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+The Project Gutenberg eBook, Jewish Immigration to the United States from
+1881 to 1910, by Samuel Joseph
+
+
+This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with
+almost no restrictions whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or
+re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included
+with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org
+
+
+
+
+
+Title: Jewish Immigration to the United States from 1881 to 1910
+ Studies in History, Economics and Public Law, Vol. LIX, No. 4, 1914
+
+
+Author: Samuel Joseph
+
+
+
+Release Date: February 27, 2011 [eBook #35415]
+
+Language: English
+
+Character set encoding: ISO-646-US (US-ASCII)
+
+
+***START OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK JEWISH IMMIGRATION TO THE UNITED
+STATES FROM 1881 TO 1910***
+
+
+E-text prepared by Jeannie Howse, Fritz Ohrenschall, and the Online
+Distributed Proofreading Team (http://www.pgdp.net)
+
+
+
+ +-----------------------------------------------------------+
+ | Transcriber's Note: |
+ | |
+ | This document was produced from an AMS Press reprint. |
+ | All modern material has been removed. The original, |
+ | printed in 1914, is an article in a journal, with it's |
+ | own page numbering (as well as the journal page numbering,|
+ | which has been removed from this transcription). |
+ | |
+ | Inconsistent hyphenation in the original document has |
+ | been preserved. |
+ | |
+ | Obvious typographical errors have been corrected. For |
+ | a complete list, please see the end of this document. |
+ | |
+ +-----------------------------------------------------------+
+
+
+
+
+
+4
+
+JEWISH IMMIGRATION TO THE UNITED STATES
+
+
+Studies in History, Economics and Public Law
+
+Edited by the Faculty of Political Science
+of Columbia University
+
+Volume LIX] [Number 4
+
+Whole Number 145
+
+
+JEWISH IMMIGRATION TO THE UNITED STATES
+
+FROM 1881 TO 1910
+
+by
+
+SAMUEL JOSEPH
+
+
+1914
+
+
+
+
+ To
+ MY FATHER AND MY MOTHER
+
+
+
+
+PREFACE
+
+
+In this survey of Jewish immigration to the United States for the past
+thirty years, my purpose has been to present the main features of a
+movement of population that is one of the most striking of modern
+times. The causes of Jewish emigration from Eastern Europe, the course
+of Jewish immigration to the United States and the most important
+social qualities of the Jewish immigrants are studied, for the light
+they throw upon the character of this movement. The method employed in
+this investigation has been largely statistical and comparative, a
+fact which is partly due to the kind of material that was available
+and partly to the point of view that has been taken. Certain economic
+and social factors, having a close bearing upon the past and present
+situation of the Jews in Eastern Europe and frequently neglected in
+the discussion of the various phases of this movement, have been
+emphasized in the examination into the causes of the emigration of the
+Jews from Eastern Europe and have been found vital in determining the
+specific character of the Jewish immigration to this country.
+
+I desire gratefully to acknowledge my deep indebtedness to Mr. A.S.
+Freidus, head of the Jewish department of the New York Public Library,
+for his ever-ready assistance in the preparation of this work. Thanks
+are due as well to Dr. C.C. Williamson, head of the Economics
+department of the library, and to his able and courteous staff; to
+Professor Robert E. Chaddock for his many valuable suggestions and
+aid in the making of the statistical tables and in the reading of the
+proof; and to Professor Edwin R.A. Seligman for his painstaking
+reading of the manuscript.
+
+ SAMUEL JOSEPH.
+
+
+
+
+TABLE OF CONTENTS.
+
+
+ PART I.--THE CAUSES OF JEWISH EMIGRATION.
+
+ PAGE
+
+ CHAPTER I
+
+ _Introduction._
+ 1. Character of Jewish immigration 21
+ 2. Eastern Europe 22
+ 3. Distribution of Jews in Eastern Europe 22
+ 4. Uniform character of East-European Jews 22
+
+
+ CHAPTER II
+
+ EASTERN EUROPE: ECONOMIC, SOCIAL AND POLITICAL CONDITIONS.
+
+ I. _Russia._
+ 1. Medieval past 27
+ 2. Agricultural character 28
+ 3. Emancipation of serfs 29
+ 4. Reminiscences of serfdom 29
+ 5. Changes since the emancipation 30
+ 6. Epoch of transition 31
+ 7. Social orders: classes, the church 31
+ 8. Political order: autocracy, bureaucracy 32
+ 9. Political struggle: Russian liberalism 32
+ 10. Reaction since Alexander III 33
+
+ II. _Roumania._
+
+ 1. Social-economic classes 34
+ 2. Emancipation of the serfs: results 35
+ 3. Development of industry and commerce 36
+ 4. Growth of a middle class 36
+
+ III. _Austria-Hungary._
+
+ 1. Reminiscences of medieval economy 37
+ 2. Transitional nature of economic life 37
+ 3. Organization of industry and commerce 37
+ 4. Politico-economic struggles 38
+ 5. Galicia: economic and social conditions 39
+
+ IV. _Summary._
+
+
+ CHAPTER III
+
+ THE JEWS IN EASTERN EUROPE: ECONOMIC AND SOCIAL POSITION
+
+ I. _Russia._
+ 1. Economic characteristics 42
+ a. Occupational distribution of the Jews 42
+ b. Comparison with the non-Jews 42
+ c. Participation of the Jews in principal
+ occupational groups 43
+ d. Comparison of occupational distribution of Jews
+ and non-Jews in the Pale 43
+ e. Economic activities of the Jews 44
+ 2. Social characteristics 46
+ a. Urban distribution of the Jews 46
+ b. Comparison with the non-Jews 46
+ c. Literacy: comparison with the non-Jews 47
+ d. Liberal professions: comparison with the non-Jews 48
+
+ II. _Roumania._
+
+ 1. Economic characteristics 48
+ a. The Jews as merchants and entrepreneurs 48
+ b. The Jewish artisans 49
+ c. Participation of the Jews in industry and commerce 49
+ 2. Social characteristics 49
+ a. Urban distribution of the Jews 49
+ b. Comparison with the non-Jews 49
+ c. Literacy: comparison with the non-Jews 50
+
+ III. _Austria-Hungary._
+ 1. Economic characteristics 50
+ a. Occupational distribution of the Jews 50
+ b. Comparison with the non-Jews 51
+ c. Participation of the Jews in principal
+ occupational groups 51
+ Galicia 51
+ a. Occupational distribution of the Jews 51
+ b. Comparison with the non-Jews 51
+ c. Participation of the Jews in principal
+ occupational groups 51
+ d. Industrial and commercial position of the Jews
+ in East and West Galicia 52
+
+ 2. Social characteristics 52
+ a. Urban distribution of the Jews 52
+ b. Comparison with the non-Jews 52
+ c. Liberal professions: comparison with the non-Jews 52
+
+ IV. _Summary._
+
+
+ CHAPTER IV
+
+ THIRTY YEARS OF JEWISH HISTORY
+
+ I. _Russia._
+ 1. Treatment of the Jews after the partitions of Poland 56
+ 2. Pale of Jewish Settlement: special Jewish laws 57
+ 3. Attitude of Russian government toward the Jews 57
+ 4. Alexander II and liberalism 58
+ 5. Reaction: antagonism to the Jews 59
+ 6. Economic attack: the May Laws 60
+ 7. Effect of the May Laws 61
+ 8. Educational restrictions: the "percentage rule" 62
+ 9. _Pogroms: pogroms of 1881-2_ 63
+ 10. Expulsions from Moscow 64
+ 11. Nicholas II: anti-Jewish agitation: Kishineff 64
+ 12. War and revolution: effect upon the Jews 65
+ 13. _Pogroms_ as counter-revolution 66
+ 14. Results: economic and social pressure 67
+ 15. Jewish policy of reactionary regime 68
+
+ II. _Roumania._
+ 1. Early legal status of the Jews 69
+ 2. Convention of Paris 69
+ 3. Anti-Jewish activities of the government: Article VII 70
+ 4. Berlin Congress 70
+ 5. Article 44 of the Berlin Treaty 71
+ 6. The revised Article VII 71
+ 7. Legal status of the Jews fixed 72
+ 8. Campaign of discrimination 73
+ 9. Exclusion of Jews from economic activities 73
+ 10. Educational restrictions: restrictions to
+ professional service 74
+ 11. Political basis of anti-Jewish policy 75
+ 12. Results: economic and social pressure 76
+ 13. Jewish policy of Roumanian government: Hay's
+ circular note 76
+
+ III. _Austria-Hungary._
+ 1. Early legal status of the Jews: emancipation 77
+ 2. Jews attacked as liberals and capitalists 78
+ 3. Rise of political antisemitism: its triumph: the
+ clericals 78
+ Galicia 78
+ 1. Rise of a Polish middle class: displacement of Jews
+ in industry and commerce 79
+ 2. Economic boycott of Jewish artisans and traders 79
+ 3. Anti-Jewish activity of local authorities 79
+ 4. Over-competition and surplus of Jews in industry and
+ commerce 80
+ 5. Historical role of the Jews: antagonism of peasantry
+ and clergy 80
+
+
+ CHAPTER V
+
+ CONCLUSION
+
+
+ PART II.--JEWISH IMMIGRATION TO THE UNITED STATES
+
+ A. ITS MOVEMENT
+
+
+ CHAPTER I
+
+ DETERMINATION OF NUMBER OF JEWISH IMMIGRANTS
+
+ 1. Construction of table: difficulties 87
+ 2. Sources utilized: reports of Jewish societies 87
+ 3. Rearrangement of numbers from 1886 to 1898 88
+ 4. Determination of numbers by country of nativity:
+ methods used 88
+ 5. Determination of numbers from 1881 to 1885: methods
+ used 90
+ 6. Tendency to magnify numbers of Jewish immigrants 91
+ 7. Results 92
+
+
+ CHAPTER II
+
+ IMMIGRATION OF JEWS FROM EASTERN EUROPE
+ 1. Jewish immigration East-European 95
+ 2. Summary by decades of Jewish immigration from Russia,
+ Roumania and Austria-Hungary 95
+ 3. Annual contributions of Jewish immigration from
+ Russia, Roumania and Austria-Hungary 96
+
+
+ CHAPTER III
+
+ IMMIGRATION OF JEWS FROM RUSSIA
+ 1. Russian Jewish immigration a movement of steady
+ growth 98
+ a. Summary by decades 98
+ b. Annual variations: effect of the Moscow expulsions 98
+ 2. Participation of Jews in the immigration from Russia 101
+ a. Annual variations 101
+ b. Summary by decades 102
+ c. Relative predominance of Jewish in total 102
+ 3. Intensity of Jewish immigration from Russia 103
+ a. Rate of immigration 103
+ b. Fluctuations of rate 104
+
+
+ CHAPTER IV
+
+ IMMIGRATION OF JEWS FROM ROUMANIA
+ 1. Roumanian Jewish immigration a rising movement 105
+ a. Summary by decades 105
+ b. Annual variations 105
+ 2. Participation of Jews in the immigration from
+ Roumania 107
+ a. Jewish and total synonymous 107
+ b. Annual variations 107
+ 3. Intensity of Jewish immigration from Roumania 108
+ a. Rate of immigration 108
+ b. Fluctuations of rate 108
+
+
+ CHAPTER V
+
+ IMMIGRATION OF JEWS FROM AUSTRIA-HUNGARY
+ 1. Jewish immigration from Austria-Hungary a rising
+ movement 109
+ a. Summary by decades 109
+ b. Annual variations 109
+ c. Comparison of Jewish with total
+ 2. Participation of Jews in the immigration from
+ Austria-Hungary 110
+ a. Summary by decades 110
+ b. Annual variations 111
+ 3. Comparison of immigration of Jews from Austria and
+ Hungary 111
+ a. Numbers 111
+ b. Participation in total 111
+ 4. Immigration of Jews and other peoples from
+ Austria-Hungary 112
+ 5. Rate of Jewish immigration from Austria-Hungary 112
+
+
+ CHAPTER VI
+
+ JEWISH IMMIGRATION
+ 1. Total movement one of geometrical progression 113
+ a. Summary by decades 113
+ b. Summary by six-year periods 113
+ c. Annual variations 114
+
+
+ CHAPTER VII
+
+ PARTICIPATION OF JEWS IN TOTAL IMMIGRATION
+ 1. Rise in proportion of Jewish to total 117
+ 2. Summary by decades 117
+ 3. Annual variations 117
+ 4. Comparison of annual variations of Jewish and total
+ immigration 118
+ 5. Rank of Jewish in total immigration 119
+ 6. Rate of immigration 120
+
+
+ CHAPTER VIII
+
+ SUMMARY
+
+
+ B. ITS CHARACTERISTICS
+
+ CHAPTER I
+
+ FAMILY MOVEMENT
+
+ 1. Importance of sex and age distribution 127
+ 2. Proportion of females in Jewish immigration 127
+ a. Tendency towards increase 127
+ 3. Proportion of children in Jewish immigration 128
+ 4. Proportion of sexes in total and Jewish immigration 129
+ 5. Proportion of children in total and Jewish
+ immigration 129
+ 6. Comparison of composition by sex of Jews and other
+ immigrant peoples 130
+ 7. Comparison of composition by age of Jews and other
+ immigrant peoples 130
+ 8. Comparison of composition by sex and age of Jews and
+ the Slavic races 131
+ 9. Comparison of composition by sex and age of Jews
+ from Roumania and Roumanians 131
+ 10. Comparison of composition by sex and age of Jewish
+ and "old" and "new" immigration 132
+ 11. Conclusion 132
+
+
+ CHAPTER II.
+
+ PERMANENT SETTLEMENT
+
+ 1. Emigration of Jews compared with immigration of Jews 133
+ 2. Comparison of return movement of total and Jewish
+ immigration 134
+ 3. Comparison of return movement of Jews and other
+ immigrant peoples 134
+ 4. Emigration tendency of Jews from Russia, Roumania
+ and Austria-Hungary 135
+ 5. Comparison of return movement of Jews and Poles
+ from Russia and Austria-Hungary 136
+ 6. Comparison of return movement of Jewish and "old"
+ and "new" immigration 137
+ 7. Comparison of return movement of Jews and other
+ immigrant peoples, 1908 137
+ 8. Response of Jewish immigration to economic
+ conditions in the United States 138
+ 9. Comparison of Jews and other immigrant peoples who
+ have been previously in the United States 138
+ 10. Conclusion 139
+
+
+ CHAPTER III
+
+ OCCUPATIONS
+
+ 1. Occupational distribution of Jewish immigrants 140
+ 2. Jewish immigrants reporting occupations 141
+ a. Number and percentage of occupational groups 141
+ 3. Skilled laborers 141
+ a. Garment workers 141
+ b. Other important groups 142
+ 4. Participation of Jews in occupational distribution
+ of total immigration 142
+ 5. Comparison of occupational distribution of Jews and
+ other immigrant peoples 143
+ 6. Comparison of occupational distribution of Jews and
+ Slavic peoples 144
+ 7. Comparison of occupational distribution of Jewish
+ and "old" and "new" immigration 144
+ 8. Conclusion 145
+
+
+ CHAPTER IV
+
+ ILLITERACY
+
+ 1. Illiteracy of Jewish immigrants 146
+ 2. Influence of sex upon illiteracy of Jewish
+ immigrants 146
+ 3. Illiteracy of Jewish male and female immigrants 147
+ 4. Comparison of rate of illiteracy of Jews and other
+ immigrant peoples 147
+ 5. Comparison of rate of illiteracy of Jewish and
+ "old" and "new" immigration 147
+ 6. Comparison of rate of illiteracy of Jews and
+ East-European peoples 148
+ 7. Comparison of rate of illiteracy of each sex among
+ Jews and East-European peoples 148
+ 8. Conclusion 148
+
+
+ CHAPTER V
+
+ DESTINATION
+
+ 1. Factors influencing destination 149
+ 2. Proportion of Jewish immigrants destined for
+ divisions 149
+ 3. Proportion of Jewish immigrants destined for
+ principal states 149
+ 4. Comparison of destination of Jews and other
+ immigrant peoples 150
+ 5. Participation of Jews in the immigration destined
+ for divisions 150
+ 6. Final disposition of Jewish immigrants 151
+
+
+ CHAPTER VI
+
+ SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS
+
+
+
+
+STATISTICAL TABLES
+
+
+ PAGE
+
+ IA. Participation of Jews in occupations in the
+ Russian Empire, 1897 158
+
+ IB. Participation of Jews in occupations in the Pale
+ of Jewish Settlement, 1897 159
+
+ II. Jewish immigration at the ports of New York,
+ Philadelphia and Baltimore, July to June, 1886 to
+ 1898 159
+
+ III. Jewish immigration at the port of New York, July,
+ 1885 to June, 1886, by month and country of
+ nativity 159
+
+ IVA. Jewish immigration at the port of Philadelphia,
+ 1886 to 1898, by country of nativity 160
+
+ IVB. Jewish immigration at the port of Baltimore, 1891
+ to 1898, by country of nativity 160
+
+ V. Jewish immigration at the ports of New York,
+ Philadelphia and Baltimore, 1886 to 1898, by
+ country of nativity 161
+
+ VI. Jewish immigration to the United States, 1881 to
+ 1910 93
+
+ VII. Percentage of annual Jewish immigration to the
+ United States, contributed by each country of
+ nativity, 1881 to 1910 94
+
+ VIII. Jewish immigration to the United States, 1881 to
+ 1910, absolute numbers and percentages, by decade
+ and country of nativity 162
+
+ IX. Jewish immigration from Russia, 1881 to 1910, and
+ percentage of total arriving each year 162
+
+ X. Jewish immigration from Russia, 1881 to 1910, by
+ decade and percentage of total arriving each decade 163
+
+ XI. Jewish immigration from Russia at the port of New
+ York, January 1, 1891 to December 31, 1891, and
+ January 1, 1892 to December 31, 1892, by month 163
+
+ XII. Total immigration from Russia and Jewish immigration
+ from Russia, 1881 to 1910, and percentage Jewish of
+ total 164
+
+ XIII. Total immigration from Russia and Jewish immigration
+ from Russia, 1881 to 1910, by decade and percentage
+ Jewish of total 164
+
+ XIV. Immigration to the United States from the Russian
+ Empire, 1899 to 1910, by annual percentage of
+ contribution of principal peoples 165
+
+ XV. Rate of immigration of peoples predominant in the
+ immigration from Russia, 1899 to 1910 165
+
+ XVI. Rate of Jewish immigration from Russia per 10,000
+ of Jewish population, 1899 to 1910 166
+
+ XVII. Jewish immigration from Roumania, 1881 to 1910, by
+ decade and percentage of total arriving each decade 166
+
+ XVIII. Jewish immigration from Roumania, 1881 to 1910, and
+ percentage of total arriving each year 167
+
+ XIX. Total immigration from Roumania and Jewish
+ immigration from Roumania, 1899 to 1910, and
+ percentage Jewish of total 168
+
+ XX. Rate of Jewish immigration from Roumania per 10,000
+ of Jewish population, 1899 to 1910 168
+
+ XXI. Jewish immigration from Austria Hungary, 1881 to
+ 1910, by decade and percentage of total arriving
+ each decade 169
+
+ XXII. Jewish immigration from Austria-Hungary, 1881 to
+ 1910, and percentage of total arriving each year 169
+
+ XXIII. Total and Jewish immigration from Austria-Hungary,
+ 1881 to 1910, by decade and percentage Jewish of
+ total 170
+
+ XXIV. Total and Jewish immigration from Austria-Hungary,
+ 1881 to 1910, and percentage Jewish of total 170
+
+ XXV. Percentage of annual immigration from
+ Austria-Hungary contributed by principal peoples,
+ 1899 to 1910 171
+
+ XXVI. Rate of Jewish immigration from Austria-Hungary per
+ 10,000 of Jewish population, 1899 to 1910 171
+
+ XXVII. Jewish immigration, 1881 to 1910, by decade 172
+
+ XXVIII. Jewish immigration, 1881 to 1910, by six-year
+ period 172
+
+ XXIX. Jewish immigration to the United States, 1881 to
+ 1910 173
+
+ XXX. Total immigration and Jewish immigration, 1881 to
+ 1910, by decade and percentage Jewish of total 174
+
+ XXXI. Total immigration and Jewish immigration, 1881 to
+ 1910, by year and percentage Jewish of total 174
+
+ XXXII. Total and Jewish immigration, 1881 to 1910, by
+ number and percentage of increase or decrease 175
+
+ XXXIII. Sex of Jewish immigrants, 1899 to 1910 176
+
+ XXXIV. Sex of Jewish immigrant adults at the port of New
+ York, 1886 to 1898 176
+
+ XXXV. Age of Jewish immigrants, 1809 to 1910 177
+
+ XXXVI. Age of Jewish immigrants at the port of New York,
+ 1886 to 1898 177
+
+ XXXVII. Sex of total and Jewish immigrants, 1899 to 1910 178
+
+ XXXVIII. Sex of European immigrants, 1899 to 1910 179
+
+ XXXIX. Age of European immigrants, 1899 to 1909 180
+
+ XL. Sex, 1899 to 1910, and age, 1899 to 1909, of Slavic
+ immigrants 181
+
+ XLIA. Sex of Roumanian immigrants, 1899 to 1910, and of
+ immigrants from Roumania. 1900 to 1910 181
+
+ XLIB. Age of Jewish and Roumanian immigrants, 1899 to
+ 1909 181
+
+ XLII. Sex and age of "old" and "new" immigration (Jewish
+ excepted) and of Jewish immigration, 1899 to 1909 182
+
+ XLIII. Jewish immigration and emigration, 1908 to 1912 182
+
+ XLIV. Total and Jewish emigrant aliens and percentage
+ Jewish immigrant aliens of total immigrant aliens,
+ 1908 to 1912 183
+
+ XLV. European immigrant aliens admitted, and European
+ emigrant aliens departed, 1908, 1909 and 1910 183
+
+ XLVI. Jewish immigration and emigration, Russia,
+ Austria-Hungary and Roumania, 1908 to 1912 184
+
+ XLVII. Polish immigration and emigration, Russia and
+ Austria-Hungary, 1908 to 1912 184
+
+ XLVIII. "Old" and "new" (Jewish excepted) and Jewish
+ immigration and emigration, 1908 to 1910 185
+
+ XLIX. European immigrant aliens, 1907, and European
+ emigrant aliens, 1908 185
+
+ L. Total European immigrants admitted and total of those
+ admitted during this period in the United States
+ previously, 1899 to 1910 186
+
+ LI. Occupational distribution of Jewish immigrants,
+ 1899 to 1910 186
+
+ LII. Jewish immigrants reporting occupations, 1899
+ to 1910 187
+
+ LIII. Jewish immigrants engaged in professional
+ occupations, 1899 to 1910 187
+
+ LIV. Jewish immigrants reporting skilled occupations,
+ 1899 to 1910 188
+
+ LV. Occupations of total European and Jewish immigrants,
+ 1899 to 1909, and percentage Jewish of total 189
+
+ LVI. Total European immigrants and immigrants without
+ occupation, 1899 to 1910 189
+
+ LVII. Occupations of European immigrants reporting
+ employment, 1899 to 1910 190
+
+ LVIII. Occupations of Slavic and Jewish immigrants
+ reporting employment, 1890 to 1910 191
+
+ LIX. Occupations of "old" and "new" immigration (Jewish
+ excepted) and of Jewish immigration, 1899 to 1909 191
+
+ LX. Illiteracy of Jewish immigrants, 1899 to 1910 192
+
+ LXI. Sex of Jewish immigrant illiterates, 1908 to 1912 192
+
+ LXII. Illiteracy of European immigrants, 1899 to 1910 193
+
+ LXIII. Illiteracy of "old" and "new" immigration (Jewish
+ excepted) and of Jewish immigration, 1899 to 1909 194
+
+ LXIV. Illiteracy of peoples from Eastern Europe, 1899 to
+ 1910 194
+
+ LXV. Sex of illiterates of peoples from Eastern Europe,
+ 1908 194
+
+ LXVI. Destination of Jewish immigrants, 1899 to 1910, by
+ principal divisions 195
+
+ LXVII. Destination of Jewish immigrants, 1899 to 1910, by
+ principal states 195
+
+ LXVIII. Percentage of Jewish and total immigrants destined
+ for each division, 1899 to 1910 196
+
+ LXIX. Participation of Jewish immigrants in destination of
+ total immigrants, 1899 to 1910, by principal
+ divisions 196
+
+
+ APPENDICES
+
+ A. President Harrison's Message, 1891 199
+ B. Article VII of the Constitution of Roumania 200
+ C. Secretary Hay's Note 201
+ BIBLIOGRAPHY 207
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER I
+
+INTRODUCTION
+
+
+Thirty years have elapsed since the Jews began to enter the United
+States in numbers sufficiently large to make their immigration
+conspicuous in the general movement to this country. A study of Jewish
+immigration, in itself and in relation to the general movement,
+reveals an interesting phase of this historic and many-sided social
+phenomenon and throws light upon a number of important problems
+incident to it.
+
+Especially does it become clear that the Jewish immigration, although
+in part the result of the same forces as have affected the general
+immigration and the separate groups composing it, differs,
+nevertheless, in certain marked respects, from the typical
+immigration. Some of these differences indeed are fundamental and
+far-reaching in their effects and practically stamp the Jewish
+immigration as a movement _sui generis_.
+
+Generally speaking, in the forces which are behind the emigration of
+the Jews from the countries of the Old World, in the character of
+their immigration--its movement and its distinguishing qualities--the
+Jewish immigration strikes a distinctly individual note.
+
+Three European countries--Russia, Austria-Hungary and
+Roumania--furnish the vast majority of the Jewish immigrants to the
+United States.[1] It is to these countries, therefore, that we must
+turn for light upon the causes of this movement.
+
+Geographically, these countries are closely connected; they form
+practically the whole of the division of Eastern Europe. Here the
+Slavonic races so largely predominate that the term Slavonic Europe
+has been applied to this section of Europe.
+
+Eastern or Slavonic Europe is a social as well as a geographical fact.
+In racial stratification, economic and social institutions, cultural
+position and, in part, religious traditions as well, these countries
+present strong similarities to one another and equally strong
+differences in most of these respects from the countries of Western
+Europe.
+
+It is here that the Jews are found concentrated in the greatest
+numbers. Nearly seven and a half-million Jews--more than half of the
+Jews of the world--live in these countries. Of this number more than
+five millions are in Russia, more than two millions in Austria-Hungary,
+and a quarter of a million in Roumania. The great majority of these are
+massed on the contiguous borders, in a zone which embraces Poland, and
+Western Russia, Galicia, and Moldavia. This is the emigration zone. The
+relative density of the Jews is greatest in these parts. Every seventh
+man in Poland, every ninth man in Western Russia and in Galicia, and
+every tenth man in Moldavia, is a Jew. Thus the center of gravity of
+the Jewish populations is still the former kingdom of Poland, as it was
+constituted before the partitions at the end of the eighteenth century.
+
+United originally in Poland, the Jews of Eastern Europe still retain
+the same general characteristics, in spite of the changes that have
+been brought about by a century of rule under different governments.
+Speaking a common language, Yiddish, and possessing common religious
+traditions, as well as similar social and psychological traits, the
+East-European Jews present on the whole a striking uniformity of
+character.
+
+Through the centuries they have become deeply rooted in the
+East-European soil, their economic and social life intimately
+connected with the economic and social conditions of these countries
+and their history deeply influenced by the transformations that have
+been taking place in them for half a century.
+
+As these conditions and transformations furnish the foundation of
+Jewish life in Eastern Europe, and contain the explanation of the
+situation that has been largely responsible for the recent Jewish
+emigration to Western Europe and the United States, a rapid review of
+the economic, social and political conditions of Russia, Roumania and
+Austria-Hungary will be made.
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+[1] _Cf. infra_, p. 95.
+
+
+
+
+PART I
+
+THE CAUSES OF JEWISH EMIGRATION
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER II
+
+EASTERN EUROPE: ECONOMIC, SOCIAL AND POLITICAL CONDITIONS
+
+
+I. RUSSIA
+
+The difficulty of the average American to understand the character of
+Russian life, some traits of which have been so vividly brought home
+to him in recent years, may be attributed to a general idea that a
+country rubbing elbows as it were with Western civilization for
+several centuries must perforce itself possess the characteristics of
+modern civilization. A closer survey of the economic, social and
+political conditions prevailing in Russia to-day, however, reveals
+many points of difference from those of the countries of Western
+Europe, and presents a remarkable contrast with those prevailing in
+the United States. Russia and the United States, indeed, stand, in
+Leroy-Beaulieu's phrase, at the two poles of modern civilization. So
+far apart are they in the character of their economic, social and
+political structures, in the degree in which they utilize the forms
+and institutions of modern life, and, in the difference in the mental
+make-up of their peoples, that there exist few, if any, points of real
+contact.
+
+Up to the middle of the 19th century, Russia was, in nearly all
+respects, a medieval state. She was a society, which, in the words of
+Kovalevsky, "preserved still of feudalism, not its political spirit
+but its economic structure, serfdom, monopoly and the privileges of
+the nobility, its immunities in the matter of taxes, its exclusive
+right to landed property, and its seignorial rights."[2] Her modern
+era dates from the emancipation of the serfs in 1861, when she became,
+at least in form, a European state. But, though the Russia of our day
+has witnessed great transformations in the direction of modernization,
+she still retains many of the conditions and much of the spirit of her
+medieval past.
+
+A rapid review of the economic, social and political conditions of
+Russia will serve to make clearer this situation, which has an
+important bearing upon the exceptional position, legal, economic,
+social, of the Jews in the Empire, and upon the fateful events of
+their history for a third of a century.
+
+The most striking fact in the economic life of present-day Russia is
+that it is overwhelmingly agricultural. More than three-fourths of her
+population are engaged in some form of agricultural labor. The vast
+majority are peasants living in villages. Towns are relatively few and
+sparsely populated. Agricultural products constitute 85 per cent of
+the annual exports. What a contrast does this agricultural state, this
+"peasant empire", present to the industrially and commercially
+developed countries of Western Europe and the United States!
+
+The Russian peasant still practices a primitive system of agriculture.
+His method of extensive cultivation, the three-field system in vogue,
+his primitive implements, his domestic economy of half a century ago,
+with its home production for home consumption, which is still
+maintained in many parts of Russia to this day--all these present
+conditions not far removed from those of the middle ages of Western
+Europe.[3]
+
+The existence to our day of this almost primitive economy finds its
+explanation in the fact that serfdom existed in Russia, in all its
+unmitigated cruelty, until comparatively recent times. Its abolition
+through the Emancipation Act of Alexander II--antedating our own
+Emancipation Proclamation by a few years--struck off the chains that
+bound twenty millions of peasants to the soil. The emancipation,
+however, was not complete. The land the peasants received was
+insufficient for their needs. Other conditions co-operated in the
+course of time with this primary one, to create a situation of chronic
+starvation for the great mass of the Russian peasants. Forced by the
+government to pay heavy taxes, in addition to redemption dues for the
+land, which they paid until recently, and receiving little help from
+either government or the nobility for the improvement of their
+position, they are virtually exploited almost as completely as before
+the emancipation.
+
+Thus, though freed in person, the peasants are to a great extent bound
+by economic ties to their former masters, the nobles. These two
+social-economic classes maintain towards each other practically the
+same relative position held by them before the emancipation. The manor
+still controls the hut.
+
+The former servile relations have persisted psychologically as well.
+The Russian peasant is still largely a serf in his mentality, in his
+feeling of dependence, in his inertia and lack of individual
+enterprise, and, above all, in the smallness of his demands upon
+life.[4] This fact permeates, as it serves to explain, many aspects of
+contemporary Russian life.
+
+The industrial and commercial stage of Russian economy began with the
+emancipation, which set free a great supply of labor. The changes
+that have taken place have nevertheless not obliterated many of the
+landmarks of the feudal, pre-reformation period. The economic
+activities of the last half-century present a curious juxtaposition of
+old and new, medieval and modern. Cottage and village industries but
+little removed from the natural economy of the earlier period exist by
+the side of great factories and industrial establishments employing
+thousands of workmen. Fairs and markets still play a large part in
+supplying the needs of the peasants, rapidly as they are being
+supplanted by the commercial activities of the towns. The industrial
+laborers, recruited mainly from the country, retain largely their
+peasant interests, relations and characteristics. The payment of wages
+in kind, which is still in vogue in many parts, and the right of
+inflicting corporal punishment retained by the employers, give
+evidence of the strong impress of the servile conditions of the past.
+
+Vast changes have nevertheless taken place since the emancipation.
+Capitalism has made rapid, if uneven, progress. Under the fostering
+care of the government, industry and commerce have made immense
+strides. The factory system has taken firm root and has been
+developing a specialized class of industrial laborers. Great
+industrial centers have sprung up; towns have grown rapidly. The
+middle class, hitherto insignificant, has increased in number, wealth
+and influence. Among the peasants as well, freedom has given birth to
+the spirit of individualism. The differentiation of the peasantry into
+wealthier peasants and landless agricultural laborers, the great mass
+of the peasantry occupying the middle ground, and the gradual
+dissolution of the two great forces of Russian agricultural life--the
+patriarchal family and the village community--have been the most
+important results.
+
+Russia is clearly in a state of transition from the agricultural or
+medieval to the industrial and commercial or modern economic life.
+This transformation of the economic structure is being effected under
+great difficulties and the strong opposition of the ruling classes,
+whose privileges are threatened by the new order of things.
+
+The Russian social and political order reflects the medieval
+background which formed the setting for her entrance upon the modern
+stage. The class distinctions, naturally obtaining, are hardened into
+rigidity by the law, which divides Russian society into a hierarchy of
+five classes or orders--the nobles, the clergy, the merchants, the
+townsmen and the peasants--each with separate legal status, rights and
+obligations.
+
+The individual is thus not an independent unit, as in the legal codes
+of Western Europe or the United States. Accompanying the legal
+stratification there is an exceedingly strong, almost caste-like,
+sense of difference between the members of the different groups.
+
+This emphasis on the person is characteristic of the medieval social
+order. In Russia it finds additional expression in the control of
+individual movement by means of the passport, without which document a
+Russian may be said to have no legal existence.
+
+Even more striking is the position of the Russian Church, as well as
+the religio-national conception which dominates the Russian mind and
+according to which orthodoxy and nationality are regarded as one. The
+Russian Orthodox is the only true Russian; all others are foreigners.
+In the alliance of church and state--which in Russia reaches a degree
+of strength not attained in any other European state--in the complete
+control exercised by the Church over the lives of the faithful and the
+clergy, in secular as in religious matters, in its intolerant attitude
+towards other creeds and its unceasing attempts to suppress them--it
+presents characteristics strongly reminiscent of the position of the
+medieval church in Western Europe.
+
+The one great political fact of Russia has been the autocracy. The
+degree of control which the autocratic Czars exercised unopposed over
+their subjects marks an important difference between the political
+development of Russia and that of the countries of Western Europe. At
+an early period the Czars had transformed the nobility into a body of
+state officials, thus at a blow depriving them of any real powers,
+apart from the will of the Crown, and making them serve the interests
+of the state. In this way the nobles, or the landed aristocracy,
+became the main source from which the members of the bureaucracy were
+recruited. The lack of a middle class of any real size and influence,
+which could play a part in the demand for political rights, explains
+in a measure the strength of the autocratic powers.[5] The autocracy
+in turn has been largely dependent upon its servant, the bureaucracy.
+To such an extent has the Russian government been the expression of
+the will and interests of this all-powerful body as to justify
+Leroy-Beaulieu's designation of Russia as the "Bureaucratic State".
+
+Thus the autocracy, the nobility-bureaucracy and the church have been
+the dominating forces in the economic, social and political life of
+Russia.
+
+In the light of this analysis, the political struggles that have been
+so conspicuous a feature of Russian life during the last half of the
+19th century become an accompaniment as well as an expression of the
+progressive development of Russia towards modern economic, social and
+political institutions.
+
+Russian liberalism,--largely revolutionary because of the denial of
+even elementary rights, such as the freedom of person, of speech, of
+the press and of meeting,--rights which were secured to Englishmen
+through the Magna Charta--has had the serious task not only of
+securing these rights but at the same time of creating in Russia the
+conditions of modern civilization. For the twenty years in which its
+spirit ruled, during the reign of Alexander II, the reforms begun
+under its influence amounted to a veritable revolution. The economic,
+social, political and juridical reforms of this epoch generated new
+forces and began the modernization of Russia. These reforms
+encountered the formidable opposition of the nobility and the church
+and finally of the autocracy, when the latter felt that its position
+was gradually being undermined, especially by the demand for a
+constitution. With the assassination of Alexander II, the liberal era
+was brought to a close, and a reaction was ushered in which has lasted
+to our day.
+
+The classes that came into power with Alexander III and Pobedonostseff
+were, from their economic interests, social outlook and political
+ideals, essentially medieval and may properly be termed the feudal
+party. Guided by its economic interests--which had been seriously
+threatened by the emancipation--and swayed by the Slavophilistic
+philosophy,[6] this party sought to nullify as far as possible
+the reforms of the epoch of emancipation and to carry through a
+many-sided program for putting the order of things backward to the
+medieval, pre-reform days. Autocracy, Greek Orthodoxy and Russian
+Nationalism--the famous Slavophilistic trinity--were glorified,
+the first two as peculiarly national institutions, the policy of
+russification and the repression of non-orthodox faiths by force
+were proclaimed as vital to the social health of Russia, the blind
+ignorance and illiteracy of the peasants were extolled as a virtue and
+the control over them by the nobility was strengthened in many ways.
+Freedom of every form was condemned as an aping of the "rotten"
+civilization of the West with its decaying institutions, and as false
+to the true Russian national, historical development.
+
+During this period of reaction, however, the liberal movement was kept
+alive, largely as revolutionary propaganda. The earlier movement had
+been directed by the educated classes, the "_Intelligenzia_" of
+Russia. Lately, with the growth of the middle class and a population
+of industrial workers in the towns and the factories, and a wealthier
+class of peasants, the cry for reform has become more insistent, and
+only recently partly successful in results.
+
+Summarizing his impressions of Russian life and institutions obtained
+while serving as Ambassador to Russia, Andrew D. White remarked:
+"During two centuries Russia has been coming slowly out of the middle
+ages--indeed, out of perhaps the most cruel phases of medieval
+life."[7] One of the phases of this process has been the bitter
+struggle between the feudal and the modern forces that has occupied
+Russia for the last third of a century.
+
+
+II. ROUMANIA
+
+In Roumania,[8] in spite of a liberal constitution modeled upon the
+Belgian, granting all rights enjoyed by citizens of a free state, the
+underlying economic, social and, in a measure, political conditions
+point to a state of things little removed from the medieval forms of
+life. The main social-economic classes are the large landed
+proprietors, composed chiefly of the old nobility or boyars, and the
+peasants, who were formerly serfs. In the hands of the former are
+concentrated the greater part of the land. Five thousand large landed
+proprietors together owned nearly half of the cultivable land. Nearly
+a million of peasants, on the other hand, comprising with their
+dependents a great majority of the population, together owned a little
+over two-fifths of the cultivable land.[9]
+
+This situation is an inheritance from the servile system which existed
+in Roumania until 1864, when it was legally abolished. The freedom
+granted to the peasants was, however, more formal than real. The land
+given them being insufficient for their needs, and pasture land
+especially having been denied them, they were as a rule compelled to
+lease land or pasture right from their former masters at ruinous
+rates, often paying by labor on their former masters' estates. Thus
+the essential feudal services were in the main continued, especially
+as the lease and labor contracts, generally drawn up in the interests
+of the landed proprietor, were often usurious and extremely
+oppressive.[10] In twenty years there was little change from the
+previous condition of serfdom, so that a law was necessary, in 1882,
+to permit the peasants to work at least two days during the week on
+their own land.
+
+Since this period there has been practically little change in this
+essentially feudal relation of the peasantry to the landed
+proprietors. As the owners of the great estates are a ruling power in
+the political life of the country, the greater part of peasants being
+disqualified from voting through property and educational
+requirements, the former have been enabled to keep the peasantry in
+this condition of semi-servitude. The result is a state of ignorance,
+misery and degradation on the part of the peasantry that is difficult
+to parallel in another European country. That the peasants are not
+entirely passive under their wrongs is shown in the repeated uprisings
+against their masters and in the two great social revolutions of 1888
+and 1907, both of which were put down by military force.
+
+Roumania's advent into industry and commerce may be dated from the
+eighties of the last century, and was initiated by the industrial law
+of 1887, which sought to create a national industry by means of
+subsidies, land grants and other favors to undertakers of large
+industrial enterprises. Since then the growth has been sufficiently
+rapid to place Roumania as the industrial and commercial leader of the
+Balkan States. Relatively, however, it is still very backward. Only 14
+per cent of the population is urban. The industrial laborers are
+estimated at no more than 40,000. There are only a few cities. Only
+the largest--Bucarest--has above 100,000 inhabitants, three other
+cities have between fifty and seventy-five thousand inhabitants. The
+chief industrial establishments, such as saw mills, flour mills and
+distilleries, are concerned mainly in the working up of the raw
+materials produced in the country. Nevertheless, industrial progress
+has made for the growth of a small but influential middle class, which
+divides the control of affairs with the large landed proprietors. Its
+influence can be traced in the electoral law, which gives the urban
+classes, constituting the backbone of the liberal party, a majority in
+the Chamber of Deputies.
+
+
+III. AUSTRIA-HUNGARY
+
+Though relatively far advanced along the road of modern civilization,
+Austria-Hungary, through its prevailing mode of economic and social
+life, and through its large Slavic populations, belongs rather to
+Eastern than to Western Europe. Historically, it began its modern
+career about the same time as Russia, when it abolished, in 1867, the
+feudal services and dues, survivals of the previous servile
+institutions. Nevertheless, in its large agricultural population, in
+the primitive system of cultivation generally in vogue, in the
+scattered character of the peasant holdings, in the strong contrast
+between the great landed estates or _Latifundia_, held chiefly by the
+nobility, and the small, even minute, estates of the majority of the
+peasant proprietors, and in the natural economy prevailing in many
+parts of the Dual Monarchy and constituting the main foundation upon
+which the life of the peasants rests--in all these characteristics, is
+reflected the almost medieval economy which existed in the empire
+before 1848 and which is not yet entirely outgrown.
+
+Industrially and commercially, Austria, far more than Hungary, has
+indeed made really remarkable progress. Yet in this respect the
+greatest contrast exists between the various Austrian provinces.
+Certain of these--Galicia and Bukowina, for instance--are not only the
+most backward in these pursuits, but their agricultural population is
+even relatively increasing. Even in the industrially advanced
+provinces, such as Lower Austria and Bohemia, the transitional nature
+of the industrial life is evident in the unspecialized character of a
+larger portion of the town laborers, many of whom are peasants
+temporarily employed in factories and mines.
+
+The Austrian organization of industry and commerce is a modernized
+version of the guilds and crafts of medieval Western Europe. How these
+medieval economic forms with their underlying psychologic forces still
+live and dominate Austria, especially its Slavic nationalities, is
+shown by the revival in 1859 of the Austrian guilds, the direct
+descendants of the medieval _Innungen_. These were, in 1883, developed
+in the form of _Zwangsgenossenschaften_ or compulsory trade-guilds,
+which, in their regulations concerning the _Befaehigungsnachweis_ or
+certificate of capacity, the three orders of master, journeyman and
+apprentice, the principle of compulsory entrance into the local guild,
+the workman's passport or _Arbeitsbuch_, unite the methods of
+regulating and restricting industry and trade characteristic of the
+Middle Ages, with modern methods of combination, arbitration, and
+assistance of members. By the side of these compulsory guilds are to
+be found the _Gewerkschaften_, or the modern voluntary trade-unions.
+
+The transition to modern economic and social conditions is,
+nevertheless, well advanced. This is seen in a decrease of the
+agricultural classes and an increase of the industrial and commercial
+classes in the thirty years from 1869 to 1900. Another sign is the
+fairly strong differentiation of the economic-social classes, in both
+the agricultural and the industrial groups, which has advanced quite
+rapidly. The middle class, while neither as large nor as influential
+as in the countries of Western Europe, has played an important role
+towards hastening this transition.
+
+Politically, the Dual Monarchy occupies a middle ground between
+absolutist Russia and constitutional England. The court, the nobility
+and the Roman Church with its strong aristocratic leanings, represent
+the dominant power in Austria. The economic and social changes of the
+transitional period have been accompanied by politico-economic
+struggles which have played a vital part and have cut through and
+across the racial, national and religious conflicts of this
+much-distracted conglomeration of peoples. Amid the confusion of
+parties, with their complexity of programs, may be distinguished the
+German-Austrian liberals, representatives of the middle class or
+industrialists, whose historic mission was to create a modern state
+in Austria, and who carried out, in large measure, their program of
+constitutionalism, economic freedom and the secular state. Against
+them were arrayed the powerful forces of the agrarian party or the
+landed aristocracy--the upholders of the feudal economic-social order
+of privilege and class distinction, the clericals--the upholders of
+the idea of the Christian State--and the representatives of the lower
+middle class, composed chiefly of petty artisans and traders, whose
+ideal was the medieval industrial organization, largely co-operative
+and regulated, as opposed to the individualistic and competitive
+system of the modern era, with its great concentration of wealth,
+capital and power in the hands of the middle class. That the present
+structure of Austria is so much of a compromise and crosspatch between
+modern and medieval economic, social and political forms, and contains
+so much that is essentially incongruous, is due largely to the
+successful struggle which the chief parties of the medieval order--the
+feudal-clericals--the party of the upper classes, and the Christian
+Socialists--the party of the lower classes--have waged against the
+growing constitutionalization, industrialization and secularization of
+Austria--in short, against the transformation of Austria into a modern
+state.
+
+It is in Galicia that the conditions obtaining in Russia are largely
+duplicated. Geographically, racially and socially, Galicia is a part
+of Russia. Galicia is a preponderatingly agricultural land and
+possesses the densest agricultural population in Europe. Modern
+industry is relatively little developed, its place being held to a
+great extent by the domestic system of industry. The contrast between
+the large and small estates is sharper here than perhaps in any other
+section of Europe. The Polish nobility, in whose hands the large
+estates are mostly found, are the ruling social and political, as well
+as economic, power in Galicia. The autonomous Galician _Diet_ is
+practically the instrument of their interests. A middle class has been
+gradually rising and contesting their supremacy. The peasantry is one
+of the most illiterate, degraded, and oppressed in all Europe.
+
+
+IV. SUMMARY
+
+This brief review of the economic and social conditions in Russia,
+Roumania and Austria-Hungary has shown that, broadly speaking, these
+countries present points of similarity in their situation and their
+recent movement. In all of these countries, economic and social
+conditions closely resembling those that obtained in the countries of
+Western Europe several centuries ago were found until comparatively
+recent times. The abolition of serfdom in Russia and in Roumania, and
+of feudal dues in Austria-Hungary, paved the way for the entrance of
+these states into modern European civilization. The succeeding period
+has been marked by a rapid transition from the old domestic economy to
+a modern exchange economy, through the growth of industry and
+commerce. The medieval conditions of the earlier period have
+nevertheless not been entirely obliterated. They exist, in Russia, in
+the privileges and powers of the nobility, in the inferior status and
+oppressed condition of the peasantry, in the strong class
+distinctions, in the restraints upon economic activity and upon
+movement. Though in smaller measure, the same conditions are found in
+Austria-Hungary, especially in Galicia. In Roumania, so far as the
+peasantry is concerned, the pre-emancipation conditions remain
+practically, if not legally, in force. Owing to the increase of
+population, the minute subdivision of the estates of the peasants, the
+backwardness of their agricultural methods, and their over-taxation,
+the position of the peasants has been rendered precarious.
+Revolutionary uprisings directed chiefly against the landed
+proprietors have been a recurring expression of their discontent.
+
+An important consequence has been the rapid evolution of the
+industrial and commercial, or the middle class. The growth of the
+middle class has been accompanied by a struggle in each of these
+countries between the privileged classes of the feudal state and the
+middle class, including in the latter the educated classes and the
+industrial workers of the towns.
+
+It is in this middle class that the Jews are chiefly to be found.
+Owing to this fact, as well as through the action of historical
+conditions, the Jews occupy an exceptional position in the economic
+activities and the social life of each of the countries of Eastern
+Europe. A survey of their economic and social position in each country
+will serve to clarify the last thirty years of their history in
+Eastern Europe and to give some of the causes underlying their vast
+movement from these countries to Western Europe and particularly to
+the United States.
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+[2] Kovalevsky, _La crise russe_ (Paris, 1906), p. 111.
+
+[3] _Cf._ Witte, _Vorlesungen ueber Volks- und Staatswirtschaft_
+(Stuttgart and Berlin, 1913), p. 40.
+
+Milyoukov, _Russia and its Crisis_ (University of Chicago Press,
+1905), p. 439.
+
+[4] _Cf._ Witte, _op. cit._, p. 52.
+
+[5] _Cf._ Milyoukov, _op. cit._, p. 246 _et seq._
+
+[6] An interesting statement of the principles of the Slavophiles may
+be obtained from Simkhovitch (_International Quarterly_, Oct., 1904).
+
+[7] White, _Autobiography_ (New York, 1905), vol. ii, p. 35.
+
+[8] Owing to the similarity of conditions in Russia and Roumania,
+particularly as regards the Jews, Roumania has been considered,
+practically throughout, immediately after Russia.
+
+[9] Kogalniceancu, "Die Agrarfrage in Rumaenien" _Archiv fuer
+Sozialwissenschaft und Sozialpolitik_, vol. xxxii, p. 804.
+
+[10] _Ibid._, p. 184.
+
+Jorga, _Geschichte des Rumaenischen Volkes_ (Gotha, 1905), vol. ii, p.
+374.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER III
+
+THE JEWS IN EASTERN EUROPE: ECONOMIC AND SOCIAL POSITION
+
+
+The economic and social life of the Jews in Eastern Europe has moved
+along the familiar channels of commerce, industry and urban life
+characteristic of the Jews in all countries during the middle ages. An
+examination of the economic position and function and the principal
+social characteristics of the Jews reveals the fact that they play an
+important part in each of these countries. This we shall see by
+tracing their principal economic activities and some significant
+phases of their social life.
+
+
+I. RUSSIA
+
+A review of the occupations of the Jews in the Russian Empire shows
+that those engaged in the manufacturing and mechanical pursuits
+constituted 39 per cent of the total Jewish population gainfully
+employed. This was the largest occupational group. Commerce engaged 32
+per cent. Together the industrial and commercial classes comprised
+seven-tenths of all Jews engaged in gainful occupations. On the other
+hand, only 3 per cent were employed in agricultural pursuits.
+
+It is in comparison with the occupations of the non-Jewish population
+in Russia that the significance of this distribution becomes evident.
+Of the non-Jews in Russia, agricultural pursuits engaged 61 per cent,
+manufacturing and mechanical pursuits 15 per cent, and commerce only 3
+per cent. The non-Jews engaged in industry and commerce thus
+constituted somewhat less than one-fifth of the total non-Jewish
+population gainfully employed. More than twice as many Jews,
+relatively, as non-Jews were engaged in industrial pursuits and
+practically twelve times as many Jews as non-Jews in commercial
+pursuits.[11]
+
+This difference of occupational grouping makes itself felt in the
+participation of the Jews in the principal occupational groups. Of the
+total Russian population gainfully employed, the Jews were 5 per cent.
+They constituted, however, 11 per cent of all engaged in industry, and
+36 per cent of all engaged in commerce.[12] Thus, in the Russian
+Empire the Jews formed a considerable proportion of the commercial
+classes and a large proportion of those engaged in industrial
+pursuits.
+
+Properly to gauge the economic function of the Jews in Russia,
+comparison should be made not with the population of the Russian
+Empire but rather with that of the Pale of Settlement, where nearly 95
+per cent of the Jews live. There the contrast was even stronger. Of
+the Jews, 70 per cent were employed in industry and commerce as
+compared with 13 per cent on the part of the non-Jews. Though the Jews
+are only 12 per cent of the total working population of the Pale, they
+formed 32 per cent of all engaged in industry and 77 per cent of all
+engaged in commerce.[13] This clearly shows that the Jews constituted
+the commercial classes and a significant part of the industrial
+classes of the Pale. In other words, what is true of the place of the
+Jews in the occupational distribution of all Russia is still more true
+of the Pale. The Jews are preponderatingly industrial and commercial,
+in striking contrast to the rest of the population, which is
+preponderatingly agricultural.
+
+What is the nature of their activities and their function in the
+industrial and commercial life of Russia? The great majority of Jews
+engaged in manufacturing and mechanical pursuits are artisans. In the
+present relatively backward stage of Russian industrial development
+these are chiefly handicraftsmen, who mainly supply the needs of local
+consumers. These artisans, who number more than half a million,[14]
+support nearly one-third of the Jewish population.
+
+The most important industry is the manufacture of clothing and wearing
+apparel, which employed more than one-third of the Jewish working
+population and supported more than one-seventh of the total Jewish
+population. It is in effect a Jewish industry: practically all the
+tailors and shoemakers in the Pale are Jews. They predominate as well
+in the preparation of food products, in the building trades, in the
+metal, wood and tobacco industries.[15] Hampered by legal
+restrictions, lack of technical education, and lack of capital, they
+nevertheless have become an essential part of the economic life of the
+Pale, supplying the needs for industrial products not only of the Jews
+but of the entire Pale, and, especially of the peasants.
+
+In the development of large-scale industry, the Jews have taken a
+smaller part than the Germans or foreigners, owing to the conditions
+above referred to. Yet, in 1898, in the fifteen provinces of the Pale,
+more than one-third of the factories were in Jewish hands.[16] Jewish
+factory workers were estimated at one-fifth of all the factory
+workers in the Pale.[17]
+
+Trade and commerce engage Jews chiefly, supporting nearly two-thirds
+of the total Jewish population.[18]
+
+As Russia is essentially an agricultural country, trade in
+agricultural products, such as grain, cattle, furs and hides, _etc._,
+is of prime importance. Nearly half of the Jewish merchants in the
+Pale were dealers in these products. Of the dealers in the principal
+grain products, Jews formed an overwhelming majority. Relatively
+twenty-six times as many Jews as Russians, in the Pale, were grain
+dealers.[19] Four-fifths of all the dealers in furs and hides,
+three-fourths of all the dealers in cattle were Jews.[20] The Jewish
+traders are agents in the movement of the crops, in the various stages
+from the direct purchase of the grain from the peasant to its export
+for the world markets. In view of the lack of development in Russia of
+modern methods for marketing the agricultural produce, and in view of
+the fact that the Russian peasant is ignorant of the most elementary
+principles of trade, the Jewish merchants, with their knowledge of the
+market and their skillful use of credit, play a vital part in the
+organization of the Russian grain trade, and control this trade in the
+Pale and on the Black Sea.
+
+In other branches of commerce, the Jews are almost as strongly
+represented. As sellers to the village and city populations, they
+carry on the largest part of the retail trade of the Pale. The great
+majority of the merchants, however, are petty traders or
+store-keepers. The wholesale merchants enrolled in the guilds, on the
+other hand, constitute a large proportion of all the guild merchants.
+
+Thus, through their activity as petty artisans, traders and merchants,
+the Jews preponderate in the industrial and commercial life of the
+Pale. As manufacturers and wholesale merchants they play a less
+important but nevertheless significant part in all Russia.
+
+In general the Jewish merchants are quite strongly distinguished from
+the Russian merchants in their employment of the competitive
+principles and methods common to the commercial operations of Western
+Europe and the United States. Their principle of a quick turnover with
+a small profit, and their use of credit, are not in vogue among the
+Russian merchants who operate on the basis of customary prices and
+long credits.
+
+In their social characteristics as well, the Jews are strongly set off
+from the rest of the population. The Jews are essentially urban, the
+non-Jews are overwhelmingly rural. In all Russia, 51 per cent of the
+Jews lived in incorporated towns, as against only 12 per cent of the
+non-Jews. Though the Jews constituted 4 per cent of the total
+population, they constituted 16 per cent of the town population.[21]
+In the Pale, where they constituted 12 per cent of the total
+population, they comprised 38 per cent of the urban population.[22]
+Their concentration in the cities of the Pale is striking. In nine out
+of the fifteen provinces of the Pale, they constituted a majority of
+the urban population. In twenty-four towns, they were from two-fifths
+to seven-tenths of the population. In the important cities of Warsaw
+and Odessa they were one-third of the population.[23]
+
+The urban and occupational distribution of the Jews places them higher
+than the great majority of the non-Jews among the social classes into
+which the Russian people are legally divided. Townsmen are of a higher
+rank than peasants. Nearly 95 per cent of the Jews belong to this
+category and only 7 per cent of the Russians. The vast majority of the
+Russians--86 per cent--are peasants. Only 4 per cent of the Jews are
+of this class. Again, 2 per cent of the Jews are merchants, as against
+only .2 per cent of the Russians. Thus in these two classes of
+townsmen and merchants there were twelve times as many Jews,
+relatively, as Russians.[24]
+
+The higher cultural standing of the Jews may be partly measured by the
+relative literacy of the Jews and of the total population. According
+to the census of 1897, in the Jewish population ten years of age or
+over there were relatively one and a half times as many literates as
+in the total population of the corresponding group. In each of the
+age-groups there were relatively more literates among the Jews than
+among the total population. In the highest age-group, that of sixty
+years of age and over, the Jews had relatively more literates than any
+of the age-groups of the total population, indicating that the
+educational standing of the Jews half a century ago was higher than
+that of the Russian population of to-day.[25]
+
+The fact that the Jews dwell chiefly in towns has considerably to do
+with their higher educational standing. If the statistics of relative
+literacy of the Jewish and the non-Jewish population in the towns were
+obtainable, the chances are strong that they would not show a much
+higher rate of literacy on the part of the Jews. At the same time the
+difficulties that are put in the way of Jewish attendance in the
+elementary schools must be regarded as a considerable factor in
+explaining this possibility.[26]
+
+The participation of the Jews in the liberal professions, which
+implies the possession of a higher education, is also very large, even
+with the great obstacles that have been placed in the way of the
+entrance of the Jews into the universities, into the liberal
+professions and the state service. Relatively seven times as many Jews
+as Russians are found in the liberal professions.[27]
+
+
+II. ROUMANIA
+
+The economic activities of the Jews in Roumanian industry and commerce
+closely resemble those of their Russian brethren.[28] The large part
+taken by the Jews in Roumanian commerce may be gathered from the fact
+that, in 1904, one-fifth of those who paid the merchant-license tax
+were Jews. Equally great is their participation in large-scale
+industry, where, as an inquiry in 1901-2 shows, nearly one-fifth of
+the large industries were conducted by Jewish entrepreneurs. In some
+of the most important ones--the glass industry, the clothing industry,
+the wood and furniture industry and the textile industry--from
+one-fourth to one-half of the total number of entrepreneurs were Jews.
+
+As in the case of Russia, it is in _Klein-industrie_ or handicraft,
+which is more nearly characteristic of the present form of Roumanian
+industrial economy, that the Jews are mostly concentrated and where
+they participate so largely as to constitute "the backbone of the
+young Roumanian industry".
+
+The latest inquiry--that of 1908--shows that the Jews were one-fifth
+of all inscribed in the corporations as artisans. They formed more
+than one-fourth of the master-workmen and nearly one-sixth of the
+laborers. In the five principal industries Jewish master-workmen
+formed from nearly one-tenth to nearly one-half. In the following
+trades Jews formed between one-fourth and nearly two-thirds of the
+entire workers: watchmakers, tinners, modistes, tailors, glazers,
+housepainters, coopers and bookbinders. In all the garment industries
+nearly one-third of the workers were Jews. The principal trades of the
+Jews, in which two-thirds of the Jewish industrial workers were found,
+were, in order: tailors, shoemakers, tinners, joiners and planers, and
+bakers.[29] The Jews in Roumania were thus more strongly concentrated
+in industry and less in commerce than their Russian brethren.
+
+As masters and workmen they play a part in Roumanian large-scale and
+small-scale industry nearly four and a half times as large as their
+proportion in the total population. Their participation in commerce is
+equally large.
+
+The Jews in Roumania present the same social characteristics,
+relatively to the surrounding population, as the Jews in Russia. The
+Jews were overwhelmingly concentrated in the towns. 80 per cent of the
+Jews dwelt in the towns; 84 per cent of the non-Jews dwelt in the
+villages. Of the population in the department-capitals the Jews
+constituted one-fifth. Of the population of the other towns they
+constituted more than one-tenth. In some of the department-capitals,
+notably Jassi, the Jews were a majority of the total population. In
+six other department-capitals they constituted from one-fourth to
+one-half of the population.
+
+That the Jews are of a higher educational standing than the Roumanians
+is seen in the fact that they possessed a higher rate of literacy,
+having relatively twice as many literates among the males and nearly
+twice as many among the females. Confining this comparison to the
+cities, however, we find that the Jews had a higher literacy only in
+the age-groups above fifteen. The Roumanian urban population between
+the ages of seven and fifteen showed a higher literacy than the
+corresponding group among the Jews, indicating the influence of the
+special restrictions on Jewish education which will later be
+discussed.
+
+While the higher literacy of the Jews in Russia and Roumania is due
+partly to residence in towns, the restrictions on the Jewish
+participation in the educational facilities afforded by the Russian
+and Roumanian governments have been so great as to make the higher
+educational standing of the Jews practically a product of their own
+efforts.
+
+
+III. AUSTRIA-HUNGARY
+
+The economic position of the Jews in Austria-Hungary presents a close
+parallel to that in Russia. The largest proportion of the Jews--44 per
+cent--were engaged in commerce and in trade, and 29 per cent were
+engaged in industry.[30] A significantly large proportion were engaged
+in public service and in the liberal professions. A surprisingly large
+proportion--11 per cent--were engaged in agriculture and allied
+occupations. Thus, a little over seven-tenths of the Jews were
+concentrated in commerce and trade, and industry.
+
+The contrast between the Jewish and the non-Jewish population is most
+striking in the relative proportions of those engaged in agriculture,
+and commerce and trade. 54 per cent of the non-Jews were engaged in
+agriculture, or five times as many, relatively, as Jews. On the other
+hand, only 8 per cent were engaged in commerce and trade, or
+relatively one-fifth as many as Jews.
+
+Of the total population engaged in commerce and trade the Jews
+constituted 21 per cent. They constituted, on the other hand, 5 per
+cent of all engaged in industry. Thus, the Jews in Austria-Hungary
+were concentrated in commerce and trade to a much larger extent than
+in all other occupations, constituting an important part of all
+engaged in this branch.
+
+It is in Galicia, however, where conditions in general most resemble
+those in Russia, that the Jews are seen to occupy relatively the same
+position as their brethren in Russia. In Galicia, 29 per cent of the
+Jews were engaged in commerce and trade, and 26 per cent in industry.
+Together the Jews engaged in these two branches constituted more than
+half of the total Jewish working population.
+
+By far the largest part of the non-Jewish population--86 per
+cent--were engaged in agriculture. In industry only 4 per cent of the
+non-Jews were engaged and in commerce only 1 per cent. Thus the Jews
+were largely concentrated in commerce and industry, the non-Jews
+preponderatingly concentrated in agriculture.
+
+As compared with the Jews in Russia and Roumania the Galician Jews
+engaged in agriculture show a surprising proportion--18 per cent being
+so engaged--a larger proportion than in any other country.
+
+The Jews in East Galicia were 13 per cent of the total
+population.[31] Of all the "independents" engaged in commerce in East
+Galicia 92 per cent were Jews; of all the "independents" engaged in
+industry 48 per cent were Jews. The Jews in West Galicia were 8 per
+cent of the total population. Of all "independents" engaged in
+commerce they constituted 82 per cent; of all "independents" engaged
+in industry they constituted 33 per cent. This gives the crux of the
+economic position of the Jews in Galicia. They play an overwhelming
+part in its commercial life, practically monopolizing it. In industry
+their participation is very significant.
+
+Socially the Jews in Austria-Hungary and especially in Galicia,
+present characteristics similar to those in Russia and Roumania. In
+the forty cities in Galicia with a population above five thousand
+there dwelt 34 per cent of the total Jewish population. Only 7 per
+cent of the non-Jewish population lived in these cities. Thus,
+relatively five times as many Jews as non-Jews were urban. Though the
+Jews in Galicia were 11 per cent of the total population, they
+constituted 37 per cent of the population in these cities, thus being
+represented in the cities by more than three times their proportion in
+the total population. In nine of these towns they formed a majority of
+the population. They were more than one-third in twelve, and more than
+one-fourth in eleven other towns. In the two chief cities in
+Galicia--Lemberg and Cracow--they constituted a third of the total
+population.
+
+The figures regarding literacy are not available for Austria-Hungary
+or Galicia, but there is every reason to believe that essentially the
+same situation exists as in Russia and Roumania. In the liberal
+professions in Austria-Hungary there were 16 per cent of the Jews so
+engaged as compared with 11 per cent of the non-Jews. In Galicia the
+contrast is much sharper. Relatively ten times as many Jews as
+non-Jews were represented in the liberal professions.[32]
+
+
+IV. SUMMARY
+
+A review of the occupations, economic function and social
+characteristics of the Jews in the countries of Eastern Europe reveals
+them in an important and essentially similar role in each country.
+Pursuing mainly industrial and commercial occupations, the Jews
+constitute by far the largest part of the middle classes of each
+country. The historical position which they held in the ancient
+kingdom of Poland as the middle class has been practically maintained
+to this day.
+
+By virtue of their occupations, the Jews are possessed of liquid
+wealth to a greater extent than the nobility or the peasantry, and in
+the lack of proper credit facilities still serve as bankers and
+money-lenders. The Jews have also been conspicuous in Eastern Europe
+as stewards or administrators of the estates of the nobility, who are,
+as a rule, absentee landlords, distinguished as a class by their
+serious lack of interest or ability in the management of their
+estates. The Jewish _Hofjuden_, as they were known, were particularly
+useful in the utilization of the products of the soil, through
+distilleries, mills, trade with agricultural products and exploitation
+of the forests.[33] In this way, however, Jews often acted as
+intermediaries in the oppression of the peasantry by the nobles. They
+were often keepers or lessees of the taverns, the ownership of which
+was formerly vested in the nobles as one of their feudal privileges.
+
+It is, however, as artisans, industrial laborers and merchants,
+retail and wholesale, that Jews chiefly obtain their living. Their
+monopoly of industry and commerce has given them an influence far
+above their numerical proportions.
+
+In each of these countries, again, the Jews are essentially town
+dwellers in the midst of preponderatingly rural populations. That the
+degree of the contrast is due to the artificial workings of
+restrictive laws is unquestioned. The chief reason for this, however,
+is occupational. The Jews as an industrial and commercial people
+constitute one of the main elements out of which the town populations
+are recruited. Towns are ordinarily the foci of all the cultural
+forces and the movement and enterprise of a country. In Eastern
+Europe, where the number of towns is so few, this is much more the
+case than in Western Europe. The fact that the Jews are so largely
+concentrated in these comparatively few towns serves to give them a
+cultural position and influence far out of proportion to their
+numbers. Their economic activities and their relatively large
+participation in the liberal professions strengthens this position
+considerably.
+
+Amidst populations preponderatingly devoted to agricultural
+occupations and dwelling in villages, the Jews represent an industrial
+and commercial people, strongly concentrated in towns. This economic
+and social position of the Jews is of the greatest significance,
+especially in the present period of transition in these countries.
+Possessed of the characteristics of a modern people in their economic
+and social life and in their mentality, they present a sharp contrast
+with the peoples among whom they dwell and whose economic and social
+life are only now taking on modern forms. It is this that makes the
+Jews personify in a large degree the forces of economic enterprise and
+of social progress in these countries.
+
+On the other hand, the exceptional economic and social position held
+by the Jews among the East-European peoples has made them peculiarly
+susceptible to the changes that have been taking place, as their
+inferior legal status and sharp differentiation from the mass of the
+people have made them favorable objects of attack in the
+politico-economic struggles that have largely accompanied the
+transition.
+
+A consideration of the legal status of the Jews in each of the
+countries of Eastern Europe and of the chief forces that have ruled
+their history for more than a third of a century will enable us to see
+some of the dynamic aspects of the recent history of the East-European
+Jews and the underlying causes of their recent emigration.
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+[11] Rubinow, _Economic Condition of the Jews in Russia_ (Washington,
+1907), p. 500.
+
+[12] _Cf._ table IA, p. 158.
+
+[13] _Cf._ table IB, p. 158.
+
+Rubinow, _op. cit._, p. 501.
+
+[14] Margolin puts the number at 600,000.
+
+[15] Ruppin, _Die Sozialen Verhaeltnisse der Juden in Russland_
+(Berlin, 1906), p. 59.
+
+[16] Rubinow, _op. cit._, p. 537.
+
+[17] Rubinow, _op. cit._, p. 542.
+
+[18] _Ibid._, p. 553.
+
+[19] Ruppin, _op. cit._, p. 62.
+
+[20] Rubinow, _op. cit._, p. 556.
+
+[21] Ruppin, _op. cit._, p. 100.
+
+[22] Rubinow, _op. cit._, p. 493.
+
+[23] Ruppin, _op. cit._, p. 19.
+
+[24] Ruppin, _op. cit._, p. 65.
+
+[25] Rubinow, _op. cit._, pp. 577-578.
+
+[26] In a personal communication to the writer, Dr. Rubinow gives it
+as his opinion that the Jews as a group consisting primarily of
+artisans and merchants will show a very much higher rate of literacy
+than a group of factory employes, and, we may add, of unskilled
+laborers, to which groups the majority of the non-Jews in the towns
+belong.
+
+[27] Ruppin, _op. cit._, p. 62.
+
+[28] On the economic activities and social characteristics of the Jews
+in Roumania, _cf._ Ruppin, _Die Juden in Rumaenien_, p. 27 _et seq._
+
+[29] _Enquete sur les artisans_ (Bucarest, 1909), p. 157 _et seq._
+
+[30] Thon, _Die Juden in Oesterreich_ (Berlin, 1908), p. 112.
+
+[31] Thon, _op. cit._, p. 124.
+
+[32] Thon, _op. cit._, p. 127.
+
+[33] _Grenzboten: Galizische Wirtschaft_, vol. lxii, p. 402.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER IV
+
+THIRTY YEARS OF JEWISH HISTORY IN EASTERN EUROPE
+
+
+I. RUSSIA
+
+Religious intolerance had been the prime motive of Russia's policy of
+completely excluding the Jews from her borders. Through the partitions
+of Poland from 1772 to 1795, she became the unwilling ruler over the
+destinies of millions of Jews living in Lithuania, Western and
+Southwestern Russia and Poland proper. The historic medieval principle
+by which the Jews were regarded as an alien and heretic race living
+among the Christian peoples--a principle that had, with the growth of
+modern ideas, been rapidly losing its hold upon the West-European
+nations--expressed Russia's attitude towards the Jews and conformed to
+her strongly medieval outlook and organization of this period. Thus,
+at the time when the emancipation of the Jews had begun to be in
+Western Europe a concomitant of social progress, Russia set to work to
+recreate almost typically medieval conditions for a vaster Jewish
+population than had ever before been assembled in any European
+country.
+
+The Jews were placed in the position practically of aliens, whose
+activities were regulated by special laws. The first and the most
+far-reaching of these laws limited their right of residence to those
+provinces in which they lived at the time of the Polish partitions. In
+this way originated that reproduction on a vast scale of the medieval
+Ghetto--the Pale of Jewish Settlement. The elementary right of free
+movement and choice of residence, which was denied to the Jews, has
+remained the principal restriction to which they are subjected.
+
+The Pale of Jewish Settlement, continued with but few changes to our
+day, includes the fifteen provinces of Western and Southwestern
+Russia--Vilna, Kovno, Grodno, Minsk, Vitebsk, Mohileff, Volhynia,
+Podolia, Kiev (except the city of Kiev), Chernigov, Poltava,
+Bessarabia, Kherson, Jekaterinoslav, Taurida (except the city of
+Yalta), and the ten provinces into which Poland is divided--Warsaw,
+Kalisz, Kielce, Lomza, Lublin, Petrikow, Plock, Radom, Suvalk and
+Siedlec. From the rest of the eighty-nine provinces and
+territories--constituting nearly 95 per cent of the total territory of
+the Russian Empire--the Jews were excluded.
+
+In the course of a century the special laws relating to the Jews have
+multiplied greatly until they now consist of more than a thousand
+articles, regulating their religious and communal life, economic
+activities and occupations, military service, property rights,
+education, _etc._, and imposing special taxes over and above those
+borne by all other Russian subjects. The direct consequence of these
+laws was to mark the status of the Jews as the lowest in the Empire,
+placing them in the position of aliens as to rights and citizens as to
+obligations.[34]
+
+The policy of the Russian government throughout the 19th century has
+been full of contrasts and contradictions. Attempts at forcible
+russification and assimilation, which with Nicholas I practically
+spelled conversion, have alternated with methods of repression which
+sought to prevent closer contact between the Jewish and the native
+populations.
+
+It was the liberal epoch of Alexander II that gave the first real
+promise of emancipation to Russian Jewry. The great reforms of this
+era benefited the Jews along with the other subjects of the Empire.
+With the influence of the liberals over the government there came a
+new attitude regarding the Jews and their value as economic and
+cultural forces. Partly to relieve the intense competition in the
+Pale, harmful both to the Christian and the Jewish populations, but
+chiefly to give the provinces of interior Russia the benefit of the
+superior industrial and commercial, and professional abilities of the
+Jews, laws were enacted allowing certain classes of Jews to live
+outside of the Pale. These were, chiefly, master-artisans, merchants
+of the first guild, students and graduates of universities and higher
+educational institutions, and members of the liberal professions.
+
+With these laws and with the opening of the high schools and
+universities to the Jews, the movement for Russianization received a
+mighty impetus. Though these reforms, hedged about and limited by
+onerous conditions, affected comparatively few and hardly touched the
+life of the Jewish masses in a radical way, nevertheless, the impulse
+which even these relatively slight reforms gave to the current of
+Jewish life in Russia was far out of proportion to the relief they
+afforded. Jewish hopes for a final emancipation soared high: it seemed
+as if the walls of the Pale needed but little more to be broken down.
+
+The reaction that followed the assassination of Alexander II fell upon
+the Jews as a national calamity. To the feudal party which now came
+into control, the Jews seemed the very embodiment of the forces in the
+Empire whose progress they were seeking to stem. No other nationality
+in the Russian Empire concentrated in itself so many characteristics
+and tendencies opposed to the ideals and interests of the Russian
+ruling classes. To the Church, dominated by a religio-national point
+of view, they were the very opposite of her ideal type of Russian
+orthodox, their very existence in Russia being regarded as an anomaly
+and as an actual and possible influence in disintegrating the
+religious faith of the orthodox peasants. To the nationalists they
+were an alien people racially and religiously, whose assimilation with
+the Russian people was neither possible nor desirable. To the
+autocracy and the bureaucracy there was the added fear from their
+intellectual superiority and their zeal for education of their playing
+a powerful part among the liberal forces seeking political freedom.
+Indeed, the Jews, whose economic and cultural activities and interests
+bound them closely to Western Europe and were in themselves
+modernizing and liberalizing influences, growing all the stronger
+through the greater freedom offered them during the liberal epoch,
+excited the deep repugnance of the feudal forces now directing the
+destinies of the state. To them the Jews spelled anathema. Separated
+from the great masses of the Russian people by race, nationality,
+religion, occupations and other social and psychological
+characteristics, they offered an unusually favorable object of attack.
+
+It soon became clear that the new regime had determined upon making
+the Jews a central feature in their policy of reaction. At once a
+many-sided campaign against the Jews was begun. A powerful machinery
+of persecution was at hand in the existing Jewish laws. All that was
+necessary was to revive them, to interpret them rigorously, to tighten
+the legislative screws which had become loosened during the preceding
+liberal regime. This, however, seemed insufficient. It was determined
+that a powerful and definitive blow must be struck at the roots of
+their very existence in Russia.
+
+The main attack was economic. The industrial and commercial activities
+of the Jews, especially in the Pale, make them, as we have seen, among
+the chief industrial producers for the peasants, as well as the chief
+buyers of their agricultural produce. This contact between the Jews
+and the peasants was a vital need in the economic life of both. The
+familiar charge that the Jews were exploiters of the peasantry was
+revived. Behind this charge lay the medieval economic prejudice, which
+attributes no really useful role to the merchant or trader.[35] In a
+custom-ridden economic order, the competitive methods of the Jewish
+traders smacked of commercial deceit. Principally, however, this
+charge served for a convenient explanation of the change of policy
+towards the Jews.
+
+In this wise were introduced the "Temporary Regulations" of May, 1882,
+or the May Laws, the main clauses of which are the following:
+
+ 1. As a temporary measure and until a general revision is made
+ of the legal status of the Jews, they are forbidden to settle
+ anew outside of towns and townlets (boroughs), an exception
+ being made only in the case of existing Jewish agricultural
+ colonies.
+
+ 2. Until further orders, the execution of deeds of sale and
+ mortgage in the names of Jews is forbidden, as well as the
+ registration of Jews as lessees of real estate situated outside
+ of towns and townlets, and also the issuing to Jews of powers of
+ stewardship or attorney to manage and dispose of such real
+ property.
+
+The May Laws may be regarded as an extension of the general principle
+underlying the creation of the Pale. Through the first clause they
+were now to be forbidden free movement even within the Pale. As far as
+possible, their contact with the peasantry was to be cut off. The
+second clause aimed to put an end to the ownership by Jews of land in
+rural districts and the employment of Jews as stewards or managers of
+estates. A further construction of this clause forbade Jews to be
+connected with any business directly or indirectly depending upon the
+purchase of landed property outside of the towns of the Pale, thus
+debarring them from the utilization of land for industrial and
+commercial, as well as for agricultural purposes.
+
+In the actual execution of these laws, and in the legal
+interpretations given them by the highest courts, the effect was far
+greater. A series of wholesale expulsions from the villages into the
+towns of the Pale began, on the ground of illegal residence. This was
+increased by the device, which became normal, of renaming towns as
+villages--easily possible in Russia where towns are frequently only
+administrative units--the resident Jews then being expelled as illegal
+settlers. Again, movement within the villages even on the part of Jews
+who had the right to live in villages was prohibited.
+
+A further effect of this change in policy was upon the position of the
+Jews outside of the Pale, who enjoyed the right of residence in the
+interior of Russia, through the laws of the preceding regime. A
+stricter interpretation of these laws, added to a change in the
+administrative policy, had the effect not only of stopping the
+comparatively slight current of Jewish artisans into the interior of
+Russia, but also of starting a never-ending series of expulsions from
+the interior to the Pale. These expulsions have since continued, with
+individuals, families and whole groups, until they have become a
+constant phenomenon of Jewish life in Russia and a familiar item of
+world news.
+
+While the May Laws thus touched to the quick the economic life of the
+Russian Jews, another series of laws sought to break down their
+cultural life by barring them from the higher educational and
+professional institutions. The contrast with the policy of the
+preceding regime was here as complete as possible. The principle of
+liberal assimilation with regard to the Jews had dictated the policy
+of opening wide to them the doors of the secondary schools and
+universities, and the liberal professions. The new regime, however,
+not only opposed education generally, and higher education
+particularly, as the means by which the reform and westernization of
+Russia was being accomplished, but it regarded the russification of
+the Jews as a special evil. Culturally as well, the Jews were to be
+separated from the Russian people.
+
+Hence the introduction of the "percentage rule" in 1886 and 1887,
+restricting the proportion of Jewish students admitted to the
+secondary and high schools, and universities, within the Pale, to 10
+per cent of the total number of students admitted. Outside of the
+Pale, the proportion was 5 per cent, except in St. Petersburg and
+Moscow, where it was placed at 3 per cent. In addition, the Jews were
+completely barred from a number of these institutions. As the Jews
+constituted so large a part of the populations in the towns of the
+Pale and had distinguished themselves in Russia as elsewhere by the
+eagerness with which they grasped the educational and professional
+opportunities offered them, the introduction of the "percentage rule"
+meant that the vast majority of the Jewish youth were to be deprived
+of the normal chances for education. Thus the "percentage rule", which
+was extended to institutions founded by the Jews themselves, was
+almost as great a blow as the May Laws. It threatened the cultural
+ruin of Russian Jewry. Bound up as the admission to these schools was
+with the liberal professions and with the opportunity of escaping from
+the limits of the Pale, it meant that one of the main highways to
+freedom in Russia had been closed to the Jews.
+
+The most striking method of repression introduced by the new regime
+and its feudal supporters was that combination of murder, outrage and
+pillage--the _pogrom_. The revival of this characteristic expression
+of the antisemitism of the middle ages was not the result of
+spontaneous outbreaks of fury on the part of the Russian masses, but a
+deliberate and calculated awakening of latent racial and religious
+prejudices, evoked as powerful aids to inflame against the Jews the
+Russian masses, who are, religiously speaking, a tolerant people and
+whose relations to the Jews had been marked, on the whole, with
+friendliness.
+
+The first _pogroms_ began a month after the accession of Alexander III
+to the throne, and extended in the course of a year to 160 places in
+Southern Russia. Though the connivance of the local authorities was
+clearly established, the originators of the _pogroms_ were never
+found.[36] However, moral support was lent by the government in the
+promulgation of the May Laws which closely followed. The doctrine that
+the misery of the peasants was due to their exploitation by the Jews,
+and that the _pogroms_ were the instinctive expression of the fury of
+the peasants, was officially sanctioned. The _pogroms_ of 1881-2
+served as notice to all Russia and particularly to Russian Jewry, that
+the old order had given place to the new. Apart from the loss of life
+and damage to property they left the Russian Jews in a state of
+stupefaction and horror, with the sense of living on the brink of a
+precipice.
+
+The first decade of Alexander III's reign had opened with these
+_pogroms_. The second decade opened with the wholesale expulsions from
+Moscow. Within six months, more than ten thousand Jews were expelled
+from the city on the ground of illegal residence. So vast a number of
+Jewish families was affected and so summary was the manner of
+executing the decree of expulsion, that several governments, among
+them our own, protested to the Russian government. President Harrison,
+discussing this protest in his message to Congress, frankly stated
+that
+
+ the banishment, whether by direct decree or by not less certain
+ indirect methods, of so large a number of men and women is not a
+ local question. A decree to leave one country is in the nature
+ of things an order to enter another--some other. This
+ consideration, as well as the suggestion of humanity, furnishes
+ ample ground for the remonstrances which we have presented to
+ Russia.[37]
+
+The expulsions were preceded by a year of ominous rumors of a program
+of new restrictions beside which the May Laws would pale into
+insignificance. An offer of ten million dollars for the cause of
+Jewish education made by Baron de Hirsch to the Russian government was
+refused. His scheme, however, for the organization of a
+mass-emigration of Jews to Argentine was sanctioned. All these facts
+lent strength to the feeling of the Jews that they had nothing to hope
+for under the existing regime. Thus closed the reign of Alexander III
+and a memorable chapter in Russian Jewish history.
+
+The early years of Nicholas II were marked by a relaxation in the
+strict administration and interpretation of the existing restrictive
+laws. Hopes for the amelioration of the Jewish situation began to be
+entertained. These hopes were destined shortly to be shattered.
+
+The first decade of the twentieth century opened with threatening
+unrest. Economic depression began and was accompanied by revolutionary
+attacks. For the Jews, the most alarming symptom was the rise and
+uninterrupted progress of a group of antisemitic agitators and Russian
+loyalists, who sought to counteract the revolutionary movement by
+denouncing the Jews as the leaders of the revolution and the enemies
+of the autocracy and the Orthodox religion. Thus was sown the seed of
+the Kishineff massacre of April, 1903, which lasted three days. Before
+the echoes of Kishineff had died away, the massacre at Gomel followed.
+
+But Kishineff proved to be merely a bloody prelude. The air was
+surcharged with explosives. The outbreak of the Russo-Japanese war and
+of the first organized revolution created a dangerous combination of
+events for the Jews. To the discontent of the peasants, forced to go
+to the front in a war for which they had no enthusiasm, and sore with
+the reverses of the Russian army, was added the increased activity of
+the agitators who declared that the war with Japan had been forced
+upon Russia by the Jews, eager to profit through its ruin, and who
+called upon their followers and the peasants through propaganda and
+proclamations to revenge themselves upon the Jews. The government at
+bay, on the verge of breakdown under the revolutionary attacks, and
+anxious to excuse its incompetency and failure in the conduct of the
+war, sought a means of diverting the peasants from the uprisings
+against the landed proprietors spreading over the land, and, above
+all, of stifling the revolution, which had met with such opportune
+and unlooked-for success among all classes. This was a situation
+alive with danger for the Jews, whose proletarians in the cities had
+taken an active part in the revolution. The organization of Jewish
+massacres by responsible agents of the government became the central
+feature of its program of counter-revolution.[38] A veritable
+holocaust ensued in nearly every province of the Empire for two years,
+only the climaxes of which became known to the world in Zhitomir,
+Odessa, Bialystok, and Siedlec.
+
+The role of the bureaucracy in the creation of the _pogroms_,
+especially in 1906, in which year there took place hundreds of
+_pogroms_, was made abundantly clear by the Russian press, by Prince
+Urussov's disclosures in the Duma, and by the report of the Duma
+Commission appointed to investigate the causes of the Bialystok
+_pogrom_ of 1906. As announced in their official report, an
+investigation had shown that the relations between the Jews and the
+Christians of Bialystok previous to the bloodshed had been amicable,
+and that preparations for a _pogrom_ had been deliberately and
+carefully made by agents of the bureaucracy and carried out with the
+aid of the local authorities.
+
+Both periods of _pogroms_ in these thirty years were periods of
+revolution. In both the government had felt the ground shaking under
+its feet from terroristic attacks and from peasant uprisings. In the
+first period Jews had taken only slight part. In the late revolution,
+however, the participation of the Jews of the Pale, through the Jewish
+labor organization, the _Bund_, was quite strong. The earlier
+_pogroms_ gave a hint as to the policy of the new regime. The later
+ones occurred at the end of years of repression and persecution, and
+were a culminating point in the fury of the reactionary forces at
+their failure to stem the tide of liberalism in the struggle for
+parliamentary institutions and for the rights of citizens in a modern
+state.
+
+The results of these thirty years of reaction remain to be considered.
+Though the effects of the _pogroms_ upon the Russian Jews can hardly
+be overestimated, the less evident, because less spectacular, methods
+of restrictive law and administrative action have in the long run left
+a far more enduring impress.
+
+The introduction of the May Laws at the very beginning of the eighties
+awakened the Jews to the realization that their future in Russia was
+threatened. The May Laws and the laws that were developed from them,
+the obstacles that were placed in the way of Jewish education and, in
+general, the administrative difficulties that were created, have
+affected every movement of their life.
+
+Freedom of movement of the individual is the very essence of the life
+of modern states and the basis of their economic, social and political
+institutions. The lack of this freedom, especially to the extent
+created by the May Laws, bars the Jews from the possibilities of
+normal economic growth and progress. The Jewish manufacturers and
+capitalists are prevented from participating in the industrial and
+commercial development of Russia, which is so rapidly proceeding and
+to which, owing to their economic position and capacities, they could
+powerfully contribute. Legal interference with economic activities, so
+frequently the rule in Russia, is emphasized in the case of the Jews.
+
+A far more serious situation confronts the great mass of the Jewish
+artisans, petty merchants and factory workers, to which the vast
+majority of the Jews belong. Largely prevented access to their natural
+customers, the peasants, by the prohibition of rural residence, and
+confined to the relatively few towns of the Pale, where over-crowding
+and over-competition are the necessary and unavoidable results, the
+Jewish artisans and petty merchants have a bitter struggle to maintain
+a position of economic independence.
+
+Added to this, there is the social pressure to which the Jews have
+been subjected. Not until this period has the century-long position of
+the Jews as the "pariahs of the Empire" been so sharply emphasized.
+Enmeshed in a net of special laws and regulations, at the mercy of
+ministerial decree, secret circular, arbitrary administrative act, law
+has lost all meaning for the Jews. In this atmosphere they exist
+mainly through bribery, at once their bane and their salvation.
+
+The unusual economic and social pressure exerted by the reactionary
+regime upon its Jewish subjects, through the new restrictive laws that
+were put into operation during the last thirty years, the
+administrative harrying that became the order of the day and the
+introduction of the hitherto unused method of physical repression, the
+_pogrom_, becomes clear in the light of its policy. Beginning as a
+movement to suppress the Jews in their economic and cultural
+activities, and to separate them as far as possible from their Russian
+neighbors, the anti-Jewish program became in its final form the
+expulsion and extermination of the Jews from Russia. The historic
+sentence of Count Ignatiev, author of the May Laws, at the very
+beginning of this period, "the Western borders are open to you Jews",
+strikes the keynote of this policy. And, in fact, for practically the
+first time in its history, the Russian government relaxed in 1892 its
+rigorous rules forbidding emigration, and gave its sanction to Baron
+de Hirsch's plan of organizing a vast emigration of Jews from Russia,
+which its author hoped would, at the end of a quarter of a century,
+result in the complete transplantation of the Jews from Russia. The
+famous principle of the Russian government, "once a Russian always a
+Russian", was for once put aside in favor of the Jews. They were given
+one right not enjoyed by other Russians, that of leaving Russia under
+the obligation of abandoning Russian citizenship forever.[39]
+
+
+II. ROUMANIA
+
+Up to very recent years, the history of the Jews in Roumania centers
+about those resident in Moldavia. Its proximity to ancient Poland and
+close association with Bessarabia, naturally made for a back-and-forth
+movement of the Polish and Russian Jews, whose settlement was invited
+by the boyars or landed nobility because of resulting industrial and
+commercial advantages.
+
+The position of the Jews in Moldavia up to the middle of the
+nineteenth century did not differ to any extent from that of their
+brethren in Russia. Moldavia, as a Christian state, denied civil and
+political rights to all non-Christians. The Jews in Moldavia were
+regarded as aliens, whose activities were subject to special
+regulation. The beginning of the last century witnessed the first
+special Jewish laws. The Jews were forbidden to buy the products of
+the soil, to acquire real property; non-resident Jews were debarred
+unless they could prove an occupation and show the possession of
+property. Definite restrictions as to occupation, residence in the
+villages, the ownership, in villages, of houses, land, vineyards,
+_etc._, existed. As vagabonds they could be expelled from the country
+by administrative decree. Thus was their legal status fixed.
+
+The emancipation of Jews was first demanded by the liberal party
+during the revolutionary days of 1848. But no practical change
+resulted until the Convention of Paris in 1856, which, in granting
+autonomy to the two provinces, guaranteed civil rights to all
+Moldavians, regardless of creed. Though political rights were granted
+only to Christian Moldo-Wallachians, the provision was made that, by
+legislative arrangements, the enjoyment of political rights could be
+extended to other creeds. Thus was established the possibility of a
+gradual emancipation of the Jews, foreshadowed in the communal law of
+1864, which granted the right of naturalization to certain classes of
+native Roumanian Jews. Those who had passed through college or had a
+recognized foreign degree, or who had founded a factory in the land
+employing at least fifty workmen were among the favored classes.
+
+Shortly afterwards, this section was abrogated, and, with the
+abdication of the liberal Couza and the accession of Charles
+Hohenzollern, the present king, to the throne, the situation changed.
+Article VII of the constitution of the newly-created kingdom read that
+foreigners not of the Christian faith could not be naturalized. As
+within the term foreigner the great mass of the Jews residing in the
+land was included, this was a denial of the conditions laid down in
+the Treaty of Paris. At the same time, old laws against the Jews which
+had fallen into abeyance were revived, expulsions of the Jews from the
+villages into the towns began to take place with great frequency, laws
+requiring all sellers of liquor in rural communes to be naturalized
+Roumanians deprived many Jewish families of a livelihood--in short,
+the usual symptoms of anti-Jewish activity became the order of the
+day.
+
+It was at the famous Berlin Congress, convened to decide questions
+created by the Russo-Turkish war of 1877, that the subject of the
+Jewish disabilities in Roumania was brought up, in connection with the
+demand of Roumania for recognition as an independent state. The chief
+objection made especially by the representatives of three of the
+European powers--France, England and Germany--was Roumania's treatment
+of the Jews. It was finally decided by the Congress to recognize her
+independence on the condition that she grant civil and political
+equality to all her citizens without distinction of race or creed.
+This was expressed in Article 44 of the historic Berlin Treaty, which
+read as follows:
+
+ Article 44. In Roumania, difference in religious beliefs and
+ confessions shall not be brought against anyone as a ground for
+ exclusion or unfitness as regards the enjoyment of civil and
+ political rights, admission to public offices, functions, and
+ honors, or the exercise of various professions and industries in
+ any place whatever. Freedom in outward observance of all creeds
+ will be assured to all subjects of the Roumanian state, as well
+ as to strangers, and no obstacle will be raised either to the
+ ecclesiastical organization of different bodies, or to their
+ intercourse with their spiritual heads.
+
+ The citizens of all states, whether merchants or others, shall
+ be dealt with, in Roumania, without distinction of religion, on
+ the basis of perfect equality.
+
+In the _constituante_ which was convoked soon after to discuss the
+question of giving the Jews equal political rights, an interesting
+picture is obtained of the sentiment of the upper and middle classes
+of Roumania.[40] An overwhelming majority was opposed to the granting
+of political rights to the Jews on the ground that Roumania was a
+Christian-Latin State, or on the purely nationalistic ground that the
+Jews were an alien and utterly unassimilable element of the
+population. To meet the demands of the Powers the principle of
+individual naturalization was adopted, by which an alien could be
+granted naturalization individually and only by a special vote of the
+Chamber of Deputies. Other onerous conditions, such as the
+requirement of a ten years' residence in the country for citizenship,
+and the prohibition of the purchase by aliens of rural estates, showed
+conclusively that Roumania was prepared to give only formal assent to
+the demand of the Powers.[41] After a year of negotiations, the three
+Powers agreed to the recognition of her independence, expressing the
+hope that the Roumanian government would recognize the inadequacy of
+the revised article and especially of the principle of individual
+naturalization as meeting the conditions of the Berlin Treaty, and
+would aim towards a complete emancipation of all her subjects.[42]
+
+The situation at the beginning of the eighties presented but little
+hope of improvement in the political condition of the Jews. Eight
+hundred and eighty-three Jews who had fought in the war for
+independence had been naturalized _en masse_. With the exception of
+this small number, the Jews were legally classed as foreigners.[43]
+Shortly after, owing to the fact that Austria-Hungary had withdrawn
+its protection from several thousands of its Jewish citizens resident
+in Roumania, the entire body of Jews received a new legal status, that
+of "foreigners not subject to any foreign Power". In other words, they
+were stateless, though subject to all the obligations of Roumanian
+citizens, including military service and the payment of taxes. This
+legal status of the Jews has received the attention of the world and
+marks a condition of things which according to Bluntschli is "a denial
+of the entire development of European states".[44]
+
+Freed from the control of the Powers, Roumania now entered on a new
+campaign of discrimination against the Jews. The first decade of the
+eighties saw this begun in a series of laws which for completeness
+finds no parallel even in Russia. At the very beginning, a law giving
+the police the right of domiciliary visitation and of expelling under
+the vagabond law anyone in the rural districts, was employed against
+the Jews, resulting in their frequent expulsions into the towns. The
+enforcement of the law against rural residence was so strict as to
+create practically the same situation as exists in the Russian Pale.
+The law of 1883, prohibiting lotteries, and in the following year the
+law prohibiting hawking or any form of sale from house to house or on
+the streets deprived several thousands of Jewish families of their
+livelihood.
+
+It was in 1886 and 1887, however, when the laws which were to create a
+national industry and commerce were introduced, that a serious step
+was taken to exclude the Jews from economic activity. On the
+assumption that occupations were a civil right to which aliens could
+or could not be admitted, the Jews were systematically deprived even
+of the civil rights which had been theirs, to a great extent, before
+the Berlin Congress sought to make them politically free. As
+foreigners, the Jews were prohibited the right of choosing electors
+for the newly-created Chambers of Commerce and Trade, or of becoming
+members of these chambers although they formed a large majority of the
+merchants and manufacturers represented in these important bodies. A
+still more serious provision was that which decreed that five years
+after the foundation of a factory two-thirds of the workingmen
+employed therein must be Roumanians. Jews were also partly excluded
+from the administrative positions in joint-stock companies. They were
+completely excluded from employment in the financial institutions of
+the state, from the state railway service, and, by a provision that
+two-thirds of the employes on private railways must be Roumanians,
+were practically excluded from these as well. The sharpest blow,
+however, was struck in 1902, when a new law for the organization of
+trades, popularly known as the Artisans' Bill, was passed. In this law
+there is to be seen a revival of the guild organizations of the Middle
+Ages. To pursue his occupation every artisan was required to obtain a
+certificate from a guild. Jewish master artisans and workmen were hit
+by the requirement that aliens in order to have the right of working
+in accordance with this law must prove that in their own country
+reciprocal rights existed for Roumanians, or obtain an authorization
+from a Chamber of Commerce or Industry. Whatever value this
+requirement may have had for the protection of Roumanian workmen in
+foreign countries, its chief effect was to place in a position of
+economic helplessness the majority of the Jewish workmen as "aliens
+not subject to any foreign Power", and largely unable to secure
+authorization from such chambers controlled by competitors. Other
+clauses, requiring that all workingmen belong to a guild, and that
+fifty workmen possessing civil and political rights are empowered to
+form a guild, put the control of trades into the hands of non-Jews,
+although the majority of the artisans in many of the trades were Jews.
+
+A similar policy was pursued with reference to the cultural activities
+of the Jews. A circular of the minister of public instruction, issued
+in 1887, ordered that preference should be given to Roumanian
+children, in cases where there was not enough room in the elementary
+schools for all. This began the gradual exclusion of Jewish children
+from the Roumanian elementary schools. The formal treatment of the
+Jews as aliens in the educational system was introduced in 1893, when
+all aliens were required to pay fees for entrance into the public
+schools, and were admitted only in case there was enough room for
+them. The effect of these laws was seen in the diminished proportion
+of Jewish children in the elementary schools. Similar provisions for
+the secondary and high schools and universities largely closed the
+doors of these institutions to the Jews. From schools of agriculture
+and forestry, and of commerce they were completely excluded.
+
+To the educational restrictions were added restrictions to
+professional service. As aliens, they were forbidden to be employed in
+the public sanitary service and health department as physicians,
+pharmacists, _etc._, from owning as well as working in private
+pharmacies, and from entering other professional fields.
+
+The almost complete agreement of the two principal parties--liberal
+and conservative--explains the thoroughness and uninterrupted progress
+of this process of piling up disability upon disability. The
+explanation is partly to be found in the constitution of Roumania, the
+electoral law of which places the political powers in the hands of two
+classes--the landed aristocracy and the urban, or middle class. The
+vast majority of the peasants are excluded by educational and property
+qualifications, obtaining only indirect representation. Had the Jews
+been granted political rights, they would have shared political power
+with the other two classes. It is through the second electoral
+college, of both the Senate and the Chamber of Deputies, that the
+middle class is represented politically. As manufacturers and
+merchants, as urban dwellers, as members of the liberal professions
+and as graduates of the elementary schools, the Jews would have become
+the most important part of this electoral college.
+
+Again, the creation of an industry and commerce along national lines
+was largely a course of action in the interests of this middle class
+of Roumanian merchants, artisans and laborers. It was in favor of this
+class that the laws were passed debarring Jews from various
+occupations and seeking essentially to wrest the industrial and
+commercial monopoly from their hands.
+
+In this course of action, powerful aid was extended by the
+bureaucracy, recruited mainly from the lower nobility and the middle
+classes. Depending for their support upon the urbans, and seeking to
+prevent the entrance of Jews into state service, which would have
+resulted from the granting of political rights to the Jews, the
+bureaucracy have acted in harmony with the middle classes in the
+attempt to make the Jews politically, economically, and culturally
+powerless.
+
+Thus the situation that the Jews in Roumania have been facing for
+thirty years is abnormal, from every standpoint. At no time within
+thirty years has there been any serious question of giving to the Jews
+the political rights, the granting of which had been made the
+condition of the recognition of Roumania's independence by the Powers.
+The history of the succeeding thirty years has been one of gradual,
+steady and systematic deprivation of one civil right after another. To
+the prohibition of freedom of movement has been added that of work;
+one occupation after another has been prohibited to Jews under the
+mask of foreigners. From all the branches of state service Jews have
+been almost completely debarred. Participation in important private
+and public enterprises has similarly been limited. The schools have
+been largely closed to them. The effect has been partly registered in
+a rate of illiteracy higher in the cities among the Jewish children
+between seven and fifteen than among the non-Jewish children of the
+same age.
+
+Thus the conscious policy of Roumania has been that of oppression,
+political, economic and social, with the deliberate aim of making it
+impossible for the Jews to live in Roumania. This method of indirect
+expulsion is the essence of her policy of thirty years. As such it was
+recognized and openly stated in the only formal protest against her
+manner of fulfilling the conditions of the Berlin Treaty, made by the
+United States, through its Secretary of State, John Hay, whose
+circular to the Powers signatory to the Treaty demanded that Roumania
+be called to account for her treatment of the Jews, and her dishonesty
+in violating the pledges given by her to the Powers.[45]
+
+
+III. AUSTRIA-HUNGARY
+
+Until the middle of the nineteenth century, the legal position of the
+Jews in Austria-Hungary differed from that of their brethren in Russia
+and Roumania only in degree. Prohibited the free exercise of their
+religion, the right to hold real property, and to enter certain
+occupations, and burdened by special Jewish taxes, the Jews remained a
+class apart and governed in all their activities by special laws.
+Their legal emancipation, begun in 1848, was definitely established by
+the promulgation in each division of the Empire of the Fundamental Law
+of 1867, declaring that religion should not be a ground for
+discrimination in civil and political rights.
+
+The civil and political equality of the Jews was a cardinal principle
+of the creed of German-Austrian liberalism and one of a number of its
+victories embodied in the Constitution of 1867. Austrian economic and
+social life at this period was, however, too saturated with
+medievalism to allow for a complete revolution in the attitude toward
+the Jews. On the other hand, the influential part played by the Jews
+in the liberal movement and the fact that a group of wealthy Jews
+were powerful factors in the _haute finance_ and in the commercial
+life of the country were made the basis of an attack by the
+feudal-clericals upon the Jews.
+
+The great financial crash of 1873, in which several Jewish financial
+houses were concerned, was the starting-point of political
+antisemitism in Austria. The Jews were denounced as the
+representatives of the capitalist order of society, with its
+overwhelming concentration of wealth and its exploitation of the
+industrial and the agricultural proletariat. The Christian-Socialist
+movement began with antisemitism as the corner-stone of its economic
+and social doctrines. Its opposition to the Jews and to capitalism was
+largely due to medieval prejudices in favor of the Christian-feudal
+state and the medieval industrial organization. In the early eighties
+it began to triumph when the "small man" or petty industrialist
+received political power through an extension of the suffrage.
+
+It reached its height in the nineties, when, under the combined
+influence of feudal-clerical nobles, the clergy and the lower middle
+class, a period of reaction set in. In Vienna, in 1895, the antisemite
+Lueger was elected mayor. Powerless though they were to change the
+legal status of the Jews, the antisemites succeeded in creating in
+both upper and lower circles of Austrian society an atmosphere of
+antagonism to the Jews which has prevented the complete fulfillment of
+the principle of equality as set forth in the constitution.
+
+The clericals have fanned the flames of religious hatred especially
+among the peasantry by ritual-murder accusations, which have been rife
+and have played a large part in strengthening the sentiment of
+hostility toward the Jews.
+
+In Galicia, the position of the Jews became unsettled, owing to a
+variety of causes.[46] Although one of the least advanced among the
+Austrian crown lands, Galicia has experienced within the last
+half-century an industrial and commercial development along with the
+rest of the Empire. This resulted in the growth of a middle class
+particularly among the Poles, which began to compete for supremacy
+with the Jews. The improvements in transportation and communication,
+the organization of agricultural syndicates, for the purpose of
+directly purchasing and selling the produce of the peasants, and the
+creation of rural credit societies, helped considerably to displace
+the Jewish middlemen and traders as well as the Jewish money-lenders,
+who dealt largely with the peasantry. The movement to develop Galicia
+industrially was fostered on national lines by these Polish
+organizations, which carried on an extensive propaganda and
+systematically organized economic boycotts against the Jews. "Do not
+buy of Jews", "Do not patronize Jewish artisans", became familiar
+cries in Galicia as in other parts of Austria.
+
+The process of wrestling the monopoly of industry, trade and commerce
+from the Jews in favor of the Polish petty merchants and artisans was
+considerably accelerated by the official bodies, the autonomous
+Galician _Diet_ and the municipal boards, controlled chiefly by the
+Polish-Catholic nobility, who saw in the national-industry movement a
+means of capturing the votes of the middle class and of thus retaining
+their position as leaders of the Polish people. Communal funds were
+used to establish Poles in business. Attempts were made to take away
+from the Jews the small-salt and tobacco trades. The taxes on the
+taverns were increased. In the public financial institutions organized
+for various purposes Jews were not given representation. In nearly all
+the activities designed to promote the interest of the urban
+population and the peasantry, the Jews were systematically excluded by
+the local authorities.
+
+Added to this, the increasing distress of the Galician peasants has
+reacted strongly upon the Jews, who depend so largely upon their
+buying power. The poverty of the peasantry, the competition for the
+control of the rural market created by public and private agencies,
+added to the increasing competition in the towns from other sections
+of the population, have all co-operated to create a great surplus, in
+proportion to the population, of petty merchants and artisans among
+the Jews. This had its effect in an over-competition from the side of
+the Jews themselves.
+
+The Jews have suffered as well from their historical role of
+intermediaries between a most avaricious nobility and a bitterly
+exploited peasantry. Acting as stewards and as tavern keepers for the
+Polish nobles, who are mainly absentee landlords, and who, until very
+recently, enjoyed the right of keeping taverns as one of their feudal
+privileges, the Jews have become the buffers of the deep-seated
+antagonism between the two chief classes of Galicia.
+
+Agrarian uprisings have been frequent of late, particularly after the
+failure of the crops, which here as in Russia and Roumania spells a
+crisis. These, chiefly directed against the nobles, have frequently
+been diverted toward the Jews, to whom the peasants are largely
+indebted, and in whom they see the visible instruments of the
+oppression of their lords.
+
+Economic antagonism has been intensified by the religious hatred which
+has been fostered by the Polish clergy and which has been the basis of
+numerous ritual-murder charges.
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+[34] Leroy-Beaulieu, _The Empire of the Tsars_ (New York, 1894), vol.
+iii, p. 558.
+
+[35] For an example of typically medieval economic notions regarding
+trade and commerce prevalent among the feudal classes of Eastern
+Europe, _cf._ Carmen Sylva's criticism on the economic activities of
+the Jews in Roumania in _Century_, March, 1906.
+
+[36] The part played by the authorities in these _pogroms_ is
+discussed by A. Linden in _Die Judenpogromen_, vol. i, pp. 12-96.
+
+[37] President Harrison's Message is given in Appendix A, page 199.
+
+[38] Semenoff, _The Russian Government and the Jewish Massacres_
+(London, 1907), pp. 147-167.
+
+[39] Immigration Commission: _Emigration Conditions in Europe_, pp.
+261-262.
+
+[40] The discussions are presented in _La question juive_.
+
+[41] Article VII is given in Appendix B, p. 200.
+
+[42] _Cf. English Parliamentary Papers_, 1880, vol. lxxix,
+Correspondence relative to the recognition of Roumania.
+
+[43] In the following twenty years only 85 Jews were granted
+citizenship.
+
+[44] Bluntschli's pamphlet is a valuable statement of the situation.
+For title _cf._ Bibliography.
+
+[45] The Hay note is given in Appendix C, pp. 201-206.
+
+[46] _Juedische Statistik_, p. 208 et seq.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER V
+
+CONCLUSION
+
+
+An intimate connection has thus been established between the present
+state of economic and social transition through which the countries of
+Eastern Europe are passing and the situation which has confronted the
+Jews in each of these countries and has profoundly influenced their
+position and their history for the last third of a century. What the
+forces are behind the emigration of the Jews from these countries to
+Western Europe and the United States during this period now become
+clear.
+
+The industrial and commercial development of the recent decades
+brought about changes in themselves unfavorable to the economic
+activities of the Jews. The improvements in communication and
+transportation through the extension of railroads, the building of
+roads, and the creation of credit facilities especially for the
+peasantry served partly to displace the Jews, whose economic position
+had been largely based upon the services they rendered in a relatively
+backward industrial and commercial civilization. The rise of a middle
+class among the Christian populations, chiefly engaged in industry,
+added an element of competition not before present. Not the least
+important in its effects was the increasing poverty of the peasantry,
+which seriously affected the Jews, as the principal buyers of their
+produce and sellers of finished products. Agricultural crises, so
+frequent in recent years in Eastern Europe, have often involved the
+Jews in financial ruin.[47]
+
+These purely economic factors served to weaken the position of the
+Jews and to cause an over-concentration in trade and industry, to
+their detriment. The gradual readjustment that would have followed
+naturally was, however, prevented by the existence of other forces, in
+the action of which we find the key to the situation faced by the Jews
+and the impelling forces of Jewish emigration.
+
+One of these was the economic antisemitism that rose partly from the
+competition of the middle classes of both populations. This
+competitive jealousy awakened racial and religious prejudices and
+found particularly in Galicia an active expression in the organization
+of economic boycotts, and in the co-operative agencies that were
+created to foster the growth of the Christian artisans and merchants.
+The sufferings of the agricultural population, again, were charged to
+the Jews, with whom the peasants were in close business relations and
+to whom they were deeply indebted. Preached from platform, press and
+pulpit, the doctrine of Jewish exploitation of the peasantry found a
+ready acceptance among all classes.
+
+Economic and social hostility was furthered by the feudal ruling
+classes whose antagonism to the Jews was deep-seated and many-sided.
+As these formed the ruling economic, social and political power in
+Eastern Europe, they were the chief instrument in creating a situation
+that was full of danger for the Jews. In the politico-economic
+struggles between these privileged classes and the liberal middle
+classes that accompanied the transition, the Jews were found,
+consciously or unconsciously, on the side of the liberals, who sought
+to introduce the economic, social and political conditions of modern
+civilization. Thus they served as a convenient object of attack. In
+Russia, where, since the reaction, the control of the feudal classes
+over the government was complete, the new laws restricting residence,
+movement, occupations and economic activity in general, checked the
+economic growth of the Jews and put them at a great disadvantage in
+the struggle for existence. This situation was created to an even
+greater degree in Roumania, where the economic interests of the
+Roumanian middle class were furthered at the expense of the Jews.
+Economic helplessness was essentially the condition created for the
+Jews, so narrow was the margin left for the exercise of their powers.
+The social pressure that was added, through laws limiting the entrance
+of Jews to the educational institutions and the liberal professions,
+seeking to limit their cultural influence, was part and parcel of the
+same policy. In the case of Russia, repression reached the form of
+massacres of Jews, when these were found politically useful.
+
+Governmental oppression was thus the chief force in unsettling the
+economic and social position of the Jews. Throughout the course of
+thirty years the leading motive of the Russian and Roumanian
+governments was the reduction, through every possible means, of the
+number of their Jewish populations.
+
+This governmental pressure which began to be applied at the beginning
+of the eighties became equivalent in the course of time to an
+expulsive force. The only outlet to the intolerable conditions that
+had been created by the forces of governmental repression and
+oppression was emigration. This was sensed by the Jews at the very
+beginning of the period. How eagerly it has been seized upon the
+following pages will show. It is enough for the moment to point out
+that the vast and steadily increasing stream of Russian Jewish
+immigrants to the United States alone, has risen to such proportions
+that its average for the past decade has approached the estimated
+annual increase of the Jews in Russia. In other words, emigration has
+begun to mean the decline, not only relatively, but even absolutely,
+of the Jewish population in Russia.
+
+The fact that the persecution of the Jews in the case of Russia and
+Roumania amounts to a force of rejection has been widely recognized
+during the course of the emigration of the Jews from Eastern Europe.
+In England, where the number of Jewish immigrants increased rapidly,
+it found expression in the official reports, and in the United States,
+it became a subject of direct diplomatic correspondence in the formal
+protest to Russia in 1891 by President Harrison, and in 1902 in the
+circular note to the Powers by Secretary Hay, regarding Roumania's
+treatment of the Jews.
+
+A still more significant recognition of the exceptional forces behind
+the Jewish immigration was given by the Jews of Western Europe and the
+United States, living in a state of freedom, security and comparative
+wealth, to whom the oncoming of thousands of Jewish refugees at all
+the critical periods, and the steady stream of Jewish immigrants at
+other times has meant a taking-up of onerous burdens and a sharing of
+the hardships of the situation thus suddenly thrust upon them. The
+attempt to organize and regulate Jewish emigration from Eastern Europe
+was a task early undertaken by the _Alliance Israelite Universelle_.
+The Jewish Colonization Association was expressly founded by Baron de
+Hirsch to open up, in various countries, new paths for the Jewish
+emigrants. At all periods of exceptional emigration, national and
+international committees met to consider the problems of the
+immigrants thrown upon their responsibility.
+
+The vast majority of the emigrants made the United States their goal.
+In their movement and their economic and social characteristics we
+shall find a striking reflection of the impelling forces of their
+emigration.
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+[47] _Cf. Hersch_, chap. v. He gives to this factor far more
+importance than it deserves. For criticism of his method, _cf._ p. 92,
+note I.
+
+
+
+
+PART II
+
+JEWISH IMMIGRATION TO THE UNITED STATES
+
+A. ITS MOVEMENT
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER I
+
+DETERMINATION OF NUMBER OF JEWISH IMMIGRANTS
+
+
+In a study of Jewish immigration to the United States the first
+problem is to determine the number of Jews who entered this country
+during the thirty years from 1881 to 1910, and their nationality, or
+their countries of nativity. The determination of these figures meets
+with the difficulty that prior to 1899, immigrants were classified in
+the official statistics by country of nativity or residence, and not
+by race or nationality. Thus the figures regarding Jewish immigration
+are obtainable from official sources only from 1899. Those relating to
+previous years have to be sought for elsewhere.
+
+The main sources that have been used to obtain the figures before 1899
+are the reports of three Jewish societies which were concerned with
+the care of the Jewish immigrants arriving at the principal ports of
+New York, Philadelphia, and Baltimore. These were the United Hebrew
+Charities, of New York; the Association for the Protection of Jewish
+Immigrants, of Philadelphia; and the Hebrew Benevolent Society, of
+Baltimore. Each of these maintained an agent who, besides his other
+duties, collected statistical information concerning the sex, age,
+country of nativity, occupation, destination, etc., of the Jewish
+immigrants, partly from the ships' manifests and partly through
+personal inquiry. The statistical information thus obtained was
+regularly included in the annual reports of these societies. These
+records were begun by the New York and Philadelphia societies, in
+1884, and by the Baltimore society, in 1891.
+
+As the yearly statistical tables of these reports were made to
+correspond with the annual meeting of these societies,[48] it was
+found advisable to rearrange them from July to June, in order to have
+them correspond with the fiscal year, and thus allow for a proper
+comparison with the official data furnished by the immigration
+authorities.
+
+As rearranged, the tables presented the number of Jewish immigrants
+entering the ports of New York and Philadelphia from July 1, 1886, to
+June 30, 1898, and the number of Jewish immigrants entering the port
+of Baltimore from July 1, 1891, to June 30, 1898.[49] As these three
+ports were, up to recent years, the places of entry of all but a very
+small number of Jewish immigrants, the figures thus obtained represent
+practically the total Jewish immigration to the United States from
+1886 to 1898.
+
+To ascertain the nationality or country of nativity of the Jewish
+immigrants from 1886 to 1898, it was necessary to redistribute in
+accordance with the fiscal year the monthly arrivals found in the
+tables of the United Hebrew Charities, which contain the figures for
+each nationality.[50] As the reports of the Philadelphia society gave
+only the totals of arrivals of each nationality for each year but not
+distributed by months, the following method was employed. The
+percentage the immigration of each nativity constituted of the total
+immigration from November to October (the society's year) was used as
+the basis for calculating the annual immigration of each nativity
+from July to June.[51] There being no essential difference between
+Baltimore and Philadelphia, so far as Jewish immigrants of each
+nationality are concerned, the same percentages were used as for
+Philadelphia.[52]
+
+The discrepancy between the official figures of the total immigration
+from Roumania from 1886 to 1898 and those of the Jewish societies for
+the Jewish immigrants from Roumania for the same period is worthy of
+note. In each of four years the number of Jewish immigrants from
+Roumania as reported by the Jewish societies exceeded the total
+immigration from Roumania as reported in the official statistics. For
+two years, 1892 and 1893, the official statistics do not report any
+immigrants from Roumania, whereas the Jewish societies report,[53]
+respectively, 740 and 555 Jewish immigrants from Roumania, which
+represented a normal number from this country, as the other years
+indicate.[54]
+
+The total number of immigrants of each nationality arriving from July
+1, 1886, to June 30, 1898, was thus obtained. The total number of
+Jewish immigrants arriving from Russia, Austria-Hungary and Roumania,
+at each of the principal ports, for each year from 1886 to 1898, are
+summarized in table V.[55]
+
+The figures of Jewish immigration before 1886 were not obtainable
+either from the official or the Jewish sources, there being only an
+estimate of the number of the Jewish immigrants from 1881 to 1884 in
+the _American Jewish Year Book_ of 1899-1900 (as 74,310), and in the
+_Jewish Encyclopedia_ (as 62,022), without any indications as to how
+these were obtained. To secure a fairly accurate statement, the
+proportion the Russian Jewish immigration from 1886 to 1898 bore to
+the total Russian immigration was used as the basis for calculating
+the total number of Russian Jewish immigrants from 1881 to 1885.[56]
+This was distributed yearly according to the proportion of each year's
+contribution to the five years' total. By a similar calculation the
+number of Jewish immigrants from Austria-Hungary was obtained.[57] For
+Roumania, the proportion of Jews being more than ninety per cent, and
+at this period practically the entire Roumanian immigration being
+Jewish, the figures were taken _in toto_. The results for each year
+added together constituted the total Jewish immigration for the year.
+
+The general tendency among writers on the subject of Jewish
+immigration has been to exaggerate the magnitude of this movement. In
+a discussion in the _Jewish Encyclopedia_ regarding the dimensions of
+the Jewish immigration before 1899, exact figures were given that are
+on their face erroneous.[58] The inaccuracy of these figures is
+explained by the fact that the writer committed a gross error in
+making his table. The total Russian immigration to the United States
+from 1880 to 1898 was designated as the Jewish immigration from
+Russia, though it should have been evident that the number of other
+peoples coming from Russia and included in these figures must have
+been very large. Another column gave as Jewish immigrants coming from
+countries other than Russia, the totals of the Jewish immigrants
+entering the United States from 1885 to 1898, as reported in the
+_American Jewish Year Book_ of 1899 (the latter figures of which
+included Russian Jews as well as those of other nativities), thereby
+doubling the number of Russian Jewish immigrants for this period. The
+result has been to more than triple the numbers of the Jewish
+immigrants. These figures have been widely used and quoted, and have
+generally created the impression of a Jewish immigration larger by
+several hundred thousands than is really the case.[59]
+
+The results of the foregoing are summarized in Table VI, which gives
+the number of Jewish immigrants arriving in each of the thirty years
+from 1881 to 1910, and the principal countries of nativity of these
+immigrants. We are thus in a position closely to study the movement of
+Jewish immigration for practically the entire period since it became a
+significant part of the recent immigration to the United States, and
+thereby to throw light upon the character of this movement, in itself
+and as a part of the general immigration.
+
+TABLE VI
+
+JEWISH IMMIGRATION TO THE UNITED STATES, 1881 TO 1910
+
+ Year Austria- United
+ Russia Hungary Roumania Kingdom Germany
+ 1881 3125 2537 30 -- --
+ 1882 10489 2648 65 -- --
+ 1883 6144 2510 77 -- --
+ 1884 7867 3340 238 -- --
+ 1885 10648 3938 803 -- 1473
+ 1886 14092 5326 518 -- 983
+ 1887 23103 6898 2063 -- 780
+ 1888 20216 5985 1653 -- 727
+ 1889 18338 4998 1058 -- 758
+ 1890 20981 6439 462 -- 633
+ 1891 43457 5890 854 -- 636
+ 1892 64253 8643 740 -- 1787
+ 1893 25161 6363 555 -- 1814
+ 1894 20747 5916 616 -- 1109
+ 1895 16727 6047 518 -- 1028
+ 1896 20168 9831 744 -- 829
+ 1897 13063 5672 516 -- 586
+ 1898 14949 7367 720 -- 296
+ 1899 24275 11071 1343 174 405
+ 1900 37011 16920 6183 133 337
+ 1901 37660 13006 6827 110 272
+ 1902 37846 12848 6589 55 182
+ 1903 47689 18759 8562 420 477
+ 1904 77544 20211 6446 817 669
+ 1905 92388 17352 3854 14299 734
+ 1906 125234 14884 3872 6113 979
+ 1907 114937 18885 3605 7032 734
+ 1908 71978 15293 4455 6260 869
+ 1909 39150 8431 1390 3385 652
+ 1910 59824 13142 1701 4098 705
+ ----------------------------------------------------------------
+ Total 1119059 281150 67057 42896 20454
+
+ Year Brit. All
+ N.A. Turkey France Others Total
+ 1881 -- -- -- -- 5692
+ 1882 -- -- -- -- 13202
+ 1883 -- -- -- -- 8731
+ 1884 -- -- -- -- 11445
+ 1885 -- -- -- -- 16862
+ 1886 -- -- -- 254 21173
+ 1887 -- -- -- 200 33044
+ 1888 -- -- -- 300 28881
+ 1889 -- -- -- 200 25352
+ 1890 -- -- -- 124 28639
+ 1891 -- -- -- 561 51398
+ 1892 -- -- -- 950 76373
+ 1893 -- -- -- 429 35322
+ 1894 -- -- -- 791 29179
+ 1895 -- -- -- 871 26191
+ 1896 -- -- -- 276 32848
+ 1897 -- -- -- 535 20372
+ 1898 -- -- -- 322 23654
+ 1899 5 81 9 52 37415
+ 1900 -- 114 17 49 60764
+ 1901 -- 154 20 49 58098
+ 1902 -- 138 9 21 57688
+ 1903 -- 211 11 74 76203
+ 1904 8 313 32 196 106236
+ 1905 11 173 327 772 129910
+ 1906 429 461 479 1297 153748
+ 1907 1818 918 306 952 149182
+ 1908 2393 635 425 1079 103387*
+ 1909 2780 690 325 748 57551*
+ 1910 2262 1388 339 801 84260*
+ -----------------------------------------------------------
+ Total 9706 5276 2299 14903 1562800
+
+ * From 1908 immigrants were classified in the reports of the
+ Commissioner-General of Immigration as "immigrant aliens," those
+ intending to reside permanently in the United States and
+ "non-immigrant aliens," those making a temporary trip to the
+ United States. In the figures of 1908, 1909 and 1910, only the
+ "immigrant aliens" are considered.
+
+TABLE VII
+
+PERCENTAGE OF ANNUAL JEWISH IMMIGRATION TO THE UNITED STATES
+CONTRIBUTED BY EACH COUNTRY OF NATIVITY, 1881 TO 1910
+
+ Austria- United
+ Year Russia Hungary Roumania Kingdom Germany
+ 1881 54.8 44.7 0.5 -- --
+ 1882 79.5 20.1 0.4 -- --
+ 1883 70.4 28.7 0.9 -- --
+ 1884 68.7 29.2 2.1 -- --
+ 1885 63.1 23.4 4.8 -- 8.7
+ 1886 66.6 25.2 2.4 -- 4.6
+ 1887 69.9 20.8 6.3 -- 2.4
+ 1888 70.0 20.7 5.7 -- 2.5
+ 1889 72.3 19.7 4.2 -- 3.0
+ 1890 73.3 22.5 1.6 -- 2.2
+ 1891 84.6 11.5 1.6 -- 1.2
+ 1892 84.1 11.3 1.1 -- 2.2
+ 1893 71.2 18.0 1.6 -- 5.1
+ 1894 71.1 20.3 2.1 -- 3.8
+ 1895 63.9 23.1 2.0 -- 3.9
+ 1896 61.4 29.9 2.3 -- 2.5
+ 1897 64.1 27.9 2.5 -- 2.9
+ 1898 63.2 31.1 3.0 -- 1.3
+ 1899 64.9 29.5 3.6 .5 1.1
+ 1900 60.9 27.8 10.2 .2 .6
+ 1901 64.8 22.4 11.8 .2 .5
+ 1902 65.6 22.3 11.4 .1 .3
+ 1903 62.6 24.6 11.2 .6 .6
+ 1904 73.0 19.0 6.1 .8 .6
+ 1905 71.1 13.4 3.0 11.0 .6
+ 1906 81.5 9.7 2.5 4.0 .6
+ 1907 77.1 12.7 2.4 4.7 .5
+ 1908 69.6 14.8 4.3 6.1 .8
+ 1909 68.0 14.7 2.4 5.9 1.2
+ 1910 71.1 15.6 2.0 4.9 .8
+ --------------------------------------------------------
+ Total 71.6 17.9 4.3 2.8 1.3
+
+ Year Brit. All
+ N.A. Turkey France Others Total
+ 1881 -- -- -- -- 100.0
+ 1882 -- -- -- -- 100.0
+ 1883 -- -- -- -- 100.0
+ 1884 -- -- -- -- 100.0
+ 1885 -- -- -- -- 100.0
+ 1886 -- -- -- 1.2 100.0
+ 1887 -- -- -- .6 100.0
+ 1888 -- -- -- 1.1 100.0
+ 1889 -- -- -- .8 100.0
+ 1890 -- -- -- .4 100.0
+ 1891 -- -- -- 1.1 100.0
+ 1892 -- -- -- 1.3 100.0
+ 1893 -- -- -- 4.1 100.0
+ 1894 -- -- -- 2.7 100.0
+ 1895 -- -- -- 7.1 100.0
+ 1896 -- -- -- 3.9 100.0
+ 1897 -- -- -- 2.6 100.0
+ 1898 -- -- -- 1.4 100.0
+ 1899 -- -- -- .4 100.0
+ 1900 -- -- -- .3 100.0
+ 1901 -- .2 -- .1 100.0
+ 1902 -- .2 -- .1 100.0
+ 1903 -- .3 -- .1 100.0
+ 1904 -- .3 -- .2 100.0
+ 1905 -- .1 .2 .6 100.0
+ 1906 .3 .3 .3 .8 100.0
+ 1907 1.2 .6 .2 .6 100.0
+ 1908 2.3 .6 .4 1.1 100.0
+ 1909 4.7 1.2 .6 1.3 100.0
+ 1910 2.7 1.6 .4 .9 100.0
+ ------------------------------------------------------
+ Total 0.6 0.3 0.2 1.0 100.0
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+[48] The year of the United Hebrew Charities is from October to
+September, that of the Philadelphia society is from November to
+October, that of the Baltimore society is from July to June.
+
+[49] _Cf._ table II, p. 159. The figures for Baltimore were furnished
+by the Baron de Hirsch Fund.
+
+[50] For an example of this distribution _cf._ table III, p. 159.
+
+[51] _Cf._ table IVA, p. 160. Thus, from November 1885 to October 1886
+there entered the port of Philadelphia 2165 Jews, of whom 1624 or 75
+per cent were from Russia, 260 or 12 per cent were from
+Austria-Hungary, 43 or 2 per cent were from Roumania, and 238 or 11
+per cent were from all other countries. From July 1, 1885 to June 30,
+1886, there entered the port of Philadelphia 1625 Jews. To ascertain
+the numbers of each nationality for this fiscal year, we may use the
+percentages given above for each nationality. Calculating these, we
+find that in the fiscal year 1886 of the 1625 Jews entering the port
+of Philadelphia, 1218 were from Russia, 196 were from Austria-Hungary,
+33 were from Roumania, and 178 were from all other countries. In like
+manner, the numbers of each nationality for the other years were
+obtained.
+
+[52] _Cf._ table IVB, p. 160.
+
+[53] As corrected by the methods described.
+
+[54] For the four years mentioned, the figures are as follows, those
+reported by the Jewish societies preceding those from official
+sources: in 1886, 518, 494; in 1887, 2063, 2045; in 1888, 1653, 1188;
+in 1889, 1058, 893. For the official figures _cf._ Immigration
+Commission: _Statistical Review of Immigration_, pp. 40-44.
+
+[55] _Cf._ table V, p. 161.
+
+[56] Out of a total of 505,078 Russian immigrants from 1886 to 1898,
+the Russian Jewish immigrants constituted 315,355, or 62 per cent.
+
+[57] In calculating the number of Jewish immigrants from
+Austria-Hungary the percentage the Jewish immigration was of the total
+immigration from Austria-Hungary from 1886 to 1910 and not, as in the
+case with the Jewish immigration from Russia, from 1886 to 1898, was
+used through an oversight as the basis for calculation. As the
+immigration of Jews from Austria-Hungary for 1885 at the port of New
+York alone constituted 14 per cent of the total immigration from
+Austria-Hungary, this figure was put down _in toto_, being a higher
+number than the one obtained by calculation. As the Jewish immigration
+from 1886 to 1910 constituted 9 per cent of the total immigration from
+Austria-Hungary and the immigration from 1886 to 1898 constituted 14
+per cent of the total immigration, the difference is not large.
+Following is the table indicating the difference for each year from
+1881 to 1884.
+
+ Year. Total Jewish immigration. Difference.
+ immigration. at 14 at 9
+ per cent per cent
+ 1881 27935 3882 2537 1345
+ 1882 29150 4051 2648 1403
+ 1883 27625 3840 2510 1330
+ 1884 36571 5083 3340 1743
+
+The increased numbers from the higher percentage involve no change in
+the relative position of Jewish immigration from the three principal
+countries of emigration, except in 1881, when the Jewish immigration
+from Austria-Hungary would have exceeded that from Russia.
+
+[58] _Jewish Encyclopedia_: "Migration," vol. viii, p. 584. _Ibid._,
+"Russia"--Emigration, vol. x, p. 547.
+
+[59] Ruppin uses these figures in _Die Sozialen Verhaeltnisse der Juden
+in Russland_, p. 11.
+
+Hersch, (_Le juif errant d'aujourd'hui_), subjects the figures given
+in the _Jewish Encyclopedia_ to a thorough analysis and shows their
+absurdity. Unaware, however, of the nature of the error committed by
+the writer and of the existence of authoritative sources for the
+figures of Jewish immigration, he drew the conclusion that it is
+impossible to obtain any really accurate figures of Jewish immigration
+before 1899. This leads him into serious errors owing to the fact that
+he discusses the movement of Jewish immigration from the basis of the
+twelve years from 1899 to 1910, representing the height of the
+movement, instead of for the entire period of thirty years. This
+vitiates his principal conclusions regarding the character of the
+Jewish movement to this country. Particularly noticeable is his
+neglect of the phenomena presented by the Russian and Roumanian
+movements and his elevation of the movement from Austria-Hungary as
+the type of Jewish immigration to this country.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER II
+
+IMMIGRATION OF JEWS FROM EASTERN EUROPE
+
+
+In the thirty years between 1881 and 1910, 1,562,800 Jews entered the
+United States. An examination of Tables VI and VII reveals the fact
+that the great majority of the immigrants came from Russia,
+Austria-Hungary and Roumania. Of the total number, Russia contributed
+1,119,059 immigrants, or 71.6 percent; Austria-Hungary 281,150
+immigrants, or 17.9 per cent, and Roumania 67,057 immigrants, or 4.3
+per cent. Together these three countries contributed 93.8 per cent of
+the total for the thirty years. The great majority of the Jewish
+immigrants from the United Kingdom and British North America are not
+English or Canadian Jews but transmigrants or transient East-European
+Jews, to whom England and Canada were a halfway house from the
+countries of Eastern Europe to the United States.[60] If we included
+these immigrants, the Jewish immigration from these three countries of
+Eastern Europe would be considerably above 95 per cent. The Jewish
+immigration of the last third of a century is thus practically wholly
+from Eastern Europe.
+
+Summarizing the results for the three decades,[61] we find that the
+Jewish immigrants from Russia maintained a fairly constant proportion
+to the total Jewish immigration, contributing 135,003, in the decade
+between 1881 and 1890 or 69.9 per cent of the total for the decade,
+279,811 or 71.1 per cent in the decade between 1891 and 1900, and
+704,245, or 72.1 per cent, in the decade between 1901 and 1910.
+
+Roumanian Jewish immigration was relatively smaller in the earlier
+decades, numbering 6,967 in the first, 12,789 in the second decade,
+comprising 3.2 per cent and 3.6 per cent, respectively, of the total,
+and in the last decade, numbering 47,301 and constituting 4.8 per cent
+of the total immigration of the decade.
+
+The Jewish immigration from Austria-Hungary bore a proportion to the
+total higher in the first two decades, contributing 44,619 immigrants
+in the first decade and 83,720 immigrants in the second decade, or
+23.1 per cent and 21.3 per cent, respectively, of the total, and
+152,810 immigrants, or 15.7 per cent, in the last decade.
+
+The Jewish immigrants from the United Kingdom and British North
+America, which, in the first two decades constituting less than one
+per cent of the total of each decade, were included in the rubric "all
+others", rose in the last decade to 42,589, constituting 4.4 per cent,
+and to 9,701, constituting one per cent, of the total of this decade.
+
+An examination of the yearly contributions made by the Jews of the
+principal countries[62] shows that the immigrants from Russia formed
+the majority of the immigrants for each year of the entire period, and
+as a rule, did not deviate far from the general proportion established
+for the thirty years. The greatest increases occurred during the years
+of maximum Jewish immigration, in 1882, 1891, 1892 and 1906, when the
+Russian Jewish immigrants constituted four-fifths or more of the total
+for the year.
+
+The immigrants from Roumania showed higher percentages than their
+average in 1887 and in 1888, and a remarkable increase of their
+contribution from 1900 to 1903, in which years they constituted more
+than a tenth of the total number of immigrants.
+
+The immigrants from Austria-Hungary formed, on the average, less than
+one-fifth of the total, but varied considerably in their proportions.
+In general, they maintained a rate higher than their average during
+the earlier years of their movement. In the later years they showed a
+relative decline, especially during the last decade, owing to the
+greater relative increase of the Jewish immigration from Russia and
+Roumania, though their absolute numbers increased greatly during this
+period. Their highest ratios of contribution were made from 1883 to
+1886 and from 1896 to 1900, the latter period marking their maximum
+relative contributions.
+
+The influence of the Russian Jewish immigration is thus paramount. It
+dominates and controls the entire movement, owing to its great
+preponderance of numbers. To a closer consideration of its movement we
+shall now turn.
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+[60] Landa, _The Alien Problem and its Remedy_, pp. 54-57.
+
+[61] _Cf._ table VIII, p. 162.
+
+[62] _Cf._ tables VI and VII, pp. 93-94.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER III
+
+IMMIGRATION OF JEWS FROM RUSSIA
+
+
+The mass-movement of the Russian Jews to the United States began in
+the first year of Alexander III's reign. Though in this year the
+number of Russian Jews entering this country amounted to a little over
+three thousand, the immigration grew so rapidly and in such
+proportions that at the end of thirty years, more than a million
+Russian Jews had been admitted to the United States.
+
+An examination of the figures of the Russian Jewish immigration for
+the thirty years[63] reveals that it is a movement of steady growth.
+The Russian Jewish immigration falls practically into two periods; the
+first culminating in 1892, the second culminating in 1906. Considering
+it by decades,[64] we find that the movement is one of geometrical
+progression. In the first decade, from 1881 to 1890, 135,003 Russian
+Jews entered the country, 12.1 per cent of the total Russian Jewish
+immigrants. Between 1891 and 1900, 279,811 Russian Jews entered,
+constituting 25.0 per cent of the total. In the last decade, from 1901
+to 1910, there entered 704,245 Russian Jews, or 62.9 per cent of the
+total.
+
+The annual variations are, nevertheless, considerable and largely
+explainable by the special conditions in Russia that have influenced
+the lives of the Jews throughout this period. At the beginning of this
+period, in 1881, the immigration of Russian Jews was small. The
+_pogroms_ of 1881-2 were reflected in the sudden rise in 1882 to
+10,489 immigrants, more than three times the number of the preceding
+year. The immigration of this year was rather a flight than a normal
+movement. The great majority of the immigrants were refugees, fleeing
+from massacre and pillage.[65]
+
+In this year Russian Jewish immigration began its upward course.
+Another high point was reached in 1887 with 23,103 immigrants, when
+the educational restrictions and the expulsions that followed a strict
+application of the May Laws indicated a renewal of the policy of the
+Russian government.
+
+The rumors of new restrictions that marked the beginning of the
+nineties, and the opening of the second decade of Alexander III's
+reign, were followed by the wholesale expulsions from Moscow. The
+immigration in 1891 of 43,457 and in 1892 of 64,253 Russian Jews--the
+latter the highest number reached in two decades--reflects this
+situation. Nearly a tenth of the total immigration entered in these
+two years.
+
+The direct effect of the administrative activity of this year and
+especially of the Moscow expulsions upon the Russian Jewish
+immigration is seen in the number of Russian Jews who entered New York
+during the months closely following these expulsions.[66] For the
+first five months of 1891, the immigration averaged approximately
+2,300, evidently a normal figure for this decade. It reached its
+lowest in May, when 1,225 Jews entered the country. In June, two
+months after the order of expulsion, the number of immigrants jumped
+to 8,667--a six-fold increase--which up to this year was the largest
+number of Russian Jews entering this country in one month. This
+figure was surpassed in the immigration of August and September. Out
+of a total of 60,261 Russian Jews who entered in 1891, 11,449 came the
+first five months from January to May, and 40,706, or more than three
+times the previous immigration, came the next five months from June to
+October. The following five months there came only 16,832, less than
+half the number of immigrants of the months of June to October. And,
+finally, taking the year as a whole, there came over 60,261 Russian
+Jews in 1891, the year of the Moscow expulsions, as compared with the
+28,834 Russian Jews who entered in 1892, when no exceptional
+circumstances occurred to affect their immigration tendency.
+
+The six years from 1893 to 1898 were relatively mild years for the
+Russian Jews. The change of rulers in Russia and the comparatively
+lenient attitude shown by Nicholas II toward the Jews in the beginning
+of his reign resulted in a less stringent administration of the
+special Jewish laws. The financial depression in the United States
+which began in 1893 and embraced this period, was an additional
+influence in diminishing the flow of Russian Jewish immigrants. The
+fall, however, was not as large as the existence of unfavorable
+economic conditions in this country might lead one to expect. For in
+spite of it, Russian Jewish immigration resumed the rate it maintained
+in the years before 1891. From 1893 to 1898 there entered this country
+110,815 Russian Jews as against the 107,378 Russian Jews who entered
+in the six years from 1885 to 1890.
+
+Another rise began in 1899. Economic depression, revolutionary
+terrorism and anti-Jewish propaganda paved the way for a great
+inpouring of Russian Jews to the United States. The Kishineff massacre
+of 1903 sent thousands of Jews in veritable flight to the United
+States, a fact which is reflected in an immigration of 77,544 Russian
+Jews in 1904, the greatest number up to this year. With the beginning
+of the Russo-Japanese war, the outbreak of the revolution and, above
+all, of the Jewish massacres the immigration rose in 1905 to 92,388.
+In 1906, a year of _pogroms_, it reached the number of 125,234, the
+highest in the entire period--and in 1907, 114,932, the second largest
+immigration. The diminution in the numbers in 1908 reflects largely
+the relative change for the better that took place in the situation in
+Russia, with the beginning of parliamentary government, as well as the
+panic conditions in the United States of the preceding year. How great
+still was the impulse to leave is shown by the fact that in spite of
+the panic of 1907, the number of immigrants for 1908 was 71,978. The
+great rise of the immigration from the United Kingdom during these
+years was also due to the number of Russian Jews that came to the
+United States by way of England. In all, during these five years which
+form an epoch in contemporary Russian Jewish history, there streamed
+into the United States half a million Russian Jews, constituting more
+than two-fifths of the total immigration for the entire thirty years.
+
+Of special significance is the part the Jewish immigrants play in the
+total Russian immigration to the United States.[67] By far the largest
+group of immigrants coming from Russia are Jews. For the entire thirty
+years they constituted 48.3 per cent of the total Russian immigration.
+
+As a general rule, the proportion of the Jewish in the total Russian
+immigration rises during the critical periods of these thirty years.
+Thus in 1891, the year of the Moscow expulsions, the Jewish immigrants
+constituted 91.6 per cent of the total immigration from Russia, and in
+the following year, under the same influences, 78.8 per cent. The
+years 1886 and 1887 are also signalized by the great proportion of the
+Jewish immigrants, who formed 79.2 per cent and 75.1 per cent,
+respectively, of the total Russian immigration for these years. In the
+last decade, when the Jewish participation in the total immigration
+had become relatively lessened, the three years which represented the
+climax of the movement, 1904, 1905 and 1906, show a higher relative
+proportion, 53.4 per cent, 50 per cent and 58.1 per cent,
+respectively, than the average for the decade or for the entire
+period.
+
+Considering the proportions by decades,[68] we find that of the total
+of 213,282 Russian immigrants entering in the decade from 1881 to
+1890, the Jewish immigrants contributed 135,003, or 63.3 per cent. Of
+a total of 505,280 Russian immigrants in the decade from 1891 to 1900,
+the Jewish immigrants numbered 279,811, or 55.4 per cent. In the last
+decade, from 1901 to 1910, of a total of 1,597,306 Russian immigrants,
+the Jewish immigrants were 704,245, or 44.1 per cent. The diminishing
+importance of the Jewish in the total Russian immigration, in spite of
+the fact that the former shows so great an increase, is due to the
+rapid growth of the immigration tendency among the other races in
+Russia, especially in the last decade.
+
+Nevertheless, a closer examination of the relative participation by
+the various peoples of Russia in the immigration from that country
+from 1899 to 1910[69] shows that the Jews maintain their position of
+predominance, contributing a larger proportion to the total Russian
+immigration than any other people throughout this period, except in
+1910, when the Poles contributed a slightly higher proportion to the
+immigration of that year. The Polish contribution is next to that of
+the Jews, attaining its maximum at a point where the Jewish
+immigration is at its lowest, relatively, in the twelve years.
+
+The preceding sufficiently indicates the abnormal extent of the
+Russian Jewish immigration but its intensity may be judged further
+from the fact that though the Jews in Russia were less than
+one-twentieth of the total Russian population, they formed nearly half
+of the Russian immigrants to the United States. In other words, they
+were represented in the Russian immigration by more than eleven times
+their proportion in the Russian population. As, however, the
+emigration movement of the Russians proper is directed chiefly to
+Siberia, we may limit the comparison to the Pale, where the Jews are
+overwhelmingly concentrated, and where they constitute more than a
+tenth of the total population. Even with this limitation they were
+represented in the immigration to the United States by more than four
+times their proportion of the population.
+
+Another method of judging the degree of intensity of the Russian
+Jewish movement is to compare the proportion the number of Jewish
+immigrants for a period bears to the total Jewish population in
+Russia--their rate of immigration--with that of the other Russian
+peoples represented in the immigration to the United States. The rate
+of immigration of the Jews is by far the highest among the peoples of
+Russia. From 1899 to 1910 the Jewish immigrants to the United States
+constituted on the average one out of every 79 of the Jewish
+population in Russia.[70] The Finnish immigrants constituted one out
+of every 191 Finns, the Polish immigrants one out of every 200 Poles,
+and the Russian immigrants proper one out of every 11,552 of the
+Russian population. The relative position of the Jews is thus
+strikingly indicated. The rate of immigration truly becomes an index
+of the economic and social pressure to which the Jews have been
+subjected for a third of a century. This rate of immigration for the
+Jews, moreover, shows large fluctuations in the twelve years from 1899
+to 1910.[71] Of every 10,000 Jews in Russia there came to this country
+on the average for the twelve years from 1899 to 1910, 125 Jews. From
+1899 to 1903 the annual rate of immigration was much lower than the
+average. In 1904, with the beginning of the critical years, the annual
+rate rose to 152, and in 1905, to 181. It reached its climax in 1906,
+with 246, almost twice as large as the average for the entire period.
+It fell slightly below this in 1907 with 226. In 1908, there was a
+great fall to 141, though the rate was still above the average for the
+period.
+
+The movement of the Russian Jews to this country in the last thirty
+years is seen to be steadily rising and to reach enormous dimensions
+in the last decade. The Jews are more largely represented in the
+movement from Russia than any other people, and predominate
+practically for the entire thirty years. The rate of immigration is
+abnormally high, as compared with that of any other of the immigrant
+races from Russia. For the most part the Russian Jewish immigration
+reflects the unusual situation confronting the Jews in Russia.
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+[63] _Cf._ table IX, p. 162.
+
+[64] _Cf._ table X, p. 163.
+
+[65] Sulzberger, _The Beginnings of Russo-Jewish Immigration to
+Philadelphia_ (Philadelphia, 1910), pp. 125-150.
+
+[66] _Cf._ table XI, p. 163.
+
+[67] _Cf._ table XII, p. 164.
+
+[68] _Cf._ table XIII, p. 164.
+
+[69] _Cf._ table XIV, p. 165.
+
+[70] _Cf._ table XV, p. 165.
+
+[71] _Cf._ table XVI, p. 166.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER IV
+
+IMMIGRATION OF JEWS FROM ROUMANIA
+
+
+The immigration of Roumanian Jews to the United States began as a
+small stream at the end of the sixties, and assumed significant
+dimensions in the eighties. Two important periods of rising
+immigration are clearly distinguishable. The first period attains its
+maximum between 1885 and 1889. The second attains its maximum and that
+of the entire movement between 1900 and 1904.
+
+In the thirty years between 1881 and 1910, 67,057 immigrants entered
+the United States.[72] In the first decade, 6,967 immigrants, or 10.4
+per cent of the total, arrived. In the second decade, 12,789
+immigrants arrived, or 19.1 per cent of the total. The great majority,
+47,301 immigrants, or 70.5 per cent of the total, arrived in the last
+decade, more than twice as many as had arrived in the two preceding
+decades. The Roumanian Jews thus began to take a significant part in
+the Jewish movement only within the last decade.
+
+The annual variations are closely connected with the conditions in
+Roumania which have been previously discussed.[73] The rise in 1885 to
+803 immigrants, the first number of any consequence, reflects the
+measures taken in Roumania to restrict the economic activity of the
+Jews, chiefly through the hawkers' law of 1884. The continuation of
+the administrative activities against the Jews, the expulsion of many
+from the villages, and particularly the beginning in earnest of the
+attempt to drive them from industry and commerce, by the law of 1887,
+are responsible for the wholesale exodus in that and the following two
+years. In these three years more than 7 per cent of the total
+Roumanian Jewish immigration entered the country.
+
+After 1889 and for nearly a decade the immigration of Jews from
+Roumania subsided, resuming the proportions established before 1887.
+
+Another rise began in 1899. In 1900, the Roumanian Jewish immigration
+reached the relatively great number of 6,183, around which point it
+stood for the next two years. In 1903, it reached its maximum with an
+immigration of 8,562 Jews, one-eighth of the entire Roumanian Jewish
+immigration for the thirty years. In the following year the
+immigration still held to the high numbers reached before 1903. The
+years following 1904 show a fall to less than 4,000, which was
+interrupted in 1908, when the immigration rose to 4,455. In 1909, a
+sharp fall ensued to 1,390, and in 1910 to 1,701.
+
+The great rise from 1900 to 1904, during which period there came more
+than half of the total number of Jewish immigrants from Roumania, was
+largely due to the resumption of the government program against the
+Jews. The chief form of restriction was the passing of the Artisans'
+Law in 1902, preceded by some years of agitation and administrative
+activity directed against the Jews, which aimed to make it impossible
+for the Jewish artisans to secure work. The feeling that the Jews had
+nothing to hope from the government, as much as the actual distress
+occasioned, was largely responsible for the unprecedented
+immigration.[74]
+
+The Jewish forms so large a part of the Roumanian immigration as to be
+practically synonymous with it. As we have before noted, the figures
+obtained from the Jewish sources indicate a larger immigration from
+1886 to 1898 on the part of the Jews alone than the official figures
+give for the entire immigration from Roumania for this period.
+Confining our attention to the figures of immigration from 1899 to
+1910,[75] we find that, from 1899 to 1910, of the 61,073 immigrants
+from Roumania who entered the United States, 54,827, or 89.8 per cent,
+were Jews. Thus practically nine-tenths of the immigrants from
+Roumania are Jews. In the five years in which the Jewish movement was
+at its height, the Jews constituted from 91 per cent to 95.7 per cent
+of the Roumanian immigration. The immigration of other peoples from
+Roumania is insignificant. The highest number entering in any of the
+twelve years amounted to less than 800.
+
+Still more significant is the intensity of immigration of the
+Roumanian Jews, especially in view of the negligible number of
+immigrants from Roumania other than Jews. The rate of immigration of
+the Roumanian Jews is far higher than that even of their Russian
+brethren.[76] The average annual immigration of Roumanian Jews, for
+the twelve years, from 1899 to 1910, amounted to 4,569, which
+represented an average rate of immigration for the Roumanian Jews of
+175 per 10,000 of the Jewish population in Roumania. In the five years
+of maximum immigration, from 1900 to 1904, the rate was considerably
+higher, reaching in 1903 the enormous proportion of 329 immigrants to
+every 10,000 Jews in Roumania. The lowest rate during this period,
+that of 1900, was only slightly smaller than the maximum rate
+approached by the Jewish immigrants from Russia. However, in the three
+years which represented the highest point of the rate of immigration
+of the Jews from Russia, from 1905 to 1907, the rate of immigration
+for the corresponding years in Roumania was considerably smaller.
+
+The Jewish immigration from Roumania is thus a product chiefly of the
+last decade. The rise in the first decade and the relatively
+tremendous rise in the last decade are a result largely of the
+activities of the Roumanian government. The vast majority of the
+immigrants from Roumania are Jews, whose rate of immigration is
+unprecedented.
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+[72] _Cf._ table XVII, p. 166.
+
+[73] _Cf._ table XVIII, p. 167.
+
+[74] In the _Century_ of Nov., 1913, Professor Ross, writing on "The
+Old World in the New," remarks (p. 28) that "the emigration of 50,000
+Roumanian Jews between January and August, 1900, was brought about by
+steamship agents who created great excitement in Roumania by
+distributing glowing circulars about America."
+
+It is remarkable that with so large an emigration of Roumanian Jews
+during these eight months, ostensibly directed to America, only 6183
+Roumanian Jews were recorded as arriving in the United States in 1900,
+and only 6,827 in 1901. In the twelve years from 1899 to 1910,
+Professor Ross's figure is approached; for the entire period 54,827
+Roumanian Jews are officially recorded as entering the United States.
+
+Even of the relatively large immigration of Jews from Roumania in
+1900, the cause clearly was not the activity of steamship agents.
+Compare the report of the president of the United Hebrew Charities,
+keenly alive to the problems presented to the American Jews by the
+Jewish immigration:
+
+"The last few months have been noteworthy in the history of the Jewish
+race for an outbreak of Anti-Semitism in a far-away country, the
+far-reaching effects of which have been keenly felt in this city. I
+refer of course, to the persecutions of the Jews in Roumania. A small
+group of Jewish philanthropists of this city (under the direction of
+the IOOB) has taken up the task of providing for the newcomers." Such
+a response is not usually given to immigrants lured to this country by
+promises of gain.
+
+_United Hebrew Charities of New York City_, Oct., 1900, p. 19.
+
+[75] _Cf._ table XIX, p. 168.
+
+[76] _Cf._ table XX, p. 168.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER V
+
+IMMIGRATION OF JEWS FROM AUSTRIA-HUNGARY
+
+
+The immigration of Jews from Austria-Hungary began before the eighties
+of the last century, becoming at the beginning of the nineties a
+relatively strong and steady current. Until recently, this immigration
+was almost exclusively from Galicia.[77]
+
+Summarizing the movement by decades,[78] we find that 44,619 Jews, or
+15.9 per cent of the total, came during the decade from 1881 to 1890;
+83,720 immigrants, or 29.8 per cent of the total, came during the
+decade from 1891 to 1900. In the last decade, from 1901 to 1910, there
+entered 152,811 immigrants, or 54.3 per cent of the total. Thus there
+is a nearly steady rise of the movement, though it is not as great as
+that found in the Jewish immigration from Russia.
+
+The annual variations are also not as large as are found in the
+Russian Jewish movement.[79] The greatest number that came in any year
+in the first decade was in 1887, when 6,898 immigrants arrived,
+contributing 2.4 per cent of the total for the year. The highest
+number that came in the second decade was in 1899, when 11,071
+immigrants arrived, contributing 3.9 per cent of the total. From this
+year there began a great rise which reached its maximum in 1904 with
+an immigration of 20,211 Jews, constituting 7.2 per cent of the
+total--the highest point attained in the entire movement.
+
+A comparison of the fluctuations of the Jewish with those of the total
+Austro-Hungarian immigration shows that the former follows the general
+movement quite closely, though there are minor differences and the
+maximum periods of both movements do not coincide.[80]
+
+An examination of the part the Jewish played in the general
+immigration from Austria-Hungary shows that during the entire period
+of thirty years there entered into the United States from
+Austria-Hungary 3,091,692 immigrants, to which the Jews contributed
+281,150 immigrants, or 9.1 per cent.[81] That the Jewish movement was
+relatively stronger in the earlier period than the general movement
+from Austria-Hungary is indicated by the fact that the Jews
+participate to a much larger extent in the movement of the first
+decades than in that of the last. In the first decade, from 1881 to
+1890, of the 353,719 immigrants from Austria-Hungary, the Jews were
+44,619, or 12.6 per cent of the total for the decade. In the decade
+from 1891 to 1900, of the 592,707 immigrants they were 83,720, or 14.1
+per cent of the total. In the last decade, of 2,145,266 immigrants,
+they were 158,811, or 7.4 per cent of the entire movement. The Jewish
+movement is thus seen to be relatively the strongest in the second
+decade. Its fall in the last decade to almost half the proportion of
+the preceding decade was due to the tremendous growth in the
+immigration of the other races from Austria-Hungary. Whereas the
+general movement nearly quadrupled its numbers in the last decade, the
+Jewish movement did not quite double its numbers.
+
+The largest part in the movement from Austria-Hungary was taken by
+the Jews during the earlier years.[82] The highest point was reached
+in 1886, when the Jews constituted 18.6 per cent of the total
+movement. In the following year the Jewish immigrants constituted 17.1
+per cent. Other years in which the Jews participated strongly were
+1895, and from 1897 to 1899. In 1898 the second highest point was
+reached, the Jews constituting 18.5 per cent of the movement. From
+1904 a great fall ensued. The lowest point was reached in 1909, when
+the Jews constituted only 5 per cent of the total movement.
+
+A clearer idea of the situation would be obtained if the figures for
+the years and decades could be ascertained for Austria and Hungary
+separately, as the Jews in each of the divisions of the Dual Monarchy
+differ considerably in their immigration tendency. Austria and Hungary
+are distinguished in the immigration statistics only since 1910.
+Nevertheless, the three years from 1910 to 1912 serve to show that the
+Jews from Austria immigrate to the United States in much larger
+numbers than their brethren in Hungary. From 1910 to 1912, out of a
+total of 36,684 Jewish immigrants from Austria-Hungary, 29,340, or
+fully four-fifths, came from Austria. The participation of the
+Austrian Jews in the general movement is also correspondingly larger.
+From 1910 to 1912, the Jewish immigrants from Austria numbered 29,340
+out of a total of 303,776, constituting 9.7 per cent of the total
+Austrian immigration. For the same period the Jewish immigrants from
+Hungary numbered only 7,344 out of a total of 292,900, constituting
+2.5 per cent of the total. Thus the Jews participate in the movement
+from Austria practically four times as much as in the movement from
+Hungary.
+
+The relative position of the Jews among the peoples immigrating from
+Austria is of interest in this connection. The peoples with which
+comparison must be maintained are those concentrated in Galicia, the
+chief source of the Jewish, Polish and Ruthenian immigration.[83] For
+the seven years between 1899 and 1905, the Jewish immigrants
+constituted the second largest group. From 1906, they fell into the
+third position (excepting in 1908), owing to the rapid increase of
+immigration among the Ruthenians.
+
+The average rate of immigration of the Jews of Austria-Hungary for the
+twelve-year period from 1899 to 1910, is 74 for every 10,000 Jews in
+the Empire.[84] The maximum rate was 97, which was reached in the
+immigration of 1904. In comparison with the Russian and Roumanian
+Jewish immigrants, those from Austria-Hungary have a far lower rate of
+immigration. This is true for the average as well as for the single
+years. However, in the first two years, 1899 and 1900, the rate of
+immigration was higher among the Jewish immigrants from
+Austria-Hungary. In comparison with the rate of immigration of the
+Poles and the Ruthenians, the Jews occupy an intermediate position,
+having a lower rate than the Poles and a higher rate than the
+Ruthenians.[85]
+
+The Jewish movement from Austria-Hungary thus shows a fairly steady
+rise, but neither in its yearly variations nor its rate of immigration
+does it give evidence of any exceptional characteristics.
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+[77] Buzek, "Das Auswanderungsproblem in Oesterreich," _Zeitschrift
+fuer Volkswirtschaft, Sozialpolitik und Verwaltung_, p. 458.
+
+[78] _Cf._ table XXI, p. 169.
+
+[79] _Cf._ table XXII, p. 169.
+
+[80] _Cf._ table XXIII, p. 170.
+
+[81] _Cf._ table XXIV, p. 170.
+
+[82] _Cf._ table XXIV, p. 170.
+
+[83] _Cf._ table XXV, p. 171.
+
+[84] _Cf._ table XXVI, p. 171.
+
+[85] _Cf._ Hersch, _op. cit._, p. 43. This comparison gives a lower
+rate of immigration to the Jews than they really possess, owing to the
+fact that it is based upon the total Jewish population of
+Austria-Hungary, and not upon that of Galicia, from which province the
+great majority of the Jewish immigrants come.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER VI
+
+TOTAL JEWISH IMMIGRATION
+
+
+The movement of the total Jewish immigration for the thirty years
+becomes clear in the light of the preceding pages. It is a rising
+movement, divided into two parts, the first culminating in 1892 and the
+second culminating in 1906. Like the Russian Jewish immigration which
+underlies it, the movement is one of geometrical progression.[86] From
+1881 to 1890, 193,021 Jewish immigrants entered this country, 12.3 per
+cent of the total Jewish immigration. From 1891 to 1900, 393,516 Jewish
+immigrants, or 25.2 per cent entered. In the last decade there entered
+the enormous number of 976,263 Jewish immigrants, representing 62.5 per
+cent of the total Jewish immigration for the thirty years. This was
+more than twice as many as had entered the preceding decade, and more
+than five times the number of those who had entered the first decade.
+The Jewish immigration is in its largest part a product of the last
+decade.
+
+The rise has not, however, been uniformly steady, as a division of the
+entire period into five six-year periods shows.[87] In the period from
+1893 to 1898, there was a fall in the Jewish immigration. This period
+coincides with the years of depression in the United States following
+the panic of 1893. The fall was chiefly due to that in the Russian
+Jewish immigration. The Jewish immigration from Austria-Hungary on the
+contrary showed a relative rise. For this period, as well as for a
+few years before, the Roumanian Jewish immigration contributed smaller
+numbers than in the previous decade. As in the case of the Russian
+Jewish movement, if we compare the immigration of the six-year period
+from 1885 to 1890, with that from 1893 to 1898, omitting the years
+1891 and 1892 which are influenced in their great rise by the
+exceptional circumstances occurring within these two years, we find
+that the Jewish immigration was higher during the latter period of
+depression in the United States than during the earlier period, the
+total number of immigrants being 167,567 for the latter period, and
+153,951 for the former.
+
+In the period from 1899 to 1904 there was a great rise. A quarter of
+the entire immigration came in this period. The largest number of
+immigrants--more than two-fifths of the total of thirty years--came in
+the period from 1905 to 1910. If we included the immigration of 1904,
+which properly belongs to the later movement, we find that half of the
+entire Jewish immigration came within the seven years from 1904 to
+1910.
+
+The yearly variations of the total Jewish immigration correspond
+closely in the main to those of the Russian Jewish movement.[88] The
+influence of the other movements is, however, felt, at times quite
+strongly. Before 1885 the total Jewish immigration was quite small;
+less than 10,000 (except in 1882) or less than 1 per cent of the
+total, arrived each year. The rise of the immigration in 1882 to
+13,202 was wholly due to the increase in the number of Russian Jewish
+immigrants. The second half of this decade was marked by a rising tide
+in the Jewish immigration from all the countries of Eastern Europe,
+which reached a height in 1887, with an immigration of 33,044,
+constituting more than 2 per cent of the total number. This was but a
+prelude to the great rise at the opening of the second decade which in
+1892 reached the number of 76,373 Jewish immigrants, the highest
+number attained in the first two decades. The immigration for this
+year alone constituted nearly one-twentieth of the total Jewish
+immigration. The increase of these years is due solely to the increase
+in the Russian Jewish immigration. From this point a fall ensued,
+which lasted until 1899. The fall was strongest in the Russian and the
+Roumanian movements. The absolute numbers and the relative proportions
+in the Jewish movement from Austria-Hungary increased. The tremendous
+rise of the last decade began in 1899. In 1900 the number of Jewish
+arrivals rose to 60,764. This increase was general, though it reached
+unusual proportions in the immigration from Roumania.
+
+The fall in the next two years was due to a decrease in the number of
+immigrants from Austria-Hungary. That from Russia remained the same as
+in 1900, and the Roumanian Jewish immigration maintained the high
+level established in that year.
+
+The immigration of 1903 surpassed the great numbers attained in 1892.
+The rise of nearly 20,000 of this year was general, though relatively
+greatest in the Jewish immigrants from Austria-Hungary.
+
+The next three years marks the heights of the movement. In 1904, the
+30,000 immigrants which represented the increase from the preceding
+year were Russian Jews. This is equally true of the large increase of
+1905. In this year a fall took place both in the Austrian and
+Roumanian Jewish immigration. The Jewish immigration from the United
+Kingdom rose tremendously from 817 of the preceding year to
+14,299,[89] an increase which reflects the influences of the Russian
+Jewish movement for this year, and indicates that this movement from
+the United Kingdom must be considered as largely Russian Jewish.
+
+The year 1906 marked the high-water mark of Jewish immigration for
+thirty years. 153,748 immigrants, practically one-tenth of the total
+movement, came in this year. As in the preceding year, the increase in
+the immigration from Russia (including the numbers from the United
+Kingdom) was the basis of the increase in the total.
+
+From this point on we have a decline. The decline in 1907 to 149,182
+immigrants reflected the decline in the numbers of the Russian Jewish
+immigrants, those from Austria-Hungary increasing. In this year the
+number of immigrants from British North America became conspicuous. In
+1908 the immigration fell to 103,387, reflecting almost wholly the
+fall in the numbers of the Russian Jewish immigrants. The year 1909
+marked a tremendous decline of the Jewish immigration to 57,551
+immigrants. This decline was general, though relatively the greatest
+in the Austro-Hungarian and the Roumanian immigration.
+
+A speedy recovery in numbers was shown in 1910 when the immigration
+rose to 84,260, recurring to the numbers at the beginning of the
+recent great rise, and higher than the immigration of any year before
+1904. The rise was felt equally in the Russian and Austro-Hungarian
+immigration, relatively little in the Roumanian.
+
+Thus by far the chief influence in the movement of the Jewish
+immigration for these thirty years has been the Russian Jewish
+immigration. In its growth of numbers, and in its rise and fall, the
+total Jewish immigration of the last thirty years is a reflection of
+the movement of the Russian Jews to this country.
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+[86] _Cf._ table XXVII, p. 172.
+
+[87] _Cf._ table XXVIII, p. 172.
+
+[88] _Cf._ table XXIX, p. 173.
+
+[89] _Cf._ table VI, p. 93.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER VII
+
+PARTICIPATION OF JEWS IN TOTAL IMMIGRATION
+
+
+We turn now to a consideration of the part played by the Jewish
+immigration in the total immigration to this country for these thirty
+years.[90] A general rise is revealed in the proportions the Jewish
+bore to the total immigration. In the decade between 1881 and 1890, of
+the 5,246,613 immigrants, the Jewish immigrants were 193,021, or 3.7
+per cent of the total. In the decade between 1891 and 1900, of the
+3,687,564 immigrants, the Jewish immigrants numbered 393,516. The
+Jewish proportion of the total rose to 10.7 per cent. This really
+tremendous rise was due to the fact that while the total number of
+immigrants fell off one-third in this decade, the Jewish immigrants
+doubled their numbers. It is from this decade that the Jewish
+immigrants become conspicuous in the immigration to the United States.
+In the decade between 1901 and 1910, of the 8,795,386 immigrants, the
+Jewish immigrants numbered 976,263. The proportion of the Jewish
+immigrants to the total rose to 11.1 per cent. Even in this decade of
+tremendous increase in the general immigration, the Jewish immigration
+rose at a still greater rate.
+
+For the entire period the Jewish immigration was 8.8 per cent of the
+total immigration.[91] This proportion was not reached before 1891.
+The maximum in the first decade was in 1887, when the Jewish
+immigration constituted 6.7 per cent of the total for the year. In
+1891, this proportion rose to 9.2 per cent. It reached its highest
+point during nineteen years, in 1892, when the Jewish immigrants
+constituted 13.2 per cent of the total for the year. Throughout the
+period of depression, from 1893 to 1898, the contribution of the
+Jewish to the total immigration was, with two exceptions, above its
+average for the thirty years. In 1893, when the number of Jewish
+immigrants fell to half of that of the preceding year, its
+contribution to the total was 8 per cent. In 1897, a year of lowest
+Jewish as well as general immigration, its proportion was the same as
+the average. In the following years the contribution of the Jewish
+immigration rose proportionately, and in 1900 it reached the maximum
+for thirty years, constituting 13.5 per cent of the total for the
+year. The next highest proportion was reached in the year of maximum
+Jewish immigration, 1906, when the Jewish immigrants represented 13.4
+per cent of the total for the year. Throughout the years from 1904 to
+1908, the Jewish immigrants contributed above their average for the
+period. In 1908, when the numbers both of the Jewish and the total
+immigration had been greatly reduced, the Jewish immigrants
+contributed 13.2 per cent of the total, one of the highest proportions
+in the entire period, a fact which indicates that the Jewish immigrant
+tide recedes more slowly than that of the total immigration. In 1909,
+the year in which the effect of the panic of 1907 was registered in
+the Jewish immigration, the proportion of the Jewish immigrants to the
+total fell to 7.7 per cent. A slight relative rise took place in 1910
+to 8.1 per cent.
+
+A comparison of the annual fluctuations of the Jewish and the total
+immigration enables us to distinguish some points of difference.[92]
+Though, on the whole, the Jewish corresponds with the total
+immigration in its rise and fall, there are significant differences.
+Thus, 1882 represents a year of high immigration in each, but the rise
+is in the case of the total immigration one of 17.9 per cent over that
+of the preceding year, but in the case of the Jewish, it represents a
+rise of 131.9 per cent over that of the preceding year,
+proportionately more than seven times as great. Another period of
+rising movement is in 1891 and 1892. Where, however, in 1891 the total
+immigration rose 20.9 per cent, the Jewish rose 79.5 per cent. In
+1892, the total rose 3.4 per cent, the Jewish rose 48.6 per cent. In
+all these cases the difference is so great as to indicate the working
+of special influences in the Jewish movement.
+
+The existence of these special influences is again evident in the last
+decade. In 1904, the total immigration fell off 5.2 per cent, but the
+Jewish immigration rose 39.4 per cent. In 1906, in spite of the great
+total immigration of that year, and its increase of 7.2 per cent over
+the preceding year, the increase of the Jewish was 18.2 per cent--more
+than double that of the total. Again, the maximum periods of the two
+movements do not coincide. The total immigration reached its highest
+point for the thirty years in 1907. The maximum of the Jewish movement
+was in 1906.
+
+The panic of 1907 also appears to have influenced the Jewish
+immigration more slowly than the total. The greatest fall in the
+latter took place in 1908, immediately after the panic. The greatest
+fall of the Jewish immigration took place in 1909. This is another
+indication of the slowness of the response of the Jewish immigration
+to business conditions in this country, as compared with the rapid
+response of the general body of immigrants.
+
+As the racial classification was introduced only in 1899, it is
+impossible to determine for the entire thirty years the exact place
+the Jews occupy in the movement of peoples from the Old World to the
+New. During the twelve years from 1899 to 1910, there entered the
+United States a total of 1,074,442 Jewish immigrants, an annual
+average of nearly ninety thousand. This was the second largest body of
+immigrants, constituting more than a tenth of the total immigration
+for this period. In this regard the Jews were surpassed only by the
+South Italians.[93]
+
+This is an immense volume of immigration, both relatively and
+absolutely, and indicates to what an extent the immigration tendency
+has seized the Jews. In this tendency, however, the Jews from the
+different countries of Europe differ very strongly. As practically
+only three countries of Eastern Europe--Russia, Roumania and
+Austria-Hungary--are represented in the recent Jewish immigration, a
+rate of immigration established for the Jews should be based upon the
+population of these countries rather than upon the total Jewish
+population in Europe. Thus established, the Jews have the highest rate
+of immigration of any immigrant peoples. In 1906, during the maximum
+period of Jewish immigration, the rate of immigration of the
+East-European Jews was twenty out of every thousand. In 1907, the rate
+of the Jewish immigration was nineteen out of every thousand. The Jews
+are approached in this respect only by the Slovaks, who, in 1907, had
+a rate of immigration of eighteen per thousand. In this respect, the
+Jewish immigration is seen to occupy an exceptional position in the
+recent movement of peoples from Europe to this country.
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+[90] _Cf._ table XXX, p. 174.
+
+[91] _Cf._ table XXXI, p. 174.
+
+[92] _Cf._ table XXXII, p. 175.
+
+[93] This average and the same relative position is maintained if we
+take the fifteen years from 1899 to 1913, in which period there
+entered 1,347,590 Jewish immigrants.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER VIII
+
+SUMMARY
+
+
+The preceding analysis of the movement of the Jewish immigration to
+the United States and that of its Russian, Roumanian and
+Austro-Hungarian tributaries, from 1881 to 1910, has revealed certain
+facts of importance.
+
+The progressive nature of the Jewish movement has been disclosed. The
+greatest numbers have come within the last decade. This is
+particularly true of the movement from Roumania, and to a less extent
+of the movement from Russia. On the other hand, a larger relative
+proportion of the Jews from Austria-Hungary came during the first two
+decades. Throughout, the Jews from Russia have predominated in the
+total movement, governing its course for practically the entire
+period.
+
+In the total movement from the three countries of Eastern Europe, the
+Jews have participated most strongly in the Roumanian immigration,
+constituting nine-tenths of this immigration. The Jews are nearly a
+half of the immigrants from Russia. Their participation in the
+immigration from Austria-Hungary is relatively much smaller, being
+less than a tenth of the total immigration. In the immigration of the
+two latter countries, the Jews show a lessening participation, due to
+the great growth of the immigration of the other peoples. In the
+movements from Russia and Roumania, the participation of the Jewish
+immigrants rises greatly in all periods significant in the situation
+of the Jews in these countries. The influence of the unusual
+conditions facing the Jews in Russia and Roumania and of the
+principal events in their history for these thirty years is reflected
+in the annual fluctuations of the Jewish immigration of each of these
+countries to the United States. The economic and social pressure
+exerted upon the Jews in Russia and Roumania is reflected in the
+degree emigration is utilized by them. The Jews from Russia have a
+much higher rate of immigration than any other people immigrating from
+Russia. The rate of immigration of the Jews from Roumania is the
+highest among the Jewish immigrants from Eastern Europe. In both
+annual fluctuations and rate of immigration the movement of the Jews
+from Austria-Hungary does not indicate the existence of special
+influences.
+
+The participation of the Jews in the total immigration to the United
+States is large and increasing in importance. For the last fifteen
+years they formed the second largest body of immigrants. Their fate of
+immigration is also higher than that of any other immigrant people. Of
+note, too, is the slow response of their immigration to unfavorable
+economic conditions in this country. When these facts are joined to
+those which have shown the striking relative participation of the Jews
+in the movements from Russia and Roumania, and the existence of
+special causes operating in these countries and indicating their
+influence in the yearly variations and in an extraordinary rate of
+immigration, it becomes clear that for the largest part of this period
+of thirty years Jewish immigration is controlled mainly by the
+conditions and events affecting the fate of the Jews in the countries
+of Eastern Europe.
+
+That the conditions in the United States exercise an influence,
+favorable or unfavorable, upon the immigration of Jews is undoubted.
+The influences, however, exerted by the conditions abroad are far
+stronger and steadier, and, on the whole, override the latter.
+
+The conclusion previously reached that the Jewish immigration is for
+the largest part the result of the expulsive and rejective forces of
+governmental persecution is thus strengthened by this examination into
+the situation as presented by the figures of the Jewish immigration to
+the United States. With it as a guiding principle, some of the main
+characteristics peculiar to the Jewish immigration are explained. To
+these we now turn.
+
+
+
+
+PART II
+
+JEWISH IMMIGRATION TO THE UNITED STATES
+
+B. ITS CHARACTERISTICS
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER I
+
+FAMILY MOVEMENT
+
+
+Vital aspects of an immigrant people are revealed in its sex and age
+distribution. Generally speaking, whether an immigration is composed
+of individuals or of families is shown in the relative proportion of
+males and females, and of adults and children, of which it is
+composed.
+
+That the Jewish movement is essentially a family movement is shown by
+the great proportion of females and children found in it.[94] From
+1899 to 1910, out of a total immigration of 1,074,442 Jews, 607,822,
+or 56.6 per cent were males, and 466,620, or 43.4 per cent, were
+females. These proportions have varied but slightly throughout the
+period. The greatest departures were in the years 1904 and 1905. The
+increase of the immigration of males in these years is explained by
+the unusual conditions existing in Russia at this time--economic
+unrest, revolution--which had the effect of sending over the men as an
+_avantgarde_ to prepare the way for their families. Young men fleeing
+to escape conscription also swelled the numbers. In 1906, however, the
+number of males decreased by 2,000, but that of females increased by
+more than 25,000. In this tremendous increase of females is registered
+the effect of the _pogroms_ of 1905-6, in which years the movement
+became a veritable flight.
+
+The general tendency has been towards an increase in the proportion of
+females. For the thirteen years preceding, from 1886 to 1898,[95] out
+of a total immigration at the port of New York of 251,623 Jewish
+adults, 147,053, or 58.4 per cent, were males, and 104,570, or 41.6
+per cent, were females. The proportion of males is here somewhat
+higher than that for the period from 1899 to 1910. The difference is,
+however, relatively small. The tendency, previously noted, towards the
+increase in the proportion of females is found here. The greater
+relative diminution of the males in the later years--in 1894 reaching
+the point where there were more females--is even striking.
+
+Turning to a consideration of the ages of the Jewish immigrants, we
+learn that, between 1899 and 1910, 267,656, or practically one-fourth
+of all the Jewish immigrants, were children under fourteen years.[96]
+The large part that is taken in the Jewish immigration by the children
+is apparent.
+
+Here, again, 1904 and 1905 represent periods of great increase in the
+immigration of those between fourteen and forty-four years. As was the
+case with the females, the proportion of children in the immigration
+is at its greatest in the year 1906, by far the largest part of the
+increase for this year being children, thus giving a significant
+indication of the extent and literalness of the flight from Russia in
+this year of _pogroms_.[97] In the thirteen years preceding, from 1886
+to 1898, of the 380,278 Jewish immigrants that entered the port of New
+York for this period, 128,655, or 33.8 per cent, were children under
+sixteen years of age.[98] A steady increase in the latter years is
+noted in the proportion of children, which harmonizes with a similar
+tendency noted of the females for the same period.
+
+That these facts reveal a family movement of considerable size, there
+is no question. They become truly significant when comparison is made
+with the proportions of the females and the children in the general
+immigration and with those of the peoples of which it is composed.
+
+A comparison of the proportion of males and females in the total and
+the Jewish immigration from 1899 to 1910 shows that for the entire
+period the percentage of females in the Jewish was much higher than in
+the total immigration, 43.4 per cent of the Jewish immigration being
+females as compared with 30.5 per cent of the total.[99] The
+percentage of females in the Jewish immigration was higher for every
+year from 1899 to 1910.
+
+While the percentage of males in the total immigration was above 70
+per cent in five years, the percentage of males in the Jewish
+immigration was less than 60 per cent in all but two years, 1904 and
+1905, when it rose to 61.2 per cent and 63.2 per cent. The latter,
+which represents the highest point in the percentage of males in the
+Jewish immigration, was smaller than the percentage of males in the
+total immigration for every year but 1899. In other words the maximum
+percentage of males in the Jewish and the minimum percentage in the
+total immigration practically coincide.
+
+In the period between 1899 and 1909 the proportion of children under
+fourteen years of age in the Jewish immigration was 24.8 per cent,
+while that in the total immigration was only 12.3 per cent.[100] The
+Jewish thus had proportionately twice as many children as the total
+immigration.
+
+The exceptional position of the Jews in regard to their family
+movement is most strikingly shown when the composition of the Jewish
+immigration by sex and age is compared with that of the other
+immigrant peoples.[101] In a comparison with immigrant races which
+contributed more than 100,000 to the total immigration from 1899 to
+1910, the Jews are seen to have a higher proportion of females than
+any other people except the Irish. The Irish present in this regard an
+anomaly, in that they have more females than males in their
+immigration. That it is not in the main a family movement is shown by
+reference to the proportion of children under fourteen in the Irish
+immigration, which is only 5 per cent, one of the lowest in the entire
+series. The anomaly is easily explained by the well-known fact that
+their females for the most part are single, who come to the United
+States to work as servants.[102]
+
+Only one other people, the Bohemian and Moravian, approached the
+Jewish in its high proportion of females. On the other hand, the one
+people with a larger immigration than the Jewish, the South Italian,
+presents a striking contrast to the Jewish immigration, in that its
+proportion of females was about half that of the Jews. Although its
+immigrants numbered twice as many as the Jewish, the females in the
+Italian movement were only 408,965, as compared with 466,620 females
+in the Jewish immigration.
+
+A comparison of the immigrant peoples with reference to their
+composition by age shows that the Jewish movement contains without any
+exception the largest proportion of children.[103] Out of a total of
+990,182 Jewish immigrants from 1899 to 1909, 245,787, or 24.8 per
+cent, were children under fourteen. In this regard, again, the
+Bohemian and Moravian approach the Jewish, though not as closely as
+in the proportion of females. The contrast with the South Italians
+obtains here as well. As the Jewish immigration, during the twelve
+years from 1899 to 1910, was the second highest in numbers,
+contributing more than a million to the total, the number of females
+and children found in its movement was higher than that of any other
+immigrant race, not only relatively but absolutely as well.
+
+Most striking, indeed, is the contrast in these respects between the
+Jewish immigrants and the other races coming from the countries of
+Eastern Europe, particularly the Slavic immigrant races with whom the
+Jews have been associated in the official statistics.[104] An
+examination of the proportion of females in the immigration of the
+eight races composing the Slavic group, shows that, with the exception
+of the Bohemians and Moravians (whose movement presents strong
+similarities to that of the Jews), the percentage of females was less
+than a third of the total immigration of each race, the highest being
+that of the Poles, which was 30.5 per cent. The contrast is even more
+striking in respect to children under fourteen. Here, again, excluding
+the Bohemians and Moravians, the highest percentage in the group was
+that of the Poles, 9.5 per cent. In this respect, therefore, the
+association of the Jewish immigrants with the other immigrants from
+Eastern Europe, under the rubric "Slavic races", is seen to be
+untenable.
+
+Strongest of all is the contrast between the Jewish immigration and
+that of the Roumanian people.[105] The Roumanian movement is seen to
+be composed practically wholly of individuals, only 9 per cent being
+females, while that of the people from Roumania (nine-tenths of whom
+are Jews[106]) is seen to have a proportion of females higher even
+than that in the total Jewish immigration. Even greater is the
+contrast with respect to age, only 2.2 per cent of the Roumanians
+being children under fourteen.
+
+The division of the peoples represented in the immigration to the
+United States into "old" and "new", the former consisting of the
+peoples from Northern and Western Europe, the latter of the peoples
+from Southern and Eastern Europe, is a convenient classification
+essentially of two periods of immigration coinciding largely with
+changes in the economic conditions in the United States.
+
+A comparison of the proportion of females and children in the "old"
+and the "new" immigration with that in the Jewish shows that the
+Jewish immigration has proportionately almost twice as many females as
+the "new" immigration (Jews excepted), and surpasses even the "old"
+immigration in this regard.[107] Of children under fourteen the Jewish
+movement has proportionately more than two and one-half times as many
+as the "new" immigration (Jews excepted), and nearly twice as many as
+the "old" immigration.
+
+This analysis shows conclusively that the Jewish immigration is
+essentially a family movement; that it is approached by no other
+immigrant people in this regard; that it not only cannot be classed
+with the "new" immigration, but shows a tendency towards family
+movement far stronger than that of the peoples composing the "old"
+immigration.
+
+The significance of this characteristic of the Jewish immigration is
+obvious. Their unequaled family movement gives one of the clearest
+indications that the Jewish immigrants are essentially composed of
+permanent settlers.
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+[94] _Cf._ table XXXIII, p. 176.
+
+[95] _Cf._ table XXXIV, p. 176.
+
+[96] _Cf._ table XXXV, p. 177.
+
+[97] _Cf._ Hersch, _op. cit._, p. 76.
+
+[98] _Cf._ table XXXVI, p. 177.
+
+[99] _Cf._ table XXXVII, p. 178.
+
+[100] _Cf. Abstract of Emigration Conditions in Europe_, p. 14. See
+Bibliography.
+
+[101] _Cf._ table XXXVIII, p. 179.
+
+[102] _Cf. Abstract of Emigration Conditions in Europe_, p. 15, for
+the high proportion of servants among the Irish immigrants.
+
+[103] _Cf._ table XXXIX, p. 180.
+
+[104] _Cf._ table XL, p. 181.
+
+[105] _Cf._ table XLI, p. 181. The Roumanian immigrants come
+principally from Austria-Hungary, and only slightly from Roumania.
+
+[106] _Cf. supra_, p. 131, note 2.
+
+[107] _Cf._ table XLII, p. 182.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER II
+
+PERMANENT SETTLEMENT
+
+
+Our studies of the sex and age distribution of the Jewish immigrants
+have shown a family movement unsurpassed in degree. This in itself is
+sufficient indication that the Jews are essentially permanent settlers
+in this country and not transients, "who have no intention of
+permanently changing their residence and whose only purpose in coming
+to America is temporarily to take advantage of greater wages paid for
+industrial labor in this country."[108]
+
+Equally convincing evidence is afforded by a survey of the facts
+regarding the outward movement of Jews from this country.[109] The
+figures of Jewish immigration are obtainable only from 1908, the law
+of 1907 having required all steamship companies to furnish information
+regarding their emigrant passengers.
+
+The relative stability of an immigration may be determined by
+contrasting the departure of the aliens composing the immigration with
+the arriving immigrants of this group for the same period. From 1908
+to 1912, 33,315 Jews left the United States--an average annual
+emigration of 6,660 Jews. This is a strikingly low number, especially
+when compared with the large Jewish immigration for the same period,
+which numbered 417,016, and averaged annually 83,400 Jewish
+immigrants. Thus, for every hundred Jews admitted, only eight Jews
+left the country. This average proportion was largely exceeded only in
+1909, not, however, because of any great increase in the absolute
+numbers of the Jewish emigrants, but because of the great fall in the
+number of Jewish immigrants of this year.
+
+The part that is taken by the Jewish emigrants in the total emigration
+is insignificant and is in striking contrast with the great part taken
+by the Jewish immigrants in the total immigration.[110] From 1908 to
+1912, the Jewish immigrants constituted 9.7 per cent of the total
+immigrants. In the same period, the Jewish emigrants constituted only
+2.3 per cent of the total emigrants. Moreover, while the proportion
+that the Jewish immigrants constituted of the total immigrants
+exhibited a considerable and significant variation, fluctuating from
+7.7 per cent to 13.2 per cent, the proportion the Jewish emigrants
+constituted of the total emigrants remained around 2 per cent and
+showed practically no variation. Relatively both to the number of
+Jewish immigrants and of total emigrants, therefore, the number of the
+Jewish emigrants is exceedingly small and practically negligible.
+
+How great the relative stability of the Jewish immigration is may be
+seen when its return movement is compared with that of the total
+immigration and of other peoples conspicuous in the immigration to the
+United States.[111] Whereas, from 1908 to 1910, for every hundred
+admitted in the total immigration, thirty-two departed--the outward
+movement thus approximating one-third of the inward--in the case of
+the Jewish immigration, only eight departed, an outward movement only
+one-quarter as large, relatively, as the total. This was the smallest
+outward movement, relatively to the inward, of any immigrant people,
+except the Irish, whose outward movement was 6 per cent of the inward.
+Relatively to the inward movement, the Jews had an outward movement
+one-seventh as large as the South Italians, almost one-fourth as large
+as the Poles, and less than one-half as large as the Germans.
+
+In the total immigration for these years, the Jews were the third
+largest group with 236,100 immigrants, which constituted 10.2 per cent
+of the total immigration. To the outward movement for this period,
+however, they contributed 18,543 Jews, which constituted only 2.5 per
+cent of the total number of emigrants, one of the smallest
+contributions. The Poles, who constituted 11.7 per cent of the
+immigration for the three years, contributed practically the same
+proportion, 11.4 per cent, to the outward movement. Even more striking
+is the contrast with the Italian movement. The Italians contributed
+19.8 per cent of the inward movement for the period and 35.7 per cent
+of the outward movement for the three years. Though their immigration
+for these three years was only twice as large as that of the Jews,
+their emigration was more than fourteen times that of the Jews. In
+other words, no people combined in an equal degree as the Jews so
+small a number of emigrants with so large a number of immigrants.
+
+It is interesting to determine what is the emigration tendency of the
+Jews coming from Russia, Roumania and Austria-Hungary. This may be
+gathered from the number of emigrants returned for each of these
+countries, from 1908 to 1912, as compared with the number
+admitted.[112] From 1908 to 1912, 294,813 Jews from Russia entered the
+United States and 20,546 Jews departed for Russia; 11,246 Jews from
+Roumania entered the United States and 546 Jews departed for Roumania;
+60,408 Jews from Austria-Hungary entered the United States, and 8,513
+Jews departed for Austria-Hungary. In other words, for every hundred
+Jews entering from Russia seven departed, for every hundred Jews
+entering from Roumania five Jews departed, for every hundred Jews
+entering from Austria-Hungary fourteen departed for their respective
+countries. The emigration tendency was thus smaller with the Roumanian
+and the Russian Jews than with the Austro-Hungarian Jews. This held
+true for each of the five years. Relatively twice as many Jews from
+Austria-Hungary as from Russia returned. The Roumanian Jews showed the
+smallest tendency to return.
+
+Of importance is the question of the relative stability of the Jewish
+movement from Russia and Austria-Hungary and that of their close
+neighbors in these countries, the Poles, who contributed almost as
+large a current of immigrants to the United States as the Jews, and
+who, since they constitute the most important Slavic group, may be
+taken as the type of the Slavic movement to this country.
+
+From 1908 to 1912, 265,964 Polish immigrants from Russia were admitted
+to the United States and 60,290 Poles departed for Russia, this
+constituting an average emigration of twenty-two per hundred
+admitted.[113] As, for every hundred Russian Jews admitted in this
+period, only seven departed, this constituted a relative emigration
+one-third as large as that of the Poles. For the same period, 214,931
+Poles were admitted from Austria-Hungary and 88,994 Poles left for
+that country, which constituted an average emigration of forty-one per
+hundred admitted. The average emigration of the Jews from
+Austria-Hungary was fourteen per hundred admitted or practically
+one-third as large as that of the Poles. Thus, the Jewish immigrants
+from Russia and Austria-Hungary present relatively three times as
+stable a movement as the Polish immigrants from these countries.
+
+The fact that the Jewish emigration from Galicia was a movement of
+families and was essentially a movement of permanent settlement in
+their new home was noted by Buzek as characteristic of this emigration
+even in the early eighties, and as strongly contrasted with the
+emigration of the Poles from Galicia.[114]
+
+A comparison of the return movement of the "old" and the "new"
+immigration with that of the Jewish immigration gives similar
+results.[115] For every hundred admitted, there were, in the "new"
+immigration, forty-two emigrants, relatively more than five times as
+many as among the Jews. Even in the "old" immigration, which is
+largely accepted as the type of permanent immigration, for every
+hundred admitted, there were thirteen emigrants, about one and a half
+times as many relatively as among the Jews. The Jewish immigration
+must thus be accorded the place of distinction in American immigration
+for permanence of settlement.
+
+An unusual test of this conclusion was afforded by the remarkable
+emigration following the crisis of 1907.[116] The general opinion that
+"the causes which retard emigration from abroad also accelerate the
+exodus from the United States", was considerably strengthened by the
+great exodus of 1908. To this rule the Jewish immigration forms,
+again, a most striking exception. Although its number in 1907--149,182
+immigrants--was only slightly below its maximum for thirty years, and
+constituted the second highest immigration for the year, only 7,702
+Jews left the country in 1908. This constituted only two per cent of
+the total emigration for that year. Relatively to the number admitted
+the Jewish emigration was, without exception, the lowest, being only
+five departed for every hundred admitted. The remarkable disparity in
+this regard with the Poles and the Italian was again shown here. For
+every hundred Poles entering in 1907, thirty-three emigrated in 1908.
+For every hundred South Italians entering in 1907, sixty emigrated in
+1908.
+
+That the business conditions of this country affect Jewish immigration
+is unquestioned, but the difference in the degree and the manner of
+the response puts it in a class apart. A comparison of the total gain
+in population in 1908 and 1909 in the immigration of Italians and Jews
+shows that whereas in the Italian inward and outward movement in 1908
+there was a net loss to this country of 79,966, but in 1909 a net gain
+of 94,806, in the Jewish inward and outward movement in 1908 there was
+a net gain of 95,685, and in 1909 a net gain of 50,705.[117] The
+Jewish immigration responds in its inward movement much more slowly
+and less completely to the pressure of unfavorable conditions in this
+country. In its outward movement it shows practically no response.
+
+The conclusion that the Jewish immigrants constitute to an unusual
+degree a body of permanent settlers is strengthened by an examination
+of the figures concerning immigrants who have been in the United
+States previously.[118] Of the total from 1899 to 1910 of 9,220,066
+immigrants, 1,108,948, or 12 per cent, had been here before. Of the
+1,074,442 Jews who entered the country during this period, only
+22,914, or 2.1 per cent, had been previously in the United States. The
+proportion of Jews who have been in this country before is by far the
+lowest of any immigrant peoples.
+
+As the total Jewish exodus is insignificant as compared both with the
+total emigration and the proportion of the Jewish immigration in the
+total inward movement; as the Jewish outward movement shows
+practically no response to unfavorable economic conditions in this
+country, and as the Jewish inward movement presents the phenomenon of
+a practically new body of immigrants, we are led to conclude that the
+Jewish immigration exhibits a quality of permanence and stability to
+so great a degree as to render this fact one of its distinguishing
+characteristics.
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+[108] Immigration Commission: _Conclusions and Recommendations_, p.
+16.
+
+[109] _Cf._ table XLIII, p. 182.
+
+[110] _Cf._ table XLIV, p. 183.
+
+[111] _Cf._ table XLV, p. 183.
+
+[112] _Cf._ table XLVI, p. 134.
+
+[113] _Cf._ table XLVII, p. 184.
+
+[114] Buzek, _op. cit._, p. 467.
+
+[115] _Cf._ table XLVIII, p. 185.
+
+[116] _Cf._ table XLIX, p. 185.
+
+[117] The number of Jewish emigrant aliens in 1908 was deducted from
+the number of Jewish immigrant aliens: the combined number of Jewish
+emigrant and non-emigrant aliens in 1909 was deducted from the
+combined number of Jewish immigrant and non-immigrant aliens. _Cf._
+Fairchild, _Immigration_, 1913, p. 361.
+
+[118] _Cf._ table L, p. 186.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER III
+
+OCCUPATIONS
+
+
+The occupations of an immigrant people throw light upon their
+industrial equipment and their probable future occupations in this
+country. A study of the occupational distribution of the Jewish
+immigrants from 1899 to 1910 will serve to illuminate some of the
+characteristics of their movement.[119]
+
+The largest group is that classed as having "no occupation". This
+group comprises 484,175 immigrants, and is 45.1 per cent of the total.
+In the fact that it holds so large a place in the occupational
+distribution, there is reflected the great number of women and
+children among the Jewish immigrants. The rise in the proportion of
+the "no occupation" group in the second half of the twelve years
+follows a similar rise in the proportion of women and children in the
+Jewish movement, which has been previously noted.[120] These are, in
+the main, economically dependent, a fact which is of the highest
+importance with reference to the character of this immigration, as
+well as in its influence upon the economic and social problems facing
+the immigrant Jews in their new home.
+
+Skilled laborers were the second largest group, numbering 395,823
+immigrants and comprising 36.8 per cent of the total. Next in order
+was the group classed as "miscellaneous", with 186,989 immigrants,
+representing 17.4 per cent of the total. This group included common
+and farm laborers, servants, merchants and dealers, _etc._ In
+professional occupations there were 7,455 immigrants, comprising 7 per
+cent of the total.
+
+Omitting the "no occupation" group, and considering the 590,267 Jewish
+immigrants reporting occupations, we find that of these the great
+majority--67.1 per cent--were skilled laborers.[121] Laborers numbered
+69,444 and comprised 11.8 per cent. Next in order of numbers were
+servants, 65,532, who comprised 11.1 per cent. A much smaller group
+was that composed of merchants and dealers (chiefly petty merchants,
+hucksters, and peddlers), who numbered 31,491 and were 5.3 per cent of
+the total. Of farm laborers there were 11,460, comprising 1.9 per
+cent. The entire professional class comprised 1.3 per cent of the
+total. There were 1,000 farmers, who comprised .2 per cent.
+
+In the professional classes the teachers were the largest group,
+represented by 2,192, and comprising 29.4 per cent.[122] The next
+class were the musicians, who numbered 1,624, comprising 21.8 per cent
+of the total. Together these two groups were more than half of the
+total.
+
+Thus, by far the most important occupational group was that of the
+skilled laborers.[123] An examination of the distribution of this
+group shows that they were represented in thirty-five trades. By far
+the largest group of the skilled laborers were the tailors, numbering
+145,272, and comprising 36.6 per cent. The dressmakers and
+seamstresses numbered 39,482, and comprised one-tenth of the total.
+Including the closely allied trades such as hat and cap makers,
+milliners, _etc._, the garment workers composed practically one-half
+of the entire body of skilled laborers. Second in rank were the
+carpenters and joiners, who, together with the cabinet makers and
+woodworkers (not specified) numbered 40,901, and comprised more than
+one-tenth of the total. The fourth highest group were the shoemakers,
+with 23,519, or 5.9 per cent of the total. Clerks and accountants, and
+painters and glaziers contributed an almost equal number--the former
+17,066, the latter 16,387--representing 4.3 per cent and 4.1 per cent
+respectively of the total. Of butchers there were 11,413, or 2.9 per
+cent, and of bakers 10,925, or 2.8 per cent. There were also 9,385
+locksmiths, or 2.4 per cent, and 8,517 blacksmiths, or 2.2 per cent.
+Together, these ten groups comprised 318,104, or 80.4 per cent of the
+Jews in skilled occupations.
+
+Another skilled occupation represented by more than 5,000 was tinners.
+Trade groups of more than 3,000 were watch and clock makers, tobacco
+workers, hat and cap makers, barbers and hairdressers, weavers and
+spinners, tanners and curriers, furriers and fur workers, and
+bookbinders. More than a thousand skilled laborers were found in the
+following trades: photographers and upholsterers, mechanics (not
+specified), masons, printers, saddlers and harness makers, milliners,
+metal workers (other than iron, steel and tin), machinists, jewelers
+and millers. Less than a thousand laborers were found in two groups:
+iron and steel workers, and textile workers (not specified).
+
+The Jewish immigrants were therefore concentrated in the two groups of
+"no occupation" and "skilled laborers", to which belonged more than
+four-fifths of the total number.
+
+In the part taken by the Jewish immigrants in the occupational
+distribution of the total immigrants from 1899 to 1909, these two
+groups are prominent.[124] To the 1,247,674 skilled laborers, the
+Jewish immigrants contributed 362,936, or 29.1 per cent. This was
+more than twice the proportion of the Jewish immigrants in the total
+number of immigrants. They were also represented in the "no
+occupation" group by more than one and one-half times their proportion
+of the total immigration, contributing to a total of 2,165,287
+immigrants, 445,728, or 20.6 per cent. In striking contrast with the
+great contribution to these two classes is their insignificant
+contributions to the groups of common laborers and farmers, and farm
+laborers, to which they contributed respectively 2.9 per cent, 1.1 per
+cent, and 0.1 per cent.
+
+It is, however, in comparison with the occupational grouping of the
+other races that the peculiarities of the distribution of the Jewish
+immigrants are most clearly seen.[125] An examination of the number of
+those classed as having "no occupation" of each European immigrant
+people and the percentage this group comprised of the total
+immigration of each people, shows that the Jews have the highest
+proportion, 45.1 per cent, of all immigrants belonging to this group.
+The Bohemians and Moravians are next in order, with 39.5 per cent. The
+absolute numbers of the Jews belonging to this group are also higher
+than those of any other people. The Italians have only 440,274
+immigrants in the "no occupation" group, as compared with the 484,175
+Jewish immigrants in this group. Even more striking is the contrast
+with the Poles, who have only 200,634 immigrants belonging to this
+group. This corresponds closely with similar facts as to the relative
+proportions of females and children found in the Jewish immigration
+and among the other immigrant races.
+
+An even greater contrast exists in the proportions of skilled laborers
+between the Jewish and the other immigrant peoples.[126] Of those
+reporting occupations the Jews have, by far, the highest proportion of
+those in skilled occupations. The nearest approach to their proportion
+of skilled laborers is found among the Scotch, with 57.9 per cent. The
+next in order are the English, with 48.7 per cent. A much smaller
+proportion is found among the Bohemians and Moravians and the Germans.
+All these races contribute not only much smaller proportions than the
+Jews, but very much smaller absolute numbers to the total body of
+skilled laborers.
+
+Of laborers (including farm laborers), the Jews, on the other hand,
+have a smaller proportion, 13.7 per cent, than any people, except the
+Scotch (who resemble the Jews most strongly in their high proportion
+of skilled laborers and their low proportion of common laborers).
+
+The most striking contrast, in occupational distribution, however, is
+presented with the Slavic peoples.[127] Of those reporting
+occupations, the Slavic peoples, with the exception of the Bohemians
+and Moravians, are seen to be overwhelmingly concentrated in the two
+related groups of common and farm laborers, whereas the Jews are
+mostly to be found in the group of skilled laborers. Relatively ten
+times as many Jews as Poles, for instance, are in the skilled
+occupations.
+
+That the Jews form a striking exception in their occupational grouping
+is evident. A comparison of the occupational distribution of the "old"
+and the "new" immigrants with that of the Jewish immigrants, from 1899
+to 1909, leads to the same conclusion.[128] The Jewish immigrants have
+twice as many in the "no occupation" group as the "new" immigrants,
+and a much higher percentage than the "old" immigrants. They have
+relatively four times as many skilled laborers as the "new"
+immigrants, and more than one and one-half times as many as the "old"
+immigrants. Most remarkable is the fact that in spite of the
+relatively great proportion of women among the Jewish immigrants, they
+have a smaller proportion of servants than the "new" immigrants and
+one-third as large a proportion as the "old" immigrants. This
+indicates that the Jewish women are, as a rule, not servants, but
+either do not engage in work, or, if they do, are employed in skilled
+occupations. The latter group is, however, relatively inconspicuous.
+
+In professional occupations the Jews occupy an intermediate position
+between the "old" and the "new" immigrants. In common and farm
+laborers, the Jews have an exceedingly low proportion as compared with
+the "old" and a strikingly low proportion as compared with the "new"
+immigrants.
+
+Some distinctive traits in the occupational grouping of the Jewish
+immigrants have become evident. They are apart from all the other
+immigrant peoples in the great number of those having "no occupation".
+In other words, the Jewish immigrants are burdened with a far greater
+number of dependents than any other immigrant people, standing apart
+in this respect from the peoples of the "old" immigration and to a far
+greater extent from the peoples of the "new" immigration. Secondly,
+the Jewish immigrants are distinguished by a far greater proportion of
+skilled laborers. In this respect again they exceed even the peoples
+of the "old" immigration. The fact that the skilled laborers are more
+largely represented among the Jewish immigrants than they are in the
+occupations of the Jews in the countries of Eastern Europe is
+significant as showing an unusual pressure upon these classes abroad.
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+[119] _Cf._ table LI, p. 186.
+
+[120] _Cf. supra_, pp. 127-128.
+
+[121] _Cf._ table LII, p. 187.
+
+[122] _Cf._ table LIII, p. 187.
+
+[123] _Cf._ table LIV, p. 188.
+
+[124] _Cf._ table LV, p. 189.
+
+[125] _Cf._ table LVI, p. 189.
+
+[126] _Cf._ table LVII, p. 190.
+
+[127] _Cf._ table LVIII, p. 191.
+
+[128] _Cf._ table LIX, p. 191.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER IV
+
+ILLITERACY
+
+
+The rate of illiteracy has been generally used as a rough standard for
+estimating the mental equipment of the immigrants. A consideration of
+the rate of illiteracy among the Jewish immigrants dispels the popular
+impression that practically every Jew is able to read and write.[129]
+Out of a total of 806,786 Jews fourteen years of age and over who
+entered this country from 1899 to 1910, 209,507 or 26 per cent, were
+unable to read and write. As the average rate of illiteracy among all
+the immigrants, from 1899 to 1910, was 26.7 per cent, the rate of
+Jewish illiteracy is seen to be only slightly below the average.
+
+A number of considerations enter. One of these is the influence of
+sex. It is generally recognized that, as a rule, females are more
+usually unlettered than males. This difference of illiteracy between
+the sexes is also more pronounced in countries where popular education
+is less widely spread than in those where it is the rule. Such is the
+case with the countries of Eastern Europe, which are the source of the
+recent Jewish immigration. The contrast between male and female
+illiteracy is strongest among the East-European Jews, who neglect the
+education of their daughters as much as they strive to educate their
+sons. This is reflected in the relative illiteracy of males and
+females among the Jewish immigrants.[130] Of the 172,718 Jewish males
+fourteen years of age and over entering this country from 1908 to
+1912, 33,970, or 19.7 per cent, were illiterates. Of the 139,283
+females fourteen years of age and over, 51,303, or 36.8 per cent, were
+illiterates. The illiteracy of Jewish females is thus almost twice as
+high as that of Jewish males. As the proportion of females in the
+Jewish immigration is so large, the influence of the sex factor in
+increasing the rate of illiteracy among the Jewish immigrants is
+considerable. A tendency from a lower to a higher rate of illiteracy
+is discernible. The average rate for the first six years was 23.8 per
+cent, that for the last six years was 27.2 per cent. This corresponds
+with the increase in the latter years in the proportion of females in
+the Jewish immigration, which has been previously noted.
+
+A comparison of the rate of illiteracy of the Jewish immigrants with
+that of the other immigrant peoples shows that the Jews occupy an
+intermediate position.[131] They have a relatively high rate of
+illiteracy, as compared with the peoples from Northern and Western
+Europe. In comparison with the Slavs, their rate of illiteracy is also
+much higher than that of the Bohemians and Moravians, and, higher
+also, though to a far less degree, than that of the Slovaks.
+
+The relative position of the Jews is clearly shown in a comparison of
+their rate of illiteracy from 1899 to 1910 with that for the same
+period of the "old" and the "new" immigration (from the latter of
+which the Jews are excepted.)[132] The rate of illiteracy of the "old"
+immigration is 2.5 per cent, that of the "new" immigration (Jews
+excepted) is 37.2 per cent, that of the Jews is 25.7 per cent. The
+Jews occupy a middle ground, yet near enough to the "new" immigration
+to be classed with it in this respect.
+
+The conclusion reached in the first part that the educational standing
+of the Jews is higher than that of the peoples in Eastern Europe among
+whom they live is reflected in the greater relative literacy of their
+immigrants.[133] The rate of illiteracy of the Jewish immigrants is
+lower than that of the peoples among whom the Jews are found. In the
+case of the Lithuanians and the Ruthenians the difference is
+considerable. This is seen to hold true for each sex.[134] The
+illiterates among the Jewish males constituted 21.9 per cent of the
+total number of Jewish males. The illiterates among the Jewish females
+constituted 40.0 per cent of the total number of Jewish females. In
+both sexes, the proportion of illiterates was lower than that
+prevailing among the other immigrant peoples.
+
+Here, again, the fact is noticeable of a wider difference in the case
+of the Jews between the illiteracy of their males and females than
+exists among any of the other peoples. Owing to the fact that the Jews
+have in their immigration a notably higher proportion of females than
+any of these peoples, the difference between their rate of illiteracy
+and that of these peoples is lessened to some extent.
+
+That the illiteracy of the Jews is due chiefly to their exceptional
+status in Russia and Roumania, our review of the conditions affecting
+Jewish education in those countries has shown. No more striking
+illustration exists of the fact that the literacy of the Jews is
+conditioned by their freedom than the degree in which they are taking
+advantage of the educational opportunities offered in this country,
+remarkable testimony to which is presented in the reports of the
+recent Immigration Commission.
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+[129] _Cf._ table LX, p. 192.
+
+[130] _Cf._ table LXI, p. 192.
+
+[131] _Cf._ table LXII, p. 193.
+
+[132] _Cf._ table LXIII, p. 194.
+
+[133] _Cf._ table LXIV, p. 194.
+
+[134] _Cf._ table LXV, p. 194.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER V
+
+DESTINATION
+
+
+The destination, or intended future residence, of immigrants is
+influenced by certain considerations, such as the place of residence
+of friends or relatives, the port arrived at, and the funds at the
+disposal of the immigrants.
+
+The most important influence is that exercised by the occupations of
+the immigrants. The preponderance of the industrially skilled and
+commercial groups among the Jewish immigrants makes for residence in
+the industrial and commercial centers. The great majority of the
+Jewish immigrants arriving from 1899 to 1910 were destined for the
+eastern states.[135] Of the total number of Jewish immigrants from
+1889 to 1910, 923,549 immigrants, or 86 per cent, gave the North
+Atlantic States as their destination and 110,998 immigrants, or 10.3
+per cent, the North Central States. Less than one-twentieth gave all
+the other divisions as their destination.
+
+A great proportion of the Jewish immigrants, numbering 690,296, or
+64.2 per cent of the total, gave New York as their destination.[136]
+Pennsylvania was the destination of the next largest number of
+immigrants, 108,534, constituting 10.1 per cent of the total. For
+Massachusetts there were destined 66,023 immigrants, or 6.1 per cent
+of the total. Four-fifths of the total number of immigrants were
+destined for these three states. Other eastern states receiving a
+large number of immigrants were New Jersey, for which 34,279 were
+destined, and Connecticut, for which 16,254 immigrants were destined.
+Of the North Central States, Illinois was the destination of the
+largest number, 50,931 immigrants, constituting 4.7 per cent of the
+total. Ohio was the destination of the next largest number, 20,531
+immigrants, or 1.9 per cent of the total. One state in the South
+Central division, Maryland, was given as the destination of 18,700
+immigrants, constituting 1.7 per cent of the total, and the largest
+number of those destined for this division. The tendency of the Jewish
+immigrants towards industrial and commercial centers is here
+reflected.
+
+The destination of the Jewish immigrants to the eastern states agrees
+with that of the total immigration for the same period.[137] A larger
+proportion of the Jewish immigrants than of the total immigrants was
+destined for the North Atlantic States, which contain the commercial
+and manufacturing centers. Less than one-half as many Jewish
+immigrants as total immigrants were destined for the North Central
+States. About an equal proportion of each was destined for the South
+Atlantic States. A much smaller proportion of the Jewish than of the
+total was destined for the Western States. In view of the industrial
+equipment of the Jewish immigrants discussed previously, this tendency
+is explained.
+
+The Jewish immigrants destined for the eastern states play a
+correspondingly large part among the total number destined for these
+states.[138] The Jewish immigrants destined for the North Atlantic
+States were 14.5 per cent of all the immigrants destined for this
+division. Their next highest proportion was of those destined for the
+South Central States, of which they constituted 9.9 per cent. They
+constituted an almost equal proportion of the immigrants destined for
+the North Central and the South Central States, 5.2 per cent, and 5.0
+per cent, respectively. Of the immigrants destined for the Western
+States they constituted only 1.2 per cent.
+
+The final destination of the immigrants very frequently is different
+from the destination stated at the time of landing. An examination of
+the disposition of Jewish immigrants landing at the port of New York
+from 1886 to 1906 showed that a large part of the immigrants left
+within a very short time for other parts.[139] Of the 918,388
+immigrants that landed at the port of New York, from 1886 to 1906,
+669,453, or 72.9 per cent, remained in New York, and 248,935, or 27.1
+per cent, left for other points.
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+[135] _Cf._ table LXVI, p. 195.
+
+[136] _Cf._ table LXVII, p. 195.
+
+[137] _Cf._ table LXVIII, p. 196.
+
+[138] _Cf._ table LXIX, p. 196.
+
+[139] _Cf._ reports of the United Hebrew Charities of New York City,
+1886 to 1906.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER VI
+
+SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS
+
+
+Some of the principal characteristics of the Jewish immigration to the
+United States have been presented in the preceding pages. The Jewish
+immigration has been shown to consist essentially of permanent
+settlers. Its family movement is incomparable in degree, and contains
+a larger relative proportion as well as absolute number of women and
+children, than any other immigrant people. This in turn is reflected
+in the greater relative proportion as well as absolute number of those
+classified as having "no occupation". The element of dependency thus
+predicated is another indication of the family composition of the
+Jewish immigration. Its return movement is the smallest of any, as
+compared both with its large immigration and the number of total
+emigrants. The Jewish immigrants are distinguished as well by a larger
+relative proportion and absolute number of skilled laborers, than any
+other immigrant people. In these four primary characteristics the
+Jewish immigrants stand apart from all the others.
+
+It is with the neighboring Slavic races emigrating from the countries
+of Eastern Europe and with whom the Jewish immigrants are closely
+associated that the contrasts, in all these respects, are strongest.
+The Slavic immigrants are chiefly male adults. Their movement is
+largely composed of transients, as evidenced by a relatively large
+outward movement and emphasized by the fact that the vast majority of
+them are unskilled laborers. An exception, in large measure, must be
+made of the Bohemian and Moravian immigrants who present
+characteristics strongly similar to those of the Jewish immigrants.
+
+The division into "old" and "new" immigration brings out even more
+clearly the exceptional position of the Jews in regard to these
+characteristics. Although the Jewish immigration has been
+contemporaneous with the "new" immigration from Eastern and
+Southeastern Europe, and is furthermore essentially East-European in
+origin, its characteristics place it altogether with the "old"
+immigration.[140] Most striking, however is the fact that in all of
+these respects--family composition, and small return movement (both
+indicating permanent settlement) and in the proportion of skilled
+laborers--the Jewish immigration stands apart even from the "old"
+immigration.
+
+Further confirmation may be obtained, in the study of the
+characteristics of the Jewish immigration, of the principle
+established in the preceding sections that the rejective forces of
+governmental oppression are responsible for the largest part of this
+immigration. The large family movement of the Jewish immigration is a
+symptom of abnormal conditions and amounts almost to a reversal of the
+normal immigration, in which single or married men without families
+predominate. Even the family movement of the "old" immigrants may
+largely be attributed to the longer residence of their peoples in the
+United States as well as to their greater familiarity with the
+conditions and customs of the United States. That so large a part of
+the Jewish immigrants is composed of dependent females and children
+creates a situation of economic disadvantage for the Jewish
+immigrants, all the stronger because of their relative unfamiliarity
+with the language or the conditions facing them in this country.
+
+Again, the Jews respond slowly and incompletely to the pressure of
+unfavorable economic conditions in this country. This was emphasized
+by the almost complete lack of response to the panic of 1907, as well
+as expressed in the small, practically unchanging return movement of
+the Jews to their European homes.
+
+The pressure upon the Jewish artisans, or skilled laborers, in Eastern
+Europe is reflected in the predominance of this class among the Jewish
+immigrants to this country. That so useful an element in Eastern
+Europe with its still relatively backward industrial development--a
+fact that was given express recognition by the permission accorded the
+Jewish artisans in Alexander II's time to live in the interior of
+Russia--should have been compelled to emigrate indicates that the
+voyage across the Atlantic was easier for them than the trip into the
+interior of Russia, access to which is still legally accorded to them.
+
+That the oppressive conditions created particularly in Russia and
+Roumania and operating as a pressure equivalent to an expulsive force
+does not explain the entire Jewish immigration to this country is
+evident from the preceding pages. In a great measure, the immigration
+of Jews from Austria-Hungary is an economic movement. The existence,
+however, of a certain degree of pressure created by economic and
+political antisemitism has however been recognized. The Jewish
+movement from Austria-Hungary shares largely with the movement from
+Russia and Roumania the social and economic characteristics of the
+Jewish immigration which we have described. A strong family movement
+and a relative permanence of settlement, especially as compared with
+the Poles, and a movement of skilled laborers must be predicated of
+the Jewish immigrants from Austria-Hungary, though undoubtedly not to
+the same degree as in the case of the Jewish movements from Russia and
+Roumania.
+
+It is also clear that the forces of economic attraction in the United
+States do not play an altogether passive part in the Jewish
+immigration. The very fact of an immigrant-nucleus formed in this
+country and serving as a center of attraction to relatives and friends
+abroad--a force which increases in direct and multiple proportion to
+the growth of immigration--is an active and positive force in
+strengthening the immigration current. This was early understood by
+the _Alliance Israelite Universelle_ which had acted upon this
+principle in the seventies and had prophetically sought to direct a
+healthy movement of Jewish immigrants to this country in the hope of
+thereby laying a foundation for future Jewish immigration to this
+country. This current, however, once started and growing only by the
+force of its increasing attraction, would reflect in its movement
+almost wholly the economic conditions in this country. That so large a
+part of the Jewish immigration, and so many of the phenomena peculiar
+to it, find their explanation, for the largest part of the thirty
+years, in the situation and the course of events in the countries of
+Eastern Europe leads to the inevitable conclusion that the key to the
+Jewish immigration is to be found not in the force of economic
+attraction exercised in the United States but rather in the
+exceptional economic, social and legal conditions in Eastern Europe
+which have been created as a result of governmental persecution.
+
+Reviewing the various phases of the history of Jewish immigration for
+these thirty years, we are enabled to see more closely its nature. The
+study of the immigration, its movement and its social and economic
+characteristics, in comparison with those of other immigrant peoples,
+has revealed in it a number of distinguishing traits. In the causes of
+the emigration of the Jews, in the pressure exerted upon their
+movement as reflected in their rate of immigration, in their family
+movement, in the permanence of their settlement, and in their
+occupational distribution have been found characteristics which mark
+them off from the rest of the immigrant peoples. The number of these
+characteristics and the degree in which they are found in the Jewish
+immigration, put it in a class by itself.
+
+The facts of governmental pressure amounting to an expulsive force,
+and reflected in an extraordinary rate of immigration, in a movement
+of families unsurpassed in the American immigration, the largest part
+economically dependent, in an occupational grouping of skilled
+artisans, able to earn their livelihood under normal conditions, and
+in a permanence of settlement in this country incomparable in degree
+and indicating that practically all who come stay--all these facts
+lead irresistibly to the conclusion that in the Jewish movement we are
+dealing, not with an immigration, but with a migration. What we are
+witnessing to-day and for these thirty years, is a Jewish migration of
+a kind and degree almost without a parallel in the history of the
+Jewish people. When speaking of the beginnings of Russian Jewish
+immigration to Philadelphia, David Sulzberger said: "In thirty years
+the movement of Jews from Russia to the United States has almost
+reached the dignity of the migration of a people," he used no literary
+phrase. In view of the facts that have developed, this statement is
+true without any qualification.
+
+This migration-process explains the remarkable growth of the Jewish
+population in the United States, within a relatively short period of
+time. In this transplantation, the spirit of social solidarity and
+communal responsibility prevalent among the Jews has played a vital
+part.
+
+The family rather than the individual thus becomes the unit for the
+social life of the Jewish immigrant population in the United States.
+In this respect the latter approaches more nearly the native American
+population than does the foreign white or immigrant population. One of
+the greatest evils incident to and characteristic of the general
+immigration to this country is thereby minimized.
+
+Again, the concentration of the Jewish immigrants in certain trades
+explains in great measure the peculiarities of the occupational and
+the urban distribution of the Jews in the United States. The
+development of the garment trades through Jewish agencies is largely
+explained by the recruiting of the material for this development
+through these laborers.
+
+These primary characteristics of the Jewish immigration of the last
+thirty years will serve to explain some of the most important phases
+of the economic and social life of the Jews in the United States,
+three-fourths of whom are immigrants of this period.
+
+Of all the features of this historic movement of the Jews from Eastern
+Europe to the United States, not the least interesting is their
+passing from civilizations whose bonds with their medieval past are
+still strong to a civilization which began its course unhampered by
+tradition and unyoked to the forms and institutions of the past. The
+contrast between the broad freedom of this democracy and the
+intolerable despotism from whose yoke most of them fled, has given
+them a sense of appreciation of American political and social
+institutions that is felt in every movement of their mental life.
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+[140] So strongly was this the case that the Immigration Commission in
+discussing these characteristics was compelled to separate the Jewish
+from the "new" immigration, in order to bring out the essential
+differences of the latter from the "old" immigration.
+
+
+
+
+STATISTICAL TABLES
+
+
+TABLE IA
+
+PARTICIPATION OF JEWS IN OCCUPATIONS IN THE RUSSIAN EMPIRE, 1897[1]
+
+ ------------------------+----------+----------+-------------------
+ Group of occupation | Total | Jews | Per cent of total
+ ------------------------+----------+----------+-------------------
+ Agricultural pursuits | 18245287 | 40611 | .2
+ Professional service | 988813 | 71950 | 7.5
+ Personal service[2] | 5150012 | 277466 | 5.4
+ Manufacturing and | | |
+ mechanical pursuits | 5169919 | 542563 | 10.5
+ Transportation | 714745 | 45944 | 6.4
+ Commerce[2] | 1256330 | 452193 | 36.0
+ ------------------------+----------+----------+-------------------
+ Total | 31525106 | 1430727 | 4.5
+ ------------------------+----------+----------+-------------------
+ [1] Compiled from Rubinow, p. 500.
+
+ [2] _Cf._ Rubinow, note, p. 500.
+
+
+TABLE IB
+
+PARTICIPATION OF JEWS IN OCCUPATIONS IN THE PALE OF JEWISH SETTLEMENT,
+1897[1]
+
+ -----------------------+----------+----------+------------------
+ Group of occupation | Total | Jews |Per cent of total
+ -----------------------+----------+----------+------------------
+ Agricultural pursuits | 6071413 | 38538 | .6
+ Professional service | 317710 | 67238 | 21.1
+ Personal service[2] | 2139981 | 250078 | 11.6
+ Manufacturing and | | |
+ mechanical pursuits | 1573519 | 504844 | 32.1
+ Transportation | 211983 | 44177 | 20.8
+ Commerce[2] | 556086 | 426628 | 76.7
+ -----------------------+----------+----------+------------------
+ Total | 10870692 | 1331503 | 12.2
+ -----------------------+----------+----------+------------------
+
+ [1] Compiled from Rubinow, p. 501.
+
+ [2] _Cf._ Rubinow, note, p. 500.
+
+
+TABLE II
+
+JEWISH IMMIGRATION AT THE PORTS OF NEW YORK, PHILADELPHIA AND
+BALTIMORE, JULY TO JUNE, 1886 to 1898[1]
+
+ -------+----------+--------------+-----------+--------
+ Year | New York | Philadelphia | Baltimore | Total
+ -------+----------+--------------+-----------+--------
+ 1886 | 19548 | 1625 | -- | 21173
+ 1887 | 30866 | 2178 | -- | 33044
+ 1888 | 26946 | 1935 | -- | 28881
+ 1889 | 23958 | 1394 | -- | 25352
+ 1890 | 26963 | 1676 | -- | 28639
+ 1891 | 47098 | 2719 | 1581[2]| 51398
+ 1892 | 66544 | 4677 | 5152 | 76373
+ 1893 | 29059 | 4322[3] | 1941 | 35322
+ 1894 | 23444 | 3833 | 1902 | 29179
+ 1895 | 21422 | 3672 | 1097 | 26191
+ 1896 | 27846 | 3016 | 1986 | 32848
+ 1897 | 17362 | 1613 | 1397 | 20372
+ 1898 | 19222 | 2121 | 2311 | 23654
+ -------+----------+--------------+-----------+--------
+ Total | 380278 | 34781 | 17367 | 432426
+ -------+----------+--------------+-----------+--------
+
+ [1] Table II and all succeeding tables are arranged from July 1st to
+ June 30th, the fiscal year.
+
+ [2] Baltimore statistics begin October.
+
+ [3] Philadelphia figures for August missing.
+
+
+TABLE III
+
+JEWISH IMMIGRATION AT THE PORT OF NEW YORK, JULY, 1885, TO JUNE, 1886,
+BY MONTH AND COUNTRY OF NATIVITY[1]
+
+ -----------+--------+-----------------+----------+--------+-------
+ Month | Russia | Austria-Hungary | Roumania | Others | Total
+ -----------+--------+-----------------+----------+--------+-------
+ July | 1130 | 354 | 58 | 107 | 1649
+ August | 1512 | 448 | 33 | 121 | 2114
+ September | 945 | 185 | 20 | 119 | 1269
+ October | 785 | 236 | 12 | 216 | 1249
+ November | 1347 | 589 | 21 | 80 | 2037
+ December | 574 | 249 | 17 | 62 | 902
+ January | 565 | 202 | 4 | 26 | 797
+ February | 492 | 228 | 16 | 44 | 780
+ March | 1077 | 444 | 35 | 66 | 1622
+ April | 639 | 309 | 28 | 55 | 1031
+ May | 791 | 521 | 31 | 70 | 1413
+ June | 3017 | 1365 | 210 | 93 | 4685
+ -----------+--------+-----------------+----------+--------+-------
+ Total | 12874 | 5130 | 485 | 1059 | 19548
+ -----------+--------+-----------------+----------+--------+-------
+
+ [1] Compiled from reports of the United Hebrew Charities of New
+ York.
+
+
+TABLE IVA
+
+JEWISH IMMIGRATION AT THE PORT OF PHILADELPHIA, 1886 TO 1898, BY
+COUNTRY OF NATIVITY
+
+ -------+------+-----+--------+-----+--------+-----+------+-----+------
+ | | Per |Austria-| Per | | Per | | Per |
+ Year |Russia| cent|Hungary | cent|Roumania| cent|Others| cent|Total
+ -------+------+-----+--------+-----+--------+-----+------+-----+------
+ 1886 | 1218 | 75 | 196 | 12 | 33 | 2 | 178 | 11 | 1625
+ 1887 | 1699 | 78 | 262 | 12 | 86 | 4 | 131 | 6 | 2178
+ 1888 | 1432 | 74 | 232 | 12 | 97 | 5 | 174 | 9 | 1935
+ 1889 | 1129 | 81 | 125 | 9 | 42 | 3 | 98 | 7 | 1394
+ 1890 | 1424 | 85 | 184 | 11 | 34 | 2 | 34 | 2 | 1676
+ 1891 | 2447 | 90 | [1] | -- | [1] | -- | 272 | 10 | 2719
+ 1892 | 3929 | 84 | 561 | 12 | 47 | 1 | 140 | 3 | 4677
+ 1893 | 3025 | 70 | 519 | 12 | 43 | 1 | 735 | 17 | 4322
+ 1894 | 2951 | 77 | 422 | 11 | 77 | 2 | 383 | 10 | 3833
+ 1895 | 1983 | 54 | 624 | 17 | 73 | 2 | 992 | 27 | 3672
+ 1896 | 1538 | 51 | 875 | 29 | 60 | 2 | 543 | 18 | 3016
+ 1897 | 1049 | 65 | 355 | 22 | 32 | 2 | 177 | 11 | 1613
+ 1898 | 1611 | 76 | 382 | 18 | 64 | 3 | 64 | 3 | 2121
+ -------+------+-----+--------+-----+--------+-----+------+-----+------
+ Total |25435 | 73 | 4737 | 14 | 688 | 2 | 3921 | 11 |34781
+ -------+------+-----+--------+-----+--------+-----+------+-----+------
+
+ [1] Immigrants from Austria-Hungary and Roumania were this year
+ grouped under "all others" in the original tables.
+
+
+TABLE IVB
+
+JEWISH IMMIGRATION AT THE PORT OF BALTIMORE, 1891 TO 1898, BY COUNTRY
+OF NATIVITY
+
+ -------+------+-----+--------+-----+--------+-----+------+-----+------
+ | | Per |Austria-| Per | | Per | | Per |
+ Year |Russia| cent|Hungary | cent|Roumania| cent|Others| cent| Total
+ -------+------+-----+--------+-----+--------+-----+------+-----+------
+ 1891 | 1423 | 90 | [1] | -- | [1] | -- | 158 | 10 | 1581
+ 1892 | 4328 | 84 | 618 | 12 | 52 | 1 | 154 | 3 | 5152
+ 1893 | 1388 | 70 | 232 | 12 | 19 | 1 | 302 | 17 | 1941
+ 1894 | 1465 | 77 | 209 | 11 | 38 | 2 | 190 | 10 | 1902
+ 1895 | 592 | 54 | 187 | 17 | 22 | 2 | 296 | 27 | 1097
+ 1896 | 1013 | 51 | 576 | 29 | 40 | 2 | 357 | 18 | 1986
+ 1897 | 908 | 65 | 307 | 22 | 28 | 2 | 154 | 11 | 1397
+ 1898 | 1757 | 76 | 416 | 18 | 69 | 3 | 69 | 3 | 2311
+ -------+------+-----+--------+-----+--------+-----+------+-----+------
+ Total |12874 | 74 | 2545 | 15 | 268 | 2 | 1680 | 9 |17367
+ -------+------+-----+--------+-----+--------+-----+------+-----+------
+
+ [1] Immigrants from Austria-Hungary and Roumania were this year
+ grouped under "all others" in the original tables.
+
+
+TABLE V[1]
+
+JEWISH IMMIGRATION AT THE PORTS OF NEW YORK, PHILADELPHIA AND
+BALTIMORE, 1886 TO 1898, BY COUNTRY OF NATIVITY
+
+ -------+-----------------+-----------------------------------+--------
+ | | Ports |
+ Year | Country of |----------+------------+-----------| Total
+ | nativity | New York |Philadelphia| Baltimore |
+ -------+-----------------+----------+------------+-----------+--------
+ 1886 | Russia | 12874 | 1218 | -- | 14092
+ | Austria-Hungary | 5130 | 196 | -- | 5326
+ | Roumania | 485 | 33 | -- | 518
+ 1887 | Russia | 21404 | 1699 | -- | 23103
+ | Austria-Hungary | 6636 | 262 | -- | 6898
+ | Roumania | 1977 | 86 | -- | 2063
+ 1888 | Russia | 18784 | 1432 | -- | 20216
+ | Austria-Hungary | 5753 | 232 | -- | 5985
+ | Roumania | 1556 | 97 | -- | 1653
+ 1889 | Russia | 17209 | 1129 | -- | 18338
+ | Austria-Hungary | 4873 | 125 | -- | 4998
+ | Roumania | 1016 | 42 | -- | 1058
+ 1890 | Russia | 19557 | 1424 | -- | 20981
+ | Austria-Hungary | 6255 | 184 | -- | 6439
+ | Roumania | 428 | 34 | -- | 462
+ 1891 | Russia | 39587 | 2447 | 1423 | 43457
+ | Austria-Hungary | 5890 | [1] | [1] | 5890
+ | Roumania | 854 | [1] | [1] | 854
+ 1892 | Russia | 55996 | 3929 | 4328 | 64253
+ | Austria-Hungary | 7464 | 561 | 618 | 8643
+ | Roumania | 641 | 47 | 52 | 740
+ 1893 | Russia | 20748 | 3025 | 1388 | 25161
+ | Austria-Hungary | 5612 | 519 | 232 | 6363
+ | Roumania | 493 | 43 | 19 | 555
+ 1894 | Russia | 16331 | 2951 | 1465 | 20747
+ | Austria-Hungary | 5285 | 422 | 209 | 5916
+ | Roumania | 501 | 77 | 38 | 616
+ 1895 | Russia | 14152 | 1983 | 592 | 16727
+ | Austria-Hungary | 5236 | 624 | 187 | 6047
+ | Roumania | 423 | 73 | 22 | 518
+ 1896 | Russia | 17617 | 1538 | 1013 | 20168
+ | Austria-Hungary | 8380 | 875 | 576 | 9831
+ | Roumania | 644 | 60 | 40 | 744
+ 1897 | Russia | 11106 | 1049 | 908 | 13063
+ | Austria-Hungary | 5010 | 355 | 307 | 5672
+ | Roumania | 456 | 32 | 28 | 516
+ 1898 | Russia | 11581 | 1611 | 1757 | 14949
+ | Austria-Hungary | 6569 | 382 | 416 | 7367
+ | Roumania | 587 | 64 | 69 | 720
+ -------+-----------------+----------+------------+-----------+--------
+ Total | ------ | 380278 | 34781 | 17367 | 432426
+ -------+-----------------+----------+------------+-----------+--------
+
+ [1] See note to Tables IVa and IVb. For Tables VI and VII, see
+ pp. 93 and 94.
+
+
+TABLE VIII
+
+JEWISH IMMIGRATION TO THE UNITED STATES, 1881 TO 1910, ABSOLUTE
+NUMBERS AND PERCENTAGES, BY DECADE AND COUNTRY OF NATIVITY
+
+ -------------------+-----------------------+--------------------------
+ | Absolute numbers | Percentages
+ Country of +-------+---------------+-------+-----+-----+------
+ nativity | | 1881- | 1891- | 1901- |1881-|1891-|1901-
+ | Total | 1890 | 1900 | 1910 |1890 |1900 |1910
+ -------------------+-------+-------+-------+-------+-----+-----+------
+ Russia |1119059| 135003| 279811| 704245| 69.9| 71.1| 72.1
+ Austria-Hungary | 281150| 44619| 83720| 152811| 23.1| 21.3| 15.7
+ Roumania | 67057| 6967| 12789| 47301| 3.6| 3.2| 4.8
+ United Kingdom | 42589| -- | -- | 42589| --| --| 4.4
+ Germany | 20454| 5354| 8827| 6273| 2.8| 2.3| .7
+ British North | | | | | | |
+ America | 9701| -- | -- | 9701| --| --| 1.0
+ Turkey | 5081| -- | -- | 5081| --| --| .5
+ France | 2273| -- | -- | 2273| --| --| .2
+ All others | 15436| 1078| 8369| 5989| .6| 2.1| .6
+ -------------------+-------+-------+-------+-------+-----+------------
+ Total |1562800| 193021| 393516| 976263|100.0|100.0|100.0
+ -------------------+-------+-------+-------+-------+-----+------------
+
+
+TABLE IX
+
+JEWISH IMMIGRATION FROM RUSSIA, 1881 TO 1910, BY YEAR AND PERCENTAGE
+OF TOTAL ARRIVING EACH YEAR
+
+ -------+-------------------+-------------------
+ Year | Jewish immigrants | Per cent of total
+ -------+-------------------+-------------------
+ 1881 | 3125 | 0.3
+ 1882 | 10489 | 0.9
+ 1883 | 6144 | 0.5
+ 1884 | 7867 | 0.7
+ 1885 | 10648 | 1.0
+ 1886 | 14092 | 1.3
+ 1887 | 23103 | 2.1
+ 1888 | 20216 | 1.8
+ 1889 | 18338 | 1.6
+ 1890 | 20981 | 1.9
+ 1891 | 43457 | 3.9
+ 1892 | 64253 | 5.7
+ 1893 | 25161 | 2.2
+ 1894 | 20747 | 1.9
+ 1895 | 16727 | 1.5
+ 1896 | 20168 | 1.8
+ 1897 | 13063 | 1.2
+ 1898 | 14949 | 1.3
+ 1899 | 24275 | 2.2
+ 1900 | 37011 | 3.3
+ 1901 | 37660 | 3.4
+ 1902 | 37846 | 3.4
+ 1903 | 47689 | 4.3
+ 1904 | 77544 | 6.9
+ 1905 | 92388 | 8.2
+ 1906 | 125234 | 11.2
+ 1907 | 114932 | 10.3
+ 1908 | 71978 | 6.4
+ 1909 | 39150 | 3.5
+ 1910 | 59824 | 5.3
+ -------+-------------------+-------------------
+ Total | 1119059 | 100.0
+ -------+-------------------+-------------------
+
+
+TABLE X
+
+JEWISH IMMIGRATION FROM RUSSIA, 1887 to 1910, BY DECADE AND PERCENTAGE
+OF TOTAL ARRIVING EACH DECADE
+
+ -----------+-------------------+-------------------
+ Decade | Jewish immigrants | Per cent of total
+ -----------+-------------------+-------------------
+ 1881-1890 | 135003 | 12.1
+ 1891-1900 | 279811 | 25.0
+ 1901-1910 | 704245 | 62.9
+ -----------+-------------------+-------------------
+ Total | 1119059 | 100.0
+ -----------+-------------------+-------------------
+
+
+TABLE XI
+
+JEWISH IMMIGRATION FROM RUSSIA AT THE PORT OF NEW YORK, JANUARY 1,
+1891 TO DECEMBER 31, 1891, AND JANUARY 1, 1892 TO DECEMBER 31, 1892,
+BY MONTH
+
+(From reports of United Hebrew Charities of New York City, 1891 and
+1892)
+
+ ---------------+-----------------------
+ | Jewish immigrants
+ +----------+------------
+ Month | 1891 | 1892
+ ---------------+----------+------------
+ January | 2179 | 3276
+ February | 2185 | 3057
+ March | 3150 | 2397
+ April | 2714 | 1468
+ May | 1225 | 1620
+ June | 8667 | 4028
+ July | 8253 | 5673
+ August | 9109 | 4842
+ September | 9422 | 1729
+ October | 5255 | 416
+ November | 3792 | 121
+ December | 4310 | 198
+ ---------------+----------+------------
+ Total | 60261 | 28834
+ ---------------+----------+------------
+
+
+TABLE XII
+
+TOTAL IMMIGRATION FROM RUSSIA AND JEWISH IMMIGRATION FROM RUSSIA, 1881
+TO 1910, AND PERCENTAGE JEWISH OF TOTAL
+
+ --------+------------+------------+-------------
+ | Total | Jewish | Per cent of
+ | immigrants | immigrants | total
+ --------+------------+------------+-------------
+ 1881 | 5041 | 3125 | Est.
+ 1882 | 16918 | 10489 |
+ 1883 | 9909 | 6144 | at
+ 1884 | 12689 | 7867 |
+ 1885 | 17158 | 10648 | 62.0
+ 1886 | 17800 | 14092 | 79.2
+ 1887 | 30766 | 23103 | 75.1
+ 1888 | 33487 | 20316 | 60.4
+ 1889 | 33916 | 18338 | 54.1
+ 1890 | 35598 | 20981 | 58.9
+ | | |
+ 1891 | 47426 | 43457 | 91.6
+ 1892 | 81511 | 64253 | 78.8
+ 1893 | 42310 | 25161 | 59.5
+ 1894 | 39278 | 20747 | 52.8
+ 1895 | 35907 | 16727 | 43.2
+ 1896 | 51435 | 20168 | 39.2
+ 1897 | 25816 | 13063 | 50.6
+ 1898 | 29828 | 14949 | 50.1
+ 1899 | 60982 | 24275 | 39.8
+ 1900 | 90787 | 37011 | 40.8
+ | | |
+ 1901 | 85257 | 37660 | 44.2
+ 1902 | 107347 | 37846 | 35.3
+ 1903 | 136093 | 47689 | 35.0
+ 1904 | 145141 | 77544 | 53.4
+ 1905 | 184897 | 92388 | 50.0
+ 1906 | 215665 | 125234 | 58.1
+ 1907 | 258943 | 114932 | 44.4
+ 1908 | 156711 | 71978 | 45.9
+ 1909 | 120460 | 39150 | 32.5
+ 1910 | 186792 | 59824 | 32.1
+ --------+------------+------------+-------------
+ Total | 2315868 | 1119059 | 48.3
+ --------+------------+------------+-------------
+
+
+TABLE XIII
+
+TOTAL IMMIGRATION FROM RUSSIA AND JEWISH IMMIGRATION FROM RUSSIA, 1881
+TO 1910, BY DECADE, AND PERCENTAGE JEWISH OF TOTAL
+
+ ------------+------------+------------+-------------
+ Decade | Total | Jewish | Per cent of
+ | immigrants | immigrants | total
+ ------------+------------+------------+-------------
+ 1881-1890 | 213282 | 135003 | 63.3
+ 1891-1900 | 505280 | 279811 | 55.4
+ 1901-1910 | 1597306 | 704245 | 44.1
+ ------------+------------+------------+-------------
+ Total | 2315868 | 1119059 | 48.3
+ ------------+------------+------------+-------------
+
+
+TABLE XIV
+
+IMMIGRATION TO THE UNITED STATES FROM THE RUSSIAN EMPIRE, 1899 TO
+1910, BY ANNUAL PERCENTAGE OF CONTRIBUTION OF PRINCIPAL PEOPLES[1]
+
+ -------+---------+--------+--------+------------+--------+---------
+ | Finnish | German | Jewish | Lithuanian | Polish | Russian
+ -------+---------+--------+--------+------------+--------+---------
+ 1899 | 9.9 | 8.8 | 39.8 | 11.2 | 25.4 | 2.7
+ 1900 | 13.8 | 5.9 | 40.8 | 11.3 | 24.8 | 1.3
+ 1901 | 11.7 | 6.6 | 44.2 | 10.0 | 25.2 | .8
+ 1902 | 12.9 | 8.0 | 35.3 | 9.3 | 31.5 | 1.4
+ 1903 | 13.8 | 7.7 | 35.0 | 10.6 | 29.1 | 2.6
+ 1904 | 6.9 | 4.9 | 53.4 | 8.8 | 22.4 | 2.7
+ 1905 | 9.0 | 3.6 | 50.0 | 9.5 | 25.5 | 1.8
+ 1906 | 6.2 | 4.8 | 58.1 | 6.4 | 21.4 | 2.4
+ 1907 | 5.5 | 5.2 | 44.4 | 9.6 | 28.2 | 6.2
+ 1908 | 4.0 | 6.4 | 45.9 | 8.5 | 24.2 | 10.4
+ 1909 | 9.3 | 6.5 | 32.5 | 12.1 | 31.4 | 7.6
+ 1910 | 8.0 | 5.4 | 32.1 | 11.6 | 34.1 | 7.9
+ -------+---------+--------+--------+------------+--------+---------
+ Total | 8.5 | 5.8 | 43.8 | 9.6 | 27.0 | 4.4
+ -------+---------+--------+--------+------------+--------+---------
+ [1] From Immigration Commission: _Emigration Conditions in
+ Europe_, p. 338.
+
+
+TABLE XV
+
+RATE OF IMMIGRATION OF PEOPLES PREDOMINANT IN THE IMMIGRATION FROM
+RUSSIA, 1899 TO 1910[1]
+
+ ------------+--------------------+-------------------+----------------
+ | |Average annual |
+ |Population in Russia|immigration to U.S.| Ratio of
+ People |1897 and in Finland |from Russia and | immigration
+ | 1900 combined |Finland 1899-1910 | to population
+ ------------+--------------------+-------------------+----------------
+ Jewish | 5082343[2] | 63794 | 1 to 79
+ Finnish | 2352990 | 12348 | 1 to 191
+ Polish | 7865437 | 39282 | 1 to 200
+ German | 1721387 | 8401 | 1 to 205
+ Lithuanian | 3077436 | 14062 | 1 to 212
+ Swedish | 349733 | 1135 | 1 to 308
+ Russian | 75434753 | 6530 | 1 to 11552
+ ------------+--------------------+-------------------+----------------
+
+ [1] Ibid., p. 339.
+
+ [2] The figure for the Jewish population in Russia as given in
+ _Emigration Conditions in Europe_, p. 339, is incorrect.
+ See Goldberg, _Juedische Statistik_, pages 266 and 270.
+
+
+TABLE XVI
+
+RATE OF JEWISH IMMIGRATION FROM RUSSIA, PER 10000 OF JEWISH
+POPULATION, 1899 TO 1910
+
+ ------+----------------------
+ Year | Ratio of immigration
+ ------+----------------------
+ 1899 | 47
+ 1900 | 72
+ 1901 | 74
+ 1902 | 74
+ 1903 | 93
+ 1904 | 152
+ 1905 | 181
+ 1906 | 246
+ 1907 | 226
+ 1908 | 141
+ 1909 | 77
+ 1910 | 117
+ ------+----------------------
+ Total | 125
+ ------+----------------------
+
+
+TABLE XVII
+
+JEWISH IMMIGRATION FROM ROUMANIA, 1881 TO 1910, BY DECADE AND
+PERCENTAGE OF TOTAL ARRIVING EACH DECADE
+
+ -----------+-------------------+-------------------
+ Decade | Jewish immigrants | Per cent of total
+ -----------+-------------------+-------------------
+ 1881-1890 | 6067 | 10.4
+ 1891-1900 | 12789 | 19.1
+ 1901-1910 | 47301 | 70.5
+ -----------+-------------------+-------------------
+ Total | 67057 | 100.0
+ -----------+-------------------+-------------------
+
+
+TABLE XVIII
+
+JEWISH IMMIGRATION FROM ROUMANIA, 1881 TO 1910, BY YEAR AND PERCENTAGE
+OF TOTAL ARRIVING EACH YEAR
+
+ --------+-------------------+-------------------
+ Year | Jewish immigrants | Per cent of total
+ --------+-------------------+-------------------
+ 1881 | 30 | [1]
+ 1882 | 65 | .1
+ 1883 | 77 | .1
+ 1884 | 238 | .3
+ 1885 | 803 | 1.2
+ 1886 | 518 | .8
+ 1887 | 2063 | 3.1
+ 1888 | 1653 | 2.5
+ 1889 | 1058 | 1.6
+ 1890 | 462 | .7
+ | |
+ 1891 | 854 | 1.3
+ 1892 | 740 | 1.1
+ 1893 | 555 | .8
+ 1894 | 616 | .9
+ 1895 | 518 | .8
+ 1896 | 744 | 1.1
+ 1897 | 516 | .8
+ 1898 | 720 | 1.1
+ 1899 | 1343 | 2.0
+ 1900 | 6183 | 9.2
+ | |
+ 1901 | 6827 | 10.2
+ 1902 | 6589 | 9.8
+ 1903 | 8562 | 12.8
+ 1904 | 6446 | 9.6
+ 1905 | 3854 | 5.7
+ 1906 | 3872 | 5.8
+ 1907 | 3605 | 5.4
+ 1908 | 4455 | 6.6
+ 1909 | 1390 | 2.1
+ 1910 | 1701 | 2.5
+ --------+-------------------+-------------------
+ Total | 67057 | 100.0
+ --------+-------------------+-------------------
+
+ [1] Below one-tenth per cent.
+
+
+TABLE XIX
+
+TOTAL IMMIGRATION FROM ROUMANIA AND JEWISH IMMIGRATION FROM ROUMANIA,
+1899 TO 1910, AND PERCENTAGE JEWISH OF TOTAL
+
+ --------+----------------+-----------------+-------------------
+ Year |Total immigrants|Jewish immigrants|Per cent of total
+ --------+----------------+-----------------+-------------------
+ 1899 | 1606 | 1343 | 83.6
+ 1900 | 6459 | 6183 | 95.7
+ 1901 | 7155 | 6827 | 95.4
+ 1902 | 7196 | 6589 | 91.6
+ 1903 | 9310 | 8562 | 91.9
+ 1904 | 7087 | 6446 | 91.0
+ 1905 | 4437 | 3854 | 86.8
+ 1906 | 4476 | 3872 | 86.5
+ 1907 | 4384 | 3605 | 82.2
+ 1908 | 5228 | 4455 | 85.2
+ 1909 | 1590 | 1390 | 87.4
+ 1910 | 2145 | 1701 | 79.3
+ --------+----------------+-----------------+-------------------
+ Total | 61073 | 54827 | 89.8
+ --------+----------------+-----------------+-------------------
+
+
+TABLE XX
+
+RATE OF JEWISH IMMIGRATION FROM ROUMANIA, PER 10000 OF JEWISH
+POPULATION, 1899 TO 1910[1]
+
+ --------+-----------------------
+ Year | Ratio of immigration
+ --------+-----------------------
+ 1899 | 51
+ 1900 | 238
+ 1901 | 262
+ 1902 | 253
+ 1903 | 329
+ 1904 | 246
+ 1905 | 148
+ 1906 | 149
+ 1907 | 138
+ 1908 | 171
+ 1909 | 53
+ 1910 | 65
+ --------+-----------------------
+ Total | 175
+ --------+-----------------------
+
+ [1] For Jewish population in Roumania _cf._ Ruppin, _The Jews of
+ To-Day_, p. 39.
+
+
+TABLE XXI
+
+JEWISH IMMIGRATION FROM AUSTRIA-HUNGARY, 1881 TO 1910, BY DECADE AND
+PERCENTAGE OF TOTAL ARRIVING EACH DECADE
+
+ -----------+-------------------+-------------------
+ Decade | Jewish immigrants | Per cent of total
+ -----------+-------------------+-------------------
+ 1881-1890 | 44619 | 15.9
+ 1891-1900 | 83720 | 29.8
+ 1901-1910 | 152811 | 54.3
+ -----------+-------------------+-------------------
+ Total | 281150 | 100.0
+ -----------+-------------------+-------------------
+
+
+TABLE XXII
+
+JEWISH IMMIGRATION FROM AUSTRIA-HUNGARY, 1881 TO 1910, BY YEAR, AND
+PERCENTAGE OF TOTAL ARRIVING EACH YEAR
+
+ ----------+-------------------+-------------------
+ Year | Jewish immigrants | Per cent of total
+ ----------+-------------------+-------------------
+ 1881 | 2537 | .9
+ 1882 | 2648 | .9
+ 1883 | 2510 | .9
+ 1884 | 3340 | 1.2
+ 1885 | 3938 | 1.4
+ 1886 | 5326 | 1.9
+ 1887 | 6898 | 2.4
+ 1888 | 5985 | 2.1
+ 1889 | 4998 | 1.8
+ 1890 | 6439 | 2.3
+ | |
+ 1891 | 5890 | 2.1
+ 1892 | 8643 | 3.1
+ 1893 | 6363 | 2.3
+ 1894 | 5916 | 2.1
+ 1895 | 6047 | 2.2
+ 1896 | 9831 | 3.5
+ 1897 | 5672 | 2.0
+ 1898 | 7367 | 2.6
+ 1899 | 11071 | 3.9
+ 1900 | 16920 | 6.0
+ | |
+ 1901 | 13006 | 4.6
+ 1902 | 12848 | 4.6
+ 1903 | 18759 | 6.7
+ 1904 | 20211 | 7.2
+ 1905 | 17352 | 6.2
+ 1906 | 14884 | 5.3
+ 1907 | 18885 | 6.7
+ 1908 | 15293 | 5.4
+ 1909 | 8431 | 3.0
+ 1910 | 13142 | 4.7
+ ----------+-------------------+-------------------
+ Total | 281150 | 100.0
+ ----------+-------------------+-------------------
+
+
+TABLE XXIII
+
+TOTAL AND JEWISH IMMIGRATION FROM AUSTRIA-HUNGARY, 1881 TO 1910, BY
+DECADE AND PERCENTAGE JEWISH OF TOTAL
+
+ -----------+----------------+-----------------+------------------
+ Decade |Total immigrants|Jewish immigrants|Per cent of total
+ -----------+----------------+-----------------+------------------
+ 1881-1890 | 353719 | 44619 | 12.6
+ 1891-1900 | 592707 | 83720 | 14.1
+ 1901-1910 | 2145266 | 158811 | 7.4
+ -----------+----------------+-----------------+------------------
+ Total | 3091692 | 281150 | 9.1
+ -----------+----------------+-----------------+------------------
+
+
+TABLE XXIV
+
+TOTAL AND JEWISH IMMIGRATION FROM AUSTRIA-HUNGARY, 1881 TO 1910, AND
+PERCENTAGE JEWISH OF TOTAL
+
+ --------------------------------------------------------------------
+ Year | Total immigrants | Jewish immigrants | Per cent of total
+ ----------+------------------+-------------------+------------------
+ 1881 | 27935 | 2537 | Est.
+ 1882 | 29150 | 2648 | at
+ 1883 | 27625 | 2510 |
+ 1884 | 36571 | 3340 | 9.0
+ 1885 | 27309 | 3938 | 14.4
+ 1886 | 28680 | 5326 | 18.6
+ 1887 | 40265 | 6898 | 17.1
+ 1888 | 45811 | 5985 | 13.1
+ 1889 | 34174 | 4998 | 14.6
+ 1890 | 56199 | 6439 | 11.5
+ | | |
+ 1891 | 71042 | 5890 | 8.3
+ 1892 | 76937 | 8643 | 11.2
+ 1893 | 57420 | 6363 | 11.1
+ 1894 | 38638 | 5916 | 15.3
+ 1895 | 33401 | 6047 | 18.1
+ 1896 | 65103 | 9831 | 15.1
+ 1897 | 33031 | 5672 | 17.2
+ 1898 | 39797 | 7367 | 18.5
+ 1899 | 62401 | 11071 | 17.7
+ 1900 | 114847 | 16920 | 14.7
+ | | |
+ 1901 | 113390 | 13006 | 11.5
+ 1902 | 171989 | 12848 | 7.5
+ 1903 | 206011 | 18759 | 9.1
+ 1904 | 177156 | 20211 | 11.4
+ 1905 | 275693 | 17352 | 6.3
+ 1906 | 265138 | 14884 | 5.6
+ 1907 | 338452 | 18885 | 5.6
+ 1908 | 168509 | 15293 | 9.1
+ 1909 | 170191 | 8431 | 5.0
+ 1910 | 258737 | 13142 | 5.1
+ ----------+------------------+-------------------+------------------
+ Total | 3091692 | 281150 | 9.1
+ --------------------------------------------------------------------
+
+
+TABLE XXV
+
+PERCENTAGE OF ANNUAL IMMIGRATION FROM AUSTRIA-HUNGARY CONTRIBUTED BY
+PRINCIPAL PEOPLES, 1899 TO 1910[1]
+
+ --------+--------+--------+-----------
+ Year | Polish | Jewish | Ruthenian
+ --------+--------+--------+-----------
+ 1899 | 18.7 | 17.7 | 2.2
+ 1900 | 19.9 | 14.7 | 2.5
+ 1901 | 17.9 | 11.5 | 4.7
+ 1902 | 18.9 | 7.5 | 4.4
+ 1903 | 18.2 | 9.1 | 4.8
+ 1904 | 17.1 | 11.4 | 5.3
+ 1905 | 18.4 | 6.3 | 5.2
+ 1906 | 16.5 | 5.6 | 5.9
+ 1907 | 17.6 | 5.6 | 7.0
+ 1908 | 15.7 | 9.1 | 7.2
+ 1909 | 21.4 | 5.0 | 9.0
+ 1910 | 22.6 | 4.9 | 10.2
+ --------+--------+--------+-----------
+ Total | 18.6 | 7.8 | 6.2
+ --------+--------+--------+-----------
+
+ [1] From _Emigration Conditions in Europe_, p. 373.
+
+
+TABLE XXVI
+
+RATE OF JEWISH IMMIGRATION FROM AUSTRIA-HUNGARY, PER 10000 OF JEWISH
+POPULATION, 1899 TO 1910[1]
+
+ --------+----------------------
+ | Ratio of immigration
+ --------+----------------------
+ 1899 | 53
+ 1900 | 83
+ 1901 | 63
+ 1902 | 62
+ 1903 | 90
+ 1904 | 97
+ 1905 | 84
+ 1906 | 72
+ 1907 | 91
+ 1908 | 74
+ 1909 | 41
+ 1910 | 63
+ --------+----------------------
+ Total | 74
+ --------+----------------------
+
+ [1] For Jewish population in Austria-Hungary _cf._ Ruppin, _The
+ Jews of To-Day_, pp. 38-39.
+
+
+TABLE XXVII
+
+JEWISH IMMIGRATION, 1881 TO 1910, BY DECADE
+
+ -----------+-------------------+-------------------
+ Decade | Jewish immigrants | Per cent of total
+ -----------+-------------------+-------------------
+ 1881-1890 | 193021 | 12.3
+ 1891-1900 | 393516 | 25.2
+ 1900-1910 | 976263 | 62.5
+ -----------+-------------------+-------------------
+ Total | 1562800 | 100.0
+ -----------+-------------------+-------------------
+
+
+TABLE XXVIII
+
+JEWISH IMMIGRATION, 1881 TO 1910, BY SIX-YEAR PERIOD
+
+ -----------+-------------------+-------------------
+ Period | Jewish immigrants | Per cent of total
+ -----------+-------------------+-------------------
+ 1881-1886 | 77105 | 4.9
+ 1887-1892 | 243687 | 15.6
+ 1893-1898 | 167566 | 10.7
+ 1899-1904 | 396404 | 25.4
+ 1905-1910 | 678038 | 43.4
+ -----------+-------------------+-------------------
+ Total | 1562800 | 100.0
+ -----------+-------------------+-------------------
+
+
+TABLE XXIX
+
+JEWISH IMMIGRATION TO THE UNITED STATES, 1881 TO 1910
+
+ -------+-------------------+--------------------
+ Year | Jewish immigrants | Per cent of total
+ -------+-------------------+--------------------
+ 1881 | 5692 | .4
+ 1882 | 13202 | .8
+ 1883 | 8731 | .5
+ 1884 | 11445 | .7
+ 1885 | 16862 | 1.1
+ 1886 | 21173 | 1.3
+ 1887 | 33044 | 2.1
+ 1888 | 28881 | 1.8
+ 1889 | 25352 | 1.6
+ 1890 | 28639 | 1.8
+ | |
+ 1891 | 51398 | 3.3
+ 1892 | 76373 | 4.9
+ 1893 | 35322 | 2.3
+ 1894 | 29179 | 1.9
+ 1895 | 26191 | 1.7
+ 1896 | 32848 | 2.1
+ 1897 | 20372 | 1.3
+ 1898 | 23654 | 1.5
+ 1899 | 37415 | 2.4
+ 1900 | 60764 | 3.9
+ | |
+ 1901 | 58008 | 3.7
+ 1902 | 57688 | 3.7
+ 1903 | 76203 | 4.9
+ 1904 | 106236 | 6.8
+ 1905 | 129910 | 8.3
+ 1906 | 153748 | 9.9
+ 1907 | 149182 | 9.6
+ 1908 | 103387 | 6.6
+ 1909 | 57551 | 3.7
+ 1910 | 84260 | 5.4
+ -------+-------------------+--------------------
+ Total | 1562800 | 100.0
+ -------+-------------------+--------------------
+
+
+TABLE XXX
+
+TOTAL IMMIGRATION AND JEWISH IMMIGRATION, 1881 TO 1910, BY DECADE AND
+PERCENTAGE JEWISH OF TOTAL
+
+ -----------+------------+------------+----------
+ Decade | Total | Jewish | Per cent
+ | immigrants | immigrants | of total
+ -----------+------------+------------+----------
+ 1881-1890 | 5246613 | 193021 | 3.7
+ 1891-1900 | 3687564 | 393516 | 10.7
+ 1901-1910 | 8795386 | 976263 | 11.1
+ -----------+------------+------------+----------
+ Total | 17729563 | 1562800 | 8.8
+ -----------+------------+------------+----------
+
+
+TABLE XXXI
+
+TOTAL IMMIGRATION AND JEWISH IMMIGRATION, 1881 TO 1910, BY YEAR AND
+PERCENTAGE JEWISH OF TOTAL
+
+ -----------+------------+------------+-----------
+ Year | Total | Jewish | Per cent
+ | immigrants | immigrants | of total
+ -----------+------------+------------+-----------
+ 1881 | 669431 | 5692 | .9
+ 1882 | 788992 | 13202 | 1.7
+ 1883 | 603322 | 8731 | 1.4
+ 1884 | 518592 | 11445 | 2.2
+ 1885 | 395346 | 16862 | 4.3
+ 1886 | 334203 | 21173 | 6.3
+ 1887 | 490109 | 33044 | 6.7
+ 1888 | 546889 | 28881 | 5.3
+ 1889 | 444427 | 25352 | 5.7
+ 1890 | 455302 | 28639 | 6.3
+ | | |
+ 1891 | 560319 | 51398 | 9.2
+ 1892 | 579663 | 76373 | 13.2
+ 1893 | 439730 | 35322 | 8.0
+ 1894 | 285631 | 29179 | 10.2
+ 1895 | 258536 | 26191 | 10.1
+ 1896 | 343267 | 32848 | 9.6
+ 1897 | 230832 | 20372 | 8.8
+ 1898 | 229229 | 23654 | 10.7
+ 1899 | 311715 | 37415 | 12.0
+ 1900 | 448572 | 60764 | 13.5
+ | | |
+ 1901 | 487918 | 58098 | 12.1
+ 1902 | 648743 | 57688 | 8.9
+ 1903 | 857046 | 76203 | 8.9
+ 1904 | 812870 | 106236 | 11.8
+ 1905 | 1026499 | 129910 | 12.6
+ 1906 | 1100735 | 153748 | 13.4
+ 1907 | 1285349 | 149182 | 11.6
+ 1908[1] | 782870 | 103387 | 13.2
+ 1909[1] | 751786 | 57551 | 7.7
+ 1910[1] | 1041570 | 84260 | 8.1
+ -----------+------------+------------+-----------
+ Total | 17729563 | 1562800 | 8.8
+ -----------+------------+------------+-----------
+
+ [1] Only immigrant aliens taken these years.
+
+
+TABLE XXXII
+
+TOTAL AND JEWISH IMMIGRATION, 1881 TO 1910, BY NUMBER AND PERCENTAGE
+OF INCREASE OR DECREASE
+
+ --------+-------------------+-------------------
+ | Total immigrants | Jewish immigrants
+ +-------------------+-------------------
+ Year | Increase (+) | Increase (+)
+ | or decrease (-) | or decrease (-)
+ +----------+--------+---------+---------
+ | Number | Per | Number | Per
+ | | cent | | cent
+ --------+----------+--------+---------+---------
+ 1881 | -- | -- | -- | --
+ 1882 | +119561 | +17.9 | + 7509 | +131.9
+ 1883 | -185670 | -23.5 | - 4471 | - 33.9
+ 1884 | - 84730 | -14.0 | + 2714 | + 31.1
+ 1885 | -123246 | -23.8 | + 5417 | + 47.3
+ 1886 | - 61143 | -15.5 | + 4491 | + 26.7
+ 1887 | +155906 | +46.7 | +11871 | + 56.1
+ 1888 | + 56780 | +11.6 | + 4163 | + 12.6
+ 1889 | -102462 | -18.7 | - 3529 | - 12.2
+ 1890 | + 10875 | + 2.4 | + 3287 | + 13.0
+ | | | |
+ 1891 | +105017 | +20.9 | +22759 | + 79.5
+ 1892 | + 19344 | + 3.4 | +24975 | + 48.6
+ 1893 | -139933 | -24.1 | -39051 | - 51.1
+ 1894 | -154099 | -35.0 | - 6143 | - 17.4
+ 1895 | - 27095 | - 9.5 | - 2988 | - 10.2
+ 1896 | + 84731 | +32.8 | + 6657 | + 25.4
+ 1897 | -112435 | -32.8 | -12476 | - 38.0
+ 1898 | - 1533 | - .7 | + 3282 | + 16.1
+ 1899 | + 82416 | +36.0 | +13761 | + 58.2
+ 1900 | +136857 | +43.9 | +23349 | + 62.4
+ | | | |
+ 1901 | + 39346 | + 8.8 | - 2666 | - 4.4
+ 1902 | +160825 | +33.0 | - 410 | - .7
+ 1903 | +208303 | +32.1 | +18515 | + 32.1
+ 1904 | - 44176 | - 5.2 | +30033 | + 39.4
+ 1905 | +213629 | +26.3 | +23674 | + 22.1
+ 1906 | + 74236 | + 7.2 | +23838 | + 18.2
+ 1907 | +184614 | +16.8 | - 4566 | - 3.0
+ 1908 | -502479 | -39.1 | -45795 | - 30.7
+ 1909 | - 31084 | - 4.0 | -45836 | - 44.3
+ 1910 | +289784 | +38.5 | +26709 | + 46.4
+ --------+----------+--------+---------+---------
+
+
+TABLE XXXIII
+
+SEX OF JEWISH IMMIGRANTS, 1899 TO 1910[1]
+
+ -------+---------+-----------------+---------------
+ | | Number | Per cent
+ Year | Total +--------+--------+------+--------
+ | | Male | Female | Male | Female
+ -------+---------+--------+--------+------+--------
+ 1899 | 37415 | 21153 | 16262 | 56.5 | 43.5
+ 1900 | 60764 | 36330 | 24434 | 59.8 | 40.2
+ 1901 | 58098 | 32345 | 25753 | 55.7 | 44.3
+ 1902 | 57688 | 32737 | 24951 | 56.7 | 44.3
+ 1903 | 76203 | 43985 | 32218 | 57.7 | 42.3
+ 1904 | 106236 | 65040 | 41196 | 61.2 | 38.8
+ 1905 | 129910 | 82076 | 47834 | 63.2 | 36.8
+ 1906 | 153748 | 80086 | 73662 | 52.1 | 47.9
+ 1907 | 149182 | 80530 | 68652 | 54.0 | 46.0
+ 1908 | 103387 | 56277 | 47110 | 54.4 | 45.6
+ 1909 | 57551 | 31057 | 26494 | 54.0 | 46.0
+ 1910 | 84260 | 46206 | 38054 | 54.8 | 45.2
+ -------+---------+--------+--------+------+--------
+ Total | 1074442 | 607822 | 466620 | 56.6 | 43.4
+ -------+---------+--------+--------+------+--------
+
+ [1] From _Reports of Commissioner-General of Immigration_.
+
+
+TABLE XXXIV
+
+SEX OF JEWISH IMMIGRANT ADULTS[1] AT THE PORT OF NEW YORK, 1886 TO
+1898[2]
+
+ -------+---------+-----------------+---------------
+ | | Number | Per cent
+ Year | Total +--------+--------+------+--------
+ | | Male | Female | Male | Female
+ -------+---------+--------+--------+------+--------
+ 1886 | 14212 | 9598 | 4614 | 67.5 | 32.5
+ 1887 | 22223 | 13872 | 8351 | 62.4 | 37.6
+ 1888 | 19456 | 11691 | 7765 | 60.1 | 39.9
+ 1889 | 17155 | 9946 | 7209 | 58.0 | 42.0
+ 1890 | 19449 | 11524 | 7925 | 59.3 | 40.7
+ 1891 | 33343 | 20980 | 12363 | 62.9 | 37.1
+ 1892 | 43155 | 25338 | 17817 | 58.7 | 41.3
+ 1893 | 18314 | 9715 | 8599 | 53.0 | 47.0
+ 1894 | 13142 | 6404 | 6738 | 48.7 | 51.3
+ 1895 | 12366 | 6275 | 6091 | 50.7 | 49.3
+ 1896 | 17052 | 9703 | 7349 | 56.9 | 43.1
+ 1897 | 10226 | 5447 | 4779 | 53.3 | 46.7
+ 1898 | 11530 | 6560 | 4970 | 56.9 | 43.1
+ -------+---------+--------+--------+------+--------
+ Total | 251623 | 147053 | 104570 | 58.4 | 41.6
+ -------+---------+--------+--------+------+--------
+
+ [1] Sixteen years of age and over.
+
+ [2] From _Reports of United Hebrew Charities of N.Y. City_.
+
+
+TABLE XXXV
+
+AGE OF JEWISH IMMIGRANTS, 1899 TO 1910[1]
+
+ ------+---------+--------------------------+------------------------
+ | | Number | Percentage
+ Year| Total +--------+--------+--------+-------+-------+--------
+ | | Under | 14 to | 45 and | Under | 14 to | 45 and
+ | | 14 | 44 | over | 14 | 44 | over
+ ------+---------+--------+--------+--------+-------+-------+--------
+ 1899 | 37415 | 8987 | 26019 | 2409 | 24.0 | 69.5 | 6.5
+ 1900 | 60764 | 13092 | 44239 | 3433 | 21.6 | 72.8 | 5.6
+ 1901 | 58098 | 14731 | 39830 | 3537 | 25.4 | 68.6 | 6.0
+ 1902 | 57688 | 15312 | 38937 | 3439 | 26.5 | 67.5 | 6.0
+ 1903 | 76203 | 19044 | 53074 | 4085 | 25.0 | 69.6 | 5.4
+ 1904 | 106236 | 23529 | 77224 | 5483 | 22.1 | 72.7 | 5.2
+ 1905 | 129910 | 28553 | 95964 | 5393 | 22.0 | 73.9 | 4.1
+ 1906 | 153748 | 43620 | 101875 | 8253 | 28.4 | 66.2 | 5.4
+ 1907 | 149182 | 37696 | 103779 | 7707 | 25.3 | 69.5 | 5.2
+ 1908 | 103387 | 26013 | 71388 | 5986 | 25.1 | 69.1 | 5.8
+ 1909 | 57551 | 15210 | 38465 | 3876 | 26.5 | 66.7 | 6.8
+ 1910 | 84260 | 21869 | 57191 | 5200 | 26.0 | 67.9 | 6.1
+ ------+---------+--------+--------+--------+-------+-------+--------
+ Total| 1074442 | 267656 | 747985 | 58801 | 24.9 | 69.6 | 5.5
+ ------+---------+--------+--------+--------+-------+-------+--------
+
+ [1] From _Reports of Commissioner-General of Immigration_.
+
+
+TABLE XXXVI
+
+AGE OF JEWISH IMMIGRANTS AT THE PORT OF NEW YORK, 1886 TO 1898[1]
+
+ -------+--------+--------------------+---------------------
+ | | Number | Percentage
+ Year | Total +--------+-----------+--------+------------
+ | | Adults |Children[2]| Adults |Children[2]
+ -------+--------+--------+-----------+--------+------------
+ 1886 | 19548 | 14212 | 5336 | 72.7 | 27.3
+ 1887 | 30866 | 22223 | 8643 | 72.0 | 28.0
+ 1888 | 26946 | 19456 | 7490 | 72.2 | 27.8
+ 1889 | 23958 | 17155 | 6803 | 71.6 | 28.4
+ 1890 | 26963 | 19449 | 7514 | 72.1 | 27.9
+ 1891 | 47098 | 33343 | 13755 | 70.8 | 29.2
+ 1892 | 66544 | 43155 | 23389 | 64.8 | 35.2
+ 1893 | 29059 | 18314 | 10745 | 63.0 | 37.0
+ 1894 | 23444 | 13142 | 10302 | 56.1 | 43.9
+ 1895 | 21422 | 12366 | 9056 | 57.7 | 42.3
+ 1896 | 27846 | 17052 | 10794 | 61.2 | 38.8
+ 1897 | 17362 | 10226 | 7136 | 58.9 | 41.1
+ 1898 | 19222 | 11530 | 7692 | 60.0 | 40.0
+ -------+--------+--------+-----------+--------+------------
+ Total | 380278 | 251623 | 128655 | 66.2 | 33.8
+ -------+--------+--------+-----------+--------+------------
+
+ [1] From _Reports of United Hebrew Charities of N.Y. City_.
+
+ [2] Children under sixteen.
+
+
+TABLE XXXVII
+
+SEX OF TOTAL AND JEWISH IMMIGRANTS, 1899 TO 1910[1]
+
+ -------+-------------------+------------------
+ | Total immigrants |Jewish immigrants
+ +-------------------+------------------
+ Year | Per cent | Per cent
+ +--------+----------+--------+---------
+ | Male | Female | Male | Female
+ -------+--------+----------+--------+---------
+ 1899 | 62.6 | 37.4 | 56.5 | 43.5
+ 1900 | 67.8 | 32.2 | 59.8 | 40.2
+ 1901 | 67.9 | 32.1 | 55.7 | 44.3
+ 1902 | 71.9 | 28.1 | 56.7 | 43.3
+ 1903 | 71.5 | 28.5 | 57.7 | 42.3
+ 1904 | 67.6 | 32.4 | 61.2 | 38.8
+ 1905 | 70.6 | 29.4 | 63.2 | 36.8
+ 1906 | 69.5 | 30.5 | 52.1 | 47.9
+ 1907 | 72.4 | 27.6 | 54.0 | 46.0
+ 1908 | 64.8 | 35.2 | 54.4 | 45.6
+ 1909 | 69.2 | 30.8 | 54.0 | 46.0
+ 1910 | 70.7 | 29.3 | 54.8 | 45.2
+ -------+--------+----------+--------+---------
+ Total | 69.5 | 30.5 | 56.6 | 43.4
+ -------+--------+----------+--------+---------
+
+ [1] From _Reports of Commissioner-General of Immigration_.
+
+
+TABLE XXXVIII
+
+SEX[1] OF EUROPEAN IMMIGRANTS,[2] 1899 TO 1910[3]
+
+ ------------------------+---------+-------------------+---------------
+ | | Number | Per cent
+ People | Total |---------+---------+------+--------
+ | | Male | Female | Male | Female
+ ------------------------+---------+---------+---------+------+--------
+ Irish | 439724 | 210686 | 229038 | 47.9 | 52.1
+ Jewish | 1074442 | 607822 | 466620 | 56.6 | 43.4
+ Bohemian and Moravian | 100189 | 57111 | 43078 | 57.0 | 43.0
+ French | 115783 | 67217 | 48566 | 58.1 | 41.9
+ German | 754375 | 448054 | 306321 | 59.4 | 40.6
+ English | 408614 | 251421 | 157193 | 61.5 | 38.5
+ Scandinavian | 586306 | 362467 | 223839 | 61.8 | 38.2
+ Scotch | 136842 | 86938 | 49904 | 63.5 | 36.5
+ Finnish | 151774 | 100289 | 51485 | 66.1 | 33.9
+ Polish | 949064 | 659267 | 289797 | 69.5 | 30.5
+ Slovak | 377527 | 266262 | 111265 | 70.5 | 29.5
+ Lithuanian | 175258 | 123777 | 51481 | 70.6 | 29.4
+ Magyar | 338151 | 244221 | 93930 | 72.2 | 27.8
+ Ruthenian | 147375 | 109614 | 37761 | 74.4 | 25.6
+ Italian North | 372668 | 291877 | 80791 | 78.3 | 21.7
+ Italian South | 1911933 | 1502968 | 408965 | 78.6 | 21.4
+ Croatian and Slovenian | 355543 | 284866 | 50677 | 84.9 | 15.1
+ Greek | 216962 | 206306 | 10656 | 95.1 | 4.9
+ ------------------------+---------+---------+---------+------+--------
+ Total[4] | 9555673 | 6641367 | 2914306 | 69.5 | 30.5
+ ------------------------+---------+---------+---------+------+--------
+
+ [1] Arranged in order of percentage of females.
+
+ [2] Excluding all races with an immigration below 100,000.
+
+ [3] From _Statistical Review of Immigration_, p. 49.
+
+ [4] Total includes all races.
+
+
+TABLE XXXIX
+
+AGE[1] OF EUROPEAN IMMIGRANTS,[2] 1899 TO 1909.
+
+ ----------------+----------------------------------+---------------------
+ | Number | Per cent
+ People +--------+--------+--------+-------+------+------+-------
+ | Total | Under | 14 to | 45 and| Under| 14 to|45 and
+ | | 14 | 44 | over | 14 | 44 | over
+ ----------------+--------+--------+--------+-------+------+------+-------
+ Jewish | 990182| 245787 | 690794 | 53601 | 24.8 | 69.8 | 5.4
+ Bohemian and | | | | | | |
+ Moravian | 91727| 18965 | 67487 | 5275 | 20.7 | 73.6 | 5.8
+ German | 682995| 116416 | 520437 | 46142 | 17.0 | 76.2 | 6.8
+ Scotch | 112230| 17157 | 85123 | 9950 | 15.3 | 75.8 | 8.9
+ English | 355116| 52459 | 262334 | 40323 | 14.8 | 73.9 | 11.4
+ Italian, South | 1719260| 201492 |1416075 |101693 | 11.7 | 82.4 | 5.9
+ Scandinavian | 534269| 51220 | 457306 | 25743 | 9.6 | 85.6 | 4.8
+ Polish | 820716| 77963 | 723226 | 19527 | 9.5 | 88.1 | 2.4
+ Slovak | 345111| 32157 | 302399 | 10555 | 9.3 | 87.6 | 3.1
+ Finnish | 136038| 12623 | 119771 | 3644 | 9.3 | 88.0 | 2.7
+ Italian, North | 341888| 30645 | 297442 | 13801 | 9.0 | 87.0 | 4.0
+ Magyar | 310049| 27312 | 270376 | 12361 | 8.8 | 87.2 | 4.0
+ Lithuanian | 152544| 12004 | 137880 | 2660 | 7.9 | 90.4 | 1.7
+ Irish | 401342| 20247 | 363797 | 17298 | 5.0 | 90.6 | 4.3
+ Ruthenian | 119468| 5537 | 110705 | 3226 | 4.6 | 92.7 | 2.7
+ Croatian and | | | | | | |
+ Slovenian | 295981| 12711 | 273685 | 9585 | 4.3 | 92.5 | 3.2
+ Greek | 177827| 7314 | 168250 | 2263 | 4.1 | 94.6 | 1.3
+ ----------------+--------+--------+--------+-------+------+------+-------
+ Total[3] | 8213034|1013974 |6786506 |412554 | 12.3 | 82.6 | 5.0
+ ----------------+--------+--------+--------+-------+------+------+-------
+
+ [1] Arranged in order of highest percentage of children.
+
+ [2] Excluding all races with an immigration below 100,000, except the
+ Bohemian and Moravian.
+
+ [3] Total includes all European races.
+
+
+TABLE XL
+
+SEX,[1] 1899 TO 1910, AND AGE,[2] 1899 TO 1909, OF SLAVIC AND JEWISH
+IMMIGRANTS
+
+ ------------------------+-------------+------------------------------
+ |Sex--per cent| Age--per cent
+ Group +------+------+--------+--------+------------
+ | Male |Female|Under 14|14 to 44|45 and over
+ ------------------------+------+------+--------+--------+------------
+ Polish | 69.5 | 30.5 | 9.5 | 88.1 | 2.4
+ Ruthenian | 74.4 | 25.6 | 4.6 | 92.7 | 2.7
+ Russian | 85.0 | 15.0 | 7.5 | 90.0 | 2.5
+ Slovak | 70.5 | 29.5 | 9.3 | 87.6 | 3.1
+ Croatian and Slovenian | 84.9 | 15.1 | 4.3 | 92.5 | 3.2
+ Bohemian and | | | | |
+ Moravian | 57.0 | 43.0 | 20.7 | 73.6 | 5.8
+ Jewish | 56.6 | 43.4 | 24.8 | 69.8 | 5.4
+ ------------------------+------+------+--------+--------+------------
+
+ [1] From _Statistical Review of Immigration_, p. 49.
+
+ [2] From _Emigration Conditions in Europe_, p. 25.
+
+
+TABLE XLI
+
+A. SEX OF ROUMANIAN IMMIGRANTS,[1] 1899 TO 1910, AND OF IMMIGRANTS
+FROM ROUMANIA,[2] 1900 TO 1910
+
+ ----------------+------------------------------------------------
+ | | Number | Per cent
+ Group | Total +---------+----------+--------+--------
+ | | Male | Female | Male | Female
+ ----------------+---------+---------+----------+--------+--------
+ From Roumania | 59467 | 31968 | 27499 | 53.8 | 46.2
+ Roumanian | 82704 | 75238 | 7466 | 91.0 | 9.0
+ ----------------+---------+---------+----------+--------+--------
+
+B. AGE OF JEWISH AND ROUMANIAN IMMIGRANTS[3] 1899 TO 1909
+
+ -----------+--------+--------------------+------------------------
+ | | Number | Per cent
+ Race | Total +------+------+------+-------+-------+--------
+ | Number | Under| 14 to|45 and| Under | 14 to | 45 and
+ | | 14 | 44 | over | 14 | 44 | over
+ -----------+--------+------+------+------+-------+-------+--------
+ Jewish | 990182 |245787|690794| 53601| 24.8 | 69.8 | 5.4
+ Roumanian | 68505 | 1476| 63997| 3032| 2.2 | 93.4 | 4.4
+ -----------+--------+------+------+------+-------+-------+--------
+
+ [1] From _Statistical Review of Emigration_, pp. 44-48.
+
+ [2] From _Emigration Conditions in Europe_, p. 23.
+
+ [3] _Ibid._, p. 25.
+
+
+TABLE XLII
+
+SEX AND AGE OF "OLD" AND "NEW" IMMIGRATION (JEWISH EXCEPTED), AND OF
+JEWISH IMMIGRATION, 1899 TO 1909[1]
+
+ ---------------------+-------+---------------+------------------------
+ | | Sex--per cent | Age--per cent
+ Group | +------+--------+-------+-------+--------
+ | Total | | | Under | 14 to | 45 and
+ | | Male | Female | 14 | 44 | over
+ ---------------------+-------+------+--------+-------+-------+--------
+ Old immigration |2273782| 58.5 | 41.5 | 12.8 | 80.4 | 6.8
+ New immigration | | | | | |
+ (Jewish excepted) |4949070| 76.3 | 23.7 | 9.7 | 86.2 | 4.1
+ Jewish immigration | 990182| 56.7 | 43.3 | 24.8 | 69.8 | 5.4
+ ---------------------+-------+------+--------+-------+-------+--------
+
+ [1] From _Emigration Conditions in Europe_, pp. 23-26.
+
+
+TABLE XLIII
+
+JEWISH IMMIGRATION AND EMIGRATION, 1908 TO 1912[1]
+
+ --------+-----------+-----------+---------------
+ | Jewish | Jewish | Number
+ Year | immigrant | emigrant | departed per
+ | aliens[2] | aliens[3] | 100 admitted
+ --------+-----------+-----------+---------------
+ 1908 | 103387 | 7702 | 7
+ 1909 | 57551 | 6105 | 10
+ 1910 | 84260 | 5689 | 6
+ 1911 | 91223 | 6401 | 7
+ 1912 | 80595 | 7418 | 9
+ --------+-----------+-----------+---------------
+ Total | 417016 | 33315 | 8
+ --------+-----------+-----------+---------------
+
+ [1] From _Reports of Commissioner-General of Immigration_.
+
+ [2] See note, page 93.
+
+ [3] Emigrant aliens are aliens whose permanent residence has been in
+ the United States and who intend to reside permanently abroad.
+
+
+TABLE XLIV
+
+TOTAL AND JEWISH EMIGRANT ALIENS AND PERCENTAGE JEWISH IMMIGRANT
+ALIENS OF TOTAL IMMIGRANT ALIENS, 1908 TO 1912[1]
+
+ -------+---------------------------+------------------------------
+ | Emigrant aliens | Immigrant aliens
+ +--------+--------+---------+---------+---------+----------
+ Year | Total | Jewish |Per cent.| Total | Jewish |Per cent.
+ |emigrant|emigrant|Jewish of|immigrant|immigrant|Jewish of
+ | aliens | aliens | total | aliens | aliens | total
+ -------+--------+--------+---------+---------+---------+----------
+ 1908 | 381044 | 7702 | 2.0 | 782870 | 103387 | 13.2
+ 1909 | 225802 | 6105 | 2.7 | 751876 | 57551 | 7.7
+ 1910 | 202436 | 5689 | 2.8 | 1041570 | 84260 | 8.1
+ 1911 | 295666 | 6401 | 2.1 | 878587 | 91223 | 10.4
+ 1912 | 333262 | 7418 | 2.2 | 838172 | 80595 | 9.5
+ -------+--------+--------+---------+---------+---------+----------
+ Total | 1438210| 33315 | 2.3 | 4293075 | 417016 | 9.7
+ -------+--------+--------+---------+---------+---------+----------
+
+ [1] From _Reports of Commissioner-General of Immigration_.
+
+
+TABLE XLV
+
+EUROPEAN IMMIGRANT ALIENS ADMITTED[1] AND EUROPEAN EMIGRANT ALIENS
+DEPARTED, 1908, 1909 AND 1910[2]
+
+ -----------------+-----------------+-------------------------------
+ |Immigrant aliens | Emigrant aliens departed
+ | admitted |
+ +--------+--------+--------+--------+-------------
+ People | |Per cent| |Per cent| Number
+ | Number |of total| Number |of total| departed
+ | |admitted| |departed| for every
+ | | | | |100 admitted
+ -----------------+--------+--------+--------+--------+-------------
+ Jewish | 236100 | 10.2 | 18543 | 2.5 | 8
+ Croatian and | | | | |
+ Slovenian | 78658 | 3.4 | 44316 | 5.2 | 56
+ English | 101611 | 4.4 | 11152 | 1.5 | 11
+ German | 192644 | 8.3 | 35823 | 5.0 | 19
+ Greek | 86257 | 3.7 | 21196 | 2.9 | 25
+ Irish | 93090 | 4.0 | 5728 | .8 | 6
+ Italian, North | 77661 | 3.3 | 47870 | 6.7 | 62
+ Italian, South | 457414 | 19.8 | 255188 | 35.7 | 56
+ Lithuanian | 51129 | 2.2 | 7185 | 1.0 | 14
+ Magyar | 78910 | 3.4 | 50597 | 7.1 | 64
+ Polish | 269646 | 11.7 | 82080 | 11.4 | 30
+ Ruthenian | 55106 | 2.3 | 6681 | .9 | 12
+ Scandinavian | 113786 | 4.8 | 11193 | 1.5 | 10
+ Slovak | 70717 | 3.0 | 41383 | 5.8 | 59
+ -----------------+--------+--------+--------+--------+-------------
+ Total[3] |2297338 | | 713356 | | 32
+ -----------------+--------+--------+--------+--------+-------------
+
+ [1] All peoples with an inward movement of less than 50,000 excluded.
+
+ [2] From _Emigration Conditions in Europe_, p. 41.
+
+ [3] Total for all races, including Syrians.
+
+
+TABLE XLVI
+
+JEWISH IMMIGRATION AND EMIGRATION, RUSSIA, AUSTRIA-HUNGARY AND
+ROUMANIA, 1908 TO 1912[1]
+
+ ---------+--------------------------------------------+
+ | Russia |
+ +-------------+------------+-----------------+
+ | Immigrant | Emigrant | Number departed |
+ Year | aliens | aliens | per 100 admitted|
+ ---------+-------------+------------+-----------------+
+ 1908 | 71978 | 5439 | 7 |
+ 1909 | 39150 | 3989 | 10 |
+ 1910 | 59824 | 3295 | 5 |
+ 1911 | 65472 | 3375 | 5 |
+ 1912 | 58389 | 4448 | 7 |
+ ---------+-------------+------------+-----------------+
+ Total | 294813 | 20546 | 7 |
+ ---------+-------------+------------+-----------------+
+ ---------+--------------------------------------------+
+ | Austria-Hungary |
+ +-------------+------------+-----------------+
+ | Immigrant | Emigrant | Number departed |
+ Year | aliens | aliens | per 100 admitted|
+ ---------+-------------+------------+-----------------+
+ 1908 | 15293 | 1758 | 11 |
+ 1909 | 8431 | 1398 | 16 |
+ 1910 | 13142 | 1409 | 10 |
+ 1911 | 12785 | 1827 | 14 |
+ 1912 | 10757 | 2121 | 19 |
+ ---------+-------------+------------+-----------------+
+ Total | 60408 | 8513 | 14 |
+ ---------+-------------+------------+-----------------+
+ ---------+---------------------------------------------
+ | Roumania
+ +-------------+------------+-----------------+
+ | Immigrant | Emigrant | Number departed |
+ Year | aliens | aliens | per 100 admitted|
+ ---------+-------------+------------+-----------------+
+ 1908 | 4455 | 158 | 3
+ 1909 | 1390 | 87 | 6
+ 1910 | 1701 | 101 | 6
+ 1911 | 2188 | 78 | 3
+ 1912 | 1512 | 122 | 8
+ ---------+-------------+------------+------------------
+ Total | 11246 | 546 | 5
+ ---------+-------------+------------+------------------
+
+ [1] From _Reports of Commissioner-General of Immigration_.
+
+
+TABLE XLVII
+
+POLISH IMMIGRATION AND EMIGRATION, RUSSIA AND AUSTRIA-HUNGARY, 1908 TO
+1912[1]
+
+ ---------+--------------------------------------------+
+ | Russian Poles |
+ +-------------+------------+-----------------+
+ | Immigrant | Emigrant | Number departed |
+ Year | aliens | aliens | per 100 admitted|
+ ---------+-------------+------------+-----------------+
+ 1908 | 73122 | 18187 | 25 |
+ 1909 | 37770 | 8421 | 22 |
+ 1910 | 63635 | 6705 | 10 |
+ 1911 | 40193 | 12276 | 30 |
+ 1912 | 51244 | 14701 | 28 |
+ ---------+-------------+------------+-----------------+
+ Total | 265964 | 60290 | 22 |
+ ---------+-------------+------------+-----------------+
+ ---------+--------------------------------------------+
+ | Austro-Hungarian Poles
+ +-------------+------------+------------------
+ | Immigrant | Emigrant | Number departed
+ Year | aliens | aliens | per 100 admitted
+ ---------+-------------+------------+------------------
+ 1908 | 59719 | 28048 | 47
+ 1909 | 336483 | 10292 | 28
+ 1910 | 60565 | 9609 | 15
+ 1911 | 27515 | 18499 | 67
+ 1912 | 30649 | 22546 | 73
+ ---------+-------------+------------+------------------
+ Total | 214931 | 88994 | 41
+ ---------+-------------+------------+------------------
+
+ [1] From _Reports of Commissioner-General of Immigration_.
+
+
+TABLE XLVIII
+
+"OLD" AND "NEW" (JEWISH EXCEPTED) AND JEWISH IMMIGRATION AND
+EMIGRATION, 1908 TO 1910[1]
+
+ ---------------------------+-----------+----------+--------------
+ | Immigrant | Emigrant | Number
+ Class | aliens | aliens | departed per
+ | | | 100 admitted
+ ---------------------------+-----------+----------+--------------
+ Old Immigration | 599732 | 79664 | 13
+ New immigration (Jewish | | |
+ excepted) | 1461506 | 615549 | 42
+ Jewish immigration | 236100 | 18543 | 8
+ ---------------------------+-----------+----------+--------------
+ Total | 2297338 | 713356 | 32
+ ---------------------------+-----------+----------+--------------
+
+ [1] From _Emigration Conditions in Europe_, p. 42.
+
+
+TABLE XLIX
+
+EUROPEAN IMMIGRANT ALIENS,[1] 1907, AND EUROPEAN EMIGRANT ALIENS,
+1908[2]
+
+ -----------------+---------------------+----------------------------
+ | Immigrant aliens | Emigrant aliens, 1908
+ | 1907 |
+ +-----------+---------+--------+---------+--------
+ People | | | | | Number
+ | Number |Per cent.| Number |Per cent.|departed
+ | | of total| | of total| per 100
+ | | | | |admitted
+ -----------------+-----------+---------+--------+---------+---------
+ Jewish | 149182 | 12.1 | 7702 | 2.0 | 5
+ Bulgarian, | 27174 | 2.2 | 5965 | 1.6 | 22
+ Servian and | | | | |
+ Montenegrin | | | | |
+ Croatian and | | | | |
+ Slovenian | 47826 | 3.9 | 28584 | 7.5 | 60
+ English | 51126 | 4.1 | 5320 | 1.4 | 10
+ German | 92936 | 7.5 | 14418 | 3.8 | 15
+ Greek | 46283 | 3.7 | 6763 | 1.8 | 14
+ Irish | 38706 | 3.1 | 2441 | .6 | 6
+ Italian, North | 1564 | 4.2 | 19507 | 5.1 | 37
+ Italian, South | 242497 | 19.6 | 147828 | 38.8 | 60
+ Lithuanian | 25884 | 2.1 | 3388 | .9 | 13
+ Magyar | 60071 | 4.9 | 29276 | 7.7 | 48
+ Polish | 138033 | 11.2 | 46727 | 12.3 | 33
+ Scandinavian | 53425 | 4.3 | 5801 | 1.5 | 11
+ Slovak | 42041 | 3.4 | 23573 | 6.2 | 56
+ -----------------+-----------+---------+--------+---------+---------
+ Total | 1237341[3]| | 381044 | | 32
+ -----------------+-----------+---------+--------+---------+---------
+
+ [1] All peoples with an inward movement of less than 25,000 omitted.
+
+ [2] From _Emigration Conditions in Europe_, pp. 39-40.
+
+ [3] All European immigrants, including Syrians.
+
+
+TABLE L
+
+TOTAL EUROPEAN IMMIGRANTS ADMITTED[1] AND TOTAL OF THOSE ADMITTED
+DURING THIS PERIOD IN THE UNITED STATES PREVIOUSLY, 1899 TO 1910[2]
+
+ --------------------------+----------+-----------------------
+ | | In United States
+ | | previously
+ People | Number |---------+-------------
+ | admitted | | Per cent of
+ | | Number | admitted
+ --------------------------+----------+---------+-------------
+ Jewish | 1074442 | 22914 | 2.1
+ Bohemian and Moravian | 100189 | 4066 | 4.1
+ Croatian and Slovenian | 355542 | 43037 | 12.8
+ English | 408614 | 103828 | 25.4
+ Finnish | 151774 | 17189 | 11.3
+ French | 115783 | 33859 | 29.2
+ German | 754375 | 86458 | 11.5
+ Greek | 216962 | 12283 | 5.7
+ Irish | 439742 | 80636 | 18.3
+ Italian, North | 372668 | 56738 | 15.2
+ Italian, South | 1911933 | 262508 | 13.7
+ Lithuanian | 175258 | 6186 | 3.5
+ Magyar | 337351 | 39785 | 11.8
+ Polish | 949064 | 65155 | 6.9
+ Ruthenian | 147375 | 18492 | 12.5
+ Scandinavian | 586306 | 86700 | 14.8
+ Scotch | 136842 | 27684 | 20.2
+ Slovak | 377527 | 71889 | 19.0
+ --------------------------+----------+---------+-------------
+ Total[3] | 9220066 | 1108948 | 12.0
+ --------------------------+----------+---------+-------------
+
+ [1] All peoples with an immigration below 100,000 omitted.
+
+ [2] From _Emigration Conditions in Europe_, p. 51.
+
+ [3] Includes all European peoples entered and Syrians.
+
+
+TABLE LI
+
+OCCUPATIONAL DISTRIBUTION OF JEWISH IMMIGRANTS, 1899 TO 1910[1]
+
+ -------------------+-----------+------------
+ Group | Number | Per cent
+ -------------------+-----------+------------
+ No occupation | 484175 | 45.1
+ Skilled laborers | 395823 | 36.8
+ Professional | 7455 | .7
+ Miscellaneous | 186989 | 17.4
+ -------------------+-----------+------------
+ Total | 1074442 | 100.0
+ -------------------+-----------+------------
+
+ [1] From _Reports of Commissioner-General of Immigration_.
+
+
+TABLE LII
+
+JEWISH IMMIGRANTS REPORTING OCCUPATIONS, 1899 TO 1910[1]
+
+ -------------------------+----------+------------
+ Group | Number | Per cent
+ -------------------------+----------+------------
+ Professional | 7455 | 1.3
+ Skilled laborers | 395823 | 67.1
+ Laborers | 69444 | 11.8
+ Merchants and dealers | 31491 | 5.3
+ Farm laborers | 11460 | 1.9
+ Farmers | 1008 | .2
+ Miscellaneous | 8051 | 1.3
+ -------------------------+----------+------------
+ Total | 590267 | 100.0
+ -------------------------+----------+------------
+
+ [1] From _Reports of Commissioner-General of Immigration_.
+
+
+TABLE LIII
+
+JEWISH IMMIGRANTS ENGAGED IN PROFESSIONAL OCCUPATIONS[1]
+
+ -------------------------------------+---------
+ Occupation | Number
+ -------------------------------------+---------
+ Actors | 232
+ Architects | 108
+ Clergymen | 350
+ Editors | 84
+ Electricians | 359
+ Engineers | 484
+ Lawyers | 34
+ Literary and scientific persons | 385
+ Musicians | 1624
+ Officials (gov.) | 18
+ Physicians | 290
+ Sculptors and artists | 357
+ Teachers | 2192
+ Others | 938
+ -------------------------------------+---------
+ Total | 7455
+ -------------------------------------+---------
+
+ [1] From _Reports of Commissioner-General of Immigration_.
+
+
+TABLE LIV
+
+JEWISH IMMIGRANTS REPORTING SKILLED OCCUPATIONS, 1899 TO 1910[1]
+
+A. _Principal skilled occupations_
+
+ -----------------------------------+----------+------------
+ | | Per cent
+ Occupation | Number | of total
+ | | skilled
+ -----------------------------------+----------+------------
+ Tailors | 145272 | 36.6
+ Carpenters, joiners, etc.[2] | 40901 | 10.3
+ Dressmakers and seamstresses[2] | 39482 | 10.0
+ Shoemakers | 23519 | 5.9
+ Clerks and accountants | 17066 | 4.3
+ Painters and glaziers | 16387 | 4.1
+ Butchers | 11413 | 2.9
+ Bakers | 10925 | 2.8
+ Locksmiths | 9385 | 2.4
+ Blacksmiths | 8517 | 2.2
+ -----------------------------------+----------+------------
+ Total | 322867 | 81.5
+ -----------------------------------+----------+------------
+
+B. _Other skilled occupations_
+
+ --------------------------------------------------+-----------+--------
+ Occupation | Number |
+ --------------------------------------------------+-----------+--------
+ Tinners | 6967 |
+ Watch and clockmakers | 4444 |
+ Tobacco workers | 4350 |
+ Hat and capmakers | 4070 |
+ Barbers and hairdressers | 4054 |
+ Weavers and spinners | 3971 |
+ Tanners and curriers | 3715 |
+ Furriers and fur workers | 3144 |
+ Bookbinders | 3009 |
+ Masons | 2507 |
+ Plumbers | 2455 |
+ Saddlers and harness makers | 2311 |
+ Milliners | 2291 |
+ Metal workers (other than iron, steel and tin) | 2231 |
+ Machinists | 1907 |
+ Jewelers | 1837 |
+ Millers | 1390 |
+ Mechanics (not specified) | 1203 |
+ Upholsterers | 1109 |
+ Photographers | 1013 |
+ Iron and steel workers | 604 |
+ Textile workers (not specified) | 436 |
+ Others | 13938 |
+ --------------------------------------------------+-----------+--------
+ Total | 72956 |
+ +-----------+
+ Grand total | 395823 |
+ --------------------------------------------------+-----------+--------
+
+ [1] From _Reports of Commissioner-General of Immigration_.
+
+ [2] Seamstresses are included with dressmakers; cabinetmakers and
+ woodworkers (not specified) with carpenters and joiners.
+
+
+TABLE LV
+
+OCCUPATIONS OF TOTAL EUROPEAN AND JEWISH IMMIGRANTS, 1899 TO 1909, AND
+PERCENTAGE JEWISH OF TOTAL[1]
+
+ --------------------+------------+------------+----------
+ Group | Total | Jewish |Per cent
+ | immigrants | immigrants |of total
+ --------------------+------------+------------+----------
+ Professional | 803222 | 6836 | 8.5
+ Skilled laborers | 1247674 | 362936 | 29.1
+ Farm laborers | 1290295 | 9633 | 0.1
+ Farmers | 841466 | 908 | 1.1
+ Common laborers | 2282565 | 66311 | 2.9
+ Servants | 890093 | 61611 | 6.9
+ No occupation | 2165287 | 445728 | 20.6
+ Miscellaneous | 172652 | 36219 | 21.0
+ --------------------+------------+------------+----------
+ Total | 8213034 | 990182 | 12.1
+ --------------------+------------+------------+----------
+
+ [1] From _Emigration Conditions in Europe_, p. 27.
+
+
+TABLE LVI
+
+TOTAL EUROPEAN IMMIGRANTS[1] AND IMMIGRANTS WITHOUT OCCUPATION, 1899
+TO 1910[2]
+
+ --------------------------+-----------+------------------+---------
+ | Total |Without occupation|Per cent
+ People |Immigrants | (including women | of
+ | | and children) | total
+ --------------------------+-----------+------------------+---------
+ Jewish | 1074442 | 484175 | 45.1
+ Bohemian and Moravian | 100189 | 39700 | 39.5
+ Croatian and Slovenian | 355542 | 37219 | 11.1
+ English | 408614 | 158616 | 38.8
+ Finnish | 151774 | 28766 | 18.9
+ French | 115783 | 45745 | 39.5
+ German | 745375 | 296082 | 39.7
+ Greek | 216962 | 19244 | 8.9
+ Irish | 439724 | 63456 | 14.4
+ Italian, North | 372668 | 76046 | 20.4
+ Italian, South | 1911933 | 440274 | 23.0
+ Lithuanian | 175258 | 33718 | 19.2
+ Magyar | 338151 | 78875 | 23.3
+ Polish | 949064 | 200634 | 21.1
+ Ruthenian | 147375 | 18915 | 12.9
+ Scandinavian | 586306 | 111212 | 18.9
+ Scotch | 136842 | 47634 | 34.9
+ Slovak | 377527 | 87280 | 23.1
+ --------------------------+-----------+------------------+---------
+ Total | 9555673[3]| 2506713 | 26.2
+ --------------------------+-----------+------------------+---------
+
+ [1] All races with an immigration below 100,000 omitted.
+
+ [2] From _Statistical Review of Immigration_, p. 52.
+
+ [3] Total includes all races.
+
+
+TABLE LVII
+
+OCCUPATIONS OF EUROPEAN IMMIGRANTS[1] REPORTING EMPLOYMENT, 1899 TO
+1910[2]
+
+ ----------------+----------+--------------------------------------------
+ | | Per cent
+ | +------------+-----------+---------+---------
+ | | | |Laborers,|
+ | Number |In | |including|
+ | reporting|professional|In skilled |farm |Miscell-
+ People |employment|occupations |occupations|laborers |aneous
+ ----------------+----------+------------+-----------+---------+---------
+ Jewish | 590267 | 1.3 | 67.1 | 13.7 | 18.0
+ Bohemian and | | | | |
+ Moravia | 60489 | 1.3 | 40.8 | 28.5 | 29.4
+ Bulgarian, | | | | |
+ Servian and | | | | |
+ Montenegrin | 90991 | .1 | 3.3 | 92.0 | 4.6
+ Croatian and | | | | |
+ Slovenian | 298324 | .1 | 5.0 | 86.4 | 8.5
+ English | 249908 | 9.0 | 48.7 | 14.1 | 28.1
+ Finnish | 123008 | .3 | 6.0 | 67.2 | 26.5
+ French | 70038 | 9.3 | 34.5 | 26.0 | 30.2
+ German | 458293 | 3.5 | 30.0 | 37.7 | 28.8
+ Greek | 197718 | .3 | 7.7 | 86.2 | 5.8
+ Irish | 376268 | 1.3 | 12.6 | 35.2 | 50.9
+ Italian, North | 296622 | 1.1 | 20.4 | 66.5 | 12.0
+ Italian, South |1471659 | .4 | 14.6 | 77.0 | 7.9
+ Lithuanian | 141540 | .1 | 6.7 | 76.1 | 17.2
+ Magyar | 259276 | .5 | 8.6 | 77.5 | 13.4
+ Polish | 748430 | .2 | 6.3 | 75.3 | 18.1
+ Roumanian | 75531 | .2 | 2.7 | 93.8 | 3.3
+ Russian | 69986 | 1.4 | 9.1 | 82.7 | 6.8
+ Ruthenian | 128460 | .1 | 2.0 | 80.6 | 17.4
+ Scandinavian | 475094 | 1.2 | 20.5 | 43.8 | 34.5
+ Scotch | 89208 | 5.7 | 57.9 | 12.1 | 24.3
+ Slovak | 290247 | .1 | 4.4 | 80.0 | 15.5
+ ----------------+----------+------------+-----------+---------+---------
+ Total |7048953[3]| 1.4 | 20.2 | 79.3 | 19.1
+ ----------------+----------+------------+-----------+---------+---------
+
+ [1] All races with an immigration below 50,000 omitted.
+
+ [2] From _Statistical Review of Immigration_, p. 53.
+
+ [3] Total includes all races.
+
+
+TABLE LVIII
+
+OCCUPATIONS OF SLAVIC AND JEWISH IMMIGRANTS REPORTING EMPLOYMENT, 1899
+TO 1910[1]
+
+ ---------------+-----------+--------------------------------------------
+ | | Per cent
+ | +------------+-----------+----------+--------
+ | | | | Common |
+ People | | | | laborers |Miscel-
+ | No. |In |In |(including|laneous
+ | reporting |professional|skilled | farm |
+ |occupations|occupations |occupations| laborers)|
+ ---------------+-----------+------------+-----------+----------+--------
+ Jewish | 590267 | 1.3 | 67.1 | 13.7 | 18.0
+ Bohemian and | | | | |
+ Moravian | 60489 | 1.3 | 40.8 | 28.5 | 29.4
+ Bulgarian, | | | | |
+ Servian and | | | | |
+ Montenegrin | 90991 | .1 | 3.3 | 92.0 | 4.6
+ Croatian and | | | | |
+ Slovenian | 298324 | .1 | 5.0 | 86.4 | 8.5
+ Polish | 748430 | .2 | 6.3 | 75.3 | 18.1
+ Russian | 69986 | 1.4 | 9.1 | 82.7 | 6.8
+ Ruthenian | 128460 | .1 | 2.0 | 80.6 | 17.4
+ Slovak | 290247 | .1 | 4.4 | 80.0 | 15.5
+ ---------------+-----------+------------+-----------+----------+--------
+
+ [1] From _Statistical Review of Immigration_, p. 53.
+
+
+TABLE LIX
+
+OCCUPATIONS OF "OLD" AND "NEW" IMMIGRATION (JEWISH EXCEPTED) AND OF
+JEWISH IMMIGRATION, 1899 TO 1909[1]
+
+ ------------------+-----------------+-----------------+-----------------
+ | |"New" immigration| Jewish
+ |"Old" immigration|(Jewish excepted)| immigration
+ Occupations +-------+---------+-------+---------+-------+---------
+ | Number| Per cent| Number| Per cent| Number| Per cent
+ ------------------+-------+---------+-------+---------+-------+---------
+ Professional | 56406| 2.5 | 17080| .3 | 6836| .7
+ Skilled laborers | 442754| 19.5 | 441984| 8.9 | 362936| 36.7
+ Farm laborers | 138598| 6.1 |1142064| 23.1 | 9633| 1.0
+ Farmers | 40633| 1.8 | 42605| .9 | 908| .1
+ Common laborers | 402074| 17.7 |1814180| 36.7 | 66311| 6.7
+ Servants | 424698| 18.7 | 403784| 8.2 | 61611| 6.2
+ No occupation | 678510| 29.8 |1041049| 21.0 | 445728| 45.0
+ Miscellaneous | 90109| 4.0 | 46324| .9 | 36219| 3.7
+ ------------------+-------+---------+-------+---------+-------+---------
+ Total |2273782| 100.0 |4949070| 100.0 | 990182| 100.0
+ ------------------+-------+---------+-------+---------+-------+---------
+
+ [1] From _Emigration Conditions in Europe_, p. 29.
+
+
+TABLE LX
+
+ILLITERACY OF JEWISH IMMIGRANTS, 1899 TO 1910[1]
+
+ ---------+-----------------+-----------------------+-----------
+ |Jewish immigrants| Jewish immigrant | Per cent
+ Year | 14 years of age |illiterates[2] 14 years|illiterate
+ | and over | of age and over |
+ ---------+-----------------+-----------------------+-----------
+ 1899 | 28428 | 5637 | 19.5
+ 1900 | 47672 | 10607 | 22.2
+ 1901 | 43367 | 10119 | 23.3
+ 1902 | 42376 | 11921 | 28.1
+ 1903 | 57159 | 14980 | 26.2
+ 1904 | 82707 | 18763 | 22.6
+ 1905 | 101357 | 22770 | 22.4
+ 1906 | 110128 | 29444 | 26.7
+ 1907 | 111486 | 31885 | 28.6
+ 1908 | 77374 | 23217 | 30.3
+ 1909 | 42341 | 12201 | 28.8
+ 1910 | 62391 | 17963 | 28.8
+ ---------+-----------------+-----------------------+-----------
+ Total | 806786 | 209507 | 26.0
+ ---------+-----------------+-----------------------+-----------
+
+ [1] From _Reports of Commissioner-General of Immigration_.
+
+ [2] Those who could neither read nor write.
+
+
+TABLE LXI
+
+SEX OF JEWISH IMMIGRANT ILLITERATES, 1908 TO 1912[1]
+
+ ---------+---------------------+-----------------------------------
+ | | Jewish immigrant illiterates
+ | Jewish immigrants | 14 years of age and over
+ | 14 years of age |-----------------+-----------------
+ Year | and over | Number | Per cent
+ |----------+----------+--------+--------+--------+--------
+ | Male | Female | Male | Female | Male | Female
+ ---------+----------+----------+--------+--------+--------+--------
+ 1908 | 43270 | 34104 | 9455 | 13762 | 21.9 | 40.4
+ 1909 | 23452 | 18889 | 4832 | 7369 | 20.6 | 39.0
+ 1910 | 35272 | 27120 | 7593 | 10370 | 21.5 | 38.2
+ 1911 | 38018 | 31370 | 6453 | 10304 | 16.9 | 32.8
+ 1912 | 32706 | 27799 | 5637 | 9498 | 17.2 | 34.2
+ ---------+----------+----------+--------+--------+--------+--------
+ Total | 172718 | 139282 | 33970 | 51303 | 19.7 | 36.8
+ ---------+----------+----------+--------+--------+--------+--------
+
+ [1] In order to ascertain the number of males and females, 14 years
+ of age and over, the number of Jewish immigrants under 14 years
+ of age were distributed equally between the sexes. Subtracting
+ these respectively from the number of males and females, we
+ obtain the above totals. Cf. _Report of New York State
+ Commission on Immigration_, 1908, p. 171.
+
+
+TABLE LXII
+
+ILLITERACY OF EUROPEAN IMMIGRANTS,[1] 1899 to 1910[2]
+
+ ------------------------+---------------+---------------------------
+ | | Immigrant illiterates 14
+ | Immigrants 14 | years of age and over
+ People | years of age +-------------+-------------
+ | and over | Number | Per cent
+ ------------------------+---------------+-------------+-------------
+ Jewish | 806786 | 209507 | 26.0
+ Bohemian and Moravian | 79721 | 1322 | 1.7
+ Croatian and Slovenian | 320977 | 115785 | 36.1
+ English | 347458 | 3647 | 1.0
+ Finnish | 137916 | 1745 | 1.3
+ German | 625793 | 32236 | 5.2
+ Greek | 208608 | 55089 | 26.4
+ Irish | 416640 | 10721 | 2.6
+ Italian, North | 339301 | 38897 | 11.5
+ Italian, South | 1690376 | 911566 | 53.9
+ Lithuanian | 161441 | 79001 | 48.9
+ Magyar | 307082 | 35004 | 11.4
+ Polish | 861303 | 304675 | 35.4
+ Ruthenian | 140775 | 75165 | 53.4
+ Scandinavian | 530634 | 2221 | .4
+ Scotch | 115788 | 767 | .7
+ Slovak | 342583 | 82216 | 24.0
+ ------------------------+---------------+-------------+-------------
+ Total[3] | 8398624 | 2238801 | 26.7
+ ------------------------+---------------+-------------+-------------
+
+ [1] All peoples with an immigration below 100,000 excluded, except
+ the Bohemian and Moravian.
+
+ [2] From _Statistical Review of Immigration_, p. 51.
+
+ [3] Total for all races.
+
+
+TABLE LXIII
+
+ILLITERACY OF "OLD" AND "NEW" IMMIGRATION (JEWISH EXCEPTED) AND OF
+JEWISH IMMIGRATION, 1899 TO 1909[1]
+
+ ---------------------+-----------------+---------------------------
+ | | Immigrant illiterates 14
+ | Immigrants 14 | years of age and over
+ Classed | years of age +------------+--------------
+ | and over | Number | Per cent
+ ---------------------+-----------------+------------+--------------
+ Old immigration | 1983618 | 52833 | 2.7
+ New immigration | | |
+ (Jewish excepted) | 4471047 | 1667754 | 37.3
+ Jewish immigration | 744395 | 191544 | 25.7
+ ---------------------+-----------------+------------+--------------
+ Total | 7199060 | 1912131 | 26.6
+ ---------------------+-----------------+------------+--------------
+
+ [1] From _Emigration Conditions in Europe_, p. 30.
+
+
+TABLE LXIV
+
+ILLITERACY OF PEOPLES FROM EASTERN EUROPE, 1899 TO 1910[1]
+
+ ---------------------+-----------------+-------------------------
+ | Immigrants 14 | Illiterates
+ People | years of age +------------+------------
+ | and over | Number | Per cent.
+ ---------------------+-----------------+------------+------------
+ Jewish | 806786 | 209507 | 26.0
+ Lithuanian | 161441 | 79001 | 48.9
+ Polish | 861303 | 304675 | 35.4
+ Russian | 77479 | 29777 | 38.4
+ Ruthenian | 140775 | 75165 | 63.4
+ ---------------------+-----------------+------------+------------
+ [1] From _Statistical Review of Immigration_, p. 51.
+
+
+TABLE LXV
+
+SEX OF ILLITERATES OF PEOPLES FROM EASTERN EUROPE, 1908[1]
+
+ ---------------+-----------------------+---------------------
+ | Number illiterates 14 | Per cent.
+ | years and over |
+ Race +-----------+-----------+----------+----------
+ | Male | Female | Male | Female
+ ---------------+-----------+-----------+----------+----------
+ Jewish | 9455 | 13762 | 21.9 | 40.4
+ Lithuanian | 4215 | 2897 | 53.4 | 63.4
+ Polish | 14573 | 8813 | 36.7 | 42.9
+ Russian | 5820 | 828 | 40.1 | 50.8
+ Ruthenian | 4203 | 1836 | 49.6 | 57.4
+ ---------------+-----------+-----------+----------+----------
+
+ [1] From _Report of New York State Commission on Immigration_,
+ 1908, p. 171.
+
+
+TABLE LXVI
+
+DESTINATION OF JEWISH IMMIGRANTS, 1899 TO 1910, BY DIVISION[1]
+
+ --------------------------+-------------------+----------
+ Division | Jewish immigrants | Per cent
+ --------------------------+-------------------+----------
+ North Atlantic States | 923549 | 86.0
+ North Central States | 110998 | 10.3
+ South Atlantic States | 25149 | 2.3
+ South Central States | 8324 | .8
+ Western States | 6384 | .6
+ --------------------------+-------------------+----------
+ Total | 1074404[2] | 100.0
+ --------------------------+-------------------+----------
+
+ [1] From _Reports of Commissioner-General of Immigration_.
+
+ [2] 27 were destined for Alaska, Hawaii, and Porto Rico, and 11 were
+ tourists.
+
+
+TABLE LXVII
+
+DESTINATION OF JEWISH IMMIGRANTS, 1899 to 1910, BY PRINCIPAL STATES
+
+ ----------------+-------------------+-------------------
+ State | Jewish immigrants | Per cent of total
+ ----------------+-------------------+-------------------
+ New York | 690296 | 64.2
+ Pennsylvania | 108534 | 10.1
+ Massachusetts | 66023 | 6.1
+ Illinois | 59931 | 4.7
+ New Jersey | 31279 | 3.2
+ Ohio | 20531 | 1.9
+ Maryland | 18700 | 1.7
+ Connecticut | 16254 | 1.5
+ Missouri | 12476 | 1.2
+ Minnesota | 7029 | .7
+ Wisconsin | 6369 | .6
+ Michigan | 5970 | .6
+ Rhode Island | 5023 | .5
+ All others | 31989 | 3.0
+ ----------------+-------------------+-------------------
+ Total | 1074404[1] | 100.0
+ ----------------+-------------------+-------------------
+
+ [1] _Cf._ note 2 of table LXVI.
+
+TABLE LXVIII
+
+PERCENTAGE OF JEWISH AND TOTAL IMMIGRANTS DESTINED FOR EACH DIVISION,
+1899 TO 1910[1]
+
+ -----------------------+------------------+-------------------
+ Division | Per cent of | Per cent of
+ | total immigrants | Jewish immigrants
+ -----------------------+------------------+-------------------
+ South Atlantic States | 67.5 | 86.0
+ North Central States | 22.4 | 10.3
+ South Atlantic States | 2.7 | 2.3
+ South Central States | 1.8 | .8
+ Western | 5.6 | .6
+ -----------------------+------------------+-------------------
+ Total | 100.0 | 100.0
+ -----------------------+------------------+-------------------
+
+ [1] From _Reports of Commissioner-General of Immigration_.
+
+
+TABLE LXIX
+
+PARTICIPATION OF JEWISH IMMIGRANTS IN DESTINATION OF TOTAL IMMIGRANTS,
+1899 TO 1910, BY DIVISION
+
+ -----------------+--------------+-------------+-----------------
+ Division | Total | Jewish | Per cent
+ | immigrants | immigrants | Jewish of total
+ -----------------+--------------+-------------+-----------------
+ North Atlantic | 6368243 | 923549 | 14.5
+ North Central | 2116327 | 110998 | 5.2
+ South Atlantic | 254936 | 25149 | 9.9
+ South Central | 167437 | 8324 | 5.0
+ Western | 532824 | 6384 | 1.2
+ -----------------+--------------+-------------+-----------------
+ Total | 9439757 | 1074404[2] | 11.4
+ -----------------+--------------+-------------+-----------------
+
+ [1] From _Reports of Commissioner-General of Immigration_.
+
+ [2] _Cf._ note 2 of table LXVI.
+
+
+
+
+APPENDICES
+
+
+
+
+APPENDIX A.
+
+PRESIDENT HARRISON'S MESSAGE TO CONGRESS, DECEMBER 9, 1891.[141]
+
+
+This Government has found occasion to express in a friendly spirit,
+but with much earnestness, to the Government of the Czar its concern
+because of the harsh measures now being enforced against the Hebrews
+in Russia. By the revival of antisemitic laws, long in abeyance, great
+numbers of those unfortunate people have been constrained to abandon
+their homes and leave the Empire by reason of the impossibility of
+finding subsistence within the pale to which it is sought to confine
+them. The immigration of these people to the United States--many other
+countries being closed to them--is largely increasing and is likely to
+assume proportions which may make it difficult to find homes and
+employment for them here and to seriously affect the labor market. It
+is estimated that over 1,000,000 will be forced from Russia in a few
+years. The Hebrew is never a beggar; he has always kept the law--life
+by toil--often under severe and oppressive civil restrictions. It is
+also true that no race, set or class has more fully cared for its own
+than the Hebrew race. But the sudden transfer of such a multitude
+under conditions that tend to strip them of their small accumulations
+and to depress their energies and courage is neither good for them nor
+for us.
+
+The banishment, whether by direct decree or by not less certain
+indirect methods, of so large a number of men and women is not a local
+question. A decree to leave one country is in the nature of things an
+order to enter another--some other. This consideration, as well as the
+suggestion of humanity, furnishes ample ground for the remonstrances
+which we have presented to Russia, while our historic friendship for
+that government can not fail to give assurance that our
+representations are those of a sincere wellwisher.
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+[141] (_Messages and Papers of the Presidents_, 1789-1897, vol. ix,
+1889-97, p. 188. Washington, 1898).
+
+
+
+
+APPENDIX B.
+
+ARTICLE VII OF THE CONSTITUTION OF ROUMANIA.
+
+
+Difference in religious beliefs and confessions does not constitute in
+Roumania an obstacle to the obtainment of civil and political rights,
+nor to the exercise of these rights.
+
+(1) A foreigner without distinction of religion, and whether a subject
+or not of a foreign government, can become naturalized under the
+following conditions:
+
+(a) He shall address to the government an application for
+naturalization, in which he shall indicate the capital he possesses,
+the profession or craft which he follows, and his abode in Roumania.
+
+(b) He shall reside, after this application, ten years in the country,
+and prove, by action, that he is of service to it.
+
+(2) The following may be exempted from the intermediary stages:
+
+(a) Those who have brought into the country industries, useful
+inventions, or talent, or who have founded large establishments of
+commerce or industry.
+
+(b) Those who, born and bred in Roumania, of parents established in
+the country, have never been subjected, either themselves or their
+parents, to any protection by a foreign power.
+
+(c) Those who have served under the colors during the war of
+independence; these may be naturalized collectively by government
+decree, by a single resolution, and without any further formality.
+
+(3) Naturalization can not be given except by law, and individually.
+
+(4) A special law shall determine the manner in which foreigners may
+establish their home on Roumanian territory.
+
+(5) Only Roumanians, and those who have been naturalized Roumanians,
+can buy rural estates in Roumania.
+
+
+
+
+APPENDIX C.
+
+SECRETARY HAY'S NOTE.
+
+
+ DEPARTMENT OF STATE, }
+ WASHINGTON, _August 11, 1902_. }
+
+"Excellency:--In the course of an instruction recently sent to the
+Minister accredited to the Government of Roumania in regard to the
+bases of negotiation begun with that government looking to a
+convention of naturalization between the United States and Roumania,
+certain considerations were set forth for the Minister's guidance
+concerning the character of the emigration from that country, the
+causes which constrain it, and the consequences so far as they
+adversely affect the United States.
+
+"It has seemed to the President appropriate that these considerations,
+relating as they do to the obligations entered into by the signatories
+of the Treaty of Berlin, of July 13, 1878, should be brought to the
+attention of the Governments concerned, and commended to their
+consideration in the hope that, if they are so fortunate as to meet
+the approval of the several Powers, such measures as to them may seem
+wise may be taken to persuade the Government of Roumania to reconsider
+the subject of the grievances in question.
+
+"The United States welcomes now, as it has welcomed from the
+foundation of its Government, the voluntary immigration of all aliens
+coming hither under conditions fitting them to become merged in the
+body politic of this land. Our laws provide the means for them to
+become incorporated indistinguishably in the mass of citizens, and
+prescribe their absolute equality with the native born, guaranteeing
+to them equal civil rights at home and equal protection abroad. The
+conditions are few, looking to their coming as free agents, so
+circumstanced physically and morally as to supply the healthful and
+intelligent material of free citizenhood. The pauper, the criminal,
+the contagiously or incurably diseased are excluded from the benefits
+of immigration only when they are likely to become a source of danger
+or a burden upon the community. The voluntary character of their
+coming is essential; hence we shut out all immigration assisted or
+constrained by foreign agencies. The purpose of our generous treatment
+of the alien immigrant is to benefit us and him alike--not to afford
+to another state a field upon which to cast its own objectionable
+elements. The alien, coming hither voluntarily and prepared to take
+upon himself the preparatory and in due course the definitive
+obligations of citizenship, retains thereafter, in domestic and
+international relations, the initial character of free agency, in the
+full enjoyment of which it is incumbent upon his adoptive State to
+protect him.
+
+"The foregoing considerations, whilst pertinent to the examination of
+the purpose and scope of a naturalization treaty, have a larger aim.
+It behooves the State to scrutinize most jealously the character of
+the immigration from a foreign land, and, if it be obnoxious to
+objection, to examine the causes which render it so. Should those
+causes originate in the act of another sovereign State, to the
+detriment of its neighbors, it is the prerogative of an injured State,
+to point out the evil and to make remonstrance: for with nations, as
+with individuals the social law holds good, that the right of each is
+bounded by the right of the neighbor.
+
+"The condition of a large class of the inhabitants of Roumania has for
+many years been a source of grave concern to the United States. I
+refer to the Roumanian Jews, numbering some 400,000. Long ago, while
+the Danubian principalities labored under oppressive conditions, which
+only war and a general action of European powers sufficed to end, the
+persecution of the indigenous Jews under Turkish rule called forth in
+1872 the strong remonstrance of the United States. The Treaty of
+Berlin was hailed as a cure for the wrong, in view of the express
+provisions of its forty-fourth article, prescribing that "in
+Roumania, the difference of religious creeds and confessions shall not
+be alleged against any person as ground for exclusion or incapacity in
+matters relating to the enjoyment of civil and political rights,
+admission to public employments, functions, and honors, or the
+exercise of the various professions and industries in any locality
+whatsoever," and stipulating freedom in the exercise of all forms of
+worship to Roumanian dependents and foreigners alike, as well as
+guaranteeing that all foreigners in Roumania shall be treated, without
+distinction of creed, on a footing of perfect equality.
+
+"With the lapse of time these just prescriptions have been rendered
+nugatory in great part, as regards the native Jews, by the legislation
+and municipal regulations of Roumania. Starting from the arbitrary and
+controvertible premise that the native Jews of Roumania domiciled
+there for centuries are "aliens not subject to foreign protection,"
+the ability of the Jew to earn even the scanty means of existence that
+suffice for a frugal race has been constricted by degrees, until
+nearly every opportunity to win a livelihood is denied; and until the
+helpless poverty of the Jew has constrained an exodus of such
+proportions as to cause general concern.
+
+"The political disabilities of the Jews in Roumania, their exclusion
+from the public service and the learned professions, the limitations
+of their civil rights and the imposition upon them of exceptional
+taxes, involving as they do wrongs repugnant to the moral sense of
+liberal modern peoples, are not so directly in point for my present
+purpose as the public acts which attack the inherent right of man as a
+breadwinner in the ways of agriculture and trade. The Jews are
+prohibited from owning land, or even from cultivating it as common
+laborers. They are debarred from residing in the rural districts. Many
+branches of petty trade and manual production are closed to them in
+the overcrowded cities where they are forced to dwell and engage,
+against fearful odds, in the desperate struggle for existence. Even as
+ordinary artisans or hired laborers they may only find employment in
+proportion of one "unprotected alien" to two "Roumanians" under any
+one employer. In short, by the cumulative effect of successive
+restrictions, the Jews of Roumania have become reduced to a state of
+wretched misery. Shut out from nearly every avenue of self-support
+which is open to the poor of other lands, and ground down by poverty
+as the natural result of their discriminatory treatment, they are
+rendered incapable of lifting themselves from the enforced degradation
+they endure. Even were the fields of education, of civil employment
+and of commerce open to them as to "Roumanian citizens," their penury
+would prevent their rising by individual effort. Human beings so
+circumstanced have virtually no alternatives but submissive suffering
+or flight to some land less unfavorable to them. Removal under such
+conditions is not and cannot be the healthy, intelligent emigration of
+a free and self-reliant being. It must be, in most cases, the mere
+transplantation of an artificially produced diseased growth to a new
+place.
+
+"Granting that, in better and more healthful surroundings, the morbid
+conditions will eventually change for good, such emigration is
+necessarily for a time a burden to the community upon which the
+fugitives may be cast. Self-reliance and the knowledge and ability
+that evolve the power of self-support must be developed, and, at the
+same time, avenues of employment must be opened in quarters where
+competition is already keen and opportunities scarce. The teachings of
+history and the experience of our own nation show that the Jews
+possess in a high degree the mental and moral qualifications of
+conscientious citizenhood. No class of immigrants is more welcome to
+our shores, when coming equipped in mind and body for entrance upon
+the struggle for bread, and inspired with the high purpose to give the
+best service of heart and brain to the land they adopt of their own
+free will. But when they come as outcasts, made doubly paupers by
+physical and moral oppression in their native land, and thrown upon
+the long-suffering generosity of a more favored community, their
+migration lacks the essential conditions which make alien immigration
+either acceptable or beneficial. So well is this appreciated on the
+Continent that, even in the countries where anti-Semitism has no
+foothold, it is difficult for these fleeing Jews to obtain any
+lodgment. America is their only goal.
+
+"The United States offers asylum to the oppressed of all lands. But
+its sympathy with them in no wise impairs its just liberty and right
+to weigh the acts of the oppressor in the light of their effects upon
+this country and to judge accordingly.
+
+"Putting together the facts now plainly brought home to this
+Government during the past few years, that many of the inhabitants of
+Roumania are being forced, by artificially adverse discriminations, to
+quit their native country; that the hospitable asylum offered by this
+country is almost the only refuge left to them; that they come hither
+unfitted, by the conditions of their exile, to take part in the new
+life of this land under circumstances either profitable to themselves
+or beneficial to the community; and that they are objects of charity
+from the outset and for a long time--the right of remonstrance against
+the acts of the Roumanian Government is clearly established in favor
+of this Government. Whether consciously and of purpose or not, these
+helpless people, burdened and spurned by their native land, are forced
+by the sovereign power of Roumania upon the charity of the United
+States. This Government cannot be a tacit party to such an
+international wrong. It is constrained to protest against the
+treatment to which the Jews of Roumania are subjected, not alone
+because it has unimpeachable ground to remonstrate against the
+resultant injury to itself, but in the name of humanity. The United
+States may not authoritatively appeal to the stipulations of the
+Treaty of Berlin to which it was not and cannot become a signatory,
+but it does earnestly appeal to the principles consigned therein
+because they are the principles of international law and eternal
+justice, advocating the broad toleration which that solemn compact
+enjoins and standing ready to lend its moral support to the fulfilment
+thereof by its co-signatories, for the act of Roumania itself has
+effectively joined the United States to them as an interested party in
+this regard.
+
+"You will take an early occasion to read this instruction to the
+Minister for Foreign Affairs and, should he request it, leave with him
+a copy.
+
+ "I have the honor to be,
+ "Your obedient servant,
+ "JOHN HAY".
+
+
+
+
+BIBLIOGRAPHY
+
+ (All works referred to in the text are given below. A number of
+ other works that have been found useful are also included.)
+
+
+ Alexinsky, Gregor. _Modern Russia._ New York, Charles Scribner's
+ Sons, 1913.
+
+ _Alliance Israelite Universelle_, 1870 to 1900.
+
+ _The American Jewish Year Book._ Philadelphia, Jewish Publication
+ Society of America, 1900-1913.
+
+ ---- 1913. Jewish Immigration to the United States, pp. 283-4.
+
+ Association for the Protection of Jewish Immigrants of
+ Philadelphia. _Annual Reports_, 1885 to 1910.
+
+ Balch, Emily Greene. _Our Slavic Fellow-Citizens._ New York
+ Charities Publication Committee, 1910.
+
+ Bluntschli. Dr. _Roumania and the Legal Status of the Jews in
+ Roumania._ London, Anglo-Jewish Association, 1879.
+
+ Buzek, Dr. Joseph. "Das Auswanderungsproblem in Oesterreich,"
+ _Zeitschrift fuer Volkswirtschaft, Sozialpolitik und
+ Verwaltung_, vol. 10, 1901.
+
+ Carmen Sylva. "Roumania and the Foreigners," _Century_, March,
+ 1906.
+
+ Charmatz, Richard. _Deutsch-Oesterreichische Politik._ Leipzig,
+ Duncker und Humblot, 1907.
+
+ Demidoff San Donato, Prince. _The Jewish Question in Russia._
+ London, Darling & Son, 1884.
+
+ _Die Judenpogromen in Russland._ 2 vols. Koeln, Juedischer Verlag,
+ 1910.
+
+ English Royal Commission on Alien Immigration, 1904.
+
+ _Enquete sur les Artisans--premiere partie_, Ministere de
+ l'Industrie et du Commerce, Royaume de Roumanie, Bucarest
+ 1909.
+
+ Fairchild. _Immigration._ New York, Macmillan Co., 1913.
+
+ Frederic, Harold. _The New Exodus._ New York, G.P. Putnam's Sons,
+ 1892.
+
+ Goldberg. "Die Juden unter der staedtischer Bevoelkerung Russlands."
+ _Zeitschrift fuer Demographie und Statistik der Juden._ Bureau
+ fuer Statistik der Juden, Berlin.
+
+ _Grenzboten_, vol. 62, 1903. (1) "Galizische Wirtschaft." (2)
+ "Galizien."
+
+ Hersch, L. _Le Juif errant d'aujourd'hui._ Paris, M. Giard et E.
+ Briere, 1913.
+
+ Hillman, Anselm. _Juedisches Genossenschaftswesen in Russland_,
+ Bureau fuer Statistik der Juden, Berlin, 1911.
+
+ Immigration Commission. _Emigration Conditions in Europe._ Report
+ to 61st Congress, 2nd Session, Senate Document No. 748,
+ Washington, 1911.
+
+ ---- _Conclusions and Recommendations._
+
+ ---- _Abstract of Emigration Conditions in Europe._
+
+ ---- _Abstract of Statistical Review of Immigration to the United
+ States, 1820-1910._ Washington, 1911.
+
+ _Jewish Chronicle_, 1875-1910.
+
+ _Jewish Encyclopedia._ 1. "Antisemitism." 2. "Austria." 3.
+ "Migration." 4. "Roumania." 5. "Russia."
+
+ Jorga, N. _Geschichte des Rumaenischen Volkes._ 2 vols. Gotha,
+ Fredrich Andreas Perthes, 1905.
+
+ Juedische Statistik, Berlin, Juedischer Verlag, 1903.
+
+ ---- _Enquete ueber die Lage der juedischen Bevoelkerung Galiziens_,
+ von Dr. S. Fleischer.
+
+ ---- _Zur Bewegung der juedischen Bevoelkerung in Galizien_, von Dr.
+ A. Korkis.
+
+ Kogalniceanu, Vasile M. "Die Agrarfrage in Rumaenien." _Archiv fuer
+ Sozialwissenschaft und Sozialpolitik_, vol. 32, 1911.
+
+ Kovalevsky, Maxim. _La crise russe._ V. Giard et E. Briere, Paris,
+ 1906.
+
+ ---- _Russian Political Institutions._ University of Chicago
+ Press, 1902.
+
+ Landa, M.J. _The Alien Problem and its Remedy._ London, P.S. King
+ & Son, 1911.
+
+ _La question juive dans les Chambres roumaines._ Seconde edition.
+ Paris, Ch. Marechal, 1879.
+
+ Lazare, Bernard. _Die Juden in Rumaenien._ H.S. Hermann, Berlin,
+ 1902.
+
+ Leroy-Beaulieu, Anatole. _The Empire of the Tsars._ 3 vols. New
+ York, G.P. Putnam's Sons, 1894.
+
+ Loeb, Isidore. _La Situation des Israelites en Turquie, en Serbie
+ et en Roumanie._ Paris, Joseph Baer et Cie, 1877.
+
+ Margolin, Salomon. "Die wirtschaftliche Lage der juedischen
+ arbeitenden Klassen in Russland." _Archiv fuer
+ Sozialwissenschaft und Sozialpolitik._ Band 26, Heft I.
+
+ Milyoukov, Paul. _Russia and its Crisis._ University of Chicago
+ Press, 1905.
+
+ Palmer, Francis H.E. _Austro-Hungarian Life in Town and Country._
+ New York, G.P. Putnam's Sons, 1903.
+
+ ---- _Russian Life in Town and Country._ New York, G.P. Putnam's
+ Sons, 1903.
+
+ _Persecution of the Jews in Russia_ (issued by the Russo-Jewish
+ committee of London). Philadelphia, Jewish Publication Society
+ of America, 1891.
+
+ _Reports of the Commissioner-General of Immigration_, 1881 to
+ 1912.
+
+ _Report on the Causes inciting Immigration to the United States_,
+ 1892.
+
+ Rubinow, I.M. _Economic Condition of the Jews in Russia._ Bulletin
+ of the Bureau of Labor, Department of Commerce and Labor,
+ Washington, 1907.
+
+ Ruppin, Dr. A. _Die Sozialen Verhaeltnisse der Juden in Russland._
+ Berlin, Juedischer Verlag, 1906.
+
+ ---- _Die Juden in Rumaenien._ Bureau fuer Statistik der Juden. Heft
+ 5. Louis Lamm, Berlin, 1908.
+
+ ---- _The Jews of To-Day._ New York, Henry Holt & Co., 1913.
+
+ Schulze-Gaevernitz, Dr. G. von. _Volkswirtschaftliche Studien aus
+ Russland._ Leipzig, 1899.
+
+ Semenoff, E. _The Russian Government and the Jewish Massacres._
+ London, John Murray, 1907.
+
+ Simkhovitch, Valdimir G. "An Interpretation of Russian Autocracy."
+ _The International Quarterly_, Oct., 1904.
+
+ Sincerus, Edmond. _Les Juifs en Roumanie._ New York, Macmillan &
+ Co., 1901.
+
+ Sturdza, A.A.C. _La Terre et la Race roumaines._ Paris, Lucien
+ Lavens, 1904.
+
+ Sulzberger, David. _The Beginnings of Russo-Jewish Immigration to
+ Philadelphia._ Publications of the American Jewish Historical
+ Society, No. 19, 1910.
+
+ Thon, Dr. Jacob. _Die Juden in Oesterreich._ Bureau fuer Statistik
+ der Juden. Heft 4. Louis Lamm, Berlin, 1908.
+
+ United Hebrew Charities of New York, _Annual Reports_, 1884 to
+ 1910.
+
+ Urussov, Prince Serge. _Memoirs of a Russian Governor._ New York,
+ Harper Bros., 1908.
+
+ Wallace, Sir Donald Mackenzie. _Russia._ 2nd edition. New York,
+ Henry Holt & Co., 1905.
+
+ White, Andrew D. _Autobiography._ 2 vols. New York, Century Co.,
+ 1905.
+
+ Witte, S.J. _Vorlesungen ueber Volks und Staatswirtschaft._
+ Stuttgart and Berlin, 1913.
+
+ Wolf, Lucien. _The Legal Sufferings of the Jews in Russia._
+ London, T. Fisher Unwin, 1912.
+
+
+
+
+ * * * * *
+
+
+
+
+ +-------------------------------------------------------------+
+ | Typographical errors corrected in text: |
+ | |
+ | Page 74: acordance replaced with accordance |
+ | Page 75: elementay replaced with elementary |
+ | Page 103: Jewism replaced with Jewish |
+ | Page 183: Croation replaced with Croatian |
+ | Page 185: Croation replaced with Croatian |
+ | Page 187: Commissiomer replaced with Commissioner |
+ | Page 196: Table LXIX (2nd) North Central replaced with |
+ | South Central |
+ | |
+ | On page 146 the typesetter misplaced four lines of text: |
+ | "Out of a total |
+ | this country from 1899 to 1910, 209,507 or 26 per |
+ | of 806,786 Jews fourteen years of age and over who entered |
+ | cent, were unable to read and write." |
+ | This has been changed to read: |
+ | "Out of a total |
+ | of 806,786 Jews fourteen years of age and over who entered |
+ | this country from 1899 to 1910, 209,507 or 26 per |
+ | cent, were unable to read and write." |
+ | |
+ +-------------------------------------------------------------+
+
+
+
+***END OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK JEWISH IMMIGRATION TO THE UNITED
+STATES FROM 1881 TO 1910***
+
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