubic Equations</i>.</p> + +<p>1. Cubic equations, like all equations above the first degree, are +divided into two classes: they are said to be <i>pure</i> when they contain +only one power of the unknown quantity; and <i>adfected</i> when they +contain two or more powers of that quantity.</p> + +<p>Pure cubic equations are therefore of the form x³ = r; and hence +it appears that a value of the simple power of the unknown quantity +may always be found without difficulty, by extracting the cube root +of each side of the equation. Let us consider the equation x³ − c³ = 0 +more fully. This is decomposable into the factors x − c = 0 and +x² + cx + c² = 0. The roots of this quadratic equation are ½ (−1 ± √−3) c, +and we see that the equation x³ = c³ has three roots, namely, one real +root c, and two imaginary roots ½ (−1 ± √−3) c. By making c equal +to unity, we observe that ½ (−1 ± √−3) are the imaginary cube roots +of unity, which are generally denoted by ω and ω², for it is easy to +show that (½ (−1 − √−3))² = ½ (−1 + √−3).</p> + +<p>2. Let us now consider such cubic equations as have all their terms, +and which are therefore of this form,</p> + +<p class="center">x³ + Ax² + Bx + C = 0,</p> + +<p class="noind">where A, B and C denote known quantities, either positive or +negative.</p> + +<p>This equation may be transformed into another in which the second +term is wanting by the substitution x = y − A/3. This transformation is +a particular case of a general theorem. Let x<span class="sp">n</span> + Ax<span class="sp">n−1</span> + Bx<span class="sp">n−2</span> ... = 0. +Substitute x = y + h; then (y + h)<span class="sp">n</span> + A (y + h)<span class="sp">n−1</span> ... = 0. Expand each +term by the binomial theorem, and let us fix our attention on the +coefficient of y<span class="sp">n−1</span>. By this process we obtain 0 = y<span class="sp">n</span> + y<span class="sp">n−1</span>(A + nh) + +terms involving lower powers of y.</p> + +<p>Now h can have any value, and if we choose it so that A + nh = 0, +then the second term of our derived equation vanishes.</p> + +<p>Resuming, therefore, the equation y³ + qy + r = 0, let us suppose +y = v + z; we then have y³ = v³ + z³ + 3vz (v + z) = v³ + z³ + 3vzy, and the +original equation becomes v³ + z³ + (3vz + q) y + r = 0. Now v and z +are any two quantities subject to the relation y = v + z, and if we +suppose 3vz + q = 0, they are completely determined. This leads to +v³ + z³ + r = 0 and 3vz + q = 0. Therefore v³ and z³ are the roots of the +quadratic t² + rt − q²/27 = 0. Therefore</p> + +<table class="ws" summary="Contents"> +<tr><td class="tcr">v³ =</td> <td class="tcl">−½ r + √(<span class="spp">1</span>⁄<span class="suu">27</span> q³ + ¼ r²); z³ = −½ r − √(<span class="spp">1</span>⁄<span class="suu">27</span> q³ + ¼r²);</td></tr> + +<tr><td class="tcr">v =</td> <td class="tcl"><span class="sp2">3</span>√{−½ r + √(<span class="spp">1</span>⁄<span class="suu">27</span> q³ + ¼ r²) }; z = <span class="sp2">3</span>√{ (−½ r − √(<span class="spp">1</span>⁄<span class="suu">27</span> q³ + ¼ r²) };</td></tr> + +<tr><td class="tcr">and y =</td> <td class="tcl">v + z = <span class="sp2">3</span>√{−½ r + √(<span class="spp">1</span>⁄<span class="suu">27</span>q³ + ¼ r²) } + <span class="sp2">3</span>√{−½ r − √(<span class="spp">1</span>⁄<span class="suu">27</span> q³ + ¼ r²) }.</td></tr> +</table> + +<p class="noind">Thus we have obtained a value of the unknown quantity y, in terms +of the known quantities q and r; therefore the equation is resolved.</p> + +<p>3. But this is only one of three values which y may have. Let us, +for the sake of brevity, put</p> + +<p class="center">A = −½ r + √(<span class="spp">1</span>⁄<span class="suu">27</span> q³ + ¼ r²), B = −½ r − √(<span class="spp">1</span>⁄<span class="suu">27</span> q³ + ¼ r²),</p> + +<table class="ws" summary="Contents"> +<tr><td class="tcl">and put</td> <td class="tcl">α = ½ (−1 + √−3),</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"> </td> <td class="tcl">β = ½ (−1 − √−3).</td></tr> +</table> + +<p class="noind">Then, from what has been shown (§ 1), it is evident that v and z have +each these three values,</p> + +<p class="center">v = <span class="sp2">3</span>√A, v = α<span class="sp2">3</span>√A, v = β<span class="sp2">3</span>√A;<br /> +z = <span class="sp2">3</span>√B, z = α<span class="sp2">3</span>√B, z = β<span class="sp2">3</span>√B.</p> + +<p>To determine the corresponding values of v and z, we must consider +that vz = −<span class="spp">1</span>⁄<span class="suu">3</span> q = <span class="sp2">3</span>√(AB). Now if we observe that αβ = 1, it will +immediately appear that v + z has these three values,</p> + +<p class="center">v + z =  <span class="sp2">3</span>√A +  <span class="sp2">3</span>√B,<br /> +v + z = α<span class="sp2">3</span>√A + β<span class="sp2">3</span>√B,<br /> +v + z = β<span class="sp2">3</span>√A + α<span class="sp2">3</span>√B,</p> + +<p class="noind">which are therefore the three values of y.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page712" id="page712"></a>712</span></p> + +<p>The first of these formulae is commonly known by the name of +Cardan’s rule (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Algebra</a></span>: <i>History</i>).</p> + +<p>The formulae given above for the roots of a cubic equation may +be put under a different form, better adapted to the purposes of +arithmetical calculation, as follows:—Because vz = −<span class="spp">1</span>⁄<span class="suu">3</span> q, therefore +z = −<span class="spp">1</span>⁄<span class="suu">3</span >q × 1/v = −<span class="spp">1</span>⁄<span class="suu">3</span> q / <span class="sp2">3</span>√A; hence v + z = <span class="sp2">3</span>√A − <span class="spp">1</span>⁄<span class="suu">3</span> q / <span class="sp2">3</span>√A: thus it appears +that the three values of y may also be expressed thus:</p> + +<p class="center">y =  <span class="sp2">3</span>√A − <span class="spp">1</span>⁄<span class="suu">3</span> q /  <span class="sp2">3</span>√A<br /> +y = α<span class="sp2">3</span>√A − <span class="spp">1</span>⁄<span class="suu">3</span> qβ / <span class="sp2">3</span>√A<br /> +y = β<span class="sp2">3</span>√A − <span class="spp">1</span>⁄<span class="suu">3</span> qα / <span class="sp2">3</span>√A.</p> + +<p>See below, <i>Theory of Equations</i>, §§ 16 et seq.</p> + +<p class="pt2 center">IV. <i>Biquadratic Equations</i>.</p> + +<p>1. When a biquadratic equation contains all its terms, it has this +form,</p> + +<p class="center">x<span class="sp">4</span> + Ax³ + Bx² + Cx + D = 0,</p> + +<p class="noind">where A, B, C, D denote known quantities.</p> + +<p>We shall first consider pure biquadratics, or such as contain only +the first and last terms, and therefore are of this form, x<span class="sp">4</span> = b<span class="sp">4</span>. In +this case it is evident that x may be readily had by two extractions of +the square root; by the first we find x² = b², and by the second x = b. +This, however, is only one of the values which x may have; for since +x<span class="sp">4</span> = b<span class="sp">4</span>, therefore x<span class="sp">4</span> − b<span class="sp">4</span> = 0; but x<span class="sp">4</span> − b<span class="sp">4</span> may be resolved into two +factors x² − b² and x² + b², each of which admits of a similar resolution; +for x² − b² = (x − b)(x + b) and x² + b² = (x − b√−1)(x + b√−1). +Hence it appears that the equation x<span class="sp">4</span> − b<span class="sp">4</span> = 0 may also be expressed +thus,</p> + +<p class="center">(x − b) (x + b) (x − b√−1) (x + b√−1) = 0;</p> + +<p class="noind">so that x may have these four values,</p> + +<p class="center">+b,    −b,    +b√−1,    −b√−1,</p> + +<p class="noind">two of which are real, and the others imaginary.</p> + +<p>2. Next to pure biquadratic equations, in respect of easiness of +resolution, are such as want the second and fourth terms, and therefore +have this form,</p> + +<p class="center">x<span class="sp">4</span> + qx² + s = 0.</p> + +<p class="noind">These may be resolved in the manner of quadratic equations; for if +we put y = x², we have</p> + +<p class="center">y² + qy + s = 0,</p> + +<p class="noind">from which we find y = ½ {−q ± √(q² − 4s) }, and therefore</p> + +<p class="center">x = ±√½ {−q ± √(q² − 4s) }.</p> + +<p>3. When a biquadratic equation has all its terms, its resolution +may be always reduced to that of a cubic equation. There are +various methods by which such a reduction may be effected. The +following was first given by Leonhard Euler in the <i>Petersburg +Commentaries</i>, and afterwards explained more fully in his <i>Elements +of Algebra</i>.</p> + +<p>We have already explained how an equation which is complete +in its terms may be transformed into another of the same degree, +but which wants the second term; therefore any biquadratic +equation may be reduced to this form,</p> + +<p class="center">y<span class="sp">4</span> + py² + qy + r = 0,</p> + +<p class="noind">where the second term is wanting, and where p, q, r denote any +known quantities whatever.</p> + +<p>That we may form an equation similar to the above, let us assume +y = √a + √b + √c, and also suppose that the letters a, b, c denote +the roots of the cubic equation</p> + +<p class="center">z³ + Pz² + Qz − R = 0;</p> + +<p class="noind">then, from the theory of equations we have</p> + +<p class="center">a + b + c = −P,    ab + ac + bc = Q,    abc = R.</p> + +<p>We square the assumed formula</p> + +<p class="center">y = √a + √b + √c,</p> + +<p class="noind">and obtain    y² = a + b + c + 2(√ab + √ac + √bc);</p> + +<p class="noind">or, substituting −P for a + b + c, and transposing,</p> + +<p class="center">y² + P = 2(√ab + √ac + √bc).</p> + +<p class="noind">Let this equation be also squared, and we have</p> + +<p class="center">y<span class="sp">4</span> + 2Py² + P² = 4 (ab + ac + bc) + 8 (√a²bc + √ab²c + √abc²);</p> + +<p class="noind">and since      ab + ac + bc = Q,</p> + +<p>and   √a²bc + √ab²c + √abc² = √abc (√a + √b + √c) = √R·y,</p> + +<p class="noind">the same equation may be expressed thus:</p> + +<p class="center">y<span class="sp">4</span> + 2Py² + P² = 4Q + 8√R·y.</p> + +<p class="noind">Thus we have the biquadratic equation</p> + +<p class="center">y<span class="sp">4</span> + 2Py² − 8√R·y + P² − 4Q = 0,</p> + +<p class="noind">one of the roots of which is y = √a + √b + √c, while a, b, c are the +roots of the cubic equation z³ + Pz² + Qz − R = 0.</p> + +<p>4. In order to apply this resolution to the proposed equation +y<span class="sp">4</span> + py² + qy + r = 0, we must express the assumed coefficients P, Q, R +by means of p, q, r, the coefficients of that equation. For this purpose +let us compare the equations</p> + +<p class="center">y<span class="sp">4</span> + py² + qy + r = 0,<br /> +y<span class="sp">4</span> + 2Py² − 8√Ry + P² − 4Q = 0,</p> + +<p class="noind">and it immediately appears that</p> + +<p class="center">2P = p,    −8√R = q,    P² − 4Q = r;</p> + +<p class="noind">and from these equations we find</p> + +<p class="center">P = ½ p,   Q = <span class="spp">1</span>⁄<span class="suu">16</span> (p² − 4r),   R = <span class="spp">1</span>⁄<span class="suu">64</span> q².</p> + +<p class="noind">Hence it follows that the roots of the proposed equation are generally +expressed by the formula</p> + +<p class="center">y = √a + √b + √c;</p> + +<p class="noind">where a, b, c denote the roots of this cubic equation,</p> + +<table class="math0" summary="math"> +<tr><td rowspan="2">z³ +</td> <td>p</td> +<td rowspan="2">z² + </td> <td>p² − 4r</td> +<td rowspan="2">z −</td> <td>q²</td> +<td rowspan="2">= 0.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="denom">2</td> <td class="denom">16</td> <td class="denom">64</td></tr></table> + +<p class="noind">But to find each particular root, we must consider, that as the square +root of a number may be either positive or negative, so each of the +quantities √a, √b, √c may have either the sign + or − prefixed +to it; and hence our formula will give eight different expressions +for the root. It is, however, to be observed, that as the product of +the three quantities √a, √b, √c must be equal to √R or to −<span class="spp">1</span>⁄<span class="suu">8</span> q; +when q is positive, their product must be a negative quantity, and +this can only be effected by making either one or three of them +negative; again, when q is negative, their product must be a positive +quantity; so that in this case they must either be all positive, or +two of them must be negative. These considerations enable us to +determine that four of the eight expressions for the root belong to +the case in which q is positive, and the other four to that in which it +is negative.</p> + +<p>5. We shall now give the result of the preceding investigation in +the form of a practical rule; and as the coefficients of the cubic +equation which has been found involve fractions, we shall transform +it into another, in which the coefficients are integers, by supposing +z = ¼ v. Thus the equation</p> + +<table class="math0" summary="math"> +<tr><td rowspan="2">z³ +</td> <td>p</td> +<td rowspan="2">z² +</td> <td>p² − 4r</td> +<td rowspan="2">z −</td> <td>q²</td> +<td rowspan="2">= 0</td></tr> +<tr><td class="denom">2</td> <td class="denom">16</td> <td class="denom">64</td></tr></table> + +<p class="noind">becomes, after reduction,</p> + +<p class="center">v³ + 2pv² + (p² − 4r) v − q² = 0;</p> + +<p class="noind">it also follows, that if the roots of the latter equation are a, b, c, the +roots of the former are ¼ a, ¼ b, ¼ c, so that our rule may now be +expressed thus:</p> + +<p>Let y<span class="sp">4</span> + py² + qy + r = 0 be any biquadratic equation wanting its +second term. Form this cubic equation</p> + +<p class="center">v³ + 2pv² + (p² − 4r) v − q² = 0,</p> + +<p class="noind">and find its roots, which let us denote by a, b, c.</p> + +<p>Then the roots of the proposed biquadratic equation are,</p> + +<table class="ws" summary="Contents"> +<tr><td class="tcl">  when q is negative,</td> <td class="tcl">  when q is positive,</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl">y = ½ (√a + √b + √c),</td> <td class="tcl">y = ½ (−√a − √b − √c),</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl">y = ½ (√a − √b − √c),</td> <td class="tcl">y = ½ (−√a + √b + √c),</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl">y = ½ (−√a + √b − √c),</td> <td class="tcl">y = ½ (√a − √b + √c),</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl">y = ½ (−√a − √b + √c),</td> <td class="tcl">y = ½ (√a + √b − √c).</td></tr> +</table> + +<p class="noind">See also below, <i>Theory of Equations</i>, § 17 et seq.</p> +</div> +<div class="author">(X.)</div> + +<p class="pt2 center">V. <i>Theory of Equations</i>.</p> + +<p>1. In the subject “Theory of Equations” the term <i>equation</i> is +used to denote an equation of the form x<span class="sp">n</span> − p<span class="su">1</span>x<span class="sp">n−1</span> ... ± p<span class="su">n</span> = 0, +where p<span class="su">1</span>, p<span class="su">2</span> ... p<span class="su">n</span> are regarded as known, and x as a quantity +to be determined; for shortness the equation is written ƒ(x) = 0.</p> + +<p>The equation may be <i>numerical</i>; that is, the coefficients +p<span class="su">1</span>, p<span class="su">2</span><span class="sp">n</span>, ... p<span class="su">n</span> are then numbers—understanding by number a +quantity of the form α + βi (α and β having any positive or +negative real values whatever, or say each of these is regarded +as susceptible of continuous variation from an indefinitely large +negative to an indefinitely large positive value), and i denoting +√−1.</p> + +<p>Or the equation may be <i>algebraical</i>; that is, the coefficients +are not then restricted to denote, or are not explicitly considered +as denoting, numbers.</p> + +<p>1. We consider first numerical equations. (Real theory, 2-6; +Imaginary theory, 7-10.)</p> + +<p class="pt2 center"><i>Real Theory</i>.</p> + +<p>2. Postponing all consideration of imaginaries, we take in the +first instance the coefficients to be real, and attend only to the +real roots (if any); that is, p<span class="su">1</span>, p<span class="su">2</span>, ... p<span class="su">n</span> are real positive or +negative quantities, and a root a, if it exists, is a positive or +negative quantity such that a<span class="sp">n</span> − p<span class="su">1</span>a<span class="sp">n−1</span> ... ± p<span class="su">n</span> = 0, or say, +ƒ(a) = 0.</p> + +<p>It is very useful to consider the curve y = ƒ(x),—or, what +would come to the same, the curve Ay = ƒ(x),—but it is better +to retain the first-mentioned form of equation, drawing, if need +be, the ordinate y on a reduced scale. For instance, if the +given equation be x³ − 6x² + 11x − 6.06 = 0,<a name="fa1a" id="fa1a" href="#ft1a"><span class="sp">1</span></a> then the curve +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page713" id="page713"></a>713</span> +y = x³ − 6x² + 11x − 6.06 is as shown in fig. 1, without any +reduction of scale for the ordinate.</p> + +<p>It is clear that, in general, y is a continuous one-valued +function of x, finite for every finite value of x, but becoming +infinite when x is infinite; <i>i.e.</i>, assuming throughout that the +coefficient of x<span class="sp">n</span> is +1, then when x = ∞, y = +∞; but when +x = −∞, then y = +∞ or −∞, according as n is even or +odd; the curve cuts any line whatever, and in particular it cuts +the axis (of x) in at most n points; and the value of x, at any +point of intersection with the axis, is a root of the equation +ƒ(x) = 0.</p> + +<p>If β, α are any two values of x (α > β, that is, α nearer +∞), +then if ƒ(β), ƒ(α) have opposite signs, the curve cuts the axis an +odd number of times, and therefore at least once, between the +points x = β, x = α; but if ƒ(β), ƒ(α) have the same sign, then +between these points the curve cuts the axis an even number of +times, or it may be not at all. That is, ƒ(β), ƒ(α) having opposite +signs, there are between the limits β, α an odd number of real +roots, and therefore at least one real root; but ƒ(β), ƒ(α) having +the same sign, there are between these limits an even number of +real roots, or it may be there is no real root. In particular, by +giving to β, α the values -∞, +∞ (or, what is the same thing, +any two values sufficiently near to these values respectively) it +appears that an equation of an odd order has always an odd +number of real roots, and therefore at least one real root; but +that an equation of an even order has an even number of real +roots, or it may be no real root.</p> + +<p>If α be such that for x = or > a (that is, x nearer to +∞) ƒ(x) +is always +, and β be such that for x = or < β (that is, x +nearer to −∞) ƒ(x) is always −, then the real roots (if any) +lie between these limits x = β, x = α; and it is easy to find by +trial such two limits including between them all the real roots +(if any).</p> + +<p>3. Suppose that the positive value δ is an inferior limit to the +difference between two real roots of the equation; or rather +(since the foregoing expression would imply the existence of real +roots) suppose that there are not two real roots such that their +difference taken positively is = or < δ; then, γ being any value +whatever, there is clearly at most one real root between the +limits γ and γ + δ; and by what precedes there is such real root +or there is not such real root, according as ƒ(γ), ƒ(γ + δ) have +opposite signs or have the same sign. And by dividing in this +manner the interval β to α into intervals each of which is = or +< δ, we should not only ascertain the number of the real roots +(if any), but we should also <i>separate</i> the real roots, that is, find +for each of them limits γ, γ + δ between which there lies this one, +and only this one, real root.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>In particular cases it is frequently possible to ascertain the number +of the real roots, and to effect their separation by trial or otherwise, +without much difficulty; but the foregoing was the general process +as employed by Joseph Louis Lagrange even in the second edition +(1808) of the <i>Traité de la résolution des équations numériques</i>;<a name="fa2a" id="fa2a" href="#ft2a"><span class="sp">2</span></a> the +determination of the limit δ had to be effected by means of the +“equation of differences” or equation of the order ½ n(n − 1), the roots +of which are the squares of the differences of the roots of the given +equation, and the process is a cumbrous and unsatisfactory one.</p> +</div> + +<p>4. The great step was effected by the theorem of J.C.F. +Sturm (1835)—viz. here starting from the function ƒ(x), and its +first derived function ƒ′(x), we have (by a process which is a slight +modification of that for obtaining the greatest common measure +of these two functions) to form a series of functions</p> + +<p class="center">ƒ(x), ƒ′(x), ƒ<span class="su">2</span>(x), ... ƒ<span class="su">n</span>(x)</p> + +<p class="noind">of the degrees n, n − 1, n − 2 ... 0 respectively,—the last term +ƒ<span class="su">n</span>(x) being thus an absolute constant. These lead to the immediate +determination of the number of real roots (if any) +between any two given limits β, α; viz. supposing α > β (that is, +α nearer to +∞), then substituting successively these two values +in the series of functions, and attending only to the signs of the +resulting values, the number of the changes of sign lost in passing +from β to α is the required number of real roots between the two +limits. In particular, taking β, α = −∞, +∞ respectively, the +signs of the several functions depend merely on the signs of the +terms which contain the highest powers of x, and are seen by +inspection, and the theorem thus gives at once the whole number +of real roots.</p> + +<p>And although theoretically, in order to complete by a finite +number of operations the separation of the real roots, we still +need to know the value of the before-mentioned limit δ; yet +in any given case the separation may be effected by a limited +number of repetitions of the process. The practical difficulty +is when two or more roots are very near to each other. Suppose, +for instance, that the theorem shows that there are two roots +between 0 and 10; by giving to x the values 1, 2, 3, ... successively, +it might appear that the two roots were between 5 and 6; +then again that they were between 5.3 and 5.4, then between +5.34 and 5.35, and so on until we arrive at a separation; say it +appears that between 5.346 and 5.347 there is one root, and +between 5.348 and 5.349 the other root. But in the case in +question δ would have a very small value, such as .002, and even +supposing this value known, the direct application of the first-mentioned +process would be still more laborious.</p> + +<p>5. Supposing the separation once effected, the determination +of the single real root which lies between the two given limits +may be effected to any required degree of approximation either +by the processes of W.G. Horner and Lagrange (which are in +principle a carrying out of the method of Sturm’s theorem), or +by the process of Sir Isaac Newton, as perfected by Joseph +Fourier (which requires to be separately considered).</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>First as to Horner and Lagrange. We know that between the +limits β, α there lies one, and only one, real root of the equation; +ƒ(β) and ƒ(α) have therefore opposite signs. Suppose any intermediate +value is θ; in order to determine by Sturm’s theorem +whether the root lies between β, θ, or between θ, α, it would be quite +unnecessary to calculate the signs of ƒ(θ),ƒ′(θ), ƒ<span class="su">2</span>(θ) ...; only the +sign of ƒ(θ) is required; for, if this has the same sign as ƒ(β), then +the root is between β, θ; if the same sign as ƒ(α), then the root is +between θ, α. We want to make θ increase from the inferior limit +β, at which ƒ(θ) has the sign of ƒ(β), so long as ƒ(θ) retains this sign, +and then to a value for which it assumes the opposite sign; we have +thus two nearer limits of the required root, and the process may +be repeated indefinitely.</p> + +<p>Horner’s method (1819) gives the root as a decimal, figure by figure; +thus if the equation be known to have one real root between 0 and 10, +it is in effect shown say that 5 is too small (that is, the root is between +5 and 6); next that 5.4 is too small (that is, the root is between 5.4 +and 5.5); and so on to any number of decimals. Each figure is +obtained, not by the successive trial of all the figures which precede +it, but (as in the ordinary process of the extraction of a square root, +which is in fact Horner’s process applied to this particular case) +it is given presumptively as the first figure of a quotient; such value +may be too large, and then the next inferior integer must be tried +instead of it, or it may require to be further diminished. And it is +to be remarked that the process not only gives the approximate +value α of the root, but (as in the extraction of a square root) it +includes the calculation of the function ƒ(α), which should be, and +approximately is, = 0. The arrangement of the calculations is very +elegant, and forms an integral part of the actual method. It is +to be observed that after a certain number of decimal places have +been obtained, a good many more can be found by a mere division. +It is in the progress tacitly assumed that the roots have been first +separated.</p> + +<p>Lagrange’s method (1767) gives the root as a continued fraction +a + 1/b + 1/c + ..., where a is a positive or negative integer (which +may be = 0), but b, c, ... are positive integers. Suppose the roots +have been separated; then (by trial if need be of consecutive integer +values) the limits may be made to be consecutive integer numbers: +say they are a, a + 1; the value of x is therefore = a + 1/y, where y +is positive and greater than 1; from the given equation for x, +writing therein x = a + 1/y, we form an equation of the same order for +y, and this equation will have one, and only one, positive root greater +than 1; hence finding for it the limits b, b + 1 (where b is = or > 1), +we have y = b + 1/z, where z is positive and greater than 1; and so on—that +is, we thus obtain the successive denominators b, c, d ... +of the continued fraction. The method is theoretically very elegant, +but the disadvantage is that it gives the result in the form of a +continued fraction, which for the most part must ultimately be converted +into a decimal. There is one advantage in the method, that +a commensurable root (that is, a root equal to a rational fraction) +is found accurately, since, when such root exists, the continued +fraction terminates.</p> + +<p>6. Newton’s method (1711), as perfected by Fourier(1831), may be +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page714" id="page714"></a>714</span> +roughly stated as follows. If x = γ be an approximate value of any +root, and γ + h the correct value, then ƒ(γ + h) = 0, that is,</p> + +<table class="math0" summary="math"> +<tr><td rowspan="2">ƒ(γ) +</td> <td>h</td> +<td rowspan="2">ƒ′(γ) +</td> <td>h²</td> +<td rowspan="2">ƒ″(γ) + ... = 0;</td></tr> +<tr><td class="denom">1</td> <td class="denom">1·2</td></tr></table> + +<p class="noind">and then, if h be so small that the terms after the second may be +neglected, ƒ(γ) + hƒ′(γ) = 0, that is, h = {−ƒ(γ)/ƒ′(γ) }, or the new approximate +value is x = γ − {ƒ(γ)/ƒ′(γ) }; and so on, as often as we please. +It will be observed that so far nothing has been assumed as to the +separation of the roots, or even as to the existence of a real root; +γ has been taken as the approximate value of a root, but no precise +meaning has been attached to this expression. The question arises, +What are the conditions to be satisfied by γ in order that the process +may by successive repetitions actually lead to a certain real root of the +equation; or that, γ being an approximate value of a certain real +root, the new value γ − {ƒ(γ)/ƒ′(γ) } may be a more approximate value.</p> + +<table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:442px; height:288px" src="images/img714.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig.</span> 1.</td></tr></table> + +<p>Referring to fig. 1, it is easy to see that if OC represent the assumed +value γ, then, drawing the ordinate CP to meet the curve in P, and +the tangent PC′ to meet the axis in C′, we shall have OC′ as the new +approximate value of the root. But observe that there is here a +real root OX, and that the curve beyond X is convex to the axis; +under these conditions the point C′ is nearer to X than was C; and, +starting with C′ instead of C, and proceeding in like manner to draw +a new ordinate and tangent, and so on as often as we please, we +approximate continually, and that with great rapidity, to the true +value OX. But if C had been taken on the other side of X, where the +curve is concave to the axis, the new point C′ might or might not +be nearer to X than was the point C; and in this case the method, +if it succeeds at all, does so by accident only, <i>i.e.</i> it may happen +that C′ or some subsequent point comes to be a point C, such that +CO is a <i>proper</i> approximate value of the root, and then the subsequent +approximations proceed in the same manner as if this value had been +assumed in the first instance, all the preceding work being wasted. +It thus appears that for the proper application of the method we +require <i>more</i> than the mere separation of the roots. In order to be +able to approximate to a certain root α, = OX, we require to know +that, between OX and some value ON, the curve is always convex +to the axis (analytically, between the two values, ƒ(x) and ƒ″(x) must +have always the same sign). When this is so, the point C may be +taken anywhere on the proper side of X, and within the portion XN +of the axis; and the process is then the one already explained. +The approximation is in general a very rapid one. If we know for the +required root OX the two limits OM, ON such that from M to X the +curve is always <i>concave</i> to the axis, while from X to N it is always +convex to the axis,—then, taking D anywhere in the portion MX +and (as before) C in the portion XN, drawing the ordinates DQ, +CP, and joining the points P, Q by a line which meets the axis in D′, +also constructing the point C′ by means of the tangent at P as before, +we have for the required root the new limits OD′, OC′; and proceeding +in like manner with the points D′, C′, and so on as often as +we please, we obtain at each step two limits approximating more and +more nearly to the required root OX. The process as to the point D′, +translated into analysis, is the ordinate process of interpolation. +Suppose OD = β, OC = α, we have approximately ƒ(β + h) = ƒ(β) + +h{ƒ(α) − ƒ(β) } / (α − β), whence if the root is β + h then h = − (α − β)ƒ(β) / {ƒ(α) − ƒ(β) }.</p> + +<p>Returning for a moment to Horner’s method, it may be remarked +that the correction h, to an approximate value α, is therein found +as a quotient the same or such as the quotient ƒ(α) ÷ ƒ′(α) which +presents itself in Newton’s method. The difference is that with +Horner the integer part of this quotient is taken as the presumptive +value of h, and the figure is verified at each step. With Newton the +quotient itself, developed to the proper number of decimal places, +is taken as the value of h; if too many decimals are taken, there +would be a waste of work; but the error would correct itself at the +next step. Of course the calculation should be conducted without +any such waste of work.</p> +</div> + +<p class="pt2 center"><i>Imaginary Theory</i>.</p> + +<p>7. It will be recollected that the expression <i>number</i> and the +correlative epithet <i>numerical</i> were at the outset used in a wide +sense, as extending to imaginaries. This extension arises out +of the theory of equations by a process analogous to that by which +number, in its original most restricted sense of positive integer +number, was extended to have the meaning of a real positive +or negative magnitude susceptible of continuous variation.</p> + +<p>If for a moment number is understood in its most restricted +sense as meaning positive integer number, the solution of a simple +equation leads to an extension; ax − b = 0 gives x = b/a, a +positive fraction, and we can in this manner represent, not +accurately, but as nearly as we please, any positive magnitude +whatever; so an equation ax + b = 0 gives x = −b/a, which +(approximately as before) represents any negative magnitude. +We thus arrive at the extended signification of number as a +continuously varying positive or negative magnitude. Such +numbers may be added or subtracted, multiplied or divided +one by another, and the result is always a number. Now from +a quadric equation we derive, in like manner, the notion of a +complex or imaginary number such as is spoken of above. The +equation x² + 1 = 0 is not (in the foregoing sense, number = real +number) satisfied by any numerical value whatever of x; but +we assume that there is a number which we call i, satisfying the +equation i² + 1 = 0, and then taking a and b any real numbers, +we form an expression such as a + bi, and use the expression +number in this extended sense: any two such numbers may be +added or subtracted, multiplied or divided one by the other, +and the result is always a number. And if we consider first +a quadric equation x² + px + q = 0 where p and q are real numbers, +and next the like equation, where p and q are any numbers +whatever, it can be shown that there exists for x a numerical +value which satisfies the equation; or, in other words, it can +be shown that the equation has a numerical root. The like +theorem, in fact, holds good for an equation of any order whatever; +but suppose for a moment that this was not the case; say that +there was a cubic equation x³ + px² + qx + r = 0, with numerical +coefficients, not satisfied by any numerical value of x, we should +have to establish a new imaginary j satisfying some such equation, +and should then have to consider numbers of the form a + bj, or +perhaps a + bj + cj² (a, b, c numbers α + βi of the kind heretofore +considered),—first we should be thrown back on the quadric +equation x² + px + q = 0, p and q being now numbers of the last-mentioned +extended form—<i>non constat</i> that every such equation +has a numerical root—and if not, we might be led to <i>other</i> +imaginaries k, l, &c., and so on <i>ad infinitum</i> in inextricable +confusion.</p> + +<p>But in fact a numerical equation of any order whatever has +always a numerical root, and thus numbers (in the foregoing +sense, number = quantity of the form α + βi) form (<i>what real +numbers do not</i>) a universe complete in itself, such that starting +in it we are never led out of it. There may very well be, and +perhaps are, numbers in a more general sense of the term +(quaternions are not a case in point, as the ordinary laws of +combination are not adhered to), but in order to have to do with +such numbers (if any) we must start with them.</p> + +<p>8. The capital theorem as regards numerical equations thus +is, every numerical equation has a numerical root; or for +shortness (the meaning being as before), every equation has a +root. Of course the theorem is the reverse of self-evident, and +it requires proof; but provisionally assuming it as true, we derive +from it the general theory of numerical equations. As the term +root was introduced in the course of an explanation, it will be +convenient to give here the formal definition.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>A number a such that substituted for x it makes the function +x<span class="su">1</span><span class="sp">n</span> − p<span class="su">1</span>x<span class="sp">n−1</span> ... ± p<span class="su">n</span> to be = 0, or say such that it satisfies the +equation ƒ(x) = 0, is said to be a root of the equation; that is, a +being a root, we have</p> + +<p class="center">a<span class="sp">n</span> − p<span class="su">1</span>a<span class="sp">n−1</span> ... ± p<span class="su">n</span> = 0, or say ƒ(a) = 0;</p> + +<p class="noind">and it is then easily shown that x − a is a factor of the function ƒ(x), +viz. that we have ƒ(x) = (x − a)ƒ<span class="su">1</span>(x), where ƒ<span class="su">1</span>(x) is a function +x<span class="sp">n−1</span> − q<span class="su">1</span>x<span class="sp">n−2</span> ... ± q<span class="su">n−1</span> of the order n − 1, with numerical coefficients +q<span class="su">1</span>, q<span class="su">2</span> ... q<span class="su">n−1</span>.</p> + +<p>In general a is not a root of the equation ƒ<span class="su">1</span>(x) = 0, but it may be so—<i>i.e.</i> +ƒ<span class="su">1</span>(x) may contain the factor x − a; when this is so, ƒ(x) will +contain the factor (x − a)²; writing then ƒ(x) = (x − a)²ƒ<span class="su">2</span>(x), and assuming +that a is not a root of the equation ƒ<span class="su">2</span>(x) = 0, x = a is then said to +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page715" id="page715"></a>715</span> +be a double root of the equation ƒ(x) = 0; and similarly ƒ(x) may +contain the factor (x − a)³ and no higher power, and x = a is then a +triple root; and so on.</p> + +<p>Supposing in general that ƒ(x) = (x − a)<span class="sp">α</span>F(x) (α being a positive +integer which may be = 1, (x − a)<span class="sp">α</span> the highest power of x − a which +divides ƒ(x), and F(x) being of course of the order n − α), then the +equation F(x) = 0 will have a root b which will be different from a; +x − b will be a factor, in general a simple one, but it may be a multiple +one, of F(x), and ƒ(x) will in this case be = (x − a)<span class="sp">α</span> (x − b)<span class="sp">β</span> Φ(x) (β a +positive integer which may be = 1, (x − b)<span class="sp">β</span> the highest power of +x − b in F(x) or ƒ(x), and Φ(x) being of course of the order n − α − β). +The original equation ƒ(x) = 0 is in this case said to have α roots each += a, β roots each = b; and so on for any other factors (x − c)<span class="sp">γ</span>, &c.</p> + +<p>We have thus the <i>theorem</i>—A numerical equation of the order n +has in every case n roots, viz. there exist n numbers, a, b, ... (in +general all distinct, but which may arrange themselves in any sets +of equal values), such that ƒ(x) = (x − a)(x − b)(x − c) ... identically.</p> + +<p>If the equation has equal roots, these can in general be determined, +and the case is at any rate a special one which may be in the first +instance excluded from consideration. It is, therefore, in general +assumed that the equation ƒ(x) = 0 has all its roots unequal.</p> + +<p>If the coefficients p<span class="su">1</span>, p<span class="su">2</span>, ... are all or any one or more of them +imaginary, then the equation ƒ(x) = 0, separating the real and imaginary +parts thereof, may be written F(x) + iΦ(x) = 0, where F(x), +Φ(x) are each of them a function with real coefficients; and it thus +appears that the equation ƒ(x) = 0, with imaginary coefficients, has +not in general any real root; supposing it to have a real root a, this +must be at once a root of each of the equations F(x) = 0 and Φ(x) = 0.</p> + +<p>But an equation with real coefficients may have as well imaginary +as real roots, and we have further the <i>theorem</i> that for any such +equation the imaginary roots enter in pairs, viz. α + βi being a root, +then α − βi will be also a root. It follows that if the order be odd, +there is always an odd number of real roots, and therefore at least one +real root.</p> +</div> + +<p>9. In the case of an equation with real coefficients, the question +of the existence of real roots, and of their separation, has been +already considered. In the general case of an equation with +imaginary (it may be real) coefficients, the like question arises +as to the situation of the (real or imaginary) roots; thus, if +for facility of conception we regard the constituents α, β of a +root α + βi as the co-ordinates of a point <i>in plano</i>, and accordingly +represent the root by such point, then drawing in the plane any +closed curve or “contour,” the question is how many roots lie +within such contour.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>This is solved theoretically by means of a theorem of A.L. Cauchy +(1837), viz. writing in the original equation x + iy in place of x, the +function ƒ(x + iy) becomes = P + iQ, where P and Q are each of them +a rational and integral function (with real coefficients) of (x, y). +Imagining the point (x, y) to travel along the contour, and considering +the number of changes of sign from − to + and from + to − of +the fraction corresponding to passages of the fraction through +zero (that is, to values for which P becomes = 0, disregarding those +for which Q becomes = 0), the difference of these numbers gives the +number of roots within the contour.</p> + +<p>It is important to remark that the demonstration does not presuppose +the existence of any root; the contour may be the infinity +of the plane (such infinity regarded as a contour, or closed curve), +and in this case it can be shown (and that very easily) that the difference +of the numbers of changes of sign is = n; that is, there are within +the infinite contour, or (what is the same thing) there are in all n roots; +thus Cauchy’s theorem contains really the proof of the fundamental +theorem that a numerical equation of the nth order (not only has +a numerical root, but) has precisely n roots. It would appear that +this proof of the fundamental theorem in its most complete form is +in principle identical with the last proof of K.F. Gauss (1849) of +the theorem, in the form—A numerical equation of the nth order +has always a root.<a name="fa3a" id="fa3a" href="#ft3a"><span class="sp">3</span></a></p> + +<p>But in the case of a finite contour, the actual determination of the +difference which gives the number of real roots can be effected only +in the case of a rectangular contour, by applying to each of its sides +separately a method such as that of Sturm’s theorem; and thus the +actual determination ultimately depends on a method such as that +of Sturm’s theorem.</p> + +<p>Very little has been done in regard to the calculation of the +imaginary roots of an equation by approximation; and the question +is not here considered.</p> +</div> + +<p>10. A class of numerical equations which needs to be considered +is that of the binomial equations x<span class="sp">n</span> − a = 0 (a = α + βi, +a complex number).</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>The foregoing conclusions apply, viz. there are always n roots, +which, it may be shown, are all unequal. And these can be found +numerically by the extraction of the square root, and of an nth root, +of <i>real</i> numbers, and by the aid of a table of natural sines and +cosines.<a name="fa4a" id="fa4a" href="#ft4a"><span class="sp">4</span></a> For writing</p> + +<table class="math0" summary="math"> +<tr><td rowspan="2">α + βi = √(α² + β²) <span class="f150">{</span></td> <td>α</td> +<td rowspan="2">+</td> <td>β</td> +<td rowspan="2">i <span class="f150">}</span>,</td></tr> +<tr><td class="denom">√(α² + β²)</td> <td class="denom">√(α² + β²)</td></tr></table> + +<p class="noind">there is always a real angle λ (positive and less than 2π), such that +its cosine and sine are = α / √(α² + β²) and β / √(α² + β²) respectively; that +is, writing for shortness √(α² + β²) = ρ, we have α + βi = ρ (cos λ + i sin λ), +or the equation is x<span class="sp">n</span> = ρ (cos λ + i sin λ); hence observing that +(cos λ/n + i sin λ/n )<span class="sp">n</span> = cos λ + i sin λ, a value of x is = <span class="sp2">n</span>√ρ (cos λ/n + i sin λ/n). +The formula really gives all the roots, for instead of λ we may write +λ + 2sπ, s a positive or negative integer, and then we have</p> + +<table class="math0" summary="math"> +<tr><td rowspan="2">x = <span class="sp2">n</span>√ρ <span class="f150">(</span> cos</td> <td>λ + 2sπ</td> +<td rowspan="2">+ i sin</td> <td>λ + 2sπ</td> +<td rowspan="2"><span class="f150">)</span>,</td></tr> +<tr><td class="denom">n</td> <td class="denom">n</td></tr></table> + +<p class="noind">which has the n values obtained by giving to s the values 0, 1, 2 ... +n − 1 in succession; the roots are, it is clear, represented by points +lying at equal intervals on a circle. But it is more convenient to proceed +somewhat differently; taking one of the roots to be θ, so that +θ<span class="sp">n</span> = a, then assuming x = θy, the equation becomes y<span class="sp">n</span> − 1 = 0, which +equation, like the original equation, has precisely n roots (one of them +being of course = 1). And the original equation x<span class="sp">n</span> − a = 0 is thus +reduced to the more simple equation x<span class="sp">n</span> − 1 = 0; and although the +theory of this equation is included in the preceding one, yet it is +proper to state it separately.</p> + +<p>The equation x<span class="sp">n</span> − 1 = 0 has its several roots expressed in the form +1, ω, ω², ... ω<span class="sp">n−1</span>, where ω may be taken = cos 2π/n + i sin 2π/n; in fact, +ω having this value, any integer power ω<span class="sp">k</span> is = cos 2πk/n + i sin 2πk/n, and +we thence have (ω<span class="sp">k</span>)<span class="sp">n</span> = cos 2πk + i sin 2πk, = 1, that is, ω<span class="sp">k</span> is a root of +the equation. The theory will be resumed further on.</p> + +<p>By what precedes, we are led to the notion (a numerical) of the +radical a<span class="sp">1/n</span> regarded as an n-valued function; any one of these being +denoted by <span class="sp2">n</span>√a, then the series of values is <span class="sp2">n</span>√a, ω<span class="sp2">n</span>√a, ... ω<span class="sp">n−1</span> <span class="sp2">n</span>√a; +or we may, if we please, use <span class="sp2">n</span>√a instead of a<span class="sp">1/n</span> as a symbol to denote +the n-valued function.</p> + +<p>As the coefficients of an algebraical equation may be numerical, +all which follows in regard to algebraical equations is (with, it may +be, some few modifications) applicable to numerical equations; and +hence, concluding for the present this subject, it will be convenient +to pass on to algebraical equations.</p> +</div> + +<p class="pt2 center"><i>Algebraical Equations</i>.</p> + +<p>11. The equation is</p> + +<p class="center">x<span class="sp">n</span> − p<span class="su">1</span>x<span class="sp">n−1</span> + ... ± p<span class="su">n</span> = 0,</p> + +<p class="noind">and we here <i>assume</i> the existence of roots, viz. we assume that +there are n quantities a, b, c ... (in general all of them different, +but which in particular cases may become equal in sets in any +manner), such that</p> + +<p class="center">x<span class="sp">n</span> − p<span class="su">1</span>x<span class="sp">n−1</span> + ... ± p<span class="su">n</span> = 0;</p> + +<p class="noind">or looking at the question in a different point of view, and +starting with the roots a, b, c ... as given, we express the product +of the n factors x − a, x − b, ... in the foregoing form, and thus +arrive at an equation of the order n having the n roots a, b, c.... +In either case we have</p> + +<p class="center">p<span class="su">1</span> = Σa, p<span class="su">2</span> = Σab, ... p<span class="su">n</span> = abc...;</p> + +<p class="noind"><i>i.e.</i> regarding the coefficients p<span class="su">1</span>, p<span class="su">2</span> ... p<span class="su">n</span> as given, then we +assume the existence of roots a, b, c, ... such that p<span class="su">1</span> = Σa, &c.; +or, regarding the roots as given, then we write p<span class="su">1</span>, p<span class="su">2</span>, &c., to +denote the functions Σa, Σab, &c.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>As already explained, the epithet algebraical is not used in opposition +to numerical; an algebraical equation is merely an equation +wherein the coefficients are not restricted to denote, or are not explicitly +considered as denoting, numbers. That the abstraction is +legitimate, appears by the simplest example; in saying that the +equation x² − px + q = 0 has a root x = ½ {p + √(p² − 4q) }, we mean that +writing this value for x the equation becomes an identity, [½ {p + +√(p² − 4q) }]² − p[½ {p + √(p² − 4q) }] + q = 0; and the verification of +this identity in nowise depends upon p and q meaning numbers. +But if it be asked what there is beyond numerical equations included +in the term algebraical equation, or, again, what is the full extent +of the meaning attributed to the term—the latter question at any +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page716" id="page716"></a>716</span> +rate it would be very difficult to answer; as to the former one, it +may be said that the coefficients may, for instance, be symbols of +operation. As regards such equations, there is certainly no proof +that every equation has a root, or that an equation of the nth order +has n roots; nor is it in any wise clear what the precise signification +of the statement is. But it is found that the assumption of the +existence of the n roots can be made without contradictory results; +conclusions derived from it, if they involve the roots, rest on the +same ground as the original assumption; but the conclusion may +be independent of the roots altogether, and in this case it is +undoubtedly valid; the reasoning, although actually conducted by +aid of the assumption (and, it may be, most easily and elegantly +in this manner), is really independent of the assumption. In illustration, +we observe that it is allowable to express a function of p and q +as follows,—that is, by means of a rational symmetrical function of +a and b, this can, as a fact, be expressed as a rational function of +a + b and ab; and if we prescribe that a + b and ab shall then be +changed into p and q respectively, we have the required function of +p, q. That is, we have F(α, β) as a representation of ƒ(p, q), obtained +as if we had p = a + b, q = ab, but without in any wise assuming the +existence of the a, b of these equations.</p> +</div> + +<p>12. Starting from the equation</p> + +<p class="center">x<span class="sp">n</span> − p<span class="su">1</span>x<span class="sp">n−1</span> + ... = x − a·x − b. &c.</p> + +<p class="noind">or the equivalent equations p<span class="su">1</span> = Σa, &c., we find</p> + +<p class="center">a<span class="sp">n</span> − p<span class="su">1</span>a<span class="sp">n−1</span> + ... = 0,<br /> +b<span class="sp">n</span> − p<span class="su">1</span>b<span class="sp">n−1</span> + ... = 0;<br /> +·   ·     ·<br /> +·   ·     ·<br /> +·   ·     ·</p> + +<p class="noind">(it is as satisfying these equations that a, b ... are said to be +the roots of x<span class="sp">n</span> − p<span class="su">1</span>x<span class="sp">n−1</span> + ... = 0); and conversely from the +last-mentioned equations, assuming that a, b ... are all different, +we deduce</p> + +<p class="center">p<span class="su">1</span> = Σa, p<span class="su">2</span> = Σab, &c.</p> + +<p class="noind">and</p> + +<p class="center">x<span class="sp">n</span> − p<span class="su">1</span>x<span class="sp">n−1</span> + ... = x − a·x − b. &c.</p> + +<p class="noind">Observe that if, for instance, a = b, then the equations +a<span class="sp">n</span> − p<span class="su">1</span>a<span class="sp">n−1</span> + ... = 0, b<span class="sp">n</span> − p<span class="su">1</span>b<span class="sp">n−1</span> + ... = 0 would reduce themselves +to a single relation, which would not of itself express +that a was a double root,—that is, that (x − a)² was a factor of +x<span class="sp">n</span> − p<span class="su">1</span>x<span class="sp">n−1</span> +, &c; but by considering b as the limit of a + h, +h indefinitely small, we obtain a second equation</p> + +<p class="center">na<span class="sp">n−1</span> − (n − 1) p<span class="su">1</span>a<span class="sp">n−2</span> + ... = 0,</p> + +<p class="noind">which, with the first, expresses that a is a double root; and then +the whole system of equations leads as before to the equations +p<span class="su">1</span> = Σa, &c. But the existence of a double root implies a certain +relation between the coefficients; the general case is when the +roots are all unequal.</p> + +<p>We have then the <i>theorem</i> that every rational symmetrical +function of the roots is a rational function of the coefficients. +This is an easy consequence from the less general theorem, every +rational and integral symmetrical function of the roots is a +rational and integral function of the coefficients.</p> + +<p>In particular, the sums of the powers Σa², Σa³, &c., are rational +and integral functions of the coefficients.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>The process originally employed for the expression of other functions +Σa<span class="sp">α</span>b<span class="sp">β</span>, &c., in terms of the coefficients is to make them depend upon +the sums of powers: for instance, Σa<span class="sp">α</span>b<span class="sp">β</span> = Σa<span class="sp">α</span>Σa<span class="sp">β</span> − Σa<span class="sp">α+β</span>; but +this is very objectionable; the true theory consists in showing that +we have systems of equations</p> + +<table class="ws" summary="Contents"> +<tr><td class="tcl">p<span class="su">1</span></td> <td class="tcl">= Σa,</td></tr> + +<tr><td class="tcl pt1">p<span class="su">2</span></td> <td class="tcl pt1">=     Σab,</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl">p<span class="su">1</span>²</td> <td class="tcl">= Σa² + 2Σab,</td></tr> + +<tr><td class="tcl pt1">p<span class="su">3</span></td> <td class="tcl pt1">=        Σabc,</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl">p<span class="su">1</span>p<span class="su">2</span></td> <td class="tcl">=     Σa²b + 3Σabc,</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl">p<span class="su">1</span>³</td> <td class="tcl">= Σa³ + 3Σa²b + 6Σabc,</td></tr> +</table> + +<p class="noind">where in each system there are precisely as many equations as there +are root-functions on the right-hand side—<i>e.g.</i> 3 equations and 3 +functions Σabc, Σa²b, Σa³. Hence in each system the root-functions +can be determined linearly in terms of the powers and products of +the coefficients:</p> + +<table class="ws" summary="Contents"> +<tr><td class="tcl">Σab</td> <td class="tcl">=     p<span class="su">2</span>,</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl">Σa²</td> <td class="tcl">= p<span class="su">1</span>² − 2p<span class="su">2</span>,</td></tr> + +<tr><td class="tcl pt1">Σabc</td> <td class="tcl pt1">=        p<span class="su">3</span>,</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl">Σa²b</td> <td class="tcl">=     p<span class="su">1</span>p<span class="su">2</span> − 3p<span class="su">3</span>,</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl">Σa³</td> <td class="tcl">= p<span class="su">1</span>³ − 3p<span class="su">1</span>p<span class="su">2</span> + 3p<span class="su">3</span>,</td></tr> +</table> + +<p class="noind">and so on. The other process, if applied consistently, would +derive the originally assumed value Σab = p<span class="su">2</span>, from the two equations +Σa = p, Σa² = p<span class="su">1</span>² − 2p<span class="su">2</span>; <i>i.e.</i> we have 2Σab = Σa·Σa − Σa²,= +p<span class="su">1</span>² − (p<span class="su">1</span>² − 2p<span class="su">2</span>), = 2p<span class="su">2</span>.</p> +</div> + +<p>13. It is convenient to mention here the theorem that, x +being determined as above by an equation of the order n, any +rational and integral function whatever of x, or more generally +any rational function which does not become infinite in virtue +of the equation itself, can be expressed as a rational and integral +function of x, of the order n − 1, the coefficients being rational +functions of the coefficients of the equation. Thus the equation +gives x<span class="sp">n</span> a function of the form in question; multiplying each +side by x, and on the right-hand side writing for x<span class="sp">n</span> its foregoing +value, we have x<span class="sp">n+1</span>, a function of the form in question; and the +like for any higher power of x, and therefore also for any rational +and integral function of x. The proof in the case of a rational +non-integral function is somewhat more complicated. The final +result is of the form φ(x)/ψ(x) = I(x), or say φ(x) − ψ(x)I(x) = 0, +where φ, ψ, I are rational and integral functions; in other words, +this equation, being true if only ƒ(x) = 0, can only be so by reason +that the left-hand side contains ƒ(x) as a factor, or we must have +identically φ(x) − ψ(x)I(x) = M(x)ƒ(x). And it is, moreover, clear +that the equation φ(x)/ψ(x) = I(x), being satisfied if only ƒ(x) = 0, +must be satisfied by each root of the equation.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>From the theorem that a rational symmetrical function of the roots +is expressible in terms of the coefficients, it at once follows that it is +possible to determine an equation (of an assignable order) having +for its roots the several values of any given (unsymmetrical) function +of the roots of the given equation. For example, in the case of a +quartic equation, roots (a, b, c, d), it is possible to find an equation +having the roots ab, ac, ad, bc, bd, cd (being therefore a sextic equation): +viz. in the product</p> + +<p class="center">(y − ab) (y − ac) (y − ad) (y − bc) (y − bd) (y − cd)</p> + +<p class="noind">the coefficients of the several powers of y will be symmetrical functions +of a, b, c, d and therefore rational and integral functions of the coefficients +of the quartic equation; hence, supposing the product so +expressed, and equating it to zero, we have the required sextic +equation. In the same manner can be found the sextic equation +having the roots (a − b)², (a − c)², (a − d)², (b − c)², (b − d)², (c − d)², which +is the equation of differences previously referred to; and similarly +we obtain the equation of differences for a given equation of any +order. Again, the equation sought for may be that having for its +n roots the given rational functions φ(a), φ(b), ... of the several +roots of the given equation. Any such rational function can (as +was shown) be expressed as a rational and integral function of the +order n − 1; and, retaining x in place of any one of the roots, the +problem is to find y from the equations x<span class="sp">n</span> − p<span class="su">1</span>x<span class="sp">n−1</span> ... = 0, and +y = M<span class="su">0</span>x<span class="sp">n−1</span> + M<span class="su">1</span>x<span class="sp">n−2</span> + ..., or, what is the same thing, from these +two equations to eliminate x. This is in fact E.W. Tschirnhausen’s +transformation (1683).</p> +</div> + +<p>14. In connexion with what precedes, the question arises as to +the number of values (obtained by permutations of the roots) of +given unsymmetrical functions of the roots, or say of a given set +of letters: for instance, with roots or letters (a, b, c, d) as before, +how many values are there of the function ab + cd, or better, +how many functions are there of this form? The answer is 3, +viz. ab + cd, ac + bd, ad + bc; or again we may ask whether, in +the case of a given number of letters, there exist functions with +a given number of values, 3-valued, 4-valued functions, &c.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>It is at once seen that for any given number of letters there exist +2-valued functions; the product of the differences of the letters is +such a function; however the letters are interchanged, it alters only +its sign; or say the two values are Δ and −Δ. And if P, Q are +symmetrical functions of the letters, then the general form of such +a function is P + QΔ; this has only the two values P + QΔ, P − QΔ.</p> + +<p>In the case of 4 letters there exist (as appears above) 3-valued +functions: but in the case of 5 letters there does not exist any 3-valued +or 4-valued function; and the only 5-valued functions are +those which are symmetrical in regard to four of the letters, and can +thus be expressed in terms of one letter and of symmetrical functions +of all the letters. These last theorems present themselves in the +demonstration of the non-existence of a solution of a quintic equation +by radicals.</p> +</div> + +<p>The theory is an extensive and important one, depending on +the notions of <i>substitutions</i> and of <i>groups</i> (<i>q.v.</i>).</p> + +<p>15. Returning to equations, we have the very important +theorem that, given the value of any unsymmetrical function of +the roots, <i>e.g.</i> in the case of a quartic equation, the function +ab + cd, it is in general possible to determine rationally the value +of any similar function, such as (a + b)³ + (c + d)³.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>The <i>a priori</i> ground of this theorem may be illustrated by means of +a numerical equation. Suppose that the roots of a quartic equation +are 1, 2, 3, 4, then if it is given that ab + cd = 14, this in effect determines +a, b to be 1, 2 and c, d to be 3, 4 (viz. a = 1, b = 2 or a = 2, b = 1, +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page717" id="page717"></a>717</span> +and c = 3, d = 4 or c = 3, d = 4) or else a, b to be 3, 4 and c, d to be 1, 2; +and it therefore in effect determines (a + b)³ + (c + d)³ to be = 370, +and not any other value; that is, (a + b)³ + (c + d)³, as having a +single value, must be determinable rationally. And we can in the +same way account for cases of failure as regards particular equations; +thus, the roots being 1, 2, 3, 4 as before, a²b = 2 determines a to be += 1 and b to be = 2, but if the roots had been 1, 2, 4, 16 then a²b = 16 +does not uniquely determine a, b but only makes them to be 1, 16 or +2, 4 respectively.</p> + +<p>As to the <i>a posteriori</i> proof, assume, for instance,</p> + +<p class="center">t<span class="su">1</span> = ab + cd,   y<span class="su">1</span> = (a + b)³ + (c + d)³,<br /> +t<span class="su">2</span> = ac + bd,   y<span class="su">2</span> = (a + c)³ + (b + d)³,<br /> +t<span class="su">3</span> = ad + bc,   y<span class="su">3</span> = (a + d)³ + (b + c)³;</p> + +<p class="noind">then y<span class="su">1</span> + y<span class="su">2</span> + y<span class="su">3</span>, t<span class="su">1</span>y<span class="su">1</span> + t<span class="su">2</span>y<span class="su">2</span> + t<span class="su">3</span>y<span class="su">3</span>, t<span class="su">1</span>²y<span class="su">1</span> + t<span class="su">2</span>²y<span class="su">2</span> + t<span class="su">3</span>²y<span class="su">3</span> will be respectively +symmetrical functions of the roots of the quartic, and therefore +rational and integral functions of the coefficients; that is, they +will be known.</p> + +<p>Suppose for a moment that t<span class="su">1</span>, t<span class="su">2</span>, t<span class="su">3</span> are all known; then the +equations being linear in y<span class="su">1</span>, y<span class="su">2</span>, y<span class="su">3</span> these can be expressed rationally +in terms of the coefficients and of t<span class="su">1</span>, t<span class="su">2</span>, t<span class="su">3</span>; that is, y<span class="su">1</span>, y<span class="su">2</span>, y<span class="su">3</span> will be +known. But observe further that y<span class="su">1</span> is obtained as a function of +t<span class="su">1</span>, t<span class="su">2</span>, t<span class="su">3</span> symmetrical as regards t<span class="su">2</span>, t<span class="su">3</span>; it can therefore be expressed +as a rational function of t<span class="su">1</span> and of t<span class="su">2</span> + t<span class="su">3</span>, t<span class="su">2</span>t<span class="su">3</span>, and thence as a rational +function of t<span class="su">1</span> and of t<span class="su">1</span> + t<span class="su">2</span> + t<span class="su">3</span>, t<span class="su">1</span>t<span class="su">2</span> + t<span class="su">1</span>t<span class="su">3</span> + t<span class="su">2</span>t<span class="su">3</span>, t<span class="su">1</span>t<span class="su">2</span>t<span class="su">3</span>; but these last are +symmetrical functions of the roots, and as such they are expressible +rationally in terms of the coefficients; that is, y<span class="su">1</span> will be expressed +as a rational function of t<span class="su">1</span> and of the coefficients; or t<span class="su">1</span> (alone, not +t<span class="su">2</span> or t<span class="su">3</span>) being known, y<span class="su">1</span> will be rationally determined.</p> +</div> + +<p>16. We now consider the question of the algebraical solution +of equations, or, more accurately, that of the <i>solution of equations +by radicals</i>.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>In the case of a quadric equation x² − px + q = 0, we can by the +assistance of the sign √( ) or ( )<span class="sp">1/2</span> find an expression for x as a +2-valued function of the coefficients p, q such that substituting +this value in the equation, the equation is thereby identically +satisfied; it has been found that this expression is</p> + +<p class="center">x = ½ {p ± √(p² − 4q) },</p> + +<p class="noind">and the equation is on this account said to be algebraically solvable, +or more accurately solvable by radicals. Or we may by writing +x = −½ p + z reduce the equation to z² = ¼ (p² − 4q), viz. to an equation +of the form x² = a; and in virtue of its being thus reducible we say +that the original equation is solvable by radicals. And the question +for an equation of any higher order, say of the order n, is, can we +by means of radicals (that is, by aid of the sign <span class="sp2">m</span>√( ) or ( )<span class="sp">1/m</span>, using +as many as we please of such signs and with any values of m) find +an n-valued function (or any function) of the coefficients which +substituted for x in the equation shall satisfy it identically?</p> + +<p>It will be observed that the coefficients p, q ... are not explicitly +considered as numbers, but even if they do denote numbers, the +question whether a numerical equation admits of solution by radicals +is wholly unconnected with the before-mentioned theorem of the +existence of the n roots of such an equation. It does not even +follow that in the case of a numerical equation solvable by radicals +the algebraical solution gives the numerical solution, but this requires +explanation. Consider first a numerical quadric equation with +imaginary coefficients. In the formula x = ½ {p ± √(p² − 4q) }, substituting +for p, q their given numerical values, we obtain for x an +expression of the form x = α + βi ± √(γ + δi), where α, β, γ, δ are +real numbers. This expression substituted for x in the quadric +equation would satisfy it identically, and it is thus an algebraical +solution; but there is no obvious <i>a priori</i> reason why √(γ + δi) +should have a value = c + di, where c and d are real numbers calculable +by the extraction of a root or roots of real numbers; however +the case is (what there was no <i>a priori</i> right to expect) that √(γ + δi) +has such a value calculable by means of the radical expressions +√{√(γ² + δ²) ± γ}; and hence the algebraical solution of a numerical +quadric equation does in every case give the numerical solution. The +case of a numerical cubic equation will be considered presently.</p> +</div> + +<p>17. A cubic equation can be solved by radicals.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>Taking for greater simplicity the cubic in the reduced form +x³ + qx − r = 0, and assuming x = a + b, this will be a solution if only +3ab = q and a³ + b³ = r, equations which give (a³ − b³)² = r² − <span class="spp">4</span>⁄<span class="suu">27</span> q³, a +quadric equation solvable by radicals, and giving a³ − b³ = √(r² − <span class="spp">4</span>⁄<span class="suu">27</span> q³), +a 2-valued function of the coefficients: combining this with a³ + b³ += r, we have a³ = ½ {r + √(r² − <span class="spp">4</span>⁄<span class="suu">27</span> q³) }, a 2-valued function: we then +have a by means of a cube root, viz.</p> + +<p class="center">a = <span class="sp2">3</span>√[½ {r + √(r² − <span class="spp">4</span>⁄<span class="suu">27</span> q³) }],</p> + +<p class="noind">a 6-valued function of the coefficients; but then, writing q = b/3a, we +have, as may be shown, a + b a 3-valued function of the coefficients; +and x = a + b is the required solution by radicals. It would have +been wrong to complete the solution by writing</p> + +<p class="center">b = <span class="sp2">3</span>√[½ {r − √(r² − <span class="spp">4</span>⁄<span class="suu">27</span> q³) } ],</p> + +<p class="noind">for then a + b would have been given as a 9-valued function having +only 3 of its values roots, and the other 6 values being irrelevant. +Observe that in this last process we make no use of the equation +3ab = q, in its original form, but use only the derived equation +27a³b³ = q³, implied in, but not implying, the original form.</p> + +<p>An interesting variation of the solution is to write x = ab(a + b), +giving a³b³ (a³ + b³) = r and 3a³b³ = q, or say a³ + b³ = 3r/q, a³b³ = <span class="spp">1</span>⁄<span class="suu">3</span> q; +and consequently</p> + +<table class="math0" summary="math"> +<tr><td rowspan="2">a³ =</td> <td><span class="spp">3</span>⁄<span class="suu">2</span></td> +<td rowspan="2">{r + √(r² − <span class="spp">4</span>⁄<span class="suu">27</span> q³) }, b³ =</td> <td><span class="spp">3</span>⁄<span class="suu">2</span></td> +<td rowspan="2">{r − √(r² − <span class="spp">4</span>⁄<span class="suu">27</span> q³) },</td></tr> +<tr><td class="denom">q</td> <td class="denom">q</td></tr></table> + +<p class="noind"><i>i.e.</i> here a³, b³ are each of them a 2-valued function, but as the only +effect of altering the sign of the quadric radical is to interchange +a³, b³, they may be regarded as each of them 1-valued; a and b +are each of them 3-valued (for observe that here only a³b³, not ab, +is given); and ab(a + b) thus is in appearance a 9-valued function; +but it can easily be shown that it is (as it ought to be) only 3-valued.</p> + +<p>In the case of a numerical cubic, even when the coefficients are real, +substituting their values in the expression</p> + +<p class="center">x = <span class="sp2">3</span>√[½ {r + √(r² − <span class="spp">4</span>⁄<span class="suu">27</span> q³) }] + <span class="spp">1</span>⁄<span class="suu">3</span> q ÷ <span class="sp2">3</span>√[½ {r + √(r² − <span class="spp">4</span>⁄<span class="suu">27</span> q³) }],</p> + +<p class="noind">this may depend on an expression of the form <span class="sp2">3</span>√(γ + δi) where +γ and δ are real numbers (it will do so if r² − <span class="spp">4</span>⁄<span class="suu">27</span> q³ is a negative number), +and then we <i>cannot</i> by the extraction of any root or roots of +real positive numbers reduce <span class="sp2">3</span>√(γ + δi) to the form c + di, c and d +real numbers; hence here the algebraical solution does not give the +numerical solution, and we have here the so-called “irreducible +case” of a cubic equation. By what precedes there is nothing in +this that might not have been expected; the algebraical solution +makes the solution depend on the extraction of the cube root of +a number, and there was no reason for expecting this to be a real +number. It is well known that the case in question is that wherein +the three roots of the numerical cubic equation are all real; if the +roots are two imaginary, one real, then contrariwise the quantity +under the cube root is real; and the algebraical solution gives +the numerical one.</p> + +<p>The irreducible case is solvable by a trigonometrical formula, but +this is not a solution by radicals: it consists in effect in reducing the +given numerical cubic (not to a cubic of the form z³ = a, solvable by +the extraction of a cube root, but) to a cubic of the form 4x³ − 3x = a, +corresponding to the equation 4 cos³ θ − 3 cos θ = cos 3θ which serves +to determine cosθ when cos 3θ is known. The theory is applicable +to an algebraical cubic equation; say that such an equation, if it +can be reduced to the form 4x³ − 3x = a, is solvable by “trisection”—then +the general cubic equation is solvable by trisection.</p> +</div> + +<p>18. A quartic equation is solvable by radicals, and it is to be +remarked that the existence of such a solution depends on the +existence of 3-valued functions such as ab + cd of the four roots +(a, b, c, d): by what precedes ab + cd is the root of a cubic +equation, which equation is solvable by radicals: hence ab + cd +can be found by radicals; and since abcd is a given function, ab +and cd can then be found by radicals. But by what precedes, +if ab be known then any similar function, say a + b, is obtainable +rationally; and then from the values of a + b and ab we may by +radicals obtain the value of a or b, that is, an expression for the +root of the given quartic equation: the expression ultimately +obtained is 4-valued, corresponding to the different values of the +several radicals which enter therein, and we have thus the expression +by radicals of each of the four roots of the quartic +equation. But when the quartic is numerical the same thing +happens as in the cubic, and the algebraical solution does not in +every case give the numerical one.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>It will be understood from the foregoing explanation as to the +quartic how in the next following case, that of the quintic, the question +of the solvability by radicals depends on the existence or non-existence +of k-valued functions of the five roots (a, b, c, d, e); the +fundamental theorem is the one already stated, a rational function +of five letters, if it has less than 5, cannot have more than 2 values, +that is, there are no 3-valued or 4-valued functions of 5 letters: and +by reasoning depending in part upon this theorem, N.H. Abel (1824) +showed that a general quintic equation is not solvable by radicals; +and <i>a fortiori</i> the general equation of any order higher than 5 is not +solvable by radicals.</p> + +<p>19. The general theory of the solvability of an equation by radicals +depends fundamentally on A.T. Vandermonde’s remark (1770) +that, supposing an equation is solvable by radicals, and that we have +therefore an algebraical expression of x in terms of the coefficients, +then substituting for the coefficients their values in terms of the roots, +the resulting expression must reduce itself to any one at pleasure of +the roots a, b, c ...; thus in the case of the quadric equation, in the +expression x = ½ {p + √(p² − 4q) }, substituting for p and q their values, +and observing that (a + b)² − 4ab = (a − b)², this becomes x = ½ {a + b + +√(a − b)²}, the value being a or b according as the radical is taken +to be +(a − b) or −(a − b).</p> + +<p>So in the cubic equation x³ − px² + qx − r = 0, if the roots are a, b, c, +and if ω is used to denote an imaginary cube root of unity, ω² + ω + +1 = 0, then writing for shortness p = a + b + c, L = a + ωb + ω²c, M = +a + ω²b + ωc, it is at once seen that LM, L³ + M³, and therefore also +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page718" id="page718"></a>718</span> +(L³ − M³)² are symmetrical functions of the roots, and consequently +rational functions of the coefficients; hence</p> + +<p class="center">½ {L³ + M³ + √(L³ − M³)²}</p> + +<p class="noind">is a rational function of the coefficients, which when these are +replaced by their values as functions of the roots becomes, according +to the sign given to the quadric radical, = L³ or M³; taking it = L³, +the cube root of the expression has the three values L, ωL, ω²L; +and LM divided by the same cube root has therefore the values +M, ω²M, ωM; whence finally the expression</p> + +<p class="center"><span class="spp">1</span>⁄<span class="suu">3</span> [p + <span class="sp2">3</span>√{½ (L³ + M³ + √(L³ − M³)²) } + LM ÷ <span class="sp2">3</span>√{½ L³ + M³ + √(L³ − M³)²) }]</p> + +<p class="noind">has the three values</p> + +<p class="center"><span class="spp">1</span>⁄<span class="suu">3</span> (p + L + M), <span class="spp">1</span>⁄<span class="suu">3</span> (p + ωL + ω²M), <span class="spp">1</span>⁄<span class="suu">3</span> (p + ω²L + ωM);</p> + +<p class="noind">that is, these are = a, b, c respectively. If the value M³ had been +taken instead of L³, then the expression would have had the same +three values a, b, c. Comparing the solution given for the cubic +x³ + qx − r = 0, it will readily be seen that the two solutions are +identical, and that the function r² − <span class="spp">4</span>⁄<span class="suu">27</span> q³ under the radical sign must +(by aid of the relation p = 0 which subsists in this case) reduce itself +to (L³ − M³)²; it is only by each radical being equal to a rational +function of the roots that the final expression <i>can</i> become equal to +the roots a, b, c respectively.</p> +</div> + +<p>20. The formulae for the cubic were obtained by J.L. Lagrange +(1770-1771) from a different point of view. Upon examining +and comparing the principal known methods for the solution of +algebraical equations, he found that they all ultimately depended +upon finding a “resolvent” equation of which the root is +a + ωb + ω²c + ω³d + ..., ω being an imaginary root of unity, +of the same order as the equation; <i>e.g.</i> for the cubic the root is +a + ωb + ω²c, ω an imaginary cube root of unity. Evidently the +method gives for L³ a quadric equation, which is the “resolvent” +equation in this particular case.</p> + +<p>For a quartic the formulae present themselves in a somewhat +different form, by reason that 4 is not a prime number. Attempting +to apply it to a quintic, we seek for the equation of which the +root is (a + ωb + ω²c + ω³d + ω<span class="sp">4</span>e), ω an imaginary fifth root of +unity, or rather the fifth power thereof (a + ωb + ω²c + ω³d + ω<span class="sp">4</span>e)<span class="sp">5</span>; +this is a 24-valued function, but if we consider the four values +corresponding to the roots of unity ω, ω², ω³, ω<span class="sp">4</span>, viz. the values</p> + +<table class="reg" summary="poem"><tr><td> <div class="poemr"> +<p>(a + ω b + ω²c + ω³d + ω<span class="sp">4</span>e)<span class="sp">5</span>,</p> +<p>(a + ω²b + ω<span class="sp">4</span>c + ω d + ω³e)<span class="sp">5</span>,</p> +<p>(a + ω³b + ω c + ω<span class="sp">4</span>d + ω²e)<span class="sp">5</span>,</p> +<p>(a + ω<span class="sp">4</span>b + ω³c + ω²d + ω e)<span class="sp">5</span>,</p> +</div> </td></tr></table> + +<p class="noind">any symmetrical function of these, for instance their sum, is a +6-valued function of the roots, and may therefore be determined +by means of a sextic equation, the coefficients whereof are rational +functions of the coefficients of the original quintic equation; the +conclusion being that the solution of an equation of the fifth order +is made to depend upon that of an equation of the sixth order. +This is, of course, useless for the solution of the quintic equation, +which, as already mentioned, does not admit of solution by +radicals; but the equation of the sixth order, Lagrange’s resolvent +sextic, is very important, and is intimately connected +with all the later investigations in the theory.</p> + +<p>21. It is to be remarked, in regard to the question of solvability +by radicals, that not only the coefficients are taken to +be arbitrary, but it is assumed that they are represented each +by a single letter, or say rather that they are not so expressed +in terms of other arbitrary quantities as to make a solution +possible. If the coefficients are not all arbitrary, for instance, +if some of them are zero, a sextic equation might be of the +form x<span class="sp">6</span> + bx<span class="sp">4</span> + cx² + d = 0, and so be solvable as a cubic; or +if the coefficients of the sextic are given functions of the six +arbitrary quantities a, b, c, d, e, f, such that the sextic is really +of the form (x² + ax + b)(x<span class="sp">4</span> + cx³ + dx² + ex + f) = 0, then it breaks +up into the equations x² + ax + b = 0, x<span class="sp">4</span> + cx³ + dx² + ex + f = 0, +and is consequently solvable by radicals; so also if the form +is (x − a) (x − b) (x − c) (x − d) (x − e) (x − f) = 0, then the equation +is solvable by radicals,—in this extreme case rationally. Such +cases of solvability are self-evident; but they are enough +to show that the general theorem of the non-solvability by +radicals of an equation of the fifth or any higher order does not +in any wise exclude for such orders the existence of particular +equations solvable by radicals, and there are, in fact, extensive +classes of equations which are thus solvable; the binomial +equations x<span class="sp">n</span> − 1 = 0 present an instance.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>22. It has already been shown how the several roots of the equation +x<span class="sp">n</span> − 1 = 0 can be expressed in the form cos 2sπ/n + i sin 2sπ/n, but the +question is now that of the algebraical solution (or solution by +radicals) of this equation. There is always a root = 1; if ω be any +other root, then obviously ω, ω², ... ω<span class="sp">n−1</span> are all of them roots; x<span class="sp">n</span> − 1 +contains the factor x − 1, and it thus appears that ω, ω², ... ω<span class="sp">n−1</span> are +the n-1 roots of the equation</p> + +<p class="center">x<span class="sp">n−1</span> + x<span class="sp">n−2</span> + ... x + 1 = 0;</p> + +<p class="noind">we have, of course, ω<span class="sp">n−1</span> + ω<span class="sp">n−2</span> + ... + ω + 1 = 0.</p> + +<p>It is proper to distinguish the cases n prime and n composite; +and in the latter case there is a distinction according as the prime +factors of n are simple or multiple. By way of illustration, suppose +successively n = 15 and n = 9; in the former case, if α be an imaginary +root of x³ − 1 = 0 (or root of x² + x + 1 = 0), and β an imaginary root +of x<span class="sp">5</span> − 1 = 0 (or root of x<span class="sp">4</span> + x³ + x² + x + 1 = 0), then ω may be taken += αβ; the successive powers thereof, αβ, α²β², β³, αβ<span class="sp">4</span>, α², β, αβ², +α²β³, β<span class="sp">4</span>, α, α²β, β², αβ³, α²β<span class="sp">4</span>, are the roots of x<span class="sp">14</span> + x<span class="sp">13</span> + ... + x + 1 = 0; +the solution thus depends on the solution of the equations x³ − 1 = 0 +and x<span class="sp">5</span> − 1 = 0. In the latter case, if α be an imaginary root of +x³ − 1 = 0 (or root of x² + x + 1 = 0), then the equation x<span class="sp">9</span> − 1 = 0 gives +x³ = 1, α, or α²; x³ = 1 gives x = 1, α, or α²; and the solution thus +depends on the solution of the equations x³ − 1 = 0, x³ − α = 0, x³ − α² = 0. +The first equation has the roots 1, α, α²; if β be a root of either of the +others, say if β³ = α, then assuming ω = β, the successive powers are +β, β², α, αβ, αβ², α², α²β, α²β², which are the roots of the equation +x<span class="sp">8</span> + x<span class="sp">7</span> + ... + x + 1 = 0.</p> + +<p>It thus appears that the only case which need be considered is that +of n a prime number, and writing (as is more usual) r in place of ω, +we have r, r², r³,...r<span class="sp">n−1</span> as the (n − 1) roots of the reduced equation</p> + +<p class="center">x<span class="sp">n−1</span> + x<span class="sp">n−2</span> + ... + x + 1 = 0;</p> + +<p class="noind">then not only r<span class="sp">n</span> − 1 = 0, but also r<span class="sp">n−1</span> + r<span class="sp">n−2</span> + ... + r + 1 = 0.</p> +</div> + +<p>23. The process of solution due to Karl Friedrich Gauss (1801) +depends essentially on the arrangement of the roots in a certain +order, viz. not as above, with the indices of r in arithmetical +progression, but with their indices in geometrical progression; +the prime number n has a certain number of prime roots g, +which are such that g<span class="sp">n−1</span> is the lowest power of g, which is ≡ 1 +to the modulus n; or, what is the same thing, that the series of +powers 1, g, g², ... g<span class="sp">n−2</span>, each divided by n, leave (in a different +order) the remainders 1, 2, 3, ... n − 1; hence giving to r in +succession the indices 1, g, g²,...g<span class="sp">n−2</span>, we have, in a different +order, the whole series of roots r, r², r³,...r<span class="sp">n−1</span>.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>In the most simple case, n = 5, the equation to be solved is x<span class="sp">4</span> + x³ + +x² + x + 1 = 0; here 2 is a prime root of 5, and the order of the roots +is r, r², r<span class="sp">4</span>, r³. The Gaussian process consists in forming an equation +for determining the periods P<span class="su">1</span>, P<span class="su">2</span>, = r + r<span class="sp">4</span> and r² + r³ respectively;—these +being such that the symmetrical functions P<span class="su">1</span> + P<span class="su">2</span>, P<span class="su">1</span>P<span class="su">2</span> are +rationally determinable: in fact P<span class="su">1</span> + P<span class="su">2</span> = −1, P<span class="su">1</span>P<span class="su">2</span> = (r + r<span class="sp">4</span>) (r² + r³), += r³ + r<span class="sp">4</span> + r<span class="sp">6</span> + r<span class="sp">7</span>, = r³ + r<span class="sp">4</span> + r + r², = −1. P<span class="su">1</span>, P<span class="su">2</span> are thus the roots +of u² + u − 1 = 0; and taking them to be known, they are themselves +broken up into subperiods, in the present case single terms, r and r<span class="sp">4</span> +for P<span class="su">1</span>, r² and r³ for P<span class="su">2</span>; the symmetrical functions of these are then +rationally determined in terms of P<span class="su">1</span> and P<span class="su">2</span>; thus r + r<span class="sp">4</span> = P<span class="su">1</span>, r·r<span class="sp">4</span> = 1, +or r, r<span class="sp">4</span> are the roots of u² − P<span class="su">1</span>u + 1 = 0. The mode of division is more +clearly seen for a larger value of n; thus, for n = 7 a prime root is += 3, and the arrangement of the roots is r, r³, r², r<span class="sp">6</span>, r<span class="sp">4</span>, r<span class="sp">5</span>. We may +form either 3 periods each of 2 terms, P<span class="su">1</span>, P<span class="su">2</span>, P<span class="su">3</span> = r + r<span class="sp">6</span>, r³ + r<span class="sp">4</span>, r² + r<span class="sp">5</span> +respectively; or else 2 periods each of 3 terms, P<span class="su">1</span>, P<span class="su">2</span> = r + r² + r<span class="sp">4</span>, +r³ + r<span class="sp">6</span> + r<span class="sp">5</span> respectively; in each ease the symmetrical functions of +the periods are rationally determinable: thus in the case of the two +periods P<span class="su">1</span> + P<span class="su">2</span> = −1, P<span class="su">1</span>P<span class="su">2</span> = 3 + r + r² + r³ + r<span class="sp">4</span> + r<span class="sp">5</span> + r<span class="sp">6</span>, = 2; and the +periods being known the symmetrical functions of the several terms +of each period are rationally determined in terms of the periods, thus +r + r² + r<span class="sp">4</span> = P<span class="su">1</span>, r·r² + r·r<span class="sp">4</span> + r²·r<span class="sp">4</span> = P<span class="su">2</span>, r·r²·r<span class="sp">4</span> = 1.</p> +</div> + +<p>The theory was further developed by Lagrange (1808), who, +applying his general process to the equation in question, x<span class="sp">n−1</span> + +x<span class="sp">n−2</span> + ... + x + 1 = 0 (the roots a, b, c... being the several powers +of r, the indices in geometrical progression as above), showed +that the function (a + ωb + ω²c + ...)<span class="sp">n−1</span> was in this case a given +function of ω with integer coefficients.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>Reverting to the before-mentioned particular equation x<span class="sp">4</span> + x³ + +x² + x + 1 = 0, it is very interesting to compare the process of solution +with that for the solution of the general quartic the roots whereof are +a, b, c, d.</p> + +<p>Take ω, a root of the equation ω<span class="sp">4</span> − 1 = 0 (whence ω is = 1, −1, i, +or −i, at pleasure), and consider the expression</p> + +<p class="center">(a + ωb + ω²c + ω³d)<span class="sp">4</span>,</p> + +<p class="noind">the developed value of this is</p> + +<table class="ws" summary="Contents"> +<tr><td class="tcl">=</td> <td class="tcl">a<span class="sp">4</span> + b<span class="sp">4</span> + c<span class="sp">4</span> + d<span class="sp">4</span> + 6 (a²c² + b²d²) + 12 (a²bd + b²ca + c²db + d²ac)</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl">+ω</td> <td class="tcl">{4 (a³b + b³c + c³ + d³a) + 12 (a²cd + b²da + c²ab + d²bc) }</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl">+ω²</td> <td class="tcl">{6 (a²b² + b²c² + c²d² + d²a²) + 4 (a³c + b³d + c³a + d³b) + 24abcd}</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl">+ω³</td> <td class="tcl">{4 (a³d + b³a + c³b + d³c) + 12 (a²bc + b²cd + c²da + d²ab) }</td></tr> +</table> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page719" id="page719"></a>719</span></p> + +<p class="noind">that is, this is a 6-valued function of a, b, c, d, the root of a sextic +(which is, in fact, solvable by radicals; but this is not here material).</p> + +<p>If, however, a, b, c, d denote the roots r, r², r<span class="sp">4</span>, r³ of the special +equation, then the expression becomes</p> + +<table class="ws" summary="Contents"> +<tr><td class="tcl">r<span class="sp">4</span></td> <td class="tcl">+ r³ + r + r² + 6 (1 + 1)</td> <td class="tcl">+ 12 (r² + r<span class="sp">4</span> + r³ + r)</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"> </td> <td class="tcl">+ ω {4 (1 + 1 + 1 + 1)</td> <td class="tcl">+ 12 (r<span class="sp">4</span> + r³ + r + r²) }</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"> </td> <td class="tcl">+ ω²{6 (r + r² + r<span class="sp">4</span> + r³)</td> <td class="tcl">+ 4 (r² + r<span class="sp">4</span> + r³ + r) }</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"> </td> <td class="tcl">+ ω³{4 (r + r² + r<span class="sp">4</span> + r³)</td> <td class="tcl">+ 12 (r³ + r + r² + r<span class="sp">4</span>) }</td></tr> +</table> + +<p class="noind">viz. this is</p> + +<p class="center">= −1 + 4ω + 14ω² − 16ω³,</p> + +<p class="noind">a completely determined value. That is, we have</p> + +<p class="center">(r + ωr² + ω²r<span class="sp">4</span> + ω³r³) = −1 + 4ω + 14ω² − 16ω³,</p> + +<p class="noind">which result contains the solution of the equation. If ω = 1, we have +(r + r² + r<span class="sp">4</span> + r³)<span class="sp">4</span> = 1, which is right; if ω = −1, then (r + r<span class="sp">4</span> − r² − r³)<span class="sp">4</span> = 25; +if ω = i, then we have {r − r<span class="sp">4</span> + i(r² − r³) }<span class="sp">4</span> = −15 + 20i; and if ω = −i, +then {r − r<span class="sp">4</span> − i (r² − r³) }<span class="sp">4</span> = −15 − 20i; the solution may be completed +without difficulty.</p> +</div> + +<p>The result is perfectly general, thus:—n being a prime number, +r a root of the equation x<span class="sp">n−1</span> + x<span class="sp">n−2</span> + ... + x + 1 = 0, ω a root of +ω<span class="sp">n−1</span> − 1 = 0, and g a prime root of g<span class="sp">n−1</span> ≡ 1 (mod. n), then</p> + +<p class="center">(r + ωr <span class="sp">g</span> + ... + ω<span class="sp">n − 2</span>r<span class="sp"> g <span class="f80">n−2</span></span>) <span class="sp">n−1</span></p> + +<p class="noind">is a given function M<span class="su">0</span> + M<span class="su">1</span>ω ... + M<span class="su">n−2</span>ω<span class="sp">n−2</span> with integer coefficients, +and by the extraction of (n − 1)th roots of this and +similar expressions we ultimately obtain r in terms of ω, which is +taken to be known; the equation x<span class="sp">n</span> − 1 = 0, n a prime number, +is thus solvable by radicals. In particular, if n − 1 be a power of 2, +the solution (by either process) requires the extraction of square +roots only; and it was thus that Gauss discovered that it was +possible to construct geometrically the regular polygons of 17 +sides and 257 sides respectively. Some interesting developments +in regard to the theory were obtained by C.G.J. Jacobi (1837); +see the memoir “Ueber die Kreistheilung, u.s.w.,” <i>Crelle</i>, t. xxx. +(1846).</p> + +<p>The equation x<span class="sp">n−1</span> + ... + x + 1 = 0 has been considered for its +own sake, but it also serves as a specimen of a class of equations +solvable by radicals, considered by N.H. Abel (1828), and since +called Abelian equations, viz. for the Abelian equation of the +order n, if x be any root, the roots are x, θx, θ²x, ... θ<span class="sp">n−1</span>x (θx +being a rational function of x, and θ<span class="sp">n</span>x = x); the theory is, in fact, +very analogous to that of the above particular case.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>A more general theorem obtained by Abel is as follows:—If the +roots of an equation of any order are connected together in such +wise that <i>all</i> the roots can be expressed rationally in terms of +any one of them, say x; if, moreover, θx, θ<span class="su">1</span>x being any two of the +roots, we have θθ<span class="su">1</span>x = θ<span class="su">1</span>θx, the equation will be solvable algebraically. +It is proper to refer also to Abel’s definition of an <i>irreducible</i> equation:—an +equation φx = 0, the coefficients of which are rational functions +of a certain number of known quantities a, b, c ..., is called irreducible +when it is impossible to express its roots by an equation of an inferior +degree, the coefficients of which are also rational functions of a, b, c ... +(or, what is the same thing, when φx does not break up into factors +which are rational functions of a, b, c ...). Abel applied his theory +to the equations which present themselves in the division of the +elliptic functions, but not to the modular equations.</p> +</div> + +<p>24. But the theory of the algebraical solution of equations +in its most complete form was established by Evariste Galois +(born October 1811, killed in a duel May 1832; see his collected +works, <i>Liouville</i>, t. xl., 1846). The definition of an irreducible +equation resembles Abel’s,—an equation is reducible when it +admits of a rational divisor, irreducible in the contrary case; +only the word <i>rational</i> is used in this extended sense that, in +connexion with the coefficients of the given equation, or with the +irrational quantities (if any) whereof these are composed, he +considers any number of other irrational quantities called +“adjoint radicals,” and he terms rational any rational function +of the coefficients (or the irrationals whereof they are composed) +and of these adjoint radicals; the epithet irreducible is thus taken +either absolutely or in a relative sense, according to the system of +adjoint radicals which are taken into account. For instance, +the equation x<span class="sp">4</span> + x³ + x² + x + 1 = 0; the left hand side has here +no rational divisor, and the equation is irreducible; but this +function is = (x² + ½ x + 1)² − <span class="spp">5</span>⁄<span class="suu">4</span> x², and it has thus the irrational +divisors x² + ½ (1 + √5)x + 1, x² + ½ (1 − √5)x + 1; and these, if +we <i>adjoin</i> the radical √5, are rational, and the equation is no +longer irreducible. In the case of a given equation, assumed to be +irreducible, the problem to solve the equation is, in fact, that of +finding radicals by the adjunction of which the equation becomes +reducible; for instance, the general quadric equation x² + px + +q = 0 is irreducible, but it becomes reducible, breaking up into +rational linear factors, when we adjoin the radical √(¼ p² − q).</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>The fundamental theorem is the Proposition I. of the “Mémoire +sur les conditions de résolubilité des équations par radicaux”; +viz. given an equation of which a, b, c ... are the m roots, there is +always a group of permutations of the letters a, b, c ... possessed +of the following properties:—</p> + +<p>1. Every function of the roots invariable by the substitutions +of the group is rationally known.</p> + +<p>2. Reciprocally every rationally determinable function of the +roots is invariable by the substitutions of the group.</p> + +<p>Here by an invariable function is meant not only a function of +which the form is invariable by the substitutions of the group, but +further, one of which the value is invariable by these substitutions: +for instance, if the equation be φ(x) = 0, then φ(x) is a function of the +roots invariable by any substitution whatever. And in saying that +a function is rationally known, it is meant that its value is expressible +rationally in terms of the coefficients and of the adjoint quantities.</p> + +<p>For instance in the case of a general equation, the group is simply +the system of the 1.2.3 ... n permutations of all the roots, since, +in this case, the only rationally determinable functions are the symmetric +functions of the roots.</p> + +<p>In the case of the equation x<span class="sp">n−1</span> ... + x + 1 = 0, n a prime number, +a, b, c ... k = r, r <span class="sp">g</span>, r <span class="sp">g²</span> ... r <span class="sp">g <span class="f80">n−2</span></span>, where g is a prime root of n, then the +group is the cyclical group abc ... k, bc ... ka, ... kab ... j, that is, +in this particular case the number of the permutations of the group +is equal to the order of the equation.</p> + +<p>This notion of the group of the original equation, or of the group of +the equation as varied by the adjunction of a series of radicals, seems +to be the fundamental one in Galois’s theory. But the problem of +solution by radicals, instead of being the sole object of the theory, +appears as the first link of a long chain of questions relating to the +transformation and classification of irrationals.</p> + +<p>Returning to the question of solution by radicals, it will be readily +understood that by the adjunction of a radical the group may be +diminished; for instance, in the case of the general cubic, where the +group is that of the six permutations, by the adjunction of the square +root which enters into the solution, the group is reduced to abc, +bca, cab; that is, it becomes possible to express rationally, in terms +of the coefficients and of the adjoint square root, any function such +as a²b + b²c + c²a which is not altered by the cyclical substitution +a into b, b into c, c into a. And hence, to determine whether an +equation of a given form is solvable by radicals, the course of investigation +is to inquire whether, by the successive adjunction of +radicals, it is possible to reduce the original group of the equation +so as to make it ultimately consist of a single permutation.</p> + +<p>The condition in order that an equation of a given prime order n +may be solvable by radicals was in this way obtained—in the first +instance in the form (scarcely intelligible without further explanation) +that every function of the roots x<span class="su">1</span>, x<span class="su">2</span> ... x<span class="su">n</span>, invariable by the +substitutions x<span class="su">ak + b</span> for x<span class="su">k</span>, must be rationally known; and then +in the equivalent form that the resolvent equation of the order +1.2 ... (n − 2) must have a rational root. In particular, the condition +in order that a quintic equation may be solvable is that Lagrange’s +resolvent of the order 6 may have a rational factor, a result obtained +from a direct investigation in a valuable memoir by E. Luther, +<i>Crelle</i>, t. xxxiv. (1847).</p> + +<p>Among other results demonstrated or announced by Galois may +be mentioned those relating to the modular equations in the theory +of elliptic functions; for the transformations of the orders 5, 7, 11, +the modular equations of the orders 6, 8, 12 are depressible to the +orders 5, 7, 11 respectively; but for the transformation, n a prime +number greater than 11, the depression is impossible.</p> + +<p>The general theory of Galois in regard to the solution of equations +was completed, and some of the demonstrations supplied by E. +Betti (1852). See also J.A. Serret’s <i>Cours d’algèbre supérieure</i>, 2nd +ed. (1854); 4th ed. (1877-1878).</p> +</div> + +<p>25. Returning to quintic equations, George Birch Jerrard +(1835) established the theorem that the general quintic equation +is by the extraction of only square and cubic roots reducible to +the form x<span class="sp">5</span> + ax + b = 0, or what is the same thing, to x<span class="sp">5</span> + x + b = 0. +The actual reduction by means of Tschirnhausen’s theorem was +effected by Charles Hermite in connexion with his elliptic-function +solution of the quintic equation (1858) in a very elegant +manner. It was shown by Sir James Cockle and Robert Harley +(1858-1859) in connexion with the Jerrardian form, and by +Arthur Cayley (1861), that Lagrange’s resolvent equation of the +sixth order can be replaced by a more simple sextic equation +occupying a like place in the theory.</p> + +<p>The theory of the modular equations, more particularly for the +case n = 5, has been studied by C. Hermite, L. Kronecker and +F. Brioschi. In the case n = 5, the modular equation of the order 6 +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page720" id="page720"></a>720</span> +depends, as already mentioned, on an equation of the order 5; +and conversely the general quintic equation may be made to +depend upon this modular equation of the order 6; that is, +assuming the solution of this modular equation, we can solve +(not by radicals) the general quintic equation; this is Hermite’s +solution of the general quintic equation by elliptic functions +(1858); it is analogous to the before-mentioned trigonometrical +solution of the cubic equation. The theory is reproduced and +developed in Brioschi’s memoir, “Über die Auflösung der +Gleichungen vom fünften Grade,” <i>Math. Annalen</i>, t. xiii. +(1877-1878).</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>26. The modern work, reproducing the theories of Galois, +and exhibiting the theory of algebraic equations as a whole, is C. +Jordan’s <i>Traité des substitutions et des équations algébriques</i> (Paris, +1870). The work is divided into four books—book i., preliminary, +relating to the theory of congruences; book ii. is in two chapters, +the first relating to substitutions in general, the second to substitutions +defined analytically, and chiefly to linear substitutions; book +iii. has four chapters, the first discussing the principles of the general +theory, the other three containing applications to algebra, geometry, +and the theory of transcendents; lastly, book iv., divided into seven +chapters, contains a determination of the general types of equations +solvable by radicals, and a complete system of classification of these +types. A glance through the index will show the vast extent which +the theory has assumed, and the form of general conclusions arrived +at; thus, in book iii., the algebraical applications comprise Abelian +equations, equations of Galois; the geometrical ones comprise Q. +Hesse’s equation, R.F.A. Clebsch’s equations, lines on a quartic +surface having a nodal line, singular points of E.E. Kummer’s +surface, lines on a cubic surface, problems of contact; the applications +to the theory of transcendents comprise circular functions, +elliptic functions (including division and the modular equation), +hyperelliptic functions, solution of equations by transcendents. +And on this last subject, solution of equations by transcendents, +we may quote the result—“the solution of the general equation of +an order superior to five cannot be made to depend upon that of the +equations for the division of the circular or elliptic functions”; +and again (but with a reference to a possible case of exception), +“the general equation cannot be solved by aid of the equations which +give the division of the hyperelliptic functions into an odd number +of parts.” (See also <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Groups, Theory of</a></span>.)</p> +<div class="author">(A. Ca.)</div> + +<p><span class="sc">Bibliography.</span>—For the general theory see W.S. Burnside and +A.W. Panton, <i>The Theory of Equations</i> (4th ed., 1899-1901); the +Galoisian theory is treated in G.B. Matthews, <i>Algebraic Equations</i> +(1907). See also the <i>Ency. d. math. Wiss.</i> vol. ii.</p> +</div> + +<hr class="foot" /> <div class="note"> + +<p><a name="ft1a" id="ft1a" href="#fa1a"><span class="fn">1</span></a> The coefficients were selected so that the roots might be nearly +1, 2, 3.</p> + +<p><a name="ft2a" id="ft2a" href="#fa2a"><span class="fn">2</span></a> The third edition (1826) is a reproduction of that of 1808; the +first edition has the date 1798, but a large part of the contents is +taken from memoirs of 1767-1768 and 1770-1771.</p> + +<p><a name="ft3a" id="ft3a" href="#fa3a"><span class="fn">3</span></a> The earlier demonstrations by Euler, Lagrange, &c, relate to the +case of a numerical equation with real coefficients; and they consist +in showing that such equation has always a real quadratic divisor, furnishing +two roots, which are either real or else conjugate imaginaries +α + βi (see Lagrange’s <i>Équations numériques</i>).</p> + +<p><a name="ft4a" id="ft4a" href="#fa4a"><span class="fn">4</span></a> The square root of α + βi can be determined by the extraction of +square roots of positive real numbers, without the trigonometrical +tables.</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">EQUATION OF THE CENTRE,<a name="ar2" id="ar2"></a></span> in astronomy, the angular +distance, measured around the centre of motion, by which a +planet moving in an ellipse deviates from the mean position which +it would occupy if it moved uniformly. Its amount is the correction +which must be applied positively or negatively to the mean +anomaly in order to obtain the true anomaly. It arises from the +ellipticity of the orbit, is zero at pericentre and apocentre, and +reaches its greatest amount nearly midway between these points. +(See <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Anomaly</a></span> and <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Orbit</a></span>.)</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">EQUATION OF TIME,<a name="ar3" id="ar3"></a></span> the difference between apparent time, +determined by the meridian passage of the real sun, and mean +time, determined by the passage of the mean sun. It goes +through a double period in the course of a year. Its amount +varies a fraction of a minute for the same date, from year to year +and from one longitude to another, on the same day. The following +table shows an average value for any date and for the Greenwich +meridian for a number of years, from which the actual +value will seldom deviate more than 20 seconds until after 1950. +The + sign indicates that the real sun reaches the meridian <i>after</i> +mean noon; the − sign <i>before</i> mean noon.</p> + +<p class="pt2 center"><i>Table of the Equation of Time.</i></p> + +<table class="ws" summary="Contents"> +<tr><td class="tcr" colspan="3">m.</td> <td class="tcr">s.</td> <td class="tcr" colspan="3">m.</td> <td class="tcr">s.</td> <td class="tcr" colspan="3">m.</td> <td class="tcr">s.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcc" rowspan="6">Jan.</td> <td class="tcr">1</td> <td class="tcr">+3</td> <td class="tcr">26</td> <td class="tcc" rowspan="6">Mar.</td> <td class="tcr">1</td> <td class="tcr">+12</td> <td class="tcr">39</td> <td class="tcc" rowspan="6">May</td> <td class="tcr">1</td> <td class="tcr">−2</td> <td class="tcr">55</td></tr> + <tr><td class="tcr">6</td> <td class="tcr">5</td> <td class="tcr">45</td> <td class="tcr">6</td> <td class="tcr">11</td> <td class="tcr">35</td> <td class="tcr">6</td> <td class="tcr">−3</td> <td class="tcr">27</td></tr> + <tr><td class="tcr">11</td> <td class="tcr">7</td> <td class="tcr">51</td> <td class="tcr">11</td> <td class="tcr">10</td> <td class="tcr">20</td> <td class="tcr">11</td> <td class="tcr">−3</td> <td class="tcr">46</td></tr> + <tr><td class="tcr">16</td> <td class="tcr">9</td> <td class="tcr">43</td> <td class="tcr">16</td> <td class="tcr">8</td> <td class="tcr">58</td> <td class="tcr">16</td> <td class="tcr">−3</td> <td class="tcr">51</td></tr> + <tr><td class="tcr">21</td> <td class="tcr">11</td> <td class="tcr">19</td> <td class="tcr">21</td> <td class="tcr">7</td> <td class="tcr">30</td> <td class="tcr">21</td> <td class="tcr">−3</td> <td class="tcr">40</td></tr> + <tr><td class="tcr">26</td> <td class="tcr">12</td> <td class="tcr">36</td> <td class="tcr">26</td> <td class="tcr">5</td> <td class="tcr">59</td> <td class="tcr">26</td> <td class="tcr">−3</td> <td class="tcr">16</td></tr> + +<tr><td class="tcc pt1" rowspan="6">Feb.</td> <td class="tcr pt1">1</td> <td class="tcr pt1">+13</td> <td class="tcr pt1">42</td> <td class="tcc pt1" rowspan="6">Apr.</td> <td class="tcr pt1">1</td> <td class="tcr pt1">+4</td> <td class="tcr pt1">9</td> <td class="tcc pt1" rowspan="6">June</td> <td class="tcr pt1">1</td> <td class="tcr pt1">−2</td> <td class="tcr pt1">32</td></tr> + <tr><td class="tcr">6</td> <td class="tcr">14</td> <td class="tcr">14</td> <td class="tcr">6</td> <td class="tcr">2</td> <td class="tcr">40</td> <td class="tcr">6</td> <td class="tcr">−1</td> <td class="tcr">44</td></tr> + <tr><td class="tcr">11</td> <td class="tcr">14</td> <td class="tcr">25</td> <td class="tcr">11</td> <td class="tcr">+1</td> <td class="tcr">15</td> <td class="tcr">11</td> <td class="tcr">−0</td> <td class="tcr">48</td></tr> + <tr><td class="tcr">16</td> <td class="tcr">14</td> <td class="tcr">17</td> <td class="tcr">16</td> <td class="tcr">−0</td> <td class="tcr">3</td> <td class="tcr">16</td> <td class="tcr">+0</td> <td class="tcr">14</td></tr> + <tr><td class="tcr">21</td> <td class="tcr">13</td> <td class="tcr">52</td> <td class="tcr">21</td> <td class="tcr">−1</td> <td class="tcr">12</td> <td class="tcr">21</td> <td class="tcr">1</td> <td class="tcr">19</td></tr> + <tr><td class="tcr">26</td> <td class="tcr">13</td> <td class="tcr">11</td> <td class="tcr">26</td> <td class="tcr">−2</td> <td class="tcr">10</td> <td class="tcr">26</td> <td class="tcr">2</td> <td class="tcr">24</td></tr> + +<tr><td class="tcc pt1" rowspan="6">July</td> <td class="tcr pt1">1</td> <td class="tcr pt1">+3</td> <td class="tcr pt1">26</td> <td class="tcc pt1" rowspan="6">Sept.</td> <td class="tcr pt1">1</td> <td class="tcr pt1">+0</td> <td class="tcr pt1">9</td> <td class="tcc pt1" rowspan="6">Nov.</td> <td class="tcr pt1">1</td> <td class="tcr pt1">−16</td> <td class="tcr pt1">18</td></tr> + <tr><td class="tcr">6</td> <td class="tcr">4</td> <td class="tcr">21</td> <td class="tcr">6</td> <td class="tcr">−1</td> <td class="tcr">28</td> <td class="tcr">6</td> <td class="tcr">−16</td> <td class="tcr">19</td></tr> + <tr><td class="tcr">11</td> <td class="tcr">5</td> <td class="tcr">8</td> <td class="tcr">11</td> <td class="tcr">−3</td> <td class="tcr">10</td> <td class="tcr">11</td> <td class="tcr">−15</td> <td class="tcr">58</td></tr> + <tr><td class="tcr">16</td> <td class="tcr">5</td> <td class="tcr">44</td> <td class="tcr">16</td> <td class="tcr">−4</td> <td class="tcr">55</td> <td class="tcr">16</td> <td class="tcr">−15</td> <td class="tcr">15</td></tr> + <tr><td class="tcr">21</td> <td class="tcr">6</td> <td class="tcr">8</td> <td class="tcr">21</td> <td class="tcr">−6</td> <td class="tcr">41</td> <td class="tcr">21</td> <td class="tcr">−14</td> <td class="tcr">12</td></tr> + <tr><td class="tcr">26</td> <td class="tcr">6</td> <td class="tcr">18</td> <td class="tcr">26</td> <td class="tcr">−8</td> <td class="tcr">25</td> <td class="tcr">26</td> <td class="tcr">−12</td> <td class="tcr">49</td></tr> + +<tr><td class="tcc pt1" rowspan="6">Aug.</td> <td class="tcr pt1">1</td> <td class="tcr pt1">+6</td> <td class="tcr pt1">10</td> <td class="tcc pt1" rowspan="6">Oct.</td> <td class="tcr pt1">1</td> <td class="tcr pt1">−10</td> <td class="tcr pt1">5</td> <td class="tcc pt1" rowspan="6">Dec.</td> <td class="tcr pt1">1</td> <td class="tcr pt1">−11</td> <td class="tcr pt1">7</td></tr> + <tr><td class="tcr">6</td> <td class="tcr">5</td> <td class="tcr">47</td> <td class="tcr">6</td> <td class="tcr">−11</td> <td class="tcr">38</td> <td class="tcr">6</td> <td class="tcr">−9</td> <td class="tcr">9</td></tr> + <tr><td class="tcr">11</td> <td class="tcr">5</td> <td class="tcr">9</td> <td class="tcr">11</td> <td class="tcr">−13</td> <td class="tcr">2</td> <td class="tcr">11</td> <td class="tcr">−6</td> <td class="tcr">57</td></tr> + <tr><td class="tcr">16</td> <td class="tcr">4</td> <td class="tcr">17</td> <td class="tcr">16</td> <td class="tcr">−14</td> <td class="tcr">14</td> <td class="tcr">16</td> <td class="tcr">−4</td> <td class="tcr">35</td></tr> + <tr><td class="tcr">21</td> <td class="tcr">3</td> <td class="tcr">12</td> <td class="tcr">21</td> <td class="tcr">−15</td> <td class="tcr">11</td> <td class="tcr">21</td> <td class="tcr">−2</td> <td class="tcr">7</td></tr> + <tr><td class="tcr">26</td> <td class="tcr">1</td> <td class="tcr">55</td> <td class="tcr">26</td> <td class="tcr">−15</td> <td class="tcr">52</td> <td class="tcr">26</td> <td class="tcr">+0</td> <td class="tcr">23</td></tr> +</table> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">EQUATOR<a name="ar4" id="ar4"></a></span> (Late Lat. <i>aequator</i>, from <i>aequare</i>, to make equal), +in geography, that great circle of the earth, equidistant from the +two poles, which divides the northern from the southern hemisphere +and lies in a plane perpendicular to the axis of the earth; +this is termed the “geographical” or “terrestrial equator.” +In astronomy, the “celestial equator” is the name given to the +great circle in which the plane of the terrestrial equator intersects +the celestial sphere; it is consequently equidistant from the +celestial poles. The “magnetic equator” is an imaginary line +encircling the earth, along which the vertical component of the +earth’s magnetic force is zero; it nearly coincides with the +terrestrial equator.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">EQUERRY<a name="ar5" id="ar5"></a></span> (from the Fr. <i>écurie</i>, a stable, through its older form +<i>escurie</i>, from the Med. Lat. <i>scuria</i>, a word of Teutonic origin for +a stable or shed, cf. Ger. <i>Scheuer</i>; the modern spelling has confused +the word with the Lat. <i>equus</i>, a horse), a contracted form +of “gentleman of the equerry,” an officer in charge of the stables +of a royal household. At the British court, equerries are officers +attached to the department of the master of the horse, the first +of whom is called chief equerry (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Household</a></span>, <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Royal</a></span>).</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">EQUIDAE,<a name="ar6" id="ar6"></a></span> the family of perissodactyle ungulate mammals +typified by the horse (<i>Equus caballus</i>); see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Horse</a></span>. According +to the older classification this family was taken to include only +the forms with tall-crowned teeth, more or less closely allied to +the typical genus <i>Equus</i>. There is, however, such an almost +complete graduation from the former to earlier and more primitive +mammals with short-crowned cheek-teeth, at one time +included in the family <i>Lophiodontidae</i> (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Perissodactyla</a></span>), +that it has now become a very general practice to include the +whole “phylum” in the family <i>Equidae</i>. The <i>Equidae</i>, in this +extended sense, together with the extinct <i>Palaeotheriidae</i>, are +indeed now regarded as forming one of four main groups into +which the Perissodactyla are divided, the other groups being +the Tapiroidea, Rhinocerotoidea and Titanotheriide. For the +horse-group the name Hippoidea is employed. All four groups +were closely connected in the Lower Eocene, so that exact +definition is almost impossible.</p> + +<p>In the Hippoidea there is generally the full series of 44 teeth, +but the first premolar is often deciduous or wanting in the lower +or in both jaws. The incisors are chisel-shaped, and the canines +tend to become isolated so as in the now specialized forms to +occupy nearly the middle of a longer or shorter gap between the +incisors and premolars. In the upper molars the two outer +columns of the primitive tubercular molar coalesce to form an +outer wall, from which proceed two crescentic transverse crests; +the connexion between the crests and the wall being imperfect or +slight, and the crests themselves sometimes tubercular. Each +of the lower molars carries two crescentic ridges. The number of +toes ranges from four to one in the fore-foot, and from three to +one in the hind-foot. The paroccipital, postglenoid and post-tympanic +processes of the skull are large, and the latter always +distinct. Normally there are no traces of horn-cores. The +calcaneum lacks the facet for the fibula found in the Titanotheroidea.</p> + +<p>In the earlier <i>Equidae</i> the teeth were short-crowned, with +the premolars simpler than the molars; but there is a gradual +tendency to an increase in the height of the crowns of the teeth, +accompanied by increasing complexity of structure and the +filling up of the hollows with cement. Similarly the gap on each +side of the canine tooth in each jaw continues to increase in +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page721" id="page721"></a>721</span> +length; while in all the later forms the orbit is surrounded by a +ring of bone. A third modification is the increasing length of +limb (as well as in general bodily size), accompanied by a gradual +reduction in the number of toes from three or four to one.</p> + +<table class="flt" style="float: right; width: 310px;" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figright1"><img style="width:256px; height:293px" src="images/img721a.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption1"><span class="sc">Fig. 1.</span>—<i>a</i>, Side view of second +upper molar tooth of <i>Anchitherium</i> +(brachyodont form); <i>b</i>, corresponding +tooth of horse (hypsidont +form).</td></tr></table> + +<p>All the existing members of the family, such as the domesticated +horse (<i>Equus caballus</i>) and its wild or half-wild relatives, the +asses and the zebras, are included +in the typical genus. +In all these the crowns of +the cheek-teeth are very tall +(fig. 1, <i>b</i>) and only develop +roots late in life; while their +grinding-surfaces (fig. 2, <i>b</i> and +<i>c</i>) are very complicated and +have all the hollows filled +with cement. The summits of +the incisors are infolded, producing, +when partially worn, +the “mark.” In the skull the +orbit is surrounded by bone, +and there is no distinct depression +in front of the same. +Each limb terminates in one +large toe; the lateral digits +being represented by the +splint-bones, corresponding to +the lateral metacarpals and metatarsals of <i>Hipparion</i>. Not +unfrequently, however, the lower ends of the splint-bones carry +a small expansion, representing the phalanges.</p> + +<p>Remains of horses indistinguishable from <i>E. caballus</i> occur +in the Pleistocene deposits of Europe and Asia; and it is from +them that the dun-coloured small horses of northern Europe +and Asia are probably derived. The ancestor of these Pleistocene +horses is probably <i>E. stenonis</i>, of the Upper Pliocene of Europe, +which has a small depression in front of the orbit, while the skull +is relatively larger, the feet are rather shorter, and the splint-bones +somewhat more developed. In India a nearly allied +species (<i>E. sivalensis</i>), occurs in the Lower Pliocene, and may +have been the ancestor of the Arab stock, which shows traces of +the depression in front of the orbit characteristic of the earlier +forms. In North America species of <i>Equus</i> occur in the Pleistocene +and from that continent others reached South America during +the same epoch. In the latter country occurs <i>Hippidium</i>, in +which the cheek-teeth are shorter and simpler, and the nasal +bones very long and slender, with elongated slits at the side. +The limbs, especially the cannon-bones, are relatively short, and +the splint-bones large. The allied Argentine <i>Onohippidium</i>, +which is also Pleistocene, has still longer nasal bones and slits, +and a deep double cavity in front of the orbit, part of which +probably contained a gland. <i>Onohippidium</i> is certainly off the +direct line of descent of the modern horses, and, on account of +the length of the nasals and their slits, the same probably holds +good for <i>Hippidium</i>.</p> + +<table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:517px; height:177px" src="images/img721b.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl f90"><span class="sc">Fig. 2.</span>—<i>a</i>, Grinding surface of unworn right upper molar tooth +of <i>Anchitherium</i>; <i>b</i>, corresponding surface of unworn molar of young +horse; <i>c</i>, the same tooth after it has been some time in use. The +uncoloured portions are the dentine or ivory, the shaded parts the +cement filling the cavities and surrounding the exterior. The black +line separating these two structures is the enamel or hardest constituent +of the tooth.</td></tr></table> + +<p class="pt2">Species from the Pliocene of Texas and the Upper Miocene +(Loup Fork) of Oregon were at one time assigned to <i>Hippidium</i>, +but this is incorrect, that genus being exclusively South American. +The name <i>Pliohippus</i> has been applied to species from the same +two formations on the supposition that the foot-structure was +similar to that of <i>Hippidium</i>, but Mr J.W. Gidley is of opinion +that the lateral digits may have been fully developed.</p> + +<p>Apparently there is here some gap in the line of descent of the +horse, and it may be suggested that the evolution took place, +not as commonly supposed, in North America, but in eastern +central Asia, of which the palaeontology is practically unknown; +some support is given to this theory by the fact that the earliest +species with which we are acquainted occur in northern India.</p> + +<table class="pic" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figcenter" colspan="2"><img style="width:430px; height:247px" src="images/img721c.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption" colspan="2"><span class="sc">Fig.</span> 3.—Successive stages of modification of the left fore-feet of +extinct forms of horse-like animals, showing gradual reduction of +the outer and enlargement of the middle toe (III).</td></tr> + +<tr><td class="f90" style="width: 50%; vertical-align: top;"> +<p>     <i>a</i>, <i>Hyracotherium</i> (Eocene).</p> +<p>     <i>b</i>, <i>Mesohippus</i> (Oligocene).</p> +<p>     <i>c</i>, <i>Anchitherium</i> (Miocene).</p></td> + +<td class="f90" style="width: 50%; vertical-align: top;"> +<p><i>d</i>, <i>Hipparion</i> (Pliocene).</p> +<p><i>e</i>, <i>Equus</i> (Pleistocene).</p></td></tr></table> + +<p class="pt2">Be this as it may, the next North American representatives +of the family constitute the genera <i>Protohippus</i> and <i>Merychippus</i> +of the Miocene, in both of which the lateral digits are fully +developed and terminate in small though perfect hoofs. In +both the cheek-teeth have moderately tall crowns, and in the +first named of the two those of the milk-series are nearly similar +to their permanent successors. In <i>Merychippus</i>, on the other +hand, the milk-molars have short crowns, without any cement +in the hollows, thus resembling the permanent molars of the +under-mentioned genus <i>Anchitherium</i>. From the well-known +<i>Hipparion</i>, or <i>Hippotherium</i>, typically from the Lower Pliocene +of Europe, but also occurring in the corresponding formation +in North Africa, Persia, India and China, and represented in +the Upper Miocene Loup Fork beds of the United States by species +which it has been proposed to separate generically as <i>Neohipparion</i>, +we reach small horses which are now generally +regarded as a lateral offshoot from the <i>Merychippus</i> type. The +cheek-teeth, which have crowns of moderate height, differ from +those of all the foregoing in that the postero-internal pillar +(the projection on the right-hand top corner of <i>c</i> in fig. 2) is +isolated in place of being attached by a narrow neck to the +adjacent crescent. The skull, which is relatively short, has a +large depression in front of the orbit, commonly supposed to +have contained a gland, but this may be doubtful. In the typical, +and also in the North American forms these were complete, +although small, lateral toes in both feet (fig. 3, <i>d</i>), but it is possible +that in <i>H. antilopinum</i> of India the lateral toes had disappeared. +If this be so, we have the development of a monodactyle foot in +this genus independently of <i>Equus</i>.</p> + +<p>The foregoing genera constitute the subfamily <i>Equinae</i>, or +the <i>Equidae</i> as restricted by the older writers. In all the dentition +is of the hypsodont type, with the hollows of the cheek-teeth +filled by cement, the premolars molariform, and the first small +and generally deciduous. The orbit is surrounded by a bony +ring; the ulna and radius in the fore, and the tibia and fibula +in the hind-limb are united, and the feet are of the types described +above. Between this subfamily and the second subfamily, +<i>Hyracotheriinae</i>, a partial connexion is formed by the North +American Upper Miocene genera <i>Desmatippus</i> and <i>Anchippus</i> +or <i>Parahippus</i>. The characteristics of the group will be gathered +from the remarks on the leading genera; but it may be mentioned +that the orbit is open behind, the cheek-teeth are short-crowned +and without cement (fig. 1, <i>a</i>), the gap between the canine and +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page722" id="page722"></a>722</span> +the outermost incisor is short, the bones of the middle part of +the leg are separate, and there are at least three toes to each foot.</p> + +<p>The longest-known genus and the one containing the largest +species is <i>Anchitherium</i>, typically from the Middle Miocene of +Europe, but also represented by one species from the Upper +Miocene of North America. The European <i>A. aurelianense</i> +was of the size of an ordinary donkey. The cheek-teeth are of +the type shown in <i>a</i> of figs. 1 and 2; the premolars, with the +exception of the small first one, being molar-like; and the lateral +toes (fig. 3, <i>c</i>) were to some extent functional. The summits of +the incisors were infolded to a small extent. Nearly allied is +the American <i>Mesohippus</i>, ranging from the Lower Miocene +to the Lower Oligocene of the United States, of which the earliest +species stood only about 18 in. at the shoulder. The incisors +were scarcely, if at all, infolded, and there is a rudiment of the +fifth metacarpal (fig. 3, <i>b</i>). By some writers all the species of +<i>Mesohippus</i> are included in the genus <i>Miohippus</i>, but others +consider that the two genera are distinct.</p> + +<p><i>Mesohippus</i> and <i>Miohippus</i> are connected with the earliest +and most primitive mammal which it is possible to include in +the family <i>Equidae</i> by means of <i>Epihippus</i> of the Uinta or Upper +Eocene of North America, and <i>Pachynolophus</i>, or <i>Orohippus</i>, +of the Middle and Lower Eocene of both halves of the northern +hemisphere. The final stage, or rather the initial stage, in the +series is presented by <i>Hyracotherium</i> (<i>Protorohippus</i>), a mammal +no larger than a fox, common to the Lower Eocene of Europe +and North America. The general characteristics of this progenitor +of the horses are those given above as distinctive of the +group. The cheek-teeth are, however, much simpler than those +of <i>Anchitherium</i>; the transverse crests of the upper molars not +being fully connected with the outer wall, while the premolars +in the upper jaw are triangular, and thus unlike the molars. +The incisors are small and the canines scarcely enlarged; the +latter having a gap on each side in the lower, but only one on +their hinder aspect in the upper jaw. The fore-feet have four +complete toes (fig. 3, <i>a</i>), but there are only three hind-toes, with +a rudiment of the fifth metatarsal. The vertebrae are simpler +in structure than in <i>Equus</i>. From <i>Hyracotherium</i>, which is +closely related to the Eocene representatives of the ancestral +stocks of the other three branches of the Perissodactyla, the +transition is easy to <i>Phenacodus</i>, the representative of the common +ancestor of all the Ungulata.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See also H.F. Osborn, “New Oligocene Horses,” <i>Bull. Amer. +Mus.</i> vol. xx. p. 167 (1904); J.W. Gidley, <i>Proper Generic Names +of Miocene Horses</i>, p. 191; and the article <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Palaeontology</a></span>.</p> +</div> +<div class="author">(R. L.*)</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">EQUILIBRIUM<a name="ar7" id="ar7"></a></span> (from the Lat. <i>aequus</i>, equal, and <i>libra</i>, a +balance), a condition of equal balance between opposite or +counteracting forces. By the “sense of equilibrium” is meant +the sense, or sensations, by which we have a feeling of security +in standing, walking, and indeed in all the movements by which +the body is carried through space. Such a feeling of security +is necessary both for maintaining any posture, such as standing, +or for performing any movement. If this feeling is absent or +uncertain, or if there are contradictory sensations, then definite +muscular movements are inefficiently or irregularly performed, +and the body may stagger or fall. When we stand erect on a +firm surface, like a floor, there is a feeling of resistance, due to +nervous impulses reaching the brain from the soles of the feet +and from the muscles of the limbs and trunk. In walking or +running, these feelings of resistance seem to precede and guide +the muscular movements necessary for the next step. If these +are absent or perverted or deficient, as is the case in the disease +known as locomotor ataxia, then, although there is no loss of the +power of voluntary movement, the patient staggers in walking, +especially if he is not allowed to look at his feet, or if he is blind-folded. +He misses the guiding sensations that come from the +limbs; and with a feeling that he is walking on a soft substance, +offering little or no resistance, he staggers, and his muscular +movements become irregular. Such a condition maybe artificially +brought about by washing the soles of the feet with chloroform +or ether. And it has been observed to exist partially after +extensive destruction of the skin of the soles of the feet by burns +or scalds. This shows that tactile impulses from the skin take +a share in generating the guiding sensation. In the disease +above mentioned, however, tactile impressions may be nearly +normal, but the guiding sensation is weak and inefficient, owing +to the absence of impulses from the muscles. The disease is +known to depend on morbid changes in the posterior columns of +the spinal cord, by which impulses are not freely transmitted +upwards to the brain. These facts point to the existence of +impulses coming from the muscles and tendons. It is now +known that there exist peculiar spindles, in muscle, and rosettes +or coils or loops of nerve fibres in close proximity to tendons. +These are the end organs of the sense. The transmission of +impulses gives rise to the <i>muscular sense</i>, and the guiding sensation +which precedes co-ordinated muscular movements depends +on these impulses. Thus from the limbs streams of nervous +impulses pass to the sensorium from the skin and from muscles +and tendons; these may or may not arouse consciousness, but +they guide or evoke muscular movements of a co-ordinated +character, more especially of the limbs.</p> + +<p>In animals whose limbs are not adapted for delicate touch nor +for the performance of complicated movements, such as some +mammals and birds and fishes, the guiding sensations depend +largely on the sense of vision. This sense in man, instead of +assisting, sometimes disturbs the guiding sensation. It is true +that in locomotor ataxia visual sensations may take the place +of the tactile and muscular sensations that are inefficient, and +the man can walk without staggering if he is allowed to look at +the floor, and especially if he is guided by transverse straight +lines. On the other hand, the acrobat on the wire-rope dare not +trust his visual sensations in the maintenance of his equilibrium. +He keeps his eyes fixed on one point instead of allowing them to +wander to objects below him, and his muscular movements are +regulated by the impulses that come from the skin and muscles +of his limbs. The feeling of insecurity probably arises from a +conception of height, and also from the knowledge that by no +muscular movements can a man avoid a catastrophe if he should +fall. A bird, on the other hand, depends largely on visual +impressions, and it knows by experience that if launched into +the air from a height it can fly. Here, probably, is an explanation +of the large size of the eyes of birds. Cover the head, as in hooding +a falcon, and the bird seems to be deprived of the power +of voluntary movement. Little effect will be produced if we +attempt to restrain the movements of a cat by covering its eyes. +A fish also is deprived of the power of motion if its eyes are +covered. But both in the bird and in the fish tactile and muscular +impressions, especially the latter, come into play in the mechanism +of equilibrium. In flight the large-winged birds, especially in +soaring, can feel the most delicate wind-pressures, both as +regards direction and force, and they adapt the position of their +body so as to catch the pressure at the most efficient angle. +The same is true of the fish, especially of the flat-fishes. In +mammals the sense of equilibrium depends, then, on streams +of tactile, muscular and visual impressions pouring in on the +sensorium, and calling forth appropriate muscular movements. +It has also been suggested that impulses coming from the abdominal +viscera may take part in the mechanism. The presence +in the mesentery of felines (cats, &c.) of large numbers of Pacinian +corpuscles, which are believed to be modified tactile bodies, +favours this supposition. Such animals are remarkable for the +delicacy of such muscular movements, as balancing and leaping.</p> + +<p>There is another channel by which nervous impulses reach the +sensorium and play their part in the sense of equilibrium, namely, +from the semicircular canals, a portion of the internal ear. It is +pointed out in the article <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Hearing</a></span> that the appreciation of sound +is in reality an appreciation of variations of pressure. The +labyrinth consists of the vestibule, the cochlea and the semicircular +canals. The cochlea receives the sound-waves (variations +of pressure) that constitute musical tones. This it accomplishes +by the structures in the ductus cochlearis. In the vestibule +we find two sacs, the saccule next to and communicating +with the ductus cochlearis, and the utricle communicating with +the semicircular canals. The base of the stapes communicates +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page723" id="page723"></a>723</span> +pressures to the utricle. The membranous portion of the semicircular +canals consists of a tube, dilated at one end into a +swelling or pouch, termed the ampulla, and each end communicates +freely with the utricle. On the posterior wall of both +the saccule and of the utricle there is a ridge, termed in each case +the macula acustica, bearing a highly specialized epithelium. +A similar structure exists in each ampulla. This would suggest +that all three structures have to do with hearing; but, on the +other hand, there is experimental evidence that the utricle +and the canals may transmit impressions that have to do with +equilibrium. Pressure of the base of the stapes is exerted on +the utricle. This will compress the fluid in that cavity, and tend +to drive the fluid into the semicircular canals that communicate +with that cavity by five openings. Each canal is surrounded +by a thin layer of perilymph, so that it may yield a little to this +pressure, and exert a pull or pressure on the nerve-endings in +each ampulla. Thus impulses may be generated in the nerves +of the ampullae.</p> + +<p>The three semicircular canals lie in the three directions in +space, and it has been suggested that they have to do with our +appreciation of the direction of sound. But our appreciation of +sound is very inaccurate: we look with the eyes for the source +of a sound, and instinctively direct the ears or the head, or both, +in the direction from which the sound appears to proceed. But +the relationship of the canals on the two sides must have a +physiological significance. Thus (1) the six canals are parallel, +two and two; or (2) the two horizontal canals are in the same +plane, while the superior canal on one side is nearly parallel with +the posterior canal of the other. These facts point to the two +sets of canals and ampullae acting as one organ, in a manner +analogous to the action of two retinae for single vision.</p> + +<p>We have next to consider how the canals may possibly act in +connexion with the sense of equilibrium. In 1820 J. Purkinje +studied the vertigo that follows rapid rotation of the body in the +erect position on a vertical axis. On stopping the rotation there +is a sense of rotation in the opposite direction, and this may +occur even when the eyes are closed. Purkinje noticed that the +position of the imaginary axis of rotation depends on the axis +around which the head revolves. In 1828 M.J.P. Flourens +discovered that injury to the canals causes disturbance to the +equilibrium and loss of co-ordination, and that sections of the +canals produce a rotatory movement of a kind corresponding +to the canal that had been divided. Thus division of a membranous +canal causes rotatory movements round an axis at right +angles to the plane of the divided canal. The body of the animal +always moves in the direction of the cut canal. Many other +observers have corroborated these experiments. F. Goltz was +the first who formulated the conditions necessary for equilibration. +He put the matter thus:—(1) A central co-ordinating +organ—in the brain; (2) centripetal fibres, with their peripheral +terminations—in the ampullae; and (3) centrifugal fibres, with +their terminal organs—in the muscular mechanisms. A lesion of +any one of these portions of the mechanism causes loss or impairment +of balancing. Cyon also investigated the subject, and +concluded:—(1) To maintain equilibrium, we must have an +accurate notion of the position of the head in space; (2) the +function of the semicircular canals is to communicate impressions +that give a representation of this position—each canal having a +relation to one of the dimensions of space; (3) disturbance of +equilibrium follows section; (4) involuntary movements following +section are due to abnormal excitations; (5) abnormal +movements occurring a few days after the operation are caused +by irritation of the cerebellum.</p> + +<p>On theoretical considerations of a physical character, E. Mach, +Crum-Brown and Breuer have advanced theories based on the +idea of the canals being organs for sensations of acceleration of +movement, or for the sense of rotation. Mach first pointed out +that Purkinje’s phenomena, already alluded to, were in all +probability related to the semicircular canals. “He showed +that when the body is moved in space, in a straight line, we are +not conscious of the velocity of motion, but of variations in this +velocity. Similarly, if a body is rotated round a vertical axis, +we perceive only angular acceleration and not angular velocity. +The sensations produced by angular acceleration last longer +than the acceleration itself, and the position of the head during +the movements enables us to determine direction.” Both Mach +and Goltz state that varying pressures of the fluid in the canals +produced by angular rotation produce sensations of movement +(always in a direction opposite to the rotation of the body), +and that these, in turn, cause the vertigo of Purkinje and the +phenomena of Flourens. Mach, Crum-Brown and Breuer advance +hydrodynamical theories in which they assume that the +fluids move in the canals. Goltz, on the other hand, supports a +hydrostatical theory in which he assumes that the phenomena +can be accounted for by varying pressures. Crum-Brown differs +from Mach and Breuer as follows:—(1) In attributing movement +or variation of pressure not merely to the endolymph, but also to +the walls of the membranous canals and to the surrounding +perilymph; and (2) in regarding the two labyrinths as one +organ, all the six canals being required to form a true conception +of the rotating motion of the head. He sums up the matter +thus: “We have two ways in which a relative motion can occur +between the endolymph and the walls of the cavity containing +it—(1) When the head begins to move, here the walls leave +the fluid behind; (2) when the head stops, here the fluid flows +on. In both cases the sensation of rotation is felt. In the first +this sensation corresponds to a real rotation, in the second it +does not, but in both it corresponds to a real acceleration (positive +or negative) of rotation, using the word acceleration in its +technical kinematical sense.”</p> + +<p>Cyon states that the semicircular canals only indirectly assist +in giving a notion of spatial relations. “He holds that knowledge +of the position of bodies in space depends on nervous impulses +coming from the contracting ocular muscles; that the oculomotor +centres are in intimate physiological relationship with the +centres receiving impulses from the nerves of the semicircular +canals; and that the oculomotor centres, thus excited, produce +the movements of the eyeballs, which then determine our notions +of spatial relations.” These views are supported by experiments +of Lee on dog-fish. When the fish is rotated round different +axes there are compensating movements of the eyes and fins. +“It was observed that if the fish were rotated in the plane of +one of the canals, exactly the same movements of the eyes and +fins occurred as were produced by experimental operation and +stimulation of the ampulla of that canal.” Sewall, in 1883, +carried out experiments on young sharks and skates with negative +results. Lee returned to the subject in 1894, and, after numerous +experiments on dog-fish, in which the canals or the auditory +nerves were divided, obtained evidence that the ampullae contain +sense-organs connected with the sense of equilibrium.</p> + +<p>It has been found by physicians and aurists that disease or +injury of the canals, occurring rapidly, produces giddiness, +staggering, nystagmus (a peculiar twitching movement of the +muscles of the eyeballs), vomiting, noises in the ear and more or +less deafness. It is said, however, that if pathological changes +come on slowly, so that the canals and vestibule are converted +into a solid mass, none of these symptoms may occur. On the +whole, the evidence is in favour of the view that from the semicircular +canals nervous impulses are transmitted, which, co-ordinated +with impulses coming from the visual organs, from the +muscles and from the skin, form the bases of these guiding +sensations on which the sense of equilibrium depends. These +impulses may not reach the level of consciousness, but they +call into action co-ordinated mechanisms by which complicated +muscular movements are effected.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>Full bibliographical references are given in the article on “The +Ear” by J.G. McKendrick, in Schäfer’s <i>Textbook of Physiology</i>, +vol. ii. p. 1194.</p> +</div> +<div class="author">(J. G. M.)</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">EQUINOX<a name="ar8" id="ar8"></a></span> (from the Lat. <i>aequus</i>, equal, and <i>nox</i>, night), a +term used to express either the moment at which, or the point at +which, the sun apparently crosses the celestial equator. Since +the sun moves in the ecliptic, it is in the last-named sense the +point of intersection of the ecliptic and the celestial equator. +This is the usual meaning of the term in astronomy. There are +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page724" id="page724"></a>724</span> +two such points, opposite each other, at one of which the sun +crosses the equator toward the north and at the other toward the +south. They are called vernal and autumnal respectively, from +the relation of the corresponding times to the seasons of the +northern hemisphere. The line of the equinoxes is the imaginary +diameter of the celestial sphere which joins them.</p> + +<p>The vernal equinox is the initial point from which the right +ascensions and the longitudes of the heavenly bodies are measured +(see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Astronomy</a></span>: <i>Spherical</i>). It is affected by the motions of +Precession and Nutation, of which the former has been known +since the time of Hipparchus. The actual equinox is defined by +first taking the conception of a fictitious point called the Mean +Equinox, which moves at a nearly uniform rate, slow varying, +however, from century to century. The true equinox then moves +around the mean equinox in a period equal to that of the moon’s +nodes. These two motions are defined with greater detail in the +articles <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Precession of the Equinoxes</a></span> and <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Nutation</a></span>.</p> + +<p><i>Equinoctial Gales</i>.—At the time of the equinox it is commonly +believed that strong gales may be expected. This popular idea +has no foundation in fact, for continued observations have failed +to show any unusual prevalence of gales at this season. In one +case observations taken for fifty years show that during the five +days from the 21st to the 25th of March and September, there +were fewer gales and storms than during the preceding and +succeeding five days.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">EQUITES<a name="ar9" id="ar9"></a></span> (“horsemen” or “knights,” from <i>equus</i>, “horse”), +in Roman history, originally a division of the army, but subsequently +a distinct political order, which under the empire +resumed its military character. According to the traditional +account, Romulus instituted a cavalry corps, consisting of three +<i>centuriae</i> (“hundreds”), called after the three tribes from +which they were taken (Ramnes, Tities, Luceres), divided into +ten <i>turmae</i> (“squadrons”) of thirty men each. The collective +name for the corps was <i>celeres</i> (“the swift,” or possibly from +<span class="grk" title="kelês">κέλης</span>, “a riding horse”); Livy, however, restricts the term to +a special body-guard of Romulus. The statements in ancient +authorities as to the changes in the number of the equites +during the regal period are very confusing; but it is regarded as +certain that Servius Tuillus found six centuries in existence, to +which he added twelve, making eighteen in all, a number which +remained unchanged throughout the republican period. A +proposal by M. Porcius Cato the elder to supplement the deficiency +in the cavalry by the creation of four additional centuries +was not adopted. The earlier centuries were called <i>sex suffragia</i> +(“the six votes”), and at first consisted exclusively of patricians, +while those of Servius Tullius were entirely or for the most part +plebeian. Until the reform of the comitia centuriata (probably +during the censorship of Gaius Flaminius in 220 <span class="scs">B.C.</span>; see +<span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Comitia</a></span>), the equites had voted first, but after that time this +privilege was transferred to one century selected by lot from the +centuries of the equites and the first class. The equites then +voted with the first class, the distinction between the <i>sex suffragia</i> +and the other centuries being abolished.</p> + +<p>Although the equites were selected from the wealthiest +citizens, service in the cavalry was so expensive that the state +gave financial assistance. A sum of money (<i>aes equestre</i>) was +given to each eques for the purchase of two horses (one for himself +and one for his groom), and a further sum for their keep +(<i>aes hordearium</i>); hence the name <i>equites equo publico</i>. In later +times, pay was substituted for the <i>aes hordearium</i>, three times as +much as that of the infantry. If competent, an eques could retain +his horse and vote after the expiration of his ten years’ service, +and (till 129 <span class="scs">B.C.</span>) even after entry into the senate.</p> + +<p>As the demands upon the services of the cavalry increased, +it was decided to supplement the regulars by the enrolment of +wealthy citizens who kept horses of their own. The origin of +these <i>equites equo privato</i> dates back, according to Livy (v. 7), +to the siege of Veii, when a number of young men came forward +and offered their services. According to Mommsen, although the +institution was not intended to be permanent, in later times +vacancies in the ranks were filled in this manner, with the result +that service in the cavalry, with either a public or a private +horse, became obligatory upon all Roman citizens possessed of a +certain income. These <i>equites equo privato</i> had no vote in the +centuries, received pay in place of the <i>aes equestre</i>, and did not +form a distinct corps.</p> + +<p>Thus, at a comparatively early period, three classes of equites +may be distinguished: (<i>a</i>) The patrician equites <i>equo publico</i> of +the <i>sex suffragia</i>; (<i>b</i>) the plebeian equites in the twelve remaining +centuries; (<i>c</i>) the equites <i>equo privato</i>, both patrician and +plebeian.</p> + +<p>The equites were originally chosen by the curiae, then in succession +by the kings, the consuls, and (after 443 <span class="scs">B.C.</span>) by the +censors, by whom they were reviewed every five years in the +Forum. Each eques, as his name was called out, passed before +the censors, leading his horse. Those whose physique and +character were satisfactory, and who had taken care of their +horses and equipments, were bidden to lead their horse on +(<i>traducere equum</i>), those who failed to pass the scrutiny were +ordered to sell it, in token of their expulsion from the corps. +This inspection (<i>recognitio</i>) must not be confounded with the +full-dress procession (<i>transvectio</i>) on the 15th of July from the +temple of Mars or Honos to the Capitol, instituted in 304 <span class="scs">B.C.</span> by +the censor Q. Fabius Maximus Rullianus to commemorate the +miraculous intervention of Castor and Pollux at the battle of +Lake Regillus. Both inspection and procession were discontinued +before the end of the republic, but revived and in a manner +combined by Augustus.</p> + +<p>In theory, the twelve plebeian centuries were open to all freeborn +youths of the age of seventeen, although in practice preference +was given to the members of the older families. Other +requirements were sound health, high moral character and an +honourable calling. At the beginning of the republican period, +senators were included in the equestrian centuries. The only +definite information as to the amount of fortune necessary refers +to later republican and early imperial times, when it is known +to have been 400,000 sesterces (about £3500 to £4000). The +insignia of the equites were, at first, distinctly military—such +as the purple-edged, short military cloak (<i>trabea</i>) and decorations +for service in the field.</p> + +<p>With the extension of the Roman dominions, the equites lost +their military character. Prolonged service abroad possessed +little attraction for the pick of the Roman youth, and recruiting +for the cavalry from the equestrian centuries was discontinued. +The equites remained at home, or only went out as members +of the general’s staff, their places being taken by the <i>equites +equo privato</i>, the cavalry of the allies and the most skilled horsemen +of the subject populations. The first gradually disappeared, +and Roman citizens were rarely found in the ranks of the effective +cavalry. In these circumstances there grew up in Rome a class +of wealthy men, whose sole occupation it was to amass large +fortunes by speculation, and who found a most lucrative field of +enterprise in state contracts and the farming of the public +revenues. These tax-farmers (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Publicani</a></span>) were already in +existence at the time of the Second Punic War; and their numbers +and influence increased as the various provinces were added to +the Roman dominions. The change of the equites into a body +of financiers was further materially promoted (<i>a</i>) by the lex +Claudia (218 <span class="scs">B.C.</span>), which prohibited senators from engaging in +commercial pursuits, especially if (as seems probable) it included +public contracts (cf. <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Flaminius, Gaius</a></span>); (<i>b</i>) by the enactment +in the time of Gaius Gracchus excluding members of the senate +from the equestrian centuries. These two measures definitely +marked off the aristocracy of birth from the aristocracy of wealth—the +landed proprietor from the capitalist. The term equites, +originally confined to the purely military equestrian centuries +of Servius Tullius, now came to be applied to all who possessed +the property qualification of 400,000 sesterces.</p> + +<p>As the equites practically monopolized the farming of the +taxes, they came to be regarded as identical with the <i>publicani</i>, +not, as Pliny remarks, because any particular rank was necessary +to obtain the farming of the taxes, but because such occupation +was beyond the reach of all except those who were possessed +of considerable means. Thus, at the time of the Gracchi, these +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page725" id="page725"></a>725</span> +<i>equites-publicani</i> formed a close financial corporation of about +30,000 members, holding an intermediate position between the +nobility and the lower classes, keenly alive to their own interests, +and ready to stand by one another when attacked. Although +to some extent looked down upon by the senate as following +a dishonourable occupation, they had as a rule sided with the +latter, as being at least less hostile to them than the democratic +party. To obtain the support of the capitalists, Gaius Gracchus +conceived the plan of creating friction between them and the +senate, which he carried out by handing over to them the +control (<i>a</i>) of the jury-courts, and (<i>b</i>) of the revenues of Asia.</p> + +<p>(<i>a</i>) Hitherto, the list of jurymen for service in the majority +of processes, both civil and criminal, had been composed exclusively +of senators. The result was that charges of corruption +and extortion failed, when brought against members of that +order, even in cases where there was little doubt of their guilt. +The popular indignation at such scandalous miscarriages of +justice rendered a change in the composition of the courts +imperative. Apparently Gracchus at first proposed to create +new senators from the equites and to select the jurymen from +this mixed body, but this moderate proposal was rejected in +favour of one more radical (see W.W. Fowler in <i>Classical +Review</i>, July 1896). By the lex Sempronia (123 <span class="scs">B.C.</span>) the list +was to be drawn from persons of free birth over thirty years of +age, who must possess the equestrian census, and must not be +senators. Although this measure was bound to set senators +and equites at variance, it in no way improved the lot of those +chiefly concerned. In fact, it increased the burden of the luckless +provincials, whose only appeal lay to a body of men whose +interests were identical with those of the <i>publicani</i>. Provided +he left the tax-gatherer alone, the governor might squeeze +what he could out of the people, while on the other hand, if he +were humanely disposed, it was dangerous for him to remonstrate.</p> + +<p>(<i>b</i>) The taxes of Asia had formerly been paid by the inhabitants +themselves in the shape of a fixed sum. Gracchus ordered that +the taxes, direct and indirect, should be increased, and that the +farming of them should be put up to auction at Rome. By this +arrangement the provincials were ignored, and everything was +left in the hands of the capitalists.</p> + +<p>From this time dates the existence of the equestrian order +as an officially recognized political instrument. When the control +of the courts passed into the hands of the property equites, all +who were summoned to undertake the duties of judices were +called equites; the <i>ordo judicum</i> (the official title) and the <i>ordo +equester</i> were regarded as identical. It is probable that certain +privileges of the equites were due to Gracchus; that of wearing +the gold ring, hitherto reserved for senators; that of special +seats in the theatre, subsequently withdrawn (probably by Sulla) +and restored by the lex Othonis (67 <span class="scs">B.C.</span>); the narrow band of +purple on the tunic as distinguished from the broad band worn +by the senators.</p> + +<p>Various attempts were made by the senate to regain control +of the courts, but without success. The lex Livia of M. Livius +Drusus (<i>q.v.</i>), passed with that object, but irregularly and by the +aid of violence, was annulled by the senate itself. In 82 Sulla +restored the right of serving as judices to the senate, to which +he elevated 300 of the most influential equites, whose support +he thus hoped to secure; at the same time he indirectly dealt +a blow at the order generally, by abolishing the office of the +censor (immediately revived), in whom was vested the right +of bestowing the public horse. To this period Mommsen assigns +the regulation, generally attributed to Augustus, that the sons +of senators should be knights by right of birth. By the lex +Aurelia (70 <span class="scs">B.C.</span>) the judices were to be chosen in equal numbers +from senators, equites and tribuni aerarii (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Aerarium</a></span>), (the +last-named being closely connected with the equites), who thus +practically commanded a majority. About this time the influence +of the equestrian order reached its height, and Cicero’s great +object was to reconcile it with the senate. In this he was +successful at the time of the Catilinarian conspiracy, in the +suppression of which he was materially aided by the equites. +But the union did not last long; shortly afterwards the majority +ranged themselves on the side of Julius Caesar, who did away +with the tribuni aerarii as judices, and replaced them by equites.</p> + +<p>Augustus undertook the thorough reorganization of the +equestrian order on a military basis. The <i>equites equo privato</i> +were abolished (according to Herzog, not till the reign of +Tiberius) and the term equites was officially limited to the +<i>equites equo publico</i>, although all who possessed the property +qualification were still considered to belong to the “equestrian +order.” For the <i>equites equo publico</i> high moral character, good +health and the equestrian fortune were necessary. Although +free birth was considered indispensable, the right of wearing +the gold ring (<i>jus anuli aurei</i>) was frequently bestowed by the +emperor upon freedmen, who thereby became <i>ingenui</i> and eligible +as equites. Tiberius, however, insisted upon free birth on the +father’s side to the third generation. Extreme youth was no +bar; the emperor Marcus Aurelius had been an eques at the age +of six. The sons of senators were eligible by right of birth, and +appear to have been known as <i>equites illustres</i>. The right of +bestowing the <i>equus publicus</i> was vested in the emperor; once +given, it was for life, and was only forfeitable through degradation +for some offence or the loss of the equestrian fortune.</p> + +<p>Augustus divided the equites into six <i>turmae</i> (regarded by +Hirschfeld as a continuation of the <i>sex suffragia</i>). Each was +under the command of a <i>sevir</i> (<span class="grk" title="hilarchos">ἴλαρχος</span>), who was appointed +by the emperor and changed every year. During their term of +command the <i>seviri</i> had to exhibit games (<i>ludi sevirales</i>). Under +these officers the equites formed a kind of corporation, which, +although not officially recognized, had the right of passing +resolutions, chiefly such as embodied acts of homage to the +imperial house. It is not known whether the <i>turmae</i> contained +a fixed number of equites; there is no doubt that, in assigning +the public horse, Augustus went far beyond the earlier figure +of 1800. Thus, Dionysius of Halicarnassus mentions 5000 equites +as taking part in a review at which he himself was present.</p> + +<p>As before, the equites wore the narrow, purple-striped tunic, +and the gold ring, the latter now being considered the distinctive +badge of knighthood. The fourteen rows in the theatre were +extended by Augustus to seats in the circus.</p> + +<p>The old <i>recognitio</i> was replaced by the <i>probatio</i>, conducted +by the emperor in his censorial capacity, assisted by an advisory +board of specially selected senators. The ceremony was combined +with a procession, which, like the earlier <i>transvectio</i>, took place +on the 15th of July, and at such other times as the emperor +pleased. As in earlier times, offenders were punished by expulsion.</p> + +<p>In order to provide a supply of competent officers, each eques +was required to fill certain subordinate posts, called <i>militiae +equestres</i>. These were (1) the command of an auxiliary cohort; +(2) the tribunate of a legion; (3) the command of an auxiliary +cavalry squadron, this order being as a rule strictly adhered to. +To these Septimius Severus added the centurionship. Nomination +to the <i>militiae equestres</i> was in the hands of the emperor. +After the completion of their preliminary military service, the +equites were eligible for a number of civil posts, chiefly those with +which the emperor himself was closely concerned. Such were +various procuratorships; the prefectures of the corn supply, +of the fleet, of the watch, of the praetorian guards; the governorships +of recently acquired provinces (Egypt, Noricum), the others +being reserved for senators. At the same time, the abolition +of the indirect method of collecting the taxes in the provinces +greatly reduced the political influence of the equites. Certain +religious functions of minor importance were also reserved for +them. In the jury courts, the equites, thanks to Julius Caesar, +already formed two-thirds of the judices; Augustus, by excluding +the senators altogether, virtually gave them the sole control +of the tribunals. One of the chief objects of the emperors being +to weaken the influence of the senate by the opposition of the +equestrian order, the practice was adopted of elevating those +equites who had reached a certain stage in their career to the +rank of senator by <i>adlectio</i>. Certain official posts, of which it +would have been inadvisable to deprive senators, could thus be +bestowed upon the promoted equites.</p> + +<p>The control of the imperial correspondence and purse was +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page726" id="page726"></a>726</span> +at first in the hands of freedmen and slaves. The emperor +Claudius tentatively entrusted certain posts connected with +these to the equites; in the time of Hadrian this became the +regular custom. Thus a civil career was open to the equites +without the obligation of preliminary military service, and the +emperor was freed from the pernicious influence of freedmen. +After the reign of Marcus Aurelius (according to Mommsen) +the equites were divided into: (<i>a</i>) <i>viri eminentissimi</i>, the prefects +of the praetorian guard; (<i>b</i>) <i>viri perfectissimi</i>, the other prefects +and the heads of the financial and secretarial departments; (<i>c</i>) +<i>viri egregii</i>, first mentioned in the reign of Antoninus Pius, a +title by right of the procurators generally.</p> + +<p>Under the empire the power of the equites was at its highest +in the time of Diocletian; in consequence of the transference +of the capital to Constantinople, they sank to the position of a +mere city guard, under the control of the prefect of the watch. +Their history may be said to end with the reign of Constantine +the Great.</p> + +<p>Mention may also be made of the <i>equites singulares Augusti</i>. +The body-guard of Augustus, consisting of foreign soldiers +(chiefly Germans and Batavians), abolished by Galba, was +revived from the time of Trajan or Hadrian under the above +title. It was chiefly recruited from the pick of the provincial +cavalry, but contained some Roman citizens. It formed the +imperial “Swiss guard,” and never left the city except to +accompany the emperor. In the time of Severus, these equites +were divided into two corps, each of which had its separate +quarters, and was commanded by a tribune under the orders of +the prefect of the praetorian guard. They were subsequently +replaced by the <i>protectores Augusti</i>.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See further article <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Rome</a></span>: <i>History</i>; also T. Mommsen, <i>Römisches +Staatsrecht</i>, iii.; J.N. Madvig, <i>Die Verfassung des römischen Staates</i>, i.; +R. Cagnat in Daremberg and Saglio’s <i>Dictionnaire des antiquités</i>, +where full references to ancient authorities are given in the footnotes; +A.S. Wilkins in Smith’s <i>Dictionary of Greek and Roman Antiquities</i> +(3rd ed., 1891); E. Belot, <i>Histoire des chevaliers romains</i> (1866-1873); +H.O. Hirschfeld, <i>Untersuchungen auf dem Gebiete der römischen +Verwaltungsgeschichte</i> (Berlin, 1877); E. Herzog, <i>Geschichte und +System der römischen Staatsverfassung</i> (Leipzig, 1884-1891); A.H. +Friedländer, <i>Sittengeschichte Roms</i>, i. (1901); A.H.J. Greenidge, +<i>History of Rome</i>, i. (1904); J.B. Bury, <i>The Student’s Roman Empire</i> +(1893); T.M. Taylor, <i>Political and Constitutional History of Rome</i> +(1899). For a concise summary of different views of the <i>sex suffragia</i> +see A. Bouché-Leclercq’s <i>Manuel des antiquités romaines</i>, quoted in +Daremberg and Saglio; and on the <i>equites singulares</i>, T. Mommsen +in <i>Hermes</i>, xvi. (1881), p. 458.</p> +</div> +<div class="author">(J. H. F.)</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">EQUITY<a name="ar10" id="ar10"></a></span> (Lat. <i>aequitas</i>), a term which in its most general sense +means equality or justice; in its most technical sense it means a +system of law or a body of connected legal principles, which have +superseded or supplemented the common law on the ground of +their intrinsic superiority. Aristotle (<i>Ethics</i>, bk. v. c. 10) defines +equity as a better sort of justice, which corrects legal justice +where the latter errs through being expressed in a universal form +and not taking account of particular cases. When the law speaks +universally, and something happens which is not according to +the common course of events, it is right that the law should be +modified in its application to that particular case, as the lawgiver +himself would have done, if the case had been present to his +mind. Accordingly the equitable man (<span class="grk" title="epieikês">ἐπιεικής</span>) is he who +does not push the law to its extreme, but, having legal justice on +his side, is disposed to make allowances. Equity as thus described +would correspond rather to the judicial discretion which modifies +the administration of the law than to the antagonistic system +which claims to supersede the law.</p> + +<p>The part played by equity in the development of law is admirably +illustrated in the well-known work of Sir Henry Maine on +<i>Ancient Law</i>. Positive law, at least in progressive societies, is +constantly tending to fall behind public opinion, and the expedients +adopted for bringing it into harmony therewith are +three, viz. legal fictions, equity and statutory legislation. Equity +here is defined to mean “any body of rules existing by the side of +the original civil law, founded on distinct principles, and claiming +incidentally to supersede the civil law in virtue of a superior +sanctity inherent in those principles.” It is thus different from +legal fiction, by which a new rule is introduced surreptitiously, +and under the pretence that no change has been made in the law, +and from statutory legislation, in which the obligatory force of +the rule is not supposed to depend upon its intrinsic fitness. +The source of Roman equity was the fertile theory of natural law, +or the law common to all nations. Even in the Institutes of +Justinian the distinction is carefully drawn in the laws of a +country between those which are peculiar to itself and those +which natural reason appoints for all mankind. The connexion +in Roman law between the ideas of equity, nature, natural +law and the law common to all nations, and the influence of the +Stoical philosophy on their development, are fully discussed in +the third chapter of the work we have referred to. The agency +by which these principles were introduced was the edicts of the +praetor, an annual proclamation setting forth the manner in +which the magistrate intended to administer the law during his +year of office. Each successive praetor adopted the edict of his +predecessor, and added new equitable rules of his own, until the +further growth of the irregular code was stopped by the praetor +Salvius Julianus in the reign of Hadrian.</p> + +<p>The place of the praetor was occupied in English jurisprudence +by the lord high chancellor. The real beginning of English equity +is to be found in the custom of handing over to that officer, for +adjudication, the complaints which were addressed to the king, +praying for remedies beyond the reach of the common law. Over +and above the authority delegated to the ordinary councils or +courts, a reserve of judicial power was believed to reside in the +king, which was invoked as of grace by the suitors who could +not obtain relief from any inferior tribunal. To the chancellor, +as already the head of the judicial system, these petitions were +referred, although he was not at first the only officer through +whom the prerogative of grace was administered. In the reign +of Edward III. the equitable jurisdiction of the court appears +to have been established. Its constitutional origin was analogous +to that of the star chamber and the court of requests. The +latter, in fact, was a minor court of equity attached to the lord +privy seal as the court of chancery was to the chancellor. The +successful assumption of extraordinary or equitable jurisdiction +by the chancellor caused similar pretensions to be made by other +officers and courts. “Not only the court of exchequer, whose +functions were in a peculiar manner connected with royal +authority, but the counties palatine of Chester, Lancaster and +Durham, the court of great session in Wales, the universities, +the city of London, the Cinque Ports and other places silently +assumed extraordinary jurisdiction similar to that exercised +in the court of chancery.” Even private persons, lords and +ladies, affected to establish in their honours courts of equity.</p> + +<p>English equity has one marked historical peculiarity, viz. +that it established itself in a set of independent tribunals which +remained in standing contrast to the ordinary courts for many +hundred years. In Roman law the judge gave the preference to +the equitable rule; in English law the equitable rule was enforced +by a distinct set of judges. One cause of this separation was the +rigid adherence to precedent on the part of the common law +courts. Another was the jealousy prevailing in England against +the principles of the Roman law on which English equity to a +large extent was founded.</p> + +<p>When a case of prerogative was referred to the chancellor in +the reign of Edward III., he was required to grant such remedy +as should be consonant to honesty (<i>honestas</i>). And honesty, +conscience and equity were said to be the fundamental principles +of the court. The early chancellors were ecclesiastics, and under +their influence not only moral principles, where these were not +regarded by the common law, but also the equitable principles +of the Roman law were introduced into English jurisprudence. +Between this point and the time when equity became settled as +a portion of the legal system, having fixed principles of its own, +various views of its nature seem to have prevailed. For a long +time it was thought that precedents could have no place in +equity, inasmuch as it professed in each case to do that which +was just; and we find this view maintained by common lawyers +after it had been abandoned by the professors of equity themselves. +G. Spence, in his book on the <i>Equitable Jurisdiction of</i> +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page727" id="page727"></a>727</span> +<i>the Court of Chancery</i>, quotes a case in the reign of Charles II., +in which chief justice Vaughan said:</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>“I wonder to hear of citing of precedents in matter of equity, for +if there be equity in a case, that equity is an universal truth, and there +can be no precedent in it; so that in any precedent that can be produced, +if it be the same with this case, the reason and equity is the +same in itself; and if the precedent be not the same case with this +it is not to be cited.”</p> +</div> + +<p>But the lord keeper Bridgeman answered:</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>“Certainly precedents are very necessary and useful to us, for in +them we may find the reasons of the equity to guide us, and besides +the authority of those who made them is much to be regarded. We +shall suppose they did it upon great consideration and weighing of the +matter, and it would be very strange and very ill if we should disturb +and set aside what has been the course for a long series of times and +ages.”</p> +</div> + +<p>Selden’s description is well known: “Equity is a roguish +thing. ’Tis all one as if they should make the standard for +measure the chancellor’s foot.” Lord Nottingham in 1676 +reconciled the ancient theory and the established practice by +saying that the conscience which guided the court was not the +natural conscience of the man, but the civil and political conscience +of the judge. The same tendency of equity to settle +into a system of law is seen in the recognition of its limits—in +the fact that it did not attempt in all cases to give a remedy +when the rule of the common law was contrary to justice. Cases +of hardship, which the early chancellors would certainly have +relieved, were passed over by later judges, simply because no +precedent could be found for their interference. The point at +which the introduction of new principles of equity finally stopped +is fixed by Sir Henry Maine in the chancellorship of Lord Eldon, +who held that the doctrines of the court ought to be as well +settled and made as uniform almost as those of the common +law. From that time certainly equity, like common law, has +professed to take its principles wholly from recorded decisions +and statute law. The view (traceable no doubt to the Aristotelian +definition) that equity mitigates the hardships of the law where +the law errs through being framed in universals, is to be found in +some of the earlier writings. Thus in the <i>Doctor and Student</i> +it is said:</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>“Law makers take heed to such things as may often come, +and not to every particular case, for they could not though they +would; therefore, in some cases it is necessary to leave the words +of the law and follow that reason and justice requireth, and to that +intent equity is ordained, that is to say, to temper and mitigate the +rigour of the law.”</p> +</div> + +<p>And Lord Ellesmere said:</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>“The cause why there is a chancery is for that men’s actions are +so divers and infinite that it is impossible to make any general law +which shall aptly meet with every particular act and not fail in some +circumstances.”</p> +</div> + +<p>Modern equity, it need hardly be said, does not profess to +soften the rigour of the law, or to correct the errors into which +it falls by reason of its generality.</p> + +<p>To give any account, even in outline, of the subject matter of +equity within the necessary limits of this article would be +impossible. It will be sufficient to say here that the classification +generally adopted by text-writers is based upon the relations +of equity to the common law, of which some explanation is +given above. Thus equitable jurisdiction is said to be exclusive, +concurrent or auxiliary. Equity has <i>exclusive</i> jurisdiction +where it recognizes rights which are unknown to the common +law. The most important example is trusts. Equity has <i>concurrent</i> +jurisdiction in cases where the law recognized the right +but did not give adequate relief, or did not give relief without +circuity of action or some similar inconvenience. And equity +has <i>auxiliary</i> jurisdiction when the machinery of the courts of +law was unable to procure the necessary evidence.</p> + +<p>“The evils of this double system of judicature,” says the +report of the judicature commission (1863-1867), “and the +confusion and conflict of jurisdiction to which it has led, have +been long known and acknowledged.” A partial attempt to +meet the difficulty was made by several acts of parliament +(passed after the reports of commissions appointed in 1850 and +1851), which enabled courts of law and equity both to exercise +certain powers formerly peculiar to one or other of them. A more +complete remedy was introduced by the Judicature Act 1873, +which consolidated the courts of law and equity, and ordered +that law and equity should be administered concurrently according +to the rules contained in the 26th section of the act. At the +same time many matters of equitable jurisdiction are still left +to the chancery division of the High Court in the first instance. +(See <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Chancery</a></span>.)</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p><span class="sc">Authorities</span>.—The principles of equity as set out by the following +writers may be consulted: J. Story, J.W. Smith, H.A. Smith and +W. Ashburner; and for the history see G. Spence, <i>The Equitable +Jurisdiction of the Court of Chancery</i> (2 vols., 1846-1849); D.M. +Kerly, <i>Historical Sketch of the Equitable Jurisdiction of the Court +of Chancery</i> (1890).</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">EQUIVALENT,<a name="ar11" id="ar11"></a></span> in chemistry, the proportion of an element +which will combine with or replace unit weight of hydrogen. +When multiplied by the valency it gives the atomic weight. +The determination of equivalent weights is treated in the article +<span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Stoichiometry</a></span>. (See also <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Chemistry</a></span>.) In a more general sense +the term “equivalent” is used to denote quantities of substances +which neutralize one another, as for example NaOH, +HCl, ½H<span class="su">2</span>SO<span class="su">4</span>, ½Ba(OH)<span class="su">2</span>.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">ÉRARD, SÉBASTIEN<a name="ar12" id="ar12"></a></span> (1752-1831), French manufacturer of +musical instruments, distinguished especially for the improvements +he made upon the harp and the pianoforte, was born at +Strassburg on the 5th of April 1752. While a boy he showed +great aptitude for practical geometry and architectural drawing, +and in the workshop of his father, who was an upholsterer, he +found opportunity for the early exercise of his mechanical +ingenuity. When he was sixteen his father died, and he removed +to Paris where he obtained employment with a harpsichord +maker. Here his remarkable constructive skill, though it +speedily excited the jealousy of his master and procured his +dismissal, almost equally soon attracted the notice of musicians +and musical instrument makers of eminence. Before he was +twenty-five he set up in business for himself, his first workshop +being a room in the hotel of the duchesse de Villeroi, who gave +him warm encouragement. Here he constructed in 1780 his +first pianoforte, which was also one of the first manufactured +in France. It quickly secured for its maker such a reputation +that he was soon overwhelmed with commissions, and finding +assistance necessary, he sent for his brother, Jean Baptiste, in +conjunction with whom he established in the rue de Bourbon, +in the Faubourg St Germain, a piano manufactory, which in a +few years became one of the most celebrated in Europe. On +the outbreak of the Revolution he went to London where he +established a factory. Returning to Paris in 1796, he soon +afterwards introduced grand pianofortes, made in the English +fashion, with improvements of his own. In 1808 he again +visited London, where, two years later, he produced his first +double-movement harp. He had previously made various +improvements in the manufacture of harps, but the new instrument +was an immense advance upon anything he had before +produced, and obtained such a reputation that for some time +he devoted himself exclusively to its manufacture. It has been +said that in the year following his invention he made harps to +the value of £25,000. In 1812 he returned to Paris, and continued +to devote himself to the further perfecting of the two +instruments with which his name is associated. In 1823 he +crowned his work by producing his model grand pianoforte +with the double escapement. Érard died at Passy, on the 5th +of August 1831. (See also <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Harp</a></span> and <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Pianoforte</a></span>.)</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">ERASMUS, DESIDERIUS<a name="ar13" id="ar13"></a></span> (1466-1536), Dutch scholar and +theologian, was born on the night of the 27/28th of October, +probably in 1466; but his statements about his age are conflicting, +and in view of his own uncertainty (<i>Ep.</i> x. 29: 466) and the +weakness of his memory for dates, the year of his birth cannot +be definitely fixed. His father’s name seems to have been +Rogerius Gerardus. He himself was christened Herasmus; +but in 1503, when becoming familiar with Greek, he assimilated +the name to a fancied Greek original, which he had a few years +before Latinized into Desyderius. A contemporary authority +states that he was born at Gouda, his father’s native town; +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page728" id="page728"></a>728</span> +but he adopted the style <i>Rotterdammensis</i> or <i>Roterodamus</i>, in +accordance with a story to which he himself gave credence. His +first schooling was at Gouda under Peter Winckel, who was +afterwards vice-pastor of the church. In the dull round of instruction +in “grammar” he did not distinguish himself, and +was surpassed by his early friend and companion, William +Herman, who was Winckel’s favourite pupil. From Gouda the +two boys went to the school attached to St Lebuin’s church +at Deventer, which was one of the first in northern Europe to +feel the influence of the Renaissance. Erasmus was at Deventer +from 1475 to 1484, and when he left, had learnt from Johannes +Sinthius (Syntheim) and Alexander Hegius, who had come as +headmaster in 1483, the love of letters which was the ruling +passion of his life. At some period, perhaps in an interval of his +time at Deventer, he was a chorister at Utrecht under the famous +organist of the cathedral, Jacob Obrecht.</p> + +<p>About 1484 Erasmus’ father died, leaving him and an elder +brother Peter, both born out of wedlock, to the care of guardians, +their mother having died shortly before. Erasmus was eager +to go to a university, but the guardians, acting under a perhaps +genuine enthusiasm for the religious life, sent the boys to another +school at Hertogenbosch; and when they returned after two +or three years, prevailed on them to enter monasteries. Peter +went to Sion, near Delft; Erasmus after prolonged reluctance +became an Augustinian canon in St Gregory’s at Steyn, a house +of the same Chapter near Gouda. There he found little religion +and less refinement; but no serious difficulty seems to have been +made about his reading the classics and the Fathers with his +friends to his heart’s content. The monastery once entered, +there was no drawing back; and Erasmus passed through the +various stages which culminated in his ordination as priest on +the 25th of April 1492.</p> + +<p>But his ardent spirit could not long be content with monastic +life. He brought his attainments somehow to the notice of +Henry of Bergen, bishop of Cambrai, the leading prelate at the +court of Brussels; and about 1494 permission was obtained for +him to leave Steyn and become Latin secretary to the bishop, +who was then preparing for a visit to Rome. But the journey +was abandoned, and after some months Erasmus found that even +with occasional chances to read at Groenendael, the life of a +court was hardly more favourable to study than that of Steyn. +At the suggestion of a friend, James Batt, he applied to his +patron for leave to go to Paris University. The bishop consented +and promised a small pension; and in August 1495 Erasmus +entered the “domus pauperum” of the college of Montaigu, +which was then under the somewhat rigid rule of the reformer +Jan Standonck. He at once introduced himself to the distinguished +French historian and diplomatist Robert Gaguin (1425-1502) +and published a small volume of poems; and he became +intimate with Johann Mauburnus (Mombaer), the leader of a +mission summoned from Windesheim in 1496 to reform the abbey +of Château-Landon. But the life at Montaigu was too hard for +him. Every Lent he fell ill and had to return to Holland to +recover. He continued to read nevertheless for a degree in +theology, and at some time completed the requirements for the +B.D. After a year or two he left Montaigu and eked out his +money from the bishop by taking pupils. One of these, a young +Englishman, William Blount, 4th Baron Mountjoy (d. 1534), +persuaded him to visit England in the spring of 1499.</p> + +<p>Being without a benefice, he had no settled income to look to, +and apart from the precarious profits of teaching and writing +books, could only wait on the generosity of patrons to supply +him with the leisure he craved. The faithful Batt had sought +a pension for him from his own patroness, Anne of Borsselen, +the Lady of Veere, who resided at the castle of Tournehem near +Calais, and whose son Batt was now teaching. But as nothing +promised at once, Erasmus accepted Mountjoy’s offer, and thus +a tie was formed which led Mountjoy then or a few years later +to grant him a pension of £20 for life. Otherwise the visit to +England gave no hope of preferment; and in the summer +Erasmus prepared to leave. He was delayed, and used the +interval to spend two or three months at Oxford, where he found +John Colet lecturing on the Epistle to the Romans. Discussions +between them on theological questions soon convinced Colet +of Erasmus’ worth, and he sought to persuade him to stay and +teach at Oxford. But Erasmus could not be content with the +Bible in Latin. Oxford could teach him no Greek, so away he +must go.</p> + +<p>In January 1500 he returned to Paris, which though it could +offer no Greek teacher better than George Hermonymus, was +at least a better centre for buying and for printing books. The +next few years were spent still in preparation, supported by +pupils’ fees and the dedications of books; the <i>Collectanea +adagiorum</i> in June 1500 to Mountjoy, and some devotional and +moral compositions to Batt’s patroness and her son. When the +plague drove him from Paris, he went to Orleans or Tournehem +or St Omer, as the way opened. From 1502 to 1504 he was at +Louvain, still declining to teach publicly; among his friends +being the future Pope Adrian VI. In January 1504 the archduke +Philip gave him fifty livres for the Panegyric which “<i>ung +religieux de l’ordre de St Augustin</i>” had composed on his Spanish +journey; and in October, ten more, for the maintenance of his +studies.</p> + +<p>He had been working hard at Greek, of which he now felt +himself master, at the Fathers (above all at Jerome), and at the +Epistles of St Paul, fulfilling the promise made to Colet in Oxford, +to give himself to sacred learning. But the bent of his reading +is shown by the manuscript with which he returned to Paris +at the close of 1504—Valla’s <i>Annotations on the New Testament</i>, +which Badius printed for him in 1505.</p> + +<p>Shortly afterwards Lord Mountjoy invited him again to +England, and this visit was more successful. He found in London +a circle of learned friends through whom he was introduced to +William Warham, archbishop of Canterbury, Richard Foxe, +bishop of Winchester and other dignitaries. John Fisher +(bishop of Rochester), who was then superintending the foundation +of Christ’s College for the Lady Margaret, took him down +to Cambridge for the king’s visit; and at length the opportunity +came to fulfil his dream of seeing Italy. Baptista Boerio, the +king’s physician, engaged him to accompany his two sons thither +as supervisor of their studies. In September 1506 he set foot +on that sacred soil, and took his D.D. at Turin. For a year he +remained with his pupils at Bologna, and then, his engagement +completed, negotiated with Aldus Manutius for a new edition +of his <i>Adagia</i> upon a very different scale. The volume of 1500 +had been jejune, written when he knew nothing of Greek; +800 adages put together with scanty elucidations. In 1508 he +had conceived a work on lines more to the taste of the learned +world, full of apt and recondite learning, and now and again +relieved by telling comments or lively anecdotes. Three thousand +and more collected justified a new title—<i>Chiliades adagiorum</i>; +and the author’s reputation was now established. So secure +in public favour did the book in time become, that the council +of Trent, unable to suppress it and not daring to overlook it, +ordered the preparation of a castrated edition.</p> + +<p>To print the <i>Adagia</i> he had gone to Venice, where he lived +with Andrea Torresano of Asola (Asulanus) and did the work of +two men, writing and correcting proof at the same time. When +it was finished, with an ample re-dedication to Mountjoy, a +new pupil presented himself, Alexander Stewart, natural son of +James IV. of Scotland—perhaps through a connexion formed in +early days at Paris. They went together to Siena and Rome and +then on to Campania, thirsty under the summer sun. When they +returned to Rome, his pupil departed to Scotland, to fall a few +years later by his father’s side at Flodden; Erasmus also found +a summons to call him northwards.</p> + +<p>On the death of Henry VII. Lord Mountjoy, who had been +companion to Prince Henry in his studies, had become a person +of influence. He wrote to Erasmus of a land flowing with milk +and honey under the “divine” young king, and with Warham +sent him £10 for journey money. At first Erasmus hesitated. +He had been disappointed in Italy, to find that he had not much +to learn from its famed scholarship; but he had made many +friends in Aldus’s circle—Marcus Musurus, John Lascaris, +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page729" id="page729"></a>729</span> +Baptista Egnatius, Paul Bombasius, Scipio Carteromachus; +and his reception had been flattering, especially in Rome, where +cardinals had delighted to honour him. But to remain in Rome +was to sell himself. He might have the leisure which was so +indispensable, but at price of the freedom to read, think, write +what he liked. He decided, therefore, to go, though with regrets; +which returned upon him sometimes in after years, when the +English hopes had not borne fruit.</p> + +<p>In the autumn he reached London, and in Thomas More’s +house in Bucklersbury wrote the witty satire which Milton +found “in every one’s hands” at Cambridge in 1628, and which +is read to this day. The <i>Moriae encomium</i> was a sign of his +decision. In it kings and princes, bishops and popes alike are +shown to be in bondage to Folly; and no class of men is spared. +Its author was willing to be beholden to any one for leisure; but +he would be no man’s slave. For the next eighteen months he +is entirely lost to view; when he reappears in April 1511, he is +leaving More’s house and taking the <i>Moria</i> to be printed privily +in Paris. Wherever they were spent, these must have been +months of hard work, as were the years that followed. His time +was now come. The long preparation and training, bought by +privation and uncongenial toil, was over, and he was ready to +apply himself to the scientific study of sacred letters. His English +patrons were liberal. Fisher sent him in August 1511 to teach in +Cambridge; Warham gave him a benefice, Aldington in Kent, +worth <i>£</i>33, 6<i>s.</i> 8<i>d.</i> a year, and in violation of his own rule commuted +it for a pension of £20 charged on the living; and the dedications +of his books were fruitful. In Cambridge he completed his work +on the New Testament, the Letters of Jerome, and Seneca; and +then in 1514, when there seemed no prospect of ampler preferment, +he determined to transfer himself to Basel and give the +results of his labours to the world.</p> + +<p>The origin of Erasmus’s connexion with Johann Froben is +not clear. In 1511 he was preparing to reprint his <i>Adagia</i> with +Jodocus Badius, who in the following year was to have also +Seneca and Jerome. But in 1513 Froben, who had just reprinted +the Aldine <i>Adagia</i>, acquired through a bookseller-agent Erasmus’ +amended copy which had been destined for Badius. That the +agent was acting entirely on his own responsibility may be +doubted; for within a few months Erasmus had decided to +betake himself to Basel, bearing with him Seneca and Jerome, +the latter to be incorporated in the great edition which Johannes +Amerbach and Froben had had in hand since 1510. In Germany +he was widely welcomed. The Strassburg Literary Society fêted +him, and Johannes Sapidus, headmaster of the Latin school at +Schlettstadt, rode with him into Basel. Froben received him +with open arms, and the presses were soon busy with his books. +Through the winter of 1514-1515 Erasmus worked with the +strength of ten; and after a brief visit to England in the spring, +the New Testament was set up. Around him was a circle of +students, some young, some already distinguished—the three +sons of Froben’s partner, Johannes Amerbach, who was now +dead, Beatus Rhenanus, Wilhelm Nesen, Ludwig Ber, Heinrich +Glareanus, Nikolaus Gerbell, Johannes Oecolampadius—who +looked to him as their head and were proud to do him service.</p> + +<p>Though from this time forward Basel became the centre of +occupation and interest for Erasmus, yet for the next few years +he was mainly in the Netherlands. On the completion of the +New Testament in 1516 he returned to his friends in England; +but his appointment, then recent, as councillor to the young +king Charles, brought him back to Brussels in the autumn. In +the spring of 1517 he went for the last time to England, about +a dispensation from wearing his canonical dress, obtained +originally from Julius II. and recently confirmed by Leo X., +and in May 1518 he journeyed to Basel for three months to set +the second edition of the New Testament in progress. But +with these exceptions he remained in proximity to the court, +living much at Louvain, where he took great interest in the +foundation of Hieronymus Busleiden’s Collegium Trilingue. +His circumstances had improved so much, by pensions, the +presents which were showered upon him, and the sale of his books, +that he was now in a position to refuse all proposals which would +have interfered with his cherished independence. The general +ardour for the restoration of the arts and of learning created +an aristocratic public, of which Erasmus was supreme pontiff. +Luther spoke to the people and the ignorant; Erasmus had the +ear of the educated class. His friends and admirers were distributed +over all the countries of Europe, and presents were +continually arriving from small as well as great, from a donation +of 200 florins, made by Pope Clement VII., down to sweetmeats +and comfits contributed by the nuns of Cologne (<i>Ep.</i> 666). +From England, in particular, he continued to receive supplies +of money. In the last year of his life Thomas Cromwell sent him +20 angels, and Archbishop Cranmer 18. Though Erasmus led +a very hard-working and far from luxurious life, and had no +extravagant habits, yet he could not live upon little. The +excessive delicacy of his constitution, not pampered appetite, +exacted some unusual indulgences. He could not bear the stoves +of Germany, and required an open fireplace in the room in which +he worked. He was afflicted with the stone, and obliged to be +particular as to what he drank. Beer he could not touch. +The white wines of Baden or the Rhine did not suit him; he +could only drink those of Burgundy or Franche-Comté. He +could neither eat, nor bear the smell of, fish. “His heart,” +he said, “was Catholic, but his stomach was Lutheran.” For +his constant journeys he required two horses, one for himself +and one for his attendant. And though he was almost always +found in horse-flesh by his friends, the keep had to be paid for. +For his literary labours and his extensive correspondence he +required one or more amanuenses. He often had occasion, on +his own business, or on that of Froben’s press, to send special +couriers to a distance, employing them by the way in collecting +the free gifts of his tributaries.</p> + +<p>Precarious as these means of subsistence seem, he preferred +the independence thus obtained to an assured position which +would have involved obligations to a patron or professional +duties which his weak health would have made onerous. The +duke of Bavaria offered to dispense with teaching, if he would +only reside, and would have named him on these terms to a chair +in his new university of Ingolstadt, with a salary of 200 ducats, +and the reversion of one or more prebendal stalls. The archduke +Ferdinand offered a pension of 400 florins, if he would only come +to reside at Vienna. Adrian VI. offered him a deanery, but the +offer seems to have been of a possible and not an actual deanery. +Offers, flattering but equally vague, were made from France, +on the part of the bishop of Bayeux, and even of Francis I. +“Invitor amplissimis conditionibus; offeruntur dignitates et +episcopatus; plane rex essem, si juvenis essem” (<i>Ep.</i> xix. 106; +735). Erasmus declined all, and in November 1521 settled +permanently at Basel, in the capacity of general editor and +literary adviser of Froben’s press. As a subject of the emperor, +and attached to his court by a pension, it would have been +convenient to him to have fixed his residence in Louvain. But +the bigotry of the Flemish clergy, and the monkish atmosphere +of the university of Louvain, overrun with Dominicans and +Franciscans, united for once in their enmity to the new classical +learning, inclined Erasmus to seek a more congenial home in +Basel. To Froben his arrival was the advent of the very man +whom he had long wanted. Froben’s enterprise, united with +Erasmus’s editorial skill, raised the press of Basel, for a time, +to be the most important in Europe. The death of Froben in +1527, the final separation of Basel from the Empire, the wreck +of learning in the religious disputes, and the cheap paper and +scamped work of the Frankfort presses, gradually withdrew +the trade from Basel. But during the years of Erasmus’s +co-operation the Froben press took the lead of all the presses in +Europe, both in the standard value of the works published +and in style of typographical execution. Like some other +publishers who preferred reputation to returns in money, Froben +died poor, and his impressions never reached the splendour +afterwards attained by those of the Estiennes, or of Plantin. +The series of the Fathers alone contains Jerome (1516), Cyprian +(1520), Pseudo-Arnobius (1522), Hilarius (1523), Irenaeus +(Latin, 1526), Ambrose (1527), Augustine (1528), Chrysostom +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page730" id="page730"></a>730</span> +(Latin, 1530), Basil (Greek, 1532, the first Greek author printed +in Germany), and Origen (Latin, 1536). In these editions, partly +texts, partly translations, it is impossible to determine the +respective shares of Erasmus and his many helpers. The +prefaces and dedications are all written by him, and some of +them, as that to the Hilarius, are of importance for the history +as well of the times as of Erasmus himself. Of his most important +edition, that of the Greek text of the New Testament, something +will be said farther on.</p> + +<p>In this “mill,” as he calls it, Erasmus continued to grind +incessantly for eight years. Besides his work as editor, he was +always writing himself some book or pamphlet called for by the +event of the day, some general fray in which he was compelled +to mingle, or some personal assault which it was necessary to +repel. But though painfully conscious how much his reputation +as a writer was damaged by this extempore production, he was +unable to resist the fatal facility of print. He was the object +of those solicitations which always beset the author whose name +upon the title page assures the sale of a book. He was besieged +for dedications, and as every dedication meant a present +proportioned to the circumstances of the dedicatee, there was a +natural temptation to be lavish of them. Add to this a correspondence +so extensive as to require him at times to write forty +letters in one day. “I receive daily,” he writes, “letters from +remote parts, from kings, princes, prelates and men of learning, +and even from persons of whose existence I was ignorant.” +His day was thus one of incessant mental activity; but hard +work was so far from breeding a distaste for his occupation, +that reading and writing grew ever more delightful to him +(<i>literarum assiduitas non modo mihi fastidium non parit, sed +voluptatem; crescit scribendo scribendi studium</i>).</p> + +<p>Shortly after Froben’s death the disturbances at Basel, +occasioned by the zealots for the religious revolution which was +in progress throughout Switzerland, began to make Erasmus +desirous of changing his residence. He selected Freiburg in +the Breisgau, as a city which was still in the dominion of the +emperor, and was free from religious dissension. Thither he +removed in April 1529. He was received with public marks of +respect by the authorities, who granted him the use of an unfinished +residence which had been begun to be built for the late +emperor Maximilian. Erasmus proposed only to remain at +Freiburg for a few months, but found the place so suited to his +habits that he bought a house of his own, and remained there +six years. A desire for change of air—he fancied Freiburg was +damp—rumours of a new war with France, and the necessity of +seeing his <i>Ecclesiastes</i> through the press, took him back to Basel +in 1535. He lived now a very retired life, and saw only a small +circle of intimate friends. A last attempt was made by the +papal court to enlist him in some public way against the Reformation. +On the election of Paul III. in 1534, he had, as usual, +sent the new pope a congratulatory letter. After his arrival +in Basel, he received a complimentary answer, together with the +nomination to the deanery of Deventer, the income of which +was reckoned at 600 ducats. This nomination was accompanied +with an intimation that more was in store for him, and that +steps would be taken to provide for him the income, viz., 3000 +ducats, which was necessary to qualify for the cardinal’s hat. But +Erasmus was even less disposed now than he had been before +to barter his reputation for honours. His health had been for +some years gradually declining, and disease in the shape of gout +gaining upon him. In the winter of 1535-1536 he was confined +entirely to his chamber, many days to his bed. Though thus +afflicted he never ceased his literary activity, dictating his tract +<i>On the Purity of the Church</i>, and revising the sheets of a translation +of Origen which was passing through the Froben press. His last +letter is dated the 28th of June 1536, and subscribed “Eras. +Rot. aegra manu.” “I have never been so ill in my life before +as I am now,—for many days unable even to read.” Dysentery +setting in carried him off on the 12th of July 1536, in his 70th +year.</p> + +<p>By his will, made on the 12th of February 1536, he left what +he had to leave, with the exception of some legacies, to Bonifazius +Amerbach, partly for himself, partly in trust for the benefit of +the aged and the infirm, or to be spent in portioning young girls, +and in educating young men of promise. He left none of the +usual legacies for masses or other clerical purposes, and was not +attended by any priest or confessor in his last moments.</p> + +<p>Erasmus’s features are familiar to all, from Holbein’s many +portraits or their copies. Beatus Rhenanus, “summus Erasmi +observator,” as he is called by de Thou, describes his person +thus: “In stature not tall, but not noticeably short; in figure +well built and graceful; of an extremely delicate constitution, +sensitive to the slightest changes of climate, food or drink. +After middle life he suffered from the stone, not to mention the +common plague of studious men, an irritable mucous membrane. +His complexion was fair; light blue eyes, and yellowish hair. +Though his voice was weak, his enunciation was distinct; the +expression of his face cheerful; his manner and conversation +polished, affable, even charming.” His highly nervous organization +made his feelings acute, and his brain incessantly active. +Through his ready sympathy with all forms of life and character, +his attention was always alive. The active movement of his +spirit spent itself, not in following out its own trains of thought, +but in outward observation. No man was ever less introspective, +and though he talks much of himself, his egotism is the genial +egotism which takes the world into its confidence, not the selfish +egotism which feels no interest but in its own woes. He says of +himself, and justly, “that he was incapable of dissimulation” +(<i>Ep.</i> xxvi. 19; 1152). There is nothing behind, no pose, no scenic +effect. It may be said of his letters that in them “tota patet +vita senis.” His nature was flexible without being faultily weak. +He has many moods and each mood imprints itself in turn on his +words. Hence, on a superficial view, Erasmus is set down as +the most inconsistent of men. Further acquaintance makes +us feel a unity of character underlying this susceptibility to the +impressions of the moment. His seeming inconsistencies are +reconciled to apprehension, not by a formula of the intellect, +but by the many-sidedness of a highly impressible nature. In the +words of J. Nisard, Erasmus was one of those “dont la gloire +a été de beaucoup comprendre et d’affirmer peu.”</p> + +<p>This equal openness to every vibration of his environment is +the key to all Erasmus’s acts and words, and among them to the +middle attitude which he took up towards the great religious +conflict of his time. The reproaches of party assailed him in +his lifetime, and have continued to be heaped upon his memory. +He was loudly accused by the Catholics of collusion with the +enemies of the faith. His powerful friends, the pope, Wolsey, +Henry VIII., the emperor, called upon him to declare against +Luther. Theological historians from that time forward have +perpetuated the indictment that Erasmus sided with neither +party in the struggle for religious truth. The most moderate +form of the censure presents him in the odious light of a trimmer; +the vulgar and venomous assailant is sure that Erasmus was a +Protestant at heart, but withheld the avowal that he might not +forfeit the worldly advantages he enjoyed as a Catholic. When +by study of his writings we come to know Erasmus intimately, +there is revealed to us one of those natures to which partisanship +is an impossibility. It was not timidity or weakness which +kept Erasmus neutral, but the reasonableness of his nature. It +was not only that his intellect revolted against the narrowness +of party, his whole being repudiated its clamorous and vulgar +excesses. As he loathed fish, so he loathed clerical fanaticism. +Himself a Catholic priest—“the glory of the priesthood and the +shame”—the tone of the orthodox clergy was distasteful to him; +the ignorant hostility to classical learning which reigned in their +colleges and convents disgusted him. In common with all the +learned men of his age, he wished to see the power of the clergy +broken, as that of an obscurantist army arrayed against light. +He had employed all his resources of wit and satire against the +priests and monks, and the superstitions in which they traded, +long before Luther’s name was heard of. The motto which was +already current in his lifetime, “that Erasmus laid the egg and +Luther hatched it,” is so far true, and no more. Erasmus would +have suppressed the monasteries, put an end to the domination +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page731" id="page731"></a>731</span> +of the clergy, and swept away scandalous and profitable abuses, +but to attack the church or re-mould received theology was far +from his thoughts. And when out of Luther’s revolt there arose +a new fanaticism—that of evangelism, Erasmus recoiled from +the violence of the new preachers. “Is it for this,” he writes to +Melanchthon (<i>Ep.</i> xix. 113; 703), “that we have shaken off +bishops and popes, that we may come under the yoke of such +madmen as Otto and Farel?” Passages have been collected, +and it is an easy task, from the writings of Erasmus to prove that +he shared the doctrines of the Reformers. Passages equally +strong might be culled to show that he repudiated them. The +truth is that theological questions in themselves had no attraction +for him. And when a theological position was emphasized by +party passion it became odious to him. In the words of Drummond: +“Erasmus was in his own age the apostle of common +sense and of rational religion. He did not care for dogma, and +accordingly the dogmas of Rome, which had the consent of the +Christian world, were in his eyes preferable to the dogmas of +Protestantism.... From the beginning to the end of his career +he remained true to the purpose of his life, which was to fight the +battle of sound learning and plain common sense against the +powers of ignorance and superstition, and amid all the convulsions +of that period he never once lost his mental balance.”</p> + +<p>Erasmus is accused of indifference. But he was far from +indifferent to the progress of the revolution. He was keenly alive +to its pernicious influence on the cherished interest of his life, +the cause of learning. “I abhor the evangelics, because it is +through them that literature is everywhere declining, and upon +the point of perishing.” He had been born with the hopes of the +Renaissance, with its anticipation of a new Augustan age, and +had seen this fair promise blighted by the irruption of a new +horde of theological polemics, worse than the old scholastics, +inasmuch as they were revolutionary instead of conservative. +Erasmus never flouted at religion nor even at theology as such, +but only at blind and intemperate theologians.</p> + +<p>In the mind of Erasmus there was no metaphysical inclination; +he was a man of letters, with a general tendency to rational views +on every subject which came under his pen. His was not the +mind to originate, like Calvin, a new scheme of Christian thought. +He is at his weakest in defending free will against Luther, and +indeed he can hardly be said to enter on the metaphysical +question. He treats the dispute entirely from the outside. It is +impossible in reading Erasmus not to be reminded of the rationalist +of the 18th century. Erasmus has been called the “Voltaire +of the Renaissance.” But there is a vast difference in the relations +in which they respectively stood to the church and to Christianity. +Voltaire, though he did not originate, yet adopted a moral and +religious scheme which he sought to substitute for the church +tradition. He waged war, not only against the clergy, but against +the church and its sovereigns. Erasmus drew the line at the +first of these. He was not an anticipation of the 18th century; +he was the man of his age, as Voltaire of his; though Erasmus +did not intend it, he undoubtedly shook the ecclesiastical edifice +in all its parts; and, as Melchior Adam says of him, “pontifici +Romano plus nocuit jocando quam Lutherus stomachando.”</p> + +<p>But if Erasmus was unlike the 18th century rationalist in that +he did not declare war against the church, but remained a Catholic +and mourned the disruption, he was yet a true rationalist in +principle. The principle that reason is the one only guide of +life, the supreme arbiter of all questions, politics and religion +included, has its earliest and most complete exemplar in Erasmus. +He does not dogmatically denounce the rights of reason, but +he practically exercises them. Along with the charm of style, +the great attraction of the writings of Erasmus is this unconscious +freedom by which they are pervaded.</p> + +<p>It must excite our surprise that one who used his pen so freely +should have escaped the pains and penalties which invariably +overtook minor offenders in the same kind. For it was not only +against the clergy and the monks that he kept up a ceaseless +stream of satiric raillery; he treated nobles, princes and kings +with equal freedom. No 18th century republican has used +stronger language than has this pensioner of Charles V. “The +people build cities, princes pull them down; the industry of +the citizens creates wealth for rapacious lords to plunder; +plebeian magistrates pass good laws for kings to violate; the +people love peace, and their rulers stir up war.” Such outbursts +are frequent in the <i>Adagia</i>. These freedoms are part cause of +Erasmus’s popularity. He was here in sympathy with the secret +sore of his age, and gave utterance to what all felt but none +dared to whisper but he. It marks the difference between 1513 +and 1669 that, in a reprint of the <i>Julius Exclusus</i> published in +1669 at Oxford, it was thought necessary to leave out a sentence +in which the writer of that dialogue, supposed by the editor to +be Erasmus, asserts the right of states to deprive and punish +bad kings. It is difficult to say to what we are to ascribe his +immunity from painful consequences. We have to remember +that he was removed from the scene early in the reaction, +before force was fully organized for the suppression of the +revolution. And his popular works, the <i>Adagia</i>, and the <i>Colloquia</i> +(1524), had established themselves as standard books in the +more easy going age, when power, secure in its unchallenged +strength, could afford to laugh with the laughers at itself. At +the date of his death the Catholic revival, with its fell antipathy +to art and letters, was only in its infancy; and when times +became dangerous, Erasmus cautiously declined to venture out +of the protection of the Empire, refusing repeated invitations +to Italy and to France. “I had thought of going to Besançon,” +he said, “ne non essem in ditione Caesaris” (<i>Ep.</i> xxx. 74; 1299). +In Italy a Bembo and a Sadoleto wrote a purer Latin than +Erasmus, but contented themselves with pretty phrases, and +were careful to touch no living chord of feeling. In France it +was necessary for a Rabelais to hide his free-thinking under a +disguise of revolting and unintelligible jargon. It was only in +the Empire that such liberty of speech as Erasmus used was +practicable, and in the Empire Erasmus passed for a moderate +man. Upon the strength of an established character for moderation +he enjoyed an exceptional licence for the utterance of +unwelcome truths; and in spite of his flings at the rich and +powerful, he remained through life a privileged person with them.</p> + +<p>But though the men of the keys and the sword let him go his +way unmolested, it was otherwise with his brethren of the pen. A +man who is always launching opinions must expect to be retorted +on. And when these judgments were winged by epigram, and +weighted by the name of Erasmus, who stood at the head of +letters, a widespread exasperation was the consequence. Disraeli +has not noticed Erasmus in his <i>Quarrels of Authors</i>, perhaps +because Erasmus’s quarrels would require a volume to themselves. +“So thin-skinned that a fly would draw blood,” as the prince of +Carpi expressed it, he could not himself restrain his pen from +sarcasm. He forgot that though it is safe to lash the dunces, +he could not with equal impunity sneer at those who, though +they might not have the ear of the public as he had, could yet +contradict and call names. And when literary jealousy was +complicated with theological differences, as in the case of the +free-thinkers, or with French vanity, as in that of Budaeus, the +cause of the enemy was espoused by a party and a nation. +The quarrel with Budaeus was strictly a national one. Cosmopolitan +as Erasmus was, to the French literati he was still +the Teuton. Étienne Dolet calls him “enemy of Cicero, and +jealous detractor of the French name.” The only contemporary +name which could approach to a rivalry with his was that of +Budaeus (Budé), who was exactly contemporary, having been +born in the same year as Erasmus. Rivals in fame, they were +unlike in accomplishment, each having the quality which the +other wanted. Budaeus, though a Frenchman, knew Greek well; +Erasmus, though a Dutchman, very imperfectly. But the +Frenchman Budaeus wrote an execrable Latin style, unreadable +then as now, while the Teuton Erasmus charmed the reading +world with a style which, though far from good Latin, is the +most delightful which the Renaissance has left us.</p> + +<p>The style of Erasmus is, considered as Latin, incorrect, sometimes +even barbarous, and far removed from any classical model. +But it has qualities far above purity. The best Italian Latin +is but an echo and an imitation; like the painted glass which +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page732" id="page732"></a>732</span> +we put in our churches, it is an anachronism. Bembo, Sadoleto +and the rest write purely in a dead language. Erasmus’s Latin +was a living and spoken tongue. Though Erasmus had passed +nearly all his life in England, France and Germany, his conversation +was Latin; and the language in which he talked about +common things he wrote. Hence the spontaneity and naturalness +of his page, its flavour of life and not of books. He writes from +himself, and not out of Cicero. Hence, too, he spoiled nothing by +anxious revision in terror lest some phrase not of the golden +age should escape from his pen. He confesses apologetically to +Christopher Longolius (<i>Ep.</i> iii. 63; 402) that it was his habit +to extemporize all he wrote, and that this habit was incorrigible; +“effundo verius quam scribo omnia.” He complains that much +reading of the works of St Jerome had spoiled his Latin; but, +as Scaliger says (<i>Scalig<span class="sp">a</span></i> 2<i><span class="sp">a</span></i>), “Erasmus’s language is better than +St Jerome’s.” The same critic, however, thought Erasmus +would have done better “if he had kept more closely to the +classical models.”</p> + +<p>In the annals of classical learning Erasmus may be regarded +as constituting an intermediate stage between the humanists +of the Latin Renaissance and the learned men of the age of Greek +scholarship, between Angelo Poliziano and Joseph Scaliger. +Erasmus, though justly styled by Muretus (<i>Varr. Lectt.</i> 7, 15) +“eruditus sane vir, ac multae lectionis,” was not a “learned” +man in the special sense of the word—not an “érudit.” He +was more than this; he was the “man of letters”—the first +who had appeared in Europe since the fall of the Roman empire. +His acquirements were vast, and they were all brought to bear +upon the life of his day. He did not make a study apart of +antiquity for its own sake, but used it as an instrument of culture. +He did not worship, imitate and reproduce the classics, like the +Latin humanists who preceded him; he did not master them +and reduce them to a special science, as did the French Hellenists +who succeeded him. He edited many authors, it is true, but he +had neither the means of forming a text, nor did he attempt to +do so. In editing a father, or a classic, he had in view the practical +utility of the general reader, not the accuracy required by the +gild of scholars. “His Jerome,” says J. Scaliger, “is full of +sad blunders” (<i>Scalig<span class="sp">a</span></i> 2<i><span class="sp">a</span></i>). Even Julien Garnier could discover +that Erasmus “falls in his haste into grievous error in his Latin +version of St Basil, though his Latinity is superior to that of +the other translators” (Pref. in <i>Opp. St. Bas.</i>, 1721). It must +be remembered that the commercial interests of Froben’s press +led to the introduction of Erasmus’s name on many a title page +when he had little to do with the book, <i>e.g.</i> the Latin <i>Josephus</i> +of 1524 to which Erasmus only contributed one translation of +14 pages; or the <i>Aristotle</i> of 1531, of which Simon Grynaeus +was the real editor. Where Erasmus excelled was in prefaces—not +philological introductions to each author, but spirited appeals +to the interest of the general reader, showing how an ancient +book might be made to minister to modern spiritual demands.</p> + +<p>Of Erasmus’s works the Greek Testament is the most memorable. +It has no title to be considered as a work of learning or +scholarship, yet its influence upon opinion was profound and +durable. It contributed more to the liberation of the human +mind from the thraldom of the clergy than all the uproar and +rage of Luther’s many pamphlets. As an edition of the Greek +Testament it has no critical value. But it was the first, and it +revealed the fact that the Vulgate, the Bible of the church, +was not only a second-hand document, but in places an erroneous +document. A shock was thus given to the credit of the clergy +in the province of literature, equal to that which was given in the +province of science by the astronomical discoveries of the 17th +century. Even if Erasmus had had at his disposal the MSS. +subsidia for forming a text, he had not the critical skill required +to use them. He had at hand a few late Basel MSS., one of which +he sent straight to press, correcting them in places by collations +of others which had been sent to him by Colet in England. In +four reprints, 1519, 1522, 1527, 1535, Erasmus gradually weeded +out many of the typographical errors of his first edition, but the +text remained essentially such as he had first printed it. The +Greek text indeed was only a part of his scheme. An important +feature of the volume was the new Latin version, the original +being placed alongside as a guarantee of the translator’s good +faith. This translation, with the justificatory notes which +accompanied it, though not itself a work of critical scholarship, +became the starting-point of modern exegetical science. Erasmus +did nothing to solve the problem, but to him belongs the honour +of having first propounded it.</p> + +<p>Besides translating and editing the New Testament, Erasmus +paraphrased the whole, except the Apocalypse, between 1517 +and 1524. The paraphrases were received with great applause, +even by those who had little appreciation for Erasmus. In +England a translation of them made in 1548 was ordered to be +placed in all parish churches beside the Bible. His correspondence +is perhaps the part of his works which has the most permanent +value; it comprises about 3000 letters, which form an +important source for the history of that period. For the same +purpose his <i>Colloquia</i> may be consulted. They are a series of +dialogues, written first for pupils in the early Paris days as +formulae of polite address, but afterwards expanded into lively +conversations, in which many of the topics of the day are discussed. +Later in the century they were read in schools, and some +of Shakespeare’s lines are direct reminiscences of Erasmus.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>His complete works have been printed twice; by the Froben +firm under the direction of his literary executors (9 vols., Basel, 1540); +and by Leclerc at Leiden (11 vols., 1703-1706). For his life the chief +contemporary sources are a <i>Compendium vitae</i> written by himself +in 1524, and a sketch prefixed by Beatus Rhenanus to the Basel +edition of 1540. Of his writings he gives an account in his <i>Catalogus +lucubrationum</i>, composed first in January 1523 and enlarged in +September 1524; and also in a letter to Hector Boece of Aberdeen, +written in 1530. An elaborate bibliography, entitled <i>Bibliotheca +Erasmiana</i>, was undertaken by the officials of the Ghent University +Library; it is divided into three sections, for Erasmus’s writings, +the books he edited, and the literature about him. <i>Listes sommaires</i> +were issued in 1893; and since 1897 the completed volumes have been +appearing at intervals. There is an excellent sketch of Erasmus’s +life down to 1519 in F. Seebohm’s <i>Oxford Reformers</i> (3rd ed., 1887); +and of the many biographies those by S. Knight (1726), J. Jortin +(2 vols., 1758-1760) and R.B. Drummond (2 vols., 1873) may be +mentioned. There are also two volumes (1901-1904) of translations +by F.M. Nichols from Erasmus’s letters down to 1517, with an ample +commentary which amounts almost to a biography; and an edition +of the letters, in Latin, was begun by the Oxford University Press +in 1906 (vol. ii., 1910).</p> +</div> +<div class="author">(M. P.; P. S. A.)</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">ERASTUS, THOMAS<a name="ar14" id="ar14"></a></span> (1524-1583), German-Swiss theologian, +whose surname was Lüber, Lieber, or Liebler, was born of poor +parents on the 7th of September 1524, probably at Baden, canton +of Aargau, Switzerland. In 1540 he was studying theology at +Basel. The plague of 1544 drove him to Bologna and thence to +Padua as student of philosophy and medicine. In 1553 he +became physician to the count of Henneberg, Saxe-Meiningen, +and in 1558 held the same post with the elector-palatine, Otto +Heinrich, being at the same time professor of medicine at Heidelberg. +His patron’s successor, Frederick III., made him (1559) +a privy councillor and member of the church consistory. In +theology he followed Zwingli, and at the sacramentarian conferences +of Heidelberg (1560) and Maulbronn (1564) he advocated +by voice and pen the Zwinglian doctrine of the Lord’s Supper, +replying (1565) to the counter arguments of the Lutheran +Johann Marbach, of Strassburg. He ineffectually resisted the +efforts of the Calvinists, led by Caspar Olevianus, to introduce +the Presbyterian polity and discipline, which were established +at Heidelberg in 1570, on the Genevan model. One of the first +acts of the new church system was to excommunicate Erastus +on a charge of Socinianism, founded on his correspondence with +Transylvania. The ban was not removed till 1575, Erastus +declaring his firm adhesion to the doctrine of the Trinity. His +position, however, was uncomfortable, and in 1580 he returned to +Basel, where in 1583 he was made professor of ethics. He died on +the 31st of December 1583. He published several pieces bearing +on medicine, astrology and alchemy, and attacking the system of +Paracelsus. His name is permanently associated with a posthumous +publication, written in 1568. Its immediate occasion was +the disputation at Heidelberg (1568) for the doctorate of theology +by George Wither or Withers, an English Puritan (subsequently +archdeacon of Colchester), silenced (1565) at Bury St Edmunds +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page733" id="page733"></a>733</span> +by Archbishop Parker. Withers had proposed a disputation +against vestments, which the university would not allow; his +thesis affirming the excommunicating power of the presbytery +was sustained. Hence the treatise of Erastus. It was published +(1589) by Giacomo Castelvetri, who had married his widow, +with the title <i>Explicatio gravissimae quaestionis utrum excommunicatio, +quatenus religionem intelligentes et amplexantes, a +sacramentorum usu, propter admissum facinus arcet, mandato +nitatur divino, an excogitata sit ab hominibus</i>. The work bears +the imprint Pesclavii (<i>i.e.</i> Poschiavo in the Grisons) but was +printed by John Wolfe in London, where Castelvetri was staying; +the name of the alleged printer is an anagram of Jacobum +Castelvetrum. In the Stationers’ Register (June 20, 1589) +the printing is said to have been “alowed” by Archbishop +Whitgift. It consists of seventy-five <i>Theses</i>, followed by a +<i>Confirmatio</i> in six books, and an appendix of letters to Erastus +by Bullinger and Gualther, showing that his <i>Theses</i>, written in +1568, had been circulated in manuscript. An English translation +of the <i>Theses</i>, with brief life of Erastus (based on Melchior +Adam’s account), was issued in 1659, entitled <i>The Nullity of +Church Censures</i>; it was reprinted as <i>A Treatise of Excommunication</i> +(1682), and, as revised by Robert Lee, D.D., in 1844. The +aim of the work is to show, on Scriptural grounds, that sins of +professing Christians are to be punished by civil authority, and not +by withholding of sacraments on the part of the clergy. In the +Westminster Assembly a party holding this view included Selden, +Lightfoot, Coleman and Whitelocke, whose speech (1645) is +appended to Lee’s version of the <i>Theses</i>; but the opposite view, +after much controversy, was carried, Lightfoot alone dissenting. +The consequent chapter of the Westminster Confession (“Of +Church Censures”) was, however, not ratified by the English +parliament. “Erastianism,” as a by-word, is used to denote +the doctrine of the supremacy of the state in ecclesiastical causes; +but the problem of the relations between church and state is one +on which Erastus nowhere enters. What is known as “Erastianism” +would be better connected with the name of Grotius. +The only direct reply made to the <i>Explicatio</i> was the <i>Tractatus +de vera excommunicatione</i> (1590) by Theodore Beza, who found +himself rather savagely attacked in the <i>Confirmatio thesium</i>; +<i>e.g.</i> “Apostolum et Mosen adeoque Deum ipsum audes corrigere.”</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See A. Bonnard, <i>Thomas Éraste et la discipline ecclésiastique</i> +(1894); Gass, in <i>Allgemeine deutsche Biog.</i> (1877); G.V. Lechler +and R. Stähelin, in A. Hauck’s <i>Realencyklop. für prot. Theol. u. +Kirche</i> (1898).</p> +</div> +<div class="author">(A. Go.*)</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">ERATOSTHENES OF ALEXANDRIA<a name="ar15" id="ar15"></a></span> (<i>c.</i> 276-<i>c.</i> 194 <span class="scs">B.C.</span>), Greek +scientific writer, was born at Cyrene. He studied grammar +under Callimachus at Alexandria, and philosophy under the +Stoic Ariston and the Academic Arcesilaus at Athens. He returned +to Alexandria at the summons of Ptolemy III. Euergetes, +by whom he was appointed chief librarian in place of Callimachus. +He is said to have died of voluntary starvation, being threatened +with total blindness. Eratosthenes was one of the most learned +men of antiquity, and wrote on a great number of subjects. He +was the first to call himself Philologos (in the sense of the “friend +of learning”), and the name Pentathlos was bestowed upon him +in honour of his varied accomplishments. He was also called +<i>Beta</i> as being second in all branches of learning, though not +actually first in any. In mathematics he wrote two books +<i>On means</i> (<span class="grk" title="Peri mesotêtôn">Περὶ μεσοτήτων</span>) which are lost, but appear, from a +remark of Pappus, to have dealt with “loci with reference +to means.” He devised a mechanical construction for two +mean proportionals, reproduced by Pappus and Eutocius (Comm. +on Archimedes). His <span class="grk" title="koskinon">κόσκινον</span> or <i>sieve</i> (<i>cribrum Eratosthenis</i>) +was a device for discovering all prime numbers. He laid the +foundation of mathematical geography in his <i>Geographica</i>, in +three books. His greatest achievement was his measurement +of the earth. Being informed that at Syene (Assuan), on the day +of the summer solstice at noon, a well was lit up through all its +depth, so that Syene lay on the tropic, he measured, at the same +hour, the zenith distance of the sun at Alexandria. He thus found +the distance between Syene and Alexandria (known to be 5000 +stadia) to correspond to <span class="spp">1</span>⁄<span class="suu">50</span>th of a great circle, and so arrived +at 250,000 stadia (which he seems subsequently to have corrected +to 252,000) as the circumference of the earth. He is credited +by Ptolemy and his commentator Theon with having found the +distance between the tropics to be <span class="spp">11</span>⁄<span class="suu">83</span> rds. of the meridian circle, +which gives 23° 51’ 20″ for the obliquity of the ecliptic. His +astronomical poem <i>Hermes</i> began apparently with the birth and +exploits of Hermes, then passed to the legend of his having +ordered the heavens, the zones and the stars, and gave a history +of the latter. His <i>Erigone</i>, of which a few fragments are also +preserved, is sometimes spoken of as a separate poem, but it may +have belonged to the <i>Hermes</i>, which appears also to have been +known by other names such as <i>Catalogi</i>. The still extant +<i>Catasterismi</i>, containing the story of certain stars in prose, is +probably not by Eratosthenes.</p> + +<p>Eratosthenes was the founder of scientific chronology in his +<span class="grk" title="chronographia">χρονογραφία</span> in which he endeavoured to fix the dates of the chief +literary and political events from the conquest of Troy. An +important work was his treatise on the old comedy, dealing with +theatres and theatrical apparatus generally, and discussing the +works of the principal comic poets themselves. Works on moral +philosophy, history, and a number of letters were also attributed +to him.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>There is a complete edition of the fragments of Eratosthenes by +Bernhardy (1822); poetical fragments, Hillier (1872); geographical, +Seidel (1799) and Berger (1880); <span class="grk" title="katasterismoi">καταστερισμοι</span>, Schaubach (1795) and +Robert (1878). See Sandys, <i>Hist. Class. Schol.</i> i. (1906).</p> +</div> +<div class="author">(T. L. H.)</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">ERBACH,<a name="ar16" id="ar16"></a></span> a town of Germany, in the grand-duchy of Hesse-Darmstadt, +on the Mümling, 22 m. S.E. of Darmstadt. It has +cloth mills and ivory-turning, for which last branch it possesses +a technical school. Wool and cattle fairs are held twice a year. +Pop. 2800. The castle contains an interesting collection of +weapons and pictures, and in the chapel are the coffins of Einhard, +the friend and biographer of Charlemagne, and his wife, Emma.</p> + +<p>Erbach has long been the residence of the counts of Erbach, +who trace their descent back to the 12th century, and who held +the office of cupbearer to the electors palatine of the Rhine until +1806. In 1532 the emperor Charles V. made the county a direct +fief of the Empire, on account of the services rendered by Count +Eberhard during the Peasants’ War. Since 1717 the family has +been divided into the three lines of Erbach-Fürstenau, Erbach-Erbach +and Erbach-Schönberg, who rank for precedence, not +according to the age of their descent, but according to the age of +the chief of their line. In 1818 the counts of Erbach-Erbach +inherited the county of Wartenberg-Roth, and in 1903 the count +of Erbach-Schönberg was granted the title of prince. The +county was mediatized in 1806, and is now incorporated with the +duchy of Hesse-Darmstadt.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See Simon, <i>Die Geschichte der Dynasten und Grafen zu Erbach</i> +(Frankfort, 1858).</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">ERBIUM<a name="ar17" id="ar17"></a></span> (symbol, Er; atomic weight, 165-166), one of the +metals of the rare earths. The first of the rare earth minerals +was discovered in 1794 by J. Gadolin and was named gadolinite +from its discoverer. In 1797 Ekeberg showed that gadolinite +contained another rare earth, which was given the name yttria. +Yttria is an exceedingly complex mixture, which has been +decomposed, yielding as an intermediate product terbia. This +latter substance in its turn has been split by J.L. Soret, P.T. +Cleve, Lecoq de Boisbaudran and others into erbia, holmia, +thulia and dysprosia, but it is still doubtful whether any one of +these four splitting products is a single substance. The rare +earth metals are found in the minerals gadolinite, samarskite, +fergusonite, euxenite and cerite. They are separated from the +minerals by converting them into oxalates, which by ignition +give the corresponding oxides. The oxides are then converted +into double sulphates which are separated from each other by +repeated fractional crystallization or by fractional precipitation +with ammonia or some other base. Erbium forms rose-coloured +salts and a rose-coloured oxide. The oxide dissolves slowly in +acids; it is not reduced by hydrogen and is infusible. The +salts show a characteristic absorption spectrum.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See J.F. Bahr and R. Bunsen (<i>Ann.</i>, 1866, 137, p. 1); A. v. Welsbach +(<i>Monats.</i>, 1883, 4, p. 641; 1884, 5, p. 508; 1885, 6, p. 477); +P.T. Cleve (<i>Comptes rendus</i>, 1879, 89, p. 478; 1880, 91, pp. 328, +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page734" id="page734"></a>734</span> +381; 1882, 95, p. 1225; <i>Bull. de la soc. chim.</i>, 1874, 21, p. 196; +1883, 39, p. 287); C. Marignac (<i>Ann. Chim. phys.</i>, 1849 [3] 27, p. 226); +B. Brauner (<i>Monats.</i>, 1882, 3, p. 13); W. Crookes (<i>Proc. Roy. Soc.</i>, +1886, 40, p. 502); Lecoq de Boisbaudran (<i>Comptes rendus</i>, 1886, +102, p. 1005); A. Bettendorf (<i>Ann.</i>, 1892, 270, p. 376); M. Muthmann +(<i>Ber.</i>, 1898, 31, p. 1718; 1900, 33, p. 42); G. Krüss (<i>Zeit. f. anorg. +Chem.</i>, 1893, 3, p. 108).</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">ERCILLA Y ZÚNIGA, ALONSO DE<a name="ar18" id="ar18"></a></span> (1533-1595), Spanish +soldier and poet, was born in Madrid on the 7th of August 1533. +In 1548 he was appointed page to the heir-apparent, afterwards +Philip II. In this capacity Ercilla visited Italy, Germany and +the Netherlands, and was present in 1554 at the marriage of his +master to Mary of England. Hearing that an expedition was +preparing to subdue the Araucanians of Chile, he joined the +adventurers. He distinguished himself in the ensuing campaign; +but, having quarrelled with a comrade, he was condemned to +death in 1558 by his general, Garcia Hurtado de Mendoza. The +sentence was commuted to imprisonment, but Ercilla was +speedily released and fought at the battle of Quipeo (14th of +December 1558). He returned to Spain in 1562, visited Italy, +France, Germany, Bohemia, and in 1570 married Maria de +Bazán, a lady distantly connected with the Santa Cruz family; +in 1571 he was made knight of the order of Santiago, and in +1578 he was employed by Philip II. on a mission to Saragossa. +He complained of living in poverty but left a modest fortune, +and was obviously disappointed at not being offered the post +of secretary of state. His principal work is <i>La Araucana</i>, a +poem based on the events of the wars in which he had been +engaged. It consists of three parts, of which the first, composed +in Chile and published in 1569, is a versified narrative adhering +strictly to historic fact; the second, published in 1578, is encumbered +with visions and other romantic machinery; and the +third, which appeared in 1589-1590, contains, in addition to +the subject proper, a variety of episodes mostly irrelevant. +This so-called epic lacks symmetry, and has been over-praised +by Cervantes and Voltaire; but it is written in excellent Spanish, +and is full of vivid rhetorical passages. An analysis of the poem +was given by Hayley in his <i>Essay on Epic Poetry</i> (1782).</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>A good biography precedes the <i>Morceaux choisis</i> (Paris, 1900) by +Jean Ducamin.</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">ERCKMANN-CHATRIAN,<a name="ar19" id="ar19"></a></span> the joint names of two French +writers whose collaboration made their work that of, so to speak, +one personality. <span class="sc">Émile Erckmann</span> (1822-1899) was born on +the 20th of May 1822 at Phalsbourg, and <span class="sc">Louis Gratien Charles +Alexandre Chatrian</span> (1826-1890) on the 18th of December +1826 at Soldatenthal, Lorraine. In 1847 they began to write +together, and continued doing so till 1889. Chatrian died in +1890 at Villemomble near Paris, and Erckmann at Lunéville in +1899. The list of their publications is a long one, ranging from +the <i>Histoires et contes fantastiques</i> (1849; reprinted from the +<i>Démocrate du Rhin</i>), <i>L’Illustre Docteur Mathéus</i> (1859), <i>Madame +Thérèse</i> (1863), <i>L’Ami Fritz</i> (1864), <i>Histoire d’un conscrit de 1813</i> +(1864), <i>Waterloo</i> (1865), <i>Le Blocus</i> (1867), <i>Histoire d’un paysan</i> +(4 vols., 1868-1870), <i>L’Histoire du plébiscite</i> (1872), to <i>Le Grand-père +Lebigue</i> (1880); besides dramas like <i>Le Juif polonais</i> (1869) +and <i>Les Rantzau</i> (1882). Without any special literary claim, +their stories are distinguished by simplicity and genuine descriptive +power, particularly in the battle scenes and in connexion +with Alsatian peasant life. They are marked by a genuine +democratic spirit, and by real patriotism, which developed after +1870 into hatred of the Germans. The authors attacked +militarism by depicting the horrors of war in the plainest terms.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See also J. Claretie, <i>Erckmann-Chatrian</i> (1883), in the series of +“Célébrités contemporaines.”</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">ERDÉLYI, JÁNOS<a name="ar20" id="ar20"></a></span> (1814-1868), Hungarian poet and author, +was born in 1814 at Kapos, in the county of Ungvár, and educated +at the Protestant college of Sárospatak. In 1833 he removed +to Pest, where he was, in 1839, elected member of the Hungarian +Academy of Sciences. His literary fame was made by his collection +of Hungarian national poems and folk-tales, <i>Magyar +Népköltési Gyüjtemény, Népdalok és Mondák</i> (Pest, 1846-1847). +This work, published by the Kisfaludy Society, was supplemented +by a dissertation upon Hungarian national poetry, afterwards +partially translated into German by Stier (Berlin, 1851). Erdélyi +also compiled for the Kisfaludy Society an extensive collection +of Hungarian proverbs—<i>Magyar Közmondások könyve</i> (Pest, +1851),—and was for some time editor of the <i>Szépirodalmi +Szemle</i> (<i>Review of Polite Literature</i>). In 1848 he was appointed +director of the national theatre at Pest; but after 1849 he resided +at his native town. He died on the 23rd of January 1868. A +collection of folklore was published the year after his death, +entitled <i>A Nép Koltészete népdalok, népmesék és közmondások</i> +(Pest, 1869). This work contains 300 national songs, 19 folk-tales +and 7362 Hungarian proverbs.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">ERDMANN, JOHANN EDUARD<a name="ar21" id="ar21"></a></span> (1805-1892), German philosophical +writer, was born at Wolmar in Livonia on the 13th of +June 1805. He studied theology at Dorpat and afterwards at +Berlin, where he fell under the influence of Hegel. From 1829 +to 1832 he was a minister of religion in his native town. Afterwards +he devoted himself to philosophy, and qualified in that +subject at Berlin in 1834. In 1836 he was professor-extraordinary +at Halle, became full professor in 1839, and died there on the +12th of June 1892. He published many philosophical text-books +and treatises, and a number of sermons; but his chief claim +to remembrance rests on his elaborate <i>Grundriss der Geschichte +der Philosophie</i> (2 vols., 1866), the 3rd edition of which has been +translated into English. Erdmann’s special merit is that he +does not rest content with being a mere summarizer of opinions, +but tries to exhibit the history of human thought as a continuous +and ever-developing effort to solve the great speculative problems +with which man has been confronted in all ages. His chief other +works were: <i>Leib und Seele</i> (1837), <i>Grundriss der Psychologie</i> +(1840), <i>Grundriss der Logik und Metaphysik</i> (1841), and <i>Psychologische +Briefe</i> (1851).</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">ERDMANN, OTTO LINNÉ<a name="ar22" id="ar22"></a></span> (1804-1869), German chemist, +son of Karl Gottfried Erdmann (1774-1835), the physician who +introduced vaccination into Saxony, was born at Dresden on the +11th of April 1804. In 1820 he began to attend the medico-chirurgical +academy of his native place, and in 1822 he entered +the university of Leipzig where in 1827 he became extraordinary +professor, and in 1830 ordinary professor of chemistry. This +office he held until his death, which happened at Leipzig on the +9th of October 1869. He was particularly successful as a teacher, +and the laboratory established at Leipzig under his direction +in 1843 was long regarded as a model institution. As an investigator +he is best known for his work on nickel and indigo and other +dye-stuffs. With R.F. Marchand (1813-1850) he also carried +out a number of determinations of atomic weights. In 1828, +in conjunction with A.F.G. Werther (1815-1869), he founded +the <i>Journal für technische und ökonomische Chemie</i>, which became +in 1834 the <i>Journal für praktische Chemie</i>. He was also the +author of <i>Über das Nickel</i> (1827), <i>Lehrbuch der Chemie</i> (1828), +<i>Grundriss der Waarenkunde</i> (1833), and <i>Über das Studium der +Chemie</i> (1861).</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">EREBUS,<a name="ar23" id="ar23"></a></span> in Greek mythology, son (according to Hesiod, +<i>Theog.</i> 123) of Chaos, and father of Aether (upper air) and +Hemera (day) by his sister Nyx (night). The word, which +signifies darkness, is in Homer the gloomy subterranean region +through which the departed shades pass into Hades. The +entrance to it was in the extreme west, on the borders of Ocean, +in the mythical land of the Cimmerians. It is to be distinguished +from Tartarus, the place of punishment for the wicked.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">ERECH<a name="ar24" id="ar24"></a></span> (<i>Uruk</i> in the Babylonian inscriptions; Gr. <i>Orchoë</i>), +the Biblical name of an ancient city of Babylonia, situated E. +of the present bed of the Euphrates, on the line of the ancient Nil +canal, in a region of marshes, about 140 m. S.S.E. from Bagdad. +It was one of the oldest and most important cities of Babylonia, +and the site of a famous temple, called E-Anna, dedicated to the +worship of Nana, or Ishtar. Erech played a very important part +in the political history of the country from an early time, +exercising hegemony in Babylonia at a period before the time +of Sargon. Later it was prominent in the national struggles +of the Babylonians against Elam (2000 <span class="scs">B.C.</span> and earlier), in +which it suffered severely; recollections of these conflicts are +embodied in the Gilgamesh epic, as it has come down to us +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page735" id="page735"></a>735</span> +through the library of Assur-bani-pal. Erech enjoyed much +distinction in the later times, as a seat of learning and of the +worship of Ishtar, and Assur-bani-pal drew largely on its literary +stores for his library at Nineveh, from which we derive our +principal information concerning ancient Babylonian literature. +The inscriptions found here show that it continued in existence +through the Persian and Seleucid periods. The ruins of the +ancient site, known as Warka, which are among the largest in all +Babylonia, forming an irregular circle nearly 6 m. in circumference, +bounded by a wall, still standing in some places to the +height of 40 ft., were explored and partially excavated by W.K. +Loftus in 1850 and 1854. The most conspicuous ruin, now +called Abu-Berdi, “Father of Marsh Grass,” or Buwariye, +“reed matting,” because of the layers of reeds between each +twelve courses of unbaked brick, is the <i>ziggurat</i> (tower) of the +ancient temple of E-Anna. It is about 100 ft. in height, and +strikingly resembles in general appearance the ruins of the +ziggurat of the temple of Enlil at Nippur. Second to this in size +was the ruin called Wuswas, a walled quadrangle, including an +area of more than seven and a half acres, within which was an +edifice 246 ft. long and 174 ft. wide, elevated on an artificial +platform 50 ft. in height. The south-west façade, still standing in +some places to the height of 23 ft., exhibited an interesting use +of half columns, and stepped recesses for purposes of decoration. +In another ruin Loftus found a wall, 30 ft. long, composed entirely +of small yellow terra-cotta nail-headed cones, such as have +been discovered in great numbers, inscribed and uninscribed, +used for votive purposes in connexion with walls at Tello and +elsewhere in Babylonia. His excavations being superficial, the +Babylonian inscriptions found by him, about one hundred in all, +exclusive of the ancient Ur-Gur bricks from the temple, belong in +general to the neo-Babylonian, Persian and Seleucid periods. +The older remains are buried deep beneath the huge mass of +later debris. Loftus also discovered at Erech, almost everywhere +within and without the walls, great numbers of clay coffins, +piled one above another, to the height of over 30 ft., forming a +vast and, on the whole, well-ordered cemetery belonging to the +Persian, Parthian and later occupations of Babylonia, during +which period Erech, like other cities of the south, evidently +became a necropolis for a large extent of country. After Loftus’s +time the mounds were visited by various travellers, but no further +excavations have been conducted. Work on this important part +of the site is attended with very great difficulties, owing to the +inaccessible position of the ruins, the unsettled character of the +country, the frequent sand-storms, and above all, the immense +mass of material of later periods which must be removed before a +systematic excavation of the more ancient and interesting ruins +could be undertaken. A curious feature of the Warka neighbourhood +is the existence of conical sand-hills, rising to a considerable +height, so compact as to be almost like stone. These hills extend +from Warka northward as far as Tel Ede.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See W.K. Loftus, <i>Chaldaea and Susiana</i> (1857); J.P. Peters, +<i>Nippur</i> (1897); E. Sachau, <i>Am Euphrat und Tigris</i> (1900). Cf. also +<span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Nippur</a></span> and authorities there quoted.</p> +</div> +<div class="author">(J. P. Pe.)</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">ERECHTHEUM,<a name="ar25" id="ar25"></a></span> a temple (commonly called after Erechtheus, +to whom a portion of it was dedicated) on the acropolis at +Athens, unique in plan, and in its execution the most refined +example of the Ionic order. There is no clear evidence as to +when the building was begun, some placing it among the temples +projected by Pericles, others assigning it to the time after the +peace of Nicias in 421 <span class="scs">B.C.</span> The work was interrupted by the +stress of the Peloponnesian War, but in 409 <span class="scs">B.C.</span> a commission +was appointed to make a report on the state of the building and +to undertake its completion, which was carried out in the following +year.</p> + +<p>The peculiar plan of the Erechtheum has given rise to much +speculation. It may be due partly to the natural conformation +of the rock and the differences of level, partly to the necessity +of enclosing within a single building several objects of ancient +sanctity, such as the mark of Poseidon’s trident and the spring +that arose from it, the sacred olive tree of Athena, and the tomb +of Cecrops. But there are some features which cannot be so +explained, and which have led Professor W. Dörpfeld and +others to believe that the plan, as we now have it, is a modification +or abridgment of the original design, due to the same conservative +influences as led to the curtailment of the plan of the Propylaea +(<i>q.v.</i>).</p> + +<div class="center pt2"><img style="width:510px; height:414px; vertical-align: middle;" src="images/img735.jpg" alt="" /></div> + +<p class="pt2">The building as completed consisted of a temple of the ordinary +type, opening by a door and two windows to the east front, +before which stood a portico of six Ionic columns. This part was +the temple of Athena Polias. Adjoining it on the west was the +central chamber, on a lower level; this chamber was separated +by a partition, originally of wood and later of marble, from the +western compartment of the temple, which was of peculiar +construction. The west end was formed by a wall, on which stood +four columns between antae; but the main entrance to this +western compartment was through a large and very ornate doorway +on the north; and a large Ionic portico, consisting of four +columns in the front, and one in the return on each side, was +placed in front of this door. At the south end of the western +compartment was a smaller door, with steps leading up to the +higher level, within a projecting space enclosed by a low wall +and covered with a projecting porch carried by six “maidens” +or caryatides. The construction of the building at this south-western +corner shows that there was some sacred object that +had to be bridged over by a huge block of marble; this we know +from inscriptions to have been the Cecropeum or tomb of Cecrops. +In the north portico a square hole in the floor, with a corresponding +hole in the roof above it, must have given access to +another sacred object, the mark of Poseidon’s trident in the rock. +The sacred olive tree probably stood just outside the temple to +the west in the Pandroseion. The Ionic order, as used in this +temple, is of the most ornate Attic type. The bases of the +columns are either reeded or decorated with a plait-pattern; +the capital has the broad channel between the volutes subdivided +by a carefully-profiled incision; and the top of the +shafts is ornamented by a broad band of palmette or honeysuckle +pattern. A similar band of ornament runs round the top of the +walls outside, and at their base is a reeded torus. The frieze +consisted of white marble figures in relief, affixed to a background +of black Eleusinian stone.</p> + +<p>The contents of the Erechtheum are described by Pausanias. +It contained the ancient image of Athena Polias, and three altars, +one to Poseidon and Erechtheus, one to Butes and one to +Hephaestus; there were portraits of the family of the Butadae +on the walls. Within it was also the gold lamp of Callimachus, +which burnt for a year without refilling, and had a chimney in +the form of a palm-tree.</p> + +<p>The Erechtheum was damaged by a fire, soon after its completion, +in 406 <span class="scs">B.C.</span>, but was repaired early in the following +century. The west end appears to have been damaged in Roman +times and to have been replaced by the attached columns with +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page736" id="page736"></a>736</span> +windows between them which appear in old drawings and are +still partially extant. It was used as a church in Christian +times, and under Turkish rule as the harem of the governor of +Athens. Lord Elgin carried off to London, about 1801-1803, +one of the columns of the east portico and one of the caryatides; +these were replaced later by terra-cotta casts. During the siege +of the Acropolis in 1827, the roof of the north portico was thrown +down and the building was otherwise much damaged. It was +partially rebuilt between 1838 and 1846; the west front was +blown down in a storm in 1852. Since 1900 the project of +rebuilding the Erechtheum as far as possible with the original +blocks has again been undertaken.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See Stuart, <i>Antiquities of Athens</i>; Inwood, <i>The Erechtheum</i>; +H. Forster in <i>Papers of American School at Athens</i>, i. (1882-1883); +J.H. Middleton, <i>Plans and Drawings of Athenian Buildings</i> (1900), +pls. xiv.-xxii.; E.A. Gardner, <i>Ancient Athens</i>, chap. viii.; W. Dörpfeld, +“Der ursprungliche Plan des Erechtheion” in <i>Mitteil. Athen.</i>, +1904, p. 101, taf. 6; G.P. Stevens, “The East Wall of the Erechtheum,” +in <i>American Journ. Arch.</i>, 1906, pls. vi.-ix.</p> +</div> +<div class="author">(E. Gr.)</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">ERECHTHEUS,<a name="ar26" id="ar26"></a></span> in Greek legend, a mythical king of Athens, +originally identified with Erichthonius, but in later times distinguished +from him. According to Homer, who knows nothing +of Erichthonius, he was the son of Aroura (Earth), brought up +by Athena, with whom his story is closely connected. In the later +story, Erichthonius (son of Hephaestus and Atthis or Athena +herself) was handed over by Athena to the three daughters of +Cecrops—Aglauros (or Agraulos), Herse and Pandrosos—in a +chest, which they were forbidden to open. Aglauros and Herse +disobeyed the injunction, and when they saw the child (which +had the form of a snake, or round which a snake was coiled) +they went mad with fright, and threw themselves from the rock +of the Acropolis (or were killed by the snake). Athena herself +then undertook the care of Erichthonius, who, when he grew up, +drove out Amphictyon and took possession of the kingdom of +Athens. Here he established the worship of Athena, instituted +the Panathenaea, and built an Erechtheum. The Erechtheus +of later times was supposed to be the grandson of Erechtheus-Erichthonius, +and was also king of Athens. When Athens was +attacked by the Thracian Eumolpus (or by the Eleusinians +assisted by Eumolpus) victory was promised Erechtheus if he +sacrificed one of his daughters. Eumolpus was slain and Erechtheus +was victorious, but was himself killed by Poseidon, the +father of Eumolpus, or by a thunderbolt from Zeus. The contest +between Erechtheus and Eumolpus formed the subject of a lost +tragedy by Euripides; Swinburne has utilized the legend in his +<i>Erechtheus</i>. The scene of the opening of the chest is represented +on a Greek vase in the British Museum. The name Erichthonius +is connected with <span class="grk" title="chthôn">χθών</span> (“earth”) and the representation of him +as half-snake, like Cecrops, indicates that he was regarded as one +of the autochthones, the ancestors of the Athenians who sprung +from the soil.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See Apollodorus iii. 14. 15; Euripides, <i>Ion</i>; Ovid, <i>Metam.</i> ii. 553; +Hyginus, <i>Poët. astron.</i> ii. 13; Pausanias i. 2. 5. 8; E. Ermatinger, +<i>Die attische Autochthonensage</i> (1897); article by J.A. Hild in +Daremberg and Saglio’s <i>Dictionnaire des antiquités</i>; B. Powell in +<i>Cornell Studies</i>, xvii. (1906), who identifies Erechtheus, Erichthonius, +Poseidon and Cecrops, all denoting the sacred serpent of Athena, +whose cult she first contested, but then amalgamated with her own. +The birth of Erichthonius (as a corn-spirit) is interpreted by Mannhardt +as a mythical way of describing the growth of the corn, and by +J.E. Harrison (<i>Myths and Monuments of Ancient Athens</i>, xxvii.-xxxvi.) +as a fiction to explain the ceremony performed by the two +maidens called Arrephori. See also Farnell, <i>Cults of the Greek States</i>, +i. 270; and Frazer’s <i>Pausanias</i>, ii. 169.</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">ERESHKIGAL,<a name="ar27" id="ar27"></a></span> also known as <span class="sc">Allatu</span>, the name of the chief +Babylonian goddess of the nether-world where the dead are +gathered. Her name signifies “lady of the nether-world.” +She is known to us chiefly through two myths, both symbolizing +the change of seasons, but intended also to illustrate certain +doctrines developed in the temple-schools of Babylonia. One of +these myths is the famous story of Ishtar’s descent to Irkalla +or Arālu, as the lower world was called, and her reception by +her sister who presides over it; the other is the story of Nergal’s +offence against Ereshkigal, his banishment to the kingdom +controlled by the goddess and the reconciliation between Nergal +and Ereshkigal through the latter’s offer to have Nergal share the +honours of the rule over Irkalla. The story of Ishtar’s descent +is told to illustrate the possibility of an escape from Irkalla, +while the other myth is intended to reconcile the existence of +two rulers of Irkalla—a goddess and a god.</p> + +<p>It is evident that it was originally a goddess who was supposed +to be in control of Irkalla, corresponding to Ishtar in control of +fertility and vegetation on earth. Ereshkigal is therefore the +sister of Ishtar and from one point of view her counterpart, the +symbol of nature during the non-productive season of the year. +As the doctrine of two kingdoms, one of this world and one of +the world of the dead, becomes crystallized, the dominions of +the two sisters are sharply differentiated from one another. The +addition of Nergal represents the harmonizing tendency to unite +with Ereshkigal as the queen of the nether-world the god who, +in his character as god of war and of pestilence, conveys the +living to Irkalla and thus becomes the one who presides over +the dead.</p> +<div class="author">(M. Ja.)</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">ERETRIA<a name="ar28" id="ar28"></a></span> (mod. <i>Aletria</i>), an ancient coast town of Euboea +about 15 m. S.E. of Chalcis, opposite to Oropus. Eretria, +like its neighbour Chalcis (<i>q.v.</i>), early entered upon a commercial +and colonizing career. Besides founding townships in the west +and north of Greece, it acquired dependencies among the Cyclades +and joined the great mercantile alliance of Miletus and Aegina. +Since the so-called Lelantine War (7th century <span class="scs">B.C.</span>) against +the coming league of Chalcis, it began to be overshadowed by +its rivals. The interference of Eretria in the Ionian revolt (498) +brought upon it the vengeance of the Persians, who captured +and destroyed it shortly before the battle of Marathon (490). +The city was soon rebuilt, and as a member of both the Delian +Leagues attached itself by numerous treaties to the Athenians. +The latter, through their general Phocion, rescued it from the +tyrants suborned by Philip of Macedon (354 and 341). Under +Macedonian and Roman rule Eretria fell into insignificance; +for a short period under Mark Antony, the triumvir, it became +a possession of Athens. Eretria was the birthplace of the +tragedian Achaeus and of the “Megarian” philosopher +Menedemus.</p> + +<p>The modern village, which is sometimes called Nea Psará +because the inhabitants of Psará were transferred there in 1821, +is on unhealthy low-lying ground near the sea. The excavation +of the site was carried out by the American School of Athens +(1890-1895). At the foot of the Acropolis Hill, where the ground +begins to rise, the theatre lies; and though the material of +which this was built is rough, and only seven imperfect rows of +seats remain, a good part of the scena and of the chambers +behind it is preserved, and beneath these there runs a tunnel, +which, together with other peculiar features, has raised interesting +questions in connexion with the arrangement of the Greek +theatre, the orchestra being at present on a level about 12 ft. +below that of the rooms in the scena. Near by are the substructions +of a temple of Dionysus and a large altar, and also +a gymnasium with arrangements for bathing. Besides these, +in 1900 the substructions of a temple of Apollo Daphnephoros +were unearthed. Both the northern and the southern side of +the hill are flanked by walls, which seem to have reached the sea, +where there was a mole and a harbour; and the wall of the +acropolis itself remains in one part to the height of eight courses.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p><span class="sc">Authorities.</span>—Strabo x. 447 f.; Herodotus v. 99, vi. 101; +<i>Corpus Inscr. Atticarum</i>, i. 339, iv. (2), pp. 5, 10, 22; H. Heinze, +<i>De rebus Eretriensium</i> (Göttingen, 1869); W.M. Leake, <i>Travels +in Northern Greece</i> (London, 1835), ii. 266, 443; B.V. Head, +<i>Historia numorum</i> (Oxford, 1887), pp. 305-308; <i>Papers of the +American School at Athens</i>, vol. vi.</p> +</div> +<div class="author">(E. Gr.)</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">ERETRIAN SCHOOL OF PHILOSOPHY.<a name="ar29" id="ar29"></a></span> This Greek school +was the continuation of the Elian school, which was transferred +to Eretria by Menedemus. It was of small importance, and in +the absence of certain knowledge must be supposed to have +adhered to the doctrines of Socrates. (See <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Menedemus</a></span>.)</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">ERFURT,<a name="ar30" id="ar30"></a></span> a city of Germany, in Prussian Saxony, on the +Gera, and the railway Halle-Bebra, about midway between +Gotha and Weimar, which are 14 m. distant. Pop. (1875) +48,025; (1905) 100,065. The city, which is dominated on the +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page737" id="page737"></a>737</span> +west by the two citadels of Petersberg and Cyriaxburg, is irregularly +built, the only feature in its plan, or want of plan, being the +Friedrich Wilhelmsplatz, a broad open space of irregular shape +abutting on the Petersberg. On the south-western side of this +square, which contains a monument to the elector Frederick +Charles Joseph of Mainz (1719-1802), is the Domberg, an +eminence on which stand, side by side, the cathedral and the +great church of St Severus with its three spires (14th century). +The churches are approached by a flight of forty-eight stone +steps, the grouping of the whole mass of buildings being exceedingly +impressive. The cathedral (<i>Beatae Mariae Virginis</i>) is +one of the finest churches in Germany. It was begun in the +12th century, but the nave was rebuilt in the 13th in the Gothic +style. The magnificent chancel (1349-1372), with the 14th-century +crypt below, rests on massive substructures, known as the +<i>Cavate</i>. The twin towers are set between the chancel and nave. +The cathedral contains, besides fine 15th-century glass, some +very rich portal sculptures and bronze castings, among others +the coronation of the Virgin by Peter Vischer. In one of its +towers is the famous bell, called Maria Gloriosa, which bears +the date 1497, and weighs 270 cwt. Besides the cathedral and +St Severus, which are Roman Catholic, Erfurt possesses several +very interesting medieval churches, now Evangelical. Among +these may be mentioned the Predigerkirche, dating from the +latter half of the 12th century; the Reglerkirche, a Romanesque +building (restored in 1859) with a 12th-century tower; and the +Barfüsserkirche, a Gothic building containing fine 14th-century +monuments. All these were originally monastic churches. Of +the former religious houses there survive a Franciscan convent, +with a girls’ school attached, and an Ursuline convent. The +Augustinian monastery, in which Luther lived as a friar, is now +used as an orphanage, under the name of the <i>Martinsstift</i>. The +cell of Luther was destroyed by fire in 1872. A bronze statue +of the reformer was erected in the Anger, the chief street of +the town, in 1890. At one time Erfurt had a university, of which +the charter dated from 1392; but it was suppressed in 1816, +and its funds devoted to other purposes, among these being the +endowment of an institution founded in 1758 and now called the +royal academy of sciences, and the support of the royal library, +which now contains 60,000 volumes and over 1000 manuscripts. +On the W. and S.W. extensive new quarters have grown up within +recent years, <i>e.g.</i> Hirschbrühl. The interior of the town hall +(1869-1875) is adorned with legendary and historical frescoes +by Kämpfer and Peter Janssen. Erfurt possesses also a picture +gallery and an antiquarian collection.</p> + +<p>The educational establishments of the town include a +gymnasium, a realgymnasium, a realschule, technical schools +for building and handicrafts, a high-class commercial school, +a school of agriculture, and an academy of music. The most +notable industry of Erfurt is the culture of flowers and of vegetables, +which is very extensively carried on. This industry had +its origin in the large gardens attached to the monasteries. +It has also important and growing manufactures of ladies’ +mantles, boots and shoes, machines, furniture, woollen goods, +musical instruments, agricultural machinery and implements, +leather, tobacco, chemicals, &c. Brewing, bleaching and dyeing +are also carried on on a large scale, and there are extensive +railway works and a government rifle factory.</p> + +<p>Erfurt (Med. <i>Erpesfurt</i>, <i>Erphorde</i>, Lat. <i>Erfordia</i>) is a town +of great antiquity. Its origin is obscure, but in 741 it was +sufficiently important for St Boniface to found a bishopric here, +which was, however, after the martyrdom of the first bishop, +Adolar, in 755, reabsorbed in that of Mainz. In 805 the place +received certain market rights from the emperor Charlemagne. +Later the overlordship was claimed by the archbishops of Mainz, +on the strength of charters granted by the emperor Otto I., and +their authority in Erfurt was maintained by a burgrave and an +<i>advocatus</i>, the office of the latter becoming in the 12th century +hereditary in the family of the counts of Gleichen. In spite of +many vicissitudes (from 1109 to 1137, for instance, the town was +subject to the landgraves of Thuringia), and of a charter granted +in 1242 by the emperor Frederick II., the archbishops succeeded +in upholding their claims. In 1255, however, Archbishop +Gerhard I. had to grant the city municipal rights, the burgraviate +disappeared, and Erfurt became practically a free town. Its +power was at its height early in the 15th century, when it joined +the Hanseatic League. It had acquired by force or purchase +various countships and other fiefs in the neighbourhood, and +ruled a considerable territory; and its wealth was so great that +in 1378 it established a university, the first in Europe that embraced +the four faculties. By the end of the century, however, +its prosperity had sunk owing to the perpetual feud with Mainz, +the internecine war in Saxony, and the consequent dwindling +of trade. By the convention of Amorbach in 1483 the overlordship +of Erfurt was ultimately transferred by the electors of +Mainz to Saxony. The political and religious quarrels of the 16th +century still further depressed the city, in which the reformed +religion was established in 1521. Then came the Thirty Years’ +War, during which Erfurt was for a while occupied by the Swedes. +After the peace of Westphalia (1648) the city was assigned by the +emperor to the elector of Mainz, and, on its refusal to submit, it +was placed under the ban of the Empire (1660). In 1664 it was +captured by the troops of the archbishop of Mainz, and remained +in the possession of the electorate till 1802, when it came into the +possession of Prussia. In 1808 it was the scene of the memorable +interview between Napoleon and the emperor Alexander I. of +Russia, at which the kings of Bavaria, Saxony, Westphalia and +Württemberg also assisted, which is known as the congress of +Erfurt. Here in 1850 the parliament of the short-lived Prussian +Northern Union (known as the Erfurt parliament) held its sittings. +In 1902 the 100th anniversary of the city’s incorporation with +Prussia was celebrated.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See W.J.A. von Tettau, <i>Erfurt in seiner Vergangenheit und +Gegenwart</i> (Erfurt, 1880); C. Beyer, <i>Geschichte der Stadt Erfurt</i> +(Erfurt, 1900); and F.W. Kampschulte, <i>Die Universität Erfurt +in ihrem Verhältnisse zu dem Humanismus und der Reformation</i> +(1856-1858). For a detailed bibliography see U. Chevalier, <i>Répertoire +des sources. Topo-bibliographie</i> (Montebéliard, 1894-1899), s.v.</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">ERGOT,<a name="ar31" id="ar31"></a></span> or <span class="sc">Spurred Rye</span>, the drug <i>ergota</i> or <i>Secale cornutum</i> +(Ger. <i>Mutterkorn</i>; Fr. <i>seigle ergoté</i>), consisting of the sclerotium +(or hard resting condition) of a fungus, <i>Claviceps purpurea</i>, +parasitic on the pistils of many members of the Grass family, +but obtained almost exclusively from rye, <i>Secale cereale</i>. In +the ear of rye that is infected with ergot a species of fermentation +takes place, and there exudes from it a sweet yellowish mucus, +which after a time disappears. The ear loses its starch, and +ceases to grow, and its ovaries become penetrated with the white +spongy tissue of the mycelium of the fungus which towards the +end of the season forms the sclerotium, in which state the fungus +lies dormant through the winter.</p> + +<p>The drug consists of grains, usually curved (hence the name, +from the O. Fr. <i>argot</i>, a cock’s spur), which are violet-black or +dark-purple externally, and whitish with a tinge of pink within, +are between <span class="spp">1</span>⁄<span class="suu">3</span> and 1½ in. long, and from 1 to 4 lines broad, and +have two lateral furrows, a close fracture, a disagreeable rancid +taste, and a faint, fishy odour, which last becomes more perceptible +when the powder of the drug is mixed with potash +solution. Ergot should be kept in stoppered bottles in order to +preserve it from the attacks of a species of mite, and to prevent +the oxidation of its fatty oil.</p> + +<p>The extremely complex composition of this drug has been +studied in great detail, and with such important results that +instead of giving ergot itself by the mouth in doses of 20 to 60 +grains, it is now possible to obtain much more rapid and certain +results by giving one three-hundredth of a grain of one of its +constituents hypodermically. This constituent is the alkaloid +cornutine, which is the valuable ingredient of the drug. Other +ingredients are a fixed oil, present to the extent of 30%, ergotinic +acid, a glucoside, trimethylamine, which gives the drug its +unpleasant odour, and sphacelinic acid, a non-nitrogenous +resinoid body. Of the numerous preparations only two need be +mentioned—the liquid extract (dose 10 minims to 2 drachms +or more), and the hypodermic injection. The latter does not +keep well, and the best way of using ergot is to dissolve tablets +obtained from a reputable maker, and containing some of the +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page738" id="page738"></a>738</span> +active principles, in pure water, the solution being injected +subcutaneously.</p> + +<p>Ergot has no external action. Given internally it stimulates +the intestinal muscles and may cause diarrhoea. After absorption +it slows the pulse by stimulation of the vagus nerves. It has +indeed been asserted that the slow pulse characteristic of the +puerperal period is really due to the common administration +of ergot at that time. This is probably an exaggeration. The +important actions of ergot are on the blood-vessels and the +uterus. The drug greatly raises the blood-pressure by causing +extreme contraction of the arteries. This is mainly due to a +direct action on the muscular coats of the vessels, but is also +partly of central origin, since the drug also stimulates the vaso-motor +centre in the medulla oblongata. This action on the vessels +is so marked as to constitute the drug a haemostatic, not only +locally but also remotely. It may arrest bleeding from the +nose, for instance, when injected hypodermically. Nearly all the +constituents share in causing this action, but the sphacelinic +acid is probably the most potent. Ergot is the most powerful +known stimulant of the pregnant uterus. The action is a double +one. At least four of its constituents act directly on the muscular +fibre of the uterus, whilst the cornutine acts through the nerves. +Of great practical importance is the fact that the cornutine +causes rhythmic contractions such as naturally occur, whilst +the sphacelinic acid produces a <i>tonic</i> contraction of the uterus, +which is unnatural and highly inimical to the life of the foetus. +Ergot is used in therapeutics as a haemostatic, and is very valuable +in haemoptysis and sometimes in haematemesis. But its +great use is in obstetrics. The drug should regularly be given +hypodermically, and it is important to note that if the injection +be made immediately under the skin, an abscess, or considerable +discomfort, may ensue. The injection should be intra-muscular, +the needle being boldly plunged into a muscular mass, such as +that of the deltoid or the gluteal region. The indications for +the use of ergot in obstetrics are highly complex and demand +detailed treatment. It can only be said here that the drug +should only in the rarest possible cases be given whilst the child +is still <i>in utero</i>. This rule is necessitated by the sphacelinic acid, +which causes an unnatural state of the organ. When it is possible +to obtain pure cornutine, which is unfortunately very expensive, +the precautions necessary in other cases may be abrogated.</p> + +<p><i>Chronic poisoning</i>, or <i>ergotism</i>, used frequently to occur +amongst the poor fed on rye infected with the <i>Claviceps</i>. As +it is practically impossible to reproduce the symptoms of ergotism +nowadays, whether experimentally in the lower animals, or when +the drug is being administered to a human being for some therapeutic +purpose, it is believed that the symptoms of ergotism +were rendered possible only by the semi-starvation which must +have ensued from the use of such rye-bread; for the grain +disappears as the fungus develops. There were two types of +ergotism. In the gangrenous form various parts of the body +underwent gangrene as a consequence of the arrest of blood-supply +produced by the action of sphacelinic acid on the arteries. +In the spasmodic form the symptoms were of a nervous character. +The initial indications of the disease were cutaneous itching, +tingling and formication, which gave place to actual loss of +cutaneous sensation, first observed in the extremities. Amblyopia +and some loss of hearing also occurred, as well as mental failure. +With weakness of the voluntary muscles went intermittent +spasms which weakened the patient and ultimately led to death +by implication of the respiratory muscles. The last-known +“epidemic” of ergotism occurred in Lorraine and Burgundy +in the year 1816.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">ERIC XIV.<a name="ar32" id="ar32"></a></span> (1533-1577), king of Sweden, was the only son of +Gustavus Vasa and Catherine of Saxe-Lauenburg. The news of +his father’s death reached Eric as he was on the point of embarking +for England to press in person his suit for the hand of Queen +Elizabeth. He hastened back to Stockholm, after burying his +father, summoned a <i>Riksdag</i>, which met at Arboga on the 15th +of April 1561, and adopted the royal propositions known as the +Arboga articles, considerably curtailing the authority of the royal +dukes, John and Charles, in their respective provinces. Two +months later Eric was crowned at Upsala, on which occasion +he first introduced the titles of baron and count into Sweden, +by way of attaching to the crown the higher nobility, these new +counts and barons receiving lucrative fiefs adequate to the +maintenance of their new dignities.</p> + +<p>From the very beginning of his reign Eric’s morbid fear of +the upper classes drove him to give his absolute confidence to +a man of base origin and bad character, though, it must be +admitted, of superior ability. This was Göran Persson, born +about 1530, who had been educated abroad in Lutheran principles, +and after narrowly escaping hanging at the hands of Gustavus +Vasa for some vile action entered the service of his son. This +powerful upstart was the natural enemy of the nobility, who +suffered much at his hands, though it is very difficult to determine +whether the initiative in these prosecutions proceeded from him +or his master. Göran was also a determined opponent of Duke +John, with whom Eric in 1563 openly quarrelled, because John, +contrary to the royal orders, had married (Oct. 4, 1562) Catherine, +daughter of Sigismund I. of Poland, engaging at the same time +to assist the Polish king to conquer Livonia. This act was a +flagrant breach of that paragraph of the Arboga articles which +forbade the royal dukes to contract any political treaty without +the royal assent. An army of 10,000 men was immediately +sent by Eric to John’s duchy of Finland, and John and his +consort were seized, brought over to Sweden and detained as +prisoners of state in Gripsholm Castle. But Eric did not stop +here. His suspicion suggested to him that, if his own brother +failed him, the loyalty of the great nobles, especially the members +of the ancient Sture family, who had been notable in Sweden +when the Vasas were unknown, could not be depended upon. +The head of the Sture family at this time was Count Svante, +who had married a sister of Gustavus Vasa’s second wife, and had +by her a numerous family, of whom two sons, Nils and Eric, still +survived. The dark tragedy, known as the Sture murders, +began with Eric XIV.’s strange treatment of young Count Nils. +In 1566 he was summoned before a newly erected tribunal and +condemned to death for gross neglect of duty, though not one +of the frivolous charges brought against him could be substantiated. +The death penalty was commuted into a punishment +worse because more shameful than death. On the 15th of June +1566 the unfortunate youth, bruised and bleeding from shocking +ill-treatment, was placed upon a wretched hack, with a crown +of straw on his head, and led in derision through the streets of +Stockholm. The following night he was sent a prisoner to the +fortress of Örbyhus. A few days later he was appointed +ambassador extraordinary, and despatched to Lorraine to resume +the negotiations for Eric’s marriage with the princess Renata. +Before he returned, however, Eric had resolved to marry Karin, +or Kitty Månsdatter, the daughter of a common soldier, who had +been his mistress since 1565. In January 1567 Eric extorted +a declaration from two of his senators that they would assist +him to punish all who should try to prevent his projected +marriage; and, in the middle of May, a <i>Riksdag</i> was summoned +to Upsala to judge between the king and those of the aristocracy +whom he regarded as his personal enemies. Eric himself arrived +at Upsala on the 16th in a condition of incipient insanity. On +the 19th he opened parliament in a speech which, as he explained, +he had to deliver extempore owing to “the treachery” of his +secretary. Two days later Nils Sture arrived at Upsala fresh +from his embassy to Lorraine, and was at once thrown into prison, +where other members of the nobility were already detained. +On the following day Eric murdered Nils in his cell with his own +hand, and by his order the other prisoners were despatched by +the royal provost marshal forthwith. These murders were committed +so promptly and secretly that it is doubtful whether the +estates, actually in session at the same place, knew what had been +done when, on the 26th of May, under violent pressure from +Göran Persson, they signed a document declaring that all the +accused gentlemen under detention had acted like traitors, and +confirming all sentences already passed or that might be passed +upon them.</p> + +<p>During the greater part of 1567 Eric was so deranged that a +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page739" id="page739"></a>739</span> +committee of senators was appointed to govern the kingdom. +One of his illusions was that not he was king but his brother John, +whom he now set at liberty. When, at the beginning of 1568, +Eric recovered his reason, a reconciliation was effected between +the king and the duke, on condition that John recognized the +legality of his brother’s marriage with Karin Månsdatter, and +her children as the successors to the throne. A month later, +on the 4th of July, he was solemnly married to Karin at Stockholm +by the primate. The next day Karin was crowned queen +of Sweden and her infant son Gustavus proclaimed prince-royal. +Shortly after his marriage Eric issued a circular ordering a general +thanksgiving for his delivery from the assaults of the devil. +This document, in every line of which madness is legible, convinced +most thinking people that Eric was unfit to reign. The +royal dukes, John and Charles, had already taken measures +to depose him; and in July the rebellion broke out in Östergötland. +Eric at first offered a stout resistance and won two +victories; but on the 17th of September the dukes stood before +Stockholm, and Eric, after surrendering Göran Persson to the +horrible vengeance of his enemies, himself submitted, and resigned +the crown. On the 30th of September 1568 John III. +was proclaimed king by the army and the nobility; and a <i>Riksdag</i>, +summoned to Stockholm, confirmed the choice and formally +deposed Eric on the 25th of January 1569. For the next seven +years the ex-king was a source of the utmost anxiety to the new +government. No fewer than three rebellions, with the object +of releasing and reinstating him, had to be suppressed, and his +prison was changed half a dozen times. On the 10th of March +1575, an assembly of notables, lay and clerical, at John’s request, +pronounced a formal sentence of death upon him. Two years +later, on the 24th of February 1577, he died suddenly in his new +prison at Örbyhus, poisoned, it is said, by his governor, Johan +Henriksen.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See <i>Sveriges Historia</i>, vol. iii. (Stockholm, 1880); Robert Nisbet +Bain, <i>Scandinavia</i>, cap. 4-6 (Cambridge, 1905); Eric Tegel, <i>Konung +Eriks den XIV. historia</i> (Stockholm, 1751).</p> +</div> +<div class="author">(R. N. B.)</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> + +<table class="flt" style="float: right; width: 390px;" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figright1"><img style="width:339px; height:430px" src="images/img739a.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption1"><span class="sc">Fig.</span> 1.—<i>Vaccinium vitis-idaea</i>, with leaf +and flower, nat. size. 1, Flower of <i>V. +myrtillus</i>, cut lengthwise. 2, Fruit of same.</td></tr></table> + +<p><span class="bold">ERICACEAE,<a name="ar33" id="ar33"></a></span> in botany, a natural order of plants belonging +to the higher or gamopetalous division of Dicotyledons. They +are woody plants, sometimes with a slender creeping stem as +in bilberry, <i>Vaccinium</i> (fig. 1), or <i>Andromeda</i> (fig. 2), or forming +low bushes as in +the heaths, or larger, +sometimes becoming +tree-like, as in species +of <i>Rhododendron</i>. +The leaves are alternate, +opposite or +whorled in arrangement, +and in their +form and structure +show well-marked +adaptation for life +in dry or exposed +situations. Thus in +the true heaths they +are needle-like, with +the margins often +rolled back to form +a groove or an almost +closed chamber on +the under side. In +others such as <i>Rhododendron</i> +or <i>Arbutus</i> +they are often +leathery and evergreen, +the strongly +cuticularized upper surface protecting a water-storing tissue +situated above the green layers of the leaf. The flowers are +sometimes solitary and axillary or terminal as in <i>Andromeda</i>, +but are generally arranged in racemose inflorescences at the end +of the branches as in <i>Arbutus</i> and <i>Rhododendron</i>, or on small +lateral shoots as in <i>Erica</i>. They are hermaphrodite and generally +regular with parts in 4 or 5, thus: sepals 4 or 5, petals 4 or 5, +stamens 8 or 10 in two series, the outer of which is opposite the +petals, and carpels 4 or 5. The corolla is usually more or less +bell-shaped, and in the heaths persists in a dry state in the fruit. +The petals with the stamens are situated on the outer edge of a +honey-secreting disk. The anthers show a very great variety in +shape, the halves are often more or less free and often +appendaged; they open to allow the escape of the pollen by a +terminal pore or slit. The carpels are united to form a 4- to 5-chambered +ovary, which bears a simple elongated style ending +in a capitate stigma; each ovary-chamber contains one to many +ovules attached to a central placenta. The brightly coloured +corolla, the presence of nectar and the scent render the flowers +attractive to insects, and the projection of the stigma beyond the +anthers favours crossing. The fruit is generally a capsule containing +many seeds, as in <i>Erica</i> (fig. 3) or <i>Rhododendron</i>; sometimes +a berry as in <i>Arbutus</i>.</p> + +<table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:514px; height:327px" src="images/img739b.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig.</span> 2.—<i>Andromeda Hypnoides</i>, nat. size. 1, Flower; 2, Unripe +fruit cut across; 3, Stamen—all enlarged.</td></tr></table> + +<table class="pic" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figcenter" colspan="2"><img style="width:354px; height:367px" src="images/img739c.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption" colspan="2"><span class="sc">Fig.</span> 3.</td></tr> + +<tr><td class="f90" style="width: 50%; vertical-align: top;"> +<p>1, Flowering shoot of <i>Erica cinerea</i>, +about 1½ nat. size.</p> + +<p>2, Flower cut lengthwise.</p> + +<p>3, Stamen showing appendages +and porous dehiscence of +anther.</p></td> + +<td class="f90" style="width: 50%; vertical-align: top;"> +<p>4, Capsule showing the loculicidal +dehiscence; a few seeds remain +attached to the central axis.</p> + +<p>5, Diagram of the flower having +four sepals, four divisions of +the corolla, eight stamens in +two rows, and four divisions +of the pistil.</p></td></tr></table> + +<p class="pt2">The order falls into four distinct tribes, which are characterized +by the relative position of the ovary and by the fruit and seed. +They are as follows:—</p> + +<p>1. <i>Rhododendron tribe,</i> characterized by capsular fruit, seed +with a loose coat, deciduous petals and anthers without appendages. +It consists mainly of the great genus <i>Rhododendron</i> (in +which <i>Azalea</i> is included by recent botanists), which is chiefly +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page740" id="page740"></a>740</span> +developed in the mountains of eastern Asia, many species occurring +on the Himalayas. <i>Dabeocia</i>, St Dabeoc’s heath, occurs +in Ireland.</p> + +<p>2. <i>Arbutus Tribe.</i>—Fruit a berry or capsule, petals deciduous +and anthers with bristle-like appendages, chiefly north temperate +to arctic in distribution. <i>Arbutus Unedo</i>, the strawberry-tree, +so called from its large scarlet berry, is a southern European +species which extends into south Ireland. <i>Arctostaphylos</i> +(bearberry) and <i>Andromeda</i> are arctic and alpine genera occurring +in Britain. <i>Epigaea repens</i> is the trailing arbutus or mayflower of +Atlantic America.</p> + +<p>3. <i>Vaccinium Tribe.</i>—Ovary inferior, fruit a berry. Extends +from the north temperate zone to the mountains of the tropics. +<i>Vaccinium</i>, the largest genus, has four British species: +<i>V. Myrtillus</i> is the bilberry(<i>q.v.</i>), blaeberry or whortleberry, +<i>V. Vitis-Idaea</i> the cowberry, and <i>V. Oxycoccos</i> the cranberry +(<i>q.v.</i>). This tribe is sometimes regarded as a separate order +Vacciniaceae, distinguished by its inferior ovary.</p> + +<p>4. <i>Erica Tribe.</i>—Fruit usually a capsule, seeds round, not +winged; corolla persisting round the ripe fruit; anthers often +appendaged. The largest genus is <i>Erica</i>, the true heath (<i>q.v.</i>), +with over 400 species, the great majority of which are confined +to the Cape; others occur on the mountains of tropical Africa +and in Europe and North Africa, especially the Mediterranean +region. <i>E. cinerea</i> (purple heather) and <i>E. Tetralix</i> (cross-leaved +heath) are common British heaths. <i>Calluna</i> is the ling or Scotch +heather.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">ERICHSEN, SIR JOHN ERIC,<a name="ar34" id="ar34"></a></span> Bart. (1818-1896), British +surgeon, born on the 19th of July 1818 at Copenhagen, was the +son of Eric Erichsen, a member of a well-known Danish family. +He studied medicine at University College, London, and at +Paris, devoting himself in the early years of his career to +physiology, and lecturing on general anatomy and physiology +at University College hospital. In 1844 he was secretary to the +physiological section of the British Association, and in 1845 he +was awarded the Fothergillian gold medal of the Royal Humane +Society for his essay on asphyxia. In 1848 he was appointed +assistant surgeon at University College hospital, and in 1850 +became full surgeon and professor of surgery, his lectures and +clinical teaching being much admired; and in 1875 he joined the +consulting staff. His <i>Science and Art of Surgery</i> (1853) went +through many editions. He rose to be president of the College of +Surgeons in 1880. From 1879 to 1881 he was president of the +Royal Medical and Chirurgical Society. He was created a +baronet in 1895, having been for some years surgeon-extraordinary +to Queen Victoria. As a surgeon his reputation was +world-wide, and he counts (says Sir W. MacCormac in his volume +on the Centenary of the Royal College of Surgeons) “among the +makers of modern surgery.” He was a recognized authority on +concussion of the spine, and was often called to give evidence +in court on obscure cases caused by railway accidents, &c. He +died at Folkestone on the 23rd of September 1896.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">ERICHT, LOCH,<a name="ar35" id="ar35"></a></span> a lake partly in Inverness-shire and partly in +Perthshire, Scotland, lying between the districts of Badenoch +on the N. and Rannoch on the S. The boundary line is drawn +from a point opposite to the mouth of the Alder, and follows +the centre of the longitudinal axis north-eastwards to 56° 50′ +N., where it strikes eastwards to the shore. All of the lake to +the S. and E. of this line belongs to Perthshire, the rest, forming +the major portion, to Inverness-shire. It is a lonely lake, situated +in extremely wild surroundings at a height of 1153 ft. above +the sea, being thus the loftiest lake of large size in the United +Kingdom. It is over 14½ m. long, with a mean breadth of half +a mile and over 1 m. at its maximum. Its area amounts to some +7¼ sq. m., and it receives the drainage of an area of nearly 50½ +sq. m. The mean depth is 189 ft., and the maximum 512 ft. +It has a general trend from N.E. to S.W., the head lying 1 m. +from Dalwhinnie station on the Highland railway. It receives +many streams, and discharges at the south-western extremity +by the Ericht. Salmon and trout afford good fishing. The +surrounding mountains are lofty and rugged. Ben Alder (3757 +ft.) on the west shore is the chief feature of the great Corrour +deer forest. The only point of interest on the banks is the cavern, +near the mouth of the Alder, in which Prince Charles Edward +concealed himself for a time after the battle of Culloden.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">ERICSSON, JOHN<a name="ar36" id="ar36"></a></span> (1803-1889), Swedish-American naval +engineer, was born at Langbanshyttan, Wermland, Sweden, on +the 31st of July 1803. He was the second son of Olaf Ericsson, +an inspector of mines, who died in 1818. Showing from his +earliest years a strong mechanical bent, young Ericsson, at the +age of twelve, was employed as a draughtsman by the Swedish +Canal Company. From 1820 to 1827 he served in the army, +where his drawing and military maps attracted the attention +of the king, and he soon attained the rank of captain. In 1826 +he went to London, at first on leave of absence from his regiment, +and in partnership with John Braithwaite constructed the +“Novelty,” a locomotive engine for the Liverpool & Manchester +railway competition at Rainhill in 1829, when the prize, however, +was won by Stephenson’s “Rocket.” The number of Ericsson’s +inventions at this period was very great. Among other things +he worked out a plan for marine engines placed entirely below +the water-line. Such engines were made for the “Victory,” +for Captain (afterwards Sir) John Ross’s voyage to the Arctic +regions in 1829, but they did not prove satisfactory. In 1833 +his caloric engine was made public. In 1836 he took out a +patent for a screw-propeller, and though the priority of his +invention could not be maintained, he was afterwards awarded +a one-fifth share of the £20,000 given by the Admiralty for it. +At this time Captain Stockton, of the United States navy, gave +an order for a small iron vessel to be built by Laird of Birkenhead, +and to be fitted by Ericsson with engines and screw. This vessel +reached New York in May 1839. A few months later Ericsson +followed his steamer to New York, and there he resided for the +rest of his life, establishing himself as an engineer and a builder +of iron ships. In 1848 he was naturalized as a citizen of the +United States. He had many difficulties to contend with, and +it was only by slow degrees that he established his fame and won +his way to competence. At his death he seems to have been +worth about £50,000. The provision of defensive armour for +ships of war had long occupied his attention, and he had constructed +plans and a model of a vessel lying low in the water, +carrying one heavy gun in a circular turret mounted on a turntable. +In 1854 he sent his plans to the emperor of the French. +Louis Napoleon, however, acting probably on the advice of +Dupuy de Lôme, declined to use them. The American Civil +War, and the report that the Confederates were converting the +“Merrimac” into an ironclad, caused the navy department to +invite proposals for the construction of armoured ships. Among +others, Ericsson replied, and as it was thought that his design +might be serviceable in inland waters, the first armoured turret +ship, the “Monitor,” was ordered; she was launched on the +30th of January 1862, and on the 9th of March she fought the +celebrated action with the Confederate ram “Merrimac.” The +peculiar circumstances in which she was built, the great importance +of the battle, and the decisive nature of the result gave the +“Monitor” an exaggerated reputation, which further experience +did not confirm. In later years Ericsson devoted himself to the +study of torpedoes and sun motors. He published <i>Solar Investigations</i> +(New York, 1875) and <i>Contributions to the Centennial +Exhibition</i> (New York, 1877). He died in New York on the 8th +of March 1889, and in the following year, on the request of the +Swedish government, his body was sent to Stockholm and thence +into Wermland, where, at Filipstad, it was buried on the 15th +of September.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>A <i>Life of Ericsson</i> by William Conant Church was published in +New York in 1890 and in London in 1893.</p> +</div> + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">ERIDANUS,<a name="ar37" id="ar37"></a></span> or <span class="sc">Fluvius</span> (“the river”), in astronomy, a +constellation of the southern hemisphere, mentioned by Eudoxus +(4th century <span class="scs">B.C.</span>) and Aratus (3rd century <span class="scs">B.C.</span>); Ptolemy +catalogued 34 stars in it. θ <i>Eridani</i>, a fine double star of magnitudes +3.5 and 5.5, is now of the third magnitude. It is supposed +to be identical with the <i>Achernar</i> of Al-Sufi, who described it +as of the first magnitude; this star has therefore decreased in +brilliancy in historic times. The star ο<span class="su">2</span> <i>Eridani</i> (numbered 40 +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page741" id="page741"></a>741</span> +by Flamsteed) was discovered to be a ternary star group by +Herschel in 1783; it consists of a close pair, of magnitudes +9.2 and 10.9, revolving in a period of 180 years, associated with +a star of magnitude 4.5, which is distant from the pair by 82″; +these stars have an exceptionally swift proper motion, about +4″ per annum. Eridanus was the ancient name of the river Po.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">ERIDU,<a name="ar38" id="ar38"></a></span> one of the oldest religious centres of the Sumerians, +described in the ancient Babylonian records as the “city of the +deep.” The special god of this city was Ea (<i>q.v.</i>), god of the sea +and of wisdom, and the prominence given to this god in the +incantation literature of Babylonia and Assyria suggests not only +that many of our magical texts are to be traced ultimately to +the temple of Ea at Eridu, but that this side of the Babylonian +religion had its origin in that place. Certain of the most ancient +Babylonian myths, especially that of Adapa, may also be traced +back to the shrine of Ea at Eridu. But while of the first importance +in matters of religion, there is no evidence in Babylonian +literature of any special political importance attaching to Eridu, +and certainly at no time within our knowledge did it exercise +hegemony in Babylonia. The site of Eridu was discovered by +J.E. Taylor in 1854, in a ruin then called by the natives Abu-Shahrein, +a few miles south-south-west of Moghair, ancient Ur, +nearly in the centre of the dry bed of an inland sea, a deep valley, +15 m. at its broadest, covered for the most part with a nitrous +incrustation, separated from the alluvial plain about Moghair +by a low, pebbly, sandstone range, called the Hazem, but open +toward the north to the Euphrates and stretching southward +to the Khanega wadi below Suk-esh-Sheiukh. In the rainy +season this valley becomes a sea, flooded by the discharge of +the Khanega; in summer the Arabs dig holes here which supply +them with brackish water. The ruins, in which Taylor conducted +brief excavations, consist of a platform of fine sand enclosed +by a sandstone wall, 20 ft. high, the corners toward the cardinal +points, on the N.W. part of which was a pyramidal tower of two +stages, constructed of sun-dried brick, cased with a wall of +kiln-burned brick, the whole still standing to a height of about +70 ft. above the platform. The summit of the first stage was +reached by a staircase on the S.E. side, 15 ft. wide and 70 ft. +long, constructed of polished marble slabs, fastened with copper +bolts, flanked at the foot by two curious columns. An inclined +road led up to the second stage on the N.W. side. Pieces of +polished alabaster and marble, with small pieces of pure gold and +gold-headed copper nails, found on and about the top of the +second stage, indicated that a small but richly adorned sacred +chamber, apparently plated within or without in gold, formerly +crowned the top of this structure. Around the whole tower was +a pavement of inscribed baked bricks, resting on a layer of clay +2 ft. thick. On the S.E. part of the terrace were the remains +of several edifices, containing suites of rooms. Inscriptions on +the bricks identified the site as that of Eridu. Since Taylor’s +time the place has not been visited by any explorer, owing to +the unsafe condition of the neighbourhood; but T.K. Loftus +(1854) and J.P. Peters (1890) both report having seen it from +the summit of Moghair. The latter states that the Arabs at that +time called the ruin Nowawis, and apparently no longer knew +the name Abu-Shahrein. Through an error, in many recent +maps and Assyriological publications Eridu is described as located +in the alluvial plain, between the Tigris and the Euphrates. It +was, in fact, an island city in an estuary of the Persian Gulf, +stretching up into the Arabian plateau. Originally “on the +shore of the sea,” as the old records aver, it is now about 120 m. +from the head of the Persian Gulf. Calculating from the present +rate of deposit of alluvium at the head of that gulf, Eridu should +have been founded as early as the seventh millennium <span class="scs">B.C.</span> It +is mentioned in historical inscriptions from the earliest times +onward, as late as the 6th century <span class="scs">B.C.</span> From the evidence of +Taylor’s excavations, it would seem that the site was abandoned +about the close of the Babylonian period.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See J.E. Taylor, <i>Journal of the Royal Asiatic Society</i>, vol. xv. (1855); +F. Delitzsch, <i>Wo lag das Paradies?</i> (1881); J.P. Peters, <i>Nippur</i> +(1897); M. Jastrow, <i>The Religion of Babylonia and Assyria</i> (1898); +H.V. Hilprecht, <i>Excavations in Assyria and Babylonia</i> (1904); +L.W. King, <i>A History of Sumer and Akkad</i> (1910).</p> +</div> +<div class="author">(J. P. Pe.)</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">ERIE,<a name="ar39" id="ar39"></a></span> the most southerly of the Great Lakes of North America, +between 41° 23′ and 42° 53′ N., and 78° 51′ and 83° 28′ W., +bounded W. by the state of Michigan, S. and S.E. by Ohio, +Pennsylvania and New York, and N. by the province of Ontario. +It is nearly elliptical, the major axis, 250 m. long, lying east and +west; its greatest breadth is 60 m.; its area about 10,000 sq. m.; +and the total area of its basin 34,412 sq. m. Its elevation above +mean sea-level is 573 ft.; and its surface is nearly 9 ft. below that +of Lake Huron, which discharges into it through St Clair river, +Lake St Clair and Detroit river, and is 327 ft. above that of Lake +Ontario, this great difference being absorbed by the rapids and +falls in the Niagara river, which joins the two lakes. Lake Erie +is very shallow, and may be divided into three basins, the western +extending to Point Pelee and including all the islands, containing +about 1200 sq. m., with a comparatively flat bottom at 5 to 6 +fathoms; the main basin, between Point Pelee and the narrows +at Long Point, containing about 6700 sq. m., and having a marked +shelving bottom deepening gradually to 14 fathoms; and the +portion east of the narrows, containing about 2100 sq. m., having +a depression 30 fathoms deep just east from Long Point, with +an extensive flat of 11 fathoms depth between it and the main +basin. The Canadian shore is low and flat throughout, the United +States shore is low but bordered by an elevated plateau through +which the rivers have cut deep channels. The lake basin is +relatively so small that the rivers are without importance; +Grand river, on the north shore, is the largest tributary. The +flat alluvial soil bordering on the lake is very fertile, and the +climate is well adapted for fruit cultivation. Large quantities +of peaches, grapes and small fruits are grown; the islands in the +west end have a climate much warmer and more equable than the +adjoining mainland, and are practically covered with vineyards. +The low clayey or sandy shores are subject to erosion by waves. +In severe storms the water near shore is filled with sand, which is +deposited where the currents are checked around the ends of +jetties in such a way as to form bars out into the lake across +improved channels. This shoaling has rendered continuous +dredging necessary at every harbour on the lake west of Erie, Pa. +In consequence of the shallowness of the lake its waters are easily +disturbed, making navigation very rough and dangerous, and +causing large fluctuations of surface. Strong winds are frequent, +as nearly every cyclonic depression traversing North America, +either from the westward or the Gulf of Mexico, passes near +enough to Lake Erie to be felt. Westerly gales are more frequent, +and have more effect on the water surface than easterly ones, +lowering the water as much as 7 to 8 ft. at the west end and +raising it 5 to 8 ft. at the east end. The worst storms occur +in autumn, when the immense quantity of shipping on the +lake makes them specially destructive. There are no tides, and +usually only a slight current towards the outlet, though powerful +currents are temporarily produced by the rapid return of waters +after a storm, and during the height of a westerly gale there is +invariably a reflex current into the west end of the lake. There +is an annual fluctuation in the level of the lake, varying from +a minimum of 9 in. to a maximum of 2 ft., the normal low level +occurring in February and the high level in midsummer. +Standard high water (of 1838) is 575.11 ft. above mean sea-level, +and the lowest record was 570.8 in November 1895. The +harbours and exits of the lake freeze over, but the body of the +lake never freezes completely.</p> + +<p>Ice-breaking car ferries run across the lake all winter. General +navigation opens as a rule in the middle of April and closes in +the middle of December. The volume of traffic is immense, +because practically all freight from the more westerly lakes +finds terminal harbours in Lake Erie. Official statistics of commerce +passing through the Detroit river into the lake during the +season of 1906 show that 35,128 vessels, having a net register +of 50,673,897 tons, carried 63,805,571 (short) tons of freight, +valued at $662,971,053. The 1175 vessels engaged in this +business were valued at $106,223,000. Over 90% of the whole +traffic is in United States ships to United States ports. Fine +passenger steamers run nightly between Buffalo and Cleveland +and Detroit, and there are many shorter passenger routes.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page742" id="page742"></a>742</span></p> + +<p>The large traffic on Lake Erie has brought into existence a +number of important harbours on the south shore, nearly all +artificially made and deepened, with entrances between two +breakwaters running into the lake at right angles to the coast +line. The principal of these are Toledo, Sandusky, Huron, +Vermilion, Lorain, Cleveland, Fairport, Ashtabula, Conneaut, +Erie (a natural harbour), Dunkirk and Buffalo, Rondeau, Port +Stanley, Port Burwell, Port Dover, Port Maitland and Port +Colborne. The Miami and Erie canal, leading from Maumee river +to Cincinnati, 244½ m., with a branch to Port Jefferson, 14 m., +with locks 90 by 15 by 4 ft., connects with Lake Erie through +Toledo. The Erie canal leading from Buffalo to the Hudson +river at Troy, and connecting with Lake Ontario at Oswego, had +a capacity for boats 98 ft. long, 17 ft. 10 in. beam, with 6 ft. +draught, until in 1907 the State of New York undertook its +deepening to accommodate boats of 1000 tons capacity. Buffalo +from its position at the eastern limit of deep draught lake navigation +is a city of first rate commercial importance. Its harbour is +formed by an artificial breakwater, built parallel with the shore +about half a mile distant from it. It receives practically all the +Lake Erie grain shipments besides large quantities of iron ore, +lumber and copper, and is a large shipping port for coal, +principally anthracite. It has over 600 m. of railway tracks to +accommodate lake freights. The Welland canal, 26¾ m. long, +connecting Lake Ontario and Lake Erie, with locks 270 by 45 +by 14 ft., leaves Lake Erie at Port Colborne, where the Canadian +government have constructed an artificial harbour and elevators +for transhipment of grain from upper lake freighters to lighters +of canal capacity.</p> + +<p>Fishing operations are carried on extensively in Lake Erie, the +fish being taken with gill nets, seines and pound nets. Each state +touching the lake has its own fishery regulations, which differ +amongst themselves as well as from those of the Dominion. +Both nations maintain a Fishery Protection Service, and the +fisheries are replenished from artificial hatcheries. The most +numerous and valuable fish are the lesser white fish (<i>Coregonus +artedi</i>, Le Sueur), pickerel (<i>Stizostedion vitreum</i>, Walb.), pike +(<i>Lucius lucius</i>, L.), and white fish (<i>Coregonus clupeiformis</i>, +Mitchill), in the order named. The fish caught are estimated +to be worth annually $1,000,000. They are collected in fishing +tugs and distributed by rail throughout the United States and +Canada.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p><i>Bibliography.</i>—<i>Bulletin No. 17, Survey of Northern and North-western +Lakes</i>, U.S. Lake Survey Office, War Dept. (Detroit, 1907); +<i>U.S. Hydrographic Office, Publication No. 108D, Sailing Directions +for Lake Erie, &c.</i> (Washington, 1902); <i>Sailing Directions for the +Canadian Shore of Lake Erie</i>, Department of Marine and Fisheries +(Ottawa, 1897); J.O. Curwood, <i>The Great Lakes</i> (New York, 1909); +E. Channing and M.F. Lansing, <i>The Great Lakes</i> (New York, +1909).</p> +</div> +<div class="author">(W. P. A.)</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">ERIE,<a name="ar40" id="ar40"></a></span> a city, a port of entry, and the county-seat of Erie +county, Pennsylvania, U.S.A., on Lake Erie, 148 m. by rail +N. of Pittsburg and near the N.W. corner of the state. Pop. +(1890) 40,634; (1900) 52,733, of whom 11,957 were foreign-born, +including 5226 from Germany and 1468 from Ireland, and 26,797 +were of foreign parentage (both parents foreign-born), including +13,316 of German parentage and 4203 of Irish parentage; +(1910 census) 66,525. Erie is served by the New York, +Chicago & St Louis, the Lake Shore & Michigan Southern, the +Erie & Pittsburg (Pennsylvania Company), the Philadelphia & +Erie (Pennsylvania railway), and the Bessemer & Lake Erie +railways, and by steamboat lines to many important lake ports. +The city extends over an area of about 7 sq. m., which for the +most part is quite level and is from 50 to 175 ft. above the lake. +Erie has a fine harbour about 4 m. in length, more than 1 m. in +width, and with an average depth of about 20 ft.; it is nearly +enclosed by Presque Isle, a long narrow strip of land of about +3000 acres from 300 ft. to 1 m. in width, and the national government +has protected its entrance and deepened its channel by +constructing two long breakwaters. Most of the streets of the +city are 60 ft. wide—a few are 100 ft.—and nearly all intersect +at right angles; they are paved with brick and asphalt, and +many in the residential quarters are shaded with fine elms and +maples. The city has four parks, in one of which is a soldiers’ +and sailors’ monument of granite and bronze, and not far away, +along the shore of lake and bay, are several attractive summer +resorts. Among Erie’s more prominent buildings are the +United States government building, the city hall, the public +library, and the county court house. The city’s charitable +institutions consist of two general hospitals, each of which has +a training school for nurses; a municipal hospital, an orphan +asylum, a home for the friendless, two old folks’ homes, and a +bureau of charities; here, also, on a bluff, within a large enclosure +and overlooking both lake and city, is the state soldiers’ and +sailors’ home, and near by is a monument erected to the memory +of General Anthony Wayne, who died here on the 15th of +December 1796.</p> + +<p>Erie is the commercial centre of a large and rich grape-growing +and agricultural district, has an extensive trade with the lake +ports and by rail (chiefly in coal, iron ore, lumber and grain), +and is an important manufacturing centre, among its products +being iron, engines, boilers, brass castings, stoves, car heaters, +flour, malt liquors, lumber, planing mill products, cooperage +products, paper and wood pulp, cigars and other tobacco goods, +gas meters, rubber goods, pipe organs, pianos and chemicals. +In 1905 the city’s factory products were valued at $19,911,567, +the value of foundry and machine-shop products being $6,723,819, +of flour and grist-mill products $1,444,450, and of malt liquors +$882,493. The municipality owns and operates its water-works.</p> + +<p>On the site of Erie the French erected Fort Presque Isle in 1753, +and about it founded a village of a few hundred inhabitants. +George Washington, on behalf of the governor of Virginia, came +in the same year to Fort Le Bœuf (on the site of the present +Waterford), 20 m. distant, to protest against the French fortifying +this section of country. The protest, however, was unheeded. +The village was abandoned in or before 1758, owing probably +to an epidemic of smallpox, and the fort was abandoned in 1759. +It was occupied by the British in 1760, but on the 22nd of June +1763 this was one of the several forts captured by the Indians +during the Conspiracy of Pontiac. In 1764 the British regained +nominal control and retained it until 1785, when it passed into +the possession of the United States. The place was laid out as +a town in 1795; in 1800 it became the county-seat of the newly-erected +county of Erie; it was incorporated as a borough in +1805, the charter of that year being revised in 1833; and in 1851 +it was incorporated as a city. At Erie were built within less than +six months most of the vessels with which Commodore Oliver +H. Perry won his naval victory over the British off Put-in-Bay +on the 10th of September 1813.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">ERIGENA, JOHANNES SCOTUS<a name="ar41" id="ar41"></a></span> (<i>c.</i> 800-<i>c.</i> 877), medieval +philosopher and theologian. His real name was Johannes +Scotus (Scottus) or John the Scot. The combination Johannes +Scotus Erigena has not been traced earlier than Ussher and +Gale; even Gale uses it only in the heading of the version of +St Maximus. The date of Erigena’s birth is very uncertain, and +there is no evidence to show definitely where he was born. The +name Scotus, which has often been taken to imply Scottish +origin, really favours the theory that he was an Irishman according +to the then usage of <i>Scotus</i> or <i>Scotigena</i>. Prudentius, bishop +of Troyes, definitely states that he was of Irish extraction. The +pseudonym commonly read Erigena, used by himself in the +titles of his versions of Dionysius the Areopagite, is <i>Ierugena</i> +(in later MSS. Erugena and Eriugena), formed apparently on +the analogy of <i>Graiugena</i> (“Greek-born”), which he applies +to St Maximus. There seems no reason to doubt that Eriugena +is connected with Erin, the name for Ireland, and Ierugena +suggests the Greek <span class="grk" title="hieros, hieros nêsos">ἱερός, ἱερὸς, νῆσος</span> being a common name +for Ireland. On the other hand, William of Malmesbury prefers +to read Heruligena, which would make Scotus a Pannonian, +while Bale says he was born at St David’s, Dempster connects +him with Ayr, and Gale with Eriuven in Hereford. Some early +writers thought there were two persons, John Scotus and John +Erigena.</p> + +<p>Of Erigena’s early life nothing is known. Bale quotes the +story that he travelled in Greece, Italy and Gaul, and studied +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page743" id="page743"></a>743</span> +not only Greek, but also Arabic and Chaldaean. Since, however, +Bale describes him as “ex patricio genitore natus,” it is a reasonable +inference (so R.L. Poole) that Bale confused him with one +John, the son of Patricius, a Spaniard, who tells much the +same story of his own travels. The knowledge of Greek displayed +in Erigena’s works is not such as to compel us to conclude +that he had actually visited Greece. That he had a competent +acquaintance with Greek is manifest from his translations of +Dionysius the Areopagite and of Maximus, from the manner in +which he refers to Aristotle, and from his evident familiarity +with Neoplatonist writers and the fathers of the early church. +Roger Bacon, in his severe criticism on the ignorance of Greek +displayed by the most eminent scholastic writers, expressly +exempts Erigena, and ascribes to him a knowledge of Aristotle +in the original.</p> + +<p>Among other legends which have at various times been attached +to Erigena are that he was invited to France by Charlemagne, +and that he was one of the founders of the university of Paris. +The only portion of Erigena’s life as to which we possess accurate +information was that spent at the court of Charles the Bald. +Charles invited him to France soon after his accession to the +throne, probably in the year 843, and placed him at the head of +the court school (<i>schola palatina</i>). The reputation of this school +seems to have increased greatly under Erigena’s leadership, and +the philosopher himself was treated with indulgence by the king. +William of Malmesbury’s amusing story illustrates both the +character of Scotus and the position he occupied at the French +court. The king having asked, “Quid distat inter sottum et +Scottum?” Erigena replied, “Mensa tantum.”</p> + +<p>The first of the works known to have been written by Erigena +during this period was a treatise on the eucharist, which has not +come down to us (by some it has been identified with a treatise +by Ratramnus, <i>De corpore et sanguine Domini</i>). In it he seems +to have advanced the doctrine that the eucharist was merely +symbolical or commemorative, an opinion for which Berengarius +was at a later date censured and condemned. As a part of his +penance Berengarius is said to have been compelled to burn +publicly Erigena’s treatise. So far as we can learn, however, +Erigena’s orthodoxy was not at the time suspected, and a few +years later he was selected by Hincmar, archbishop of Reims, +to defend the doctrine of liberty of will against the extreme +predestinarianism of the monk Gottschalk (Gotteschalchus). +The treatise <i>De divina praedestinatione</i>, composed on this +occasion, has been preserved, and from its general tenor one +cannot be surprised that the author’s orthodoxy was at once +and vehemently suspected. Erigena argues the question entirely +on speculative grounds, and starts with the bold affirmation that +philosophy and religion are fundamentally one and the same—“Conficitur +inde veram esse philosophiam veram religionem, +conversimque veram religionem esse veram philosophiam.” +Even more significant is his handling of authority and reason, to +which we shall presently refer. The work was warmly assailed +by Drepanius Florus, canon of Lyons, and Prudentius, and was +condemned by two councils—that of Valence in 855, and that +of Langres in 859. By the former council his arguments were +described as <i>Pultes Scotorum</i> (“Scots porridge”) and <i>commentum +diaboli</i> (“an invention of the devil”).</p> + +<p>Erigena’s next work was a Latin translation of Dionysius the +Areopagite (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Dionysius Areopagiticus</a></span>) undertaken at the +request of Charles the Bald. This also has been preserved, and +fragments of a commentary by Erigena on Dionysius have been +discovered in MS. A translation of the Areopagite’s pantheistical +writings was not likely to alter the opinion already formed as to +Erigena’s orthodoxy. Pope Nicholas I. was offended that the +work had not been submitted for approval before being given to +the world, and ordered Charles to send Erigena to Rome, or +at least to dismiss him from his court. There is no evidence, +however, that this order was attended to.</p> + +<p>The latter part of his life is involved in total obscurity. The +story that in 882 he was invited to Oxford by Alfred the Great, +that he laboured there for many years, became abbot at Malmesbury, +and was stabbed to death by his pupils with their “styles,” +is apparently without any satisfactory foundation, and doubtless +refers to some other Johannes. Erigena in all probability never +left France, and Hauréau has advanced some reasons for fixing +the date of his death about 877.</p> + +<p>Erigena is the most interesting figure among the middle-age +writers. The freedom of his speculation, and the boldness with +which he works out his logical or dialectical system of the universe, +altogether prevent us from classing him along with the scholastics +properly so called. He marks, indeed, a stage of transition from +the older Platonizing philosophy to the later and more rigid +scholasticism. In no sense whatever can it be affirmed that with +Erigena philosophy is in the service of theology. The above-quoted +assertion as to the substantial identity between philosophy +and religion is indeed repeated almost <i>totidem verbis</i> by +many of the later scholastic writers, but its significance altogether +depends upon the selection of one or other term of the identity +as fundamental or primary. Now there is no possibility of mistaking +Erigena’s position: to him philosophy or reason is +first, is primitive; authority or religion is secondary, derived. +“Auctoritas siquidem ex vera ratione processit, ratio vero +nequaquam ex auctoritate. Omnis enim auctoritas, quae vera +ratione non approbatur, infirma videtur esse. Vera autem ratio, +quum virtutibus suis rata atque immutabilis munitur, nullius +auctoritatis adstipulatione roborari indiget” (<i>De divisione +naturae</i>, i. 71). F.D. Maurice, the only historian of note who +declines to ascribe a rationalizing tendency to Erigena, obscures +the question by the manner in which he states it. He asks his +readers, after weighing the evidence advanced, to determine +“whether he (Erigena) used his philosophy to explain away +his theology, or to bring out what he conceived to be the fullest +meaning of it.” These alternatives seem to be wrongly put. +“Explaining away theology” is something wholly foreign to +the philosophy of that age; and even if we accept the alternative +that Erigena endeavours speculatively to bring out the full +meaning of theology, we are by no means driven to the conclusion +that he was primarily or principally a theologian. He does not +start with the datum of theology as the completed body of truth, +requiring only elucidation and interpretation; his fundamental +thought is that of the universe, nature, <span class="grk" title="to pan">τὸ πᾶν</span>, or God, as the +ultimate unity which works itself out into the rational system +of the world. Man and all that concerns man are but parts of +this system, and are to be explained by reference to it; for explanation +or understanding of a thing is determination of its place +in the universal or all. Religion or revelation is one element or +factor in the divine process, a stage or phase of the ultimate +rational life. The highest faculty of man, reason, <i>intellectus</i>, +<i>intellectualis visio</i>, is that which is not content with the individual +or partial, but grasps the whole and thereby comprehends the +parts. In this highest effort of reason, which is indeed God +thinking in man, thought and being are at one, the opposition of +being and thought is overcome. When Erigena starts with such +propositions, it is clearly impossible to understand his position +and work if we insist on regarding him as a scholastic, accepting +the dogmas of the church as ultimate data, and endeavouring only +to present them in due order and defend them by argument.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>Erigena’s great work, <i>De divisione naturae</i>, which was condemned +by a council at Sens, by Honorius III. (1225), who described it as +“swarming with worms of heretical perversity,” and by Gregory +XIII. in 1585, is arranged in five books. The form of exposition +is that of dialogue; the method of reasoning is the syllogistic. The +leading thoughts are the following. <i>Natura</i> is the name for the +universal, the totality of all things, containing in itself being and +non-being. It is the unity of which all special phenomena are +manifestations. But of this nature there are four distinct classes:—(1) +that which creates and is not created; (2) that which is created +and creates; (3) that which is created and does not create; (4) +that which neither is created nor creates. The first is God as the +ground or origin of all things, the last is God as the final end or goal +of all things, that into which the world of created things ultimately +returns. The second and third together compose the created universe, +which is the manifestation of God, God <i>in processu</i>, <i>Theophania</i>. +Thus we distinguish in the divine system beginning, middle +and end; but these three are in essence one—the difference is only +the consequence of our finite comprehension. We are compelled to +envisage this eternal process under the form of time, to apply +temporal distinctions to that which is extra- or supra-temporal. +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page744" id="page744"></a>744</span> +The universe of created things, as we have seen, is twofold:—<i>first</i>, +that which is created and creates—the primordial ideas, archetypes, +immutable relations, divine acts of will, according to which individual +things are formed; <i>second</i>, that which is created and does not create, +the world of individuals, the effects of the primordial causes, without +which the causes have no true being. Created things have no +individual or self-independent existence; they are only in God; +and each thing is a manifestation of the divine, <i>theophania</i>, <i>divina +apparitio</i>.</p> + +<p>God alone, the uncreated creator of all, has true being. He is the +true universal, all-containing and incomprehensible. The lower +cannot comprehend the higher, and therefore we must say that the +existence of God is above being, above essence; God is above +goodness, above wisdom, above truth. No finite predicates can be +applied to him; his mode of being cannot be determined by any +category. True theology is negative. Nevertheless the world, as +the <i>theophania</i>, the revelation of God, enables us so far to understand +the divine essence. We recognize his being in the being of all +things, his wisdom in their orderly arrangement, his life in their +constant motion. Thus God is for us a Trinity—the Father as +substance or being (<span class="grk" title="ousia">οὐσία</span>), the Son as wisdom (<span class="grk" title="dynamis">δύναμις</span>), the Spirit +as life (<span class="grk" title="energeia">ἐνέργια</span>). These three are realized in the universe—the +Father as the system of things, the Son as the word, <i>i.e.</i> the realm +of ideas, the Spirit as the life or moving force which introduces +individuality and which ultimately draws back all things into the +divine unity. In man, as the noblest of created things, the Trinity +is seen most perfectly reflected; <i>intellectus</i> (<span class="grk" title="nous">νοῦς</span>), <i>ratio</i> (<span class="grk" title="logos">λογος</span>) and +<i>sensus</i> (<span class="grk" title="dianoia">διάνοια</span>) make up the threefold thread of his being. Not +in man alone, however, but in all things, God is to be regarded as +realizing himself, as becoming incarnate.</p> + +<p>The infinite essence of God, which may indeed be described as +<i>nihilum</i> (nothing) is that from which all is created, from which all +proceeds or emanates. The first procession or emanation, as above +indicated, is the realm of ideas in the Platonic sense, the word or +wisdom of God. These ideas compose a whole or inseparable +unity, but we are able in a dim way to think of them as a system +logically arranged. Thus the highest idea is that of <i>goodness</i>; +things are, only if they are good; being without well-being is naught. +<i>Essence</i> participates in goodness—that which is good has being, +and is therefore to be regarded as a species of good. <i>Life</i>, again, +is a species of essence, <i>wisdom</i> a species of life, and so on, always +descending from genus to species in a rigorous logical fashion.</p> + +<p>The ideas are the eternal causes, which, under the moving influence +of the spirit, manifest themselves in their effects, the individual +created things. Manifestation, however, is part of the being or +essence of the causes, that is to say, if we interpret the expression, +God of necessity manifests himself in the world and is not +without the world. Further, as the causes are eternal, timeless, +so creation is eternal, timeless. The Mosaic account, then, is to be +looked upon merely as a mode in which is faintly shadowed forth +what is above finite comprehension. It is altogether allegorical, +and requires to be interpreted. Paradise and the Fall have no +local or temporal being. Man was originally sinless and without +distinction of sex. Only after the introduction of sin did man lose +his spiritual body, and acquire the animal nature with its distinction +of sex. Woman is the impersonation of man’s sensuous and fallen +nature; on the final return to the divine unity, distinction of sex +will vanish, and the spiritual body will be regained.</p> + +<p>The most remarkable and at the same time the most obscure portion +of the work is that in which the final return to God is handled. +Naturally sin is a necessary preliminary to this redemption, and +Erigena has the greatest difficulty in accounting for the fact of sin. +If God is true being, then sin can have no substantive existence; +it cannot be said that God knows of sin, for to God knowing and +being are one. In the universe of things, <i>as</i> a universe, there can +be no sin; there must be perfect harmony. Sin, in fact, results +from the will of the individual who falsely represents something as +good which is not so. This misdirected will is punished by finding +that the objects after which it thirsts are in truth vanity and emptiness. +Hell is not to be regarded as having local existence; it is +the inner state of the sinful will. As the object of punishment +is not the will or the individual himself, but the misdirection of the +will, so the result of punishment is the final purification and redemption +of all. Even the devils shall be saved. All, however, are not +saved at once; the stages of the return to the final unity, corresponding +to the stages in the creative process, are numerous, and are +passed through slowly. The ultimate goal is <i>deificatio</i>, <i>theosis</i> or +resumption into the divine being, when the individual soul is raised +to a full knowledge of God, and where knowing and being are one. +After all have been restored to the divine unity, there is no further +creation. The ultimate unity is that which neither is created nor +creates.</p> + +<p><span class="sc">Editions.</span>—There is a complete edition of Erigena’s works in +J.P. Migne’s <i>Patrologiae cursus completus</i> (vol. cxxii.), edited by +H.J. Floss (Paris, 1853). The <i>De divina praedestinatione</i> was published +in Gilbert Mauguin’s <i>Veterum auctorum qui nono saeculo +de praedestinatione et gratia scripserunt opera et fragmenta</i> (Paris, +1650). The commentary (“Expositiones”) on Dionysius’ <i>Hierarchiae +caelestes</i> appeared in the <i>Appendix ad opera edita ab A. Maio</i> +(ed. J. Cozza, Rome, 1871). Of the <i>De divisione naturae</i>, editions +have been published by Thomas Gale (Oxford, 1681); C.B. Schlüter +(Münster, 1838); and in Floss’s <i>Opera omnia</i>; there is a German +translation by Ludwig Noack, <i>Johannes Scotus Erigena über die +Eintheilung der Natur</i> (3 vols., 1874-1876). Erigena was also the +author of some poems edited by L. Traube in <i>Monumenta Germaniae +historica. Poëtae Latini aevi Carolini</i>, iii. (1896). A commentary on +the <i>Opuscula sacra</i> of Boëtius is attributed to him and edited by +E.K. Rand (1906). Monographs on Erigena’s life and works are +numerous; see St René Taillandier, <i>Scot Érigène et la philosophie +scholastique</i> (1843); T. Christlieb, <i>Leben u. Lehre des Johannes Scotus +Erigena</i> (Gotha, 1860); J.N. Huber, <i>Johannes Scotus Erigena</i> (Munich, +1861); W. Kaulich, <i>Das speculative System des Johannes Scotus +Erigena</i> (Prague, 1860); A. Stöckl, <i>De Joh. Scoto Erigena</i> (1867); +L. Noack, <i>Über Leben und Schriften des Joh. Scotus Erigena: die +Wissenschaft und Bildung seiner Zeit</i> (Leipzig, 1876); R.L. Poole, +<i>Medieval Thought</i> (1884), and article in <i>Dictionary of National +Biography</i>; T. Wotschke, <i>Fichte und Erigena</i> (Halle, 1896); M. Baumgartner +in Wetzer and Welte’s <i>Kirchenlexikon</i>, x. (1897); Alice +Gardner’s <i>Studies in John the Scot</i> (1900); J. Dräseke, <i>Joh. Scotus +Erigena und seine Gewährsmänner</i> (Leipzig, 1902); S.M. Deutsch in +Herzog-Hauck’s <i>Realencyklopädie für protestantische Theologie</i>, xviii. +(1906); J.E. Sandys, <i>Hist. of Classical Scholarship</i> (1906), pp. 491-495. +See also the general works on scholastic philosophy, especially +Hauréau, Stöckl and Kaulich. An admirable résumé is given by +F.D. Maurice, <i>Medieval Phil.</i> pp. 45-79.</p> +</div> +<div class="author">(R. Ad.; J. M. M.)</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">ERIGONE,<a name="ar42" id="ar42"></a></span> in Greek mythology, daughter of Icarius, the hero +of the Attic deme Icaria. Her father, who had been taught by +Dionysus to make wine, gave some to some shepherds, who +became intoxicated. Their companions, thinking they had been +poisoned, killed Icarius and buried him under a tree on Mount +Hymettus (or threw his body into a well). Erigone, guided by +her faithful dog Maera, found his grave, and hanged herself on +the tree. Dionysus sent a plague on the land, and all the maidens +of Athens, in a fit of madness, hanged themselves like Erigone. +Icarius, Erigone and Maera were set among the stars as Boötes +(or Arcturus), Virgo and Procyon. The festival called Aeora +(the “swing”) was subsequently instituted to propitiate Icarius +and Erigone. Various small images (in Lat. <i>oscilla</i>) were suspended +on trees and swung backwards and forwards, and offerings +of fruit were made (Hyginus, <i>Fab.</i> 130, <i>Poët. astron.</i> ii. 4; +Apollodorus iii. 14). The story was probably intended to explain +the origin of these <i>oscilla</i>, by which Dionysus, as god of trees +(Dendrites), was propitiated, and the baneful influence of the +dog-star averted (see also <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Oscilla</a></span>).</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">ERIN,<a name="ar43" id="ar43"></a></span> an ancient name for Ireland. The oldest form of the +word is Ériu, of which Érinn is the dative case. Ériu was itself +almost certainly a contraction from a still more primitive form +<i>Iberiu</i> or <i>Iveriu</i>; for when the name of the island was written in +ancient Greek it appeared as <span class="grk" title="Iouernia">Ἰουερνιά</span> (Ivernia), and in Latin as +<i>Iberio</i>, <i>Hiberio</i> or <i>Hibernia</i>, the first syllable of the word Ériu +being thus represented in the classical languages by two distinct +vowel sounds separated by <i>b</i> or <i>v</i>. Of the Latin variants, <i>Iberio</i> +is the form found in the most ancient Irish MSS., such as the +<i>Confession</i> of St Patrick, and the same saint’s <i>Epistle to Coroticus</i>. +Further evidence to the same effect is found in the fact that the +ancient Breton and Welsh names for Ireland were Ywerddon or +Iverdon. In later Gaelic literature the primitive form Ériu +became the dissyllable Éire; hence the Norsemen called the +island the land of Éire, <i>i.e.</i> Ireland, the latter word being originally +pronounced in three syllables. (See <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Ireland</a></span>: <i>Notices of +Ireland in Greek and Roman writers</i>.) Nothing is known as to the +meaning of the word in any of its forms, and Whitley Stokes’s +suggestion that it may have been connected with the Sanskrit +<i>avara</i>, meaning “western,” is admittedly no more than conjecture. +There was, indeed, a native Irish legend, worthless +from the standpoint of etymology, to account for the origin of the +name. According to this myth there were three kings of the +Dedannans reigning in Ireland at the coming of the Milesians, +named MacColl, MacKecht and MacGrena. The wife of the +first was Eire, and from her the name of the country was derived. +Curiously, Ireland in ancient Erse poetry was often called +“Fodla” or “Bauba,” and these were the wives of the other +two kings in the legend.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">ERINNA,<a name="ar44" id="ar44"></a></span> Greek poet, contemporary and friend of Sappho, +a native of Rhodes or the adjacent island of Telos, flourished +about 600 (according to Eusebius, 350 <span class="scs">B.C.</span>). Although she died +at the early age of nineteen, her poems were among the most +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page745" id="page745"></a>745</span> +famous of her time and considered to rank with those of Homer. +Of her best-known poem, <span class="grk" title="Êlakatê">Ἠλακάτη</span> (the <i>Distaff</i>), written in a +mixture of Aeolic and Doric, which contained 300 hexameter lines, +only 4 lines are now extant. Three epigrams in the Palatine +anthology, also ascribed to her, probably belong to a later date.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>The fragments have been edited (with those of Alcaeus) by J. +Pellegrino (1894).</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">ERINYES<a name="ar45" id="ar45"></a></span> (Lat. <i>Furiae</i>), in Greek mythology, the avenging +deities, properly the angry goddesses or goddesses of the curse +pronounced upon evil-doers. According to Hesiod (<i>Theog.</i> 185) +they were the daughters of Earth, and sprang from the blood +of the mutilated Uranus; in Aeschylus (<i>Eum.</i> 321) they are +the daughters of Night, in Sophocles (<i>O.C.</i> 40) of Darkness and +Earth. Sometimes one Erinys is mentioned, sometimes several; +Euripides first spoke of them as three in number, to whom later +Alexandrian writers gave the names Alecto (unceasing in anger), +Tisiphone (avenger of murder), Megaera (jealous). Their home +is the world below, whence they ascend to earth to pursue +the wicked. They punish all offences against the laws of human +society, such as perjury, violation of the rites of hospitality, and, +above all, the murder of relations. But they are not without benevolent +and beneficent attributes. When the sinner has expiated +his crime they are ready to forgive. Thus, their persecution of +Orestes ceases after his acquittal by the Areopagus. It is said +that on this occasion they were first called Eumenides (“the +kindly”), a euphemistic variant of their real name. At Athens, +however, where they had a sanctuary at the foot of the Areopagus +hill and a sacred grove at Colonus, their regular name was +Semnae (venerable). Black sheep were sacrificed to them during +the night by the light of torches. A festival was held in their +honour every year, superintended by a special priesthood, at +which the offerings consisted of milk and honey mixed with water, +but no wine. In Aeschylus, the Erinyes are represented as +awful, Gorgon-like women, wearing long black robes, with snaky +locks, bloodshot eyes and claw-like nails. Later, they are winged +maidens of serious aspect, in the garb of huntresses, with snakes +or torches in their hair, carrying scourges, torches or sickles. +The identification of Erinyes with Sanskrit Saranyu, the swift-speeding +storm cloud, is rejected by modern etymologists; +according to M. Bréal, the Erinyes are the personification of the +formula of imprecation (<span class="grk" title="ara">ἀρά</span>), while E. Rohde sees in them the +spirits of the dead, the angry souls of murdered men.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See C.O. Müller, <i>Dissertations on the Eumenides of Aeschylus</i>, +(Eng. tr., 1835); A. Rosenberg, <i>Die Erinyen</i> (1874); J.E. Harrison, +<i>Prolegomena to the Study of Greek Religion</i> (1903); and <i>Journal of +Hellenic Studies</i>, xix. p. 205, according to whom the Erinyes were +primarily local ancestral ghosts, potent for good or evil after death, +earth genii, originally conceived as embodied in the form of snakes, +whose primitive haunt and sanctuary was the omphalos at Delphi; +E. Rohde, <i>Psyche</i> (1903); A. Rapp in Roscher’s <i>Lexikon der Mythologie</i>, +and J.A. Hild in Daremberg and Saglio’s <i>Dictionnaire des +antiquités</i>, s.v. <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Furiae</a></span>.</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">ERIPHYLE,<a name="ar46" id="ar46"></a></span> in Greek mythology, sister of Adrastus and wife +of Amphiaraus. Having been bribed by Polyneices with the +necklace of Harmonia, she persuaded her husband to take part +in the expedition of the Seven against Thebes, although he knew +it would prove fatal to him. Before setting out, the seer charged +his sons to slay their mother as soon as they heard of his death. +The attack on Thebes was repulsed, and during the flight the +earth opened and swallowed up Amphiaraus together with his +chariot. His son Alcmaeon, as he had been bidden, slew his +mother, and was driven from place to place by the Erinyes, +seeking purification and a new home (Apollodorus iii. 6. 7).</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">ERIS,<a name="ar47" id="ar47"></a></span> in Greek mythology, a sister of the war-god Ares (Homer, +<i>Iliad</i>, iv. 440), and in the Hesiodic theogony (225) a daughter of +Night. In the later legends of the Trojan War, Eris, not having +been invited to the marriage festival of Peleus and Thetis, flings +a golden apple (the “apple of discord”) among the guests, to +be given to the most beautiful. The claims of the three deities +Hera, Aphrodite and Athena are decided by Paris in favour of +Aphrodite, who as a reward assists him to gain possession of +Helen (Hyginus, <i>Fab.</i> 92; Lucian, <i>Charidemus</i>, 17). Hesiod +also mentions (<i>W. and D.</i> 24) a beneficent Eris, the personification +of honourable rivalry. In Virgil (<i>Aeneid</i>, viii. 702) and other +Roman poets Eris is represented by Discordia.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">ERITH,<a name="ar48" id="ar48"></a></span> an urban district in the north-western parliamentary +division of Kent, England, 14 m. E. by S. of London, on the +South Eastern & Chatham railway. Pop. (1891) 13,414; (1901) +25,296. It lies on the south bank of the Thames and extends +up the hills above the shore, many villas having been erected +on the higher ground. The park of a former seat, Belvedere, +was thus built over (<i>c.</i> 1860), and the mansion became a home for +disabled seamen. The church of St John the Baptist, though +largely altered by modern restoration, retains Early English to +Perpendicular portions, and some early monuments and brasses. +Erith has large engineering and gun factories, and in the neighbourhood +are gunpowder, oil, glue and manure works. The +southern outfall works of the London main drainage system are at +Crossness in the neighbouring lowland called Plumstead Marshes. +Erith is the headquarters of several yacht clubs. Erith, the name +of which is commonly derived from A.S. <i>Ærra-hythe</i> (old haven), +was anciently a borough, and was granted a market and fairs +in 1313. Down to the close of the 17th century it was of some +importance as a naval station.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">ERITREA,<a name="ar49" id="ar49"></a></span> an Italian colony on the African coast of the Red +Sea. It extends from Ras Kasar, a cape 110 m. S. of Suakin, in +18° 2′ N., as far as Ras Dumeira (12° 42′ N.), in the Strait of +Bab-el-Mandeb, a coast-line of about 650 m. The colony is +bounded inland by the Anglo-Egyptian Sudan, Abyssinia and +French Somaliland. It consists of the coast lands lying between +the capes named and of part of the northern portion of the +Abyssinian plateau. The total area is about 60,000 sq. m. +The population is approximately 450,000, of which, exclusive +of soldiers, not more than 3000 are whites.</p> + +<p>The land frontier starting from Ras Kasar runs in a south-westerly +direction until in about 14° 15′ N., 36° 35′ E. it reaches +the river Setit, some distance above the junction of that stream +with the Atbara. This, the farthest point inland, is 198 m. S.W. +of Massawa. The frontier now turns east, following for a short +distance the course of the river Setit; thence it strikes north-easterly +to the Mareb, and from 38° E. follows that river and its +tributaries the Belesa and Muna, until within 42 m. of the sea +directly south of Annesley Bay. At this point the frontier turns +south and east, crossing the Afar or Danakil country at a distance +of 60 kilometres (37.28 m.) from the coast-line. About 12° 20′ +N. the French possessions in Somaliland are reached. Here the +frontier turns N.E. and so continues until the coast of the Red +Sea is again reached at a point south of the town of Raheita. +In the southern part of the colony are small sultanates, such as +those of Aussa and Raheita, which are under Italian protection. +The Dahlak archipelago and other groups of islands along the +coast belong to Eritrea.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p><i>Physical Features.</i>—The coast-line is of coral formation and is, +in the neighbourhood of Massawa, thickly studded with small +islands. The chief indentations are Annesley Bay, immediately +south of Massawa, and Assab Bay in the south. The colony consists +of two widely differing regions. The northern division is part of the +Abyssinian highlands. The southern division, part of the Afar or +Danakil country, includes all the territory of the colony south of +Annesley Bay. These two regions are connected by a narrow strip +of land behind Annesley Bay, where the Abyssinian hills approach +close to the sea. From this bay the coast-line trends S.E. so that at +Tajura Bay the distance between the Abyssinian hills and the sea +is over 200 m. The Afar country is part of the East African +rift-valley, and in the southern parts of the valley its surface is +diversified by ranges of hills, frequently volcanic, and by lakes. +The plains, however, extend over large areas, they are generally arid +and are often covered with mimosa trees which form a kind of +jungle called by the natives <i>khala</i>. The torrents which descend from +the Abyssinian plateau usually fail to reach the sea. They are mostly +bordered by dense vegetation; in the dry season water is found in +pools in the river beds or can be obtained by digging. The principal +rivers enter and are lost in one or other of two salt plains or basins, +that of Asali in the north and that of Aussa in the south. The +Hawash flows through the Aussa country in a N.E. direction, +but is lost in lakes Abbebad and Aussa (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Abyssinia</a></span>). The Raguali +and other rivers drain into the Asali basin. This basin, like that of +Aussa, is in places 200 ft. below sea-level. On the west the Asali basin +reaches to the Abyssinian foot-hills; in its southern part is the +small lake Alelbad. The eastern edge of the basin is formed by a +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page746" id="page746"></a>746</span> +ridge of gypsum and on its margin grow palms. In parts the salt +lies thick on the plain, which then has the appearance of a lake +frozen over. South of Lake Alelbad is a volcano called Artali or +Erta-alé (“the smoky”), and farther to the S.E., in about 13° 15′ N., +is the peak of Afdera, which was in eruption in June 1907. The hills, +1000 to 4000 ft. in height, which run more or less parallel to and a +few miles from the coast, include the volcano of Dubbi (reported +active in 1861), some 30 m. S. of the port of Edd (Eddi). In +14° 52′ N., 39° 53′ E. and near the northern end of the zone of +depression the volcano of Alid (2985 ft.) rises from the trough. Its +chief crest forms an elongated ring and encloses a crater over half +a mile in diameter and with walls 350 ft. high. North and south of +Alid extends a vast lava field. Dubbi and Alid are in Italian territory; +the greater part of Afar belongs to Abyssinia.</p> + +<p>At Annesley Bay the narrow coast plain is succeeded by foothills +separated by small valleys through which flow innumerable streams. +From these hills the ascent to the plateau which constitutes northern +Eritrea is very steep. This tableland, which has a general elevation +of about 6500 ft., is fairly fertile despite a desert region—Sheb—to +the S.E. of Keren. It is characterized by rich, well-watered valleys, +verdant plains and flat-topped hills with steep sides, running in +ranges or isolated. The highest hills in Eritrean territory rise to +about 10,000 ft. The plateau is known by various names, the region +directly west of Massawa being called Hamasen. To the west and +north the plateau sinks in terraces to the plains of the Sudan, and +eastward falls more abruptly to the Red Sea, the coast plain, known +as the Samhar, consisting of sandy country covered with mimosa +and, along the khors, with a somewhat richer vegetation.</p> + +<p>The colony contains no navigable streams. For a short distance +the Setit (known in its upper course as the Takazze), a tributary +of the Atbara, forms the frontier, as does also in its upper course +the Gash or Mareb (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Abyssinia</a></span>). The Mareb, often dry in summer, +in the floods is a large and impassable river. Both the Setit and +Mareb have a general westerly course across the Abyssinian plateau. +The Baraka (otherwise Barka) and Anseba rise in the Hamasen +plateau near Asmara within a short distance of each other. The +Baraka flows west and then north; the Anseba, which has a more +easterly course, also flows northward and joins the Baraka a little +N. of 17° N. A few miles below the confluence the Baraka leaves +Italian territory. It is (as is the Anseba) an intermittent stream. +After heavy rain it discharges some of its water into the Red Sea +north of Tokar. The whole of the hill country north of Asmara +belongs to the drainage area of the Baraka or Anseba. Of the +numerous streams which, north of the Danakil country, run direct +from the hills to the Red Sea, the Hadas may be mentioned, as along +the valley of that stream is one of the most frequented routes to +the tableland. The Hadas, in time of flood, reaches the ocean near +Adulis in Annesley Bay.</p> + +<p><i>Climate.</i>—The climate in different parts of the colony varies +greatly. Three distinct climatic zones are found:—(1) that of the +coastlands, including altitudes up to 1650 ft., (2) that of the escarpments +and valleys, and (3) that of the high plateau and alpine +summits. In the coast zone the heat and humidity are excessive +during most of the year, June, September and October being the +hottest months. Rains occur between November and April, during +which time the temperature is lower. In this zone malarial fevers +prevail in winter. The heat is greatest at Massawa, where the +mean temperature averages 88° F., but where, in summer, the +thermometer often rises to 120° F. in the shade. In the second +zone the climate is more temperate and there is considerable variation +in temperature owing to nocturnal radiation. This zone falls +within the régime of the summer monsoon rains, while those districts +adjoining the coast zone enjoy also winter rains. August is the most +rainy and May the hottest month. On the high plateau, <i>i.e.</i> the +third zone, the climate is generally moderately cool. Slight rain +falls in the spring and abundant monsoon rains from June to +September. The heat is greatest in the dry season, November to +April. Above 8500 ft. the climate becomes sub-alpine in character.</p> + +<p><i>Flora and Fauna.</i>—In the low country the flora differs little from +that of tropical Africa generally, whilst on the plateau the vegetation +is characteristic of the temperate zone. The olive tree grows +on the high plateau and covers the flanks of the hills to within +3000 ft. of sea-level. The sycamore-fig tree grows to enormous +proportions in parts of the plateau. Lower down durra, maize and +bultuc grow in profusion. In the northern part of the colony, +especially along the Khor Baraka, the dom palm flourishes. The +fauna includes, in the low country, the lion, panther, elephant, +camel, and antelope of numerous species. On the plateau the fauna +is that of Abyssinia (<i>q.v.</i>).</p> + +<p><i>Inhabitants.</i>—The inhabitants of the plains and foothills are for +the most part semi-nomad shepherds, living on durra and milk. +In the north these people are largely of Arab or Hamitic stock, such +as the Beni-Amer, but include various negro tribes. Afar and +Somali form the population of the southern regions. The inhabitants +of the plateau are Abyssinians. The nomads are Mussulmans +and are, as a rule, docile and pacific, though the Danakils are given +to occasional raiding. The Abyssinians are more warlike, but they +have settled down under Italian rule. Among the native industries +are mat-weaving, cotton-weaving, silver-working and rudimentary +iron and leather working. (See <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Afars</a></span>; <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Somaliland</a></span> and <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Abyssinia</a></span>.)</p> + +<p><i>Towns.</i>—The principal places on the coast are Massawa (<i>q.v.</i>), +pop. about 10,000, the chief seaport of the colony, Assab, chief town +of the Danakil region, to which converges the trade from Abyssinia +across the Aussa country, and Zula (<i>q.v.</i>), identified with the ancient +Adulis. The chief town in the interior is Asmara (<i>q.v.</i>), the capital +of the colony and under the Abyssinians capital of the province of +Hamasen, and favourite headquarters of Ras Alula (see below and +also <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Abyssinia</a></span>). It is situated 7800 ft. above the sea, and has +something of the aspect of a European town. Keren, 50 m. N.W. of +Asmara, is the centre for a district (Bogos) fertilized by the upper +course of the Anseba; Agordat, on the river Baraka, on the road +from Keren to Kassala, is the centre of the Beni-Amer, Algheden +and Sabderat tribes; Mogolo, on the lower Mareb, is the rendezvous +of the Baria and Baza tribes. Towards Abyssinia the chief towns +are Saganeiti (capital of the Okulé-Kusai province), Godofelassi +and Adi-Ugri, the two latter situated in the fertile plain of the +Seraé; Adiquala, on the edge of the Mareb gorge; and Arrasa, the +centre of the districts constituting the province of Deki-Tesfa.</p> + +<p><i>Agriculture and Trade.</i>—The nomads of the plains possess large +herds of cattle and camels. The low country is almost entirely +pastoral and unsuited for the cultivation of crops. On the other +hand almost all European cereals flourish in the intermediate zone +and on the high plateau, and the Abyssinian is a good agriculturist +and understands irrigation. Numbers of emigrants from Italy +possess farms on the plateau. Experiments in the cultivation of +coffee, tobacco and cotton have given good results in the intermediate +zone. Besides camels and oxen, sheep and goats are +numerous, and meat, hides and butter are articles of local trade. +Hides are the principal export (about £50,000 a year). Wax, gum, +coffee and ivory are also exported. Pearl fishing is carried on at +Massawa and the Dahlak islands. The annual value of the fisheries +is about £40,000 (pearls £10,000, mother of pearl £30,000). Gold +mines are worked near Asmara. Salt, obtained from the salt lakes +in the Aussa and Danakil countries, is a valuable article of commerce. +Cotton goods are the chief imports. There is a little trade with +northern Abyssinia, but it is undeveloped. For the five years +1901-1905 the average value of the external trade was £456,000 per +annum. The imports more than doubled the exports.</p> + +<p><i>Communications.</i>—A railway, 65 m. long, connects Massawa with +Asmara. An extension of the line is planned from Asmara to +Sabderat and Kassala. The whole territory is crossed by camel +and mule paths between the sea and the high plateau, and between +the various centres of population. Every valley that brings water +to the Red Sea has a route leading to the high plateau. The great +arteries, however, number three, which, starting from Massawa +by way of Asmara, run, two to Abyssinia, and one to Kassala and +Khartum. They are all more or less practicable for carts, and are +flanked by a good telegraph line as long as they lie in Italian territory. +There are also two caravan routes from Assab Bay, across +the Danakil country to southern Abyssinia. The northern leads +by a comparatively easy ascent to Yejju, the more southern follows +the valley of the Hawash. A telegraph line 500 m. long connects +Massawa with Adis Ababa via Asmara. Massawa is also telegraphically +connected with the outside world by a cable to Perim +via Assab. There is regular steamship communication with Italy.</p> + +<p><i>Administration.</i>—Eritrea is administered by a civil governor +responsible to the ministry of foreign affairs at Rome. It is divided +into six provinces, each governed by a regional commissioner. +Some tracts of frontier territory are detached from the various +regions and entrusted to political residents, as, for instance, on the +Sudan frontier and also on the Abyssinian boundary, where strict +surveillance is necessary to repress raiding incursions from Tigré, +and where the chief intelligence department is established. The +six regions or principal provinces are:—Asmara, which includes +Hamasen and other small districts; Keren, which comprises the +high territories to the north of Asmara, <i>i.e.</i> the Bogos country; +Massawa, extending over all the tribes between the high plateau +and the sea from the Hababs to the Danakil; Assab, which extends +from Edd to Raheita; Okulé-Kusai, the plateau country S.E. of +Asmara; Seraé, including Deki-Tesfa, the country S.W. of Asmara. +The regional commissioners and the political residents act either +by means of the village headmen (<i>Shum</i> or <i>Chicca</i>), by the chiefs of +districts in the few localities where villages are still organized in +districts, or by the headmen of tribes, and by the councils of the +elders wherever these remain.</p> + +<p>Revenue is derived from customs duties, direct taxation and +tribute paid by the nomad tribes. The local revenue, which for +the period 1897-1907 was about £100,000 a year, is supplemented +by grants from Italy, the total cost of the administration being +about £400,000 yearly. Nearly half the expenditure is on the +military force maintained.</p> + +<p><i>Justice.</i>—Civil justice for natives is administered, in the first +instance, by the headmen of villages, provinces, tribes, or by councils +of notables (<i>Shumagalle</i>); in appeal, by the residents and regional +tribunals, and, in the last instance, by the colonial court of appeal. +Europeans are entirely under Italian jurisdiction. Penal justice is +administered by Italian judges only. An administrative tribunal +settles, without appeal, questions of tribute, disputes concerning +family, village or tribal landmarks, as well as suits involving the +colonial government. The civil laws for the natives are those +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page747" id="page747"></a>747</span> +established by local usage. Europeans are answerable to the Italian +civil code. Penal laws are the same as in Italy, except where modified +by local usages. Appeal to the Rome court of cassation is +admitted against all penal and civil sentences.</p> + +<p><i>Defence.</i>—Defence is entrusted to a corps of colonial troops, +partly Italian and partly native; to a militia (<i>milizia mobile</i>) +formed by natives who have already served in the colonial corps; +and to the <i>chitet</i> or general levy which, in time of war, places all +male able-bodied inhabitants under arms. The regional commissioners +and political residents have at their disposal some hundreds +of irregular paid soldiers under native chiefs. In war time these +irregulars form part of the colonial corps, but in time of peace serve +as frontier police. The colonial corps, about 5000 strong, garrisons +the chief places of strategic importance, such as Asmara, Keren and +Saganeiti. The irregular troops, on foot, or mounted on camels, +number about 1000 men. The militia consists of 3500 men of all +arms, and is intended in time of war to reinforce the various divisions +of the colonial corps. The <i>chitet</i> yields between 3000 and 4000 men, +to be employed on the lines of communication or in caravan service. +All these troops are intended to ward off a first attack, so as to +allow time for the arrival of reinforcements from Italy. The customs +and political surveillance along the coast is entrusted, afloat, to the +Massawa naval station, and, ashore, to a coastguard company 400 +strong stationed at Meder, with detachments at Assab, Massawa, +Raheita, Edd and Taclai.</p> +</div> + +<p><i>History.</i>—Traces of the ancient Eritrean civilization are scarce. +During the prosperous periods of ancient Egypt, Egyptian +squadrons asserted their rule over the west Red Sea coast, and +under the Ptolemies the port of Golden Berenice (Adulis?) was +an Egyptian fortress, afterwards abandoned. During the early +years of the Roman empire, Eritrea formed part of an important +independent state—that of the Axumites (Assamites). At the +end of the reign of Nero, and perhaps even earlier, the king of +the Axumites ruled over the Red Sea coast from Suakin to the +strait of Bab-el-Mandeb, and traded constantly with Egypt. +This potentate called himself “king of kings,” commanded an +army and a fleet, coined money, adopted Greek as the official +language, and lived on good terms with the Roman empire. +The Axumites belonged originally to the Hamitic race, but the +immigration of the Himyaritic tribes of southern Arabia speedily +imposed a new language and civilization. Therefore the ancient +Abyssinian language, Geez, and its living dialects, Amharic and +Tigrina, are Semitic, although modified by the influence of the old +Hamitic Agau or Agao. Adulis (Adovlis), slightly to the north +of Zula (<i>q.v.</i>), was the chief Axumite port. From Adulis started +the main road, which led across the high plateau to the capital +Axomis (Axum). Along the road are still to be seen vestiges of +cities and inscribed monuments, such as the Himyaritic inscriptions +on the high plateau of Kohait, the six obelisks with a Saban +inscription at Toconda, and an obelisk with an inscription at +Amba Sait. Other monuments exist elsewhere, as well as coins +of the Axumite period with Greek and Ethiopian inscriptions. +After the rise of the Ethiopian empire the history of Eritrea is +bound up with that of Ethiopia, but not so entirely as to be +completely fused. The documents of the Portuguese expedition +of the 16th century and other Ethiopian records show that all the +country north of the Mareb enjoyed relative autonomy under a +vassal of the Ethiopian emperor.</p> + +<p>Michael, counsellor of Solomon, who was king of the country +north of the Mareb, usurped the throne of Solomon during the +reign of the Emperor Atzié Jasu II. (1729-1753), and, after +proclaiming himself ras of Tigré and “protector of the empire,” +ceded the North Mareb country to an enemy of the rightful +dynasty. Hence a long struggle between the dispossessed family +and the occupants of the North Mareb throne. The coast regions +had meantime passed from the control of the Abyssinians. In +the 16th century the Turks made themselves masters of Zula, +Massawa, &c., and these places were never recovered by the +Abyssinians. In 1865 Massawa and the neighbouring coast was +acquired by Egypt, the khedive Ismail entertaining projects for +connecting the port by railway with the Nile. The Egyptians +took advantage of civil war in Abyssinia to seize Keren and the +Bogos country in 1872<a name="fa1b" id="fa1b" href="#ft1b"><span class="sp">1</span></a>, an action against which the negus +Johannes (King John), newly come to the throne, did not at the +time protest. In 1875 and 1876 the Egyptians, who sought to +increase their conquests, were defeated by the Abyssinians at +Gundet and Gura. Walad Michael, the hereditary ruler of Bogos, +fought as ally of King John at Gundet and of the Egyptians at +Gura. For two years Walad Michael continued to harass the +border, but in December 1878 he submitted to King John, by +whose orders he was (Sept. 1879) imprisoned upon an amba, or +flat-topped mountain, whence he only succeeded in escaping +in 1890. In 1879 his territory was given by King John to Ras +Alula, who retained it until, in August 1889, the Italians occupied +Asmara (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Abyssinia</a></span>: <i>History</i>).</p> + +<p>An Egyptian garrison remained at Keren in the Bogos country +until 1884, when in consequence of the revolt of the Mahdi it +was withdrawn, Bogos being occupied by Abyssinia on the 12th +of September of that year. On the 5th of February 1885 an +Italian force, with the approval of Great Britain, occupied +Massawa, the Egyptian garrison returning to Egypt. This +occupation led to wars with Abyssinia and finally to the establishment +of the colony in its present limits. The history of the +Italian-Abyssinian relations is fully told in the articles <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Italy</a></span> +and <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Abyssinia</a></span> (history sections).</p> + +<p>It was not, however, at Massawa that Italy first obtained +a foothold in eastern Africa. The completion of the Suez Canal +led Italy as well as Great Britain and France to seek territorial +rights on the Red Sea coasts. The purchase of Assab and the +neighbouring region for £1880, from the sultan Berehan of +Raheita for use as a coaling station by the Italian Rubattino +Steamship Company, in March 1870, formed the nucleus of Italy’s +colonial possessions. This purchase was protested against by +Egypt, Turkey and Great Britain; the last named power being +willing to recognize an Italian commercial settlement, but nothing +more. (The Indian government viewed the establishment of +the Italians on the new highway to the East with a good deal of +ill-humour.) Eventually, the British opposition being overcome +and that of Egypt and Turkey disregarded, Assab, by a decree +of the 5th of July 1882, was declared an Italian colony. Between +1883 and 1888 various treaties were concluded with the sultan +of Aussa ceding the Danakil coast to Italy and recognizing an +Italian protectorate over the whole of his country—through +which passes the trade route from Assab Bay to Shoa.</p> + +<p>On the 1st of January 1890 the various Italian possessions on +the coast of the Red Sea were united by royal decree into one +province under the title of the Colony of Eritrea—so named after +the Erythraeum Mare of the Romans. At first the government +of the colony was purely military, but after the defeat of the +Italians by the Abyssinians at Adowa, the administration was +placed upon a civil basis (1898-1900). The frontiers were further +defined by a French-Italian convention (24th of January 1900) +fixing the frontier between French Somaliland and the Italian +possessions at Raheita, and also by various agreements with +Great Britain and Abyssinia. A tripartite agreement between +Italy, Abyssinia and Great Britain, dated the 15th of May 1902, +placed the territory of the Kanama tribe, on the north bank of +the Setit, within Eritrea. A convention of the 16th of May 1908 +settled the Abyssinian-Eritrean frontier in the Afar country, +the boundary being fixed at 60 kilometres from the coast. The +task of reconstructing the administration on a civil basis and of +developing the commerce of the colony was entrusted to Signor +F. Martini, who was governor for nine years (1898-1906). Under +civil rule the colony made steady though somewhat slow progress.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p><span class="sc">Authorities</span>.—See B. Melli, <i>La Colonia Eritrea dalle sue origini al +anno 1901</i> (Parma, 1901); G.B. Penne, <i>Per l’Italia Africana. Studio +critico</i> (Rome, 1906); R. Perini, <i>Di qua dal Marèb</i> (Florence, 1905), +a monograph on the Asmara zone; F. Martini, <i>Nell’ Africa Italiana</i> +(3rd ed., Milan, 1891); A.B. Wylde, <i>Modern Abyssinia</i>, chaps. v.-ix. +(London, 1901); E.D. Schoenfeld, <i>Erythräa und der ägyptische +Sudân</i>, chaps. i.-xii. (Berlin, 1904); Luigi Chiala, <i>La Spedizione di +Massana</i> (Turin, 1888); <i>Abyssinian Green Books</i> published at intervals +in 1895 and 1896, covering the period from 1870 to the end of the Italo-Abyssinian +War; Vico Mantegazza, <i>La Guerra in Africa</i> (Florence, +1896); General Baratieri, <i>Memorie d’Africa</i> (Rome, 1898); C. de +la Jonquière, <i>Les Italiens en Érythrée</i> (Paris, 1897); G.F.H. Berkeley, +<i>The Campaign of Adowa</i> (London, 1902). For orography and +geology see an article by P. Verri in <i>Boll. Soc. geog. italiana,</i> +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page748" id="page748"></a>748</span> +1909, and for climate an article in <i>Rivista coloniale</i> (1906), by A. +Tancredi. A. Allori compiled a <i>Piccolo Dizionario eritreo, italiano-arabo-amarico</i> +(Milan, 1895).</p> + +<p>For Afar consult W. Munzinger, “A Journey through the Afar +Country” in <i>Journ. Royal Geog. Soc.</i> for 1869; V. Bottego, “Nella +Terra dei Danakil,” in <i>Boll. Soc. Geog. Italiana</i>, 1892; Count C. +Rossini, “Al Rágali” in <i>L’Espl. Comm.</i> of Milan, 1903-1904; and +articles by G. Dainelli and O. Marinelli in the <i>Riv. Geog. Italiana</i> of +Florence for 1906-1908, dealing with the volcanic regions.</p> + +<p>Bibliographies will be found in G. Fumagalli’s <i>Bibliografia Etiopica</i> +(Milan, 1893) and in the <i>Riv. Geog. Italiana</i> for 1907.</p> +</div> + +<hr class="foot" /> <div class="note"> + +<p><a name="ft1b" id="ft1b" href="#fa1b"><span class="fn">1</span></a> During the Second Empire unsuccessful efforts were made by +France to obtain a Red Sea port and a foothold in northern Abyssinia. +(See <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Somaliland</a></span>: <i>French</i>.)</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">ERIVAN,<a name="ar50" id="ar50"></a></span> a government of Russia, Transcaucasia, having the +province of Kars on the W., the government of Tiflis on the N., +that of Elisavetpol on the N. and E., and Persia and Turkish +Armenia on the S. It occupies the top of an immense plateau +(6000-8000 ft.). Continuous chains of mountains are met with +only on its borders, and in the E., but the whole surface is thickly +set with short ridges and isolated mountains of volcanic origin, +of which Alagöz (14,440 ft.) and Ararat (16,925 ft.) are the most +conspicuous and the most important. Both must have been +active in Tertiary times. Lake Gok-cha (540 sq. m.) is encircled +by such volcanoes, and the neighbourhood of Alexandropol is a +“volcanic amphitheatre,” being entirely buried under volcanic +deposits. The same is true of the slopes leading down to the +river Aras; and the valley of the upper Aras is a stony +desert, watered only by irrigation, which is carried on with great +difficulty owing to the character of the soil. The government is +drained by the Aras, which forms the boundary with Persia and +flows with great velocity down its stony bed, the fall being 17-22 +ft. per mile in its upper course, and 9 ft. at Ordubad, where it +quits the government, while lower down it again increases to +23 ft. Many of the small lakes, filling volcanic craters, are of +great depth. Timber is very scarce. A variety of useful minerals +exists, but only rock-salt is obtained, at Nakhichevan and Kulp. +The climate is extremely varied, the following being the average +temperatures and mean annual rainfall at Alexandropol (alt. +5078 ft.) and Aralykh (2755 ft.) respectively: year 42°, January +12°, July 65°, mean rainfall 16.2 in.; and year 53°, January 20.5°, +July 79°, rainfall 6.3 in. The population numbered 829,578 in +1897 (only 375,086 women), of whom 82,278 lived in the towns. +An estimate in 1906 gave a total of 909,100. They consist +chiefly of Armenians (441,000), Tatars (40%), Kurds (49,389), +with Russians, Greeks and Tates. Most of the Armenians belong +to the Gregorian (Christian) Church, and only 4020 to the +Armenian Catholic Church. The Tatars are mostly Shiite Mussulmans, +only 27,596 being Sunnites; 7772 belong to the peculiar faith +of the Yezids. While barley only can be grown on the high parts +of the plateau, cotton, mulberry, vines and all sorts of fruit are +cultivated in the valley of the Aras. Cattle-breeding is extensively +carried on; camels also are bred, and leeches are collected +out of the swamps and exported to Persia. Industry is in its +infancy, but cottons, carpets, and felt goods are made in the +villages. A considerable trade is carried on with Persia, but trade +with Asia Minor is declining. The government is divided into +seven districts—Erivan, Alexandropol, Echmiadzin (chief town, +Vagarshapat), Nakhichevan, Novobayazet, Surmali (chief town, +Igdyr), and Sharur-daralagöz (chief town, Norashen). The +principal towns are Erivan (see below), Alexandropol (32,018 +inhabitants in 1897), Novobayazet (8507), Nakhichevan (8845), +and Vagarshapat (3400).</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">ERIVAN,<a name="ar51" id="ar51"></a></span> or <span class="sc">Irwan</span>, in Persian, <i>Rewan</i>, a town of Russia, +capital of the government of the same name, situated in 40° 14′ +N., 44° 38′ E., 234 m. by rail S.S.W. of Tiflis, on the Zanga river, +from which a great number of irrigation canals are drawn. +Altitude, 3170 ft. Pop. (1873) 11,938; (1897) 29,033. The old +Persian portion of the town consists mainly of narrow crooked +lanes enclosed by mud walls, which effectually conceal the houses, +and the modern Russian portion is laid out in long ill-paved +streets. On a steep rock, rising about 600 ft. above the river, +stand the ruins of the 16th-century Turkish fortress, containing +part of the palace of the former Persian governors, a handsome +but greatly dilapidated mosque, a modern Greek church and +a cannon foundry. One chamber, called the Hall of the Sardar, +bears witness to former splendour in its decorations. The finest +building in the city is the mosque of Hussein Ali Khan, familiarly +known as the Blue Mosque from the colour of the enamelled tiles +with which it is richly encased. At the mosque of Zal Khan +a passion play is performed yearly illustrative of the assassination +of Hussein, the son of Ali. Erivan is an Armenian episcopal see, +and has a theological seminary. The only manufactures are a +little cotton cloth, leather, earthenware and blacksmiths’ work. +The fruits of the district are noted for their excellence—especially +the grapes, apples, apricots and melons. Armenians, Persians +and Tatars are the principal elements in the population, besides +some Russians and Greeks. The town fell into the power of the +Turks in 1582, was taken by the Persians under Shah Abbas in +1604, besieged by the Turks for four months in 1615, and reconquered +by the Persians under Nadir Shah in the 18th century. +In 1780 it was successfully defended against Heraclius, prince of +Georgia; and in 1804 it resisted the Russians. At length in +1827 Paskevich took the fortress by storm, and in the following +year the town and government were ceded to Russia by the peace +of Turkman-chai. A Tatar poem in celebration of the event has +been preserved by the Austrian poet, Bodenstedt, in his <i>Tausend +und ein Tage im Orient</i> (1850).</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">ERLANGEN,<a name="ar52" id="ar52"></a></span> a town of Germany, in the kingdom of Bavaria, +on a fertile plain, at the confluence of the Schwabach and the +Regnitz, 11 m. N.W. of Nuremberg, on the railway from Munich +to Bamberg. Pop. (1905) 23,720. It is divided into an old and +a new town, the latter consisting of wide, straight and well-built +streets. The market place is a fine square. Upon it stand the +town-hall and the former palace of the margraves of Bayreuth, +now the main building of the university. The latter was founded +by the margrave Frederick (d. 1763), who, in 1742, established +a university at Bayreuth, but in 1743 removed it to Erlangen. +A statue of the founder, erected in 1843 by King Louis I. of +Bavaria, stands in the centre of the square and faces the university +buildings. The university has faculties of philosophy, law, +medicine and Protestant theology. Connected with it are a library +of over 200,000 volumes, geological, anatomical and mineralogical +institutions, a hospital, several clinical establishments, laboratories +and a botanical garden. Among the churches of the town +(six Protestant and one Roman Catholic), only the new town +church, with a spire 220 ft. high, is remarkable. The chief +industries of Erlangen are spinning and weaving, and the manufacture +of glass, paper, brushes and gloves. The brewing industry +is also important, the beer of Erlangen being famous throughout +Germany and large quantities being exported.</p> + +<p>Erlangen owes the foundation of its prosperity chiefly to the +French Protestant refugees who settled here on the revocation +of the edict of Nantes and introduced various manufactures. +In 1017 the place was transferred from the bishopric of Würzburg +to that of Bamberg; in 1361 it was sold to the king of Bohemia. +It became a town in 1398 and passed into the hands of the +Hohenzollerns, burgraves of Nuremberg, in 1416. There for +nearly three centuries it was the property of the margraves of +Bayreuth, being ceded with the rest of Bayreuth to Prussia in +1791. In 1810 it came into the possession of Bavaria. Erlangen +was for many years the residence of the poet Friedrich Rückert, +and of the philosophers Johann Gottlieb Fichte and Friedrich +Wilhelm von Schnelling.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See Stein and Müller, <i>Die Geschichte von Erlangen</i> (1898).</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">ERLE, SIR WILLIAM<a name="ar53" id="ar53"></a></span> (1793-1880), English lawyer and judge, +was born at Fifehead-Magdalen, Dorset, on the 1st of October +1793, and was educated at Winchester and at New College, +Oxford. Having been called to the bar at the Middle Temple +in 1819 he went the western circuit, became counsel to the +Bank of England, sat in parliament from 1837 to 1841 for the +city of Oxford, and, although of opposite politics to Lord Lyndhurst, +was made by him a judge of the common pleas in 1845. +He was transferred to the queen’s bench in the following year, +and in 1859 came back to the common pleas as chief justice upon +the promotion of Sir Alexander Cockburn. He retired in 1866, +receiving the highest eulogiums for the ability and impartiality +with which he had discharged the judicial office. He died at +his estate at Bramshott, Hampshire, on the 28th of January +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page749" id="page749"></a>749</span> +1880, and a monument without his name but in his memory +(sometimes erroneously supposed to mark the place where an +old gibbet was) stands on the top of Hindhead.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See E. Manson, <i>Builders of our Law</i> (1904).</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">ERLKÖNIG,<a name="ar54" id="ar54"></a></span> or <span class="sc">Erl-King</span>, a mythical character in modern +German literature, represented as a gigantic bearded man with +a golden crown and trailing garments, who carries children away +to that undiscovered country where he himself abides. There +is no such personage in ancient German mythology, and the name +is linguistically nothing more than the perpetuation of a blunder. +It first appeared in Herder’s <i>Stimmen der Völker</i> (1778), where +it is used in the translation of the Danish song of the <i>Elf-King’s +Daughter</i> as equivalent to the Danish <i>ellerkonge</i>, or <i>ellekonge</i>, +that is, <i>elverkonge</i>, the king of the elves; and the true German +word would have been <i>Elbkönig</i> or <i>Elbenkönig</i>, afterwards used +under the modified form of <i>Elfenkönig</i> by Wieland in his <i>Oberon</i> +(1780). Herder was probably misled by the fact that the Danish +word <i>elle</i> signifies not only elf, but also alder tree (Ger. <i>Erle</i>). +His mistake at any rate has been perpetuated by both English +and French translators, who speak of a “king of the alders,” +“un roi des aunes,” and find an explanation of the myth in the +tree-worship of early times, or in the vapoury emanations that +hang like weird phantoms round the alder trees at night. The +legend was adopted by Goethe as the subject of one of his finest +ballads, rendered familiar to English readers by the translations +of Lewis and Sir Walter Scott; and since then it has been treated +as a musical theme by Reichardt and Schubert.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">ERMAN, PAUL<a name="ar55" id="ar55"></a></span> (1764-1851), German physicist, was born in +Berlin on the 29th of February 1764. He was the son of the +historian Jean Pierre Erman (1735-1814), author of <i>Histoire des +réfugiés</i>. He became teacher of science successively at the French +gymnasium in Berlin, and at the military academy, and on the +foundation of the university of Berlin in 1810 he was chosen +professor of physics. He died at Berlin on the 11th of October +1851. His work was mainly concerned with electricity and +magnetism, though he also made some contributions to optics +and physiology. His son, <span class="sc">Georg Adolf Erman</span> (1806-1877), +was born in Berlin on the 12th of May 1806, and after studying +natural science at Berlin and Königsberg, spent from 1828 to +1830 in a journey round the world, an account of which he published +in <i>Reise um die Erde durch Nordasien und die beiden +Ozeane</i> (1833-1848). The magnetic observations he made during +his travels were utilized by C.F. Gauss in his theory of terrestrial +magnetism. He was appointed professor of physics at Berlin +in 1839, and died there on the 12th of July 1877. From 1841 +to 1865 he edited the <i>Archiv für wissenschaftliche Kunde von +Russland</i>, and in 1874 he published, with H.J.R. Petersen, +<i>Die Grundlagen der Gauss’schen Theorie und die Erscheinungen +des Erdmagnetismus im Jahre 1829</i>.</p> + +<p>His son <span class="sc">Johann Peter Adolf Erman</span> (1854-  ), a famous +Egyptologist, was born in Berlin on the 31st of October 1854. +Educated at Leipzig and Berlin, he became extraordinary +professor in 1883 and ordinary professor in 1892 of Egyptology +in the university of Berlin, and in 1885 he was appointed director +of the Egyptian department of the royal museum. For an +account of the Egyptological work of Erman and his school, +see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Egypt</a></span>: <i>Language</i>.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">ERMANARIC<a name="ar56" id="ar56"></a></span> (fl. 350-376), king of the East Goths, belonged +to the Amali family, and was the son of Achiulf. His name +occurs as Ermanaricus (Jordanes), Aírmanareiks (Gothic), +<i>Eormenríc</i> (A. Sax.), Jörmunrek (Norse), Ermenrîch (M.H. +German). Ermanaric built up for himself a vast kingdom, which +eventually extended from the Danube to the Baltic and from +the Don to the Theiss. He drove the Vandals out of Dacia, +compelled the allegiance of the neighbouring tribes of West +Goths, procured the submission of the Herules, of many Slav +and Finnish tribes, and even of the Esthonians on the shores +of the Gulf of Bothnia. In his later days the west Goths threw +off his yoke, and, on the invasion of the Huns, rather than +witness the downfall of his kingdom he is said by Ammianus +Marcellinus to have committed suicide. His fate early became +the centre of popular tradition, which found its way into the +narrative of Jordanes or Jornandes (<i>De rebus geticis</i>, chap. 24), +who compared him to Alexander the Great and certainly exaggerated +the extent of his kingdom. He is there said to have +caused a certain Sunilda or Sanielh to be torn asunder by wild +horses on account of her husband’s traitorous conduct. Her +brothers Sarus and Ammius sought to avenge her. They +succeeded in wounding, not in killing the Gothic king, whose +death supervened in his one hundred and tenth year from the +joint effects of his wound and fear of the Hunnish invasion. This +is evidently a paraphrase of popular story which sought to supply +plausible reasons for Ermanaric’s end. In German legend +Ermanaric became the typical cruel tyrant, and references to +his crimes abound in German epic and in Anglo-Saxon poetry. +He is made to replace Odoacer as the enemy of Dietrich of Bern, +his nephew, and his history is related in the Norse <i>Vilkina</i> or +<i>Thidrekssagà</i>, which chiefly embodies German tradition. His +evil genius, Sifka, Sibicho or Bicci, brings about the death of his +three sons. The Harlungs, Imbrecke and Fritile,<a name="fa1c" id="fa1c" href="#ft1c"><span class="sp">1</span></a> are his nephews, +whom he has strangled for the sake of their treasure, the Brîsingo +meni. Sonhild or Svanhild becomes the wife of Ermanaric, +and the motive for her murder is replaced by an accusation of +adultery between Svanhild and her stepson. The story was +already connected with the Nibelungen when it found its way +to the Scandinavian north by way of Germany. In the <i>Völsunga +Saga</i> Svanhild is the daughter of Sigurd and Gudrun. She is +given in marriage to the Gothic king Jörmunrek (Ermanaric), +who sends his son Randver as proxy wooer in company of Bicci, +the evil counsellor. Randver is persuaded by Bicci to take his +father’s bride for himself. Randver is hanged and Svanhild +trampled to death by horses in the gate of the castle. Gudrun +eggs on Sörli and Hamdir or Hamtheow, her two sons by her +third husband, Jonakr the Hun, to avenge their sister. On the +way they slay their half-brother Erp, whom they suspect of +lukewarmness in the cause; arrived in the hall of Ermanaric +they make a great slaughter of the Goths, and hew off the hands +and feet of Ermanaric, but they themselves are slain with stones. +The tale is told with variations by Saxo Grammaticus (<i>Historia +Danica</i>, ed. Müller, p. 408, &c.), and in the Icelandic poems, the +<i>Lay of Hamtheow</i>, <i>Gudrun’s Chain of Woe</i>, and in the prose <i>Edda</i>.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p><span class="sc">Bibliography.</span>—W. Grimm, in <i>Die deutsche Heldensage</i> (2nd ed., +Berlin, 1867), quotes the account given by Jordanes, references in +Beowulf, in the <i>Wanderer’s Song</i>, <i>Exeter Book</i>, in <i>Parcival</i>, in <i>Dietrichs +Flucht</i>, the account given in the <i>Quedlinburg Chronicle</i>, by Ekkehard +in the <i>Chronicon Urspergense</i>, by Saxo Grammaticus, &c. See also +Vigfússon and Powell, <i>Corpus poëticum boreale</i>, vol. i. (Oxford, 1883), +and H. Symons, “Die deutsche Heldensage” in Paul’s <i>Grundriss +d. german. Phil.</i> vol. iii. (Strassburg, 1900).</p> +</div> + +<hr class="foot" /> <div class="note"> + +<p><a name="ft1c" id="ft1c" href="#fa1c"><span class="fn">1</span></a> Emerka and Fridla (Beowulf, <i>Quedlingburg Chron.</i>), Aki and +Etgard (<i>Vilkina Saga</i>). In the original myth the Harlungs, who +are not to be confused with the Hartung brothers, were sent to bring +home Sūryā, the bride of the sky-god, Irmintiu.</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">ERMELAND,<a name="ar57" id="ar57"></a></span> or <span class="sc">Ermland</span> (<i>Varmia</i>), a district of Germany, +in East Prussia, extending from the Frisches Haff, a bay in the +Baltic, inland towards the Polish frontier. It is a well-wooded +sandy tract of country, has an area of about 1650 sq. m., a +population of 240,000, and is divided into the districts of Braunsberg, +Heilsberg, Rössel and Allenstein.</p> + +<p>Ermeland was originally one of the eleven districts of old +Prussia and was occupied by the Teutonic Knights (<i>Deutscher +Orden</i>), being made in 1250 one of the four bishoprics of the +country under their sway. The bishop of Ermeland shortly +afterwards declared himself independent of the order, and became +a prince of the Empire. In 1466 Ermeland, together with West +Prussia, was by the peace of Thorn attached to the crown of +Poland, and the bishop had a seat in the Polish senate. In 1772 +it was again incorporated with Prussia. Among the bishops of +the see, which still exists, with its seat in Frauenberg, may be +mentioned Aeneas Sylvius Piccolomini, afterwards Pope Pius II., +and Cardinal Stanislaus Hosius (1504-1579), the founder of the +Jesuit college in Braunsberg.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See Hipler, <i>Literaturgeschichte des Bisthums Ermeland</i> (Braunsberg, +1873); the <i>Monumenta historiae Warmiensis</i> (Mainz, 1860-1864, +and Braunsberg, 1866-1872, 4 vols.); and Buchholz, <i>Abriss +einer Geschichte des Ermlands</i> (Braunsberg, 1903.)</p> +</div> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page750" id="page750"></a>750</span></p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">ERMELO,<a name="ar58" id="ar58"></a></span> a district and town of the Transvaal. The district +lies in the south-east of the province and is traversed by the +Drakensberg. In it are Lake Chrissie, the only true lake in the +country, and the sources of the Vaal, Olifants, Komati, and +Usuto rivers, which rise within 30 m. of one another. The region +has a general elevation of about 5500 ft. and is fine agricultural +and pastoral country, besides containing valuable minerals, +including coal and gold. Ermelo town, pop. (1904) 1451, is by +rail 175 m. S.E. of Johannesburg, and 74 m. S.S.W. of Machadodorp +on the Pretoria-Delagoa Bay railway. A government +experimental farm, with some 1000 acres of plantations, is +maintained here.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> + +<table class="flt" style="float: right; width: 360px;" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figright1"><img style="width:313px; height:236px" src="images/img750.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption">Ermine or Stoat (<i>Putorius ermineus</i>).</td></tr></table> + +<p><span class="bold">ERMINE,<a name="ar59" id="ar59"></a></span> an alternative name for the stoat (<i>Putorius ermineus</i>), +apparently applicable in its proper sense only when the animal +is in its white winter coat. This animal measures 10 in. in length +exclusive of the tail, which is about 4 in. long, and becomes bushy +towards the point. The fur in summer is reddish brown above +and white beneath, changing in the winter of northern latitudes +to snowy whiteness, except at the tip of the tail, which at all +seasons is black. In Scottish specimens this change in winter is +complete, but in those found in the southern districts of England +it is usually only partial, the ermine presenting during winter a +piebald appearance. The white colour is evidently protective, +enabling the animals to elude the observations of their enemies, +and to steal unobserved on their prey. It also retains heat better +than a dark covering, +and may thus serve to +maintain an equable +temperature at all seasons +within the body. +The colour change seems +to be due to phagocytes +devouring the pigment-bodies +of the hair, and +not to a moult.</p> + +<p>The species is a native +of the temperate and +subarctic zones of the +Old World, and is represented +in America by a form which can scarcely be regarded +as specifically distinct. It inhabits thickets and stony places, +and frequently makes use of the deserted burrows of moles +and other underground mammals. Exceedingly sanguinary +in disposition, and agile in its movements, it feeds principally +on rats, water-rats and rabbits, which it pursues with +pertinacity and boldness, hence the name <i>stoat</i>, signifying bold, +by which it is commonly known. It takes readily to water, and +will even climb trees in pursuit of prey. It is particularly +destructive to poultry and game, and has often been known to +attack hares, fixing itself to the throat of its victim, and defying +all the efforts of the latter to disengage it. The female brings +forth five young ones about the beginning of summer. The +winter coat of the ermine forms one of the most valuable of +commercial furs, and is imported in enormous quantities from +Norway, Sweden, Russia and Siberia. It is largely used for +muffs and tippets, and as a trimming for state robes, the jet black +points of the tails being inserted at regular intervals as an +ornament. In the reign of Edward III. the wearing of ermine was +restricted to members of the royal family; but it now enters into +almost all state robes, the rank and position of the wearer being +in many cases indicated by the presence or absence, and the +disposition, of the black spots. (See also <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Fur</a></span>.)</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">ERMINE STREET.<a name="ar60" id="ar60"></a></span> Documents and writers of the 11th and +succeeding centuries occasionally mention four “royal roads” +in Britain—Icknield Street, Erning or Ermine Street, Watling +Street and Foss Way—as standing apart from all other existing +roads and enjoying the special protection of the king. Unfortunately +these authorities are not at all agreed as to their +precise course; the roads themselves do not occur as specially +privileged in actual legal or other practice, and it is likely that +the category of Four Roads is the invention of a lawyer or an +antiquary. The names are, however, attested to some extent +by early charters which name them among other roads, as +boundaries. From these charters we know that Icknield Street +ran along the Berkshire downs and the Chilterns, that Ermine +Street ran more or less due north through Huntingdonshire, +that Watling Street ran north-west across the midlands from +London to Shrewsbury, and Foss diagonally to it from Lincoln +or Leicester to Bath and mid-Somerset. This evidence only +proves the existence of these roads in Saxon and Norman days. +But they all seem to be much older. Icknield Street is probably +a prehistoric ridgeway along the downs, utilized perhaps by the +Romans near its eastern end, but in general not Roman. Ermine +Street coincides with part of a line of Roman roads leading +north from London through Huntingdon to Lincoln. This line +is followed by the Old North Road through Cheshunt, Buntingford, +Royston, and Huntingdon to Castor near Peterborough; +and thence it can be traced through lanes and byways past +Ancaster to Lincoln. Watling Street is the Roman highway +from London by St Alban’s (Verulamium) to Wroxeter near +Shrewsbury (Viroconium). Foss is the Roman highway from +Lincoln to Bath and Exeter. Hence it has been supposed, and +is still frequently alleged, that the Four Roads were the principal +highways of Roman Britain. This, however, is not the case. +Icknield Street is not Roman and the three roads which follow +Roman lines, Ermine Street, Watling Street, and Foss, held no +peculiar position in the Romano-British road system (see +<span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Britain</a></span>: <i>Roman</i>). In later times, the names Ermine Street, +Icknield Street and Watling Street have been applied to other +roads of Roman or supposed Roman origin. This, however, +is wholly the work of Elizabethan or subsequent antiquaries and +deserves no credence.</p> + +<p>The derivations of the four names are unknown. Icknield, +Ermine and Watling may be from English personal names; +Foss, originally Fos, seems to be the Lat. <i>fossa</i> in its occasional +medieval sense of a bank of upcast earth or stones, such as the +<i>agger</i> of a road.</p> +<div class="author">(F. J. H.)</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">ERMOLDUS NIGELLUS,<a name="ar61" id="ar61"></a></span> or <span class="sc">Ermold the Black</span>, was a monk +of Aquitaine, who accompanied King Pippin, son of the emperor +Louis I., on a campaign into Brittany in 824. Subsequently +he was banished from Pippin’s court on a charge of inciting the +king against his father, and retired to Strassburg, where he +sought to regain the emperor’s favour by writing a poem on his +life and deeds. About 830 he obtained his recall, and has been +identified with Hermoldus, who appears as Pippin’s chancellor +in 838. Ermoldus was a cultured man with a knowledge of the +Latin poets, and this poem, <i>In honorem Hludovici imperatoris</i>, +has some historical value. It consists of four books and deals +with the life and exploits of Louis from 781 to 826. He also +wrote two poems in imitation of Ovid, which were addressed +to Pippin.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>His writings are published in the <i>Monumenta Germaniae historica, +Scriptores</i>, Band 2 (Hanover, 1826 fol.); by J.P. Migne in the +<i>Patrologia Latina</i>, tome 105 (Paris, 1844); and by E. Dümmler in +the <i>Poëtae Latini aevi Carolini</i>, Band 2 (Berlin, 1881-1884). See +W.O. Henkel, <i>Über den historischen Werth der Gedichte des Ermoldus +Nigellus</i> (Eilenburg, 1876); W. Wattenbach, <i>Deutschlands Geschichtsquellen</i>, +Band 1 (Berlin, 1904); and A. Potthast, <i>Bibliotheca +historica</i>, pp. 430-431 (Berlin, 1896).</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">ERNE,<a name="ar62" id="ar62"></a></span> the name of a river and two lakes in the north-west of +Ireland. The river rises in Lough Gowna, county Longford, +214 ft. above sea-level, flows north through Lough Oughter +with a serpentine course and a direction generally northward, +and then broadens into the Upper Lough Erne, a shallow +irregular sheet of water 13 m. long, so beset with islands as +to present the appearance of a number of water-channels ramifying +through the land. The river then winds past the town of +Enniskillen on its island, and enters Lough Erne, a beautiful +lake nearly 18 m. long and 5 m. in extreme width, containing +many islands, but less closely covered with them than the upper +lough. One of them, Devenish, is celebrated for its antiquarian +remains (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Enniskillen</a></span>). The river then runs westward to +Donegal Bay, forming a fine fall at Ballyshannon (<i>q.v.</i>). Lough +Erne contains trout and pike. These waters admit of navigation +by small steamers, but little trade is carried on. The area of +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page751" id="page751"></a>751</span> +the Erne basin, which includes a vast number of small loughs, +is about 1600 sq. m., and it covers part of the counties Cavan, +Longford, Leitrim, Fermanagh and Donegal. The length of +the Erne valley is about 70 m.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">ERNEST I.<a name="ar63" id="ar63"></a></span> [<span class="sc">Ernst Anton Karl Ludwig</span>], duke of Saxe-Coburg-Gotha +(1784-1844), was the son of Francis, duke of +Saxe-Coburg-Saalfeld, and was born on the 2nd of January +1784. At the time of his father’s death (9th of December 1806) +the duchy of Coburg was occupied by Napoleon as conquered +territory, and Ernest did not come into his inheritance till after +the peace of Tilsit (July 1807). Owing to the part he had played +in assisting the Prussians at the battle of Auerstädt he continued +out of favour with Napoleon, and he threw himself with vigour +into the war of liberation against the French. After the battle +of Leipzig he was given the command of the V. army corps and +reduced Mainz by blockade; he also commanded the Saxon +troops during the campaign of 1815. By the congress of Vienna +he was rewarded with the principality of Lichtenberg on the +left bank of the Rhine, which received a slight augmentation +after the second peace of Paris. These territories he sold to +Prussia in 1834. In 1826, in the division of the territories of the +duchy of Saxe-Gotha which followed the death of its last duke +(February 1825), he received the duchy of Gotha, ceding that of +Saalfeld to the duke of Meiningen; and he now exchanged his +style of Ernest III. of Saxe-Coburg-Saalfeld for that of Ernest +I. of Saxe-Coburg-Gotha. In 1821 he had given a constitution +to Coburg, but he did not interfere with the traditional system +of estates at Gotha. He died on the 29th of January 1844.</p> + +<p>Duke Ernest, who was not only a good soldier and keen +sportsman, but an enlightened patron of the arts and sciences, +did much for the economic, educational and constitutional +development of his territories; and his advice always carried +great weight in the councils of the other German sovereigns. +It was, however, for the splendid international position attained +by the house of Coburg under him that his reign is chiefly distinguished. +His younger brother Leopold (<i>q.v.</i>) became king of +the Belgians; his brother Ferdinand (b. 1785) married the +wealthy princess Antoinette von Kohary (1816) and was the +father of the duchess of Nemours and of the future King +Ferdinand of Portugal. Of his sisters, Antoinette (1779-1824) +married Duke Alexander of Württemberg; Juliane [Alexandra +Feodorovna] (1781-1860) married the Russian cesarevich +Constantine, from whom she was, however, divorced in 1820; +and Victoria (1786-1861), wife of Edward Augustus, duke of +Kent, became the mother of Queen Victoria. Duke Ernest was +twice married: (1) in 1817 to Louise, daughter of Duke Augustus +of Saxe-Gotha, whom he finally divorced in 1826; (2) in 1831 to +Maria, daughter of Duke Alexander of Württemberg. Of his +sons, by his first wife, Ernest succeeded him in the duchy, and +Albert married Queen Victoria.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">ERNEST II.,<a name="ar64" id="ar64"></a></span> duke of Saxe-Coburg-Gotha (1818-1893), was +born at Coburg on the 21st of June 1818, being the eldest son of +Duke Ernest I. He enjoyed a varied education; he studied at +the university of Bonn with his brother Albert; his military +training he received in the Saxon army. The widespread +connexions of his family opened to him many courts of Europe, +and after he became of age he travelled much. The position of +his uncle Leopold, who was king of the Belgians, and especially +the marriage of his brother Albert to the queen of England, his +cousin, gave him peculiar opportunities for becoming acquainted +with the political problems of Europe. In 1840-1841 he undertook +a journey to Spain and Portugal; in the latter country +another cousin, Ferdinand, was king-consort. In 1844 he succeeded +his father. His own character and the influence of the king of +the Belgians made him one of the most Liberal princes in +Germany. He was able to bring to a satisfactory conclusion +disputes with the Coburg estates. He passed through the ordeal +of the revolution of 1848 with little trouble, for he anticipated +the demands of the people of Gotha for a reform, and in 1852 +introduced a new constitution by which the administration of +his two duchies was assimilated in many points. The government +of his small dominions did not afford sufficient scope for +his restless and versatile ambition; his desire to play a great +part in German affairs was probably increased by the feeling +that, though he was the head of his house, he was to some extent +overshadowed by the younger branches of the family which +ruled in Belgium, England and Portugal. He was one of the +foremost supporters of every attempt made to reform the German +constitution and bring about the unity of Germany. He took +a warm interest in the proceedings of the Frankfort parliament, +and it was often said, probably without reason, that he hoped +to be chosen emperor himself. However that may be, he strongly +urged the king of Prussia to accept that position when it was +offered him in 1849; he took a very prominent part in the complicated +negotiations of the following year, and it was at his +suggestion that a congress of princes met at Berlin in 1850. He +highly valued the opportunities which this and similar meetings +gave him for exercising political influence, and he would have +felt most at home as a member of a permanent council of the +German princes.</p> + +<p>Ambitious also of military distinction, and sympathizing with +the rising of the people of Schleswig-Holstein against the Danes +in 1849, Ernest accepted a command in the federal army. In +the engagement of Eckernförde in April 1849 the troops under his +orders succeeded in capturing two Danish frigates, a remarkable +feat of which he was justly proud. His greatest services to +Germany were performed during the years of reaction which +followed; almost alone among the German princes he remained +faithful to the Liberal and National ideals, and he allowed his +dominions to be used as an asylum by the writers and politicians +who had to leave Prussia and Saxony. The reactionary parties +looked on him with great suspicion, and it was at this time that +he formed a friendship with Gustav Freytag, the celebrated +novelist, whom he protected when the Prussian government +demanded his arrest. His connexion with the English court +gave him a position of much influence, but no one was more +purely German in his feelings and opinions. The marriage of +his niece Victoria with Frederick, the heir to the Prussian throne, +strengthened his connexion with Prussia, but caused the Conservative +party to look with increased suspicion on the Coburg +influence. He was the first German prince to visit Napoleon III., +and was present when Orsini made his celebrated attempt on +the emperor’s life. After 1860 he became the chief patron and +protector of the <i>National Verein</i>; he encouraged the newly-formed +rifle clubs, and notwithstanding the strong disapproval of his fellow-monarchs, +allowed his court to become the centre of the rising +national agitation. Still a warm adherent of Prussia, in 1862 +he set an example to the other princes by voluntarily making +an agreement by which his troops were placed in war under the +command of the king of Prussia. Like all the other Nationalists, +he was much embarrassed by the policy of Bismarck, and the +democratic opinions of the Coburg court, which were shared +by the crown prince Frederick, were a serious embarrassment to +that minister. The opposition became more accentuated when +the duke allowed his dominions to be used as the headquarters +of the agitation in favour of Frederick, duke of Augustenburg, +who claimed the duchies of Schleswig and Holstein, and it was +at this time that Bismarck is reported to have said that if +Frederick the Great had been alive the duke would have been in +the fortress of Spandau. In 1863 he was present at the <i>Fürstentag</i> +in Frankfort, and from this time was in more frequent communication +with the Austrian court, where his cousin Alexander, Count +Mensdorff, was minister. However, when war broke out in 1866, +he at once placed his troops at the disposition of Prussia; +Bismarck had in an important letter explained to him his policy +and tactics. He was personally concerned in one of the most +interesting events of the war; for the Hanoverian army, in its +attempt to march south and join the Bavarians, had to pass +through Thuringia, and the battle of Langensalza was fought +in the immediate neighbourhood of Gotha. His troops took +part in the battle, which ended in the rout of the Prussians, +the duke, who was not present during the fight, in vain attempting +to stop it. He bore an important share in the negotiations +before and after the battle, and his action at this time has been +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page752" id="page752"></a>752</span> +the subject of much controversy, for it was suggested that while +he offered to mediate he really acted as a partisan of Prussia. +For his services to Prussia he received as a present the forest +of Schmalkalden. He was with the Prussian headquarters in +Bohemia during the latter part of the war.</p> + +<p>With the year 1866 the political rôle which Ernest had played +ended. The result was perhaps not quite equal to his expectations, +but it must be remembered how difficult was the position +of the minor German princes; and he quoted with great satisfaction +the words used in 1871 by the emperor William at +Versailles, that “to him in no small degree was due the establishment +of the empire.” He was a man of varied tastes, a good +musician—he composed several operas and songs—and a keen +sportsman, a quality in which he differed from his brother. +Notwithstanding his Liberalism, he had a great regard for the +dignity of his rank and family, and in his support of constitutional +government would never have sacrificed the essential prerogatives +of sovereignty. He died at Reinhardsbrunn on the 22nd of +August 1893. In 1842 the duke married Alexandrine, daughter +of the grandduke of Baden; there were no children by this +marriage and the succession to Saxe-Coburg-Gotha passed +therefore to the children of his younger brother Albert. By +Albert’s marriage contract the duchy could not be held together +with the English crown; thus his eldest son, afterwards Edward +VII., was passed over and it came to his second son, Alfred, +duke of Edinburgh (1844-1900). When Alfred died without +sons in July 1900 the succession to the duchy passed to a younger +brother Arthur, duke of Connaught; but the duke and his son, +Arthur, passed on their claim to Charles Edward, duke of Albany +(b. 1884), who became duke of Saxe-Coburg-Gotha in succession +to his uncle Alfred. In 1905 Charles Edward married Victoria +Adelaide (b. 1885), princess of Schleswig-Holstein, by whom he +has a son John Leopold (b. 1906).</p> + +<p>Duke Ernest was something of a writer. He brought out an +account of the travels in Egypt and Abyssinia which he undertook +in 1862 as <i>Reise des Herzogs Ernst von Sachsen-Koburg-Gotha +nach Ägypten</i> (Leipzig, 1864); and he published his memoirs, +<i>Aus meinem Leben und aus meiner Zeit</i> (Berlin, 1887-1889). +This work is in three volumes and contains much valuable +information on a most critical period of German history; there +is an English translation by P. Andreae (1888-1890).</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See also Sir T. Martin, <i>Life of H.R.H. the Prince Consort</i> (1875-1880); +Hon. C. Grey, <i>Early Years of the Prince Consort</i> (1867); A. +Ohorn, <i>Herzog Ernst II., ein Lebensbild</i> (Leipzig, 1894); and E. +Tempeltey, <i>Herzog Ernst von Koburg und das Jahr 1866</i> (Berlin, +1898).</p> +</div> +<div class="author">(J. W. He.)</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">ERNEST AUGUSTUS<a name="ar65" id="ar65"></a></span> (1771-1851), king of Hanover and duke +of Cumberland, fifth son of the English king George III., was +born at Kew on the 5th of June 1771. Having studied at the +university of Göttingen, he entered the Hanoverian army, serving +as a leader of cavalry when war broke out between Great Britain +and France in 1793, and winning a reputation for bravery. +He lost the sight of one eye at the battle of Tournai in May 1794, +and when Hanover withdrew from the war in 1795 he returned +to England, being made lieutenant-general in the British army +in 1799. In the same year he was created duke of Cumberland +and Teviotdale and granted an allowance of £12,000 a year, after +which he held several lucrative military positions in England, +and began to attend the sittings of the House of Lords and to +take part in political life. A stanch Tory, the duke objected to +all proposals of reform, especially to the granting of any relief +to the Roman Catholics, and had great influence with his brother +the prince regent, afterwards King George IV., in addition to being +often consulted by the Tory leaders. In 1810 he was severely +injured by an assassin, probably his valet Sellis, who was found +dead; and subsequently two men were imprisoned for asserting +that the duke had murdered his valet. Recovering from his +wounds, Cumberland again proceeded to the seat of war; and +having been made a British field-marshal, was in command of the +Hanoverian army during the campaigns of 1813 and 1814, being +present, although not in action, at the battle of Leipzig. In +May 1815 Ernest married his cousin, Frederica (1778-1841), +daughter of Charles II. duke of Mecklenburg-Strelitz and widow +of Frederick, prince of Solms-Braunfels, a union which was +very repugnant to his mother Queen Charlotte, and was disliked +in England, where the duke’s strong Toryism had made him +unpopular. Parliament refused to increase his allowance from +£18,000, to which it had been raised in 1804, to £24,000 a year, +and indignant at the treatment he received the duke spent some +years in Berlin. Returning to England after the accession of +George IV. in 1820, his political power was again considerable, +while deaths in the royal family made it likely that he would +succeed to the throne. Although his personal influence with the +sovereign ceased upon the death of George IV. in 1830, the duke +continued to oppose all measures for the extension of civil and +religious liberty, including the Reform Bill of 1832; and his +unpopularity was augmented by suspicions that he had favoured +the formation of Orange lodges in the army. When William IV. +died in June 1837, the crowns of Great Britain and Hanover were +separated; and Ernest, as the nearest male heir of the late king, +became king of Hanover. At once cancelling the constitution +which William had given to his kingdom in 1833, he acted as an +absolute monarch, and the constitution which he sanctioned in +1840 was permeated with his own illiberal ideas. In German +politics he was vigilant and active, and mindful of the material +interests of his country. His reign, however, was a stormy one, +and serious trouble between king and people had arisen when +he died at Herrenhausen on the 18th of November 1851 (see +<span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Hanover</a></span>: <i>History</i>). In spite of his arbitrary rule and his +reactionary ideas the king was popular among his subjects, +and his statue in Hanover bears the words “<i>Dem Landes Vater +sein treues Volk</i>.” Ernest, who is generally regarded as the +ablest of the sons of George III., left an only child, George, who +succeeded him as king of Hanover.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See C.A. Wilkinson, <i>Reminiscences of the Court and Times of +King Ernest of Hanover</i> (London, 1886); von Malortie, <i>König +Ernst August</i> (Hanover, 1861); and the various histories of Great +Britain and Hanover for the period.</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">ERNESTI, JOHANN AUGUST<a name="ar66" id="ar66"></a></span> (1707-1781), German theologian +and philologist, was born on the 4th of August 1707, at Tennstädt +in Thuringia, of which place his father was pastor, besides being +superintendent of the electoral dioceses of Thuringia, Salz and +Sangerhausen. At the age of sixteen he was sent to the celebrated +Saxon cloister school of Pforta (Schulpforta). At twenty +he entered the university of Wittenberg, and studied afterwards +at the university of Leipzig. In 1730 he was made master in +the faculty of philosophy. In the following year he accepted the +office of conrector in the Thomas school of Leipzig, of which +J.M. Gesner was then rector, an office to which Ernesti succeeded +in 1734. He was, in 1742, named professor <i>extraordinarius</i> +of ancient literature in the university of Leipzig, and in 1756 +professor <i>ordinarius</i> of rhetoric. In the same year he received +the degree of doctor of theology, and in 1759 was appointed +professor <i>ordinarius</i> in the faculty of theology. Through his +learning and his manner of discussion, he co-operated with S.J. +Baumgarten of Halle (1706-1757) in disengaging the current +dogmatic theology from its many scholastic and mystical excrescences, +and thus paved a way for a revolution in theology. +He died, after a short illness, in his seventy-sixth year, on the +11th of September 1781.</p> + +<p>It is perhaps as much from the impulse which Ernesti gave to +sacred and profane criticism in Germany, as from the intrinsic +excellence of his own works in either department, that he must +derive his reputation as a philologist or theologian. With J.S. +Semler he co-operated in the revolution of Lutheran theology, +and in conjunction with Gesner he instituted a new school in +ancient literature. He detected grammatical niceties in Latin, +in regard to the consecution of tenses which had escaped preceding +critics. His canons are, however, not without exceptions. As +an editor of the Greek classics, Ernesti hardly deserves to be +named beside his Dutch contemporaries, Tiberius Hemsterhuis +(1685-1766), L.C. Valckenaer (1715-1785), David Ruhnken +(1723-1798), or his colleague J.J. Reiske (1716-1774). The +higher criticism was not even attempted by Ernesti. But to him +and to Gesner is due the credit of having formed, by discipline +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page753" id="page753"></a>753</span> +and by example, philologists greater than themselves, and of +having kindled the national enthusiasm for ancient learning. +It is chiefly in hermeneutics that Ernesti has any claim to +eminence as a theologian. But here his merits are distinguished, +and, at the period when his <i>Institutio Interpretis N. T.</i> was published +(1761), almost peculiar to himself. In it we find the +principles of a general interpretation, formed without the assistance +of any particular philosophy, but consisting of observations +and rules which, though already enunciated, and applied in the +criticism of the profane writers, had never rigorously been +employed in biblical exegesis. He was, in fact, the founder of the +grammatico-historical school. He admits in the sacred writings +as in the classics only one acceptation, and that the grammatical, +convertible into and the same with the logical and historical. +Consequently he censures the opinion of those who in the illustration +of the Scriptures refer everything to the illumination of the +Holy Spirit, as well as that of others who, disregarding all +knowledge of the languages, would explain words by things. +The “analogy of faith,” as a rule of interpretation, he greatly +limits, and teaches that it can never afford of itself the explanation +of words, but only determine the choice among their possible +meanings. At the same time he seems unconscious of any inconsistency +between the doctrine of the inspiration of the Bible as +usually received and his principles of hermeneutics.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>Among his works the more important are:—I. In classical +literature: <i>Initia doctrinae Solidioris</i> (1736), many subsequent +editions; <i>Initia rhetorica</i> (1730); editions, mostly annotated, of +Xenophon’s <i>Memorabilia</i> (1737), Cicero (1737-1739), Suetonius +(1748), Tacitus (1752), the <i>Clouds</i> of Aristophanes (1754), Homer +(1759-1764), Callimachus (1761), Polybius (1764), as well as of the +<i>Quaestura</i> of Corradus, the Greek lexicon of Hedericus, and the +<i>Bibliotheca Latina</i> of Fabricius (unfinished); <i>Archaeologia litteraria</i> +(1768), new and improved edition by Martini (1790); Horatius Tursellinus +<i>De particulis</i> (1769). II. In sacred literature: <i>Antimuratorius +sive confutatio disputationis Muratorianae de rebus liturgicis</i> (1755-1758); +<i>Neue theologische Bibliothek</i>, vols. i. to x. (1760-1769); +<i>Institutio interpretis Nov. Test.</i> (3rd ed., 1775); <i>Neueste theologische +Bibliothek</i>, vols. i. to x. (1771-1775). Besides these, he published +more than a hundred smaller works, many of which have been collected +in the three following publications:—<i>Opuscula oratoria</i> +(1762, 2nd ed., 1767); <i>Opuscula philologica et critica</i> (1764, 2nd ed., +1776); <i>Opuscula theologica</i> (1773). See Herzog-Hauck, <i>Realencyklopädie</i>; +J.E. Sandys, <i>Hist. of Class. Schol.</i> iii. (1908).</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">ERNESTI, JOHANN CHRISTIAN GOTTLIEB<a name="ar67" id="ar67"></a></span> (1756-1802), +German classical scholar, was born at Arnstadt, Thuringia, and +studied under his uncle, J.A. Ernesti, at the university of Leipzig. +On the 5th of June, 1782, he was made supplementary professor +of philosophy at his own university; and on the death of his +cousin August Wilhelm in 1801 he was for five months +professor of rhetoric. He died on the 5th of June of the following +year.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>His principal works are:—Editions of Aesop’s <i>Fabulae</i> (1781); of +the <i>Glossae sacrae of Hesychius</i> (1785) and <i>Suidas and Phavorinus</i> +(1786); and of <i>Silius Italicus Punica</i> (1791-1792); <i>Lexicon Technologiae +Graecorum rhetoricae</i> (1795); <i>Lexicon technologiae Latinorum +rhetoricae</i> (1797), and Cicero’s <i>Geist und Kunst</i> (1799-1802).</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">ERNST, HEINRICH WILHELM<a name="ar68" id="ar68"></a></span> (1814-1865), German violinist +and composer, was born at Brünn, in Moravia, in 1814. He was +educated at the Conservatorium of Vienna, studying the violin +under Joseph Böhm and Joseph Mayseder, and composition +under Ignaz von Seyfried. At the age of sixteen he made a +concert tour in south Germany, which established his reputation +as a violinist of the highest promise. In 1832 he went to Paris, +where he lived for several years. During this period he formed +an intimacy with Stephen Heller, which resulted in their charming +joint compositions—the <i>Pensées fugitives</i> for piano and violin. +In 1843 he paid his first visit to London. The impression which +he then made as a violinist was more than confirmed in the following +year, when his rare powers were recognized by the musical +public. Thenceforward he visited England nearly every year, +until his health broke down owing to long-continued neuralgia +of a most severe kind. The last seven years of his life were spent +in retirement, chiefly at Nice, where he died on the 8th of October +1865. As a violinist Ernst was distinguished by his almost +unrivalled executive power, loftiness of conception, and intensely +passionate expression. As a composer he wrote chiefly for his +own instrument, and his <i>Elegie</i> and <i>Otello Fantasia</i> rank among +the most treasured works for the violin.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">ERODE,<a name="ar69" id="ar69"></a></span> a town of British India, in the Coimbatore district +of Madras, situated on the right bank of the river Cauvery, +which is here crossed by an iron railway girder bridge of 22 spans. +Pop. (1901) 15,529. Here the South Indian railway joins the +South-Western line of the Madras railway, 243 m. from Madras. +There are exports of cotton and saltpetre; and the town has +a steam cotton press.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">EROS,<a name="ar70" id="ar70"></a></span> a minor planet discovered by Witt at Berlin on the 14th +of August 1898, and, so far as yet known, unique in that its +perihelion lies far within the orbit of Mars.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">EROS,<a name="ar71" id="ar71"></a></span> in Greek mythology, the god of love. He is not +mentioned in Homer; in Hesiod (<i>Theog.</i> 120) he is one of the +oldest and the most beautiful of the gods, whose power neither +gods nor men can resist. He also evolves order and harmony +out of Chaos by uniting the separated elements. This cosmic +Eros, who in Orphic cosmogony sprang from the world-egg +which Chronos, or Time, laid in the bosom of Chaos, and which is +the origin of all created beings, degenerated in later mythology +into the capricious god of sexual passion, the son of Aphrodite +and Zeus, Ares or Hermes. He is commonly represented as +a mischievous boy, the tormentor of gods and men, even his +own mother not being proof against his attacks. His brother is +Anteros, the god of mutual love, who punishes those who do not +return the love of others, without which Eros could not thrive; +he is sometimes described as the opponent of Eros. The chief +associates of Eros are Pothos and Himeros (Longing and Desire), +Peitho (Persuasion), the Muses and the Graces; he himself +is in constant attendance on Aphrodite. Later writers (Euripides +being the first) assumed the existence of a number of Erotes (like +the Roman Amores and Cupidines) with similar attributes. +According to the philosophers, Eros was not only the god of +sexual love, but also of the loyal and devoted friendship of men; +hence the Theban “Sacred Band” was devoted to him, and the +Cretans and Spartans offered sacrifice to him before going into +battle (Athenaeus xiii. p. 561). In Alexandrian poetry Eros is +at one time the powerful god who conquers all, at another the +elfish god of love. For the Roman adaptation of Eros see Cupid, +and for the later legend of Cupid and Psyche see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Psyche</a></span>.</p> + +<p>In art Eros is represented as a beautiful youth or a winged +child. His attributes are the bow and arrows and a burning +torch. The rose, the hare, the cock and the goat are frequently +associated with him. The most celebrated statue of him was at +Thespiae, the work of Praxiteles. Other famous representations +are the Vatican torso and Eros trying his bow (in the Capitoline +museum).</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See J.E. Harrison, <i>Prolegomena to the Study of Greek Religion</i> +(1903); G.F. Schömann, <i>De Cupidine Cosmogonico</i> (1852); E. +Gerhard, <i>Über den Gott Eros</i> (1850); articles in Roscher’s <i>Lexikon +der Mythologie</i>, Daremberg and Saglio’s <i>Dictionnaire des antiquités</i>, +and Pauly-Wissowa’s <i>Realencyclopädie</i>.</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">ERPENIUS<a name="ar72" id="ar72"></a></span> (original name <span class="sc">van Erpe</span>), <b>THOMAS</b> (1584-1624), +Dutch Orientalist, was born at Gorcum, in Holland, on the 11th +of September 1584. After completing his early education at +Leiden, he entered the university of that city, and in 1608 took +the degree of master of arts. By the advice of Scaliger he studied +Oriental languages whilst taking his course of theology. He +afterwards travelled in England, France, Italy and Germany, +forming connexions with learned men, and availing himself of the +information which they communicated. During his stay at Paris +he contracted a friendship with Casaubon, which lasted during his +life, and also took lessons in Arabic from an Egyptian, Joseph +Barbatus, otherwise called Abu-dakni. At Venice he perfected +himself in the Turkish, Persic and Ethiopic languages. After a +long absence, Erpenius returned to his own country in 1612, and +on the 10th of February 1613 he was appointed professor of +Arabic and other Oriental languages, Hebrew excepted, in the +university of Leiden. Soon after his settlement at Leiden, +animated by the example of Savary de Brèves, who had established +an Arabic press at Paris at his own charge, he caused new +Arabic characters to be cut at a great expense, and erected a press +in his own house. In 1619 the curators of the university of Leiden +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page754" id="page754"></a>754</span> +instituted a second chair of Hebrew in his favour. In 1620 he +was sent by the States of Holland to induce Pierre Dumoulin +or André Rivet to settle in that country; and after a second +journey he was successful in inducing Rivet to comply with their +request. Some time after the return of Erpenius, the states +appointed him their interpreter; and in this capacity he had the +duty imposed upon him of translating and replying to the different +letters of the Moslem princes of Asia and Africa. His reputation +had now spread throughout all Europe, and several princes, +the kings of England and Spain, and the archbishop of Seville +made him the most flattering offers; but he constantly refused +to leave his native country. He was preparing an edition of the +Koran with a Latin translation and notes, and was projecting +an Oriental library, when he died prematurely on the 13th of +November 1624.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>Among his works may be mentioned his <i>Grammatica Arabica</i>, +published originally in 1613 and often reprinted; <i>Rudimenta +linguae Arabicae</i> (1620); <i>Grammatica Ebraea generalis</i> (1621); +<i>Grammatica Chaldaica et Syria</i> (1628); and an edition of Elmacin’s +<i>History of the Saracens</i>.</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">ERROLL<a name="ar73" id="ar73"></a></span> (or <span class="sc">Errol</span>), <b>FRANCIS HAY,</b> <span class="sc">9th Earl of</span> (d. 1631), +Scottish nobleman, was the son of Andrew, 8th earl, and of +Lady Jean Hay, daughter of William, 6th earl. The date of +his birth is unrecorded, but he succeeded to the earldom +(cr. 1453) in 1585, was early converted to Roman Catholicism, +and as the associate of Huntly joined in the Spanish conspiracies +against the throne of Elizabeth. A letter written by him, +declaring his allegiance to the king of Spain, having been intercepted +and sent by Elizabeth to James in February 1589, he +was declared a rebel by the council. He engaged with Huntly +and Crawford in a rebellion in the north of Scotland, but their +forces surrendered at Aberdeen on the arrival of the king in +April; and in July Erroll gave himself up to James, who leniently +refrained from exacting any penalty. In September of the same +year he entered into a personal bond with Huntly for mutual +assistance; and in 1590 displeased the king by marrying, in +spite of his prohibition, Lady Elizabeth Douglas, daughter of +the earl of Morton. He was imprisoned on suspicion of complicity +in the attempt made by Gray and Bothwell to surprise +the king at Falkland in June 1592; and though he obtained +his release, he was again proclaimed a rebel on account of the +discovery of his signature to two of the “Spanish Blanks,” +unwritten sheets subscribed with the names of the chief conspirators +in a plot for a Spanish invasion of Scotland, to be filled +up later with the terms of the projected treaty. After a failure +to apprehend him in March 1593, Erroll and his companions +were sentenced to abjure Romanism or leave the kingdom; and +on their non-compliance were in 1594 declared traitors. On the +3rd of October they defeated at Glenlivet a force sent against +them under Argyll; though Erroll himself was severely wounded, +and Slains Castle, his seat, razed to the ground. The rebel lords +left Scotland in 1595, and Erroll, on report of his further conspiracies +abroad, was arrested by the states of Zealand, but was +afterwards allowed to escape. He returned to Scotland secretly +in 1596, and on the 20th of June 1597 abjured Romanism and +made his peace with the Kirk. He enjoyed the favour of the +king, and in 1602 was appointed a commissioner to negotiate the +union with England. His relations with the Kirk, however, were +not so amicable. The reality of his conversion was disputed, +and on the 21st of May 1608 he was confined to the city of Perth +“for the better resolution of his doubts,” being subsequently +declared an obstinate “papist,” excommunicated, deprived of +his estate, and imprisoned at Dumbarton; and after some +further vacillation was finally released in May 1611. Lord +Erroll died on the 16th of July 1631, and was buried in the church +of Slains. He married (1) Anne, daughter of John, 4th earl of +Atholl; (2) Margaret, daughter of the regent Murray; and (3) +Elizabeth, daughter of William, 6th earl of Morton. By his +third wife he had several children, of whom his eldest son, +William, succeeded him. The dispute which began in his +lifetime concerning the hereditary office of lord high constable +between the families of Erroll and of the Earl Marischal was +settled finally in favour of the former; thus establishing the +precedence enjoyed by the earls of Erroll next after the royal +family over all other subjects in Scotland.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See <i>The Erroll Papers</i> (Spalding Club Miscellany, vol. ii. 211); +Andrew Lang, <i>Hist. of Scotland</i>, vol. ii.; <i>Hist. MSS. Comm. MSS. +of Earl of Mar and Kellie</i>; D. Calderwood’s <i>Hist. of the Church of +Scotland</i>; John Spalding’s <i>Memorials</i> (Spalding Club, 1850); +<i>Collected Essays</i> of T.G. Law, ed. by P.H. Brown (1904); <i>Treason +and Plot</i>, by M.A.S. Hume (1901).</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">ERROR<a name="ar74" id="ar74"></a></span> (Lat. <i>error</i>, from <i>errare</i>, to wander, to err), a mistake, +a departure or deviation from what is true, exact or right. For +the legal process by which a judgment could be reversed on the +ground of error, known as a “writ of error,” see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Writ</a></span> and +<span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Appeal</a></span>. The words “error excepted” or “errors and omissions +excepted” (contracted to “E.E.” “E. & O.E.”), are frequently +placed at the end of a statement of account or an invoice, so that +the accounting party may reserve the right to correct any errors +or omissions which may be subsequently discovered, or make +further claims in respect of them. In mathematics, “error” +is the deviation of an observed or calculated quantity from its +true value. The calculus of errors leads to the formulation of +the “law of error,” which is an analytical expression of the +most probably true value of a series of discordant values (see +<span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Probability</a></span>).</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">ERSCH, JOHANN SAMUEL<a name="ar75" id="ar75"></a></span> (1766-1828), the founder of +German bibliography, was born at Grossglogau, in Silesia, on +the 23rd of June 1766. In 1785 he entered the university of +Halle with the view of studying theology; but soon his whole +attention became engrossed by history, bibliography and +geography. At Halle he made the acquaintance of J.E. Fabri, +professor of geography; and when the latter was made professor +of history and statistics at Jena, Ersch accompanied him thither, +and aided him in the preparation of several works. In 1788 he +published the <i>Verzeichnis aller anonymischen Schriften</i>, as a +supplement to the 4th edition of Meusel’s <i>Gelehrtes Deutschland</i>. +The researches required for this work suggested to him the +preparation of a <i>Repertorium über die allgemeinen deutschen +Journale und andere periodische Sammlungen für Erdbeschreibung, +Geschichte, und die damit verwandten Wissenschaften</i> (Lemgo, +1790-1792). The fame which this publication acquired him led +to his being engaged by Schütz and Hufeland to prepare an +<i>Allgemeines Repertorium der Literatur</i>, published in 8 vols. +(Jena and Weimar, 1793-1809), which condensed the literary +productions of 15 years (1785-1800), and included an account +not merely of the books published during that period, but also +of articles in periodicals and magazines, and even of the criticisms +to which each book had been subjected. While engaged in this +great work he also projected <i>La France littéraire</i>, which was +published at Hamburg in 5 vols., from 1797 to 1806. In 1795 +he went to Hamburg to edit the <i>Neue Hamburger Zeitung</i>, +founded by Victor Klopstock, brother of the poet, but returned +in 1800 to Jena to take active part in the <i>Allgemeine Literaturzeitung</i>. +He also obtained in the same year the office of librarian +in the university, and in 1802 was made professor of philosophy. +In 1803 he accepted the chair of geography and statistics at +Halle, and in 1808 was made principal librarian. He here +projected a <i>Handbuch der deutschen Literatur seit der Mitte des +18. Jahrh. bis auf die neueste Zeit</i> (Leipzig, 1812-1814) and, along +with Johann Gottfried Gruber (<i>q.v.</i>), the <i>Allgemeine Encyklopädie +der Wissenschaften und Künste</i> (Leipzig, 1818 ffg.) which he +continued as far as the 21st volume. The accuracy and thoroughness +of this monumental encyclopaedia make it still an indispensable +book of reference. Ersch died at Halle on the 16th of +January 1828.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">ERSKINE, EBENEZER<a name="ar76" id="ar76"></a></span> (1680-1754), Scottish divine, the +chief founder of the Secession Church (formed of dissenters from +the Church of Scotland), was born on the 22nd of June 1680, +most probably at Dryburgh, Berwickshire. His father, Henry +Erskine, who was at one time minister at Cornhill, Durham, was +ejected in 1662 by the Act of Uniformity, and, after suffering +some years’ imprisonment, was after the Revolution appointed +to the parish of Chirnside, Berwickshire. After studying at +the university of Edinburgh, Ebenezer became minister of +Portmoak, Kinross-shire. There he remained for twenty-eight +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page755" id="page755"></a>755</span> +years, after which, in the autumn of 1731, he was translated +to the West Church, Stirling. Some time before this, he, along +with some other ministers, was “rebuked and admonished,” +by the general assembly, for defending the doctrines contained +in the <i>Marrow of Modern Divinity</i> (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Boston, Thomas</a></span>). A +sermon which he preached on lay patronage before the synod +of Perth in 1733 furnished new grounds of accusation, and he +was compelled to shield himself from rebuke by appealing to the +general assembly. Here, however, the sentence of the synod +was confirmed, and after many fruitless attempts to obtain a +hearing, he, along with William Wilson of Perth, Alexander +Moncrieff of Abernethy and James Fisher of Kinclaven, was +suspended from the ministry by the commission in November +of that year. Against this sentence they protested, and constituted +themselves into a separate church court, under the name +of the associate presbytery. In 1739 they were again summoned +before the assembly, and in their corporate capacity declined +to acknowledge the authority of the church, and were deposed +in the following year. They received numerous accessions to +their communion, and remained in harmony with each other +till 1747, when a division took place in regard to the nature of +the oath administered to burgesses. Erskine joined with the +“burgher” section, and became their professor of theology. +He continued also to preach to a numerous congregation in +Stirling till his death, which took place on the 2nd of June 1754. +Erskine was a very popular preacher, and a man of considerable +force of character; he acted throughout on principle with +honesty and courage. The burgher and anti-burgher sections +of the Secession Church were reunited in 1820, and in 1847 they +united with the relief synod in forming the United Presbyterian +Church.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>Erskine’s published works consist chiefly of sermons. His <i>Life +and Diary</i>, edited by the Rev. Donald Fraser, was published in +1840. His <i>Works</i> were published in 1785.</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">ERSKINE, HENRY<a name="ar77" id="ar77"></a></span> (1746-1817), lord advocate of Scotland, +the second son of Henry David, 10th earl of Buchan and brother +of the lord chancellor Erskine, was born in Edinburgh on the +1st of November 1746. He was educated at the universities +of St Andrews, Glasgow and Edinburgh, and was admitted a +member of the faculty of advocates in 1768. His reputation +as a clever and fluent speaker was first made in the debates of +the general assembly, of which he had been early elected an +elder. In 1783 he was appointed to the office of lord advocate, +which he held during the brief coalition ministry of Fox and +North. In 1785 he was elected dean of the faculty of advocates, +and was re-elected annually till 1796, when his conduct in moving +a series of resolutions at a public meeting, condemning the government’s +sedition and treason bills, brought on him the opposition +of the ministerial party, and he was deposed in favour of Robert +Dundas. On the formation of the Grenville ministry in 1806 +he again became lord advocate and was returned to parliament +for the Haddington burghs, which he exchanged at the general +election of the same year for the Dumfries burghs. His tenure +of the lord advocateship ended in March 1807 on the downfall +of the ministry. In 1811 he gave up his practice at the bar and +retired to his country residence of Almondel, in Linlithgowshire, +where he died on the 8th of October 1817.</p> + +<p>His eldest son, Henry David (1783-1857), succeeded as 12th +earl of Buchan on his uncle’s death in 1829.</p> + +<p>Erskine’s reputation will survive as the finest and most +eloquent orator of his day at the Scottish bar; added to a charming +forensic style was a most captivating wit, which, as Lord +Jeffrey said, was “all argument, and each of his delightful +illustrations a material step in his reasoning.” Erskine was also +the author of some poems, of which the best known is “The +Emigrant” (1783).</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See Lieut.-Col. A. Fergusson’s <i>Henry Erskine</i> (1882).</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">ERSKINE, JOHN<a name="ar78" id="ar78"></a></span> (1721-1803), Scottish divine, son of John +Erskine of Carnock, was born on the 2nd of June 1721. He +studied law for a time after completing his course in arts at the +university of Edinburgh, but was eventually licensed to preach +in 1743; and was successively parish minister of Kirkintilloch, +near Glasgow, Culross, in Fifeshire (1753), New Greyfriars +church in Edinburgh (1758), and Old Greyfriars church in 1768, +where he became the colleague of Principal Robertson, the +historian. Here he remained until his death, which took place +on the 19th of January 1803. Dr Erskine’s writings consist +chiefly of controversial pamphlets on theological subjects. His +sermons are clear, vigorous expositions of a moderate Calvinism, +in which metaphysical argument and practical morality are +happily blended. In church politics he was the leader of the +evangelical party; and was much beloved for his high character +and amiability.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>For his life and works see Sir H. Moncreiff Wellwood, <i>Life and +Writings of J. Erskine, D.D.</i> (Edinburgh, 1818).</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">ERSKINE, JOHN,<a name="ar79" id="ar79"></a></span> of Carnock (1695-1768), Scottish jurist, +son of Lieut.-Colonel John Erskine, was born in 1695. He was +admitted a member of the faculty of advocates in 1719. Although +he never enjoyed much practice at the bar, he acquired a high +reputation as a sound and learned lawyer, and in 1737 was +appointed professor of Scots law in the university of Edinburgh. +In 1754 he published his <i>Principles of the Law of Scotland</i>. He +retired from his chair in 1765; and during the remainder of +his uneventful life he occupied himself with the preparation of +his great work, the <i>Institutes of the Law of Scotland</i>, which he +did not live to publish. He died at Cardross, Perthshire, on the +1st of March 1768.</p> + +<p>Erskine’s <i>Institutes</i>, although not exhibiting the grasp of +principle which distinguished his great predecessor Lord Stair, +is so conspicuous for learning, accuracy and sound good sense, +that it has always been esteemed of the highest authority on +the law of Scotland. The first edition appeared in 1773 and +it has been many times reprinted. The <i>Principles</i>, although +published first, is substantially an abridgment of the larger +work, and is in some respects superior to it, being more concise +and direct. It retains its place as the text-book on Scots law, +and is frequently being re-edited.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">ERSKINE, JOHN,<a name="ar80" id="ar80"></a></span> of Dun (1509-1591), Scottish reformer, +the son of Sir John Erskine, laird of Dun, was born in 1509, +and was educated at King’s College, Aberdeen. At the age of +twenty-one Erskine was the cause—probably by accident—of +a priest’s death, and was forced to go abroad, where he came under +the influence of the new learning. It was through his agency +that Greek was first taught in Scotland by Petrus de Marsiliers +at Montrose. This fact counted for much in the progress of the +Reformation. Erskine was also drawn towards the new faith, +being a close friend of George Wishart, the reformer, from whose +fate he was saved by his wealth and influence, and of John Knox, +whose advice openly to discountenance the mass was given in +the lodgings of the laird of Dun. In the stormy controversies +of the time of Mary Stuart and James VI. Erskine was a conspicuous +figure and a moderating influence. He was able to +soothe the queen when her feelings had been outraged by Knox’s +denunciations—being a man “most gentill of nature”—and +frequently acted as mediator both between the catholic and +reforming parties, and among the reformers themselves. In +1560 he was appointed—though a layman—superintendent +of the reformed church of Scotland for Angus and Mearns, and +in 1572 he gave his assent to the modified episcopacy proposed +by Morton at the Leith convention. Though never himself +ordained, he was held in such high esteem by the leaders of the +church as to be more than once elected moderator of the general +assembly (first in 1564), and he was amongst those who in +1578 drew up the <i>Second Book of Discipline</i>. From 1579 he was +a member of the king’s council. He died in 1591. Erskine owed +his peculiar influence among the Scottish reformers to the union—rare +in those days—of steadfast convictions with a conciliatory +manner; Queen Mary described him as “a mild and +sweet-natured man, with true honesty and uprightness.”</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See the “Dun Papers” in the <i>Spalding Club Miscellany</i>, vol. iv. +(1849), and the article by T.F. Henderson in the <i>Dict. Nat. Biog.</i></p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">ERSKINE, RALPH<a name="ar81" id="ar81"></a></span> (1685-1752), Scottish divine, brother of +Ebenezer Erskine (<i>q.v.</i>), was born on the 18th of March 1685. +After studying at the university of Edinburgh, he was in 1711 +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page756" id="page756"></a>756</span> +ordained assistant minister at Dunfermline. He homologated +the protests which his brother laid on the table of the assembly +after being rebuked for his synod sermon, but he did not formally +withdraw from the establishment till 1737. He was also +present, though not as a member, at the first meeting of the +associate presbytery. When the severance took place on account +of the oath administered to burgesses, he adhered, along with his +brother, to the burgher section. He died after a short illness +on the 6th of November 1752.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>His works consist of sermons, poetical paraphrases and gospel +sonnets. The <i>Gospel Sonnets</i> have frequently appeared separately. +His <i>Life and Diary</i>, edited by the Rev. D. Fraser, was published in +1842.</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">ERSKINE, THOMAS,<a name="ar82" id="ar82"></a></span> of Linlathen (1788-1870), Scottish +theologian, youngest son of David Erskine, writer to the signet +in Edinburgh, and of Anne Graham, of the Grahams of Airth, +was born on the 13th of October 1788. He was a descendant of +John, 1st or 6th earl of Mar, regent of Scotland in the reign of +James VI., a grandson of Colonel John Erskine of Carnock. +After being educated at the high school of Edinburgh and at +Durham, he attended the literary and law classes at the university +of Edinburgh, and becoming in 1810 a member of the Edinburgh +faculty of advocates, he for some time enjoyed the intimate +acquaintance of Cockburn, Jeffrey, Scott and other distinguished +men whose talent then lent lustre to the Scottish bar. In 1816 +he succeeded to the family estate of Linlathen, near Dundee, and +devoted himself to theology. The writings of Erskine, especially +his published letters, are distinguished by a graceful style, and +possess originality and interest. His theological views have a +considerable similarity to those of Frederick Denison Maurice, +who acknowledges having been indebted to him for his first true +conception of the meaning of Christ’s sacrifice. Erskine had +little interest in the “historical criticism” of Christianity, and +regarded as the only proper criterion of its truth its conformity +or nonconformity with man’s spiritual nature, and its adaptability +or non-adaptability to man’s spiritual needs. He considered +the incarnation of Christ as the necessary manifestation +to man of an eternal sonship in the divine nature, apart from +which those filial qualities which God demands from man could +have no sanction; by <i>faith</i> as used in Scripture he understood +to be meant a certain moral or spiritual activity or energy which +virtually implied salvation, because it implied the existence of +a principle of spiritual life possessed of an immortal power. +This faith, he believed, could be properly awakened only by the +manifestation, through Christ, of love as the law of life, and +as identical with an eternal righteousness which it was God’s +purpose to bestow on every individual soul. As an interpreter +of the mystical side of Calvinism and of the psychological conditions +which correspond with the doctrines of grace Erskine is +unrivalled. During the last thirty-three years of his life Erskine +ceased from literary work. Among his friends were Madame +Vernet, the duchess de Broglie, the younger Mdme de Stael, +M. Vinet of Lausanne, Edward Irving, Frederick D. Maurice, +Dean Stanley, Bishop Ewing, Dr John Brown and Thomas +Carlyle. His wide influence was due to his high character and +unassuming earnestness. He died at Edinburgh on the 20th of +March 1870.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>His principal works are <i>Remarks on the Internal Evidence for the +Truth of Revealed Religion</i> (1820), an <i>Essay on Faith</i> (1822), and +the <i>Unconditional Freeness of the Gospel</i> (1828). These have all +passed through several editions, and have also been translated into +French. He is also the author of the <i>Brazen Serpent</i> (1831), the +<i>Doctrine of Election</i> (1839), several “Introductory Essays” to +editions of <i>Christian Authors</i>, and a posthumous work entitled +<i>Spiritual Order and Other Papers</i> (1871). Two vols. of his letters, +edited by William Hanna, D.D., with reminiscences by Dean Stanley +and Principal Shairp, appeared in 1877.</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">ERSKINE, THOMAS ERSKINE,<a name="ar83" id="ar83"></a></span> <span class="sc">1st Baron</span> (1750-1823), +lord chancellor of England, was the third and youngest son of +Henry David, 10th earl of Buchan, and was born in Edinburgh +on the 10th of January 1750. From an early age he showed a +strong desire to enter one of the learned professions; but his +father, owing to his straitened circumstances, was unable to do +more than give him a good school education at the high school +of Edinburgh and the grammar school of St Andrews. In 1764 +he was sent as a midshipman on board the “Tartar,” but on +finding, when he returned to this country after four years’ +absence in North America and the West Indies, that there was +little immediate chance of his rank of acting lieutenant being +confirmed, he quitted the service and entered the army, purchasing +a commission in the 1st Royals with the meagre patrimony +which had been left to him. But promotion here was as slow as +in the navy; while in 1770 he had added greatly to his difficulties +by marrying the daughter of Daniel Moore, M.P. for Marlow, +an excellent wife, but as poor as himself. However, an accidental +visit to an assize court in the town in which he was quartered, +and an interview with Lord Mansfield, the presiding judge, +confirmed his resolve to quit the army for the law. Accordingly +on the 26th of April 1775 he was admitted a student of Lincoln’s +Inn. He also on the 13th of January following entered himself as +a gentleman commoner on the books of Trinity College, Cambridge, +but merely that by graduating he might be called two +years earlier.</p> + +<p>He read in the chambers of Francis Buller (afterwards Mr +Justice Buller) and George (afterwards Baron) Wood, and was +called to the bar on the 3rd of July 1778. His success was +immediate and brilliant. An accident was the means of giving +him his first case, <i>Rex</i> v. <i>Baillie</i>, in which he appeared for Captain +Thomas Baillie, the lieutenant-governor of Greenwich hospital, +who had published a pamphlet animadverting in severe terms +upon the abuses which Lord Sandwich, the first lord of the +admiralty, had introduced into the management of the hospital, +and against whom a rule had been obtained from the court of +king’s bench to show cause why a criminal information for libel +should not be filed. Erskine was the junior of five counsel; and +it was his good fortune that the prolixity of his leaders consumed +the whole of the first day, thereby giving the advantage +of starting afresh next morning. He made use of this opportunity +to deliver a speech of wonderful eloquence, skill and courage, +which captivated both the audience and the court. The rule +was discharged, and Erskine’s fortune was made. He received, +it is said, thirty retainers before he left the court. In 1781 he +delivered another remarkable speech, in defence of Lord George +Gordon—a speech which gave the death-blow to the doctrine +of constructive treason. In 1783, when the Coalition ministry +came into power, he was returned to parliament as member for +Portsmouth. His first speech in the House of Commons was a +failure; and he never in parliamentary debate possessed anything +like the influence he had at the bar. He lost his seat at the dissolution +in the following year, and remained out of parliament +until 1790, when he was again returned for Portsmouth. But +his success at the bar continued unimpaired. In 1783 he received +a patent of precedence. His first special retainer was in defence +of Dr W.D. Shipley, dean of St Asaph, who was tried in 1784 +at Shrewsbury for seditious libel—a defence to which was due +the passing of the Libel Act 1792, laying down the principle +that it is for the jury, and not for the judge to decide the question +whether or no a publication is a libel. In 1789 he was counsel for +John Stockdale, a bookseller, who was charged with seditious libel +in publishing a pamphlet in favour of Warren Hastings, whose +trial was then proceeding; and his speech on this occasion, +probably his greatest effort, is a consummate specimen of the +art of addressing a jury. Three years afterwards he brought +down the opposition alike of friends and foes by defending +Thomas Paine, author of <i>The Rights of Man</i>—holding that an +advocate has no right, by refusing a brief, to convert himself +into a judge. As a consequence he lost the office of attorney-general +to the prince of Wales, to which he had been appointed +in 1786; the prince, however, subsequently made amends by +making him his chancellor. Among Erskine’s later speeches +may be mentioned those for Horne Tooke and the other advocates +of parliamentary reform, and that for James Hadfield, who was +accused of shooting at the king. On the accession of the Grenville +ministry in 1806 he was made lord chancellor, an office for +which his training had in no way prepared him, but which he +fortunately held only during the short period his party was in +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page757" id="page757"></a>757</span> +power. Of the remainder of his life it would be well if nothing +could be said. Occasionally speaking in parliament, and hoping +that he might return to office should the prince become regent, +he gradually degenerated into a state of useless idleness. Never +conspicuous for prudence, he aggravated his increasing poverty +by an unfortunate second marriage.</p> + +<p>His first wife had died in 1805, and he married at Gretna Green +a Miss Mary Buck. The date of this marriage is not definitely +known. Once only—in his conduct in the case of Queen Caroline—does +he recall his former self. He died at Almondell, Linlithgowshire, +on the 17th of November 1823, of pneumonia, caught on +the voyage to Scotland.</p> + +<p>Erskine’s great forensic reputation was, to a certain extent, +a concomitant of the numerous political trials of the day, but +it was also due to his impassioned eloquence and undaunted +courage, which so often carried audience and jury and even the +court along with him. As a judge he did not succeed; and it +has been questioned whether under any circumstances he could +have succeeded. For the office of chancellor he was plainly unfit. +As a lawyer he was well read, but by no means profound. His +strength lay in the keenness of his reasoning faculty, in his +dexterity and the ability with which he disentangled complicated +masses of evidence, and above all in his unrivalled power of +fixing and commanding the attention of juries. To no department +of knowledge but law had he applied himself systematically, +with the single exception of English literature, of which he +acquired a thorough mastery in early life, at intervals of leisure +in college, on board ship, or in the army. Vanity is said to have +been his ruling personal characteristic; but those who knew +him, while they admit the fault, say that in him it never took +an offensive form, even in old age, while the singular grace and +attractiveness of his manner endeared him to all with whom he +came in contact.</p> + +<p>By his first wife he had four sons and four daughters. His +eldest son, David Montagu (1776-1855), was a well-known +diplomatist; his second son, Henry David (1786-1859), was +dean of Ripon; and his third son, Thomas (1788-1864), became +a judge of the court of common pleas. By his second wife he +had one son, born in 1821.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>In 1772 Erskine published <i>Observations on the Prevailing Abuses +in the British Army</i>, a pamphlet which had a large circulation, and +in later life, <i>Armata</i>, an imitation of <i>Gulliver’s Travels</i>. His most +noted speeches have repeatedly appeared in a collected form. See +Campbell’s <i>Lives of the Chancellors</i>; Moore’s <i>Diaries</i>; Fergusson’s +<i>Henry Erskine</i> (1882); Dumerit’s <i>Henry Erskine, a Study</i> (Paris, +1883); Lord Brougham’s <i>Memoir</i>, prefixed to Erskine’s <i>Speeches</i> +(1847); Romilly’s <i>Memoirs</i>; the <i>Croker Papers</i>; Lord Holland’s +<i>Memoirs</i>.</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">ERUBESCITE,<a name="ar84" id="ar84"></a></span> a native copper-iron sulphide, Cu<span class="su">5</span>FeS<span class="su">4</span>, of +importance as an ore of copper. It crystallizes in the cubic +system, the usual form being that of interpenetrating cubes +twinned on an octahedral plane. The faces are usually curved +and rough, and the crystals confusedly aggregated together. +Compact and granular masses are of more frequent occurrence. +The colour on a freshly fractured surface is bronzy or coppery, +but in moist air this rapidly tarnishes with iridescent blue and +red colours; hence the names purple copper ore, variegated +copper ore (Ger. <i>Buntkupfererz</i>), horse-flesh ore, and erubescite +(from the Lat. <i>erubescere</i>, “to grow red”). The lustre is metallic, +and the streak greyish-black; hardness 3; sp. gr. 5.0. Bornite +(after Baron Ignaz von Born, b. 1742, d. 1791) is a name in +common use for this mineral, and it predates erubescite, the name +given by J.D. Dana in 1850, but afterwards rejected by him; +French authors use the name phillipsite, after the English +mineralogist, R. Phillips, who analysed the mineral; both these +earlier names had, however, been previously used for other +minerals.</p> + +<p>Owing to the frequent presence of mechanically admixed +chalcopyrite and chalcocite, the published analyses of erubescite +show wide variations, the copper, for example, varying from +50 to 70%. Even the best Cornish crystals enclose a nucleus +of chalcopyrite (CuFeS<span class="su">2</span>), and an analysis of these made in 1839 +led to the long-accepted formula Cu<span class="su">3</span>FeS<span class="su">3</span>. Recently, B.J. +Harrington has analysed carefully selected material and obtained +the formula Cu<span class="su">5</span>FeS<span class="su">4</span>.</p> + +<p>Erubescite occurs in copper-bearing veins, and has been mined +as an ore of copper at Redruth in Cornwall, Montecatini in the +province of Pisa, Tuscany, Bristol in Connecticut, Acton in +Canada, and other localities in North America. The best +crystallized specimens are from the Carn Brea mine and other +copper mines in the neighbourhood of Redruth, and from Bristol +in Connecticut. Recently a few large isolated crystals with +the form of icositetrahedra have been found with calcite and +albite in a gold-vein on Frossnitz-Alpe in the Gross-Venediger, +Tirol.</p> +<div class="author">(L. J. S.)</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">ERYSIPELAS<a name="ar85" id="ar85"></a></span> (a Greek word, probably derived from <span class="grk" title="erythros">ἐρυθρός</span>, +red, and <span class="grk" title="pella">πέλλα</span>, skin)—synonyms, <i>the Rose</i>, <i>St Anthony’s Fire</i>—an +acute contagious disease, characterized by a special inflammation +of the skin, caused by a streptococcus. Erysipelas is +endemic in most countries, and epidemic at certain seasons, +particularly the spring of the year. The poison is not very +virulent, but it certainly can be conveyed by bedding and the +clothes of a third person. Two varieties are occasionally +described, a traumatic and an idiopathic, but the disease seems +to depend in all cases upon the existence of a wound or abrasion. +In the so-called idiopathic variety, of which <i>facial erysipelas</i> +is the best known, the point of entry is probably an abrasion by +the lachrymal duct.</p> + +<p>When the erysipelas is of moderate character there is simply +a redness of the integument, which feels somewhat hard and +thickened, and upon which there often appear small vesications. +This redness, though at first circumscribed, tends to spread and +affect the neighbouring sound skin, until an entire limb or a +large area of the body may become involved in the inflammatory +process. There is usually considerable pain, with heat and +tingling in the affected part. As the disease advances the +portions of skin first attacked become less inflamed, and exhibit +a yellowish appearance, which is followed by slight desquamation +of the cuticle. The inflammation in general gradually disappears. +Sometimes, however, it breaks out again, and passes over the +area originally affected the second time. But besides the skin, +the subjacent tissues may become involved in the inflammation, +and give rise to the formation of pus. This is termed <i>phlegmonous +erysipelas</i>, and is much more apt to occur in connexion +with the traumatic variety of the disease. Occasionally the +affected parts become gangrenous. Certain complications are +apt to arise in erysipelas affecting the surface of the body, particularly +inflammation of serous membranes, such as the pericardium +or pleura.</p> + +<p>Erysipelas of the face usually begins with symptoms of +general illness, the patient feeling languid, drowsy and sick, +while frequently there is a distinct rigor followed with fever. +Sore throat is sometimes felt, but in general the first indication +of the local affection is a red and painful spot at the side of the +nose or on one of the cheeks or ears. Occasionally it would appear +that the inflammation begins in the throat, and reaches the face +through the nasal fossae. The redness gradually spreads over +the whole surface of the face, and is accompanied with swelling, +which in the lax tissues of the cheeks and eyelids is so great +that the features soon become obliterated and the countenance +wears a hideous expression. Advancing over the scalp, the +disease may invade the neck and pass on to the trunk, but in +general the inflammation remains confined to the face and head. +While the disease progresses, besides the pain, tenderness and +heat of the affected parts, the constitutional symptoms are very +severe. The temperature rises often to 105° or higher, remains +high for four or five days, and then falls by crisis. Delirium is +a frequent accompaniment. The attack in general lasts for a +week or ten days, during which the inflammation subsides in the +parts of the skin first attacked, while it spreads onwards in other +directions, and after it has passed away there is, as already +observed, some slight desquamation of the cuticle.</p> + +<p>Although in general the termination is favourable, serious +and occasionally fatal results follow from inflammation of the +membranes of the brain, and in some rare instances sudden death +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page758" id="page758"></a>758</span> +has occurred from suffocation arising from oedema glottidis, +the inflammatory action having spread into and extensively +involved the throat. One attack of this disease, so far from +protecting from, appears rather to predispose to others. It is +sometimes a complication in certain forms of exhausting disease, +such as phthisis or typhoid fever, and is then to be regarded as +of serious import. A very fatal form occasionally attacks new-born +infants, particularly in the first four weeks of their lives. +In epidemics of puerperal fever this form of erysipelas has been +specially found to prevail.</p> + +<p>The treatment of erysipelas is best conducted on the expectant +system. The disease in most instances tends to a favourable +termination; and beyond attention to the condition of the +stomach and bowels, which may require the use of some gentle +laxative, little is necessary in the way of medicine. The employment +of preparations of iron in large doses is strongly +recommended by many physicians. But the chief point is the +administration of abundant nourishment in a light and digestible +form. Of the many local applications which may be employed, +hot fomentations will be found among the most soothing. Dusting +the affected part with powdered starch, and wrapping it in +cotton wadding, is also of use.</p> + +<p>In the case of phlegmonous erysipelas complicating wounds, +free incisions into the part are necessary.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">ERYTHRAE<a name="ar86" id="ar86"></a></span> [mod. <i>Litri</i>], one of the Ionian cities of Asia +Minor, situated on a small peninsula stretching into the Bay of +Erythrae, at an equal distance from the mountains Mimas and +Corycus, and directly opposite the island of Chios. In the +peninsula excellent wine was produced. The town was said to +have been founded by Ionians under Knopos, son of Codrus. +Never a large city, it sent only eight ships to the battle of Lade. +The Erythraeans owned for a considerable time the supremacy +of Athens, but towards the close of the Peloponnesian war they +threw off their allegiance to that city. After the battle of Cnidus, +however, they received Conon, and paid him honours in an +inscription, still extant. Erythrae was the birthplace of two +prophetesses—one of whom, Sibylla, is mentioned by Strabo +as living in the early period of the city; the other, Athenais, +lived in the time of Alexander the Great. The ruins include +well-preserved Hellenistic walls with towers, of which five are +still visible. The acropolis (280 ft.) has the theatre on its N. +slope, and eastwards lie many remains of Byzantine buildings. +Modern Litri is a considerable place and port, extending from +the ancient harbour to the acropolis. The smaller coasting +steamers call, and there is an active trade with Chios and Smyrna.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">ERYTHRITE,<a name="ar87" id="ar87"></a></span> the name given to (1) a mineral composed +of a hydrated cobalt arsenate, and (2) in chemistry, a tetrahydric +alcohol. (1) The mineral erythrite has the formula +Co<span class="su">3</span>(AsO<span class="su">4</span>)<span class="su">2</span>·8H<span class="su">2</span>O, and crystallizes in the monoclinic system and +is isomorphous with vivianite. It sometimes occurs as beautiful +radially-arranged groups of blade-shaped crystals with a bright +crimson colour and brilliant lustre. On exposure to light the +colour and lustre deteriorate. There is a perfect cleavage parallel +to the plane of symmetry, on which the lustre is pearly. Cleavage +flakes are soft (H = 2), sectile and flexible; specific gravity +2.95. The mineral is, however, more often found as an earthy +encrustation with a peach-blossom colour, and in this form was +early (1727) known as cobalt-bloom (Ger. <i>Kobaltblüthe</i>). The name +erythrite, from <span class="grk" title="erythros">ἐρυθρός</span>, “red,” was given by F.S. Beudant +in 1382. Erythrite occurs as a product of alteration of smaltite +(CoAs<span class="su">2</span>) and other cobaltiferous arsenides. The finest crystallized +specimens are from Schneeberg in Saxony. The earthy variety +has been found in Thuringia and Cornwall and some other +places. (2) The alcohol erythrite has the constitutional formula +HO·H<span class="su">2</span>C·CH(OH)·CH(OH)·CH<span class="su">2</span>OH; it is also known as erythrol, +erythroglucin and phycite. It corresponds to tartaric acid, and, +like this substance, it occurs in four stereo-isomeric forms. The +internally compensated modification, <i>i</i>-erythrite, corresponding +to mesotartaric acid, occurs free in the algae <i>Protococcus vulgaris</i>, +and as the orsellinate, erythrin, C<span class="su">4</span>H<span class="su">6</span>(OH)<span class="su">2</span>(O·C<span class="su">8</span>H<span class="su">7</span>O<span class="su">3</span>)<span class="su">2</span>, in many +lichens and algae, especially <i>Roccella montagnei</i>. It has a sweet +taste, melts at 126°, and boils at 330°. Careful oxidation with +dilute nitric acid gives erythrose or tetrose, which is probably +a mixture of a trioxyaldehyde and trioxyketone. Energetic +oxidation gives erythritic acid and mesotartaric acid. <i>i</i>-Erythrite +and the racemic mixture of the dextro and laevo varieties were +synthesized by Griner in 1893 from divinyl.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">ERZERUM,<a name="ar88" id="ar88"></a></span> or <span class="sc">Arzrum</span> (Arm. <i>Garin</i>), the chief town of an +important vilayet of the same name in Asiatic Turkey. It is +a military station and a fortress of considerable strategical value, +closing the roads from Kars, Olti and other parts of the frontier. +Several important routes from Trebizond and various parts of +Anatolia converge towards it from the west. It is situated at +the eastern end of an open bare plain, 30 m. long and about 12 +wide, bordered by steep, rounded mountains and traversed by +the Kara Su, or western Euphrates, which has its source in the +Dumlu Dagh a few miles north of that town, which lies at an +elevation of 6250 ft. above sea-level, while the near hills rise to +10,000 ft. The scenery in the neighbourhood is striking, lofty +bare mountains being varied by open plains and long valleys +dotted with villages. Just east of the town is the broad ridge +of the Deveboyun (“Camel’s Neck”), across which the road +passes to Kars. To the south is the Palanduken range, from which +emerge numerous streams, supplying the town with excellent +water. In the plain to the north the Kara Su traverses extensive +marshes which afford good wildfowl-shooting in the spring.</p> + +<p>The town is surrounded by an earthen enceinte or rampart +with some forts on the hills just above it, and others on the +Deveboyun ridge facing east, the whole forming a position of +considerable strength. The old walls and the citadel have +disappeared. Inside the ramparts the town lies rather cramped, +with narrow, crooked streets, badly drained and dirty; the +houses are generally built of dark grey volcanic stone with flat +roofs, the general aspect, owing to the absence of trees, being +somewhat gloomy. The water-supply from Palanduken is +distributed by wooden pipes to numerous public fountains. +The town has a population of about 43,000, including about +10,000 Armenians, 2000 Persians and a few Jews. It has a +garrison in peace of about 5000 men. It is the seat of the +British consulate for Kurdistan, and there are other European +consulates besides an American mission with schools. The great +altitude accounts for very severe winter cold, occasionally 10° +to 25° below zero F., accompanied by blizzards (<i>tipi</i>) sometimes +fatal to travellers overtaken by them. The summer heat is +moderate (59° to 77°).</p> + +<p>There are several well-built mosques (none older than the +16th century), public baths, and several good khans. There are +Armenian and Catholic churches, but the most beautiful building +is a <i>medresse</i> erected in the 12th century by the Seljuks, with +ornamental doorway and two graceful minarets known as the +<i>Chifte Minare</i>.</p> + +<p>Situated on the main road from Trebizond into north-west +Persia, the town has always a large caravan traffic, principally +of camels, but since the improvement of communications in +Russia this has declined. A good carriage-road leads to the coast +at Trebizond, the journey being made in five or six days. There +are also roads to Kars, Bayazid, Erzingan and Kharput. Blacksmiths’ +and coppersmiths’ work is better here than in most +Turkish towns; horse-shoes and brasswork are also famous. +There are several tanneries, and Turkish boots and saddles are +largely made. Jerked beef (<i>pasdirma</i>) is also prepared in large +quantities for winter use. The plain produces wheat, barley, +millet and vegetables. Wood fuel is scarce, the present supply +being from the Tortum district, whence surface coal and lignite +are also brought; but the usual fuel is <i>tezek</i> or dried cow-dung. +The bazaars are of no great interest. Good Persian carpets and +similar goods can be obtained.</p> + +<p>Erzerum is a town of great antiquity, and has been identified +with the Armenian Garin Kalakh, the Arabic Kalikale, and the +Byzantine Theodosiopolis of the 5th century, when it was a +frontier fortress of the empire—hence its name <i>Erzen-er-Rum</i>. +It was captured by the Seljuks in 1201, when it was an important +city, and it fell into Turkish possession in 1517. In July +1829 it was captured by the Russian general Paskevich, and the +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page759" id="page759"></a>759</span> +occupation continued until the peace of Adrianople (September +1829). The town was unsuccessfully attacked by the Russians +on the 9th of November 1877 after a victory gained by them a +short time previously on the Deveboyun heights; it was occupied +by them during the armistice (7th of February 1878) and restored +to Turkey after the treaty of Berlin. In 1859 a severe earthquake +destroyed much of the town, and another in November 1901 +caused much damage.</p> + +<p>The Erzerum vilayet extends from the Persian frontier at +Bayazid, all along the Russian frontier and westward into +Anatolia at Baiburt and Erzingan. It is divided into the three +sanjaks of Bayazid, Erzerum, and Erzingan. It includes the +highest portion of the Armenian plateau, and consists of bare +undulating uplands varied by lofty ranges. The deep gorges +of the Chorokh and Tortum streams north of the town alone +have a different appearance, being well wooded in places. +Both arms of the Euphrates have their rise in this country as +well as the Aras (Araxes) and the Chorokh (Acampsis). It is +an agricultural country with few industries. Besides forests, +iron, salt, sulphur and other mineral springs are found. Some +of the coal and lignite mines in Tortum have been recently +worked to supply fuel for Erzerum. The population is largely +Armenian and Kurd with some Turks (Moslems 500,000, +Christians 140,000).</p> +<div class="author">(C. W. W.; F. R. M.)</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">ERZGEBIRGE,<a name="ar89" id="ar89"></a></span> a mountain chain of Germany, extending +in a W.S.W. direction from the Elbe to the Elstergebirge +along the frontier between Saxony and Bohemia. Its length +from E.N.E. to W.S.W. is about 80 m., and its average +breadth about 25 m. The southern declivity is generally +steep and rugged, forming in some places an almost perpendicular +wall of the height of from 2000 to 2500 ft.; while +the northern, divided at intervals into valleys, sometimes of +great fertility and sometimes wildly romantic, slopes gradually +towards the great plain of northern Germany. The central +part of the chain forms a plateau of an average height of more +than 3000 ft. At the extremities of this plateau are situated +the highest summits of the range:—in the south-east the Keilberg +(4080 ft.); in the north-east the Fichtelberg (3980 ft.); and in +the south-west the Spitzberg (3650 ft.). Between the Keilberg +and the Fichtelberg, at the height of about 3300 ft., is situated +Gottesgab, the highest town in Bohemia. Geologically, the +Erzgebirge range consists mainly of gneiss, mica and phyllite. +As its name (Ore Mountains) indicates, it is famous for its mineral +ores. These are chiefly silver and lead, the layers of both of which +are very extensive, tin, nickel, copper and iron. Gold is found +in several places, and some arsenic, antimony, bismuth, manganese, +mercury and sulphur. The Erzgebirge is celebrated for +its lace manufactures, introduced by Barbara Uttmann in 1541, +embroideries, silk-weaving and toys. The climate is in winter +inclement in the higher elevations, and, as the snow lies deep until +the spring, the range is largely frequented by devotees of winter +sport, ski, toboganning, &c. In summer the air is bracing, and +many climatic health resorts have sprung into existence, among +which may be mentioned Kipsdorf, Bärenfels and Oberwiesenthal. +Communication with the Erzgebirge is provided by numerous +lines of railway, some, such as that from Freiberg to Brüx, that +from Chemnitz to Komotau, and that from Zwickau to Carlsbad, +crossing the range, while various local lines serve the higher +valleys.</p> + +<p>The Elstergebirge, a range some 16 m. in length, in which the +Weisse Elster has its source, runs S.W. from the Erzgebirge to +the Fichtelgebirge and attains a height of 2630 ft.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See Grohmann, <i>Das Obererzgebirge und seine Städte</i> (1903), and +Schurtz, <i>Die Pässe des Erzgebirges</i> (1891); also Daniel, <i>Deutschland</i>, +vol. ii., and Gebauer, <i>Länder und Völkerkunde</i>, vol. i.</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">ERZINGAN,<a name="ar90" id="ar90"></a></span> or <span class="sc">Erzinjan</span> (<i>Arsinga</i> of the middle ages), the chief +town of a sanjak in the Erzerum vilayet of Asiatic Turkey. +It is the headquarters of the IV. army corps, being a place of +some military importance, with large barracks and military +factories. It is situated at an altitude of 3900 ft., near the +western end of a rich well-watered plain through which runs the +Kara Su or western Euphrates. It is surrounded by orchards and +gardens, and is about a mile from the right bank of the river, +which here runs in two wide channels crossed by bridges. One +wide street traverses the town from east to west, but the others are +narrow, unpaved and dirty, except near the new government +buildings and the large modern mosque of Hajji Izzet Pasha +to the north, which are the only buildings of note. The principal +barracks, military hospital and clothing factory are at Karateluk +on the plain and along the foot-hills to the north 3 m. off, one +recent addition to the business buildings having electric power +and modern British machinery; some older barracks and a +military tannery and boot factory being in the town. The +population numbers about 15,000, of whom about half are +Armenians living in a separate quarter. The principal industries +are the manufacture of silk and cotton and of copper dishes and +utensils. The climate is hot in summer but moderate in winter. +A carriage-road leads to Trebizond, and other roads to Sivas, +Karahissar, Erzerum and Kharput. The plain, almost surrounded +by lofty mountains, is highly productive with many +villages on it and the border hills. Wheat, fruit, vines and +cotton are largely grown, and cattle and sheep are bred. Water +is everywhere abundant, and there are iron and hot sulphur +springs. The battle in which the sultan of Rum (1243) was +defeated by the Mongols took place on the plain, and the celebrated +Armenian monastery of St Gregory, “the Illuminator,” +lies on the hills 11 m. S.W. of the town.</p> + +<p>Erzingan occupies the site of an early town in which was a +temple of Anaitis. It was an important place in the 4th century +when St Gregory lived in it. The district passed from the +Byzantines to the Seljuks after the defeat of Romanus, 1071, +and from the latter to the Mongols in 1243. After having been +held by Mongols, Tatars and Turkomans, it was added to the +Osmanli empire by Mahommed II. in 1473. In 1784 the town +was almost destroyed by an earthquake.</p> +<div class="author">(C. W. W.; F. R. M.)</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">ESAR-HADDON<a name="ar91" id="ar91"></a></span> [Assur-akhi-iddina, “Assur has given a +brother”], Assyrian king, son of Sennacherib; before his +accession to the throne he had also borne another name, Assur-etil-ilani-yukin-abla. +At the time of his father’s murder (the +20th of Tebet, 681 <span class="scs">B.C.</span>) he was commanding the Assyrian army +in a war against Ararat. The conspirators, after holding Nineveh +for 42 days, had been compelled to fly northward and invoke +the aid of the king of Ararat. On the 12th of Iyyar (680 <span class="scs">B.C.</span>) +a decisive battle was fought near Malatia, in which the veterans +of Assyria won the day, and at the close of it saluted Esar-haddon +as king. He returned to Nineveh, and on the 8th of Sivan was +crowned king. A good general, Esar-haddon was also an able +and conciliatory administrator. His first act was to crush a +rebellion among the Chaldaeans in the south of Babylonia and +then to restore Babylon, the sacred city of the West, which had +been destroyed by his father. The walls and temple of Bel were +rebuilt, its gods brought back, and after his right to rule had been +solemnly acknowledged by the Babylonian priesthood Esar-haddon +made Babylon his second capital. A year or two later +Media was invaded and Median chiefs came to Nineveh to offer +homage to their conqueror. He now turned to Palestine, where +the rebellion of Abdi-milkutti of Zidon was suppressed, its +leader beheaded, and a new Zidon built out of the ruins of the +older city (676-675 <span class="scs">B.C.</span>). All Palestine now submitted to +Assyria, and 12 Syrian and 10 Cyprian princes (including +Manasseh of Judah) came to pay him homage and supply him +with materials for his palace at Nineveh. But a more formidable +enemy had appeared on the Assyrian frontier (676 <span class="scs">B.C.</span>). The +Cimmerii (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Scythia</a></span>) under Teuspa poured into Asia Minor; +they were, however, overthrown in Cilicia, and the Cilician +mountaineers who had joined them were severely punished. +It was next necessary to secure the southern frontier of the empire. +Esar-haddon accordingly marched into the heart of Arabia, to +a distance of about 900 m., across a burning and waterless desert, +and struck terror into the Arabian tribes. At last he was free +to complete the policy of his predecessors by conquering Egypt, +which alone remained to threaten Assyrian dominion in the West. +Baal of Tyre had transferred his allegiance from Esar-haddon to +the Egyptian king Tirhaka and opened to the latter the coast +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page760" id="page760"></a>760</span> +road of Palestine; leaving a force, therefore, to invest Tyre, +Esar-haddon led the main body of the Assyrian troops into +Egypt on the 5th of Adar, 673 <span class="scs">B.C.</span> The desert was crossed with +the help of the Arabian sheikh. Egypt seems to have submitted +to the invader and was divided into twenty satrapies. Another +campaign, however, was needed before it could be finally subdued. +In 670 <span class="scs">B.C.</span> Esar-haddon drove the Egyptian forces before him +in 15 days (from the 3rd to the 18th of Tammuz) all the way +from the frontier to Memphis, thrice defeating them with heavy +loss and wounding Tirhaka himself. Three days after Memphis +fell, and this was soon afterwards followed by the surrender of +Tyre and its king. In 668 <span class="scs">B.C.</span> Egypt again revolted, and while +on the march to reduce it Esar-haddon fell ill and died on +the 10th of Marchesvan. His empire was divided between his +two sons Assur-bani-pal and Samas-sum-yukin, Assur-bani-pal +receiving Assyria and his brother Babylonia, an arrangement, +however, which did not prove to be a success. Esar-haddon +was the builder of a palace at Nineveh as well as of one which he +erected at Calah for Assur-bani-pal.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p><span class="sc">Authorities.</span>—E.A.W. Budge, <i>History of Esarhaddon</i> (1880); +E. Schrader, <i>Keilinschriftliche Bibliothek</i>, ii. (1889) (Abel and +Winckler in ii. pp. 120-153); G. Maspero, <i>Passing of the Empires</i>, +pp. 345 sqq.; F. von Luschan, “Ausgrabungen in Sendschirli,” i. +(<i>Mitteilungen aus den orientalischen Sammlungen</i>, 1893).</p> +</div> +<div class="author">(A. H. S.)</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">ESAU,<a name="ar92" id="ar92"></a></span> the son of Isaac and Rebecca, in the Bible, and the elder +twin brother of Jacob. He was so called because he was red +(<i>admōnī</i>) and hairy when he was born, and the name Edom (red) +was given to him when he sold his birthright to Jacob for a meal +of <i>red</i> lentil pottage (Gen. xxv. 21-34). Another story of the +manner in which Jacob obtained the superiority is related in +Gen. xxvii. Here the younger brother impersonated the elder, +and succeeded in deceiving his blind father by imitating the +hairiness of his brother. He thus gained the blessing intended +for the first-born, and Esau, on hearing how he had been forestalled, +vowed to kill him. Jacob accordingly fled to his mother’s +relatives, and on his return, many years later, peace was restored +between them (xxxii. sq.). These primitive stories of the relations +between the eponymous heads of the Edomites and Israelites +are due to the older (Judaean) sources; the late notices of the +Priestly school (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Genesis</a></span>) preserve a different account of the +parting of the two (Gen. xxxvi. 6-8), and lay great stress upon +Esau’s marriages with the Canaanites of the land, unions which +were viewed (from the writer’s standpoint) with great aversion +(Gen. xxvi. 34 sq., xxvii. 46). For “Esau” as a designation of +the Edomites, cf. Jer. xlix. 8, Obad. <i>vv.</i> 6, 8, and on their history, +see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Edom</a></span>.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>Esau’s characteristic hairiness (Gen. xxv. 25, xxvii. 11) has given +rise to the suggestion that his name is properly <i>‘ēshav</i>, from a root +corresponding to the Arab. <i>‘athiya</i>, to have thick or matted hair. +Mt Seir, too, where he resided, etymologically suggests a “shaggy” +mountain-land. According to Hommel (<i>Sud-arab. Chrestom.</i> p. 39 +sq.) the name Esau has S. Arabian analogies. On the possible +identity of the name with Usoos, the Phoenician demi-god (Philo +of Byblus, ap. Eusebius, <i>Praep. Evang.</i> i. 10), see Cheyne, <i>Encyc. +Bib.</i> col. 1333; Lagrange, <i>Études sur les religions sémitiques</i>, p. 416 +(Paris, 1905); Ed. Meyer, <i>Israeliten</i>, 278 sq. (and, on general questions, +<i>ib.</i> 128 sq., 329 sqq.).</p> +</div> +<div class="author">(S. A. C.)</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">ESBJERG,<a name="ar93" id="ar93"></a></span> a seaport of Denmark in the <i>amt</i> (county) of Ribe, +18 m. from the German frontier on the west coast of Jutland. +It has railway communication with the east and north of Jutland, +and with Germany. It was granted municipal rights in 1900, +having grown with astonishing rapidity from 13 inhabitants in +1868 to 13,355 in 1901. This growth it owes to the construction +of a large harbour in 1868-1888. It is the principal outlet +westward for S. Jutland; exports pork and meat, butter, eggs, +fish, cattle and sheep, skins, lard and agricultural seeds, and has +regular communication with Harwich and Grimsby in England. +Three miles S.E. is Nordby on the island of Fanö, the northernmost +of the North Frisian chain. It is an arid bank of heathland +and dunes, but both Nordby and Sönderho in the south are +frequented as seaside resorts. The former has a school of navigation. +The fisheries are valuable.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">ESCANABA,<a name="ar94" id="ar94"></a></span> a city and the county-seat of Delta county, +Michigan, U.S.A., on Little Bay de Noquette, an inlet of Green +Bay, about 60 m. S. of Marquette. Pop. (1890) 6808; (1900) +9549, of whom 3214 were foreign-born; (1910 census) 13,194. +It is served by the Chicago & North-Western and the Escanaba +& Lake Superior railways. It is built on a picturesque promontory +which separates the waters of Green Bay from Little +Bay de Noquette, and its delightful summer climate, wild +landscape scenery and facilities for boating and trout fishing +make it a popular summer resort. Escanaba has a water front +of 8 m., and is an important centre for the shipment of iron-ore, +for which eight large and well-equipped docks are provided—there +is an ore-crushing plant here; considerable quantities of +lumber and fish are also shipped, and furniture, flooring (especially +of maple) and wooden ware (butter-dishes and clothes-pins) +are manufactured. There is a large tie-preserving plant here. +Good water power is supplied by the Escanaba river. Escanaba +was settled in 1863, was incorporated as a village in 1883, and +was first chartered as a city in the same year.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">ESCAPE<a name="ar95" id="ar95"></a></span> (in mid. Eng. <i>eschape</i> or <i>escape</i>, from the O. Fr. +<i>eschapper</i>, modern <i>échapper</i>, and <i>escaper</i>, low Lat. <i>escapium</i>, +from <i>ex</i>, out of, and <i>cappa</i>, cape, cloak; cf. for the sense development +the Gr. <span class="grk" title="ekduesthai">ἐκδύεσθαι</span>, literally to put off one’s clothes, +hence to slip out of, get away), a verb meaning to get away from, +especially from impending danger or harm, to avoid capture, to +regain one’s liberty after capture. As a substantive, “escape,” +in law, is the regaining of liberty by one in custody contrary to +due process of law. Such escape may be by force, if out of +prison it is generally known as “prison-breach” or “prison-breaking,” +or by the voluntary or negligent act of the custodian. +Where the escape is caused by the force or fraud of others it is +termed “rescue” (<i>q.v.</i>). “Escape” is used in botany of a +cultivated plant found growing wild. The word is also used of a +means of escape, <i>e.g.</i> “fire-escape,” and of a loss or leakage of gas, +current of electricity or water.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">ESCHATOLOGY<a name="ar96" id="ar96"></a></span> (Gr. <span class="grk" title="eschatos">ἔσχατος</span>, last, and <span class="grk" title="logos">λόγος</span>, science; the +“doctrine of last things”), a theological term derived from +the New Testament phrases “the last day” (<span class="grk" title="en tê eschatê hêmera">ἐν τῇ ἐσχάτῃ ἡμέρᾳ</span>, +John vi. 39), “the last times” (<span class="grk" title="ep eschatôn tôn chronôn">ἐπ᾽ ἐσχάτων τῶν χρόνων</span>, 1 Peter +i. 20), “the last-state” (<span class="grk" title="tà eschata">τὰ ἔσχατα</span>, Matt. xii. 45), a conception +taken over from ancient prophecy (Is. ii. 2; Mal. iv. 1). It was +the common belief in the apostolic age that the second advent of +Christ was near, and would give the divine completion to the +world’s history. The use of the term, however, has been extended +so as to include all that is taught in the Scriptures about the +future life of the individual as well as the final destiny of the +world. The reasons for the belief in a life after death are discussed +in the article <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Immortality</a></span>. The present article, after a brief +glance at the conceptions of the future of the individual or the +world found in other religions, will deal with the teaching of the +Old and New Testaments, the Jewish and the Christian Church +regarding the hereafter.</p> + +<p>There is a bewildering variety in the views of the future life +and world held by different peoples. The future life may be +conceived as simply a continuation of the present life in its +essential features, although under conditions more or less favourable. +It may also be thought of as retributive, as a reversal of +present conditions so that the miserable are comforted, and the +prosperous laid low, or as a reward or punishment for good or +evil desert here. Personal identity may be absorbed, as in the +transmigration of souls, or it may even be denied, while the good +or bad result of one life is held to determine the weal or woe of +another. The scene of the future life may be thought of on +earth, in some distant part of it, or above the earth, in the sky, +sun, moon or stars, or beneath the earth. The abodes of bliss +and the places of torment may be distinguished, or one last +dwelling-place may be affirmed for all the dead. Sometimes +the good find their abiding home with the gods; sometimes a +number of heavens of varying degrees of blessedness is recognized +(see F.B. Jevons, <i>An Introduction to the History of Religion</i>, chs. +xxi. and xxii., 1902; and J.A. MacCulloch’s <i>Comparative +Theology</i>, xiv., 1902).</p> + +<p>(1) Confucius, though unwilling to discuss any questions +concerning the dead, by approving ancestor-worship recognized +a future life. (2) Taoism promises immortality as the reward of +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page761" id="page761"></a>761</span> +merit. (3) <i>The Book of the Dead</i>—a guide-book for the departed +<span class="sidenote">Eastern Religions.</span> +on his long journey in the unseen world to the abode of the +blessed—shows the attention the Egyptian religion +gave to the state of the dead. (4) Although the Babylonian +religion presents a very gloomy view of the world +of the dead, it is not without a few faint glimpses of a hope that a +few mortals at least may gain deliverance from the dread doom. +(5) A characteristic feature of Indian thought is the transmigration +of the soul from one mode of life to another, the physical +condition of each being determined by the moral and religious +character of the preceding. But deliverance from this cycle of +existences, which is conceived as misery, is promised by means +of speculation and asceticism. Denying the continuance of the +soul, Buddhism affirmed a continuity of moral consequences +(<i>Karma</i>), each successive life being determined by the total +moral result of the preceding life. Its doctrine of salvation was +a guide to, if not absolute non-existence, yet cessation of all +consciousness of existence (<i>Nirvana</i>). Later Buddhism has, +however, a doctrine of many heavens and hells. (6) In Zoroastrianism +not only was continuance of life recognized, but a +strict retribution was taught. Heaven and hell were very clearly +distinguished, and each soul according to its works passed to the +one or to the other. But this faith did not concern itself only +with the future lot of the individual soul. It was also interested +in the close of the world’s history, and taught a decisive, final +victory of Ormuzd over Ahriman, of the forces of good over the +forces of evil. It is not at all improbable that Jewish eschatology +in its later developments was powerfully influenced by the +Persian faith. (7) Mahommedanism reproduces and exaggerates +the lower features of popular Jewish and Christian eschatology +(see the separate articles on these religions).</p> + +<p>In the Old Testament we can trace the gradual development +of an ever more definite doctrine of “the final condition of man +and the world.” This is regarded as the last stage in +a moral process, a redemptive purpose of God. The +<span class="sidenote">Old Testament.</span> +eschatology of the Old Testament is thus closely +connected with, but not limited by, Messianic hope, as there +are eschatological teachings that are not Messianic. As the Old +Testament revelation is concerned primarily with the elect +nation, and only secondarily (in the later writings) with the +individual persons composing it, we follow the order of importance +as well as of time in dealing first with the people. The +universalism which marks the promise to the seed of the woman +(Gen. iii. 15) appears also in the blessing of Noah (ix. 25). In +the promise to Abraham (xii. 3) this universal good is directly +related to God’s particular purpose for His chosen people; so +also in the blessing of Jacob (xlix.) and of Moses (Deut. xxxiii.). +David’s last words (2 Sam. xxiii.) blend together his desire that +his family should retain the kingship, and his aspiration for a +kingdom of righteousness on earth. The conception of the +“Day of the Lord” is frequent and prominent in the prophets, +and the sense given to the phrase by the people and by the +prophets throws into bold relief the contrast between popular +beliefs and the prophetic faith. The people simply expected +deliverance from their miseries and burdens by the intervention +of Yahweh, because He had chosen Israel for His people. The +prophets had an ethical conception of Yahweh; the sin of His +own people and of other nations called for His intervention +in judgment as the moral ruler of the world. But judgment +they conceived as preparing for redemption. The day of the +Lord is always an eschatological conception, as the term is +applied to the final and universal judgment, and not to any less +decisive intervention of God in the course of human history. +In the pre-exilic prophets the judgment of God is “primarily +on Israel, although it also embraces the nations”; during the +Exile and at the Restoration the judgment is represented as +falling on the nations while redemption is being wrought for +God’s people; after the Restoration the people of God is again +threatened, but still the warning of judgment is mainly directed +towards the nations and deliverance is promised to Israel. As +the manifestation of God in grace as well as judgment, the day +of the Lord will bring joy to Israel and even to the world. As +a day of judgment it is accompanied by terrible convulsions +of nature (not to be taken figuratively, but probably intended +literally by the prophets in accordance with their view of the +absolute subordination of nature to the divine purpose for man). +It ushers in the Messianic age. While the moral issues are +finally determined by this day, yet the world of the Messianic +age is painted with the colours of the prophet’s own surroundings. +Israel is restored to its own land, and to it the other nations are +brought into subjugation, by force or persuasion. The contributions +of the Old Testament to Christian eschatology embrace +these features: “(1) The manifestation or advent of God; (2) +the universal judgment; (3) behind the judgment the coming +of the perfect kingdom of the Lord, when all Israel shall be +saved and when the nations shall be partakers of their salvation; +and (4) the finality and eternity of this condition, that which +constitutes the blessedness of the saved people being the Presence +of God in the midst of them—this last point corresponding to +the Christian idea of heaven” (A.B. Davidson, in Hastings’s +<i>Bible Dictionary</i>, i. p. 738). This hope is for the people on this +earth though transfigured.</p> + +<p>To the individual it would seem at first only old age is promised +(Is. lxv. 20; Zech. viii. 4), but the abolition of death itself is +also declared (Is. xxv. 8). The resurrection, which appears at +first as a revival of the dead nation (Hos. vi. 2; Ez. xxxvii. +12-14), is afterwards promised for the pious individuals (Is. xxvi. +19), so that they too may share in the national restoration. +Only in Daniel xii. 2 is taught a resurrection of the wicked +“to shame and everlasting contempt” as well as of the righteous +to “everlasting life.” It was only at the Exile, when the nation +ceased to be, that the worth of the individual came to be recognized, +and the hopes given to the nation were claimed for the +individual. In dealing with the individual eschatology we +must carefully distinguish the popular ideas regarding death +and the hereafter which Israel shared with the other Semitic +peoples, from the intuitions, inferences, aspirations evoked +in the pious by the divine revelation itself. The former have +not the moral significance or the religious value of the latter. +The starting-point of the development was the common belief +that the dead continued to exist in an unsubstantial mode of +life, but cut off from fellowship with God and man; but faith +left this far behind. Sheol is the common abode of the righteous +and the ungodly: life there is shadowy and feeble, but seems +to continue in a wavering and dim reflection features of this +life. As the present life is, however, determined by moral issues, +and as death does not change man’s relation to God, moral +considerations could not be absolutely excluded from the future +life. A forward step had to be taken. Pious men, in fellowship +with God, when they faced the fact of death, were led either +to challenge its right, or to give a new meaning to it. Either +there was a protest against death itself, and a demand for +immortality (Ps. xvi. 9-11), or death was conceived as something +different for the saint and for the sinner; fellowship with +God would not and could not be interrupted (Ps. xlix. 14, 15, +lxxiii. 17-28). The vision of God is anticipated after death’s +sleep (Ps. xvii. 15; Job xix. 25-27). This belief in individual +immortality is expressed poetically and obscurely: it is later +than the eschatology of the people. It assumes the moral +distinction of the righteous and the ungodly, and seeks a solution +for the problem of the lack of harmony of present character and +condition. Its deepest motive, however, is religious. The soul +once in fellowship with God cannot even by death be separated +from God. The individual hoped that he would live to share +the nation’s good, and thus the two streams of Old Testament +eschatology at last flow together.</p> + +<p>It is in the apocryphal and apocalyptic literature of Judaism +that the fullest development of eschatology can be traced. +Four words may serve to express the difference of the +doctrine of these writings and the teaching of the Old +<span class="sidenote">Apocryphal and Apocalyptic books.</span> +Testament. Eschatology was <i>universalized</i> (God was +recognized as the creator and moral governor of all +the world), <i>individualized</i> (God’s judgment was directed, not to +nations in a future age, but to individuals in a future life), +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page762" id="page762"></a>762</span> +<i>transcendentalized</i> (the future age was more and more contrasted +with the present, and the transition from the one to the other +was not expected as the result of historical movements, but of +miraculous divine acts), and <i>dogmatized</i> (the attempt was made +to systematize in some measure the vague and varied prophetic +anticipations). Only a very brief summary of the conceptions +current in these writings can be given. The coming of the +Messiah will be preceded by the Last Woes. The Messiah is +very variously conceived: (1) “a passive, though supreme +member of the Messianic Kingdom”; (2) “an active warrior +who slays his enemies with his own hand”; (3) “one who slays +his enemies by the word of his mouth, and rules by virtue of his +justice, faith and holiness”; (4) a supernatural person, “eternal +Ruler and Judge of Mankind” (R.H. Charles in Hastings’s +<i>Bible Dictionary</i>, i. p. 748). In some of the writings no Messianic +kingdom is looked for; in others only a temporal duration +on earth is assigned to it; in others still it abides for ever +either on earth as it is, or on earth transformed. The +dispersion among the nations is to return home. Sometimes +the Resurrection is narrowed down to the resurrection of the +righteous, at others widened out to the resurrection of all +mankind for the last judgment. A blessed immortality after +judgment, or even after death itself, is sometimes taught +without reference to any resurrection. Retribution in human +history is recognized, but attention is specially concentrated +on the final judgment, which is usually conceived as taking place +in two stages. (1) The Messianic is executed by the Messiah or +the saints by victory in war, or by judicial sentence. (2) The +final remains in God’s hands; but in one writing (the <i>Ethiopic +Enoch</i>) is represented as Messiah’s function. This judgment +either closes the Messianic age, if thought of as temporal, or +ushers it in, if conceived as eternal, or closes the world’s history, +if no Messianic age is expected. The place of torment for the +wicked was called Gehenna (the valley of Hinnom or the Sons +of Hinnom, where the bodies of criminals were cast out, is +described in Is. lxvi. 24). Here corporal as well as spiritual +punishment was endured; it was inflicted on apostate Jews +or the wicked generally; the righteous witnessed its initial +stages but not its final form. In later Judaism it was the +purgatory of faithless Jews, who at last reached Paradise, but it +remained the place of eternal torment for the Gentiles. Paradise +was sometimes regarded as the division of Sheol to which the +righteous passed after death, but at others it was conceived +as the heavenly abode of Moses, Enoch and Elijah, to which +other saints would pass after the last judgment.</p> + +<p>The eschatology of the New Testament attaches itself not only +to that of the Old Testament but also to that of contemporary +Judaism, but it avoids the extravagances of the latter. +Not at all systematic, it is occasional, practical, +<span class="sidenote">New Testament.</span> +poetical and dominantly evangelical, laying stress on +the hope of the righteous rather than the doom of the wicked. +The teaching of Jesus centres, according to the Synoptists, in +the great idea of the “Kingdom of God,” which is already +present in the teacher Himself, but also future as regards its +completion. In some parables a gradual realization of the kingdom +is indicated (Matt. xiii.); in other utterances its consummation +is connected with Christ’s own return, His Parousia +(Matt. xxiv. 3, 37, 39), the time of which, however, is unknown +even to Himself (Mark xiii. 32). In this eschatological discourse +(Matt. xxiv., xxv.) He speaks of the destruction of Jerusalem +and of the end of the world as near, and seemingly as one. This +is in accordance with the characteristic of prophecy, which sees +in “timeless sequence” events which are historically separated +from one another. While the Return is represented in the +Synoptists as an external event, it is conceived in the fourth +gospel as an internal experience in the operation of the Spirit +on the believer (John xiv. 16-21); nevertheless here also the +Parousia in the synoptic sense is looked for (John xxi. 22; cf. 1 +John ii. 28). The object of the Second Coming is the execution of +judgment by Christ (Matt. xxv. 31), both individual (xxii. 1-14) +and universal (xiii. 36-42). The present subjective judgment, +in which men determine their destiny by their attitude to Christ, +on which the fourth gospel lays stress (John iii. 17-21, ix. 39), +is not inconsistent with the anticipation of a final judgment +(John xii. 48, v. 27). This judgment presupposes the resurrection, +<span class="sidenote">Pharisees and Sadducees.</span> +belief in which was rejected by the Sadducees, +but accepted by the Pharisees and the majority of the +Jewish people, and confirmed by Christ, not only as an +individual spiritual renovation (John v. 25, 26), but +as a universal physical resuscitation (28 and 29; Matt. xxii. 30). +This resurrection is of the unjust as well as the just (Matt. v. +29, 30, x. 28; Luke xiv. 14). On the <i>Intermediate State</i> Jesus +does not speak clearly. He uses the term Hades twice metaphorically +(Matt. xi. 23, xvi. 18), and once in a parable, the +“Rich Man and Lazarus” (Luke xvi. 23), in which he employs +the current phrases such as “Abraham’s bosom” (verse 22), +without any definite doctrinal intention, to unveil the secrets of +the hereafter by confirming with His authority the common +beliefs of His time. The term Paradise (Luke xxiii. 43) seems +to be used “in a large and general sense as a word of hope and +comfort,” and we need not attach to it any of the more definite +associations which it had in Jewish eschatology. When he +speaks of death as “sleep” (Luke viii. 52; John xi. 11) it is to +give men gentler and sweeter thoughts of it, not to inculcate the +doctrine of an intermediate state as an unconscious condition. +There are words which suggest rather the hope of an immediate +entrance of the just into the Father’s house and glory (John xiv. +2, 3, xvii. 24). He spoke frequently and distinctly both of +final reward for the righteous and final penalty for the wicked. +“The recompense of the righteous is described as an inheritance, +entrance into the kingdom, treasure in heaven, an existence like +the angelic, a place prepared, the Father’s house, the joy of the +Lord, life, eternal life and the like; and there is no intimation +that the reward is capable of change, that the condition is a +terminable one. The retribution of the wicked is described +as death, outer darkness, weeping and wailing and gnashing of +teeth, the undying worm, the quenchless fire, exclusion from the +kingdom, eternal punishment and the like” (S.D.J. Salmond +in Hastings’s <i>Bible Dictionary</i>, p. 752). Degrees of award are +recognized (Luke xii. 47, 48). Gehenna is applied to the condition +of the lost (Matt. xviii. 9). Two sayings are held to point +to a terminable penalty (Matt. v. 25, 26, xii. 31, 32), but the +one is so figurative and the other so obscure, that we are not +warranted in drawing any such definite conclusion from either +of them. The finality of destiny seems to be unmistakably +expressed (Matt. vii. 23, x. 33, xiii. 30, xxv. 46, xxvi. 24; Mark +ix. 43-48, viii. 36; Luke ix. 26; John iii. 16, viii. 21, 24). No +second opportunity for deciding the issue of life or death is +recognized by Jesus.</p> + +<p>The apostolic eschatology presents resemblance amid difference. +Jude (v. 6), as well as 2 Peter (ii. 4), refers to the judgment of the +fallen angels. 2 Peter describes the place of their detention as +Tartarus, and teaches that Christ’s <i>Parousia</i> is to bring the whole +present system of things to its conclusion, and the world itself to +an end (iii. 10, 13). After the destruction of the existing order +by fire, “a new heaven and a new earth” will appear as the +abode of righteousness. The question of greatest interest in 1 +Peter is the relation of two passages in it, the preaching to the +spirits in prison (iii. 18-22) and the preaching of the Gospel to +the dead (iv. 6) to the “larger hope.” Peter’s discourse also +contains a phrase which suggests the belief of a descent of Christ +into Hades in the interval between His death and His resurrection +(Acts ii. 31). No certainty has been reached in the +interpretation of these passages, but they may suggest to the +Christian mind the expectation that the final destiny of no soul +can be fixed until in some way or other, in this life or the next, +the opportunity of decision for or against Christ has been given. +The phrase “the times of restoration of all things” (iii. 21) is +too vague in itself, and is too isolated in its context to warrant the +dogmatic teaching of universalism, although there are other +passages which seem to point towards the same goal. While +John’s Apocalypse is distinctly eschatological, the Epistles and +the Gospels often give these conceptions an ethical and spiritual +import, without, however, excluding the eschatological. Life is +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page763" id="page763"></a>763</span> +present while eternal (1 John v. 12, 13), but it is also future +(ii. 25). There is expected a future manifestation of Christ as +He is, and what the believer himself will be does not yet appear +(iii. 2). The writer speaks of the last hour (ii. 18), the Antichrist +that cometh (ii. 22, iv. 3), and the Christian’s full reward (2 John +v. 8) as well as the Parousia (1 John ii. 28). The Apocalypse +reproduces much of the current Jewish eschatology. A millennial +reign of Christ on earth is interposed between the first +resurrection, confined to the saints and especially the martyrs, +and the second resurrection for the rest of the dead. A final +outburst of Satan’s power is followed by his overthrow and the +Last Judgment.</p> + +<p>Although Paul sometimes describes the Kingdom of God as +present (Rom. xiv. 17; 1 Cor. iv. 20; Col. i. 13), it is usually +represented as future. The Parousia fills a large place in his +thought, and, if more prominent in his earlier writings, is not +altogether absent from his later, although the expectation of +personal survival does seem to grow less confident (cf. 1 Cor. xv. +51 and Phil. i. 20-24). The doctrines of the Resurrection, the +Last Judgment, the Reward of the Righteous and the Punishment +of the Wicked are not less distinctly expressed than in the +other apostolic writings. Peculiar elements in Paul’s eschatology +are the doctrines of the Rapture of the Saints (1 Thess. iv. 17) +and the Man of Sin (2 Thess. ii. 3-6), but these have affinities +elsewhere. A reference to the millennial reign of Christ in the +period between the two resurrections is sometimes sought in 1 +Cor. xv. 22-24; but it is not a chronology of the last things Paul +is here giving. So also a justification for the doctrine of +purgatory is sought in iii. 12-15; but the day and the fire +are of the last judgment. A descent of Christ into Hades, +implying an extension of the opportunity of grace such as is +supposed to be taught in 1 Peter, is also discovered in the obscure +statements in Rom. x. 7 (where Paul is freely quoting Deut. +xxx. 11-14), and Eph. iv. 10 (where he is commenting on Ps. +lxviii. 18). Universal restoration is inferred from 1 Cor. xv. +24-28, “God all in all,” Phil. ii. 10-11, every knee bowing to, +and every tongue confessing Jesus Christ, Eph. i. 9, 10, the +summing up of all things in Christ, Col. i. 20, God reconciling +all things unto Himself in Christ. These passages inspire a hope, +but do not sustain a certainty. Paul’s shrinking from the +disembodied state and longing to be clothed upon at death in +2 Cor. v. 1-8, cannot be regarded as a proof of an <i>interim</i> body +prior to and preparatory for the resurrection body. Paul links +the human resurrection with a universal renovation (Rom. viii. +19-23). Paul’s eschatology is not free of obscurities and ambiguities; +and in the New Testament eschatology generally +we are forced to recognize a mixture of inherited Jewish and +original Christian elements (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Antichrist</a></span>).</p> + +<p>During the first century of the existence of the Gentile Christian +Church, “the hope of the approaching end of the world and the +glorious kingdom of Christ” was dominant, although warnings +had to be given against doubt and indifference. Redemption +was thought of as still future, as the power of the devil had not +been broken but rather increased by the First Advent, and the +Second Advent was necessary to his complete overthrow. The +expectations were often grossly materialistic, as is evidenced by +Papias’s quotation as the words of the Lord of a group of sayings +from the Apocalypse of Baruch, setting forth the amazing +fruitfulness of the earth in the Messianic time.</p> + +<p>The Gnostics rejected this eschatology as in their view the +enlightened spirit already possessed immortality. Marcion +expected that the Church would be assailed by Antichrist; +a visible return of Christ he did not teach, but +<span class="sidenote">Gnostics.<br />Montanism.</span> +he recognized that human history would issue in a separation +of the good from the bad. Montanism sought to form a new +Christian commonwealth which, separated from the +world, should prepare itself for the descent of the +Jerusalem from above, and its establishment in the spot +which by the direction of the Spirit had been chosen in Phrygia. +While Irenaeus held fast the traditional eschatological beliefs, yet +his conception of the Christian salvation as a deification of man +tended to weaken their hold on Christian thought. The Alogi +in the 2nd century rejected the Apocalypse on account of its +chiliasm, its teaching of a visible reign of Christ on earth for +a thousand years. Montanism also brought these apocalyptic +expectations into discredit in orthodox ecclesiastical circles. +The Alexandrian theology strengthened this movement against +chiliasm. Clement of Alexandria taught that justice is not +merely retributive, that punishment is remedial, that probation +continues after death till the final judgment, that Christ and the +apostles preached the Gospel in Hades to those who lacked +knowledge, but whose heart was right, that a spiritual body +will be raised. Origen taught that a germ of the spiritual body +is in the present body, and its development depends on the +character, that perfect bliss is reached only by stages, that the +evil are purified by pain, conscience being symbolized by fire, +and that all, even the devil himself, will at last be saved. Both +regarded chiliasm with aversion. But in the 5th century there +were rejected as heretical (1) “the doctrine of universalism, and +the possibility of the redemption of the devil; (2) the doctrine +of the complete annihilation of evil; (3) the conception of the +penalties of hell as tortures of conscience; (4) the spiritualizing +version of the resurrection of the body; (5) the idea of the continued +creation of new worlds” (A. Harnack, <i>History of Dogma</i>, +iii. p. 186).</p> + +<p>Epiphanius, following Methodius, insisted on the most perfect +identity between the resurrection body and the material body; +and this belief, enforced in the West by Jerome, soon established +itself as alone orthodox. Augustine made experiments on the +flesh of a peacock in order to find physical evidence for the +doctrine. He held fast to eternal punishment, but allowed +the possibility of mitigations. Some believers, he taught, may +pass through purgatorial fires; and this middle class may be +helped by the sacraments and the alms of the living. “There +are many souls not good enough to dispense with this provision, +and not bad enough to be benefited by it” (<i>op. cit.</i> v. 233). +This doctrine was sanctioned and developed by Gregory the +Great. “After God has changed eternal punishments into +temporary, the justified must expiate these temporary penalties +for sin in purgatory” (p. 268). This view was inferred indirectly +from Matt. xii. 31, and directly from 1 Cor. iii. 12-15. Afterwards +purgatory took more and more the place of hell, and +was subject to the control of the church. As regards the saints, +different degrees of blessedness were recognized; they were supposed +to wait in Hades for the return of Christ, but gradually +the belief gained ground, especially in regard to the martyrs, +that their souls at once entered Paradise. The primitive Christian +eschatology was preserved in the West as it was not in the East, +and in times of exceptional distress the expectation of Antichrist +emerged again and again. In the middle ages there was an +extravagance of speculation on this subject, which may be seen +in the last division of Aquinas’ <i>Summa Theologiae</i>. He proposes +thirty questions on these matters, among which are the following: +“whether souls are conducted to heaven or hell immediately +after death”; “whether the limbus of hell is the same as +Abraham’s bosom”; “whether the sun and moon will be really +obscured at the day of judgment”; “whether all the members +of the human body will rise with it”; “whether the hair and +nails will reappear”; could thought become “more lawless +and uncertain”?</p> + +<p>While rejecting purgatory, Protestantism took over this +eschatology. Souls passed at once to heaven or to hell; a +doctrine even less adequate to the complex quality +of human life. Luther himself looked for the passing +<span class="sidenote">In Protestant Theology.</span> +away of the present evil world. Socinianism taught a +new spiritual body, an intermediate state in which +the soul is near non-existence, an annihilation of the +wicked, as immortality is the gift of God. Swedenborg discards +a physical resurrection, as at death the eyes of men are opened +to the spiritual world in which we exist now, and they continue +to live essentially as they lived here, until by their affinities +they are drawn to heaven or hell. The doctrine of <i>eternal +punishment</i> has been opposed on many grounds, such as the +disproportion between the offence and the penalty, the moral +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page764" id="page764"></a>764</span> +and religious immaturity of the majority of men at death, the +diminution of the happiness of heaven involved in the knowledge +of the endless suffering of others (Schleiermacher), the defeat +of the divine purpose of righteousness and grace that the continued +antagonism of any of God’s creatures would imply, the +dissatisfaction God as Father must feel until His whole family +is restored. It has been argued that the term “eternal” has +reference not to duration of time but quality of being (Maurice); +but it does seem certain that the writers in the Holy Scriptures +who used it did not foresee an end either to the life or to the death +to which they applied the term. The contention should not be +based on the meaning of a single word, but on such broader +considerations as have been indicated above. The doctrine of +<i>conditional</i> immortality taught by Socinianism was accepted by +Archbishop Whately, and has been most persistently advocated +by Edward White, who “maintains that immortality is a truth, +not of reason, but of revelation, a gift of God” bestowed only on +believers in Christ; but he admits a continued probation after +death for such as have not hardened their hearts by a rejection of +Christ. According to Albrecht Ritschl “the <i>wrath</i> of God means +the resolve of God to annihilate those men who finally oppose +themselves to redemption, and the final purpose of the kingdom +of God.” He thus makes immortality conditional on inclusion +in the kingdom of God. The doctrine of <i>universal restoration</i> +was maintained by Thomas Erskine of Linlathen on the ground +of the Fatherhood of God, and Archdeacon Wilson anticipates +such discipline after death as will restore all souls to God. C.I. +Nitzsch argues against the doctrine of the annihilation of the +wicked, regards the teaching of Scripture about eternal damnation +as hypothetical, and thinks it possible that Paul reached +the hope of universal restoration. I.A. Dorner maintains that +hopeless perdition can be the penalty only of the deliberate +rejection of the Gospel, that those who have not had the opportunity +of choice fairly and fully in this life will get it hereafter, +but that the right choice will in all cases be made we cannot +be confident. The attitude of theologians generally regarding +individual destiny is well expressed by Dr James Orr, “The +conclusion I arrive at is that we have not the elements of a +complete solution, and we ought not to attempt it. What visions +beyond there may be, what larger hopes, what ultimate harmonies, +if such there are in store, will come in God’s good time; it is not +for us to anticipate them, or lift the veil where God has left it +down” (<i>The Christian View of God and the World</i>, 1893, p. 397).</p> + +<p>Although in recent theological thought attention has been +mainly directed to individual destiny, yet the other elements +of Christian eschatology must not be altogether passed over. +History has offered the authoritative commentary on the +prophecy of the Parousia of Christ. The presence and power +of His Spirit, the spread of His Gospel, the progress of His +kingdom have been as much a fulfilment of the eschatological +teaching of the New Testament as His life and work on earth +were a fulfilment of Messianic prophecy, for fulfilment always +transcends prophecy. Even if the common beliefs of the apostolic +age have not modified the evangelist’s reports of Jesus’ teaching, +it must be remembered that He used the common prophetic +phraseology, the literal fulfilment of which is not to be looked +for. Some parables (the leaven, the mustard seed) suggest a +gradual progressive realization of His kingdom. The Fourth +Gospel interprets both judgment and resurrection spiritually. +Accordingly the general resurrection and the last judgment may +be regarded as the temporal and local forms of thought to +express the universal permanent truths that life survives death in +the completeness of its necessary organs and essential functions, +and that the character of that continued life is determined by +personal choice of submission or antagonism to God’s purpose of +grace in Christ, the perfect realization of which is the Christian’s +hope for himself, mankind and the world.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p><span class="sc">Bibliography</span>.—In addition to the works referred to above the +following will be found useful: S.D.F. Salmond, <i>The Christian +Doctrine of Immortality</i> (4th ed., 1901); R.H. Charles, <i>A Critical +History of the Doctrine of a Future Life in Israel, in Judaism, and in +Christianity</i> (1899); L.N. Dahle, <i>Life after Death and the Future of +the Kingdom of God</i> (Eng. tr. by J. Beveridge, 1895); J.A. Beet, +<i>The Last Things</i> (new ed., 1905); W.G.T. Shedd, <i>Doctrine of +Endless Punishment</i> (New York, 1886); F.W. Farrar, <i>The Eternal +Hope</i> (1892); E. Pétavel, <i>The Problem of Immortality</i> (Eng. tr. +by F.A. Freer, 1892); E. White, <i>Life in Christ</i> (3rd ed., 1878); +also the relevant sections in books on biblical and systematic +theology.</p> +</div> +<div class="author">(A. E. G.*)</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">ESCHEAT<a name="ar97" id="ar97"></a></span> (O. Fr. <i>eschete</i>, from <i>escheoir</i>, to fall to one’s share; +Lat. <i>excidere</i>, to fall out), in English law, the reversion of lands +to the next lord on the failure of heirs of the tenant. “When +the tenant of an estate in fee simple dies without having alienated +his estate in his lifetime or by his will, and without leaving any +heirs either lineal or collateral, the lands in which he held his +estate escheat, as it is called, to the lord of whom he held them” +(Williams on the <i>Law of Real Property</i>). This rule is explained +by the conception of a freehold estate as an interest in lands held +by the freeholder from some lord, the king being lord paramount. +(See <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Estate</a></span>.) The granter retains an interest in the land similar +to that of the donor of an estate for life, to whom the land reverts +after the life estate is ended. As there are now few freehold +estates traceable to any mesne or intermediate lord, escheats, +when they do occur, fall to the king as lord paramount. Besides +escheat for defect of heirs, there was formerly also escheat +<i>propter delictum tenentis</i>, or by the corruption of the blood of the +tenant through attainder consequent on conviction and sentence +for treason or felony. The blood of the tenant becoming corrupt +by attainder was decreed no longer inheritable, and the effect +was the same as if the tenant had died without heirs. The land, +therefore, escheated to the next heir, subject to the superior +right of the crown to the forfeiture of the lands,—in the case of +treason for ever, in the case of felony for a year and a day. +All this was abolished by the Felony Act 1870, which provided for +the appointment of an administrator to the property of the convict. +Escheat is also an incident of copyhold tenure. Trust +estates were not subject to escheat until the Intestates’ Estates +Act 1884, but now by that act the law of escheat applies in the +same manner as if the estate or interest were a legal estate in +corporeal hereditaments.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">ESCHENBURG, JOHANN JOACHIM<a name="ar98" id="ar98"></a></span> (1743-1820), German +critic and literary historian, was born at Hamburg on the 7th +of December 1743. After receiving his early education in his +native town, he studied at Leipzig and Göttingen. In 1767 he +was appointed tutor, and subsequently professor, at the Collegium +Carolinum in Brunswick. The title of “Hofrat” was conferred +on him in 1786, and in 1814 he was made one of the directors of +the Carolinum. He is best known by his efforts to familiarize +his countrymen with English literature. He published a series +of German translations of the principal English writers on +aesthetics, such as J. Brown, D. Webb, Charles Burney, Joseph +Priestley and R. Hurd; and Germany owes also to him the first +complete translation (in prose) of Shakespeare’s plays (<i>William +Shakespear’s Schauspiele</i>, 13 vols., Zürich, 1775-1782). This +is virtually a revised edition of the incomplete translation +published by Wieland between 1762 and 1766. Eschenburg died +at Brunswick on the 29th of February 1820.</p> + +<p>Besides editing, with memoirs, the works of Hagedorn, +Zachariä and other German poets, he was the author of a <i>Handbuch +der klassischen Literatur</i> (1783); <i>Entwurf einer Theorie und +Literatur der schönen Wissenschaften</i> (1783); <i>Beispielsammlung +zur Theorie und Literatur der schönen Wissenschaften</i> (8 vols., +1788-1795); <i>Lehrbuch der Wissenschaftskunde</i> (1792); and +<i>Denkmäler altdeutscher Dichtkunst</i> (1799). Most of these works +have passed through several editions. Eschenburg was also a +poet of some pretensions, and some of his religious hymns, <i>e.g. +Ich will dich noch im Tod erheben</i> and <i>Dir trau’ ich, Gott, und +wanke nicht</i>, are contained in many hymnals to this day.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">ESCHENMAYER, ADAM KARL AUGUST VON<a name="ar99" id="ar99"></a></span> (1768-1852), +German philosopher and physicist, was born at Neuenburg in +Württemberg in July 1768. After receiving his early education +at the Caroline academy of Stuttgart, he entered the university +of Tübingen, where he received the degree of doctor of medicine. +He practised for some time as a physician at Sulz, and then at +Kirchheim, and in 1811 he was chosen extraordinary professor +of philosophy and medicine at Tübingen. In 1818 he became +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page765" id="page765"></a>765</span> +ordinary professor of practical philosophy, but in 1836 he resigned +and took up his residence at Kirchheim, where he devoted his +whole attention to philosophical studies. Eschenmayer’s views +are largely identical with those of Schelling, but he differed from +him in regard to the knowledge of the absolute. He believed that +in order to complete the arc of truth philosophy must be supplemented +by what he called “non-philosophy,” a kind of mystical +illumination by which was obtained a belief in God that could not +be reached by mere intellectual effort (see Höffding, <i>Hist. of +Mod. Phil.</i>, Eng. trans. vol. 2, p. 170). He carried this tendency +to mysticism into his physical researches, and was led by it to +take a deep interest in the phenomena of animal magnetism. +He ultimately became a devout believer in demoniacal and +spiritual possession; and his later writings are all strongly +impregnated with the lower supernaturalism.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>His principal works are—<i>Die Philosophie in ihrem Übergange +zur Nichtphilosophie</i> (1803); <i>Versuch die scheinbare Magie des thierischen +Magnetismus aus physiol. und psychischen Gesetzen zu erklären</i> +(1816); <i>System der Moralphilosophie</i> (1818); <i>Psychologie in drei +Theilen, als empirische, reine, angewandte</i> (1817, 2nd ed. 1822); +<i>Religionsphilosophie</i> (3 vols., 1818-1824); <i>Die Hegel’sche Religionsphilosophie +verglichen mit dem christl. Princip</i> (1834); <i>Der Ischariotismus +unserer Tage</i> (1835) (directed against Strauss’s <i>Life of Jesus</i>); +<i>Konflikt zwischen Himmel und Hölle, an dem Dämon eines besessenen +Mädchens beobachtet</i> (1837); <i>Grundriss der Naturphilosophie</i> (1832); +<i>Grundzüge der christl. Philosophie</i> (1840); and <i>Betrachtungen über +den physischen Weltbau</i> (1852).</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">ESCHER VON DER LINTH, ARNOLD<a name="ar100" id="ar100"></a></span> (1807-1872), Swiss +geologist, the son of Hans Conrad Escher (1767-1823), was born +at Zürich on the 8th of June 1807. In 1856 he became professor +of geology at the École Polytechnique at Zürich. His researches +led him to be regarded as one of the founders of Swiss geology. +With B. Studer he produced (1852-1853) the first elaborate +geological map of Switzerland. He was the author also of +<i>Geologische Bemerkungen über das nördliche Vorarlberg und einige +angrenzenden Gegenden</i>, published at Zürich in 1853. He died +on the 12th of July 1872.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">ESCHSCHOLTZ, JOHANN FRIEDRICH<a name="ar101" id="ar101"></a></span> (1793-1831), Russian +traveller and naturalist, was born in November 1793, at Dorpat, +where he died in May 1831. He was naturalist and physician +to Otto von Kotzebue’s exploring expedition during 1815-1818. +On his return he was appointed extraordinary professor of +anatomy (1819) and director of the zoological museum of the +university at Dorpat (1822), and in 1823-1826 he accompanied +Kotzebue on his second voyage of discovery. He became +ordinary professor of anatomy at Dorpat in 1828. Among his +publications were the <i>System der Akalephen</i> (1829), and the +<i>Zoologischer Atlas</i> (1829-1833). The botanical genus <i>Eschscholtzia</i> +was named by Adelbert von Chamisso in his honour.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">ESCHWEGE,<a name="ar102" id="ar102"></a></span> a town of Germany, in the Prussian province of +Hesse-Nassau, on the Werra, and the railway Treysa-Leinefelde, +28 m. S.E. of Cassel. Pop. (1905) 11,113. It consists of the old +town on the left, the new town on the right, bank of the Werra, +and Brückenhausen on a small island connected with the old +and new town by bridges. It is a thriving manufacturing town, +its chief industries being leather-making, yarn-spinning, cotton- and +linen-weaving, the manufactures of cigars, brushes, liquors +and oil, and glue- and soap-boiling. It has two ancient buildings, +the Nikolai-turm, built in 1455, and the old castle. After being +part of Thuringia, Eschwege passed to Hesse in 1263. It was +recovered by the landgrave of Thuringia in 1388, but soon +reverted to Hesse, and it became the residence of one of the +branches of the Hessian royal house, a branch which died out in +1655.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">ESCHWEILER,<a name="ar103" id="ar103"></a></span> a town of Germany, in the Prussian Rhine +province, on the Inde, and the railways Cologne-Herbesthal +and Munich-Gladbach-Stolberg, about 8 m. E.N.E. from Aix-la-Chapelle. +Pop. (1905) 20,643. The town has an Evangelical +and four Roman Catholic churches, a gymnasium and an orphanage. +The manufacture of iron and steel goods is carried on; +other industries include the manufacture of zinc wares, tanning, +distilling and brewing. In the neighbourhood there are valuable +coal mines.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See Koch, <i>Geschichte der Stadt Eschweiler</i> (Frankfort, 1890).</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">ESCOBAR Y MENDOZA, ANTONIO<a name="ar104" id="ar104"></a></span> (1589-1669), Spanish +churchman of illustrious descent, was born at Valladolid in +1589. He was educated by the Jesuits, and at the age of fifteen +took the habit of that order. He soon became a famous preacher, +and his facility was so great that for fifty years he preached +daily, and sometimes twice a day. In addition he was a voluminous +writer, and his works fill eighty-three volumes. His first +literary efforts were Latin verses in praise of Ignatius Loyola +(1613) and the Virgin Mary (1618); but he is best known as a +writer on casuistry. His principal works belong to the fields +of exegesis and moral theology. Of the latter the best known +are <i>Summula casuum conscientiae</i> (1627); <i>Liber theologiae +moralis</i> (1644), and <i>Universae theologiae moralis problemata</i> +(1652-1666). The first mentioned of these was severely criticised +by Pascal in the fifth and sixth of his <i>Provincial Letters</i>, as +tending to inculcate a loose system of morality. It contains +the famous maxim that purity of intention may be a justification +of actions which are contrary to the moral code and to human +laws; and its general tendency is to find excuses for the majority +of human frailties. His doctrines were disapproved of by many +Catholics, and were mildly condemned by Rome. They were +also ridiculed in witty verses by Molière, Boileau and La Fontaine, +and gradually the name Escobar came to be used in France as a +synonym for a person who is adroit in making the rules of +morality harmonize with his own interests. Escobar himself +is said to have been simple in his habits, a strict observer of the +rules of his order, and unweariedly zealous in his efforts to reform +the lives of those with whom he had to deal. It has been said of +him that “he purchased heaven dearly for himself, but gave +it away cheap to others.” He died on the 4th of July 1669.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">ESCOIQUIZ, JUAN<a name="ar105" id="ar105"></a></span> (1762-1820), Spanish ecclesiastic, politician +and writer, was born in Navarre in 1762. His father was a +general officer and he began life as a page in the court of King +Charles III. He entered the church and was provided for by +a prebend at Saragossa. Godoy in his memoirs asserts that +Escoiquiz sought to gain his favour by flattery. There is every +reason to believe that this is an accurate statement of the case. +The mere fact that he was selected to be the tutor of the heir-apparent, +Ferdinand, afterwards King Ferdinand VII., is of +itself a proof that he exerted himself to gain the goodwill of the +reigning favourite. In 1797 he published a translation of Young’s +<i>Night Thoughts</i>, which does not of itself show that he was well +acquainted with English, for the version may have been made +with the help of the French. In 1798 he published a long and +worthless so-called epic on the conquest of Mexico. Escoiquiz +was in fact a busy and pushing member of the literary clique +which looked up to Godoy as its patron. But his position as +tutor to the heir to the throne excited his ambition. He began +to hope that he might play the part of those court ecclesiastics +who had often had an active share in the government of Spain. +As Ferdinand grew up, and after his marriage with a Neapolitan +princess, he became the centre of a court opposition to Godoy +and to his policy of alliance with France. Escoiquiz was the +brains, as far as there were any brains, of the intrigue. His +activity was so notorious that he was exiled from court, but was +consoled by a canonry at Toledo. This half measure was as +ineffective as was to have been expected. Escoiquiz continued +to be in constant communication with the prince. Toledo is +close to Madrid, and the correspondence was easily maintained. +He had a large share in the conspiracy of the Escorial which +was detected on the 28th of October 1807. He was imprisoned +and sent for trial with other conspirators. But as they had +appealed to Napoleon, who would not suffer his name to be +mentioned, the government had to allow the matter to be hushed +up, and the prisoners were acquitted. After the outbreak at +Aranjuez on the 17th of March 1808, in which he had a share, +he became one of the most trusted advisers of Ferdinand. The +new king’s decision to go to meet Napoleon at Bayonne was +largely inspired by him. In 1814 Escoiquiz published at Madrid +his <i>Idea Sencilla de las razones que motivaron el viage del Rey +Fernando VII. à Bayona</i> (Honest representation of the causes +which inspired the journey of King Ferdinand VII. to Bayonne). +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page766" id="page766"></a>766</span> +It is a valuable historical document, and contains a singularly +vivid account of an interview with Napoleon. Escoiquiz was +far too firmly convinced of his ingenuity and merits to conceal +the delusions and follies of himself and his associates. He +displays his own vanity, frivolity and futile cleverness with +much unconscious humour, but, it is only fair to allow, with +some literary dexterity. When the Spanish royal family was +imprisoned by Napoleon, Escoiquiz remained with Ferdinand +at Valençay. In 1813 he published at Bourges a translation of +Milton’s <i>Paradise Lost</i>. When Ferdinand was released in 1814 +he came back to Madrid in the hope that his ambition would +now be satisfied, but the king was tired of him, and was moreover +resolved never to be subjected by any favourite. After a very +brief period of office in 1815 he was sent as a prisoner to Murcia. +Though he was afterwards recalled, he was again exiled to Ronda, +where he died on the 27th of November 1820.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">ESCOMBE, HARRY<a name="ar106" id="ar106"></a></span> (1838-1899), South African statesman, a +member of a Somersetshire family, was born at Notting Hill, +London, on the 25th of July 1838, and was educated at St Paul’s +school. After four years in a stockbroker’s office, he emigrated, +in 1859, to the Cape. The following year he moved to Natal, +and, after trying other occupations, qualified as an attorney. +He became recognized as the ablest pleader in the colony, and, +in 1872, was elected for Durban as a member of the legislative +council, and subsequently was also placed on the executive +council. In 1880 he secured the appointment of a harbour board +for Natal, and was himself made chairman. The transformation +of the port of Durban into a harbour available for ocean liners +was due entirely to his energy. In 1888-1889 he defended +Dinizulu and other Zulu chiefs against a charge of high treason. +For several years he opposed the grant of responsible government +to Natal, but by 1890 had become convinced of its desirability, +and on its conferment in 1893 he joined the first ministry +formed, serving under Sir John Robinson as attorney-general. +In February 1897, on Sir John’s retirement, Escombe became +premier, remaining attorney-general and also holding the office +of minister of education and minister of defence. In the summer +of that year he was in London with the other colonial premiers +at the celebration of the Diamond Jubilee of Queen Victoria, +and was made a member of the privy council. Cambridge University +conferred upon him the honorary degree of LL.D. +The election that followed his return to Natal proved unfavourable +to his policy, and he resigned office (October 1897). +Throughout his life he took an active interest in national defence. +He had served in the Zulu War of 1879, was commander of the +Natal Naval Volunteers and received the volunteer long service +decoration. In October 1899 he went to the northern confines +of the colony to take part in preparing measures of defence +against the invasion by the Boers. He died on the 27th of +December 1899.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>The <i>Speeches of the late Right Hon. Harry Escombe</i> (Maritzburg, +1903), edited by J.T. Henderson, contains brief biographical notes +by Sir John Robinson and the editor.</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">ESCORIAL,<a name="ar107" id="ar107"></a></span> or <span class="sc">Escurial</span>, in Spain, one of the most remarkable +buildings in Europe, comprising at once a convent, a church, +a palace and a mausoleum. The Escorial is situated 3432 ft. +above the sea, on the south-western slopes of the Sierra de +Guadarrama, and thus within the borders of the province of +Madrid and the kingdom of New Castile. By the Madrid-Ávila +railway it is 31 m. N.W. of Madrid. The surrounding country is a +sterile and gloomy wilderness exposed to the cold and blighting +blasts of the Sierra.</p> + +<p>According to the usual tradition, which there seems no sufficient +reason to reject, the Escorial owes its existence to a vow +made by Philip II. of Spain (1556-1598), shortly after the battle +of St Quentin, in which his forces succeeded in routing the army +of France. The day of the victory, the 10th of August 1557, +was sacred to St Laurence; and accordingly the building was +dedicated to that saint, and received the title of <i>El real monasterio +de San Lorenzo del Escorial</i>. The last distinctive epithet was +derived from the little hamlet in the vicinity which furnished +shelter, not only to the workmen, but to the monks of St Jerome +who were afterwards to be in possession of the monastery; and +the hamlet itself is generally but perhaps erroneously supposed +to be indebted for its name to the <i>scoriae</i> or dross of certain +old iron mines. The preparation of the plans and the superintendence +of the work were entrusted by the king to Juan +Bautista de Toledo, a Spanish architect who had received most +of his professional education in Italy. The first stone was laid +in April 1563; and under the king’s personal inspection the work +rapidly advanced. Abundant supplies of <i>berroqueña</i>, a granite-like +stone, were obtained in the neighbourhood, and for rarer +materials the resources of both the Old and the New World +were put under contribution. The death of Toledo in 1567 +threatened a fatal blow at the satisfactory completion of the +enterprise, but a worthy successor was found in Juan Herrera, +Toledo’s favourite pupil, who adhered in the main to his master’s +designs. On the 13th of September 1584 the last stone of the +masonry was laid, and the works were brought to a termination +in 1593. Each successive occupant of the Spanish throne has +done something, however slight, to the restoration or adornment +of Philip’s convent-palace, and Ferdinand VII. (1808-1833) did +so much in this way that he has been called a second founder. +In all its principal features, however, the Escorial remains what +it was made by the genius of Toledo and Herrera working out +the grand, if abnormal, desires of their master.</p> + +<p>The ground plan of the building is estimated to occupy an area +of 396,782 sq. ft., and the total area of all the storeys would form +a causeway 1 metre in breadth and 95 m. in length. There are +seven towers, fifteen gateways and, according to Los Santos, +no fewer than 12,000 windows and doors. The general arrangement +is shown by the accompanying plan. Entering by the main +entrance the visitor finds himself in an atrium, called the Court +of the Kings (<i>Patio de los reyes</i>), from the 16th-century statues +of the kings of Judah, by Juan Bautista Monegro, which adorn +the façade of the church. The sides of the atrium are unfortunately +occupied by plain ungainly buildings five storeys in height, +awkwardly accommodating themselves to the upward slope of +the ground. Of the grandeur of the church itself, however, +there can be no question: it is the finest portion of the whole +Escorial, and, according to Fergusson, deserves to rank as one +of the great Renaissance churches of Europe. It is about 340 ft. +from east to west by 200 from north to south, and thus occupies +an area of about 70,000 sq. ft. The dome is 60 ft. in diameter, +and its height at the centre is about 320 ft. In glaring contrast +to the bold and simple forms of the architecture, which belongs +to the Doric style, were the bronze and marbles and pictures +of the high altar, the masterpiece of the Milanese Giacomo +Trezzo, almost ruined by the French in 1808. Directly under the +altar is situated the pantheon or royal mausoleum, a richly +decorated octagonal chamber with upwards of twenty niches, +occupied by black marble <i>urnas</i> or sarcophagi, kept sacred for +the dust of kings or mothers of kings. There are the remains of +Charles V. (1516-1556), of Philip II., and of all their successors +on the Spanish throne down to Ferdinand VII., with the exception +of Philip V. (1700-1746) and Ferdinand VI. (1746-1759). +Several of the sarcophagi are still empty. For the other members +of the royal family there is a separate vault, known as the <i>Panteon +de los Infantes</i>, or more familiarly by the dreadfully suggestive +name of <i>El Pudridero</i>. The most interesting room in the palace +is Philip II.’s cell, from which through an opening in the wall he +could see the celebration of mass while too ill to leave his bed.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page767" id="page767"></a>767</span></p> + +<table class="pic" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figcenter" colspan="3"><img style="width:906px; height:838px" src="images/img767.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption" colspan="3">Views and Plan of the Escorial.<a name="fa1d" id="fa1d" href="#ft1d"><span class="sp">1</span></a></td></tr> + +<tr><td class="f90" style="width: 50%; vertical-align: top;"> +<p class="pt1">     <span class="sc">Church</span></p> + +<p>1. Principal entrance and portico.</p> +<p>2. Court of the kings (<i>Patio de los reyes</i>).</p> +<p>3. Vestibule of the church.</p> +<p>4. Choir of the seminarists.</p> +<p>5. Centre of the church and projection of the dome.</p> +<p>6. Greater chapel.</p> +<p>7. High altar.</p> +<p>8. Chapel of St John.</p> +<p>9. Chapel of St Michael.</p> +<p>10. Chapel of St Maurice.</p> +<p>11. Chapel of the Rosary.</p> +<p>12. Tomb of Louisa Carlota.</p> +<p>13. Chapel of the <i>Patrocinio</i>.</p> +<p>14. Chapel of the <i>Cristo de la buena muerte</i>.</p></td> + +<td class="f90" style="width: 50%; vertical-align: top;"> +<p>15. Chapel of the Eleven Thousand Virgins.</p> +<p>16. Former Chapel of the <i>Patrocinio</i>.</p> +<p>17. Sacristy.</p> + +<p class="pt1">     <span class="sc">Palace</span></p> + +<p>18. Principal court of the palace.</p> +<p>19. Ladies’ tower.</p> +<p>20. Court of the masks.</p> +<p>21. Apartments of the royal children.</p> +<p>22. Royal oratory.</p> +<p>23. Oratory where Philip II. died.</p> + +<p class="pt1">     <span class="sc">Seminary</span></p> + +<p>24. Entrance to seminary.</p> +<p>25. Classrooms.</p> +<p>26. Old philosophical hall.</p></td> + +<td class="f90" style="width: 50%; vertical-align: top;"> +<p>27. Old theological hall.</p> +<p>28. Chamber of secrets.</p> +<p>29. Old refectory.</p> +<p>30. Entrance to the college.</p> +<p>31. College yard.</p> + +<p class="pt1">     <span class="sc">Convent</span></p> + +<p>32. Clock tower.</p> +<p>33. Principal cloister.</p> +<p>34. Court of the evangelists.</p> +<p>35. Prior’s cell.</p> +<p>36. Archives.</p> +<p>37. Old church.</p> +<p>38. Visitors’ hall.</p> +<p>39. Manuscript library.</p> +<p>40. Convent refectory.</p></td></tr></table> + +<p class="pt2">The library, situated above the principal portico, was at one +time one of the richest in Europe, comprising the king’s own +collection, the extensive bequest of Diego de Mendoza, Philip’s +ambassador to Rome, the spoils of the emperor of Morocco, +Muley Zidan (1603-1628) and various contributions from convents, +churches and cities. It suffered greatly in the fire of 1671, +and has since been impoverished by plunder and neglect. Among +its curiosities still extant are two New Testament Codices of the +10th century and two of the 11th; various works by Alphonso +the Wise (1252-1284), a Virgil of the 14th century, a Koran of +the 15th, &c. Of the Arabic manuscripts which it contained in +the 17th century a catalogue was given in J.H. Hottinger’s +<i>Promptuarium sive bibliotheca orientalis</i>, published at Heidelberg +in 1658, and another in the 18th, in M. Casiri’s <i>Bibliotheca +Arabico-Hispanica</i> (2 vols., Madrid, 1760-1770). Of the artistic +treasures with which the Escorial was gradually enriched, it is +sufficient to mention the frescoes of Peregrin or Pellagrino Tibaldi, +Luis de Carbajal, Bartolommeo Carducci or Carducho, and Luca +Giordano, and the pictures of Titian, Tintoretto and Velasquez. +These paintings all date from the 15th or the 17th century. +Many of those that are movable have been transferred to Madrid, +and many others have perished by fire or sack. The conflagration +of 1671, already mentioned, raged for fifteen days, and only the +church, a part of the palace, and two towers escaped uninjured. +In 1808 the whole building was exposed to the ravages of the +French soldiers under General La Houssaye. On the night of +the 1st of October 1872, the college and seminary, a part of the +palace and the upper library were devastated by fire; but the +damage was subsequently repaired. In 1885 the conventual +buildings were occupied by Augustinian monks.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>The reader will find a remarkable description of the emotional +influence of the Escorial in E. Quinet’s <i>Vacances en Espagne</i> (Paris, +1846), and for historical and architectural details he may consult +the following works:—Fray Juan de San Geronimo, <i>Memorias +sobre la fundacion del Escorial y su fabrica</i>, in the <i>Coleccion de +documentos ineditos para la historia de España</i>, vol. vii.; Y. de +Herrera, <i>Sumario y breve declaracion de los diseños y estampas de +la fab. de S. Lorencio el Real del Escurial</i> (Madrid, 1589); José de +Siguenza, <i>Historia de la orden de San Geronyno</i>, &c. (Madrid, 1590). +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page768" id="page768"></a>768</span> +L. de Cabrera de Cordova, <i>Felipe Segundo</i> (Madrid, 1619); James +Wadsworth, <i>Further Observations of the English Spanish Pilgrime</i> +(London, 1629, 1630); Ilario Mazzorali de Cremona, <i>Le Reali +Grandezze del Escuriale</i> (Bologna, 1648); De los Santos, <i>Descripcion +del real monasterio</i>, &c. (Madrid, 1657); Andres Ximenes, <i>Descripcion</i>, +&c. (Madrid, 1764); Y. Quevedo, <i>Historia del Real Monasterio</i>, &c. +(Madrid, 1849); A. Rotondo, <i>Hist. artistica, ... del monasterio de +San Lorenzo</i> (Madrid, 1856-1861); W.H. Prescott, <i>Life of Philip II.</i> +(London, 1887); J. Fergusson, <i>History of the Modern Styles of +Architecture</i> (London, 1891-1893); Sir W. Stirling-Maxwell, <i>Annals +of the Artists of Spain</i> (London, 1891).</p> +</div> + +<hr class="foot" /> <div class="note"> + +<p><a name="ft1d" id="ft1d" href="#fa1d"><span class="fn">1</span></a> Reduced from a large plan of the Escorial in the British Museum, +<i>Monasterio del Escorial</i>, published at Madrid in 1876.</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">ESCOVEDO, JUAN DE<a name="ar108" id="ar108"></a></span> (<i>d.</i> 1578), Spanish politician, secretary +of Don John of Austria, and chiefly notable as having been the +victim of one of the mysteries of the 16th century, began life +in the household of Ruy Gomez de Silva, prince of Eboli, the +most trusted minister of the early years of the reign of Philip II. +By the will of the prince he was endowed for life with the post of +<i>Regidor</i>, or legal representative of the king in the municipality +of Madrid. He was also associated with Antonio Perez as one of +the secretaries who acted as the agents of the king in all dealings +with the various governing boards which formed the Spanish +administration. When Don John of Austria, after the battle of +Lepanto in 1571, began to launch on a policy of self-seeking +adventure, Escovedo was appointed as his secretary with the +intention that he should act as a check on these follies. Unhappily +for himself and for Don John he went heart and soul into +all the prince’s schemes. He began to disobey orders from Madrid +and became entangled in intrigues to manage or even to coerce +the king. In July 1577, and contrary to the king’s orders, he +came to Spain from Flanders, where Don John was then governor. +It is said that he discovered the love intrigue between Antonio +Perez and the widowed princess of Eboli, Ana Mendoza de la +Cerda. This is, however, mere gossip and supposition. There can +be no doubt that he was a busy intriguer, or that the king, acting +on the then very generally accepted doctrine that the sovereign +has a right to act for the public interest without regard to forms +of law, gave orders to Antonio Perez that he was to be put out +of the way. After two clumsy attempts had been made to poison +him at Perez’s table, he was killed by bravos on the night of +Easter Monday, the 31st of March 1578. According to an old +tradition the murder took place outside the church of St Maria +in Madrid, which was pulled down in 1868.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See Gaspar Muro, <i>La Princesse d’Eboli</i> (Paris, 1878); and W.H. +Prescott, <i>Reign of Philip II.</i> (1855-59).</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">ESCUINTLA,<a name="ar109" id="ar109"></a></span> the capital of the department of Escuintla, +Guatemala; on the southern slope of the Sierra Madre, 45 m. +S.W. of Guatemala city. Pop. (1905) about 12,000. Escuintla +is locally celebrated for its hot mineral springs. It is the commercial +centre of a fertile district, which produces coffee, cane-sugar +and cocoa; it has also a brisk transit trade in most of the +products of Guatemala, owing to its position on the interoceanic +railway between Puerto Barrios on the Atlantic and San José +(30 m. S.) on the Pacific. A branch railway which goes westward +to San Augustin meets this line at Escuintla.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">ESCUTCHEON<a name="ar110" id="ar110"></a></span> (O. Fr. <i>escucheon</i>, <i>escusson</i>, modern <i>écusson</i>, +through a Late Lat. form from Lat. <i>scutum</i>, shield), an heraldic +term for a shield with armorial bearings displayed (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Heraldry</a></span>). +The word is also applied to the shields used on tombs, in the +spandrils of doors or in string-courses, and to the ornamented +plates from the centre of which door-rings, knockers, &c., are +suspended, or which protect the wood of the key-hole from the +wear of the key. In medieval times these were often worked +in a very beautiful manner.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">ESHER, WILLIAM BALIOL BRETT,<a name="ar111" id="ar111"></a></span> <span class="sc">1st Viscount</span> (1817-1899), +English lawyer and master of the rolls, was a son of the +Rev. Joseph G. Brett, of Chelsea, and was born on the 13th of +August 1817. He was educated at Westminster and at Caius +College, Cambridge. Called to the bar in 1840, he went the +northern circuit, and became a Q.C. in 1861. On the death of +Richard Cobden he unsuccessfully contested Rochdale as a +Conservative, but in 1866 was returned for Helston in unique +circumstances. He and his opponent polled exactly the same +number of votes, whereupon the mayor, as returning officer, +gave his casting vote for the Liberal candidate. As this vote +was given after four o’clock, however, an appeal was lodged, +and the House of Commons allowed both members to take their +seats. Brett rapidly made his mark in the House, and in 1868 +he was appointed solicitor-general. On behalf of the crown he +prosecuted the Fenians charged with having caused the Clerkenwell +explosion. In parliament he took a leading part in the +promotion of bills connected with the administration of law and +justice. He was (August 1868) appointed a justice in the court +of common pleas. Some of his sentences in this capacity excited +much criticism, notably so in the case of the gas stokers’ strike, +when he sentenced the defendants to imprisonment for twelve +months, with hard labour, which was afterwards reduced by +the home secretary to four months. On the reconstitution of +the court of appeal in 1876, Brett was elevated to the rank of a +lord justice. After holding this position for seven years, he +succeeded Sir George Jessel as master of the rolls in 1883. In +1885 he was raised to the House of Lords as Baron Esher. He +opposed the bill proposing that an accused person or his wife +might give evidence in their own case, and supported the bill +which empowered lords of appeal to sit and vote after their +retirement. The Solicitors Act of 1888, which increased the +powers of the Incorporated Law Society, owed much to his +influence. In 1880 he delivered a remarkable speech in the +House of Lords, deprecating the delay and expense of trials, +which he regarded as having been increased by the Judicature +Acts. Lord Esher suffered, perhaps, as master of the rolls from +succeeding a lawyer of such eminence as Jessel. He had a +caustic tongue, but also a fund of shrewd common sense, and +one of his favourite considerations was whether a certain course +was “business” or not. He retired from the bench at the close +of 1897, and a viscounty was conferred upon him on his retirement, +a dignity never given to any judge, lord chancellors excepted, +“for mere legal conduct since the time of Lord Coke.” He +died in London on the 24th of May 1899.</p> + +<p>Lord Esher was succeeded in the title by his only surviving +son, Reginald Baliol Brett (<i>b.</i> 1852), who was secretary to the +office of works from 1895 to 1902, but subsequently came into +far greater public prominence in 1904 as Chairman of the war +office reconstitution committee after the South African War.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">ESHER,<a name="ar112" id="ar112"></a></span> a township in the Epsom parliamentary division +of Surrey, England, 14½ m. S.W. of London by the London +& South Western railway (Esher and Claremont station). It +is pleasantly situated on rising ground above the river Mole, +3 m. from its junction with the Thames. To the north-west +lie the grounds of Esher Place. Of the mansion-house founded +by William of Waynflete, bishop of Winchester (<i>c.</i> 1450), in which +Cardinal Wolsey resided for three or four weeks after his sudden +fall from power in 1529, only the gatehouse remains. It is known +as Wolsey’s Tower, but is apparently part of Waynflete’s foundation. +A new mansion was erected in 1803. To the south is +Claremont Palace, built by the great Lord Clive (1769) on the +site of a mansion of Sir John Vanbrugh. In 1816 it was the +residence of Princess Charlotte, wife of Prince (afterwards King) +Leopold. She died here in 1817, and on the death of her husband +in 1865 the property passed to the crown. Louis Philippe, ex-king +of the French, resided here from 1848 until his death in +1850. In 1882 Claremont became the private property of Queen +Victoria. Christ Church, Esher, contains fine memorials of +King Leopold and others, and one of its three bells is said to +have been brought from San Domingo by Sir Francis Drake. +To the north near the railway station is Sandown Park, where +important race meetings are held. Esher is included in the +urban district of Esher and The Dittons, of which Thames +Ditton is a favourite riverside resort. The whole district is +largely residential. Pop. (1901) 9489.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">ESKER<a name="ar113" id="ar113"></a></span> (O. Irish <i>eiscir</i>), a local name for long mounds of +glacial gravel frequently met with in Ireland. Eskers (the +Swedish <i>åsar</i>) are among the occasionally puzzling relics of the +British glacial period. They wind from side to side across +glaciated country and have evidently been formed by channels +upon or under the ice. “Where streams of considerable size form +tunnels under or in the ice these may become more or less filled +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page769" id="page769"></a>769</span> +with wash, and when the ice melts the aggraded channels appear +as long ridges of gravel and sand known as <i>eskers</i>. It has been +thought that similar ridges are sometimes formed in valleys +cut in the ice from top to bottom, and even that they rise from +gravel and sand lodged in super-glacial channels. The latter +at least is probably rare, as the surface streams have usually +high gradients, swift currents and smooth bottoms, and hence +give little opportunity for lodgment. In the case of ice-sheets, +too, in which eskers are chiefly developed, there is usually no +surface material except at the immediate edge, where the ice +is thin and its layers upturned” (T.C. Chamberlin and R.D. +Salisbury, <i>Geology, Processes and their Results</i>). Eskers are to be +distinguished from kames (<i>q.v.</i>).</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">ESKILSTUNA,<a name="ar114" id="ar114"></a></span> a town of Sweden in the district (<i>län</i>) of +Södermanland, on the Hjelmar river, which unites lakes Hjelmar +and Mälar, 65 m. W. of Stockholm by rail. Pop. (1900) 13,663. +The place is mentioned in the 13th century, and is said to derive +its name from Eskil, an English missionary who suffered martyrdom +on the spot. It rose into importance in the reign of Charles +X., who bestowed on it considerable privileges, and gave the first +impulse to its manufacturing activity. It is the chief seat in +Sweden of the iron and steel industries, its cutlery being especially +noted, while damascened work is a specialty. There is +a technical school for the metal industries. There are, in the +town or its neighbourhood, great engineering, gun-making, and +rolling and polishing works and breweries. The largest mechanical +works are those of Munktell and Tunafors. The Karl Gustaf +Stads rifle factory was established in 1814.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">ESKIMO,<a name="ar115" id="ar115"></a></span> <span class="sc">Eskimos</span> or <span class="sc">Esquimaux</span> (a corruption of the Abnaki +Indian <i>Eskimantsic</i> or the Ojibway <i>Ashkimeq</i>, both terms meaning +“those who eat raw flesh”: they call themselves “Innuit,” +“the people”), a North American Indian people, inhabiting +the arctic coast of America from Greenland to Alaska, and a small +portion of the Asiatic shore of Bering Strait. On the American +shores they are found, in broken tribes, from East Greenland +to the western shores of Alaska—never far inland, or south of +the region where the winter ice allows seals to congregate. +Even on hunting expeditions they never travel more than 30 m. +from the coast. Save a slight admixture of European settlers, +they are the only inhabitants of both sides of Davis Strait and +Baffin Bay. They extend as far south as about 50° N. lat. on +the eastern side of America, and in the west to 60° on the eastern +shore of Bering Strait, while 55° to 60° are their southern limits +on the shore of Hudson Bay. Throughout all this range there +are no other tribes save where the Kennayan and Ugalenze +Indians (of western America) come down to the shore to fish. +The Aleutians are closely allied to the Eskimo in habits and +language. H.J. Rink divides the Eskimo into the following +groups, the most eastern of which would have to travel nearly +5000 m. to reach the most western: (1) The East Greenland +Eskimo, few in number, every year advancing farther south, and +coming into contact with the next section. (2) The West +Greenlanders, civilized, living under the Danish crown, and +extending from Cape Farewell to 74° N. lat. (3) The Northern-most +Greenlanders—the Arctic Highlanders of Sir John Ross—confined +to Smith, Whale, Murchison and Wolstenholme Sounds, +north of the Melville Bay glaciers. These—the most isolated +and uncivilized of all the Eskimo—had no boats or bows and +arrows until about 1868. (4) The Labrador Eskimo, mostly +civilized. (5) The Eskimo of the middle regions, occupying the +coasts from Hudson Bay to Barter Island, beyond Mackenzie +river, inhabiting a stretch of country 2000 m. in length and 800 +in breadth. (6) The Western Eskimo, from Barter Island to the +western limits in America. (7) The Asiatic Eskimo.</p> + +<p>The Eskimo are not a tall race, their height varying from +5 ft. 4 in. to 5 ft. 10 in., but men of 6 ft. are met. Both men and +women are muscular and active, the former often inclining to fat. +The faces of both have a pleasing, good-humoured expression, +and not infrequently are even handsome. The typical face is +broadly oval, flat, with fat cheeks; forehead not high, and +rather retreating; teeth good, though, owing to the character +of the food, worn down to the gums in old age; nose very flat; +eyes rather obliquely set, small, black and bright; head largish, +and covered with coarse black hair, which the women fasten +up into a knot on the top, and the men clip in front and allow +to hang loose and unkempt behind. Their skulls are of the +mesocephalic type, the height being greater than the breadth; +according to Davis, 75 is the index of the latter and 77 of the +former. Some of the tribes slightly compress the skulls of their +new-born children laterally (Hall), but this practice is a very +local one. The men have usually a slight moustache, but no +whiskers, and rarely any beard. The skin has generally a +“bacony” feel, and when cleaned of the smoke, grease and other +dirt—the accumulation of which varies according to the age of +the individual—is only so slightly brown that red shows in the +cheeks of the children and young women. The hands and feet +are small and well formed. The Eskimo dress entirely in skins +of the seal, reindeer, bear, dog, or even fox, the first two being, +however, the most common. The men’s and women’s dress +is much the same, a jacket suit, the trousers tucked into seal-skin +boots. The jacket has a hood, which in cold weather is used +to cover the head, leaving only the face exposed. The women’s +jacket has a large hood for carrying a child and an absurd-looking +tail behind, which is, however, usually tucked up. The women’s +trousers are usually ornamented with eider-duck neck feathers or +embroidery of native dyed leather; their boots, which are of +white leather, or (in Greenland) dyed of various colours, reach +over the knees, and in some tribes are very wide at the top, thus +giving them an awkward appearance and a clumsy waddling walk. +In winter two suits are worn, one with the hair inside, the other +with it outside. They also sometimes wear shirts of bird-skins, +and stockings of dog or young reindeer skins. Their clothes +are very neatly made, fit beautifully, and are sewn with “sinew-thread,” +with a bone needle if a steel one cannot be had. In +person the Eskimo are usually filthy, and never wash. Infants +are, however, sometimes cleaned by being licked by their mother +before being put into the bag of feathers which serves as their +bed, cradle and blankets.</p> + +<p>In summer the Eskimo live in conical skin tents, and in winter +usually in half-underground huts of stone, turf, earth and bones, +entered by a long tunnel-like passage, which can only be traversed +on all fours. Sometimes, if residing temporarily at a place, +they will erect neat round huts of blocks of snow with a sheet of +ice for a window. In the roof are deposited their spare harpoons, +&c; and from it is suspended the steatite basin-like lamp, the +flame of which, the wick being of moss, serves as fire and light. +On one side of the hut is the bench which is used as sofa, seats +and common sleeping place. The floor is usually very filthy, +a pool of blood or a dead seal being often to be seen there. +Ventilation is almost non-existent; and after the lamp has blazed +for some time, the heat is all but unbearable. In the summer +the wolfish-looking dogs lie outside on the roof of the huts, +in the winter in the tunnel-like passage just outside the family +apartment. The Western Eskimo build their houses chiefly +of planks, merely covered on the outside with green turf. The +same Eskimo have, in the more populous places, a public room +for meetings. “Council chambers” are also said to exist in +Labrador, but are only known in Greenland by tradition. Sometimes +in south Greenland and in the Western Eskimo country +the houses are made to accommodate several families, but as a +rule each family has a house to itself.</p> + +<p>The Eskimo are solely hunters and fishers, and derive most +of their food from the sea. Their country allows of no cultivation; +and beyond a few berries, roots, &c., they use no vegetable +food. The seal, the reindeer and the whale supply the bulk +of their food, as well as their clothing, light, fuel, and frequently +also, when driftwood is scarce or unavailable, the material for +various articles of domestic economy. Thus the Eskimo canoe +is made of seal-skin stretched on a wooden or whalebone frame, +with a hole in the centre for the paddler. It is driven by a bone-tipped +double-bladed paddle. A waterproof skin or entrail +dress is tightly fastened round the mouth of the hole so that, +should the canoe overturn, no water can enter. A skilful paddler +can turn a complete somersault, boat and all, through the water. +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page770" id="page770"></a>770</span> +The Eskimo women use a flat-bottomed skin luggage-boat. +The Eskimo sledge is made of two runners of wood or bone—even, +in one case on record, of frozen salmon (Maclure)—united +by cross bars tied to the runners by hide thongs, and drawn +by from 4 to 8 dogs harnessed abreast. Some of their weapons +are ingenious—in particular, the harpoon, with its detachable +point to which an inflated sealskin is fastened. When the quarry +is struck, the floating skin serves to tire it out, marks its course, +and buoys it up when dead. The bird-spears, too, have a +bladder attached, and points at the sides which strike the +creature should the spear-head fail to wound. An effective bow +is made out of whale’s rib. Altogether, with meagre material +the Eskimo show great skill in the manufacture of their weapons. +Meat is sometimes boiled, but, when it is frozen, it is often eaten +raw. Blood, and the half-digested contents of the reindeer’s +paunch, are also eaten; and sometimes, but not habitually, +blubber. As a rule this latter is too precious: it must be kept +for winter fuel and light. The Eskimo are enormous eaters; two +will easily dispose of a seal at a sitting; and in Greenland, for +instance, each individual has for his daily consumption, on an +average, 2½ ℔ of flesh with blubber, and 1 ℔ of fish, besides +mussels, berries, sea-weed, &c., to which in the Danish settlements +may be added 2 oz. of imported food. Ten pounds of +flesh, in addition to other food, is not uncommonly consumed +in a day in time of plenty. A man will lie on his back and allow +his wife to feed him with tit-bits of blubber and flesh until he is +unable to move.</p> + +<p>The Eskimo cannot be strictly called a wandering race. +They are nomadic only in so far that they have to move about +from place to place during the fishing and shooting season, +following the game in its migrations. They have, however, +no regular property. They possess only the most necessary +utensils and furniture, with a stock of provisions for less than +one year; and these possessions never exceed certain limits +fixed upon by tradition or custom. Long habit and the necessities +of their life have also compelled those having food to share +with those having none—a custom which, with others, has +conduced to the stagnant conditions of Eskimo society and to +their utter improvidence.</p> + +<p>Their intelligence is considerable, as their implements and +folk-tales abundantly prove. They display a taste for music, +cartography and drawing, display no small amount of humour, +are quick at picking up peculiar traits in strangers, and are +painfully acute in detecting the weak points or ludicrous sides +of their character. They are excellent mimics and easily learn +the dances and songs of the Europeans, as well as their games, +such as chess and draughts. They gamble a little—but in +moderation, for the Eskimo, though keen traders, have a deep-rooted +antipathy to speculation. When they offer anything for +sale—say at a Danish settlement in Greenland—they always +leave it to the buyer to settle the price. They have also a dislike +to bind themselves by contract. Hence it was long before the +Eskimo in Greenland could be induced to enter into European +service, though when they do they pass to almost the opposite +extreme—they have no will of their own. Public licentiousness +or indecency is rare among them. In their private life their +morality is, however, not high. The women are especially erring; +and in Greenland, at places where strangers visit, their extreme +laxity of morals, and their utter want of shame, are not more +remarkable than the entire absence of jealousy or self-respect +on the part of their countrymen and relatives. Theft in Greenland +is almost unknown; but the wild Eskimo make very free +with strangers’ goods—though it must be allowed that the value +they attach to the articles stolen is some excuse for the thieves. +Among themselves, on the other hand, they are very honest—a +result of their being so much under the control of public opinion. +Lying is said to be as common a trait of the Eskimo as of other +savages in their dealings with Europeans. They have naturally +not made any figure in literature. Their folk-lore is, however, +extensive, and that collected by Dr Rink shows considerable +imagination and no mean talent on the part of the story-tellers. +In Greenland and Labrador most of the natives have been taught +by the missionaries to read and write in their own language. +Altogether, the literature published in the Eskimo tongue is +considerable. Most of it has been printed in Denmark, but +some has been “set up” in a small printing-office in Greenland, +from which about 280 sheets have issued, beside many +lithographic prints. A journal (<i>Atuagagldliutit nalinginarmik +tusaruminásassumik univkat</i>, <i>i.e.</i> “something for reading, +accounts of all entertaining subjects”) has been published +since 1861.</p> + +<p>The Eskimo in Greenland and Labrador are, with few exceptions, +nominally at least, Christians. The native religion is a +vague animism, and consists of a belief in good and evil spirits, +limited each to its own sphere; in a Heaven and Hell; and a +childish faith is placed in the native wizards, who are regarded +as intermediaries between mankind and the spirit-powers. +The worship of the whale-spirit, so important a factor in their +daily economy, is prevalent.</p> + +<p>As regards language, the idiom spoken from Greenland to +north-eastern Siberia is, with a few exceptions, the same; any +difference is only that of dialect. It differs from the whole group +of European languages, not merely in the sound of the words, +but more especially, according to Rink, in the construction. +Its most remarkable feature is that a sentence of a European +language is expressed in Eskimo by a single word constructed +out of certain elements, each of which corresponds in some +degree to one of our words. One specimen commonly given +to visitors to Greenland may suffice: <i>Savigiksiniariartokasuaromaryotittogog</i>, +which is equivalent to “He says that you also +will go away quickly in like manner and buy a pretty knife.” +Here is one word serving in the place of 17. It is made up as +follows: <i>Savig</i> a knife, <i>ik</i> pretty, <i>sini</i> buy, <i>ariartok</i> go away, +<i>asuar</i> hasten, <i>omar</i> wilt, <i>y</i> in like manner, <i>otit</i> thou, <i>tog</i> also, +<i>og</i> he says.</p> + +<p>The Eskimo have no chiefs or political and military rulers. +Fabricius concisely described them in his day: “<i>Sine Deo, +domino, reguntur consuetudine</i>.” The government is mainly a +family one, though a man distinguished for skill in the chase, +and for strength and shrewdness, often has considerable power +in the village. No political or social tie is recognized between +the villages, though general good-fellowship seems to mark +their relations. They never go to war with each other; and +though revengeful and apt to injure an enemy secretly, they +rarely come to blows, and are morbidly anxious not to give +offence. Indeed, in their intercourse with each other, all Eskimo +indulge in much hyperbolical compliment. But they are not +without courage. On the Coppermine and Mackenzie rivers, +where they sometimes come into collision with their American-Indian +kinsmen, they fight fiercely. Polygamy is rare, but the +rights of divorce and re-marriage are unrestricted. The Eskimo +have intricate rules governing the ownership of property and +the rights of the hunter. As a race they are singularly undemonstrative. +When they met each other they used to rub +noses together, but this, though a common custom still among +the wild Eskimo, is entirely abandoned in Greenland except +for the petting of children. There is, in Greenland at least, +no national mode of salutation, either on meeting or parting. +When a guest enters a house, commonly not the least sign is +made either by him or his host. On leaving a place they sometimes +say “inûvdluaritse,” <i>i.e.</i> live well, and to a European +“aporniakinatit,” <i>i.e.</i> do not hurt thy head, viz. against the +upper part of the doorway. The Eskimo, excluding the few on +the Asiatic coast, are estimated at about 29,000.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p><span class="sc">Bibliography</span>.—Dr H.J. Rink, <i>Tales and Traditions of the +Eskimo</i> (1875); <i>Danish Greenland; its People and its Products</i> +(1877); <i>Eskimo Tribes</i> (1887); J. Richardson, <i>Polar Regions</i> (1861), +pp. 298-331; Sir Clements Markham, <i>Arctic Papers of the R. G. S.</i> +(1875), pp. 163-232; Simpson, <i>ibid.</i> pp. 233-275; “Hans Hendriks +the Eskimo’s Memoirs,” <i>Geographical Magazine</i> (Feb. 1878, et seq.); +Fridtjof Nansen, <i>Eskimo Life</i> (1894); R.E. Peary, <i>Northward over +the Great Ice</i>, vol. i. appendix ii.; F. Boas, “The Central Eskimo,” +<i>Sixth Annual Report of Bureau of Ethnology</i> (1884-1885); J. Murdoch, +“The Point Barrow Eskimo,” <i>Ninth Annual Report</i> (1887-1888); +E.W. Nelson, “The Eskimo about Bering Strait,” <i>Eighteenth Annual +Report</i>, part 1 (1896-1897).</p> +</div> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page771" id="page771"></a>771</span></p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">ESKI-SHEHR,<a name="ar116" id="ar116"></a></span> a town of Asia Minor, in the Kutaiah sanjak of +the Brusa (Khudavendikiar) vilayet. It is a station on the +Haidar Pasha-Angora railway, 194½ m. from the former and +164 m. from Angora, and the junction for Konia; and is situated +on the right bank of the Pursak Su (<i>Tembris</i>), a tributary of the +Sakaria, at the foot of the hills that border the broad treeless +valley. Pop. 20,000 (Moslems 15,000, Christians 5000). Eski-Shehr, <i>i.e.</i> “the old town,” lies about a mile from the ruins of +the ancient Phrygian Dorylaeum. The latter is mentioned in +connexion with the wars of Lysimachus and Antigonus (about +302 <span class="scs">B.C.</span>), and frequently figures in Byzantine history as an +imperial residence and military rendezvous. It was the scene +of the defeat of the Turks under Kilij-Arslan by the crusaders in +1097, and fell finally to the Turks of Konia in 1176. The town is +divided by a small stream into a commercial quarter on low +ground, in which are the bazaars, khans and the hot sulphur +springs (122° F.) which are mentioned as early as the 3rd century +by Athenaeus; and a residential quarter on the higher ground. +The town is noted for its good climate, the Pursak Su for the +abundance of its fish, and the plain for its fertility. About 18 m. +to the E. are extensive deposits of meerschaum. The clay is +partly manufactured into pipes in the town, but the greater +proportion finds its way to Europe and especially to Germany. +The annual output is valued at £272,000.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See Murray’s <i>Hdbk. to Asia Minor</i> (1893); V. Cuinet, <i>Turquie +d’Asie</i> (Paris, 1894).</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">ESMARCH, JOHANNES FRIEDRICH AUGUST VON<a name="ar117" id="ar117"></a></span> (1823-1908), +German surgeon, was born at Tönning, in Schleswig-Holstein, +on the 9th of January 1823. He studied at Kiel and +Göttingen, and in 1846 became B.R.K. von Langenbeck’s +assistant at the Kiel surgical hospital. He served in the Schleswig-Holstein +War of 1848 as junior surgeon, and this directed his +attention to the subject of military surgery. He was taken +prisoner, but afterwards exchanged, and was then appointed +as surgeon to a field hospital. During the truce of 1849 he +qualified as <i>Privatdocent</i> at Kiel, but on the fresh outbreak of +war he returned to the troops and was promoted to the rank of +senior surgeon. In 1854 he became director of the surgical +clinic at Kiel, and in 1857 head of the general hospital and +professor at the university. During the Schleswig-Holstein War +of 1864 Esmarch rendered good service to the field hospitals +of Flensburg, Sundewitt and Kiel. In 1866 he was called to +Berlin as member of the hospital commission, and also to take +the superintendence of the surgical work in the hospitals there. +When the Franco-German War broke out in 1870 he was appointed +surgeon-general to the army, and afterwards consulting surgeon +at the great military hospital near Berlin. In 1872 he married +Princess Henrietta of Schleswig-Holstein-Sonderburg-Augustenburg, +aunt of the Empress Auguste Victoria. In 1887 a patent +of nobility was conferred on him. He died at Kiel on the 23rd +of February 1908. Esmarch was one of the greatest authorities +on hospital management and military surgery. His <i>Handbuch +der kriegschirurgischen Technik</i> was written for a prize offered by +the empress Augusta, on the occasion of the Vienna Exhibition +of 1877, for the best handbook for the battlefield of surgical +appliances and operations. This book is illustrated by admirable +diagrams, showing the different methods of bandaging and +dressing, as well as the surgical operations as they occur on the +battlefield. Esmarch himself invented an apparatus, which +bears his name, for keeping a limb nearly bloodless during +amputation. No part of Esmarch’s work is more widely known +than that which deals with “First Aid,” his <i>First Aid on the +Battlefield</i> and <i>First Aid to the Injured</i> being popular manuals +on the subject. The latter is the substance of a course of lectures +delivered by him in 1881 to a “Samaritan School,” the first of +the kind in Germany, founded by Esmarch in 1881, in imitation +of the St John’s Ambulance classes which had been organized +in England in 1878. These lectures were very generally adopted +as a manual for first aid students, edition after edition having +been called for, and they have been translated into numerous +languages, the English version being the work of H.R.H. Princess +Christian. No ambulance course would be complete without a +demonstration of the Esmarch bandage. It is a three-sided piece +of linen or cotton, of which the base measures 4 ft. and the sides +2 ft. 10 in. It can be used folded or open, and applied in thirty-two +different ways. It answers every purpose for temporary +dressing and field-work, while its great recommendation is that +the means for making it are always at hand.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">ESNA,<a name="ar118" id="ar118"></a></span> or <span class="sc">Esneh</span>, a town of Upper Egypt on the W. bank of +the Nile, 454 m. S.S.E. of Cairo by rail, the railway station being +on the opposite side of the river. Pop. (1897) 16,000, mostly +Copts. Esna, one of the healthiest towns in Egypt, is noted for +its manufactures of pottery and its large grain and live stock +markets. It formerly had a large trade with the Sudan. A +caravan road to the south goes through the oasis of Kurkur. +The trade, almost stopped by the Mahdist Wars, is now largely +diverted by railway and steamboat routes. There is, however, +considerable traffic with the oasis of Kharga, which lies almost +due west of the town. Nearly in the centre of the town is the +Ptolemaic and Roman temple of the ram-headed Khnūm, +almost buried in rubbish and houses. The interior of the pronaos +is accessible to tourists, and contains the latest known hieroglyphic +inscription, dating from the reign of Decius (<span class="scs">A.D.</span> 249-251). +With Khnūm are associated the goddesses Sati and Neith. In +the neighbourhood are remains of Coptic buildings, including a +subterranean church (discovered 1895) in the desert half a mile +beyond the limits of cultivation. The name Esna is from the +Coptic <i>Sne</i>. By the Greeks the place was called Latopolis, from +the worship here of the latus fish. In the persecutions under +Diocletian <span class="scs">A.D.</span> 303, the Christians of Esna, a numerous body, +suffered severely. In later times the town frequently served as a +place of refuge for political exiles. The so-called Esna barrage +across the Nile (built 1906-1908) is 30 m. higher up stream at +Edfu.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">ESOTERIC,<a name="ar119" id="ar119"></a></span> having an inner or secret meaning. This term, +and its correlative “exoteric,” were first applied in the ancient +Greek mysteries to those who were initiated (<span class="grk" title="esô">ἔσω</span>, within) and +to those who were not (<span class="grk" title="exô">ἔξω</span>, outside), respectively. It was then +transferred to a supposed distinction drawn by certain philosophers +between the teaching given to the whole circle of their +pupils and that containing a higher and secret philosophy which +was reserved for a select number of specially advanced or +privileged disciples. This distinction was ascribed by Lucian +(<i>Vit. Auct.</i> 26) to Aristotle (<i>q.v.</i>), who, however, uses <span class="grk" title="exôterikoi +logoi">ἐξωτερικοὶ λόγοι</span> (<i>Nic. Ethics</i>) merely of “popular treatises.” It was probably +adopted by the Pythagoreans and was also attributed to +Plato. In the sense of mystic it is used of a secret doctrine of +theosophy, supposed to have been traditional among certain +disciples of Buddhism.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">ESPAGNOLS SUR MER, LES,<a name="ar120" id="ar120"></a></span> the name given to the naval +victory gained by King Edward III. of England over a Spanish +fleet off Winchelsea, on the 29th of August 1350. Spanish ships +had fought against England as the allies or mercenaries of France, +and there had been instances of piratical violence between the +trading ships of both nations. A Spanish merchant fleet was +loading cargoes in the Flemish ports to be carried to the Basque +coast. The ships were armed and had warships with them. +They were all under the command of Don Carlos de la Cerda, a +soldier of fortune who belonged to a branch of the Castilian +royal family. On its way to Flanders the Spanish fleet had +captured a number of English trading ships, and had thrown +the crews overboard. Piratical violence and massacre of this +kind was then universal on the sea. On the 10th of August, +when the king was at Rotherhithe, he announced his intention +of attacking the Spaniards on their way home. The rendezvous +of his fleet was at Winchelsea, and thither the king went by land, +accompanied by his wife and her ladies, by his sons, the Black +Prince and John of Gaunt, as well as by many nobles. The +ladies were placed in a convent and the king embarked on his +flagship, the “Cog Thomas,” on the 28th of August. The English +fleet did not put to sea but remained at anchor, waiting for the +appearance of the Spaniards. Its strength is not known with +certainty, but Stow puts it at 50 ships and pinnaces. Carlos +de la Cerda was obviously well disposed to give the king a meeting. +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page772" id="page772"></a>772</span> +He might easily have avoided the English if he had kept well +out in the Channel. But he relied on the size and strength of +his 40 large ships, and in expectation of an encounter had +recruited a body of mercenaries—mostly crossbowmen—in the +Flemish ports. In the afternoon of the 29th of August he bore +down boldly on King Edward’s ships at anchor at Winchelsea. +When the Spaniards hove in sight, the king was sitting on the +deck of his ship, with his knights and nobles, listening to his +minstrels who played German airs, and to the singing of Sir +John Chandos. When the look-out in the tops reported the +enemy in sight, the king and his company drank to one another’s +health, the trumpet was sounded, and the whole line stood out. +All battles at that time, whether on land or sea, were finally +settled by stroke of sword. The English steered to board the +Spaniards. The king’s own ship was run into by one of the +enemy with such violence that both were damaged, and she +began to sink. The Spaniard stood on, and the “Cog Thomas” +was laid alongside another, which was carried by boarding. It +was high time, for the king and his following had barely reached +the deck of the Spaniard before the “Cog Thomas” went to +the bottom. Other Spaniards were taken, but the fight was hot. +La Cerda’s crossbowmen did much execution, and the higher-built +Spaniards were able to drop bars of iron or other weights +on the lighter English vessels, by which they were damaged. +The conflict was continued till twilight. At the close the large +English vessel called “La Salle du Roi,” which carried the king’s +household, and was commanded by the Fleming, Robert of +Namur, afterwards a knight of the Garter, was grappled by a +big Spaniard, and was being dragged off by him. The crew +called loudly for a rescue, but were either not heard or, if heard, +could not be helped. The “Salle du Roi” would have been taken +if a Flemish squire of Robert of Namur, named Hannequin, had +not performed a great feat of arms. He boarded the Spaniard +and cut the halyards of her mainsail with his sword. The +Spanish ship was taken. King Edward is said to have captured +14 of the enemy. What his own loss was is not stated, but as +his own vessel, and also the vessel carrying the Black Prince, +were sunk, and from the peril of “La Salle du Roi,” we may +conclude that the English fleet suffered heavily. There was +no pursuit, and a truce was made with the Basque towns the +next year.</p> + +<p>The battle with “the Spaniards on the sea” is a very typical +example of a medieval sea-fight, when the ships were of the +size of a small coaster or a fishing smack, were crowded with +men, and when the personal prowess of a single knight or squire +was an important element of strength.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>The only real authority for the battle is Froissart, who was at +different times in the service of King Edward or of his wife, Philippa +of Hainaut, and of the counts of Namur. He repeated what was told +him by men who had been present, and dwells as usual on the +“chivalry” of his patrons. See his <i>Chroniques</i>, iv. 91.</p> +</div> +<div class="author">(D. H.)</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">ESPALIER<a name="ar121" id="ar121"></a></span> (a French word, derived from the Ital. <i>spalliera</i>, +something to rest the <i>spalla</i> or shoulder against; the word is +ultimately the same as <i>épaulière</i>, a shoulder-piece), a lattice-work +or row of stakes, originally shoulder high, on which fruit trees, +shrubs and flowers, particularly roses and creepers, are trained. +Espaliers are usually made of larch or other wood, iron and metal +rails being too great conductors of heat and cold. The advantage +of this method of training is that the fruit, &c, is more easily got +at, and while protected from wind, is freely exposed to sun and +air, and not so open to extreme changes of temperature as when +trained on a wall. (See <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Horticulture</a></span>.)</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">ESPARTERO, BALDOMERO<a name="ar122" id="ar122"></a></span> (1792-1879), duke of Vitoria, +duke of Morella, prince of Vergara, Count Luchana, knight of +the Toison d’Or, &c. &c., Spanish soldier and statesman, was +born at Granatulu, a town of the province of Ciudad Real, on +the 27th of February 1792. He was the ninth child of a carter, +who wanted to make him a priest, but the lad at fifteen enlisted +in a battalion of students to fight against the armies of Napoleon +I. In 1811 Espartero was appointed a lieutenant of Engineers +in Cadiz, but having failed to pass his examination he entered +a line regiment. In 1815 he went to America as a captain under +General Morillo, who had been made commander-in-chief to +quell the risings of the colonies on the Spanish Main. For eight +years Espartero distinguished himself in the struggle against the +colonists. He was several times wounded, and was made major +and colonel on the battlefields of Cochabamba and Sapachni. +He had to surrender to Sucre at the final battle of Ayacucho, +which put an end to Castilian rule. He returned to Spain, and, +like most of his companions in arms, remained under a cloud for +some time. He was sent to the garrison town of Logroño, where +he married the daughter of a rich landowner, Doña Jacinta +Santa Cruz, who eventually survived him. Henceforth Logroño +became the home of the most prominent of the Spanish political +generals of the 19th century. Espartero became in 1832, on the +death of King Ferdinand VII., one of the most ardent defenders +of the rights of his daughter, Isabella II. The government sent +him to the front, directly the Carlist War broke out, as commandant +of the province of Biscay, where he severely defeated +the Carlists in many encounters. He was quickly promoted to +a divisional command, and then made a lieutenant-general. At +times he showed qualities as a <i>guerillero</i> quite equal to those of +the Carlists, like Zumalacarregui and Cabrera, by his daring +marches and surprises. When he had to move large forces he +was greatly superior to them as an organizer and strategist, and +he never disgraced his successes by cruelty or needless severity. +Twice he obliged the Carlists to raise the siege of Bilbao before +he was appointed commander-in-chief of the northern army on +the 17th of September 1836, when the tide of war seemed to be +setting in favour of the pretender in the Basque provinces and +Navarre, though Don Carlos had lost his ablest lieutenant, the +Basque Zumalacarregui. His military duties at the head of the +principal national army did not prevent Espartero from showing +for the first time his political ambition. He displayed such +radical and reforming inclinations that he laid the foundations +of his popularity among the lower and middle classes, which +lasted more than a quarter of a century, during which time the +Progressists, Democrats and advanced Liberals ever looked to +him as a leader and adviser. In November 1836 he again forced +the Carlists to raise the siege of Bilbao. His troops included the +British legion under Sir de Lacy Evans. This success turned +the tide of war against Don Carlos, who vainly attempted +a raid towards Madrid. Espartero was soon at his heels, and +obliged him to hurry northwards, after several defeats. In 1839 +Espartero carefully opened up negotiations with Maroto and the +principal Carlist chiefs of the Basque provinces. These ended in +their accepting his terms under the famous convention of Vergara, +which secured the recognition of their ranks and titles for nearly +1000 Carlist officers. Twenty thousand Carlist volunteers laid +down their arms at Vergara; only the irreconcilables led by +Cabrera held out for a while in the central provinces of Spain. +Espartero soon, however, in 1840, stamped out the last embers of +the rising, which had lasted seven years. He was styled “El +pacificador de España,” was made a grandee of the first class, +and received two dukedoms.</p> + +<p>During the last three years of the war Espartero, who had +been elected a deputy, exercised from his distant headquarters +such influence over Madrid politics that he twice hastened the +fall of the cabinet, and obtained office for his own friends. +At the close of the war the queen regent and her ministers +attempted to elbow out Espartero and his followers, but a +<i>pronunciamiento</i> ensued in Madrid and other large towns which +culminated in the marshal’s accepting the post of prime minister. +He soon became virtually a dictator, as Queen Christina took +offence at his popularity and resigned, leaving the kingdom +very soon afterwards. Directly the Cortes met they elected +Espartero regent by 179 votes to 103 in favour of Arguelles, who +was appointed guardian of the young queen. For two years +Espartero ruled Spain in accordance with his Radical and +conciliatory dispositions, giving special attention to the reorganization +of the administration, taxation and finances, +declaring all the estates of the church, congregations and +religious orders to be national property, and suppressing the +<i>diezma</i>, or tenths. He suppressed the Republican risings with +as much severity as he did the military <i>pronunciamientos</i> of +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page773" id="page773"></a>773</span> +Generals Concha and Diego de Leon. The latter was shot in +Madrid. Espartero crushed with much energy a revolutionary +rising in Barcelona, but on his return to Madrid was so coldly +welcomed that he perceived that his prestige was on the wane. +The advanced Progressists coalesced with the partisans of the +ex-regent Christina to promote <i>pronunciamientos</i> in Barcelona +and many cities. The rebels declared Queen Isabel of age, and, +led by General Narvaez, marched upon Madrid. Espartero, +deeming resistance useless, embarked at Cadiz on the 30th of +July 1843 for England, and lived quietly apart from politics +until 1848, when a royal decree restored to him all his honours +and his seat in the senate. He retired to his house in Logroño, +which he left six years later, in 1854, when called upon by the +queen to take the lead of the powerful Liberal and Progressist +movement which prevailed for two years. The old marshal +vainly endeavoured to keep his own Progressists within bounds +in the Cortes of 1854-1856, and in the great towns, but their +excessive demands for reforms and liberties played into the +hands of a clerical and reactionary court and of the equally +retrograde governing classes. The growing ambition of General +O’Donnell constantly clashed with the views of Espartero, until +the latter, in sheer disgust, resigned his premiership and left for +Logroño, after warning the queen that a conflict was imminent +between O’Donnell and the Cortes, backed by the Progressist +militia. O’Donnell’s <i>pronunciamiento</i> in 1856 put an end to the +Cortes, and the militia was disarmed, after a sharp struggle in +the streets of the capital. After 1856 Espartero resolutely +declined to identify himself with active politics, though at every +stage in the onward march of Spain towards more liberal and +democratic institutions he was asked to take a leading part. +He refused to allow his name to be brought forward as a candidate +when the Cortes of 1868, after the Revolution, sought for a ruler. +Espartero, strangely enough, adopted a laconic phrase when +successive governments on their advent to power invariably +addressed themselves to the venerable champion of liberal +ideas. To all—to the Revolution of 1868, the Constituent +Cortes of 1869, King Amadeus, the Federal Republic of 1873, +the nameless government of Marshal Serrano in 1874, the +Bourbon restoration in 1875—he simply said: “Cumplase la +voluntad nacional” (“Let the national will be accomplished”). +King Amadeus made him prince of Vergara. The Restoration +raised a statue to him near the gate of the Retiro Park in Madrid. +Spaniards of all shades, except Carlists and Ultramontanes, paid +homage to his memory when he passed away at his Logroño +residence on the 8th of January 1879. His tastes were singularly +modest, his manners rather reserved, but always kind and considerate +for humble folk. He was a typical Spanish soldier-politician, +though he had more of the better traits of the soldier +born and bred than of the arts of the statesman. His military +instincts did not always make it easy for him to accommodate +himself to courtiers and professional politicians.</p> +<div class="author">(A. E. H.)</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">ESPARTO,<a name="ar123" id="ar123"></a></span> or <span class="sc">Spanish Grass</span>, <i>Stipa tenacissima</i>, a grass +resembling the ornamental feather-grass of gardens. It is +indigenous to the south of Spain and the north of Africa (where +it is known as Halfa or Alfa), and is especially abundant in the +sterile and rugged parts of Murcia and Valencia, and in Algeria, +flourishing best in sandy, ferruginous soils, in dry, sunny situations +on the sea coast. Pliny (<i>N.H.</i> xix. 2) described what +appears to have been the same plant under the name of <i>spartum</i>, +whence the designation <i>campus spartarius</i> for the region surrounding +New Carthage. It attains a height of 3 or 4 ft. The +stems are cylindrical, and clothed with short hair, and grow in +clusters of from 2 to 10 ft. in circumference; when young they +serve as food for cattle, but after a few years’ growth acquire +great toughness of texture. The leaves vary from 6 in. to 3 ft. in +length, and are grey-green in colour; on account of their tenacity +of fibre and flexibility they have for centuries been employed +for the making of ropes, sandals, baskets, mats and other articles. +Ships’ cables of esparto, being light, have the quality of floating +on water, and have long been in use in the Spanish navy.</p> + +<p>Esparto leaves contain 56% by weight of fibre, or about 10% +more than straw, and hence have come into requisition as +a substitute for linen rags in the manufacture of paper. For +this purpose they were first utilized by the French, and in 1857 +were introduced into Great Britain. When required for paper-making +the leaves should be gathered before they are quite +matured; if, however, they are obtained too young, they furnish +a paper having an objectionable semi-transparent appearance. +The leaves are gathered by hand, and from 2 to 3 cwt. +may be collected in a day by a single labourer. They are +generally obtained during the dry summer months, as at other +times their adherence to the stems is so firm as often to cause +the uprooting of the plants in the attempt to remove them. +Esparto may be raised from seed, but cannot be harvested for +twelve or fifteen years after sowing.</p> + +<p>Another grass, <i>Lygeum Spartum</i>, with stiff rush-like leaves, +growing in rocky soil on the high plains of countries bordering +on the Mediterranean, especially of Spain and Algeria, is also a +source of esparto.</p> + +<p>For the processes of the paper manufacturer esparto is used in +the dry state, and without cutting; roots and flowers and stray +weeds are first removed, and the material is then boiled with +caustic soda, washed, and bleached with chlorine solution. +Sundry experiments have been made to adapt esparto for use in +the coarser textile fabrics. Messrs A. Edger and B. Proctor +in 1877 directed attention to the composition of the slag resulting +from the burning of esparto, which they found to be strikingly +similar to that of average medical bottle glass, the latter yielding +on analysis 66.3% of silica and 25.1% of alkalies and alkaline +earths, and the slag 64.6 and 27.45% of the same respectively.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">ESPERANCE,<a name="ar124" id="ar124"></a></span> a small seaport on a fine natural harbour on the +south coast of West Australia, 275 m. north-east from Albany. +It is a summer resort, and in the neighbourhood are interesting +caves. Its importance as a seaport is due to its being on the high +road between the eastern states and the gold-fields, and the +nearest place for the shipment of gold from the Coolgardie fields.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">ESPERANTO,<a name="ar125" id="ar125"></a></span> an artificial international auxiliary language +(see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Universal Languages</a></span>), first published in 1887, seven years +after the appearance of its predecessor Volapük (<i>q.v.</i>), which it +has now completely supplanted. Its author was a Russian +physician, Dr L. Zamenhof, born in 1859 at Bielostok, where the +spectacle of the feuds of the four races—each speaking different +languages—which inhabit it (Russians, Poles, Germans and Jews) +at an early date suggested to him the idea of remedying the evil +by the introduction of a neutral language, standing apart from +the existing national languages. His first idea was to resuscitate +some dead language. Then he tried to construct a new language +on an a priori basis. At the same time he made what he appears +to have considered the great discovery that the bulk of the +vocabulary of a language consists not of independent roots, but +of compounds and derivatives formed from a comparatively +small number of roots.</p> + +<p>At first he tried to construct his roots a priori by arbitrary +combinations of letters. Then he fell back on the plan of taking +his roots ready-made from existing languages, as the inventor of +Volapük had done before him. But instead of taking them +mainly from one language, he has selected them from the chief +European languages, but not impartially. Like all inventors of +artificial languages, he is more ready to experiment with foreign +languages than with his own; and hence the Slavonic roots in +Esperanto are much less numerous than those taken from the +other European languages. Here his choice has been to some +extent guided by considerations of internationality, although he +has not fully grasped the importance of the principle of maximum +internationality, so well worked out in the latest rival of Esperanto—Idiom +Neutral (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Universal Languages</a></span>). Thus he +adopts a large number of international words—generally unaltered +except in spelling—such as <i>teatr</i>, <i>tabak</i>, even when it +would be easy to form equivalent terms from the roots already +existing in the language. Where there is no one international +word, he selects practically at random, keeping, however, a +certain balance between the Romance words, taken chiefly from +Latin (<i>tamen</i>) and French (<i>trotuar</i>), on the one hand, and the +Germanic on the other hand, the latter being taken sometimes +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page774" id="page774"></a>774</span> +from German (<i>nur</i>, “only”), sometimes from English, the words +being generally written more or less phonetically (<i>rajt</i> = right). +Most of the Germanic words are badly chosen from the international +point of view. Thus the German word quoted above +would not be intelligible to any one ignorant of German. Indeed, +from the international point of view all specially German words +ought to be excluded, or else reduced to the common Germanic +form; thus <i>trink</i> ought to be made into <i>drink</i>, the <i>t</i> being a +specially German modification of the <i>d</i>, preserved not only in +English but in all the remaining Germanic languages. This +incongruous mixture of languages is not only jarring and repulsive, +but adds greatly to the difficulty of mastering the vocabulary +for the polyglot as well as the monolingual learner.</p> + +<p>The inventor has taken great pains to reduce the number of +his roots to a minimum; there are 2642 of them in his dictionary, +the <i>Universala Vortaro</i> (from Ger. <i>Wort</i>, “word”), which does +not include such international words as <i>poezio</i>, <i>telefono</i>; these +the learner is supposed to recognize and form without help. +The most eccentric feature of the vocabulary, and the one to +which it owes much of its brevity, is the extensive use of the +prefix <i>mal-</i> to reverse the meaning of a word, as in <i>malamiko</i>, +“enemy,” and even <i>malbona</i>, “bad.”</p> + +<p>The phonology of the language is very simple. The vowels +are only five in number, <i>a</i>, <i>e</i>, <i>i</i>, <i>o</i>, <i>u</i>, used without any distinction +of quantity, as in Russian. There are six diphthongs, expressed +by an unnecessarily complicated notation. The consonant-system +is simple enough in itself, but is greatly complicated in +writing by the excessive and mostly unnecessary use made of +diacritical letters not only for simple sounds but also for +consonant-groups. <i>c</i> is used for <i>ts</i>, as in Polish.</p> + +<p>The grammar is, like that of Volapük, partly borrowed from +existing languages, partly <i>a priori</i> and arbitrary. The use of +the final vowels belongs to the latter category. The use of <i>-a</i> +to indicate adjectives and of <i>-o</i> to indicate nouns as in <i>kara +amiko</i>, “dear (male) friend,” is a source of confusion to those +familiar with the Romance languages, and has proved a bar to +the diffusion of Esperanto among the speakers of these languages. +On the other hand, the following paradigm will show how faithfully +Esperanto can reproduce the defects of conventional +European grammar:—</p> + +<table class="ws" summary="Contents"> +<tr><td> </td> <td class="tcc">Singular.</td> <td class="tcc">Plural.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl">Nominative</td> <td class="tcl"><i>la bona patro</i></td> <td class="tcl"><i>la bonaj patroj</i></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl">Accusative</td> <td class="tcl"><i>la bonan patron</i></td> <td class="tcl"><i>la bonajn patrojn.</i></td></tr> +</table> + +<p>It is difficult to see why the accusative should be kept when +all the other cases are replaced by prepositions.</p> + +<p>The verb is better than the noun. Its inflections are <i>-as</i> +present, <i>-is</i> preterite, <i>-os</i> future, <i>-us</i> conditional, <i>-u</i> imperative +and subjunctive, <i>-i</i> infinitive, together with the following +participles:—</p> + +<table class="ws" summary="Contents"> +<tr><td> </td> <td class="tcc">Active.</td> <td class="tcc">Passive.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl">Present</td> <td class="tcl"><i>-anta</i></td> <td class="tcl"><i>-ata</i></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl">Preterite</td> <td class="tcl"><i>-inta</i></td> <td class="tcl"><i>-ita</i></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl">Future</td> <td class="tcl"><i>-onta</i></td> <td class="tcl"><i>-ota</i></td></tr> +</table> + +<p>The inventor has followed the good example of his native +language in using <i>esti</i>, “to be,” as the auxiliary verb both in the +passive, where it is combined with passive participles, and in the +secondary tenses of the active (perfect, pluperfect, &c.), where it +is of course combined with the active participles. The participles +can be made into nouns and adverbs by changing the final <i>-a</i> +into <i>-o</i> and <i>-e</i> respectively: thus <i>tenonto</i>, “the future holder,” +<i>perdinte</i>, “through having lost.”</p> + +<p>The table of the forty-five correlative pronouns, adjectives +and adverbs is also elaborate and ingenious.</p> + +<p>Much ingenuity is displayed in the syntax, as well as some +happy simplifications. But, on the other hand, there is much +in it that is fanciful, arbitrary and vague, as in the use of the +definite article—where the author has unfortunately followed +French rather than English usage—and in the moods of the verb.</p> + +<p>The following specimens will show the general character of this +easy-flowing but somewhat heavy and monotonous language—“bad +Italian,” as it is called by its detractors:—</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>Patro nia, kiu estas en la ĉielo, sankta estu via nomo; venu +regeco via; estu volo via, kiel en la ĉielo, tiel ankaŭ sur la tero. +Panon nian ĉiutagan donu al ni hodiaŭ; kaj pardonu al ni ŝuldojn +niajn, kiel ni ankaŭ pardonas al niaj ŝuldantoj; kaj ne konduku +nin en tenton, sed liberigu nin de la malbono.</p> + +<p>Estimata Sinjoro. Per tiu ĉi libreto mi havas la honoron prezenti +al vi la lingvon internacian Esperanto. Esperanto tute ne havas la +intencon malfortigi la lingvon naturan de ia popolo. Ĝi devas nur +servi por la rilatoj internaciaj kaj por tiuj verkoj aŭ produktoj, +kiuj interesas egale la tutan mondon.</p> +</div> + +<p>In summing up the merits and defects of Esperanto we must +begin by admitting that it is the most reasonable and practical +artificial language that has yet appeared. Its inventor has had +the double advantage of being able to profit by the mistakes of +his predecessors, and of being himself, by force of circumstances, +a better linguist. It must further be admitted that he has made +as good a use of these advantages as was perhaps possible without +systematic training in scientific philology in its widest sense. +This last defect explains why the enthusiasm which his work +has excited in the great world of linguistic dilettantes has not +been shared by the philologists: in spite of its superiority to +Volapük, they see in it the same radical defects. Whether they +are rash or not in predicting for it a similar fate, remains to be +seen. The Esperantists, warned by the fate of Volapük, have +adopted the wise policy of suppressing all internal disunion by +submitting to the dictatorship of the inventor, and so presenting +a united front to the enemy. One thing is clear: either +Esperanto must be taken as it is without change, or else it +must crumble to pieces; its failure to work out consistently +the principle of the maximum of internationality for +its root-words is alone enough to condemn it as hopelessly +antiquated even from the narrow point of view which regards +“international” as synonymous with “European”—a view +which political development in the Far East has made equally +obsolete.</p> +<div class="author">(H. Sw.)</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">ESPINAY, TIMOLÉON D’<a name="ar126" id="ar126"></a></span> (1580-1644), French soldier, was +the eldest of the four sons of François d’Espinay, seigneur de +Saint Luc (1554-1597), and was himself marquis de Saint Luc. +In 1603 he accompanied Sully in his embassy to London. In +1622, in his capacity as vice-admiral of France, he gained some +advantages over the defenders of La Rochelle, obliging the +Huguenot commander, Benjamin de Rohan, seigneur de Soubise, +to evacuate the islands of Ré and Oléron. In 1627 he was named +lieutenant-general of Guienne and marshal of France.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">ESPINEL, VICENTE MARTINEZ<a name="ar127" id="ar127"></a></span> (1551-1624), Spanish poet +and novelist, was baptized on the 28th of December 1551, and +educated at Salamanca. He was expelled from the university +in 1572, and served as a soldier in Flanders, returning to Spain +in 1584 or thereabouts. He took orders in 1587, and four years +later became chaplain at Ronda, absented himself from his +living, and was deprived of his cure; but his musical skill obtained +for him the post of choirmaster at Plasencia. His <i>Diversas +Rìmas</i> (1591) are undeniably good examples of technical accomplishment +and caustic wit. Espinel, however, survives as the +author of a clever picaresque novel entitled <i>Relaciones de la +vida del Escudero Marcos de Obregón</i> (1618). It is, in many +passages, an autobiography of Espinel with picturesque embellishments. +Marcos is not a chivalresque “esquire,” but an adventurer +who seeks his fortune by attaching himself to great men; +and the object of the author is to warn young men against +such a life. Apart from the unedifying confessions of the hero, +the book contains curious anecdotes concerning prominent +contemporaries, and the episodical stories are told with great +spirit; the style is extremely correct, though somewhat diffuse. +Le Sage has not scrupled to borrow from <i>Marcos de Obregón</i> +many of the incidents and characters in <i>Gil Blas</i>—a circumstance +which induced Isla to give to his Spanish translation of Le Sage’s +work the jesting title, <i>Gil Blas restored to his Country and his +Native Tongue</i>. In the 1775 edition of the <i>Siècle de Louis XIV.</i> +Voltaire grossly exaggerates in saying that <i>Gil Blas</i> is taken +entirely from <i>Marcos de Obregón</i>. Espinel was a clever musician +and added a fifth string to the guitar. He revived the measure +known as <i>décimas</i> or <i>espinelas</i>, consisting of a stanza of ten +octosyllabic lines. Most of the poems which he left in manuscript +remain unpublished owing to their licentious character.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page775" id="page775"></a>775</span></p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p><span class="sc">Bibliography</span>.—J. Perez de Guzmán’s edition of <i>Marcos de +Obregón</i> (Barcelona, 1881) includes a valuable introduction; Léo +Claretie, <i>Le Sage romancier</i> (Paris, 1890), discusses exhaustively +the question of Le Sage’s indebtedness to Espinel. For some +previously unpublished poems see Pedro Salvá y Mallén, <i>Catálogo +de la biblioteca de Salvá</i> (Valencia, 1872).</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">ESPIRITO SANTO<a name="ar128" id="ar128"></a></span>, a maritime state of Brazil, bounded N. +by Bahia, E. by the Atlantic Ocean, S. by Rio de Janeiro, and +W. by Minas Geraes. Pop. (1890) 135,997; (1900) 209,783; +area, 17,316 sq. m. With the exception of Sergipe it is the +smallest of the Brazilian states. The western border of the state +is traversed by low ranges of mountains forming a northward +continuation of the Serra do Mar. The longest and most +prominent of these ranges, which are for the most part the eastern +escarpments of the great Brazilian plateau, is the Serra dos +Aymores, which extends along fully two-thirds of the western +frontier. Farther S. the ranges are much broken and extend +partly across the state toward the seaboard; the more prominent +are known as the Serra do Espigão, Serra da Chibata, Serra dos +Pilões and Serra dos Purys. The eastern and larger part of +the state belongs to the coastal plain, in great part low and +swampy, with large areas of sand barrens, and broken by isolated +groups and ranges of hills. With the exception of these sandy +plains the country is heavily forested, even the mountain sides +being covered with vegetation to their summits. The northern +and southern parts are fertile, but the central districts are +comparatively poor. The coastal plain comprises a sandy, +unproductive belt immediately on the coast, back of which +is a more fertile tertiary plain, well suited, near the higher +country, to the production of sugar and cotton. The inland +valleys and slopes are very fertile and heavily forested, and +much of the Brazilian export of rosewood and other cabinet +woods is drawn from this state. There is only one good bay on +the coast, that of Espirito Santo, on which the port of Victoria +is situated. The river-mouths are obstructed by sand bars and +admit small vessels only. The principal rivers of the state are +the Mucury, which rises in Minas Geraes and forms the boundary +line with Bahia, the Itaunas, São Domingos, São Matheus, Doce, +Timbuhy, Santa Maria, Jucú, Benevente, Itapemirim, and +Itabapoana, the last forming the boundary line with Rio de +Janeiro. The Doce, São Matheus, and Itapemirim rise in +Minas Geraes and flow entirely across the state. The lower +courses of these rivers are generally navigable, that of the Rio +Doce for a distance of 90 m. The climate of the coastal zone +and deeper valleys is hot, humid and unhealthy, malarial +fevers being prevalent. In the higher country the temperature +is lower and the climate is healthy. Espirito Santo is almost +exclusively agricultural, sugar-cane, coffee, rice, cotton, tobacco, +mandioca and tropical fruits being the principal products. +Agriculture is in a very backward condition, however, and the +state is classed as one of the poorest and most unprogressive +in the republic. The rivers and shallow coast waters are well +stocked with fish, but there are no fishing industries worthy of +mention. There are three railway lines in operation in the state—one +running from Victoria to Cachoeira do Itapemirim (50 m.), +and thence, by another line, to Santo Eduardo in Rio de Janeiro +(58 m.), where connexion is made with the Leopoldina system +running into the national capital, and a third running north-westerly +from Victoria to Diamantina, Minas Geraes, about 450 m. +The chief cities and towns of the state, with their populations +in 1890, are Victoria, São Matheus (municipality, 7761) +on a river of the same name 16 m. from the sea, Serra (municipality, +6274), Guarapary (municipality, 5310), a small port S. +by W. of the capital, Conceicão da Barra (municipality, 5628), +the port of São Matheus and Cachoeira do Itapemirim (4049), an +important commercial centre in the south.</p> + +<p>Espirito Santo formed part of one of the original captaincies +which were given to Vasco Fernandes Coutinho by the Portuguese +crown. The first settlement (1535) was at the entrance to the +bay of Espirito Santo, and its name was afterwards given to the +bay and captaincy. It once included the municipality of +Campos, now belonging to the state of Rio de Janeiro.</p> + +<p>The islands of Trinidade and Martim Vaz, which lie about +715 m. E. of Victoria, belong politically to this state. They are +uninhabited, but considerable importance is attached to the +former because Great Britain has twice attempted to take +possession of it. It rises 1200 ft. above sea-level and is about +6 m. in circumference, but it has no value other than that of +an ocean cable station. An excellent description of this singular +island is to be found in E.F. Knight’s <i>Cruise of the “Alerte”</i> +(London, 1895).</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">ESPRONCEDA, JOSÉ IGNACIO JAVIER ORIOL ENCARNACIÓN DE<a name="ar129" id="ar129"></a></span> +(1808-1842), Spanish poet, son of an officer in the +Bourbon regiment, was born at or near Almendralejo de los +Barros on the 25th of March 1808. On the close of the war he +was sent to the preparatory school of artillery at Segovia, and +later became a pupil of the poet Lista, then professor of literature +at St Matthew’s College in Madrid. In his fourteenth year +he had attracted his master’s attention by his verses, and had +joined a secret society. Sentenced to five years’ seclusion in the +Franciscan convent at Guadalajara, he began an epic poem +entitled <i>Pelayo</i>, of which fragments survive. He escaped to +Portugal and thence to England, where he found the famous +Teresa whom he had met at Lisbon; here, too, he became a +student of Shakespeare, Milton and Byron. In 1830 he eloped +with Teresa to Paris, took part in the July revolution, and soon +after joined the raid of Chapalangarra on Navarre. In 1833 he +returned to Spain and obtained a commission in the queen’s +guards. This, however, he soon forfeited by a political song, +and he was banished to Cuéllar, where he wrote a poor novel +entitled <i>Sancho Saldaña ó el Castellano de Cuéllar</i> (1834). He +took an active part in the revolutionary risings of 1835 and +1836, and, on the accession to power of the Liberal party in +1840, was appointed secretary of legation at the Hague; in +1842 he was elected deputy for Almería, and seemed likely to +play a great part in parliamentary life. But his constitution was +undermined, and, after a short illness, he died at Madrid on the +23rd of May 1842. His poems, first published in 1840, at once +gained for him a reputation which still continues undiminished. +The influence of Byron pervades Espronceda’s life and work. +It is present in an ambitious variant on the Don Juan legend, +<i>El Estudiante de Salamanca</i>, Elvira’s letter being obviously +modelled on Julia’s letter in <i>Don Juan</i>; the <i>Canción del Pirata</i> +is suggested by <i>The Corsair</i>; and the Byronic inspiration is not +wanting even in the noble fragment entitled <i>El Diablo Mundo</i>, +based on the story of Faust. But in <i>El Mendigo</i>, in <i>El Reo de +Muerte</i>, in <i>El Verdugo</i>, and in the sombre vehement lines, <i>A +Jarifa en una orgía</i>, Espronceda approves himself the most +potent and original lyrical poet produced by Spain during the +19th century.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p><span class="sc">Bibliography.</span>—<i>Obras poéticas y escritos en prosa</i> (Madrid, 1884), +edited by Blanca Espronceda de Escosura, the poet’s daughter +(the second volume has not been published); E. Rodriguez Solís, +<i>Espronceda; su tiempo, su vida, y sus obras</i> (Madrid, 1883); E. +Piñeyro, <i>El Romanticismo en España</i> (Paris, 1904).</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">ESQUIRE<a name="ar130" id="ar130"></a></span> (O. Fr. <i>escuyer</i>, Mod. Fr. <i>écuyer</i>, derived through +the form <i>escudier</i> from Med. Lat. <i>scutarius</i>, “shield-bearer”), +originally the attendant on a knight, whose helm, shield and +lance he carried at the tournament or in the field of battle. +The esquire ranked immediately below the knight bachelor, +and his office was regarded as the apprentice stage of knighthood. +The title was regarded as one of function, not of birth, and was +not hereditary. In time, however, its original significance was +lost sight of, and it came to be a title of honour, implying a rank +between that of knight and valet or gentleman, as it technically +still remains. Thus in the later middle ages esquire (<i>armiger</i>) +was the customary description of holders of knight’s fees who +had not taken up their knighthood, whence the surviving +custom of entitling the principal landowner in a parish “the +squire” (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Squire</a></span>). Camden, at the close of the 16th century, +distinguished four classes entitled to bear the style: (1) The +eldest sons of knights, and their eldest sons, in perpetual succession; +(2) the eldest sons of the younger sons of peers, and +their eldest sons, in like perpetual succession; (3) esquires created +by royal letters patent or other investiture, and their eldest sons; +(4) esquires by office, <i>e.g.</i> justices of the peace and others who +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page776" id="page776"></a>776</span> +bear any office of trust under the crown. To these the writer in +the 3rd edition of the <i>Encyclopaedia Britannica</i> (1797) added +Irish peers and the eldest sons of British peers, who, though they +bear courtesy titles, have in law only the right to be styled +esquires. Officers of the king’s courts, and of the royal household, +counsellors at law and justices of the peace he described +as esquires only “by reputation”; and justices of the peace +have the title only as long as they are in commission; while +certain heads of great landed families are styled “esquires” by +prescription. “But the meaner ranks of people,” he adds +indignantly, “who know no better, do often basely prostitute +this title; and, to the great confusion of all rank and precedence, +every man who makes a decent appearance, far from thinking +himself in any way ridiculed by finding the superscription of +his letters thus decorated, is fully gratified by such an address.”</p> + +<p>It is clear, however, that the title of esquire was very loosely +used at a much earlier date. On this point Selden is somewhat +scornfully explicit. “To whomsoever, either by blood, place in +the State or other eminency, we conceive some higher attribute +should be given, than that sole Title of Gentleman, knowing yet +that he hath no other honorary title legally fixed upon him, we +usually style him an <i>Esquire</i>, in such passages as require legally +that his degree or state be mentioned; as especially in Indictments +and Actions whereupon he may be outlawed. Those +of other nations who are Barons or great Lords in their own +Countries, and no knights, are in legal proceedings stiled with +us, Esquires only. Some of our greatest Heralds have their +divisions of Esquires applied to this day. I leave them as I +see them, where they may easily be found.” Coke, too, says +that every one is entitled to be termed esquire who has the legal +right to call himself a gentleman (2. <i>Institutes</i>, 688).</p> + +<p>At the present time the following classes are recognized as +esquires on occasions of ceremony or for legal purposes:—(1) All +sons of peers and lords of parliament during their fathers’ lives, +and the younger sons of such peers, &c., after their fathers’ +deaths; the eldest sons of peers’ younger sons, and their eldest +sons for ever. (2) Noblemen of all other nations. (3) The eldest +sons of baronets and knights. (4) Persons bearing arms and the +title of esquire by letters patent. (5) Esquires of the Bath and +their eldest sons. (6) Barristers-at-law. (7) Justices of the peace +and mayors while in commission or office. (8) The holders of +any superior office under the crown. (9) Persons styled esquires +by the sovereign in their patents, commissions or appointments.<a name="fa1e" id="fa1e" href="#ft1e"><span class="sp">1</span></a> +(10) Attorneys in colonies where the functions of counsel and +attorney are united (in England solicitors are “gentlemen,” +not “esquires”).</p> + +<p>In practice, however, the title of esquire, now to all intents +and purposes meaningless, is given to any one who “can bear the +port, charge and countenance of a gentleman.” The word has +followed the same course as that of “gentleman” (<i>q.v.</i>), and for +very similar reasons. It is still not customary in Great Britain +to address <i>e.g.</i> a well-to-do person engaged in trade as esquire at +his shop; it would be offensive not to do so at his private +residence. In America, on the other hand, the use of the +word “esquire” is practically obsolete, “Mr” (“Mister” or +“Master,” at one time the title special to a “gentleman”) +being the general form of address.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See Selden, <i>Titles of Honor</i> (1672); Camden, <i>Britannia</i> (ed. +London, 1594); Coke, <i>Institutes</i>; <i>Enc. of the Laws of England</i>, s. +“Esquire”; Du Cange, <i>Glossarium</i> (ed. 1886), s. “Scutarius,” +“Scutifer” and “Armiger”; <i>New English Dictionary</i>, s. +“Esquire.”</p> +</div> +<div class="author">(W. A. P.)</div> + +<hr class="foot" /> <div class="note"> + +<p><a name="ft1e" id="ft1e" href="#fa1e"><span class="fn">1</span></a> In practice this means every one receiving such a patent, commission +or appointment.</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">ESQUIROL, JEAN ÉTIENNE DOMINIQUE<a name="ar131" id="ar131"></a></span> (1772-1840), +French alienist, was born at Toulouse on the 3rd of February +1772. In 1794 he became a pupil of the military hospital of +Narbonne, and subsequently studied in Paris at the Salpêtrière +under P. Pinel, whose assistant he became. In 1811 he was +chosen physician to the Salpêtrière, and in 1817 he began a +course of lectures on the treatment of the insane, in which he +made such revelations of the abuses existing in the lunatic +asylums of France that the government appointed a commission +to inquire into the subject. Esquirol in this and other ways +greatly assisted Pinel’s efforts for the introduction of humaner +methods. The asylums of Rouen, Nantes and Montpellier were +built in accordance with his plans. In 1823 he became inspector-general +of the university of Paris for the faculties of medicine, +and in 1826 chief physician of the asylum at Charenton. He +died at Paris on the 13th of December 1840. Besides contributing +to the <i>Dictionnaire des sciences médicales</i> and the <i>Encyclopédie +des gens du monde</i>, Esquirol wrote <i>Des maladies mentales, considérées +sous les rapports médical, hygiénique, et médico-légal</i> (2 +vols., Paris, 1838).</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">ESQUIROS, HENRI FRANÇOIS ALPHONSE<a name="ar132" id="ar132"></a></span> (1812-1876), +French writer, was born in Paris on the 23rd of May 1812. After +some minor publications he produced <i>L’Évangile du peuple</i> +(1840), an exposition of the life and character of Jesus as a +social reformer. This work was considered an offence against +religion and decency, and Esquiros was fined and imprisoned. +He was elected in 1850 as a social democrat to the Legislative +Assembly, but was exiled in 1851 for his opposition to the +Empire. Returning to France in 1869 he was again a member +of the Legislative Assembly, and in 1876 was elected to the senate. +He died at Versailles on the 12th of May 1876. He turned to +account his residence in England in <i>L’Angleterre et la vie anglaise</i> +(5 vols., 1859-1869). Among his numerous works on social +subjects may be noted:—<i>Histoire des Montagnards</i> (2 vols., +1847); <i>Paris, ou les sciences, les institutions et les mœurs au +XIX<span class="sp">e</span> siècle</i> (2 vols., 1847); and <i>Histoire des martyrs de la +liberté</i> (1851).</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">ESS, JOHANN HEINRICH VAN<a name="ar133" id="ar133"></a></span> (1772-1847), German Catholic +theologian, was born at Warburg, Westphalia, on the 15th of +February 1772. He was educated at the Dominican gymnasium +of his native town, and in 1790 entered, as a novice, the Benedictine +abbey of Marienmünster, in the bishopric of Paderborn. +His Benedictine name was Leander. He was priest at Schwalenberg +from 1799 to 1812, after which he became extraordinary +professor of theology and joint-director of the teachers’ seminary +at Marburg. In 1818 he received the doctorate of theology and +of canonical law. In 1807, in conjunction with his cousin Karl +van Ess, he had published a German translation of the New +Testament, and, as its circulation was discountenanced by his +superiors, he published in 1808 a defence of his views, entitled +<i>Auszüge aus den heiligen Vätern und anderen Lehrern der katholischen +Kirche über das nothwendige und nützliche Bibellesen</i>. +An improved edition of this tractate was published in 1816, under +the title <i>Gedanken über Bibel und Bibellehre</i>, and in the same year +appeared <i>Was war die Bibel den ersten Christen?</i> In 1822 he +published the first part of a German translation of the Old +Testament, which was completed in 1836. In 1822 he resigned +his offices at Marburg in order to devote his whole time to the +defence of his views regarding Bible reading by the people, and +to endeavour to promote the circulation of the scriptures. He +was associated first with the Catholic Bible Society of Regensburg, +and then with the British and Foreign Bible Society. He died +at Affolderbach in the Odenwald on the 13th of October 1847.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">ESSAY, ESSAYIST<a name="ar134" id="ar134"></a></span> (Fr. <i>essai</i>, Late Lat. <i>exagium</i>, a weighing +or balance; <i>exigere</i>, to examine; the term in general meaning +any trial or effort). As a form of literature, the essay is a composition +of moderate length, usually in prose, which deals in an +easy, cursory way with the external conditions of a subject, and, +in strictness, with that subject, only as it affects the writer. +Dr Johnson, himself an eminent essayist, defines an essay as +“an irregular, undigested piece”; the irregularity may perhaps +be admitted, but want of thought, that is to say lack of proper +mental digestion, is certainly not characteristic of a fine example. +It should, on the contrary, always be the brief and light result +of experience and profound meditation, while “undigested” +is the last epithet to be applied to the essays of Montaigne, +Addison or Lamb. Bacon said that the Epistles of Seneca were +“essays,” but this can hardly be allowed. Bacon himself goes +on to admit that “the word is late, though the thing is ancient.” +The word, in fact, was invented for this species of writing by +Montaigne, who merely meant that these were experiments in +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page777" id="page777"></a>777</span> +a new kind of literature. This original meaning, namely that +these pieces were attempts or endeavours, feeling their way +towards the expression of what would need a far wider space +to exhaust, was lost in England in the course of the eighteenth +century. This is seen by the various attempts made in the +nineteenth century to coin a word which should express a still +smaller work, as distinctive in comparison with the essay as the +essay is by the side of the monograph; none of these linguistic +experiments, such as <i>essayette</i>, <i>essaykin</i> (Thackeray) and <i>essaylet</i> +(Helps) have taken hold of the language. As a matter of fact, +the journalistic word <i>article</i> covers the lesser form of essay, +although not exhaustively, since the essays in the monthly and +quarterly reviews, which are fully as extended as an essay should +ever be, are frequently termed “articles,” while many “articles” +in newspapers, dictionaries and encyclopaedias are in no sense +essays. It may be said that the idea of a detached work is +combined with the word “essay,” which should be neither a +section of a disquisition nor a chapter in a book which aims +at the systematic development of a story. Locke’s <i>Essay on +the Human Understanding</i> is not an essay at all, or cluster of +essays, in this technical sense, but refers to the experimental +and tentative nature of the inquiry which the philosopher was +undertaking. Of the curious use of the word so repeatedly +made by Pope mention will be made below.</p> + +<p>The essay, as a species of literature, was invented by Montaigne, +who had probably little suspicion of the far-reaching importance +of what he had created. In his dejected moments, he turned to +rail at what he had written, and to call his essays “inepties” +and “sottises.” But in his own heart he must have been well +satisfied with the new and beautiful form which he had added to +literary tradition. He was perfectly aware that he had devised +a new thing; that he had invented a way of communicating +himself to the world as a type of human nature. He designed +it to carry out his peculiar object, which was to produce an +accurate portrait of his own soul, not as it was yesterday or will +be to-morrow, but as it is to-day. It is not often that we can +date with any approach to accuracy the arrival of a new class +of literature into the world, but it was in the month of March +1571 that the essay was invented. It was started in the second +story of the old tower of the castle of Montaigne, in a study to +which the philosopher withdrew for that purpose, surrounded +by his books, close to his chapel, sheltered from the excesses +of a fatiguing world. He wrote slowly, not systematically; it +took nine years to finish the two first books of the essays. In +1574 the manuscript of the work, so far as it was then completed, +was nearly lost, for it was confiscated by the pontifical police +in Rome, where Montaigne was residing, and was not returned +to the author for four months. The earliest imprint saw the +light in 1580, at Bordeaux, and the Paris edition of 1588, which +is the fifth, contains the final text of the great author. These +dates are not negligible in the briefest history of the essay, for +they are those of its revelation to the world of readers. It was in +the delightful chapters of his new, strange book that Montaigne +introduced the fashion of writing briefly, irregularly, with +constant digressions and interruptions, about the world as it +appears to the individual who writes. The <i>Essais</i> were instantly +welcomed, and few writers of the Renaissance had so instant +and so vast a popularity as Montaigne. But while the philosophy, +and above all the graceful stoicism, of the great master were +admired and copied in France, the exact shape in which he had +put down his thoughts, in the exquisite negligence of a series of +essays, was too delicate to tempt an imitator. It is to be noted +that neither Charron, nor Mlle de Gournay, his most immediate +disciples, tried to write essays. But Montaigne, who liked to +fancy that the Eyquem family was of English extraction, had +spoken affably of the English people as his “cousins,” and it +has always been admitted that his genius has an affinity with +the English. He was early read in England, and certainly by +Bacon, whose is the second great name connected with this +form of literature. It was in 1597, only five years after the +death of Montaigne, that Bacon published in a small octavo +the first ten of his essays. These he increased to 38 in 1612 and +to 58 in 1625. In their first form, the essays of Bacon had +nothing of the fulness or grace of Montaigne’s; they are meagre +notes, scarcely more than the headings for discourses. It +is possible that when he wrote them he was not yet familiar +with the style of his predecessor, which was first made popular +in England, in 1603, when Florio published that translation of +the <i>Essais</i> which Shakespeare unquestionably read. In the +later editions Bacon greatly expanded his theme, but he never +reached, or but seldom, the freedom and ease, the seeming +formlessness held in by an invisible chain, which are the glory +of Montaigne, and distinguish the typical essayist. It would +seem that at first, in England, as in France, no lesser writer +was willing to adopt a title which belonged to so great a presence +as that of Bacon or Montaigne. The one exception was Sir +William Cornwallis (<i>d.</i> 1631), who published essays in 1600 and +1617, of slight merit, but popular in their day. No other English +essayist of any importance appeared until the Restoration, +when Abraham Cowley wrote eleven “Several Discourses by +way of Essays,” which did not see the light until 1668. He +interspersed with his prose, translations and original pieces in +verse, but in other respects Cowley keeps much nearer than +Bacon to the form of Montaigne. Cowley’s essay “Of Myself” +is a model of what these little compositions should be. The name +of Bacon inspires awe, but it is really not he, but Cowley, who +is the father of the English essay; and it is remarkable that he +has had no warmer panegyrists than his great successors, Charles +Lamb and Macaulay. Towards the end of the century, Sir +George Mackenzie (1636-1691) wrote witty moral discourses, +which were, however, essays rather in name than form. Whenever, +however, we reach the eighteenth century, we find the +essay suddenly became a dominant force in English literature. +It made its appearance almost as a new thing, and in combination +with the earliest developments of journalism. On the 12th of +April 1709 appeared the first number of a penny newspaper, +entitled the <i>Tatler</i>, a main feature of which was to amuse and +instruct fashionable readers by a series of short papers dealing +with the manifold occurrences of life, <i>quicquid agunt homines</i>. +But it was not until Steele, the founder of the <i>Tatler</i>, was joined +by Addison that the eighteenth-century essay really started +upon its course. It displayed at first, and indeed it long retained, +a mixture of the manner of Montaigne with that of La Bruyère, +combining the form of the pure essay with that of the character-study, +as modelled on Theophrastus, which had been so popular +in England throughout the seventeenth century. Addison’s +early <i>Tatler</i> portraits, in particular such as those of “Tom Folio” +and “Ned Softly,” are hardly essays. But Steele’s “Recollections +of Childhood” is, and here we may observe the type on +which Goldsmith, Lamb and R.L. Stevenson afterwards worked. +In January 1711 the <i>Tatler</i> came to an end, and was almost +immediately followed by the <i>Spectator</i>, and in 1713 by the +<i>Guardian</i>. These three newspapers are storehouses of admirable +and typical essays, the majority of them written by Steele and +Addison, who are the most celebrated eighteenth-century +essayists in England. Later in the century, after the publication +of other less successful experiments, appeared Fielding’s essays +in the <i>Covent Garden Journal</i> (1752) and Johnson’s in the +<i>Rambler</i> (1750), the <i>Adventurer</i> (1752) and the <i>Idler</i> (1759). +There followed a great number of polite journals, in which the +essay was treated as “the bow of Ulysses in which it was the +fashion for men of rank and genius to try their strength.” Goldsmith +reached a higher level than the Chesterfields and Bonnel +Thorntons had dreamed of, in the delicious sections of his +<i>Citizen of the World</i> (1760). After Goldsmith, the eighteenth-century +essay declined into tamer hands, and passed into final +feebleness with the pedantic Richard Cumberland and the +sentimental Henry Mackenzie. The <i>corpus</i> of eighteenth-century +essayists is extremely voluminous, and their reprinted works +fill some fifty volumes. There is, however, a great sameness +about all but the very best of them, and in no case do they +surpass Addison in freshness, or have they ventured to modify +the form he adopted for his lucubrations. What has survived +of them all is the lightest portion, but it should not be forgotten +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page778" id="page778"></a>778</span> +that a very large section of the essays of that age were deliberately +didactic and “moral.” A great revival of the essay took place +during the first quarter of the nineteenth century, and foremost +in the history of this movement must always be placed the +name of Charles Lamb. He perceived that the real business +of the essay, as Montaigne had conceived it, was to be largely +personal. The famous <i>Essays of Elia</i> began to appear in the +<i>London Magazine</i> for August 1820, and proceeded at fairly +regular intervals until December 1822; early in 1823 the first +series of them were collected in a volume. The peculiarity of +Lamb’s style as an essayist was that he threw off the Addisonian +and still more the Johnsonian tradition, which had become +a burden that crushed the life out of each conventional essay, +and that he boldly went back to the rich verbiage and brilliant +imagery of the seventeenth century for his inspiration. It is +true that Lamb had great ductility of style, and that, when he +pleases, he can write so like Steele that Steele himself might +scarcely know the difference, yet in his freer flights we are +conscious of more exalted masters, of Milton, Thomas Browne +and Jeremy Taylor. He succeeded, moreover, in reaching a +poignant note of personal feeling, such as none of his predecessors +had ever aimed at; the essays called “Dream Children” and +“Blakesmoor” are examples of this, and they display a degree +of harmony and perfection in the writing of the pure essay such +as had never been attempted before, and has never since been +reached. Leigh Hunt, clearing away all the didactic and +pompous elements which had overgrown the essay, restored it +to its old <i>Spectator</i> grace, and was the most easy nondescript +writer of his generation in periodicals such as the <i>Indicator</i> +(1819) and the <i>Companion</i> (1828). The sermons, letters and +pamphlets of Sydney Smith were really essays of an extended +order. In Hazlitt and Francis Jeffrey we see the form and +method of the essay beginning to be applied to literary criticism. +The writings of De Quincey are almost exclusively essays, +although many of the most notable of them, under his vehement +pen, have far outgrown the limits of the length laid +down by the most indulgent formalist. His biographical and +critical essays are interesting, but they are far from being trustworthy +models in form or substance. In a sketch, however +rapid, of the essay in the nineteenth century, prominence must +be given to the name of Macaulay. His earliest essay, that +on Milton, appeared in the <i>Edinburgh Review</i> in 1825, very +shortly after the revelation of Lamb’s genius in “Elia.” No +two products cast in the same mould could, however, be +more unlike in substance. In the hands of Macaulay the essay +ceases to be a confession or an autobiography; it is strictly impersonal, +it is literary, historical or controversial, vigorous, +trenchant and full of party prejudice. The periodical publication +of Macaulay’s Essays in the <i>Edinburgh Review</i> went on +until 1844; when we cast our eyes over this mass of brilliant +writing we observe with surprise that it is almost wholly contentious. +Nothing can be more remarkable than the difference +in this respect between Lamb and Macaulay, the former for ever +demanding, even cajoling, the sympathy of the reader, the +latter scanning the horizon for an enemy to controvert. In +later times the essay in England has been cultivated in each of +these ways, by a thousand journalists and authors. The “leaders” +of a daily newspaper are examples of the popularization of the +essay, and they point to the danger which now attacks it, that +of producing a purely ephemeral or even momentary species +of effect. The essay, in its best days, was intended to be as +lasting as a poem or a historical monograph; it aimed at being +one of the most durable and precious departments of literature. +We still occasionally see the production of essays which have +this more ambitious aim; within the last quarter of the nineteenth +century the essays of R.L. Stevenson achieved it. His +<i>Familiar Studies</i> are of the same class as those of Montaigne +and Lamb, and he approached far more closely than any other +contemporary to their high level of excellence. We have seen +that the tone of the essay should be personal and confidential; +in Stevenson’s case it was characteristically so. But the voices +which please the public in a strain of pure self-study are few +at all times, and with the cultivation of the analytic habit they +tend to become less original and attractive. It is possible that +the essay may die of exhaustion of interest, or may survive only +in the modified form of accidental journalism.</p> + +<p>The essay, although invented by a great French writer, was +very late in making itself at home in France. The so-called +<i>Essais</i> of Leibnitz, Nicole, Yves Marie André and so many others +were really treatises. Voltaire’s famous <i>Essai sur les mœurs +des nations</i> is an elaborate historical disquisition in nearly two +hundred chapters. Later, the voluminous essays of Joseph de +Maistre and of Lamennais were not essays at all in the literary +sense. On the other hand, the admirable <i>Causeries du lundi</i> +of Sainte-Beuve (1804-1869) are literary essays in the fulness +of the term, and have been the forerunners of a great army of +brilliant essay-writing in France. Among those who have +specially distinguished themselves as French essayists may be +mentioned Théophile Gautier, Paul de Saint-Victor, Anatole +France, Jules Lemaître, Ferdinand Brunetière and Émile +Faguet. All these are literary critics, and it is in the form of +the analysis of manifestations of intellectual energy that the +essay has been most successfully illustrated in France. All the +countries of Europe, since the middle of the 19th century, have +adopted this form of writing; such monographs or reviews, +however, are not perfectly identical with the essay as it was +conceived by Addison and Lamb. This last, it may be supposed, +is a definitely English thing, and this view is confirmed by the +fact that in several European languages the word “essayist” +has been adopted without modification.</p> + +<p>In the above remarks it has been taken for granted that the +essay is always in prose. Pope, however, conceived an essay +in heroic verse. Of this his <i>Essay on Criticism</i> (1711) and his +<i>Essay on Man</i> (1732-1734) are not good examples, for they are +really treatises. The so-called <i>Moral Essays</i> (1720-1735), on +the contrary, might have been contributed, if in prose, either to +the <i>Spectator</i> or the <i>Guardian</i>. The idea of pure essays, in verse, +however, did not take any root in English literature.</p> +<div class="author">(E. G.)</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">ESSEG<a name="ar135" id="ar135"></a></span>, <span class="sc">Essegg</span> or <span class="sc">Essek</span> (Hung. <i>Esszék</i>; Croatian <i>Osjek</i>), a +royal free town, municipality, and capital of the county of +Virovitica (<i>Veröcze</i>), in Croatia-Slavonia, on the right bank +of the Drave, 9 m. W. of its confluence with the Danube, and 185 +m. S. of Buda-Pest by rail. Pop. (1900) 24,930; chiefly Magyars +and Croats, with a few Germans and Jews. At Esseg the +Drave is crossed by two bridges, and below these it is navigable +by small steamers. The upper town, with the fortress, is under +military authority; the new town and the lower town, which +is the headquarters of commerce, are under civil authority. +The only buildings of note are the Roman Catholic and Orthodox +churches, Franciscan and Capuchin monasteries, synagogue, +gymnasium, modern school, hospital, chamber of commerce, +and law-courts. Esseg has a thriving trade in grain, fruit, +live-stock, plum-brandy and timber. Tanning, silk-weaving +and glass-blowing are also carried on.</p> + +<p>Esseg owes its origin to its fortress, which existed as early +as the time of the Romans under the name of <i>Mursia</i>; though +the present structure dates only from 1720. At the beginning +of the Hungarian revolution of 1848 the town was held by the +Hungarians, but on the 4th of February 1849 it was taken by +the Austrians under General Baron Trebersberg.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">ESSEN<a name="ar136" id="ar136"></a></span>, a manufacturing town of Germany, in the Prussian +Rhine province, 22 m. N.E. from Düsseldorf, on the main line +of railway to Berlin, in an undulating and densely populated +district. Pop. (1849) 8813; (1875) 54,790; (1905) 229,270. +It lies at the centre of a network of railways giving it access +to all the principal towns of the Westphalian iron and coal fields. +Its general aspect is gloomy; it possesses few streets of any +pretensions, though those in the old part, which are mostly narrow, +present, with their grey slate roofs and green shutters, a picturesque +appearance. Of its religious edifices (twelve Roman +Catholic, one Old Catholic, six Protestant churches, and a +synagogue) the minster, dating from the 10th century, with +fine pictures, relics and wall frescoes, is alone especially remarkable. +<b>This building</b> is very similar to the Pfalz-Kapelle (<i>capella</i> +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page779" id="page779"></a>779</span> +<i>in palatio</i>) at Aix-la-Chapelle. Among the town’s principal +secular buildings are the new Gothic town-hall, the post office +and the railway station. There are several high-grade (classical +and modern) schools, technical, mining and commercial schools, +a theatre, a permanent art exhibition, and hospitals. Essen +also has a beautiful public park in the immediate vicinity. The +town originally owed its prosperity to the large iron and coal +fields underlying the basin in which it is situated. Chief among +its industrial establishments are the famous iron and steel +works of Krupp (<i>q.v.</i>), and the whole of Essen may be said to +depend for its livelihood upon this firm, which annually expends +vast sums in building and supporting churches, schools, clubs, +hospitals and philanthropic institutions, and in other ways +providing for the welfare of its employees. There are also +manufactories of woollen goods and cigars, dyeworks and +breweries.</p> + +<p>Essen was originally the seat of a Benedictine nunnery, and +was formed into a town about the middle of the 10th century +by the abbess Hedwig. The abbess of the nunnery, who held +from 1275 the rank of a princess of the Empire, was assisted +by a chapter of ten princesses and countesses; she governed +the town until 1803, when it was secularized and incorporated +with Prussia. In 1807 it came into the possession of the grand +dukes of Berg, but was transferred to Prussia in 1814.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See Funcke, <i>Geschichte des Fürstenthums und der Stadt Essen</i> +(Elberfeld, 1851); Kellen, <i>Die Industriestadt Essen in Wort und +Bild</i> (Essen, 1902); and A. Shadwell, <i>Industrial Efficiency</i> (London, +1906).</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">ESSENES<a name="ar137" id="ar137"></a></span>, a monastic order among the Jews prior to Christianity. +Their first appearance in history is in the time of +Jonathan the Maccabee (161-144 <span class="scs">B.C.</span>). How much older they +may have been we have no means of determining, but our +authorities agree in assigning to them a dateless antiquity. +The name occurs in Greek, in the two forms <span class="grk" title="Essênoi">Ἐσσηνοί</span> and <span class="grk" title="Essaioi">Ἐσσαῖοι</span>. +<span class="grk" title="Essênoi">Ἐσσηνοί</span> is used by Josephus fourteen times, <span class="grk" title="Essaioi">Ἐσσαῖοι</span> six, but the +latter is the only form used by Philo (ii. 457, 471, 632). <span class="grk" title="Essênoi">Ἐσσηνοί</span> +is also used by Synesius and Hippolytus, and its Latin equivalent +by Pliny and Solinus; <span class="grk" title="Essaioi">Ἐσσαῖοι</span> by Hegesippus and Porphyry. +In Epiphanius we find the forms <span class="grk" title="Ossaioi, Ossênoi">Ὀσσαῖοι, Ὀσσηνοί</span>, and <span class="grk" title="Iessaioi">Ἰεσσαῖοι</span>. +There is a place named Essa mentioned by Josephus (Ant. xiii. +15, § 3), from which the name may have been formed, just as +the Christians were originally called <span class="grk" title="Nazarênoi">Ναζαρηνοί</span> or <span class="grk" title="Nazôraioi">Ναζωραῖοι</span>, +from Nazara. This etymology, however, is not much in favour +now. Lightfoot explains the name as meaning “the silent +ones,” others as meaning “physicians.” Perhaps there is most +authority in favour of deriving it from the Syriac <span title="chseich">חסיך</span>, which +in the emphatic state becomes <span title="chaseia">חסיא</span>, so that we have a Semitic +correspondence to both the Greek forms <span class="grk" title="Essênoi">Ἐσσηνοί</span> and <span class="grk" title="Essaioi">Ἐσσαῖοι</span>. +This etymology makes the word mean “pious.” It has also +been urged in excuse for Philo’s absurd derivation from <span class="grk" title="hosios">ὅσιος</span>.</p> + +<p>The original accounts we have of them are confined to three +authors—Philo, Pliny the Elder, and Josephus. Philo describes +them in his treatise known as <i>Quod omnis probus liber</i> (§§ 12, 13; +ii. 457-460), and also in his “Apology for the Jews,” a fragment +of which has been preserved by Eusebius (<i>Praep. Ev.</i> viii. 11, 12). +Pliny (<i>N.H.</i> v. 17) has a short but striking sketch of them, +derived in all probability from Alexander Polyhistor, who is +mentioned among the authorities for the fifth book of his <i>Natural +History</i>. This historian, of whom Eusebius had a very high +opinion (<i>Praep. Ev.</i> ix. 17, § 1), lived in the time of Sulla. Josephus +treats of them at length in his <i>Jewish War</i> (ii. 8), and more +briefly in two passages of his <i>Antiquities</i> (xiii. 5, § 9; xviii. 1, § 5). +He has also interesting accounts of the prophetic powers possessed +by three individual members of the sect—Judas (<i>B.J.</i> i. 3, § 5; +<i>Ant.</i> xiii. 11, § 2), Menahem (<i>Ant.</i> xv. 10, § 5), and Simon (<i>B.J.</i> +ii. 7, § 3; <i>Ant.</i> xvii. 13, § 3). Besides this he mentions an Essene +Gate in Jerusalem (<i>B.J.</i> v. 4, § 2) and a person called John the +Essene, one of the bravest and most capable leaders in the war +against the Romans (<i>B.J.</i> ii. 20, § 4; iii. 2, § 1). Josephus himself +made trial of the sect of Essenes in his youth; but from his own +statement it appears that he must have been a very short time +with them, and therefore could not have been initiated into the +inner mysteries of the society (<i>De vita sua</i>, 2). After this the +notices that we have of the Essenes from antiquity are mere +reproductions, except in the case of Epiphanius (died <span class="scs">A.D.</span> 402), +who, however, is so confused a writer as to be of little value. +Solinus, who was known as “Pliny’s Ape,” echoed the words +of his master about a century after that writer’s death, which +took place in <span class="scs">A.D.</span> 79. Similarly Hippolytus, who lived in the +reign of Commodus (<span class="scs">A.D.</span> 180-192), reproduced the account of +Josephus, adding a few touches of his own. Porphyry (<span class="scs">A.D.</span> +233-306) afterwards did the same, but had the grace to mention +Josephus in the context. Eusebius quoted the account as from +Porphyry, though he must have known that <i>he</i> had derived +it from Josephus (<i>Praep. Ev.</i> ix. 3, §§ 1, 13). But Porphyry’s +name would impress pagan readers. There is also a mention of +the Essenes by Hegesippus (Eus. <i>H.E.</i> iv. 22) and by Synesius +in his life of Dio Chrysostom. It has been conjectured that +the Clementine literature emanated from Essenes who had +turned Christian. (See <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Ebionites</a></span>.)</p> + +<p>The Essenes were an exclusive society, distinguished from +the rest of the Jewish nation in Palestine by an organization +peculiar to themselves, and by a theory of life in which a severe +asceticism and a rare benevolence to one another and to mankind +in general were the most striking characteristics. They had +fixed rules for initiation, a succession of strictly separate grades +within the limits of the society, and regulations for the conduct +of their daily life even in its minutest details. Their membership +could be recruited only from the outside world, as marriage and +all intercourse with women were absolutely renounced. They +were the first society in the world to condemn slavery both in +theory and practice; they enforced and practised the most +complete community of goods. They chose their own priests +and public office-bearers, and even their own judges. Though +their prevailing tendency was practical, and the tenets of the +society were kept a profound secret, it is perfectly clear from +the concurrent testimony of Philo and Josephus that they +cultivated a kind of speculation, which not only accounts for +their spiritual asceticism, but indicates a great deviation from +the normal development of Judaism, and a profound sympathy +with Greek philosophy, and probably also with Oriental ideas. +At the same time we do our Jewish authorities no injustice in +imputing to them the patriotic tendency to idealize the society, +and thus offer to their readers something in Jewish life that +would bear comparison at least with similar manifestations of +Gentile life.</p> + +<p>There is some difficulty in determining how far the Essenes +separated themselves locally from their fellow-countrymen. +Josephus informs us that they had no single city of their own, +but that many of them dwelt in every city. While in his treatise +<i>Quod omnis</i>, &c., Philo speaks of their avoiding towns and +preferring to live in villages, in his “Apology for the Jews” we find +them living in many cities, villages, and in great and prosperous +towns. In Pliny they are a perennial colony settled on the +western shore of the Dead Sea. On the whole, as Philo and +Josephus agree in estimating their number at 4000 (Philo, +<i>Q.O.P.L.</i> § 12; Jos. <i>Ant.</i> xviii. 1, § 5), we are justified in suspecting +some exaggeration as to the many cities, towns and villages +where they were said to be found. As agriculture was their +favourite occupation, and as their tendency was to withdraw +from the haunts and ordinary interests of mankind, we may +assume that with the growing confusion and corruption of Jewish +society they felt themselves attracted from the mass of the +population to the sparsely peopled districts, till they found a +congenial settlement and free scope for their peculiar view of +life by the shore of the Dead Sea. While their principles were +consistent with the neighbourhood of men, they were better +adapted to a state of seclusion.</p> + +<p>The Essenes did not renounce marriage because they denied +the validity of the institution or the necessity of it as providing +for the continuance of the human race, but because they had +a low opinion of the character of women (Jos. <i>B.J.</i> ii. 8, § 2; +Philo, “Apol. for the Jews” in Eus. <i>Praep. Ev.</i> viii. 11, § 8). They +adopted children when very young, and brought them up on +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page780" id="page780"></a>780</span> +their own principles. Pleasure generally they rejected as evil. +They despised riches not less than pleasure; neither poverty nor +wealth was observable among them; at initiation every one gave +his property into the common stock; every member in receipt +of wages handed them over to the funds of the society. In +matters of dress the asceticism of the society was very pronounced. +They regarded oil as a defilement, even washing it off if anointed +with it against their will. They did not change their clothes or +their shoes till they were torn in pieces or worn completely +away. The colour of their garments was always white. Their +daily routine was prescribed for them in the strictest manner. +Before the rising of the sun they were to speak of nothing profane, +but offered to it certain traditional forms of prayer as if beseeching +it to rise. Thereafter they went about their daily tasks, +working continuously at whatever trade they knew till the fifth +hour, when they assembled, and, girding on a garment of linen, +bathed in cold water. They next seated themselves quietly +in the dining hall, where the baker set bread in order, and the +cook brought each a single dish of one kind of food. Before +meat and after it grace was said by a priest. After dinner they +resumed work till sunset. In the evening they had supper, +at which guests of the order joined them, if there happened to +be any such present. Withal there was no noise or confusion to +mar the tranquillity of their intercourse; no one usurped more +than his share of the conversation; the stillness of the place +oppressed a stranger with a feeling of mysterious awe. This +composure of spirit was owing to their perfect temperance in +eating and drinking. Not only in the daily routine of the society, +but generally, the activity of the members was controlled by +their presidents. In only two things could they take the initiative, +helpfulness and mercy; the deserving poor and the +destitute were to receive instant relief; but no member could +give anything to his relatives without consulting the heads of +the society. Their office-bearers were elected. They had also +their special courts of justice, which were composed of not less +than a hundred members, and their decisions, which were +arrived at with extreme care, were irreversible. Oaths were +strictly forbidden; their word was stronger than an oath. They +were just and temperate in anger, the guardians of good faith, +and the ministers of peace, obedient to their elders and to the +majority. But the moral characteristics which they most +earnestly cultivated and enjoined will best appear in their rules +of initiation. There was a novitiate of three years, during +which the intending member was tested as to his fitness for +entering the society. If the result was satisfactory, he was +admitted, but before partaking of the common meal he was +required to swear awful oaths, that he would reverence the +deity, do justice to men, hurt no man voluntarily or at the +command of another, hate the unjust and assist the just, and +that he would render fidelity to all men, but especially to the +rulers, seeing that no one rules but of God. He also vowed, +if he should bear rule himself, to make no violent use of his +power, nor outshine those set under him by superior display, +to make it his aim to cherish the truth and unmask liars, to be +pure from theft and unjust gain, to conceal nothing from his +fellow-members, nor to divulge any of their affairs to other men, +even at the risk of death, to transmit their doctrines unchanged, +and to keep secret the books of the society and the names of the +angels.</p> + +<p>Within the limits of the society there were four grades so +distinct that if any one touched a member of an inferior grade +he required to cleanse himself by bathing in water; members +who had been found guilty of serious crimes were expelled from +the society, and could not be received again till reduced to the +very last extremity of want or sickness. As the result of the +ascetic training of the Essenes, and of their temperate diet, +it is said that they lived to a great age, and were superior to pain +and fear. During the Roman war they cheerfully underwent +the most grievous tortures rather than break any of the principles +of their faith. In fact, they had in many respects reached the +very highest moral elevation attained by the ancient world; +they were just, humane, benevolent, and spiritually-minded; +the sick and aged were the objects of a special affectionate +regard; and they condemned slavery, not only as an injustice, +but as an impious violation of the natural brotherhood of men +(Philo ii. 457). There were some of the Essenes who permitted +marriage, but strictly with a view to the preservation of the race; +in other respects they agreed with the main body of the society.</p> + +<p>It will be apparent that the predominant tendency of the +society was practical. Philo tells us expressly that they rejected +logic as unnecessary to the acquisition of virtue, and speculation +on nature as too lofty for the human intellect. Yet they had +views of their own as to God, Providence, the soul, and a future +state, which, while they had a practical use, were yet essentially +speculative. On the one hand, indeed, they held tenaciously +by the traditional Judaism: blasphemy against their lawgiver +was punished with death, the sacred books were preserved and +read with great reverence, though not without an allegorical +interpretation, and the Sabbath was most scrupulously observed. +But in many important points their deviation from the strait +path of Judaic development was complete. They rejected +animal sacrifice as well as marriage; the oil with which priests +and kings were anointed they accounted unclean; and the +condemnation of oaths and the community of goods were unmistakable +innovations for which they found no hint or warrant +in the old Hebrew writings. Their most singular feature, perhaps, +was their reverence for the sun. In their speculative hints +respecting the soul and a future state, we find another important +deviation from Judaism, and the explanation of their asceticism. +They held that the body is mortal, and its substance transitory; +that the soul is immortal, but, coming from the subtlest ether, +is lured as by a sorcery of nature into the prison-house of the +body. At death it is released from its bonds, as from long +slavery, and joyously soars aloft. To the souls of the good +there is reserved a life beyond the ocean, and a country oppressed +by neither rain, nor snow, nor heat, but refreshed by a gentle +west wind blowing continually from the sea (cf. Hom. <i>Od.</i> iv. +566-568), but to the wicked a region of wintry darkness and +of unceasing torment. Josephus tells us too that the Essenes +believed in fate; but in what sense, and what relation it bore +to Divine Providence, does not appear.</p> + +<p>The above evidence has left students in doubt as to whether +Essenism is to be regarded as a pure product of the Jewish +mind or as due in part to some foreign influence. On the one +hand it might be maintained that the Essenes out-Pharisee’d +the Pharisees. They had in common with that sect their veneration +for Moses and the Law, their Sabbatarianism, their striving +after ceremonial purity, and their tendency towards fatalism. +But if the Pharisees abstained from good works on the Sabbath, +the Essenes abstained even from natural necessities (Jos. <i>B.J.</i> +ii. 8, § 9); if the Pharisees washed, the Essenes bathed before +dinner; if the Pharisees ascribed some things to Fate, the +Essenes ascribed all (Jos. <i>Ant.</i> xiii. 5, § 9). But on the other hand +the Essenes avoided marriage, which the Pharisees held in honour; +they offered no animal-sacrifices in the Temple; they refrained +from the use of oil, which was customary among the Pharisees +(Luke vii. 46); above all, they offered prayers to the sun, after +the manner denounced in Ezekiel (viii. 16). These and other +points of divergences are not explained by Ritschl’s interesting +theory that Essenism was an organized attempt to carry out the +idea of “a kingdom of priests and an holy nation” (Ex. xix. 6).</p> + +<p>Granting then that some foreign influence was at work in +Essenism, we have four theories offered to us—that this influence +was Persian, Buddhist, Pythagorean, or lastly, as maintained +by Lipsius, that of the surrounding Syrian heathenism. Each of +these views has had able advocates, but it must not be supposed +that they are mutually exclusive. If we consider how Philo, +while remaining a devout Jew in religion, yet managed to +assimilate the whole Stoic philosophy, we can well believe that +the Essenes might have been influenced, as Zeller maintained +that they were, by Neo-Pythagoreanism. But as Pythagoras +himself came from Samos, and his doctrines have a decidedly +Oriental tinge, it may very well be that both he and the Essenes +drew from a common source; for there is no need to reject, as +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page781" id="page781"></a>781</span> +is so commonly done, the statements of our authorities as to the +antiquity of the Essenes. This common source we may believe +with Lightfoot to have been the Persian religion, which we know +to have profoundly influenced that of Israel, independently +of the Essenes.</p> + +<p>The fact that the Pharisees and Sadducees so often figure +in the pages of the New Testament, while the Essenes are never +mentioned, might plausibly be interpreted to show that the New +Testament emanated from the side of the Essenes. So far as +concerns the Epistle of St James this interpretation would +probably be correct. That work contains the doctrine common +to the Essenes with Plato, and suggestive of Persian Dualism, +that God is the author of good only. There are also certain +obvious points of resemblance between the Essenes and the +early Christians. Both held property in common; both had +scattered communities which received guests one from the +other; both avoided a light use of oaths; both taught passive +obedience to political authority. The list might be enlarged, but +it would not necessarily prove more than that the early Christians +shared in the ideas of their age. Christianity was to some extent +a popularization of Essenism, but there is little reason for +believing that Jesus himself was an Essene. De Quincey’s +contention that there were no Essenes but the early Christians +is now a literary curiosity.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>The original sources of our knowledge of the Essenes have been +mentioned at the beginning of this paper; the best modern discussions +of them are to be found in such works as Zeller’s <i>Philosophie +der Griechen</i>, vol. iii.; Ewald, <i>Geschichte d. V. Israël</i>, iii. +419-428; Reuss, <i>La Théologie chrétienne au siècle apostolique</i>, i. +122-131; Keim, <i>Life of Jesus of Nazara</i>, vol. i.; Lightfoot on the +Colossians; Lucius, <i>Der Essenismus in seinem Verhältniss zum +Judenthum</i>; Wellhausen, <i>Israelitische und jüdische Geschichte</i>; +Ed. Schürer, <i>The Jewish People in the Time of Jesus Christ</i>, div. ii. +vol. ii. § 30. The copious bibliography in Conybeare’s edition of +Philo’s <i>De vita contemplativa</i> bears upon the Essenes as well as upon +the Therapeutes. For a specially Jewish view of the Essenes see +Kohler’s article in the <i>Jewish Encyclopaedia</i>. They are there regarded +as being “simply the rigorists among the Pharisees.” But +we are also told that “the Pharisees characterized the Essene as ‘a +fool who destroyed the world.’”</p> +</div> +<div class="author">(T. K.; St G. S.)</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">ESSENTUKI,<a name="ar138" id="ar138"></a></span> a watering-place of south Russia, in the government +of Terek, 11 m. by rail W. from Pyatigorsk; altitude, +2096 ft. Its alkaline and sulphur-alkaline mineral waters, +similar to those of Ems, Selters and Vichy, are much visited +in summer. The climate shows great variations in temperature. +Pop. (1897) 9974.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">ESSEQUIBO,<a name="ar139" id="ar139"></a></span> or <span class="sc">Essequebo</span>, one of the three settlements +of British Guiana, taking its name from the river Essequibo. +(See <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Guiana</a></span>.)</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">ESSEX, EARLS OF.<a name="ar140" id="ar140"></a></span> The first earl of Essex was probably +Geoffrey de Mandeville (<i>q.v.</i>), who became earl about 1139, +the earldom being subsequently held by his two sons, Geoffrey +and William, until the death of the latter in 1189. In 1199 +Geoffrey Fitzpeter or Fitzpiers (d. 1213), who was related to +the Mandevilles through his wife Beatrice, became earl of Essex, +and on the death of Geoffrey’s son William in 1227 the earldom +reverted for the second time to the crown. Then the title to +the earldom passed by marriage to the Bohuns, earls of Hereford, +and before 1239 Humphrey de Bohun (d. 1275) had been recognized +as earl of Essex. With the earldom of Hereford the +earldom of Essex became extinct in 1373; afterwards it was +held by Thomas of Woodstock, duke of Gloucester, a son of +Edward III. and the husband of Eleanor de Bohun; and from +Gloucester it passed to the Bourchiers, Henry Bourchier (d. +1483), who secured the earldom in 1461, being one of Gloucester’s +grandsons. The second and last Bourchier earl was Henry’s +grandson Henry, who died early in 1540. A few weeks before +his execution in 1540 Thomas Cromwell (<i>q.v.</i>) was created earl +of Essex; then in 1543 William Parr, afterwards marquess of +Northampton, obtained the earldom by right of his wife Anne, +a daughter of the last Bourchier earl. Northampton lost the +earldom when he was attainted in 1553; and afterwards it +passed to the famous family of Devereux, Walter Devereux, +who was created earl of Essex in 1572, being related to the +Bourchiers. Robert, the 3rd and last Devereux earl, died in +1646. In 1661 Arthur Capel was created earl of Essex, and the +earldom is still held by his descendants.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">ESSEX, ARTHUR CAPEL,<a name="ar141" id="ar141"></a></span> <span class="sc">1st<a name="fa1f" id="fa1f" href="#ft1f"><span class="sp">1</span></a> Earl of</span> (1632-1683), +English statesman, son of Arthur, 1st Baron Capel of Hadham +(<i>c.</i> 1641), executed in 1649, and of Elizabeth, daughter and +heir of Sir Charles Morrison of Cashiobury in Hertfordshire, +was baptized on the 28th of January 1632. In June 1648, then +a sickly boy of sixteen, he was taken by Fairfax’s soldiers from +Hadham to Colchester, which his father was defending, and +carried every day round the works with the hope of inducing +Lord Capel to surrender the place. At the restoration he was +created Viscount Malden and earl of Essex (20th of April 1661), +with special remainder to the male issue of his father, and was +made lord-lieutenant of Hertfordshire and a few years later of +Wiltshire.<a name="fa2f" id="fa2f" href="#ft2f"><span class="sp">2</span></a></p> + +<p>He early showed himself antagonistic to the court, to Roman +Catholicism, and to the extension of the royal prerogative, and +was coupled by Charles II. with Holles as “stiff and sullen men,” +who would not yield against their convictions to his solicitations. +In 1669 he was sent as ambassador to King Christian V. of Denmark, +in which capacity he gained credit by refusing to strike +his flag to the governor of Kronborg. In 1672 he was made a +privy councillor and lord-lieutenant of Ireland. He remained +in office till 1677, and his administration was greatly commended +by Burnet and Ormonde,<a name="fa3f" id="fa3f" href="#ft3f"><span class="sp">3</span></a> the former describing it “as a pattern +to all that come after him.” He identified himself with Irish +interests, and took immense pains to understand the constitution +and the political necessities of the country, appointing men of +real merit to office, and maintaining an exceptional independence +from solicitation and influence. He held a just balance between +the Roman Catholics, the English Church and the Presbyterians, +protecting the former as far as public opinion in England would +permit, and governing the native Irish with firmness and moderation. +The purity and patriotism of his administration were in +strong contrast to the hopeless corruption prevalent in that at +home and naturally aroused bitter opposition, as an obstacle +to the unscrupulous employment of Irish revenues for the satisfaction +of the court and the king’s expenses. In particular he +came into conflict with Lord Ranelagh, to whom had been +assigned the Irish revenues on condition of his supplying the +requirements of the crown, and whose accounts Essex refused +to pass. He opposed strongly the lavish gifts of forfeited estates +to court favourites and mistresses, prevented the grant of Phoenix +Park to the duchess of Cleveland, and refused to encumber +the administration by granting reversions. Finally the intrigues +of his enemies at home, and Charles’s continual demands for +money, which Ranelagh undertook to satisfy, brought about +his recall in April 1677. He immediately joined the country +party and the opposition to Danby’s government, and on the +latter’s fall in 1679 was appointed a commissioner of the treasury, +and the same year a member of Sir William Temple’s new-modelled +council. He followed the lead of Halifax, who advocated +not the exclusion of James, but the limitation of his +sovereign powers, and looked to the prince of Orange rather +than to Monmouth as the leader of Protestantism, incurring +thereby the hostility of Shaftesbury, but at the same time +gaining the confidence of Charles. He was appointed by Charles +together with Halifax to hear the charges against Lauderdale. +In July he wrote a wise and statesmanlike letter to the king, +advising him to renounce his project of raising a new company of +guards. Together with Halifax he urged Charles to summon +the parliament, and after his refusal resigned the treasury in +November, the real cause being, according to one account,<a name="fa4f" id="fa4f" href="#ft4f"><span class="sp">4</span></a> +a demand upon the treasury by the duchess of Cleveland for +£25,000, according to another “the niceness of touching French +money,” “that makes my Lord Essex’s squeasy stomach that +it can no longer digest his employment.”<a name="fa5f" id="fa5f" href="#ft5f"><span class="sp">5</span></a></p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page782" id="page782"></a>782</span></p> + +<p>Subsequently his political attitude underwent a change, the +exact cause of which is not clear—probably a growing conviction +of the dangers threatened by a Roman Catholic sovereign of +the character of James. He now, in 1680, joined Shaftesbury’s +party and supported the Exclusion Bill, and on its rejection +by the Lords carried a motion for an association to execute the +scheme of expedients promoted by Halifax. On the 25th of +January 1681 at the head of fifteen peers he presented a petition +to the king, couched in exaggerated language, requesting the +abandonment of the session of parliament at Oxford. He was +a jealous prosecutor of the Roman Catholics in the popish plot, +and voted for Stafford’s attainder, on the other hand interceding +for Archbishop Plunket, implicated in the pretended Irish plot. +He, however, refused to follow Shaftesbury in his extreme +courses, declined participation in the latter’s design to seize +the Tower in 1682, and on Shaftesbury’s consequent departure +from England became the leader of Monmouth’s faction, in +which were now included Lord Russell, Algernon Sidney, and +Lord Howard of Escrick. Essex took no part in the wilder +schemes of the party, but after the discovery of the Rye House +Plot in June 1683, and the capture of the leaders, he was arrested +at Cashiobury and imprisoned in the Tower. His spirits and +fortitude appear immediately to have abandoned him, and on the +13th of July he was discovered in his chamber with his throat +cut. His death was attributed, quite groundlessly, to Charles +and James, and the evidence points clearly if not conclusively +to suicide, his motive being possibly to prevent an attainder +and preserve his estate for his family. He was, however, undoubtedly +a victim of the Stuart administration, and the antagonism +and tragic end of men like Essex, deserving men, naturally +devoted to the throne, constitutes a severe indictment of the +Stuart rule.</p> + +<p>He was a statesman of strong and sincere patriotism, just +and unselfish, conscientious and laborious in the fulfilment of +public duties, blameless in his official and private life. Evelyn +describes him as “a sober, wise, judicious and pondering person, +not illiterate beyond the rule of most noblemen in this age, very +well versed in English history and affairs, industrious, frugal, +methodical and every way accomplished”; and declares he +was much deplored, few believing he had ever harboured any +seditious designs.<a name="fa6f" id="fa6f" href="#ft6f"><span class="sp">6</span></a> He married Lady Elizabeth Percy, daughter +of Algernon, 10th earl of Northumberland, by whom, besides +a daughter, he had an only son Algernon (1670-1710), who succeeded +him as 2nd earl of Essex.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p><span class="sc">Bibliography</span>.—See the Lives in the <i>Dict. of Nat. Biography</i> and +in <i>Biographia Britannica</i> (Kippis), with authorities there collected; +Essex’s Irish correspondence is in the <i>Stow Collection</i> in the British +Museum, Nos. 200-217, and selections have been published in <i>Letters +written by Arthur Capel, Earl of Essex</i> (1770) and in the <i>Essex Papers</i> +(Camden Society, 1890), to which can now be added the <i>Calendars +of State Papers, Domestic</i>, which contain a large number of his +letters and which strongly support the opinion of his contemporaries +concerning his unselfish patriotism and industry; see also <i>Somers +Tracts</i> (1813), x., and for other pamphlets relating to his death the +catalogue of the British Museum.</p> +</div> + +<hr class="foot" /> <div class="note"> + +<p><a name="ft1f" id="ft1f" href="#fa1f"><span class="fn">1</span></a> <i>i.e.</i> in the Capel line.</p> + +<p><a name="ft2f" id="ft2f" href="#fa2f"><span class="fn">2</span></a> <i>Hist. MSS. Comm. ser.</i>; <i>Duke of Beaufort’s MSS.</i> 45.</p> + +<p><a name="ft3f" id="ft3f" href="#fa3f"><span class="fn">3</span></a> <i>Life of Ormonde</i>, by T. Carte, viii. 468 (1851), vol. iv. p. 529.</p> + +<p><a name="ft4f" id="ft4f" href="#fa4f"><span class="fn">4</span></a> <i>Hist. MSS. Comm.</i> 7th Rep. app. 477b.</p> + +<p><a name="ft5f" id="ft5f" href="#fa5f"><span class="fn">5</span></a> <i>Ib.</i> 6th Rep. app. 741b.</p> + +<p><a name="ft6f" id="ft6f" href="#fa6f"><span class="fn">6</span></a> <i>Diary and Corresp.</i> (1850), ii. 141, 178.</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">ESSEX, ROBERT DEVEREUX,<a name="ar142" id="ar142"></a></span> <span class="sc">2nd<a name="fa1g" id="fa1g" href="#ft1g"><span class="sp">1</span></a> Earl of</span> (1566-1601), +son of the 1st Devereux earl, was born at Netherwood, Herefordshire, +on the 19th of November 1566. He entered the university +of Cambridge and graduated in 1581. In 1585 he accompanied +his stepfather, the earl of Leicester, on an expedition to Holland, +and greatly distinguished himself at the battle of Zutphen. +He now took his place at court, where so handsome a youth +soon found favour with Queen Elizabeth, and in consequence +was on bad terms with Raleigh. In 1587 he was appointed +master of the horse, and in the following year was made general +of the horse and installed knight of the Garter. On the death +of Leicester he succeeded him as chief favourite of the queen, a +position which injuriously affected his whole subsequent life, and +ultimately resulted in his ruin. While Elizabeth was approaching +the mature age of sixty, Essex was scarcely twenty-one. +Though well aware of the advantages of his position, and somewhat +vain of the queen’s favour, his constant attendance on her +at court was irksome to him beyond all endurance; and when +he could not make his escape to the scenes of foreign adventure +after which he longed, he varied the monotony of his life at court +by intrigues with the maids of honour. He fought a duel with +Sir Charles Blount, a rival favourite of the queen, in which the +earl was disarmed and slightly wounded in the thigh.</p> + +<p>In 1589, without the queen’s consent, he joined the expedition +of Drake and Sir John Norris against Spain, but in June he +was compelled to obey a letter enjoining him at his “uttermost +peril” to return immediately. In 1590 Essex married the widow +of Sir Philip Sidney, but in dread of the queen’s anger he kept +the marriage secret as long as possible. When it was necessary +to avow it, her rage at first knew no bounds, but as the earl did +“use it with good temper,” and “for her majesty’s better +satisfaction was pleased that my lady should live retired in her +mother’s house,” he soon came to be “in very good favour.” +In 1591 he was appointed to the command of a force auxiliary to +one formerly sent to assist Henry IV. of France against the +Spaniards; but after a fruitless campaign he was finally recalled +from the command in January 1592. For some years after this +most of his time was spent at court, where he held a position of +unexampled influence, both on account of the favour of the +queen and from his own personal popularity. In 1596 he was, +after a great many “changes of humour” on the queen’s part, +appointed along with Lord Howard of Effingham, Raleigh and +Lord Thomas Howard, to the command of an expedition, which +was successful in defeating the Spanish fleet, capturing and +pillaging Cadiz, and destroying 53 merchant vessels. It would +seem to have been shortly after this exploit that the beginnings +of a change in the feelings of the queen towards him came into +existence. On his return she chided him that he had not followed +up his successes, and though she professed great pleasure at +again seeing him in safety, and was ultimately satisfied that the +abrupt termination of the expedition was contrary to his advice +and remonstrances, she forbade him to publish anything in +justification of his conduct. She doubtless was offended at his +growing tendency to assert his independence, and jealous of his +increasing popularity with the people; but it is also probable +that her strange infatuation regarding her own charms, great +as it was, scarcely prevented her from suspecting either that his +professed attachment had all along been somewhat alloyed with +considerations of personal interest, or that at least it was now +beginning to cool. Francis Bacon, at that time his most intimate +friend, endeavoured to prevent the threatened rupture by +writing him a long letter of advice; and although perseverance +in a long course of feigned action was for Essex impossible, +he for some time attended pretty closely to the hints of his +mentor, so that the queen “used him most graciously.” In +1597 he was appointed master of the ordnance, and in the +following year he obtained command of an expedition against +Spain, known as the Islands or Azores Voyage. He gained some +trifling successes, but as the Plate fleet escaped him he failed +of his main purpose; and when on his return the queen met +him with the usual reproaches, he retired to his home at +Wanstead. This was not what Elizabeth desired, and although +she conferred on Lord Howard of Effingham the earldom of +Nottingham for services at Cadiz, the main merit of which was +justly claimed by Essex, she ultimately held out to the latter the +olive branch of peace, and condescended to soothe his wounded +honour by creating him earl marshal of England. That, nevertheless, +the irritated feelings neither of Essex nor of the queen +were completely healed was manifested shortly afterwards in +a manner which set propriety completely at defiance. In a discussion +on the appointment of a lord deputy to Ireland, Essex, +on account of some taunting words of Elizabeth, turned his +back upon her with a gesture indicative not only of anger but of +contempt, and when she, unable to control her indignation, +slapped him on the face, he left her presence swearing that such +an insult he would not have endured even from Henry VIII.</p> + +<p>In 1599, while Ulster was in rebellion under the earl of Tyrone, +the office of lieutenant and governor-general of Ireland was +conferred on Essex, and a large force put at his command. +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page783" id="page783"></a>783</span> +His campaign was an unsuccessful one, and by acting in various +ways in opposition to the commands of the queen and the +council, agreeing with Tyrone on a truce in September, and +suddenly leaving the post of duty with the object of privately +vindicating himself before the queen, he laid himself open to +charges more serious than that of mere incompetency. For +these misdemeanours he was brought in June 1600 before a +specially constituted court, deprived of all his high offices, and +ordered to live a prisoner in his own house during the queen’s +pleasure. Chiefly through the intercession of Bacon his liberty +was shortly afterwards restored to him, but he was ordered not +to return to court. For some time he hoped for an improvement +in his prospects, but when he was refused the renewal of his +patent for sweet wines, hope was succeeded by despair, and +half maddened by wounded vanity, he made an attempt (Feb. +7, 1601) to incite a revolution in his behalf, by parading the +streets of London with 300 retainers, and shouting, “For the +queen! a plot is laid for my life!” These proceedings awakened, +however, scarcely any other feelings than mild perplexity and +wonder; and finding that hope of assistance from the citizens +was vain, he returned to Essex House, where after defending +himself for a short time he surrendered. After a trial—in which +Bacon, who prosecuted, delivered a speech against his quondam +friend and benefactor, the bitterness of which was quite unnecessary +to secure a conviction entailing at least very severe +punishment—he was condemned to death, and notwithstanding +many alterations in Elizabeth’s mood, the sentence was carried +out on the 25th of February 1601.</p> + +<p>Essex was in person tall and well proportioned, with a countenance +which, though not strictly handsome, possessed, on account +of its bold, cheerful and amiable expression, a wonderful power +of fascination. He was a patron of literature, and himself a +poet. His carriage was not very graceful, but his manners are +said to have been “courtly, grave and exceedingly comely.” +He was brave, chivalrous, impulsive, imperious sometimes with +his equals, but generous to all his dependants and incapable +of secret malice; and these virtues, which were innate and +which remained with him to the last, must be regarded as somewhat +counterbalancing, in our estimation of him, the follies +and vices created by temptations which were exceptionally +strong.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See Hon. W.B. Devereux, <i>Lives of the Earls of Essex</i> (1853); and +<i>Bacon and Essex</i>, by E.A. Abbott (1877). Also the article <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Bacon, +Francis</a></span>, and authorities there.</p> +</div> + +<hr class="foot" /> <div class="note"> + +<p><a name="ft1g" id="ft1g" href="#fa1g"><span class="fn">1</span></a> <i>i.e.</i> in the Devereux line.</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">ESSEX, ROBERT DEVEREUX,<a name="ar143" id="ar143"></a></span> <span class="sc">3rd<a name="fa1h" id="fa1h" href="#ft1h"><span class="sp">1</span></a> Earl of</span> (1591-1646), +son of the preceding, was born in 1591. He was educated at +Eton and at Merton College, Oxford. Shortly after the arrival +of James I. in London, Essex (whose title was restored, and the +attainder on his father removed, in 1604) was placed about the +prince of Wales, as a sharer both in his studies and amusements. +At the early age of fifteen he was married to Frances Howard, +daughter of the earl of Suffolk, but she was his wife only in name; +during his absence abroad (1607-1609) she fell in love with +Sir Robert Carr (afterwards earl of Somerset), and on her charging +her husband with physical incapacity, the marriage was annulled +in 1613. A second marriage which he contracted in 1631 with +Elizabeth, daughter of Sir William Paulet, also ended unhappily. +From 1620 to 1623 he served in the wars of the Palatinate, and +in 1625 he was vice-admiral of a fleet which made an unsuccessful +attempt to capture Cadiz. In 1639 he was lieutenant-general of +the army sent by Charles against the Scottish Covenanters; +but on account of the irresolution of the king no battle occurred, +and the army was disbanded at the end of the year. Essex +was discharged “without ordinary ceremony,” and refused an +office which at that time fell vacant, “all which,” says Clarendon, +“wrought very much upon his rough, proud nature, and made +him susceptible of some impressions afterwards which otherwise +would not have found such easy admission.” Having taken the +side of the parliament against Charles, he was, on the outbreak +of the civil war in 1642, appointed to the command of the parliamentary +army. At the battle of Edgehill he remained master +of the field, and in 1643 he captured Reading, and relieved +Gloucester; but in the campaign of the following year, on +account of his hesitation to fight against the king in person, +nearly his whole army fell into the hands of Charles. In 1645, +on the passing of the self-denying ordinance, providing that no +member of parliament should hold a public office, he resigned +his commission; but on account of his past services his annuity +of £10,000 was continued to him for life. He died on the 14th +of September 1646, of a fever brought on by over-exertion in a +stag-hunt in Windsor Forest; his line becoming extinct.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See the “Life of Robert Earl of Essex,” by Robert Codrington, +M.A., printed in <i>Hart. Misc.</i>; Clarendon’s <i>History of the Rebellion</i>, +and Hon. W.B. Devereux, <i>Lives of the Earls of Essex</i> (1853).</p> +</div> + +<hr class="foot" /> <div class="note"> + +<p><a name="ft1h" id="ft1h" href="#fa1h"><span class="fn">1</span></a> <i>i.e.</i> in the Devereux line.</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">ESSEX, WALTER DEVEREUX,<a name="ar144" id="ar144"></a></span> <span class="sc">1st<a name="fa1i" id="fa1i" href="#ft1i"><span class="sp">1</span></a> Earl of</span> (1541-1576), +the eldest son of Sir Richard Devereux, was born in 1541. His +grandfather was the 2nd Baron Ferrers, who was created Viscount +Hereford in 1550 and by his mother was a nephew of Henry +Bourchier, a former earl of Essex. Walter Devereux succeeded +as 2nd Viscount Hereford in 1558, and in 1561 or 1562 married +Lettice, daughter of Sir Francis Knollys. In 1569 he served +as high marshal of the field under the earl of Warwick and Lord +Clinton, and materially assisted them in suppressing the northern +insurrection. For his zeal in the service of Queen Elizabeth +on this and other occasions, he in 1572 received the Garter and +was created earl of Essex, the title which formerly belonged +to the Bourchier family. Eager to give proof of “his good +devotion to employ himself in the service of her majesty,” he +offered on certain conditions to subdue and colonize, at his +own expense, a portion of the Irish province of Ulster, at that +time completely under the dominion of the rebel O’Neills, under +Sir Brian MacPhelim and Tirlogh Luineach, with the Scots under +their leader Sorley Boy MacDonnell. His offer, with certain +modifications, was accepted, and he set sail for Ireland in July +1573, accompanied by a number of earls, knights and gentlemen, +and with a force of about 1200 men. The beginning of his +enterprise was inauspicious, for on account of a storm which +dispersed his fleet and drove some of his vessels as far as Cork +and the Isle of Man, his forces did not all reach the place of +rendezvous till late in the autumn, and he was compelled to +entrench himself at Belfast for the winter. Here, by sickness, +famine and desertions, his troops were diminished to little more +than 200 men. Intrigues of various sorts, and fighting of a +guerilla type, followed with disappointing results, and Essex +had difficulties both with the deputy Fitzwilliam and with the +queen. Essex was in straits himself, and his offensive movements +in Ulster took the form of raids and brutal massacres among the +O’Neills; in October 1574 he treacherously captured MacPhelim +at a conference in Belfast, and after slaughtering his attendants +had him and his wife and brother executed at Dublin. Elizabeth, +instigated apparently by Leicester, after encouraging Essex +to prepare to attack the Irish chief Tirlogh Luineach, suddenly +commanded him to “break off his enterprise”; but, as she +left him a certain discretionary power, he took advantage of +it to defeat Tirlogh Luineach, chastise Antrim, and massacre +several hundreds of Sorley Boy’s following, chiefly women and +children, discovered hiding in the caves of Rathlin. He returned +to England in the end of 1575, resolved “to live henceforth an +untroubled life”; but he was ultimately persuaded to accept +the offer of the queen to make him earl marshal of Ireland. He +arrived in Dublin in September 1576, and three weeks afterwards +died of dysentery. There were suspicions that he had been +poisoned by Leicester, who shortly after his death married his +widow, but these were not confirmed by the post-mortem examination. +The endeavours of Essex to better the condition of Ireland +were a dismal failure; and the massacres of the O’Neills and of +the Scots of Rathlin leave a dark stain on his reputation.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See Sidney Lee’s article in the <i>Dict. Nat. Biog.; Lives of the +Devereux Earls of Essex</i>, by Hon. Walter B. Devereux (1853); +Froude’s <i>History of England</i>, vol. x.; J.S. Brewer, <i>Athenaeum</i> +(1870), part i. pp. 261, 326.</p> +</div> + +<hr class="foot" /> <div class="note"> + +<p><a name="ft1i" id="ft1i" href="#fa1i"><span class="fn">1</span></a> <i>i.e.</i> in the Devereux line.</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">ESSEX,<a name="ar145" id="ar145"></a></span> an eastern county of England, bounded N. by Cambridgeshire +and Suffolk, E. by the North Sea, S. by the Thames, +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page784" id="page784"></a>784</span> +dividing it from Kent, W. by the administrative county of +London and by Hertfordshire. Its area is 1542 sq. m. Its +configuration is sufficiently indicated by the direction of its +rivers. Except that in the N.W. the county includes the heads +of a few valleys draining northward to the Cam and so to the +Great Ouse, all the streams, which are never of great size, run +southward and eastward, either into the Thames, or into the +North Sea by way of the broad, shallow estuaries which ramify +through the flat coast lands. The highest ground lies consequently +in the north-west, between the Cam basin and the rivers +of the county. Its principal southward extension is that between +the Lea (which with its tributary the Stort forms a great part +of the western boundary) and the Roding, and east of the Roding +valley. The other chief rivers may be specified according to +their estuaries, following the coast northward from Shoeburyness +at the Thames mouth. That of the Roach ramifies among several +islands of which Foulness is the largest, but its main branch +joins the Crouch estuary. Next follows the Blackwater, which +receives the Chelmer, the Brain and other streams. Following +a coast of numerous creeks and islets, with the large island of +Mersea, the Colne estuary is reached. The Colne and Blackwater +may be said to form one large estuary, as they enter the +sea by a well-marked common mouth, 5 m. in width, between +Sales Point and Colne Point. There is a great irregular inlet +(Hamford Water) receiving no large stream, W. of the Naze +promontory, and then the Stour, bounding the county on the +north, joins its estuary to that of the Orwell near the sea. There +are several seaside watering-places in favour owing to their +proximity to London, of which Southend-on-Sea above the +mouth of the Thames, Clacton-on-Sea, Walton-on-the-Naze, +and Dovercourt adjoining Harwich are the chief. These and +other stations on the estuaries are also in favour with yachtsmen. +The sea has at some points seriously encroached upon the land +within historic times. The low soft cliffs at various points are +liable to give way against the waves; in other parts dykes and +embankments are necessary to prevent inundation. Inland, that +is apart from the flat coast-district, the country is pleasantly +undulating and for the most part well wooded. It was formerly, +indeed, almost wholly forested, the great Waltham Forest +stretching from Colchester to the confines of London. Of this +a fragment is preserved in Epping Forest (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Epping</a></span>) between +the Lea and the Roding. On the other side of the Roding +Hainault Forest is traceable, but was disafforested in 1851. +The oak is the principal tree; a noteworthy example was that +of Fairlop in Hainault, which measured 45 ft. in girth, but was +blown down in 1820.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p><i>Geology.</i>—The geological structure of the county is very simple: +the greater part is occupied by the London clay with underlying +Reading beds and Thanet sands, with here and there small patches +of Bagshot gravels on elevated tracts, as at High Beech, Langdon +Hill, Brentwood and Rayleigh; and occasionally the same beds +are represented by the large boulder-like Sarsen stones on the lower +ground. In the north, the chalk, which underlies the Tertiary +strata over the whole county, appears at the surface and forms the +downs about Saffron Walden, Birdbrook and Great Yeldham; it +is brought up again by a small disturbance at Grays Thurrock where +it is quarried on a large scale for lime, cement and whiting. Small +patches of Pleistocene Red Crag rest upon the Eocene strata at +Beaumont and Oakley, and are very well exposed at Walton-on-the-Naze +where they are very fossiliferous. Most of the county is +covered by a superficial deposit of glacial drifts, sands, gravel and +in places boulder clay, as at Epping, Dunmow and Hornchurch +where the drift lies beneath the Thames gravel. An interesting +feature in relation to the glacial drift is a deep trough in the Cam +valley revealed by borings to be no less than 340 ft. deep at Newport; +this ancient valley is filled with drift. In the southern part of the +county are broad spreads of gravel and brick earth, formed by the +Thames; these have been excavated for brick-making and building +purposes about Ilford, Romford and Grays, and have yielded the +remains of hippopotamus, rhinoceros and mammoth. More recent +alluvial deposits are found in the valley at Walthamstow and Tilbury, +in which the remains of the beaver have been discovered.</p> + +<p>The roads of this county with a clay soil foundation were for +generations repaired with flints picked by women and children from +the surface of the fields. Gravel is difficult of access. With the +exception of chalk for lime (mainly obtained at Ballingdon in the +north and Grays in the south), septaria for making cement, and clay +for bricks, the underground riches of the county are meagre.</p> +</div> + +<p><i>Agriculture.</i>—As an agricultural county Essex ranks high. +Some four-fifths of the total area is under cultivation, and +about one-third of that area is in permanent pasture. Wheat, +barley and oats, in that relative order, are the principal grain +crops, Essex being one of the chief grain-producing counties. +The wheat and barley are in particularly high favour, the wheat +of various standard species being exported for seed purposes, +while the barley is especially useful in malting. Beans and peas +are largely grown, as are vegetables for the London market. +Hop-growing was once important. From the comparative +dryness of the climate Essex does not excel in pasturage, and +winter grazing receives the more attention. The numbers of +cattle increase steadily, and store bullocks are introduced in +large numbers from Norfolk, Lincolnshire, Ireland and Wales. +Of sheep there are but few distinct flocks, and the numbers +decrease. Pigs are generally of a high-class Berkshire type.</p> + +<p><i>Other Industries.</i>—The south-west of the county, being contiguous +to London, is very densely populated, and is the seat of +large and varied industries. For example, there are numbers +of chemical works, the extensive engine shops and works of the +Great Eastern railway at Stratford, government powder works +in the vicinity of Waltham Abbey, and powder stores at Purfleet +on the Thames. The extensive water-works for east London, +by the Lea near Walthamstow, may also be mentioned. The +docks at Plaistow and Tilbury on the Thames employ many +hands. Apart from this industrial district, there are considerable +engineering works, especially for agricultural implements, +at Chelmsford, Colchester and elsewhere; several silk works, +as at Braintree and Halstead; large breweries, as at Brentwood, +Chelmsford and Romford; and lime and cement works at Grays +Thurrock. The oyster-beds of the Colne produce the famous +Colchester natives, and there are similar beds in the Crouch and +Roach, for which Burnham-on-Crouch is the centre; and in the +Blackwater (Maldon).</p> + +<p><i>Communications.</i>—Railway communications are supplied +principally by the Great Eastern railway, of which the main line +runs by Stratford, Ilford, Romford, Brentwood, Chelmsford, +Witham, Colchester, and Manningtree. The Cambridge and +northern line of this company, following the Lea valley, does not +touch the county until it diverges along the valley of the Stort. +The chief branches are those to Southend and Burnham, Witham +to Maldon, Colchester to Brightlingsea, to Clacton and to Walton, +and Manningtree to Harwich, on the coast; and Witham to +Braintree and Bishop’s Stortford, and Mark’s Tey to Sudbury +and beyond, inland; while there are several branch lines among +the manufacturing and residential suburbs in the south-west, +to Walthamstow and Buckhurst Hill, Chigwell, Loughton, +Epping, Ongar, &c. The London, Tilbury & Southend railway, +following the Thames, serves the places named, and the Colne +Valley railway runs from Chappel junction near Mark’s Tey by +Halstead to Haverhill.</p> + +<p>On the Thames, besides the great docks at Plaistow (Victoria +and Albert) and the deep-water docks at Tilbury, the principal +calling places for vessels are Grays, Purfleet and Southend, +while Barking on the Roding has also shipping trade, and the +Lea affords important water-connexions. Elsewhere, the principal +port is Harwich, at the mouth of the Stour, one of the chief +ports of England for European passenger traffic. Other towns +ranking as lesser estuarine ports are: Brightlingsea and Wivenhoe +on the Colne, forming a member of the Cinque Port of Sandwich; +Colchester, Maldon on the Blackwater, and Burnham-on-Crouch. +The Stour, Chelmer, and Lea and Stort are the principal navigable +inland waterways.</p> + +<p><i>Population and Administration.</i>—The area of the ancient +county is 986,975 acres, with a population in 1891 of 785,445 and +in 1901 of 1,085,771. The area of the administrative county is +979,532 acres. The county contains nineteen hundreds. It +is divided into eight parliamentary divisions, and it also includes +the parliamentary boroughs of Colchester and West Ham, the +latter consisting of two divisions. Each of these returns one +member. The county divisions are—Northern or Saffron +Walden, North-eastern or Harwich, Eastern or Maldon, Western +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page785" id="page785"></a>785</span> +or Epping, Mid or Chelmsford, South-eastern, Southern or Romford, +South-western or Walthamstow, returning one member +each. The municipal boroughs are—Chelmsford (12,580), +Colchester (38,373), East Ham (96,018), Harwich (10,070), +Maldon(5565), Saffron Walden (5896), Southend-on-Sea (28,857), +and one county borough, West Ham (267,358). The following +are the other urban districts—Barking Town (21,547), Braintree +(5330), Brentwood (4932), Brightlingsea (4501), Buckhurst Hill +(4786), Burnham-on-Crouch (2919), Chingford (4373), Clacton +(7456), Epping (3789), Frinton-on-Sea (644), Grays Thurrock +(13,834), Halstead (6073), Ilford (41,234), Leigh-on-Sea (3667), +Leyton (98,912), Loughton (4730), Romford (13,656), Shoeburyness +(4081), Waltham Holy Cross (6549), Walthamstow (95,131), +Walton-on-the-Naze (2014), Wanstead (9179), Witham (3454), +Wivenhoe (2560), Woodford (13,798). Essex is in the South-eastern +circuit, and assizes are held at Chelmsford. The boroughs +of Harwich and Southend-on-Sea have separate commissions +of the peace, and the boroughs of Colchester, Maldon, Saffron +Walden and West Ham have, in addition, separate courts of +quarter sessions. The county is ecclesiastically within the +diocese of St Albans (with a small portion within that of Ely) +and is divided into two archdeaconries; containing 452 parishes +or districts wholly or in part. There are 399 civil parishes.</p> + +<p>There is a military station and depot for recruits at Warley, +and a garrison at Tilbury. At Shoeburyness there are a school +of gunnery and an extensive ground for testing government +artillery of the largest calibre.</p> + +<p><i>History</i> (see also below under <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Essex, Kingdom of</a></span>).—<span class="sc">Essex</span> +probably originated as a shire in the time of Æthelstan. According +to the Domesday Survey it comprised nineteen hundreds, +corresponding very closely in extent and in name with those of +the present day. The additional half-hundred of Thunreslan +on the Suffolk border has disappeared; Witbrictesherna is now +Dengie; and the liberty of Havering-atte-Bower appears to +have been taken out of Becontree. Essex and Hertfordshire +were under one sheriff until the time of Elizabeth. At the time +of the Survey Count Eustace held a vast fief in Essex, and the +court of the Honour of Boulogne was held at Witham. Bentry +Heath in Dagenham, Hundred Heath in Tendring and Castle +Hedingham in Hinckford were the meeting-places of their +respective hundreds. The stewardship of the forest of Essex +was held by the earls of Oxford until deprived of it for adherence +to the Lancastrian cause. In 1421 certain parts of Essex inherited +by Henry V. from his mother were brought under the +jurisdiction of the duchy of Lancaster.</p> + +<p>Essex was part of the see of London from the time of the +foundation of the bishopric in the 7th century. The archdeaconries +are first mentioned in 1108; that of Essex extended +over the south of the county and in 1291 included eight deaneries; +the north of the county was divided between the archdeaconries +of Middlesex and Colchester, comprising three and six deaneries +respectively. Colchester was constituted a suffragan bishopric +by Henry VIII. In 1836 Essex was transferred to the diocese +of Rochester, with the exception of nine parishes which remained +in London. In 1845 the archdeacon of Middlesex ceased to +exercise control in Essex, and the deaneries were readjusted. +In 1875 Essex was transferred to the newly created diocese of St +Albans, and in 1877 the archdeaconry of Essex was subdivided +into eighteen deaneries and that of Colchester into sixteen.</p> + +<p>Owing to its proximity to the capital Essex was intimately +associated with all the great historical struggles. The nobility +of Essex took a leading part in the struggle for the charter, and +of the twenty-four guardians of the charter, four were Essex +barons. The castles of Pleshey, Colchester, and Hedingham +were held against the king in the Barons’ War of the reign of +Henry III., and 5000 Essex men joined the peasant rising of +1381. During the Wars of the Roses the Lancastrian cause was +supported by the de Veres, while the Bourchiers and Lord +Fitz-Walter were among the Yorkist leaders. Several Essex +men were concerned in the Gunpowder Plot, and in the Civil +War of the 17th century the county rendered valuable aid to +the parliament.</p> + +<p>After the Conquest no Englishman retained estates in Essex +of any importance, and the chief lay barons at the time of the +Survey were Geoffrey de Mandeville and Aubrey de Vere. The +de Veres, earls of Oxford, were continuously connected with the +county until the extinction of the title two centuries ago. Pleshey +was the stronghold of the Mandevilles, and, although the house +became extinct in 1189, its descendants in the female line retained +the title of earls of Essex. The Honour of Hatfield Peverel +held by Ranulf Peverel after the Conquest escheated to the +crown in the reign of Henry I., and in the same reign the fief +of Robert Gernon passed to the house of Mountfichet.</p> + +<p>Essex has always been mainly an agricultural county, and +the ordinary agricultural pursuits were carried on at the time +of the Domesday Survey, which also mentions salt-making, +wine-making, bee-culture and cheese-making, while the oyster +fisheries have been famous from the earliest historic times. +The woollen industry dates back to Saxon times, and for many +centuries ranked as the most important industry. Cloth-weaving +was introduced in the 14th century, and in the 16th century +Colchester was noted for its “bays and says.” Colchester also +possessed a valuable leather industry in the 16th century, at +which period Essex was considered an exceptionally wealthy +and prosperous county; Norden, writing in 1594, describes it +as “moste fatt, frutefull, and full of all profitable things.” +The decline of the cloth industry in the 17th century caused +great distress, but a number of smaller industries began to take +its place. Saffron-culture and silk-weaving were extensively +carried on in the 17th century, and the 18th century saw the +introduction of the straw-plait industry, potash-making, calico-printing, +malting and brewing, and the manufacture of Roman +cement.</p> + +<p>The county returned four members to parliament in 1290. +From 1295 it returned two members for the county and two +for Colchester. Maldon acquired representation in 1331 and +Harwich in 1604. Under the Reform Act of 1832 the county +returned four members in four divisions. Under the Representation +of the People Act of 1868 Maldon and Harwich each lost +one member, and the county returned six members in three +divisions.</p> + +<p><i>Antiquities.</i>—It is supposed by many antiquaries that Saxon +masonry can be detected in the foundations of several of the +Essex churches, but, with the exception of Ashingdon church +tower, believed to have been erected by Canute after his victory +over Edmund Ironside, there is no obviously recognizable building +belonging to that period. This is probably to be in part ascribed +to the fact that the comparative scarcity of stone and the unusual +abundance of timber led to the extensive employment of the +latter material. Several of the Essex churches, as Blackmore, +Mountnessing, Margaretting, and South Benfleet, have massive +porches and towers of timber; and St Andrew’s church, Greenstead, +with its walls of solid oak, continues an almost unique +example of its kind. Of the four round churches in England +one is in Essex at Little Maplestead; it is both the smallest and +the latest. The churches of South Weald, Hadleigh, Blackmore, +Heybridge and Hadstock may be mentioned as containing +Norman work; with the church of Castle Hedingham for its fine +Transitional work; Southchurch, Danbury and Boreham as being +partly Early English; Ingatestone, Stebbing and Tilty for +specimens of Decorated architecture; and Messing, Thaxted, +Saffron Walden, and the church of St Peter ad Vincula at the +small town of Coggeshall, near Colchester, as specimens of Perpendicular. +Stained glass windows have left their traces in several +of the churches, the finest remains being those of Margaretting, +which represent a tree of Jesse and the daisy or herb Margaret. +Paintings have evidently been largely used for internal decoration: +a remarkable series, probably of the 12th century, but +much restored in the 14th, exists in the chancel of Copford +church; and in the church at Ingatestone there was discovered +in 1868 an almost unique fresco representation of the seven deadly +sins. The oldest brasses preserved in the county are those of +Sir William Fitz-Ralph at Pebmarsh, about 1323; Richard +of Beltown, at Corringham, 1340; Sir John Gifford, at Bowers +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page786" id="page786"></a>786</span> +Gifford, 1348; Ralph de Kneyton, at Aveley, 1370; Robert de +Swynbourne, at Little Horkesley, 1391; and Sir Ingelram de +Bruyn, at South Ockendon, 1400. The brass of Thomas Heron, +aged 14, at Little Ilford, though dating only from 1517, is of +interest as a picture of a schoolboy of the period. Ancient +wooden effigies are preserved at Danbury, Little Leighs and +Little Horkesley.</p> + +<p>Essex was rich in monastic foundations, though the greater +number have left but meagre ruins behind. The Benedictines +had an abbey at Saffron Walden, nunneries at Barking and +Wickes, and priories at Earl’s or Monk’s Colne and Castle +Hedingham; the Augustinian canons had an abbey at Waltham +(see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Waltham Abbey</a></span>; the portion remaining shows Norman +work of the finest character), priories at Thoby, Blackmore, +Bicknacre, Little Leighs, Little Dunmow and St Osyth (see +<span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Brightlingsea</a></span>); there were Cistercian abbeys at Coggeshall, +Stratford and Tilty; the Cluniac monks were settled at Prittlewell, +the Premonstratensians at Beleigh Abbey, and the Knights +Hospitallers at Little Maplestead. Barking Abbey is said to date +its first origin from the 7th century; most of the others arose in +the 12th and 13th centuries. Besides the keep at Colchester +there is a fine Norman castle at Castle Hedingham, and two +dilapidated round towers still stand at Hadleigh near Southend. +Ongar, the house of the de Lacys, and Pleshey, the seat of the +earls of Essex, have left only mounds. Havering-atte-Bower, +the palace that was occupied by many queens, is replaced by a +modern house; Wickham, the mansion of the bishops of London, +no longer stands. New Hall, which was successively occupied +by Henry VIII., Elizabeth, the earl of Essex, George Villiers, +duke of Buckingham, and Cromwell, is now a nunnery of the +order of the Holy Sepulchre. Audley End, the mansion of Lord +Braybrooke, is a noble example of the domestic architecture +of the Jacobean period; Layer Marney is an interesting proof +of the Italian influences that were at work in the time of Wolsey. +Horeham Hall was built by Sir John Cutt in the reign of Henry +VII., and Gosfield Hall is of about the same date.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See Norden, <i>Speculi Britanniae Pars: an Hist. and Geogr. Descrip. +of the County of Essex</i> (1594) (edited for the Camden Society by Sir +Henry Ellis, 1840, from the original MS. in the Marquis of Salisbury’s +library at Hatfield); Nicholas Tindal, <i>Hist. of Essex</i> (1720); N. +Salmon, <i>The Hist. and Antiq. of Essex</i> (London, 1740)—based on the +collections of James Strangman of Hadleigh (v. <i>Trans. of Essex Arch. +Soc.</i> vol. ii.); P. Morant, <i>Hist. and Antiq. of the County of Essex</i> +(London, 1768); P. Muilman, <i>New and Complete Hist. of Essex from +a late Survey, by a Gentleman</i> (Chelmsford, 6 vols., 1770-1772, +London, 1779); Elizabeth Ogbourne, <i>Hist. of Essex</i> (London, part i., +1814); <i>Excursions through Essex, illustrated with one hundred engravings</i> +(2 vols., London, 1818); T. Wright, <i>Hist. and Topography +of Essex</i> (1831); W. Berry, <i>Pedigrees of Families in Essex</i> (1841); +A. Suckling, <i>Memorials of the Antiquities, &c., of the County of Essex</i> +(London, 1845); W. Andrews (ed.), <i>Bygone Essex</i> (London, 1892); +J.T. Page (ed.), <i>Essex in the Days of Old</i> (London, 1898); <i>Victoria +County History, Essex; Transactions of the Essex Arch. Soc.</i> from +1858. An account of various MS. collections connected with the +county is given by H.W. King in vol. ii. of the <i>Transactions</i> (1863).</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">ESSEX, KINGDOM OF,<a name="ar146" id="ar146"></a></span> one of the kingdoms into which +Anglo-Saxon Britain was divided, properly the land of the East +Saxons. Of its origin and early history we have no record except +the bare statement of Bede that its settlers were of the Old Saxon +race. In connexion with this it is interesting to notice that the +East Saxon dynasty claimed descent from Seaxneat, not Woden. +The form Seaxneat is identical with Saxnot, one of three gods +mentioned in a short continental document probably of Old +Saxon origin. Bede does not mention this kingdom in his narrative +until 604, the year of the consecration of Mellitus to the see +of London. The boundaries of Essex were in later times the +rivers Stour and Thames, but the original limits of the kingdom +are quite uncertain; towards the west it probably included most +if not the whole of Hertfordshire, and in the 7th century the +whole of Middlesex. In 604 we find Essex in close dependence +upon Kent, being ruled by Saberht, sister’s son of Æthelberht, +under whom the East Saxons received Christianity. The three +sons of Saberht, however, expelled Mellitus from his see, and even +after their death in battle against the West Saxons, Eadbald of +Kent was unable to restore him. In the year 653 we find North-umbrian +influence paramount in Essex, for King Sigeberht at the +instance of Oswio became a Christian and received Cedd, the +brother of St Chad, in his kingdom as bishop, Tilbury and +<i>Ythanceastere</i> (on the Blackwater) being the chief scenes of his +work. Swithhelm, the successor of Sigeberht, was on terms of +friendship with the East Anglian royal house, King Æthelwald +being his sponsor at his baptism by Cedd. It was probably +about this time that Erconwald, afterwards bishop of London, +founded the monastery of Barking. Swithhelm’s successors +Sigehere and Sebbe were dependent on Wulfhere, the powerful +king of Mercia, who on the apostasy of Sigehere sent Bishop +Jaruman to restore the faith. There are grounds for believing +that an East Saxon conquest of Kent took place in this reign. +A forged grant of Ceadwalla speaks of the fall of Kent before +Sigehere as a well-known event; and in a Kentish charter dated +676 a king of Kent called Swebhard grants land with the consent +of his father King Sebbe. In 692 or 694 Sebbe abdicated and +received the monastic vows from Waldhere, the successor of +Erconwald at London. His sons Sigeheard and Swefred succeeded +him as kings of Essex, Sigehere being apparently dead. +As the laws of Ine of Wessex speak of Erconwald as “my +bishop,” it is possible that the influence of Wessex for a short +time prevailed in Essex; but a subsequent charter of Swefred +is approved by Coenred of Mercia, and Offa, the son of Sigehere, +accompanied the same king to Rome in 709. From this time +onwards the history of Essex is almost a blank. In 743 or +745 Æthelbald of Mercia is found granting privileges at the port +of London, and perhaps the western portion of the kingdom had +already been annexed, for henceforward London is frequently +the meeting-place of the Mercian council. The violent death of +Selred, king of Essex, is mentioned in the <i>Saxon Chronicle</i> under +the year 746; but we have no more information of historical +importance until the defeat of the Mercian king Beornwulf in +825, when Essex, together with Kent, Sussex and Surrey, passed +into the hands of Ecgbert, king of Wessex. After 825 we hear +of no more kings of Essex, but occasionally of earls. About the +year 870 Essex passed into the hands of the Danes and was left +to them by the treaty between Alfred and Guthrum. It was +reconquered by Edward the Elder. The earldom in the 10th +century apparently included several other counties, and its +most famous holder was the ealdorman Brihtnoth, who fell at +the battle of Maldon in 991.</p> + +<p>The following is a list of kings of Essex of whom there is record: +Saberht (d. <i>c.</i> 617); three sons of Saberht, including probably +Saweard and Seaxred; Sigeberht (Parvus); Sigeberht II.; +Swithhelm (d. <i>c.</i> 664); Sigehere (reigned perhaps 664-689); +Sebbe, son of Seaxred (664-694); Sigeheard (reigning in 693-694); +Swefred (reigning in 693-694 and in 704); the two last +being sons of Sebbe; Swebriht (d. 738); Selred (d. 746); +Swithred, grandson of Sigeheard (succ. 746); Sigeric, son of +Selered (abd. 798); Sigered, son of Sigeric (reigning in 823).</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See Bede, <i>Hist. Eccl.</i>, edited by C. Plummer (Oxford, 1896), ii. 3, 5; +<i>Saxon Chronicle</i> (Earle and Plummer, Oxford, 1899), <i>s.a.</i> 823, 894, +904, 913, 921, 994; William of Malmesbury, <i>Gesta Regum</i>, Rolls Series +(ed. Stubbs, 1887-1889); <i>Simeon of Durham, s.a.</i> 746 (ed. T. Arnold, +1882) and appendix, <i>s.a.</i> 738; Florence of Worcester (ed. B. Thorpe, +London, 1848-1849); H. Sweet, <i>Oldest English Texts</i>, p. 179 +(London, 1885).</p> +</div> +<div class="author">(F. G. M. B.)</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">ESSLINGEN,<a name="ar147" id="ar147"></a></span> a town of Germany, in the kingdom of Württemberg, +in a fertile district on the Neckar, 9 m. S.E. from Stuttgart, +on the railway to Ulm. Pop. (1905) 29,750. It is surrounded +by medieval walls with towers and bastions, and has thirteen +suburbs, one lying on an island in the river. On a commanding +height above the town lies the old citadel. The inner town has +an old (1430) and a new Rathaus, the latter, formerly a palace, +an exceedingly handsome edifice. The church of Our Lady +(Frauenkirche) is a fine Gothic building of the 15th century, and +has a beautifully sculptured doorway and a lattice spire 240 ft. +high. The church of St Dionysius dated from the 13th century, +and possesses a fine screen and a ciborium of 1486. Esslingen +possesses several schools, a theatre and a richly endowed hospital, +while its municipal archives contain much valuable literature +bearing especially on the period of the Reformation. The town +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page787" id="page787"></a>787</span> +has railway, machine and electrical works; cloth, gloves and +buttons are also manufactured here, and there are spinning-mills. +There is a large lithographic establishment, and a considerable +trade is done in wine and fruit, the wines of Esslingen being +very famous.</p> + +<p>Esslingen, which dates from the 8th century, became a +town in 886. It was soon a place of importance; it became a +free imperial city in 1209 and was surrounded with walls by +order of the emperor Frederick II. Its liberty was frequently +threatened by the rulers of Württemberg, but it did not become +part of that country until 1802.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See K.H.S. Pfaff, <i>Geschichte der Reichsstadt Esslingen</i> (Esslingen, +1852); and Ströhmfeld, <i>Esslingen in Wort und Bild</i> (Esslingen, 1902).</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">ESTABLISHMENT<a name="ar148" id="ar148"></a></span> (O. Fr. <i>establissement</i>, Fr. <i>établissement</i>, +late Norm. Fr. <i>establishement</i>, from O. Fr. <i>establir</i>, Fr. <i>établir</i>, +Lat. <i>stabilire</i>, to make stable), generally the act of establishing +or fact of being established, and so by transference a thing +established. Thus we may speak of the establishment (<i>i.e.</i> +setting up) of a business, the “long establishment” of a business, +and of the manager of “the establishment.” In a special sense +the word is applied, with something of all the three above-mentioned +connotations, to certain religious bodies in their +relation to the state. It is with this latter that the present +article is concerned.</p> + +<p>Perhaps the best definition which can be given, and which +will cover all cases, is that establishment implies the existence +of some definite and distinctive relation between the state and a +religious society (or conceivably more than one) other than that +which is shared in by other societies of the same general character. +Of course, a certain relationship must needs exist between +the state and every society, religious or secular, by virtue of the +sovereignty of the state over each and all of its members. Every +society must possess certain principles or perform certain acts, +and the state may make the profession of such principles unlawful, +or impose a penalty upon the performance of such acts; and, +moreover, every society is liable before the law as to the fulfilment +of its obligations towards its members and the due administration +of its property should it possess any. With all this establishment +has nothing to do. It is not concerned with what pertains to +the religious society <i>qua</i> society, or with what is common to +all religious societies, but with what is exceptional. It denotes +any special connexion with the state, or privileges and responsibilities +before the law, possessed by one religious society to the +exclusion of others; in a word, establishment is of the nature +of a monopoly. But it does not imply merely privilege. The +state and the Church have mutual obligations towards one +another: each is, to some extent, tied by the existence of this +relationship, and each accepts the limitations for the sake of +the advantages which accrue to itself. The state does so in +view of what it believes to be the good of all its members; for +“the true end for which religion is established is not to provide +for the true faith, but for civil utility” (Warburton), even if +the latter be held to be implied in the former. On the other +hand, the Church accepts these relations for the facilities which +they involve, <i>i.e.</i> for its own benefit. It will be seen that this +definition excludes, and rightly, many current presuppositions. +Establishment affirms the <i>fact</i>, but does not determine the +precise <i>nature</i>, of the connexion between the state and the +religious society. It does not tell us, for example, when or how +it began, whether it is the result of an unconscious growth (as +with the Gallican Church previous to the French Revolution), +or of a determinate legislative act (as with the same Church +re-established by the Concordat of 1801). It does not tell us +whether an endowment of the religious society by the state +is included; what particular privileges are enjoyed by the +religious society; and what limitations are placed upon the +free exercise of its life. These things can only be ascertained +by actual inquiry; for the conditions are precisely similar in no +two cases.</p> + +<p>To proceed to details. At the present day there is no established +religion in the United States, the German empire as a +whole, Holland, Belgium, France and Austria-Hungary (saving, +indeed, “the rights of the sovereign arising from ecclesiastical +dignity”<a name="fa1j" id="fa1j" href="#ft1j"><span class="sp">1</span></a>); whereas there are religious establishments in +Russia, Greece, Sweden, Norway, Denmark, Prussia,<a name="fa2j" id="fa2j" href="#ft2j"><span class="sp">2</span></a> Spain, +Portugal and even in Italy, as well as in England and Scotland. +These, however, differ greatly amongst themselves. In Russia +the “Orthodox Catholic Eastern” is the state religion. The +emperor is, by the fundamental laws of the empire, “the sovereign +defender and protector of the dogmas of the dominant faith, +who maintains orthodoxy and holy discipline within the Church,” +although, of course, he cannot modify either its dogmas or its +outward order. Further, “the autocratic (<i>i.e.</i> imperial) power +acts in the ecclesiastical administration by means of the Most +Holy Ruling Synod, created by it”; and all the officers of +the Church are appointed by it. The enactments of the Synod +do not become law till they have received the emperor’s sanction, +and are then published, not in its name but in his; and a large +part of the revenues of the Church is derived from state subsidies. +In Greece “the dominant religion (<span class="grk" title="Eh epikratousa thrêskeia">Ἡ ἐπικρατοῦσα θρησκεία</span>) +is that of the Eastern Orthodox Church of Christ”; and although +toleration is otherwise complete, no proselytism from the Church +of Greece is allowed. The king swears to protect it, but no +powers pertain to him with regard to it such as those which the +tsar enjoys; the present king is not a member of it, but his +successors must be. In Sweden, Lutheranism was adopted +as the state religion by the synod of Upsala (<i>Upsala möte</i>) in +1593, and the king must profess it. The “Lutheran Protestant +Church” retains an episcopal order, and is supported out of +its own revenues. Archbishops and bishops are chosen by the +king out of those names submitted to him, and he also nominates +to royal peculiars. The ecclesiastical law (<i>Kyrkolag</i>), first +constituted in 1686, is part of the law of the state, but may not +be modified or abrogated without consent of a General +Synod; and although <i>ad interim</i> interpretations of that law +may be given by the king on the advice of the Supreme Court, +since 1866 these have been subject to review and rejection +by the next General Synod. In Norway the “Evangelical-Lutheran” +is the “official religion,” but the Church is supported +by the state, its property having been secularized. It is also +more subject to the king, who by the constitution is to “regulate +all that concerns divine service and the clergy,” and to see that +the prescribed order is carried out. It is much the same in +Denmark, where, however, the “Evangelical-Lutheran Church” +has since the fundamental constitutional law of the 5th of June +1849 been officially described as the National Church (<i>Folkekirche</i>) +instead of the State Church (<i>Statskirche</i>) as formerly, and the +constitution provides for its regulation by further legislation, +which has not yet been passed. For Prussia, see under that +heading; it need only be added that self-government still tends +to increase, but that the emperor William II. has exercised +his office as <i>summus episcopus</i> more freely than most of his +predecessors. In Spain the “Catholic, Apostolic and Roman” +religion is that of the state, “the nation binds itself to maintain +its worship and its ministers,” and the rites of any other religion +are only permitted in private. The patriarch of the Indies and +the archbishops are senators by right, and the king may nominate +others from amongst the bishops; only laymen may sit in +the chamber of deputies. Convents were suppressed, and their +property confiscated, in 1835 and 1836; in 1859 the remaining +ecclesiastical property was exchanged for untransferable government +securities and the support of the clergy of the State Church +is assured by an unrepealed law previous to the present constitution. +In Portugal it is much the same, but all the home bishops +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page788" id="page788"></a>788</span> +sit in the upper chamber as peers (<i>Pares do Reino</i>) by right, +and there is no restriction on membership of the chamber of +deputies. A more important point is that the king confers all +ecclesiastical benefices and nominates the bishops, instead of +their being chosen, as in Spain, by agreement between the civil +power and the papacy. In Italy, in spite of the feud between +the papacy and the civil power, the fact remains that, by the +<i>Statuto fondamentale</i>, “the Catholic, Apostolic and Roman +religion is the sole religion of the state,” and the king may +nominate “archbishops and bishops of the state” to be senators. +The <i>Legge sulle prerogative del Summo Pontifice</i>, &c., or “Law +of Guarantees,” by which the papal prerogatives are secured, +has been declared by the Council of State to be a fundamental +law; and while many civil restrictions upon the activities of the +Church are removed by it, outside Rome and the suburbicarian +dioceses the royal <i>exequatur</i> is still required before a bishop +is installed. Moreover, the bulk of Church property having +been secularized, the Italian clergy receive a stipend from the +state.</p> + +<p>Establishment is, of course, a distinctively English term, but +it implies precisely the same thing as “Staatsreligion” or “église +dominante” does elsewhere, neither more nor less. +It denotes the existence of a special relationship between +<span class="sidenote">Church and State in Britain.</span> +Church and state without defining its precise +nature. The statement that the Church of England +or the Scottish Kirk is “established by law” denotes that it has +a peculiar status before the law; but that is all. (<i>a</i>) There is no +basis whatever for the once popular assumption that the word +“established” as applied to the Church means “created,” or +the like; on the contrary, the modern use of the word in this +sense is a misleading perversion. To <i>establish</i> is to make firm +or stable; and a thing cannot be established unless it is already +in existence. A few examples will make it clear that this is the +true sense of the word, and that in which it is used here. +“Stablish the thing, O God, that thou hast wrought in us” +(Ps. lxviii. 28, P.B.; A.V. and R.V. “strengthen”) implies +that the thing is already wrought; it could not be “stablished” +else. “Stablish your hearts” (Jas v. 8) implies that the hearts +are already in existence. “Until he had her settled in her raine +With safe assuraunce and establishment” (<i>Faerie Queene</i>, v. +xi. 35) would have been impossible unless the reign had already +begun. This is the meaning of the words in many Tudor acts of +parliament, “be it enacted, ordained and established,” or the +like (21 Hen. VIII. c. 1; 27 Hen. VIII. c. 28, s. 9; 28 Hen. +VIII. c. 13 [Ireland]; 28 Hen. VIII. c. 18 [Ireland]; 33 Hen. +VIII. c. 27; 1 Eliz. c. 1, ss. 15, 17; 1 Eliz. c. 4, s. 4); that +which is then and there enacted is to be valid for the future. +(<i>b</i>) Nor is it necessarily implied that establishment is a process +completed once for all. Every law touching the Church slightly +alters its conditions; everything that affects the relations of +Church and state may be regarded as a measure of establishment +or the reverse. When the two Houses of Parliament, in an +address to William III. after his coronation, spoke of their proposed +measures of toleration, the king said in his reply, “I do +hope that the ease which you design to Dissenters will contribute +very much to the establishment of the Church” (Cobbett, <i>Parl. +Hist.</i> v. 218). And Defoe (in 1702) published an ironical tract +with the title, <i>The Shortest Way with the Dissenters, or Proposals +for the Establishment of the Church</i>. (<i>c</i>) Nor is it necessarily implied +that there was any specific time at which establishment took +place. Such may indeed be the case, as with the Kirk in Scotland; +but it certainly cannot be said that the English Church was +established at any particular time, or by any particular legislative +act. There were, no doubt, periods when the existing relations +between Church and state were modified or re-defined, notably +in the 16th and 17th centuries; but the relations themselves +are far older. In fact, they existed from the very first: the +English Church and state grew up side by side, and from the +beginning they were in close relations with one another. But +although the state of things which it represented was there from +the first, the term “established” or “established by law” only +came into use at a later date. Until there was some other religious +society to be compared with it such a distinctive epithet would +have had no point. As, however, there arose religious societies +which had no status before the law, it became more natural; and +yet more so when the formularies of the Church came to be +“established” by civil sanctions (the Books of Common Prayer +by 5 and 6 Edw. VI. c. 1, s. 4, &c; the Articles by 13 Eliz. c. 12; +the new Ordinal by 13 and 14 Car. II. c. 4, title). Accordingly +the Church itself came to be spoken of as established by law; +first, it would seem, in the Canons of 1604, and subsequently +in many statutes (Act of Settlement, 6 Anne, c. 8 and c. 11, &c). +In all such cases the Church is described as already established, +not as being established by the particular canon or statute. +In other words, the constitutional status of the Church is affirmed, +but nothing is said as to how it arose.</p> + +<p>The legislative changes of the 16th and 17th centuries brought +“establishment” into greater prominence and greatly modified +its conditions, but a moment’s thought will show that it did not +begin then. If, <i>e.g.</i>, all post-Reformation ecclesiastical statutes +were non-existent, the relations between Church and state would +be very different, but there would still be an “establishment.” +The bishops would sit in the House of Lords, the clergy would +tax themselves in convocation, the Church courts would possess +coercive jurisdiction, and so on. The present relations of Church +and state in England may be briefly summed up as follows:—(1) +<i>The personal relation of the crown to the Church,</i> including (<i>a</i>) +restraints upon the action of convocation (formulated by 25 +Hen. VIII. c. 19); (<i>b</i>) nomination of bishops, &c. (25 Hen. VIII. +c. 20); (<i>c</i>) power of supervision as visitor, long disused (26 +Hen. VIII. c. 1; 1 Eliz. c. 1, s. 17); (<i>d</i>) power of receiving +appeals as the fount of civil justice (25 Hen. VIII. c. 19, &c). +In connexion with these, it must be borne in mind that (<i>a</i>) the +holder of the crown receives coronation from the church and +takes an oath having reference to it (1 Will. III. c. 6), and (<i>b</i>) +the crown is held on the condition of communion with the Church +of England (Act of Settlement; the conditions of communion are +laid down in the Prayer Book, which itself is sanctioned by law). +(2) <i>The relation of the Church to the crown in parliament.</i> No change +has been permitted in its doctrine or formularies without the +sanction of an act of parliament. (3) <i>Privileges of the Church and +clergy.</i> Of these may be mentioned (<i>a</i>) the coercive jurisdiction +of the Church courts; (<i>b</i>) the right of bishops to sit in the House +of Lords. It need hardly be said that establishment in England +does not include an endowment of the Church by the state. +Nothing of the kind ever took place on any large scale, and the +grants for Church purposes in the 18th century are comparable +with the <i>regium donum</i> to Nonconformists.</p> + +<p>The position of the Church of Ireland until its disestablishment +(see below) was not dissimilar. With Scotland the case is different. +The establishment of the Kirk was an entirely new process, +carried out by a more or less definite series of legislative and administrative +acts. The Convention of Estates which met at +Edinburgh in 1560 ordered the drawing up of a new Confession +of Faith, which was done in four days by a committee of preachers, +and on the 24th of August it passed three acts, one abolishing the +pope’s authority and all jurisdiction of Catholic prelates, another +repealing the old statutes in favour of the Old Church, the third +forbidding the celebrating and hearing of mass under penalty of +imprisonment, exile and death. The intention was to make a +clean sweep of the Old Church, which was denounced as +“the Kirk Malignant.”<a name="fa3j" id="fa3j" href="#ft3j"><span class="sp">3</span></a> The new model thus set up was +confirmed by the Scottish act of 1567, c. 6, which declared it +to be “the onely true and halie kirk of Jesus Christ within this +realme.” Again, after the revolution of 1688 had put an end +to the attempts of the Stuart kings to impose the episcopal model +on Scotland, by the act of 1690, c. 5, the crown and estates “ratifie +and establish the Confession of Faith, ... as also they do establish, +ratifie and confirm the Presbyterian government and +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page789" id="page789"></a>789</span> +discipline.” The “Act of Security” of 1705, as incorporated +in the Act of Union 1706, speaking of it “as now by law established,” +says that “Her Majesty ... doth hereby establish and +confirm” it, and finally declares this act, “with the Establishment +therein contained,” to be “a fundamental and essential condition +of the Union.” Nevertheless, the conditions of establishment +in the Scottish Kirk are much easier than those of the Church of +England. It is bound by the statutes sanctioning its doctrine +and order, but within these limits its legislative and judicial freedom +is unimpaired. A royal commissioner is present at the +meetings of the general assembly, but he need not be a member +of the Kirk; and there is no constitutional tie between the +crown and the Kirk such as there is in England. There is what +may accurately be described as a state endowment, the bulk of +the property of the Old Church having been conferred upon +the Scottish Kirk.</p> + +<p>Not unnaturally the organization of Anglican Churches in the +colonies was followed in some cases by their establishment, +which included endowment. It was so, for example, +in the East and West Indies; and the disestablishment +<span class="sidenote">The Colonies.</span> +of the West Indian Church in 1868 was followed, in +1873, by a re-establishment of the Church in Barbados by the +colonial legislature. India is the only other part of the empire +(outside Great Britain) in which there is to-day a religious +establishment.</p> + +<p><i>Disestablishment</i> is in theory the annulling of establishment; +but since an established Church is usually rich, disestablishment +generally includes disendowment, even where there +is no state endowment of religion. It is, in short, the +<span class="sidenote">Disestablishment.</span> +abrogation of establishment, coupled with such a +confiscation of Church property as the state thinks good in the +interests of the community. The disestablishment of the West +Indian Church in 1868 has already been referred to; in 1869 the +Irish Church Disestablishment Bill was passed. Private bills +relating to Scotland have more than once been brought forward. +In 1895 the Liberal government introduced a suspensory bill, +intended as the preliminary step towards disestablishing and +disendowing the Church in Wales; it was withdrawn, however, in +the same session, and the question of Welsh disestablishment +slumbered until in 1906 a royal commission was appointed by +the Liberal government to inquire into the subject, and in 1909 +a bill was introduced on much the same lines as in 1895.</p> + +<p>The case of the Irish Church will illustrate the process of disestablishment, +although, of course, the precise details would vary +in other cases. The Irish Church Act was passed in 1869 by +Gladstone’s first government, after considerable opposition, +and provided that from January 1, 1871, the union created by +statute between the Churches of England and Ireland should be +dissolved, and the Church of Ireland should “cease to be established +by law.” Existing ecclesiastical corporations were dissolved, +and their rights ceased, compensation being given to all +individuals and their personal precedence being secured for life. +All rights of patronage, including those of the crown, were +abolished, with compensation in the case of private patrons; +and the archbishops and bishops ceased to have the right of +summons to the House of Lords. All laws restraining the freedom +of action of the Church were repealed; the ecclesiastical law, +however, to subsist by way of contract amongst the members +of the Church (until altered by a representative body). Provision +was made for the incorporation by charter of the representative +body of the Church, should such a body be found, with power to +hold landed property. All existing ecclesiastical property was +vested in a commission, which was to give compensation for life +interests, to transfer to the new representative body the churches, +glebe houses, and £500,000 in compensation for endowments +by private persons since 1660, and to hold the rest for such +purposes as parliament might thereafter determine.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p><span class="sc">Authorities</span>.—F.R. Dareste, <i>Les Constitutions modernes</i> (Paris, +1891); H. Geffcken, <i>Church and State</i>, trans. by E.F. Taylor +(London, 1877); P. Schaff, <i>Church and State in the United States</i> +(Papers of the American Hist. Association, vol. ii. No. 4), (New York, +1888); L. Minghetti, <i>Stato e Chiesa</i> (Milan, 1878), French translation, +with Introd. by E. de Laveleye (Paris, 1882); C. Cadorna, <i>Religione, +diritto, libertà</i> (Milan, 1893); F. Nippold, <i>Die Theorie der Trennung +von Kirche und Staat</i> (Bern, 1881); W. Warburton, <i>Alliance between +Church and State</i> (London, 1741) (<i>Works</i>, vol. iv., ed. Hurd, London, +1788); <i>Church Problems</i> (ed. by H.H. Henson) (London, 1900); +Essays on “Establishment” and “Disendowment”; W.R. Anson, +<i>Law and Custom of the Constitution</i>, vol. ii. chap. ix. (Oxford, 1892); +Phillimore, <i>Ecclesiastical Law</i> (London, 1895); J.S. Brewer, <i>Endowments +and Establishment of the Church of England</i> (ed. by L.T. +Dibdin, London, 1885); A.T. Innes, <i>Law of Creeds in Scotland</i> +(Edinburgh, 1867); E.A. Freeman, <i>Disestablishment and Disendowment</i> +(London, 1883); G. Harwood, <i>Disestablishment</i> (London, +1876); <i>Annales de l’école libre des Sciences politiques</i>, tom. i. (Paris, +1885), art. “La Séparation de l’Église et de l’État en Angleterre,” +by L. Ayral.</p> +</div> +<div class="author">(W. E. Co.)</div> + +<hr class="foot" /> <div class="note"> + +<p><a name="ft1j" id="ft1j" href="#fa1j"><span class="fn">1</span></a> In effect this involves the establishment of all religious denominations, +for none can exist without the express authorization +of the state, and all are subject to more or less interference on its +part. Thus the emperor-king is, in his capacity of head of the state, +technically “bishop” of the Evangelical Church, the constitution +of which was fixed by an imperial patent in 1866 and modified +by. another in 1891 (see Herzog-Hauck, <i>Realencykl.</i> ed. 1904, <i>s.</i> +“Österreich”).—[<span class="sc">Ed.</span>]</p> + +<p><a name="ft2j" id="ft2j" href="#fa2j"><span class="fn">2</span></a> Also in the other German Protestant states. The relations of +the Roman Catholic Church with the various governments are +settled by separate concordats with the papacy (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Concordat</a></span>).</p> + +<p><a name="ft3j" id="ft3j" href="#fa3j"><span class="fn">3</span></a> Andrew Lang, <i>Hist. of Scotland</i>, ii. p. 75 ff. Compare with this +the position of the reformers generally in England, where even so +stout a Puritan as William Harrison (<i>Description of England</i>, 1570) +does not dream of separating the organic life of the Church of England +from that of the pre-Reformation Church. (Ed).</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">ESTABLISHMENT OF A PORT<a name="ar149" id="ar149"></a></span>, the technical expression for +the time that elapses between the moon’s transit across the +meridian at new or full moon at a given place and the time of +high water at that place. The interval (constant at any one place) +may vary from 6 mins. (Harwich) to 11 hrs. 45 mins. (North +Foreland). At London Bridge it is 1 hr. 58 mins. (See also <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Tide</a></span>.)</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">ESTAING, CHARLES HECTOR<a name="ar150" id="ar150"></a></span>, <span class="sc">Comte d’</span> (1729-1794), +French admiral, was born at the château of Ruvel, Auvergne, +in 1729. He entered the army as a colonel of infantry, and in +1757 he accompanied count de Lally to the East Indies, with the +rank of brigadier-general. In 1759 he was made prisoner at the +siege of Madras, but was released on parole. Before the ratification +of his exchange he obtained command of some vessels, and +conducted various naval attacks against the English; and having, +on his return to France in 1760, fallen accidentally into their +hands, he was, on the ground of having broken his parole, thrown +into prison at Portsmouth, but as the charge could not be +properly substantiated he was soon afterwards released. In 1763 +he was named lieutenant-general in the navy, and in 1777 vice-admiral; +and in 1778 he obtained the command of a fleet intended +to assist the United States against Great Britain. He sailed on +the 13th of April, and between the 11th and the 22nd of July, +blockaded Howe at Sandy Hook, but did not venture to attack +him, though greatly superior in force. In concert with the +American generals, he planned an attack on Newport, preparatory +to which he compelled the British to destroy some war vessels +that were in the harbour; but before the concerted attack +could take place, he put to sea against the English fleet, under +Lord Howe, when owing to a violent storm, which arose suddenly +and compelled the two fleets to separate before engaging in battle, +many of his vessels were so shattered that he found it necessary +to put into Boston for repairs. He then sailed for the West Indies +on the 4th of November. After a feeble attempt to retake +Santa Lucia from Admiral Barrington, he captured St Vincent +and Grenada. On the 6th of July 1779 he fought a drawn battle +with Admiral John Byron, who retired to St Christopher. +Though superior in force, D’Estaing would not attack the English +in the roadstead, but set sail to attack Savannah. All his attempts, +as well as those of the Americans, against the town were repulsed +with heavy loss, and he was finally compelled to retire. He +returned to France in 1780. He was in command of the combined +fleet before Cadiz when the peace was signed in 1783; but +from that time his chief attention was devoted to politics. In +1787 he was elected to the assembly of the notables; in 1789 he +was appointed commandant of the national guard; and in 1792 +he was chosen admiral by the National Assembly. Though in +favour of national reform he continued to cherish a strong feeling +of loyalty to the royal family, and on the trial of Marie Antoinette +in 1793 bore testimony in her favour. On this account, and +because of certain friendly letters which had passed between him +and the queen, he was himself brought to trial, and was executed +on the 28th of April 1794.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See <i>Marins et soldats français en Amérique</i>, by the Viscomte de +Noailles (1903); Beatson, <i>Naval and Military Memoirs of Great +Britain</i>, vol. v.</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">ESTATE<a name="ar151" id="ar151"></a></span> (through O. Fr. <i>estat</i>, mod. <i>état</i>, from Lat. <i>status</i>, +state, condition, position, <i>stare</i>, to stand), the state or condition +in which a man lives, now chiefly used poetically and in such +phrases as “man’s estate,” or “of high estate”; “state” +has superseded most of the uses of the word except (1) in property +and (2) in constitutional law.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page790" id="page790"></a>790</span></p> + +<p>1. In the law of property the word is employed in several +senses. In the widest sense a man’s estate comprises his entire +belongings; so much of it as consists of land and certain other +interests associated therewith is his “real estate”; the rest +is his “personal estate.” The word is more particularly applied +to interests in land, and in popular and general use “an estate” +means the land itself. The strict technical meaning of “an +estate” is an interest in lands, and this conception lies at the +root of the English theory of property in land. “The first +thing that the student has to do,” says Joshua Williams (<i>Law of +Real Property</i>), “is to get rid of the idea of absolute ownership. +Such an idea is quite unknown to the English law. No man is +in law the absolute owner of lands. He can only hold an estate +in them.” That is, the notion of tenure, of holding by a tenant +from a lord, prevails. The last lord of all from whom all land +was ultimately held was the king. Persons holding directly +from the king and granting to others were the king’s tenants +<i>in capite</i>, and were the mesne lords of their tenants.</p> + +<p>Estates in land may be classified according to (1) the quantity +of their interest or duration, (2) the time of enjoyment, and +(3) the number and connexion of the tenants. According to +(1), an estate may be either a freehold of inheritance or a freehold +not of inheritance. A freehold of inheritance may be (<i>a</i>) an +estate in fee simple, which is the largest estate a man can hold +in English law, and comes close to the idea of absolute ownership, +repudiated by Williams; an estate in fee simple is inheritable +by a man’s heirs generally, he has full powers of disposition +over it, and may alienate the whole or part. (<i>b</i>) It may also be +in limited fees, which are again subdivided into (i.) qualified or +base fee, (ii.) fee conditional, so called at the common law, +afterwards, on the passing of the statute <i>De Donis Conditionalibus</i>, +fee tail, which may be general as to the heirs of a man’s body, +or special, as to the heirs <i>male</i> (or <i>female</i>) of his body. A freehold +not of inheritance may be either (1) conventional, as an estate +for life, which may be either an estate for one’s own life or +for the life of another (<i>pur autre vie</i>); (2) legal, or created by +operation of law, as tenancy in tail after possibility of issue +extinct (<i>i.e.</i> where an estate is given to a man and the heirs of +his body by his present wife, and the wife dies without issue, +the husband becomes tenant in tail after possibility of issue +extinct); tenancy by curtesy (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Curtesy</a></span>); tenancy in dower +(see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Dower</a></span>).</p> + +<p>Estates not of freehold or less than freehold are subdivided +into (i.) estates for years (often called estates for a term of +years, the instrument creating it being termed a <i>lease</i> or demise, +and the estate itself a <i>leasehold interest</i>); (ii.) estates at will, +that is, where lands or tenements are let by one man to another +to have and to hold at the will of the lessor; (iii.) estates at +sufferance, where one comes into possession of land under a +lawful title, and continues in possession after his title has +determined.</p> + +<p>According to (2), estates are either in possession or in expectancy. +Estates in expectancy are either (<i>a</i>) in remainder, which +may be vested or contingent, or (<i>b</i>) in reversion (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Remainder</a></span>, +<span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Reversion</a></span>).</p> + +<p>According to (3), estates may be either (i.) in severalty, that +is, the holding of an estate by a person in his own right only, +without any other person being joined or connected with +him in point of interest therein; (ii.) estates in joint tenancy +(see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Joint</a></span>); (iii.) coparcenary (<i>q.v.</i>); and (iv.) tenancy in +common, where two or more hold the same land, by several +and distinct titles, but with unity of possession. (See also <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Real +Property</a></span>.)</p> + +<p>2. In constitutional law an estate is an order or class having +a definite share as such in the body politic, and participating +either directly or by its representatives in the government. +The system of representation by estates took its rise in western +Europe during the 13th century, at a time when the feudal +system was being broken up through various causes, notably +the growing wealth and power of the towns. In the feudal +council the clergy and the territorial nobles had alone had a +voice; but the 13th century, to quote Stubbs (<i>Const. Hist</i>. ii. +168, ed. 1875), “turns the feudal council into an assembly of +estates, and draws the constitution of the third estate from the +ancient local machinery which it concentrates.” This is, allowing +for differences of detail, true of other countries as well as England. +To the two estates already existing, clergy and nobles, is added +a third, that of the commons (burgesses and knights of the shire) +in England, that of the <i>roturiers</i> in France (known as the <i>tiers +état</i>). This division into three estates became the norm, but it +was not universal, nor inevitable.<a name="fa1k" id="fa1k" href="#ft1k"><span class="sp">1</span></a> Even in England there was +a tendency to create other estates, the king for instance treating +with the merchants separately for grants of money to be raised +by taxing the general body of merchants in the country; and +there was a similar tendency on the part of the lawyers. But +for the accident of their sitting and voting together, the burgesses +and knights of the shire would also have formed separate estates. +In Aragon the cortes contained four estates (<i>brazos</i> or arms), +the clergy, the great barons (<i>ricos hombres</i>), the minor barons +(knights or <i>infanzones</i>), and the towns. The Swedish diet had +also four—clergy, barons, burghers and peasants.</p> + +<p>The system of estates, based on the medieval conception of +society as divided into definite orders, formed the basis of +whatever constitutional forms survived in Europe till the French +Revolution. In England, of course, it had early become obscured, +the House of Commons representing the whole nation +outside the narrow order of the peers. The creation of an estate +of lesser nobles or landowners had been prevented by the +fusion of the knights of the shire with the burgesses; the spiritual +estate was ruled out by the determination of the clergy to +deliberate and tax themselves in their own convocation, leaving +the bishops, as spiritual peers, to represent their interests in +parliament.</p> + +<p>The phrase “the three estates of the realm” still survives, +but to most men it conveys no clear meaning. The erroneous +conception early arose—Hallam says it was current among the +popular lawyers of the 17th century—that the “three estates” +were king, lords and commons, as representing the three great +divisions of legislative authority. Such a conception might be +possible in Hungary, where the crown of St. Stephen symbolizes +not so much the royal power as the co-ordination of the powers +of all the organs of the state, including the king; but in England +the king represents the whole nation and in no sense a separate +interest within it, which is the essence of an estate. The phrase +“three estates” as applied to the English constitution at +present is, in fact, misleading. It is now usually understood of +the lords spiritual, the lords temporal, and the commons.</p> + +<p>The conception of the “three estates of the realm” as the +great divisions of legislative authority led in England to the +coining of the phrase “fourth estate,” to indicate some power +of corresponding magnitude in the state distinct from them. +Fielding thus spoke of “the mob,” and Hazlitt of Cobbett; +but the phrase is now usually applied to the press, a usage +originating in a speech by Burke (Carlyle, <i>Hero-worship</i>, Lect. v.).</p> + +<p>In the constitutional struggles of the European continent, +from the Revolution onward, the rival theories of representation +by estates and of popular representation have played a great +part. The crucial moment of the French Revolution was when +the vote according to “order” was rejected and the estates +of the clergy and nobles were merged with the <i>tiers état</i>, the +states-general thus becoming the National Assembly. This was +the precedent followed, generally speaking, during the 19th +century in the other countries in which constitutional government +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page791" id="page791"></a>791</span> +was established. In most of them the medieval estates +lingered on in provincial diets (<i>Landtage</i>),<a name="fa2k" id="fa2k" href="#ft2k"><span class="sp">2</span></a> and the famous +Article XIII. of the Federal Act (<i>Bundesakte</i>) of Vienna decreed +that “assemblies of estates” should be set up, wherever not +already existing, in the German states. The efforts of Metternich +and the statesmen of his school were directed, not so much to +abolishing the constitutional model, as to establishing it, if need +were, on traditional and conservative lines. This is what was +meant by the famous reply of the emperor Francis I. to the +Magyar deputation; “All the world is playing the fool and +demanding fanciful constitutions.” When the need for making +constitutional concessions became urgent, the attempt was +accordingly made to base them on the system of estates. But +the central diet convoked in 1847 by Frederick William IV. to +Berlin, technically a concentration of provincial estates, quickly +converted itself as Metternich had prophesied—into a national +assembly; and precisely the same thing happened in the case +of the first Austrian parliament in 1848. In Hungary the +revolution was in some respects more conservative in character. +The March Laws of 1848 preserved the general character of the +House of Magnates, comparable to the British House of Lords, +but converted the Lower House from what was practically representative +of the estate of the lesser nobles into a national representative +assembly. Of all the sovereign states of Europe +only the grand-duchies of Mecklenburg still (1909) retain the +ancient system of estates untouched. The diet, which is common +to the two duchies, consists of the <i>Ritterschaft</i>, in which all +tenants in chivalry (<i>Rittergutsbesitzer</i>), whether noble or non-noble, +have a voice, and the <i>Landschaft</i>, which consists of the +chief magistrates of the towns. The former is taken as representative +of the peasant proprietors and copy-holders (<i>Hintersassen</i>), +the latter of the burghers.</p> + +<p>The plural form <span class="sc">Estates</span> or <span class="sc">States</span> (Fr. <i>états</i>, Ger. <i>Stände</i>) +is the name commonly given to an assembly of estates (<i>assemblée +des états</i>, <i>Ständeversammlung</i>). When such an assembly is not +merely local or provincial it is called the estates-general or +states-general (<i>états généraux</i>), <i>e.g.</i> in France the assembly of +the deputies of the three estates of the realm as distinct from +the provincial estates which met periodically in the so-called +<i>pays d’états</i>.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>For further details about the estates in England and elsewhere see +W. Stubbs, <i>Constitutional History</i>, vol. ii. (1896); H. Hallam, <i>The +Middle Ages</i> (1855); F.W. Maitland, <i>Constitutional History of +England</i> (1908); A. Luchaire, <i>Histoire des institutions monarchiques +de la France</i> (1883-1885); G. Waitz, <i>Deutsche Verfassungsgeschichte</i> +(Kiel, 1865-1878); and A.S. Rait, <i>The Scottish Parliament</i> (1901). +See also <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Representation</a></span>.</p> +</div> + +<hr class="foot" /> <div class="note"> + +<p><a name="ft1k" id="ft1k" href="#fa1k"><span class="fn">1</span></a> In Scotland the three estates were the prelates, the tenants-in-chief +and the burgesses, the third estate joining the others for the +first time about the beginning of the 14th century. In 1428 commissioners +of shires, men elected by the minor tenants-in-chief, were +ordered to appear in parliament; the greater tenants-in-chief then +coalesced with the prelates and the three estates were the lords, +clerical and lay, the commissioners of shires and the burgesses. +From 1640 to 1660 parliament was reorganized, the prelates being +excluded, but at the Restoration the old order was re-established. +The Scottish parliament was accustomed to depute much of its work +to a committee, composed of members from each of the three orders, +and the committee of the estates was very prominent during the +struggle between Charles I. and his people.</p> + +<p><a name="ft2k" id="ft2k" href="#fa2k"><span class="fn">2</span></a> These diets are, wherever they still exist, survivals of the “parliaments” +of separate territorial units.</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">ESTATE AND HOUSE AGENTS.<a name="ar152" id="ar152"></a></span> A person exercising the +calling of a house agent in England is required, under a penalty +of £20, to take out yearly a licence upon which £2 is charged +as a duty of excise, unless he is licensed as an auctioneer or +appraiser, or is an agent employed in the management of landed +estates, or a solicitor or conveyancer who has taken out his +annual certificate as such. In this connexion a person is deemed +to be a house agent if he advertises for sale or for letting, or in +any way negotiates for the selling or letting of any furnished +house or part of any furnished house (any storey or flat rated +and let as a separate tenement being for this purpose a house); +subject, however, to the qualification that no one is to be deemed +to be a house agent by reason of his letting, or offering to let, +or in any way negotiating for the letting of, any house the annual +rent or value of which does not exceed £25.</p> + +<p>A house agent who is merely instructed to act in the usual +way of his calling has no authority to bind his employer by a +contract. His business is to endeavour to find a person willing +to become a purchaser or tenant and then to communicate his +offer to the owner. Unless express authority is given to the +agent to sell or let, and for that purpose to enter into a binding +contract, the principal reserves his right to accept or refuse the +offer. As a rule, a house or estate agent has no authority to +receive payment on behalf of the principal. Where he is employed +to procure a tenant, he must use reasonable diligence +to ascertain that the person to whom the property is let through +his agency is fit to be a tenant. He does not, however, in any +way guarantee the payment of the rent. A house agent may +not, for or in expectation of payment, prepare any deed relating +to the sale or letting of real or personal estate. There is, however, +no similar prohibition as to agreements not under seal, and it is a +common practice for house agents to charge for the preparation +of them.</p> + +<p>House agents are usually remunerated by way of commission. +The scale adopted by the Institute of Estate and House Agents +embodies the rates usually charged. In the absence of express +provision upon the subject between the principal and the agent, +commission is payable only when the latter has found a purchaser +or tenant. If, however, he had found a person willing to buy +or take property upon the terms upon which the principal +intimated to him his willingness to sell or let it, the principal +will be liable to pay the amount of the commission, even though +in fact he refuses or is unable to sell or let it. Where the agent +can show that he has brought about a sale or tenancy he will be +entitled to the commission notwithstanding the fact that another +agent has been paid, or has recovered in an action, commission +in respect of the same sale or tenancy. The agent’s authority +may be revoked at any time; but, where he has already performed +the service for which he was employed, the principal +cannot defeat his right to be paid the amount of the commission +by subsequently revoking his authority. If the agent is unsuccessful +in finding a purchaser or tenant, as the case may be, he will +not, as a rule, have any right to remuneration for his efforts in +the matter.</p> + +<p>Most auctioneers, in addition to holding auctions, carry on +the business of house and estate agency. The number of licences +issued to house agents and appraisers in England for the year +ended 31st March 1899 was 4429, and for the year ended 31st +March 1909, 4618. The number of licences issued to auctioneers +in England for the corresponding periods was 6389 and 6543 +respectively.</p> +<div class="author">(H. Ha.)</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">ESTATE DUTY.<a name="ar153" id="ar153"></a></span> For purposes of the national revenue in +the United Kingdom, the Finance Act 1894 imposed on all +property passing by death after the 1st of August 1894 a duty +called estate duty, in lieu of certain other duties previously +payable. The objects of the act were—(1) simplification of the +death duties and equalization as between real and personal +property, and (2) aggregation of all the property passing on a +death, and taxation at rates graduated according to the value +of the whole. Before the act a duty (probate duty) was taken +on the free personal property of deceased persons in the hands +of the executor or administrator, without regard to the subsequent +distribution. The legacy and succession duties were +levied on distribution of the property passing on the death, from +the persons taking any property under the will or intestacy of +the deceased, or under settlement, or by devolution of title on +his death. These two latter duties were mutually exclusive, +and together covered practically all property passing by death. +They were levied at rates graduated according to consanguinity. +In 1888 an attempt was made to equalize the rates of the death +duties as between property which paid the probate and legacy +duties, and property which paid succession duty only. But the +Finance Act 1894 replaced the probate duty by a duty extending +to all property real or personal passing on or by reference to death, +whether by disposition of the deceased or not, without regard +to its tenure or destination. The Finance Acts of 1907 and 1909-1910 +increased the scale of duties laid down in 1894.</p> + +<p>For this purpose all property passing on a death is aggregated +to form one estate, on the capital value of which the duty is +charged, at rates graduated from 1 to 15% according to the +aggregate value. Besides the property of which the deceased +was competent to dispose at his death, the aggregated estate +includes property in which he had an interest ceasing on his +death, from the cesser of which a benefit accrues, or which was +disposed of by him within twelve months of death, or at any +time, with reservation of an interest to himself. The extent to +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page792" id="page792"></a>792</span> +which property is deemed to pass on the cesser of a limited +interest is measured by the proportion of the income to which +the interest extended, without regard to the tenure of the +deceased or his successor. Property may therefore be included +in the aggregate estate at its capital value owing to the passing +of a life-interest only, the property being settled so that the +absolute ownership does not pass at all. But when the duty has +once been paid on property passing under a settlement, the +property does not again become chargeable until it passes on the +death of a person who is or has been competent to dispose of it. +To compensate for this advantage, when property passing under +a settlement made after the act pays the estate duty, a further +duty of 2% (settlement estate duty) is taken, except where the +only subsequent life-interest is that of the wife or husband of +the deceased.</p> + +<p>The rate of duty being fixed according to the aggregate +capital value of the whole estate, the charge is distributed +according to the different modes of disposition of the property +comprised in the estate. The duty on the personalty which +passes to the executor as such is paid by him, as the probate duty +was, and comes out of the general estate. For the other property +passing, trustees, or any person to whom it passes for a beneficial +interest in possession, are made accountable, and are required +to bring in an account of the property and pay the duty. The +duty is a first charge on such property, and, when it is paid by a +person having a life-interest only, he may charge the <i>corpus</i> of +the property with it. The duty on real property included in +an account is payable by eight yearly or sixteen half-yearly +instalments, becoming due twelve months after the death, and +bearing interest at 3% from that date. On other property, +except in a few special cases, the duty bears interest at 3% from +the date of the death. When the estate duty has been paid no +further duty is chargeable on property comprised in the estate +which passes to lineal relations of the deceased. But on property +passing to collaterals or strangers legacy or succession duty, +as the case may be, is payable by the devisees or successors, at +a rate (which is the same whichever duty be payable) fixed +according to consanguinity.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>For a detailed account of the provisions of the act of 1894 and +subsequent amending acts, and of the practical working of the duty, +reference is made to Austen-Cartmell, <i>Finance Acts</i> (1894-1907); +Hanson, <i>Death Duties</i> (London, 1904); Soward, <i>Handbook to the +Estate Duty</i> (4th ed., London, 1900); and to the reports of the +commissioners of Inland Revenue for 1894-1895 and subsequent +years.</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">ESTCOURT, RICHARD<a name="ar154" id="ar154"></a></span> (1668-1712), English actor, began by +playing comedy parts in Dublin. His first London appearance +was in 1704 as Dominick, in Dryden’s <i>Spanish Friar</i>, and he +continued to take important parts at Drury Lane, being the +original Pounce in Steele’s <i>Tender Husband</i> (1705), Sergeant Kite +in Farquhar’s <i>Recruiting Officer</i>, and Sir Francis Gripe in Mrs +Centlivre’s <i>Busybody</i>. He was an excellent mimic and a great +favourite socially. Estcourt wrote a comedy, <i>The Fair Example, +or the Modish Citizen</i> (1703), and <i>Prunella</i> (1704), an interlude.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">ESTE,<a name="ar155" id="ar155"></a></span> one of the oldest of the former reigning houses of +Italy. It is in all probability of Lombard origin, and descended, +according to Muratori, from the princes who governed in Tuscany +in Carolingian times. The lordship of the town of Este was +first acquired by Alberto Azzo II., who also bore the title of +marquis of Italy<a name="fa1l" id="fa1l" href="#ft1l"><span class="sp">1</span></a> (d. <i>c.</i> 1097); he married Kunitza or Kunegonda, +sister of Welf or Guelph III., duke of Carinthia. Welf +died without issue, and was succeeded by Welf IV., son of Kunitza, +who married a daughter of Otto II., duke of Bavaria, and who +obtained the duchy of Bavaria in 1070. Through him the house +of Este became connected with the princely houses of Brunswick +and Hanover, from which the sovereigns of England are descended. +The Italian titles and estates were inherited by Folco I. +(1060-1135), son of Alberto Azzo by his second wife Gersende, +daughter of Herbert I., count of Maine.<a name="fa2l" id="fa2l" href="#ft2l"><span class="sp">2</span></a> The house of Este +played a great part in the history of medieval and Renaissance +Italy, and it first comes to the front in the wars between the +Guelphs and Ghibellines; as leaders of the former party its +princes received at different times Ferrara, Modena, Reggio +and other fiefs and territories.</p> + +<p>Obizzo I., son of Folco, was the first to bear the title of marquis +of Este. He entered into the Guelphic league against the +emperor Frederick I., and was comprehended in the treaty of +Venice of 1177 by which municipal <i>podestàs</i> (foreigners chosen +as heads of cities to administer justice impartially) were instituted. +He was elected podestà of Padua in 1178, and in 1184 he was +reconciled with Frederick, who created him marquis of Genoa +and Milan, a dignity somewhat similar to that of imperial vicar. +By the marriage of his son Azzo to the heiress of the Marchesella +family (the story that she was carried off to prevent her marrying +an enemy of the Este is a pure legend), he came to acquire great +influence in Ferrara, although he was opposed by the hardly +less powerful house of Torelli.</p> + +<p>Obizzo died in 1194 and Azzo V. having predeceased him, +the marquisate devolved on his grandson Azzo VI. (1170-1212), +who became head of the Guelph party, and to him the people +of Ferrara sacrificed their liberty by making him their first lord +(1208). But during his lifetime civil war raged in the city, +between the Este and the Torelli, each party being driven out +again and again. Azzo (also called Azzolino) died in 1212 and +was succeeded by Aldobrandino I., who in 1213 concluded +a treaty with Salinguerra Torelli, the head of that house, to +divide the government of the city between them. On his death +in 1215 he was succeeded by his brother Azzo VII. (1205-1264), +surnamed Novello, but Salinguerra Torelli usurped all power +in Ferrara and expelled Azzo (1222). In 1240 Pope Gregory IX. +determined on another war against the emperor Frederick II., +but deemed it wise to begin by crushing the chief Ghibelline +houses. Thus Azzo found himself in league with the pope and +various Guelph cities in his attempt to regain Ferrara. That +town underwent a four months’ siege, and was at last compelled +to surrender; Salinguerra was sent to Venice as a prisoner, +and Azzo ruled in Ferrara once more. The Ghibelline party +was annihilated, but the city enjoyed peace and happiness +within, although her citizens took part in the wars raging outside. +The Guelph cause triumphed, Frederick being defeated several +times, and after his death Azzo helped in crushing the terrible +Eccelino da Romano (<i>q.v.</i>) who upheld the imperial cause, at +the battle of Cassano (1259). He died in 1264 and was succeeded +by Obizzo II. (1240-1293) his grandson, who in 1288 received +the lordship of Modena, and that of Reggio in 1289. He was +a capable but cruel ruler, and while professing devotion to the +Guelph cause, did homage to the German king Rudolph I. +when he descended into Italy.</p> + +<p>Obizzo II. died in 1293 and was succeeded by his son Azzo +VIII., but the latter’s brothers, Aldobrandino and Francesco, +who were to have shared in the government, were expelled and +became his bitter enemies. The misgovernment of Azzo led to +the revolt of Reggio and Modena, which shook off his yoke. +Enemies arose on all sides, and he spent his last years in perpetual +fighting. He died in 1308, and having no legitimate children, +his brothers, his natural son Fresco, and others disputed the +succession. A papal legate was appointed, and though the Este +returned they were placed under pontifical tutelage.</p> + +<p>The history of the house now becomes involved and of little +interest until we come to Nicholas III. (1384-1441), who exercised +sway over Ferrara, Modena, Parma and Reggio, waged many +wars, was made general of the army of the Church, and in his +later years governor of Milan, where he died, not without suspicion +of poison. To him succeeded Lionello (1407-1450), a wise and +virtuous ruler and a patron of literature and art; then Borso +(1413-1471), his brother, who was created duke of Modena and +Reggio by the emperor Frederick III., and duke of Ferrara by +the pope. In spite of the wars by which all Italy was torn, +Ferrara enjoyed a period of peace and prosperity under Borso; +he patronized literature, established a printing-press at Ferrara, +surrounded himself with learned men, and his court was of +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page793" id="page793"></a>793</span> +unparalleled splendour. He also protected industry and commerce, +and ruled with great wisdom. His brother Ercole I. +(1431-1505), who succeeded him in 1471, was less fortunate, +and had to engage in a war with Venice, owing to a dispute about +the salt monopoly, with the result that by the peace of 1484 he +was forced to cede the district of Polesine to the republic. But +the last years of his life were peaceful and prosperous, so that +afterwards men looked back to the days of Ercole I. as to a +golden age; his capital was noted both for its luxury and as the +resort of men eminent in literature and art. Boiardo the poet +was his minister, and Ariosto obtained his patronage.</p> + +<p>Ercole’s daughter Beatrice d’Este (1475-1497), duchess of +Milan, one of the most beautiful and accomplished princesses +of the Italian Renaissance, was bethrothed at the age of five to +Lodovico Sforza (known as <i>il Moro</i>), duke of Bari, regent and +afterwards duke of Milan, and was married to him in January +1491. She had been carefully educated, and availed herself +of her position as mistress of one of the most splendid courts of +Italy to surround herself with learned men, poets and artists, +such as Niccolò da Correggio, Bernardo Castiglione, Bramante, +Leonardo da Vinci and many others. In 1492 she visited +Venice as ambassador for her husband in his political schemes, +which consisted chiefly in a desire to be recognized as duke of +Milan. On the death of Gian Galeazzo Sforza, Lodovico’s +usurpation was legalized, and after the battle of Fornovo (1495) +both he and his wife took part in the peace congress of Vercelli +between Charles VIII. of France and the Italian princes, at which +Beatrice showed great political ability. But her brilliant career +was cut short by death through childbirth, on the 3rd of January +1497. She belongs to the best class of Renaissance women, and +was one of the culture influences of the age; to her patronage +and good taste are due to a great extent the splendour of the +Castello of Milan, of the Certosa of Pavia and of many other +famous buildings in Lombardy.</p> + +<p>Her sister Isabella d’Este (1474-1539), marchioness of Mantua, +was carefully educated both in letters and in the arts like Beatrice, +and was married when barely sixteen to Francesco Gonzaga, +marquis of Mantua (1490). She showed great diplomatic and +political skill, especially in her negotiations with Cesare Borgia +(<i>q.v.</i>), who had dispossessed Guidobaldo da Montefeltro, duke +of Urbino, the husband of her sister-in-law and intimate friend +Elisabetta Gonzaga (1502). She received the deposed duke +and duchess, as well as other princes in the same condition, +at her court of Mantua, which was one of the most brilliant in +Italy, and like her sister she gathered together many eminent +men of letters and artists, Raphael, Andrea Mantegna and +Giulio Romano being among those whom she employed. Both +she and her husband were greatly influenced by Baldassare +Castiglione (1478-1529), author of <i>Il Cortigiano</i>, and it was at +his suggestion that Giulio Romano was summoned to Mantua +to enlarge the Castello and other buildings. Isabella was “undoubtedly, +among all the princesses of the 15th and 16th centuries, +the one who most strikingly and perfectly personified the aspirations +of the Renaissance” (Eugène Müntz); but her character +was less attractive than that of her sister, and in her love of +collecting works of art she showed a somewhat grasping nature, +being ever anxious to cut down the prices of the artists who +worked for her.</p> + +<p>To Ercole I. succeeded his son Alphonso I. (1486-1534), the +husband of Lucrezia Borgia (<i>q.v.</i>), daughter of Pope Alexander VI. +During nearly the whole of his reign he was engaged in the Italian +wars, but by his diplomatic skill and his military ability he was +for many years almost always successful. He was gifted with +great mechanical skill, and his artillery was of world-wide +reputation. On the formation of the league of Cambrai against +Venice in 1508, he was appointed to the supreme command of +the papal troops by Julius II.; but after the Venetians had +sustained a number of reverses they made peace with the pope +and joined him against the French. Alphonso was invited to +co-operate in the new combination, and on his refusal war was +declared against him; but although he began by losing Modena +and Reggio, he subsequently inflicted several defeats on the +papal troops. He fought on the side of the French at the battle +of Ravenna (1512), from which, although victorious, they +derived no advantage. Soon afterwards they retired from Italy, +and Alphonso, finding himself abandoned, tried to make his +peace with the pope, through the mediation of Fabrizio Colonna. +He went to Rome for the purpose and received absolution, but +on discovering that Julius meant to detain him a prisoner, he +escaped in disguise, and the pope’s death in 1513 gave him a +brief respite. But Leo X. proved equally bent on the destruction +of the house of Este, when he too was cut off by death. Alphonso +availed himself of the troubles of the papacy during the reign +of the equally hostile Clement VII. to recapture Reggio (1523) +and Modena (1527), and was confirmed in his possession of them +by the emperor Charles V., in spite of Clement’s opposition.</p> + +<p>He died in 1534, and was succeeded by his son Ercole II. +(1508-1559), who married Renée, daughter of Louis XII. of +France, a princess of Protestant proclivities and a friend of Calvin. +On joining the league of France and the papacy against Spain, +Ercole was appointed lieutenant-general of the French army in +Italy. The war was prosecuted, however, with little vigour, +and peace was made with Spain in 1558. The duke and his +brother, Cardinal Ippolito the Younger, were patrons of literature +and art, and the latter built the magnificent Villa d’ Este at +Tivoli. He was succeeded by Alphonso II. (1533-1597), remembered +for his patronage of Tasso, whom he afterwards +imprisoned. He reorganized the army, enriched the public +library, encouraged agriculture, but was extravagant and +dissipated. With him the main branch of the family came to an +end, and although at his death he bequeathed the duchy to his +cousin Cesare (1533-1628), Pope Clement VIII., renewing the +Church’s hostility to the house of Este, declared that prince +to be of illegitimate birth (a doubtful contention), and by a +treaty with Lucrezia, Alphonso’s sister, Ferrara was made over +to the Holy See. Cesare held Modena and Reggio, but with him +the Estensi cease to play an important part in Italian politics. +For two centuries this dynasty had been one of the greatest +powers in Italy, and its court was perhaps the most splendid +in Europe, both as regards pomp and luxury and on account of +the eminent artists, poets and scholars which it attracted.</p> + +<p>The subsequent heads of the family were: Alphonso III., +who retired to a monastery in 1629 and died in 1644; Francis I. +(1610-1658), who commanded the French army in Italy in +1647; Alphonso IV. (1634-1662), the father of Mary Beatrice, +the queen of James II. of England, who fought in the French +army during the Spanish War, and founded the picture gallery +of Modena; Francis II. (1660-1694), who originated the Este +library, also at Modena, and founded the university; Rinaldo +(1655-1737), through whose marriage with Charlotte Felicitas +of Brunswick-Lüneburg the long-separated branches of the +house of Este were reunited; Francis III. (1698-1780), who +married the daughter of the regent Philip of Orleans. Francis +III. wished to remain neutral during the war between Spain and +Austria (1740), but the imperialists having occupied and devastated +his duchy, he took the Spanish side and was appointed +<i>generalissimo</i> of the Spanish army in Italy. He was re-established +in his possessions by the treaty of Aix-la-Chapelle (1748), and +on being reconciled with the empress Maria Theresa, he received +from her the title of governor of Lombardy in 1754. With his +son Ercole III. Rinaldo (1727-1803), who at the peace of Campoformio +lost his duchy, the male line of the Estensi came to an +end. His only daughter, Marie Beatrice (d. 1829), was married +to the archduke Ferdinand, third son of the emperor Francis I. +Ferdinand was created duke of Breisgau in 1803, and at his +death in 1806 he was succeeded by his son Francis IV. (<i>q.v.</i>), +to whom the duchy of Modena was given at the treaty of Vienna +in 1814. He died in 1846 and was succeeded by Francis V. (<i>q.v.</i>), +who lost his possessions by the events of 1859. With his death +in 1875 the title and estates passed to the archduke Francis +Ferdinand, heir to the Austro-Hungarian throne. The children +of Lady Augusta Murray, daughter of the earl of Dunmore, by +her marriage with Augustus Frederick, duke of Sussex, sixth +son of George III. of Great Britain, assumed the old name of +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page794" id="page794"></a>794</span> +d’ Este, and claimed recognition as members of the royal family; +but as the marriage was in violation of the royal marriages +act of 1773, it was declared invalid, and their claims were set +aside.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p><span class="sc">Bibliography.</span>—G. Antonelli, <i>Saggio di una bibliografia storica +ferrarese</i> (Ferrara, 1851); L.A. Muratori, <i>Delle antichità estensi ed +italiane</i> (3 vols., 1717, &c.), the chief and most reliable authority on +the subject, containing a quantity of documents; A. Frizzi, <i>Memorie +per la storia di Ferrara</i> (2nd ed., Ferrara, 1847); A. Solerti, <i>Ferrara +e la corte estense nella seconda metà del sec. XVI.</i> (Città di Castello, +1900); C. Antolini, <i>Il dominio estense in Ferrara</i> (Ferrara, 1896), +which deals with the siege of 1240 and other special points; E.G. +Gardner, <i>Princes and Poets of Ferrara</i> (London, 1904), a bulky +volume dealing only with the Renaissance period, full of interesting +and unpublished matter, especially about the literary and artistic +associations of the house, but not well put together (contains good +bibliography); G. Bertoni, <i>La Biblioteca estense e la coltura ferrarese +ai tempi del duca Ercole I.</i> (Turin, 1903), useful for the literary +aspect of the subject; P. Litta, <i>Le Celebri Famiglie italiane</i>, vol. iii. +(Milan, 1831), still a valuable work; E. Noyes, <i>The Story of Ferrara</i> +(London, 1904); Julia Cartwright’s <i>Isabella d’Este</i> (London, 1903), +and <i>Beatrice d’Este</i> (1899), pleasantly written but amateurish +volumes based on A. Luzio’s <i>Mantova e Urbino</i> (Turin, 1893); A. +Luzio and R. Renier, “Delle relazioni di Isabella d’Este Gonzaga +con Lodovico e Beatrice Sforza” (Milan, 1890, <i>Archivio Storico +Lombardo</i>, xvii.).</p> +</div> +<div class="author">(L. V.*)</div> + +<hr class="foot" /> <div class="note"> + +<p><a name="ft1l" id="ft1l" href="#fa1l"><span class="fn">1</span></a> <i>i.e.</i> Margrave of the Empire (<i>marchio Sancti Imperii</i>) in Italy. +(See <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Marquess</a></span>.)</p> + +<p><a name="ft2l" id="ft2l" href="#fa2l"><span class="fn">2</span></a> Another son of Azzo and Gersende became count of Maine as +Hugh III. (d. 1131).</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">ESTE<a name="ar156" id="ar156"></a></span> (anc. <i>Ateste</i>, <i>q.v.</i>), a town and episcopal see of Venetia, +Italy, in the province of Padua, 20 m. S.S.W. of it by rail. Pop. +(1901) 8671 (town); 10,779 (commune). It lies 49 ft. above sea-level +below the southern slopes of the Euganean Hills. The +external walls of the castle still rise above the town on the N., +but the interior is now occupied by the cattle-market. A fragment +of the once enormous Palazzo Mocenigo, of the 16th century, +is now occupied by the important archaeological museum (see +<span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Ateste</a></span>). The cathedral was erected in 1690-1720, on the site +of an older building destroyed by an earthquake in 1688. S. +Martino is a church in the Lombard Romanesque style. The +archives in the Palazzo Comunale are important.</p> + +<p>After the Roman period the history of Este is a blank until +the Lombard period, in which it was dependent on Monselice. +In the 10th century the family of Este (see above) established +itself in the castle above the town. At the end of the 13th century +Padua, which had already captured Este more than once, became +definitely mistress of it. When the Carrara family succumbed +in 1405, Este voluntarily surrendered to Venice and was allowed +its independence, under a podestà; and thenceforth it followed +the fortunes of Venetia.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">ESTÉBANEZ CALDERÓN, SERAFÍN<a name="ar157" id="ar157"></a></span> (1799-1867), a Spanish +author, best known by the pseudonym of “El Solitario,” was +born at Málaga on the 27th of December 1799. His first literary +effort was <i>El Listón verde</i>, a poem signed “Safinio” and written to +celebrate the revolution of 1820. He was called to the bar, and +settled for some time at Madrid, where he published a volume +of verses in 1831 under the assumed name of “El Solitario.” +He obtained an exaggerated reputation as an Arabic scholar, and +played a minor part in the political movements of his time. He +died at Madrid on the 5th of February 1867. His most interesting +work, <i>Escenas andaluzas</i> (1847), is in a <span class="correction" title="amended from curiouly">curiously</span> affected style, +the vocabulary being partly archaic and partly provincial; but, +despite its eccentric mannerisms, it is a vivid record of picturesque +scenes and local customs. Estébanez Calderón is also the author +of an unfinished history, <i>De la conquista y pérdida de Portugal</i> +(1883), issued posthumously under the editorship of his nephew, +Antonio Cánovas del Castillo.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">ESTELLA,<a name="ar158" id="ar158"></a></span> a town of northern Spain, in the province of Navarre, +on the left bank of the river Ega, 15 m. W.S.W. of Pamplona. +Pop. (1900) 5736. Estella, which occupies the site of a Roman +town of uncertain name, contains several monasteries and +churches, a medieval citadel, and a college which was formerly +a university. Its principal industries are the manufacture of +woollen and linen fabrics and brandy-making; and it has a +considerable trade in fruit, wine and cattle. Estella commands +several defiles on the roads from Castile and Aragon, and on that +account occupies a position of considerable strategic importance. +It was long the headquarters of Don Carlos, who was proclaimed +king here in 1833. In 1873 it was the chief stronghold of the +Carlists, and in 1874, when driven from other places, they +succeeded in retiring to Estella. On the 16th of February 1876 +the Carlists in the town surrendered unconditionally. For an +account of the Carlist rising see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Spain</a></span>: <i>History</i>.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">ESTERHÁZY OF GALÁNTHA,<a name="ar159" id="ar159"></a></span> a noble Magyar family. Its +origin has been traced, not without some uncertainty, to Salamon +of Estoras, whose sons Péter and Illyés divided their patrimony +in 1238. Péter founded the family of Zerházy, and Illyés that +of Illyesházy, which became extinct in the male line in 1838. +The first member of the family to emerge definitely into history +was Ferencz Zerházy (1563-1594), vice lord-lieutenant of the +county of Pressburg, who took the name of Esterházy when he +was created <i>Freiherr</i> of Galántha, an estate acquired by the +family in 1421. His eldest son, Dániel (d. 1654), founded the +house of Czesznek, the third, Pál (d. 1641), the line of Zólyom +(Altsohl), and the fourth, Miklós, that branch of the family +which occupies the most considerable place in Hungarian +history, that of Fraknó or Forchtenstein.</p> + +<p>This <span class="sc">Miklós</span> [Nicholas] <span class="sc">Esterházy</span> of Galántha (1582-1645) +was born at Galántha on the 8th of April 1582. His parents +were Protestants, and he himself, at first, followed the Protestant +persuasion; but he subsequently went over to Catholicism +and, along with Cardinal Pázmány, his most serious rival at +court, became a pillar of Catholicism, both religiously and +politically, and a worthy opponent of the two great Protestant +champions of the period, Gabriel Bethlen and George I. Rákóczy. +In 1611 he married Orsolyá, the widow of the wealthy Ferencz +Mágocsy, thus coming into possession of her gigantic estates, +and in 1622 he acquired Fraknó. Matthias II. made him a +baron (1613), count of Beregh (1617), and lord-lieutenant of the +county of Zólyom and <i>magister curiae regiae</i> (1618). At the +coronation of Ferdinand II., when he officiated as grand-standard-bearer, +he received the order of the Golden Fleece and fresh +donations. At the diet of Sopron, 1625, he was elected palatine +of Hungary. As a diplomatist he powerfully contributed to +bring about the peace of Nikolsburg (1622) and the peace of +Linz (1645) (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Hungary</a></span>: <i>History</i>). His political ideal was +the consolidation of the Habsburg dynasty as a means towards +freeing Hungary from the Turkish yoke. He himself, on one +occasion (1623), defeated the Turks on the banks of the Nyitra; +but anything like sustained operations against them was then +impossible. He was also one of the most eminent writers of his +day. He died at Nagy-Heflán on the 11th of September 1645, +leaving five sons.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See <i>Works of Nicholas Esterházy</i>, with a biography by Ferencz Toldi +(Hung.) (Pest, 1852); <i>Nicholas Count Esterházy, Palatine of Hungary</i> +(a biography, Hung.) (Pest, 1863-1870).</p> +</div> + +<p>His third son <span class="sc">Pál</span> [Paul] (1635-1713), prince palatine, founded +the princely branch of the family of Esterházy. He was born +at Kis Marton (Eisenstadt) on the 7th of September 1635. In +1663 he fought, along with Miklós Zrinyi, against the Turks, +and distinguished himself under Montecuculi. In 1667 he was +appointed commander-in-chief in south Hungary, where he +defeated the malcontents at Leutschau and Györk. In 1681 he +was elected palatine. In 1683 he participated in the deliverance +of Vienna from the Turks, and entered Buda in 1686 at the head +of 20,000 men. Thoroughly reactionary, and absolutely devoted +to the Habsburgs, he contributed more than any one else +to the curtailing of the privileges of the Magyar gentry in 1687, +when he was created a prince of the Empire, with (in 1712) +succession to the first-born of his house. His “aulic tendencies” +made him so unpopular that his offer of mediation between the +Rákóczy insurgents and the government was rejected by the +Hungarian diet, and the negotiations, which led to the peace of +Szatmár (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Hungary</a></span>: <i>History</i>), were entrusted to János +Pállfy. He died on the 26th of March 1713. He loved the arts +and sciences, wrote several religious works, and was one of the +chief compilers of the <i>Trophaeum Domus Inclytae Estoratianae</i>.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See Lajos Merényi, <i>Prince Paul Esterházy</i> (Hung.) (Budapest, +1895).</p> +</div> + +<p>Prince <span class="sc">Pál Antal</span>, grandson of the prince palatine Pál, was a +distinguished soldier, who rose to the rank of field-marshal in +1758. On his death in 1762 he was succeeded by his brother.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page795" id="page795"></a>795</span></p> + +<p>Prince <span class="sc">Miklós József</span> [Nicholas Joseph] (1714-1790), also a +brilliant soldier, is perhaps best remembered as a patron of the +fine arts. For his services in command of an infantry brigade +at Kolin (1757) he was specially mentioned by Count Daun, and +became one of the original members of the order of Maria Theresa. +In 1762 he was appointed captain of Maria Theresa’s Hungarian +body-guard, in 1764 <i>Feldzeugmeister</i>, and in 1768 field marshal. +His other honours included the Golden Fleece and the grade of +commander in the order of Maria Theresa. Joseph II. conferred +the princely title, which had previously been limited to the eldest-born +of the house, on all his descendants, male and female. +Esterházy died in Vienna on the 28th of September 1790. He +rebuilt in the Renaissance style Schloss Esterházy, the splendour +of which won for it the name of the Hungarian Versailles. Haydn +was for thirty years conductor of his private orchestra and +general musical director, and many of his compositions were +written for the private theatre and the concerts of this prince.</p> + +<p>His grandson, Prince <span class="sc">Miklós</span> [Nicholas] (1765-1833) was +born on the 12th of December 1765. He began life as an officer +in the guards, subsequently making the grand tour, which first +awakened his deep interest in art. He quitted the army for +diplomacy after reaching the rank of <i>Feldzeugmeister</i>, and was +employed as extraordinary ambassador, on special occasions, +when he displayed a magnificence extraordinary even for the +Esterházys. He made at Vienna an important collection of +paintings and engravings, which came into the possession of +the Hungarian Academy at Budapest in 1865. At his summer +palace of Kis Marton (Eisenstadt) he erected a monument to +Haydn. His immense expenditure on building and the arts +involved the family in financial difficulties for two generations. +When the French invaded Austria in 1797, he raised a regiment +of 1000 men at his own expense. In 1809, when Napoleon +invited the Magyars to elect a new king to replace the Habsburgs, +overtures were made to Prince Nicholas, who refused the honour +and, further, raised a regiment of volunteers in defence of Austrian +interests. He died at Como on the 24th of November 1833.</p> + +<p>His son, Prince <span class="sc">Pál Antal</span> [Paul Anthony] (1786-1866), +entered the diplomatic service. In 1806 he was secretary +of the embassy in London, and in 1807 worked with Prince +Metternich in the same capacity in Paris. In 1810 he was +accredited to the court of Dresden, where he tried in vain to +detach Saxony from Napoleon, and in 1814 he accompanied +his father on a secret mission to Rome. He took a leading part +in all the diplomatic negotiations consequent upon the wars +of 1813-1815, especially at the congress of Châtillon, and on +the conclusion of peace was, at the express desire of the prince +regent, sent as ambassador to London. In 1824 he represented +Austria as ambassador extraordinary at the coronation of +Charles X., and was the premier Austrian commissioner at the +London conferences of 1830-1836. In 1842 he quitted diplomacy +for politics and attached himself to “the free-principles party.” +He was minister for foreign affairs in the first responsible Hungarian +ministry (1848), but resigned his post in September +<span class="correction" title="amended from bcause">because</span> he could see no way of reconciling the court with the +nation. The last years of his life were spent in comparative +poverty and isolation, as even the Esterházy-Forchtenstein +estates were unequal to the burden of supporting his fabulous +extravagance and had to be placed in the hands of curators.</p> + +<p>The cadet branch of the house of Fraknó, the members of which +bear the title of count, was divided into three lines by the sons +of Ferencz Esterházy (1641-1683).</p> + +<p>The eldest of these, Count <span class="sc">Antal</span> (1676-1722), distinguished +himself in the war against Rákóczy in 1703, but changed sides +in 1704 and commanded the left wing of the Kuruczis at the +engagements of Nagyszombat (1704) and Vereskö (1705). In +1706 he defeated the imperialist general Guido Stahremberg +and penetrated to the walls of Vienna. Still more successful +were his operations in the campaign of 1708, when he ravaged +Styria, twice invaded Austria, and again threatened Vienna, +on which occasion the emperor Joseph narrowly escaped falling +into his hands. In 1709 he was routed by the superior forces +of General Sigbert Heister at Palota, but brought off the remainder +of his arms very skilfully. In 1710 he joined Rákóczy +in Poland and accompanied him to France and Turkey. He +died in exile at Rodosto on the shores of the Black Sea. His +son Bálint József [Valentine Joseph], by Anna Maria Nigrelli, +entered the French army, and was the founder of the Hallewyll, +or French, branch of the family, which became extinct in the +male line in 1876 with Count Ladislas.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See <i>Count Esterházy’s Campaign Diary</i> (Hung.), ed. by K. Thaly +(Pest, 1901).</p> +</div> + +<p>Count <span class="sc">Bálint Miklós</span> (1740-1805), son of Bálint József, +was an enthusiastic partisan of the duc de Choiseul, on whose +dismissal, in 1764, he resigned the command of the French +regiment of which he was the colonel. It was Esterházy who +conveyed to Marie Antoinette the portrait of Louis XVI. on the +occasion of their betrothal, and the close relations he maintained +with her after her marriage were more than once the occasion +of remonstrance on the part of Maria Theresa, who never seems +to have forgotten that he was the grandson of a rebel. At the +French court he stood in high favour with the comte d’Artois. +He was raised to the rank of maréchal de camp, and made +inspector of troops in the French service in 1780. At the outbreak +of the French Revolution, he was stationed at Valenciennes, +where he contrived for a time to keep order, and facilitated the +escape of the French <i>emigrés</i> by way of Namur; but, in 1790, +he hastened back to Paris to assist the king. At the urgent +entreaty of the comte d’Artois in 1791 he quitted Paris for +Coblenz, accompanied Artois to Vienna, and was sent to the +court of St Petersburg the same year to enlist the sympathies of +Catherine II. for the Bourbons. He received an estate from +Catherine II., and although the gift was rescinded by Paul I., +another was eventually granted him. He died at Grodek in +Volhynia on the 23rd of July 1805.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See <i>Mémoires</i>, ed. by E. Daudet (Fr.) (Paris, 1905), and <i>Lettres</i> +(Paris, 1906).</p> +</div> + +<p>Two other sons of Count Ferencz (d. 1685), Ferencz and +József, founded the houses of Dotis and Cseklész (Landschütz) +respectively. Of their descendants, Count <span class="sc">Móricz</span> (1807-1890) +of Dotis, Austrian ambassador in Rome until 1856, became +in 1861 a member of the ministry formed by Anton Schmerling +and in 1865 joined the clerical cabinet of Richard Belcredi. +His bitter hostility to Prussia helped to force the government +of Vienna into the war of 1866. His official career closed in +1866, but he remained one of the leaders of the clerical party.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See also Count János Esterházy, <i>Description of the Esterházy +Family</i> (Hung., Budapest, 1901).</p> +</div> +<div class="author">(R. N. B.)</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">ESTERS,<a name="ar160" id="ar160"></a></span> in organic chemistry, compounds formed by the +condensation of an alcohol and an acid, with elimination of water; +they may also be considered as derivatives of alcohols, in which +the hydroxylic hydrogen has been replaced by an acid radical, +or as acids in which the hydrogen of the carboxyl group has been +replaced by an alkyl or aryl group. In the case of the polybasic +acids, all the hydrogen atoms can be replaced in this way, and +the compounds formed are known as “neutral esters.” If, +however, some of the hydrogen of the acid remain undisplaced, +then “acid esters” result. These acid esters retain some of the +characteristic properties of the acids, forming, for example, +salts, with basic oxides. Esters may be prepared by heating +the silver salt of an acid with an alkyl iodide; by heating the +alcohols or alcoholates with an acid chloride; by distilling the +anhydrous sodium salt of an acid with a mixture of the alcohol +and concentrated sulphuric acid; or by heating for some hours +on the water bath, a mixture of an acid and an alcohol, with +a small quantity of hydrochloric or sulphuric acids (E. Fischer +and A. Speier, <i>Ber</i>., 1896, 28, p. 3252).</p> + +<p>The esters of the aliphatic and aromatic acids are colourless +neutral liquids, which are generally insoluble in water, but +readily dissolve in alcohol and ether. Many possess a fragrant +odour and are prepared in large quantities for use as artificial +fruit essences. They hydrolyse readily when boiled with solutions +of caustic alkalies or mineral acids, yielding the constituent +acid and alcohol. When heated with ammonia, they yield acid +amides (<i>q.v.</i>). They form unstable addition products with +sodium ethylate or methylate. With the Grignard reagent, they +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page796" id="page796"></a>796</span> +form addition compounds which on the addition of water yield +tertiary alcohols, except in the case of ethyl formate, where a +secondary alcohol is obtained.</p> + +<div class="center pt2"><img style="width:522px; height:101px; vertical-align: middle;" src="images/img796.jpg" alt="" /></div> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p class="pt2">N. Menschutkin (<i>Ber.</i>, 1882, 15, p. 1445; <i>Ann.</i>, 1879, 195, p. 334) +examined the rate of esterification of many acids with alcohols. It +was found that the normal primary alcohols were all esterified at +about the same rate, the secondary alcohols more slowly than the +primary, and the tertiary alcohols still more slowly. The investigation +also showed that the nature of the acid used affected the +result, for in an homologous series of acids it was found that as the +molecule of the acid became more complex, the rate of esterification +became less. The formation of an ester by the interaction of an acid +with an alcohol is a “reversible” or “balanced” action, for as +M. Berthelot and L. Péan de St Gilles (<i>Ann. Chim. Phys.</i>, 1862 (3), +65, p. 385 et seq.) have shown in the case of the formation of ethyl +acetate from ethyl alcohol and acetic acid, a point of equilibrium is +reached, beyond which the reacting system cannot pass, unless the +system be disturbed in some way by the removal of one of the products +of the reaction. V. Meyer (<i>Ber.</i>, 1894, 27, p. 510 et seq.) +showed that in benzenoid compounds ortho-substituents exert a +great hindering effect on the esterification of alcohols by acids in the +presence of hydrochloric acid, this hindering being particularly +marked when two substituents are present in the ortho positions to +the carboxyl group. In such a case the ester is best prepared by the +action of an alkyl halide on the silver salt of the acid, and when once +prepared, can only be hydrolysed with great difficulty.</p> + +<p>Ethyl formate, H·CO<span class="su">2</span>C<span class="su">2</span>H<span class="su">5</span>, boils at 55° C. and has been used in +the artificial preparation of rum. Ethyl acetate (acetic ether), +CH<span class="su">3</span>·CO<span class="su">2</span>C<span class="su">2</span>H<span class="su">5</span>, boils at 75° C. Isoamylisovalerate, C<span class="su">4</span>H<span class="su">9</span>·CO<span class="su">2</span>C<span class="su">5</span>H<span class="su">11</span>, +boils at 196° C. and has an odour of apples. Ethyl butyrate, +C<span class="su">3</span>H<span class="su">7</span>·CO<span class="su">2</span>C<span class="su">2</span>H<span class="su">5</span>, boils at 121° C. and has an odour of pineapple. The +fats (<i>q.v.</i>) and waxes (<i>q.v.</i>) are the esters of the higher fatty acids +and alcohols. The esters of the higher fatty acids, when distilled +under atmospheric pressure, are decomposed, and yield an olefine +and a fatty acid.</p> + +<p>Esters of the mineral acids are also known and may be prepared +by the ordinary methods as given above. The neutral esters are as +a rule insoluble in water and distil unchanged; on the other hand, +the acid esters are generally soluble in water, are non-volatile, and +form salts with bases. <i>Ethyl hydrogen sulphate</i> (sulphovinic acid), +C<span class="su">2</span>H<span class="su">5</span>·HSO<span class="su">4</span>, is obtained by the action of concentrated sulphuric acid +on alcohol. The ester is separated from the solution by means of its +barium salt, and the salt decomposed by the addition of the calculated +amount of sulphuric acid. It is a colourless oily liquid of +strongly acid reaction; its aqueous solution decomposes on standing +and on heating it forms diethyl sulphate and sulphuric acid. +<i>Dimethyl sulphate</i>, (CH<span class="su">3</span>)<span class="su">2</span>SO<span class="su">4</span>, is a colourless liquid which boils at +187°-188° C., with partial decomposition. It is used as a methylating +agent (F. Ullmann). Great care should be taken in using dimethyl +and diethyl sulphates, as the respiratory organs are affected by the +vapours, leading to severe attacks of pneumonia. <i>Ethyl nitrate</i>, +C<span class="su">2</span>H<span class="su">5</span>·ONO<span class="su">2</span>, is a colourless liquid which boils at 86.3° C. It is prepared +by the action of nitric acid on ethyl alcohol (some urea being +added to the nitric acid, in order to destroy any nitrous acid that +might be produced in secondary reactions and which, if not removed, +would cause explosive decomposition of the ethyl nitrate). It burns +with a white flame and is soluble in water. When heated with +ammonia it yields ethylamine nitrate, and when reduced with tin +and hydrochloric acid it forms hydroxylamine (<i>q.v.</i>) (W.C. Lossen). +<i>Ethyl nitrite</i>, C<span class="su">2</span>H<span class="su">5</span>·ONO, is a liquid which boils at 18° C.; the crude +product obtained by distilling a mixture of alcohol, sulphuric and +nitric acids and copper turnings is used in medicine under the name +of “sweet spirits of nitre.” <i>Amyl nitrite</i>, C<span class="su">5</span>H<span class="su">11</span>·ONO, boils at 96° C. +and is used in the preparation of the anhydrous diazonium salts +(E. Knoevenagel, <i>Ber.</i>, 1890, 23, p. 2094). It is also used in medicine.</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">ESTHER.<a name="ar161" id="ar161"></a></span> The <i>Book of Esther</i>, in the Bible, relates how a +Jewish maiden, Esther, cousin and foster-daughter of Mordecai, +was made his queen by the Persian king Ahasuerus (Xerxes) +after he had divorced Vashti; next, how Esther and Mordecai +frustrated Haman’s endeavour to extirpate the Jews; how +Haman, the grand-vizier, fell, and Mordecai succeeded him; +how Esther obtained the king’s permission for the Jews to +destroy all who might attack them on the day which Haman +had appointed by lot for their destruction; and lastly, how the +feast of Purim (Lots?) was instituted to commemorate their +deliverance. Frequent incidental references are made to Persian +court-usages (explanations are given in i. 13, viii. 8), while on +the other hand the religious rites of the Jews (except fasting), +and even Jerusalem and the temple, and the name of Israel, +are studiously ignored. Even the name of God is not once +mentioned, perhaps from a dread of its profanation during the +Saturnalia of Purim. The early popularity of the book is shown +by the interpolated passages in the Septuagint and the Old +Latin versions.</p> + +<p>The criticism of <i>Esther</i> began in the 18th century. As soon +as the questioning spirit arose, the strangeness of many statements +in the book leaped into view. A moderate scholar of our +day can find no historical nucleus, and calls it a sort of historical +romance.<a name="fa1m" id="fa1m" href="#ft1m"><span class="sp">1</span></a> The very first verses in the book startle the reader +by their exaggerations, <i>e.g.</i> a banquet lasting 180 days, “127 +provinces.” Farther on, the improbabilities of the plot are +noticeable. Esther, on her elevation, keeps her Jewish origin +secret (ii. 10; cf. vii. 3 ff.), although she has been taken from +the house of her uncle, who is known to be a Jew (iii. 4; cf. vi. +13), and has remained in constant intercourse with him (ii. 11, +19, 20, 22; cf. iv. 4-17). We are further told that the grand-vizier +was an Agagite or Amalekite (iii. 1, &c.); would the +nobility of Persia have tolerated this? Or did Haman too keep +his non-Persian origin secret? Also that Mordecai offered a +gross affront to Haman, for which no slighter punishment would +satisfy Haman than the destruction of the whole Jewish race +(iii. 2-6). Of this savage design eleven months’ notice is given +(iii. 12-14); and when the danger has been averted by the +cleverness of Esther, the provincial Jews are allowed to butcher +75,000, and those in the capital 800 of their Persian fellow-subjects +(ix. 6-16).</p> + +<p>It is urged, on the other hand, that the assembly mentioned +in i. 3 may be that referred to by Herodotus (vii. 8) as having +preceded the expedition against Greece. This hypothesis, however, +requires us to suppose that Xerxes had returned from +Sardis to Susa by the tenth month of the seventh year of his +reign, which is barely credible. In the reckoning of 127 provinces +(cf. Dan. vi. 1; 1 Esd. iii. 2) satrapies and sub-satrapies may be +confounded. It is at any rate correct to include India among the +provinces; this is justified, not only by Herodotus (iii. 94), but +by the inscriptions of Darius at Persepolis and Naksh-i-Rustam. +Herodotus again (vii. 8) confirms the custom referred to in Esth. +ii. 12. But what authority can make the conduct of Mordecai +credible? To-day the harem is impenetrable, while “any one +declining to stand as the grand-vizier passes is almost beaten +to death.”<a name="fa2m" id="fa2m" href="#ft2m"><span class="sp">2</span></a> This, surely, is what a real Mordecai would have +suffered from a real Haman. Even the capricious Xerxes would +never have permitted the entire destruction of one of the races +of the empire, nor would a vizier have proposed it.</p> + +<p>Serious difficulties of another kind remain. Mordecai is +represented as a fellow-captive of Jeconiah (597 <span class="scs">B.C.</span>), and grand-vizier +in Xerxes’s twelfth year (474 <span class="scs">B.C.</span>)! This is parallel to the +strange statement in Tobit xiv. 15. And how can we find room +for Esther as queen by the side of Amestris (Herod. vii. 14, ix. +112)? How, too, can a Jewess have been a legal queen (see +Herod. iii. 84)? Then take the supposed Persian proper names. +“Ahasuerus” may no doubt stand, but very few of the rest +(see Nöldeke, <i>Ency. Bib.</i> col. 1402). As to the style, the general +verdict is that it points to a late date (see Driver, <i>Introd</i>.<span class="sp">6</span>, p. 484). +Altogether, critics decline to date the book earlier than the 3rd +or even 2nd century <span class="scs">B.C.</span></p> + +<p>So far we have only been carrying on 18th-century criticism. +In more recent years, however, new lines of inquiry have been +opened up. First of all by the great Semitic scholar Lagarde. +His thesis (seldom defended now) was that Purim corresponds +to Fūrdigan, the name of the old Persian New Year’s and All +Souls’ festival held in spring, on which the Persians were wont to +exchange presents (cf. Esth. ix. 19). In 1891 came a new +explanation of Esther from Zimmern. It is true that in its +earlier form his theory was very incomplete. But in justice to +this scholar we may notice that from the first he looked for light +to Babylonia, and that many other critics now take up the same +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page797" id="page797"></a>797</span> +position. There is also another new point which has to be +mentioned, viz. that, judging from our experience elsewhere, +the Book of Esther has probably passed through various stages +of development. Here, then, are two points which call for investigation, +viz. (1) a possible mythological element in Esther, +and (2) possible stages of development prior to that represented +by the Hebrew text.</p> + +<p>As to the first point. The Second Targum (on Esth. ii. 7) +long ago declared that Esther was so called “because she was +like the planet Venus.” Recent scholars have expressed the +same idea more critically. Esther is a modification of Ishtar, +the name of the Babylonian goddess of fertility and of the planet +Venus, whose myth must have been partially known to the +Israelites even in pre-exilic times,<a name="fa3m" id="fa3m" href="#ft3m"><span class="sp">3</span></a> and after the fall of the state +must have acquired a still stronger hold on Jewish exiles. A +general knowledge of the myth of Marduk among the Israelites +cannot indeed be proved. Singularly enough, the Babylonian +colonists in the cities of Samaria are said to have made idols, +not of Marduk, but of a deity called Succoth-benoth<a name="fa4m" id="fa4m" href="#ft4m"><span class="sp">4</span></a> (2 Kings +xvii. 30). Nor does the Second Targum help us here; it gives a +wild explanation of Mordecai as “pure myrrh.” Still it is plain +that the name of the god Marduk (Merodach) was known to the +Jews, and the Cosmogony in Gen. i. is considered by critics to +have ultimately arisen out of the myth of Marduk’s conflict with +the dragon (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Cosmogony</a></span>). At any rate the name Mordecai +(the vocalization is uncertain) looks very much like Marduk, +which, with terminations added, often occurs in cuneiform +documents as a personal name.<a name="fa5m" id="fa5m" href="#ft5m"><span class="sp">5</span></a> Add to this, that, according to +Jensen, Ishtar in mythology was the cousin of Marduk, just +as the legend represents Esther as the cousin of Mordecai.<a name="fa6m" id="fa6m" href="#ft6m"><span class="sp">6</span></a> +The same scholar also accounts for Esther’s other name Hadassah +(Esth. ii. 7); <i>hadasshatu</i> in Babylonian means “bride,” which +may have been a title of Ishtar.</p> + +<p>But we cannot stop short here. Unless the mythological key +can also explain Haman and Vashti, it is of no use. Jensen, +now followed by Zimmern, is equal to the occasion. Haman, he +says, is a corruption of Hamman or Humman or Uman, the name +of the chief deity of the Elamites, in whose capital (Susa) the +scene of the narrative is laid, while Vashti is Mashti (or Vashti), +probably the name of an Elamite goddess.</p> + +<p>Following the real or fancied light of these names, Prof. +Jensen holds that the Esther-legend is based on a mythological +account of the victory of the Babylonian deities over those of +Elam, which in plain prose means the deliverance of ancient +Babylonia from its Elamite oppressors, and that such an account +was closely connected with the Babylonian New Year’s festival, +called Zagmuk, just as the Esther-legend is connected with the +festival of Purim.</p> + +<p>We are bound, however, to mention some critical objections. +(1) The Babylonian festival corresponding to Purim was not the +spring festival of Zagmuk, but the summer festival of Ishtar, +which is probably the Sacaea of Berossus, an orgiastic festival +analogous to Purim. (2) According to Jensen’s theory, Mordecai, +and not Esther, ought to be the direct cause of Haman’s ruin. +(3) No such Babylonian account as Jensen postulates can be +indicated. (4) The identifications of names are hazardous. +Fancy a descendant of Kish called Marduk, and an “Agagite” +called Hamman! Elsewhere Mordecai (Ezra ii. 2; Neh. vii. 7) +occurs among names which are certainly not Persian (Bigvai is +no exception), and Haman (Tobit xiv. 10) appears as a nephew +of Achiachar, which is not a Persian name. Esther, moreover, +ought to be parallel to Judith; fancy likening the representative +of Israel to the goddess Ishtar!</p> + +<p>Next, as to the preliminary literary phases of Esther. Such +phases are probable, considering the later phases represented in +the Septuagint. There may have once existed in Hebrew a +story of the deadly feud between Mordecai (if that be the original +name) and Haman, with elements suggested by the story of the +battle between the Supreme God and the dragon (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Cosmogony</a></span>). +As the legend stands, Mordecai and Esther seem to be in each +other’s way. In a passage (i. 5 in LXX.) only found in the Septuagint, +but which may have belonged to the original Esther, +reference is made to a dream of Mordecai respecting two great +dragons, <i>i.e.</i> Mordecai and Haman (x. 7). This seems to confirm +the view here mentioned. If so, however, there must also have +been an Esther-legend, which was afterwards worked up with +that of Mordecai. This is, in fact, the view of Erbt. Winckler +takes a different line. Linguistic facts and certain points in the +contents seem to him to show that our Esther is a work of the +age of the Seleucidae; more precisely he thinks of the time +of the revolt of Molon under Antiochus III. Of course there was +a Book of Esther before this, and even in its redacted form our +Esther reflects the period of three Persian kings, viz. Cyrus, +Cambyses and Darius. Lastly, Cheyne (<i>Ency. Bib.</i> “Purim,” +§ 7), while agreeing with Winckler that the book is based on an +earlier narrative, holds that that earlier text differed more widely +from the present in its geographical and historical setting than +Winckler seems to suppose. The problem of the origin of the +name Purim, however, can hardly be said to have received a final +solution.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p><span class="sc">Bibliography.</span>—Kuenen, <i>History of Israel</i>, iii. (1875), 148-153; +Lagarde, <i>Purim</i> (1887); Zimmern in Stade’s <i>Zeitschrift</i>, xi. (1891), +pp. 157-169, and <i>Keilinschriften und das Alte Testament</i><span class="sp">(3)</span>, 485, +515-520, Jensen in Wildeboer’s <i>Esther</i> (in Marti’s series, 1898), +pp. 173-175; Winckler, <i>Keilinschriften und das Alte Testament</i><span class="sp">(3)</span>, p. 288, +<i>Altorientalische Forschungen</i>, 3rd ser. i. 1-64; Erbt, <i>Die Purimsage</i> +(1900); <i>Ency. Biblica</i>, articles “Esther” and “Purim” (a composite +article).</p> +</div> +<div class="author">(T. K. C.)</div> + +<p><span class="sc">Additions to Book of Esther.</span> These “additions” were +written originally in Greek and subsequently interpolated in +the Greek translation of the Book of Esther. Here the principle +of interpolation has reached its maximum. Of 270 verses, 107 +are not to be found in the Hebrew text. These additions are +distributed throughout the book in the Greek, but in the Latin +Bible they were relegated to the end of the canonical book by +Jerome—an action that has rendered them meaningless. In the +Greek the additions form with the canonical text a consecutive +history. They were made probably in the time of the Maccabees, +and their aim was to supply the religious element which is so +completely lacking in the canonical work. The first, which gives +the dream of Mordecai and the events which led to his advancement +at the court of Artaxerxes, precedes chap. i. of the canonical +text: the second and fifth, which follow iii. 13 and viii. 12, +furnish copies of the letters of Artaxerxes referred to in these +verses; the third and fourth, which are inserted after chap. iv., +consist of the prayers of Mordecai and Esther, with an account of +Esther’s approach to the king. The last, which closes the book, +tells of the institution of the feast of Purim. The Greek text +appears in two widely-differing recensions. The one is supported +by AB<span title="alef">א</span>, and the other—a revision of the first—by codices 19, +93a, 108b. The latter is believed to have been the work of +Lucian. Swete, <i>Old Test. in Greek</i>, ii. 755, has given the former, +while Lagarde has published both texts with critical annotations +in his <i>Librorum Veteris Testamenti Canonicorum</i>, i. 504-541 (1883), +and Scholz in his <i>Kommentar über das Buch Esther</i> (1892).</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>For an account of the Latin and Syriac versions, the Targums, and +the later Rabbinic literature connected with this subject, and other +questions relating to these additions, see Fritzsche, <i>Exeget. Handbuch +zu den Apok.</i> (1851), i. 67-108; Schürer<span class="sp">(3)</span>, iii. 330-332; Fuller in +<i>Speaker’s Apocr.</i> i. 360-402; Ryssel in Kautzsch’s <i>Apok. u. Pseud.</i> +i. 193-212; Siegfried in <i>Jewish Encyc.</i> v. 237 sqq.; Swete, <i>Introd. +to the Old Test. in Greek</i>, 257 seq.; L.B. Paton, “A Text-Critical +Apparatus to the Book of Esther” in <i>O.T. and Semitic Studies in +Memory of W.R. Harper</i> (Chicago, 1908).</p> +</div> +<div class="author">(R. H. C.)</div> + +<hr class="foot" /> <div class="note"> + +<p><a name="ft1m" id="ft1m" href="#fa1m"><span class="fn">1</span></a> Kautzsch, <i>Old Testament Literature</i> (1898), p. 130.</p> + +<p><a name="ft2m" id="ft2m" href="#fa2m"><span class="fn">2</span></a> So Morier, the English minister to the Persian court, quoted by +Dean Stanley.</p> + +<p><a name="ft3m" id="ft3m" href="#fa3m"><span class="fn">3</span></a> See Zimmern, <i>Die Keilinschriften und das Alte Test</i>.<span class="sp">(3)</span>, p. 438.</p> + +<p><a name="ft4m" id="ft4m" href="#fa4m"><span class="fn">4</span></a> <i>Ibid.</i> p. 396.</p> + +<p><a name="ft5m" id="ft5m" href="#fa5m"><span class="fn">5</span></a> Johns, <i>Assyrian Deeds</i>, iii. 198-199; <i>Amer. Journ. of Sem. Languages</i> +(April 1902), p. 158.</p> + +<p><a name="ft6m" id="ft6m" href="#fa6m"><span class="fn">6</span></a> So too Zimmern, in Gunkel’s <i>Schöpfung und Chaos</i>, p. 313, note 2.</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">ESTHONIA<a name="ar162" id="ar162"></a></span> (Ger. <i>Ehstland</i> and <i>Esthland</i>, Esthonian <i>Eestimaa</i> +and <i>Meie-maa</i>, also <i>Viroma</i> and <i>Rahvama</i>; Lettish <i>Iggaun +Senna</i>), a Baltic province of Russia, stretching along the south +coast of the Gulf of Finland, and having Lake Peipus and Livonia +on the S. and the government of St Petersburg on the E. An +archipelago of islands, of which Dagö is the largest, belongs +to this government (Oesel belongs to Livonia). The area is +7818 sq. m., 503 sq. m. of this being insular. The surface is low, +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page798" id="page798"></a>798</span> +not exceeding 100 ft. in altitude along the coast and alongside +Lake Peipus, while in the interior the average elevation ranges +from 200 to 300 ft., and nowhere exceeds 450 ft. It was entirely +covered with the bottom moraine of the great ice-sheet of the +Glacial Epoch, resting upon Silurian sandstones and limestones. +In places sands and clays overlie the glacial deposits. The +principal stream is the Narova, which issues from Lake Peipus, +flows along the eastern border, and empties into the Gulf of Finland. +The other drainage arteries are all small, but many in +number; while lakes and marshes aggregate fully 22½% of the +total surface. The climate is severe, great cold being experienced +in winter, though moist west winds exercise a moderating influence. +Nevertheless the annual mean temperature ranges +between 39° and 43° Fahr. In 1878 the nobility, mostly of German +descent, owned and farmed 52% of the land; 42% was farmed, +but not owned, by the peasants, mostly Esths or Ehsts, and only +3% was owned by persons outside the ranks of the nobility. +Since then one-fourth of the peasantry have been enabled to +purchase their holdings, more than half a million acres having +passed into their possession. Agriculture is the chief occupation, +and it is, on all the larger holdings, carried on with greater +scientific knowledge than in any other part of Russia. Of the +total area about 16.6% is under cultivation; meadows and +grass-lands amount to 41.7%; and forests cover 19%. The +principal crops are rye, oats, barley and potatoes, with large +quantities of vegetables. Cattle-breeding flourishes, and meat +and butter are constantly increasing items of export. The manufactories +consist chiefly of distilleries (over 13,500,000 gallons +annually), cotton (at Kränholm falls on the Narova), woollen, +flour, paper and saw mills, iron and machinery works, and +match factories. Fishing is active along the coast, especially +for anchovies. The province is intersected by a railway running +from St Petersburg to Reval, with branches from the latter city +westwards to Baltic Port and southwards into Livonia, and from +Taps south to Yuryev (Dorpat). The chief seaports are Reval, +Baltic Port, Hapsal, Kunda and Dagö. Esthonia is divided into +four districts, the chief towns of which are Reval (pop. in 1897, +66,292), the capital of the province; Hapsal, a lively watering-place +(3238); Weissenstein (2509); and Wesenberg (5560). +The population, which consists chiefly of Ehstes (365,959 in +1897), Russians (18,000), Germans (16,000), Swedes (5800), and +some Jews, is growing fairly fast: in 1870 it numbered 323,960, +and in 1897 413,747, of whom 210,199 were women and 76,315 +lived in towns; in 1906 it was estimated at 451,700. Ninety-six +per cent. of the whole belong to the Lutheran Church. Education +is, for Russia, relatively high.</p> + +<p>The Esths, Ehsts or Esthonians, who call themselves Tallopoeg +and Maamees, are known to the Russians as Chukhni or Chukhontsi, +to the Letts as Iggauni, and to the Finns as Virolaiset. +They belong to the Finnish family, and consequently to the +Ural-Altaic division of the human race. Altogether they +number close upon one million, and are thus distributed: +365,959 in Esthonia (in 1897), 518,594 in Livonia, 64,116 in the +government of St Petersburg, 25,458 in that of Pskov, and 12,855 +in other parts of Russia. As a race they exhibit manifest evidences +of their Ural-Altaic or Mongolic descent in their short +stature, absence of beard, oblique eyes, broad face, low forehead +and small mouth. In addition to that they are an under-sized, +ill-thriven people, with long arms and thin, short legs. They +cling tenaciously to their native language, which is closely allied +to the Finnish, and divisible into two, or according to some +authorities into three, principal dialects—Dorpat Esthonian and +Reval Esthonian, with Pernau Esthonian. Reval Esthonian, +which preserves more carefully the full inflectional forms and pays +greater attention to the laws of euphony, is recognized as the +literary language. Since 1873 the cultivation of their mother-tongue +has been sedulously promoted by an Esthonian Literary +Society (<i>Eesti Korjameeste Selts</i>), which publishes <i>Toimetused</i>, or +“Instructions” in all sorts of subjects. They have a decided +love of poetry, and exhibit great facility in improvising verses +and poems on all occasions, and they sing, everywhere, from +morning to night. Like the Finns they possess rich stores of +national songs. These, which bear an unmistakable family +likeness to those of the great Finnish epic of the <i>Kalevala</i>, were +collected as the Kalevi Poëg, and edited by Kreutswald (1857), +and translated into German by Reinthal (1857-1859) and +Bertram (1861) and by Löwe (1900). Other collections of +<i>Esthnische Volkslieder</i> have been published by Neuss (1850-1852) +and Kreutzwald and Neuss (1854); while Kreutzwald +(1866) and Jannsen (1888) have published collections of legends +and national tales. The earliest publication in Esthonian was +a Lutheran catechism in the 16th century. An Esthonian +translation of the New Testament was printed at Reval in 1715. +Between 1813 and 1832 there appeared at Pernau twenty volumes +of <i>Beiträge zur genauern Kenntniss der esthnischen Sprache</i>, by +Rosenplänter, and from 1840 onwards many valuable papers on +Esthonian subjects were contributed to the <i>Verhandlungen der +gelehrten esthnischen Gesellschaft zu Dorpat</i>. F.J. Wiedemann, +who laboured indefatigably in the registration and preservation +of matters connected with Esthonian language and lore, published +an <i>Esthnisch-deutsches Wörterbuch</i> (1865; 2nd ed. by Hurt, +1891, &c.), and in 1903 there appeared at Reval a <i>Deutsch-esthnisches +Wörterbuch</i>, by Ploompun and Kann.</p> + +<p>The Esthonians first appear in history as a warlike and +predatory race, the terror of the Baltic seamen in consequence of +their piracies. More than one of the Danish kings made serious +attempts to subdue them. Canute VI. invaded their country +(1194-1196) and forced baptism upon many of them, but no +sooner did his war-ships disappear than they reverted to their +former heathenism. In 1219 Waldemar II. undertook a more +formidable crusade against them, in the course of which he +founded the town and episcopal see of Reval. By his efforts +the northern portion of the race were made submissive to the +Danish crown; but, though conquered, they were by no means +subdued, and were incessantly in revolt, until, after a great +rebellion in 1343, Waldemar IV. Atterdag sold for 19,000 marks +his portion of Esthonia in 1346, to the order of the Knights of +the Sword. These German crusaders had already, after a quarter +of a century’s fighting, in 1224 gained possession of the regions +inhabited by the southern portion of the race, that is those +now included in Livonia. From that time for nearly six hundred +years or more the Esthonians were practically reduced to a +state of serfdom to the German landowners. In 1521 the nobles +and cities of Esthonia voluntarily placed themselves under the +protection of the crown of Sweden; but after the wars of Charles +XII., Esthonia was formally ceded to his victorious rival, Peter +the Great, by the peace of Nystad (1721). Serfdom was abolished +in 1817 by Tsar Alexander I.; but the condition of the peasants +was so little improved that they rose in open revolt in 1859. +Since 1878, however, a vast change for the better has been effected +in their economic position (see above). The determining feature +of their recent history has been the attempt made by the Russian +government (since 1881) and the Orthodox Greek Church (since +1883) to russify and convert the inhabitants of the province, +Germans and Esths alike, by enforcing the use of Russian in the +schools and by harsh and repressive measures aimed at their +native language.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See Merkel, <i>Die freien Letten und Esthen</i> (1820); Parrot, <i>Versuch +einer Entwickelung der Sprache, Abstammung, &c., der Liwen, Lätten, +Eesten</i> (1839); F. Kruse, <i>Urgeschichte des esthnischen Volksstammes</i> +(1846); Wiedemann, <i>Grammatik der esthnischen Sprache</i> (1875), +and <i>Aus dem innern und äussern Leben der Esthen</i> (1876); Köppen, +<i>Die Bewohner Esthlands</i> (1847); F. Müller, <i>Beiträge zur Orographie +und Hydrographie von Esthland</i> (1869-1871); Bunge, <i>Das Herzogthum +Esthland unter den Königen von Dänemark</i> (1877); and Seraphim, +<i>Geschichte Liv-, Est-, und Kurlands</i> (2nd ed., 1897) and various +papers in the <i>Finnisch-Ugrische Forschungen</i>.</p> +</div> +<div class="author">(P. A. K.; J. T. Be.; C. El.)</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">ESTIENNE<a name="ar163" id="ar163"></a></span> (or <span class="sc">Étienne</span>; the French form of the name; +anglicized to Stephens, and latinized to Stephanus), a French +family of scholars and printers.</p> + +<p>The founder of the race was <span class="sc">Henri Estienne</span> (d. 1520), the +scion of a noble family of Provence, who came to Paris in 1502, +and soon afterwards set up a printing establishment at the top +of the rue Saint-Jean de Beauvais, on the hill of Saint-Geneviève +opposite the law school. He died in 1520, and, his three sons +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page799" id="page799"></a>799</span> +being minors, the business was carried on by his foreman Simon +de Colines, who in 1521 married his widow.</p> + +<p><span class="sc">Robert Estienne</span> (1503-1559) was Henri’s second son. +After his father’s death he acted as assistant to his stepfather, +and in this capacity superintended the printing of a Latin +edition of the New Testament in 16mo (1523). Some slight +alterations which he had introduced into the text brought upon +him the censures of the faculty of theology. It was the first +of a long series of disputes between him and that body. It +appears that he had intimate relations with the new Evangelical +preachers almost from the beginning of the movement, and that +soon after this time he definitely joined the Reformed Church. +In 1526 he entered into possession of his father’s printing establishment, +and adopted as his device the celebrated olive-tree +(a reminiscence doubtless of his grandmother’s family of Montolivet), +with the motto from the epistle to the Romans (xi. 20), +<i>Noli altum sapere</i>, sometimes with the addition <i>sed time</i>. In +1528 he married Perrette, a daughter of the scholar and printer +Josse Bade (Jodocus Badius), and in the same year he published +his first Latin Bible, an edition in folio, upon which he had been +at work for the last four years. In 1532 appeared his <i>Thesaurus +linguae Latinae</i>, a dictionary of Latin words and phrases, upon +which for two years he had toiled incessantly, with no other +assistance than that of Thierry of Beauvais. A second edition, +greatly enlarged and improved, appeared in 1536, and a third, +still further improved, in 3 vols. folio, in 1543. Though the +<i>Thesaurus</i> is now superseded, its merits must not be forgotten. +It was vastly superior to anything of the kind that had appeared +before; it formed the basis of future labours, and even as late +as 1734 was considered worthy of being re-edited. In 1539 +Robert was appointed king’s printer for Hebrew and Latin, an +office to which, after the death of Conrad Neobar in 1540, he +united that of king’s printer for Greek. In 1541 he was entrusted +by Francis I. with the task of procuring from Claude Garamond, +the engraver and type-founder, three sets of Greek type for the +royal press. The middle size were the first ready, and with +these Robert printed the <i>editio princeps</i> of the <i>Ecclesiasticae +Historiae</i> of Eusebius and others (1544). The smallest size were +first used for the 16mo edition of the New Testament known +as the <i>O mirificam</i> (1546), while with the largest size was printed +the magnificent folio of 1550. This edition involved the printer +in fresh disputes with the faculty of theology, and towards the +end of the following year he left his native town for ever, and +took refuge at Geneva, where he published in 1552 a caustic and +effective answer to his persecutors under the title <i>Ad censuras +theologorum Parisiensium, quibus Biblia a R. Stephano, Typographo +Regio, ex usa calumniose notarunt, eiusdem R. S. responsio</i>. +A French translation, which is remarkable for the excellence +of its style, was published by him in the same year (printed in +Rénouard’s <i>Annales de l’imprimerie des Estienne</i>). At Geneva +Robert proved himself an ardent partisan of Calvin, several +of whose works he published. He died there on the 7th of +September 1559.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>It is by his work in connexion with the Bible, and especially as +an editor of the New Testament, that he is on the whole best known. +The text of his New Testament of 1550, either in its original form +or in such slightly modified form as it assumed in the Elzevir text +of 1634, remains to this day the traditional text. But this is due +rather to its typographical beauty than to any critical merit. The +readings of the fifteen MSS. which Robert’s son Henri had collated +for the purpose were merely introduced into the margin. The text +was still almost exactly that of Erasmus. It was, however, the first +edition ever published with a critical apparatus of any sort. Of the +whole Bible Robert printed eleven editions—eight in Latin, two in +Hebrew and one in French; while of the New Testament alone he +printed twelve—five in Greek, five in Latin and two in French. In +the Greek New Testament of 1551 (printed at Geneva) the present +division into verses was introduced for the first time. The <i>editiones +principes</i> which issued from Robert’s press were eight in number, +viz. <i>Eusebius</i>, including the <i>Praeparatio evangelica</i> and the <i>Demonstratio +evangelica</i> as well as the <i>Historia ecclesiastica</i> already mentioned +(1544-1546), <i>Moschopulus</i> (1545), <i>Dionysius of Halicarnassus</i> +(February 1547), <i>Alexander Trallianus</i> (January 1548), <i>Dio Cassius</i> +(January 1548), <i>Justin Martyr</i> (1551), <i>Xiphilinus</i> (1551), <i>Appian</i> +(1551), the last being completed, after Robert’s departure from +Paris, by his brother Charles, and appearing under his name. These +editions, all in folio, except the <i>Moschopulus</i>, which is in 4to, are +unrivalled for beauty. Robert also printed numerous editions of +Latin classics, of which perhaps the folio <i>Virgil</i> of 1532 is the most +noteworthy, and a large quantity of Latin grammars and other +educational works, many of which were written by Maturin Cordier, +his friend and co-worker in the cause of humanism.</p> +</div> + +<p><span class="sc">Charles Estienne</span> (1504 or 1505-1564), the third son of +Henri, was, like his brother Robert, a man of considerable +learning. After the usual humanistic training he studied +medicine, and took his doctor’s degree at Paris. He was for a +time tutor to Jean Antoine de Baïf, the future poet. In 1551, +when Robert Estienne left Paris for Geneva, Charles, who had +remained a Catholic, took charge of his printing establishment, +and in the same year was appointed king’s printer. In 1561 he +became bankrupt, and he is said to have died in a debtors’ prison.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>His principal works are <i>Praedium Rusticum</i> (1554), a collection +of tracts which he had compiled from ancient writers on various +branches of agriculture, and which continued to be a favourite book +down to the end of the 17th century; <i>Dictionarium historicum ac +poëticum</i> (1553), the first French encyclopaedia; <i>Thesaurus Ciceronianus</i> +(1557), and <i>De dissectione partium corporis humani libri tres</i>, +with well-drawn woodcuts (1548). He also published a translation +of an Italian comedy, <i>Gli Ingannati</i>, under the title of <i>Le Sacrifice</i> +(1543; republished as <i>Les Abusez</i>, 1549), which had some influence +on the development of French comedy; and <i>Paradoxes</i> (1553), an +imitation of the <i>Paradossi</i> of Ortensio Landi.</p> +</div> + +<p><span class="sc">Henri Estienne</span> (1531-1598), sometimes called Henri II., +was the eldest son of Robert. In the preface to his edition of +Aulus Gellius (1585), addressed to his son Paul, he gives an +interesting account of his father’s household, in which, owing to +the various nationalities of those who were employed on the +press, Latin was used as a common language. Henri thus picked +up Latin as a child, but by his own request he was allowed to +learn Greek as a serious study before Latin. At the age of +fifteen he become a pupil of Pierre Danès, at that time the first +Greek scholar in France. Two years later he began to attend +the lectures of Jacques Toussain, one of the royal professors +of Greek, and in the same year (1545) was employed by his +father to collate a MS. of Dionysius of Halicarnassus. In 1547 +he went to Italy, where he spent three years in hunting for and +collating MSS. and in intercourse with learned men. In 1550 +he visited England, where he was favourably received by Edward +VI., and then Flanders, where he learnt Spanish. In 1551 he +joined his father at Geneva, which henceforth became his home. +In 1554 he gave to the world, as the first fruits of his researches, +two first editions, viz. a tract of Dionysius of Halicarnassus +and the so-called “Anacreon.” In 1556 he discovered at Rome +ten new books (xi.-xx.) of Diodorus Siculus. In 1557 he issued +from the press which in the previous year he had set up at +Geneva three first editions, viz. <i>Athenagoras, Maximus Tyrius</i>, +and some fragments of Greek historians, including Appian’s +<span class="grk" title="Annibalikê">Ἀννιβαλική</span>, and <span class="grk" title="Ibêrikê">Ἰβηρική</span> and an edition of Aeschylus, in which +for the first time the <i>Agamemnon</i> was printed in entirety and as +a separate play. In 1559 he printed a Latin translation from +his own pen of Sextus Empiricus, and an edition of Diodorus +Siculus with the new books. His father dying in the same year, +he became under his will owner of his press, subject, however, +to the condition of keeping it at Geneva. In 1566 he published +his best-known French work, the <i>Apologie pour Hérodote</i>, or, +as he himself called it, <i>L’Introduction au traité de la conformité +des merveilles anciennes avec les modernes ou Traité préparatif à +l’Apologie pour Hérodote</i>. Some passages being considered +objectionable by the Geneva consistory, he was compelled to +cancel the pages containing them. The book became highly +popular, and within sixteen years twelve editions were printed. +In 1572 he published the great work upon which he had been +labouring for many years, the <i>Thesaurus Graecae linguae</i>, +in 5 vols. fol. The publication in 1578 of his <i>Deux Dialogues +du nouveau françois ilalianizé</i> brought him into a fresh dispute +with the consistory. To avoid their censure he went to Paris, +and resided at the French court for a year. On his return to +Geneva he was summoned before the consistory, and, proving +contumacious, was imprisoned for a week. From this time his +life became more and more of a nomad one. He is to be found +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page800" id="page800"></a>800</span> +at Basel, Heidelberg, Vienna, Pest, everywhere but at Geneva, +these journeys being undertaken partly in the hope of procuring +patrons and purchasers, for the large sums which he had spent +on such publications as the <i>Thesaurus</i> and the <i>Plato</i> of 1578 had +almost ruined him. His press stood nearly at a standstill. A +few editions of classical authors were brought out, but each +successive one showed a falling off. Such value as the later +ones had was chiefly due to the notes furnished by Casaubon, +who in 1586 had married his daughter Florence. His last years +were marked by ever-increasing infirmity of mind and temper. +In 1597 he left Geneva for the last time. After visiting Montpellier, +where Casaubon was now professor, he started for Paris, +but was seized with sudden illness at Lyons, and died there at +the end of January 1598.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>Few men have ever served the cause of learning more devotedly. +For over thirty years the amount which he produced, whether as +printer, editor or original writer, was enormous. The productions +of his press, though printed with the same beautiful type as his +father’s books, are, owing to the poorness of the paper and ink, +inferior to them in general beauty. The best, perhaps, from a +typographical point of view, are the <i>Poëtae Graeci principes</i> (folio, +1566), the <i>Plutarch</i> (13 vols. 8vo, 1572), and the <i>Plato</i> (3 vols. folio, +1578). It was rather his scholarship which gave value to his editions. +He was not only his own press-corrector but his own editor. Though +by the latter half of the 16th century nearly all the important +Greek and Latin authors that we now possess had been published, +his untiring activity still found some gleanings. Eighteen first +editions of Greek authors and one of a Latin author are due to his +press. The most important have been already mentioned. Henri’s +reputation as a scholar and editor has increased of late years. His +familiarity with the Greek language has always been admitted to +have been quite exceptional; but he has been accused of want of +taste and judgment, of carelessness and rashness. Special censure +has been passed on his <i>Plutarch</i>, in which he is said to have introduced +conjectures of his own into the text, while pretending to have +derived them from MS. authority. But a late editor, Sintenis, +has shown that, though like all the other editors of his day he did +not give references to his authorities, every one of his supposed +conjectures can be traced to some MS. Whatever may be said +as to his taste or his judgment, it seems that he was both careful +and scrupulous, and that he only resorted to conjecture when +authority failed him. And, whatever the merit of his conjectures, +he was at any rate the first to show what conjecture could do towards +restoring a hopelessly corrupt passage. The work, however, on +which his fame as a scholar is most surely based is the <i>Thesaurus +Graecae linguae</i>. After making due allowance for the fact that +considerable materials for the work had been already collected by +his father, and that he received considerable assistance from the +German scholar Sylburg, he is still entitled to the very highest +praise as the producer of a work which was of the greatest service +to scholarship and which in those early days of Greek learning could +have been produced by no one but a giant. Two editions of the +<i>Thesaurus</i> were published in the 19th century—at London by +Valpy (1815-1825) and at Paris by Didot (1831-1863).</p> + +<p>It was one of Henri Estienne’s great merits that, unlike nearly all +the French scholars who preceded him, he did not neglect his own +language. In the <i>Traité de la conformité du langage françois avec le +Grec</i> (published in 1565, but without date; ed. L. Feugère, 1850), +French is asserted to have, among modern languages, the most +affinity with Greek, the first of all languages. <i>Deux Dialogues du +nouveau françois italianizé</i> (Geneva, 1578; ed. P. Ristelhuber, +2 vols., 1885) was directed against the fashion prevailing in the court +of Catherine de’ Medici of using Italian words and forms. The +<i>Project du livre intitulé de la Précellence du langage françois</i> (Paris, +1579; ed. E. Huguet, 1896) treats of the superiority of French to +Italian. An interesting feature of the <i>Précellence</i> is the account +of French proverbs, and, Henry III. having expressed some doubts +as to the genuineness of some of them, Henri Estienne published, in +1594, <i>Les Premices ou le I. livre des Proverbes epigrammatizez</i> (never +reprinted and very rare).</p> + +<p>Finally, there remains the <i>Apologie pour Hérodote</i>, his most famous +work. The ostensible object of the book is to show that the strange +stories in Herodotus may be paralleled by equally strange ones of +modern times. Virtually it is a bitter satire on the writer’s age, +especially on the Roman Church. Put together without any method, +its extreme desultoriness makes it difficult to read continuously, but +the numerous stories, collected partly from various literary sources, +notably from the preachers Menot and Maillard, partly from the +writer’s own multifarious experience, with which it is packed, make +it an interesting commentary on the manners and fashions of the +time. But satire, to be effective, should be either humorous or +righteously indignant, and, while such humour as there is in the +<i>Apologie</i> is decidedly heavy, the writer’s indignation is generally +forgotten in his evident relish for scandal. The style is, after all, its +chief merit. Though it bears evident traces of hurry, it is, like that +of all Henri Estienne’s French writings, clear, easy and vigorous, +uniting the directness and sensuousness of the older writers with +a suppleness and logical precision which at this time were almost +new elements in French prose. An edition of the <i>Apologie</i> has +recently been published by Liseux (ed. Ristelhuber, 2 vols., 1879), +after one of the only two copies of the original uncancelled edition +that are known to exist. The very remarkable political pamphlet +entitled <i>Dìscours merveilleux de la vie et actions et déportemens de +Catherine de Medicis</i>, which appeared in 1574, has been ascribed to +Henri Estienne, but the evidence both internal and external is conclusive +against his being the author of it. Of his Latin writings the +most worthy of notice are the <i>De Latinitate falso suspecta</i> (1576), the +<i>Pseudo-Cicero</i> (1577) and the <i>Nizoliodidascalus</i> (1578), all three +written against the Ciceronians, and the <i>Francofordiense Emporium</i> +(1574), a panegyric on the Frankfort fair (reprinted with a French +translation by Liseux, 1875). He also wrote a large quantity of +indifferent Latin verses, including a long poem entitled <i>Musa +monitrix Principum</i> (Basel, 1590).</p> + +<p>The primary authorities for an account of the Estiennes are their +own works. In the garrulous and egotistical prefaces which Henri +was in the habit of prefixing to his editions will be found many +scattered biographical details. Twenty-seven letters from Henri +to John Crato of Crafftheim (ed. F. Passow, 1830) have been printed, +and there is one of Robert’s in Herminjard’s <i>Correspondence des +Réformateurs dans de pays de langue française</i> (9 vols. published +1866-1897), while a few other contemporary references to him will +be found in the same work. The secondary authorities are Janssen +van Almeloveen, <i>De vitis Stephanorum</i> (Amsterdam, 1683); +Maittaire, <i>Stephanorum historia</i> (London, 1709); A.A. Rénouard, +<i>Annales de l’imprimerie des Estienne</i> (2nd ed., Paris, 1843); the +article on Estienne by A.F. Didot in the <i>Nouv. Biog. gén.</i>; Mark +Pattison, <i>Essays</i>, i. 67 ff. (1889); L. Clément, <i>Henri Estienne et son +œuvre française</i> (Paris, 1899). There is a good account of Henri’s +<i>Thesaurus</i> in the <i>Quart. Rev.</i> for January 1820, written by Bishop +Bromfield.</p> +</div> +<div class="author">(A. A. T.)</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">ESTON,<a name="ar164" id="ar164"></a></span> an urban district in the Cleveland parliamentary +division of the North Riding of Yorkshire, England, 4 m. S.E. +of Middlesbrough, on a branch of the North Eastern railway. +Pop. (1901) 11,199. This is one of the principal centres from +which the great ironstone deposits of the Cleveland Hills are +worked, and there are extensive blast-furnaces, iron-foundries +and steam sawing-mills in the district. Immediately W. of +Eston lies the urban district of Ormesby (pop. 9482), and the +whole district is densely populated (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Middlesbrough</a></span>). +Marton, west of Ormesby, was the birthplace of Captain Cook +(1728). Numerous early earthworks fringe the hills to the south.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">ESTOPPEL<a name="ar165" id="ar165"></a></span> (from O. Fr. <i>estopper</i>, to stop, bar; <i>estoupe</i>, mod. +<i>étoupe</i>, a plug of tow; Lat. <i>stuppa</i>), a rule in the law of evidence +by which a party in litigation is prohibited from asserting or +denying something, when such assertion or denial would be +inconsistent with his own previous statements or conduct. +Estoppel is said to arise in three ways—(1) by record or judgment, +(2) by deed, and (3) by matter <i>in pais</i> or conduct. (1) +Where a cause of action has been tried and final judgment has +been pronounced, the judgment is conclusive—either party +attempting to renew the litigation by a new action would be +estopped by the judgment. “Every judgment is conclusive +proof as against parties and privies, of facts directly in issue in +the case, actually decided by the court, and appearing from the +judgment itself to be the ground on which it was based.”—Stephen’s +<i>Digest of the Law of Evidence</i>, Art. 41. (2) It is one of +the privileges of <i>deeds</i> as distinguished from simple contracts +that they operate by way of estoppel. “A man shall always +be estopped by his own deed, or not permitted to aver or prove +anything in contradiction to what he has once so solemnly and +deliberately avowed” (Blackstone, 2 <i>Com.</i> 295); <i>e.g.</i> where a +bond recited that the defendants were authorized by acts of +parliament to borrow money, and that under such authority they +had borrowed money from a certain person, they were estopped +from setting up as a defence that they did not in fact so borrow +money, as stated by their deed. (3) Estoppel by conduct, or, +as it is still sometimes called, estoppel by matter <i>in pais</i>, is the +most important head. The rule practically comes to this that, +when a person in his dealings with others has acted so as to +induce them to believe a thing to be true and to act on such belief, +he may not in any proceeding between himself and them deny +the thing to be true: <i>e.g.</i> a partner retiring from a firm without +giving notice to the customers, cannot, as against a customer +having no knowledge of his retirement, deny that he is a partner. +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page801" id="page801"></a>801</span> +As between landlord and tenant the principle operates to prevent +the denial by the tenant of the landlord’s title. So if a person +comes upon land by the licence of the person in possession, he +cannot deny that the licenser had a title to the possession at the +time the licence was given. Again, if a man accepts a bill of +exchange he may not deny the signature or the capacity of the +drawer. So a person receiving goods as baillee from another +cannot deny the title of that other to the goods at the time they +were entrusted to him.</p> + +<p>Estoppel of whatever kind is subject to one general rule, that +it cannot override the law of the land; for example, a corporation +would not be estopped as to acts which are <i>ultra vires</i>.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See L.F. Everest and E. Strode, <i>The Law of Estoppel</i>; M. Cababé, +<i>Principles of Estoppel</i>.</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">ESTOUTEVILLE, GUILLAUME D’<a name="ar166" id="ar166"></a></span> (1403-1483), French +ecclesiastic, was bishop of Angers, of Digne, of Porto and Santa +Rufina, of Ostia and Velletri, archbishop of Rouen, prior of Saint +Martin des Champs, abbot of Mont St Michel, of St Ouen at +Rouen, and of Montebourg. He was sent to France as legate by +Pope Nicholas V. to make peace between Charles VII. and +England (1451), and undertook, <i>ex officio</i>, the revision of the +trial of Joan of Arc; he afterwards reformed the statutes of the +university of Paris. He then went to preside over the assembly +of clergy which met at Bourges to discuss the observation of the +Pragmatic Sanction (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Basel, Council of</a></span>), finally returning +to Rome, where he passed almost all the rest of his life. He was +a great builder, Rouen, Mont St Michel, Pontoise and Gaillon +owing many noble buildings to his initiative.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">ESTOVERS<a name="ar167" id="ar167"></a></span> (from the O. Fr. <i>estover</i>, <i>estovoir</i>, a verb used as +a substantive in the sense of that which is necessary; the word +is of disputed origin; it has been referred to the Lat. <i>stare</i>, +to stand, or <i>studere</i>, to desire), a term, in English law, for the +wood which a tenant for life or years may take from the land he +holds for repair of his house, the implements of husbandry, and +the hedges and fences, and for firewood. The O. Eng. word for +estover was <i>bote</i> or <i>boot</i> (literally meaning “good,” “profit,” +the same word as seen in “better”). The various kinds of +estovers were thus known as house-bote, cart or plough-bote, +hedge or hay-bote, and fire-bote respectively. These rights +may, of course, be restricted by express covenants. Copyholders +have similar rights over the land they occupy and over the waste +of the manor, in which case the rights are known as “Commons +of estovers.” (See <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Commons</a></span>.)</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">ESTRADA, LA,<a name="ar168" id="ar168"></a></span> a town of north-western Spain, in the province +of Pontevedra, 15 m. S. by E. of Santiago de Compostela. Pop. +(1900) 23,916. La Estrada is the chief town of a densely-populated +mountainous district; its industries are agriculture, stock-breeding, +and the manufacture of linen and woollen cloth. +Timber from the mountain forests is conveyed from La Estrada +to the river Ulla, 4 m. N., and thence floated down to the seaports +on Arosa Bay. The nearest railway-station is Requeijo, +7 m. W., on the Pontevedra-Santiago railway. There are +mineral springs at La Estrada and at Caldas de Reyes, 11 m. +W.S.W.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">ESTRADE,<a name="ar169" id="ar169"></a></span> a French architectural term for a raised platform +(see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Dais</a></span>). In the Levant the estrade of a divan is called Sopha +(Blondel), from which comes our “sofa.”</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">ESTRADES, GODEFROI,<a name="ar170" id="ar170"></a></span> <span class="sc">Comte d’</span> (1607-1686), French +diplomatist and marshal, was born at Agen. He was the son of +François d’Estrades (d. 1653), a partisan of Henry IV., and brother +of Jean d’Estrades, bishop of Condom. He became a page to +Louis XIII., and at the age of nineteen was sent on a mission to +Maurice of Holland. In 1646 he was named ambassador extraordinary +to Holland, and took part in the conferences at Münster. +Sent in 1661 to England, he obtained in 1662 the restitution of +Dunkirk. In 1667 he negotiated the treaty of Breda with the +king of Denmark, and in 1678 the treaty of Nijmwegen, which +ended the war with Holland. Independently of these diplomatic +missions, he took part in the principal campaigns of Louis XIV., +in Italy (1648), in Catalonia (1655), in Holland (1672); and was +created marshal of France in 1675. He left <i>Lettres, mémoires +et négociations en qualité d’ambassadeur en Hollande depuis 1663 +jusqu’ en 1668</i>, of which the first edition in 1700 was followed by +a nine-volume edition (London (the Hague), 1743).</p> + +<p>Of the sons of Godefroi d’Estrades, Jean François d’Estrades +was ambassador to Venice and Piedmont; Louis, marquis +d’Estrades (d. 1711), succeeded his father as governor of Dunkirk, +and was the father of Godefroi Louis, comte d’Estrades, lieutenant-general, +who was killed at the siege of Belgrade, 1717.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See Felix Salomon, <i>Frankreichs Beziehungen zu dem Scottischen +Aufstand</i> (1637-1640), containing an excursus on the falsification +of the letters of the comte d’Estrades; Philippe Lauzun, <i>Le Maréchal +d’Estrades</i> (Agen, 1896).</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">ESTREAT<a name="ar171" id="ar171"></a></span> (O. Fr. <i>estrait</i>, Lat. <i>extracta</i>), originally, a true copy +or duplicate of some original writing or record; now used only +with reference to the enforcement of a forfeited recognizance. +At one time it was the practice to extract and certify into the +exchequer copies of entries in court roils which contained provisions +or orders in favour of the treasury, hence the estreating +of a recognizance was the taking out from among the other +records of the court in which it was filed and sending it to the +exchequer to be enforced, or sending it to the sheriff to be levied +by him, and then returned by the clerk of the peace to the lords +of the treasury. (See <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Recognizance</a></span>.)</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">ESTRÉES, GABRIELLE D’<a name="ar172" id="ar172"></a></span> (1573-1599), mistress of Henry IV. +of France, was the daughter of Antoine d’Estrées, marquis of +Cœuvres, and Françoise Babou de la Bourdaisière. Henry IV., +who in November 1590 stayed at the castle of Cœuvres, became +violently enamoured of her. Her father, anxious to save his +daughter from so perilous an entanglement, married her to +Nicholas d’Amerval, seigneur de Liancourt, but the union proved +unhappy, and in December 1592, Gabrielle, whose affection for +the king was sincere, became his mistress. She lived with him +from December 1592 onwards, and bore him several children, +who were recognized and legitimized by him. She possessed +the king’s entire confidence; he willingly listened to her advice, +and created her marchioness of Monceaux, duchess of Beaufort +(1597) and Étampes (1598), a peeress of France. The king +even proposed to marry her in the event of the success of his +suit for the nullification by the Holy See of his marriage with +Margaret of Valois; but before the question was settled Gabrielle +died, on the 10th of April 1599. Poison was of course suspected; +but her death was really caused by puerperal convulsions +(<i>eclampsia</i>).</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See Adrien Desclozeaux, <i>Gabrielle d’Estrées, Marquise de Monceaux, +&c</i>. (Paris, 1889).</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">ESTREMADURA<a name="ar173" id="ar173"></a></span>, or <span class="sc">Extremadura</span>, an ancient territorial +division of central and western Portugal, and of western Spain; +comprising the modern districts of Leiria, Santarem and Lisbon, +in Portugal, and the modern provinces of Badajoz and Cáceres +in Spain. Pop. (1900) 2,095,818; area, 23,055 sq. m. The +name of Estremadura appears to be of early Romance or Late +Latin origin, and probably was applied to all the far western +lands (<i>extrema ora</i>) bordering upon the lower Tagus, as far as the +Atlantic Ocean. It is thus equivalent to <i>Land’s End</i>, or <i>Finistère</i>. +In popular speech it is more commonly used than the names of +the modern divisions mentioned above, which were created in +the 19th century. As, however, there are many racial, economic +and historic differences between Portuguese and Spanish Estremadura, +the two provinces are separately described below.</p> + +<p>1. Portuguese Estremadura is bounded on the N. by Beira, +E. and S. by Alemtejo, and W. by the Atlantic Ocean. Pop. +(1900) 1,221,418; area, 6937 sq. m. The greatest length of the +province, from N. to S., is 165 m.; its greatest breadth, from E. +to W., is 72 m. The general uniformity of the coast-line is broken +by the broad and deep estuaries of the Tagus and the Sado, and +by the four conspicuous promontories of Cape Carvoeiro, Cape +da Roca, Cape Espichel and Cape de Sines. The Tagus is the +great navigable waterway of Portuguese Estremadura, flowing +from north-east to south-west, and fed by many minor tributaries, +notably the Zezere on the right and the Zatas on the left. It +divides the country into two nearly equal portions, wholly +dissimilar in surface and character. South of the Tagus the land +is almost everywhere low, flat and monotonous, while in several +places it is rendered unhealthy by undrained marshes. The +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page802" id="page802"></a>802</span> +Sado, which issues into Setubal Bay, is the only important +river of this region. North of the Tagus, and parallel with its +right bank, extends the mountain chain which is known at its +northern extremity as the Serra do Aire and, where it terminates +above Cape da Roca, as the Serra da Cintra. This ridge, which +is buttressed on all sides by lesser groups of hills, and includes +part of the famous lines of Torres Vedras (<i>q.v.</i>), exceeds 2200 ft. +in height, and constitutes the watershed between the right-hand +tributaries of the Tagus and the Liz, Sizandro and other small +rivers which flow into the Atlantic. On its seaward side, except +for the line of sheer and lofty cliffs between Cape Carvoeiro and +Cape da Roca, the country is mostly flat and sandy, with extensive +heaths and pine forests; but along the fertile and well-cultivated +right bank of the Tagus the river scenery, with its +terraced hills of vines, olives and fruit trees, often resembles +that of the Rhine in Germany. The natural resources of Portuguese +Estremadura, with its inhabitants, industries, commerce, +communications, &c., are described under <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Portugal</a></span>; for on +such matters there is little to be said of this central and most +characteristic province which does not apply to the whole +kingdom. Separate articles are also devoted to Lisbon, the +capital, and Abrantes, Cintra, Leiria, Mafra, Santarem, Setubal, +Thomar, Torres Novas and Torres Vedras, the other chief towns. +The women of Peniche, a small fishing village on the promontory +of Cape Carvoeiro, have long been celebrated throughout Portugal +for their skill in the manufacture of fine laces.</p> + +<p>2. Spanish Estremadura is bounded on the N. by Leon and +Old Castile, E. by New Castile, S. by Andalusia, and W. by the +Portuguese province of Beira and Alemtejo, which separate +it from Portuguese Estremadura. Pop. (1900) 882,410; area, +16,118 sq. m. Spanish Estremadura consists of a tableland +separated from Leon and Old Castile by the lofty Sierra de +Gredos, the plateau of Béjar and the Sierra de Gata, which form +an almost continuous barrier along the northern frontier, with +its summits ranging from 6000 to more than 8500 ft. in altitude. +On the south the comparatively low range of the Sierra Morena +constitutes the frontier of Andalusia; on the east and west there +is a still more gradual transition to the plateau of New Castile +and the central plains of Portugal. The tableland of Spanish +Estremadura is itself bisected from east to west by a line of +mountains, the Sierras of San Pedro, Montanchez and Guadalupe +(4000-6000 ft.), which separate its northern half, drained by +the river Tagus, from its southern half, drained by the Guadiana. +These two halves are respectively known as Alta or Upper +Estremadura (the modern Cáceres), and Baja or Lower Estremadura +(the modern Badajoz). The Tagus and Guadiana flow +from east to west through a monotonous country, level or +slightly undulating, often almost uninhabited, and covered with +a thin growth of shrubs and grass. Perhaps the most characteristic +feature of this tableland is the vast heaths of gum-cistus, +which in spring colour the whole landscape with leagues of +yellow blossom, and in summer change to a brown and arid +wilderness.</p> + +<p>The climate in summer is hot but not unhealthy, except in +the swamps which occur along the Guadiana. The rainfall is +scanty; dew, however, is abundant and the nights are cool. +Although the high mountains are covered with snow in November, +the winters are not usually severe. The soil is naturally fertile, +but drought, floods and locusts render agriculture difficult, +and sheep-farming is the most important of Estremaduran +industries. (See <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Spain</a></span>: <i>Agriculture</i>.) In the 19th century, +however, this industry lost much of its former importance +owing to foreign competition.</p> + +<p>Immense herds of swine are bred and constitute a great source +of support to the inhabitants, not only supplying them with +food, but also forming a great article of export to other provinces—the +pork, bacon and hams being in high esteem. The beech, +oak and chestnut woods afford an abundance of food for swine, +and there are numerous plantations of olive, cork and fruit trees, +but a far greater area of forest has been destroyed. For an +account of commerce, mining, communications, &c., in Spanish +Estremadura, with a list of the chief towns, see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Cáceres</a></span> and +<span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Badajoz</a></span>. In character and physical type, the people of this +region are less easily classified than those of other Spanish +provinces. They lack the endurance and energy of the Galicians, +the independent and enterprising spirit of the Asturians, Basques +and Catalans, the culture of the Castilians and Andalusians. +Their failure to develop a distinctive local type of character and +civilization is perhaps due to the adverse economic history of +their country. The two great waterways which form the natural +outlet for Estremaduran commerce flow to the Atlantic through +a foreign and, for centuries, a hostile territory. Like other parts +of Spain, Estremadura suffered severely from the expulsion of +the Jews and Moors (1492-1610), while the compensating treasure, +derived during the same period from Spanish America, never +reached a province so remote at once from the sea and from +the chief centres of national life. Although Cortes (1485-1547), +the conqueror of Mexico and Pizarro (<i>c.</i> 1471-1541), the conqueror +of Peru, were both born in Estremadura, their exploits, +far from bringing prosperity to their native province, only encouraged +the emigration of its best inhabitants. Heavy taxation +and harsh land-laws prevented any recovery, while the felling +of the forests reduced many fertile areas to waste land, and rendered +worse a climate already unfavourable to agriculture. Few +countries leave upon the mind of the traveller a deeper impression +of hopeless poverty.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">ESTREMOZ<a name="ar174" id="ar174"></a></span>, a town of Portugal, in the district of Evora, +formerly included in the province of Alemtejo; 104 m. by rail +E. of Lisbon, on the Casa Branca-Evora-Elvas railway. Pop. +(1900) 7920. Estremoz is built at the base of a hill crowned +by a large dismantled citadel; its fortifications, which in the +17th century accommodated 20,000 troops and rendered the +town one of the principal defences of the frontier, are now obsolete. +There are marble quarries in the neighbourhood, and the Estremoz +<i>bilhas</i>, red earthenware jars, are used throughout Portugal as +water-holders and exported to Spain. At Ameixial (1188) and +Monies Claros, near Estremoz, the Spanish were severely defeated +by the Portuguese in 1663 and 1665. Villa Viçosa (3841), 10 m. +S.E., is a town of pre-Roman origin, containing a royal palace. +The altars with Latin inscriptions to the Iberian god Endovellicus, +found at Villa Viçosa, are preserved in the museum of +the Royal Academy of Sciences, Lisbon.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">ESTUARY<a name="ar175" id="ar175"></a></span> (from the Lat. <i>aestuarium</i>, a place reached by +<i>aestus</i>, the tide), an arm of the sea narrowing inwards at the +mouth of a river where sea and fresh water meet and are mixed, +<i>i.e.</i> the tidal portion of a river’s mouth. Structurally the estuary +may represent the long-continued action of river erosion and +tidal erosion confined to a narrow channel, most effective where +most concentrated, or an estuary may be the drowned portion of +the lower part of a river-valley. In a map of Britain showing +sea-depths it will be observed that under the Severn estuary the +sea deepens in a number of steps descending by concentric V’s +that become blunter towards deep water until the last is a mere +indentation pointing towards the long narrow termination of +the present estuary. In this and in similar cases the progress of +the estuary is indicated upon what is now the continental shelf. +The chief interest in estuarine conditions is the mingling of sea +and fresh water. Where, as in the Severn and the Thames, the +fresh water meets the sea gradually the water is mixed, and there +is very little change in salinity at high tide. The fresh water +flows over the salt water and there is a continuous rapid change, +in salinity towards the sea, for the currents sweeping in and out +mix the water constantly. Where the river brings down a great +quantity of fresh water in a narrow channel, the change of +salinity at high and low water is very marked. “When, however, +the inlet is very large compared with the river, and there is no +bar at the opening, the estuarine character is only shown at the +upper end. In the Firth of Forth, for example, the landward +half is an estuary, but in the seaward half the water has become +more thoroughly mixed, the salinity is almost uniform from +surface to bottom, and increases very gradually towards the +sea. The river-water meets the sea diffused uniformly through +a deep mass of water scarcely fresher than the sea itself, so that +the two mix uniformly, and the sea becomes slightly freshened +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page803" id="page803"></a>803</span> +throughout its whole depth for many miles from land” (H.R. +Mill, <i>Realm of Nature</i>, 1897).</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">ESZTERGOM<a name="ar176" id="ar176"></a></span> (Ger. <i>Gran</i>; Lat. <i>Strigonium</i>), a town of +Hungary, capital of the county of the same name, 36 m. N.W. of +Budapest by rail. Pop. (1900) 16,948, mostly Magyars and +Roman Catholics. It is situated on the right bank of the Danube, +nearly opposite the confluence of the Gran, and is divided into the +town proper and three suburbs. The town is the residence of the +primate of Hungary, and its cathedral, built in 1821-1870, after +the model of St Peter’s at Rome, is one of the finest and largest +in the country. It is picturesquely built on an elevated and +commanding position, 215 ft. above the Danube, and its dome, +visible from a long distance, is 260 ft. high, and has a diameter +of 52 ft. The interior is very richly decorated, notably with +fine frescoes, and its treasury and fine library of over 60,000 +volumes are famous. Besides several other churches and two +monastic houses, the principal buildings include the handsome +palace of the primate, erected in 1883; the archiepiscopal library, +with valuable incunabula and old MSS.; the seminary for the +education of Roman Catholic priests; the residences of the +chapter; and the town-hall. The population is chiefly employed +in cloth-weaving, wine-making and agricultural pursuits. An iron +bridge, 1664 ft. long, connects Esztergom with the market town +of Párkány (pop. 2836) on the opposite bank of the Danube.</p> + +<p>Esztergom is one of the oldest towns of Hungary, and is famous +as the birthplace of St Stephen, the first prince crowned “apostolic +king” of Hungary. During the early times of the Hungarian +monarchy it was the most important mercantile centre in the +country, and it was the meeting-place of the diets of 1016, 1111, +1114 and 1256. It was almost completely destroyed by Tatar +hordes in 1241, but was rebuilt and fortified by King Béla IV. +In 1543 it fell into the hands of the Turks, from whom it was +recovered, in 1595, by Carl von Mansfeld. In 1604 it reverted +to the Turks, who held it till 1683, when it was regained by the +united forces of John Sobieski, king of Poland, and Prince Charles +of Lorraine. It was created an archbishopric in 1001. During +the Turkish occupation of the town the archbishopric was removed +to Tyrnau, while the archbishop himself had his residence +in Pressburg. Both returned to Esztergom in 1820. In 1708 +it was declared a free city by Joseph I. On the 13th of April +1818 it was partly destroyed by fire.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>For numerous authorities on the see and cathedral of Esztergom +see V. Chevalier, <i>Répertoire des sources</i>. <i>Topo-bibliogr.</i> s.v. “Gran.” +Of these may be mentioned especially F. Knauz, <i>Monumenta Ecclesiae +Strigoniensis</i> (3 vols., Eszterg, 1874); Joseph Dankó, <i>Geschichtliches +... aus dem Graner Domschatz</i> (Gran, 1880).</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">ÉTAGÈRE,<a name="ar177" id="ar177"></a></span> a piece of light furniture very similar to the English +what-not, which was extensively made in France during the +latter part of the 18th century. As the name implies, it consists of +a series of stages or shelves for the reception of ornaments or +other small articles. Like the what-not it was very often cornerwise +in shape, and the best Louis XVI. examples in exotic woods +are exceedingly graceful and elegant.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">ETAH,<a name="ar178" id="ar178"></a></span> a town and district of British India, in the Agra +division of the United Provinces. The town is situated on the +Grand Trunk road. Pop. (1901) 8796. The district has an area +of 1737 sq. m. The district consists for the most part of an +elevated alluvial plateau, dipping down on its eastern slope +into the valley of the Ganges. The uplands are irrigated by the +Ganges canal. Between the modern bed of the Ganges and its +ancient channel lies a belt of fertile land, covered with a rich +deposit of silt, and abundantly supplied with natural moisture. +A long line of swamps and hollows still marks the former course +of the river; and above it rises abruptly the original cliff which +now forms the terrace of the upland plain. The Kali Nadi, a +small stream flowing in a deep and narrow gorge, passes through +the centre of the district, and affords an outlet for the surface +drainage. Etah was at an early date the seat of a primitive +Aryan civilization, and the surrounding country is mentioned by +Hsüan Tsang, the Chinese Buddhist pilgrim of the 7th century +<span class="scs">A.D.</span>, as rich in temples and monasteries. But after the bloody +repression of Buddhism before the 8th century, the district +seems to have fallen once more into the hands of aboriginal +tribes, from whom it was wrested a second time by Rajputs +during the course of their great migration eastward. With the +rest of upper India it passed under the sway of Mahmud of +Ghazni in 1017, and thenceforth followed the fortunes of the +Mahommedan empire. At the end of the 18th century it formed +part of the territory over which the wazir of Oudh had made +himself ruler, and it came into the possession of the British +government in 1801, under the treaty of Lucknow. During the +mutiny of 1857 it was the scene of serious disturbances, coupled +with the usual anarchic quarrels among the native princes. +In 1901 the population was 863,948, showing an increase of 23% +in the decade due to the extension of canal irrigation. It is +traversed by a branch of the Rajputana railway from Agra to +Cawnpore, with stations at Kasganj and Soron, which are the +two largest towns. It has several printing presses, indigo +factories, and factories for pressing cotton, and there is a considerable +agricultural export trade.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">ÉTAMPES, ANNE DE PISSELEU D’HEILLY,<a name="ar179" id="ar179"></a></span> <span class="sc">Duchesse +d’</span> (1508-<i>c.</i> 1580), mistress of Francis I. of France, daughter of +Guillaume de Pisseleu, sieur d’Heilly, a nobleman of Picardy. +She came to court before 1522, and was one of the maids of +honour of Louise of Savoy. Francis I. made her his mistress, +probably on his return from his captivity at Madrid (1526), +and soon gave up Madame de Châteaubriant for her. Anne was +sprightly, pretty, witty and cultured, and succeeded in keeping +the favour of the king till the end of the reign (1547). The +liaison received some official recognition; when Queen Eleanor +entered Paris (1530), the king and Anne occupied the same +window. In 1533 Francis gave her in marriage to Jean de +Brosse, whom he created duc d’Étampes. The influence of the +duchesse d’Étampes, especially in the last years of the reign, +was considerable. She upheld Admiral Chabot against the +constable de Montmorency, who was supported by her rival, +Diane de Poitiers, the dauphin’s mistress. She was a friend to +new ideas, and co-operated with the king’s sister, Marguerite +d’Angoulême. She used her influence to elevate and enrich her +family, her uncle, Antoine Sanguin (d. 1559), being made bishop +of Orleans in 1535 and a cardinal in 1539.<a name="fa1n" id="fa1n" href="#ft1n"><span class="sp">1</span></a> The accusations +made against her of having allowed herself to be won over by +the emperor Charles V. and of playing the traitor in 1544 rest on +no serious proof. After the death of Francis I. (1547) she was +dismissed from the court by Diane de Poitiers, humiliated in +every way, and died in obscurity much later, probably in the +reign of Henry III.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See Paulin Paris, <i>Études sur François I<span class="sp">er</span></i> (Paris, 1885).</p> +</div> + +<hr class="foot" /> <div class="note"> + +<p><a name="ft1n" id="ft1n" href="#fa1n"><span class="fn">1</span></a> The château of Meudon, belonging to the Sanguin family, was +handed over to the duchesse d’Étampes in 1539. Sanguin was +translated to Limoges in 1546, and became archbishop of Toulouse +in 1550.</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">ÉTAMPES,<a name="ar180" id="ar180"></a></span> a town of northern France, capital of an arrondissement +in the department of Seine-et-Oise, on the Orléans railway, +35 m. S. by W. of Paris. Pop. (1906) 8720. Étampes is a long +straggling town hemmed in between the railway on the north +and the Chalouette on the south; the latter is a tributary of +the Juine which waters the eastern outskirts of the town. A +fine view of Étampes is obtained from the Tour Guinette, a +ruined keep built by Louis VI. in the 12th century on an eminence +on the other side of the railway. Notre-Dame du Fort, the chief +church, dates from the 11th and 12th centuries; irregular in +plan, it is remarkable for a fine Romanesque tower and spire, +and for the crenellated wall which partly surrounds it. The +interior contains ancient paintings and other artistic works. +St Basile (12th and 16th centuries), which preserves a Romanesque +doorway, and St Martin (12th and 13th centuries), with a +leaning tower of the 16th century, are of less importance. The +civil buildings offer little interest, but two houses named after +Anne de Pisseleu (see above), mistress of Francis I., and Diane de +Poitiers, mistress of Henry II., are graceful examples of Renaissance +architecture. In the square there is a statue of the +naturalist, Geoffroy Saint-Hilaire, who was born in Étampes. The +subprefecture, a tribunal of first instance, and a communal college +are among the public institutions of Étampes. Flour-milling, +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page804" id="page804"></a>804</span> +metal-founding, leather-dressing, printing and the manufacture +of boots and shoes and hosiery are carried on; there are quarries +of paving-stone, nurseries and market gardens in the vicinity, +and the town has important markets for cereals and sheep.</p> + +<p>Étampes (Lat. <i>Stampae</i>) existed at the beginning of the 7th +century and in the early middle ages belonged to the crown +domain. During the middle ages it was the scene of several +councils, the most notable of which took place in 1130 and +resulted in the recognition of Innocent II. as the legitimate pope. +In 1652, during the war of the Fronde it suffered severely at the +hands of the royal troops under Turenne.</p> + +<p><i>Lords, Counts and Dukes of Étampes.</i>—The lordship of Étampes, +in what is now the department of Seine et Oise in France, belonged +to the royal domain, but was detached from it on several +occasions in favour of princes, or kings’ favourites. St Louis +gave it to his mother Blanche of Castile, and then to his wife +Marguerite of Provence. Louis, the brother of Philip the Fair, +became lord of Étampes in 1317 and count in 1327; he was +succeeded by his son and his grandson. Francis I. raised the +countship of Étampes to the rank of a duchy for his mistress Anne +de Pisseleu D’Heilly. The new duchy passed to Diane de Poitiers +(1553), to Catherine of Lorraine, duchess of Montpensier (1578), +to Marguerite of Valois (1582) and to Gabrielle d’Estrées (1598). +The latter transmitted it to her son, César of Vendôme, and his +descendants held it till 1712. It then passed by inheritance to +the families of Bourbon-Conti and of Orleans.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">ÉTAPLES,<a name="ar181" id="ar181"></a></span> a town of northern France, in the department +of Pas-de-Calais, on the right bank of the estuary of the Canche, +3 m. from the Straits of Dover, 17 m. S. of Boulogne by rail. +Pop. (1906) 5136. Étaples has a small fishing and commercial +port which enjoyed a certain importance during the middle +ages. Boat-building is carried on. There is an old church with +a statue of the Virgin much revered by the sailors. The Canche +is crossed by a bridge over 1600 ft. in length. Le Touquet, in +the midst of pine woods, and the neighbouring watering-place +of Paris-Plage, 3½ m. W. of Étaples at the mouth of the estuary, +are much frequented by English and French visitors for golf, +tennis and bathing, and Étaples itself is a centre for artists. +Antiquarian discoveries in the vicinity of Étaples have led to +the conjecture that it occupies the site of the Gallo-Roman +port of <i>Quentovicus</i>. In 1492 a treaty was signed here between +Henry VII., king of England, and Charles VIII., king of France.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">ETAWAH,<a name="ar182" id="ar182"></a></span> a town and district of British India, in the Agra +division of the United Provinces. The town is situated on the +left bank of the Jumna, and has a station on the East Indian +railway, 206 m. from Allahabad. Pop. (1901) 42,570. Deep +fissures intersect the various quarters of the town, over which +broad roads connect the higher portions by bridges and embankments. +The Jama Masjid (Great Mosque) is the chief architectural +ornament of Etawah. It was originally a Hindu temple, +and was adapted to its present use by the Mahommedan conquerors. +Several fine Hindu temples also stand about the +mound on which are the ruins of the ancient fort. Etawah is +now only the civil headquarters of the district, the military +cantonment having been abandoned in 1861. Considerable +trade is carried on by rail and river. The manufactures include +cotton cloth, skin-bottles, combs and horn-ware and sweetmeats.</p> + +<p>The <span class="sc">District of Etawah</span> has an area of 1691 sq. m. It forms +a purely artificial administrative division, stretching across the +level plain of the Doab, and beyond the valley of the Jumna, +to the gorges of the Chambal, and the last rocky outliers of the +Vindhyan range. The district exhibits a striking variety of +surface and scenery. The greater portion lies within the Doab +or level alluvial plain between the Ganges and the Jumna. This +part falls naturally into two sections, divided by the deep and +fissured valley of the river Sengar. The tract to the north-east +of that stream is rich and fertile, being watered by the Cawnpore +and Etawah branches of the Ganges canal, and other important +works. The south-western region has the same natural advantages, +but possesses no great irrigation system, and is consequently +less fruitful than the opposite slopes. Near the banks +of the Jumna, the plain descends into the river valley by a series +of wild ravines and terraces, inhabited only by a scattered race +of hereditary herdsmen. Beyond the Jumna again a strip of +British territory extends along the tangled gorges of the Chambal +and the Kuari Nadi, far into the borders of the Gwalior state. +This outlying tract embraces a series of rocky glens and mountain +torrents, crowned by the ruins of native strongholds, and interspersed +with narrow ledges of cultivable alluvium. The climate, +once hot and sultry, has now become comparatively moist and +equable under the influence of irrigation and the planting of trees.</p> + +<p>Etawah was marked out by its physical features as a secure +retreat for the turbulent tribes of the Upper Doab, and it was +not till the 12th century that any of the existing castes settled +on the soil. After the Mussulman conquests of Delhi and the +surrounding country, the Hindus of Etawah appear to have +held their own for many generations against the Mahommedan +power; but in the 16th century Baber conquered the district, +with the rest of the Doab, and it remained in the hands of the +Moguls until the decay of their empire. After passing through the +usual vicissitudes of Mahratta and Jat conquests during the long +anarchy which preceded the British rule, Etawah was annexed by +the wazir of Oudh in 1773. The wazir ceded it to the East India +Company in 1801, but it still remained so largely in the hands of +lawless native chiefs that some difficulty was experienced in +reducing it to orderly government. During the mutiny of 1857 +serious disturbances occurred in Etawah, and the district was +occupied by the rebels from June to December; order was not +completely restored till the end of 1858. In 1901 the population +was 806,798, showing an increase of 11% in the decade. The +district is partly watered by branches of the Ganges canal, and +is traversed throughout by the main line of the East Indian +railway from Cawnpore to Agra. Cotton, oilseeds and other +agricultural produce are exported, and some indigo is made, +but manufacturing industry is slight.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">ETCHING<a name="ar183" id="ar183"></a></span> (Dutch, <i>etsen</i>, to eat), a form of engraving (<i>q.v.</i>) in +which, in contradistinction to line engraving (<i>q.v.</i>), where the +furrow is produced by the ploughing of the burin, the copper +is eaten away or corroded by acid.</p> + +<p>To prepare a plate for etching it is first covered with etching-ground, +a composition which resists acid. The qualities of a +ground are to be so adhesive that it will not quit the copper when +a small quantity is left isolated between lines, yet not so adhesive +that the etching point cannot easily and entirely remove it; +at the same time a good ground will be hard enough to bear the +hand upon it, or a sheet of paper, yet not so hard as to be brittle. +The ground used by Abraham Bosse, the French painter and +engraver (1602-1676) was composed as follows:—Melt 2 oz. of +white wax; then add to it 1 oz. of gum-mastic in powder, a +little at a time, stirring till the wax and the mastic are well +mingled; then add, in the same manner, 1 oz. of bitumen in +powder. There are three different ways of applying an etching-ground +to a plate. The old-fashioned way was to wrap a ball +of the ground in silk, heat the plate, and then rub the ball upon +the surface, enough of the ground to cover the plate melting +through the silk. To equalize the ground a dabber was used, +which was made of cotton-wool under horsehair, the whole +inclosed in silk. This method is still used by many artists, +from tradition and habit, but it is far inferior in perfection and +convenience to that which we will now describe. When the +etching-ground is melted, add to it half its volume of essential +oil of lavender, mix well, and allow the mixture to cool. You +have now a paste which can be spread upon a cold plate with a +roller; these rollers are covered with leather and made (very +carefully) for the purpose. You first spread a little paste on a +sheet of glass (if too thick, add more oil of lavender and mix +with a palette knife), and roll it till the roller is quite equally +charged all over, when the paste is easily transferred to the copper, +which is afterwards gently heated to expel the oil of lavender. +In both these methods of grounding a plate, the work is not +completed until the ground has been smoked, which is effected +as follows. The plate is held by a hand-vice if a small one, or if +large, is fixed at some height, with the covered side downwards. +A smoking torch, composed of many thin bees-wax dips twisted +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page805" id="page805"></a>805</span> +together, is then lighted and passed repeatedly under the plate +in every direction, till the ground has incorporated enough +lampblack to blacken it. The third way of covering a plate for +etching is to apply the ground in solution as collodion is applied +by photographers. The ground may be dissolved in chloroform, +or in oil of lavender. The plate being grounded, its back and +edges are protected from the acid by Japan varnish, which soon +dries, and then the drawing is traced upon it. The best way of +tracing a drawing is to use sheet gelatine, which is employed as +follows. The gelatine is laid upon the drawing, which its transparence +allows you to see perfectly, and you trace the lines by +scratching the smooth surface with a sharp point. You then fill +these scratches with fine black-lead, in powder, rubbing it in +with the finger, turn the tracing with its face to the plate, +and rub the back of it with a burnisher. The black-lead from +the scratches adheres to the etching ground and shows upon +it as pale grey, much more visible than anything else you can +use for tracing. Then comes the work of the etching-needle, +which is merely a piece of steel sharpened more or less. J.M.W. +Turner used a prong of an old steel fork which did as well as +anything, but neater etching-needles are sold by artists’ colour-makers. +The needle removes the ground or cover and lays the +copper bare. Some artists sharpen their needles so as to present +a cutting edge which, when used sideways, scrapes away a broad +line; and many etchers use needles of various degrees of sharpness +to get thicker or thinner lines. It may be well to observe, +in connexion with this part of the subject, that whilst thick lines +agree perfectly well with the nature of woodcut, they are very +apt to give an unpleasant heaviness to plate engraving of all kinds, +whilst thin lines have generally a clear and agreeable appearance +in plate engraving. Nevertheless, lines of moderate thickness +are used effectively in etching when covered with finer shading, +and very thick lines indeed were employed with good results +by Turner when he intended to cover them with mezzotint (<i>q.v.</i>), +and to print in brown ink, because their thickness was essential +to prevent them from being overwhelmed by the mezzotint, and +the brown ink made them print less heavily than black. Etchers +differ in opinion as to whether the needle ought to scratch the +copper or simply to glide upon its surface. A gliding needle is +much more free, and therefore communicates a greater appearance +of freedom to the etching, but it has the inconvenience that +the etching-ground may not always be entirely removed, and +then the lines may be defective from insufficient biting. A +scratching needle, on the other hand, is free from this serious +inconvenience, but it must not scratch irregularly so as to <i>engrave</i> +lines of various depth. The <i>biting</i> in former times was generally +done with a mixture of nitric acid and water, in equal proportions; +but in the present day a Dutch mordant is a good deal used, +which is composed as follows: Hydrochloric acid, 100 grammes; +chlorate of potash, 20 grammes; water, 880 grammes. To make +it, heat the water, add the chlorate of potash, wait till it is +entirely dissolved, and then add the acid. The nitrous mordant +acts rapidly and causes ebullition; the Dutch mordant acts +slowly and causes no ebullition. The nitrous mordant widens +the lines; the Dutch mordant bites in depth, and does not widen +the lines to any perceptible degree. The time required for both +depends upon temperature. A mordant bites slowly when cold, +and more and more rapidly when heated. To obviate irregularity +caused by difference of temperature, it is a good plan to heat the +Dutch mordant artificially to 95° Fahr. by lamps under the bath +(for which a photographer’s porcelain tray is most convenient), +and keep it steadily to that temperature; the results may then be +counted upon; but whatever the temperature fixed upon, the +results will be regular if it is regular. To get different degrees of +biting on the same plate the lines which are to be pale are +“stopped out” by being painted over with Japan varnish or +with etching ground dissolved in oil of lavender, the darkest +lines being reserved to the last, as they have to bite longest. When +the acid has done its work properly the lines are bitten in such +various degrees of depth that they will print with the degree of +blackness required; but if some parts of the subject require +to be made paler, they can be lowered by rubbing them with +charcoal and olive oil, and if they have to be made deeper they +can be rebitten, or covered with added shading. Rebiting is +done with the roller above mentioned, which is now charged +very lightly with paste and rolled over the copper with no +pressure but its own weight, so as to cover the smooth surface +but not fill up any of the lines. The oil of lavender is then +expelled as before by gently heating the plate, but it is not +smoked. The lines which require rebiting may now be rebitten, +and the others preserved against the action of the acid by stopping +out. These are a few of the most essential technical points in +etching, but there are many matters of detail for which the reader +is referred to the special works on the subject.</p> + +<p>There are many varieties in the processes of etching, and it is +only necessary here to indicate the essential facts. A brief +analysis of different styles may be given.</p> + +<p>(1) <i>Pure Line.</i> As there is line engraving, so there is line +etching; but as the etching-needle is a freer instrument than the +burin, the line has qualities which differ widely from those of +the burin line. Each of the two has its own charm and beauty; +the liberty of the one is charming, and the restraint of the other +is admirable also in its right place. In line etching, as in line +engraving, the great masters purposely exhibit the line and do +not hide it under too much shading. (2) <i>Line and Shade.</i> This +answers exactly in etching to Mantegna’s work in engraving. +The most important lines are drawn first throughout, and the +shade thrown over them like a wash with the brush over a pen +sketch in indelible ink. (3) <i>Shade and Texture.</i> This is used +chiefly to imitate oil-painting. Here the line (properly so called) +is entirely abandoned, and the attention of the etcher is given +to texture and chiaroscuro. He uses lines, of course, to express +these, but does not exhibit them for their own beauty; on the +contrary, he conceals them.</p> + +<p>Of these three styles of etching the first is technically the +easiest, and being also the most rapid, is adopted for sketching +on the copper from nature; the second is the next in difficulty; +and the third the most difficult, on account of the biting, which +is never easy to manage when it becomes elaborate. The etcher +has, however, many resources; he can make passages paler by +burnishing them, or by using charcoal, or he can efface them +entirely with the scraper and charcoal; he can darken them by +rebiting or by regrounding the plate and adding fresh work; +and he need not run the risk of biting the very palest passages +of all, because these can be easily done with the <i>dry point</i>, which +is simply a well-sharpened stylus used directly on the copper +without the help of acid. It is often asserted that any one can +etch who can draw, but this is a mistaken assertion likely to +mislead. Without requiring so long an apprenticeship as the +burin, etching is a very difficult art indeed, the two main causes +of its difficulty being that the artist does not see his work properly +as he proceeds, and that mistakes or misfortunes in the biting, +which are of frequent occurrence to the inexperienced, may +destroy all the relations of tone.</p> + +<p>Etching, like line engraving, owed much to the old masters, +but whereas, with the exception of Albert Dürer, the painters +were seldom practical line engravers, they advanced etching +not only by advice given to others but by the work of their +own hands. Rembrandt did as much for etching as either +Raphael or Rubens for line engraving; and in landscape the +etchings of Claude had an influence which still continues, both +Rembrandt and Claude being practical workmen in etching, +and very skilful workmen. Ostade, Ruysdael, Berghem, Paul +Potter, Karl Dujardin, etched as they painted, and so did a +greater than any of them, Vandyck. In the earlier part of the +19th century etching was almost a defunct art, except as it +was employed by engravers as a help to get faster through their +work, of which “engraving” got all the credit, the public being +unable to distinguish between etched lines and lines cut with +the burin. But from the middle of the century dates a great +revival of etching as an independent art, a revival which has +extended all over Europe.</p> + +<p>Apart from the copying of pictures by etching—which was +found commercially preferable to the use of line engraving—a +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page806" id="page806"></a>806</span> +number of artists and amateurs gradually practised original +etching with increasing success, notably Sir Seymour Haden, +J.M. Whistler, Samuel Palmer and others in England, Felix +Bracquemond, C.F. Daubigny, Charles Jacque, Adolphe Appian, +Maxime Lalanne, Jules Jacquemart and others on the continent, +besides that singular and remarkable genius, Charles Méryon. +Etching clubs, or associations of artists for the publication of +original etchings, were gradually founded in England, France, +Germany and Belgium. Méryon and Whistler are two of the +greatest modern etchers. Among earlier names mention may +be made of Andrew Geddes (1783-1844) and of Sir David Wilkie +(1785-1841). Geddes was the finer artist with the needle; he it +was whom Rembrandt best inspired; his work was in the grand +manner. Of the rich and rare dry-points “At Peckham Rye” +and “At Halliford-on-Thames,” the deepest and most brilliant +master of landscape would have no need to be ashamed. David +Wilkie’s prints were, naturally, not less dramatic than his +pictures, but the etcher’s particular gift was possessed by him +more intermittently: it is shown best in “The Receipt,” a +strong and vivid, dexterous sketch, quite full of character. +J.S. Cotman’s (1782-1842) etchings are also historically interesting +though they were “soft ground” for the most part. They +show all his qualities of elegance and freedom as a draughtsman, +and much of his large dignity in the distribution of light and +shade. T. Girtin (1775-1802), in the preparations for his views +of Paris, was notably happy. The work of Sir Francis Seymour +Haden (b. 1818) had a powerful influence on the art in England. +Between 1858 and 1879 Seymour Haden—the first president +of the Royal Society of Painter Etchers—produced the vast +majority of his plates, which have always good draughtsmanship, +unity of effect and a personal impression. They show a strong +feeling for nature. If, amongst some two hundred subjects, +it were necessary to select one or two for peculiar praise, they +might be the “Breaking up of the <i>Agamemnon</i>,” the almost +perfect “Water Meadow,” the masterly presentment of “Erith +Marshes,” and the later dry-point of “Windmill Hill.” Another +great etcher—Frenchman by birth, but English by long residence—is +Alphonse Legros (<i>q.v.</i>). Great in expression and suggestive +draughtsmanship, austere and economical in line, Legros’s work +is the grave record of the observation and the fancy of an imaginative +mind. In poetic portraiture nothing can well exceed his +etched vision of G.F. Watts; “La Mort du Vagabond” is +noticeable for terror and homely pathos; “Communion dans +l’Église St Médard” is perhaps the best instance of the dignity, +vigour and grave sympathy with which he addresses himself to +ecclesiastical themes. Something of these latter qualities, +in dealing with similar themes, Legros passed on to his pupil, Sir +Charles Holroyd (b. 1861)—an etcher in the true vein; whilst +an earlier pupil, prolific as himself, as imaginative, and sometimes +more deliberately uncouth—William Strang, A.R.A. +(b. 1859)—carried on in his own way the tradition of that part of +Legros’s practice, the preoccupation with the humble, for which +Legros himself found certain warrant in a portion of the great +<i>œuvre</i> of Rembrandt. Frank Short, A.R.A. (b. 1857), as with +the very touch of Turner, carried to completion great designs +that Turner left unfinished for the <i>Liber studiorum</i>. The +delicacy of “Sleeping till the Flood,” the curiously suggestive +realism of “Wrought Nails”—a scene in the Black Country—entitle +him to a lasting place in the list of the fine wielders of the +etching-needle. D.Y. Cameron (b. 1865) betrays the influence +of Rembrandt in a noble etching, “Border Towers,” and the +influence of Méryon in such a print as that of “The Palace, +Stirling.” His “London Set” is particularly fine. The individuality +of C.J. Watson is less marked, but his skill, chiefly in +architectural work, is noticeable. Admirers of the studiously +accurate portraiture of a great monument may be able to set +Watson’s print of “St Étienne du Mont” by the side of Méryon’s +august and mysterious and ever-memorable vision. Paul Helleu +(b. 1859) in his brilliant sketches, particularly of women, has +used the art of etching in a peculiarly individual and delightful +way. Among the numerous other modern etchers only a bare +mention can be made of Oliver Hall, Minna Bolingbroke and +Elizabeth Armstrong (Mrs Watson and Mrs Stanhope Forbes), +Alfred East, Robert Macbeth, Walter Sickert, Robert Goff, +Mortimer Menpes, Percy Thomas, Raven Hill, and Prof. H. von +Herkomer, in England; in France, Roussel, J.F. Raffaëlli +(b. 1850), Besnard and J.J.J. Tissot (1836-1902).</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>The oldest treatise on etching is that of Abraham Bosse (1645). +See also P.G. Hamerton, <i>Etching and Etchers</i> (1868), and <i>Etchers’ +Handbook</i> (1881); F. Wedmore, <i>Etching in England</i> (1895); Singer +and Strang, <i>Etching, Engraving, &c.</i> (1897).</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">ETEOCLES,<a name="ar184" id="ar184"></a></span> in Greek legend, king of Thebes, son of Oedipus +and Jocasta (Iocaste). After their father had been driven out +of the country, he and his brother Polyneices agreed to reign +alternately for a year. Eteocles, however, refused to keep the +agreement, and Polyneices fled to Adrastus, king of Argos, +whom he persuaded to undertake the famous expedition against +Thebes on his behalf. The two brothers met in single combat, +and both were slain. The Theban rulers decreed that only +Eteocles should receive the honour of burial, but the decree was +set at naught by Antigone (<i>q.v.</i>), the sister of Polyneices. The +fate of Eteocles and Polyneices forms the subject of the <i>Seven +against Thebes</i> of Aeschylus and the <i>Phoenissae</i> of Euripides.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">ETESIAN WIND<a name="ar185" id="ar185"></a></span> (Lat. <i>etesius</i>, annual; Gr. <span class="grk" title="etos">ἔτος</span>, year), a +Mediterranean wind blowing from the north and west in summer +for about six weeks annually.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">ÉTEX, ANTOINE<a name="ar186" id="ar186"></a></span> (1808-1888), French sculptor, painter and +architect, was born in Paris on the 20th of March 1808. He first +exhibited in the salon of 1833, his work including a reproduction +in marble of his “Death of Hyacinthus,” and the plaster cast +of his “Cain and his race cursed by God.” Thiers, who was at +this time minister of public works, now commissioned him to +execute the two groups of “Peace” and “War,” placed at each +side of the Arc de Triomphe. This last, which established his +reputation, he reproduced in marble in the salon of 1839. The +French capital contains numerous examples of the sculptural +works of Étex, which included mythological and religious +subjects besides a great number of portraits. His paintings +include the subjects of Eurydice and the martyrdom of Saint +Sebastian, and among the best known of his architectural productions +are the tomb of Napoleon I. in the Invalides and a +monument of the revolution of 1848. Étex wrote a number of +essays on subjects connected with the arts. The last year of his +life was spent at Nice, and he died at Chaville (Seine-et-Oise) +on the 14th of July 1888.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See P.E. Mangeant, <i>Antoine Étex, peintre, sculpteur et architecte, +1808-1888</i> (Paris, 1894).</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">ETHER,<a name="ar187" id="ar187"></a></span> (C<span class="su">2</span>H<span class="su">5</span>)<span class="su">2</span>O, the <i>Aether</i> of pharmacy, a colourless, +volatile, highly inflammable liquid, of specific gravity 0.736 at 0°, +boiling-point 35° C., and freezing-point −117°.4 C. (K. Olszewski). +It has a strong and characteristic odour, and a hot sweetish +taste, is soluble in ten parts of water, and in all proportions in +alcohol, and dissolves bromine, iodine, and, in small quantities, +sulphur and phosphorus, also the volatile oils, most fatty and +resinous substances, guncotton, caoutchouc and certain of the +vegetable alkaloids. The vapour mixed with oxygen or air is +violently explosive. The making of ether by the action of +sulphuric acid on alcohol was known in about the 13th century; +and later Basil Valentine and Valerius Cordus described its +preparation and properties. The name ether appears to have +been applied to the drug only since the times of Frobenius, +who in 1730 termed it <i>spiritus aethereus or vini vitriolatus</i>. It +was considered to be a sulphur compound, hence its name +sulphur ether; this idea was proved to be erroneous by Valentine +Rose in about 1800. Ether is manufactured by the distillation +of 5 parts of 90% alcohol with 9 parts of concentrated sulphuric +acid at a temperature of 140°-145° C., a constant stream of +alcohol being caused to flow into the mixture during the operation. +The distillate is purified by treatment with lime and +calcium chloride, and subsequent distillation. The mechanism +of this reaction was explained by A. Williamson in 1850. For +other methods of preparation see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Ethers</a></span>.<a name="fa1o" id="fa1o" href="#ft1o"><span class="sp">1</span></a></p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page807" id="page807"></a>807</span></p> + +<p>The presence of so small a quantity as 1% of alcohol may be +detected in ether by the colour imparted to it by aniline violet; +if water or acetic acid be present, the ether must be shaken with +anhydrous potassium carbonate before the application of the test. +When heated with zinc dust, it yields ethylene and water. +Chromic acid oxidizes it to acetic acid and ozone oxidizes it to +ethyl peroxide. In contact with hydriodic acid gas at 0° C., it +forms ethyl iodide (R.D. Silva, <i>Ber.</i>, 1875, 8, p. 903), and with +water and a little sulphuric acid at 180° C., it yields alcohol +(E. Erlenmeyer, <i>Zeit. f. chemie</i>, 1868, p. 343). It forms crystalline +compounds with bromine and with many metallic salts.</p> + +<p><i>Medicine.</i>—For the anaesthetic properties of ether see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Anaesthesia</a></span>. +Applied externally, ether evaporates very rapidly, +producing such intense cold as to cause marked local anaesthesia. +For this purpose it is best applied as a fine spray, but ethyl +chloride is generally found more efficient and produces less subsequent +discomfort. It aids the absorption of fats and may be +used with cod liver oil when the latter is administered by the skin. +If it be rubbed in or evaporation be prevented, it acts, like +alcohol and chloroform, as an irritant. Ten to twenty minims +of ether, subcutaneously injected, constitute perhaps the most +rapid and powerful cardiac stimulant known, and are often +employed for this purpose in cases of syncope under anaesthesia. +Taken internally, ether acts in many respects similarly to alcohol +and chloroform, but its stimulant action on the heart is much +more marked, being exerted both reflexly from the stomach +and directly after its rapid absorption. Ether is thus the type of +a rapidly diffusible stimulant. It is also useful in relieving the +paroxysms of asthma. The dose for repeated administration +is from 10 to 30 minims and for a single administration up to a +drachm.</p> + +<p><i>Chronic Poisoning.</i>—A dose of a little more than a drachm +(a teaspoonful) will produce a condition of inebriation lasting +for one-half to one hour, but the dose must soon be greatly increased. +The after-effects are, if anything, rather pleasant, and +the habit of ether drinking is certainly not so injurious as alcoholism. +The principal symptoms <span class="correction" title="amended from symptons">symptons</span> of chronic ether-drinking are a +weakening of the activity of the special senses, and notably +sight and hearing, a lowering of the intelligence and a degree +of general paresis (partial paralysis) of motion.</p> + +<hr class="foot" /> <div class="note"> + +<p><a name="ft1o" id="ft1o" href="#fa1o"><span class="fn">1</span></a> See also J. v. Liebig, <i>Ann. Chem. Pharm.</i>, 1837, 23, p. 39; 1839, +30, p. 129; E. Mitscherlich, <i>Pogg. Ann.</i>, 1836, 31, p. 273; 1841, 53, +p. 95; A.W. Williamson, <i>Phil. Mag.</i>, 1850 (3), 37, p. 350.</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">ETHEREDGE<a name="ar188" id="ar188"></a></span> [or <span class="sc">Etherege</span>], <b>SIR GEORGE</b> (<i>c.</i> 1635-1691), +English dramatist, was born about the year 1635, and belonged +to an Oxfordshire family. He is said to have been educated at +Cambridge, but Dennis assures us that “to his certain knowledge +he understood neither Greek nor Latin.” He travelled abroad +early, and seems to have resided in France. It is possible that +he witnessed in Paris the performances of some of Molière’s +earliest comedies; and he seems, from an allusion in one of his +plays, to have been personally acquainted with Bussy Rabutin. +On his return to London he studied the law at one of the Inns +of Court. His tastes were those of a fine gentleman, and he indulged +freely in pleasure.</p> + +<p>Sometime soon after the Restoration he composed his comedy +of <i>The Comical Revenge</i> or <i>Love in a Tub</i>, which introduced him +to Lord Buckhurst, afterwards the earl of Dorset. This was +brought out at the Duke’s theatre in 1664, and a few copies were +printed in the same year. It is partly in <span class="correction" title="amended from rhymed">rhymed</span> heroic verse, +like the stilted tragedies of the Howards and Killigrews, but it +contains comic scenes that are exceedingly bright and fresh. +The sparring between Sir Frederick and the Widow introduced a +style of wit hitherto unknown upon the English stage. The +success of this play was very great, but Etheredge waited four +years before he repeated his experiment. Meanwhile he gained +the highest reputation as a poetical beau, and moved in the circle +of Sir Charles Sedley, Lord Rochester and the other noble wits +of the day. In 1668 he brought out <i>She would if she could</i>, a +comedy in many respects admirable, full of action, wit and +spirit, although to the last degree frivolous and immoral. But in +this play Etheredge first shows himself a new power in literature; +he has nothing of the rudeness of his predecessors or the grossness +of his contemporaries. We move in an airy and fantastic world, +where flirtation is the only serious business of life. At this time +Etheredge was living a life no less frivolous and unprincipled than +those of his Courtals and Freemans. He formed an alliance with +the famous actress Mrs Elizabeth Barry; she bore him a daughter, +on whom he settled £6000, but who, unhappily, died in her youth. +His wealth and wit, the distinction and charm of his manners, +won Etheredge the general worship of society, and his temperament +is best known by the names his contemporaries gave him, +of “gentle George” and “easy Etheredge.” Rochester upbraided +him for inattention to literature; and at last, after a +silence of eight years, he came forward with one more play, unfortunately +his last. <i>The Man of Mode or Sir Fopling Flutter</i>, +indisputably the best comedy of intrigue written in England before +the days of Congreve, was acted and printed in 1676, and enjoyed +an unbounded success. Besides the merit of its plot and wit, it +had the personal charm of being supposed to satirize, or at least +to paint, persons well known in London. Sir Fopling Flutter was +a portrait of Beau Hewit, the reigning exquisite of the hour; +in Dorimant the poet drew the earl of Rochester, and in Medley a +portrait of himself; while even the drunken shoemaker was a +real character, who made his fortune from being thus brought +into public notice. After this brilliant success Etheredge +retired from literature; his gallantries and his gambling in a +few years deprived him of his fortune, and he looked about for a +rich match. He was knighted before 1680, and gained the hand +and the money of a rich widow. He was sent by Charles II. +on a mission to the Hague, and in March 1685 was appointed +resident minister in the imperial German court at Regensburg. +He was very uncomfortable in Germany, and after three and a +half years’ residence left for Paris. He had collected a library +at Regensburg, some volumes of which are in the theological +college there. His MS. despatches are preserved in the British +Museum, where they were discovered and described by Mr Gosse +in 1881; they add very largely to our knowledge of Etheredge’s +career. He died in Paris, probably in 1691, for Narcissus Luttrell +notes in February 1692 that “Sir George Etherege, the late King +James’ ambassador to Vienna, died lately in Paris.”</p> + +<p>Etheredge deserves to hold a more distinguished place in +English literature than has generally been allotted to him. In +a dull and heavy age, he inaugurated a period of genuine wit and +sprightliness. He invented the comedy of intrigue, and led the +way for the masterpieces of Congreve and Sheridan. Before +his time the manner of Ben Jonson had prevailed in comedy, and +traditional “humours” and typical eccentricities, instead of real +characters, had crowded the comic stage. Etheredge paints with +a light, faint hand, but it is from nature, and his portraits of fops +and beaux are simply unexcelled. No one knows better than he +how to present a gay young gentleman, a Dorimant, “an unconfinable +rover after amorous adventures.” His genius is as light +as thistle-down; he is frivolous, without force of conviction, +without principle; but his wit is very sparkling, and his style pure +and singularly picturesque. No one approaches Etheredge in +delicate touches of dress, furniture and scene; he makes the +fine airs of London gentlemen and ladies live before our eyes +even more vividly than Congreve does; but he has less insight +and less energy than Congreve. Had he been poor or ambitious, +he might have been to England almost what Molière was to +France, but he was a rich man living at his ease, and he disdained +to excel in literature. Etheredge was “a fair, slender, genteel +man, but spoiled his countenance with drinking.” His contemporaries +all agree in acknowledging that he was the soul of +affability and sprightly good-nature.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>The life of Etheredge was first given in detail by Edmund Gosse +in <i>Seventeenth Century Studies</i> (1883). His works were edited by +A.W. Verity, in 1888.</p> +</div> +<div class="author">(E. G.)</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">ETHERIDGE, JOHN WESLEY<a name="ar189" id="ar189"></a></span> (1804-1866), English nonconformist +divine, was born near Newport, Isle of Wight, on the +24th of February 1804. He received most of his early education +from his father. Though he never attended any university he +acquired ultimately a thorough knowledge of Greek, Latin, +Hebrew, Syriac, French and German. In 1824 he was placed on +the Wesleyan Methodist plan as a local preacher. In 1826 his +offer to enter the ministry was accepted, and after the usual +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page808" id="page808"></a>808</span> +probationary trial he was received into full connexion at the +conference of 1831. For two years after this he remained at +Brighton, and in 1833 he removed to Cornwall, being stationed +successively at the Truro and Falmouth circuits. From Falmouth +he removed to Darlaston, where in 1838 his health gave way. For +a good many years he was a supernumerary, and lived for a while +at Caen and Paris, where in the public libraries he found great +facilities for prosecuting his favourite Oriental studies. His +health having considerably improved, he became, in 1843, pastor +of the Methodist church at Boulogne. He returned to England +in 1847, and was appointed successively to the circuits of Islington, +Bristol, Leeds, Penzance, Penryn, Truro and St Austell in east +Cornwall. Shortly after his return to England he received the +degree of Ph.D. from the university of Heidelberg. He was a +patient, modest, hard-working and accurate scholar. He died at +Camborne on the 24th of May 1866.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>His principal works are <i>Horae Aramaicae</i> (1843); <i>History, Liturgies +and Literature of the Syrian Churches</i> (1847); <i>The Apostolic Acts +and Epistles, from the Peshito or Ancient Syriac</i> (1849); <i>Jerusalem +and Tiberias, a Survey of the Religious and Scholastic Learning of the +Jews</i> (1856); <i>The Targums of Onkelos and Jonathan ben Uzziel</i> +(1st vol. in 1862, 2nd in 1865). See <i>Memoir</i>, by Rev. Thornley Smith +(1871).</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">ETHERIDGE, ROBERT<a name="ar190" id="ar190"></a></span> (1819-1903), English geologist and +palaeontologist, was born at Ross, in Herefordshire, on the 3rd +of December 1819. After an ordinary school education in his +native town, he obtained employment in a business house in +Bristol. There he devoted his spare time to natural history +pursuits, and in 1850 was appointed curator of the museum +attached to the Bristol Philosophical Institution. He also became +lecturer on botany in the Bristol medical school. In 1857, +through the influence of Sir Roderick I. Murchison, he was appointed +to a post in the Museum of Practical Geology in London, +and eventually became palaeontologist to the Geological Survey. +In 1865 he assisted Prof. Huxley in the preparation of a <i>Catalogue +of Fossils in the Museum of Practical Geology</i>. His chief work +for many years was in naming the fossils collected during the +progress of the Geological Survey, and in supplying the lists +that were appended to numerous official memoirs. In this way +he acquired an exceptional knowledge of British fossils, and he +ultimately prepared an elaborate work entitled <i>Fossils of the +British Islands, Stratigraphically and Zoologically arranged</i>. +Only the first volume dealing with the Palaeozoic species was +published (1888). Etheridge also was author of several papers +on the Rhaetic Beds, and of an important essay on the Physical +Structure of North Devon, and on the Palaeontological Value +of the Devonian Fossils (1867). He edited, and in the main rewrote, +the second part of a new edition of John Phillips’ Manual +of Geology—entitled <i>Stratigraphical Geology and Palaeontology</i> +(1885). He was elected F.R.S. in 1871, and was president of the +Geological Society in 1881-1882. In 1881 Etheridge was transferred +from the Geological Survey to the geological department +of the British Museum, where he served as assistant keeper until +1891. He died at Chelsea, London, on the 18th of December +1903.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>Memoir by Dr Henry Woodward (with list of works and portrait) +in <i>Geological Magazine</i>, January 1904; also Memoir by H.B. Woodward +(with portrait) in <i>Proc. Bristol Nat. Soc.</i> x. 175.</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">ETHERS,<a name="ar191" id="ar191"></a></span> in organic chemistry, compounds of the general +formula R·O·R′, where R, R′ = alkyl or aryl groups. They may +be regarded as the anhydrides of the alcohols, being formed by +elimination of one molecule of water from two molecules of the +alcohols; those in which the two hydrocarbon radicals are +similar are known as <i>simple</i> ethers, and those in which they are +dissimilar as <i>mixed</i> ethers. They may be prepared by the +action of concentrated sulphuric acid on the alcohols, alkyl +sulphuric acids being first formed, which yield ethers on heating +with alcohols. The process may be made a continuous one by +running a thin stream of alcohol continually into the heated +reaction mixture of alcohol and sulphuric acid. Benzene sulphonic +acid has been used in place of sulphuric acid (F. Krafft, +<i>Ber.</i>, 1893, 26, p. 2829). A.W. Williamson (<i>Ann.</i>, 1851, 77, p. +38; 1852, 81, p. 77) prepared ether by the action of sodium +ethylate on ethyl iodide, and showed that all ethers must possess +the structural formula given above (see also <i>Brit. Assoc. Reports</i>, +1850, p. 65). They may also be prepared by heating the alkyl +halides with silver oxide.</p> + +<p>The ethers are neutral volatile liquids (the first member, +methyl ether, is a gas at ordinary temperature). Phosphorus +pentachloride converts them into alkyl chlorides, a similar +decomposition taking place when they are heated with the haloid +acids. Nitric acid and chromic acid oxidize them in such a +mariner that they yield the same products as the alcohols from +which they are derived. With chlorine they yield substitution +products.</p> + +<p><i>Methyl ether</i>, (CH<span class="su">3</span>)<span class="su">2</span>O, was first prepared by J. B. Dumas +and E. Péligot (<i>Ann. chim. phys.</i>, 1835, [2] 58, p. 19) by heating +methyl alcohol with sulphuric acid. It is best prepared by +heating methyl alcohol and sulphuric acid to 140° C. and leading +the evolved gas into sulphuric acid. The sulphuric acid solution +is then allowed to drop slowly into an equal volume of water, +when the methyl ether is liberated (E. Erlenmeyer and A. +Kriechbaumer, <i>Ber.</i>, 1874, 7, p. 699). It is a pleasant-smelling +gas, which burns when ignited, and may be condensed to a +liquid which boils at 23.6º C. It is somewhat soluble in water +and readily soluble in alcohol, and concentrated sulphuric acid. +It combines with hydrochloric acid gas to form a compound +(CH<span class="su">3</span>)<span class="su">2</span>O·HCl (C. Friedel, <i>Comptes rendus</i>, 1875, 81, p. 152). +<i>Methyl ethyl ether</i>, CH<span class="su">3</span>·O·C<span class="su">2</span>H<span class="su">5</span>, is prepared from methyl iodide +and sodium ethylate, or from ethyl iodide and sodium methylate +(A. W. Williamson, <i>Ann.</i>, 1852, 81, p. 77). It is a liquid which +boils at 10.8º C.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>For diethyl ether see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Ether</a></span>, and for methyl phenyl ether (anisole) +and ethyl phenyl ether (phenetole) see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Carbolic Acid</a></span>.</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">ETHICS,<a name="ar192" id="ar192"></a></span> the name generally given to the science of moral +philosophy. The word “ethics” is derived from the Gr. <span class="grk" title="êthikos">ἠθικός</span>, +that which pertains to <span class="grk" title="êthos">ἦθος</span>, character.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>For convenience in reference, the arrangement followed in this +article may be explained at the outset:—</p> + +<table class="ws" summary="Contents"> +<tr><td class="tcr"> </td> <td> </td> <td class="tcl"><span class="sc f80">page</span></td></tr> + +<tr><td class="tcr">I.</td> <td class="tcl"><span class="sc">DEFINITION AND SCOPE</span></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#page809">809</a></td></tr> + +<tr><td class="tcr">II.</td> <td class="tcl"><span class="sc">HISTORICAL SKETCH</span></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#page810">810</a></td></tr> + +<tr><td> </td> <td class="tcl pt1">A. Greek and Graeco-Roman Ethics</td> <td class="tcl pt1"><a href="#page810">810</a></td></tr> +<tr><td> </td> <td class="tcl">  The Age of the Sophists</td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#page811">811</a></td></tr> +<tr><td> </td> <td class="tcl">  Socrates and his Disciples</td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#page811">811</a></td></tr> +<tr><td> </td> <td class="tcl">  Plato</td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#page812">812</a></td></tr> +<tr><td> </td> <td class="tcl">  Plato and Aristotle</td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#page814">814</a></td></tr> +<tr><td> </td> <td class="tcl">  Aristotle</td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#page815">815</a></td></tr> +<tr><td> </td> <td class="tcl">  Stoicism</td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#page816">816</a></td></tr> +<tr><td> </td> <td class="tcl">  Hedonism (Epicurus)</td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#page818">818</a></td></tr> +<tr><td> </td> <td class="tcl">  Later Greek and Roman Ethics</td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#page818">818</a></td></tr> +<tr><td> </td> <td class="tcl">  Neoplatonism</td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#page819">819</a></td></tr> + +<tr><td> </td> <td class="tcl pt1">B. Christianity and Medieval Ethics</td> <td class="tcl pt1"><a href="#page820">820</a></td></tr> +<tr><td> </td> <td class="tcl">  Christian and Jewish “Law of God”</td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#page820">820</a></td></tr> +<tr><td> </td> <td class="tcl">  Christian and Pagan Inwardness</td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#page820">820</a></td></tr> +<tr><td> </td> <td class="tcl">    (Knowledge, Faith, Love, Purity)</td> <td> </td></tr> +<tr><td> </td> <td class="tcl">  Distinctive Particulars of Christian Morality</td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#page821">821</a></td></tr> +<tr><td> </td> <td class="tcl">  Development of Opinion in Early Christianity, Augustine, Ambrose</td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#page823">823</a></td></tr> +<tr><td> </td> <td class="tcl">  Medieval Morality and Moral Philosophy</td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#page824">824</a></td></tr> +<tr><td> </td> <td class="tcl">  Thomas Aquinas</td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#page824">824</a></td></tr> +<tr><td> </td> <td class="tcl">  Casuistry and Jesuitry</td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#page826">826</a></td></tr> +<tr><td> </td> <td class="tcl">  The Reformation; and birth of Modern Thought</td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#page826">826</a></td></tr> + +<tr><td> </td> <td class="tcl pt1">C. Modern Ethics</td> <td class="tcl pt1"><a href="#page827">827</a></td></tr> +<tr><td> </td> <td class="tcl">  Grotius</td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#page827">827</a></td></tr> +<tr><td> </td> <td class="tcl">  Hobbes</td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#page827">827</a></td></tr> +<tr><td> </td> <td class="tcl">  The Cambridge Moralists</td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#page828">828</a></td></tr> +<tr><td> </td> <td class="tcl">    (Cudworth, More)</td> <td> </td></tr> +<tr><td> </td> <td class="tcl">  Cumberland</td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#page829">829</a></td></tr> +<tr><td> </td> <td class="tcl">  Locke</td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#page829">829</a></td></tr> +<tr><td> </td> <td class="tcl">  Clarke</td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#page829">829</a></td></tr> +<tr><td> </td> <td class="tcl">  Shaftesbury</td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#page830">830</a></td></tr> +<tr><td> </td> <td class="tcl">  Mandeville</td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#page830">830</a></td></tr> +<tr><td> </td> <td class="tcl">  Butler</td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#page831">831</a></td></tr> +<tr><td> </td> <td class="tcl">  Wollaston</td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#page831">831</a></td></tr> +<tr><td> </td> <td class="tcl">  Hutcheson</td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#page831">831</a></td></tr> +<tr><td> </td> <td class="tcl">  Hume</td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#page832">832</a></td></tr> +<tr><td> </td> <td class="tcl">  Adam Smith</td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#page833">833</a></td></tr> +<tr><td> </td> <td class="tcl">  The Intuitional School</td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#page833">833</a></td></tr> +<tr><td> </td> <td class="tcl">    (Price, Reid, Stewart, Whewell)</td> <td> </td></tr> +<tr><td> </td> <td class="tcl">  The Utilitarian School</td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#page835">835</a></td></tr> +<tr><td> </td> <td class="tcl">    (Paley, Bentham, Mill)<span class="pagenum"><a name="page809" id="page809"></a>809</span></td> <td> </td></tr> +<tr><td> </td> <td class="tcl">  Association and Evolution</td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#page837">837</a></td></tr> +<tr><td> </td> <td class="tcl">  Free-will</td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#page837">837</a></td></tr> +<tr><td> </td> <td class="tcl">  French Influence on English Ethics</td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#page838">838</a></td></tr> +<tr><td> </td> <td class="tcl">    (Helvetius, Comte)</td> <td> </td></tr> +<tr><td> </td> <td class="tcl">  German Influence on English Ethics</td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#page839">839</a></td></tr> +<tr><td> </td> <td class="tcl">    (Kant, Hegel)</td> <td> </td></tr> + +<tr><td> </td> <td class="tcl pt1">D. Ethics since 1879</td> <td class="tcl pt1"><a href="#page840">840</a></td></tr> + +<tr><td class="tcr">III.</td> <td class="tcl"><span class="sc">Bibliography</span></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#page845">845</a></td></tr> +</table> + +<p>Section I. contains a general survey of the subject; it shows in +what sense ethics is to be regarded as a special field of philosophical +investigation—its relations to other departments of thought, especially +to psychology, religion and modern physical science. The +article makes no attempt to give a detailed, casuistical examination +of the matter of ethical theory. For this, reference must be made +to special articles on philosophic schools, writers and terms.</p> + +<p>Section II. is a historical sketch in four parts tracing the main +lines of development in ethical speculation from its birth to the +present day. Here again it has been possible to notice only the +salient points or landmarks, leaving all detail to special articles as +above. All important writers whose names occur in this sketch +are treated in special biographical articles, and references are given +as often as possible to supplementary articles which illustrate and +explain points which cannot be fully treated here. This is especially +the case in connexion with technical terms (whose history and +meaning are inevitably taken for granted) and biographical information +about minor ethical writers.</p> +</div> + +<p class="pt2 center sc">I. Definition and Subject-Matter of Ethics</p> + +<p>In its widest sense, the term “ethics” would imply an examination +into the general character or habits of mankind, and would +even involve a description or history of the habits of men in particular +societies living at different periods of time. Such a field +of study would obviously be too wide for any particular science +or philosophy to investigate, and moreover portions of the field +are already occupied by history, by anthropology and by the +particular sciences (<i>e.g.</i> physiology, anatomy, biology), in so +far as the habits and character of men depend upon the material +processes which these sciences examine. Even philosophies +such as logic and aesthetic would be necessary for such an +investigation, if thought and artistic production are normal +human habits and elements in character. Ethics then is usually +confined to the particular field of human character and conduct +so far as they depend upon or exhibit certain general principles +commonly known as moral principles. Men in general characterize +their own conduct and character and that of other men +by such general adjectives as good, bad, right and wrong, and +it is the meaning and scope of these adjectives, primarily in +relation to human conduct, and ultimately in their final and +absolute sense, that ethics investigates.</p> + +<p>A not uncommon definition of ethics as the “science of conduct” +is inexact for various reasons. (1) The sciences are descriptive +or experimental. But a description of what acts or what ends +of action men in the present or the past call, or have called, +“good” or “bad” is clearly beyond human powers. And +experiments in morality (apart from the inconvenient practical +consequences likely to ensue) are useless for purposes of ethics, +because the moral consciousness would itself at one and the same +time be required to make the experiment and to provide the +subject upon which the experiment is performed. (2) Ethics +is a philosophy and not a science. Philosophy is a process of +reflection upon the presuppositions involved in unreflective +thought. In logic and metaphysics it investigates either the +process of apprehension itself, or conceptions such as cause, +substance, space, time, which the ordinary scientific consciousness +never criticizes. In moral philosophy the place of the body +of sciences, which philosophy as the theory of knowledge investigates, +is taken by the developed moral consciousness, which +already pronounces moral judgment without hesitation, and +claims authority to subject to continual criticism the institutions +and forms of social life which it has itself helped to create.</p> + +<p>When ethical speculation first begins, conceptions such as +those of duty, responsibility, the will as the ultimate subject +of moral approbation and disapprobation, are already in existence +and already operative. Moral philosophy in a certain sense adds +nothing to these conceptions, though it sets them in a clearer +light. The problems of the moral consciousness at the time at +which it first becomes reflective are not strictly speaking philosophical +problems at all. It is occupied with just such questions +as each individual man who wishes to act rightly is constantly +called upon to answer, <i>e.g.</i> questions such as “What particular +action will meet the claims of justice under such and such +circumstances?” or “What degree of ignorance will excuse +this particular person in this particular case from his responsibility?” +It tries to attain a knowledge as complete as possible +of the circumstances under which the act contemplated must be +performed, the personalities of the persons whom it may affect, +and the consequences (so far as they can be foreseen) which +it will produce, and then by virtue of its own power of moral +discrimination pronounces judgment. And the ever-recurring +problem of the moral consciousness, “What ought to be done?” +is one which receives a clearer and more definite answer as men +become more able in the course of moral experience to apply +those principles of the moral consciousness which are yet employed +in that experience from the outset. Nevertheless there +is a sense in which moral philosophy may be said to originate +out of difficulties inherent in the nature of morality itself, although +it remains true that the questions which ethics attempts to +answer are never questions with which the moral consciousness +as such is confronted. The fact that men give different answers +to moral problems which seem similar in character, or even the +mere fact that men disregard, when they act immorally, the +dictates and implicit principles of the moral consciousness is +certain sooner or later to produce the desire either, on the one +hand, to justify immoral action by casting doubt upon the +authority of the moral consciousness and the validity of its +principles, or, on the other hand, to justify particular moral +judgments either by (the only valid method) an analysis of +the moral principle involved in the judgment and a demonstration +of its universal acceptation, or by some attempted proof +that the particular moral judgment is arrived at by a process +of inference from some universal conception of the Supreme +Good or the Final End from which all particular duties or +virtues may be deduced. It may be that criticism of morality +first originates with a criticism of existing moral institutions +or codes of ethics; such a criticism may be due to the spontaneous +activity of the moral consciousness itself. But when +such criticism passes into the attempt to find a universal criterion +of morality—such an attempt being in effect an effort to make +morality scientific—and especially when the attempt is seen, +as it must in the end be seen, to fail (the moral consciousness +being superior to all standards of morality and realizing itself +wholly in particular judgments), then ethics as a <i>process of +reflection</i> upon the nature of the moral consciousness may be +said to begin. If this be true it follows that one of the chief +function of ethics must be criticism of mistaken attempts to +find a criterion of morality superior to the pronouncements of +the moral consciousness itself. The ultimate superiority of the +moral consciousness over all other standards is recognized, even +by those who impugn its authority, whenever they claim that +all men ought to recognize the superior value of the standards +which they themselves wish to substitute. Similarly, their +opponents refute their arguments by showing that they are +based ultimately upon a recognition of certain distinctions +which are moral distinctions (<i>i.e.</i> imply a moral consciousness +capable of discriminating between right and wrong in particular +cases), and that these moral distinctions conflict with the conclusions +which they reach.</p> + +<p>This may briefly be illustrated by reference to some of the +great fundamental controversies of ethics. None of these +originates out of conflicting statements of the moral consciousness, +<i>i.e.</i> there is no fundamental contradiction in morality +itself. No one (if unsophisticated) ever confused the conception +of pleasure with the conception of the Good, or thought that +the claims of selfish interest were identical with those of duty. +But the controversy between hedonists and anti-hedonists +originates as soon as men reflect that a good which is not in some +sense “my” good is not good at all, or that no act can be said +to be moral which does not satisfy “me.” Or, again, the +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page810" id="page810"></a>810</span> +reflection that the mark or sign of the perfect performance of +a particular virtuous act or function is the presence of a characteristic +pleasure which always accompanies it, is opposed to +the reflection that it is a mark of the highest morality never to +rest satisfied, and out of these seemingly contradictory statements +of the reflective consciousness might arise a multitude +of controversies either concerning pleasure and duty, or the even +more difficult and complex conceptions of merit, progress, and +the nature of the Supreme Good or Final End.</p> + +<p>When and how fresh controversies in ethics will begin it would +be impossible for any one to foretell. Sometimes the dominance +of a particular science or branch of study is the occasion +of an attempt to apply to ethics ideas borrowed from +<span class="sidenote">The Sciences.</span> +or analogous to the conceptions of that science. False +analogies drawn between ethics and mathematics or between +morality and the perception of beauty have wrought much +mischief in modern and to some degree even in ancient ethics. +The influence of ideas borrowed from biology is everywhere +manifest in the ethical speculations of modern times. Sometimes, +again, whole theories of ethics have been formulated which can +be seen in the end to be efforts to subordinate moral conceptions +to conceptions belonging properly to institutions or departments +of human thought and activity which the moral consciousness +has itself originated. Law, for instance, depends, or at least +ought to depend, upon men’s need for and consciousness of +justice. And such institutions as the family and the state are +created by the social consciousness, which is the moral consciousness +from another aspect. Yet morality has been subordinated +to legal and social sanctions, and moral advance has been held +to be conditioned by political and social necessities which are +not moral needs. Similarly no one since civilization emerged +from barbarism has ever really been willing to yield allegiance +to a deity who is not moral in the fullest and highest sense of the +word. God is not superior to moral law. Yet there have been +<span class="sidenote">Theology.</span> +whole systems of theological ethics which have +attempted to base human morality upon the arbitrary +will of God or upon the supreme authority of a divinely inspired +book or code of laws. One of the greatest of all ethical controversies, +that concerning the freedom of the will, arose directly +out of what was in reality a theological problem—the necessity, +namely, of reconciling God’s foreknowledge with human freedom. +The unreflective moral consciousness never finds it difficult to +distinguish between a man’s power of willing and all the forces +of circumstance, heredity and the like, which combine to form +the temptations to which he may yield or bid defiance; and +such facts as “remorse” and “penitence” are a continual +testimony to man’s sense of freedom. But so soon as men +perceive upon reflection an apparent discrepancy between the +utterances of their moral consciousness and certain conclusions +to which theological speculation (or at a later period metaphysical +and scientific inquiries) seems inevitably to lead them, they +will not rest satisfied until the belief in the will’s freedom (hitherto +unquestioned) is upon further reflection justified or condemned. +It is clear then that the complexity of the subject-matter of +ethics is such that no sharply defined boundary lines can be drawn +between it and other branches of inquiry. Just in so far as it +presupposes the apprehension of moral facts, it must presuppose +a knowledge of the system of social relationships upon which +some at least of those facts depend. No one, for instance, could +inquire into the nature of justice without being further compelled +to undertake an examination of the nature of the state.</p> + +<p>It would be difficult to decide how much of the dispute between +the advocates of pleasure theories and their opponents turns +upon vexed questions of psychology, and how much is +strictly relevant to ethics. If, as has already been +<span class="sidenote">Psychology.</span> +said, one of the chief tasks of ethics is to prevent the +intrusion into its own sphere of inquiry of ideas borrowed from +other and alien sources, then obviously these sources must be +investigated. One example of this necessity may be given. It +is sometimes maintained that the proper method of ethics is +the psychological method; ethics, we are told, should examine +as its subject-matter moral sentiments wherever found, without +raising ultimate questions as to the nature of obligation or +moral authority in general. Now if in opposition to such arguments +the ultimate character of moral obligation be defended, +it will be necessary to point out that no one feels moral sentiments +except in connexion with particular objects of moral approbation +or disapprobation (<i>e.g.</i> gratitude is inexplicable apart from a +particular relationship existing between two or more persons), +and that these objects are objects of the moral consciousness +alone. But such a line of argument is certain to make necessary +an inquiry into the nature of the objects of psychological study +which may produce quite unforeseen results for psychology.</p> + +<p>Nothing therefore is to be gained by confining ethics within +limits which must from the nature of the case be arbitrary. +The defender at all events of the supremacy of moral intuitions +must be prepared to follow whither the argument leads, into +whatever strange quarters it may direct him. But this much +may be said by way of delimitation of the scope of ethics: however +complicated and involved its arguments and processes of +inference may become, the facts from which they start and the +conclusions to which they point are such as the moral consciousness +alone can understand or warrant.</p> +<div class="author">(H. H. W.)</div> + +<p class="pt2 center sc">II. Historical Sketch</p> + +<p>A. <i>Greek and Graeco-Roman Ethics</i>.—The ethical speculation +of Greece, and therefore of Europe, had no abrupt and absolute +beginning. The naive and fragmentary precepts of conduct, +which are everywhere the earliest manifestation of nascent +moral reflection, are a noteworthy element in the gnomic poetry +of the 7th and 6th centuries <span class="scs">B.C.</span> Their importance is shown +by the traditional enumeration of the Seven Sages of the 6th +century, and their influence on ethical thought is attested by the +references of Plato and Aristotle. But from these unscientific +utterances to a philosophy of morals was a long process. In the +practical wisdom of Thales (<i>q.v.</i>), one of the seven, we cannot +discern any systematic theory of morality. In the case of +Pythagoras, conspicuous among pre-Socratic philosophers as the +founder not merely of a school, but of a sect or order bound by a +common rule of life, there is a closer connexion between moral +and metaphysical speculation. The doctrine of the Pythagoreans +that the essence of justice (conceived as equal retribution) was a +square number, indicates a serious attempt to extend to the +region of conduct their mathematical view of the universe; +and the same may be said of their classification of good with +unity, straightness and the like, and of evil with the opposite +qualities. Still, the enunciation of the moral precepts of Pythagoras +appears to have been dogmatic, or even prophetic, rather +than philosophic, and to have been accepted by his disciples +with an unphilosophic reverence as the <i>ipse dixit</i><a name="fa1s" id="fa1s" href="#ft1s"><span class="sp">1</span></a> of the master. +Hence, whatever influence the Pythagorean blending of ethical +and mathematical notions may have had on Plato, and, through +him, on later thought, we cannot regard the school as having +really forestalled the Socratic inquiry after a completely reasoned +theory of conduct. The ethical element in the “dark” philosophizing +of Heraclitus (<i>c.</i> 530-470 <span class="scs">B.C.</span>), though it anticipates +Stoicism in its conceptions of a law of the universe, to which +the wise man will carefully conform, and a divine harmony, in +the recognition of which he will find his truest satisfaction, is +more profound, but even less systematic. It is only when we +come to Democritus, a contemporary of Socrates, the last of +the original thinkers whom we distinguish as pre-Socratic, that +we find anything which we can call an ethical system. The +fragments that remain of the moral treatises of Democritus are +sufficient, perhaps, to convince us that the turn of Greek philosophy +in the direction of conduct, which was actually due to +Socrates, would have taken place without him, though in a less +decided manner; but when we compare the Democritean ethics +with the post-Socratic system to which it has most affinity, +Epicureanism, we find that it exhibits a very rudimentary +apprehension of the formal conditions which moral teaching +must fulfil before it can lay claim to be treated as scientific.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page811" id="page811"></a>811</span></p> + +<p>The truth is that no system of ethics could be constructed until +attention had been directed to the vagueness and inconsistency +of the common moral opinions of mankind. For this purpose +was needed the concentration of a philosophic intellect of the +first order on the problems of practice. In Socrates first we find +the required combination of a paramount interest in conduct +and an ardent desire for knowledge. The pre-Socratic thinkers +were all primarily devoted to ontological research; but by the +middle of the 5th century <span class="scs">B.C.</span> the conflict of their dogmatic +systems had led some of the keenest minds to doubt the possibility +of penetrating the secret of the physical universe. This doubt +found expression in the reasoned scepticism of Gorgias, and +produced the famous proposition of Protagoras, that human +apprehension is the only standard of existence. The same +feeling led Socrates to abandon the old physico-metaphysical +inquiries. In his ease, moreover, it was strengthened by a naive +piety that forbade him to search into things of which the gods +seemed to have reserved the knowledge to themselves. The regulation +of human action, on the other hand (except on occasions of +special difficulty, for which omens and oracles might be vouchsafed), +they had left to human reason. On this accordingly +Socrates concentrated his efforts.</p> + +<p>Though, however, Socrates was the first to arrive at a proper +conception of the problems of conduct, the general idea did not +originate with him. The natural reaction against the +metaphysical and ethical dogmatism of the early +<span class="sidenote">The Sophists.</span> +thinkers had reached its climax in the Sophists (<i>q.v.</i>). +Gorgias and Protagoras are only representatives of what was +really a universal tendency to abandon dogmatic theory and take +refuge in practical matters, and especially, as was natural in the +Greek city-state, in the civic relations of the citizen. The education +given by the Sophists aimed at no general theory of life, +but professed to expound the art of getting on in the world and +of managing public affairs. In their eulogy of the virtues of the +citizen, they pointed out the prudential character of justice and +the like as a means of obtaining pleasure and avoiding pain. +The Greek conception of society was such that the life of the +free-born citizen consisted mainly of his public function, and, +therefore, the pseudo-ethical disquisitions of the Sophists satisfied +the requirements of the age. None thought of <span class="grk" title="aretê">ἀρετή</span> (virtue +or excellence) as a unique quality possessed of an intrinsic value, +but as the virtue of the citizen, just as good flute-playing was the +virtue of the flute-player. We see here, as in other activities +of the age, a determination to acquire technical knowledge, and +to apply it directly to the practical issue; just as music was being +enriched by new technical knowledge, architecture by modern +theories of plans and T-squares (<i>sc.</i> Hippodamus), the handling +of soldiers by the new technique of “tactics” and “hoplitics,” so +citizenship must be analysed afresh, systematized and adapted +in relation to modern requirements. The Sophists had studied +these matters superficially indeed but with thoroughness as far +as they went, and it is not remarkable that they should have +taken the methods which were successful in rhetoric, and +applied them to the “science and art” of civic virtues. Plato’s +<i>Protagoras</i> claims, not unjustly, that in teaching virtue they +simply did systematically what every one else was doing at +haphazard. But in the true sense of the word, they had no +ethical system at all, nor did they contribute save by contrast +to ethical speculation. They merely analysed conventional +formulae, much in the manner of certain modern so-called +“scientific” moralists. Into this arena of hazy popular common +<span class="sidenote">Socrates.</span> +sense Socrates brought a new critical spirit, showing +that these popular lecturers, in spite of their fertile +eloquence, could not defend their fundamental assumptions, +nor even give rational definitions of what they professed to explain. +Not only were they thus “ignorant,” but they were also +perpetually inconsistent with themselves in dealing with particular +instances. Thus, by the aid of his famous “dialectic,” Socrates +arrived first at the negative result that the professed teachers of +the people were as ignorant as he himself claimed to be, and in +a measure justified the eulogy of Aristotle that he rendered to +philosophy the service of “introducing induction and definitions.” +This description of his work is, however, both too technical and +too positive, if we may judge from those earlier dialogues of +Plato in which the real Socrates is found least modified. The +pre-eminent wisdom which the Delphic oracle attributed to him +was held by himself to consist in a unique consciousness of +ignorance. Yet it is equally clear from Plato that there was a +most important positive element in the teaching of Socrates in +virtue of which it is just to say with Alexander Bain, “the first +important name in ancient ethical philosophy is Socrates.” +The union of the negative and the positive elements in his work +has caused historians no little perplexity, and we cannot quite +save the philosopher’s consistency unless we regard some of the +doctrines attributed to him by Xenophon as merely tentative +and provisional. Still the positions of Socrates that are most +important in the history of ethical thought not only are easy +to harmonize with his conviction of ignorance, but even render +it easier to understand his unwearied cross-examination of common +opinion. While he showed clearly the difficulty of acquiring +knowledge, he was convinced that knowledge alone could be the +source of a coherent system of virtue, as error of evil. Socrates, +therefore, first in the history of thought, propounds a positive +scientific law of conduct. Virtue is knowledge. This principle +involved the paradox that no man, knowing good, would do evil. +But it was a paradox derived from his unanswerable truisms, +“Every one wishes for his own good, and would get it if he could,” +and “No one would deny that justice and virtue generally are +goods, and of all goods the best.” All virtues are, therefore, +summed up in knowledge of the good. But this good is not, for +Socrates, duty as distinct from interest. The force of the paradox +depends upon a blending of duty and interest in the single notion +of good, a blending which was dominant in the common thought +of the age. This it is which forms the kernel of the positive +thought of Socrates according to Xenophon. He could give no +satisfactory account of Good in the abstract, and evaded all +questions on this point by saying that he knew “no good that +was not good <i>for something in particular</i>,” but that good is +consistent with itself. For himself he prized above all things +the wisdom that is virtue, and in the task of producing it he +endured the hardest penury, maintaining that such life was +richer in enjoyment than a life of luxury. This many-sidedness +of view is illustrated by the curious blending of noble and merely +utilitarian sentiment in his account of friendship: a friend who +can be of no service is valueless; yet the highest service that a +friend can render is moral improvement.</p> + +<p>The historically important characteristics of his moral philosophy, +if we take (as we must) his teaching and character +together, may be summarized as follows:—(1) an ardent inquiry +for knowledge nowhere to be found, but which, if found, would +perfect human conduct; (2) a demand meanwhile that men +should act as far as possible on some consistent theory; (3) a +provisional adhesion to the commonly received view of good, +in all its incoherent complexity, and a perpetual readiness to +maintain the harmony of its different elements, and demonstrate +the superiority of virtue by an appeal to the standard of self-interest; +(4) personal firmness, as apparently easy as it was +actually invincible, in carrying out consistently such practical +convictions as he had attained. It is only when we keep all +these points in view that we can understand how from the +spring of Socratic conversation flowed the divergent streams +of Greek ethical thought.</p> + +<p>Four distinct philosophical schools trace their immediate +origin to the circle that gathered round Socrates—the Megarian, +the Platonic, the Cynic and the Cyrenaic. The +impress of the master is manifest on all, in spite of the +<span class="sidenote">The Socratic Schools.</span> +wide differences that divide them; they all agree in +holding the most important possession of man to be +wisdom or knowledge, and the most important knowledge to be +knowledge of Good. Here, however, the agreement ends. The +more philosophic part of the circle, forming a group in which +Euclid of Megara (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Megarian School</a></span>) seems at first to have +taken the lead, regarded this Good as the object of a still unfulfilled +quest, and were led to identify it with the hidden secret +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page812" id="page812"></a>812</span> +of the universe, and thus to pass from ethics to metaphysics. +Others again, whose demand for knowledge was more easily +satisfied, and who were more impressed with the positive and +practical side of the master’s teaching, made the quest a much +simpler affair. They took the Good as already known, and held +philosophy to consist in the steady application of this knowledge +to conduct. Among these were Antisthenes the Cynic and +Aristippus of Cyrene. It is by their recognition of the duty of +living consistently by theory instead of mere impulse or custom, +their sense of the new value given to life through this rationalization, +and their effort to maintain the easy, calm, unwavering +firmness of the Socratic temper, that we recognize both Antisthenes +and Aristippus as “Socratic men,” in spite of the completeness +with which they divided their master’s positive doctrine +into systems diametrically opposed. Of their contrasted principles +we may perhaps say that, while Aristippus took the most +obvious logical step for reducing the teaching of Socrates to clear +dogmatic unity, Antisthenes certainly drew the most natural +inference from the Socratic life.</p> + +<p>Aristippus (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Cyrenaics</a></span>) argued that, if all that is beautiful +or admirable in conduct has this quality as being useful, <i>i.e.</i> +productive of some further good; if virtuous action +is essentially action done with insight, or rational +<span class="sidenote">Aristippus.</span> +apprehension of the act as a means to this good, this +good must be pleasure. Bodily pleasures and pains Aristippus +held to be the keenest, though he does not seem to have maintained +this on any materialistic theory, as he admitted the +existence of purely mental pleasures, such as joy in the prosperity +of one’s native land. He fully recognized that his good was +capable of being realized only in successive parts, and gave even +exaggerated emphasis to the rule of seeking the pleasure of the +moment, and not troubling oneself about a dubious future. +It was in the calm, resolute, skilful culling of such pleasures as +circumstances afforded from moment to moment, undisturbed +by passion, prejudices or superstition, that he conceived the +quality of wisdom to be exhibited; and tradition represents +him as realizing this ideal to an impressive degree. Among the +prejudices from which the wise man was free he included all +regard to customary morality beyond what was due to the +actual penalties attached to its violation; though he held, with +Socrates, that these penalties actually render conformity reasonable. +Thus early in the history of ethical theory appeared the +most thorough-going exposition of hedonism.</p> + +<p>Far otherwise was the Socratic spirit understood by Antisthenes +and the Cynics (<i>q.v.</i>). They equally held that no speculative +research was needed for the discovery of good and +virtue, and maintained that the Socratic wisdom was +<span class="sidenote">The Cynics.</span> +exhibited, not in the skilful pursuit, but in the rational +disregard of pleasure,—in the clear apprehension of the intrinsic +worthlessness of this and most other objects of men’s ordinary +desires and aims. Pleasure, indeed, Antisthenes declared roundly +to be an evil; “Better madness than a surrender to pleasure.” +He did not overlook the need of supplementing merely intellectual +insight by “Socratic force of soul”; but it seemed to him that, +by insight and self-mastery combined, an absolute spiritual +independence might be attained which left nothing wanting +for perfect well-being (see also <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Diogenes</a></span>). For as for poverty, +painful toil, disrepute, and such evils as men dread most, these, +he argued, were positively useful as means of progress in spiritual +freedom and virtue. There is, however, in the Cynic notion of +wisdom, no positive criterion beyond the mere negation of +irrational desires and prejudices. We saw that Socrates, while +not claiming to have found the abstract theory of good or wise +conduct, practically understood by it the faithful performance of +customary duties, maintaining always that his own happiness +was therewith bound up. The Cynics more boldly discarded +both pleasure and mere custom as alike irrational; but in so +doing they left the freed reason with no definite aim but its +own freedom. It is absurd, as Plato urged, to say that knowledge +is the good, and then when asked “knowledge of what?” to have +no positive reply but “of the good”; but the Cynics do not seem +to have made any serious effort to escape from this absurdity.</p> + +<p>The ultimate views of these two Socratic schools we shall +have to notice presently when we come to the post-Aristotelian +schools. We must now proceed to trace the fuller development +of the Socratic theory in the hands of Plato and Aristotle.</p> + +<p>The ethics of Plato cannot properly be treated as a finished +result, but rather as a continual movement from the position +of Socrates towards the more complete, articulate +system of Aristotle; except that there are ascetic and +<span class="sidenote">Plato.</span> +mystical suggestions in some parts of Plato’s teaching which +find no counterpart in Aristotle, and in fact disappear from +Greek philosophy soon after Plato’s death until they are revived +and fantastically developed in Neopythagoreanism and Neoplatonism. +The first stage at which we can distinguish Plato’s +ethical view from that of Socrates is presented in the <i>Protagoras</i>, +where he makes a serious, though clearly tentative effort to +define the object of that knowledge which he with his master +regards as the essence of all virtue. Such knowledge, he here +maintains, is really mensuration of pleasures and pains, whereby +the wise man avoids those mistaken under-estimates of future +feelings in comparison with present which we commonly call +“yielding to fear or desire.” This hedonism has perplexed +Plato’s readers needlessly (as we have said in speaking of the +Cyrenaics), inasmuch as hedonism is the most obvious corollary +of the Socratic doctrine that the different common notions of +good—the beautiful, the pleasant and the useful—were to be +somehow interpreted by each other. By Plato, however, this +conclusion could have been held only before he had accomplished +the movement of thought by which he carried the Socratic +method beyond the range of human conduct and developed it +into a metaphysical system.</p> + +<p>This movement may be expressed thus. “If we know,” said +Socrates, “what justice is, we can give an account or definition +of it”; true knowledge must be knowledge of the general fact, +common to all the individual cases to which we apply our general +notion. But this must be no less true of other objects of thought +and discourse; the same relation of general notions to particular +examples extends through the whole physical universe; we can +think and talk of it only by means of such notions. True or +scientific knowledge then must be general knowledge, relating, +not to individuals primarily, but to the general facts or qualities +which individuals exemplify; in fact, our notion of an individual, +when examined, is found to be an aggregate of such general +qualities. But, again, the object of true knowledge must be what +really exists; hence the reality of the universe must lie in general +facts or relations, and not in the individuals that exemplify +them.</p> + +<p>So far the steps are plain enough; but we do not yet see how +this logical Realism (as it was afterwards called) comes to have +the essentially ethical character that especially interests us in +Platonism. Plato’s philosophy is now concerned with the whole +universe of being; yet the ultimate object of his philosophic +contemplation is still “the good,” now conceived as the ultimate +ground of all being and knowledge. That is, the essence of the +universe is identified with its end,—the “formal” with the +“final” cause of things, to use the later Aristotelian phraseology. +How comes this about?</p> + +<p>Perhaps we may best explain this by recurring to the original +application of the Socratic method to human affairs. Since all +rational activity is for some end, the different arts or functions +of human industry are naturally defined by a statement of their +ends or uses; and similarly, in giving an account of the different +artists and functionaries, we necessarily state their end, “what +they are good for.” In a society well ordered on Socratic +principles, every human being would be put to some use; the +essence of his life would consist in doing what he was good for +(his proper <span class="grk" title="ergon">ἔργον</span>). But again, it is easy to extend this view +throughout the whole region of organized life; an eye that +does not attain its end by seeing is without the essence of an eye. +In short, we may say of all organs and instruments that they +are what we think them in proportion as they fulfil their function +and attain their end. If, then, we conceive the whole universe +organically, as a complex arrangement of means to ends, we shall +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page813" id="page813"></a>813</span> +understand how Plato might hold that all things really <i>were</i>, or +(as we say) “realized their idea,” in proportion as they accomplished +the special end or good for which they were adapted. +Even Socrates, in spite of his aversion to physics, was led by +pious reflection to expound a teleological view of the physical +world, as ordered in all its parts by divine wisdom for the realization +of some divine end; and, in the metaphysical turn which +Plato gave to this view, he was probably anticipated by Euclid of +Megara, who held that the one real being is “that which we call +by many names, Good, Wisdom, Reason or God,” to which +Plato, raising to a loftier significance the Socratic identification +of the beautiful with the useful, added the further name of +Absolute Beauty, explaining how man’s love of the beautiful +finally reveals itself as the yearning for the end and essence of +being.</p> + +<p>Plato, therefore, took this vast stride of thought, and identified +the ultimate notions of ethics and ontology. We have now to see +what attitude he will adopt towards the practical inquiries from +which he started. What will now be his view of wisdom, virtue, +pleasure and their relation to human well-being?</p> + +<p>The answer to this question is inevitably somewhat complicated. +In the first place we have to observe that philosophy +has now passed definitely from the market-place into the lecture-room. +The quest of Socrates was for the true art of conduct for +a man living a practical life among his fellows. But if the objects +of abstract thought constitute the real world, of which this world +of individual things is but a shadow, it is plain that the highest, +most real life must lie in the former region and not in the latter. +It is in contemplating the abstract reality which concrete things +obscurely exhibit, the type or ideal which they imperfectly +imitate, that the true life of the mind in man must consist; and +as man is most truly man in proportion as he is mind, the desire +of one’s own good, which Plato, following Socrates, held to be +permanent and essential in every living thing, becomes in its +highest form the philosophic yearning for knowledge. This +yearning, he held, springs—like more sensual impulses—from a +sense of want of something formerly possessed, of which there +remains a latent memory in the soul, strong in proportion to its +philosophic capacity; hence it is that in learning any abstract +truth by scientific demonstration we merely make explicit what we +already implicitly know; we bring into clear consciousness hidden +memories of a state in which the soul looked upon Reality and +Good face to face, before the lapse that imprisoned her in an alien +body and mingled her true nature with fleshly feelings and impulses. +We thus reach the paradox that the true art of living +is really an “art of dying” as far as possible to mere sense, in +order more fully to exist in intimate union with absolute goodness +and beauty. On the other hand, since the philosopher must still +live and act in the concrete sensible world, the Socratic identification +of wisdom and virtue is fully maintained by Plato. Only +he who apprehends good in the abstract can imitate it in such +transient and imperfect good as may be realized in human life, +and it is impossible that, having this knowledge, he should not +act on it, whether in private or public affairs. Thus, in the true +philosopher, we shall necessarily find the practically good man, +who being “likest of men to the gods is best loved by them”; +and also the perfect statesman, if only the conditions of his +society allow him a sphere for exercising his statesmanship.</p> + +<p>The characteristics of this practical goodness in Plato’s +matured thought correspond to the fundamental conceptions in +his view of the universe. The soul of man, in its good or +normal condition, must be ordered and harmonized +<span class="sidenote">Virtue a harmony.</span> +under the guidance of reason. The question then arises, +“Wherein does this order or harmony precisely consist?” +In explaining how Plato was led to answer this question, it will +be well to notice that, while faithfully maintaining the Socratic +doctrine that the highest virtue was inseparable from knowledge +of the good, he had come to recognize an inferior kind of virtue, +possessed by men who were not philosophers. It is plain that +if the good that is to be known is the ultimate ground of the whole +of things, it is attainable only by a select and carefully trained +few. Yet we can hardly restrict all virtue to these alone. What +account, then, was to be given of ordinary “civic” bravery, +temperance and justice? It seemed clear that men who did +their duty, resisting the seductions of fear and desire, must have +right opinions, if not knowledge, as to the good and evil in human +life; but whence comes this right “opinion”? Partly, Plato +said, it comes by nature and “divine allotment,” but for its +adequate development “custom and practice” are required. +Hence the paramount importance of education and discipline +for civic virtue; and even for future philosophers such moral +culture, in which physical and aesthetic training must co-operate, +is indispensable; no merely intellectual preparation will suffice. +His point is that perfect knowledge cannot be implanted in a +soul that has not gone through a course of preparation including +much more than physical training. What, then, is this preparation? +A distinct step in psychological analysis was taken when +Plato recognized that its effect was to produce the “harmony” +above mentioned among different parts of the soul, by subordinating +the impulsive elements to reason. These non-rational +elements he further distinguished as appetitive (<span class="grk" title="to epithumêtikon">τὸ ἐπιθυμητικόν</span>) +and spirited (<span class="grk" title="to thumoeides">τὸ θυμοειδές</span> or <span class="grk" title="thumos">θυμός</span>)—the practical separateness +of which from each other and from reason he held to be +established by our inner experience.</p> + +<p>On this triple division of the soul he founded a systematic +view of the four kinds of goodness recognized by the common +moral consciousness of Greece, and in later times known as the +Cardinal Virtues (<i>q.v.</i>). Of these the two most fundamental +were (as has been already indicated) wisdom—in its highest form +philosophy—and that harmonious and regulated activity of all +the elements of the soul which Plato regards as the essence of +uprightness in social relations (<span class="grk" title="dikaiosynê">δικαιοσύνη</span>). The import of +this term is essentially social; and we can explain Plato’s use +of it only by reference to the analogy which he drew between +the individual man and the community. In a rightly ordered +polity social and individual well-being alike would depend on that +harmonious action of diverse elements, each performing its proper +function, which in its social application is more naturally termed +<span class="grk" title="dikaiosynê">δικαιοσύνη</span>. We see, moreover, how in Plato’s view the fundamental +virtues, Wisdom and Justice in their highest forms, are +mutually involved. Wisdom will necessarily maintain orderly +activity, and this latter consists in regulation by wisdom, while +the two more special virtues of Courage (<span class="grk" title="andreia">ἀνδρεία</span>) and Temperance +(<span class="grk" title="sôphrosynê">σωφροσύνη</span>) are only different sides or aspects of this wisely +regulated action of the complex soul.</p> + +<p>Such, then, are the forms in which essential good seemed to +manifest itself in human life. It remains to ask whether the +statement of these gives a complete account of human well-being, +or whether pleasure also is to be included. On this point Plato’s +view seems to have gone through several oscillations. After +apparently maintaining (<i>Protagoras</i>) that pleasure is the good, +he passes first to the opposite extreme, and denies it (<i>Phaedo, +Gorgias</i>) to be a good at all. For (1), as concrete and transient, +it is obviously not the real essential good that the philosopher +seeks; (2) the feelings most prominently recognized as pleasures +are bound up with pain, as good can never be with evil; in so far, +then, as common sense rightly recognizes some pleasures as good, +it can only be from their tendency to produce some further good. +This view, however, was too violent a divergence from Socratism +for Plato to remain in it. That pleasure is not the real absolute +good, was no ground for not including it in the good of concrete +human life; and after all only coarse and vulgar pleasures were +indissolubly linked to the pains of want. Accordingly, in the +<i>Republic</i> he has no objection to trying the question of the intrinsic +superiority of philosophic or virtuous<a name="fa2s" id="fa2s" href="#ft2s"><span class="sp">2</span></a> life by the standard of +pleasure, and argues that the philosophic (or good) man alone +enjoys real pleasure, while the sensualist spends his life in oscillating +between painful want and the merely neutral state of painlessness, +which he mistakes for positive pleasure. Still more +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page814" id="page814"></a>814</span> +emphatically is it declared in the <i>Laws</i> that when we are “discoursing +to men, not to gods,” we must show that the life which +we praise as best and noblest is also that in which there is +the greatest excess of pleasure over pain. But though Plato +holds this inseparable connexion of best and pleasantest to be +true and important, it is only for the sake of the vulgar that he +lays this stress on pleasure. For in the most philosophical comparison +in the <i>Philebus</i> between the claims of pleasure and wisdom +the former is altogether worsted; and though a place is allowed +to the pure pleasures of colour, form and sound, and of intellectual +exercise, and even to the “necessary” satisfaction of appetite, +it is only a subordinate one. At the same time, in his later view, +Plato avoids the exaggeration of denying all positive quality of +pleasure even to the coarser sensual gratifications; they are undoubtedly +cases of that “replenishment” or “restoration” to +its “natural state” of a bodily organ, in which he defines pleasure +to consist (see <i>Timaeus</i>, pp. 64, 65); he merely maintains that the +common estimate of them is to a large extent illusory, or a false +appearance of pleasure is produced by contrast with the antecedent +or concomitant painful condition of the organ. It is not +surprising that this somewhat complicated and delicately balanced +view of the relations of “good” and “pleasure” was not long +maintained within the Platonic school, and that under Speusippus, +Plato’s successor, the main body of Platonists took up a simply +anti-hedonistic position, as we learn from the polemic of Aristotle. +In the <i>Philebus</i>, however, though a more careful psychological +analysis leads him to soften down the exaggerations of this attack +on sensual pleasure, the antithesis of knowledge and pleasure is +again sharpened, and a desire to depreciate even good pleasures +is more strongly shown; still even here pleasure is recognized +as a constituent of that philosophic life which is the highest +human good, while in the <i>Laws</i>, where the subject is more +popularly treated, it is admitted that we cannot convince man +that the just life is the best unless we can also prove it to be +the pleasantest.</p> + +<p>When a student passes from Plato to Aristotle, he is so +forcibly impressed by the contrast between the habits of +mind of the two authors, and the literary manners +of the two philosophers, that it is easy to understand +<span class="sidenote">Plato and Aristotle.</span> +how their systems have come to be popularly +conceived as diametrically opposed to each other; and the +uncompromising polemic which Aristotle, both in his ethical +and in his metaphysical treatises, directs against Plato and +the platonists, has tended strongly to confirm this view. Yet +a closer inspection shows us that when a later president of the +Academy (Antiochus of Ascalon) repudiated the scepticism which +for two hundred years had been accepted as the traditional +Platonic doctrine, he had good grounds for claiming Plato and +Aristotle as consentient authorities for the ethical position which +he took up. For though Aristotle’s divergence from Plato is +very conspicuous when we consider either his general conception +of the subject of ethics, or the details of his system of virtues, +still his agreement with his master is almost complete as regards +the main outline of his theory of human good; the difference +between the two practically vanishes when we view them in +relation to the later controversy between Stoics and Epicureans. +Even on the cardinal point on which Aristotle entered into direct +controversy with Plato, the definite disagreement between the +two is less than at first appears; the objections of the disciple +hit that part of the master’s system that was rather imagined +than thought; the main positive result of Platonic speculation +only gains in distinctness by the application of Aristotelian +analysis.</p> + +<p>Plato, we saw, held that there is one supreme science +or wisdom, of which the ultimate object is absolute good; +in the knowledge of this, the knowledge of all particular +goods—that is, of all that we rationally desire to know—is +implicitly contained; and also all practical virtue, as no one +who truly knows what is good can fail to realize it. But in spite +of the intense conviction with which he thus identified metaphysical +speculation and practical wisdom, we find in his writings +no serious attempt to deduce the particulars of human well-being +from his knowledge of absolute good, still less to unfold from it +the particular cognitions of the special arts and sciences. Indeed, +we may say that the distinction which Aristotle explicitly draws +between speculative science or wisdom and practical wisdom +(on its political side statesmanship) is really indicated in Plato’s +actual treatment of the subjects, although the express recognition +of it is contrary to his principles. The discussion of good (<i>e.g.</i>) +in his <i>Philebus</i> relates entirely to human good, and the respective +claims of Thought and Pleasure to constitute this; he only refers +in passing to the Divine Thought that is the good of the ordered +world, as something clearly beyond the limits of the present +discussion. So again, in his last great ethico-political treatise +(the <i>Laws</i>) there is hardly a trace of his peculiar metaphysics. +On the other hand, the relation between human and divine +good, as presented by Aristotle, is so close that we can hardly +conceive Plato as having definitely thought it closer. The substantial +good of the universe, in Aristotle’s view, is the pure +activity of universal abstract thought, at once subject and object, +which, itself changeless and eternal, is the final cause and first +source of the whole process of change in the concrete world. And +both he and Plato hold that a similar activity of pure speculative +intellect is that in which the philosopher will seek to exist, +though he must, being a man, concern himself with the affairs +of ordinary human life, a region in which his highest good will +be attained by realizing perfect moral excellence. No doubt +Aristotle’s demonstration of the inappropriateness of attributing +moral excellence to the Deity seems to contradict Plato’s doctrine +that the just man as such is “likest the gods,” but here again +the discrepancy is reduced when we remember that the essence +of Plato’s justice (<span class="grk" title="dikaiosunê">δικαιοσύνη</span>) is harmonious activity. No doubt, +too, Aristotle’s attribution of pleasure to the Divine Existence +shows a profound metaphysical divergence from Plato; but it +is a divergence which has no practical importance. Nor, again, +is Aristotle’s divergence from the Socratic principle that all +“virtue is knowledge” substantially greater than Plato’s, though +it is more plainly expressed. Both accept the paradox in the +qualified sense that no one can deliberately act contrary to what +appears to him good, and that perfect virtue is inseparably bound +up with perfect wisdom or moral insight. Both, however, recognize +that this actuality of moral insight is not a function of the +intellect only, but depends rather on careful training in good +habits applied to minds of good natural dispositions, though the +doctrine has no doubt a more definite and prominent place in +Aristotle’s system. The disciple certainly takes a step in advance +by stating definitely, as an essential characteristic of virtuous +action, that it is chosen for its own sake, for the beauty of virtue +alone; but herein he merely formulates the conviction that his +master inspires. Nor, finally, does Aristotle’s account of the relation +of pleasure to human well-being (although he has to combat +the extreme anti-hedonism to which the Platonic school under +Speusippus had been led) differ materially from the outcome of +Plato’s thought on this point, as the later dialogues present it to +us. Pleasure, in Aristotle’s view, is not the primary constituent +of well-being, but rather an inseparable accident of it; human +well-being is essentially well-doing, excellent activity of some +kind, whether its aim and end be abstract truth or noble conduct; +knowledge and virtue are objects of rational choice apart from +the pleasure attending them; still all activities are attended and +in a manner perfected by pleasure, which is better and more +desirable in proportion to the excellence of the activity. He no +doubt criticizes Plato’s account of the nature of pleasure, arguing +that we cannot properly conceive pleasure either as a “process” +or as “replenishment”—the last term, he truly says, denotes a +material rather than a psychical fact. But this does not interfere +with the general ethical agreement between the two thinkers; +and the doctrine that vicious pleasures are not true or real +pleasures is so characteristically Platonic that we are almost +surprised to find it in Aristotle.</p> + +<p>In so far as there is any important difference between the +Platonic and the Aristotelian views of human good, we may +observe that the latter has substantially a closer correspondence +to the positive element in the ethical teaching of Socrates, +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page815" id="page815"></a>815</span> +<span class="sidenote">Aristotle’s ethics.</span> +though it is presented in a far more technical and scholastic +form, and involves a more distinct rejection of the fundamental +Socratic paradox. The same result appears when +we compare the methods of the three philosophers. +Although the Socratic induction forms a striking +feature of Plato’s dialogues, his ideal method of ethics is +purely deductive; he admits common sense only as supplying +provisional steps and starting-points from which the mind is to +ascend to knowledge of absolute good, through which knowledge +alone, as he conceives, the lower notions of particular goods are +to be truly conceived. Aristotle, discarding the transcendentalism +of Plato, naturally retained from Plato’s teaching the original +Socratic method of induction from and verification by common +opinion. Indeed, the windings of his exposition are best understood +if we consider his literary manner as a kind of Socratic +dialogue formalized and reduced to a monologue. He first leads +us by an induction to the fundamental notion of ultimate end or +good for man. All men, in acting, aim at some result, either +for its own sake or as a means to some further end; but obviously +not everything can be sought merely as a means; there must +be some ultimate end. In fact men commonly recognize such an +end, and agree to call it well-being<a name="fa3s" id="fa3s" href="#ft3s"><span class="sp">3</span></a> (<span class="grk" title="eudaimonia">εὐδαιμονία</span>). But they +take very different views of its nature; how shall we find the +true view? We observe that men are classified according to +their functions; all kinds of man, and indeed all organs of +man, have their special functions, and are judged as functionaries +and organs according as they perform their functions well or +ill. May we not then infer that man, as man, has his proper +function, and that the well-being or “doing well” that all seek +really lies in fulfilling well the proper function of man,—that is, +in living well that life of the rational soul which we recognize +as man’s distinctive attribute?</p> + +<p>Again, this Socratic deference to common opinion is not +shown merely in the way by which Aristotle reaches his fundamental +conception; it equally appears in his treatment of the +conception itself. In the first place, though in Aristotle’s view +the most perfect well-being consists in the exercise of man’s +“divinest part,” pure speculative reason, he keeps far from +the paradox of putting forward this and nothing else as human +good; so far, indeed, that the greater part of his treatise is +occupied with an exposition of the inferior good which is realized +in practical life when the appetitive or impulsive (semi-rational) +element of the soul operates under the due regulation of reason. +Even when the notion of “good performance of function” was +thus widened, and when it had further taken in the pleasure that +is inseparably connected with such functioning, it did not yet +correspond to the whole of what a Greek commonly understood +as “human well-being.” We may grant, indeed, that a moderate +provision of material wealth is indirectly included, as an indispensable +pre-requisite of a due performance of many functions +as Aristotle conceives it—his system admits of no beatitudes +for the poor; still there remain other goods, such as beauty, +good birth, welfare of progeny, the presence or absence of which +influenced the common view of a man’s well-being, though they +could hardly be shown to be even indirectly important to his +“well-acting.” These Aristotle attempts neither to exclude +from the philosophic conception of well-being nor to include +in his formal definition of it. The deliberate looseness which is +thus given to his fundamental doctrine characterizes more or +less his whole discussion of ethics. He plainly says that the +subject does not admit of completely scientific treatment; his +aim is to give not a definite theory of human good, but a practically +adequate account of its most important constituents.</p> + +<p>The most important element, then, of well-being or good +life for ordinary men Aristotle holds to consist in well-doing as +determined by the notions of the different moral excellences. +In expounding these, he gives throughout the pure result of +analytical observation of the common moral consciousness of +his age. Ethical truth, in his view, is to be attained by careful +comparison of particular moral opinions, just as physical truth is +to be obtained by induction from particular physical observations. +On account of the conflict of opinion in ethics we cannot hope to +obtain certainty upon all questions; still reflection will lead +us to discard some of the conflicting views and find a reconciliation +for others, and will furnish, on the whole, a practically +sufficient residuum of moral truth. This adhesion to common +sense, though it involves a sacrifice of both depth and completeness +in Aristotle’s system, gives at the same time an historical +interest which renders it deserving of special attention as an +analysis of the current Greek ideal of “fair and good life” +(<span class="grk" title="kalokágathia">καλοκἀγαθία</span>). His virtues are not arranged on any clear +philosophic plan; the list shows no serious attempt to consider +human life exhaustively, and exhibit the standard of excellence +appropriate to its different departments or aspects. He seems +to have taken as a starting-point Plato’s four cardinal virtues. +The two comprehensive notions of Wisdom and Justice (<span class="grk" title="dikaiosunê">δικαιοσύνη</span>) +he treats separately. As regards both his analysis leads +him to diverge considerably from Plato. As we saw, his distinction +between practical and speculative Wisdom belongs to the +deepest of his disagreements with his master; and in the case +of <span class="grk" title="dikaiosunê">δικαιοσύνη</span> again he distinguishes the wider use of the term +to express Law-observance, which (he says) coincides with the +social side of virtue generally, and its narrower use for the virtue +that “aims at a kind of equality,” whether (1) in the distribution +of wealth, honour, &c., or (2) in commercial exchange, or (3) in +the reparation of wrong done. Then, in arranging the other +special virtues, he begins with courage and temperance, which +(after Plato) he considers as the excellences of the “irrational +element” of the soul. Next follow two pairs of excellences, +concerned respectively with wealth and honour: (1) liberality +and magnificence, of which the latter is exhibited in greater +matters of expenditure, and (2) laudable ambition and highmindedness +similarly related to honour. Then comes gentleness—the +virtue regulative of anger; and the list is concluded by the +excellences of social intercourse, friendliness (as a mean between +obsequiousness and surliness), truthfulness and decorous wit.</p> + +<p>The abundant store of just and close analytical observation +contained in Aristotle’s account of these notions give it a permanent +interest, even beyond its historical value as a delineation +of the Greek ideal of “fair and good” life.<a name="fa4s" id="fa4s" href="#ft4s"><span class="sp">4</span></a> But its looseness +of arrangement and almost grotesque co-ordination of qualities +widely differing in importance are obvious. Thus his famous +general formula for virtue, that it is a mean or middle state, +always to be found somewhere between the vices which stand +to it in the relation of excess and defect, scarcely avails to render +his treatment more systematic. It was important, no doubt, +to express the need of observing due measure and proportion, +in order to attain good results in human life no less than in +artistic products; but the observation of this need was no new +thing in Greek literature; indeed, it had already led the Pythagoreans +and Plato to find the ultimate essence of the ordered +universe in number. But Aristotle’s purely quantitative statement +of the relation of virtue and vice is misleading, even where +it is not obviously inappropriate; and sometimes leads him to +such eccentricities as that of making simple veracity a mean +between boastfulness and mock-modesty.<a name="fa5s" id="fa5s" href="#ft5s"><span class="sp">5</span></a></p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page816" id="page816"></a>816</span></p> + +<p>It ought to be said that Aristotle does not present the formula +just discussed as supplying a criterion of good conduct in any +particular case; he expressly leaves this to be determined by +“correct reasoning, and the judgment of the practically-wise +man (<span class="grk" title="ho phronimos">ὁ φρόνιμος</span>).” We cannot, however, find that he has +furnished any substantial principles for its determination; +indeed, he hardly seems to have formed a distinct general idea +of the practical syllogism by which he conceives it to be effected.<a name="fa6s" id="fa6s" href="#ft6s"><span class="sp">6</span></a> +The kind of reasoning which his view of virtuous conduct requires +is one in which the ultimate major premise states a distinctive +characteristic of some virtue, and one or more minor premises +show that such characteristic belongs to a certain mode of conduct +under given circumstances; since it is essential to good +conduct that it should contain its end in itself, and be chosen +for its own sake. But he has not failed to observe that practical +reasonings are not commonly of this kind, but are rather concerned +with actions as means to ulterior ends; indeed, he lays +stress on this as a characteristic of the “political” life, when he +wishes to prove its inferiority to the life of pure speculation. +Though common sense will admit that virtues are the best of +goods, it still undoubtedly conceives practical wisdom as chiefly +exercised in providing those inferior goods which Aristotle, +after recognizing the need or use of them for the realization of +human well-being, has dropped out of sight; and the result is +that, in trying to make clear his conception of practical wisdom, +we find ourselves fluctuating continually between the common +notion, which he does not distinctly reject, and the notion +required as the keystone of his ethical system.</p> + +<p>On the whole, there is probably no treatise so masterly as +Aristotle’s <i>Ethics</i>, and containing so much close and valid +thought, that yet leaves on the reader’s mind so strong +an impression of dispersive and incomplete work. +<span class="sidenote">Transition to Stoicism.</span> +It is only by dwelling on these defects that we can +understand the small amount of influence that his +system exercised during the five centuries after his death, as +compared with the effect which it has had, directly or indirectly, +in shaping the thought of modern Europe. Partly, no doubt, +the limited influence of his disciples, the Peripatetics (<i>q.v.</i>), +is to be attributed to that exaltation of the purely speculative +life which distinguished the Aristotelian ethics from other later +systems, and which was too alien from the common moral +consciousness to find much acceptance in an age in which the +ethical aims of philosophy had again become paramount. Partly, +again, the analytical distinctness of Aristotle’s manner brings +into special prominence the difficulties that attend the Socratic +effort to reconcile the ideal aspirations of men with the principles +on which their practical reasonings are commonly conducted. +The conflict between these two elements of Common Sense +was too profound to be compromised; and the moral consciousness +of mankind demanded a more trenchant partisanship than +Aristotle’s. Its demands were met by the Stoic school which +separated the moral from the worldly view of life, with an +absoluteness and definiteness that caught the imagination; +which regarded practical goodness as the highest manifestation +of its ideal of wisdom; and which bound the common notions of +duty into an apparently coherent system, by a formula that +comprehended the whole of human life, and exhibited its relation +to the ordered process of the universe. The intellectual descent +of its ethical doctrines is principally to be traced to Socrates +through the Cynics, though an important element in them +seems attributable to the school that inherited the “Academy” +of Plato. Both Stoic and Cynic maintained, in its sharpest +form, the fundamental tenet that the practical knowledge which +is virtue, with the condition of soul that is inseparable from it, +is alone to be accounted good. He who exercises this wisdom +or knowledge has complete well-being; all else is indifferent to +him. It is true that the Cynics were more concerned to emphasize +the negative side of the sage’s well-being, while the Stoics brought +into more prominence its positive side. This difference, however, +did not amount to disagreement. The Stoics, in fact, seem +generally to have regarded the eccentricities of Cynicism as an +emphatic manner of expressing the essential antithesis between +philosophy and the world; a manner which, though not necessary +or even normal, might yet be advantageously adopted by the +sage under certain circumstances.<a name="fa7s" id="fa7s" href="#ft7s"><span class="sp">7</span></a></p> + +<p>Wherein, then, consists this knowledge or wisdom that makes +free and perfect? Both Cynics and Stoics (<i>q.v.</i>) agreed that the +most important part of it was the knowledge that the +sole good of man lay in this knowledge or wisdom +<span class="sidenote">Stoicism.</span> +itself. It must be understood that by wisdom they meant +wisdom realized in act; indeed, they did not conceive the +existence of wisdom as separable from such realization. We +may observe, too, that the Stoics rejected the divergence which +we have seen gradually taking place in Platonic-Aristotelian +thought from the position of Socrates, “that no one aims at +what he knows to be bad.” The stress that their psychology +laid on the essential unity of the rational self that is the source +of voluntary action prevented them from accepting Plato’s +analysis of the soul into a regulative element and elements +needing regulation. They held that what we call passion is a +morbid condition of the rational soul, involving erroneous +judgment as to what is to be sought or shunned. From such +passionate errors the truly wise man will of course be free. He +will be conscious indeed of physical appetite; but he will not +be misled into supposing that its object is really a good; he +cannot, therefore, hope for the attainment of this object or fear +to miss it, as these states involve the conception of it as a good. +Similarly, though like other men he will be subject to bodily +pain, this will not cause him mental grief or disquiet, as his worst +agonies will not disturb his clear conviction that it is really +indifferent to his true reasonable self.</p> + +<p>That this impassive sage was a being not to be found among +living men the later Stoics at least were fully aware. They faintly +suggested that one or two moral heroes of old time might have +realized the ideal, but they admitted that all other philosophers +(even) were merely in a state of progress towards it. This admission +did not in the least diminish the rigour of their demand +for absolute loyalty to the exclusive claims of wisdom. The +assurance of its own unique value that such wisdom involved +they held to be an abiding possession for those who had attained +it;<a name="fa8s" id="fa8s" href="#ft8s"><span class="sp">8</span></a> and without this assurance no act could be truly wise or +virtuous. Whatever was not of knowledge was of sin; and the +distinction between right and wrong being absolute and not +admitting of degrees all sins were equally sinful; whoever broke +the least commandment was guilty of the whole law. Similarly, +all wisdom was somehow involved in any one of the manifestations +of wisdom, commonly distinguished as particular virtues; +though whether these virtues were specifically distinct, or only +the same knowledge in different relations, was a subtle question +on which the Stoics do not seem to have been agreed.</p> + +<p>Aristotle had already been led to attempt a refutation of the +Socratic identification of virtue with knowledge; but his attempt +had only shown the profound difficulty of attacking the paradox, +so long as it was admitted that no one could of deliberate purpose +act contrary to what seemed to him best. Now, Aristotle’s +divergence from Socrates had not led him so far as to deny this; +while for the Stoics who had receded to the original Socratic +position, the difficulty was still more patent. This theory of +virtue led them into two dilemmas. Firstly, if virtue is knowledge, +does it follow that vice is involuntary? If not, it must be +that ignorance is voluntary. This alternative is the less dangerous +to morality, and as such the Stoics chose it. But they were +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page817" id="page817"></a>817</span> +not yet at the end of their perplexities; for while they were +thus driven to an extreme extension of the range of human +volition, their view of the physical universe involved an equally +thorough-going determinism. How could the vicious man +be responsible if his vice were strictly pre-determined? The +Stoics answered that the error which was the essence of vice was +so far voluntary that it could be avoided if men chose to exercise +their reason. No doubt it depended on the innate force and +firmness<a name="fa9s" id="fa9s" href="#ft9s"><span class="sp">9</span></a> of a man’s soul whether his reason was effectually +exercised; but moral responsibility was saved if the vicious act +proceeded from the man himself and not from any external +cause.</p> + +<p>With all this we have not ascertained the positive practical +content of this wisdom. How are we to emerge from the barren +circle of affirming (1) that wisdom is the sole good and unwisdom +the sole evil, and (2) that wisdom is the knowledge of good and +evil; and attain some method for determining the particulars +of good conduct? The Cynics made no attempt to solve this +difficulty; they were content to mean by virtue what any plain +man meant by it, except in so far as their sense of independence +led them to reject certain received precepts and prejudices. The +Stoics, on the other hand, not only worked out a detailed system +of duties—or, as they termed them, “things meet and fit” +(<span class="grk" title="kathêkonta">καθήκοντα</span>) for all occasions of life; they were further especially +concerned to comprehend them under a general formula. They +found this by bringing out the positive significance of the notion +of Nature, which the Cynic had used chiefly in a negative way, +as an antithesis to the “consentions” (<span class="grk" title="nomos">νόμος</span>), from which his +knowledge had made him free. Even in this negative use of the +notion it is necessarily implied that whatever active tendencies +in man are found to be “natural”—that is, independent of and +uncorrupted by social customs and conventions—will properly +take effect in outward acts, but the adoption of “conformity to +nature” as a general positive rule for outward conduct seems to +have been due to the influence on Zeno of Academic teaching. +Whence, however, can this authority belong to the natural, unless +nature be itself an expression or embodiment of divine law and +wisdom? The conception of the world, as organized and filled by +divine thought, was common, in some form, to all the philosophies +that looked back to Socrates as their founder,—some even maintaining +that this thought was the sole reality. This pantheistic +doctrine harmonized thoroughly with the Stoic view of human +good; but being unable to conceive substance idealistically, +they (with considerable aid from the system of Heraclitus) +supplied a materialistic side to their pantheism,—conceiving +divine thought as an attribute of the purest and most primary +of material substances, a subtle fiery aether. This theological +view of the physical universe had a double effect on the ethics of +the Stoic. In the first place it gave to his cardinal conviction +of the all-sufficiency of wisdom for human well-being a root of +cosmical fact, and an atmosphere of religious and social emotion. +The exercise of wisdom was now viewed as the pure life of that +particle of divine substance which was in very truth the “god +within him”; the reason whose supremacy he maintained was +the reason of Zeus, and of all gods and reasonable men, no less +than his own; its realization in any one individual was thus +the common good of all rational beings as such; “the sage could +not stretch out a finger rightly without thereby benefiting all +other sages,”—nay, it might even be said that he was “as useful +to Zeus as Zeus to him.”<a name="fa10s" id="fa10s" href="#ft10s"><span class="sp">10</span></a> But again, the same conception served +to harmonize the higher and the lower elements of human life. +For even in the physical or non-rational man, as originally constituted, +we may see clear indications of the divine design, which +it belongs to his rational will to carry into conscious execution; +indeed, in the first stage of human life, before reason is fully +developed, uncorrupted natural impulse effects what is afterwards +the work of reason. Thus the formula of “living according to +nature,” in its application to man as the “rational animal,” +may be understood both as directing that reason is to govern, +and as indicating how that government is to be practically exercised. +In man, as in every other animal, from the moment of +birth natural impulse prompts to the maintenance of his physical +frame; then, when reason has been developed and has recognized +itself as its own sole good, these “primary ends of nature” and +whatever promotes these still constitute the outward objects +at which reason is to aim; there is a certain value (<span class="grk" title="axia">ἀξία</span>) in them, +in proportion to which they are “preferred” (<span class="grk" title="proêgmena">προηγμένα</span>) and +their opposites “rejected” (<span class="grk" title="apoproêgmena">ἀποπροηγμένα</span>); indeed it is only in +the due and consistent exercise of such choice that wisdom +can find its practical manifestation. In this way all or most of +the things commonly judged to be “goods”—health, strength, +wealth, fame,<a name="fa11s" id="fa11s" href="#ft11s"><span class="sp">11</span></a> &c.,—are brought within the sphere of the sage’s +choice, though his real good is solely in the wisdom of the choice, +and not in the thing chosen.</p> + +<p>The doctrine of conformity to Nature as the rule of conduct +was not peculiar to Stoicism. It is found in the theories of +Speusippus, Xenocrates, and also to some extent in those of the +Peripatetics. The peculiarity of the Stoics lay in their refusing +to use the terms “good and evil” in connexion with “things +indifferent,” and in pointing out that philosophers, though +independent of these things, must yet deal with them in practical +life.</p> + +<p>So far we have considered the “nature” of the individual +man as apart from his social relations; but the sphere of virtue, +as commonly conceived, lies chiefly in these, and this was fully +recognized in the Stoic account of duties (<span class="grk" title="kathêkonta">καθήκοντα</span>); indeed, +in their exposition of the “natural” basis of justice, the evidence +that man was born not for himself but for mankind is the most +important part of their work in the region of practical morality. +Here, however, we especially notice the double significance of +“natural,” as applied to (1) what actually exists everywhere +or for the most part, and (2) what would exist if the original +plan of man’s life were fully carried out; and we find that the +Stoics have not clearly harmonized the two elements of the notion. +That man was “naturally” a social animal Aristotle had already +taught; that all rational beings, in the unity of the reason that +is common to all, form naturally one community with a common +law was (as we saw) an immediate inference from the Stoic +conception of the universe as a whole. That the members of +this “city of Zeus” should observe their contracts, abstain +from mutual harm, combine to protect each other from injury, +were obvious points of natural law; while again, it was clearly +necessary to the preservation of human society that its members +should form sexual unions, produce children, and bestow care +on their rearing and training. But beyond this nature did not +seem to go in determining the relations of the sexes; accordingly, +we find that community of wives was a feature of Zeno’s ideal +commonwealth, just as it was of Plato’s; while, again, the strict +theory of the school recognized no government or laws as true +or binding except those of the sage; he alone is the true ruler, +the true king. So far, the Stoic “nature” seems in danger of +being as revolutionary as Rousseau’s. Practically, however, +this revolutionary aspect of the notion was kept for the most +part in the background; the rational law of an ideal community +was not distinguished from the positive ordinances and customs +of actual society; and the “natural” ties that actually bound +each man to family, kinsmen, fatherland, and to unwise humanity +generally, supplied the outline on which the external manifestation +of justice was delineated. It was a fundamental maxim +that the sage was to take part in public life; and it does not +appear that his political action was to be regulated by any other +principles than those commonly accepted in his community. +Similarly, in the view taken by the Stoics of the duties of social +decorum, and in their attitude to the popular religion, we find +a fluctuating compromise between the disposition to repudiate +what is conventional, and the disposition to revere what is +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page818" id="page818"></a>818</span> +established, each tendency expressing in its own way the principle +of “conforming to nature.”</p> + +<p>Among the primary ends of nature, in which wisdom recognized +a certain preferability, the Stoics included freedom from +bodily pain; but they refused, even in this outer +court of wisdom, to find a place for pleasure. They +<span class="sidenote">Stoics and hedonists.</span> +held that the latter was not an object of uncorrupted +natural impulse, but an “aftergrowth” (<span class="grk" title="epigennêma">ἐπιγέννημα</span>). +They thus endeavoured to resist Epicureanism even on the +ground where the latter seems prima facie strongest; in its +appeal, namely, to the natural pleasure-seeking of all living +things. Nor did they merely mean by pleasure (<span class="grk" title="hêdonê">ἡδονή</span>) the +gratification of bodily appetite; we find (<i>e.g.</i>) Chrysippus urging, +as a decisive argument against Aristotle, that pure speculation +was “a kind of amusement; that is, pleasure.” Even the “joy +and gladness” (<span class="grk" title="chara, euphrosynê">χαρά, εὐφροσύνη</span>) that accompany the exercise of +virtue seem to have been regarded by them as merely an inseparable +accident, not the essential constituent of well-being. +It is only by a later modification of Stoicism that cheerfulness +or peace of mind is taken as the real ultimate end, to which +the exercise of virtue is merely a means. At the same time +it is probable that the serene joys of virtue and the grieflessness +which the sage was conceived to maintain amid the worst tortures, +formed the main attractions of Stoicism for ordinary minds. +In this sense it may be fairly said that Stoics and Epicureans +made rival offers to mankind of the same kind of happiness; and +the philosophical peculiarities of either system may be traced +to the desire of being undisturbed by the changes and chances +of life. The Stoic claims on this head were the loftiest; as the +well-being of their sage was independent, not only of external +things and bodily conditions, but of time itself; it was fully +realized in a single exercise of wisdom and could not be increased +by duration. This paradox is violent, but it is quite in harmony +with the spirit of Stoicism; and we are more startled to find +that the Epicurean sage, no less than the Stoic, is to be happy +even on the rack; that his happiness, too, is unimpaired by being +restricted in duration, when his mind has apprehended the +natural limits of life; that, in short, Epicurus makes no less +strenuous efforts than Zeno to eliminate imperfection from the +conditions of human existence. This characteristic, however, +is the key to the chief differences between Epicureanism and the +more naïve hedonism of Aristippus. The latter system gave the +simplest and most obvious answer to the inquiry after ultimate +good for man; but besides being liable, when developed consistently, +to offend the common moral consciousness, it conspicuously +failed to provide the “completeness” and “security” +which, as Aristotle says, “one divines to belong to man’s true +Good.” Philosophy, in the Greek view, should be the art as +well as the science of good life; and hedonistic philosophy would +seem a bungling and uncertain art of pleasure, as pleasure is +ordinarily conceived. Nay, it would even be found that the +habit of philosophical reflection often operated adversely to +the attainment of this end, by developing the thinker’s self-consciousness, +so as to disturb that normal relation to external +objects on which the zest of ordinary enjoyment depends. +Hence we find that later thinkers of the Cyrenaic school felt +themselves compelled to change their fundamental notion; +thus Theodorus defined the good as “gladness” (<span class="grk" title="chara">χαρά</span>) depending +on wisdom, as distinct from mere pleasure, while Hegesias +proclaimed that happiness was unattainable, and that the chief +function of wisdom was to render life painless by producing +indifference to all things that give pleasure. But by such changes +their system lost the support that it had had in the pleasure-seeking +tendencies of ordinary men. It was clear that if philosophic +hedonism was to be established on a broad and firm basis, +it must in its notion of good combine what the plain man naturally +sought with what philosophy could plausibly offer. Such a +combination was effected, with some little violence, by Epicurus; +whose system with all its defects showed a remarkable power +of standing the test of time, as it attracted the unqualified +adhesion of generation after generation of disciples for a period +of some six centuries.</p> + +<p>In the fundamental principle of his philosophy Epicurus +is not original. Aristippus (cf. also Plato in the <i>Protagoras</i> +and Eudoxus) had already maintained that pleasure +is the sole ultimate good, and pain the sole evil; that +<span class="sidenote">Epicurus.</span> +no pleasure is to be rejected except for its painful consequences, +and no pain to be chosen except as a means to greater pleasure; +that the stringency of all laws and customs depends solely on +the legal and social penalties attached to their violation; that, +in short, all virtuous conduct and all speculative activity are +empty and useless, except as contributing to the pleasantness +of the agent’s life. And Epicurus assures us that he means by +pleasure what plain men mean by it; and that if the gratifications +of appetite and sense are discarded, the notion is emptied +of its significance. So far the system would seem to suit the +inclinations of the most thorough-going voluptuary. The +originality of Epicurus lay in his theory that the highest point +of pleasure, whether in body or mind, is to be attained by the +mere removal of pain or disturbance, after which pleasure admits +of variation only and not of augmentation; that therefore the +utmost gratification of which the body is capable may be provided +by the simplest means, and that “natural wealth” is no +more than any man can earn. When further he teaches that the +attainment of happiness depends almost entirely upon insight +and right calculation, fortune having very little to do with it; +that the pleasures and pains of the mind are far more important +than those of the body, owing to the accumulation of feeling +caused by memory and anticipation; and that an indispensable +condition of mental happiness lies in relieving the mind of all +superstitions, which can be effected only by a thorough knowledge +of the physical universe—he introduces an ample area for the +exercise of the philosophic intellect. So again, in the stress +that he lays on the misery which the most secret wrong-doing +must necessarily cause from the perpetual fear of discovery, +and in his exuberant exaltation of the value of disinterested +friendship, he shows a sincere, though not completely successful, +effort to avoid the offence that consistent egoistic hedonism is +apt to give to ordinary human feeling. As regards friendship, +Epicurus was a man of peculiarly unexclusive sympathies.<a name="fa12s" id="fa12s" href="#ft12s"><span class="sp">12</span></a> +The genial fellowship of the philosophic community that he +collected in his garden remained a striking feature in the traditions +of his school; and certainly the ideal which Stoics and +Epicureans equally cherished of a brotherhood of sages was most +easily realized on the Epicurean plan of withdrawing from +political and dialectical conflict to simple living and serene +leisure, in imitation of the gods apart from the fortuitous concourse +of atoms that we call a world. No doubt it was rather +the practical than the theoretical side of Epicureanism which +gave it so strong a hold on succeeding generations.</p> + +<p>The two systems that have just been described were those +that most prominently attracted the attention of the ancient +world, so far as it was directed to ethics, from their +almost simultaneous origin to the end of the 2nd +<span class="sidenote">Later Greek philosophy. Stoicism in Rome.</span> +century <span class="scs">A.D.</span>, when Stoicism almost vanishes from our +view. But side by side with them the schools of Plato +and Aristotle still maintained a continuity of tradition, +and a more or less vigorous life; and philosophy, as a +recognized element of Graeco-Roman culture, was understood +to be divided among these four branches. The internal history, +however, of the four schools was very different. We find no +development worthy of notice in Aristotelian ethics (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Peripatetics</a></span>). +The Epicureans, again, from their unquestioning +acceptance of the “dogmas”<a name="fa13s" id="fa13s" href="#ft13s"><span class="sp">13</span></a> of their founder, almost deserve +to be called a sect rather than a school. On the other hand, +the changes in Stoicism are very noteworthy; and it is the more +easy to trace them, as the only original writings of this school +which we possess are those of the later Roman Stoics. These +changes may be attributed partly to the natural inner development +of the system, partly to the reaction of the Roman mind +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page819" id="page819"></a>819</span> +on the essentially Greek doctrine which it received,—a reaction +all the more inevitable from the very affinity between the Stoic +sage and the ancient Roman ideal of manliness. It was natural +that the earlier Stoics should be chiefly occupied with delineating +the inner and outer characteristics of ideal wisdom and virtue, +and that the gap between the ideal sage and the actual philosopher, +though never ignored, should yet be somewhat overlooked. +But when the question “What is man’s good?” had been +answered by an exposition of perfect wisdom, the practical +question “How may a man emerge from the folly of the world, +and get on the way towards wisdom?” naturally attracted +attention; and the preponderance of moral over scientific +interest, which was characteristic of the Roman mind, gave +this question especial prominence. The sense of the gap between +theory and fact gives to the religious element of Stoicism a new +force; the soul, conscious of its weakness, leans on the thought +of God, and in the philosopher’s attitude towards external +events, pious resignation preponderates over self-poised indifference; +the old self-reliance of the reason, looking down on man’s +natural life as a mere field for its exercise, makes room for a +positive aversion to the flesh as an alien element imprisoning +the spirit; the body has come to be a “corpse which the soul +sustains,”<a name="fa14s" id="fa14s" href="#ft14s"><span class="sp">14</span></a> and life a “sojourn in a strange land”;<a name="fa15s" id="fa15s" href="#ft15s"><span class="sp">15</span></a> in short, +the ethical idealism of Zeno has begun to borrow from the +metaphysical idealism of Plato.</p> + +<p>In no one of these schools was the outward coherence of +tradition so much strained by inner changes as it was in Plato’s. +The alterations, however, in the metaphysical position +of the Academics had little effect on their ethical teaching, +<span class="sidenote">History of Plato’s school.</span> +as, even during the period of Scepticism, they +appear to have presented as probable the same general +view of human good which Antiochus afterwards dogmatically +announced as a revival of the common doctrine of Plato and +Aristotle. And during the period of a century and a half between +Antiochus and Plutarch, we may suppose the school to have +maintained the old controversy with Stoicism on much the same +ground, accepting the formula of “life according to nature,” +but demanding that the “good” of man should refer to his +nature as a whole, the good of his rational part being the chief +element, and always preferable in case of conflict, but yet not +absolutely his sole good. In Plutarch, however, we see the +same tendencies of change that we have noticed in later Stoicism. +The conception of a normal harmony between the higher and +lower elements of human life has begun to be disturbed, and the +side of Plato’s teaching that deals with the inevitable imperfections +of the world of concrete experience becomes again prominent. +For example, we find Plutarch amplifying the suggestion +in Plato’s latest treatise (the <i>Laws</i>) that this imperfection +is due to a bad world-soul that strives against the good,—a +suggestion which is alien to the general tenor of Plato’s doctrine, +and had consequently been unnoticed during the intervening +centuries. We observe, again, the value that Plutarch attaches, +not merely to the sustainment and consolation of rational +religion, but to the supernatural communications vouchsafed +by the divinity to certain human beings in dreams, through +oracles, or by special warnings, like those of the genius of Socrates. +For these flashes of intuition, he holds, the soul should be prepared +by tranquil repose and the subjugation of sensuality +through abstinence. The same ascetic effort to attain by aloofness +from the body a pure receptivity for supernatural influences, +is exhibited in Neo-Pythagoreanism. But the general tendency +that we are noting did not find its full expression in a reasoned +system until we come to the Egyptian Plotinus.</p> + +<p>The system of Plotinus (205-270 <span class="scs">A.D.</span>) is a striking development +of that element of Platonism which has had most fascination +for the medieval and even for the modern mind, +but which had almost vanished out of sight in the +<span class="sidenote">Neoplatonism.</span> +controversies of the post-Aristotelian schools. At the +same time the differences are the more noteworthy from the +reverent adhesion which the Neoplatonists always maintain to +Plato. Plato identified good with the real essence of things; +with that in them which is definitely conceivable and knowable. +It belongs to this view to regard the imperfection of things as +devoid of real being, and so incapable of being definitely thought +or known; accordingly, we find that Plato has no technical term +for that in the concrete sensible world which hinders it from +perfectly expressing the abstract ideal world, and which in +Aristotle’s system is distinguished as absolutely formless matter +(<span class="grk" title="hulê">ὕλη</span>). And so, when we pass from the ontology to the ethics of +Platonism, we find that, though the highest life is only to be +realized by turning away from concrete human affairs and their +material environment, still the sensible world is not yet an +object of positive moral aversion; it is rather something which +the philosopher is seriously concerned to make as harmonious, +good and beautiful as possible. But in Neoplatonism the +inferiority of the condition in which the embodied human soul +finds itself is more intensely and painfully felt; hence an express +recognition of formless matter (<span class="grk" title="hulê">ὕλη</span>) as the “first evil,” from +which is derived the “second evil,” body (<span class="grk" title="sôma">σῶμα</span>), to whose +influence all the evil in the soul’s existence is due. Accordingly +the ethics of Plotinus represent, we may say, the moral idealism +of the Stoics cut loose from nature. The only good of man is the +pure existence of the soul, which in itself, apart from the contagion +of the body, is perfectly free from error or defect; if only +it can be restored to the untrammelled activity of its original +being, nothing external, nothing bodily, can positively impair +its perfect welfare. It is only the lowest form of virtue—the +“civic” virtue of Plato’s <i>Republic</i>—that is employed in regulating +those animal impulses whose presence in the soul is due +to its mixture with the body; higher or philosophic wisdom, +temperance, courage and justice are essentially purifications +from this contagion; until finally the highest mode of goodness +is reached, in which the soul has no community with the body, +and is entirely turned towards reason. It should be observed +that Plotinus himself is still too Platonic to hold that the absolute +mortification of natural bodily appetites is required for purifying +the soul; but this ascetic inference was drawn to the fullest +extent by his disciple Porphyry.</p> + +<p>There is, however, a yet higher point to be reached in the +upward ascent of the Neoplatonist from matter; and here the +divergence of Plotinus from Platonic idealism is none the less +striking, because it is a <i>bona fide</i> result of reverent reflection on +Plato’s teaching. The cardinal assumption of Plato’s metaphysic +is, that the real is definitely thinkable and knowable in proportion +as it is real; so that the further the mind advances in abstraction +from sensible particulars and apprehension of real being, the +more definite and clear its thought becomes. Plotinus, however, +urges that, as all thought involves difference or duality of some +kind, it cannot be the primary fact in the universe, what we call +God. He must be an essential unity prior to this duality, a +Being wholly without difference or determination; and, accordingly, +the highest mode of human existence, in which the soul +apprehends this absolute, must be one in which all definite +thought is transcended, and all consciousness of self lost in the +absorbing ecstasy. Porphyry tells us that his master Plotinus +attained the highest state four times during the six years which +he spent with him.</p> + +<p>Neoplatonism, originally Alexandrine, is often regarded as +Hellenistic rather than Hellenic, a product of the mingling of +Greek with Oriental civilization. But however Oriental may +have been the cast of mind that welcomed this theosophic +asceticism, the forms of thought by which these views were +philosophically reached are essentially Greek; and it is by a +thoroughly intelligible process of natural development, in which +the intensification of the moral consciousness represented by +Stoicism plays an important part, that the Hellenic pursuit +of knowledge culminates in a preparation for ecstasy, and the +Hellenic idealization of man’s natural life ends in a settled +antipathy to the body and its works. At the same time we +ought not to overlook the affinities between the doctrine of +Plotinus and that remarkable combination of Greek and Hebrew +thought which Philo Judaeus had expounded two centuries +before; nor the fact that Neoplatonism was developed in +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page820" id="page820"></a>820</span> +conscious antagonism to the new religion which had spread from +Judea, and was already threatening the conquest of the Graeco-Roman +world, and also to the Gnostic systems (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Gnosticism</a></span>); +nor, finally, that it furnished the chief theoretical support in the +last desperate struggle that was made under Julian to retain +the old polytheistic worship.</p> + +<p>B. <i>Christianity and Medieval Ethics</i>.—In the present article +we are not concerned with the origin of the Christian religion, +nor with its outward history. Nor have we to consider the +special doctrines that have formed the bond of union of the +Christian communities except in their ethical aspect, their bearing +on the systematization of human aims and activities. This +aspect, however, must necessarily be prominent in discussing +Christianity, which cannot be adequately treated merely as a +system of theological beliefs divinely revealed, and special +observances divinely sanctioned; for it claims to regulate the +whole man, in all departments of his existence. It was not till +the 4th century <span class="scs">A.D.</span> that the first attempt was made to offer a +systematic exposition of Christian morality; and nine centuries +more had passed away before a genuinely philosophic intellect, +trained by a full study of Aristotle, undertook to give complete +scientific form to the ethical doctrine of the Catholic church. +Before, however, we take a brief survey of the progress of +systematic ethics from Ambrose to Thomas Aquinas, it may be +well to examine the chief features of the new moral consciousness +that had spread through Graeco-Roman civilization, and was +awaiting philosophic synthesis. It will be convenient to consider +first the new <i>form</i> or universal characteristics of Christian +morality, and afterwards to note the chief points in the <i>matter</i> +or particulars of duty and virtue which received development +or emphasis from the new religion.</p> + +<p>The first point to be noticed is the new conception of morality +as the positive law of a theocratic community possessing a +written code imposed by divine revelation, and +sanctioned by divine promises and threatenings. It +<span class="sidenote">Christian and Jewish “law of God.”</span> +is true that we find in ancient thought, from Socrates +downwards, the notion of a law of God, eternal and +immutable, partly expressed and partly obscured by the shifting +codes and customs of actual human societies. But the sanctions +of this law were vaguely and, for the most part, feebly imagined; +its principles were essentially unwritten, and thus referred not +to the external will of an Almighty Being who claimed unquestioning +submission, but rather to the reason that gods +and men shared, by the exercise of which alone they could be +adequately known and defined. Hence, even if the notion of +law had been more prominent than it was in ancient ethical +thought, it could never have led to a juridical, as distinct from +a philosophical, treatment of morality. In Christianity, on the +other hand, we early find that the method of moralists determining +right conduct is to a great extent analogous to that of juris-consults +interpreting a code. It is assumed that divine commands +have been implicitly given for all occasions of life, and that they +are to be ascertained in particular cases by interpretation of +the general rules obtained from texts of scripture, and by +inference from scriptural examples. This juridical method +descended naturally from the Jewish theocracy, of which +Christendom was a universalization. Moral insight, in the +view of the most thoughtful Jews of the age immediately preceding +Christianity, was conceived as knowledge of a divine code, +emanating from an authority external to human reason which +had only the function of interpreting and applying its rules. +This law was derived partly from Moses, partly from the utterances +of the later prophets, partly from oral tradition and from the +commentaries and supplementary maxims of generations of +students. Christianity inherited the notion of a written divine +code acknowledged as such by the “true Israel”—now potentially +including the whole of mankind, or at least the chosen of all +nations,—on the sincere acceptance of which the Christian’s +share of the divine promises to Israel depended. And though +the ceremonial part of the old Hebrew code was altogether +rejected, and with it all the supplementary jurisprudence +resting on tradition and erudite commentary, still God’s law +was believed to be contained in the sacred books of the Jews, +supplemented by the teaching of Christ and his apostles. By +the recognition of this law the church was constituted as an +ordered community, essentially distinct from the State; the +distinction between the two was emphasized by the withdrawal +of the early Christians from civic life, to avoid the performance +of idolatrous ceremonies imposed as official expressions of +loyalty, and by the persecutions which they had to endure, +when the spread of an association apparently so hostile to the +framework of ancient society had at length alarmed the imperial +government. Nor was the distinction obliterated by the recognition +of Christianity as the state religion under Constantine.</p> + +<p>Thus the jural form in which morality was conceived only +emphasized the fundamental difference between it and the laws +of the state. The ultimate sanctions of the moral code were +the infinite rewards and punishments awaiting the immortal +soul hereafter; but the church early felt the necessity of withdrawing +the privileges of membership from apostates and +allowing them to be gradually regained only by a solemn +ceremonial expressive of repentance, protracted through several +years. This formal and regulated “penitence” was extended +from apostasy to other grave—or, as they were subsequently +called, “deadly”—sins; while for minor offences all Christians +were called upon to express contrition by fasting and abstinence +from ordinarily permitted pleasures, as well as verbally in public +and private devotions. “Excommunication” and “penance” +thus came to be temporal ecclesiastical sanctions of the moral +law. As the graduation of these sanctions naturally became +more minute, a correspondingly detailed classification of offences +was rendered necessary, and thus a system of ecclesiastical +jurisprudence was gradually produced, somewhat analogous +to that of Judaism. At the same time this tendency to make +prominent a scheme of external duties has always been counteracted +in Christianity by the remembrance of its original antithesis +to Jewish legalism. We find that this antithesis, as exaggerated +by some of the Gnostic sects of the 2nd and 3rd centuries <span class="scs">A.D.</span>, +led, not merely to theoretical antinomianism, but even (if the +charges of their orthodox opponents are not entirely to be discredited) +to gross immorality of conduct. A similar tendency +has shown itself at other periods of church history. And though +such antinomianism has always been sternly repudiated by the +moral consciousness of Christendom, it has never been forgotten +that “inwardness,” rightness of heart or spirit, is the pre-eminent +characteristic of Christian goodness. It must not, of +course, be supposed that the need of something more than mere +fulfilment of external duty was ignored even by the later Judaism. +Rabbinic erudition could not forget the repression of vicious +desires in the tenth commandment, the stress laid in Deuteronomy +on the necessity of service to God, or the inculcation by later +prophets of humility and faith. “The real and only Pharisee,” +says the Talmud, “is he who does the will of his Father because +he loves Him.” But it remains true that the contrast with the +“righteousness of the scribes and pharisees” has always served +to mark the requirement of “inwardness” as a distinctive feature +of the Christian code—an inwardness not merely negative, +tending to the repression of vicious desires as well as vicious acts, +but also involving a positive rectitude of the inner state of the +soul.</p> + +<p>In this aspect Christianity invites comparison with Stoicism, +and indeed with pagan ethical philosophy generally, if we +except the hedonistic schools. Rightness of purpose, +preference of virtue for its own sake, suppression of +<span class="sidenote">Christian and Pagan inwardness.</span> +vicious desires, were made essential points by the +Aristotelians, who attached the most importance to +outward circumstances in their view of virtue, no less than by +the Stoics, to whom all outward things were indifferent. The +fundamental differences between pagan and Christian ethics +depend not on any difference in the value set on rightness of +heart, but on different views of the essential form or conditions +of this inward rightness. In neither case is it presented purely +and simply as moral rectitude. By the pagan philosophers it +was always conceived under the form of Knowledge or Wisdom, +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page821" id="page821"></a>821</span> +it being inconceivable to all the schools sprung from Socrates +that a man could truly know his own good and yet deliberately +choose anything else. This knowledge, as Aristotle held, might +be permanently precluded by vicious habits, or temporarily +obliterated by passion, but if present in the mind it must produce +rightness of purpose. Or even if it were held with some of the +Stoics that true wisdom was out of the reach of the best men +actually living, it none the less remained the ideal condition +of perfect human life. By Christian teachers, on the other hand, +the inner springs of good conduct were generally conceived as +<span class="sidenote">Faith.</span> +Faith and Love. Of these notions the former has a +somewhat complex ethical import; it seems to blend +several elements differently prominent in different minds. Its +simplest and commonest meaning is that emphasized in the +contrast of “faith” with “sight”; where it signifies belief +in the invisible divine order represented by the church, in the +actuality of the law, the threats, the promises of God, in spite +of all the influences in man’s natural life that tend to obscure +this belief. Out of this contrast there ultimately grew an +essentially different opposition between faith and knowledge +or reason, according to which the theological basis of ethics was +contrasted with the philosophical; the theologians maintaining +sometimes that the divine law is essentially arbitrary, the +expression of will, not reason; more frequently that its reasonableness +is inscrutable, and that actual human reason should +confine itself to examining the credentials of God’s messengers, +and not the message itself. But in early Christianity this latter +antithesis was as yet undeveloped; faith means simply force +in clinging to moral and religious conviction, whatever their +rational grounds may be; this force, in the Christian consciousness, +being inseparably bound up with personal loyalty and +trust towards Christ, the leader in the battle with evil, the ruler +of the kingdom to be realized. So far, however, there is no +ethical difference between Christian faith and that of Judaism, +or its later imitation, Mahommedanism; except that the +personal affection of loyal trust is peculiarly stirred by the +blending of human and divine natures in Christ, and the rule +of duty impressively taught by the manifestation of his perfect +life. A more distinctively Christian, and a more deeply moral, +significance is given to the notion in the antithesis of “faith” +and “works.” Here faith means more than loyal acceptance +of the divine law and reverent trust in the lawgiver; it implies +a consciousness, at once continually present and continually +transcended, of the radical imperfection of all human obedience +to the law, and at the same time of the irremissible condemnation +which this imperfection entails. The Stoic doctrine of the +worthlessness of ordinary human virtue, and the stern paradox +that all offenders are equally, in so far as all are absolutely, +guilty, find their counterparts in Christianity; but the latter +(maintaining this ideal severity in the moral standard, with an +emotional consciousness of what is involved in it quite unlike +that of the Stoic) overcomes its practical exclusiveness through +faith. This faith, again, may be conceived in two modes, +essentially distinct though usually combined. In one view it +gives the believer strength to attain, by God’s supernatural aid +or “grace,” a goodness of which he is naturally incapable; +in the other view it gives him an assurance that, though he +knows himself a sinner deserving of utter condemnation, a +perfectly just God still regards him with favour on account of +the perfect services and suffering of Christ. Of these views +the former is the more catholic, more universally present in +the Christian consciousness; the latter more deeply penetrates +the mystery of the Atonement, as expounded in the Pauline +epistles.</p> + +<p>But faith, however understood, is rather an indispensable +pre-requisite than the essential motive principle of Christian +good conduct. This motive is supplied by the other +central notion, love. On love depends the “fulfilling +<span class="sidenote">Love.</span> +of the law,” and the sole moral value of Christian duty—that +is, on love to God, in the first place, which in its fullest development +must spring from Christian faith; and, secondly, love to +all mankind, as the objects of divine love and sharers in the +humanity ennobled by the incarnation. This derivative philanthropy +characterizes the spirit in which all Christian performance +of social duty is to be done; loving devotion to God being +the fundamental attitude of mind that is to be maintained +throughout the whole of the Christian’s life. But further, as +regards abstinence from unlawful acts and desires +<span class="sidenote">Purity.</span> +prompting to them, we have to notice another form +in which the inwardness of Christian morality manifests itself, +which, though less distinctive, should yet receive attention in +any comparison of Christian ethics with the view of Graeco-Roman +philosophy. The profound horror with which the +Christian’s conception of a suffering as well as an avenging +divinity tended to make him regard all condemnable acts was +tinged with a sentiment which we may perhaps describe as a +ceremonial aversion moralized—the aversion, that is, to foulness +or impurity. In Judaism, as in other, especially Oriental, +religions, the natural dislike of material defilement has been +elevated into a religious sentiment, and made to support a complicated +system of quasi-sanitary abstinences and ceremonial +purifications; then, as the ethical element predominated in +the Jewish religion, a moral symbolism was felt to reside in the +ceremonial code, and thus aversion to impurity came to be a +common form of the ethico-religious sentiment. Then, when +Christianity threw off the Mosaic ritual, this religious sense of +purity was left with no other sphere besides morality; while, +from its highly idealized character, it was peculiarly well adapted +for that repression of vicious desires which Christianity claimed +as its special function.</p> + +<p>The distinctive features of Christian ethics are obedience, +unworldliness, benevolence, purity and humility. +They are naturally connected with the more general +<span class="sidenote">Distinctive particulars of Christian morality.</span> +characteristics just stated; though many of them +may also be referred directly to the example and +precepts of Christ, and in several cases they are clearly +due to both causes, inseparably combined.</p> + +<p>1. We may notice, in the first place, that the conception of +morality as a code which, if not in itself arbitrary, is yet to be +accepted by men with unquestioning submission, tends naturally +to bring into prominence the virtue of <i>obedience to authority</i>; +just as the philosophic view of goodness as the realization of +reason gives a special value to <i>self-determination</i> and independence +(as we see more clearly in the post-Aristotelian schools where +ethics is distinctly separated from politics).</p> + +<p>2. Again, the opposition between the natural world and the +spiritual order into which the Christian has been born anew led +not merely to a contempt equal to that of the Stoic for wealth, +fame, power, and other objects of worldly pursuit, but also, +for some time at least, to a comparative depreciation of the +domestic and civic relations of the natural man. This tendency +was exhibited most simply and generally in the earliest period +of the church’s history. In the view of primitive Christians, +ordinary human society was a world temporarily surrendered to +Satanic rule, over which a swift and sudden destruction was +impending; in such a world the little band who were gathered +in the ark of the church could have no part or lot,—the only +attitude they could maintain was that of passive alienation. +On the other hand, it was difficult practically to realize this +alienation, and a keen sense of this difficulty induced the same +hostility to the body as a clog and hindrance, that we find to +some extent in Plato, but more fully developed in Neoplatonism, +Neopythagoreanism, and other products of the mingling of +Greek with Oriental thought. This feeling is exhibited in the +value set on fasting in the Christian church from the earliest +times, and in an extreme form in the self-torments of later +monasticism; while both tendencies, anti-worldliness and anti-sensualism, +seem to have combined in causing the preference of +celibacy over marriage which is common to most early Christian +writers.<a name="fa16s" id="fa16s" href="#ft16s"><span class="sp">16</span></a> Patriotism, again, and the sense of civic duty, the +most elevated of all social sentiments in the Graeco-Roman +civilization, tended, under the influence of Christianity, either +to expand itself into universal philanthropy, or to concentrate +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page822" id="page822"></a>822</span> +itself on the ecclesiastical community. “We recognize one +commonwealth, the world,” says Tertullian; “we know,” +says Origen, “that we have a fatherland founded by the word +of God.” We might further derive from the general spirit of +Christian unworldliness that repudiation of the secular modes +of conflict, even in a righteous cause, which substituted a passive +patience and endurance for the old pagan virtue of courage, +in which the active element was prominent. Here, however, +we clearly trace the influence of Christ’s express prohibition of +violent resistance to violence, and his inculcation, by example +and precept, of a love that was to conquer even natural resentment. +An extreme result of this influence is shown in Tertullian’s +view, that no Christian could properly hold the office of a secular +magistrate in which he would have to doom to death, chains, +imprisonment; but even more sober writers, such as Ambrose, +extend Christian passivity so far as to preclude self-defence +even against a murderous assault. The common sense of +Christendom gradually shook off these extravagances; but the +reluctance to shed blood lingered long, and was hardly extinguished +even by the growing horror of heresy. We have a curious +relic of this in the later times of ecclesiastical persecution, when +the heretic was doomed to the stake that he might be punished +in some manner “short of bloodshed.”<a name="fa17s" id="fa17s" href="#ft17s"><span class="sp">17</span></a></p> + +<p>3. It is, however, in the impulse given to practical beneficence +in all its forms, by the exaltation of love as the root of all virtues, +that the most important influence of Christianity on +the particulars of civilized morality is to be found; +<span class="sidenote">Benevolence.</span> +although the exact amount of this influence is here +somewhat difficult to ascertain, since it merely carries further +a development traceable in the history of pagan morality. This +development appears when we compare the different post-Socratic +systems of ethics. In Plato’s exposition of the different +virtues there is no mention whatever of benevolence, although +his writings show a keen sense of the importance of friendship +as an element of philosophic life, especially of the intense personal +affection naturally arising between master and disciple. Aristotle +goes somewhat further in recognizing the moral value of friendship +<span class="grk" title="(philia)">φιλία</span>; and though he considers that in its highest form +it can be realized only by the fellowship of the wise and good, +he yet extends the notion so as to include the domestic affections, +and takes notice of the importance of mutual kindness in binding +together all human societies. Still in his formal statement +of the different virtues, positive beneficence is discernible only +under the notion of “liberality,” in which form its excellence +is hardly distinguished from that of graceful profusion in self-regarding +expenditure (<i>Nic. Eth</i>. iv. 1). Cicero, on the other +hand, in his paraphrase of a Stoic treatise on external duties +(<i>De officiis</i>), ranks the rendering of positive services to other +men as a chief department of social duty; and the Stoics generally +recognized the universal fellowship and natural mutual +claims of human beings as such. Indeed, this recognition in +later Stoicism is sometimes expressed with so much warmth +of feeling as to be hardly distinguishable from Christian philanthropy. +Nor was this regard for humanity merely a doctrine +of the school. Partly through the influence of Stoic and other +Greek philosophy, partly from the natural expansion of human +sympathies, the legislation of the Empire, during the first three +centuries, shows a steady development in the direction of natural +justice and humanity; and some similar progress may be traced +in the general tone of moral opinion. Still the utmost point that +this development reached fell considerably short of the standard +of Christian charity. Without dwelling on the immense impetus +given to the practice of social duty generally by the religion that +made beneficence a form of divine service, and identified “piety” +with “pity,” we have to put down as definite changes introduced +by Christianity—(1) the severe condemnation and final suppression +of the practice of exposing infants; (2) effective abhorrence +of the barbarism of gladiatorial combats; (3) immediate moral +mitigation of slavery, and a strong encouragement of emancipation; +(4) great extension of the eleemosynary provision made +for the sick and the poor. As regards almsgiving, however—the +importance of which has caused it to usurp, in modern +languages, the general name of “charity”—it ought to be +observed that Christianity merely universalized a duty which +has always been inculcated by Judaism, within the limits of +the chosen people.</p> + +<p>4. The same may be said of the stricter regulation which +Christianity enforced on the relations of the sexes; except so +far as the prohibition of divorce is concerned, and the stress +laid on “purity of heart” as contrasted with merely outward +chastity.</p> + +<p>5. Even the peculiarly Christian virtue of humility, which +presents so striking a contrast to the Greek “highmindedness,” +was to some extent anticipated in the Rabbinic teaching. Its +far greater prominence under the new dispensation may be +partly referred to the express teaching and example of Christ; +partly, in so far as the virtue is manifested in the renunciation +of external rank and dignity, or the glory of merely secular +gifts and acquirements, it is one aspect of the <span class="correction" title="amended from unwordliness">unworldliness</span> +which we have already noticed; while the deeper humility +that represses the claim of personal merit even in the saint +belongs to the strict self-examination, the continual sense of +imperfection, the utter reliance on strength not his own, which +characterize the inner moral life of the Christian. Humility +in this latter sense, “before God,” is an essential condition of +all truly Christian goodness.</p> + +<p>We have, however, yet to notice the enlargement of the sphere +of ethics due to its close connexion with theology; for while +this added religious force and sanction to ordinary moral obligations, +it equally tended to impart a moral aspect to religious +belief and worship. “Duty to God”—as distinct from duty +to man—had not been altogether unrecognized by pagan +moralists; but the rather dubious relations of even the more +orthodox philosophy to the established polytheism had generally +prevented them from laying much stress upon it. Again,—just +as the Stoics held wisdom to be indispensable to real rectitude +of conduct, while at the same time they included under the +notion of wisdom a grasp of physical as well as ethical truth,—so +the similar emphasis laid on inwardness in Christian ethics +caused orthodoxy or correctness of religious belief to be regarded +as essential to goodness, and heresy as the most fatal of vices, +corrupting as it did the very springs of Christian life. To the +philosophers (with the single exception of Plato), however, convinced +as they were that the multitude must necessarily miss +true well-being through their folly and ignorance, it could never +occur to guard against these evils by any other method than that +of providing philosophic instruction for the few; whereas the +Christian clergy, whose function it was to offer truth and eternal +life to all mankind, naturally regarded theological misbelief +as insidious preventible contagion. Indeed, their sense of its +deadliness was so keen that, when they were at length able to +control the secular administration, they rapidly overcame their +aversion to bloodshed, and initiated that long series of religious +persecutions to which we find no parallel in the pre-Christian +civilization of Europe. It was not that Christian writers did +not feel the difficulty of attributing criminality to sincere ignorance +or error. But the difficulty is not really peculiar to theology; +and the theologians usually got over it (as some philosophers +had surmounted a similar perplexity in the region of ethics +proper) by supposing some latent or antecedent voluntary sin, +of which the apparently involuntary heresy was the fearful +fruit.</p> + +<p>Lastly, we must observe that, in proportion as the legal conception +of morality as a code of which the violation deserves +supernatural punishment predominated over the philosophic +view of ethics as the method for attaining natural felicity, the +question of man’s freedom of will to obey the law necessarily +became prominent. At the same time it cannot be broadly +said that Christianity took a decisive side in the metaphysical +controversy on free-will and necessity; since, just as in Greek +philosophy the need of maintaining freedom as the ground of +responsibility clashes with the conviction that no one deliberately +chooses his own harm, so in Christian ethics it clashes with the +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page823" id="page823"></a>823</span> +attribution of all true human virtue to supernatural grace, as +well as with the belief in divine foreknowledge. All we can say +is that in the development of Christian thought the conflict of +conceptions was far more profoundly felt, and far more serious +efforts were made to evade or transcend it.</p> + +<p>In the preceding account of Christian morality, it has been +already indicated that the characteristics delineated did not all +exhibit themselves simultaneously to the same extent, +or with perfect uniformity throughout the church. +<span class="sidenote">Development of opinion in early Christianity.</span> +Changes in the external condition of Christianity, +the different degrees of civilization in the societies +of which it was the dominant religion, and the natural +process of internal development, continually brought +different features into prominence; while again, the important +antagonisms of opinion within Christendom frequently involved +ethical issues—even in the Eastern Church—until in the 4th +century it began to be absorbed in the labour of a dogmatic +construction. Thus, for example, the anti-secular tendencies +of the new creed, to which Tertullian (160-220) gave violent +and rigid expression, were exaggerated in the Montanist heresy +which he ultimately joined; on the other hand, Clement of +Alexandria, in opposition to the general tone of his age, maintained +the value of pagan philosophy for the development of +Christian faith into true knowledge (Gnosis), and the value of +the natural development of man through marriage for the normal +perfecting of the Christian life. So again, there is a marked +difference between the writers before Augustine and those that +succeeded him in all that concerns the internal conditions of +Christian morality. By Justin and other apologists the need of +redemption, faith, grace is indeed recognized, but the theological +system depending on these notions is not sufficiently developed<a name="fa18s" id="fa18s" href="#ft18s"><span class="sp">18</span></a> +to come into even apparent antagonism with the freedom of the +will. Christianity is for the most part conceived as essentially +a proclamation through the Divine Word, to immortal beings +gifted with free choice, of the true code of conduct sanctioned +by eternal rewards and punishments. This legalism contrasts +strikingly with the efforts of pagan philosophy to exhibit virtue +as its own reward; and the contrast is triumphantly pointed +out by more than one early Christian writer. Lactantius +(<i>circa</i> 300 <span class="scs">A.D.</span>), for example, roundly declares that Plato and +Aristotle, referring everything to this earthly life, “made +virtue mere folly”; though himself maintaining, with pardonable +inconsistency, that man’s highest good did not consist in +mere pleasure, but in the consciousness of the filial relation of +the soul to God. It is plain, however, that on this external +legalistic view of duty it was impossible to maintain a difference +in kind between Christian and pagan morality; the philosopher’s +conformity to the rules of chastity and beneficence, so far as +it went, was indistinguishable from the saint’s. But when this +inference was developed in the teaching of Pelagius, it was +repudiated as heretical by the church, under the powerful +leadership of Augustine (354-430); and the doctrine of man’s +<span class="sidenote">Augustine.</span> +incapacity to obey God’s law by his unaided moral +energy was pressed to a point at which it was difficult +to reconcile it with the freedom of the will. Augustine +is fully aware of the theoretical indispensability of maintaining +Free Will, from its logical connexion with human responsibility +and divine justice; but he considers that these latter points are +sufficiently secured if actual freedom of choice between good and +evil is allowed in the single case of our progenitor Adam.<a name="fa19s" id="fa19s" href="#ft19s"><span class="sp">19</span></a> For +since the <i>natura seminalis</i> from which all men were to arise +already existed in Adam, in his voluntary preference of self +to God, humanity chose evil once for all; for which ante-natal +guilt all men are justly condemned to perpetual absolute sinfulness +and consequent punishment, unless they are elected by God’s +unmerited grace to share the benefits of Christ’s redemption. +Without this grace it is impossible for man to obey the “first +greatest commandment” of love to God; and, this unfulfilled, +he is guilty of the whole law, and is only free to choose between +degrees of sin; his apparent external virtues have no moral +value, since inner rightness of intention is wanting. “All that +is not of faith is of sin”; and faith and love are mutually +involved and inseparable; faith springs from the divinely +imparted germ of love, which in its turn is developed by faith +to its full strength, while from both united springs hope, joyful +yearning towards ultimate perfect fruition of the object of love. +These three Augustine (after St Paul) regards as the three +essential elements of Christian virtue; along with these he +recognizes the fourfold division of virtue into prudence, temperance, +courage and justice according to their traditional interpretation; +but he explains these virtues to be in their true natures +only the same love to God in different aspects or exercises. +The uncompromising mysticism of this view may be at once +compared and contrasted with the philosophical severity of +Stoicism. Love of God in the former holds the same absolute +and unique position as the sole element of moral worth in human +action, which, as we have seen, was occupied by knowledge of +Good in the latter; and we may carry the parallel further by +observing that in neither case is this severity in the abstract +estimate of goodness necessarily connected with extreme rigidity +in practical precepts. Indeed, an important part of Augustine’s +work as a moralist lies in the reconciliation which he laboured +to effect between the anti-worldly spirit of Christianity and the +necessities of secular civilization. For example, we find him +arguing for the legitimacy of judicial punishments and military +service against an over-literal interpretation of the Sermon on +the Mount; and he took an important part in giving currency +to the distinction between evangelical “counsels” and “commands,” +and so defending the life of marriage and temperate +enjoyment of natural good against the attacks of the more +extravagant advocate of celibacy and self-abnegation; although +he fully admitted the superiority of the latter method of avoiding +the contamination of sin.</p> + +<p>The attempt to Christianize the old Platonic list of virtues, +which we have noticed in Augustine’s system, was probably +due to the influence of his master Ambrose, in whose +treatise <i>De officiis ministrorum</i> we find for the first +<span class="sidenote">Ambrose.</span> +time an exposition of Christian duty systematized on a plan +borrowed from a pre-Christian moralist. It is interesting to +compare Ambrose’s account of what subsequently came to be +known as the “four cardinal virtues” with the corresponding +delineations in Cicero’s<a name="fa20s" id="fa20s" href="#ft20s"><span class="sp">20</span></a> <i>De officiis</i> which served the bishop as +a model. Christian Wisdom, so far as it is speculative, is of +course primarily theological; it has God, as the highest truth, +for its chief object, and is therefore necessarily grounded on +faith. Christian Fortitude is essentially firmness in withstanding +the seductions of good and evil fortune, resoluteness in the conflict +perpetually waged against wickedness without carnal weapons—though +Ambrose, with the Old Testament in his hand, will not +quite relinquish the ordinary martial application of the term. +“Temperantia” retains the meaning of “observance of due +measure” in all conduct, which it had in Cicero’s treatise; +though its notion is partly modified by being blended with the +newer virtue of humility. Finally in the exposition of Christian +Justice the Stoic doctrine of the natural union of all human +interests is elevated to the full height and intensity of evangelical +philanthropy; the brethren are reminded that the earth was +made by God a common possession of all, and are bidden to +administer their means for the common benefit; Ambrose, +we should observe, is thoroughly aware of the fundamental +union of these different virtues in Christianity, though he does +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page824" id="page824"></a>824</span> +not, like Augustine, resolve them all into the one central affection +of love of God.</p> + +<p>Under the influence of Ambrose and Augustine, the four cardinal +virtues furnished a basis on which the systematic ethical +theories of subsequent theologians were built. With +them the triad of Christian graces, Faith, Hope and +<span class="sidenote">Ecclesiastical morality in the “Dark Ages.”</span> +Love, and the seven gifts of the Spirit (Isaiah xi. 2) +were often combined. In antithesis to this list, an +enumeration of the “deadly sins” obtained currency. +These were at first commonly reckoned as eight; but +a preference for mystical numbers characteristic of medieval +theologians finally reduced them to seven. The statement +of them is variously given,—Pride, Avarice, Anger, Gluttony, +Unchastity, are found in all the lists; the remaining two (or +three) are variously selected from among Envy, Vainglory, and +the rather singular sins Gloominess (<i>tristitia</i>) and Languid +Indifference (<i>acidia</i> or <i>acedia</i>, from Gr. <span class="grk" title="akêdia">ἀκηδία</span>). These latter +notions show plainly, what indeed might be inferred from a +study of the list as a whole, that it represents the moral experience +of the monastic life, which for some centuries was more and more +unquestioningly regarded as in a peculiar sense “religious.” +It should be observed that the (also Augustinian) distinction +between “deadly” and “venial” sins had a technical reference +to the quasi-jural administration of ecclesiastical discipline, +which grew gradually more organized as the spiritual power of +the church established itself amid the ruins of the Western +empire, and slowly developed into the theocracy that almost +dominated Europe during the latter part of the middle ages. +“Deadly” sins were those for which formal ecclesiastical penance +was held to be necessary, in order to save the sinner from eternal +damnation; for “venial” sins he might obtain forgiveness, +through prayer, almsgiving, and the observance of the regular +fasts. We find that “penitential books” for the use of the +confessional, founded partly on traditional practice and partly +on the express decrees of synods, come into general use in the +7th century. At first they are little more than mere inventories +of sins, with their appropriate ecclesiastical punishments; +gradually cases of conscience come to be discussed and decided, +and the basis is laid for that system of casuistry which reached +its full development in the 14th and 15th centuries. This +ecclesiastical jurisprudence, and indeed the general relation of +the church to the ruder races with which it had to deal during +this period, necessarily tended to encourage a somewhat external +view of morality. But a powerful counterpoise to this tendency +was continually maintained by the fervid inwardness of Augustine, +transmitted through Gregory the Great, Isidore of Seville, +Alcuin, Hrabanus Maurus, and other writers of the philosophically +barren period between the destruction of the Western empire +and the rise of Scholasticism.</p> + +<p>Scholastic ethics, like scholastic philosophy, attained its +completest result in the teaching of Thomas Aquinas. But +before giving a brief account of the ethical part of his +system, it will be well to notice the salient points in +<span class="sidenote">Medieval moral philosophy.</span> +the long and active discussion that led up to it. In +the pantheistic system of Erigena (<i>q.v.</i>) (<i>circa</i> 810-877) +the chief philosophic element is supplied by the influence of +Plato and Plotinus, transmitted through an unknown author +of the 5th century, who assumed the name of Dionysius the +Areopagite. Accordingly the ethical side of this doctrine has +the same negative and ascetic character that we have observed +in Neoplatonism. God is the only real Being; evil is essentially +unreal and incognizable; the true aim of man’s life is to return +to perfect union with God out of the degraded material existence +into which he has fallen. This doctrine found little acceptance +among Erigena’s contemporaries, and was certainly unorthodox +enough to justify the condemnation which it subsequently +received from Honorius III.; but its influence, together with that +of the Pseudo-Dionysius, had a considerable share in developing +the more emotional orthodox mysticism of the 12th and 13th +centuries; and Neoplatonism (or Platonism received through +a Neoplatonic tradition) remained a distinct element in medieval +thought, though obscured in the period of mature scholasticism +by the predominant influence of Aristotle. Passing on to Anselm +(1033-1109), we observe that the Augustinian doctrine of original +sin and man’s absolute need of unmerited grace is retained in +his theory of salvation; he also follows Augustine in defining +freedom as the “power not to sin”; though in saying that Adam +fell “spontaneously” and “by his free choice,” though not +“through its freedom,” he has implicitly made the distinction +that Peter the Lombard afterwards expressly draws between +the freedom that is opposed to necessity and freedom from the +slavery to sin. Anselm further softens the statement of +Augustinian predestinationism by explaining that the freedom +to will is not strictly lost even by fallen man; it is inherent in a +rational nature, though since Adam’s sin it only exists potentially +in humanity, except where it is made actual by grace.</p> + +<p>In a more real sense Abelard (1079-1142) tries to establish +the connexion between man’s ill desert and his free consent. +He asserts that the inherited propensity to evil is not strictly +a sin, which is only committed when the conscious self yields +to vicious inclination. With a similar stress on the self-conscious +side of moral action, he argues that rightness of conduct depends +solely on the intention, at one time pushing this doctrine to the +paradoxical assertion that all outward acts as such are indifferent.<a name="fa21s" id="fa21s" href="#ft21s"><span class="sp">21</span></a> +In the same spirit, under the reviving influence of ancient +philosophy (with which, however, he was imperfectly acquainted +and the relation of which to Christianity he extravagantly +misunderstood), he argues that the old Greek moralists, as +inculcating a disinterested love of good—and so implicitly love +of God as the highest good—were really nearer to Christianity +than Judaic legalism was. Nay, further, he required that +the Christian “love to God” should be regarded as pure only if +purged from the self-regarding desire of the happiness which +God gives. The general tendency of Abelard’s thought was +suspiciously regarded by contemporary orthodoxy;<a name="fa22s" id="fa22s" href="#ft22s"><span class="sp">22</span></a> and the +over-subtlety of the last-mentioned distinction provoked +vehement replies from orthodox mystics of the age. Thus, +Hugo of St Victor (1077-1141) argues that all love is necessarily +so far “interested” that it involves a desire for union with the +beloved; and since eternal happiness consists in this union, +it cannot truly be desired apart from God; while Bernard of +Clairvaux (1091-1153) more elaborately distinguishes four +stages by which the soul is gradually led from (1) merely self-regarding +desire for God’s aid in distress, to (2) love him for his +loving-kindness to it, then also (3) for his absolute goodness, +until (4) in rare moments this love for himself alone becomes +the sole all-absorbing affection. This controversy Peter the +Lombard endeavoured to compose by the scholastic art of +taking distinctions, of which he was a master. In his treatise, +<i>Libri sententiarum</i>, mainly based on Augustinian doctrine, we +find a distinct softening of the antithesis between nature and +grace and an anticipation of the union of Aristotelian and +Christian thought, which was initiated by Albert the Great and +completed by Thomas Aquinas.</p> + +<p>The moral philosophy of Aquinas is Aristotelianism with a +Neoplatonic tinge, interpreted and supplemented by a view of +Christian dogma derived chiefly from Augustine. All +action or movement of all things irrational as well as +<span class="sidenote">Thomas Aquinas.</span> +rational is directed towards some end or good,—that +is, really and ultimately towards God himself, the ground and +first cause of all being, and unmoved principle of all movement. +This universal though unconscious striving after God, since he +is essentially intelligible, exhibits itself in its highest form in +rational beings as a desire for knowledge of him; such knowledge, +however, is beyond all ordinary exercise of reason, and +may be only partially revealed to man here below. Thus the +<i>summum bonum</i> for man is objectively God, subjectively the +happiness to be derived from loving vision of his perfections; +although there is a lower kind of happiness to be realized here +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page825" id="page825"></a>825</span> +below in a normal human existence of virtue and friendship, +with mind and body sound and whole and properly trained for +the needs of life. The higher happiness is given to man by free +grace of God; but it is given to those only whose heart is right, +and as a reward of virtuous actions. Passing to consider what +actions are virtuous, we first observe generally that the morality +of an act is in part, but only in part, determined by its particular +motive; it partly depends on its external object and circumstances, +which render it either objectively in harmony with the +“order of reason” or the reverse. In the classification of +particular virtues and vices we can distinguish very clearly +the elements supplied by the different teachings which Aquinas +has imbibed. He follows Aristotle closely in dividing the +“natural” virtues into intellectual and moral, giving his +preference to the former class, and the intellectual again into +speculative and practical; in distinguishing within the speculative +class the “intellect” that is conversant with principles, +the “science” that deduces conclusions, and the “wisdom” +to which belongs the whole process of knowing the sublimest +objects of knowledge; and in treating practical wisdom as +inseparably connected with moral virtues, and therefore in a +sense moral. His distinction among moral virtues of the +justice that renders others their due from the virtues that control +the appetites and passions of the agent himself, represents his +interpretation of the <i>Nicomachean Ethics</i>; while his account +of these latter virtues is a simple transcript of Aristotle’s, just +as his division of the non-rational element of the soul into +“concupiscible” and “irascible” is the old Platonic one. In +arranging his list, however, he defers to the established doctrine +of the four cardinal virtues (derived from Plato and the Stoics +through Cicero); accordingly, the Aristotelian ten have to +stand under the higher genera of (1) the prudence which gives +reasoned rules of conduct, (2) the temperance which restrains +misleading desire, and (3) the fortitude that resists misleading +fear of dangers or toils. But before these virtues are ranked +the three “theologic” virtues, faith, love and hope, supernaturally +“instilled” by God, and directly relating to him as +their object. By faith we obtain that part of our knowledge of +God which is beyond the range of mere natural wisdom or +philosophy; naturally (<i>e.g.</i>), we can know God’s existence, but +not his trinity in unity, though philosophy is useful to defend +this and other revealed verities; and it is essential for the soul’s +welfare that all articles of the Christian creed, however little +they can be known by natural reason, should be apprehended +through faith; the Christian who rejects a single article loses +hold altogether of faith and of God. Faith is the substantial +basis of all Christian morality, but without love—the essential +form of all the Christian virtues—it is “formless” (<i>informis</i>). +Christian love is conceived (after Augustine) as primarily love +to God (beyond the natural yearning of the creature after its +ultimate good), which expands into love towards all God’s +creatures as created by him, and so ultimately includes even +self-love. But creatures are only to be loved in their purity +as created by God; all that is bad in them must be an object +of hatred till it is destroyed. In the classification of sins the +Christian element predominates; still we find the Aristotelian +vices of excess and defect, along with the modern divisions into +“sins against God, neighbour and self,” “mortal and venial +sins,” and so forth.</p> + +<p>From the notion of sin—treated in its jural aspect—Aquinas +passes naturally to the discussion of Law. The exposition of +this conception presents to a great extent the same matter +that was dealt with by the exposition of moral virtues, but in a +different form; the prominence of which may perhaps be +attributed to the growing influence of Roman jurisprudence, +which attained in the 12th century so rapid and brilliant a +revival in Italy. This side of Thomas’s system is specially +important, since it is just this blending of theological conceptions +with the abstract theory of the later Roman law that gave the +starting-point for independent ethical thought in the modern +world. Under the general idea of law, defined as an “ordinance +of reason for the common good, promulgated by him who has +charge of the community,” Thomas distinguishes (1) the eternal +law or regulative reason of God which embraces all his creatures, +rational and irrational; (2) “natural law,” being that part of +the eternal law that relates to rational creatures as such; (3) +human law, which properly consists of more particular deductions +from natural law particularized and adapted to the varying +circumstances of actual communities; (4) divine law specially +revealed to man. As regards natural law, he teaches that God +has implanted in the human mind a knowledge of its immutable +general principles; and not only knowledge, but a disposition, +to which he applies the peculiar scholastic name <i>synderesis</i>,<a name="fa23s" id="fa23s" href="#ft23s"><span class="sp">23</span></a> +that unerringly prompts to the realization of these principles in +conduct, and protests against their violation. All acts of natural +virtue are implicitly included within the scope of this law of +nature; but in the application of its principles to particular +cases—to which the term “conscience” should be restricted—man’s +judgment is liable to err, the light of nature being +obscured and perverted by bad education and custom. Human +law is required, not merely to determine the details for which +natural law gives no intuitive guidance, but also to supply the +force necessary for practically securing, among imperfect men, +the observance of the most necessary rules of mutual behaviour. +The rules of this law must be either deductions from principles +of natural law, or determinations of particulars which it leaves +indeterminate; a rule contrary to nature could not be valid +as law at all. Human law, however, can deal with outward +conduct alone, and natural law, as we have seen, is liable to be +vague and obscure in particular applications. Neither natural +nor human law, moreover, takes into account that supernatural +happiness which is man’s highest end. Hence they need to be +supplemented by a special revelation of divine law. This +revelation is distinguished into the law of the old covenant and +the law of the gospel; the latter of these is productive as well +as imperative since it carries with it the divine grace that makes +its fulfilment possible. We have, however, to distinguish in the +case of the gospel between (1) absolute commands and (2) +“counsels,” which latter recommend, without positively ordering +the monastic life of poverty, celibacy and obedience as the best +method of effectively turning the will from earthly to heavenly +things.</p> + +<p>But how far is man able to attain either natural or Christian +perfection? This is the part of Thomas’s system in which the +cohesion of the different elements seems weakest. He is scarcely +aware that his Aristotelianized Christianity inevitably combines +two different difficulties in dealing with this question: first, the +old pagan difficulty of reconciling the proposition that will is a +rational desire always directed towards apparent good, with the +freedom of choice between good and evil that the jural view of +morality seems to require; and, secondly, the Christian difficulty +of harmonizing this latter notion with the absolute dependence +on divine grace which the religious consciousness affirms. The +latter difficulty Thomas, like many of his predecessors, avoids +by supposing a “co-operation” of free-will and grace, but the +former he does not fully meet. It is against this part of his +doctrines that the most important criticism, in ethics, of his +<span class="sidenote">Duns Scotus.</span> +rival Duns Scotus (<i>c.</i> 1266-1308) was directed. He +urged that will could not be really free if it were bound +to reason, as Thomas (after Aristotle) conceives it; +a really free choice must be perfectly indeterminate between +reason and unreason. Scotus consistently maintained that the +divine will is similarly independent of reason, and that the +divine ordering of the world is to be conceived as absolutely +arbitrary. On this point he was followed by the acute intellect +of William of Occam (d. <i>c.</i> 1347). This doctrine is +<span class="sidenote">William of Occam.</span> +obviously hostile to all reasoned morality; and in +fact, notwithstanding the dialectical ability of Scotus +and Occam, the work of Thomas remained indubitably the +crowning result of the great constructive effort of medieval +philosophy. The effort was, indeed, foredoomed to failure, +since it attempted the impossible task of framing a coherent +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page826" id="page826"></a>826</span> +system out of the heterogeneous data furnished by Scripture, +the fathers, the church and Aristotle—equally unquestioned, +if not equally venerated, authorities. Whatever philosophic +quality is to be found in the work of Thomas belongs to it in +spite of, not in consequence of, its method. Still, its influence has +been great and long-enduring,—in the Catholic Church primarily, +but indirectly among Protestants, especially in England, since +the famous first book of Hooker’s <i>Ecclesiastical Polity</i> is to a +great extent taken from the <i>Summa theologiae</i>.</p> + +<p>Partly in conscious antagonism to the schoolmen, yet with +close affinity to the central ethico-theological doctrine which +they read out of or into Aristotle, the mystical manner +of thought continued to maintain itself in the church. +<span class="sidenote">Medieval mysticism.</span> +Philosophically it rested upon Neoplatonism, but +its development in strict connexion with Christian orthodoxy +begins in the 12th century with Bernard of Clairvaux and Hugo +of St Victor. It blended the Christian element of love with the +ecstatic vision of Plotinus, sometimes giving the former a decided +predominance. In its more moderate form, keeping wholly +within the limits of ecclesiastical orthodoxy, this mysticism is +represented by Bonaventura and Gerson; while it appears more +independent and daringly constructive in the German Eckhart, +advancing in some of his followers to open breach with the +church, and even to practical immorality.</p> + +<p>In the brief account above given of the general ethical view +of Thomas Aquinas no mention has been made of the detailed +discussion of particular duties included in the <i>Summa +theologiae</i>; in which, for the most part, an excellent +<span class="sidenote">Casuistry.</span> +combination of moral elevation with sobriety of judgment is +shown, though on certain points the scholastic pedantry of +definition and distinction is unfavourable to due delicacy of +treatment. As the properly philosophic interest of scholasticism +faded in the 14th and 15th centuries, the quasi-legal treatment +of morality came again into prominence, borrowing a good deal +of matter from Thomas and other schoolmen. One result of +this was a marked development and systematization of casuistry. +The best known <i>Summae casuum conscientiae</i>, compiled for +the conduct of auricular confession, belong to the 14th and 15th +centuries. The oldest, the <i>Astesana</i>, from Asti in Piedmont, is +arranged as a kind of text-book of morality on a scholastic basis; +later manuals are merely lists of questions and answers. It was +inevitable that, in proportion as this casuistry assumed the +character of a systematic penal jurisprudence, its precise determination +of the limits between the prohibited and the allowable, +with all doubtful points closely scrutinized and illustrated by +fictitious cases, would have a tendency to weaken the moral +sensibilities of ordinary minds; the greater the industry spent +in deducing conclusions from the diverse authorities, the greater +necessarily became the number of points on which doctors +disagreed; and the central authority that might have repressed +serious divergences was wanting in the period of moral weakness<a name="fa24s" id="fa24s" href="#ft24s"><span class="sp">24</span></a> +that the church went through after the death of Boniface VIII. +A plain man perplexed by such disagreements might naturally +hold that any opinion maintained by a pious and orthodox +writer must be a safe one to follow; and thus weak consciences +were subtly tempted to seek the support of authority for some +desired relaxation of a moral rule. It does not, however, appear +that this danger assumed formidable proportions until after the +Reformation; when, in the struggle made by the Catholic +church to recover its hold on the world, the principle of authority +was, as it were, forced into keen, balanced and prolonged conflict +with that of reliance on private judgment. To the Jesuits, the +<span class="sidenote">The Jesuits.</span> +foremost champions in this struggle, it seemed indispensable +that the confessional should be made attractive; +for this purpose ecclesiastico-moral law must be +somehow “accommodated” to worldly needs; and the theory +of “Probabilism” supplied a plausible method for effecting +this accommodation. The theory proceeded thus: A layman +could not be expected to examine minutely into a point on which +the learned differed; therefore he could not fairly be blamed +for following any opinion that rested on the authority of even +a single doctor; therefore his confessor must be authorized to +hold him guiltless if any such “probable” opinion could be +produced in his favour; nay, it was his duty to suggest such +an opinion, even though opposed to his own, if it would relieve +the conscience under his charge from a depressing burden. +The results to which this Probabilism, applied with an earnest +desire to avoid dangerous rigour, led in the 17th century were +revealed to the world in the immortal <i>Lettres provinciales</i> of +Pascal.</p> + +<p>In tracing the development of casuistry we have been carried +beyond the great crisis through which Western Christianity +passed in the 16th century. The Reformation which +Luther initiated may be viewed on several sides, +<span class="sidenote">The Reformation. Transition to modern ethical philosophy.</span> +even if we consider only its ethical principles and +effects. It maintained the simplicity of Apostolic +Christianity against the elaborate system of a corrupt +hierarchy, the teaching of Scripture alone against the +commentaries of the fathers and the traditions of the +church, the right of private judgment against the dictation of +ecclesiastical authority, the individual responsibility of every +human soul before God in opposition to the papal control over +purgatorial punishments, which had led to the revolting degradation +of venal indulgences. Reviving the original antithesis +between Christianity and Jewish legalism, it maintained the inwardness +of faith to be the sole way to eternal life, in contrast to +the outwardness of works; returning to Augustine, and expressing +his spirit in a new formula, to resist the Neo-Pelagianism that had +gradually developed itself within the apparent Augustinianism of +the church, it maintained the total corruption of human nature, +as contrasted with that “congruity” by which, according to the +schoolmen, divine grace was to be earned; renewing the fervent +humility of St Paul, it enforced the universal and absolute +imperativeness of all Christian duties, and the inevitable unworthiness +of all Christian obedience, in opposition to the theory +that “condign” merit might be gained by “supererogatory” +conformity to evangelical “counsels.” It will be seen that these +changes, however profoundly important, were, ethically considered, +either negative or quite general, <span class="correction" title="amended from ralating">relating</span> to the tone +and attitude of mind in which all duty should be done. As +regards all positive matter of duty and virtue, and most of the +prohibitive code for ordinary men, the tradition of Christian +teaching was carried on substantially unchanged by the Reformed +churches. Even the old method of casuistry was maintained<a name="fa25s" id="fa25s" href="#ft25s"><span class="sp">25</span></a> +during the 16th and 17th centuries; though Scriptural texts, +interpreted and supplemented by the light of natural reason, +now furnished the sole principles on which cases of conscience +were decided.</p> + +<p>In the 17th century, however, the interest of this quasi-legal +treatment of morality gradually faded; and the ethical studies +of educated minds were occupied with the attempt, +renewed after so many centuries, to find an independent +<span class="sidenote">Humanism.</span> +philosophical basis for the moral code. The renewal of +this attempt was only indirectly due to the Reformation; it is +rather to be connected with the more extreme reaction from the +medieval religion which was partly caused by, partly expressed in, +that enthusiastic study of the remains of old pagan culture that +spread from Italy over Europe in the 15th and 16th centuries. +To this “humanism” the Reformation seemed at first more +hostile than the Roman hierarchy; indeed, the extent to which +this latter had allowed itself to become paganized by the Renaissance +was one of the points that especially roused the Reformers’ +indignation. Not the less important is the indirect stimulus +given by the Reformation towards the development of a moral +philosophy independent alike of Catholic and Protestant assumptions. +Scholasticism, while reviving philosophy as a handmaid +to theology, had metamorphosed its method into one resembling +that of its mistress; thus shackling the renascent intellectual +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page827" id="page827"></a>827</span> +activity which it stimulated by the double bondage to Aristotle +and to the church. When the Reformation shook the traditional +authority in one department, the blow was necessarily felt in +the other. Not twenty years after Luther’s defiance of the pope, +the startling thesis “that all that Aristotle taught was false” +was prosperously maintained by the youthful Ramus before the +university of Paris; and almost contemporaneously the group +of remarkable thinkers in Italy who heralded the dawn of modern +physical science—Cardanus, Telesio, Patrizzi, Campanella, Bruno—began +to propound their Aristotelian theories of the constitution +of the physical universe. It was to be foreseen that a +similar assertion of independence would make itself heard in +ethics also; and, indeed, amid the clash of dogmatic convictions, +and the variations of private judgment, it was natural to seek for +an ethical method that might claim universal acceptance from +all sects.</p> + +<p>C. <i>Modern Ethics</i>.—The need of such independent principles +was most strongly felt in the region of man’s civil and political +relations, especially the mutual relations of communities. +Accordingly we find that modern ethical +<span class="sidenote">Grotius.</span> +controversy began in a discussion of the law of nature. Albericus +Gentilis (1557-1611) and Hugo Grotius (1583-1645) were the +first to give a systematic account. Natural law, according to +Grotius and other writers of the age, is that part of divine law +which follows from the essential nature of man, who is distinguished +from animals by his “appetite” for tranquil association +with his fellows, and his tendency to act on general principles. It +is therefore as unalterable, even by God himself, as the truths +of mathematics, although its effect may be overruled in any +particular case by an express command of God; hence it is +cognizable <i>a priori</i>, from the abstract consideration of human +nature, though its existence may be known <i>a posteriori</i> also from +its universal acceptance in human societies. The conception, +as we have seen, was taken from the later Roman jurists; by +them, however, the law of nature was conceived as something +that underlay existing law, and was to be looked for through it, +though it might ultimately supersede it, and in the meanwhile +represented an ideal standard, by which improvements in +legislation were to be guided. Still the language of the jurists +in some passages (cf. <i>Inst. of Justinian</i>, ii. 1, 2) clearly implied +a period of human history in which men were governed by +natural law alone, prior to the institution of civil society. +Posidonius had identified this period with the mythical “golden +age”; and such ideas easily coalesced with the narrative in +Genesis. Thus there had become current the conception of a +“state of nature” in which individuals or single families lived +side by side—under none other than those “natural” laws which +prohibited mutual injury and interference in the free use of the +goods of the earth common to all, and upheld parental authority, +fidelity of wives, and the observance of compacts freely made. +This conception Grotius took, and gave it additional force and +solidity by using the principles of this natural law for the +determination of international rights and duties, it being obvious +that independent nations, in their corporate capacities, were +still in that “state of nature” in their mutual relations. It was +not, of course, assumed that these laws were universally obeyed; +indeed, one point with which Grotius is especially concerned +is the natural right of private war, arising out of the violation +of more primary rights. Still a general observance was involved +in the idea of a natural law as a “dictate of right reason indicating +the agreement or disagreement of an act with man’s rational and +social nature”; and we may observe that it was especially +necessary to assume such a general observance in the case of +contracts, since it was by an “express or tacit pact” that +the right of property (as distinct from the mere right to non-interference +during use) was held by him to have been instituted. +A similar “fundamental pact” had long been generally regarded +as the normal origin of legitimate sovereignty.</p> + +<p>The ideas above expressed were not peculiar to Grotius; +in particular the doctrine of the “fundamental pact” as the +jural basis of government had long been maintained, especially +in England, where the constitution historically established +readily suggested such a compact. At the same time the rapid +and remarkable success of Grotius’s treatise (<i>De jure belli et +pacis</i>) brought his view of Natural Right into prominence, and +suggested such questions as—“What is man’s ultimate reason +for obeying these laws? Wherein exactly does this their agreement +with his rational and social nature consist? How far, and +in what sense, is his nature really social?”</p> + +<p>It was the answer which Hobbes (1588-1679) gave to these +fundamental questions that supplied the starting-point for +independent ethical philosophy in England. The +nature of this answer was determined by the psychological +<span class="sidenote">Hobbes.</span> +views to which Hobbes had been led, possibly to some +extent under the influence of Bacon,<a name="fa26s" id="fa26s" href="#ft26s"><span class="sp">26</span></a> partly perhaps through +association with his younger contemporary Gassendi, who, in +two treatises, published between the appearance of Hobbes’s +<i>De cive</i> (1642) and that of the <i>Leviathan</i> (1651), endeavoured to +revive interest in Epicurus. Hobbes’s psychology is in the first +place materialistic; he holds, that is, that in any of the psycho-physical +phenomena of human nature the reality is a material +process of which the mental feeling is a mere “appearance.” +Accordingly he regards pleasure as essentially motion “helping +vital action,” and pain as motion “hindering” it. There is no +logical connexion between this theory and the doctrine that +appetite of desire has always pleasure (or the absence of pain) for +its object; but a materialist, framing a system of psychology, +will naturally direct his attention to the impulses arising out of +bodily wants, whose obvious end is the preservation of the agent’s +organism; and this, together with a philosophic wish to simplify, +may lead him to the conclusion that all human impulses are +similarly self-regarding. This, at any rate, is Hobbes’s cardinal +doctrine in moral psychology, that each man’s appetites or +desires are naturally directed either to the preservation of his +life, or to that heightening of it which he feels as pleasure.<a name="fa27s" id="fa27s" href="#ft27s"><span class="sp">27</span></a> +Hobbes does not distinguish instinctive from deliberate pleasure-seeking; +and he confidently resolves the most apparently +unselfish emotions into phases of self-regard. Pity he finds to +be grief for the calamity of others, arising from imagination +of the like calamity befalling oneself; what we admire with +seeming disinterestedness as beautiful (<i>pulchrum</i>) is really +“pleasure in promise”; when men are not immediately seeking +present pleasure, they desire power as a means to future pleasure, +and thus have a derivative delight in the exercise of power that +prompts to what we call benevolent action. Since, then, all the +voluntary actions of men tend to their own preservation or +pleasure, it cannot be reasonable to aim at anything else; in +fact, nature rather than reason fixes this as the end of human +action; it is reason’s function to show the means. Hence if we +ask why it is reasonable for any individual to observe the rules +of social behaviour that are commonly called moral, the answer +is obvious that this is only indirectly reasonable, as a means to +his own preservation or pleasure. It is not, however, in this, +which is only the old Cyrenaic or Epicurean answer, that the +distinctive point of Hobbism lies. It is rather in the doctrine +that even this indirect reasonableness of the most fundamental +moral rules is entirely conditional on their general observance, +which cannot be secured apart from government. For example, +it is not reasonable for me to perform my share of a contract, +unless I have reason for believing that the other party will perform +his; and this I cannot have, except in a society in which +he will be punished for non-performance. Thus the ordinary +rules of social behaviour are only hypothetically obligatory; +they are actualized by the establishment of a “common power” +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page828" id="page828"></a>828</span> +that may “use the strength and means of all” to enforce on all +the observance of rules tending to the common benefit. On the +other hand Hobbes yields to no one in maintaining the paramount +importance of moral regulations. The precepts of good +faith, equity, requital of benefits, forgiveness of wrong so far as +security allows, the prohibition of contumely, pride, arrogance,—which +may all be summed up in the formula, “Do not that to +another which thou wouldest not have done to thyself” (<i>i.e.</i> the +negative of the “golden rule”)—he still calls “immutable and +eternal laws of nature”—meaning that, though a man is not +unconditionally bound to realize them, he is, as a reasonable +being, bound to desire that they should be realized. The +pre-social state of man, in his view, is also pre-moral; but it is +therefore utterly miserable. It is a state in which every one has +a right to everything that may conduce to his preservation;<a name="fa28s" id="fa28s" href="#ft28s"><span class="sp">28</span></a> +but it is therefore also a state of war—a state so wretched that +it is the first dictate of rational self-love to emerge from it +into social peace and order. Hence Hobbes’s ideal constitution +naturally comes to be an unquestioned and unlimited—though +not necessarily monarchical—despotism. Whatever the government +declares to be just or unjust must be accepted as such, +since to dispute its dictates would be the first step towards +anarchy, the one paramount peril outweighing all particular +defects in legislation and administration. It is perhaps easy to +understand how, in the crisis of 1640, when the ethico-political +system of Hobbes first took written shape, a peace-loving +philosopher should regard the claims of individual conscience +as essentially anarchical, and dangerous to social well-being; +but however strong might be men’s yearning for order, a view +of social duty, in which the only fixed positions were selfishness +everywhere and unlimited power somewhere, could not but +appear offensively paradoxical.</p> + +<p>There was, however, in his theory an originality, a force, an +apparent coherence which rendered it undeniably impressive; +in fact, we find that for two generations the efforts to construct +morality on a philosophical basis take more or less the form of +answers to Hobbes. From an ethical point of view Hobbism +divides itself naturally into two parts, which by Hobbes’s +peculiar political doctrines are combined into a coherent whole, +but are not otherwise necessarily connected. Its theoretical +basis is the principle of egoism; while, for practically determining +the particulars of duty it makes morality entirely dependent +on positive law and institution. It thus affirmed the relativity +of good and evil in a double sense; good and evil, for any +individual citizen, may from one point of view be defined as +the objects respectively of his desire and his aversion; from +another, they may be said to be determined for him by his +sovereign. It is this latter aspect of the system which is primarily +attacked by the first generation of writers that replied to Hobbes. +This attack, or rather the counter-exposition of orthodox +doctrine, is conducted on different methods by the Cambridge +moralists and by Cumberland respectively. Cumberland is +content with the legal view of morality, but endeavours to +establish the validity of the laws of nature by taxing them on the +single supreme principle of rational regard for the “common +good of all,” and showing them, as so based, to be adequately +supported by the divine sanction. The Cambridge school, +regarding morality primarily as a body of truth rather than +a code of rules, insist on its absolute character and intuitive +certainty.</p> + +<p>Cudworth was the most distinguished of the little group of +thinkers at Cambridge in the 17th century, commonly known +as the Cambridge Platonists (<i>q.v.</i>). In his treatise on <i>Eternal +and Immutable Morality</i> his main aim is to maintain the +<span class="sidenote">The Cambridge moralists, Cudworth.</span> +“essential and eternal distinctions of good and evil” as independent +of mere will, whether human or divine. These +distinctions, he insists, have an objective reality, +cognizable by reason no less than the relations of +space or number; and he endeavours to refute +Hobbism—which he treats as a “novantique philosophy,” +a mere revival of the relativism of Protagoras—chiefly +by the following <i>argumentum ad hominem</i>. He argues that +Hobbes’s atomic materialism involves the conception of an +objective physical world, the object not of passive sense that +varies from man to man, but of the active intellect that is the +same in all; there is therefore, he urges, an inconsistency in +refusing to admit a similar exercise of intellect in morals, and +an objective world of right and wrong, which the mind by its +normal activity clearly apprehends as such.</p> + +<p>Cudworth, in the work above mentioned, gives no systematic +exposition of the ethical principles which he holds to be thus +intuitively apprehended. But we may supply this +deficiency from the <i>Enchiridion Ethicum</i> of Henry +<span class="sidenote">More.</span> +More, another thinker of the same school. More gives a list +of 23 <i>Noemata Moralia</i>, the truth of which will, he says, be +immediately manifest. Some of these admit of a purely egoistic +application, and appear to be so understood by the author—as +(<i>e.g.</i>) that goods differ in quality as well as in duration, and +that the superior good or the lesser evil is always to be preferred; +that absence of a given amount of good is preferable to the +presence of equivalent evil; that future good or evil is to be +regarded as much as present, if equally certain, and nearly as +much if very probable. Objections, both general and special, +might be urged by a Hobbist against these modes of formulating +man’s natural pursuit of self-interest; but the serious controversy +between Hobbism and modern Platonism related not to such +principles as these, but to others which demand from the individual +a (real or apparent) sacrifice for his fellows. Such are +the evangelical principle of “doing as you would be done by”; +the principle of justice, or “giving every man his own, and +letting him enjoy it without interference”; and especially +what More states as the abstract formula of benevolence, that +“if it be good that one man should be supplied with the means +of living well and happily, it is mathematically certain that it is +doubly good that two should be so supplied, and so on.” The +question, however, still remains, what motive any individual +has to conform to these social principles when they conflict with +his natural desires. To this Cudworth gives no explicit reply, +and the answer of More is hardly clear. On the one hand he +maintains that these principles express an absolute good, which +is to be called intellectual because its essence and truth are +apprehended by the intellect. We might infer from this that +the intellect, so judging, is itself the proper and complete +determinant of the will, and that man, as a rational being, +ought to aim at the realization of absolute good for its own sake. +In spite, however, of possible inferences from his definition of +virtue, this does not seem to be really More’s view. He explains +that though absolute good is discerned by the intellect, the +“sweetness and flavour” of it is apprehended, not by the intellect +proper, but by what he calls a “boniform faculty”; and it is +in this sweetness and flavour that the motive to virtuous conduct +lies; ethics is the “art of living well and happily,” and true +happiness lies in “the pleasure which the soul derives from the +sense of virtue.” In short, More’s Platonism appears to be +really as hedonistic as Hobbism; only the feeling to which it +appeals as ultimate motive is of a kind that only a mind of +exceptional moral refinement can habitually feel with the +decisive intensity required.</p> + +<p>It is to be observed that though More lays down the abstract +principle of regarding one’s neighbour’s good as much as one’s +own with the full breadth with which Christianity inculcates +it, yet when he afterwards comes to classify virtues he is too +much under the influence of Platonic-Aristotelian thought to +<span class="sidenote">Cumberland.</span> +give a distinct place to benevolence, except under the old form +of liberality. In this respect his system presents a striking +contrast to Cumberland’s, whose treatise <i>De Legibus Naturae</i> +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page829" id="page829"></a>829</span> +(1672), though written like More’s in Latin, is yet in its ethical +matter thoroughly modern. Cumberland is a thinker both original +and comprehensive, and, in spite of defects in style and +clearness, he is noteworthy as having been the first to +lay down that “regard for the common good of all” +is the supreme rule of morality or law of nature. So far he may +be fairly called the precursor of later utilitarianism. His fundamental +principle and supreme “Law of Nature” is thus stated: +“The greatest possible benevolence of every rational agent +towards all the rest constitutes the happiest state of each and +all, so far as depends on their own power, and is necessarily +required for their happiness; accordingly Common Good will +be the Supreme Good.” It is, however, important to notice that +in his “good” is included not merely happiness but “perfection”; +and he does not even define perfection so as to exclude +from it the notion of absolute moral perfection and save his +theory from an obvious logical circle. A notion so vague could +not possibly be used with any precision for determining the +subordinate rules of morality; but in fact Cumberland does not +attempt this; his supreme principle is designed not to rectify, +but merely to support and systematize, common morality. This +principle, as was said, is conceived as strictly a law, and therefore +referred to a lawgiver, God, and provided with a sanction in +its effects on the agent’s happiness. That the divine will is +expressed by it, Cumberland, “not being so fortunate as to +possess innate ideas,” tries to prove by a long inductive examination +of the evidences of man’s essential sociality exhibited in his +physical and mental constitution. His account of the sanction, +again, is sufficiently comprehensive, including both the internal +and the external rewards of virtue and punishments of vice; +and he, like later utilitarians, explains moral obligation to lie +in the force exercised on the will by these sanctions; but as to +the precise manner in which individual is implicated with +universal good, and the operation of either or both in determining +volition, his view is indistinct if not actually inconsistent.</p> + +<p>The clearness which we seek in vain from Cumberland is +found to the fullest extent in Locke, whose <i>Essay on the Human +Understanding</i> (1690) was already planned when +Cumberland’s treatise appeared. Yet Locke’s ethical +<span class="sidenote">Locke.</span> +opinions have been widely misunderstood; since from a confusion +between “innate ideas” and “intuitions,” which has been +common in recent ethical discussion, it has been supposed that +the founder of English empiricism must necessarily have been +hostile to “intuitional” ethics. The truth is that, while Locke +agrees entirely with Hobbes as to the egoistic basis of rational +conduct, and the interpretation of “good” and “evil” as +“pleasure” and “pain,” or that which is productive of pleasure +and pain, he yet agrees entirely with Hobbes’s opponents in +holding ethical rules to be actually obligatory independently of +political society, and capable of being scientifically constructed +on principles intuitively known,—though he does not regard +these principles as implanted in the mind at birth. The aggregate +of such rules he conceives as the law of God, carefully distinguishing +it, not only from civil law, but from the law of opinion or +reputation, the varying moral standard by which men actually +distribute praise and blame; as being divine it is necessarily +sanctioned by adequate rewards and punishments. He does not, +indeed, speak of the scientific construction of this code as having +been actually effected, but he affirms its possibility in language +remarkably strong and decisive. “The idea,” he says, “of a +Supreme Being, infinite in power, goodness, and wisdom, whose +workmanship we are, and upon whom we depend, and the +idea of ourselves, as understanding rational beings, being such +as are clear in us, would, I suppose, if duly considered and +pursued, afford such foundations of our duty and rules of action, +as might place morality among the sciences capable of demonstration; +wherein, I doubt not, but from self-evident propositions, +by necessary consequences as incontestable as those in mathematics, +the measure of right and wrong might be made out.” +As Locke cannot consistently mean by God’s “goodness” +anything but the disposition to give pleasure, it might be inferred +that the ultimate standard of right rules of action ought to be +the common happiness of the beings affected by the action; +but Locke does not explicitly adopt this standard. The only +instances which he gives of intuitive moral truths are the purely +formal propositions, “No government allows absolute liberty,” +and “Where there is no property there is no injustice,”—neither +of which has any evident connexion with the general happiness. +As regards his conception of the Law of Nature, he takes it +in the main immediately from Grotius and Pufendorf, more +remotely from the Stoics and the Roman jurists.</p> + +<p>We might give, as a fair illustration of Locke’s general conception +of ethics, a system which is frequently represented +as diametrically opposed to Lockism; namely, that +expounded in Clarke’s Boyle lectures on the <i>Being +and Attributes of God</i> (1704). It is true that Locke is not particularly +<span class="sidenote">Clarke.</span> +concerned with the ethico-theological proposition which +Clarke is most anxious to maintain,—that the fundamental +rules of morality are independent of arbitrary will, whether +divine or human. But in his general view of ethical principles as +being, like mathematical principles,<a name="fa29s" id="fa29s" href="#ft29s"><span class="sp">29</span></a> essentially truths of relation, +Clarke is quite in accordance with Locke; while of the four +fundamental rules that he expounds, Piety towards God, Equity, +Benevolence and Sobriety (which includes self-preservation), +the first is obtained, just as Locke suggests, by “comparing +the idea” of man with the idea of an infinitely good and wise +being on whom he depends; and the second and third are +axioms self-evident on the consideration of the equality or +similarity of human individuals as such. The principle of equity—that +“whatever I judge reasonable or unreasonable for +another to do for me, that by the same I declare reasonable +or unreasonable that I in the like case should do for him,” is +merely a formal statement of the golden rule of the gospel. We +may observe that, in stating the principle of benevolence, “since +the greater good is always most fit and reasonable to be done, +every rational creature ought to do all the good it can to its +fellow-creatures,” Clarke avowedly follows Cumberland, from +whom he quotes the further sentence that “universal love and +benevolence is as plainly the most direct, certain and effectual +means to this good as the flowing of a point is to produce a line.” +The quotation may remind us that the analogy between ethics +and mathematics ought to be traced further back than Locke; +in fact, it results from the influence exercised by Cartesianism +over English thought generally, in the latter half of the 17th +century. It must be allowed that Clarke is misled by the analogy +to use general ethical terms (“fitness,” “agreement” of things, +&c.), which overlook the essential distinction between what is +and what ought to be; and even in one or two expressions to +overleap this distinction extravagantly, as (<i>e.g.</i>) in saying that +the man who “wilfully acts contrary to justice wills things to be +what they are not and cannot be.” What he really means is +less paradoxically stated in the general proposition that “originally +and in reality it is natural and (morally speaking) necessary +that the will should be determined in every action by the reason +of the thing and the right of the case, as it is natural and +(absolutely speaking) necessary that the understanding should +submit to a demonstrated truth.” But though it is an essential +point in Clarke’s view that what is right is to be done as such, +apart from any consideration of pleasure or pain, it is to be +inferred that he is not prepared to apply this doctrine in its +unqualified form to such a creature as man, who is partly under +the influence of irrational impulses. At least when he comes to +argue the need of future rewards and punishments we find that +his claim on behalf of morality is startlingly reduced. He +now only contends that “virtue deserves to be chosen for its +own sake, and vice to be avoided, though a man was sure for +his own particular neither to gain nor lose anything by the practice +of either.” He fully admits that the question is altered when +vice is attended by pleasure and profit to the vicious man, virtue +by loss and calamity; and even that it is “not truly reasonable +that men by adhering to virtue should part with their lives, +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page830" id="page830"></a>830</span> +if thereby they deprived themselves of all possibility of receiving +any advantage from their adherence.”</p> + +<p>Thus, on the whole, the impressive earnestness with which +Clarke enforces the doctrine of rational morality only rendered +more manifest the difficulty of establishing ethics on an independent +philosophical basis; so long at least as the psychological +egoism of Hobbes is not definitely assailed and overthrown. +Until this is done, the utmost demonstration of the abstract +reasonableness of social duty only leaves us with an irreconcilable +antagonism between the view of abstract reason and the self-love +which is allowed to be the root of man’s appetitive nature. Let +us grant that there is as much intellectual absurdity in acting +unjustly as in denying that two and two make four; still, if a +man has to choose between absurdity and unhappiness, he will +naturally prefer the former; and Clarke, as we have already +seen, is not really prepared to maintain that such preference is +irrational.<a name="fa30s" id="fa30s" href="#ft30s"><span class="sp">30</span></a></p> + +<p>It remains to try another psychological basis for ethical +construction; instead of presenting the principle of social duty +as abstract reason, liable to conflict to any extent +with natural self-love, we may try to exhibit the +<span class="sidenote">Shaftesbury.</span> +naturalness of man’s social affections, and demonstrate +a normal harmony between these and his self-regarding impulses. +This is the line of thought which Shaftesbury (1671-1713) may +be said to have initiated. This theory had already been advanced +by Cumberland and others, but Shaftesbury was the first to +make it the cardinal point in his system; no one had yet definitely +transferred the centre of ethical interest from the Reason, conceived +as apprehending either abstract moral distinctions or +laws of divine legislation, for the emotional impulses that prompt +to social duty; no one had undertaken to distinguish clearly, +by analysis of experience, the disinterested and self-regarding +elements of our appetitive nature, or to prove inductively their +perfect harmony. In his <i>Inquiry concerning Virtue and Merit</i> he +begins by attacking the egoism of Hobbes, which, as we have +seen, was not necessarily excluded by the doctrine of rational +intuitions of duty. This interpretation, he says, would be true +only if we considered man as a wholly unrelated individual. +Such a being we might doubtless call “good,” if his impulses +were adapted to the attainment of his own felicity. But man +we must and do consider in relation to a larger system of which +he forms a part, and so we call him “good” only when his +impulses and dispositions are so balanced as to tend towards the +good of this whole. And again we do not attribute goodness +to him merely because his outward acts have beneficial results. +When we speak of a man as good, we mean that his dispositions +or affections are such as tend of themselves to promote the good +or happiness of human society. Hobbes’s moral man, who, if let +loose from governmental constraint, would straightway spread +ruin among his fellows, is not what we commonly agree to call +good. Moral goodness, then, in a “sensible creature” implies +primarily disinterested affections, whose direct object is the good +of others; but Shaftesbury does not mean (as he has been misunderstood +to mean) that only such benevolent social impulses +are good, and that these are always good. On the contrary, +he is careful to point out, first, that immoderate social affections +defeat themselves, miss their proper end, and are therefore bad; +secondly, that as an individual’s good is part of the good of the +whole, “self-affections” existing in a duly limited degree are +morally good. Goodness, in short, consists in due combination, +in just proportion, of both sorts of “affections,” tendency to +promote general good being taken as the criterion of the right +degrees and proportions. This being established, the main aim +of Shaftesbury’s argument is to prove that the same balance +of private and social affections, which tends naturally to public +good, is also conducive to the happiness of the individual in +whom it exists. Taking the different impulses in detail, he first +shows how the individual’s happiness is promoted by developing +his social affections, mental pleasures being superior to bodily, +and the pleasures of benevolence the richest of all. In discussing +this he distinguishes, with well-applied subtlety, between the +pleasurableness of the benevolent emotions themselves, the +sympathetic enjoyment of the happiness of others, and the +pleasure arising from a consciousness of their love and esteem. +He then exhibits the unhappiness that results from any excess +of the self-regarding impulses, bodily appetite, desire of wealth, +emulation, resentment, even love of life itself; and ends by +dwelling on the intrinsic painfulness of all malevolence.<a name="fa31s" id="fa31s" href="#ft31s"><span class="sp">31</span></a></p> + +<p>One more special impulse remains to be noticed. We have +seen that goodness of character consists in a certain harmony of +self-regarding and social affections. But virtue, in Shaftesbury’s +view, is something more; it implies a recognition of moral +goodness and immediate preference of it for its own sake. This +immediate pleasure that we take in goodness (and displeasure +in its opposite) is due to a susceptibility which he calls the +“reflex” or “moral” sense, and compares with our susceptibility +to beauty and deformity in external things; it furnishes both +an additional direct impulse to good conduct, and an additional +gratification to be taken into account in the reckoning which +proves the coincidence of virtue and happiness. This doctrine +of the moral sense is sometimes represented as Shaftesbury’s +cardinal tenet; but though characteristic and important, it is +not really necessary to his main argument; it is the crown +rather than the keystone of his ethical structure.</p> + +<p>The appearance of Shaftesbury’s <i>Characteristics</i> (1713) marks +a turning-point in the history of English ethical thought. With +the generation of moralists that followed, the consideration of +abstract rational principles falls into the background, and its +place is taken by introspective study of the human mind, observation +of the actual play of its various impulses and sentiments. +This empirical psychology had not indeed been neglected by +previous writers. More, among others, had imitated Descartes +in a discussion of the passions, and Locke’s essay had given a +still stronger impulse in the same direction; still, Shaftesbury +is the first moralist who distinctly takes psychological experience +as the basis of ethics. His suggestions were developed by +Hutcheson into one of the most elaborate systems of moral +philosophy which we possess; through Hutcheson, if not +directly, they influenced Hume’s speculations, and are thus +connected with later utilitarianism. Moreover, the substance +of Shaftesbury’s main argument was adopted by Butler, though +it could not pass the scrutiny of that powerful and cautious +intellect without receiving important modifications and additions. +On the other hand, the ethical optimism of Shaftesbury, rather +broadly impressive than exactly reasoned, and connected as it +was with a natural theology that implied the Christian scheme +to be superfluous, challenged attack equally from orthodox +<span class="sidenote">Mandeville.</span> +divines and from cynical freethinkers. Of these latter +Mandeville, the author of <i>The Fable of the Bees, or +Private Vices Public Benefits</i> (1723), was a conspicuous +if not a typical specimen. He can hardly be called a “moralist”; +and though it is impossible to deny him a considerable share of +philosophic penetration, his anti-moral paradoxes have not +even apparent coherence. He is convinced that virtue (where it +is more than a mere pretence) is purely artificial; but not quite +certain whether it is a useless trammel of appetites and passions +that are advantageous to society, or a device creditable to the +politicians who introduced it by playing upon the “pride and +vanity” of the “silly creature man.” The view, however, to +which he gave audacious expression, that moral regulation is +something alien to the natural man, and imposed on him from +without, seems to have been very current in the polite society +of his time, as we learn both from Berkeley’s <i>Alciphron</i> and +from Butler’s more famous sermons.</p> + +<p>The view of “human nature” against which Butler preached +was not exactly Mandeville’s, nor was it properly to be called +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page831" id="page831"></a>831</span> +Hobbist, although Butler fairly treats it as having a philosophical +basis in Hobbes’s psychology. It was, so to say, +<span class="sidenote">Butler.</span> +Hobbism turned inside out,—rendered licentious and +anarchical instead of constructive. Hobbes had said +“the natural state of man is non-moral, unregulated; moral rules +are means to the end of peace, which is a means to the end of +self-preservation.” On this view morality, though dependent +for its actuality on the social compact which establishes government, +is actually binding on man as a reasonable being. But the +quasi-theistic assumption that what is natural must be reasonable +remained in the minds of Hobbes’s most docile readers, and in +combination with his thesis that egoism is natural, tended to +produce results which were dangerous to social well-being. To +meet this view Butler does not content himself, as is sometimes +carelessly supposed, with insisting on the natural claim to +authority of the conscience which his opponent repudiated as +artificial; he adds a subtle and effective argument <i>ad hominem</i>. +He first follows Shaftesbury in exhibiting the social affections +as no less natural than the appetites and desires which tend +directly to self-preservation; then reviving the Stoic view +of the <i>prima naturae</i>, the first objects of natural appetites, +he argues that pleasure is not the primary aim even of the +impulses which Shaftesbury allowed to be “self-affections”; +but rather a result which follows upon their attaining their +natural ends. We have, in fact, to distinguish self-love, the +“general desire that every man hath of his own happiness” or +pleasure, from the particular affections, passions, and appetites +directed towards objects other than pleasure, in the satisfaction +of which pleasure consists. The latter are “necessarily presupposed” +as distinct impulses in “the very idea of an interested +pursuit”; since, if there were no such pre-existing desires, +there would be no pleasure for self-love to aim at. Thus the +object of hunger is not the pleasure of eating but food; hunger +is therefore, strictly speaking, no more “interested” than +benevolence; granting that the pleasures of the table are an +important element in the happiness at which self-love aims, +the same at least may be said for the pleasures of love and +sympathy. Further, so far from bodily appetites (or other +particular desires) being forms of self-love, there is no one of +them which under certain circumstances may not come into +conflict with it. Indeed, it is common for men to sacrifice to +passion what they know to be their true interests; at the same +time we do not consider such conduct “natural” in man as a +rational being; we rather regard it as natural for him to govern +his transient impulses. Thus the notion of natural unregulated +egoism turns out to be a psychological chimera. Indeed, we may +say that an egoist must be doubly self-regulative, since rational +self-love ought to restrain not only other impulses, but itself also; +for as happiness is made up of feelings that result from the +satisfaction of impulses other than self-love, any over-development +of the latter, enfeebling these other impulses, must proportionally +diminish the happiness at which self-love aims. If, +then, it be admitted that human impulses are naturally under +government, the natural claim of conscience or the moral faculty +to be the supreme governor will hardly be denied.</p> + +<p>But has not self-love also, by Butler’s own account, a similar +authority, which may come into conflict with that of conscience? +Butler fully admits this, and, in fact, grounds on it an important +criticism of Shaftesbury. We have seen that in the latter’s +system the “moral sense” is not absolutely required, or at least +is necessary only as a substitute for enlightened self-regard; +since if the harmony between prudence and virtue, self-regarding +and social impulses, is complete, mere self-interest will prompt +a duly enlightened mind to maintain precisely that “balance” of +affections in which goodness consists. But to Butler’s more +cautious mind the completeness of this harmony did not seem +sufficiently demonstrable to be taken as a basis of moral teaching; +he has at least to contemplate the possibility of a man being convinced +of the opposite; and he argues that unless we regard conscience +as essentially authoritative—which is not implied in the +term “moral sense”—such a man is really bound to be vicious; +“since interest, one’s own happiness, is a manifest obligation.” +Still on this view, even if the authority of conscience be asserted, +we seem reduced to an ultimate dualism of our rational nature. +Butler’s ordered polity of impulses turns out to be a polity with +two independent governments. Butler does not deny this, so +far as mere claim to authority is concerned;<a name="fa32s" id="fa32s" href="#ft32s"><span class="sp">32</span></a> but he maintains +that, the dictates of conscience being clear and certain, while the +calculations of self-interest lead to merely probable conclusions, +it can never be practically reasonable to disobey the former, even +apart from any proof which religion may furnish of the absolute +coincidence of the two in a future life.</p> + +<p>This dualism of governing principles, conscience and self-love, +in Butler’s system, and perhaps, too, his revival of the Platonic +conception of human nature as an ordered and governed +community of impulses, is perhaps most nearly anticipated +<span class="sidenote">Wollaston.</span> +in Wollaston’s <i>Religion of Nature Delineated</i> (1722). Here, +for the first time, we find “moral good” and “natural good” +or “happiness” treated separately as two essentially distinct +objects of rational pursuit and investigation; the harmony +between them being regarded as matter of religious faith, not +moral knowledge. Wollaston’s theory of moral evil as consisting +in the practical contradiction of a true proposition, closely +resembles the most paradoxical part of Clarke’s doctrine, and was +not likely to approve itself to the strong common sense of Butler; +but his statement of happiness or pleasure as a “justly desirable” +end at which every rational being “ought” to aim corresponds +exactly to Butler’s conception of self-love as a naturally governing +impulse; while the “moral arithmetic” with which he +compares pleasures and pains, and endeavours to make the +notion of happiness quantitatively precise, is an anticipation of +Benthamism.</p> + +<p>There is another side of Shaftesbury’s harmony which Butler +was ultimately led to oppose in a more decided manner,—the +opposition, namely, between conscience or the moral sense and +the social affections. In the <i>Sermons</i>, indeed (1729), Butler seems +to treat conscience and calm benevolence as permanently allied +though distinct principles, but in the <i>Dissertation on Virtue</i>, +appended to the <i>Analogy</i> (1739), he maintains that the conduct +dictated by conscience will often differ widely from that to which +mere regard for the production of happiness would prompt. We +may take this latter treatise as representing the first in the +development of English ethics, at which what were afterwards +called “utilitarian” and “intuitional” morality were first +formally opposed; in earlier systems the antithesis is quite +latent, as we have incidentally noticed in the case of Cumberland +and Clarke. The argument in Butler’s dissertation was probably +<span class="sidenote">Hutcheson.</span> +directed chiefly against Hutcheson, who in his <i>Inquiry +into the Original of our Ideas of Beauty and Virtue</i> had +definitely identified virtue with benevolence. The identification +is slightly qualified in Hutcheson’s posthumously published +<i>System of Moral Philosophy</i> (1755), in which the general view of +Shaftesbury is more fully developed, with several new psychological +distinctions, including Butler’s separation of “calm” benevolence—as +well as, after Butler, “calm self-love”—from the +“turbulent” passions, selfish or social. Hutcheson follows +Butler again in laying stress on the regulating and controlling +function of the moral sense; but he still regards “kind affections” +as the principal objects of moral approbation—the “calm” +and “extensive” affections being preferred to the turbulent and +narrow—together with the desire and love of moral excellence +which is ranked with universal benevolence, the two being +equally worthy and necessarily harmonious. Only in a secondary +sense is approval due to certain “abilities and dispositions +immediately connected with virtuous affections,” as candour, +veracity, fortitude, sense of honour; while in a lower grade still +are placed sciences and arts, along with even bodily skills and +gifts; indeed, the approbation we give to these is not strictly +moral, but is referred to the “sense of decency or dignity,” +which (as well as the sense of honour) is to be distinguished from +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page832" id="page832"></a>832</span> +the moral sense. Calm self-love Hutcheson regards as morally +indifferent; though he enters into a careful analysis of the elements of +happiness,<a name="fa33s" id="fa33s" href="#ft33s"><span class="sp">33</span></a> in order to show that a true regard for private interest +always coincides with the moral sense and with benevolence. While thus +maintaining Shaftesbury’s “harmony” between public and private good, +Hutcheson is still more careful to establish the strict +disinterestedness of benevolent affections. Shaftesbury had conclusively +shown that these were not in the vulgar sense selfish; but the very +stress which he lays on the pleasure inseparable from their exercise +suggests a subtle egoistic theory which he does not expressly exclude, +since it may be said that this “intrinsic reward” constitutes the real +motive of the benevolent man. To this Hutcheson replies that no doubt +the exquisite delight of the emotion of love is a motive to sustain and +develop it; but this pleasure cannot be directly obtained, any more than +other pleasures, by merely desiring it; it can be sought only by the +indirect method of cultivating and indulging the disinterested desire +for others’ good, which is thus obviously distinct from the desire for +the pleasure of benevolence. He points to the fact that the imminence of +death often intensifies instead of diminishing a man’s desire for the +welfare of those he loves, as a crucial experiment proving the +disinterestedness of love; adding, as confirmatory evidence, that the +sympathy and admiration commonly felt for self-sacrifice depends on the +belief that it is something different from refined self-seeking.</p> + +<p>It remains to consider how, from the doctrine that affection is the +proper object of approbation, we are to deduce moral rules or “natural +laws” prescribing or prohibiting outward acts. It is obvious that all +actions conducive to the general good will deserve our highest +approbation if done from disinterested benevolence; but how if they are +not so done? In answering this question, Hutcheson avails himself of the +scholastic distinction between “material” and “formal” goodness. “An +action,” he says, “is <i>materially</i> good when in fact it tends to the +interest of the system, so far as we can judge of its tendency, or to +the good of some part consistent with that of the system, whatever were +the affections of the agent. An action is <i>formally</i> good when it flowed +from good affection in a just proportion.” On the pivot of this +distinction Hutcheson turns round from the point of view of Shaftesbury +to that of later utilitarianism. As regards “material” goodness of +actions, he adopts explicitly and unreservedly the formula afterwards +taken as fundamental by Bentham; holding that “that action is best which +procures the greatest happiness for the greatest numbers, and the worst +which in a like manner occasions misery.” Accordingly his treatment of +external rights and duties, though decidedly inferior in methodical +clearness and precision, does not differ in principle from that of Paley +or Bentham, except that he lays greater stress on the immediate +conduciveness of actions to the happiness of individuals, and more often +refers in a merely supplementary or restrictive way to their tendencies +in respect of general happiness. It may be noticed, too, that he still +accepts the “social compact” as the natural mode of constituting +government, and regards the obligations of subjects to civil obedience +as normally dependent on a tacit contract; though he is careful to state +that consent is not absolutely necessary to the just establishment of +beneficent government, nor the source of irrevocable obligation to a +pernicious one.</p> + +<p>An important step further in political utilitarianism was taken by Hume +in his <i>Treatise on Human Nature</i> (1739). Hume concedes that a compact is +the natural means of peacefully instituting a new government, and may +therefore be properly regarded as the ground of allegiance to it at the +<span class="sidenote">Hume.</span> +outset; but he urges that, when once it is firmly established the duty +of obeying it rests on precisely the same combination of private and +general interests as the duty of keeping promises; it is therefore +absurd to base the former on the latter. Justice, veracity, fidelity to +compacts and to governments, are all co-ordinate; +they are all “artificial” virtues, due to civilization, +and not belonging to man in his “ruder and more natural” +condition; our approbation of all alike is founded on our perception +of their useful consequences. It is this last position that +constitutes the fundamental difference between Hutcheson’s +ethical doctrine and Hume’s.<a name="fa34s" id="fa34s" href="#ft34s"><span class="sp">34</span></a> The former, while accepting +utility as the criterion of “material goodness,” had adhered to +Shaftesbury’s view that dispositions, not results of action, were +the proper object of moral approval; at the same time, while +giving to benevolence the first place in his account of personal +merit, he had shrunk from the paradox of treating it as the sole +virtue, and had added a rather undefined and unexplained train +of qualities,—veracity, fortitude, activity, industry, sagacity,—immediately +approved in various degrees by the “moral sense” +or the “sense of dignity.” This naturally suggested to a mind +like Hume’s, anxious to apply the experimental method to +psychology, the problem of reducing these different elements +of personal merit—or rather our approval of them—to some +common principle. The old theory that referred this approval +entirely to self-love, is, he holds, easy to disprove by “crucial +experiments” on the play of our moral sentiments; rejecting this, +he finds the required explanation in the sympathetic pleasure +that attends our perception of the conduciveness of virtue to the +interests of human beings other than ourselves. He endeavours +to establish this inductively by a survey of the qualities, commonly +praised as virtues, which he finds to be always either +useful or immediately agreeable, either (1) to the virtuous agent +himself or (2) to others. In class (2) he includes, besides the +Benevolence of Shaftesbury and Hutcheson, the useful virtues, +Justice, Veracity and Fidelity to compacts; as well as such +immediately agreeable qualities as politeness, wit, modesty and +even cleanliness. The most original part of his discussion, +however, is concerned with qualities immediately useful to their +possessor. The most cynical man of the world, he says, with +whatever “sullen incredulity” he may repudiate virtue as a +hollow pretence, cannot really refuse his approbation to “discretion, +caution, enterprise, industry, frugality, economy, good +sense, prudence, discernment”; nor again, to “temperance, +sobriety, patience, perseverance, considerateness, secrecy, +order, insinuation, address, presence of mind, quickness of conception, +facility of expression.” It is evident that the merit +of these qualities in our eyes is chiefly due to our perception of +their tendency to serve the person possessed of them; so that +the cynic in praising them is really exhibiting the unselfish +sympathy of which he doubts the existence. Hume admits +the difficulty that arises, especially in the case of the “artificial” +virtues, such as justice, &c., from the undeniable fact that we +praise them and blame their opposites without consciously +reflecting on useful or pernicious consequences; but considers +that this may be explained as an effect of “education and acquired +habits.”<a name="fa35s" id="fa35s" href="#ft35s"><span class="sp">35</span></a></p> + +<p>So far the moral faculty has been considered as contemplative +rather than active; and this, indeed, is the point of view from +which Hume mainly regards it. If we ask what actual motive +we have for virtuous conduct, Hume’s answer is not quite clear. +On the one hand, he speaks of moral approbation as derived +from “humanity and benevolence,” while expressly recognizing, +after Butler, that there is a strictly disinterested element in our +benevolent impulses (as also in hunger, thirst, love of fame and +other passions). On the other hand, he does not seem to think +that moral sentiment or “taste” can “become a motive to +action,” except as it “gives pleasure or pain, and thereby +constitutes happiness or misery.” It is difficult to make these +views quite consistent; but at any rate Hume emphatically +maintains that “<i>reason</i> is no motive to action,” except so far +as it “directs the impulse received from appetite or inclination”; +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page833" id="page833"></a>833</span> +and recognizes—in his later treatise at least—no “obligation” +to virtue, except that of the agent’s interest or happiness. He +attempts, however, to show, in a summary way, that all the +duties which his moral theory recommends are also “the true +interest of the individual,”—taking into account the importance +to his happiness of “peaceful reflection on one’s own conduct.”</p> + +<p>But even if we consider the moral consciousness merely as a +particular kind of pleasurable emotion, there is an obvious +question suggested by Hume’s theory, to which he gives no +adequate answer. If the essence of “moral taste” is sympathy +with the pleasure of others, why is not this specific feeling +excited by other things beside virtue that tend to cause such +pleasure? On this point Hume contents himself with the vague +remark that “there are a numerous set of passions and sentiments, +of which thinking rational beings are by the original constitution +of nature the only proper objects.” The truth is, that Hume’s +notion of moral approbation was very loose, as is sufficiently +shown by the list of “useful and agreeable” qualities which he +considers worthy of approbation.<a name="fa36s" id="fa36s" href="#ft36s"><span class="sp">36</span></a> It is therefore hardly surprising +that his theory should leave the specific quality of the moral +sentiments a fact still needing to be explained. An original and +ingenious solution of this problem was offered by his contemporary +Adam Smith, in his <i>Theory of Moral Sentiments</i> (1759). +<span class="sidenote">Adam Smith.</span> +Without denying the actuality or importance of that +sympathetic pleasure in the perceived or inferred effects +of virtues and vices he yet holds that the essential +part of common moral sentiment is constituted rather by a more +direct sympathy with the impulses that prompt to action or +expression. The spontaneous play of this sympathy he treats +as an original and inexplicable fact of human nature, but he +considers that its action is powerfully sustained by the pleasure +that each man finds in the accord of his feelings with another’s. +By means of this primary element, compounded in various +ways, Adam Smith explains all the phenomena of the moral +consciousness. He takes first the semi-moral notion of “propriety” +or “decorum,” and endeavours to show inductively that +our application of this notion to the social behaviour of another +is determined by our degree of sympathy with the feeling expressed +in such behaviour. Thus the prescriptions of good taste +in the expression of feeling may be summed up in the principle, +“reduce or raise the expression to that with which spectators +will sympathize.” When the effort to restrain feeling is exhibited +in a degree which surprises as well as pleases, it excites admiration +as a virtue or excellence; such excellences Adam Smith quaintly +calls the “awful and respectable,” contrasting them with the +“amiable virtues” which consist in the opposite effort to +sympathize, when exhibited in a remarkable degree. From the +sentiments of propriety and admiration we proceed to the sense +of merit and demerit. Here a more complex phenomenon +presents itself for analysis; we have to distinguish in the sense +of merit—(1) a direct sympathy with the sentiments of the agent, +and (2) an indirect sympathy with the gratitude of those who +receive the benefit of his actions. In the case of demerit there is +a direct antipathy to the feelings of the misdoer, but the chief +sentiment excited is sympathy with those injured by the misdeed. +The object of this sympathetic resentment, impelling us to +punish, is what we call injustice; and thus the remarkable +stringency of the obligation to act justly is explained since the +recognition of any action as unjust involves the admission that +it may be forcibly obstructed or punished. Moral judgments, +then, are expressions of the complex normal sympathy of an +impartial spectator with the active impulses that prompt to and +result from actions. In the case of our own conduct what we +call conscience is really sympathy with the feelings of an imaginary +impartial spectator.</p> + +<p>Adam Smith gives authority to his moral system by saying +that “moral principles are justly to be regarded as the laws +of the Deity”; but this he never proves. So Hume insists +emphatically on the “reality of moral obligation”; but is +found to mean no more by this than the real existence of the +likes and dislikes that human beings feel for each other’s qualities. +The fact is that amid the analysis of feelings aroused by the +sentimentalism of Shaftesbury’s school, the fundamental +questions “What is right?” and “Why?” had been allowed +to drop into the background, and the consequent danger to +morality was manifest. The binding force of moral rules becomes +evanescent if we admit, with Hutcheson, that the “sense” of +them may properly vary from man to man as the palate does; +and it seems only another way of putting Hume’s doctrine, that +reason is not concerned with the ends of action, to say that the +mere existence of a moral sentiment is in itself no reason for +obeying it. A reaction, in one form or another, against the +tendency to dissolve ethics into psychology was inevitable; +since mankind generally could not be so far absorbed by the +interest of psychological hypothesis as to forget their need of +establishing practical principles. It was obvious, too, that this +reaction might take place in either of the two lines of thought, +which, having been peacefully allied in Clarke and Cumberland, +had become distinctly opposed to each other in Butler and +Hutcheson. It might either fall back on the moral principles +commonly accepted, and, affirming their objective validity, +endeavour to exhibit them as a coherent and complete set of +ultimate ethical truths; or it might take the utility or conduciveness +to pleasure, to which Hume had referred for the +origin of most sentiments, as an ultimate end and standard by +which these sentiments might be judged and corrected. The +former is the line adopted with substantial agreement by Price, +Reid, Stewart and other members of the still existing Intuitional +school; the latter method, with considerably more divergence of +view and treatment, was employed independently and almost +simultaneously by Paley and Bentham in both ethics and politics, +and is at the present time widely maintained under the name +of Utilitarianism.</p> + +<p>Price’s <i>Review of the Chief Questions and Difficulties of Morals</i> +was published in 1757, two years before Adam Smith’s treatise. +In regarding moral ideas as derived from the “intuition +of truth or immediate discernment of the nature of +<span class="sidenote">Price.</span> +things by the understanding,” Price revives the general view of +Cudworth and Clarke; but with several specific differences. +Firstly, his conception of “right” and “wrong” as “single +ideas” incapable of definition or analysis—the notions “right,” +“fit,” “ought,” “duty,” “obligation,” being coincident or +identical—at least avoids the confusions into which Clarke +and Wollaston had been led by pressing the analogy between +ethical and physical truth. Secondly, the emotional element +of the moral consciousness, on which attention had been concentrated +by Shaftesbury and his followers, though distinctly +recognized as accompanying the intellectual intuition, is carefully +subordinated to it. While right and wrong, in Price’s view, are +“real objective qualities” of actions, moral “beauty and +deformity” are subjective ideas; representing feelings which +are partly the necessary effects of the perceptions of right and +wrong in rational beings as such, partly due to an “implanted +sense” or varying emotional susceptibility. Thus, both reason +and sense of instinct co-operate in the impulse to virtuous conduct, +though the rational element is primary and paramount. Price +further follows Butler in distinguishing the perception of merit +and demerit in agents as another accompaniment of the perception +of right and wrong in actions; the former being, however, +only a peculiar species of the latter, since, to perceive merit in +any one is to perceive that it is right to reward him. It is to be +observed that both Price and Reid are careful to state that the +merit of the agent depends entirely on the intention or “formal +rightness” of his act; a man is not blameworthy for unintended +evil, though he may of course be blamed for any wilful neglect +(cf. Arist., <i>Eth. Nic</i>., iii. 1), which has caused him to be ignorant +of his real duty. When we turn to the subject matter of virtue, +we find that Price, in comparison with More or Clarke is decidedly +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page834" id="page834"></a>834</span> +laxer in accepting and stating his ethical first principles; chiefly +owing to the new antithesis to the view of Shaftesbury and +Hutcheson by which his controversial position is complicated. +What Price is specially concerned to show is the existence of +ultimate principles <i>beside</i> the principle of universal benevolence. +Not that he repudiates the obligation either of rational benevolence +or self-love; on the contrary, he takes more pains than +Butler to demonstrate the reasonableness of either principle. +“There is not anything,” he says, “of which we have more +undeniably an intuitive perception, than that it is ‘right to +pursue and promote happiness,’ whether for ourselves or for +others.” Finally, Price, writing after the demonstration by +Shaftesbury and Butler of the actuality of disinterested +impulses in human nature, is bolder and clearer than Cudworth +or Clarke in insisting that right actions are to be chosen because +they are right by virtuous agents as such, even going so far +as to lay down that an act loses its moral worth in proportion +as it is done from natural inclination.</p> + +<p>On this latter point Reid, in his <i>Essays on the Active Powers of +the Human Mind</i> (1788), states a conclusion more in harmony +with common sense, only maintaining that “no act +can be morally good in which regard for what is right +<span class="sidenote">Reid.</span> +has not <i>some</i> influence.” This is partly due to the fact that +Reid builds more distinctly than Price on the foundation laid +by Butler; especially in his acceptance of that duality of governing +principles which we have noticed as a cardinal point in the +latter’s doctrine. Reid considers “regard for one’s good on the +whole” (Butler’s self-love) and “sense of duty” (Butler’s +conscience) as two essentially distinct and co-ordinate rational +principles, though naturally often comprehended under the one +term, Reason. The rationality of the former principle he takes +pains to explain and establish; in opposition to Hume’s doctrine +that it is no part of the function of reason to determine the ends +which we ought to pursue, or the preference due to one end over +another. He urges that the notion of “good<a name="fa37s" id="fa37s" href="#ft37s"><span class="sp">37</span></a> on the whole” is +one which only a reasoning being can form, involving as it does +abstraction from the objects of all particular desires, and comparison +of past and future with present feelings; and maintains +that it is a contradiction to suppose a rational being to have the +notion of its Good on the Whole without a desire for it, and that +such a desire must naturally regulate all particular appetites +and passions. It cannot reasonably be subordinated even to +the moral faculty; in fact, a man who doubts the coincidence of +the two—which on religious grounds we must believe to be +complete in a morally governed world—is reduced to the “miserable +dilemma whether it is better to be a fool or a knave.” +As regards the moral faculty itself, Reid’s statement coincides +in the main with Price’s; it is both intellectual and active, +not merely perceiving the “rightness” or “moral obligation” +of actions (which Reid conceives as a simple unanalysable +relation between act and agent), but also impelling the will to +the performance of what is seen to be right. Both thinkers hold +that this perception of right and wrong in actions is accompanied +by a perception of merit and demerit in agents, and also by a +specific emotion; but whereas Price conceives this emotion +chiefly as pleasure or pain, analogous to that produced in the mind +by physical beauty or deformity, Reid regards it chiefly as +benevolent affection, esteem and sympathy (or their opposites), +for the virtuous (or vicious) agent. This “pleasurable good-will,” +when the moral judgment relates to a man’s own actions, becomes +“the testimony of a good conscience—the purest and most +valuable of all human enjoyments.” Reid is careful to observe +that this moral faculty is not “innate” except in germ; it +stands in need of “education, training, exercise (for which +society is indispensable), and habit,” in order to the attainment +of moral truth. He does not with Price object to its +being called the “moral sense,” provided we understand by +this a source not merely of feelings or notions, but of “ultimate +truths.” Here he omits to notice the important question whether +the premises of moral reasoning are universal or individual +judgments; as to which the use of the term “sense” seems +rather to suggest the second alternative. Indeed, he seems +himself quite undecided on this question; since, though he +generally represents ethical method as deductive, he also speaks +of the “original judgment that this action is right and that +wrong.”</p> + +<p>The truth is that the construction of a scientific method of +ethics is a matter of little practical moment to Reid. Thus, +though he offers a list of first principles, by deduction from which +these common opinions may be confirmed, he does not present +it with any claim to completeness. Besides maxims relating to +virtue in general,—such as (1) that there is a right and wrong in +conduct, but (2) only in voluntary conduct, and that we ought +(3) to take pains to learn our duty, and (4) fortify ourselves +against temptations to deviate from it—Reid states five fundamental +axioms. The first of these is merely the principle of +rational self-love, “that we ought to prefer a greater to a lesser +good, though more distinct, and a less evil to a greater,”—the +mention of which seems rather inconsistent with Reid’s distinct +separation of the “moral faculty” from “self-love.” The third +is merely the general rule of benevolence stated in the somewhat +vague Stoical formula, that “no one is born for himself only.” +The fourth, again, is the merely formal principle that “right and +wrong must be the same to all in all circumstances,” which +belongs equally to all systems of objective morality; while the +fifth prescribes the religious duty of “veneration or submission +to God.” Thus, the only principle which ever appears to offer +definite guidance as to social duty is the second, “that so far +as the intention of nature appears in the constitution of man, +we ought to act according to that intention,” the vagueness<a name="fa38s" id="fa38s" href="#ft38s"><span class="sp">38</span></a> +of which is obvious. (For Reid’s views on moral freedom see +A. Bain, <i>Mental Science</i>, pp. 422, seq.)</p> + +<p>A similar incompleteness in the statement of moral principles +is found if we turn to Reid’s disciple, Dugald Stewart, whose +<i>Philosophy of the Active and Moral Powers of Man</i> +(1828) contains the general view of Butler and Reid, +<span class="sidenote">Dugald Stewart.</span> +and to some extent that of Price,—expounded with +more fulness and precision, but without important original +additions or modifications. Stewart lays stress on the obligation +of justice as distinct from benevolence; but his definition of +justice represents it as essentially impartiality,—a virtue which +(as was just now said of Reid’s fourth principle) must equally +find a place in the utilitarian or any other system that lays +down universally applicable rules of morality. Afterwards, +however, Stewart distinguishes “integrity or honesty” as a +branch of justice concerned with the rights of other men, which +form the subject of “natural jurisprudence.” In this department +he lays down the moral axiom “that the labourer is entitled +to the fruit of his own labour” as the principle on which complete +rights of property are founded; maintaining that occupancy +alone would only confer a transient right of possession during +use. The only other principles which he discusses are veracity +and fidelity to promises, gratitude being treated as a natural +instinct prompting to a particular kind of just actions.</p> + +<p>It will be seen that neither Reid nor Stewart offers more than +a very meagre and tentative contribution to that ethical science +by which, as they maintain, the received rules of +morality may be rationally deduced from self-evident +<span class="sidenote">Whewell.</span> +first principles. A more ambitious attempt in the same direction +was made by Whewell in his <i>Elements of Morality</i> (1846). +Whewell’s general moral view differs from that of his Scottish +predecessors chiefly in a point where we may trace the influence +of Kant—viz. in his rejection of self-love as an independent +rational and governing principle, and his consequent refusal +to admit happiness, apart from duty, as a reasonable end for +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page835" id="page835"></a>835</span> +the individual. The moral reason, thus left in sole supremacy, +is represented as enunciating five ultimate principles,—those of +benevolence, justice, truth, purity and order. With a little +straining these are made to correspond to five chief divisions of +Jus,—personal security (benevolence being opposed to the +ill-will that commonly causes personal injuries), property, +contract, marriage and government; while the first, second +and fourth, again, regulate respectively the three chief classes +of human motives,—affections, mental desires and appetites. +Thus the list, with the addition of two general principles, “earnestness” +and “moral purpose,” has a certain air of systematic +completeness. When, however, we look closer, we find that the +principle of order, or obedience to government, is not seriously +intended to imply the political absolutism which it seems to +express, and which English common sense emphatically repudiates; +while the formula of justice is given in the tautological +or perfectly indefinite proposition “that every man ought to +have his own.” Whewell, indeed, explains that this latter +formula must be practically interpreted by positive law, though +he inconsistently speaks as if it supplied a standard for judging +laws to be right or wrong. The principle of purity, again, “that +the lower parts of our nature ought to be subject to the higher,” +merely particularizes that supremacy of reason over non-rational +impulses which is involved in the very notion of reasoned +morality. Thus, in short, if we ask for a clear and definite +fundamental intuition, distinct from regard for happiness, we +find really nothing in Whewell’s doctrine except the single rule +of veracity (including fidelity to promises); and even of this +the axiomatic character becomes evanescent on closer inspection, +since it is not maintained that the rule is practically unqualified, +but only that it is practically undesirable to formulate its +qualifications.</p> + +<p>On the whole, it must be admitted that the doctrine of the intuitional +school of the 18th and 19th centuries has been developed +with less care and consistency than might have been +expected, in its statement of the fundamental axioms +<span class="sidenote">Intuitional and utilitarian schools.</span> +or intuitively known premises of moral reasoning. +And if the controversy which this school has conducted +with utilitarianism had turned principally on the determination +of the matter of duty, there can be little doubt that it would +have been forced into more serious and systematic effort to define +precisely and completely the principles and method on which +we are to reason deductively to particular rules of conduct.<a name="fa39s" id="fa39s" href="#ft39s"><span class="sp">39</span></a> +But in fact the difference between intuitionists and utilitarians +as to the method of determining the particulars of the moral +code was complicated with a more fundamental disagreement +as to the very meaning of “moral obligation.” This Paley and +Bentham (after Locke) interpreted as merely the effect on the +will of the pleasures or pains attached to the observance or violation +of moral rules, combining with this the doctrine of Hutcheson +that “general good” or “happiness” is the final end and +standard of these rules; while they eliminated all vagueness +from the notion of general happiness by defining it to consist +in “excess of pleasure over pain”—pleasures and pains being +regarded as “differing in nothing but continuance or intensity.” +The utilitarian system gained an attractive air of simplicity by +thus using a single perfectly clear notion—pleasure and its +negative quantity pain—to answer both the fundamental +questions of mortals, “What is right?” and “Why should I +do it?” But since there is no logical connexion between +the answers that have thus come to be considered as one +doctrine, this apparent unity and simplicity has really hidden +fundamental disagreements, and caused no little confusion in +ethical debate.</p> + +<p>In Paley’s <i>Principles of Moral and Political Philosophy</i><a name="fa40s" id="fa40s" href="#ft40s"><span class="sp">40</span></a> +(1785), the link between general pleasure (the standard) and +private pleasure or pain (the motive) is supplied by +the conception of divine legislation. To be “obliged” +<span class="sidenote">Paley.</span> +is to be “urged by a violent motive resulting from the command +of another”; in the case of moral obligation, the command +proceeds from God, and the motive lies in the expectation of +being rewarded and punished after this life. The commands of +God are to be ascertained “from scripture and the light of +nature combined.” Paley, however, holds that scripture is +given less to teach morality than to illustrate it by example +and enforce it by new sanctions and greater certainty, and that +the light of nature makes it clear that God wills the happiness +of his creatures. Hence, his method in deciding moral questions +is chiefly that of estimating the tendency of actions to promote +or diminish the general happiness. To meet the obvious objections +to this method, based on the immediate happiness caused by +admitted crimes (such as “knocking a rich villain on the head”), +he lays stress on the necessity of general rules in any kind of +legislation;<a name="fa41s" id="fa41s" href="#ft41s"><span class="sp">41</span></a> while, by urging the importance of forming and +maintaining good habits, he partly evades the difficulty of calculating +the consequences of particular actions. In this way +the utilitarian method is freed from the subversive tendencies +which Butler and others had discerned in it; as used by Paley, +it merely explains the current moral and jural distinctions, +exhibits the obvious basis of expediency which supports most +of the received rules of law and morality and furnishes a simple +solution, in harmony with common sense, of some perplexing +casuistical questions. Thus (<i>e.g.</i>) “natural rights” become +rights of which the general observance would be useful apart +from the institution of civil government; as distinguished from +the no less binding “adventitious rights,” the utility of which +depends upon this institution. Private property is in this +sense “natural” from its obvious advantages in encouraging +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page836" id="page836"></a>836</span> +labour, skill, preservative care; though actual rights of property +depend on the general utility of conforming to the law of the land +by which they are determined. We observe, however, that +Paley’s method is often mixed with reasonings that belong to an +alien and older manner of thought; as when he supports the +claim of the poor to charity by referring to the intention of +mankind “when they agreed to a separation of the common +fund,” or when he infers that monogamy is a part of the divine +design from the equal numbers of males and females born. In +other cases his statement of utilitarian considerations is fragmentary +and unmethodical, and tends to degenerate into loose +exhortation on rather trite topics.</p> + +<p>In unity, consistency and thoroughness of method, Bentham’s +utilitarianism has a decided superiority over Paley’s. He +considers actions solely in respect of their pleasurable +and painful consequences, expected or actual; and he +<span class="sidenote">Bentham and his school.</span> +recognizes the need of making a systematic register +of these consequences, free from the influences of +common moral opinion, as expressed in the “eulogistic” and +“dyslogistic” terms in ordinary use. Further, the effects +that he estimates are all of a definite, palpable, empirically +ascertainable quality; they are such pleasures and pains as +most men feel and all can observe, so that all his political or +moral inferences lie open at every point to the test of practical +experience. Every one, it would seem, can tell what value he +sets on the pleasures of alimentation, sex, the senses generally, +wealth, power, curiosity, sympathy, antipathy (malevolence), +the goodwill of individuals or of society at large, and on the +corresponding pains, as well as the pains of labour and organic +disorders;<a name="fa42s" id="fa42s" href="#ft42s"><span class="sp">42</span></a> and can guess the rate at which they are valued +by others; therefore if it be once granted that all actions are +determined by pleasures and pains, and are to be tried by the +same standard, the art of legislation and private conduct is +apparently placed on an empirical, basis. Bentham, no doubt, +seems to go beyond the limits of experience proper in recognizing +“religious” pains and pleasures in his fourfold division of +sanctions, side by side with the “physical,” “political,” and +“moral” or “social”; but the truth is that he does not seriously +take account of them, except in so far as religious hopes and +fears are motives actually operating, which therefore admit +of being observed and measured as much as any other motives. +He does not himself use the will of an omnipotent and benevolent +being as a means of logically connecting individual and general +happiness. He thus undoubtedly simplifies his system, and +avoids the doubtful inferences from nature and Scripture in +which Paley’s position is involved; but this gain is dearly +purchased. For in answer to the question that immediately +arises, How then are the sanctions of the moral rules which it +will most conduce to the general happiness for men to observe, +shown to be always adequate in the case of all the individuals +whose observance is required? he is obliged to admit that +“the only interests which a man is at all times sure to find +adequate motives for consulting are his own.” Indeed, in many +parts of his work, in the department of legislative and constitutional +theory, it is rather assumed that the interests of some men +will continually conflict with those of their fellows, unless we +alter the balance of prudential calculation by a readjustment of +penalties. But on this assumption a system of private conduct +on utilitarian principles cannot be constructed until legislative +and constitutional reform has been perfected. And, in fact, +“private ethics,” as conceived by Bentham, does not exactly +expound such a system; but rather exhibits the coincidence, +<i>so far as it extends</i>, between private and general happiness, in +that part of each man’s conduct that lies beyond the range of +useful legislation. It was not his place, as a practical philanthropist, +to dwell on the defects in this coincidence;<a name="fa43s" id="fa43s" href="#ft43s"><span class="sp">43</span></a> and since +what men generally expect from a moralist is a completely +reasoned account of what they ought to do, it is not surprising +that some of Bentham’s disciples should have either ignored +or endeavoured to supply the gap in his system. One section +of the school even maintained it to be a cardinal doctrine of +utilitarianism that a man always gains his own greatest happiness +by promoting that of others; another section, represented +by John Austin, apparently returned to Paley’s position, and +treated utilitarian morality<a name="fa44s" id="fa44s" href="#ft44s"><span class="sp">44</span></a> as a code of divine legislation; +others, with Grote, are content to abate the severity of the claims +made by “general happiness” on the individual, and to consider +utilitarian duty as practically limited by reciprocity; while +on the opposite side an unqualified subordination of private +to general happiness was advocated by J.S. Mill, who did more +than any other member of the school to spread and popularize +utilitarianism in ethics and politics.</p> + +<p>The fact is that there are several different ways in which a +utilitarian system of morality may be used, without deciding +whether the sanctions attached to it are always +adequate. (1) It may be presented as practical +<span class="sidenote">Varieties of utilitarian doctrine.</span> +guidance to all who choose “general good” as their +ultimate end, whether they do so on religious grounds, +or through the predominance in their minds of impartial sympathy, +or because their conscience acts in harmony with utilitarian +principles, or for any combination of these or any other reasons; +or (2) it may be offered as a code to be obeyed not absolutely, +but only so far as the coincidence of private and general interest +may in any case be judged to extend; or again (3) it may be +proposed as a standard by which men may reasonably agree +to praise and blame the conduct of others, even though they +may not always think fit to act on it. We may regard morality +as a kind of supplementary legislation, supported by public +opinion, which we may expect the public, when duly enlightened, +to frame in accordance with the public interest. Still, even from +this point of view, which is that of the legislator or social reformer +rather than the moral philosopher, our code of duty must be +greatly influenced by our estimate of the degrees in which men +are normally influenced by self-regard (in its ordinary sense of +regard for interests not sympathetic) and by sympathy or benevolence, +and of the range within which sympathy may be expected +to be generally effective. Thus, for example, the moral standard +for which a utilitarian will reasonably endeavour to gain the +support of public opinion must be essentially different in quality, +according as he holds with Bentham that nothing but self-regard +will “serve for diet,” though “for a dessert benevolence is a very +<span class="sidenote">J.S. Mill.</span> +valuable addition”; or with J.S. Mill that disinterested +public spirit should be the prominent motive in the +performance of all socially useful work, and that even hygienic +precepts should be inculcated, not chiefly on grounds of prudence, +but because “by squandering our health we disable ourselves +from rendering services to our fellow-creatures.”</p> + +<p>Not less important is the interval that separates Bentham’s +polemical attitude towards the moral sense from Mill’s conciliatory +position, that “the mind is not in a state conformable +to utility unless it loves virtue as a thing desirable in itself.” +Such love of virtue Mill holds to be in a sense natural, though +not an ultimate and inexplicable fact of human nature; it is +to be explained by the “Law of Association” of feelings and +ideas, through which objects originally desired as a means to +some further end come to be directly pleasant or desirable. Thus, +the miser first sought money as a means to comfort, but ends +by sacrificing comfort to money; and similarly though the +first promptings to justice (or any other virtue) spring from the +non-moral pleasures gained or pains avoided by it, through the +link formed by repeated virtuous acts the performance of them +ultimately comes to have that immediate satisfaction attached +to it which we distinguished as moral. Indeed, the acquired +tendency to virtuous conduct may become so strong that the +habit of willing it may continue, “even when the reward which +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page837" id="page837"></a>837</span> +the virtuous man receives from the consciousness of well-doing +is anything but an equivalent for the sufferings he undergoes +or the wishes he may have to renounce.” It is thus that the +before-mentioned self-sacrifice of the moral hero is conceived +by Mill to be possible and actual. The moral sentiments, on +this view, are not phases of self-love as Hobbes held; nor can +they be directly identified with sympathy, either in Hume’s +way or in Adam Smith’s; in fact, though apparently simple +they are really derived in a complex manner from self-love +and sympathy combined with more primitive impulses. Justice +(<i>e.g.</i>) is regarded by Mill as essentially resentment moralized +by enlarged sympathy and intelligent self-interest; what we +mean by injustice is harm done to an assignable individual +by a breach of some rule for which we desire the violator to be +punished, for the sake both of the person injured and of society +at large, including ourselves. As regards moral sentiments +generally, the view suggested by Mill is more definitely given +by the chief living representative of the associationist school, +Alexander Bain; by whom the distinctive characteristics of +conscience are traced to “education under government or +authority,” though prudence, disinterested sympathy and other +emotions combine to swell the mass of feeling vaguely denoted +by the term moral. The combination of antecedents is somewhat +differently given by different writers; but all agree in +representing the conscience of any individual as naturally +correlated to the interests of the community of which he is a +member, and thus a natural ally in enforcing utilitarian rules, +or even a valuable guide when utilitarian calculations are difficult +and uncertain.</p> + +<p>This substitution of hypothetical history for direct analysis +of the moral sense is really older than the utilitarianism of Paley +and Bentham, which it has so profoundly modified. +The effects of association in modifying mental phenomena +<span class="sidenote">Association and evolution.</span> +were noticed by Locke, and made a cardinal +point in the metaphysic of Hume; who also referred +to the principle slightly in his account of justice and other +“artificial” virtues. Some years earlier, Gay,<a name="fa45s" id="fa45s" href="#ft45s"><span class="sp">45</span></a> admitting +Hutcheson’s proof of the actual disinterestedness of moral and +benevolent impulses, had maintained that these (like the desires +of knowledge or fame, the delight of reading, hunting and +planting, &c.) were derived from self-love by “the power of +association.” But a thorough and systematic application of +the principle to ethical psychology is first found in Hartley’s +<i>Observations on Man</i> (1748). Hartley, too, was the first to +conceive association as producing, instead of mere cohesion of +mental phenomena, a quasi-chemical combination of these into +a compound apparently different from its elements. He shows +elaborately how the pleasures and pains of “imagination, +ambition, self-interest, sympathy, theopathy, and the moral +sense” are developed out of the elementary pleasures and pains +of sensation; by the coalescence into really complex but +apparently single ideas of the “miniatures” or faint feelings +which the repetition of sensations contemporaneously or in +immediate succession tends to produce in cohering groups. +His theory assumes the correspondence of mind and body, and +is applied <i>pari passu</i> to the formation of ideas from sensations, +and of “compound vibratiuncules in the medullary substance” +from the original vibrations that arise in the organ of sense.<a name="fa46s" id="fa46s" href="#ft46s"><span class="sp">46</span></a> +The same general view was afterwards developed with much +vigour and clearness on the psychical side alone by James Mill +in his <i>Analysis of the Human Mind</i>. The whole theory has been +persistently controverted by writers of the intuitional school, +who (unlike Hartley) have usually thought that this derivation +of moral sentiments from more primitive feelings would be +detrimental to the authority of the former. The chief argument +against this theory has been based on the early period at which +these sentiments are manifested by children, which hardly +allows time for association to produce the effects ascribed to it. +This argument has been met in recent times by the application +to mind of the physiological theory of heredity, according to +which changes produced in the mind (brain) of a parent, by +association of ideas or otherwise, tend to be inherited by his +offspring; so that the development of the moral sense or any +other faculty or susceptibility of existing man may be hypothetically +carried back into the prehistoric life of the human +race, without any change in the manner of derivation supposed. +At present, however, the theory of heredity is usually held in +conjunction with Darwin’s theory of natural selection; according +to which different kinds of living things in the course of a +series of generations come gradually to be endowed with organs, +faculties and habits tending to the preservation of the individual +or species under the conditions of life in which it is placed. +Thus we have a new zoological factor in the history of the moral +sentiments; which, though in no way opposed to the older +psychological theory of their formation through coalescence of +more primitive feelings, must yet be conceived as controlling +and modifying the effects of the law of association by preventing +the formation of sentiments other than those tending to the +preservation of human life. The influence of the Darwinian +theory, moreover, has extended from historical psychology to +ethics, tending to substitute “preservation of the race under +its conditions of existence” for “happiness” as the ultimate +end and standard of virtue.</p> + +<p>Before concluding this sketch of the development of English +ethical thought from Hobbes to the thinkers of the 19th century, +it will be well to notice briefly the views held by different +moralists on the question of free-will,—so far, that is, as +<span class="sidenote">Free-will.</span> +they have been put forward as ethically important. We must +first distinguish three meanings in which “freedom” is attributed +to the will or “inner self” of a human being, viz. (1) the general +power of choosing among different alternatives of action without +a motive, or against the resultant force of conflicting motives; +(2) the power of choice between the promptings of reason and +those of appetites (or other non-rational impulses) when the latter +conflict with reason; (3) merely the quality of acting rationally +in spite of conflicting impulses, however strong, the <i>non posse +peccare</i> of the medieval theologians.<a name="fa47s" id="fa47s" href="#ft47s"><span class="sp">47</span></a> It is obvious that “freedom” +in this third sense is in no way incompatible with complete +determination; and, indeed, is rather an ideal state after which +the moral agent ought to aspire than a property which the human +will can be said to possess. In the first sense, again, as distinct +from the second, the assertion of “freedom” has no ethical +significance, except in so far as it introduces a general uncertainty +into all our inferences respecting human conduct. Even in the +second sense it hardly seems that the freedom of a man’s will +can be an element to be considered in examining what it is right +or best for him to do (though of course the clearest convictions +of duty will be fruitless if a man has not sufficient self-control +to enable him to act on them); it is rather when we ask whether +it is just to punish him for wrong-doing that it seems important to +know whether he could have done otherwise. But in spite of +the strong interest taken in the theological aspect of this question +by the Protestant divines of the 17th century, it does not appear +that English moralists from Hobbes to Hume laid any stress on +the relation of free-will either to duty generally or to justice in +particular. Neither the doctrine of Hobbes, that deliberation +is a mere alternation of competing desires, voluntary action +immediately following the “last appetite,” nor the hardly less +decided Determinism of Locke, who held that the will is always +moved by the greatest present uneasiness, appeared to either +author to require any reconciliation with the belief in human +responsibility. Even in Clarke’s system, where Indeterminism +is no doubt a cardinal notion, its importance is metaphysical +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page838" id="page838"></a>838</span> +rather than ethical; Clarke’s view being that the apparently +arbitrary particularity in the constitution of the cosmos is really +only explicable by reference to creative free-will. In the ethical +discussion of Shaftesbury and sentimental moralists generally +this question drops naturally out of sight; and the cautious +Butler tries to exclude its perplexities as far as possible from the +philosophy of practice. But since the reaction, led by Price and +Reid, against the manner of philosophizing that had culminated +in Hume, free-will has been generally maintained by the +intuitional school to be an essential point of ethics; and, in fact, +it is naturally connected with the judgment of good and ill +desert which these writers give as an essential element in their +analysis of the moral consciousness. An irresistible motive, it is +forcibly said, palliates or takes away guilt; no one can blame +himself for yielding to necessity, and no one can properly be +punished for what he could not have prevented. In answer to +this argument some necessarians have admitted that punishment +can be legitimate only if it be beneficial to the person punished; +others, again, have held that the lawful use of force is to restrain +lawless force; but most of those who reject free-will defend +punishment on the ground of its utility in deterring others from +crime, as well as in correcting or restraining the criminal on +whom it falls.</p> + +<p>In the preceding sketch we have traced the course of English +ethical speculation without bringing it into relation with contemporary +European thought on the same subject. +And in fact almost all the systems described, from +<span class="sidenote">French influence on English ethics.</span> +Hobbes downward, have been of essentially native +growth, showing hardly any traces of foreign influence. +We may observe that ethics is the only department in which this +result appears. The physics and psychology of Descartes were +much studied in England, and his metaphysical system was +certainly the most important antecedent of Locke’s; but +Descartes hardly touched ethics proper. So again the controversy +that Clarke conducted with Spinoza, and afterwards +with Leibnitz, was entirely confined to the metaphysical region. +Catholic France was a school for Englishmen in many subjects, +but not in morality; the great struggle between Jansenists and +Jesuits had a very remote interest for them. It was not till near +the close of the 18th century that the impress of the French +revolutionary philosophy began to manifest itself in England; +and even then its influence was mostly political rather than +ethical. It is striking to observe how even in the case of writers +such as Godwin, who were most powerfully affected by the +French political movement, the moral basis, on which the new +social order of rational and equal freedom is constructed, is +almost entirely of native origin; even when the tone and spirit +are French, the forms of thought and manner of reasoning are +still purely English. In the derivation of Benthamism alone—which, +it may be observed, first becomes widely known in the +French paraphrase of Dumont—an important element is supplied +<span class="sidenote">Helvetius.</span> +by the works of a French writer, Helvetius; as +Bentham himself was fully conscious. It was from +Helvetius that he learnt that, men being universally and solely +governed by self-love, the so-called moral judgments are really +the common judgments of any society as to its common interests; +that it is therefore futile on the one hand to propose any standard +of virtue, except that of conduciveness to general happiness, +and on the other hand useless merely to lecture men on duty and +scold them for vice; that the moralist’s proper function is rather +to exhibit the coincidence of virtue with private happiness; +that, accordingly, though nature has bound men’s interests +together in many ways, and education by developing sympathy +and the habit of mutual help may much extend the connexion, +still the most effective moralist is the legislator, who by acting +on self-love through legal sanctions may mould human conduct +as he chooses. These few simple doctrines give the ground plan +of Bentham’s indefatigable and lifelong labours.</p> + +<p>So again, in the modified Benthamism which the persuasive +exposition of J.S. Mill afterwards made popular in England, the +influence of Auguste Comte (<i>Philosophie positive</i>, 1829-1842, +and <i>Système de politique positive</i>, 1851-1854) appears as the chief +<span class="sidenote">Comte.</span> +modifying element. This influence, so far as it has affected +moral as distinct from political speculation, has been exercised +primarily through the general conception of human +progress; which, in Comte’s view, consists in the ever-growing +preponderance of the distinctively human attributes over +the purely animal, social feelings being ranked highest among +human attributes, and highest of all the most universalized +phase of human affection, the devotion to humanity as a whole. +Accordingly, it is the development of benevolence in man, +and of the habit of “living for others,” which Comte takes as the +ultimate aim and standard of practice, rather than the mere +increase of happiness. He holds, indeed, that the two are inseparable, +and that the more <i>altruistic</i> any man’s sentiments and +habits of action can be made, the greater will be the happiness +enjoyed by himself as well as by others. But he does not seriously +trouble himself to argue with egoism, or to weigh carefully the +amount of happiness that might be generally attained by the +satisfaction of egoistic propensities duly regulated; a supreme +unquestioning self-devotion, in which all personal calculations +are suppressed, is an essential feature of his moral ideal. Such a +view is almost diametrically opposed to Bentham’s conception of +normal human existence; the newer utilitarianism of Mill +represents an endeavour to find the right middle path between +the two extremes.</p> + +<p>It is to be observed that, in Comte’s view, devotion to humanity +is the principle not merely of morality, but of religion; <i>i.e.</i> it +should not merely be practically predominant, but should be +manifested and sustained by regular and partly symbolical +forms of expression, private and public. This side of Comte’s +system, however, and the details of his ideal reconstruction +of society, in which this religion plays an important part, have +had but little influence either in England or elsewhere. It is +more important to notice the general effect of his philosophy on +the method of determining the particulars of morality as well as +of law (as it ought to be). In the utilitarianism of Paley and +Bentham the proper rules of conduct, moral and legal, are +determined by comparing the imaginary consequences of +different modes of regulation on men and women, conceived as +specimens of a substantially uniform and unchanging type. It is +true that Bentham expressly recognizes the varying influences +of climate, race, religion, government, as considerations which +it is important for the legislator to take into account; but his +own work of social construction was almost entirely independent +of such considerations, and his school generally appear to have +been convinced of their competence to solve all important ethical +and political questions for human beings of all ages and countries, +without regard to their specific differences. But in the Comtian +conception of social science, of which ethics and politics are the +practical application, the knowledge of the laws of the evolution +of society is of fundamental and continually increasing importance; +humanity is regarded as having passed through a series of +stages, in each of which a somewhat different set of laws and +institutions, customs and habits, is normal and appropriate. +Thus present man is a being that can only be understood through +a knowledge of his past history; and any effort to construct +for him a moral and political ideal, by a purely abstract and unhistorical +method, must necessarily be futile; whatever modifications +may at any time be desirable in positive law and morality +can only be determined by the aid of “social dynamics.” This +view extends far beyond the limits of Comte’s special school or +sect, and has been widely accepted.</p> + +<p>When we turn from French philosophy to German, we find +the influence of the latter on English ethical thought almost +insignificant until a very recent period. In the 17th +century, indeed, the treatise of Pufendorf on the <i>Law of +Nature</i>, in which the general view of Grotius was restated +<span class="sidenote">German influence on English ethics.</span> +with modifications, partly designed to effect a +compromise with the doctrine of Hobbes, seems to have been +a good deal read at Oxford and elsewhere. Locke includes it +among the books necessary to the complete education of a gentleman. +But the subsequent development of the theory of conduct +in Germany dropped almost entirely out of the cognizance of +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page839" id="page839"></a>839</span> +Englishmen; even the long dominant system of Wolff (d. 1754) +was hardly known. Nor had Kant any serious influence in +England until the second quarter of the 19th century. We find, +however, distinct traces of Kantian influence in Whewell and +other writers of the intuitional school, and at a later date it +became so strong that its importance on subsequent ethical +thought can scarcely be over-estimated.</p> + +<p>The English moralist with whom Kant has most affinity is +Price; in fact, Kantism, in the ethical thought of modern +Europe, holds a place somewhat analogous to that +formerly occupied by the teaching of Price and Reid +<span class="sidenote">Kant.</span> +among English moralists. Kant, like Price and Reid, holds that +man as a rational being is unconditionally bound to conform to a +certain rule of right, or “categorical imperative” of reason. +Like Price he holds that an action is not good unless done from +a good motive, and that this motive must be essentially different +from natural inclination of any kind; duty, to be duty, must be +done for duty’s sake; and he argues, with more subtlety than +Price or Reid, that though a virtuous act is no doubt pleasant +to the virtuous agent, and any violation of duty painful, this +moral pleasure (or pain) cannot strictly be the motive to the act, +because it follows instead of preceding the recognition of our +obligation to do it.<a name="fa48s" id="fa48s" href="#ft48s"><span class="sp">48</span></a> With Price, again, he holds that rightness +of intention and motive is not only an indispensable condition +or element of the rightness of an action, but actually the sole +determinant of its moral worth; but with more philosophical +consistency he draws the inference—of which the English +moralist does not seem to have dreamt—that there can be no +separate rational principles for determining the “material” +rightness of conduct, as distinct from its “formal” rightness; +and therefore that all rules of duty, so far as universally binding, +must admit of being exhibited as applications of the one general +principle that duty ought to be done for duty’s sake. This +<span class="sidenote">Categorical Imperative.</span> +deduction is the most original part of Kant’s doctrine. +The dictates of reason, he points out, must necessarily +be addressed to all rational beings as such; hence, my +intention cannot be right unless I am prepared to will +the principle on which I act to be a universal law. He considers +that this fundamental rule or imperative “act on a maxim which +thou canst will to be law universal” supplies a sufficient +criterion for determining particular duties in all cases. The rule +excludes wrong conduct with two degrees of stringency. Some +offences, such as making promises with the intention of breaking +them, we cannot even conceive universalized; as soon as every +one broke promises no one would care to have promises made to +him. Other maxims, such as that of leaving persons in distress +to shift for themselves, we can easily conceive to be universal +laws, but we cannot without contradiction will them to be such; +for when we are ourselves in distress we cannot help desiring that +others should help us.</p> + +<p>Another important peculiarity of Kant’s doctrine is his +development of the connexion between duty and free-will. +He holds that it is through our moral consciousness that we +know that we are free; in the cognition that I ought to do +what is right because it is right and not because I like it, it is +implied that this purely rational volition is possible; that my +action can be determined, not “mechanically,” through the +necessary operation of the natural stimuli of pleasurable and +painful feelings, but in accordance with the laws of my true, +reasonable self. The realization of reason, or of human wills +so far as rational, thus presents itself as the absolute end of duty; +and we get, as a new form of the fundamental practical rule, +“act so as to treat humanity, in thyself or any other, as an end +always, and never as a means only.” We may observe, too, +that the notion of freedom connects ethics with jurisprudence +in a simple and striking manner. The fundamental aim of +jurisprudence is to realize external freedom by removing the +hindrances imposed on each one’s free action through the +interferences of other wills. Ethics shows how to realize internal +freedom by resolutely pursuing rational ends in opposition to +those of natural inclination. If we ask what precisely are the +ends of reason, Kant’s proposition that “all rational beings as +such are ends in themselves for every rational being” hardly +gives a clear answer. It might be interpreted to mean that +the result to be practically sought is simply the development of +the rationality of all rational beings—such as men—whom we +find to be as yet imperfectly rational. But this is not Kant’s +view. He holds, indeed, that each man should aim at making +himself the most perfect possible instrument of reason; but he +expressly denies that the perfection of others can be similarly +prescribed as an end to each. It is, he says, “a contradiction to +regard myself as in duty bound to promote the perfection of +another, ... a contradiction to make it a duty for me to do +something for another which no other but himself can do.” +In what practical sense, then, am I to make other rational beings +my ends? Kant’s answer is that what each is to aim at in the +case of others is not Perfection, but Happiness, <i>i.e.</i> to help them +to attain those purely subjective ends that are determined for +each not by reason, but by natural inclination. He explains also +that to seek one’s own happiness cannot be prescribed as a duty, +because it is an end to which every man is inevitably impelled +by natural inclination: but that just because each inevitably +desires his own happiness, and therefore desires that others +should assist him in time of need, he is bound to make the +happiness of others his ethical end, since he cannot <i>morally</i> +demand aid from others, without accepting the obligation of +aiding them in like case. The exclusion of private happiness +from the ends at which it is a duty to aim contrasts strikingly +with the view of Butler and Reid, that man, as a rational being, +is under a “manifest obligation” to seek his own interest. The +difference, however, is not really so great as it seems; since in +another part of his system Kant fully recognizes the reasonableness +of the individual’s regard for his own happiness. Though +duty, in his view, excludes regard for private happiness, the +<i>summum bonum</i> is not duty alone, but happiness combined with +moral worth; the demand for happiness as the reward of duty +is so essentially reasonable that we must postulate a universal +connexion between the two as the order of the universe; indeed, +the practical necessity of this postulate is the only adequate +rational ground that we have for believing in the existence +of God.</p> + +<p>Before the ethics of Kant had begun to be seriously studied +in England, the rapid and remarkable development of metaphysical +view and method of which the three chief +stages are represented by Fichte, Schelling and Hegel +<span class="sidenote">Hegel.</span> +respectively had already taken place; and the system of the +latter was occupying the most prominent position in the philosophical +thought of Germany.<a name="fa49s" id="fa49s" href="#ft49s"><span class="sp">49</span></a> Hegel’s ethical doctrine (expounded +chiefly in his <i>Philosophie des Rechts</i>, 1821) shows a +close affinity, and also a striking contrast, to Kant’s. He holds, +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page840" id="page840"></a>840</span> +with Kant, that duty or good conduct consists in the conscious +realization of the free reasonable will, which is essentially the +same in all rational beings. But in Kant’s view the universal +content of this will is only given in the formal condition of “only +acting as one can desire all to act,” to be subjectively applied +by each rational agent to his own volition; whereas Hegel +conceives the universal will as objectively presented to each man +in the laws, institutions and customary morality of the community +of which he is a member. Thus, in his view, not merely +natural inclinations towards pleasures, or the desires for selfish +happiness, require to be morally resisted; but even the prompting +of the individual’s conscience, the impulse to do what seems +to him right, if it comes into conflict with the common sense of +his community. It is true that Hegel regards the conscious +effort to realize one’s own conception of good as a higher stage +of moral development than the mere conformity to the jural +rules establishing property, maintaining contract and allotting +punishment to crime, in which the universal will is first expressed; +since in such conformity this will is only accomplished accidentally +by the outward concurrence of individual wills, and is +not essentially realized in any of them. He holds, however, +that this conscientious effort is self-deceived and futile, is even +the very root of moral evil, except it attains its realization in +harmony with the objective social relations in which the individual +finds himself placed. Of these relations the first grade is constituted +by the family, the second by civil society, and the third +by the state, the organization of which is the highest manifestation +of universal reason in the sphere of practice.</p> + +<p>Hegelianism appears as a distinct element in modern English +ethical thought; but the direct influence of Hegel’s system is +perhaps less important than that indirectly exercised through +the powerful stimulus which it has given to the study of the +historical development of human thought and human society. +According to Hegel, the essence of the universe is a process of +thought from the abstract to the concrete; and a right understanding +of this process gives the key for interpreting the +evolution in time of European philosophy. So again, in his view, +the history of mankind is a history of the necessary development +of the free spirit through the different forms of political organization: +the first being that of the Oriental monarchy, in which +freedom belongs to the monarch only; the second, that of the +Graeco-Roman republics, in which a select body of free citizens +is sustained on a basis of slavery; while finally in the modern +societies, sprung from the Teutonic invasion of the decaying +Roman empire, freedom is recognized as the natural right of +all members of the community. The effect of the lectures +(posthumously edited) in which Hegel’s “Philosophy of History” +and “History of Philosophy” were expounded, has extended far +beyond the limits of his special school; indeed, the predominance +of the historical method in all departments of the theory +of practice is not a little due to their influence.</p> +<div class="author">(H. S.; X.)</div> + +<p>D. <i>Ethics since 1879</i>.—Ethical controversies, like most other +speculative disputes, have, during the latter part of the 19th +and the beginning of the 20th century, centred round Darwinian +theories. The chief characteristic of English moral philosophy +in its previous history has been its comparative isolation from +great movements, sometimes contemporary movements, of +philosophical or scientific thought. Ethics in England no less +than on the continent of Europe suffered until the time of Bacon +from the excessive domination of theological dogma and the +traditional scholastic and Aristotelian philosophy. But the +moral philosophy of the 18th century, freed from scholastic +trammels, was a genuine native product, arising out of the +real problem of conduct and reaching its conclusions, at least +ostensibly, by an analysis of, and an appeal to, the facts of +conduct and the nature of morality. Even at the beginning of +the 19th century, when the main interest of writers who belonged +to the Utilitarian school was mainly political, the influence of +political theories upon contemporary moral philosophy was +upon the whole an influence of which the moral philosophers +themselves were unconscious; and from the nature of things +moral and political philosophy have a tendency to become one +and the same inquiry. Mill, it is true, and Comte both encouraged +the idea that society and conduct alike were susceptible of +strictly scientific investigation. But the attempt not only to treat +ethics scientifically, but actually to subordinate the principles +of conduct to the principles of existing biological science or +group of sciences biological in character, was reserved for post-Darwinian +moral philosophers. That attempt has not, in the +opinion of the majority of critics, been successful, and perhaps +what is most permanent in the contribution of modern times to +ethical theory will ultimately be attributed to philosophers +antagonistic to evolutionary ethics. Nevertheless the application +of the historical method to inquiries concerning the facts of +morality and the moral life—itself part of the great movement +of thought to which Darwin gave the chief impetus—has caused +moral problems to be presented in a novel aspect; while the +influence of Darwinism upon studies which have considerable +bearing upon ethics, <i>e.g.</i> anthropology or the study of comparative +religion, has been incalculable.</p> + +<p>The other great movement in modern moral philosophy due +to the influence of German, and especially Hegelian, idealism +followed naturally for the most part from the revival of interest +in metaphysics noticeable in the latter half of the 19th century.</p> + +<p>But metaphysical systems of ethics are no novelty even in +England, and, while the increased interest in ultimate issues +of philosophy has enormously deepened and widened men’s +appreciation of moral problems and the issues involved in conduct, +the actual advance in ethical theory produced by such +speculations has been comparatively slight. What is of lasting +importance is the re-affirmation upon metaphysical grounds of +the right of the moral consciousness to state and solve its own +difficulties, and the successful repulsion of the claims of particular +sciences such as biology to include the sphere of conduct within +their scope and methods. And both evolutionary and idealistic +ethics agree in repudiating the standpoint of narrow individualism, +alike insist upon the necessity of regarding the self as social in +character, and regard the end of moral progress as only realizable +in a perfect society.</p> + +<p>It is perhaps too much to hope that the long-continued controversy +between hedonists and anti-hedonists has been finally +settled. But certainly few modern moral philosophers would be +found in the present day ready to defend the crudities of hedonistic +psychology as they appear in Bentham and Mill. A certain +common agreement has been reached concerning the impossibility +of regarding pleasure as the sole motive criterion and end of +moral action, though different opinions still prevail as to the +place occupied by pleasure in the summum bonum, and the +possibility of a hedonistic calculus.</p> + +<p>The failure of “laissez-faire” individualism in politics to +produce that common prosperity and happiness which its +advocates hoped for caused men to question the egoistic basis +upon which its ethical counterpart was constructed. Similarly +the comparative failure of science to satisfy men’s aspirations +alike in knowledge and, so far as the happiness of the masses +is concerned, in practice has been largely instrumental in producing +that revolt against material prosperity as the end of +conduct which is characteristic of idealist moral philosophy. +To this revolt, and to the general tendency to find the principle +of morality in an ideal good present to the consciousness of all +persons capable of acting morally, the widespread recognition +of reason as the ultimate court of appeal alike in religion or +politics, and latterly in economics also, has no doubt contributed +largely. In the main the appeal to reason has followed the +traditional course of such movements in ethics, and has reaffirmed +in the light of fuller reflection the moral principles +implicit in the ordinary moral consciousness. It is only in the +present day that there are noticeable signs of dissatisfaction +with current morality itself, and a tendency to substitute or +advocate a new morality based ostensibly upon conclusions +derived from the facts of scientific observation.</p> + +<p>Darwin himself seems never to have questioned, in the sceptical +direction in which his followers have applied his principles, +the absolute character of moral obligation. What interested +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page841" id="page841"></a>841</span> +him chiefly, in so far as he made a study of morality, was +<span class="sidenote">Darwin.</span> +the development of moral conduct in its preliminary stages. +He was principally concerned to show that in morality, +as in other departments of human life, it was not +necessary to postulate a complete and abrupt gap between +human and merely animal existence, but that the instincts and +habits which contribute to survival in the struggle for existence +among animals develop into moral qualities which have a +similar value for the preservation of human and social life. +Regarding the social tendency as originally itself an instinct +developed out of parental or filial affection, he seems to suggest +that natural selection, which was the chief cause of its development +in the earlier stages, may very probably influence the +transition from purely tribal and social morality into morality +in its later and more complex forms. But he admits that natural +selection is not necessarily the only cause, and he refrains from +identifying the fully developed morality of civilized nations +with the “social instinct.” Moreover, he recognizes that +qualities, <i>e.g.</i> loyalty and sympathy, which may have been of +great service to the tribe in its primitive struggle for existence, +may become a positive hindrance to physical efficiency (leading +as they do to the preservation of the unfit) at a later stage. +Nevertheless to check our sympathy would lead to the “deterioration +of the noblest part of our nature,” and the question, which +is obviously of vital importance, whether we should obey the +dictates of reason, which would urge us only to such conduct +as is conducive to natural selection, or remain faithful to the +noblest part of our nature at the expense of reason, he leaves +unsolved.</p> + +<p>It was in Herbert Spencer, the triumphant “buccinator novi +temporis,” that the advocates of evolutionary ethics found +their protagonist. Spencer looked to ideas derived +from the biological sciences to provide a solution of all +<span class="sidenote">Spencer.</span> +the enigmas of morality, as of most other departments of life; +and he conceived it “to be the business of moral science to +deduce from the laws of life and the conditions of existence what +kinds of action necessarily tend to produce happiness and +what kinds to produce unhappiness.” It is clear, therefore, +that any moral science which is to be of value must wait until +the “laws of life” and “conditions of existence” have been +satisfactorily determined, presumably by biology and the allied +sciences; and there are few more melancholy instances of +failure in philosophy than the paucity of the actual results +attained by Spencer in his lifetime in his application of the so-called +laws of evolution to human conduct—a failure recognized +by Spencer himself. His own contribution to ethics was vitiated +at the outset by the fact that he never shook himself free from +the trammels of the philosophy which his own system was +intended to supersede. He began by disclaiming any affinity +to Utilitarianism on the part of his own philosophy. He pointed +out that the principle of the greatest happiness of the greatest +number is a principle without any definite meaning, since men +are nowhere unanimous in their standard of happiness, but +regard the conception of happiness rather as a problem to be +solved than a test to be applied. Universal happiness would +require omniscience to legislate for it and the “normal” or, as +some would say, “perfect” man to desire it; neither of these +conditions of its realization is at present in existence. Further, +the principle that “everybody is to count for one, nobody for +more than one,” is equally unsatisfactory. It may be taken +to imply that the useless and the criminal should be entitled +to as much happiness as the useful and the virtuous. While it +gives no rule for private as distinct from public conduct, it +provides no real guidance for the legislator. For neither happiness, +nor the concrete means to happiness, nor finally the conditions +of its realization can be distributed; and in the end +“not general happiness becomes the ethical standard by which +legislative action is to be guided, but universal justice.” Yet +the implications of this latter conclusion Spencer never fully +thought out. He accepted bodily without farther questioning +the hedonistic psychology by which the Utilitarians sought to +justify their theory while he rejected the theory itself. Good, +<i>e.g.</i> defined by him “as conduct conducive to life,” is also further +defined as that which is “conducive to a surplus of pleasures +over pains.” Happiness, again, is always regarded as consisting +in feeling, ultimately in pleasant feeling, and there is no attempt +to apply the same principles of criticism which he had successfully +applied to the Utilitarians’ “happiness” to the conception of +“pleasure.” And, though he maintains as against the Utilitarians +the existence of certain fundamental moral intuitions +which have come to be quite independent of any present conscious +experience of their utility, he yet holds that they are the results +of accumulated racial experiences gradually organized and +inherited. Finally, side by side with a theory of the nature of +moral obligation thus fundamentally empirical and a posteriori +in its outlook, he maintains in his account of justice the existence +of the idea of justice as distinct from a mere sentiment, carrying +with it an a priori belief in its existence and identical in its +a priori and intuitive character with the ultimate criterion of +Utilitarianism itself. The fact is that any close philosophical +analysis of Spencer’s system of ethics can only result in the +discovery of a multitude of mutually conflicting and for the most +part logically untenable theories. It is frequently impossible to +discover whether he wishes by an appeal to evolutionary principles +to reinforce the sanctions and emphasize the absolute +character of the traditional morality which in the main he +accepts without question from the current opinions about conduct +of his age, or whether he wishes to discredit and disprove +the validity of that morality in order to substitute by the aid +of the biological sciences a new ethical code. The argument, +for instance, that intuitive and a priori beliefs gain their absolute +character from the fact that they are the result of continued +transmission and accumulation of past nervous modifications +in the history of the race would, if taken seriously, lead us to the +belief that ultimate ethical sanctions are to be sought, not by an +appeal to the moral consciousness, but by the investigation of +brain tissue and the relation of man’s bodily organism to its +environment. Yet such a view would be totally at variance +with much that Spencer says (especially in his treatment of +justice) concerning the trustworthiness and inevitable character +of men’s constant appeal to the intuitions of their moral consciousness. +Moreover, the very fact itself of the possibility of inheriting +acquired moral characteristics is still hotly debated by those +biologists with whom should rest the ultimate verdict. Again, +the argument that “conduct is good or bad according as its +total effects are pleasurable or painful,” and that ultimately +“pleasure-giving acts are life-sustaining acts,” seems to involve +Spencer in a multitude of unverified assumptions and contradictory +theories. In the first place it is never clear whether +Spencer regards the fact that a particular course of conduct is +accompanied by a feeling of pleasure as a test of its life-preserving +and life-sustaining character, or whether he wishes us to use as +our criterion of what is pleasant in conduct the fact that the +conduct in question seems conducive to the continued existence +of man’s organic life. He apparently passes from one criterion to +the other as best suits the purpose of the moment. He does +not prove the coincidence of life-sustaining and pleasant activities. +He assumes throughout that the pleasant is the opposite of what +is painful, and seems unaware of the difficulty of determining +by means of terms so highly abstract the specific character of +moral action. We find in his theory no satisfactory attempt +to discriminate between the pleasure aimed at by the altruist +and the immediate pleasure of egoistic action. Similarly he +disregards the distinction between pleasant feeling as an immediate +motive of conduct and the idea of the attainment of +future pleasure whether by the race or by the individual. Spencer +is involved in effect in most of the confusions and contradictions +of hedonistic psychology.</p> + +<p>Nor is his attempt to construct a scientific criterion out of data +derived from the biological sciences productive of satisfactory +results. He is hampered by a distinction between “absolute” +and “relative” ethics definitely formulated in the last two +chapters of The <i>Data of Ethics</i>. Absolute ethics would deal with +such laws as would regulate the conduct of ideal man in an ideal +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page842" id="page842"></a>842</span> +society, <i>i.e.</i> a society where conduct has reached the stage of +complete adjustment to the needs of social life. Relative ethics, +on the other hand, is concerned only with such conduct as is +advantageous for that society which has not yet reached the +end of complete adaptation to its environment, <i>i.e.</i> which is at +present imperfect. It is hardly necessary to say that Spencer +does not tell us how to bring the two ethical systems into correlation. +And the actual criteria of conduct derived from biological +considerations are almost ludicrously inadequate. Conduct, <i>e.g.</i>, +is said to be more moral in proportion as it exhibits a tendency +on the part of the individual or society to become more +“definite,” “coherent” and “heterogeneous.” Or, again, we +should recognize as a test of the “authoritative” character of +moral ideas or feelings the fact that they are complex and representative, +referring to a remote rather than to a proximate +good, remembering the while that “the sense of duty is transitory, +and will diminish as fast as moralization increases.” In +fact, no acceptable scientific criterion emerges, and the outcome +of Spencer’s attempt to ascertain the laws of life and the conditions +of existence is either a restatement of the dictates of +the moral consciousness in vague and cumbrous quasi-scientific +phraseology, or the substitution of the meaningless test of +“survivability” as a standard of perfection for the usual and +intelligible standards of “good” and “right.”</p> + +<p>A similar criticism might fairly be passed upon the majority +of philosophers who approach ethics from the standpoint of +evolution. Sir Leslie Stephen, for instance, wishes to +substitute the conception of “social health” for that +<span class="sidenote">Leslie Stephen.</span> +of universal happiness, and considers that the conditions +of social health are to be discovered by an examination +of the “social organism” or of “social tissue,” the laws of which +can be studied apart from those laws by which the individuals +composing society regulate their conduct. “The social evolution +means the evolution of a strong social tissue; the best type is the +type implied by the strongest tissue.” But on the important +question as to what constitutes the strongest social tissue, or to +what extent the analogy between society as at present constituted +and organic life is really applicable, we are left without +certain guidance. The fact is that with few exceptions evolutionary +moral philosophers evade the choice between alternatives +which is always presented to them. They begin, for the most +part, with a belief that in ethics as in other departments of human +knowledge “the more developed must be interpreted by the less +developed”—though frequently in the sequel complexity or +posteriority of development is erected as a standard by means +of which to judge the process of development itself. They are not +content to write a <i>history</i> of moral development, applying to it +the principles by which Darwinians seek to explain the development +of animal life. But the search of origins frequently leads +them into theories of the nature of that moral conduct whose +origin they are anxious to find quite at variance with current and +accepted beliefs concerning its nature. The discovery of the +so-called evolution of morality out of non-moral conditions is +very frequently an unconscious subterfuge by which the evolutionist +hides the fact that he is making a priori judgments upon +the value of the moral concepts held to be evolved. To accept +such theories of the origin of morality would carry with it the +conviction that what we took for “moral” conduct was in reality +something very different, and has been so throughout its history. +The legitimate inference which should follow would be the denial +of the validity of those moral laws which have hitherto been +regarded as absolute in character, and the substitution for all +customary moral terms of an entirely new set based upon +biological considerations. But it is precisely this, the only logical +inference, which most evolutionary philosophers are unwilling +to draw. They cannot give up their belief in customary morality. +Professor Huxley maintained, for example, in a famous lecture +that “the ethical progress of society depends not on imitating +the cosmic process, still less in running away from it, but in +combating it” (<i>Romanes Lecture, ad fin</i>.). And very frequently +arguments are adduced by evolutionists to prove that men’s +belief in the absolute character of moral precepts is one of the +necessary means adopted by nature to carry out her designs for +the social welfare of mankind. Yet the other alternative, to +which such reasoning points, they are reluctant to accept. +For the belief that moral obligation is absolute in character, +that it is alike impossible to explain its origin and transcend +its laws, would make the search for a scientific criterion of +conduct to be deduced from the laws of life and conditions of +existence meaningless, if not absurd.</p> + +<p>Perhaps the one European thinker who has carried evolutionary +principles in ethics to their logical conclusion is Friedrich +Nietzsche. Almost any system of morality or immorality +might find some justification in Nietzsche’s +<span class="sidenote">Nietzsche.</span> +writings, which are extraordinarily chaotic and full of the +wildest exaggerations. Yet it has been a true instinct which has +led popular opinion as testified to by current literature to find in +Nietzsche the most orthodox exponent of Darwinian ideas in +their application to ethics. For he saw clearly that to be successful +evolutionary ethics must involve the “transvaluation of +all values,” the “demoralization” of all ordinary current +morality. He accepted frankly the glorification of brute strength, +superior cunning and all the qualities necessary for success in the +struggle for existence, to which the ethics of evolution necessarily +tend. He proclaimed himself, before everything else, a physiologist, +and looked to physiology to provide the ultimate standard +for everything that has value; and though his own ethical code +necessarily involves the disappearance of sympathy, love, +toleration and all existing altruistic emotions, he yet in a sense +finds room for them in such altruistic self-sacrifice as prepares +the way for the higher man of the future. Thus, after a fashion, +he is able to reconcile the conflicting claims of egoism and +altruism and succeed where most apostles of evolution fail. +The Christian virtues, sympathy for the weak, the suffering, &c., +represent a necessary stage to be passed through in the evolution +of the <i>Übermensch</i>, <i>i.e.</i> the stage when the weak and suffering +combine in revolt against the strong. They are to be superseded, +not so much because all social virtues are to be scorned and rejected, +as because in their effects, <i>i.e.</i> in their tendency to perpetuate +and prolong the existence of the weak and those who are +least well equipped and endowed by nature, they are anti-social +in character and inimical to the survival of the strongest and +most vigorous type of humanity. Consequently Nietzsche in +effect maintains the following paradoxical position: he explains +the existence of altruism upon egoistical principles; he advocates +the total abolition of all altruism by carrying these same egoistical +principles to their logical conclusion; he nevertheless appeals to +that moral instinct which makes men ready to sacrifice their own +narrow personal interests to the higher good of society—an +instinct profoundly altruistic in character—as the ultimate +justification of the ethics he enunciates. Such a position is a +<i>reductio ad absurdum</i> of the attempt to transcend the ultimate +character of those intuitions and feelings which prompt men to +benevolence. Thus, though incidentally there is much to be +learned from Nietzsche, especially from his criticism of the ethics +of pessimism, or from the strictures he passes upon the negative +morality of extreme asceticism or quietism, his system inevitably +provides its own refutation. For no philosophy which travesties +the real course of history and distorts the moral facts is likely +to commend itself to the sober judgment of mankind however +brilliant be its exposition or ingenious its arguments. Finally, +the conceptions of strength, power and masterfulness by which +Nietzsche attempts to determine his own moral ideal, become, +when examined, as relative and unsatisfactory as other criteria +of moral action said to be deduced from evolutionary principles. +Men desire strength or power not as ends but as means to ends +beyond them; Nietzsche is most convincing when the <i>Übermensch</i> +is left undefined. Imagined as ideal man, <i>i.e.</i> as morality +depicts him, he becomes intelligible; imagined as Nietzsche +describes him he reels back into the beast, and that distinction +which chiefly separates man from the animal world out of which +he has emerged, viz. his unique power of self-consciousness and +self-criticism, is obliterated.</p> + +<p>It was upon this crucial difficulty, <i>i.e.</i> the transition in the +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page843" id="page843"></a>843</span> +evolution of morality from the stage of purely animal and +unconscious action to specifically human action,—<i>i.e.</i> action +<span class="sidenote">T.H. Green.</span> +directed by self-conscious and purposive intelligence +to an end conceived as good,—that the polemic of +T.H. Green and his idealistic followers fastened. And it is +perhaps unfortunate that metaphysical doctrines enunciated +chiefly for the purposes of criticism not in themselves vitally +necessary to the theory of morality propounded should have been +regarded as the main contribution to ethical theory of idealist +writers, and as such treated severely by hostile critics. Green’s +principal objection to evolutionary moral philosophy is contained +in the argument that no merely “natural” explanation of the +facts of morality is conceivable. The knowing consciousness,—<i>i.e.</i> +so far as conduct is concerned the moral consciousness,—can +never become an object of knowledge in the sense in which +natural phenomena are objects of scientific knowledge. For such +knowledge implies the existence of a knowing consciousness as +a relating and uniting intelligence capable of distinguishing itself +from the objects to which it relates. And more particularly the +existence of the moral consciousness implies “the transition from +mere want to consciousness of wanted object, from impulse to +satisfy the want to effort for the realization of the wanted +objects, implies the presence of the want to a subject which +distinguishes itself from it.” Consequently the facts of moral +development imply with the emergence of human consciousness +the appearance of something qualitatively different from the +facts with which physiology for instance deals, imply a stratum +as it were in development which no examination of animal +tissues, no calculation of consequences with regard to the preservation +of the species can ever satisfactorily explain. However +far back we go in the history of humanity, if the presence of +consciousness be admitted at all, it will be necessary to admit +also the presence to consciousness of an ideal which can be +accepted or rejected, of a power of looking before and after, and +aiming at a future which is not yet fully realized. But unfortunately +the temporary exigencies of criticism made it +necessary for Green to emphasize the metaphysic of the self, +<i>i.e.</i> to insist upon the necessity of a critical examination of the +pre-requisites of any form of self-consciousness and especially +of the knowing consciousness, to such an extent that critics +have lost sight of the real dependence of his metaphysic upon the +direct evidence of the moral consciousness. The philosophic +value, the sincerity, the breadth and depth of his treatment +of moral facts and institutions have been fully recognized. What +has not been adequately realized is that the metaphysical basis +of his system of ethics—the argument, for example, contained +in the introduction to the <i>Prolegomena</i>—is unfairly treated if +divorced from his treatment of morals as a whole, and that it +can be justly estimated only if interpreted as much as the conclusion +as the starting-point of moral theory. The doctrine +of the eternity of the self, for instance, against which much +criticism (<i>e.g.</i> Taylor, <i>The Problem of Conduct</i>, chap. ii.) has +been directed, though it is chiefly expressed in the language of +epistemology, has its roots nevertheless in the direct testimony +of moral experience. For morality implies a power in the +individual of rising above the interests of his own narrower self +and identifying himself in the pursuit of a universal good with +the true interests of all other selves. Similarly the conception +of the self as a moral unity arises naturally out of the impossibility +of finding the summum bonum in a succession of transient states +of consciousness such as hedonism for example postulates. Good +as a true universal can only be realized by a true self, and both +imply a principle of unity not wholly expressible in terms of the +particulars which it unifies. But whether the idealistic interpretation +of the nature of universal good be the true one, <i>i.e.</i> +whether we are justified in identifying that self-consciousness +which is capable of grasping the principle of unity with the +principle of unity which it grasps is a metaphysical and theistic +problem comparatively irrelevant to Green’s moral theory. +It would be quite possible to accept his criticisms of naturalism +and hedonism while rejecting many of the metaphysical inferences +which he draws. A somewhat similar answer might be returned +to those critics who find Green’s use of the term “self-realization” +or “self-development” as characteristic of the moral ideal unsatisfactory. +It is quite easy to exhibit the futility of such a +conception if understood formally for the practical purposes +of moral philosophy. If the phrase be understood to mean the +realization of some capacities of the self it does not appear to +discriminate sufficiently between the good and bad capacities; +while the realization under present conditions of all the capacities +of a self is impossible. And to aim so far as is possible at all-round +development would again ignore the distinction between +vice and virtue. But used in the sense in which Green habitually +uses it self-realization implies, as he puts it, the fulfilment by the +good man of his rational capacity or the idea of a best that is in +time, <i>i.e.</i> the distinction between the good and the bad self is +never ignored, but is the fundamental assumption of his theory. +And if it be urged that the expression is in any case tautological, +<i>i.e.</i> that the good is defined in terms of self-realization and self-realization +in terms of the good, it may be doubted whether any +rational system of ethics can avoid a similar imputation. Green +would admit that in a certain sense the conception of “good” +is indefinable, <i>i.e.</i> that it can only be recognized in the particulars +of conduct of which it is the universal form. Only, therefore, +to those philosophers who believe in the existence of a criterion +of morality, <i>i.e.</i> a universal test such as that of pleasure, happiness +and the like, by which we can judge of the worth of actions, will +Green’s position seem absurd; since, on the contrary, such conceptions +as those of “self-development” or “self-realization” seem +to have a definite and positive value if they call attention to the +metaphysical implications of morality and accurately characterize +the moral facts. What ambiguity they possess arises from the +ambiguity of morality itself. For moral progress consists in the +actualization of what is already potentially in existence. The +striking merit of Green’s moral philosophy is that the idealism +which he advocates is rooted and grounded in moral habits and +institutions: and the metaphysic in which it culminates is +based upon principles already implicitly recognized by the moral +consciousness of the ordinary man. Nothing could be farther +from Green’s teaching than the belief that constructive metaphysics +could, unaided by the intuitions of the moral consciousness, +discover laws for the regulation of conduct.</p> + +<p>But although Green’s loyalty to the primary facts of the moral +consciousness prevented him from constructing a rationalistic +system of morals based solely upon the conclusions of metaphysics, +it was perhaps inevitable that the revival of interest in metaphysics +so prominent in his own speculations should lead to a +more daring criticism of ethical first principles in other writers. +Bradley’s <i>Ethical Studies</i> had presented with great brilliancy +an idealist theory of morality not very far removed from that +of Green’s <i>Prolegomena</i>. But the publication of <i>Appearance +and Reality</i> by the same author marked a great advance in +philosophical criticism of ethical postulates, and a growing +dissatisfaction with current reconciliations between moral first +principles and the conclusions of metaphysics. <i>Appearance +and Reality</i> was not primarily concerned with morals, yet it +inevitably led to certain conclusions affecting conduct, and it +was no very long time before these conclusions were elaborated +<span class="sidenote">Taylor.</span> +in detail. Professor A.E. Taylor’s <i>Problem of Conduct</i> +(1901) is one of the most noteworthy and independent +contributions to Moral Philosophy published in recent years. +But it nevertheless follows in the main Bradley’s line of +criticism and may therefore be regarded as representative of +his school. There are two principal positions in Professor +Taylor’s work:—(1) a refusal to base ethics upon metaphysics, +and (2) the discovery of an irreconcilable dualism in the nature of +morality which takes many shapes, but may be summarized +roughly as consisting in an ultimate opposition between egoism +and altruism. With regard to the first of these Taylor says +(<i>op. cit.</i> p. 4) that his object is to show that “ethics is as independent +of metaphysical speculation for its principles and methods +as any of the so-called ‘natural sciences’; that its real basis +must be sought not in philosophical theories about the nature +of the Absolute or the ultimate constitution of the Universe, +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page844" id="page844"></a>844</span> +but in the empirical facts of human life as they are revealed to +us in our concrete everyday experience of the world and mankind, +and sifted and systematized by the sciences of psychology and +sociology.... Ethics should be regarded as a purely ‘positive’ +or ‘experimental’ and not as a ‘speculative’ science.” With +regard to the second position one quotation will suffice (<i>op. cit.</i> +p. 183). “Altruism and egoism are divergent developments +from the common psychological root of primitive ethical sentiment. +Both developments are alike unavoidable, and each is +ultimately irreconcilable with the other. Neither egoism nor +altruism can be made the sole basis of moral theory without +mutilation of the facts, nor can any higher category be discovered +by the aid of which their rival claims may be finally adjusted.”</p> + +<p>Professor Taylor expounds these two theories with great +brilliance of argument and much ingenuity, yet neither of them +will perhaps carry complete conviction to the minds of the +majority of his critics. It is curious, in the first place, to find +the independence of moral philosophy upon metaphysics supported +by metaphysical arguments. For whatever may be the +real character of the interrelation of moral and metaphysical +first principles it is obvious that Taylor’s own dissatisfaction +with current moral principles arises from an inability to believe +in their ultimate rationality, <i>i.e.</i> a belief that they are untenable +from the standpoint of ultimate metaphysics; and perhaps +the most interesting portion of his book is the chapter entitled +“Beyond Good and Bad,” in which the highest and final form +of the ethical consciousness of mankind is subjected to searching +criticism. But further, it is becoming increasingly apparent +that psychology (upon which Taylor would base morality) itself +involves metaphysical assumptions; its position in fact cannot +be stated except as a metaphysical position, whether that of +subjective idealism or any other. And the need which most +philosophers have felt for some philosophical foundation for +morality arises, not from any desire to subordinate moral insight +to speculative theory, but because the moral facts themselves +are inexplicable except in the light of first principles which +metaphysics alone can criticize.</p> + +<p>Taylor himself attempts to find the roots of ethics in the moral +sentiments of mankind, the moral sentiments being primarily +feelings or emotions, though they imply and result in judgments +of approval and disapproval upon conduct. But it may be +doubted whether he succeeds in clearly distinguishing ethical +feelings from ethical judgments, and if they are to be treated as +synonymous it seems difficult to avoid the conclusion that the +implications of moral “judgment” must involve a reference +to metaphysics.</p> + +<p>Moreover, it is obvious that a great part of Taylor’s quarrel +with current moral ideals arises from the fact that they do not +commend themselves to the moral judgment, <i>i.e.</i> from the +standpoint of real goodness they are unsatisfactory, being +tainted with evil. Hence it appears difficult to reconcile what +is in effect a belief in the validity of the judgments of the moral +consciousness with a belief that the real source and justification +of that consciousness are to be found in the very sentiments +and vague mass of floating feelings upon which it pronounces. +Scepticism seems to be the only possible result of such a position. +Taylor’s polemic against metaphysical systems of ethics is based +throughout upon an alleged discrepancy and separation between +the facts of moral “experience,” the judgments of the moral +consciousness, and theories as to the nature of these which +the philosophers whom he attacks would by no means accept. +There is no doubt a distinction between morality as a form +of consciousness and reflection upon that morality. But such +a distinction neither corresponds to, nor testifies to, the existence +of a distinction between morality as “experience” and morality +as “theory” or “idea.”</p> + +<p>Taylor is more persuasive when he is developing his second +main thesis—that of the alleged existence of an ultimate dualism +in the nature of morality. His accounts of the genesis of the +conceptions of obligation and responsibility as of most of the +ultimate conceptions with which moral philosophy deals will be +accepted or rejected to the extent to which the main contention +concerning the psychological basis of ethics commends itself to +the reader. But in his exposition of the fundamental contradiction +involved in morality elaborated with much care and illustrative +argument he appeals for the most part to facts familiar to +the unphilosophical moral consciousness. He begins by finding +an ultimate opposition between the instincts of self-assertion +and instincts which secure the production and protection of the +coming generation even in the infra-ethical world with which +biology deals. He traces this opposition into the forms in which +it appears in the social life of mankind (as, <i>e.g.</i>, in the difficulty of +reconciling the conflicting claims of individual self-development +and self-culture and social service), and finds “a hidden root +of insincerity and hypocrisy beneath all morality” (p. 243), +inasmuch as it is not possible to pursue any one type of ideal +without some departure from singleness of purpose. And he +finds all the conceptions by which men have hoped to reconcile +admitted antagonisms and divergencies between moral ideals +claiming to be ultimate and authoritative alike unsatisfactory +(p. 285). Progress is illusory; there is no satisfactory goal to +which moral development inevitably tends; religion in which +some take refuge when distressed by the inexplicable contradictions +of moral conduct itself “contains and rests upon an element +of make believe” (p. 489).</p> + +<p>With Taylor’s presentation of the difficulties with which +morality is expected to grapple probably few would be found +seriously to disagree, though they might consider it unduly +pessimistic. But when he turns what is in effect a statement +of certain forms of moral difficulty into an attack upon the +logical and coherent character of morality itself, he is not so +likely to command assent. For the difficulty all men meet with +in realizing goodness, or in being moral, is not in itself evidence +of an inherent contradiction in the nature of goodness as such. +And what perhaps would first strike an unprejudiced critic in +Taylor’s examples of conflicting ideals or antagonistic yet +ultimate moral judgments would be the perception that they +are not necessarily moral ideas or judgments at all, and hence +necessarily not ultimate.</p> + +<p>The claims of self-culture and of social service may when +considered in the abstract or in some hypothetical case appear +antagonistic and irreconcilable. But when they present themselves +to the individual moral consciousness it may be safely +asserted (1) that there can be only one moral choice possible, +<i>i.e.</i> that their opposition (where they are opposed) involves no +conflict of duties; and (2) that whichever ideal is in the end +preferred, opportunities will nevertheless be provided within its +realization for the concurrent realization of activities and +capacities ordinarily associated with the ideal alleged to be +contradictory. For just as there is no self-realization which +does not involve self-sacrifice, so there is no room for that +species of egoism within the confines of morality which is incompatible +with social service.</p> + +<p>It will be clear from the foregoing account of Taylor’s work +that the tendency of his thought, as of that of Bradley, is by no +means directed to the confirmation or re-establishment of those +principles of conduct recognized by the ordinary moral consciousness. +Psychology or metaphysics tend in their systems to +usurp the place of authority formerly assigned to ethics proper.</p> + +<p>It would be true on the whole to assert that evolutionary +systems of ethics such as those of Herbert Spencer, Sir Leslie +Stephen or Professor S. Alexander (<i>Moral Order and +Progress</i>, 1899), together with the metaphysical +<span class="sidenote">Martineau.</span> +theories of morals of which T.H. Green and Bradley and Taylor +are the chief representatives, have dominated the field of ethical +speculation since 1870. Nevertheless it is only necessary to +mention such a work as Martineau’s <i>Types of Ethical Theory</i> +to dispel the notion that the type of moral philosophy most +characteristically English, <i>i.e.</i> consisting in the patient analysis +of the form and nature of the moral consciousness itself, has given +way or is likely to give way to more ambitious and constructive +efforts. Martineau’s chief endeavour was, as he himself says, +to interpret, to vindicate, and to systematize the moral sentiments, +and if the actual exhibition of what is involved, <i>e.g.</i>, in +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page845" id="page845"></a>845</span> +moral choice is the vindication of morality Martineau may be +said to have been successful. It is with his interpretation and +systematization of the moral sentiments that most of Martineau’s +critics have found fault. It is impossible, <i>e.g.</i>, to accept his +ordered hierarchy of “springs of action” without perceiving +that the real principle upon which they can be arranged in +order at all must depend upon considerations of circumstances +and consequences, of stations and duties, with which a strict +intuitionalism such as that of Martineau would have no dealing.<a name="fa50s" id="fa50s" href="#ft50s"><span class="sp">50</span></a> +Similarly the notion of Conscience as a special faculty giving its +pronouncements immediately and without reflection cannot be +maintained in the face of modern psychological analysis and +is untrue to the nature of moral judgment itself. And Martineau +is curiously unsympathetic to the universal and social aspect +of morality with which evolutionary and idealist moral philosophers +are so largely occupied. Nevertheless there have been +few moral philosophers who have, apart from the idiosyncrasies +of their special prepossessions, set forth with clearer insight or +with greater nobility of language the essential nature of the moral +consciousness.</p> + +<p>Equal in importance to Martineau’s work is Professor Sidgwick’s +<i>Methods of Ethics</i> which appeared in 1874. The two works +are alike in loftiness of outlook and in the fact that +they are devoted to the re-examination of the nature +<span class="sidenote">Sidgwick.</span> +of the moral consciousness to the exclusion of alien branches of +inquiry. In most other respects they differ. Martineau is +much more in sympathy with idealism than Sidgwick, whose +work consists in a restatement from a novel and independent +standpoint of the Utilitarian position. And Sidgwick has been +far more successful than any other moral philosopher with the +exception of T.H. Green and Bradley in founding a school of +thought. Many of his most acute critics would be the first to +admit how much they owe to his teaching. Chief among the +more recent of these is G.E. Moore, whose book <i>Principia Ethica</i> +is an important original contribution to ethical thought. And +although Dr Hastings Rashdall (<i>The Theory of Good and Evil</i> +Oxford, 1907) is not in agreement with Sidgwick’s own particular +type of hedonistic theory in his own philosophical position, he +occupies a point of view somewhat similar to that of Sidgwick’s +main attitude of Rational Utilitarianism. Rashdall’s two +volumes exhibit also a welcome return on the part of English +thought to the proper business of the moral philosopher—the +examination of the nature of moral conduct. Other works, such +as Professor L.T. Hobhouse’s <i>Morals in Evolution</i> or Professor +E.A. Westermarck’s <i>Origin and Development of the Moral Ideas</i>, +testify to a continued interest in the history of morality and in +the anthropological inquiries with which moral philosophy is +closely connected.</p> + +<p>Much that is of importance for moral philosophy has recently +been written upon problems that more properly belong to the +philosophy of religion and the theory of knowledge. J.F. +M‘Taggart’s <i>Studies in Hegelian Cosmology</i>, and his later work, +<i>Some Dogmas of Religion</i>, contain interesting contributions to +the theory of pleasure and of the problem of free will and +determinism. A notable instance of this tendency is seen in the +developments of the theory of pragmatism (<i>q.v.</i>), for which +F.C.S. Schiller has proposed the general term “humanism.” +Such aspects as concern ethics include, for example, the limited +indeterminism involved in the theory, the attitude of the religious +consciousness expressed by William James (<i>Will to Believe</i> and +<i>Pragmatism</i>), and the pragmatic conception of the good. +And the widespread interest in social problems has produced +a revival of speculation concerning questions partly political +and party ethical in character, <i>e.g.</i> the nature of justice. Finally +it has become apparent that many problems hitherto left for +political economy to solve belong more properly to the moralist, +if not to the moral philosopher, and it may be confidently expected +that with the increased complexity of social life and the +disappearance of many sanctions of morality hitherto regarded +as inviolable, the future will bring a renewed and practical +interest in the theory of conduct likely to lead to fresh developments +in ethical speculation.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p><span class="sc">Bibliography</span>.—The literature of the subject is so large in all +languages that only a small selection can be given here. For further +works reference may be made to subsidiary articles. See also +Baldwin’s <i>Dict. of Philos. and Psychol.</i> vol. iii. (1905), pp. 812 foll. +(bibliography).</p> + +<p>I. <i>Historical</i>.—Sir L. Stephen, <i>History of English Thought in +the 18th Century</i> (1876, 3rd ed. 1892); W.E.H. Lecky, <i>History +of European Morals from Augustus to Charlemagne</i> (1869, many +editions); works of Ed. Zeller (<i>q.v.</i>); G.H. Lewes, <i>History of +Philosophy</i> (1880); W. Gass, <i>Geschichte der christlichen Ethik</i> (1881); +A.W. Benn, <i>The Greek Philosophers</i> (1882); F. Jödl, <i>Geschichte der +Ethik in der neueren Philos</i>. (2 vols., 1882-1889); L. Schmidt, <i>Ethik der +alten Griechen</i> (1882); E. Howley, <i>The Old Morality traced Historically</i> +(1885); J. Martineau, <i>Types of Ethical Theory</i> (Oxford, 1885, +3rd ed. 1891); Th. Ziegler, <i>Gesch. d. christl. Ethik</i> (1886); Ch. +Letourneaux, <i>L’Évolution de la morale</i> (1887); K. Köstlin, <i>Gesch. +der Ethik</i> (1887); C.E. Luthardt, <i>Die antike Ethik in ihrer geschichtlichen +Entwicklung</i> (1887), and <i>Hist. of Christian Ethics</i> (1888); +C.M. Williams, <i>A Review of the Systems of Ethics founded on the +Theory of Evolution</i> (1893); J. Watson, <i>Hedonistic Theories from +Aristippus to Spencer</i> (1895); L.A. Selby-Bigge, <i>British Moralists</i> +(1897); R. Mackintosh, <i>From Comte to Benjamin Kidd</i> (1899); +S. Patten, <i>The Development of English Thought</i> (1899); A.B. Bruce, +<i>The Moral Order of the World in Ancient and Modern Thought</i> (1899); +Sir L. Stephen, <i>The English Utilitarians</i> (1901); Henry Sidgwick, +<i>Outlines of the History of Ethics</i> (5th ed., 1902); Paul Janet, <i>History +of the Problems of Philosophy</i> (1902-1903), Eng. trans. Ada Monahan, +vol. ii. “Ethics”; W.R. Sorley, <i>Recent Tendencies in Ethics</i> (1904).</p> + +<p>II. <i>Constructive and Critical</i>.—Besides the works mentioned above +the following may be mentioned:—J.M. Guyau, <i>La Morale anglaise</i> +(1879), <i>Éducation et hérédité</i> (1889; Eng. trans. Greenstreet, with +introd. by G.F. Stout, 1891), <i>Esquisse d’une morale sans obligation +ni sanction</i> (Eng. trans., 1898); G.H. Lewes, <i>Problems of Life and +Mind</i> (1879); Sir L. Stephen, <i>Science of Ethics</i> (1882); P. Janet, +<i>The Theory of Morals</i> (Eng. trans., 1884); W.R. Sorley, <i>On the +Ethics of Naturalism</i> (1885); W.L. Courtney, <i>Constructive Ethics</i> +(1886); Wilson and Fowler, <i>Principles of Morals</i> (1886); H. Höffding, +<i>Ethik</i> (1888), <i>Psychologie</i> (1882, 1892; trans. Lowndes, 1892); +W. Wundt, <i>Ethik</i> (1886; trans. Titchener and others, 1897); +F. Paulsen, <i>Ethik</i> (1889, 1893; trans. Thilly, 1899); H. Sidgwick, +<i>Method of Ethics</i> (1890); J.T. Bixby, <i>The Crisis in Morals: An +Examination of Rational Ethics</i> (1891); J. Seth, <i>Freedom an Ethical +Postulate</i> (1891); J.H. Muirhead, <i>Elements of Ethics</i> (1892); G. +Simnel, <i>Einleitung in die Moralwissenschaft</i> (1892, 1893); T. Ziegler, +<i>Social Ethics</i> (1892); T.H. Huxley, <i>Evolution and Ethics</i> (1893); +W. Knight, <i>The Christian Ethic</i> (1893); J.S. Mackenzie, <i>Manual of +Ethics</i> (1893); F. Ryland, <i>Ethics</i> (1893); J. Seth, <i>A Study of Ethical +Principles</i> (1894, 6th ed. 1902); C.F. D’Arcy, <i>Short Study of Ethics</i> +(1895); J.H. Hyslop, <i>The Elements of Ethics</i> (1895); J. Kidd, +<i>Morality and Religion</i> (1895); Sir L. Stephen, <i>Social Rights and +Duties</i> (1896); J.M. Baldwin, <i>Social and Ethical Interpretations in +Mental Development</i> (1897); Th. Ribot, <i>Psychology of Emotions</i> +(1897); A. Seth Pringle-Pattison, <i>Man’s Place in the Cosmos</i> (1897); +H.R. Marshall, <i>Instinct and Reason</i> (1898); W. Wallace, <i>Natural +Theology and Ethics</i> (1898); F. Paulsen, <i>Partei-politik und Moral</i> +(1900); A.E. Taylor, <i>Problem of Conduct</i> (1901); G.T. Ladd, +<i>Philosophy of Conduct</i> (1902); H. Sidgwick, <i>Ethics of Green, Spencer, +Martineau</i> (1902); D. Irons, <i>Study in Psychology of Ethics</i> (1903); +G.E. Moore, <i>Principia Ethica</i> (1903); R. Eucken, <i>Geistige Strömungen +der Gegenwart</i> (1904), and other works (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Eucken, Rudolf</a></span>); +works of A. Fouillée (<i>q.v.</i>); G. Santayana, <i>Life of Reason</i> (1905); +E.A. Westermarck, <i>Origin and Development of Moral Ideas</i> (1906); +George Gore, <i>Scientific Basis of Morality</i> (1899), and <i>New Scientific +Basis of Morality</i> (1906), containing an interesting if unconvincing +attempt to explain ethics on purely physical principles.</p> +</div> +<div class="author">(H. H. W.)</div> + +<hr class="foot" /> <div class="note"> + +<p><a name="ft1s" id="ft1s" href="#fa1s"><span class="fn">1</span></a> This well-known phrase was originally attributed to the Pythagoreans.</p> + +<p><a name="ft2s" id="ft2s" href="#fa2s"><span class="fn">2</span></a> It is highly characteristic of Platonism that the issue in this +dialogue, as originally stated, is between virtue and vice, whereas, +without any avowed change of ground, the issue ultimately discussed +is between the philosophic life and the life of vulgar ambition or +sensual enjoyment.</p> + +<p><a name="ft3s" id="ft3s" href="#fa3s"><span class="fn">3</span></a> This cardinal term is commonly translated “happiness”; and +it must be allowed that it is the most natural term for what we (in +English) agree to call “our being’s end and aim.” But happiness +so definitely signifies a state of feeling that it will not admit the +interpretation that Aristotle (as well as Plato and the Stoics) expressly +gives to <span class="grk" title="eudaimonia">εὐδαιμονία</span>; the confusion is best avoided by rendering +the word by the less familiar “well-being.”</p> + +<p><a name="ft4s" id="ft4s" href="#fa4s"><span class="fn">4</span></a> Aristotle follows Plato and Socrates in identifying the notions of +<span class="grk" title="kalos">καλός</span> (“fair,” “beautiful”) and <span class="grk" title="agathos">ἀγαθός</span> (“good”) in their application +to conduct. We may observe, however, that while the latter term is +used to denote the virtuous man, and (in the neuter) equivalent to +End generally, the former is rather chosen to express the quality of +virtuous acts which in any particular case is the end of the virtuous +agent. Aristotle no doubt faithfully represents the common sense +of Greece in considering that, in so far as virtue is in itself good to +the virtuous agent, it belongs to that species of good which we distinguish +as beautiful. In later Greek philosophy the term <span class="grk" title="kalon">καλόν</span> +(“honestum”) became still more technical in the signification of +“morally good.”</p> + +<p><a name="ft5s" id="ft5s" href="#fa5s"><span class="fn">5</span></a> The above account is considerably expanded in H. Sidgwick’s +<i>Hist. of Ethics</i> (5th ed., 1902), pp. 59-70.</p> + +<p><a name="ft6s" id="ft6s" href="#fa6s"><span class="fn">6</span></a> There is a certain difficulty in discussing Aristotle’s views on the +subject of practical wisdom, and the relation of the intellect to moral +action, since it is most probable that the only accounts that we have +of these views are not part of the genuine writings of Aristotle. Still +books vi. and vii. of the <i>Nicomachean Ethics</i> contain no doubt as pure +Aristotelian doctrine as a disciple could give, and appear to supply a +sufficient foundation for the general criticism expressed in the text.</p> + +<p><a name="ft7s" id="ft7s" href="#fa7s"><span class="fn">7</span></a> It has been suggestively said that Cynicism was to Stoicism what +monasticism was to early Christianity. The analogy, however, must +not be pressed too far, since orthodox Stoics do not ever seem to have +regarded Cynicism as the more perfect way.</p> + +<p><a name="ft8s" id="ft8s" href="#fa8s"><span class="fn">8</span></a> The Stoics were not quite agreed as to the immutability of virtue, +but they were agreed that, when once possessed, it could only be lost +through the loss of reason itself.</p> + +<p><a name="ft9s" id="ft9s" href="#fa9s"><span class="fn">9</span></a> Hence some members of the school, without rejecting the definition +of virtue = knowledge, also defined it as “strength and force.”</p> + +<p><a name="ft10s" id="ft10s" href="#fa10s"><span class="fn">10</span></a> It is apparently in view of this union in reason of rational beings +that friends are allowed to be “external goods” to the sage, and that +the possession of good children is also counted a good.</p> + +<p><a name="ft11s" id="ft11s" href="#fa11s"><span class="fn">11</span></a> The Stoics seem to have varied in their view of “good repute,” +<span class="grk" title="eudoxia">εὐδοξία</span>; at first, when the school was more under the influence of +Cynicism, they professed an outward as well as an inward indifference +to it; ultimately they conceded the point to common sense, and +included it among <span class="grk" title="proêgmena">προηγμένα</span>.</p> + +<p><a name="ft12s" id="ft12s" href="#fa12s"><span class="fn">12</span></a> It is noted of him that he did not disdain the co-operation either +of women or of slaves in his philosophical labours.</p> + +<p><a name="ft13s" id="ft13s" href="#fa13s"><span class="fn">13</span></a> The last charge of Epicurus to his disciples is said to have been, +<span class="grk" title="tôn dogmatôn memnêsthai">τῶν δογμάτων μεμνῆσθαι</span>.</p> + +<p><a name="ft14s" id="ft14s" href="#fa14s"><span class="fn">14</span></a> Epictetus.</p> + +<p><a name="ft15s" id="ft15s" href="#fa15s"><span class="fn">15</span></a> Marcus Aurelius.</p> + +<p><a name="ft16s" id="ft16s" href="#fa16s"><span class="fn">16</span></a> <i>E.g.</i> Justin Martyr, Origen, Tertullian, Cyprian.</p> + +<p><a name="ft17s" id="ft17s" href="#fa17s"><span class="fn">17</span></a> Citra sanguinis effusionem.</p> + +<p><a name="ft18s" id="ft18s" href="#fa18s"><span class="fn">18</span></a> To show the crudity of the notion of redemption in early Christianity, +it is sufficient to mention that many fathers represent Christ’s +ransom as having been paid to the devil; sometimes adding that by +the concealment of Christ’s divinity under the veil of humanity a +certain deceit was (fairly) practised on the great deceiver.</p> + +<p><a name="ft19s" id="ft19s" href="#fa19s"><span class="fn">19</span></a> It is to be observed that Augustine prefers to use “freedom” +not for the power of willing either good or evil, but the power of +willing good. The highest freedom, in his view, excludes the possibility +of willing evil.</p> + +<p><a name="ft20s" id="ft20s" href="#fa20s"><span class="fn">20</span></a> Cicero’s works are unimportant in the history of ancient ethics, +as their philosophical matter was entirely borrowed from Greek +treatises now lost; but the influence exercised by them (especially +by the <i>De officiis</i>) over medieval and even modern readers was very +considerable.</p> + +<p><a name="ft21s" id="ft21s" href="#fa21s"><span class="fn">21</span></a> Abelard afterwards retracted this view, at least in its extreme +form; and in fact does not seem to have been fully conscious of the +difference between (1) unfulfilled intention to do an act objectively +right, and (2) intention to do what is merely believed by the agent +to be right.</p> + +<p><a name="ft22s" id="ft22s" href="#fa22s"><span class="fn">22</span></a> He was condemned by two synods, in 1121 and 1140.</p> + +<p><a name="ft23s" id="ft23s" href="#fa23s"><span class="fn">23</span></a> <i>Synderesis</i> (Gr. <span class="grk" title="suntêrêsis">συντήρησις</span>, from <span class="grk" title="suntêrein">συντηρεῖν</span>, to watch closely, observe) +is used in this sense in Jerome (<i>Com. in Ezek</i>. i. 4-10).</p> + +<p><a name="ft24s" id="ft24s" href="#fa24s"><span class="fn">24</span></a> The refusal of the council of Constance to condemn Jean Petit’s +advocacy of assassination is a striking example of this weakness. Cf. +Milman, <i>Lat. Christ</i>. book xiii. c. 9.</p> + +<p><a name="ft25s" id="ft25s" href="#fa25s"><span class="fn">25</span></a> As the chief English casuists we may mention Perkins, Hall, +Sanderson, as well as the more eminent Jeremy Taylor, whose +<i>Ductor dubitantium</i> appeared in 1660.</p> + +<p><a name="ft26s" id="ft26s" href="#fa26s"><span class="fn">26</span></a> This influence was not exercised in the region of ethics. Bacon’s +brief outline of moral philosophy (in the <i>Advancement of Learning</i>, +ii. 20-22) is highly pregnant and suggestive. But Bacon’s great task +of reforming scientific method was one which, as he conceived it, left +morals on one side; he never made any serious effort to reduce his +ethical views to a coherent system, methodically reasoned on an +independent basis. The outline given in the <i>Advancement</i> was never +filled in, and does not seem to have had any effect on the subsequent +course of ethical speculation.</p> + +<p><a name="ft27s" id="ft27s" href="#fa27s"><span class="fn">27</span></a> He even identifies the desire with the pleasure, apparently regarding +the stir of appetite and that of fruition as two parts of the +same “motion.”</p> + +<p><a name="ft28s" id="ft28s" href="#fa28s"><span class="fn">28</span></a> In spite of Hobbes’s uncompromising egoism, there is a noticeable +discrepancy between his theory of the ends that men naturally seek +and his standard for determining their natural rights. This latter is +never Pleasure simply, but always Preservation—though on occasion +he enlarges the notion of “preservation” into “preservation of life +so as not to be weary of it.” His view seems to be that in a state of +nature <i>most</i> men <i>will</i> fight, rob, &c., “for delectation merely” or +“for glory,” and that hence all men must be allowed an indefinite +right to fight, rob, &c., “for preservation.”</p> + +<p><a name="ft29s" id="ft29s" href="#fa29s"><span class="fn">29</span></a> It should be noticed, however, that it is only in his treatment of +Equity and Benevolence that he really follows out the mathematical +analogy (cf. Sidgwick’s <i>History of Ethics</i>, 5th ed., pp. 180-181).</p> + +<p><a name="ft30s" id="ft30s" href="#fa30s"><span class="fn">30</span></a> It should be observed that, while Clarke is sincerely anxious to +prove that most principles are binding independently of Divine appointment, +he is no less concerned to show that morality requires the +practical support of revealed religion.</p> + +<p><a name="ft31s" id="ft31s" href="#fa31s"><span class="fn">31</span></a> Three classes of impulses are thus distinguished by Shaftesbury:—(1) +“Natural Affections,” (2) “Self-affections,” and (3) “Un-natural +Affections.” Their characteristics are further considered in +the <i>History of Ethics</i>, p. 186 seq.</p> + +<p><a name="ft32s" id="ft32s" href="#fa32s"><span class="fn">32</span></a> In a remarkable passage near the close of his eleventh sermon +Butler seems even to allow that conscience would have to give way +to self-love, if it were possible (which it is not) that the two should +come into ultimate and irreconcilable conflict.</p> + +<p><a name="ft33s" id="ft33s" href="#fa33s"><span class="fn">33</span></a> It is worth noticing that Hutcheson’s express definition of the +object of self-love includes “perfection” as well as “happiness”; +but in the working out of his system he considers private good +exclusively as happiness or pleasure.</p> + +<p><a name="ft34s" id="ft34s" href="#fa34s"><span class="fn">34</span></a> Hume’s ethical view was finally stated in his <i>Inquiry into the +Principles of Morals</i> (1751), which is at once more popular and more +purely utilitarian than his earlier work.</p> + +<p><a name="ft35s" id="ft35s" href="#fa35s"><span class="fn">35</span></a> Hume remarks that in some cases, by “association of ideas,” the +rule by which we praise and blame is extended beyond the principle +of utility from which it arises; but he allows much less scope to this +explanation in his second treatise than in his first.</p> + +<p><a name="ft36s" id="ft36s" href="#fa36s"><span class="fn">36</span></a> In earlier editions of the <i>Inquiry</i> Hume expressly included all +approved qualities under the general notion of “virtue.” In later +editions he avoided this strain on usage by substituting or adding +“merit” in several passages—allowing that some of the laudable +qualities which he mentions would be more commonly called +“talents,” but still maintaining that “there is little distinction +made in our internal estimation” of “virtues” and “talents.”</p> + +<p><a name="ft37s" id="ft37s" href="#fa37s"><span class="fn">37</span></a> It is to be observed that whereas Price and Stewart (after +Butler) identify the object of self-love with happiness or pleasure, +Reid conceives this “good” more vaguely as including perfection +and happiness; though he sometimes uses “good” and happiness +as convertible terms, and seems practically to have the latter in view +in all that he says of self-love.</p> + +<p><a name="ft38s" id="ft38s" href="#fa38s"><span class="fn">38</span></a> <i>E.g.</i> Reid proposes to apply this principle in favour of monogamy, +arguing from the proportion of males and females born; without +explaining why, if the intention of nature hence inferred excludes +occasional polygamy, it does not also exclude occasional celibacy.</p> + +<p><a name="ft39s" id="ft39s" href="#fa39s"><span class="fn">39</span></a> We may observe that some recent writers, who would generally +be included in this school, avoid in various ways the difficulty of constructing +a code of external conduct. Sometimes they consider moral +intuition as determining the comparative excellence of conflicting +motives (James Martineau), or the comparative quality of pleasures +chosen (Laurie), which seems to be the same view in a hedonistic +garb; others hold that what is intuitively perceived is the rightness +or wrongness of individual acts—a view which obviously renders +ethical reasoning practically superfluous.</p> + +<p><a name="ft40s" id="ft40s" href="#fa40s"><span class="fn">40</span></a> The originality—such as it is—of Paley’s system (as of +Bentham’s) lies in its method of working out details rather than in +its principles of construction. Paley expressly acknowledges his +obligations to the original and suggestive, though diffuse and +whimsical, work of Abraham Tucker (<i>Light of Nature Pursued</i>, 1768-1774). +In this treatise, as in Paley’s, we find “every man’s own +satisfaction, the spring that actuates all his motives,” connected +with “general good, the root whereout all our rules of conduct and +sentiments of honour are to branch,” by means of natural theology +demonstrating the “unniggardly goodness of the author of nature.” +Tucker is also careful to explain that satisfaction or pleasure is +“one and the same in kind, however much it may vary in degree, ... whether +a man is pleased with hearing music, seeing prospects, +tasting dainties, performing laudable actions, or making +agreeable reflections,” and again that by “general good” he means +“quantity of happiness,” to which “every pleasure that we do to our +neighbour is an addition.” There is, however, in Tucker’s theological +link between private and general happiness a peculiar ingenuity +which Paley’s common sense has avoided. He argues that +men having no free will have really no desert; therefore the divine +equity must ultimately distribute happiness in equal shares to all; +therefore I must ultimately increase my own happiness most by +conduct that adds most to the general fund which Providence +administers.</p> + +<p>But in fact the outline of Paley’s utilitarianism is to be found a +generation earlier—in Gay’s dissertation prefixed to Law’s edition of +King’s <i>Origin of Evil</i>—as the following extracts will show:—“The +idea of virtue is the conformity to a rule of life, directing the actions +of all rational creatures with respect to each other’s happiness; to +which every one is always obliged.... Obligation is the necessity +of doing or omitting something in order to be happy.... Full and +complete obligation which will extend to all cases can only be that +arising from the authority of God.... The will of God [so far as it +directs behaviour to others] is the immediate rule or criterion of +virtue ... but it is evident from the nature of God that he could +have no other design in creating mankind than their happiness; +and therefore he wills their happiness; therefore that my behaviour +so far as it may be a means to the happiness of mankind should be +such; so this happiness of mankind may be said to be the criterion +of virtue once removed.”</p> + +<p>The same dissertation also contains the germ of Hartley’s system, +as we shall presently notice.</p> + +<p><a name="ft41s" id="ft41s" href="#fa41s"><span class="fn">41</span></a> It must be allowed that Paley’s application of this argument is +somewhat loosely reasoned, and does not sufficiently distinguish the +consequence of a single act of beneficent manslaughter from the +consequences of a general permission to commit such acts.</p> + +<p><a name="ft42s" id="ft42s" href="#fa42s"><span class="fn">42</span></a> This list gives twelve out of the fourteen classes in which Bentham +arranges the springs of action, omitting the religious sanction +(mentioned afterwards), and the pleasures and pains of self-interest, +which include all the other classes except sympathy and antipathy.</p> + +<p><a name="ft43s" id="ft43s" href="#fa43s"><span class="fn">43</span></a> In the <i>Deontology</i> published by Bowring from MSS. left after +Bentham’s death, the coincidence is asserted to be complete.</p> + +<p><a name="ft44s" id="ft44s" href="#fa44s"><span class="fn">44</span></a> It should be observed that Austin, after Bentham, more frequently +uses the term “moral” to connote what he more distinctly +calls “positive morality,” the code of rules supported by common +opinion in any society.</p> + +<p><a name="ft45s" id="ft45s" href="#fa45s"><span class="fn">45</span></a> In the before-mentioned dissertation. Cf. note 2 to p. 835. +Hartley refers to this treatise as having supplied the starting-point +for his own system.</p> + +<p><a name="ft46s" id="ft46s" href="#fa46s"><span class="fn">46</span></a> It should be noticed that Hartley’s sensationalism is far from +leading him to exalt the corporeal pleasures. On the contrary, he +tries to prove elaborately that they (as well as the pleasures of +imagination, ambition, self-interest) cannot be made an object of +primary pursuit without a loss of happiness on the whole—one of +his arguments being that these pleasures occur earlier in time, and +“that which is prior in the order of nature is always less perfect than +that which is posterior.”</p> + +<p><a name="ft47s" id="ft47s" href="#fa47s"><span class="fn">47</span></a> It may be observed that in the view of Kant and others (2) and +(3) are somewhat confusingly blended.</p> + +<p><a name="ft48s" id="ft48s" href="#fa48s"><span class="fn">48</span></a> Singularly enough, the English writer who approaches most +nearly to Kant on this point is the utilitarian Godwin, in his <i>Political +Justice</i>. In Godwin’s view, reason is the proper motive to acts conducive +to general happiness: reason shows me that the happiness of +a number of other men is of more value than my own; and the perception +of this truth affords me at least <i>some</i> inducement to prefer +the former to the latter. And supposing it to be replied that the +motive is really the moral uneasiness involved in choosing the selfish +alternative, Godwin answers that this uneasiness, though a “constant +step” in the process of volition, is a merely “accidental” +step—“I feel pain in the neglect of an act of benevolence, because +benevolence is judged by me to be conduct which it becomes me to +adopt.”</p> + +<p><a name="ft49s" id="ft49s" href="#fa49s"><span class="fn">49</span></a> In Kantism, as we have partly seen, the most important ontological +beliefs—in God, freedom and immortality of the soul—are +based on necessities of ethical thought. In Fichte’s system the connexion +of ethics and metaphysics is still more intimate; indeed, we +may compare it in this respect to Platonism; as Plato blends the +most fundamental notions of each of these studies in the one idea of +good, so Fichte blends them in the one idea free-will. “Freedom,” +in his view, is at once the foundation of all being and the end of all +moral action. In the systems of Schelling and Hegel ethics falls +again into a subordinate place; indeed, the ethical view of the former +is rather suggested than completely developed. Neither Fichte nor +Schelling has exercised more than the faintest and most indirect +influence on ethical philosophy in England; it therefore seems best +to leave the ethical doctrines of each to be explained in connexion +with the rest of his system.</p> + +<p><a name="ft50s" id="ft50s" href="#fa50s"><span class="fn">50</span></a> Cf. A. Seth Pringle-Pattison, <i>The Philosophical Radicals. Martineau’s +Philosophy</i>, p. 92.</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> + + + + + + + + +<pre> + + + + + +End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of Encyclopaedia Britannica, 11th +Edition, Volume 9, Slice 7, by Various + +*** END OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK ENCYC. BRITANNICA, VOL 9 SL 7 *** + +***** This file should be named 35398-h.htm or 35398-h.zip ***** +This and all associated files of various formats will be found in: + https://www.gutenberg.org/3/5/3/9/35398/ + +Produced by Marius Masi, Don Kretz and the Online +Distributed Proofreading Team at https://www.pgdp.net + + +Updated editions will replace the previous one--the old editions +will be renamed. + +Creating the works from public domain print editions means that no +one owns a United States copyright in these works, so the Foundation +(and you!) can copy and distribute it in the United States without +permission and without paying copyright royalties. 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