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| author | Roger Frank <rfrank@pglaf.org> | 2025-10-14 20:03:48 -0700 |
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| committer | Roger Frank <rfrank@pglaf.org> | 2025-10-14 20:03:48 -0700 |
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You may copy it, give it away or +re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included +with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org + + +Title: Wood and Forest + +Author: William Noyes + +Release Date: February 27, 2011 [EBook #35419] + +Language: English + +Character set encoding: ISO-8859-1 + +*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK WOOD AND FOREST *** + + + + +Produced by Lesley Halamek, Peter Vachuska, Chris Curnow and the +Online Distributed Proofreading Team at https://www.pgdp.net + + + + + + +</pre> + + <table class="tn" summary="tn" align="center" style="margin-bottom: 3em;"> +<tr> + <td class="note"> + <a name="note" id="note"></a> + + <h4>Transcriber's Note:</h4> + +<p>'M', in the context of lumber measurement, means '1000 +feet'. From 'Handwork in Wood'*, Chapter III, page 48. Also (ibid): +"There are several methods of measuring lumber. The general rule is to multiply +the length in feet by the width and thickness in inches and divide by 12, thus: +1" × 6" × 15' ÷ 12 = 7½ feet."</p> +<p class="note3">* By the same author: [https://www.gutenberg.org/etext/20846].</p> + +<p>In the interests of clarity, some Illustrations have been moved closer to their +descriptive text, and links to some page numbers adjusted.</p> + +<p>Hyphenation and spelling are not uniform throughout this book, e.g., 'sapwood' +and 'sap-wood' both occur; '<i>Columbian Timber-beetle</i>' and 'Columbian timber beetle' +occur in the same paragraph.</p> + +<p>Chapter II has three types of footnotes, with different notations. References to +the author's previous book, being short, are placed at the end of the paragraph; +numbered technical or tabular footnotes, or footnotes referencing other publications are +collected at the end of the Chapter, before the Chapter Bibliography; and +Chapter Bibliography footnotes are placed at the end of the Chapter +Bibliography. In later Chapters, numbered footnotes are placed either at the end of the +Chapter (before the Bibliography) or at the end of a relevant section of a +Chapter.</p> + +<p>Chapter III (et alia): As this e-book has been prepared from scanned images, +it is impossible to accurately depict the sizes of some of the illustrations. Each 'Leaf' illustration +is supplied with a 1 inch scale measure, as the size of the leaves and cone/fruit varied considerably. However, +the cross-sections of wood were shown as 'magnified 37½ diameters', and the radial and tangential +sections were shown 'life size', and the illustrations in the original book were of uniform size. The illustrations of the sections +in this e-book are of uniform size, but the correct size of each would be somewhere between the image on the page +and the enlargement.</p> + +<p>Chapter III lists 67 trees; The (following) Lists from the Jesup +Collection list 66 trees, including the 'tied place' trees. The tree +missing from the Jesup Collection is No. 18: Western Hemlock, or Black +Hemlock.</p> + +<p>Sundry damaged or missing punctuation has been repaired.</p> + +<p>Page 18: 'sumac' and 'sumach'. Both spellings correct. Also 'sumak', shoomak. +From Arabic 'summāq'. (Oxford).</p> + +<p>Page 19: 'charactistic' corrected to 'characteristic' ... "and give the +characteristic pleasing "grain" of wood."</p> + +<p>Page 23: inconsistent spelling—<i>tracheæ</i>, tracheae. The two spellings +occur in the book; also trachæids, tracheids. All have been retained. The +author's bibliography is extensive.</p> + +<p>Page 124 etc.: The Allegheny Mountain Range (also spelled Alleghany and +Allegany, ~Wikipedia).</p> + +<p>Page 143: 'distinguised' corrected to 'distinguished' ... "Not distinguished +from white oak in the market."</p> + +<p>Page 180: diameter, '1"-6", even 5';' corrected to 'diameter, 1'6"-3'6", even +5';' (Wikipedia)</p> + +<p>Page 182: 'scambucifolia' corrected to 'sambucifolia' ... "<i>Fraxinus nigra</i> +Marshall. <i>Fraxinus sambucifolia</i>."</p> + +<p>Page 186: 'cleavabilty' corrected to 'cleavability' ... "refers to the +cleavability of the wood;"</p> + +<p>Page 268: Fig. 118 text: Basswood, 1st and 2d, 1" x 8" and up by x 00". +and: White pine, rough uppers, 1" x 8" and up x 00'. +This is as printed; the transcriber has no idea what was meant by '00"' +and '00'', or what it should have been.</p> + +<p>Page 292: 'miscroscopic' corrected to 'microscopic' ..."Of microscopic +features, the following only have been referred to:" </p> + +<p>Page 304: 'Agaricus mellens' corrected to 'Agaricus melleus'.</p> + +<p>The corrections made are also indicated by dotted lines under the corrections. +Scroll the mouse over the word and the original text will <ins title="Transcriber's Note: original reads 'apprear'">appear</ins>.</p> + +<p>The (archaic) U.S. American spellings, 'drouth' (='drought'), 'thoroly', +'tho', 'altho', 'tire' (='tyre'), etc., are correct.</p> + +<p>Parts of the Appendix have been re-arranged for smoother flow.</p> + +<p>The 'Additional Notes....' were on the lower half of the pages, +separated from the 'Key' by a double line. They have been gathered +together after their relevant section, and separated from the Appendix +proper by double lines:</p> + +<hr class="full" style="color: #000; height: 1px; margin-bottom: -11px;" /> +<hr class="full" style="color: #000; height: 1px; margin-top: -11px;" /> + +</td></tr></table> + +<hr class="full" /> + +<h1> WOOD AND FOREST</h1> + +<h3 style="margin-top: 3em;"> <i>By</i> WILLIAM NOYES, M.A.</h3> + +<h5>Formerly Assistant Professor of Industrial Arts<br /> + Teachers College, Columbia University</h5> + +<h4> NEW YORK CITY</h4> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 200px;"><img src="images/front-200.png" width="200" height="248" alt="seal" /></div> + +<h5> <span class="sc">The Manual Arts Press</span></h5> + +<h5> <span class="sc">Peoria, Illinois</span></h5> + +<h5 style="margin-top: 5em;"> COPYRIGHT</h5> + +<h5> WILLIAM NOYES</h5> + +<h5> 1912</h5> + +<h5> <i>FIFTH EDITION, 1921</i></h5> + +<h6 style="margin-top: 5em;"><i>Printed in United States of America</i></h6> + +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page1" id="page1"></a>1</span> + +<h3 style="margin-top: 3em;">FOREWORD</h3> + +<p>This book has been prepared as a companion volume to the author's +<i>Handwork in Wood</i>.<a id="footnotetagF1" name="footnotetagF1"></a><a href="#footnoteF1"><sup>1</sup></a> It is an attempt to collect and arrange +in available form useful information, now widely scattered, about +our common woods, their sources, growth, properties and uses.</p> + +<p>As in the other volume, the credit for the successful completion +of the book is to be given to my wife, Anna Gausmann Noyes, who +has made the drawings and maps, corrected the text, read the proof, +and carried the work thru to its final completion.</p> + +<p>Acknowledgments are hereby thankfully made for corrections and +suggestions in the text to the following persons:</p> + +<p>Mr. A. D. Hopkins, of the United States Department of Agriculture, +Bureau of Entomology, for revision of the text relating to +Insect Enemies of the Forest, in Chapter VI.</p> + +<p>Mr. George G. Hedgcock, of the United States Bureau of Agriculture, +Bureau of Plant Industry, for revision of the text relating +to the fungal enemies of the forest, in Chapter VI.</p> + +<p>Mr. S. T. Dana and Mr. Burnett Barrows, of the United States +Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, for revision of Chapters +IV, V, VI, VII, and VIII.</p> + +<p>Professor Charles R. Richards, formerly Head of the Manual +Training Department of Teachers College, my predecessor as lecturer +of the course out of which this book has grown.</p> + +<p>Professor M. A. Bigelow, Head of the Department of Botany of +Teachers College, for revision of Chapter I, on the Structure of Wood.</p> + +<p>Mr. Romeyn B. Hough, of Lowville, N. Y., author of <i>American +Woods</i> and <i>Handbook of the Trees of the Northern States and Canada</i>, +for suggestions in preparing the maps in Chapter III.</p> + +<p>The Forest Service, Washington, D. C., for photographs and +maps credited to it, and for permission to reprint the key to the +identification of woods which appears in Forest Service Bulletin No. +10, <i>Timber</i>, by Filibert Roth.</p> + +<p>The Division of Publications, U. S. Department of Agriculture, +for permission to copy illustrations in bulletins.</p> +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page2" id="page2"></a>2</span> + +<p>The Macmillan Company, New York, for permission to reproduce +Fig. 86, Portion of the Mycelium of Dry Rot, from <i>Timber and +Some of its Diseases</i>, by H. M. Ward.</p> + +<p>Mrs. Katharine Golden Bitting, of Lafayette, Indiana, for the +photograph of the cross-section of a bud, Figure 5.</p> + +<p>Finally and not least I hereby acknowledge my obligations to the +various writers and publishers whose books and articles I have freely +used. As far as possible, appropriate credit is given in the paged +references at the end of each chapter.</p> + +<p class="note1"><a id="footnoteF1" name="footnoteF1"></a><a class="footnote" href="#footnotetagF1">Footnote 1:</a> William Noyes, <i>Handwork in Wood</i>, Peoria, Ill. The Manual Arts Press, +231 pp., $2.</p> + +<h2>CONTENTS.<span class="pagenum" style="font-size: 0.4em; font-weight: normal;"><a name="page3" id="page3"></a>3</span></h2> + +<table width="auto" align="center" border="0" summary="contents" style="margin-bottom: 5em;"> +<tr> + <td class="left1" valign="top">CHAPTER<br /><br /></td> + <td class="left1" valign="top"> </td> + <td class="right" valign="top">PAGE</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class="left1" valign="top"> </td> + <td class="left" valign="top"><a class="contents" href="#page4">General Bibliography</a></td> + <td class="right" valign="top"><a href="#page4">4</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class="right1a" valign="top">I.</td> + <td class="left" valign="top"><a class="contents" href="#page9">The Structure of Wood</a></td> + <td class="right" valign="top"><a href="#page9">9</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class="right1a" valign="top">II.</td> + <td class="left" valign="top"><a class="contents" href="#page41">Properties of Wood</a></td> + <td class="right" valign="top"><a href="#page41">41</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class="right1a" valign="top">III.</td> + <td class="left" valign="top"><a class="contents" href="#page57">The Principal Species of American Woods</a></td> + <td class="right" valign="top"><a href="#page57">57</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class="right1a" valign="top">IV.</td> + <td class="left" valign="top"><a class="contents" href="#page197">The Distribution and Composition of the North American Forests</a></td> + <td class="right" valign="top"><a href="#page197">197</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class="right1a" valign="top">V.</td> + <td class="left" valign="top"><a class="contents" href="#page211">The Forest Organism</a></td> + <td class="right" valign="top"><a href="#page211">211</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class="right1a" valign="top">VI.</td> + <td class="left" valign="top"><a class="contents" href="#page229">Natural Enemies of the Forest</a></td> + <td class="right" valign="top"><a href="#page229">229</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class="right1a" valign="top">VII.</td> + <td class="left" valign="top"><a class="contents" href="#page251">The Exhaustion of the Forest</a></td> + <td class="right" valign="top"><a href="#page251">251</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class="right1a" valign="top">VIII.</td> + <td class="left" valign="top"><a class="contents" href="#page271">The Use of the Forest</a></td> + <td class="right" valign="top"><a href="#page271">271</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class="left1" valign="top"> </td> + <td class="left" valign="top"><a class="contents" href="#page289">Appendix</a></td> + <td class="right" valign="top"><a href="#page289">289</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class="left1" valign="top" style=""> </td> + <td class="left" valign="top"><a class="contents" href="#page304">Index</a></td> + <td class="right" valign="top"><a href="#page304">304</a></td> +</tr> +</table> + +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page4" id="page4"></a>4</span> + +<h3>GENERAL BIBLIOGRAPHY</h3> +<div style="margin-left: 5em; margin-right: 3em;"> +<p><span class="outdent"><b>Apgar, A. G.</b>,</span> <i>Trees of the Northern United States</i>. N. Y.: American Book +Co., 224 pp. A small book dealing with the botany of trees, giving +descriptions of their essential organs, and particularly valuable for the +leaf key to the trees. It should be supplemented by Keeler or Hough's +Handbook.</p> + +<p><span class="outdent"><b>Baterden, J. R.</b>,</span> <i>Timber</i>. N. Y.: D. Van Nostrand Co., 1908, 351 pp. A +description of the timbers of various countries, discussion of timber +defects, timber tests, etc.</p> + +<p><span class="outdent"><b>Bitting, K. G.</b>,</span> <i>The Structure of Wood</i>. <i>Wood Craft</i>, 5: 76, 106, 144, 172, +June-Sept., '06. A very scholarly and valuable series of articles on +wood structure and growth. Excellent microphotographs.</p> + +<p><span class="outdent"><b>Britton, Nathaniel Lord</b>,</span> <i>North American Trees</i>. N. Y.: Henry Holt & Co., +1908, 894 pp. A description of all the kinds of trees growing independently +of cultivation in North America, north of Mexico, and the +West Indies. The standard Botany of trees.</p> + +<p><span class="outdent"><b>Boulger, G. S.</b>,</span> <i>Wood</i>. London: Edward Arnold, 369 pp. A thoro discussion +of wood structure, with chapters on the recognition and classification +of woods, defects, preservation, uses, tests, supplies, and sources +of wood. Good illustrations.</p> + +<p><span class="outdent"><b>Bruce, E. S.</b>,</span> <i>Frost Checks and Wind Shakes</i>. <i>Forestry and Irrigation</i>, 8: +159, April, '02. An original study of the splitting of trees by sudden +frost and thaw.</p> + +<p><span class="outdent"><b>Bruncken, Ernest</b>,</span> <i>North American Forests and Forestry</i>. N. Y.: G. P. +Putnam's Sons. 265 pp. A comprehensive survey of American Forestry +conditions including the forest industries, fires, taxation, and management. +No illustrations.</p> + +<p><span class="outdent"><b>Busbridge, Harold</b>,</span> <i>The Shrinkage and Warping of Timber</i>. <i>Sci. Amer. Suppl</i>., +No. 1500, Oct. 1, 1904. Good photographic illustrations.</p> + +<p><span class="outdent"><b>Comstock, J. H. and A. B.</b>,</span> <i>A Manual for the Study of Insects</i>. Ithaca, +N. Y.: Comstock Publishing Co., 701 pp. Valuable for reference in +classifying insects injurious to wood.</p> + +<p><span class="outdent"><b>Curtis, Carleton C.</b>,</span> <i>Nature and Development of Plants</i>. N. Y.: Henry Holt +& Co., 1907, 471 pp. Chapter III is a very clear and excellent discussion +of the structure of the stem of plants (including wood).</p> + +<p><span class="outdent"><b>Encyclopedia Brittannica</b>,</span> Eleventh Edition, Cambridge: At the University +Press. Article: <i>Forests and Forestry</i>, Vol. 10, p. 645. Article: <i>Plants</i>, +Anatomy of, Vol. 21, p. 741. Article: <i>Timber</i> Vol. 26, p. 978.</p> + +<p><span class="outdent"><b>Felt, E. P.</b>,</span> <i>The Gypsy and Brown Tail Moths</i>. N. Y. State Museum: Bulletin +103, Entomology, 25. Valuable for colored illustrations as well +as for detailed descriptions.</p> + +<p><span class="outdent"><b>Fernow, B. E.</b>,</span> <i>Economics of Forestry</i>. N. Y.: T. Y. Crowell & Co. 1902, +quarto 520 pp. A treatment of forests and forestry from the standpoint +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page5" id="page5"></a>5</span> +of economics, including a comprehensive exposition of the forester's art, +with chapters on forest conditions, silviculture, forest policies, and +methods of business conduct, with a bibliography.</p> + +<p><span class="outdent"><b>Fernow, B. E.</b>,</span> <i>Report upon the Forestry Investigation of the U. S. Department +of Agriculture</i>, 1887-1898. Fifty-fifth Congress, House of Representatives, +Document No. 181. Quarto, 401 pp. A review of forests +and forestry in the U. S., of forest policies of European nations, particularly +of Germany, of the principles of silviculture, of a discussion +of forest influences, and a section on timber physics.</p> + +<p><span class="outdent"><b>Harwood, W. S.</b>,</span> <i>The New Earth</i>. N. Y.: The Macmillan Co., 1906. 378 +pp. A recital of the triumphs of modern agriculture. Chap. X on +modern forestry, describes what has been done in different states in +conservative lumbering.</p> + +<p><span class="outdent"><b>Hough, Romeyn B.</b>,</span> <i>American Woods</i>. Lowville, N. Y.: The author. An +invaluable collection in eleven volumes (boxes) of sections of 275 species +of American woods. There are three sections of each species, cross, +radial, and tangential, mounted in cardboard panels. Accompanied by +a list of descriptions and analytical keys.</p> + +<p><span class="outdent"><b>Hough, Romeyn B.</b>,</span> <i>Handbook of the Trees of the Northern States and Canada</i>. +Lowville, N. Y.: The author. 470 pp. A unique, elegant, and +sumptuously illustrated book, with photographs of tree, trunk, leaf, +fruit, bud, and sometimes wood, a map of the habitat of each species, +and a full and careful description of tree and wood. Intended for botanists, +foresters and lumbermen.</p> + +<p><span class="outdent"><b>Johnson, J. B.</b>,</span> <i>The Materials of Construction</i>. N. Y.: John Wiley & Sons. +1898. 775 pp. Chapter XIII is identical with Forestry Bulletin X, +Roth's <i>Timber</i>.</p> + +<p><span class="outdent"><b>Keeler, Harriet</b>,</span> <i>Our Native Trees</i>. N. Y.: Scribner's. 1900. 533 pp. A +very attractive and popular book showing great familiarity with the +common trees and love of them. Numerous photographs and drawings.</p> + +<p><span class="outdent"><b>Lounsberry, Alice</b>,</span> <i>A Guide to the Trees</i>. N. Y.: Frederick A. Stokes Co. +313 pp. A popular description of some 200 common trees, with plentiful +illustrations.</p> + +<p><span class="outdent"><b>Pinchot, Gifford</b>,</span> <i>A Primer of Forestry</i>. Parts I and II, U. S. Dept. of +Agric. For. Serv. Bull. No. 24. 88 pp. and 88 pp. A concise, clear, and +fully illustrated little manual of forestry conditions, forest enemies, +forestry principles and practice abroad and in the U. S.</p> + +<p><span class="outdent"><b>Pinchot, Gifford</b>,</span> <i>The Adirondack Spruce</i>. N. Y.: G. P. Putnam's Sons. +A technical account of the author's investigations on a forest estate in +Northern New York.</p> + +<p><span class="outdent"><b>Price, O. W.</b>,</span> <i>Saving the Southern Forests</i>. <i>World's Work</i>, 5: 3207, March, +'03. A plea for conservative lumbering; excellent illustrations.</p> + +<p><span class="outdent"><b>Record</b>,</span> Samuel J., <i>Characterization of the Grain and Texture of Wood</i>. +Woodcraft, 15: 3, June, 1911.</p> + +<p><span class="outdent"><b>Roth, Filibert</b>,</span> <i>A First Book of Forestry</i>. Boston: Ginn & Co. 291 pp. A +book for young people, giving in an interesting form many valuable +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page6" id="page6"></a>6</span> +facts about American forests and their care and use. It includes a +leaf key to the trees.</p> + +<p><span class="outdent"><b>Sargent, Charles Sprague</b>,</span> <i>Forest Trees of North America</i>. U. S. 10th +Census, Vol. 9. Quarto, 612 pp. Part I deals with the distribution +of the forests, and gives a catalog and description of the forest trees +of North America, exclusive of Mexico. Part II. Tables of properties +of the woods of the U. S. Part III. The economic aspects of the forests +of the U. S. considered geographically, and maps showing distributions +and densities. Exceedingly valuable.</p> + +<p><span class="outdent"><b>Sargent, Charles Sprague</b>,</span> <i>Jesup Collection, The Woods of the U. S</i>. N. Y.: +D. Appleton & Co., 203 pp. A detailed description of the Jesup Collection +of North American Woods in the American Museum of Natural +History, N. Y. City, with valuable tables as to strength, elasticity, +hardness, weight, etc. Condensed from Vol. IX of 10th U. S. Census.</p> + +<p><span class="outdent"><b>Sargent, Charles Sprague</b>,</span> <i>Manual of the Trees of North America</i>. Boston: +Houghton, Mifflin & Co. 826 pp. A compact mine of information, with +some errors, about the known trees of North America and their woods, +summarized from Sargent's larger work, "The Silva of North America." +(See below.)</p> + +<p><span class="outdent"><b>Sargent, Charles Sprague</b>,</span> <i>The Silva of North America</i>. Boston: Houghton, +Mifflin Co. A monumental and sumptuous work of 14 quarto volumes, +describing in great detail all the known trees of North America and +their woods, with beautiful line drawings of leaves and fruits.</p> + +<p><span class="outdent"><b>Shaler, Nathaniel S.</b>,</span> <i>The United States of America</i>. Vol. 1, pp. 485-517. +N. Y.: D. Appleton & Co. Chapter IX is a popular description of +American forests and the Lumber Industry.</p> + +<p><span class="outdent"><b>Snow, Chas. Henry</b>,</span> <i>The Principal Species of Wood</i>. N. Y.: John Wiley & +Sons. 203 pp. Descriptions and data regarding the economically important +varieties of wood, with excellent photographs of trees and woods.</p> + +<p><span class="outdent"><b>Strasburger, Noll, Schenck, and Schimper</b>.</span> <i>A Text Book of Botany</i>. N. Y.: +Macmillan & Co. 746 pp. Valuable for minute information about the +morphology of wood.</p> + +<p><span class="outdent"><b>U. S. Tenth Census, Vol. IX</b>.</span> See Sargent.</p> + +<p><span class="outdent"><b>U. S. Department of Agriculture</b>,</span> <i>Forest Service Bulletins</i>. The character +of these government pamphlets is well indicated by their titles. No. +10 is an exceedingly valuable summary of the facts about the structure +and properties of wood, contains the best available key to identification +of common American woods (not trees) and a concise description of +each. It is incorporated, as Chap. XIII, in Johnson's, "<i>The Materials +for Construction</i>." N. Y.: John Wiley & Sons. Nos. 13 and 22 are +large monographs containing much valuable information.</p> + +<p>No. 10. Filibert Roth, <i>Timber</i>.</p> + +<p>No. 13. Charles Mohr, <i>The Timber Pines of the Southern United States</i>.</p> + +<p>No. 15. Frederick V. Coville, <i>Forest Growth and Sheep Grazing in the +Cascade Mountains of Oregon</i>.</p> + +<p>No. 16. Filibert Roth, <i>Forestry Conditions in Wisconsin</i>.</p> +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page7" id="page7"></a>7</span> + +<p>No. 17. George B. Sudworth, <i>Check List of the Forest Trees of the +United States</i>, 1898.</p> + +<p>No. 18. Charles A. Keffer, <i>Experimental Tree Planting on the Plains</i>.</p> + +<p>No. 22. V. M. Spalding and F. H. Chittenden, <i>The White Pine</i>.</p> + +<p>No. 24. Gifford Pinchot, <i>A Primer of Forestry</i>.</p> + +<p>No. 26. Henry S. Graves, <i>Practical Forestry in the Adirondacks</i>.</p> + +<p>No. 41. Herman von Schrenck, <i>Seasoning of Timber</i>.</p> + +<p>No. 45. Harold B. Kempton, <i>The Planting of White Pine in New England</i>.</p> + +<p>No. 52. Royal S. Kellogg, <i>Forest Planting in Western Kansas</i>.</p> + +<p>No. 61. <i>Terms Used in Forestry and Logging</i>.</p> + +<p>No. 65. George L. Clothier, <i>Advice for Forest Planters in Oklahoma and +Adjacent Regions</i>.</p> + +<p>No. 74. R. S. Kellogg and H. M. Hale, <i>Forest Products of the U. S</i>., +1905.</p> + +<p><span class="outdent"><b>U. S. Department of Agriculture</b>,</span> <i>Forest Service Circulars</i>.</p> + +<p>No. 3. George William Hill, <i>Publications for Sale</i>.</p> + +<p>No. 25. Gifford Pinchot, <i>The Lumberman and the Forester</i>.</p> + +<p>No. 26. H. M. Suter, <i>Forest Fires in the Adirondacks in 1903</i>.</p> + +<p>No. 36. The Forest Service: <i>What it is, and how it deals with Forest +Problems</i>. Also <i>Classified List of Publications and Guide to +Their Contents</i>.</p> + +<p>No. 37. <i>Forest Planting in the Sand Hill Region of Nebraska</i>.</p> + +<p>No. 40. H. B. Holroyd, <i>The Utilization of Tupelo</i>.</p> + +<p>No. 41. S. N. Spring, <i>Forest Planting on Coal Lands in Western +Pennsylvania</i>.</p> + +<p>No. 45. Frank G. Miller, <i>Forest Planting in Eastern Nebraska</i>.</p> + +<p>No. 81. R. S. Kellogg, <i>Forest Planting in Illinois</i>.</p> + +<p>No. 97. R. S. Kellogg, <i>Timber Supply of the United States</i>.</p> + +<p>No. 153. A. H. Pierson, <i>Exports and Imports of Forest Products, 1907</i>.</p> + +<p><span class="outdent"><b>U. S. Department of Agriculture</b></span> <b>Year Books for:</b></p> + +<p>1896. Filibert Roth, <i>The Uses of Wood</i>.</p> + +<p>1898, p. 181. Gifford Pinchot, <i>Notes on some Forest Problems</i>.</p> + +<p>1899, p. 415. Henry S. Graves, <i>The Practice of Forestry by Private +Owners</i>.</p> + +<p>1900, p. 199. Hermann von Schrenck, <i>Fungous Diseases of Forest Trees</i>.</p> + +<p>1902, p. 145. William L. Hall, <i>Forest Extension in the Middle West</i>.</p> + +<p>1902, p. 265. A. D. Hopkins, <i>Some of the Principal Insect Enemies of +Coniferous Forests in the United States</i>.</p> + +<p>1902, p. 309. Overton, W. Price, <i>Influence of Forestry on the Lumber +Supply</i>.</p> + +<p>1903, p. 279. James W. Toumey, <i>The Relation of Forests to Stream +Flow</i>.</p> + +<p>1903, p. 313. A. D. Hopkins, <i>Insect Injuries to Hardwood Forest Trees</i>.</p> + +<p>1904, p. 133. E. A. Sterling, <i>The Attitude of Lumbermen toward Forest +Fires</i>.</p> +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page8" id="page8"></a>8</span> + +<p>1904, p. 381. A. D. Hopkins, <i>Insect Injuries to Forest Products</i>.</p> + +<p>1905, p. 455. Henry Grinell, <i>Prolonging the Life of Telephone Poles</i>.</p> + +<p>1905, p. 483. J. Grivin Peters, <i>Waste in Logging Southern Yellow Pine</i>.</p> + +<p>1905, p. 636. Quincy R. Craft, <i>Progress of Forestry in 1905</i>.</p> + +<p>1907, p 277. Raphael Zon and E. H. Clapp, <i>Cutting Timber in the +National Forests</i>.</p> + +<p><span class="outdent"><b>U. S. Department of Agriculture, Division of Entomology Bulletins</b>:</span></p> + +<p>No. 11. n. s. L. O. Howard, <i>The Gypsy Moth in America</i>.</p> + +<p>No. 28. A. D. Hopkins, <i>Insect Enemies of the Spruce in the Northeast</i>.</p> + +<p>No. 32. n. s. A. D. Hopkins, <i>Insect Enemies of the Pine in the Black +Hills Forest Reserve</i>.</p> + +<p>No. 48. A. D. Hopkins, <i>Catalog of Exhibits of Insect Enemies of Forest +and Forest Products at the Louisiana Purchase Exposition, St. +Louis, Mo</i>., 1904.</p> + +<p>No. 56. A. D. Hopkins, <i>The Black Hills Beetle</i>.</p> + +<p>No. 58. Part 1, A. D. Hopkins, <i>The Locust Borer</i>.</p> + +<p>No. 58. Part II, J. L. Webb, <i>The Western Pine Destroying Bark Beetle</i>.</p> + +<p><span class="outdent"><b>U. S. Department of Agriculture, Bureau of Plant Industry, Bulletins</b>:</span></p> + +<p>No. 32. Herman von Schrenck, <i>A Disease of the White Ash Caused by +Polyporus Fraxinophilus</i>, 1903.</p> + +<p>No. 36. Hermann von Schrenck, <i>The "Bluing" and "Red Rot" of the +Western Yellow Pine</i>, 1903.</p> + +<p><span class="outdent"><b><i>Report of the</i></b></span> <b><i>Commissioner of Corporations on the Lumber Industry</i>, Part I</b>, +<i>Standing Timber</i>, February, 1911. The latest and most reliable investigation +into the amount and ownership of the forests of the United +States.</p> + +<p><span class="outdent"><b>Ward, H. Marshall</b>,</span> <i>Timber and some of its Diseases</i>. London: Macmillan & +Co., 295 pp. An English book that needs supplementing by information +on American wood diseases, such as is included in the list of government +publications given herewith. The book includes a description +of the character, structure, properties, varieties, and classification of +timbers. +</p></div> + +<h2><span class="pagenum" style="font-size: 0.4em; font-weight: normal;"><a name="page9" id="page9"></a>9</span><span class="sc">Chapter I.</span></h2> + +<h4>THE STRUCTURE OF WOOD.</h4> + +<p>When it is remembered that the suitability of wood for a particular +purpose depends most of all upon its internal structure, it +is plain that the woodworker should know the essential characteristics +of that structure. While his main interest in wood is as lumber, +dead material to be used in woodworking, he can properly understand +its structure only by knowing something of it as a live, +growing organism. To facilitate this, a knowledge of its position +in the plant world is helpful.</p> + +<p>All the useful woods are to be found in the highest sub-kingdom +of the plant world, the flowering plants or Phanerogamia of the +botanist. These flowering plants are to be classified as follows:</p> + +<table width="auto" summary="classification of flowering plants" align="center"> +<tr> + <td class="main" style="line-height: 180%">Phanerogamia,<br />(Flowering plants)</td> + <td><img src="images/leftbrace4.png" width="21" height="312" alt="leftbrace" border="0" /></td> + <td class="left1" style="line-height: 180%"> I. Gymnosperms. (Naked seeds.)<br /> + 1. Cycadaceae. (Palms, ferns, etc.)<br /> + 2. Gnetaceae. (Joint firs.)<br /> + 3. Conifers. Pines, firs, etc.<br /> + II. Angiosperms. (Fruits.)<br /> + 1. Monocotyledons. (One seed-leaf.)<br /> + (Palms, bamboos, grasses, etc.)<br /> + 2. Dicotyledons. (Two seed-leaves.)<br /> + a. Herbs.<br /> + b. Broad-leaved trees.</td> +</tr> +</table> + +<p>Under the division of naked-seeded plants (gymnosperms), practically +the only valuable timber-bearing plants are the needle-leaved +trees or the conifers, including such trees as the pines, cedars, spruces, +firs, etc. Their wood grows rapidly in concentric annual rings, like +that of the broad-leaved trees; is easily worked, and is more widely +used than the wood of any other class of trees.</p> + +<p>Of fruit-bearing trees (angiosperms), there are two classes, those +that have one seed-leaf as they germinate, and those that have two +seed-leaves.</p> + +<p>The one seed-leaf plants (monocotyledons) include the grasses, +lilies, bananas, palms, etc. Of these there are only a few that reach +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page10" id="page10"></a>10</span> +the dimensions of trees. They are strikingly distinguished by the +structure of their stems. They have no cambium layer and no distinct +bark and pith; they have unbranched stems, which as a rule +do not increase in diameter after the first stages of growth, but grow +only terminally. Instead of having concentric annual rings and +thus growing larger year by year, the woody tissue grows here and +there thru the stem, but mostly crowded together toward the outer +surfaces. Even where there is radial growth, as in yucca, the structure +is not in annual rings, but irregular. These one seed-leaf trees +(monocotyledons) are not of much economic value as lumber, being +used chiefly "in the round," and to some extent for veneers and +inlays; <i>e. g</i>., cocoanut-palm and porcupine wood are so used.</p> + +<p>The most useful of the monocotyledons, or endogens, ("inside +growers," as they are sometimes called,) are the bamboos, which are +giant members of the group of grasses, Fig. 1. They grow in dense +forests, some varieties often 70 feet high and 6 inches in diameter, +shooting up their entire height in a single season. Bamboo is very +highly valued in the Orient, where it is used for masts, for house +rafters, and other building purposes, for gutters and water-pipes +and in countless other ways. It is twice as strong as any of our +woods.</p> + +<p>Under the fruit-bearing trees (angiosperms), timber trees are +chiefly found among those that have two seed-leaves (the dicotyledons) +and include the great mass of broad-leaved or deciduous trees +such as chestnut, oak, ash and maple. It is to these and to the conifers +that our principal attention will be given, since they constitute +the bulk of the wood in common use.</p> + +<p>The timber-bearing trees, then, are the:</p> + +<p> (1) Conifers, the needle-leaved, naked-seeded trees, such as pine, +cedar, etc. Fig. 45, <a class="index" href="#page199">p. 199</a>.</p> + +<p> (2) Endogens, which have one seed-leaf, such as bamboos, Fig. 1.</p> + +<p> (3) Broad-leaved trees, having two seed-leaves, such as oak, +beech, and elm. Fig. 48, <a class="index" href="#page203">p. 203</a>.</p> + +<p>The common classifications of trees are quite inaccurate. Many +of the so-called deciduous (Latin, <i>deciduus</i>, falling off) trees are +evergreen, such as holly, and, in the south, live oak, magnolia and +cherry. So, too, some of the alleged "evergreens," like bald cypress +and tamarack, shed their leaves annually.</p> +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page11" id="page11"></a>11</span> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 300px;"><a href="images/figure-001-w800.png"><img src="images/figure-001-a-300.png" width="300" height="480" alt="A Bamboo Grove, Kioto, Japan." /></a> +<p class="center1">Fig. 1. A Bamboo Grove, Kioto, Japan.</p></div> +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page12" id="page12"></a>12</span> + +<div class="figleft" style="width: 150px; margin-top: 1em;"><a href="images/figure-002-w300.png"><img src="images/figure-002-a-150.png" width="150" height="245" alt="Ginko Leaf." /></a> +<p class="center1">Fig. 2. Ginko Leaf.</p></div> +<p>Not all of the "conifers" bear cones. For example, the juniper +bears a berry. The ginko, Fig. 2, tho classed among the "conifers," +the "evergreens," and the "needle-leaf" trees, bears no cones, has +broad leaves and is deciduous. It has an especial interest as being +the sole survivor of many species which grew +abundantly in the carboniferous age.</p> + +<p>Also, the terms used by lumbermen, "hard +woods" for broad-leaved trees and "soft woods" +for conifers, are still less exact, for the wood +of some broad-leaved trees, as bass and poplar, +is much softer than that of some conifers, as +Georgia pine and lignum vitae.</p> + +<p>Another classification commonly made is +that of "endogens" (inside growers) including +bamboos, palms, etc., and exogens (outside +growers) which would include both conifers and +broad-leaved trees.</p> + +<p>One reason why so many classifications have come into use is +that none of them is quite accurate. A better one will be explained +later. See <a class="index" href="#page23">p. 23</a>.</p> + +<p>As in the study of all woods three sections are made, it is well +at the outset to understand clearly what these are.</p> + +<p>The sections of a tree made for its study are (Fig. 3):</p> + +<p>(1) Transverse, a plane at right angles to the organic axis.</p> + +<p>(2) Radial, a longitudinal plane, including the organic axis.</p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 560px;"><a href="images/figure-003-w800.png"><img src="images/figure-003-a-560.png" width="568" height="260" alt="Figure 3." /></a> +<p class="center">Fig. 3.</p></div> + +<table summary="tree sections" width="auto" align="center" border="0"> + +<tr> + <td class="center" width="180px">A.</td> + <td class="center" width="360px">B.</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td>A, B, C, D, Transverse Section.<br /> + B, D, E, F, Radial Section.<br /> + G, H, I, J, Tangential Section.</td> + <td style="padding-left: 5em;"> A, B, C, Transverse Section.<br /> + A, B, D, E, Radial Section.<br /> + B, C, E, F, Tangential Section.</td> +</tr> +</table> + +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page13" id="page13"></a>13</span> + +<p>(3) Tangential, a longitudinal plane not including the organic axis.</p> + +<p>If a transverse section of the trunk of a conifer or of a broad-leaved +tree is made, it is to be noted that it consists of several distinct +parts. See Fig. 4. These, beginning at the outside, are:</p> + +<ul class="none"> +<li>(1) Rind or bark + <ul class="none2"><li>(a) Cortex</li> + <li>(b) Bast</li></ul></li> + +<li>(2) Cambium</li> + +<li>(3) Wood + <ul class="none2"><li>(a) Sap-wood</li> + <li>(b) Heart-wood</li></ul></li> + +<li>(4) Pith.</li></ul> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 500px;"><a href="images/figure-004-w600.png"><img src="images/figure-004-a-300.png" width="300" height="452" alt="Diagram of Cross-section of Three Year Old Stem of Basswood." /></a> +<p class="center">Fig. 4. Diagram of Cross-section of Three +Year Old Stem of Basswood.</p></div> + +<p>(1) The rind or <i>bark</i> is made up of two layers, the outer of which, the "cortex," +is corky and usually scales or pulls off easily; while the inner one is a fibrous coat called +"bast" or "phloem." Together they form a cone, widest, thickest, and roughest at +the base and becoming narrower toward the top of the tree. The cortex or outer +bark serves to protect the stem of the tree from extremes of +heat and cold, from atmospheric changes, and from the browsing of +animals. It is made up of a tough water-proof layer of cork which +has taken the place of the tender skin or "epidermis" of the twig. +Because it is water-proof the outside tissue is cut off from the water +supply of the tree, and so dries up and peels off, a mass of dead +matter. The cork and the dead stuff together are called the bark. +As we shall see later, the cork grows from the inside, being formed +in the inner layers of the cortex, the outer layers of dry bark being +thus successively cut off.</p> + +<p>The characteristics of the tree bark are due to the positions and +kinds of tissue of these new layers of cork. Each tree has its own +kind of bark, and the bark of some is so characteristic as to make +the tree easily recognizable.</p> +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page14" id="page14"></a>14</span> + +<p>Bark may be classified according to formation and method of +separation, as scale bark, which detaches from the tree in plates, as +in the willows; membraneous bark, which comes off in ribbons and +films, as in the birches; fibrous bark, which is in the form of stiff +threads, as in the grape vine; and fissured bark, which breaks up +in longitudinal fissures, showing ridges, grooves and broad, angular +patches, as in oak, chestnut and locust. The last is the commonest +form of bark.</p> + +<p>The bark of certain kinds of trees, as cherry and birch, has peculiar +markings which consist of oblong raised spots or marks, especially +on the young branches. These are called lenticels (Latin <i>lenticula</i>, +freckle), and have two purposes: they admit air to the internal +tissues, as it were for breathing, and they also emit water vapor. +These lenticels are to be found on all trees, even where the bark is +very thick, as old oaks and chestnuts, but in these the lenticels are +in the bottoms of the deep cracks. There is a great difference in the +inflammability of bark, some, like that of the big trees of California, +Fig. 54, <a class="index" href="#page208">p. 208</a>, which is often two feet thick, being practically incombustible, +and hence serving to protect the tree; while some bark, +as canoe birch, is laden with an oil which burns furiously. It therefore +makes admirable kindling for camp fires, even in wet weather.</p> + +<p>Inside the cork is the "phloem" or "bast," which, by the way, +gives its name to the bass tree, the inner bark of which is very tough +and fibrous and therefore used for mat and rope making. In a living +tree, the bast fibers serve to conduct the nourishment which has +been made in the leaves down thru the stem to the growing parts.</p> + +<p>(2) The <i>cambium</i>. Inside of the rind and between it and the +wood, there is, on living trees, a slimy coat called cambium (Med. +Latin, exchange). This is the living, growing part of the stem, +familiar to all who have peeled it as the sticky, slimy coat between +the bark and the wood of a twig. This is what constitutes the fragrant, +mucilaginous inner part of the bark of slippery elm. Cambium +is a tissue of young and growing cells, in which the new cells are +formed, the inner ones forming the wood and the outer ones the bark.</p> + +<div class="figright" style="width: 420px;"><a href="images/figure-005-w700.png"><img src="images/figure-005-a-350.png" width="350" height="415" alt="Young Stem." /></a> + +<p>Fig. 5. Young Stem, Magnified 18½ Diameters, Showing +Primary and Secondary Bundles. <i>By Courtesy of +Mrs. Katharine Golden Bitting</i>.<br /><br /></p> + +<p>E, epidermis, the single outside layer of cells.<br /><br /></p> + +<p>C, cortex, the region outside of the bundles.<br /><br /></p> + +<p>HB, hard bast, the black, irregular ring protecting +the soft bast.<br /><br /></p> + +<p>SB, soft bast, the light, crescent-shaped parts.<br /><br /></p> + +<p>Ca, cambium, the line between the soft bast and the +wood.<br /><br /></p> + +<p>W, wood, segments showing pores.<br /><br /></p> + +<p>MR, medullary rays, lines between the bundles connecting +the pith and the cortex.<br /><br /></p> + +<p>MS, medullary sheath, the dark, irregular ring just +inside the bundles.<br /><br /></p> + +<p>P, pith, the central mass of cells.</p></div> + +<p>In order to understand the cambium and its function, consider its +appearance in a bud, Fig. 5. A cross-section of the bud of a growing +stem examined under the microscope, looks like a delicate mesh of thin +membrane, filled in with a viscid semi-fluid substance which is called +"protoplasm" (Greek, <i>protos</i>, first; <i>plasma</i>, form). These meshes +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page15" id="page15"></a>15</span> +were first called "cells" by Robert Hooke, in 1667, because of their +resemblance to the chambers of a honeycomb. The walls of these +"cells" are their most prominent feature and, when first studied, +were supposed to be the essential part; but later the slimy, colorless +substance which filled the cells was found to be the essential part. +This slimy substance, called protoplasm, constitutes the primal stuff +of all living things. The cell walls themselves are formed from it. +These young cells, at the apex of a stem, are all alike, very small, +filled with protoplasm, and as yet, unaltered. They form embryonic +tissue, <i>i.e.</i> one which will change. One change to which an +cell filled with protoplasm is liable is division into two, a new +partition wall forming within it. This is the way plant cells increase.</p> + +<p>In young plant cells, the whole cavity of the chamber is filled with +protoplasm, but as the cells grow older and larger, the protoplasm +develops into different parts, one part forming the cell wall and in +many cases leaving cavities within the cell, which become filled with sap. +The substance of the cell wall is called cellulose (cotton and flax fibers +consist of almost pure cellulose). At first it has no definite structure, +but as growth goes on, it may become thickened in layers, or gummy, or +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page16" id="page16"></a>16</span> +hardened into lignin (wood), according to the function to be performed. +Where there are a group of similar cells performing the +same functions, the group is called a tissue or, if large enough, a +tissue system.</p> + +<p>When cells are changed into new forms, or "differentiated," as it +is called, they become permanent tissues. These permanent tissues +of the tree trunk constitute the various parts which we have noticed, +viz., the rind, the pith and the wood.</p> + +<p>The essentially living part of the tree, it should be remembered, +is the protoplasm: where there is protoplasm, there is life and +growth. In the stems of the conifers and broad-leaved trees—sometimes +together called exogens—this protoplasm is to be found in the +buds and in the cambium sheath, and these are the growing parts of +the tree. If we followed up the sheath of cambium which envelopes +a stem, into a terminal bud, we should find that it passed without +break into the protoplasm of the bud.</p> + +<p>In the cross-section of a young shoot, we might see around the +central pith or medulla, a ring of wedge-shaped patches. These are +really bundles of cells running longitudinally from the rudiments of +leaves thru the stem to the roots. They are made of protoplasm and +are called the "procambium strands," Fig. 6.</p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 580px;"><a href="images/figure-006-w800.png"><img src="images/figure-006-a-560.png" width="560" height="433" alt="Cross-section of a young shoot." /></a> +<p>Fig. 6. Three Stages in the Development of an Exogenous +Stem. P, pith; PB, primary bast; SB, secondary bast; C, +cambium; PR, pith ray; PW, primary wood; SW, secondary +wood; PS, procambium strands. <i>After Boulger</i>.</p></div> + +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page17" id="page17"></a>17</span> + +<p>In the monocotyledons (endogens) these procambium strands +change completely into wood and bast, and so losing all their protoplasmic +cambium, become incapable of further growth. This is why +palms can grow only lengthwise, or else by forming new fibers more +densely in the central mass. But in the conifers and broad-leaved +trees, the inner part of each strand becomes wood and the outer part +bast (bark). Between these bundles, connecting the pith in the center +with the cortex on the outside of the ring of bundles, are parts +of the original pith tissue of the stem. They are the primary pith +or medullary rays (Latin, <i>medulla</i>, pith). The number of medullary +rays depends upon the number of the bundles; and their form, on +the width of the bundles, so that they are often large and conspicuous, +as in oak, or small and indeed invisible, as in some of the conifers. +But they are present in all exogenous woods, and can readily +be seen with the microscope. Stretching across these pith rays from +the cambium layer in one procambium strand to that in the others, +the cambium formation extends, making a complete cylindrical sheath +from the bud downward over the whole stem. This is the cambium +sheath and is the living, growing part of the stem from which is +formed the wood on the inside and the rind (bark) on the outside.</p> + +<p>In the first year the wood +and the bast are formed directly +by the growth and +change of the inner and outer +cells respectively of the procambium +strand, and all such +material is called "primary;" +but in subsequent years all +wood, pith rays, and bast, +originate in the cambium, and +these growths are called "secondary."</p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 300px;"><a href="images/figure-007-w600.png"><img src="images/figure-007-a-300.png" width="300" height="290" alt="Sap-wood and Heart-wood, Lignum Vitae." /></a> +<p>Fig. 7. Sap-wood and Heart-wood, Lignum Vitae.</p></div> + +<p>(3) The <i>wood</i> of most +exogens is made up of two +parts, a lighter part called the +sap-wood or splint-wood or alburnum, and a darker part called the +heart-wood or duramen, Fig. 7. Sap-wood is really immature heartwood. +The difference in color between them is very marked in some +woods, as in lignum vitae and black walnut, and very slight in others, +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page18" id="page18"></a>18</span> +as spruce and bass. Indeed, some species never form a distinct heart-wood, +birch (<i>Betula alba</i>) being an example.</p> + +<p>In a living tree, sap-wood and heart-wood perform primarily +quite different functions. The sap-wood carries the water from the +roots to the leaves, stores away starch at least in winter, and in other +ways assists the life of the tree. The proportional amount of sapwood +varies greatly, often, as in long-leaf pine, constituting 40 per +cent. of the stem.</p> + +<p>As the sap-wood grows older, its cells become choked so that the +sap can no longer flow thru them. It loses its protoplasm and starch +and becomes heartwood, in which all cells are dead and serve only the mechanical +function of holding up the great weight of the tree and in resisting wind pressures. +This is the reason why a tree may become decayed and hollow and yet be alive +and bear fruit. In a tree that is actually dead the sap-wood rots first.</p> + +<p>Chemical substances infiltrate into the cell walls of heart-wood +and hence it has a darker color than the sap-wood. Persimmon +turns black, walnut purplish brown, sumac yellow, oak light brown, +tulip and poplar yellowish, redwood and cedar brownish red. Many +woods, as mahogany and oak, darken under exposure, which shows +that the substances producing the color are oxidizable and unstable. +Wood dyes are obtained by boiling and distilling such woods as sumach, +logwood, red sanders, and fustic. Many woods also acquire +distinct odors, as camphor, sandalwood, cedar, cypress, pine and +mahogany, indicating the presence of oil.</p> +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page19" id="page19"></a>19</span> + +<p>As a rule heart-wood is more valuable for timber, being harder, +heavier, and drier than sap-wood. In woods like hickory and ash, +however, which are used for purposes that require pliability, as in +baskets, or elasticity as in handles of rakes and hoes, sap-wood is +more valuable than heart-wood.</p> + +<p>In a transverse section of a conifer, for example Douglas spruce, +Fig. 8, the wood is seen to lie in concentric rings, the outer part of +the ring being darker in color than the inner part. In reality each +of these rings is a section of an irregular hollow cone, each cone enveloping +its inner neighbor. Each cone ordinarily +constitutes a year's growth, and therefore there +is a greater number of them at the base of a tree +than higher up. These cones vary greatly in +<i>thickness</i>, or, looking at a cross-section, the rings +vary in <i>width</i>; in general, those at the center +being thicker than those toward the bark. Variations +from year to year may also be noticed, +showing that the tree was well nourished one +year and poorly nourished another year. Rings, +however, do not always indicate a year's growth. +"False rings" are sometimes formed by a cessation +in the growth due to drouth, fire or other +accident, followed by renewed growth the same +season.</p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 400px;"><a href="images/figure-008-w700.png"><img src="images/figure-008-a-350.png" width="350" height="440" alt="Section of Douglas Fir, Showing Annual Rings and Knots at Center of Trunk." /></a> +<p>Fig. 8. Section of Douglas Fir, Showing Annual +Rings and Knots at Center of Trunk. <i>American +Museum of Natural History, N. Y</i>.</p></div> + +<p>In a radial section of a log, Fig. 8, these +"rings" appear as a series of parallel lines and +if one could examine a long enough log these +lines would converge, as would the cut edges in a nest of cones, if +they were cut up thru the center, as in Fig. 9.</p> + +<div class="figleft" style="width: 150px;"><a href="images/figure-009-w300.png"><img src="images/figure-009-a-150.png" width="150" height="316" alt="Diagram of Radial Section of Log (exaggerated) Showing Annual Cones of Growth." /></a> +<p>Fig. 9. Diagram of Radial Section of Log (exaggerated) Showing Annual Cones of Growth.</p></div> + +<p>In a tangential section, the lines appear as broad bands, and +since almost no tree grows perfectly straight, these lines are wavy, +and give the <ins title="Transcriber's Note: original reads 'charactistic'">characteristic</ins> pleasing "grain" of wood. Fig. 27, <a class="index" href="#page35">p. 35</a>. +The annual rings can sometimes be discerned in the bark as well as +in the wood, as in corks, which are made of the outer bark of the +cork oak, a product of southern Europe and northern Africa. Fig. 10.</p> + +<div class="figright" style="width: 400px;"><a href="images/figure-010-w600.png"><img src="images/figure-010-a-400.png" width="400" height="183" alt="Annual Rings in Bark (cork)." /></a> +<p class="center1">Fig. 10. Annual Rings in Bark (cork).</p></div> + +<p>The growth of the wood of exogenous trees takes place thru the +ability, already noted, of protoplasmic cells to divide. The cambium +cells, which have very thin walls, are rectangular in shape, broader +tangentially than radially, and tapering above and below to a chisel +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page20" id="page20"></a>20</span> +edge, Fig. 11. After they have grown somewhat radially, partition +walls form across them in the longitudinal, tangential direction, so +that in place of one initial cell, there are two daughter cells radially +disposed. Each of these small cells grows and re-divides, as in +Fig. 12. Finally the innermost cell ceases to divide, and +uses its protoplasm to become thick and hard wood. In like +manner the outermost cambium cell becomes bast, while the cells +between them continue to grow and divide, and so the process goes on. In nearly all stems, +there is much more abundant formation of wood than of bast cells. +In other words, more cambium cells turn to wood than to bast.</p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 500px;"><a href="images/figure-011-w700.png"><img src="images/figure-011-a-500.png" width="500" height="474" alt="Diagram Showing Grain of Spruce Highly Magnified." /></a> +<p>Fig. 11. Diagram Showing Grain of Spruce +Highly Magnified. PR, pith rays; BP, bordered +pits; Sp W, spring wood; SW, summer wood; +CC, overlapping of chisel shaped ends.</p></div> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 500px;"><a href="images/figure-012-w600.png"><img src="images/figure-012-a-500.png" width="500" height="102" alt="Diagram Showing the Mode of Division of the Cambium Cells." /></a> +<p>Fig. 12. Diagram Showing the Mode of Division +of the Cambium Cells. The cambium +cell is shaded to distinguish it from the +cells derived from it. Note in the last division +at the right that the inner daughter +cell becomes the cambium cell while the +outer cell develops into a bast cell. <i>From +Curtis: Nature and Development of Plants</i>.</p></div> + +<p>In the spring when there is comparatively little light and heat, when +the roots and leaves are inactive and feeble, and when the bark, split +by winter, does not bind very tightly, the inner cambium cells produce +radially wide wood cells with relatively thin walls. These constitute +the spring wood. But in summer the jacket of bark binds tightly, there +is plenty of heat and light, and the leaves and roots are very active, +so that the cambium cells produce thicker walled cells, called summer +wood. During the winter the trees rest, and no +development takes place until spring, when the large thin-walled cells +are formed again, making a sharp contrast with those formed at the +end of the previous season.</p> +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page21" id="page21"></a>21</span> + +<p>It is only at the tips of the branches that the cambium cells grow +much in length; so that if a nail were driven into a tree twenty +years old at, say, four feet from the ground, it would still be four +feet from the ground one hundred years later.</p> + +<p>Looking once more at the cross-section, say, of spruce, the inner +portion of each ring is lighter in color and softer in texture than +the outer portion. On a radial or tangential section, one's finger +nail can easily indent the inner portion of the ring, tho the outer +dark part of the ring may be very hard. The inner, light, soft +portion of the ring is the part that grows in the spring and early +summer, and is called the "spring wood" while the part that grows +later in the season is called "summer wood." As the summer wood is +hard and heavy, it largely determines the strength and weight of the +wood, so that as a rule, the greater the proportion of the summer +growth, the better the wood. This can be controlled to some extent +by proper forestry methods, as is done in European larch forests, by +"underplanting" them with beech.</p> + +<p>In a normal tree, the summer growth forms a greater proportion +of the wood formed during the period of thriftiest growth, so that +in neither youth nor old age, is there so great a proportion of summer +wood as in middle age.</p> + +<p>It will help to make clear the general structure of wood if one +imagines the trunk of a tree to consist of a bundle of rubber tubes +crushed together, so that they assume angular shapes and have no +spaces between them. If the tubes are laid in concentric layers, first +a layer which has thin walls, then successive layers having thicker +and thicker walls, then suddenly a layer of thin-walled tubes and increasing +again to thick-walled ones and so on, such an arrangement +would represent the successive annual "rings" of conifers.</p> + +<p><i>The medullary rays</i>. While most of the elements in wood run +longitudinally in the log, it is also to be noted that running at right +angles to these and radially to the log, are other groups of cells +called pith rays or medullary rays (Latin, <i>medulla</i>, which means +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page22" id="page22"></a>22</span> +pith). These are the large "silver flakes" to be seen in quartered +oak, which give it its beautiful and distinctive grain, Fig. 32, <a class="index" href="#page37">p. 37</a>. +They appear as long, grayish lines on a cross-section, as broad, shining +bands on the radial section, and as short, thick lines tapering at +each end on the tangential section. In other words, they are like +flat, rectangular plates standing on edge and radiating lengthwise +from the center of the tree. They vary greatly in size in different +woods. In sycamore they are very prominent, Fig. 13. In oak they +are often several hundred cells wide (<i>i.e.</i>, up and down in the tree). +This may amount to an inch or two. They are often twenty cells thick, +tapering to one cell at the edge. In oak very many are also small, +even microscopic. But in the conifers and also in some of the broad-leaved +trees, altho they can be discerned with the naked eye on a split +radial surface, still they are all very small. In pine there are some 15,000 +of them to a square inch of a tangential section. They are to be +found in all exogens. In +a cross-section, say of oak, Fig. 14, it can readily be seen that some +pith rays begin at the center of the tree and some farther out. Those +that start from the pith are formed the first year and are called primary +pith rays, while those that begin in a subsequent year, starting +at the cambium of that year, are called secondary rays.</p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 500px;"><a href="images/figure-013-w700.png"><img src="images/figure-013-a-400.png" width="400" height="400" alt="Tangential Section of Sycamore." /></a> +<p>Fig. 13. Tangential Section of Sycamore, Magnified +37 Diameters. Note the large size of the +pith rays, A, <span class="sc">A</span> (end view).</p></div> + +<p>The function of the pith rays is twofold. (1) They transfer +formative material from one part of a stem to another, communicating +with both wood and bark by means of the simple and bordered +pits in them, and (2) they bind the trunk together from pith to +bark. On the other hand their presence makes it easier for the +wood to split radially.</p> +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page23" id="page23"></a>23</span> + +<p>The substance of which they are composed is "parenchyma" +(Greek, <i>beside</i>, to <i>pour</i>), which also constitutes the pith, the +rays +forming a sort of connecting link between the first and last growth +of the tree, as the cambium cells form new wood each year.</p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 500px;"><a href="images/figure-014-w700.png"><img src="images/figure-014-a-400.png" width="400" height="393" alt="Cross-section of White Oak." /></a> +<p>Fig. 14 Cross-section of White Oak. The Radiating White +Lines are the Pith Rays.</p></div> + +<p>If a cambium cell is opposite to a pith ray, it divides crosswise +(transversely) into eight or ten cells one above another, which +stretch out radially, retaining their protoplasm, +and so continue the pith ray. As the tree grows larger, +new, or secondary medullary rays start from the cambium +then active, so that every year new rays are formed both +thinner and shorter than the primary rays, Fig. 14.</p> + +<p>Now suppose that laid among +the ordinary thin-walled tubes were quite large tubes, so that one +could tell the "ring" not only by the thin walls but by the presence +of large tubes. That would represent the ring-porous woods, and the +large tubes would be called vessels, or <i>tracheæ</i>. Suppose again that +these large tubes were scattered in disorder thru the layers. This arrangement +would represent the diffuse-porous woods.</p> + +<p>By holding up to the light, thin cross-sections of spruce or pine, +Fig. 15, oak or ash, Fig. 16, and bass or maple, Fig. 17, these three +quite distinct arrangements in the structure may be distinguished. +This fact has led to the classification of woods according to the +presence and distribution of "pores," or as they are technically called, +"vessels" or "tracheae." By this classification we have:</p> +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page24" id="page24"></a>24</span> + +<p>(1) <i>Non-porous</i> woods, which comprise the conifers, as pine and +spruce.</p> + +<p>(2) <i>Ring-porous</i> woods, in which the pores appear (in a cross-section) +in concentric rings, as in chestnut, ash and elm.</p> + +<p>(3) <i>Diffuse-porous</i> woods, in which (in a cross-section) the rings +are scattered irregularly thru the wood, as in bass, maple and yellow poplar.</p> + +<p>In order to fully understand the structure of wood, it is necessary +to examine it still more closely thru the microscope, and since the three +classes of wood, non-porous, ring-porous and diffuse-porous, differ considerably +in their minute structure, it is well to consider them separately, taking the simplest +first.</p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 500px;"><a href="images/figure-015-w700.png"><img src="images/figure-015-a-400.png" width="400" height="400" alt="Cross-section of Non-porous Wood, White Pine." /></a> +<p>Fig. 15. Cross-section of Non-porous Wood, White +Pine, Full Size (top toward pith).</p></div> + +<p><i>Non-porous woods</i>. In examining thru the microscope a transverse +section of white pine, Fig. 18:</p> + +<p> (1) The most noticeable characteristic is the regularity of arrangement +of the cells. They are roughly rectangular and arranged +in ranks and files.</p> + +<p> (2) Another noticeable feature is that they are arranged in belts, +the thickness of their walls gradually increasing as the size of the +cells diminishes. Then the large thin-walled cells suddenly begin +again, and so on. The width of one of these belts is the amount of +a single year's growth, the thin-walled cells being those that formed +in spring, and the thick-walled ones those that formed in summer, +the darker color of the summer wood as well as its greater strength +being caused by there being more material in the same volume.</p> +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page25" id="page25"></a>25</span> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 500px;"><a href="images/figure-016-w700.png"><img src="images/figure-016-a-400.png" width="400" height="400" alt="Cross-section of Ring-porous Wood, White Ash." /></a> +<p>Fig. 16. Cross-section of Ring-porous Wood, White +Ash, Full Size (top toward pith).</p></div> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 520px;"><a href="images/figure-017-w700.png"><img src="images/figure-017-a-400.png" width="400" height="400" alt="Cross-section of Diffuse-porous Wood, Hard Maple." /></a> +<p>Fig. 17. Cross-section of Diffuse-porous Wood, Hard +Maple, full size (top toward pith).</p></div> +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page26" id="page26"></a>26</span> + +<p>(3) Running radially (up and down in the picture) directly thru +the annual belts or rings are to be seen what looks like fibers. These +are the pith or medullary rays. They serve to transfer formative +material from one part of the stem to another and to bind the tree +together from pith to bark.</p> + +<p>(4) Scattered here and there among the regular cells, are to be +seen irregular gray or yellow dots which disturb the regularity of +the arrangement. These are <i>resin ducts</i>. (See cross-section of white +pine, Fig. 18.) They are not cells, but openings between cells, in +which the resin, an excretion of the tree, accumulates, oozing out +when the tree is injured. At least one function of resin is to protect +the tree from attacks of fungi.</p> + +<p>Looking now at the radial section, Fig. 18:</p> + +<p>(5) The first thing to notice is the straightness of the long cells +and their overlapping where they meet endwise, like the ends of two +chisels laid together, Fig. 11.</p> + +<p>(6) On the walls of the cells can be seen round spots called "pits." +These are due to the fact that as the cell grows, the cell walls thicken, +except in these small spots, where the walls remain thin and delicate. +The pit in a cell wall always coincides with the pit in an adjoining +cell, there being only a thin membrane between, so that there is practically +free communication of fluids between the two cells. In a +cross-section the pit appears as a canal, the length of which depends +upon the thickness of the walls. In some cells, the thickening around +the pits becomes elevated, forming a border, perforated in the center. +Such pits are called bordered pits. These pits, both simple and bordered, +are waterways between the different cells. They are helps in +carrying the sap up the tree.</p> + +<p>(7) The pith rays are also to be seen running across and interwoven +in the other cells. It is to be noticed that they consist of +several cells, one above another.</p> + +<p>In the tangential section, Fig. 18:</p> + +<p>(8) The straightness and overlapping of the cells is to be seen +again, and</p> + +<p>(9) The numerous ends of the pith rays appear.</p> + +<p>In a word, the structure of coniferous wood is very regular and +simple, consisting mainly of cells of one sort, the pith rays being +comparatively unnoticeable. This uniformity is what makes the wood +of conifers technically valuable.</p> +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page27" id="page27"></a>27</span> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 320px;"><a href="images/figure-018-w800.png"><img src="images/figure-018-a-320.png" width="320" height="494" alt="Sections of non-porous wood - white pine." /></a> +<p class="center">Fig. 18.</p></div> +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page28" id="page28"></a>28</span> + +<div class="figleft" style="width: 250px; margin-top: 1em;"><a href="images/figure-019-w400.png"><img src="images/figure-019-a-200.png" width="200" height="481" alt="Isolated Fibers and Cells." /></a> +<p>Fig. 19. Isolated Fibers and +Cells. <i>a</i>, four cells of wood +parenchyma; <i>b</i>, two cells from +a pith ray; <i>c</i>, a single cell or +joint of a vessel, the openings, +x, x, leading into its upper +and lower neighbors; <i>d</i>, +tracheid; <i>e</i>, wood fiber proper. +<i>After Roth</i>.</p></div> + +<p>The cells of conifers are called tracheids, meaning "like <i>tracheæ</i>." +They are cells in which the end walls persist, that is, are not absorbed +and broken down when they meet end to end. In other +words, conifers do not have continuous pores or vessels or "<i>tracheæ</i>," +and hence are called "non-porous" woods.</p> + +<p>But in other woods, the ends of +some cells which meet endwise are absorbed, +thus forming a continuous series +of elements which constitute an open +tube. Such tubes are known as pores, +or vessels, or "tracheæ," and sometimes +extend thru the whole stem. Besides +this marked difference between the porous +and non-porous woods, the porous +woods are also distinguished by the fact +that instead of being made up, like the +conifers of cells of practically only one +kind, namely tracheids, they are composed +of several varieties of cells. Besides +the tracheae and tracheids already +noted are such cells as "wood fiber," +"fibrous cells," and "parenchyma." Fig. 19. +Wood fiber proper has much thickened +lignified walls and no pits, and its +main function is mechanical support. +Fibrous cells are like the wood fibers +except that they retain their protoplasm. +Parenchyma is composed of +vertical groups of short cells, the end +ones of each group tapering to a point, +and each group originates from the +transverse division of one cambium cell. +They are commonly grouped around the +vessels (tracheæ). Parenchyma constitutes the pith rays and other +similar fibers, retains its protoplasm, and becomes filled with starch +in autumn.</p> + +<p>The most common type of structure among the broad-leaved trees +contains tracheæ, trachæids, woody fiber, fibrous cells and parenchyma. +Examples are poplars, birch, walnut, linden and locust. In +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page29" id="page29"></a>29</span> +some, as ash, the tracheids are wanting; apple and maple have no +woody fiber, and oak and plum no fibrous cells.</p> + +<p>This recital is enough to show that the wood of the broad-leaved +trees is much more complex in structure than that of the conifers. It +is by means of the number and distribution of these elements that +particular woods are identified microscopically. See <a class="index" href="#page289">p. 289</a>.</p> +<br clear="all" /> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 400px;"><a href="images/figure-020-w800.png"><img src="images/figure-020-a-400.png" width="400" height="448" alt="Ring-porous wood" /></a> +<p class="center">Fig. 20.</p></div> + +<p><i>Ring-porous woods</i>. Looking thru the microscope at a cross-section +of ash, a ring-porous wood, Fig. 20:</p> + +<ul class="none2"> +<li>(1) The large round or oval pores or vessels grouped mostly in +the spring wood first attract attention. Smaller ones, but still quite +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page30" id="page30"></a>30</span> +distinct, are to be seen scattered all thru the wood. It is by the number +and distribution of these pores that the different oak woods are +distinguished, those in white oak being smaller and more numerous, +while in red oak they are fewer and larger. It is evident that the +greater their share in the volume, the lighter in weight and the +weaker will be the wood. In a magnified cross-section of some woods, +as black locust, white elm and chestnut, see <a class="index" href="#page57">Chap. III</a>, beautiful patterns +are to be seen composed of these pores. It is because of the +size of these pores and their great number that chestnut is so weak.<br /><br /></li> + +<li>(2) The summer wood is also distinguishable by the fact that, as +with the conifers, its cells are smaller and its cell walls thicker than +those of the spring wood. The summer wood appears only as a narrow, +dark line along the largest pores in each ring.<br /><br /></li> + +<li>(3) The lines of the pith rays are very plain in some woods, as in +oak. <a class="index" href="#page150">No. 47</a>, Chap. III.<br /><br /></li> + +<li>(4) The irregular arrangement and<br /><br /></li> + +<li>(5) Complex structure are evident, and these are due to the fact +that the wood substance consists of a number of different elements +and not one (tracheids) as in the conifers.</li> +</ul> + +<p>Looking at the radial section, Fig. 20:</p> + +<ul class="none2"> +<li>(6) If the piece is oak, the great size of the medullary rays is +most noticeable. Fig. 32, <a class="index" href="#page37">p. 37</a>. They are often an inch or more +wide; that is, high, as they grow in the tree. In ash they are plain, +seen thru the microscope, but are not prominent.<br /><br /></li> + +<li>(7) The interweaving of the different fibers and the variety of +their forms show the structure as being very complex.<br /><br /></li> +</ul> + +<p>In the tangential section, Fig. 20:</p> + +<ul class="none2"> +<li>(8) The pattern of the grain is seen to be marked not so much by +the denseness of the summer wood as by the presence of the vessels +(pores).<br /><br /></li> + +<li>(9) The ends of the pith rays are also clear.</li> +</ul> + +<p>In <i>diffuse porous woods</i>, the main features to be noticed are: In +the transverse section, Fig. 21:</p> + +<ul class="none2"> +<li>(1) The irregularity with which the pores are scattered,<br /><br /></li> + +<li>(2) The fine line of dense cells which mark the end of the year's +growth,<br /><br /></li> + +<li>(3) The radiating pith rays,<br /><br /></li> + +<li>(4) The irregular arrangement and,<br /><br /></li> + +<li>(5) The complex structure.</li> +</ul> +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page31" id="page31"></a>31</span> + +<p>In the radial section, Fig. 21:</p> + +<ul class="none2"> +<li>(6) The pith rays are evident. In sycamore, <a class="index" href="#page163">No. 53</a>, Chap. III, +they are quite large.<br /><br /></li> + +<li>(7) The interweaving of the fibers is to be noted and also their +variety.</li> +</ul> + +<p>In the tangential section, Fig. 21:</p> + +<ul class="none2"> +<li>(8) The grain is to be traced only dimly, but the fibers are seen +to run in waves around the pith rays.<br /><br /></li> + +<li>(9) The pith rays, the ends of which are plainly visible.</li> +</ul> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 400px;"><a href="images/figure-021-w800.png"><img src="images/figure-021-a-400.png" width="400" height="451" alt="Diffuse porous woods." /></a> +<p class="center1">Fig. 21.</p></div> +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page32" id="page32"></a>32</span> + +<h3>THE GRAIN OF WOOD.</h3> + +<p>The term "grain" is used in a variety of meanings which is likely +to cause confusion. This confusion may be avoided, at least in part, +by distinguishing between grain and texture, using the word grain +to refer to the arrangement or direction of the wood elements, and the +word texture to refer to their size or quality, so far as these affect the +structural character of the wood. Hence such qualifying adjectives +as coarse and fine, even and uneven, straight and cross, including +spiral, twisted, wavy, curly, mottled, bird's-eye, gnarly, etc., may all +be applied to grain to give it definite meaning, while to texture the +proper modifying adjectives are coarse and fine, even and uneven.</p> + +<p>Usually the word grain means the pattern or "figure" formed by +the distinction between the spring wood and the summer wood. If +the annual rings are wide, the wood is, in common usage, called +"coarse grained," if narrow, "fine grained," so that of two trees of +the same species, one may be coarse grained and the other fine +grained, depending solely on the accident of fast or slow growth.</p> + +<p>The terms coarse grain and fine grain are also frequently used to +distinguish such ring-porous woods as have large prominent pores, +like chestnut and ash, from those having small or no pores, as cherry +and lignum vitae. A better expression in this case would be coarse +and fine textured. When such coarse textured woods are stained, the +large pores in the spring wood absorb more stain than the smaller +elements in the summer wood, and hence the former part appears +darker. In the "fine grained" (or better, fine textured,) woods the +pores are absent or are small and scattered, and the wood is hard, so +that they are capable of taking a high polish. This indicates the +meaning of the words coarse and fine in the mind of the cabinet-maker, +the reference being primarily to texture.</p> + +<p>If the elements of which a wood are composed are of approximately +uniform size, it would be said to have a uniform texture, as +in white pine, while uniform grain would mean, that the elements, +tho of varying sizes, were evenly distributed, as in the diffuse-porous +woods.</p> + +<p>The term "grain" also refers to the regularity of the wood structure. +An ideal tree would be composed of a succession of regular +cones, but few trees are truly circular in cross-section and even in +those that are circular, the pith is rarely in the center, showing that +one side of the tree, usually the south side, +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page33" id="page33"></a>33</span> + is better nourished than +the other, Fig. 14, <a class="index" href="#page23">p. 23</a>.</p> + +<p>The normal direction of the fibers of wood is parallel to the axis +of the stem in which they grow. Such wood is called "straight-grained," +Fig. 22, but there are many deviations from this rule. +Whenever the grain of the wood in a board is, in whole or in part, +oblique to the sides of the board, it is called "cross-grained." An illustration +of this is a bend in the fibers, due to a bend in the whole +tree or to the presence of a neighboring knot. This bend makes the +board more difficult to plane. In many cases, probably in more cases +than not, the wood fibers twist around the tree. (See some of the +logs in Fig. 107, <a class="index" href="#page253">p. 253</a>.) This produces "spiral" or "twisted" grain.</p> + +<div class="figleft" style="width: 360px;"><a href="images/figure-022-w600.png"><img src="images/figure-022a-200.png" width="200" height="400" alt="Straight Grained Long-leaf Pine." /></a> +<p class="center1">Fig. 22.</p> +<p class="center1">Straight Grained Long-leaf Pine (full size).</p></div> + +<div class="figright" style="width: 360px;"><a href="images/figure-023-w600.png"><img src="images/figure-023a-200.png" width="200" height="397" alt="Mahogany, Showing Alternately Twisted Grain." /></a> +<p class="center1">Fig. 23.</p> +<p class="center1">Mahogany, Showing Alternately Twisted Grain (full size).</p></div> + +<br clear="all" /> +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page34" id="page34"></a>34</span> + +<p>Often, as in mahogany and +sweet gum, the fibers of several +layers twist first in one direction +and then those of the next +few layers twist the other way, +Fig. 24. Such wood is peculiarly +cross-grained, and is of +course hard to plane smooth. +But when a piece is smoothly +finished the changing reflection +of light from the surface +gives a beautiful appearance, +which can be enhanced by +staining and polishing. It +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page35" id="page35"></a>35</span> +constitutes the characteristic "grain" of striped mahogany, Fig. 23. +It is rarely found in the inner part of the tree.</p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 440px;"><a href="images/figure-024-w600.png"><img src="images/figure-024-a-440.png" width="440" height="472" alt="Spiral Grain in Cypress." /></a> +<p>Fig. 24. Spiral Grain in Cypress.</p> + +<p class="rindent"><i>After Roth</i>. </p></div> + +<p>Sometimes the grain of wood is "cross," because it is "wavy" either +in a radial or a tangential section, as in maple, Fig. 25, and Fig. 26.</p> + +<div class="figleft" style="width: 360px;"><a href="images/figure-025-w600.png"><img src="images/figure-025a-200.png" width="200" height="400" alt="Planed Surface of Wavy-Grained Maple." /></a> +<p class="center1">Fig. 25.</p> +<p class="center1">Planed Surface of Wavy-Grained Maple (full size).</p></div> + +<div class="figright" style="width: 360px;"><a href="images/figure-026-w600.png"><img src="images/figure-026a-200.png" width="200" height="400" alt="Split Surface of Wavy-Grained Maple." /></a> +<p class="center1">Fig. 26.</p> +<p class="center1">Split Surface of Wavy-Grained Maple (full size).</p></div> +<br clear="all" /> + +<p>"Curly grain" refers to the figure of circlets and islets and contours, +often of great beauty, caused by cutting a flat surface in +crooked-grained wood. See Fig. 27, curly long-leaf pine, and Fig. 28, +yellow poplar. When such crookedness is fine and the fibers are contorted +and, as it were, crowded out of place, as is common in and +near the roots of trees, the effect is called "burl," Fig. 29. The term +burl is also used to designate knots and knobs on tree trunks, Fig. 31. +Burl is used chiefly in veneers.</p> + +<div class="figleft" style="width: 360px;"><a href="images/figure-027-w600.png"><img src="images/figure-027a-200.png" width="200" height="400" alt="Curly Grained Long-leaf Pine." /></a> +<p class="center1">Fig. 27.</p> +<p class="center1">Curly Grained Long-leaf Pine (full size).</p></div> + +<div class="figright" style="width: 360px;"><a href="images/figure-028-w600.png"><img src="images/figure-028a-200.png" width="200" height="400" alt="Curly Yellow Poplar." /></a> +<p class="center1">Fig. 28.</p> +<p class="center1">Curly Yellow Poplar (full size).</p></div> +<br clear="all" /> + +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page36" id="page36"></a>36</span> + +<p>Irregularity of grain is often caused by the presence of adventitious +and dormant buds, which may be plainly seen as little knobs +on the surface of some trees under the bark. In most trees, these +irregularities are soon buried and smoothed over by the successive annual +layers of wood, but in some woods there is a tendency to preserve +the irregularities. On slash (tangent) boards of such wood, +a great number of little circlets appear, giving a beautiful grain, as +in "Bird's-eye maple," Fig. 30. These markings are found to predominate +in the inner part of the tree. This is not at all a distinct +variety of maple, as is sometimes supposed, but the common variety, +in which the phenomenon frequently appears. Logs of great value, +having bird's-eyes, have often unsuspectingly been chopped up for +fire wood.</p> + +<div class="figleft" style="width: 360px;"><a href="images/figure-029-w600.png"><img src="images/figure-029a-200.png" width="200" height="400" alt="Redwood Burl." /></a> +<p class="center1">Fig. 29.</p> +<p class="center1">Redwood Burl (full size).</p></div> + +<div class="figright" style="width: 360px;"><a href="images/figure-030-w600.png"><img src="images/figure-030a-200.png" width="200" height="400" alt="Bird's-eye Maple." /></a> +<p class="center1">Fig. 30.</p> +<p class="center1">Bird's-eye Maple (full size.)</p></div> +<br clear="all" /> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 300px;"><a href="images/figure-031-w700.png"><img src="images/figure-031-a-300.png" width="300" height="451" alt="Burl on White Oak." /></a> +<p class="center1">Fig. 31. +Burl on White Oak.</p></div> + +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page37" id="page37"></a>37</span> + +<p>The term "grain" may also mean the "figure" formed by the +presence of pith rays, as in oak, Fig. 32, or beech, or the word "grain" +may refer simply to the uneven deposit of coloring matter as is common +in sweet gum, Fig. 33, black ash, or Circassian walnut.</p> + +<div class="figleft" style="width: 360px;"><a href="images/figure-032-w600.png"><img src="images/figure-032a-200.png" width="200" height="400" alt="Figure Formed by Pith Rays in Oak." /></a> +<p class="center1">Fig. 32.</p> +<p class="center1">Figure Formed by Pith Rays +in Oak (full size).</p></div> + +<div class="figright" style="width: 360px;"><a href="images/figure-033-w600.png"><img src="images/figure-033a-200.png" width="200" height="400" alt="Sweet Gum, Showing Uneven Deposit of Coloring Matter." /></a> +<p class="center1">Fig. 33.</p> +<p class="center1">Sweet Gum, Showing Uneven +Deposit of Coloring Matter (full size.)</p></div> +<br clear="all" /> + +<p>The presence of a limb constitutes a knot and makes great irregularity +in the grain of wood, Fig. 34. In the first place, the fibers on +the upper and lower +sides of the limb behave +differently, those on the +lower side running uninterruptedly +from the +stem into the limb, while +on the upper side the +fibers bend aside making +an imperfect connection. +Consequently to split a +knot it is always necessary +to start the split +from the lower side. On +the other hand it is easier +to split around a +knot than thru it. The +texture as well as the +grain of wood is modified +by the presence of a +branch. The wood in +and around a knot is +much harder than the +main body of the trunk +on account of the crowding +together of the elements. +Knots are the +remnants of branches left in the trunk. These once had all the parts +of the trunk itself, namely bark, cambium, wood, and pith. Normally, +branches grow from the pith, tho some trees, as Jack pine and +redwood, among the conifers, and most of the broad-leaf trees have +the power of putting out at any time adventitious buds which may +develop into branches. When a branch dies, the annual layer of +wood no longer grows upon it, but the successive layers of wood on +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page38" id="page38"></a>38</span> +the trunk itself close tighter and tighter around it, until it is broken +off. Then, unless it has begun to decay, it is successively overgrown +by annual layers, so that no sign of it appears until the trunk is cut +open. A large trunk perfectly clean of branches on the outside may +have many knots around its center, remnants of branches which grew +there in its youth, as in Fig. 34, and Fig. 8, <a class="index" href="#page19">p. 19</a>. The general effect +of the presence of a knot is, that the fibers that grow around and +over it are bent, and this, of course, produces crooked grain.</p> + +<p>Following are the designations given to different knots by lumbermen: +A <i>sound</i> knot is one which is solid across its face and is as +hard as the wood surrounding it and fixed in position. A <i>pin</i> knot +is sound, but not over ¼" in diameter. A <i>standard</i> knot is sound, +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page39" id="page39"></a>39</span> +but not over 1½" in diameter. A <i>large</i> knot is sound, and over 1½" +in diameter. A <i>spike</i> knot is one sawn in a lengthwise position. A +<i>dead</i>, or, <i>loose</i> knot is one not firmly held in place by growth or +position.</p> + +<p>(4) <i>Pith</i>. At the +center or axis of the +tree is the pith or +<i>medulla</i>, Fig. 34. In +every bud, that is, at +the apex of every stem +and branch, the pith is +the growing part; but +as the stem lengthens +and becomes overgrown +by successive layers of +wood the pith loses its +vital function. It does +not grow with the +plant except at the +buds. It varies in +thickness, being very +small,—hardly more +than 1/16", in cedar +and larch,—and so +small in oak as to be +hardly discernible; and +what there is of it +turns hard and dark. +In herbs and shoots it +is relatively large, Fig. 5, <a class="index" href="#page15">p. 15</a>, in a three-year +old shoot of elder, +for example, being +as wide as the wood. In elder, moreover, it dies early and pulverizes, +leaving the stem hollow. Its function is one of only temporary +value to the plant.</p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 400px;"><a href="images/figure-034-w700.png"><img src="images/figure-034-a-340.png" width="340" height="466" alt="Section Thru the Trunk of a Seven Year Old Tree." /></a> +<p class="center1">Fig. 34.</p> +<p>Section Thru the Trunk of a Seven Year +Old Tree, Showing Relation of Branches to Main +Stem. A, B, two branches which were killed after +a few years' growth by shading, and which have +been overgrown by the annual rings of wood; C, a +limb which lived four years, then died and broke +off near the stem, leaving the part to the left of +XY a "sound" knot, and the part to the right a +"dead" knot, which unless rotting sets in, would +in time be entirely covered by the growing trunk; +D, a branch that has remained alive and has increased +in size like the main stem; P, P, pith of +both stem and limb.</p></div> +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page40" id="page40"></a>40</span> + +<h5 style="margin-top: 3em;">THE STRUCTURE OF WOOD.</h5> + +<ul class="none"> +<li><span class="sc">References</span>:* +<ul class="none2"> +<li>Roth, <i>Forest Bull</i>. No. 10, pp. 11-23.</li> +<li>Boulger, pp. 1-39.</li> +<li>Sickles, pp. 11-20.</li> +<li>Pinchot, <i>Forest Bull</i>. No. 24, I, pp. 11-24.</li> +<li>Keeler, pp. 514-517.</li> +<li>Curtis, pp. 62-85.</li> +<li>Woodcraft, 15: 3, p. 90.</li> +<li>Bitting, <i>Wood Craft</i>, 5: 76, 106, 144, 172, (June-Sept. 1906).</li> +<li>Ward, pp. 1-38.</li> +<li><i>Encyc. Brit</i>., 11th Ed., "Plants," p. 741.</li> +<li>Strasburger, pp. 120-144 and Part II, Sec. II.</li> +<li>Snow, pp. 7-9, 183.</li></ul></li> +</ul> + +<p class="note1"><span style="font-size: 1.2em;">*</span> For general bibliography, see <a class="index" href="#page4">p. 4.</a></p> + +<h2><span class="pagenum" style="font-size: 0.4em; font-weight: normal;"><a name="page41" id="page41"></a>41</span><span class="sc">Chapter</span> II.</h2> + +<h4>PROPERTIES OF WOOD.</h4> + +<p>There are many properties of wood,—some predominant in one +species, some in another,—that make it suitable for a great variety +of uses. Sometimes it is a combination of properties that gives value +to a wood. Among these properties are hygroscopicity, shrinkage, +weight, strength, cleavability, elasticity, hardness, and toughness.</p> + +<h3>THE HYGROSCOPICITY<a id="footnotetagChII1" name="footnotetagChII1"></a><a href="#footnoteChII1"><sup>1</sup></a> OF WOOD.</h3> + +<p>It is evident that water plays a large part in the economy of the +tree. It occurs in wood in three different ways: In the sap which +fills or partly fills the cavities of the wood cells, in the cell walls which +it saturates, and in the live protoplasm, of which it constitutes 90 +per cent. The younger the wood, the more water it contains, hence +the sap-wood contains much more than the heart-wood, at times even +twice as much.</p> + +<p>In fresh sap-wood, 60 per cent. of the water is in the cell cavities, +35 per cent. in the cell walls, and only 5 per cent. in the protoplasm. +There is so much water in green wood that a sappy pole will soon +sink when set afloat. The reason why there is much less water in +heart-wood is because its cells are dead and inactive, and hence without +sap and without protoplasm. There is only what saturates the +cell walls. Even so, there is considerable water in heart-wood.<a id="footnotetagChII2" name="footnotetagChII2"></a><a href="#footnoteChII2"><sup>2</sup></a></p> +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page42" id="page42"></a>42</span> + +<p>The lighter kinds have the most water in the sap-wood, thus +sycamore has more than hickory.</p> + +<p>Curiously enough, a tree contains about as much water in winter +as in summer. The water is held there, it is supposed, by capillary +attraction, since the cells are inactive, so that at all times the water +in wood keeps the cell walls distended.</p> + +<h3>THE SHRINKAGE OF WOOD.</h3> + +<p>When a tree is cut down, its water at once begins to evaporate. +This process is called "seasoning."* In drying, the free water within +the cells keeps the cell walls saturated; but when all the free water +has been removed, the cell walls begin to yield up their moisture. +Water will not flow out of wood unless it is forced out by heat, as +when green wood is put on a fire. Ordinarily it evaporates slowly.</p> + +<p class="note1"><span style="font-size: 1.2em;">*</span> See <i>Handwork in Wood</i> , Chapter III.</p> + +<p>The water evaporates faster from some kinds of wood than from +other kinds, <i>e. g</i>., from white pine than from oak, from small pieces +than from large, and from end grain than from a longitudinal section; +and it also evaporates faster in high than in low temperatures.</p> + +<p>Evaporation affects wood in three respects, weight, strength, and +size. The weight is reduced, the strength is increased, and shrinkage +takes place. The reduction in weight and increase in strength, important +as they are, are of less importance than the shrinkage, which +often involves warping and other distortions. The water in wood +affects its size by keeping the cell walls distended.</p> + +<p>If all the cells of a piece of wood were the same size, and had +walls the same thickness, and all ran in the same direction, then the +shrinkage would be uniform. But, as we have seen, the structure of +wood is not homogeneous. Some cellular elements are large, some +small, some have thick walls, some thin walls, some run longitudinally +and some (the pith rays) run radially. The effects will be various +in differently shaped pieces of wood but they can easily be accounted +for if one bears in mind these three facts: (1) that the shrinkage is +in the cell wall, and therefore (2) that the thick-walled cells shrink +more than thin-walled cells and (3) that the cells do not shrink +much, if any, lengthwise.</p> + +<p>(1) The shrinkage of wood takes place in the walls of the cells +that compose it, that is, the cell walls become thinner, as indicated +by the dotted lines in Fig. 35, which is a cross-section of a single cell. +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page43" id="page43"></a>43</span> +The diameter of the whole cell becomes less, and the opening, or +lumen, of the cell becomes larger.</p> + +<div class="figright" style="width: 300px;"><a href="images/figure-035-w500.png"><img src="images/figure-035-a-300.png" width="300" height="150" alt="How Cell Walls Shrink." /></a> +<p class="center1">Fig. 35. How Cell Walls Shrink.</p></div> + +<p>(2) Thick-walled cells shrink more than thin-walled cells, that +is, summer cells more than spring cells. This is due to the fact that +they contain more shrinkable substance. The thicker the wall, the +more the shrinkage.</p> + +<p>Consider the effects of these +changes; ordinarily a log +when drying begins to "check" +at the end. This is to be explained +thus: Inasmuch as +evaporation takes place faster +from a cross than from a longitudinal +section, because at +the cross-section all the cells are cut open, it is to be expected that +the end of a piece of timber, Fig. 36, A, will shrink first. This +would tend to make the end fibers bend toward the center of the +piece as in B, Fig. 36. But the fibers are stiff and resist this bending +with the result that the end splits or "checks" as in C, Fig. 36. +But later, as the rest of the timber dries out and shrinks, it becomes +of equal thickness again and the "checks" tend to close.</p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 600px;"><a href="images/figure-036-w800.png"><img src="images/figure-036-a-560.png" width="560" height="203" alt="The Shrinkage and Checking at the End of a Beam." /></a> +<p class="center1">Fig. 36. The Shrinkage and Checking at the End of a Beam.</p></div> + +<p>(3) For some reason, which has not been discovered, the cells or +fibers of wood do not shrink in length to any appreciable extent. +This is as true of the cells of pith rays, which run radially in the +log, as of the ordinary cells, which run longitudinally in it.</p> + +<p>In addition to "checking" at the end, logs ordinarily show the +effect of shrinkage by splitting open radially, as in Fig. 37. This is +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page44" id="page44"></a>44</span> +to be explained by two factors, (1) the disposition of the pith (or +medullary) rays, and (2) the arrangement of the wood in annual rings.</p> + +<div class="figleft" style="width: 300px;"><a href="images/figure-037-w600.png"><img src="images/figure-037-a-300.png" width="300" height="320" alt="The Shrinkage and Splitting of a Log." /></a> +<p class="center1">Fig. 37. The Shrinkage and Splitting +of a Log.</p></div> + +<p>(1) The cells of the pith rays, as we have seen in Chapter I, run +at right angles to the direction of the mass of wood fibers, and since +they shrink according to the same laws that other cells do, viz., by +the cell wall becoming thinner but not shorter, the strain of their +shrinkage is contrary to that of +the main cells. The pith rays, +which consist of a number of +cells one above the other, +tend to shrink parallel to the +length of the wood, and whatever +little longitudinal shrinkage +there is in a board is probably +due mostly to the shrinkage of +the pith rays. But because the +cells of pith rays do not appreciably +shrink in their length, this +fact tends to prevent the main +body of wood from shrinking +radially, and the result is that +wood shrinks less radially than +tangentially. Tangentially is the only way left for it to shrink. The +pith rays may be compared to the ribs of a folding fan, which keep +the radius of unaltered length while permitting comparative freedom +for circumferential contraction.</p> + +<p>(2) It is evident that since summer wood shrinks more than +spring wood, this fact will interfere with the even shrinkage of the +log. Consider first the tangential +shrinkage. If a section of a +single annual ring of green wood +of the shape A B C D, in Fig. 38, +is dried and the mass shrinks +according to the thickness of the +cell walls, it will assume the +shape A' B' C' D'. When a number +of rings together shrink, the tangential shrinkage of the summer +wood tends to contract the adjoining rings of spring wood more than +they would naturally shrink of themselves. Since there is more of +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page45" id="page45"></a>45</span> +the summer-wood substance, the spring-wood must yield, and the log +shrinks circumferentially. The radial shrinkage of the summer-wood, +however, is constantly interrupted by the alternate rows of spring-wood, +so that there would not be so much radial as circumferential +shrinkage. As a matter of fact, the tangential or circumferential +shrinkage is twice as great as the radial shrinkage.</p> + +<div class="figright" style="width: 300px;"><a href="images/figure-038-w600.png"><img src="images/figure-038-a-300.png" width="300" height="140" alt="Diagram to Show the Greater Shrinkage of Summer Cells, A, B, than of Spring Cells, C, D." /></a> +<p>Fig. 38. Diagram to Show the Greater +Shrinkage of Summer Cells, A, B, than +of Spring Cells, C, D.</p></div> + +<p>Putting these two factors +together, namely, the lengthwise +resistance of the pith rays +to the radial shrinkage of the +mass of other fibers, and second, +the continuous bands of +summer wood, comparatively +free to shrink circumferentially, +and the inevitable happens; the +log splits. If the bark is left +on and evaporation hindered, +the splits will not open so wide.</p> + +<p>There is still another effect +of shrinkage. If, immediately +after felling, a log is sawn in +two lengthwise, the radial splitting may be largely avoided, but the +flat sides will tend to become convex, as in Fig. 39. This is explained +by the fact that circumferential shrinkage is greater than +radial shrinkage.</p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 300px;"><a href="images/figure-039-w600.png"><img src="images/figure-039-a-300.png" width="300" height="286" alt="Shrinkage of a Halved Log." /></a> +<p class="center1">Fig. 39. Shrinkage of a Halved Log.</p></div> + +<p>If a log is "quartered,"* the quarters split still less, as the inevitable +shrinkage takes place more easily. The quarters then tend to assume +the shape shown in Fig. 40, C. If a log is sawed into timber, it checks +from the center of the faces toward the pith, Fig. 40, D. Sometimes +the whole amount of shrinkage may be collected in one large split. +When a log is slash-sawed, Fig. 40, I, each board tends to warp so +that the concave side is away from the center of the tree. If one +plank includes the pith, Fig. 40, E and H, that board will become +thinner at its edges than at its center, <i>i.e.</i>, convex on both faces. +Other forms assumed by wood in shrinking are shown in Fig. 40. +In the cases A-F the explanation is the same; the circumferential +shrinkage is more than the radial. In J and K the shapes are accounted +for by the fact that wood shrinks very little longitudinally.</p> + +<p class="note1"><span style="font-size: 1.2em;">*</span> See <i>Handwork in Wood</i>, p. 42.</p> + +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page46" id="page46"></a>46</span> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 350px;"><a href="images/figure-040-w800.png"><img src="images/figure-040-a-350.png" width="350" height="471" alt="Shapes Assumed by Wood in Shrinking." /></a> +<p class="center1">Fig. 40. Shapes Assumed by Wood in Shrinking.</p></div> + +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page47" id="page47"></a>47</span> + +<p>Warping is uneven shrinkage, one side of the board contracting +more than the other. Whenever a slash board warps under ordinary +conditions, the convex side is the one which was toward the center +of the tree. However, a board may be made to warp artificially the +other way by applying heat to the side of the board toward the +center of the tree, and by keeping the other side moist. The board +will warp only sidewise; lengthwise it remains straight unless the +treatment is very severe. This shows again that water distends the +cells laterally but not longitudinally.</p> + +<p>The thinning of the cell walls due to evaporation, is thus seen +to have three results, all included in the term "working," viz.: +<i>shrinkage</i>, a diminution in size, <i>splitting</i>, due to the inability +of +parts to cohere under the strains to which they are subjected, and +<i>warping</i>, or uneven shrinkage.</p> + +<p>In order to neutralize warping as much as possible in broad board +structures, it is common to joint the board with the annual rings of +each alternate board curving in opposite directions, as shown in +<i>Handwork in Wood</i>, Fig. 280, <i>a</i>, p. 188.</p> + +<p>Under warping is included +bowing. Bowing, that is, bending +in the form of a bow, is, +so to speak, longitudinal warping. +It is largely due to +crookedness or irregularity of +grain, and is likely to occur in +boards with large pith rays, as +oak and sycamore. But even +a straight-grained piece of +wood, left standing on end or +subjected to heat on one side +and dampness on the other, will +bow, as, for instance a board +lying on the damp ground and +in the sun.</p> +<a name="page47a" id="page47a"></a> +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 400px;"><a href="images/figure-041-w600.png"><img src="images/figure-041-a-390.png" width="390" height="470" alt="Shakes." /></a> +<p>Fig. 41. <i>a</i>, Star Shakes; <i>b</i>, Heart Shakes; +<i>c</i>, Cup Shakes or Ring Shakes; <i>d</i>, Honeycombing.</p></div> + +<p>Splitting takes various +names, according to its form in +the tree. "Check" is a term used for all sorts of cracks, and more +particularly for a longitudinal crack in timber. "Shakes" are splits +of various forms as: <i>star shakes</i>, Fig. 41, <i>a</i>, splits which radiate +from +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page48" id="page48"></a>48</span> +the pith along the pith rays and widen outward; <i>heart shakes</i>, Fig. 41, <i>b</i>, +splits crossing the central rings and widening toward the center; +and <i>cup</i> or <i>ring shakes</i>, Fig. 41, <i>c</i>, splits between the +annual rings. <i>Honeycombing</i>, Fig. 41, <i>d</i>, is splitting along the pith rays +and is due largely to case hardening.</p> + +<p>These are not all due to shrinkage in drying, but may occur in +the growing tree from various harmful causes. See<a class="index" href="#page232"> p. 232</a>.</p> + +<p>Wood that has once been dried may again be swelled to nearly if +not fully its original size, by being soaked in water or subjected to +wet steam. This fact is taken advantage of in wetting wooden +wedges to split some kinds of soft stone. The processes of shrinking +and swelling can be repeated indefinitely, and no temperature short +of burning, completely prevents wood from shrinking and swelling.</p> + +<p>Rapid drying of wood tends to "case harden" it, <i>i.e.</i>, to dry and +shrink the outer part before the inside has had a chance to do the +same. This results in checking separately both the outside and the +inside, hence special precautions need to be taken in the seasoning +of wood to prevent this. When wood is once thoroly bent out of +shape in shrinking, it is very difficult to straighten it again.</p> + +<p>Woods vary considerably in the amounts of their shrinkage. The +conifers with their regular structure shrink less and shrink more +evenly than the broad-leaved woods.<a id="footnotetagChII3" name="footnotetagChII3"></a><a href="#footnoteChII3"><sup>3</sup></a> Wood, even after it has been +well seasoned, is subject to frequent changes in volume due to the +varying amount of moisture in the atmosphere. This involves constant +care in handling it and wisdom in its use. These matters are +considered in <i>Handwork in Wood</i>, Chapter III, on the Seasoning of +Wood.</p> +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page49" id="page49"></a>49</span> + +<h3>THE WEIGHT OF WOOD.</h3> + +<p>Wood substance itself is heavier than water, as can readily be +proved by immersing a very thin cross-section of pine in water. Since +the cells are cut across, the water readily enters the cavities, and the +wood being heavier than the water, sinks. In fact, it is the air enclosed +in the cell cavities that ordinarily keeps wood afloat, just as +it does a corked empty bottle, altho glass is heavier than water. A +longitudinal shaving of pine will float longer than a cross shaving +for the simple reason that it takes longer for the water to penetrate +the cells, and a good sized white pine log would be years in getting +water-soaked enough to sink. As long as a majority of the cells are +filled with air it would float.</p> + +<p>In any given piece of wood, then, the weight is determined by +two factors, the amount of wood substance and the amount of water +contained therein. The amount of wood substance is constant, but +the amount of water contained is variable, and hence the weight varies +accordingly. Moreover, considering the wood substance alone, +the weight of wood substance of different kinds of wood is about the +same; namely, 1.6 times as heavy as water, whether it is oak or pine, +ebony or poplar. The reason why a given bulk of some woods is +lighter than an equal bulk of others, is because there are more thin-walled +and air-filled cells in the light woods. Many hard woods, as +lignum vitae, are so heavy that they will not float at all. This is +because the wall of the wood cells is very thick, and the lumina are +small.</p> + +<p>In order, then, to find out the comparative weights of different +woods, that is, to see how much wood substance there is in a given +volume of any wood, it is necessary to test absolutely dry specimens.</p> + +<p>The weight of wood is indicated either as the weight per cubic +foot or as specific gravity.</p> + +<p>It is an interesting fact that different parts of the same tree have +different weights, the wood at the base of the tree weighing more +than that higher up, and the wood midway between the pith and bark +weighing more than either the center or the outside.<a id="footnotetagChII4" name="footnotetagChII4"></a><a href="#footnoteChII4"><sup>4</sup></a></p> +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page50" id="page50"></a>50</span> + +<p>The weight of wood has a very important bearing upon its use. +A mallet-head, for example, needs weight in a small volume, but it +must also be tough to resist shocks, and elastic so as to impart its +momentum gradually and not all at once, as an iron head does.</p> + +<p>Weight is important, too, in objects of wood that are movable. +The lighter the wood the better, if it is strong enough. That is why +spruce is valuable for ladders; it is both light and strong. Chestnut +would be a valuable wood for furniture if it were not weak, especially +in the spring wood.</p> + +<p>The weight of wood is one measure of its strength. Heavy wood +is stronger than light wood of the same kind, for the simple reason +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page51" id="page51"></a>51</span> +that weight and strength are dependent upon the number and compactness +of the fibers.<a id="footnotetagChII5" name="footnotetagChII5"></a><a href="#footnoteChII5"><sup>5</sup></a></p> + +<h3>THE STRENGTH OF WOOD.</h3> + +<p>Strength is a factor of prime importance in wood. By strength +is meant the ability to resist stresses, either of tension (pulling), or +of compression (pushing), or both together, cross stresses. When a +horizontal timber is subjected to a downward cross stress, the lower +half is under tension, the upper half is under compression and the +line between is called the neutral axis, Fig. 42.</p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 500px;"><a href="images/figure-042-w800.png"><img src="images/figure-042-a-500.png" width="500" height="183" alt="Timber Under Cross Stress." /></a> +<p>Fig. 42. A Timber Under Cross Stress, Showing Neutral Axis, and +the Lines of +Tension and Compression. A knot occurring in such a timber should be in the +upper half, as at A.</p></div> + +<p>Wood is much stronger than is commonly supposed. A hickory +bar will stand more strain under tension than a wrought iron bar +of the same length and weight, and a block of long-leaf pine a greater +compression endwise than a block of wrought iron of the same height +and weight. It approaches the strength of cast iron under the same +conditions.</p> + +<p>Strength depends on two factors: the strength of the individual +fibers, and the adhesive power of the fibers to each other. So, when +a piece of wood is pulled apart, some of the fibers break and some are +pulled out from among their neighbors. Under compression, however, +the fibers seem to act quite independently of each other, each +bending over like the strands of a rope when the ends are pushed +together. As a consequence, we find that wood is far stronger under +tension than under compression, varying from two to four times.</p> +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page52" id="page52"></a>52</span> + +<p>Woods do not vary nearly so much under compression as under +tension, the straight-grained conifers, like larch and longleaf pine, +being nearly as strong under compression as the hard woods, like +hickory and elm, which have entangled fibers, whereas the hard woods +are nearly twice as strong as the conifers under tension.</p> + +<p>Moisture has more effect on the strength of wood than any other +extrinsic condition. In sound wood under ordinary conditions, it +outweighs all other causes which affect strength. When thoroly seasoned, +wood is two or three times stronger, both under compression +and in bending, than when +green or water soaked.<a id="footnotetagChII6" name="footnotetagChII6"></a><a href="#footnoteChII6"><sup>6</sup></a></p> + +<p>The tension or pulling +strength of wood is much affected +by the direction of the +grain, a cross-grained piece being +only <span style="font-size: 0.8em;"><sup>1</sup></span>⁄<span style="font-size: 0.7em;">10</span><span style="font-size: 0.9em;">th</span> to +<span style="font-size: 0.8em;"><sup>1</sup></span>⁄<span style="font-size: 0.7em;">20</span><span style="font-size: 0.9em;">th</span> as +strong as a straight-grained +piece. But under compression +there is not much difference; +so that if a timber is to be +subjected to cross strain, that +is the lower half under tension +and the upper half under compression, +a knot or other cross-grained +portion should be in the upper half.</p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 300px;"><a href="images/figure-043-w600.png"><img src="images/figure-043-a-300.png" width="300" height="265" alt="Shearing Strength." /></a> +<p>Fig. 43. Shearing Strength is Measured +by the Adhesion of the Portion A, B, C, +D or to the Wood on both sides of it.</p></div> + +<p>Strength also includes the ability to resist shear. This is called +"<i>shearing strength</i>." It is a measure of the adhesion of one part of +the wood to an adjoining part. Shearing is what takes place when +the portion of wood beyond a mortise near the end of a timber, +A B C D, Fig. 43, is forced out by the tenon. In this case it would +be shearing along the grain, sometimes called detrusion. The resistance +of the portion A B C D, <i>i.e.</i>, its power of adhesion to the wood +adjacent to it on both sides, is its shearing strength. If the mortised +piece were forced downward until it broke off the tenon at the shoulder, +that would be shearing across the grain. The shearing resistance +either with or across the grain is small compared with tension and +compression. Green wood shears much more easily than dry, because +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page53" id="page53"></a>53</span> +moisture softens the wood and this reduces the adhesion of the +fibers to each other.<a id="footnotetagChII7" name="footnotetagChII7"></a><a href="#footnoteChII7"><sup>7</sup></a></p> + +<h3>CLEAVABILITY OF WOOD.</h3> + +<p>Closely connected with shearing strength is cohesion, a property +usually considered under the name of its opposite, cleavability, <i>i.e.</i>, +the ease of splitting.</p> + +<p>When an ax is stuck into the end of a piece of wood, the wood +splits in advance of the ax edge. See <i>Handwork in Wood</i>, Fig. 59, +p. 52. The wood is not cut but pulled across the grain just as truly +as if one edge were held and a weight were attached to the other +edge and it were torn apart by tension. The length of the cleft +ahead of the blade is determined by the elasticity of the wood. The +longer the cleft, the easier to split. Elasticity helps splitting, and +shearing strength and hardness hinder it.</p> + +<p>A normal piece of wood splits easily along two surfaces, (1) along +any radial plane, principally because of the presence of the pith rays, +and, in regular grained wood like pine, because the cells are radially +regular; and (2) along the annual rings, because the spring-wood separates +easily from the next ring of summer-wood. Of the two, radial +cleavage is 50 to 100 per cent. easier. Straight-grained wood is much +easier to split than cross-grained wood in which the fibers are interlaced, +and soft wood, provided it is elastic, splits easier than hard. +Woods with sharp contrast between spring and summer wood, like +yellow pine and chestnut, split very easily tangentially.</p> + +<p>All these facts are important in relation to the use of nails. For +instance, the reason why yellow pine is hard to nail and bass easy +is because of their difference in cleavability.</p> + +<h3>ELASTICITY OF WOOD.</h3> + +<p>Elasticity is the ability of a substance when forced out of shape,—bent, +twisted, compressed or stretched, to regain its former shape. +When the elasticity of wood is spoken of, its ability to spring back +from bending is usually meant. The opposite of elasticity is brittleness. +Hickory is elastic, white pine is brittle.</p> +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page54" id="page54"></a>54</span> + +<p>Stiffness is the ability to resist bending, and hence is the opposite +of pliability or flexibility. A wood may be both stiff and elastic; it +may be even stiff and pliable, as ash, which may be made into splints +for baskets and may also be used for oars. Willow sprouts are flexible +when green, but quite brittle when dry.</p> + +<p>Elasticity is of great importance in some uses of wood, as in long +tool handles used in agricultural implements, such as rakes, hoes, +scythes, and in axes, in archery bows, in golf sticks, etc., in all of +which, hickory, our most elastic wood, is used.<a id="footnotetagChII8" name="footnotetagChII8"></a><a href="#footnoteChII8"><sup>8</sup></a></p> + +<h3>HARDNESS OF WOOD.</h3> + +<p>Hardness is the ability of wood to resist indentations, and depends +primarily upon the thickness of the cell walls and the smallness +of the cell cavities, or, in general, upon the density of the wood +structure. Summer wood, as we have seen, is much harder than +spring wood, hence it is important in using such wood as yellow pine +on floors to use comb-grain boards, so as to present the softer spring +wood in as narrow surfaces as possible. See <i>Handwork in Wood</i>, +p. 41, and Fig. 55. In slash-grain boards, broad surfaces of both +spring and summer wood appear. Maple which is uniformly hard +makes the best floors, even better than oak, parts of which are comparatively +soft.</p> + +<p>The hardness of wood is of much consequence in gluing pieces together. +Soft woods, like pine, can be glued easily, because the fibers +can be forced close together. As a matter of fact, the joint when dry +is stronger than the rest of the board. In gluing hard woods, however, +it is necessary to scratch the surfaces to be glued in order to +insure a strong joint. It is for the same reason that a joint made +with liquid glue is safe on soft wood when it would be weak on +hard wood.<a id="footnotetagChII9" name="footnotetagChII9"></a><a href="#footnoteChII9"><sup>9</sup></a></p> + +<h3>TOUGHNESS OF WOOD.</h3> + +<p>Toughness may be defined as the ability to resist sudden shocks +and blows. This requires a combination of various qualities, strength, +hardness, elasticity and pliability. The tough woods, <i>par excellence</i>, +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page55" id="page55"></a>55</span> +are hickory, rock elm and ash. They can be pounded, pulled, compressed +and sheared. It is because of this quality that hickory is +used for wheel spokes and for handles, elm for hubs, etc.</p> + +<p>In the selection of wood for particular purposes, it is sometimes +one, sometimes another, and more often still, a combination of qualities +that makes it fit for use.<a id="footnotetagChII10" name="footnotetagChII10"></a><a href="#footnoteChII10"><sup>10</sup></a></p> + +<p>It will be remembered that it was knowledge of the special values +of different woods that made "the one horse shay," "The Deacon's +Masterpiece."</p> + +<div class="poem"> <div class="stanza"> +<p>"So the Deacon inquired of the village folk</p> +<p>Where he could find the strongest oak,</p> +<p>That couldn't be split nor bent nor broke,—</p> +<p>That was for spokes and floor and sills;</p> +<p>He sent for lancewood to make the thills;</p> +<p>The cross bars were ash, from the straightest trees,</p> +<p>The panels of whitewood, that cuts like cheese,</p> +<p>But lasts like iron for things like these.</p> +<p>The hubs of logs from the "Settler's Ellum,"—</p> +<p>Last of its timber,—they couldn't sell 'em.</p> +<p>Never an ax had seen their chips,</p> +<p>And the wedges flew from between their lips,</p> +<p>Their blunt ends frizzled like celery tips;</p> +<p>Step and prop-iron, bolt and screw,</p> +<p>Spring, tire, axle and linch pin too,</p> +<p>Steel of the finest, bright and blue;</p> +<p>Thorough brace, bison skin, thick and wide;</p> +<p>Boot, top dasher from tough old hide,</p> +<p>Found in the pit when the tanner died.</p> +<p>That was the way to "put her through."</p> +<p>'There!' said the Deacon, 'naow she'll dew!'"</p> + </div> </div> + +<p class="note1"><a id="footnoteChII1" name="footnoteChII1"></a><a class="footnote" href="#footnotetagChII1">Footnote 1:</a> Hygroscopicity, "the property possessed by vegetable tissues of absorbing +or discharging moisture and expanding or shrinking accordingly."—<i>Century +Dictionary</i>.</p> + +<p class="note1"><a id="footnoteChII2" name="footnoteChII2"></a><a class="footnote" href="#footnotetagChII2">Footnote 2:</a> This is shown by the following table, from Forestry Bulletin No. 10, +p. 31, <i>Timber</i>, by Filibert Roth:</p> + +<h5>POUNDS OF WATER LOST IN DRYING 100 POUNDS OF GREEN WOOD IN THE KILN.</h5> + +<table width="auto" summary="Pounds of water lost in drying 100 pounds of green wood in the kiln." align="center" border="0"> + +<tr> + <td> </td> + <td class="right">Sap-wood or<br />outer part.</td> + <td class="right">Heart-wood<br />or interior.</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td>1. Pines, cedars, spruces, and firs</td> + <td class="right">45-65</td> + <td class="right">16-25</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td> 2. Cypress, extremely variable</td> + <td class="right">50-65</td> + <td class="right">18-60</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td>3. Poplar, cottonwood, basswood</td> + <td class="right">60-65</td> + <td class="right">40-60</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td>4. Oak, beech, ash, elm, maple, birch, hickory,<br /> + chestnut, walnut, and sycamore</td> + <td class="right">40-50</td> + <td class="right">30-40</td> +</tr> +</table> + +<p class="note1"><a id="footnoteChII3" name="footnoteChII3"></a><a class="footnote" href="#footnotetagChII3">Footnote 3:</a> The following table from Roth, p. 37, gives the approximate shrinkage +of a board, or set of boards, 100 inches wide, drying in the open air:</p> + +<table width="auto" summary="shrinkage" align="center" border="0"> +<tr> + <td> </td> + <td>Shrinkage<br />Inches.</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td>1. All light conifers (soft pine, spruce, cedar, cypress)</td> + <td class="right">3</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td>2. Heavy conifers (hard pine, tamarack, yew, honey locust, + box elder, wood of old oaks)</td> + <td class="right">4</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td>3. Ash, elm, walnut, poplar, maple, beech, sycamore, + cherry, black locust</td> + <td class="right">5</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td>4. Basswood, birch, chestnut, horse chestnut, blue beech, + young locust </td> + <td class="right">6</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td>5. Hickory, young oak, especially red oak</td> + <td class="right">Up to 10</td> +</tr> +</table> +<p class="note3"> +The figures are the average of radial and tangential shrinkages.</p> + +<p class="note1"><a id="footnoteChII4" name="footnoteChII4"></a><a class="footnote" href="#footnotetagChII4">Footnote 4:</a> How much different woods vary may be seen by the following table, +taken from Filibert Roth, <i>Timber</i>, Forest Service Bulletin No. 10, p. 28:</p> + +<h5>WEIGHT OF KILN-DRIED WOOD OF DIFFERENT SPECIES.</h5> + +<table width="auto" summary="Weight of kiln-dried wood of different species." align="center" style="border-collapse: collapse;" border="0"> +<tr> +<td rowspan="3" style="border: 1px solid black"> </td> +<td class="center" colspan="3" style="border: 1px solid black;">Approximate.</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="right" rowspan="2" valign="bottom" style="border: 1px solid black; padding-bottom: 0.5em;">Specific weight.</td> +<td class="center" colspan="2" style="border: 1px solid black;">Weight of</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="right" style="border: 1px solid black;">1 cubic foot.</td> +<td class="right" style="border: 1px solid black;">1,000 feet of lumber.</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td style="border-left: 1px solid black;"> </td> +<td width="15%" style="border-left: 1px solid black;"> </td> +<td width="15%" class="right" valign="top" style="border-left: 1px solid black;">Pounds</td> +<td width="15%" class="right" valign="top" style="border-left: 1px solid black; border-right: 1px solid black;">Pounds</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="leftq" style="border-left: 1px solid black;"><span class="outdent2">(a) Very heavy woods:</span><br /> + <span class="outdent1">Hickory,</span> oak, persimmon, + osage, orange, black locust, + hackberry, blue beech, best + of elm, and ash</td> +<td class="right" valign="bottom" style="border-left: 1px solid black; padding-bottom: 0.5em;">0.70-0.80</td> +<td class="right" valign="bottom" style="border-left: 1px solid black; padding-bottom: 0.5em;">42-48</td> +<td class="right" valign="bottom" style="border-left: 1px solid black; border-right: 1px solid black; padding-bottom: 0.5em;">3,700</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="leftq" style="border-left: 1px solid black;"><span class="outdent2">(b) Heavy woods:</span><br /> + <span class="outdent1">Ash, elm,</span> cherry, birch, maple, + beech, walnut, sour gum, + coffee tree, honey locust, + best of southern pine, and + tamarack</td> +<td class="right" valign="bottom" style="border-left: 1px solid black; padding-bottom: 0.5em;">.60-.70</td> +<td class="right" valign="bottom" style="border-left: 1px solid black; padding-bottom: 0.5em;">36-42</td> +<td class="right" valign="bottom" style="border-left: 1px solid black; border-right: 1px solid black; padding-bottom: 0.5em;">3,200</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="leftq" style="border-left: 1px solid black;"><span class="outdent2">(c) Woods of medium weight:</span><br /> + <span class="outdent1">Southern pine,</span> pitch pine, + tamarack, Douglas spruce, + western hemlock, sweet gum, + soft maple, sycamore, light + sassafras, mulberry, grades + of birch and cherry</td> +<td class="right" valign="bottom" style="border-left: 1px solid black; padding-bottom: 0.5em;">.50-.60</td> +<td class="right" valign="bottom" style="border-left: 1px solid black; padding-bottom: 0.5em;">30-36</td> +<td class="right" valign="bottom" style="border-left: 1px solid black; border-right: 1px solid black; padding-bottom: 0.5em;">2,700</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="leftq" style="border-left: 1px solid black;"><span class="outdent2">(d) Light woods:</span><br /> + <span class="outdent1">Norway</span> and bull pine, red cedar, + cypress, hemlock, the heavier + spruce and fir, redwood, + basswood, chestnut, butternut, + tulip, catalpa, buckeye, heavier + grades of poplar</td> +<td class="right" valign="bottom" style="border-left: 1px solid black; padding-bottom: 0.5em; padding-bottom: 0.5em;">.40-.50</td> +<td class="right" valign="bottom" style="border-left: 1px solid black; padding-bottom: 0.5em; padding-bottom: 0.5em;">24-30</td> +<td class="right" valign="bottom" style="border-left: 1px solid black; border-right: 1px solid black; padding-bottom: 0.5em; padding-bottom: 0.5em;">2,200</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="leftq" style="border-left: 1px solid black; border-bottom: 1px solid black;"><span class="outdent2">(e) Very light woods:</span><br /> + <span class="outdent1">White pine,</span> spruce, fir, white + cedar, poplar</td> +<td class="right" valign="bottom" style="border-left: 1px solid black; border-bottom: 1px solid black; padding-bottom: 0.5em;">.30-.40</td> +<td class="right" valign="bottom" style="border-left: 1px solid black; border-bottom: 1px solid black; padding-bottom: 0.5em;">18-24</td> +<td class="right" valign="bottom" style="border-left: 1px solid black; border-right: 1px solid black; border-bottom: 1px solid black; padding-bottom: 0.5em;">1,800</td> +</tr> +</table> + +<p class="note1"><a id="footnoteChII5" name="footnoteChII5"></a><a class="footnote" href="#footnotetagChII5">Footnote 5:</a> For table of weights of different woods see Sargent, <i>Jesup Collection,</i> +pp. 153-157.</p> + +<p class="note1"><a id="footnoteChII6" name="footnoteChII6"></a><a class="footnote" href="#footnotetagChII6">Footnote 6:</a> See Forestry Bulletin No. 70, pp. 11, 12, and Forestry Circular No. 108.</p> + +<p class="note1"><a id="footnoteChII7" name="footnoteChII7"></a><a class="footnote" href="#footnotetagChII7">Footnote 7:</a> For table of strengths of different woods, see Sargent, <i>Jesup Collection</i>, +pp. 166 ff.</p> + +<p class="note1"><a id="footnoteChII8" name="footnoteChII8"></a><a class="footnote" href="#footnotetagChII8">Footnote 8:</a> For table of elasticity of different woods, see Sargent, <i>Jesup Collection</i>, +pp. 163 ff.</p> + +<p class="note1"><a id="footnoteChII9" name="footnoteChII9"></a><a class="footnote" href="#footnotetagChII9">Footnote 9:</a> For table of hardnesses of different woods, see Sargent, <i>Jesup Collection</i>, +pp. 173 ff.</p> + +<p class="note1a"><a id="footnoteChII10" name="footnoteChII10"></a><a class="footnote" href="#footnotetagChII10">Footnote 10:</a> For detailed characteristics of different woods see Chapter III.</p> + +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page56" id="page56"></a>56</span> + +<h5 style="margin-top: 3em;">THE PROPERTIES OF WOOD.</h5> + +<ul class="none"> +<li><span class="sc">References</span>* + <ul class="none2"> + <li>Moisture and Shrinkage. + <ul class="none3"> + <li>Roth, <i>For. Bull</i>., No. 10, pp. 25-37.</li> + <li>Busbridge, <i>Sci. Am. Sup</i>. No. 1500. Oct. 1, '04.<br /><br /></li></ul></li> + + <li>Weight, Strength, Cleavability, Elasticity and Toughness. + <ul class="none3"> + <li>Roth, <i>For. Bull</i>., 10, p. 37-50.</li> + <li>Boulger, pp. 89-108, 129-140.</li> + <li>Roth, <i>First Book</i>, pp. 229-233.</li> + <li>Sargent, <i>Jesup Collection</i>, pp. 153-176.<br /><br /></li></ul></li> + + <li>Forest Circulars Nos. 108 and 139.</li></ul></li> +</ul> + +<p class="note1"><span style="font-size: 1.2em;">*</span> For general bibliography, see <a class="index" href="#page4">p. 4.</a></p> + +<h2><span class="pagenum" style="font-size: 0.4em; font-weight: normal;"><a name="page57" id="page57"></a>57</span><span class="sc">Chapter III.</span></h2> + +<h4>THE PRINCIPAL SPECIES OF AMERICAN WOODS.</h4> + +<h5>NOTES.</h5> + +<p>The photographs of tangential and radial sections are life size. +The microphotographs are of cross-sections and are enlarged 37½ +diameters.</p> + +<p>Following the precedent of U. S. Forest Bulletin No. 17, Sudworth's +<i>Check List of the Forest Trees of the United States</i>, the complicated +rules for the capitalization of the names of species are abandoned +and they are uniformly not capitalized.</p> + +<p>On pages <a class="index" href="#page192">192</a>-195 will be found lists of the woods described, arranged +in the order of their comparative weight, strength, elasticity, +and hardness. These lists are based upon the figures in Sargent's +<i>The Jesup Collection</i>.</p> + +<p>In the appendix, <a class="index" href="#page289">p. 289</a>, will be found a key for distinguishing the +various kinds of wood.</p> + +<p>Information as to current wholesale prices in the principal markets +of the country can be had from the U. S. Dept. of Agriculture, +The Forest Service, Washington, D. C., <i>Record of Wholesale Prices +of Lumber, List A</i>. These lists are published periodically. No attempt +is made in this book to give prices because: (1) only lists of +wholesale prices are available; (2) the cuts and grades differ considerably, +especially in soft woods (conifers); (3) prices are constantly +varying; (4) the prices differ much in different localities.</p> +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page58" id="page58"></a>58</span> + +<table summary="the principal species of american woods" width="600px" align="center" border="0"> +<tr><td> + +<h3>1</h3> + +<h5><span class="sc">White Pine, Weymouth Pine.</span></h5> + +<p class="center"> +Named for Lord Weymouth, who cultivated it in England. +</p> + +<h5><i>Pinus strobus</i> Linnaeus.</h5> + +<p class="center"> +<i>Pinus</i>, the classical Latin name; <i>strobus</i> refers to the cone, or strobile, +from a Greek word, <i>strobus</i>, meaning twist. +</p> +<br clear="all" /> +<div class="figleft" style="width: 300px;"><a href="images/01-habitat-600.png"><img src="images/01-habitat-a-300.png" width="300" height="209" alt="habitat" /></a> +<p class="center1">Habitat.</p></div> + +<p><b>Habitat</b>: (See map); +now best in Michigan, +Wisconsin and Minnesota.</p> + +<p><b>Characteristics of the +Tree</b>: Height, 100'-120', +even 200'; diameter, 2'-4'; +branches in whorls, cleans +poorly; bark, dark gray, +divided by deep longitudinal +fissures into broad +ridges; leaves in clusters +of 5, 3"-5" long; cone +drooping, 4"-10" long.</p> + +<p><b>Appearance of Wood</b>: +Color, heart-wood, very +light brown, almost cream +color, sap-wood, nearly +white; non-porous; rings, +fine but distinct; grain, +straight; pith rays, very +faint; resin ducts, small, +inconspicuous.</p> + +<div class="figleft" style="width: 150px;"><a href="images/01-leaf-450.png"><img src="images/01-leaf-a-150.png" width="150" height="213" alt="leaf" /></a> +<p class="center">Leaf.</p></div> + +<p><b>Physical Qualities</b>: +Weight, very light (59th +in this list); 27 lbs. per +cu. ft.; sp. gr. 0.3854; +strength, medium (55th in +this list); elasticity, medium +(47th in this list); +soft (57th in this list); +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page59" id="page59"></a>59</span> +shrinkage 3 per cent.; warps very little; +durability, moderate; works easily in +every way; splits easily but nails well.</p> + +<p><b>Common Uses</b>: Doors, window sashes +and other carpentry, pattern-making, +cabinet-work, matches.</p> + +<p><b>Remarks</b>: This best of American +woods is now rapidly becoming scarce and +higher in price. Its uses are due to its +uniform grain, on account of which it +is easily worked and stands well. Known +in the English market as yellow pine.</p> +<br clear="all" /> + +<div class="figleft" style="width: 200px;"><a href="images/01-cross-section-600.png"><img src="images/01-cross-section-a-200.png" width="200" height="200" alt="cross-section" /></a> +<p class="center">Cross-section, magnified 37½ diameters.</p></div> + +<div class="figleft" style="width: 150px;"><a href="images/01-radial-section-400.png"><img src="images/01-radial-section-a-150.png" width="150" height="300" alt="radial section" /></a> +<p class="center">Radial Section, life size.</p></div> + +<div class="figright" style="width: 150px;"><a href="images/01-tangential-section-400.png"><img src="images/01-tangential-section-a-150.png" width="150" height="300" alt="tangential Section" /></a> +<p class="center">Tangential Section, life size.</p></div> +<br clear="all" /> + +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page60" id="page60"></a>60</span> + +<h3>2</h3> + +<h5><span class="sc">Western White Pine.</span></h5> + +<h5><i>Pinus monticola</i> Douglas.</h5> + +<p class="center"> +<i>Pinus</i>, the classical Latin name; <i>monticola</i> means mountain-dweller. +</p> + +<div class="figleft" style="width: 300px;"><a href="images/02-habitat-600.png"><img src="images/02-habitat-a-300.png" width="300" height="207" alt="habitat" /></a> +<p class="center1">Habitat.</p></div> + +<p><b>Habitat</b>: (See map); +grows at great elevations, +7,000'-10,000'. Best in +northern Idaho.</p> + +<p><b>Characteristics of the +Tree</b>: Height, 100'-160'; +diameter, 4' to even 8'; +branches, slender, spreading; +bark, gray and +brown, divided into squarish +plates by deep longitudinal +and cross fissures; +leaves, 5 in sheath; cones, +12"×18" long.</p> + +<p><b>Appearance of Wood</b>: +Color, light brown or red, +sap-wood nearly white; +non-porous; rings, summer +wood, thin and not +conspicuous; grain, +straight; rays, numerous, +obscure; resin ducts, numerous +and conspicuous +tho not large.</p> +<br clear="all" /> +<div class="figleft" style="width: 150px;"><a href="images/02-leaf-500.png"><img src="images/02-leaf-a-150.png" width="150" height="213" alt="leaf" /></a> +<p class="center">Leaf.</p></div> + +<p><b>Physical Qualities</b>: +Weight, very light (58th +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page61" id="page61"></a>61</span> +in this list); 24 lbs. per cu. ft.; sp. gr. +0.3908; strength, medium (56th in this +list); elastic (35th in this list); soft +(63d in this list); shrinkage, 3 per cent.; +warps little; moderately durable; easy +to work; splits readily but nails well.</p> + +<p><b>Common Uses</b>: Lumber for construction +and interior finish.</p> + +<p><b>Remarks</b>: Closely resembles <i>Pinus +Strobus</i> in appearance and quality of +wood.</p> + +<br clear="all" /> + +<div class="figleft" style="width: 200px;"><a href="images/02-cross-section-600.png"><img src="images/02-cross-section-a-200.png" width="200" height="200" alt="cross-section" /></a> +<p class="center">Cross-section, magnified 37½ diameters.</p></div> + +<div class="figleft" style="width: 150px;"><a href="images/02-radial-section-400.png"><img src="images/02-radial-section-a-150.png" width="150" height="300" alt="radial section" /></a> +<p class="center">Radial Section, life size.</p></div> + +<div class="figright" style="width: 150px;"><a href="images/02-tangential-section-400.png"><img src="images/02-tangential-section-a-150.png" width="150" height="300" alt="tangential Section" /></a> +<p class="center">Tangential Section, life size.</p></div> +<br clear="all" /> +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page62" id="page62"></a>62</span> + +<h3>3</h3> + +<h5><span class="sc">Sugar Pine.</span></h5> + +<p class="center"> +Sugar refers to sweetish exudation. +</p> + +<h5><i>Pinus lambertiana</i> Douglas.</h5> + +<p class="center"> +<i>Pinus</i>, the classical Latin name; <i>lambertiana</i>, from the botanist, A. B. +Lambert, whose chief work was on Pines. +</p> + +<div class="figleft" style="width: 300px;"><a href="images/03-habitat-600.png"><img src="images/03-habitat-a-300.png" width="300" height="215" alt="habitat" /></a> +<p class="center1">Habitat.</p></div> + +<p><b>Habitat</b>: (See map); +grows on high elevations +(5,000'), best in northern +California.</p> + +<p><b>Characteristics of the +Tree</b>: Height, 100'-300'; +diameter, 15"-20"; +branches, in remote regular +whorls; bark, rich +purple or brown, thick, +deep irregular fissures +making long, flaky ridges; +leaves, stout, rigid, in +bundles of five; cones, +10"-18" long.</p> + +<p><b>Appearance of Wood</b>: +Color, pinkish brown, sap-wood, +cream white; non-porous; +rings, distinct; +grain, straight; rays, numerous, +obscure; resin +ducts, numerous, large +and conspicuous.</p> +<br clear="all" /> +<div class="figleft" style="width: 150px;"><a href="images/03-leaf-500.png"><img src="images/03-leaf-a-150.png" width="150" height="213" alt="leaf" /></a> +<p class="center">Leaf.</p></div> + +<p><b>Physical Qualities</b>: +Weight, very light (61st +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page63" id="page63"></a>63</span> +in this list); 22 lbs. per cu. ft.; sp. gr. +0.3684; strength, weak (59th in this +list); elasticity, medium (56th in this +list); soft (53d in this list); shrinkage, +3 per cent.; warps little; durable; +easily worked; splits little, nails well.</p> + +<p><b>Common Uses</b>: Carpentry, interior +finish, doors, blinds, shingles, barrels, +etc.</p> + +<p><b>Remarks</b>: Exudes a sweet substance +from heart-wood. A magnificent and +important lumber tree on Pacific coast.</p> + +<br clear="all" /> + +<div class="figleft" style="width: 200px;"><a href="images/03-cross-section-600.png"><img src="images/03-cross-section-a-200.png" width="200" height="200" alt="cross-section" /></a> +<p class="center">Cross-section, magnified 37½ diameters.</p></div> + +<div class="figleft" style="width: 150px;"><a href="images/03-radial-section-400.png"><img src="images/03-radial-section-a-150.png" width="150" height="300" alt="radial section" /></a> +<p class="center">Radial Section, life size.</p></div> + +<div class="figright" style="width: 150px;"><a href="images/03-tangential-section-400.png"><img src="images/03-tangential-section-a-150.png" width="150" height="300" alt="tangential Section" /></a> +<p class="center">Tangential Section, life size.</p></div> +<br clear="all" /> +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page64" id="page64"></a>64</span> + +<h3>4</h3> + +<h5><span class="sc">Norway Pine. Red Pine.</span></h5> + +<p class="center"> +Red refers to color of bark. +</p> + +<h5><i>Pinus resinosa</i> Solander.</h5> + +<p class="center"> +<i>Pinus</i>, the classical Latin name; <i>resinosa</i> refers to very resinous wood. +</p> + +<div class="figleft" style="width: 300px;"><a href="images/04-habitat-600.png"><img src="images/04-habitat-a-300.png" width="300" height="211" alt="habitat" /></a> +<p class="center1">Habitat.</p></div> + +<p><b>Habitat</b>: (See map); +grows best in northern +Michigan, Wisconsin, and +Minnesota.</p> + +<p><b>Characteristics of the +Tree</b>: Height, 70'-90'; +diameter, 2'-3'; tall, +straight; branches in +whorls, low; bark, thin, +scaly, purplish and reddish-brown; +longitudinal +furrows, broad flat ridges; +leaves, in twos in long +sheaths; cones, 2".</p> + +<p><b>Appearance of Wood</b>: +Color of wood, pale red, +sap-wood, wide, whitish; +non-porous; rings summer +wood broad, dark; +grain, straight; rays, numerous, +pronounced, thin; +very resinous, but ducts +small and few.</p> +<br clear="all" /> +<div class="figleft" style="width: 150px;"><a href="images/04-leaf-500.png"><img src="images/04-leaf-a-150.png" width="150" height="213" alt="leaf" /></a> +<p class="center">Leaf.</p></div> + +<p><b>Physical Qualities</b>: +Weight, light, (43d in this +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page65" id="page65"></a>65</span> +list); 31 lbs. per cu. ft.; sp. gr. 0.4854; +strong (39th in this list); elastic (16th +in this list); soft (48th in this list); +shrinkage, 3 per cent.; warps moderately; +not durable; easy to work; splits +readily, nails well.</p> + +<p><b>Common Uses</b>: Piles, electric wire +poles, masts, flooring.</p> + +<p><b>Remarks</b>: Often sold with and as +white pine. Resembles Scotch pine +(<i>Pinus sylvestris</i>). Bark used to some +extent for tanning. Grows in open +groves.</p> + +<br clear="all" /> + +<div class="figleft" style="width: 200px;"><a href="images/04-cross-section-600.png"><img src="images/04-cross-section-a-200.png" width="200" height="200" alt="cross-section" /></a> +<p class="center">Cross-section, magnified 37½ diameters.</p></div> + +<div class="figleft" style="width: 150px;"><a href="images/04-radial-section-400.png"><img src="images/04-radial-section-a-150.png" width="150" height="300" alt="radial section" /></a> +<p class="center">Radial Section, life size.</p></div> + +<div class="figright" style="width: 150px;"><a href="images/04-tangential-section-400.png"><img src="images/04-tangential-section-a-150.png" width="150" height="300" alt="tangential Section" /></a> +<p class="center">Tangential Section, life size.</p></div> +<br clear="all" /> +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page66" id="page66"></a>66</span> + +<h3>5</h3> + +<h5><span class="sc">Western Yellow Pine. Bull Pine.</span></h5> + +<p class="center"> +Bull refers to great size of trunk. +</p> + +<h5><i>Pinus ponderosa</i> Lawson.</h5> + +<p class="center"> +<i>Pinus</i>, the classical Latin name; <i>ponderosa</i> refers to great size of trunk. +</p> + +<div class="figleft" style="width: 300px;"><a href="images/05-habitat-600.png"><img src="images/05-habitat-a-300.png" width="300" height="213" alt="habitat" /></a> +<p class="center1">Habitat.</p></div> + +<p><b>Habitat</b>: (See map); +best in Rocky Mountains.</p> + +<p><b>Characteristics of the +Tree</b>: Height, 100' to +300'; diameter, 6' to even +12'; branches, low, short +trunk; bark, thick, dark +brown, deep, meandering +furrows, large, irregular +plates, scaly; leaves, in +twos or threes, 5" to 11" +long; cones 3" to 6" long.</p> + +<p><b>Appearance of Wood</b>: +Color, light red, sap-wood, +thick, nearly white, and +very distinct; non-porous; +rings, conspicuous; grain, +straight; rays, numerous, +obscure; very resinous but +ducts small.</p> +<br clear="all" /> +<div class="figleft" style="width: 150px;"><a href="images/05-leaf-500.png"><img src="images/05-leaf-a-150.png" width="150" height="213" alt="leaf" /></a> +<p class="center">Leaf.</p></div> + +<p><b>Physical Qualities</b>: +Weight, light (44th in +this list); 25-30 lbs. per +cu. ft.; sp. gr. 0.4715; +strength, medium (45th +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page67" id="page67"></a>67</span> +in this list); elasticity, medium (41st in +this list); hardness, medium (42nd in +this list); shrinkage, 4 per cent.; warps +...........; not durable; hard to work, +brittle; splits easily in nailing.</p> + +<p><b>Common Uses</b>: Lumber, railway ties, +mine timbers.</p> + +<p><b>Remarks</b>: Forms extensive open forests.</p> + +<br clear="all" /> + +<div class="figleft" style="width: 200px;"><a href="images/05-cross-section-600.png"><img src="images/05-cross-section-a-200.png" width="200" height="200" alt="cross-section" /></a> +<p class="center">Cross-section, magnified 37½ diameters.</p></div> + +<div class="figleft" style="width: 150px;"><a href="images/05-radial-section-400.png"><img src="images/05-radial-section-a-150.png" width="150" height="300" alt="radial section" /></a> +<p class="center">Radial Section, life size.</p></div> + +<div class="figright" style="width: 150px;"><a href="images/05-tangential-section-400.png"><img src="images/05-tangential-section-a-150.png" width="150" height="300" alt="tangential Section" /></a> +<p class="center">Tangential Section, life size.</p></div> +<br clear="all" /> +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page68" id="page68"></a>68</span> + +<h3>6</h3> + +<h5><span class="sc">Long-Leaf Pine. Georgia Pine.</span></h5> + +<h5><i>Pinus palustris</i> Miller.</h5> + +<p class="center"> +<i>Pinus</i>, the classical Latin name; <i>palustris</i> means swampy, inappropriate +here. +</p> + +<div class="figleft" style="width: 300px;"><a href="images/06-habitat-600.png"><img src="images/06-habitat-a-300.png" width="300" height="214" alt="habitat" /></a> +<p class="center1">Habitat.</p></div> + +<p><b>Habitat</b>: (See map); +best in Louisiana and East +Texas.</p> + +<p><b>Characteristics of the +Tree</b>: Height, 80'-100'; +diameter, 2'-3'; trunk, +straight, clean, branches +high; bark, light brown, +large, thin, irregular papery +scales; leaves 8"-12" +long, 3 in a sheath; cones +6"-10" long.</p> + +<p><b>Appearance of Wood</b>: +Heart-wood, spring wood +light yellow, summer +wood, red brown; sap +wood, lighter; non-porous; +rings, very plain and +strongly marked; grain, +straight; rays, numerous, +conspicuous; very resinous, +but resin ducts few +and not large.</p> +<br clear="all" /> +<div class="figleft" style="width: 150px;"><a href="images/06-leaf-500.png"><img src="images/06-leaf-a-150.png" width="150" height="213" alt="leaf" /></a> +<p class="center">Leaf.</p></div> + +<p><b>Physical Qualities</b>: +Heavy (18th in this list); +38 lbs. per cu. ft.; sp. gr. +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page69" id="page69"></a>69</span> +0.6999; very strong (7th in this list); +very elastic (4th in this list); hardness, +medium (33d in this list); shrinkage, +4 per cent.; warps very little; quite +durable; works hard, tough; splits +badly in nailing.</p> + +<p><b>Common Uses</b>: Joists, beams, bridge +and building trusses, interior finish, ship +building, and general construction work.</p> + +<p><b>Remarks</b>: Almost exclusively the +source of turpentine, tar, pitch and resin +in the United States. Known in the +English market as pitch pine.</p> + +<br clear="all" /> + +<div class="figleft" style="width: 200px;"><a href="images/06-cross-section-600.png"><img src="images/06-cross-section-a-200.png" width="200" height="200" alt="cross-section" /></a> +<p class="center">Cross-section, magnified 37½ diameters.</p></div> + +<div class="figleft" style="width: 150px;"><a href="images/06-radial-section-400.png"><img src="images/06-radial-section-a-150.png" width="150" height="300" alt="radial section" /></a> +<p class="center">Radial Section, life size.</p></div> + +<div class="figright" style="width: 150px;"><a href="images/06-tangential-section-400.png"><img src="images/06-tangential-section-a-150.png" width="150" height="300" alt="tangential Section" /></a> +<p class="center">Tangential Section, life size.</p></div> +<br clear="all" /> +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page70" id="page70"></a>70</span> + +<h3>7</h3> + +<h5><span class="sc">Short-Leaf Pine. Yellow Pine.</span></h5> + +<h5><i>Pinus echinata</i> Miller.</h5> + +<p class="center"> +<i>Pinus</i>, the classical Latin name; <i>echinata</i> refers to spiny cones. +</p> + +<div class="figleft" style="width: 300px;"><a href="images/07-habitat-600.png"><img src="images/07-habitat-a-300.png" width="300" height="209" alt="habitat" /></a> +<p class="center1">Habitat.</p></div> + +<p><b>Habitat</b>: (See map); +best in lower Mississippi +basin.</p> + +<p><b>Characteristics of the +Tree</b>: Straight, tall trunk, +sometimes 100' high; +branches high; diameter +2'-4'; bark, pale grayish +red-brown, fissures, running +helter-skelter, making +large irregular plates, +covered with small scales; +leaves in twos, 3" long; +cones small.</p> + +<p><b>Appearance of Wood</b>: +Color, heartwood, summer +wood, red, spring-wood, +yellow; sap-wood, +lighter; non-porous; annual +rings very plain, +sharp contrast between +spring and summer wood; +grain, straight, coarse; +rays, numerous, conspicuous; +very resinous, ducts +large and many.</p> +<br clear="all" /> +<div class="figleft" style="width: 150px;"><a href="images/07-leaf-500.png"><img src="images/07-leaf-a-150.png" width="150" height="214" alt="leaf" /></a> +<p class="center">Leaf.</p></div> +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page71" id="page71"></a>71</span> + +<p><b>Physical Qualities</b>: Weight, medium +(32nd in this list); 32 lbs. per cu. ft.; +sp. gr., 0.6104; very strong (18th in +this list); very elastic (8th in this list); +soft (38th in this list); shrinkage, 4 +per cent.; warps little; durable; troublesome +to work; likely to split along annual +rings in nailing.</p> + +<p><b>Common Uses</b>: Heavy construction, +railroad ties, house trim, ship building, +cars, docks, bridges.</p> + +<p><b>Remarks</b>: Wood hardly distinguishable +from long-leaf pine. Often forms +pure forests. The most desirable yellow +pine, much less resinous and more easily +worked than others.</p> + +<br clear="all" /> + +<div class="figleft" style="width: 200px;"><a href="images/07-cross-section-600.png"><img src="images/07-cross-section-a-200.png" width="200" height="200" alt="cross-section" /></a> +<p class="center">Cross-section, magnified 37½ diameters.</p></div> + +<div class="figleft" style="width: 150px;"><a href="images/07-radial-section-400.png"><img src="images/07-radial-section-a-150.png" width="150" height="300" alt="radial section" /></a> +<p class="center">Radial Section, life size.</p></div> + +<div class="figright" style="width: 150px;"><a href="images/07-tangential-section-400.png"><img src="images/07-tangential-section-a-150.png" width="150" height="300" alt="tangential Section" /></a> +<p class="center">Tangential Section, life size.</p></div> +<br clear="all" /> +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page72" id="page72"></a>72</span> + +<h3>8</h3> + +<h5><span class="sc">Loblolly Pine. Old Field Pine.</span></h5> + +<p class="center"> +<i>Loblolly</i> may refer to the inferiority of the wood; old field refers to +habit of spontaneous growth on old fields. +</p> + +<h5><i>Pinus taeda</i> Linnaeus.</h5> + +<p class="center"> +<i>Pinus</i>, the classical Latin name; <i>taeda</i>, the classical Latin name for +pitch-pine, which was used for torches. +</p> + +<div class="figleft" style="width: 300px;"><a href="images/08-habitat-600.png"><img src="images/08-habitat-a-300.png" width="300" height="209" alt="habitat" /></a> +<p class="center1">Habitat.</p></div> + +<p><b>Habitat</b>: (See map); +grows best in eastern Virginia, +and eastern North +Carolina.</p> + +<p><b>Characteristics of the +Tree</b>: Height, 100'-150'; +diameter, often 4'-5'; +branches high; bark, +purplish brown, shallow, +meandering fissures, broad, +flat, scaly ridges; leaves, +3 in sheath, 4"-7" long; +cones 3"-5" long.</p> + +<p><b>Appearance of Wood</b>: +Color, heart-wood orange, +sap-wood lighter; non-porous; +rings very plain, +sharp contrast between +spring wood and summer +wood; grain, straight, +coarse; rays conspicuous; +very resinous, but ducts +few and small.</p> +<br clear="all" /> +<div class="figleft" style="width: 150px;"><a href="images/08-leaf-500.png"><img src="images/08-leaf-a-150.png" width="150" height="213" alt="leaf" /></a> +<p class="center">Leaf.</p></div> + +<p><b>Physical Qualities</b>: +Weight, medium (39th in +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page73" id="page73"></a>73</span> +this list); 33 lbs. per cu. ft.; sp. gr. +0.5441; strong (26th in this list); elastic +(17th in this list); medium hard +(43d in this list); shrinkage, 4 per +cent.; warps little; not durable; difficult +to work, brittle; splits along rings +in nailing.</p> + +<p><b>Common Uses</b>: Heavy construction, +beams, ship building, docks, bridges, +flooring, house trim.</p> + +<p><b>Remarks</b>: Resembles Long-leaf Pine, +and often sold as such. Rarely makes +pure forests.</p> + +<br clear="all" /> + +<div class="figleft" style="width: 200px;"><a href="images/08-cross-section-600.png"><img src="images/08-cross-section-a-200.png" width="200" height="200" alt="cross-section" /></a> +<p class="center">Cross-section, magnified 37½ diameters.</p></div> + +<div class="figleft" style="width: 150px;"><a href="images/08-radial-section-400.png"><img src="images/08-radial-section-a-150.png" width="150" height="300" alt="radial section" /></a> +<p class="center">Radial Section, life size.</p></div> + +<div class="figright" style="width: 150px;"><a href="images/08-tangential-section-400.png"><img src="images/08-tangential-section-a-150.png" width="150" height="300" alt="tangential Section" /></a> +<p class="center">Tangential Section, life size.</p></div> +<br clear="all" /> +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page74" id="page74"></a>74</span> + +<h3>9</h3> + +<h5><span class="sc">Slash Pine. Cuban Pine.</span></h5> + +<h5><i>Pinus caribaea</i> Morelet. <i>Pinus heterophylla</i> (Ell.) Sudworth.</h5> + +<p class="center"> +<i>Pinus</i>, the classical Latin name; <i>caribaea</i> refers to the Caribbean Islands; +<i>heterophylla</i> refers to two kinds of leaves. +</p> + +<div class="figleft" style="width: 300px;"><a href="images/09-habitat-600.png"><img src="images/09-habitat-a-300.png" width="300" height="209" alt="habitat" /></a> +<p class="center1">Habitat.</p></div> + +<p><b>Habitat</b>: (See map); +grows best in Alabama, +Mississippi, and Louisiana.</p> + +<p><b>Characteristics of the +Tree</b>: Height, sometimes +110', straight, tall, branching +high; diameter 1'-3'; +bark, dark red and brown, +shallow irregular fissures; +leaves, 2 or 3 in a sheath, +8"-12" long; cones, 4"-5" +long.</p> + +<p><b>Appearance of Wood</b>: +Color, dark orange, sapwood +lighter; non-porous; +annual rings, plain, +sharp contrast between +spring wood and summer +wood; grain, straight; +rays numerous, rather +prominent; very resinous, +but ducts few.</p> +<br clear="all" /> +<div class="figleft" style="width: 150px;"><a href="images/09-leaf-500.png"><img src="images/09-leaf-a-150.png" width="150" height="213" alt="leaf" /></a> +<p class="center">Leaf.</p></div> + +<p><b>Physical Qualities</b>: +Heavy (7th in this list); +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page75" id="page75"></a>75</span> +39 lbs. per cu. ft.; sp. gr. 0.7504; very +strong (6th in this list); very elastic +(3d in this list); hard (24th in this +list); shrinkage, 4 per cent.; warps little; +quite durable; troublesome to work; +splits along annual rings in nailing.</p> + +<p><b>Common Uses</b>: Heavy construction, +ship building, railroad ties, docks, +bridges, house trim.</p> + +<p><b>Remarks</b>: Similar to and often sold +as Long-leaf Pine.</p> + +<br clear="all" /> + +<div class="figleft" style="width: 200px;"><a href="images/09-cross-section-600.png"><img src="images/09-cross-section-a-200.png" width="200" height="200" alt="cross-section" /></a> +<p class="center">Cross-section, magnified 37½ diameters.</p></div> + +<div class="figleft" style="width: 150px;"><a href="images/09-radial-section-400.png"><img src="images/09-radial-section-a-150.png" width="150" height="300" alt="radial section" /></a> +<p class="center">Radial Section, life size.</p></div> + +<div class="figright" style="width: 150px;"><a href="images/09-tangential-section-400.png"><img src="images/09-tangential-section-a-150.png" width="150" height="300" alt="tangential Section" /></a> +<p class="center">Tangential Section, life size.</p></div> +<br clear="all" /> +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page76" id="page76"></a>76</span> + +<h3>10</h3> + +<h5><span class="sc">Tamarack. Larch. Hackmatack.</span></h5> + +<h5><i>Larix laricina</i> (Du Roi) Koch. <i>Larix americana</i> Michaux.</h5> + +<p class="center"> +<i>Larix</i>, the classical Latin name. +</p> + +<div class="figleft" style="width: 300px;"><a href="images/10-habitat-600.png"><img src="images/10-habitat-a-300.png" width="300" height="209" alt="habitat" /></a> +<p class="center1">Habitat.</p></div> + +<p><b>Habitat</b>: (See map); +prefers swamps, "Tamarack +swamps."</p> + +<p><b>Characteristics of the +Tree</b>: Height, 50'-60' +and even 90', diameter 1'-3'; +intolerant; tall, slender +trunk; bark, cinnamon +brown, no ridges, +breaking into flakes; +leaves, deciduous, pea-green, +in tufts; cone, ½"-¾", +bright brown.</p> + +<p><b>Appearance of Wood</b>: +Color, light brown, sapwood +hardly distinguishable; +non-porous; rings, +summer wood, thin but +distinct, dark colored; +grain, straight, coarse; +rays, numerous, hardly +distinguishable; very resinous, +but ducts few and +small.</p> +<br clear="all" /> +<div class="figleft" style="width: 150px;"><a href="images/10-leaf-500.png"><img src="images/10-leaf-a-150.png" width="150" height="213" alt="leaf" /></a> +<p class="center">Leaf.</p></div> + +<p><b>Physical Qualities</b>: +Weight, medium (29th in +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page77" id="page77"></a>77</span> +this list); 39 lbs. per cu. ft.; sp. gr. +0.6236; strong (24th in this list); elastic +(11th in this list); medium hard +(40th in this list); shrinkage, 3 per +cent.; warps ........; very durable; +easy to work; splits easily.</p> + +<p><b>Common Uses</b>: Ship building, electric +wire poles, and railroad ties; used +for boat ribs because of its naturally +crooked knees; slenderness prevents common +use as lumber.</p> + +<p><b>Remarks</b>: Tree desolate looking in +winter.</p> + +<br clear="all" /> + +<div class="figleft" style="width: 200px;"><a href="images/10-cross-section-600.png"><img src="images/10-cross-section-a-200.png" width="200" height="200" alt="cross-section" /></a> +<p class="center">Cross-section, magnified 37½ diameters.</p></div> + +<div class="figleft" style="width: 150px;"><a href="images/10-radial-section-400.png"><img src="images/10-radial-section-a-150.png" width="150" height="300" alt="radial section" /></a> +<p class="center">Radial Section, life size.</p></div> + +<div class="figright" style="width: 150px;"><a href="images/10-tangential-section-400.png"><img src="images/10-tangential-section-a-150.png" width="150" height="300" alt="tangential Section" /></a> +<p class="center">Tangential Section, life size.</p></div> +<br clear="all" /> +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page78" id="page78"></a>78</span> + +<h3>11</h3> + +<h5><span class="sc">Western Larch. Tamarack.</span></h5> + +<h5><i>Larix occidentalis</i> Nuttall.</h5> + +<p class="center"> +<i>Larix</i>, the classical Latin name; <i>occidentalis</i> means western. +</p> + +<div class="figleft" style="width: 300px;"><a href="images/11-habitat-600.png"><img src="images/11-habitat-a-300.png" width="300" height="214" alt="habitat" /></a> +<p class="center1">Habitat.</p></div> + +<p><b>Habitat</b>: (See map); +best in northern Montana +and Idaho, on high elevations.</p> + +<p><b>Characteristics of the +Tree</b>: Height, 90'-130', +even 250'; diameter 6'-8'; +tall, slender, naked trunk, +with branches high; bark, +cinnamon red or purplish, +often 12" thick, breaking +into irregular plates, often +2' long; leaves, in tufts; +deciduous; cones small.</p> + +<p><b>Appearance of Wood</b>: +Color, light red, thin, +whitish, sap-wood; non-porous; +grain, straight, +fine; rays numerous, thin; +very resinous, but ducts +small and obscure.</p> +<br clear="all" /> +<div class="figleft" style="width: 150px;"><a href="images/11-leaf-500.png"><img src="images/11-leaf-a-150.png" width="150" height="213" alt="leaf" /></a> +<p class="center">Leaf.</p></div> + +<p><b>Physical Qualities</b>: +Weight, heavy (11th in +this list); 46 lbs. per cu. +ft.; sp. gr. 0.7407; very +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page79" id="page79"></a>79</span> +strong (3d in this list); very elastic +(1st in this list); medium hard (35th +in this list); shrinkage, 4 per cent.; +warps .........; very durable; rather +hard to work, takes fine polish; splits +with difficulty.</p> + +<p><b>Common Uses</b>: Posts, railroad ties, +fencing, cabinet material and fuel.</p> + +<p><b>Remarks</b>: A valuable tree in the +Northwest.</p> + +<br clear="all" /> + +<div class="figleft" style="width: 200px;"><a href="images/11-cross-section-600.png"><img src="images/11-cross-section-a-200.png" width="200" height="200" alt="cross-section" /></a> +<p class="center">Cross-section, magnified 37½ diameters.</p></div> + +<div class="figleft" style="width: 150px;"><a href="images/11-radial-section-400.png"><img src="images/11-radial-section-a-150.png" width="150" height="300" alt="radial section" /></a> +<p class="center">Radial Section, life size.</p></div> + +<div class="figright" style="width: 150px;"><a href="images/11-tangential-section-400.png"><img src="images/11-tangential-section-a-150.png" width="150" height="300" alt="tangential Section" /></a> +<p class="center">Tangential Section, life size.</p></div> +<br clear="all" /> +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page80" id="page80"></a>80</span> + +<h3>12</h3> + +<h5><span class="sc">White Spruce.</span></h5> + +<h5><i>Picea canadensis</i> (Miller) B. S. P. <i>Picea alba</i> Link.</h5> + +<p class="center"> +<i>Picea</i>, the classical Latin name; white and <i>alba</i> refers to the pale color +of the leaves, especially when young, and to the whitish bark. +</p> + +<div class="figleft" style="width: 300px;"><a href="images/12-habitat-600.png"><img src="images/12-habitat-a-300.png" width="300" height="212" alt="habitat" /></a> +<p class="center1">Habitat.</p></div> + +<p><b>Habitat</b>: (See map).</p> + +<p><b>Characteristics of the +Tree</b>: Height, 60'-100' +and even 150'; diameter, +1'-2' and even 4'; long, +thick branches; bark, +light grayish brown, separating +into thin plate-like +scales, rather smooth appearance, +resin from cuts +forms white gum; leaves, +set thickly on all sides of +branch, finer than red +spruce, odor disagreeable; +cones, 2" long, cylindrical, +slender, fall during second +summer.</p> + +<p><b>Appearance of Wood</b>: +Color, light yellow, sap-wood, +hardly distinguishable; +non-porous; rings, +wide, summer wood thin, +not conspicuous; grain, +straight; rays, numerous, +prominent; resin ducts, +few and minute.</p> +<br clear="all" /> +<div class="figleft" style="width: 150px;"><a href="images/12-leaf-500.png"><img src="images/12-leaf-a-150.png" width="150" height="213" alt="leaf" /></a> +<p class="center">Leaf.</p></div> +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page81" id="page81"></a>81</span> + +<p><b>Physical Qualities</b>: Weight, light +(51st in this list); 25 lbs. per cu. ft.; sp. +gr., 0.4051; medium strong (42d in this +list); elastic (29th in this list); soft +(58th in this list); shrinks 3 per cent.; +warps ........; fairly durable; easy to +work, satiny surface; splits readily.</p> + +<p><b>Common Uses</b>: Lumber and paper +pulp; (not distinguished from Red and +Black Spruce in market).</p> + +<p><b>Remarks</b>: Wood very resonant, hence +used for sounding boards. The most important +lumber tree of the sub-arctic +forest of British Columbia.</p> + +<br clear="all" /> + +<div class="figleft" style="width: 200px;"><a href="images/12-cross-section-600.png"><img src="images/12-cross-section-a-200.png" width="200" height="200" alt="cross-section" /></a> +<p class="center">Cross-section, magnified 37½ diameters.</p></div> + +<div class="figleft" style="width: 150px;"><a href="images/12-radial-section-400.png"><img src="images/12-radial-section-a-150.png" width="150" height="300" alt="radial section" /></a> +<p class="center">Radial Section, life size.</p></div> + +<div class="figright" style="width: 150px;"><a href="images/12-tangential-section-350.png"><img src="images/12-tangential-section-a-150.png" width="150" height="300" alt="tangential Section" /></a> +<p class="center">Tangential Section, life size.</p></div> +<br clear="all" /> +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page82" id="page82"></a>82</span> + +<h3>13</h3> +<a name="redspruce" id="redspruce"></a> +<h5><span class="sc">Red Spruce.</span><a href="#redsprucenote">*</a></h5> + +<h5><i>Picea rubens</i> Sargent.</h5> + +<p class="center"> +<i>Picea</i>, the classical Latin name for the pitch pine; <i>rubens</i> refers to reddish +bark, and perhaps to the reddish streaks in the wood. +</p> + +<div class="figleft" style="width: 300px;"><a href="images/13-habitat-600.png"><img src="images/13-habitat-a-300.png" width="300" height="210" alt="habitat" /></a> +<p class="center1">Habitat.</p></div> + +<p><b>Habitat</b>: (See map); +stunted in north.</p> + +<p><b>Characteristics of the +Tree</b>: Height, 70'-80', +even 100'; diameter, 2'-3', +grows slowly; trunk, +straight, columnar, +branches in whorls, cleans +well in forest; bark, reddish +brown with thin irregular +scales; leaves, +needle-shaped, four-sided, +pointing everywhere; +cones, 1¼"-2" long, pendent, +fall during the first +winter.</p> + +<p><b>Appearance of Wood</b>: +Color, dull white with occasional +reddish streaks; +sap-wood not distinct; +non-porous; rings, summer +rings thin, but clearly +defined; grain, straight; +rays, faintly discernible; +resin ducts, few and small.</p> +<br clear="all" /> +<div class="figleft" style="width: 150px;"><a href="images/13-leaf-500.png"><img src="images/13-leaf-a-150.png" width="150" height="214" alt="leaf" /></a> +<p class="center">Leaf.</p></div> +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page83" id="page83"></a>83</span> + +<p><b>Physical Qualities</b>: Weight, light +(47th in this list); 28 lbs. per cu. ft.; +sp. gr., 0.4584; medium strong (41st in +this list); elastic (21st in this list); +soft (54th in this list); shrinkage, 3 +per cent.; warps little; not durable; easy +to plane, tolerably easy to saw, hard to +chisel neatly; splits easily in nailing.</p> + +<p><b>Common Uses</b>: Sounding boards, +construction, paper pulp, ladders.</p> + +<p><b>Remarks</b>: The exudations from this +species are used as chewing gum. Bark +of twigs is used in the domestic manufacture +of beer. The use of the wood for +sounding boards is due to its resonance, +and for ladders to its strength and +lightness.</p> + +<br clear="all" /> + +<div class="figleft" style="width: 200px;"><a href="images/13-cross-section-600.png"><img src="images/13-cross-section-a-200.png" width="200" height="200" alt="cross-section" /></a> +<p class="center">Cross-section, magnified 37½ diameters.</p></div> + +<div class="figleft" style="width: 150px;"><a href="images/13-radial-section-400.png"><img src="images/13-radial-section-a-150.png" width="150" height="300" alt="radial section" /></a> +<p class="center">Radial Section, life size.</p></div> + +<div class="figright" style="width: 150px;"><a href="images/13-tangential-section-400.png"><img src="images/13-tangential-section-a-150.png" width="150" height="300" alt="tangential Section" /></a> +<p class="center">Tangential Section, life size.</p></div> +<br clear="all" /> + +<a name="redsprucenote" id="redsprucenote"></a> +<p class="note1"><a href="#redspruce"><span style="font-size: 1.2em;">*</span></a> Not distinguished in the Jesup collection from <i>Picea nigra</i>.</p> + +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page84" id="page84"></a>84</span> + +<h3>14</h3> +<a name="blackspruce" id="blackspruce"></a> +<h5><span class="sc">Black Spruce.</span><a href="#blacksprucenote">*</a></h5> + +<h5><i>Picea mariana</i> (Miller) B. S. P. <i>Picea nigra</i> Link.</h5> + +<p class="center"> +<i>Picea</i>, the classical Latin name for the pitch pine; <i>mariana</i> named for +Queen Mary; black and <i>nigra</i> refer to dark foliage. +</p> + +<div class="figleft" style="width: 300px;"><a href="images/14-habitat-600.png"><img src="images/14-habitat-a-300.png" width="300" height="206" alt="habitat" /></a> +<p class="center1">Habitat.</p></div> + +<p><b>Habitat</b>: (See map); +best in Canada.</p> + +<p><b>Characteristics of the +Tree</b>: Height, 50'-80' +and even 100'; diameter, +6"-1' even 2'; branches, +whorled, pendulous with +upward curve; bark, +gray, loosely attached +flakes; leaves, pale blue-green, +spirally set, pointing +in all directions; +cones, small, ovate-oblong, +persistent for many +years.</p> + +<p><b>Appearance of Wood</b>: +Color, pale, reddish, sap-wood, +thin, white, not +very distinct; non-porous; +rings, summer wood, +small thin cells; grain, +straight; rays, few, conspicuous; +resin ducts, few +and minute.</p> +<br clear="all" /> +<div class="figleft" style="width: 150px;"><a href="images/14-leaf-500.png"><img src="images/14-leaf-a-150.png" width="150" height="215" alt="leaf" /></a> +<p class="center">Leaf.</p></div> + +<p><b>Physical Qualities</b>: +Weight, light (47th in +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page85" id="page85"></a>85</span> +this list); 33 lbs. per cu. ft.; sp. gr., +0.4584; medium strong (41st in this +list); elastic (21st in this list); soft +(54th in this list); shrinkage, 3 per +cent.; warps little; not durable; easy +to work; splits easily in nailing.</p> + +<p><b>Common Uses</b>: Sounding boards, +lumber in Manitoba.</p> + +<p><b>Remarks</b>: Not distinguished from +Red Spruce commercially.</p> + +<br clear="all" /> + +<div class="figleft" style="width: 200px;"><a href="images/14-cross-section-600.png"><img src="images/14-cross-section-a-200.png" width="200" height="200" alt="cross-section" /></a> +<p class="center">Cross-section, magnified 37½ diameters.</p></div> + +<div class="figleft" style="width: 150px;"><a href="images/14-radial-section-400.png"><img src="images/14-radial-section-a-150.png" width="150" height="300" alt="radial section" /></a> +<p class="center">Radial Section, life size.</p></div> + +<div class="figright" style="width: 150px;"><a href="images/14-tangential-section-400.png"><img src="images/14-tangential-section-a-150.png" width="150" height="300" alt="tangential Section" /></a> +<p class="center">Tangential Section, life size.</p></div> +<br clear="all" /> + +<a name="blacksprucenote" id="blacksprucenote"></a> +<p class="note1"><a href="#blackspruce"><span style="font-size: 1.2em;">*</span></a> Not distinguished in Jesup Collection from <i>Picea rubens</i>.</p> + +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page86" id="page86"></a>86</span> + +<h3>15</h3> + +<h5><span class="sc">White Spruce. Engelmann's Spruce.</span></h5> + +<h5><i>Picea engelmanni</i> (Parry) Engelmann.</h5> + +<p class="center"> +Named for George Engelmann, an American botanist. +</p> + +<div class="figleft" style="width: 300px;"><a href="images/15-habitat-600.png"><img src="images/15-habitat-a-300.png" width="300" height="216" alt="habitat" /></a> +<p class="center1">Habitat.</p></div> + +<p><b>Habitat</b>: (See map); +grows at very high elevations, +forming forest at +8,000'-10,000'; best in +British Columbia.</p> + +<p><b>Characteristics of the +Tree</b>: Height, 75'-100', +even 150'; diameter, 2'-3', +even 5'; branches whorled, +spreading; bark, deeply +furrowed, red-brown to +purplish brown, thin, +large, loose scales; leaves, +blue-green, point in all +directions; cones, 2" +long, oblong, cylindrical.</p> + +<p><b>Appearance of Wood</b>: +Color, pale yellow or reddish, +sap-wood hardly distinguishable; +non-porous; +rings, very fine, summer +wood, narrow, not conspicuous; +grain, straight, +close; rays, numerous, +conspicuous; resin ducts, +small and few.</p> +<br clear="all" /> +<div class="figleft" style="width: 150px;"><a href="images/15-leaf-500.png"><img src="images/15-leaf-a-150.png" width="150" height="215" alt="leaf" /></a> +<p class="center">Leaf.</p></div> + +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page87" id="page87"></a>87</span> + +<p><b>Physical Qualities</b>: Weight, very +light (57th in this list); 22 lbs. per +cu. ft.; sp. gr. 0.3449; weak (61st in +this list); elasticity medium (55th in +this list); soft (56th in this list); +shrinkage, 3 per cent.; warps .........; +durable; easy to work; splits easily.</p> + +<p><b>Common Uses</b>: Lumber.</p> + +<p><b>Remarks</b>: A valuable lumber tree +in the Rocky Mountains and the Cascades. +Bark used for tanning.</p> + +<br clear="all" /> + +<div class="figleft" style="width: 200px;"><a href="images/15-cross-section-600.png"><img src="images/15-cross-section-a-200.png" width="200" height="200" alt="cross-section" /></a> +<p class="center">Cross-section, magnified 37½ diameters.</p></div> + +<div class="figleft" style="width: 150px;"><a href="images/15-radial-section-400.png"><img src="images/15-radial-section-a-150.png" width="150" height="300" alt="radial section" /></a> +<p class="center">Radial Section, life size.</p></div> + +<div class="figright" style="width: 150px;"><a href="images/15-tangential-section-400.png"><img src="images/15-tangential-section-a-150.png" width="150" height="300" alt="tangential Section" /></a> +<p class="center">Tangential Section, life size.</p></div> +<br clear="all" /> +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page88" id="page88"></a>88</span> + +<h3>16</h3> + +<h5><span class="sc">Tideland Spruce. Sitka Spruce.</span></h5> + +<h5><i>Picea sitchensis</i> (Bongard) Carrière.</h5> + +<p class="center"> +<i>Picea</i>, the classical Latin name for the pitch pine. Tideland refers to +its habit of growth along the sea coast; <i>sitchensis</i>, named for Sitka. +</p> + +<div class="figleft" style="width: 300px;"><a href="images/16-habitat-600.png"><img src="images/16-habitat-a-300.png" width="300" height="207" alt="habitat" /></a> +<p class="center1">Habitat.</p></div> + +<p><b>Habitat</b>: (See map); +best on Pacific slope of +British Columbia and +northwestern United +States.</p> + +<p><b>Characteristics of the +Tree</b>: Height, 100'-150' +and even 200' high; diameter +3'-4' and even 15'; +trunk base enlarged; bark, +thick, red-brown, scaly; +leaves, standing out in +all directions; cones, +2½"-4" long, pendent, +cylindrical, oval.</p> + +<p><b>Appearance of Wood</b>: +Color, light brown, sap-wood +whitish; non-porous; +rings, wide, summer +wood, thin but very +distinct, spring wood, not +plain; grain, straight, +coarse; rays, numerous, +rather prominent; resin +ducts, few and small.</p> +<br clear="all" /> +<div class="figleft" style="width: 150px;"><a href="images/16-leaf-500.png"><img src="images/16-leaf-a-150.png" width="150" height="214" alt="leaf" /></a> +<p class="center">Leaf.</p></div> + +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page89" id="page89"></a>89</span> + +<p><b>Physical Qualities</b>: Weight, light +(52d in this list); 27 lbs. per cu. ft.; +sp. gr. 0.4287; medium strong (53d in +this list); elastic (31st in this list); +soft (59th in this list); shrinkage, 3 +per cent.; warps ...........; durable; +easy to work; splits easily.</p> + +<p><b>Common Uses</b>: Interior finish, boat +building and cooperage.</p> + +<p><b>Remarks</b>: Largest of the spruces. +Common in the coast belt forest.</p> + +<br clear="all" /> + +<div class="figleft" style="width: 200px;"><a href="images/16-cross-section-600.png"><img src="images/16-cross-section-a-200.png" width="200" height="200" alt="cross-section" /></a> +<p class="center">Cross-section, magnified 37½ diameters.</p></div> + +<div class="figleft" style="width: 150px;"><a href="images/16-radial-section-400.png"><img src="images/16-radial-section-a-150.png" width="150" height="300" alt="radial section" /></a> +<p class="center">Radial Section, life size.</p></div> + +<div class="figright" style="width: 150px;"><a href="images/16-tangential-section-400.png"><img src="images/16-tangential-section-a-150.png" width="150" height="300" alt="tangential Section" /></a> +<p class="center">Tangential Section, life size.</p></div> +<br clear="all" /> +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page90" id="page90"></a>90</span> + +<h3>17</h3> + +<h5><span class="sc">Hemlock.</span></h5> + +<h5><i>Tsuga canadensis</i> (Linnaeus) Carrière.</h5> + +<p class="center"> +<i>Tsuga</i>, the Japanese name latinized; <i>canadensis</i> named for Canada. +</p> + +<div class="figleft" style="width: 300px;"><a href="images/17-habitat-600.png"><img src="images/17-habitat-a-300.png" width="300" height="211" alt="habitat" /></a> +<p class="center1">Habitat.</p></div> + +<p><b>Habitat</b>: (See map); +best in North Carolina +and Tennessee.</p> + +<p><b>Characteristics of the +Tree</b>: Height, 60'-70', +sometimes 100'; diameter, +2'-3'; branches, persistent, +making trunk not +very clean; bark, red-gray, +narrow, rounded ridges, +deeply and irregularly +fissured; leaves, spirally +arranged, but appear two-ranked; +cones, ¾" long, +graceful.</p> + +<p><b>Appearance of Wood</b>: +Color, reddish brown, sap-wood +just distinguishable; +non-porous; rings, rather +broad, conspicuous; grain, +crooked; rays, numerous, +thin; non-resinous.</p> +<br clear="all" /> +<div class="figleft" style="width: 150px;"><a href="images/17-leaf-500.png"><img src="images/17-leaf-a-150.png" width="150" height="216" alt="leaf" /></a> +<p class="center">Leaf.</p></div> + +<p><b>Physical Qualities</b>: +Weight, light (53d in +this list); 26 lbs. per cu. +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page91" id="page91"></a>91</span> +ft.; sp. gr. 0.4239; medium strong (44th +in this list); elasticity, medium (40th +in this list); soft (51st in this list); +shrinkage, 3 per cent.; warps and checks +badly; not durable; difficult to work, +splintery, brittle; splits easily, holds +nails well.</p> + +<p><b>Common Uses</b>: Coarse, cheap lumber, +as joists, rafters, plank walks and +laths.</p> + +<p><b>Remarks</b>: The poorest lumber. Bark +chief source of tanning material.</p> + +<br clear="all" /> + +<div class="figleft" style="width: 200px;"><a href="images/17-cross-section-600.png"><img src="images/17-cross-section-a-200.png" width="200" height="200" alt="cross-section" /></a> +<p class="center">Cross-section, magnified 37½ diameters.</p></div> + +<div class="figleft" style="width: 150px;"><a href="images/17-radial-section-400.png"><img src="images/17-radial-section-a-150.png" width="150" height="300" alt="radial section" /></a> +<p class="center">Radial Section, life size.</p></div> + +<div class="figright" style="width: 150px;"><a href="images/17-tangential-section-400.png"><img src="images/17-tangential-section-a-150.png" width="150" height="300" alt="tangential Section" /></a> +<p class="center">Tangential Section, life size.</p></div> +<br clear="all" /> +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page92" id="page92"></a>92</span> + +<h3>18</h3> + +<h5><span class="sc">Western Hemlock. Black Hemlock.</span></h5> + +<h5><i>Tsuga heterophylla</i> (Rafinesque) Sargent.</h5> + +<p class="center"> +<i>Tsuga</i>, the Japanese name latinized; <i>heterophylla</i> refers to two kinds +of leaves. +</p> + +<div class="figleft" style="width: 300px;"><a href="images/18-habitat-600.png"><img src="images/18-habitat-a-300.png" width="300" height="211" alt="habitat" /></a> +<p class="center1">Habitat.</p></div> + +<p><b>Habitat</b>: (See map); +best on coast of Washington +and Oregon.</p> + +<p><b>Characteristics of the +Tree</b>: Height, 150'-200'; +diameter, 6'-10'; branches, +pendent, slender; bark, +reddish gray, deep, longitudinal +fissures between, +broad, oblique, flat ridges; +leaves, dark green, two-ranked; +cones, small, like +Eastern Hemlock.</p> + +<p><b>Appearance of Wood</b>: +Color, pale brown, sap-wood +thin, whitish; non-porous; +rings, narrow, +summer wood thin but +distinct; grain, straight, +close; rays, numerous, +prominent; non-resinous.</p> +<br clear="all" /> +<div class="figleft" style="width: 150px;"><a href="images/18-leaf-500.png"><img src="images/18-leaf-a-150.png" width="150" height="214" alt="leaf" /></a> +<p class="center">Leaf.</p></div> + +<a name="tsuga" id="tsuga"></a> +<p><b>Physical Qualities</b>: +Light in weight, strong, +elastic, hard;<a href="#tsuganote">*</a> shrinkage, +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page93" id="page93"></a>93</span> +3 per cent.; warps ..........; durable, +more so than other American hemlocks; +easier to work than eastern variety; +splits badly.</p> + +<p><b>Common Uses</b>: Lumber for construction.</p> + +<p><b>Remarks</b>: Coming to be recognized +as a valuable lumber tree.</p> + +<br clear="all" /> + +<div class="figleft" style="width: 200px;"><a href="images/18-cross-section-600.png"><img src="images/18-cross-section-a-200.png" width="200" height="200" alt="cross-section" /></a> +<p class="center">Cross-section, magnified 37½ diameters.</p></div> + +<div class="figleft" style="width: 150px;"><a href="images/18-radial-section-400.png"><img src="images/18-radial-section-a-150.png" width="150" height="300" alt="radial section" /></a> +<p class="center">Radial Section, life size.</p></div> + +<div class="figright" style="width: 150px;"><a href="images/18-tangential-section-400.png"><img src="images/18-tangential-section-a-150.png" width="150" height="300" alt="tangential Section" /></a> +<p class="center">Tangential Section, life size.</p></div> +<br clear="all" /> + +<a name="tsuganote" id="tsuganote"></a> +<p class="note1"><a href="#tsuga"><span style="font-size: 1.2em;">*</span></a> Not in Jesup Collection.</p> + +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page94" id="page94"></a>94</span> + +<h3>19</h3> + +<h5><span class="sc">Douglas Spruce. Oregon Pine. Red Fir. Douglas Fir.</span></h5> + +<h5><i>Pseudotsuga mucronata</i> (Rafinesque) Sudworth.</h5> + +<h5><i>Pseudotsuga taxifolia</i> (Lambert) Britton.</h5> + +<p class="center"> +<i>Pseudotsuga</i> means false hemlock; <i>mucronata</i> refers to abrupt short +point of leaf; <i>taxifolia</i> means yew leaf. +</p> + +<div class="figleft" style="width: 300px;"><a href="images/19-habitat-600.png"><img src="images/19-habitat-a-300.png" width="300" height="209" alt="habitat" /></a> +<p class="center1">Habitat.</p></div> + +<p><b>Habitat</b>: (See map); +best in Puget Sound region.</p> +<p><b>Characteristics of the +Tree</b>: Height, 175'-300'; +diameter, 3'-5', sometimes +10'; branches high, leaving +clean trunk; bark, +rough, gray, great broad-rounded +ridges, often appears +braided; leaves, radiating +from stem; cones, +2"-4" long.</p> + +<p><b>Appearance of Wood</b>: Color, light red to yellow, +sap-wood white; non-porous; +rings, dark colored, +conspicuous, very pronounced +summer wood; +grain, straight, coarse; +rays, numerous, obscure; +resinous.</p> + +<br clear="all" /> +<div class="figleft" style="width: 150px;"><a href="images/19-leaf-500.png"><img src="images/19-leaf-a-150.png" width="150" height="215" alt="leaf" /></a> +<p class="center">Leaf.</p></div> + +<p><b>Physical Qualities</b>: +Weight, medium (41st in +this list); 32 lbs. per cu. +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page95" id="page95"></a>95</span> +ft, sp. gr. 0.5157; strong (21st in this +list); very elastic (10th in this list); +medium hard (45th in this list); shrinkage, +3 per cent. or 4 per cent.;, warps +...............; durable; difficult to work, +flinty, splits readily.</p> + +<p><b>Common Uses</b>: Heavy construction, +masts, flag poles, piles, railway ties.</p> + +<p><b>Remarks</b>: One of the greatest and +the most valuable of the western timber +trees. Forms extensive forests.</p> + +<br clear="all" /> + +<div class="figleft" style="width: 200px;"><a href="images/19-cross-section-600.png"><img src="images/19-cross-section-a-200.png" width="200" height="200" alt="cross-section" /></a> +<p class="center">Cross-section, magnified 37½ diameters.</p></div> + +<div class="figleft" style="width: 150px;"><a href="images/19-radial-section-400.png"><img src="images/19-radial-section-a-150.png" width="150" height="300" alt="radial section" /></a> +<p class="center">Radial Section, life size.</p></div> + +<div class="figright" style="width: 150px;"><a href="images/19-tangential-section-400.png"><img src="images/19-tangential-section-a-150.png" width="150" height="300" alt="tangential Section" /></a> +<p class="center">Tangential Section, life size.</p></div> +<br clear="all" /> +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page96" id="page96"></a>96</span> + +<h3>20</h3> + +<h5><span class="sc">Grand Fir. White Fir. Lowland Fir. Silver Fir.</span></h5> + +<h5><i>Abies grandis</i> Lindley.</h5> + +<p class="center"> +<i>Abies</i>, the classical Latin name. +</p> + +<div class="figleft" style="width: 300px;"><a href="images/20-habitat-600.png"><img src="images/20-habitat-a-300.png" width="300" height="212" alt="habitat" /></a> +<p class="center1">Habitat.</p></div> + +<p><b>Habitat</b>: (See map); +best in Puget Sound region.</p> + +<p><b>Characteristics of the +Tree</b>: Height, in interior +100'; diameter, 2'; on +coast, 250'-300' high; diameter, +2'-5'; long pendulous +branches; bark, +quite gray or gray brown, +shallow fissures, flat +ridges; leaves, shiny +green above, silvery below, +1½"-2" long, roughly +two-ranked; cones, cylindrical, +2"-4" long.</p> + +<p><b>Appearance of Wood</b>: +Color, light brown, sap-wood +lighter; non-porous; +rings, summer cells +broader than in other +American species, dark +colored, conspicuous; grain +straight, coarse; rays, numerous, +obscure; resinous.</p> +<br clear="all" /> +<div class="figleft" style="width: 150px;"><a href="images/20-leaf-500.png"><img src="images/20-leaf-a-150.png" width="150" height="213" alt="leaf" /></a> +<p class="center">Leaf.</p></div> + +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page97" id="page97"></a>97</span> + +<p><b>Physical Qualities</b>: Very light (62d +in this list); 22 lbs. per cu. ft.; sp. gr., +0.3545; weak (62d in this list); elastic +(34th in this list); soft (65th in +this list); shrinkage, 3 per cent.; warps +little; not durable; works easily; splits +readily.</p> + +<p><b>Common Uses</b>: Lumber and packing +cases.</p> + +<p><b>Remarks</b>: No resin ducts. Not a +very valuable wood.</p> + +<br clear="all" /> + +<div class="figleft" style="width: 200px;"><a href="images/20-cross-section-600.png"><img src="images/20-cross-section-a-200.png" width="200" height="200" alt="cross-section" /></a> +<p class="center">Cross-section, magnified 37½ diameters.</p></div> + +<div class="figleft" style="width: 150px;"><a href="images/20-radial-section-400.png"><img src="images/20-radial-section-a-150.png" width="150" height="300" alt="radial section" /></a> +<p class="center">Radial Section, life size.</p></div> + +<div class="figright" style="width: 150px;"><a href="images/20-tangential-section-400.png"><img src="images/20-tangential-section-a-150.png" width="150" height="300" alt="tangential Section" /></a> +<p class="center">Tangential Section, life size.</p></div> +<br clear="all" /> +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page98" id="page98"></a>98</span> + +<h3>21</h3> + +<h5><span class="sc">Big Tree. Sequoia. Giant Sequoia.</span></h5> + +<h5><i>Sequoia washingtoniana</i> (Winslow) Sudworth. <i>Sequoia gigantea</i>, +Decaisne.</h5> + +<p class="center"> +<i>Sequoia</i> latinized from Sequoiah, a Cherokee Indian; <i>washingtoniana</i>, in +honor of George Washington. +</p> + +<div class="figleft" style="width: 300px;"><a href="images/21-habitat-600.png"><img src="images/21-habitat-a-300.png" width="300" height="209" alt="habitat" /></a> +<p class="center1">Habitat.</p></div> + +<p><b>Habitat</b>: (See map); +in ten groves in southern +California, at high elevation.</p> + +<p><b>Characteristics of the +Tree</b>: Height, 275', +sometimes 320'; diameter, +20', sometimes 35'; +trunk, swollen and often +buttressed at base, ridged, +often clear for 150'; thick +horizontal branches; bark, +1'-2' thick, in great ridges, +separates into loose, +fibrous, cinnamon red +scales, almost non-combustible; +leaves, very +small, growing close to +stem; cones, 2"-3" long.</p> + +<p><b>Appearance of Wood</b>: +Color, red, turning dark +on exposure, sap-wood +thin, whitish; non-porous; +rings, very plain; +grain straight, coarse; +rays, numerous, thin; +non-resinous.</p> +<br clear="all" /> +<div class="figleft" style="width: 150px;"><a href="images/21-leaf-500.png"><img src="images/21-leaf-a-150.png" width="150" height="213" alt="leaf" /></a> +<p class="center">Leaf.</p></div> + +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page99" id="page99"></a>99</span> + +<p><b>Physical Qualities:</b> Light (65th in +this list); 18 lbs. per cu. ft.; sp. gr., +0.2882; weak (63d in this list); brittle +(62d in this list); very soft (61st +in this list); shrinks little; warps little; +remarkably durable; easy to work, +splits readily, takes nails well.</p> + +<p><b>Common Uses:</b> Construction, lumber, +coffins, shingles.</p> + +<p><b>Remarks:</b> Dimensions and age are +unequalled; Big Tree and Redwood +survivors of a prehistoric genus, once +widely distributed. Some specimens +3600 years old.</p> +<br clear="all" /> + +<div class="figleft" style="width: 200px;"><a href="images/21-cross-section-600.png"><img src="images/21-cross-section-a-200.png" width="200" height="200" alt="cross-section" /></a> +<p class="center">Cross-section, magnified 37½ diameters.</p></div> + +<div class="figleft" style="width: 150px;"><a href="images/21-radial-section-400.png"><img src="images/21-radial-section-a-150.png" width="150" height="300" alt="radial section" /></a> +<p class="center">Radial Section, life size.</p></div> + +<div class="figright" style="width: 150px;"><a href="images/21-tangential-section-400.png"><img src="images/21-tangential-section-a-150.png" width="150" height="300" alt="tangential Section" /></a> +<p class="center">Tangential Section, life size.</p></div> +<br clear="all" /> +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page100" id="page100"></a>100</span> + +<h3>22</h3> + +<h5><span class="sc">Redwood. Coast Redwood. Sequoia.</span></h5> + +<h5><i>Sequoia sempervirens</i> (Lambert) Endlicher.</h5> + +<p class="center"> +<i>Sequoia</i>, latinized from Sequoiah, a Cherokee Indian; <i>sempervirens</i> +means ever living. +</p> + +<div class="figleft" style="width: 300px;"><a href="images/22-habitat-600.png"><img src="images/22-habitat-a-300.png" width="300" height="209" alt="habitat" /></a> +<p class="center1">Habitat.</p></div> + +<p><b>Habitat</b>: (See map); +best in southern Oregon +and northern California, +near coast.</p> + +<p><b>Characteristics of the +Tree</b>: Height, 200'-340'; +diameter, 10'-15', rarely +25'; clean trunk, much +buttressed and swollen at +base, somewhat fluted, +branches very high; bark, +very thick, 6"-12", rounded +ridges, dark scales +falling reveal inner red +bark; leaves, small, two-ranked; +cones, small, 1" +long.</p> + +<p><b>Appearance of Wood</b>: +Color, red, turning to +brown on seasoning, sap-wood +whitish; non-porous; +rings, distinct; +grain, straight; rays, numerous, +very obscure; non-resinous.</p> +<br clear="all" /> +<div class="figleft" style="width: 150px;"><a href="images/22-leaf-500.png"><img src="images/22-leaf-a-150.png" width="150" height="213" alt="leaf" /></a> +<p class="center">Leaf.</p></div> + +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page101" id="page101"></a>101</span> + +<p><b>Physical Qualities</b>: Light in weight +(55th in this list); 26 lbs. per cu. ft.; +sp. gr. 0.4208; weak (58th in this list); +brittle (60th in this list); soft (55th +in this list); shrinks little; warps little; +very durable; easily worked; splits +readily; takes nails well.</p> + +<p><b>Common Uses</b>: Shingles, construction, +timber, fence posts, coffins, railway +ties, water pipes, curly specimens +used in cabinet work.</p> + +<p><b>Remarks</b>: Low branches rare. Burns +with difficulty. Chief construction wood +of Pacific Coast. Use determined +largely by durability.</p> + +<br clear="all" /> + +<div class="figleft" style="width: 200px;"><a href="images/22-cross-section-600.png"><img src="images/22-cross-section-a-200.png" width="200" height="200" alt="cross-section" /></a> +<p class="center">Cross-section, magnified 37½ diameters.</p></div> + +<div class="figleft" style="width: 150px;"><a href="images/22-radial-section-400.png"><img src="images/22-radial-section-a-150.png" width="150" height="300" alt="radial section" /></a> +<p class="center">Radial Section, life size.</p></div> + +<div class="figright" style="width: 150px;"><a href="images/22-tangential-section-400.png"><img src="images/22-tangential-section-a-150.png" width="150" height="300" alt="tangential Section" /></a> +<p class="center">Tangential Section, life size.</p></div> +<br clear="all" /> +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page102" id="page102"></a>102</span> + +<h3>23</h3> + +<h5><span class="sc">Bald Cypress.</span></h5> + +<p class="center"> +Bald refers to leaflessness of tree in winter. +</p> + +<h5><i>Taxodium distichum</i> (Linnaeus) L. C. Richard.</h5> + +<p class="center"> +<i>Taxodium</i> means yew-like; <i>distichum</i> refers to the two-ranked leaves. +</p> + +<div class="figleft" style="width: 300px;"><a href="images/23-habitat-600.png"><img src="images/23-habitat-a-300.png" width="300" height="209" alt="habitat" /></a> +<p class="center1">Habitat.</p></div> + +<p><b>Habitat</b>: (See map); +best in South Atlantic +and Gulf States.</p> + +<p><b>Characteristics of the +Tree</b>: Height, 75', occasionally +150'; diameter, +4'-5'; roots project +upward into peculiar +knees; trunk strongly +buttressed at base, +straight, majestic and +tapering; bark, light red, +shallow fissures, flat +plates, peeling into +fibrous strips; leaves, +long, thin, two-ranked, +deciduous; cones, nearly +globular, 1" in diameter.</p> + +<p><b>Appearance of Wood</b>: +Color, heart-wood, reddish +brown, sap-wood, +nearly white; non-porous; +rings, fine and well +marked; grain, nearly +straight, burl is beautifully +figured; rays, very +obscure; non-resinous.</p> +<br clear="all" /> +<div class="figleft" style="width: 150px;"><a href="images/23-leaf-500.png"><img src="images/23-leaf-a-150.png" width="150" height="213" alt="leaf" /></a> +<p class="center">Leaf.</p></div> + +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page103" id="page103"></a>103</span> + +<p><b>Physical Qualities</b>: Light in weight +(48th in this list); 29 lbs. per cu. ft.; +sp. gr. 0.4543; medium strong (48th in +this list); elastic (28th in this list); +soft (52d in this list); shrinkage, 3 +per cent.; warps but little, likely to +check; very durable; easy to work, in +splitting, crumbles or breaks; nails well.</p> + +<p><b>Common Uses</b>: Shingles, posts, interior +finish, cooperage, railroad ties, +boats, and various construction work, +especially conservatories.</p> + +<p><b>Remarks</b>: Forms forests in swamps; +subject to a fungous disease, making +wood "peggy" or "pecky"; use largely +determined by its durability. In New +Orleans 90,000 fresh water cisterns are +said to be made of it.</p> + +<br clear="all" /> + +<div class="figleft" style="width: 200px;"><a href="images/23-cross-section-600.png"><img src="images/23-cross-section-a-200.png" width="200" height="200" alt="cross-section" /></a> +<p class="center">Cross-section, magnified 37½ diameters.</p></div> + +<div class="figleft" style="width: 150px;"><a href="images/23-radial-section-400.png"><img src="images/23-radial-section-a-150.png" width="150" height="300" alt="radial section" /></a> +<p class="center">Radial Section, life size.</p></div> + +<div class="figright" style="width: 150px;"><a href="images/23-tangential-section-400.png"><img src="images/23-tangential-section-a-150.png" width="150" height="300" alt="tangential Section" /></a> +<p class="center">Tangential Section, life size.</p></div> +<br clear="all" /> +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page104" id="page104"></a>104</span> + +<h3>24</h3> + +<h5><span class="sc">Western Red Cedar. Canoe Cedar. Giant Arborvitae.</span></h5> + +<h5><i>Thuja plicata</i> D. Don. <i>Thuya gigantea</i> Nuttall.</h5> + +<p class="center"> +<i>Thuya</i> or <i>Thuja</i>, the classical Greek name; <i>plicata</i> refers to the folded +leaves; <i>gigantea</i> refers to the gigantic size of the tree. +</p> + +<div class="figleft" style="width: 300px;"><a href="images/24-habitat-600.png"><img src="images/24-habitat-a-300.png" width="300" height="214" alt="habitat" /></a> +<p class="center1">Habitat.</p></div> + +<p><b>Habitat</b>: (See map); +best in Puget Sound region.</p> + +<p><b>Characteristics of the +Tree</b>: Height, 100'-200'; +diameter, 2'-10', even 15'; +trunk has immense buttresses, +often 16' in diameter, +then tapers; +branches, horizontal, +short, making a dense +conical tree; bark, bright +cinnamon red, shallow +fissures, broad ridges, +peeling into long, narrow, +stringy scales; +leaves, very small, overlapping +in 4 ranks, on +older twigs, sharper and +more remote; cones, <i>½"</i> +long, small, erect.</p> + +<p><b>Appearance of Wood</b>: +Color, dull brown or red, +thin sap-wood nearly +white; non-porous; rings, +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page105" id="page105"></a>105</span> +summer bands thin, dark colored, distinct; +grain, straight, rather coarse; +rays, numerous, obscure; non-resinous.</p> + +<br clear="all" /> +<div class="figleft" style="width: 150px;"><a href="images/24-leaf-500.png"><img src="images/24-leaf-a-150.png" width="150" height="215" alt="leaf" /></a> +<p class="center">Leaf.</p></div> + +<p><b>Physical Qualities</b>: Very light in +weight (60th in this list); medium +strong (40th in this list); elastic (26th +in this list); soft (60th in this list); +shrinkage, 3 per cent.; warps and checks +little; very durable; easy to work; splits +easily.</p> + +<p><b>Common Uses</b>: Interior finish, cabinet +making, cooperage, shingles, electric +wire poles.</p> + +<p><b>Remarks</b>: Wood used by Indians +for war canoes, totems and planks for +lodges; inner bark used for ropes and +textiles.</p> + +<br clear="all" /> + +<div class="figleft" style="width: 200px;"><a href="images/24-cross-section-600.png"><img src="images/24-cross-section-a-200.png" width="200" height="200" alt="cross-section" /></a> +<p class="center">Cross-section, magnified 37½ diameters.</p></div> + +<div class="figleft" style="width: 150px;"><a href="images/24-radial-section-400.png"><img src="images/24-radial-section-a-150.png" width="150" height="300" alt="radial section" /></a> +<p class="center">Radial Section, life size.</p></div> + +<div class="figright" style="width: 150px;"><a href="images/24-tangential-section-400.png"><img src="images/24-tangential-section-a-150.png" width="150" height="300" alt="tangential Section" /></a> +<p class="center">Tangential Section, life size.</p></div> +<br clear="all" /> +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page106" id="page106"></a>106</span> + +<h3>25</h3> + +<h5><span class="sc">White Cedar.</span></h5> + +<h5><i>Chamaecyparis thyoides</i> (Linnaeus) B. S. P.</h5> + +<p class="center"> +<i>Chamaecyparis</i> means low cypress; <i>thyoides</i> means like <i>thuya</i> (<i>Aborvitae</i>). +</p> + +<div class="figleft" style="width: 300px;"><a href="images/25-habitat-600.png"><img src="images/25-habitat-a-300.png" width="300" height="212" alt="habitat" /></a> +<p class="center1">Habitat.</p></div> + +<p><b>Habitat</b>: (See map); +best in Virginia and +North Carolina.</p> + +<p><b>Characteristics of the +Tree</b>: Height, 60'-80'; +diameter, 2'-4'; branches, +low, often forming impenetrable +thickets; bark, +light reddish brown, +many fine longitudinal +fissures, often spirally +twisted around stem; +leaves, scale-like, four-ranked; +cones, globular, +¼" diameter.</p> + +<p><b>Appearance of Wood</b>: +Color, pink to brown, +sap-wood lighter; non-porous; +rings, sharp and +distinct; grain, straight; +rays, numerous, obscure; +non-resinous.</p> + +<br clear="all" /> +<div class="figleft" style="width: 150px;"><a href="images/25-leaf-500.png"><img src="images/25-leaf-a-150.png" width="150" height="215" alt="leaf" /></a> +<p class="center">Leaf.</p></div> + +<p><b>Physical Qualities</b>: +Very light in weight +(64th in this list); 23 +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page107" id="page107"></a>107</span> +lbs. per cu. ft.; sp. gr. 0.3322); weak +(64th in this list); brittle (63d in this +list; soft (62d in this list); shrinkage +3 per cent.; warps little; extremely durable; +easily worked; splits easily; nails +well.</p> + +<p><b>Common Uses</b>: Boats, shingles, posts, +railway ties, cooperage.</p> + +<p><b>Remarks</b>: Grows chiefly in swamps, +often in dense pure forests. Uses determined +largely by its durability.</p> +<br clear="all" /> + +<div class="figleft" style="width: 200px;"><a href="images/25-cross-section-600.png"><img src="images/25-cross-section-a-200.png" width="200" height="200" alt="cross-section" /></a> +<p class="center">Cross-section, magnified 37½ diameters.</p></div> + +<div class="figleft" style="width: 150px;"><a href="images/25-radial-section-400.png"><img src="images/25-radial-section-a-150.png" width="150" height="300" alt="radial section" /></a> +<p class="center">Radial Section, life size.</p></div> + +<div class="figright" style="width: 150px;"><a href="images/25-tangential-section-400.png"><img src="images/25-tangential-section-a-150.png" width="150" height="300" alt="tangential Section" /></a> +<p class="center">Tangential Section, life size.</p></div> +<br clear="all" /> +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page108" id="page108"></a>108</span> + +<h3>26</h3> + +<h5><span class="sc">Lawson Cypress. Port Orford Cedar. Oregon Cedar. +White Cedar.</span></h5> + +<h5><i>Chamaecyparis lawsoniana</i> (A. Murray) Parlatore.</h5> + +<p class="center"> +<i>Chamaecyparis</i> means low cypress. +</p> + +<div class="figleft" style="width: 300px;"><a href="images/26-habitat-600.png"><img src="images/26-habitat-a-300.png" width="300" height="212" alt="habitat" /></a> +<p class="center1">Habitat.</p></div> + +<p><b>Habitat</b>: (See map); +best on coast of Oregon.</p> + +<p><b>Characteristics of the +Tree</b>: Height, 100'-200'; +diameter, 4'-8', even 12'; +base of trunk abruptly +enlarged; bark, very +thick, even 10" at base +of trunk, inner and outer +layers distinct, very deep +fissures, rounded ridges; +leaves, very small, 1/16" +long, four-ranked, overlapped, +flat sprays; cones, +small, ¼", globular.</p> + +<p><b>Appearance of Wood</b>: +Color, pinkish brown, +sap-wood hardly distinguishable; +non-porous; +rings, summer wood thin, +not conspicuous; grain, +straight, close; rays, numerous, +very obscure; +non-resinous.</p> + +<br clear="all" /> +<div class="figleft" style="width: 150px;"><a href="images/26-leaf-500.png"><img src="images/26-leaf-a-150.png" width="150" height="215" alt="leaf" /></a> +<p class="center">Leaf.</p></div> + +<p><b>Physical Qualities</b>: +Light in weight (46th in +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page109" id="page109"></a>109</span> +this list); 28 lbs. per cu. ft.; sp. gr. +0.4621; strong (25th in this list); elastic +(12th in this list); soft (50th in +this list); shrinkage 3 or 4 per cent.; +warps little; durable; easily worked; +splits easily.</p> + +<p><b>Common Uses</b>: Matches (almost exclusively +on the Pacific Coast), interior +finish, ship and boat building.</p> + +<p><b>Remarks</b>: Resin, a powerful diuretic +and insecticide.</p> + +<br clear="all" /> + +<div class="figleft" style="width: 200px;"><a href="images/26-cross-section-600.png"><img src="images/26-cross-section-a-200.png" width="200" height="200" alt="cross-section" /></a> +<p class="center">Cross-section, magnified 37½ diameters.</p></div> + +<div class="figleft" style="width: 150px;"><a href="images/26-radial-section-400.png"><img src="images/26-radial-section-a-150.png" width="150" height="300" alt="radial section" /></a> +<p class="center">Radial Section, life size.</p></div> + +<div class="figright" style="width: 150px;"><a href="images/26-tangential-section-400.png"><img src="images/26-tangential-section-a-150.png" width="150" height="300" alt="tangential Section" /></a> +<p class="center">Tangential Section, life size.</p></div> +<br clear="all" /> +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page110" id="page110"></a>110</span> + +<h3>27</h3> + +<h5><span class="sc">Red Cedar.</span></h5> + +<h5><i>Juniperus virginiana</i> Linnaeus.</h5> + +<p class="center"> +<i>Juniperus</i>, the classical Latin name; <i>virginiana</i>, in honor of the State +of Virginia. +</p> + +<div class="figleft" style="width: 300px;"><a href="images/27-habitat-600.png"><img src="images/27-habitat-a-300.png" width="300" height="210" alt="habitat" /></a> +<p class="center1">Habitat.</p></div> + +<p><b>Habitat</b>: (See map); +best in Gulf States in +swamps, especially on the +west coast of Florida.</p> + +<p><b>Characteristics of the +Tree</b>: Height, 40'-50', +even 80'; diameter, 1'-2'; +trunk, ridged, sometimes +expanded; branches, low; +bark, light brown, loose, +ragged, separating into +long, narrow, persistent, +stringy scales; leaves, opposite, +of two kinds, awl-shaped, +and scale-shaped; +fruit, dark blue berry.</p> + +<p><b>Appearance of Wood</b>: +Color, dull red, sap-wood +white; non-porous; rings, +easily distinguished; +grain, straight; rays, numerous, +very obscure; +non-resinous.</p> + +<br clear="all" /> +<div class="figleft" style="width: 150px;"><a href="images/27-leaf-500.png"><img src="images/27-leaf-a-150.png" width="150" height="213" alt="leaf" /></a> +<p class="center">Leaf.</p></div> + +<p><b>Physical Qualities</b>: +Very light in weight +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page111" id="page111"></a>111</span> +(42d in this list); 30 lbs. per cu. ft.; +sp. gr. 0.4826; medium strong (43d in +this list); brittle (61st in this list); +medium hard (34th in this list); shrinkage, +3 per cent.; warps little; very durable; +easy to work; splits readily, takes +nails well.</p> + +<p><b>Common Uses</b>: Pencils, chests, cigar +boxes, pails, interior finish.</p> + +<p><b>Remarks</b>: Fragrant. Pencils are +made almost exclusively of this wood, +because it is light, strong, stiff, straight +and fine-grained and easily whittled; +supply being rapidly depleted.</p> + +<br clear="all" /> + +<div class="figleft" style="width: 200px;"><a href="images/27-cross-section-600.png"><img src="images/27-cross-section-a-200.png" width="200" height="200" alt="cross-section" /></a> +<p class="center">Cross-section, magnified 37½ diameters.</p></div> + +<div class="figleft" style="width: 150px;"><a href="images/27-radial-section-400.png"><img src="images/27-radial-section-a-150.png" width="150" height="300" alt="radial section" /></a> +<p class="center">Radial Section, life size.</p></div> + +<div class="figright" style="width: 150px;"><a href="images/27-tangential-section-400.png"><img src="images/27-tangential-section-a-150.png" width="150" height="300" alt="tangential Section" /></a> +<p class="center">Tangential Section, life size.</p></div> +<br clear="all" /> +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page112" id="page112"></a>112</span> + +<h3>28</h3> + +<h5><span class="sc">Black Willow.</span></h5> + +<h5><i>Salix nigra</i> Marshall.</h5> + +<p class="center"> +<i>Salix</i>, from two Celtic words meaning near-water; <i>nigra</i> refers to the +dark bark. +</p> + +<div class="figleft" style="width: 300px;"><a href="images/28-habitat-600.png"><img src="images/28-habitat-a-300.png" width="300" height="211" alt="habitat" /></a> +<p class="center1">Habitat.</p></div> + +<p><b>Habitat</b>: (See map); +grows largest in southern +Illinois, Indiana and +Texas, on moist banks.</p> + +<p><b>Characteristics of the +Tree</b>: Height, 30'-40', +sometimes 120'; diameter, +1'-2', rarely 3'-4'; +stout, upright, spreading +branches, from common +base; bark, rough and +dark brown or black, often +tinged with yellow or +brown; leaves, lanceolate, +often scythe-shaped, +serrate edges; fruit, a +capsule containing small, +hairy seeds.</p> + +<p><b>Appearance of Wood</b>: +Color, light reddish +brown, sap-wood, thin, +whitish; diffuse-porous; +rings, obscure; grain, +close and weak; rays, +obscure.</p> + +<br clear="all" /> +<div class="figleft" style="width: 150px;"><a href="images/28-leaf-500.png"><img src="images/28-leaf-a-150.png" width="150" height="214" alt="leaf" /></a> +<p class="center">Leaf.</p></div> +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page113" id="page113"></a>113</span> + +<p><b>Physical Qualities</b>: Light in weight +(51st in this list); 27.77 lbs. per cu. ft.; +sp. gr. 0.4456; weak (65th in this list); +very brittle (64th in this list); soft +(46th in this list); shrinks considerably; +warps and checks badly; soft, weak, +indents without breaking; splits easily.</p> + +<p><b>Common Uses</b>: Lap-boards, baskets, +water wheels, fuel and charcoal for gunpowder.</p> + +<p><b>Remarks</b>: Its characteristic of indenting +without breaking has given it +use as lining for carts and as cricket +bats. Of the many willows, the most +tree like in proportion in eastern North +America. Bark contains salycylic acid.</p> + +<br clear="all" /> + +<div class="figleft" style="width: 200px;"><a href="images/28-cross-section-600.png"><img src="images/28-cross-section-a-200.png" width="200" height="200" alt="cross-section" /></a> +<p class="center">Cross-section, magnified 37½ diameters.</p></div> + +<div class="figleft" style="width: 150px;"><a href="images/28-radial-section-400.png"><img src="images/28-radial-section-a-150.png" width="150" height="300" alt="radial section" /></a> +<p class="center">Radial Section, life size.</p></div> + +<div class="figright" style="width: 150px;"><a href="images/28-tangential-section-400.png"><img src="images/28-tangential-section-a-150.png" width="150" height="300" alt="tangential Section" /></a> +<p class="center">Tangential Section, life size.</p></div> +<br clear="all" /> +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page114" id="page114"></a>114</span> + +<h3>29</h3> + +<h5><span class="sc">Butternut. White Walnut.</span></h5> + +<p class="center"> +Butternut, because the nuts are rich in oil. +</p> + +<h5><i>Juglans cinerea</i> Linnaeus.</h5> + +<p class="center"> +<i>Juglans</i> means Jove's nut; <i>cinerea</i> refers to ash-colored bark. +</p> + +<div class="figleft" style="width: 300px;"><a href="images/29-habitat-600.png"><img src="images/29-habitat-a-300.png" width="300" height="210" alt="habitat" /></a> +<p class="center1">Habitat.</p></div> + +<p><b>Habitat:</b>: (See map); +best in Ohio basin.</p> + +<p><b>Characteristics of the +Tree</b>: Height, 75'-100'; +diameter, 2'-4'; branches +low, broad spreading +deep roots; bark, grayish +brown, deep fissures +broad ridges; leaves +15"-30" long, compound +11 to 17 leaflets, hairy +and rough; fruit, oblong, +pointed, edible, oily +nut.</p> + +<p><b>Appearance of Wood</b>: +Color, light brown, darkening +with exposure, sap-wood +whitish; diffuse, +porous; rings, not prominent; +grain, fairly +straight, coarse, takes +high polish; rays, distinct, +thin, obscure.</p> + +<br clear="all" /> +<div class="figleft" style="width: 150px;"><a href="images/29-leaf-500.png"><img src="images/29-leaf-a-150.png" width="150" height="214" alt="leaf" /></a> +<p class="center">Leaf.</p></div> + +<p><b>Physical Qualities</b>: +Light in weight (56th in +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page115" id="page115"></a>115</span> +this list); 25 lbs. per cu. ft.; sp. gr. +0.4086; weak (57th in this list); elasticity, +medium (52d in this list); soft +(47th in this list); shrinkage ....... +per cent.; warps little; durable; easy +to work; splits easily.</p> + +<p><b>Common Uses</b>: Cabinet work, inside +trim.</p> + +<p><b>Remarks</b>: Green husks of fruit give +yellow dye. Sugar made from sap.</p> + +<br clear="all" /> + +<div class="figleft" style="width: 200px;"><a href="images/29-cross-section-600.png"><img src="images/29-cross-section-a-200.png" width="200" height="200" alt="cross-section" /></a> +<p class="center">Cross-section, magnified 37½ diameters.</p></div> + +<div class="figleft" style="width: 150px;"><a href="images/29-radial-section-400.png"><img src="images/29-radial-section-a-150.png" width="150" height="300" alt="radial section" /></a> +<p class="center">Radial Section, life size.</p></div> + +<div class="figright" style="width: 150px;"><a href="images/29-tangential-section-400.png"><img src="images/29-tangential-section-a-150.png" width="150" height="300" alt="tangential Section" /></a> +<p class="center">Tangential Section, life size.</p></div> +<br clear="all" /> +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page116" id="page116"></a>116</span> + +<h3>30</h3> + +<h5><span class="sc">Black Walnut.</span></h5> + +<h5><i>Juglans nigra</i> Linnaeus.</h5> + +<p class="center"> +<i>Juglans</i> means Jove's nut; <i>nigra</i> refers to the dark wood. +</p> + +<div class="figleft" style="width: 300px;"><a href="images/30-habitat-600.png"><img src="images/30-habitat-a-300.png" width="300" height="213" alt="habitat" /></a> +<p class="center1">Habitat.</p></div> + +<p><b>Habitat</b>: (See map); +best in western North +Carolina and Tennessee.</p> + +<p><b>Characteristics of the +Tree</b>: Height, 90'-120', +even 150'; diameter, 3' +to even 8'; clean of +branches for 50' to 60'; +bark, brownish, almost +black, deep fissures, and +broad, rounded ridges; +leaves, 1'-2' long, compound +pinnate, 15 to 23 +leaflets, fall early; fruit, +nut, with adherent husk, +and edible kernel.</p> + +<p><b>Appearance of Wood</b>: +Color, chocolate brown, +sap-wood much lighter; +diffuse-porous; rings, +marked by slightly larger +pores; grain, straight; +rays, numerous, thin, not +conspicuous.</p> + +<br clear="all" /> +<div class="figleft" style="width: 150px;"><a href="images/30-leaf-500.png"><img src="images/30-leaf-a-150.png" width="150" height="213" alt="leaf" /></a> +<p class="center">Leaf.</p></div> + +<p><b>Physical Qualities</b>: +Weight, medium (31st +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page117" id="page117"></a>117</span> +in this list); 38 lbs. per cu. ft.; sp. gr. +0.6115; strong (32d in this list); elastic +(23d in this list); hard (21st in +this list); shrinkage, 5 per cent.; warps +little; very durable; easy to work; splits +with some difficulty, takes and holds nails +well.</p> + +<p><b>Common Uses</b>: Gun stocks (since +17th century), veneers, cabinet making.</p> + +<p><b>Remarks</b>: Formerly much used for +furniture, now scarce. Plentiful in California. +Most valuable wood of North +American forests. Wood superior to +European variety.</p> + +<br clear="all" /> + +<div class="figleft" style="width: 200px;"><a href="images/30-cross-section-600.png"><img src="images/30-cross-section-a-200.png" width="200" height="200" alt="cross-section" /></a> +<p class="center">Cross-section, magnified 37½ diameters.</p></div> + +<div class="figleft" style="width: 150px;"><a href="images/30-radial-section-400.png"><img src="images/30-radial-section-a-150.png" width="150" height="300" alt="radial section" /></a> +<p class="center">Radial Section, life size.</p></div> + +<div class="figright" style="width: 150px;"><a href="images/30-tangential-section-400.png"><img src="images/30-tangential-section-a-150.png" width="150" height="300" alt="tangential Section" /></a> +<p class="center">Tangential Section, life size.</p></div> +<br clear="all" /> +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page118" id="page118"></a>118</span> + +<h3>31</h3> + +<h5><span class="sc">Mockernut. Black Hickory. Bull-nut. Big-bud Hickory. +White-heart Hickory. King Nut.</span></h5> + +<p class="center"> +Mockernut refers to disappointing character of nuts. +</p> + +<h5><i>Hicoria alba</i> (Linnaeus) Britton. <i>Carya tomentosa</i> Nuttall.</h5> + +<p class="center"> +<i>Hicoria</i>, shortened and latinized from <i>Pawcohicora</i>, the Indian name +for the liquor obtained from the kernels; <i>alba</i> refers to the white wood, +<i>carya</i>, the Greek name for walnut; <i>tomentosa</i> refers to hairy under surface +of leaf. +</p> + +<div class="figleft" style="width: 300px;"><a href="images/31-habitat-600.png"><img src="images/31-habitat-a-300.png" width="300" height="214" alt="habitat" /></a> +<p class="center1">Habitat.</p></div> + +<p><b>Habitat</b>: (See map); +best in lower Ohio valley, +Missouri and Arkansas.</p> + +<p><b>Characteristics of the +Tree</b>: Height, 75', +rarely 100'; diameter, +2'-3'; rises high in forest; +bark, dark gray, +shallow, irregular interrupted +fissures, rough +but not shaggy in old +trees; leaves, 8"-12" long, +compound, 7-9 leaflets, +fragrant when crushed; +fruit, spherical nut, thick +shell, edible kernel.</p> + +<p><b>Appearance of Wood</b>: +Color, dark brown, sap-wood +nearly white; ring-porous; +rings, marked by +few large regularly distributed +open ducts; +grain, usually straight, +close; rays, numerous, +thin, obscure.</p> + +<br clear="all" /> +<div class="figleft" style="width: 150px;"><a href="images/31-leaf-500.png"><img src="images/31-leaf-a-150.png" width="150" height="216" alt="leaf" /></a> +<p class="center">Leaf.</p></div> +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page119" id="page119"></a>119</span> + +<p><b>Physical Qualities</b>: Very heavy (3d +in this list); 53 lbs. per cu. ft.; sp. gr., +0.8218; very strong (11th in this list); +very elastic (14th in this list); very +hard (3d in this list); shrinkage, 10 +per cent.; warps ..........; not durable; +very hard to work; splits with +great difficulty, almost impossible to +nail.</p> + +<p><b>Common Uses</b>: Wheels, runners, tool +and axe handles, agricultural implements.</p> + +<p><b>Remarks</b>: Confounded commercially +with shellbark hickory.</p> +<br clear="all" /> + +<div class="figleft" style="width: 200px;"><a href="images/31-cross-section-600.png"><img src="images/31-cross-section-a-200.png" width="200" height="200" alt="cross-section" /></a> +<p class="center">Cross-section, magnified 37½ diameters.</p></div> + +<div class="figleft" style="width: 150px;"><a href="images/31-radial-section-400.png"><img src="images/31-radial-section-a-150.png" width="150" height="300" alt="radial section" /></a> +<p class="center">Radial Section, life size.</p></div> + +<div class="figright" style="width: 150px;"><a href="images/31-tangential-section-400.png"><img src="images/31-tangential-section-a-150.png" width="150" height="300" alt="tangential Section" /></a> +<p class="center">Tangential Section, life size.</p></div> +<br clear="all" /> +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page120" id="page120"></a>120</span> + +<h3>32</h3> + +<h5><span class="sc">Shellbark Hickory. Shagbark Hickory.</span></h5> + +<h5><i>Hicoria ovata</i> (Millar) Britton. <i>Carya alba</i> Nuttall.</h5> + +<p class="center"> +<i>Hickory</i> is shortened and latinized from <i>Pawcohicora</i>, the Indian name +for the liquor obtained from the kernels; <i>ovata</i> refers to oval nut; <i>carya</i>, +the Greek name for walnut. +</p> + +<div class="figleft" style="width: 300px;"><a href="images/32-habitat-600.png"><img src="images/32-habitat-a-300.png" width="300" height="209" alt="habitat" /></a> +<p class="center1">Habitat.</p></div> + +<p><b>Habitat</b>: (See map); +best in lower Ohio valley.</p> + +<p><b>Characteristics of the +Tree</b>: Height, 70'-90' +and even 120'; diameter, +2'-3', even 4'; straight, +columnar trunk; bark, +dark gray, separates into +long, hard, plate-like +strips, which cling to +tree by middle, on young +trees very smooth and +close; leaves, 8"-20" +long, compound 5 or +(7) leaflets; nuts, globular, +husk, four-valved, +split easily, thin-shelled, +edible.</p> + +<p><b>Appearance of Wood</b>: +Color, reddish brown, +sap-wood whitish; ring-porous; +rings, clearly +marked; grain, straight; +rays, numerous, thin.</p> + +<br clear="all" /> +<div class="figleft" style="width: 150px;"><a href="images/32-leaf-500.png"><img src="images/32-leaf-a-150.png" width="150" height="213" alt="leaf" /></a> +<p class="center">Leaf.</p></div> +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page121" id="page121"></a>121</span> + +<p><b>Physical Qualities</b>: Very heavy (1st +in this list); 51 lbs. per cu. ft.; sp. gr., +0.8372; very strong (5th in this list); +very elastic (7th in this list); very hard +(5th in this list); shrinkage, 10 per +cent.; warps badly; not very durable +under exposure; hard to work, very +tough; hard to split, very difficult to +nail.</p> + +<p><b>Common Uses</b>: Agricultural implements, +handles, wheel spokes.</p> + +<p><b>Remarks</b>: American hickory is famous +both for buggies and ax handles, +because it is flexible and very tough in +resistance to blows.</p> + +<br clear="all" /> + +<div class="figleft" style="width: 200px;"><a href="images/32-cross-section-600.png"><img src="images/32-cross-section-a-200.png" width="200" height="200" alt="cross-section" /></a> +<p class="center">Cross-section, magnified 37½ diameters.</p></div> + +<div class="figleft" style="width: 150px;"><a href="images/32-radial-section-400.png"><img src="images/32-radial-section-a-150.png" width="150" height="300" alt="radial section" /></a> +<p class="center">Radial Section, life size.</p></div> + +<div class="figright" style="width: 150px;"><a href="images/32-tangential-section-400.png"><img src="images/32-tangential-section-a-150.png" width="150" height="300" alt="tangential Section" /></a> +<p class="center">Tangential Section, life size.</p></div> +<br clear="all" /> +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page122" id="page122"></a>122</span> + +<h3>33</h3> + +<h5><span class="sc">Pignut.</span></h5> + +<p class="center">Nuts eaten by swine.</p> + +<h5><i>Hicoria glabra</i> (Miller) Britton. <i>Carya porcina</i>.</h5> + +<p class="center"> +<i>Hicoria</i> is shortened and latinized from <i>Pawcohicora</i>, the Indian name +for the liquor obtained from the kernel; <i>glabra</i> refers to smooth bark; +<i>Carya</i> the Greek name for walnut; <i>porcina</i> means pertaining to hogs. +</p> + +<div class="figleft" style="width: 300px;"><a href="images/33-habitat-600.png"><img src="images/33-habitat-a-300.png" width="300" height="211" alt="habitat" /></a> +<p class="center1">Habitat.</p></div> + +<p><b>Habitat</b>: (See map); +best in lower Ohio valley.</p> + +<p><b>Characteristics of the +Tree</b>: Height, 80'-100'; +diameter 2'-4'; trunk often +forked; bark, light +gray, shallow fissures, +rather smooth, rarely exfoliates; +leaves, 8"-12" +long, compound 7 leaflets, +sharply serrate; fruit, a +thick-shelled nut, bitter +kernel.</p> + +<p><b>Appearance of Wood</b>: +Color, light or dark brown, +the thick sap-wood +lighter, often nearly +white; ring-porous; rings +marked by many large +open ducts; grain, +straight; rays, small and +insignificant.</p> + +<br clear="all" /> +<div class="figleft" style="width: 150px;"><a href="images/33-leaf-500.png"><img src="images/33-leaf-a-150.png" width="150" height="216" alt="leaf" /></a> +<p class="center">Leaf.</p></div> + +<p><b>Physical Qualities</b>: +Very heavy (4th in this +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page123" id="page123"></a>123</span> +list); 56 lbs. per cu. ft.; sp. gr., 0.8217; +very strong (15th in this list); elastic +(27th in this list); very hard (2d in +this list); shrinkage, 10 per cent.; +warps ..........; hard to work; splits +with difficulty, hard to drive nails into.</p> + +<p><b>Common Uses</b>: Agricultural implements, +wheels, runners, tool handles.</p> + +<p><b>Remarks</b>: Wood not distinguished +from shellbark hickory in commerce.</p> + +<br clear="all" /> + +<div class="figleft" style="width: 200px;"><a href="images/33-cross-section-600.png"><img src="images/33-cross-section-a-200.png" width="200" height="200" alt="cross-section" /></a> +<p class="center">Cross-section, magnified 37½ diameters.</p></div> + +<div class="figleft" style="width: 150px;"><a href="images/33-radial-section-400.png"><img src="images/33-radial-section-a-150.png" width="150" height="300" alt="radial section" /></a> +<p class="center">Radial Section, life size.</p></div> + +<div class="figright" style="width: 150px;"><a href="images/33-tangential-section-400.png"><img src="images/33-tangential-section-a-150.png" width="150" height="300" alt="tangential Section" /></a> +<p class="center">Tangential Section, life size.</p></div> +<br clear="all" /> +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page124" id="page124"></a>124</span> + +<h3>34</h3> + +<h5><span class="sc">Blue Beech. Hornbeam. Water Beech. Iron-wood.</span></h5> + +<p>Blue refers to color of bark; the trunk resembles beech; horn refers to +horny texture of wood.</p> + +<h5><i>Carpinus caroliniana</i> Walter.</h5> + +<p class="center"> +<i>Carpinus</i>, classical Latin name; <i>caroliniana</i>, named from the state. +</p> + +<div class="figleft" style="width: 300px;"><a href="images/34-habitat-600.png"><img src="images/34-habitat-a-300.png" width="300" height="212" alt="habitat" /></a> +<p class="center1">Habitat.</p></div> + +<p><b>Habitat</b>: (See map); +best on western slopes +of Southern Allegheny +Mountains and in southern +Arkansas and Texas.</p> + +<p><b>Characteristics of the +Tree</b>: Height, a small +tree, 30'-50' high; diameter, +6"-2'; short, fluted, +sinewy trunk; bark, +smooth, bluish gray; +leaves, falcate, doubly +serrate; fruit, small oval +nut, enclosed in leaf-like +bract.</p> + +<p><b>Appearance of Wood</b>: +Color, light brown, sap-wood +thick, whitish; diffuse-porous; +rings, obscure; +grain, close; rays, +numerous, broad.</p> + +<br clear="all" /> +<div class="figleft" style="width: 150px;"><a href="images/34-leaf-500.png"><img src="images/34-leaf-a-150.png" width="150" height="214" alt="leaf" /></a> +<p class="center">Leaf.</p></div> + +<p><b>Physical Qualities</b>: +Heavy (13th in this +list); 45 lbs. per cu. ft.; +sp. gr. 0.7286; very +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page125" id="page125"></a>125</span> +strong (9th in this list); very stiff (15th +in this list); hard (14th in this list); +shrinkage, 6 per cent.; warps and checks +badly; not durable; hard to work; splits +with great difficulty.</p> + +<p><b>Common Uses</b>: Levers, tool handles.</p> + +<p><b>Remarks</b>: No other wood so good +for levers, because of stiffness.</p> +<br clear="all" /> + +<div class="figleft" style="width: 200px;"><a href="images/34-cross-section-600.png"><img src="images/34-cross-section-a-200.png" width="200" height="200" alt="cross-section" /></a> +<p class="center">Cross-section, magnified 37½ diameters.</p></div> + +<div class="figleft" style="width: 150px;"><a href="images/34-radial-section-400.png"><img src="images/34-radial-section-a-150.png" width="150" height="300" alt="radial section" /></a> +<p class="center">Radial Section, life size.</p></div> + +<div class="figright" style="width: 150px;"><a href="images/34-tangential-section-400.png"><img src="images/34-tangential-section-a-150.png" width="150" height="300" alt="tangential Section" /></a> +<p class="center">Tangential Section, life size.</p></div> +<br clear="all" /> +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page126" id="page126"></a>126</span> + +<h3>35</h3> + +<h5><span class="sc">Canoe Birch. White Birch. Paper Birch.</span></h5> + +<p class="center"> +All names refer to bark. +</p> + +<h5><i>Betula papyrifera</i> Marshall.</h5> + +<p class="center"> +<i>Betula</i>, the classical Latin name; <i>papyrifera</i> refers to paper bearing bark. +</p> + +<div class="figleft" style="width: 300px;"><a href="images/35-habitat-600.png"><img src="images/35-habitat-a-300.png" width="300" height="204" alt="habitat" /></a> +<p class="center1">Habitat.</p></div> + +<p><b>Habitat</b>: (See map); +best west of Rocky Mountains.</p> + +<p><b>Characteristics of the +Tree</b>: Height, 60'-80'; +diameter, 2'-3'; stem +rarely quite straight; +bark, smooth, white, exterior +marked with lenticels, +peeling freely +horizontally into thin +papery layers, showing +brown or orange beneath, +contains oil which +burns hotly, formerly +used by Indians for canoes, +very remarkable +(see Keeler, page 304); +leaves, heart-shaped, irregularly +serrate; fruit, +pendulous strobiles.</p> + +<p><b>Appearance of Wood</b>: +Color, brown or reddish, +sap-wood white; diffuse-porous; +rings, obscure; +grain, fairly straight; +rays, numerous, obscure.</p> + +<br clear="all" /> +<div class="figleft" style="width: 150px;"><a href="images/35-leaf-500.png"><img src="images/35-leaf-a-150.png" width="150" height="215" alt="leaf" /></a> +<p class="center">Leaf.</p></div> +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page127" id="page127"></a>127</span> + +<p><b>Physical Qualities</b>: Weight, medium +(33d in this list); 37 lbs. per cu. ft.; +sp. gr. 0.5955; very strong (14th in this +list); very elastic (2d in this list); medium +hard (39th in this list); shrinkage, +6 per cent.; warps, .........; not +durable, except bark; easy to work; splits +with difficulty, nails well, tough.</p> + +<p><b>Common Uses</b>: Spools, shoe lasts and +pegs, turnery, bark for canoes.</p> + +<p><b>Remarks</b>: Forms forests. Sap yields +syrup. Bark yields starch. Valuable to +woodsmen in many ways.</p> + +<br clear="all" /> + +<div class="figleft" style="width: 200px;"><a href="images/35-cross-section-600.png"><img src="images/35-cross-section-a-200.png" width="200" height="200" alt="cross-section" /></a> +<p class="center">Cross-section, magnified 37½ diameters.</p></div> + +<div class="figleft" style="width: 150px;"><a href="images/35-radial-section-400.png"><img src="images/35-radial-section-a-150.png" width="150" height="300" alt="radial section" /></a> +<p class="center">Radial Section, life size.</p></div> + +<div class="figright" style="width: 150px;"><a href="images/35-tangential-section-400.png"><img src="images/35-tangential-section-a-150.png" width="150" height="300" alt="tangential Section" /></a> +<p class="center">Tangential Section, life size.</p></div> +<br clear="all" /> +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page128" id="page128"></a>128</span> + +<h3>36</h3> + +<h5><span class="sc">Red Birch. River Birch.</span></h5> + +<p class="center"> +Red refers to color of bark; river, prefers river bottoms. +</p> + +<h5><i>Betula nigra</i> Linnaeus.</h5> + +<p class="center"> +<i>Betula</i>, the classical Latin name. +</p> + +<div class="figleft" style="width: 300px;"><a href="images/36-habitat-600.png"><img src="images/36-habitat-a-300.png" width="300" height="208" alt="habitat" /></a> +<p class="center1">Habitat.</p></div> + +<p><b>Habitat</b>: (See map); +best in Florida, Louisiana +and Texas.</p> + +<p><b>Characteristics of the +Tree</b>: Height, 30'-80', +and even higher; diameter, +1', even 5'; trunk, +often divided low; bark, +dark brown, marked by +horizontal lenticels, peels +into paper plates, curling +back; leaves, doubly +serrate, often almost +lobed; fruit, pubescent, +erect, strobiles.</p> + +<p><b>Appearance of Wood</b>: +Color, light brown, thick +sap-wood, whitish; diffuse-porous; +rings, not +plain; grain, close, rather +crooked; rays, numerous, +obscure.</p> + +<br clear="all" /> +<div class="figleft" style="width: 150px;"><a href="images/36-leaf-500.png"><img src="images/36-leaf-a-150.png" width="150" height="214" alt="leaf" /></a> +<p class="center">Leaf.</p></div> + +<p><b>Physical Qualities</b>: +Weight, medium (36th +in this list); 35 lbs. per +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page129" id="page129"></a>129</span> +cu. ft.; sp. gr. 0.5762; strong (22d in +this list); very elastic (19th in this +list); medium hard (37th in this list); +shrinkage, 6 per cent.; warps, .......; +not durable when exposed; hard to +work, tough; splits with difficulty, nails +well.</p> + +<p><b>Common Uses</b>: Shoe lasts, yokes, +furniture.</p> + +<p><b>Remarks</b>: Prefers moist land.</p> + +<br clear="all" /> + +<div class="figleft" style="width: 200px;"><a href="images/36-cross-section-600.png"><img src="images/36-cross-section-a-200.png" width="200" height="200" alt="cross-section" /></a> +<p class="center">Cross-section, magnified 37½ diameters.</p></div> + +<div class="figleft" style="width: 150px;"><a href="images/36-radial-section-400.png"><img src="images/36-radial-section-a-150.png" width="150" height="300" alt="radial section" /></a> +<p class="center">Radial Section, life size.</p></div> + +<div class="figright" style="width: 150px;"><a href="images/36-tangential-section-400.png"><img src="images/36-tangential-section-a-150.png" width="150" height="300" alt="tangential Section" /></a> +<p class="center">Tangential Section, life size.</p></div> +<br clear="all" /> +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page130" id="page130"></a>130</span> + +<h3>37</h3> + +<h5><span class="sc">Cherry Birch. Sweet Birch. Black Birch. Mahogany +Birch.</span></h5> + +<p class="center"> +Cherry, because bark resembles that of cherry tree; sweet, refers to the +taste of the spicy bark. +</p> + +<h5><i>Betula lenta</i> Linnaeus.</h5> + +<p class="center"> +<i>Betula</i>, the classical Latin name; <i>lenta</i>, meaning tenacious, sticky, may +refer to the gum which exudes from the trunk. +</p> + +<div class="figleft" style="width: 300px;"><a href="images/37-habitat-600.png"><img src="images/37-habitat-a-300.png" width="300" height="207" alt="habitat" /></a> +<p class="center1">Habitat.</p></div> + +<p><b>Habitat</b>: (See map); +best in Tennessee Mountains.</p> + +<p><b>Characteristics of the +Tree</b>: Height, 50'-80'; +diameter, 2'-5'; trunk, +rarely straight; bark, +dark reddish brown, on +old trunks deeply furrowed +and broken into +thick, irregular plates, +marked with horizontal +lenticels; resembles +cherry; spicy, aromatic; +leaves, ovate, oblong, 2"-6" +long, irregularly serrate; +fruit, erect strobiles.</p> + +<p><b>Appearance of Wood</b>: +Color, dark, reddish +brown; diffuse-porous; +rings, obscure; grain, +close, satiny, polishes +well, often stained to +imitate mahogany; rays, +numerous, obscure.</p> + +<br clear="all" /> +<div class="figleft" style="width: 150px;"><a href="images/37-leaf-500.png"><img src="images/37-leaf-a-150.png" width="150" height="214" alt="leaf" /></a> +<p class="center">Leaf.</p></div> +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page131" id="page131"></a>131</span> + +<p><b>Physical Qualities</b>: Heavy (6th in +this list); 47 lbs. per cu. ft.; sp. gr., +0.7617; very strong (4th in this list); +very elastic (6th in this list); hard +(11th in this list); shrinkage, 6 per cent.; +warps, little; not durable if exposed; +rather hard to work; splits hard, tough.</p> + +<p><b>Common Uses</b>: Dowel pins, wooden +ware, boats and ships.</p> + +<p><b>Remarks</b>: The birches are not usually +distinguished from one another in +the market.</p> + +<br clear="all" /> + +<div class="figleft" style="width: 200px;"><a href="images/37-cross-section-600.png"><img src="images/37-cross-section-a-200.png" width="200" height="200" alt="cross-section" /></a> +<p class="center">Cross-section, magnified 37½ diameters.</p></div> + +<div class="figleft" style="width: 150px;"><a href="images/37-radial-section-400.png"><img src="images/37-radial-section-a-150.png" width="150" height="300" alt="radial section" /></a> +<p class="center">Radial Section, life size.</p></div> + +<div class="figright" style="width: 150px;"><a href="images/37-tangential-section-400.png"><img src="images/37-tangential-section-a-150.png" width="150" height="300" alt="tangential Section" /></a> +<p class="center">Tangential Section, life size.</p></div> +<br clear="all" /> +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page132" id="page132"></a>132</span> + +<h3>38</h3> + +<h5><span class="sc">Yellow Birch. Gray Birch.</span></h5> + +<p class="center">Yellow and gray, both refer to the color of the bark.</p> + +<h5><i>Betula lutea</i> F. A. Michaux.</h5> + +<p class="center"> +<i>Betula</i>, the classical Latin name; <i>lutea</i> refers to the yellow color of the +bark. +</p> + +<div class="figleft" style="width: 300px;"><a href="images/38-habitat-600.png"><img src="images/38-habitat-a-300.png" width="300" height="212" alt="habitat" /></a> +<p class="center1">Habitat.</p></div> + +<p><b>Habitat</b>: (See map); +best in northern New +York and New England.</p> + +<p><b>Characteristics of the +Tree</b>: Height, 60'-100'; diameter, +3'-4'; branches, +low; bark, silvery, yellow, +gray, peeling horizontally +into thin, papery, persistent +layers, but on very old +trunks, there are rough, +irregular, plate-like scales; +leaves, ovate, sharply, +doubly serrate; fruit, +erect, 1" strobiles.</p> + +<p><b>Appearance of Wood</b>: +Color, light reddish brown, +sap-wood white; diffuse-porous; +rings, obscure; +grain, close, fairly +straight; rays, numerous, +obscure.</p> + +<br clear="all" /> +<div class="figleft" style="width: 150px;"><a href="images/38-leaf-500.png"><img src="images/38-leaf-a-150.png" width="150" height="214" alt="leaf" /></a> +<p class="center">Leaf.</p></div> + +<p><b>Physical Qualities</b>: +Heavy (21st in this list); +40 lbs. per cu. ft.; sp. gr., +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page133" id="page133"></a>133</span> +0.6553; very strong (2nd in this list); +very elastic (2d in this list); medium +hard (22d in this list); shrinkage, 6 +per cent.; warps .........; not durable; +rather hard to work, polishes well; splits +with difficulty, holds nails well.</p> + +<p><b>Common Uses</b>: Furniture, spools, +button molds, shoe lasts, shoe pegs, pill +boxes, yokes.</p> + +<p><b>Remarks</b>: The birches are not usually +distinguished from one another in +the market.</p> + +<br clear="all" /> + +<div class="figleft" style="width: 200px;"><a href="images/38-cross-section-600.png"><img src="images/38-cross-section-a-200.png" width="200" height="200" alt="cross-section" /></a> +<p class="center">Cross-section, magnified 37½ diameters.</p></div> + +<div class="figleft" style="width: 150px;"><a href="images/38-radial-section-400.png"><img src="images/38-radial-section-a-150.png" width="150" height="300" alt="radial section" /></a> +<p class="center">Radial Section, life size.</p></div> + +<div class="figright" style="width: 150px;"><a href="images/38-tangential-section-400.png"><img src="images/38-tangential-section-a-150.png" width="150" height="300" alt="tangential Section" /></a> +<p class="center">Tangential Section, life size.</p></div> +<br clear="all" /> +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page134" id="page134"></a>134</span> + +<h3>39</h3> + +<h5><span class="sc">Beech.</span></h5> + +<h5><i>Fagus grandifolia</i> Ehrhart. <i>Fagus americana</i> Sweet. <i>Fagus +ferruginea</i> +Aiton. <i>Fagus atropunicea</i> (Marshall) Sudworth.</h5> + +<p class="center"> +<i>Fagus</i> (Greek <i>phago</i> means to eat), refers to edible nut; <i>ferruginea</i>, +refers to the iron rust color of the leaves in the fall; <i>atropunicea</i>, meaning +dark red or purple, may refer to the color of the leaves of the copper +beech. +</p> + +<div class="figleft" style="width: 300px;"><a href="images/39-habitat-600.png"><img src="images/39-habitat-a-300.png" width="300" height="210" alt="habitat" /></a> +<p class="center1">Habitat.</p></div> + +<p><b>Habitat</b>: (See map); +best in southern Alleghany +Mountains and lower Ohio +valley.</p> + +<p><b>Characteristics of the +Tree</b>: Height, 70'-80' and +even 120'; diameter, 3'-4'; +in forest, trunk tall, slender, +sinewy; bark, smooth, +ashy gray; leaves, feather-veined, +wedge-shaped, serrate; +leaf buds, long, +pointed; fruit, 2 small +triangular nuts, enclosed +in burr, seeds about once +in 3 years.</p> + +<p><b>Appearance of Wood</b>: +Color, reddish, variable, +sap-wood white; diffuse-porous; +rings, obscure; +grain, straight; rays, +broad, very conspicuous.</p> + +<br clear="all" /> +<div class="figleft" style="width: 150px;"><a href="images/39-leaf-500.png"><img src="images/39-leaf-a-150.png" width="150" height="213" alt="leaf" /></a> +<p class="center">Leaf.</p></div> + +<p><b>Physical Qualities</b>: +Heavy (20th in this list); +42 lbs. per cu. ft.; sp. gr., +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page135" id="page135"></a>135</span> +0.6883; very strong (10th in this list); +elastic (13th in this list); hard (22d in +this list); shrinkage, 5 per cent.; warps +and checks during seasoning; not durable; +hard to work, takes fine polish; +splits with difficulty, hard to nail.</p> + +<p><b>Common Uses</b>: Plane stocks, shoe +lasts, tool handles, chairs.</p> + +<p><b>Remarks</b>: Often forms pure forests. +Uses due to its hardness.</p> + +<br clear="all" /> + +<div class="figleft" style="width: 200px;"><a href="images/39-cross-section-600.png"><img src="images/39-cross-section-a-200.png" width="200" height="200" alt="cross-section" /></a> +<p class="center">Cross-section, magnified 37½ diameters.</p></div> + +<div class="figleft" style="width: 150px;"><a href="images/39-radial-section-400.png"><img src="images/39-radial-section-a-150.png" width="150" height="300" alt="radial section" /></a> +<p class="center">Radial Section, life size.</p></div> + +<div class="figright" style="width: 150px;"><a href="images/39-tangential-section-400.png"><img src="images/39-tangential-section-a-150.png" width="150" height="300" alt="tangential Section" /></a> +<p class="center">Tangential Section, life size.</p></div> +<br clear="all" /> +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page136" id="page136"></a>136</span> + +<h3>40</h3> + +<h5><span class="sc">Chestnut.</span></h5> + +<h5><i>Castanea dentata</i> (Marshall) Borkhausen.</h5> + +<p class="center"> +<i>Castanea</i>, the classical Greek and Latin name; <i>dentata</i>, refers to toothed leaf. +</p> + +<div class="figleft" style="width: 300px;"><a href="images/40-habitat-600.png"><img src="images/40-habitat-a-300.png" width="300" height="215" alt="habitat" /></a> +<p class="center1">Habitat.</p></div> + +<p><b>Habitat</b>: (See map); +best in western North Carolina, +and eastern Tennessee.</p> + +<p><b>Characteristics of the +Tree</b>: Height, 75'-100'; +diameter, 3'-4', and even +12'; branches, low; bark, +thick, shallow, irregular, +fissures, broad, grayish +brown ridges; leaves, +lanceolate, coarsely serrate, +midribs and veins +prominent; fruit, nuts, +thin-shelled, sweet, enclosed +in prickly burrs.</p> + +<p><b>Appearance of Wood</b>: +Color, reddish brown, sap-wood +lighter; ring-porous; +rings, plain, pores large; +grain, straight; rays, numerous, +obscure.</p> + +<br clear="all" /> +<div class="figleft" style="width: 150px;"><a href="images/40-leaf-500.png"><img src="images/40-leaf-a-150.png" width="150" height="215" alt="leaf" /></a> +<p class="center">Leaf.</p></div> + +<p><b>Physical Qualities</b>: +Weight, light (50th in +this list); 28 lbs. per cu. +ft.; sp. gr., 0.4504; medium +strong (46th in this +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page137" id="page137"></a>137</span> +list); elasticity, medium (46th in this +list); medium hard (44th in this list); +shrinkage, 6 per cent.; warps badly; +very durable, especially in contact with +soil, fairly easy to plane, chisel and +saw; splits easily.</p> + +<p><b>Common Uses</b>: Railway ties, fence +posts, interior finish.</p> + +<p><b>Remarks</b>: Grows rapidly, and lives +to great age. Wood contains much tannic +acid. Uses depend largely upon its +durability. Lately whole regions depleted +by fungous pest.</p> +<br clear="all" /> + +<div class="figleft" style="width: 200px;"><a href="images/40-cross-section-600.png"><img src="images/40-cross-section-a-200.png" width="200" height="200" alt="cross-section" /></a> +<p class="center">Cross-section, magnified 37½ diameters.</p></div> + +<div class="figleft" style="width: 150px;"><a href="images/40-radial-section-400.png"><img src="images/40-radial-section-a-150.png" width="150" height="300" alt="radial section" /></a> +<p class="center">Radial Section, life size.</p></div> + +<div class="figright" style="width: 150px;"><a href="images/40-tangential-section-400.png"><img src="images/40-tangential-section-a-150.png" width="150" height="300" alt="tangential Section" /></a> +<p class="center">Tangential Section, life size.</p></div> +<br clear="all" /> +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page138" id="page138"></a>138</span> + +<h3>41</h3> + +<h5><span class="sc">Red Oak.</span></h5> + +<h5><i>Quercus rubra</i> Linnaeus.</h5> + +<p class="center"> +<i>Quercus</i>, the classical Latin name; <i>rubra</i>, refers to red color of wood. +</p> + +<div class="figleft" style="width: 300px;"><a href="images/41-habitat-600.png"><img src="images/41-habitat-a-300.png" width="300" height="214" alt="habitat" /></a> +<p class="center1">Habitat.</p></div> + +<p><b>Habitat</b>: (See map); +best in Massachusetts and +north of the Ohio river.</p> + +<p><b>Characteristics of the +Tree</b>: Height, 70'-100', +even 150'; diameter, 3'-6'; +a tall, handsome tree, +branches rather low; bark, +brownish gray, broad, thin, +rounded ridges, rather +smooth; leaves, 7 to 9 triangular +pointed lobes, +with rounded sinuses; +acorns, characteristically +large, in flat shallow cups.</p> + +<p><b>Appearance of Wood</b>: +Color, reddish brown, sap-wood +darker; ring-porous; +rings, marked by several +rows of very large +open ducts; grain, crooked, +coarse; rays, few, but +broad, conspicuous.</p> + +<br clear="all" /> +<div class="figleft" style="width: 150px;"><a href="images/41-leaf-500.png"><img src="images/41-leaf-a-150.png" width="150" height="215" alt="leaf" /></a> +<p class="center">Leaf.</p></div> + +<p><b>Physical Qualities</b>: +Heavy (23d in this list); +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page139" id="page139"></a>139</span> +45 lbs. per cu. ft.; sp. gr., 0.6540; strong +(21st in this list); elastic (18th in this +list); hard (26th in this list); shrinkage +6 to 10 per cent.; warps and checks +badly; moderately durable; easier to +work than white oak; splits readily, +nails badly.</p> + +<p><b>Common Uses</b>: Cooperage, interior +finish, furniture.</p> + +<p><b>Remarks</b>: Grows rapidly. An inferior +substitute for white oak. Bark used +in tanning.</p> + +<br clear="all" /> + +<div class="figleft" style="width: 200px;"><a href="images/41-cross-section-600.png"><img src="images/41-cross-section-a-200.png" width="200" height="200" alt="cross-section" /></a> +<p class="center">Cross-section, magnified 37½ diameters.</p></div> + +<div class="figleft" style="width: 150px;"><a href="images/41-radial-section-400.png"><img src="images/41-radial-section-a-150.png" width="150" height="300" alt="radial section" /></a> +<p class="center">Radial Section, life size.</p></div> + +<div class="figright" style="width: 150px;"><a href="images/41-tangential-section-400.png"><img src="images/41-tangential-section-a-150.png" width="150" height="300" alt="tangential Section" /></a> +<p class="center">Tangential Section, life size.</p></div> +<br clear="all" /> +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page140" id="page140"></a>140</span> + +<h3>42</h3> + +<h5><span class="sc">Black Oak. Yellow Bark Oak.</span></h5> + +<p class="center"> +Black refers to color of outer bark; yellow bark, refers to the inner +bark, which is orange yellow. +</p> + +<h5><i>Quercus velutina</i> Lamarck. <i>Quercus tinctoria</i> Michaux.</h5> + +<p class="center"> +<i>Quercus</i>, the classical Latin name; <i>velutina</i>, refers to the velvety surface +of the young leaf; <i>tinctoria</i>, refers to dye obtained from inner bark. +</p> + +<div class="figleft" style="width: 300px;"><a href="images/42-habitat-600.png"><img src="images/42-habitat-a-300.png" width="300" height="215" alt="habitat" /></a> +<p class="center1">Habitat.</p></div> + +<p><b>Habitat</b>: (See map); +best in lower Ohio valley.</p> + +<p><b>Characteristics of the +Tree</b>: Height, 70'-80', +even 150'; diameter 3'-4'; +branches, low; bark, dark +gray to black, deep fissures, +broad, rounded, +firm ridges, inner bark, +yellow, yielding dye; +leaves, large, lustrous, +leathery, of varied forms; +acorns, small; kernel, yellow, +bitter.</p> + +<p><b>Appearance of Wood</b>: +Color, reddish brown, sap-wood +lighter; ring-porous; +rings, marked by +several rows of very large +open ducts; grain, +crooked; rays, thin.</p> + +<br clear="all" /> +<div class="figleft" style="width: 150px;"><a href="images/42-leaf-500.png"><img src="images/42-leaf-a-150.png" width="150" height="215" alt="leaf" /></a> +<p class="center">Leaf.</p></div> + +<p><b>Physical Qualities</b>: +Heavy (17th in this list); +45 lbs. per cu. ft.; sp. gr., +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page141" id="page141"></a>141</span> +0.7045; very strong (17th in this list); +elastic (25th in this list); hard (18th +in this list); shrinkage, 4 per cent. or +more; warps and checks in drying; durable; +rather hard to work; splits readily, +nails badly.</p> + +<p><b>Common Uses</b>: Furniture, interior +trim, cooperage, construction.</p> + +<p><b>Remarks</b>: Foliage handsome in fall; +persists thru winter.</p> + +<br clear="all" /> + +<div class="figleft" style="width: 200px;"><a href="images/42-cross-section-600.png"><img src="images/42-cross-section-a-200.png" width="200" height="200" alt="cross-section" /></a> +<p class="center">Cross-section, magnified 37½ diameters.</p></div> + +<div class="figleft" style="width: 150px;"><a href="images/42-radial-section-400.png"><img src="images/42-radial-section-a-150.png" width="150" height="300" alt="radial section" /></a> +<p class="center">Radial Section, life size.</p></div> + +<div class="figright" style="width: 150px;"><a href="images/42-tangential-section-400.png"><img src="images/42-tangential-section-a-150.png" width="150" height="300" alt="tangential Section" /></a> +<p class="center">Tangential Section, life size.</p></div> +<br clear="all" /> +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page142" id="page142"></a>142</span> + +<h3>43</h3> + +<h5><span class="sc">Basket Oak. Cow Oak.</span></h5> + +<p class="center"> +Cow refers to the fact that its acorns are eaten by cattle. +</p> + +<h5><i>Quercus michauxii</i> Nuttall.</h5> + +<p class="center"> +<i>Quercus</i>, the classical Latin name; <i>michauxii</i>, named for the botanist +Michaux. +</p> + +<div class="figleft" style="width: 300px;"><a href="images/43-habitat-600.png"><img src="images/43-habitat-a-300.png" width="300" height="211" alt="habitat" /></a> +<p class="center1">Habitat.</p></div> + +<p><b>Habitat</b>: (See map); +best in Arkansas and +Louisiana, especially in +river bottoms.</p> + +<p><b>Characteristics of the +Tree</b>: Height, 80'-100'; +diameter 3', even 7'; +trunk, often clean and +straight for 40' or 50'; +bark, conspicuous, light +gray, rough with loose +ashy gray, scaly ridges; +leaves, obovate, regularly +scalloped; acorns, edible +for cattle.</p> + +<p><b>Appearance of Wood</b>: +Color, light brown, sap-wood +light buff; ring-porous; +rings, marked by +few rather large, open +ducts; grain, likely to be +crooked; rays, broad, conspicuous.</p> + +<br clear="all" /> +<div class="figleft" style="width: 150px;"><a href="images/43-leaf-500.png"><img src="images/43-leaf-a-150.png" width="150" height="214" alt="leaf" /></a> +<p class="center">Leaf.</p></div> + +<p><b>Physical Qualities</b>: +Very heavy (5th in this +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page143" id="page143"></a>143</span> +list); 46 lbs. per cu. ft.; sp. gr., 0.8039; +very strong (12th in this list); elastic +(33d in this list); hard (10th in this +list); shrinkage, 4 per cent. or more; +warps unless carefully seasoned; durable; +hard and tough to work; splits +easily, bad to nail.</p> + +<p><b>Common Uses</b>: Construction, agricultural +implements, wheel stock, baskets.</p> + +<p><b>Remarks</b>: The best white oak of the +south. Not <ins title="Transcriber's Note: original reads 'distinguised'">distinguished</ins> from white +oak in the market.</p> + +<br clear="all" /> + +<div class="figleft" style="width: 200px;"><a href="images/43-cross-section-600.png"><img src="images/43-cross-section-a-200.png" width="200" height="200" alt="cross-section" /></a> +<p class="center">Cross-section, magnified 37½ diameters.</p></div> + +<div class="figleft" style="width: 150px;"><a href="images/43-radial-section-400.png"><img src="images/43-radial-section-a-150.png" width="150" height="300" alt="radial section" /></a> +<p class="center">Radial Section, life size.</p></div> + +<div class="figright" style="width: 150px;"><a href="images/43-tangential-section-400.png"><img src="images/43-tangential-section-a-150.png" width="150" height="300" alt="tangential Section" /></a> +<p class="center">Tangential Section, life size.</p></div> +<br clear="all" /> +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page144" id="page144"></a>144</span> + +<h3>44</h3> + +<h5><span class="sc">Bur Oak. Mossy-Cup Oak. Over-Cup Oak.</span></h5> + +<h5><i>Quercus macrocarpa</i> Michaux.</h5> + +<p class="center"> +<i>Quercus</i>, the classical Latin name; <i>macrocarpa</i>, refers to the large acorn. +</p> + +<div class="figleft" style="width: 300px;"><a href="images/44-habitat-600.png"><img src="images/44-habitat-a-300.png" width="300" height="213" alt="habitat" /></a> +<p class="center1">Habitat.</p></div> + +<p><b>Habitat</b>: (See map); +best in southern Indiana, +Illinois and Kansas.</p> + +<p><b>Characteristics of the +Tree</b>: Height, 70'-130', +even 170'; diameter, 5'-7'; +branches, high; corky +wings on young branches; +bark, gray brown, deeply +furrowed; deep opposite +sinuses on large leaves; +acorns, half enclosed in +mossy-fringed cup.</p> + +<p><b>Appearance of Wood</b>: +Color, rich brown, sap-wood, +thin, lighter; ring-porous; +rings, marked by +1 to 3 rows of small open +ducts; grain, crooked; +rays, broad, and conspicuous.</p> + +<br clear="all" /> +<div class="figleft" style="width: 150px;"><a href="images/44-leaf-500.png"><img src="images/44-leaf-a-150.png" width="150" height="214" alt="leaf" /></a> +<p class="center">Leaf.</p></div> + +<p><b>Physical Qualities</b>: +Heavy (9th in this list); +46 lbs. per cu. ft.; sp. gr., +0.7453; very strong (16th +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page145" id="page145"></a>145</span> +in this list); elastic (37th in this list); +hard (9th in this list); shrinkage, 4 per +cent. or more; warps,..........; hard, +and tough to work; splits easily, resists +nailing.</p> + +<p><b>Common Uses</b>: Ship building, cabinet +work, railway ties, cooperage.</p> + +<p><b>Remarks</b>: Good for prairie planting. +One of the most valuable woods of +North America. Not distinguished from +White Oak in commerce.</p> + +<br clear="all" /> + +<div class="figleft" style="width: 200px;"><a href="images/44-cross-section-600.png"><img src="images/44-cross-section-a-200.png" width="200" height="200" alt="cross-section" /></a> +<p class="center">Cross-section, magnified 37½ diameters.</p></div> + +<div class="figleft" style="width: 150px;"><a href="images/44-radial-section-400.png"><img src="images/44-radial-section-a-150.png" width="150" height="300" alt="radial section" /></a> +<p class="center">Radial Section, life size.</p></div> + +<div class="figright" style="width: 150px;"><a href="images/44-tangential-section-400.png"><img src="images/44-tangential-section-a-150.png" width="150" height="300" alt="tangential Section" /></a> +<p class="center">Tangential Section, life size.</p></div> +<br clear="all" /> +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page146" id="page146"></a>146</span> + +<h3>45</h3> + +<h5><span class="sc">White Oak</span> (Western).</h5> + +<h5><i>Quercus garryana</i> Douglas.</h5> + +<p class="center"> +<i>Quercus</i>, the classical Latin name; <i>garryana</i>, named for Garry. +</p> + +<div class="figleft" style="width: 300px;"><a href="images/45-habitat-600.png"><img src="images/45-habitat-a-300.png" width="300" height="202" alt="habitat" /></a> +<p class="center1">Habitat.</p></div> + +<p><b>Habitat</b>: (See map); +best in western Washington +and Oregon.</p> + +<p><b>Characteristics of the +Tree</b>: Height, 60'-70', +even 100'; diameter, 2'-3'; +branches, spreading; +bark, light brown, shallow +fissures, broad ridges; +leaves, coarsely pinnatified, +lobed; fruit, large +acorns.</p> + +<p><b>Appearance of Wood</b>: +Color, light brown, sap-wood +whitish; ring-porous; +rings, marked by 1 +to 3 rows of open ducts; +grain, close, crooked; +rays, varying greatly in +width, often conspicuous.</p> + +<br clear="all" /> +<div class="figleft" style="width: 150px;"><a href="images/45-leaf-500.png"><img src="images/45-leaf-a-150.png" width="150" height="214" alt="leaf" /></a> +<p class="center">Leaf.</p></div> + +<p><b>Physical Qualities</b>: +Heavy (10th in this list); +46 lbs. per cu. ft.; sp. gr., +0.7449; strong (28th in +this list); elasticity medium +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page147" id="page147"></a>147</span> +(54th in this list); hard (8th in +this list); shrinkage, 5 or 6 per cent.; +warps, unless carefully seasoned; durable; +hard to work, very tough; splits +badly in nailing.</p> + +<p><b>Common Uses</b>: Ship building, vehicles, +furniture, interior finish.</p> + +<p><b>Remarks</b>: Best of Pacific oaks. +Shrubby at high elevations.</p> + +<br clear="all" /> + +<div class="figleft" style="width: 200px;"><a href="images/45-cross-section-600.png"><img src="images/45-cross-section-a-200.png" width="200" height="200" alt="cross-section" /></a> +<p class="center">Cross-section, magnified 37½ diameters.</p></div> + +<div class="figleft" style="width: 150px;"><a href="images/45-radial-section-400.png"><img src="images/45-radial-section-a-150.png" width="150" height="300" alt="radial section" /></a> +<p class="center">Radial Section, life size.</p></div> + +<div class="figright" style="width: 150px;"><a href="images/45-tangential-section-400.png"><img src="images/45-tangential-section-a-150.png" width="150" height="300" alt="tangential Section" /></a> +<p class="center">Tangential Section, life size.</p></div> +<br clear="all" /> +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page148" id="page148"></a>148</span> + +<h3>46</h3> + +<h5><span class="sc">Post Oak.</span></h5> + +<h5><i>Quercus stellata</i> Wangenheim. <i>Quercus minor</i> (Marsh) Sargent. +<i>Quercus obtusiloba</i> Michaux.</h5> + +<p class="center"> +<i>Quercus</i>, the classical Latin name; <i>stellata</i>, refers to the stellate hairs +on upper side of leaf; <i>minor</i>, refers to size of tree, which is often shrubby; +<i>obtusiloba</i>, refers to the blunt lobes of leaves. +</p> +<div class="figleft" style="width: 300px;"><a href="images/46-habitat-600.png"><img src="images/46-habitat-a-300.png" width="300" height="214" alt="habitat" /></a> +<p class="center1">Habitat.</p></div> + +<p><b>Habitat</b>: (See map); +best in Mississippi basin.</p> + +<p><b>Characteristics of the +Tree</b>: Height, 50'-75', +even 100'; but often a +shrub; diameter, 2'-3'; +branches, spreading into +dense round-topped head; +bark, red or brown, deep, +vertical, almost continuous, +fissures and broad +ridges, looks corrugated; +leaves, in large tufts at +ends of branchlets; acorns, +small, sessile.</p> + +<p><b>Appearance of Wood</b>: +Color, brown, thick, sap-wood, +lighter; ring-porous; +rings, 1 to 3 rows of +not large open ducts; +grain, crooked; rays, numerous, +conspicuous.</p> + +<br clear="all" /> +<div class="figleft" style="width: 150px;"><a href="images/46-leaf-500.png"><img src="images/46-leaf-a-150.png" width="150" height="217" alt="leaf" /></a> +<p class="center">Leaf.</p></div> + +<p><b>Physical Qualities</b>: +Very heavy (2d in this +list); 50 lbs. per cu. ft.; +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page149" id="page149"></a>149</span> +sp. gr., 0.8367; strong (29th in this +list); medium elastic (50th in this list); +very hard (4th in this list); shrinkage, +4 per cent. or more; warps and checks +badly in seasoning; durable; hard to +work; splits readily, bad to nail.</p> + +<p><b>Common Uses</b>: Cooperage, railway +ties, fencing, construction.</p> + +<p><b>Remarks</b>: Wood often undistinguished +from white oak.</p> + +<br clear="all" /> + +<div class="figleft" style="width: 200px;"><a href="images/46-cross-section-600.png"><img src="images/46-cross-section-a-200.png" width="200" height="200" alt="cross-section" /></a> +<p class="center">Cross-section, magnified 37½ diameters.</p></div> + +<div class="figleft" style="width: 150px;"><a href="images/46-radial-section-400.png"><img src="images/46-radial-section-a-150.png" width="150" height="300" alt="radial section" /></a> +<p class="center">Radial Section, life size.</p></div> + +<div class="figright" style="width: 150px;"><a href="images/46-tangential-section-400.png"><img src="images/46-tangential-section-a-150.png" width="150" height="300" alt="tangential Section" /></a> +<p class="center">Tangential Section, life size.</p></div> +<br clear="all" /> +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page150" id="page150"></a>150</span> + +<h3>47</h3> + +<h5><span class="sc">White Oak. Stave Oak.</span></h5> + +<h5><i>Quercus alba</i> Linnaeus.</h5> + +<p class="center"> +<i>Quercus</i>, the classical Latin name; white and <i>alba</i>, refer to white bark. +</p> + +<div class="figleft" style="width: 300px;"><a href="images/47-habitat-600.png"><img src="images/47-habitat-a-300.png" width="300" height="216" alt="habitat" /></a> +<p class="center1">Habitat.</p></div> + +<p><b>Habitat</b>: (See map); +best on western slopes +of Southern Alleghany +Mountains, and in lower +Ohio river valley.</p> + +<p><b>Characteristics of the +Tree</b>: Height, 80'-100'; +diameter, 3'-5'; trunk, in +forest, tall, in open, short; +bark, easily distinguished, +light gray with shallow +fissures, scaly; leaves, +rounded lobes, and sinuses; +acorns, ¾" to 1" +long, ripen first year.</p> + +<p><b>Appearance of Wood</b>: +Color, light brown, sap-wood +paler; ring-porous; +rings, plainly defined by +pores; grain crooked; +rays, broad, very conspicuous +and irregular.</p> + +<br clear="all" /> +<div class="figleft" style="width: 150px;"><a href="images/47-leaf-500.png"><img src="images/47-leaf-a-150.png" width="150" height="214" alt="leaf" /></a> +<p class="center">Leaf.</p></div> + +<p><b>Physical Qualities</b>: +Heavy (8th in this list); +50 lbs. per cu. ft.; sp. +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page151" id="page151"></a>151</span> +gr., 0.7470; strong (23d in this list); +elastic (32d in this list); hard (13th +in this list); shrinkage, from 4 to 10 +per cent.; warps and checks considerably, +unless carefully seasoned; very durable, +hard to work; splits somewhat +hard, very difficult to nail.</p> + +<p><b>Common Uses</b>: Interior finish, furniture, +construction, ship building, farm +implements, cabinet making.</p> + +<p><b>Remarks</b>: The most important of +American oaks.</p> + +<br clear="all" /> + +<div class="figleft" style="width: 200px;"><a href="images/47-cross-section-600.png"><img src="images/47-cross-section-a-200.png" width="200" height="200" alt="cross-section" /></a> +<p class="center">Cross-section, magnified 37½ diameters.</p></div> + +<div class="figleft" style="width: 150px;"><a href="images/47-radial-section-400.png"><img src="images/47-radial-section-a-150.png" width="150" height="300" alt="radial section" /></a> +<p class="center">Radial Section, life size.</p></div> + +<div class="figright" style="width: 150px;"><a href="images/47-tangential-section-400.png"><img src="images/47-tangential-section-a-150.png" width="150" height="300" alt="tangential Section" /></a> +<p class="center">Tangential Section, life size.</p></div> +<br clear="all" /> +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page152" id="page152"></a>152</span> + +<h3>48</h3> + +<h5><span class="sc">Cork Elm. Rock Elm. Hickory Elm. White Elm. +Cliff Elm.</span></h5> + +<p class="center"> +Cork refers to corky ridges on branches. +</p> + +<h5><i>Ulmus thomasi</i> Sargent. <i>Ulmus racemosa</i> Thomas.</h5> + +<p class="center"> +<i>Ulmus</i>, the classical Latin name; <i>racemosa</i>, refers to racemes of flowers. +</p> + +<div class="figleft" style="width: 300px;"><a href="images/48-habitat-600.png"><img src="images/48-habitat-a-300.png" width="300" height="210" alt="habitat" /></a> +<p class="center1">Habitat.</p></div> + +<p><b>Habitat</b>: (See map); +best in Ontario and southern +Michigan.</p> + +<p><b>Characteristics of the +Tree</b>: Height, 80'-100'; +diameter, 2'-3', trunk often +clear for 60'; bark, +gray tinged with red, +corky, irregular projections, +give shaggy appearance; +leaves, obovate, +doubly serrate, 3"-4" long; +fruit, pubescent, samaras.</p> + +<p><b>Appearance of Wood</b>: +Color, light brown or red; +sap-wood yellowish; ring-porous; +rings, marked +with one or two rows of +small open ducts; grain, +interlaced; rays, numerous, +obscure.</p> + +<br clear="all" /> +<div class="figleft" style="width: 150px;"><a href="images/48-leaf-500.png"><img src="images/48-leaf-a-150.png" width="150" height="213" alt="leaf" /></a> +<p class="center">Leaf.</p></div> + +<p><b>Physical Qualities</b>: +Heavy (15th in this list); +45 lbs. per cu. ft.; sp. gr., +0.7263; very strong (13th +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page153" id="page153"></a>153</span> +in this list); elastic (22d in this list); +hard (15th in this list); shrinkage, 5 +per cent.; warps, ........; very durable; +hard to work; splits and nails +with difficulty.</p> + +<p><b>Common Uses</b>: Hubs, agricultural +implements, sills, bridge timbers.</p> + +<p><b>Remarks</b>: The best of the elm +woods.</p> + +<br clear="all" /> + +<div class="figleft" style="width: 200px;"><a href="images/48-cross-section-600.png"><img src="images/48-cross-section-a-200.png" width="200" height="200" alt="cross-section" /></a> +<p class="center">Cross-section, magnified 37½ diameters.</p></div> + +<div class="figleft" style="width: 150px;"><a href="images/48-radial-section-400.png"><img src="images/48-radial-section-a-150.png" width="150" height="300" alt="radial section" /></a> +<p class="center">Radial Section, life size.</p></div> + +<div class="figright" style="width: 150px;"><a href="images/48-tangential-section-400.png"><img src="images/48-tangential-section-a-150.png" width="150" height="300" alt="tangential Section" /></a> +<p class="center">Tangential Section, life size.</p></div> +<br clear="all" /> +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page154" id="page154"></a>154</span> + +<h3>49</h3> + +<h5><span class="sc">White Elm. American Elm. Water Elm.</span></h5> + +<p class="center"> +Water, because it flourishes on river banks. +</p> + +<h5><i>Ulmus americana</i> Linnaeus.</h5> + +<p class="center"> +<i>Ulmus</i>, the classical Latin name. +</p> + +<div class="figleft" style="width: 300px;"><a href="images/49-habitat-600.png"><img src="images/49-habitat-a-300.png" width="300" height="208" alt="habitat" /></a> +<p class="center1">Habitat.</p></div> + +<p><b>Habitat</b>: (See map); +best northward on river +bottoms.</p> + +<p><b>Characteristics of the +Tree</b>: Height, 90', even +120'; diameter, 3'-8'; +trunk, usually divides at +30'-40' from ground into +upright branches, making +triangular outline; bark, +ashy gray, deep longitudinal +fissures, broad +ridges; leaves, 4"-6" +long, oblique obovate, +doubly serrate, smooth +one way; fruit, small, +roundish, flat, smooth, samaras.</p> + +<p><b>Appearance of Wood</b>: +Color, light brown, sap-wood +yellowish; ring-porous; +rings, marked by +several rows of large open +ducts; grain, interlaced; +rays, numerous, thin.</p> + +<br clear="all" /> +<div class="figleft" style="width: 150px;"><a href="images/49-leaf-500.png"><img src="images/49-leaf-a-150.png" width="150" height="214" alt="leaf" /></a> +<p class="center">Leaf.</p></div> +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page155" id="page155"></a>155</span> + +<p><b>Physical Qualities</b>: Heavy (24th in +this list); 34 lbs. per cu. ft.; sp. +gr., 0.6506; strong (33d in this list); +elasticity, medium (59th in this list); +medium hard (28th in this list); shrinkage, +5 per cent.; warps .........; not +durable; hard to work, tough, will not +polish; splits with difficulty.</p> + +<p><b>Common Uses</b>: Cooperage, wheel +stock, flooring.</p> + +<p><b>Remarks</b>: Favorite ornamental tree, +but shade light, and leaves fall early.</p> + +<br clear="all" /> + +<div class="figleft" style="width: 200px;"><a href="images/49-cross-section-600.png"><img src="images/49-cross-section-a-200.png" width="200" height="200" alt="cross-section" /></a> +<p class="center">Cross-section, magnified 37½ diameters.</p></div> + +<div class="figleft" style="width: 150px;"><a href="images/49-radial-section-400.png"><img src="images/49-radial-section-a-150.png" width="150" height="300" alt="radial section" /></a> +<p class="center">Radial Section, life size.</p></div> + +<div class="figright" style="width: 150px;"><a href="images/49-tangential-section-400.png"><img src="images/49-tangential-section-a-150.png" width="150" height="300" alt="tangential Section" /></a> +<p class="center">Tangential Section, life size.</p></div> +<br clear="all" /> +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page156" id="page156"></a>156</span> + +<h3>50</h3> + +<h5><span class="sc">Cucumber Tree. Mountain Magnolia.</span></h5> + +<p class="center"> +Cucumber, refers to the shape of the fruit. +</p> + +<h5><i>Magnolia acuminata</i> Linnaeus.</h5> + +<p class="center"> +<i>Magnolia</i>, named for Pierre Magnol, a French botanist; <i>acuminata</i>, refers +to pointed fruit. +</p> + +<div class="figleft" style="width: 300px;"><a href="images/50-habitat-600.png"><img src="images/50-habitat-a-300.png" width="300" height="212" alt="habitat" /></a> +<p class="center1">Habitat.</p></div> + +<p><b>Habitat</b>: (See map); +best at the base of mountains +in North Carolina +and South Carolina and +Tennessee.</p> + +<p><b>Characteristics of the +Tree</b>: Height, 60'-90'; +diameter, 3'-4'; in forest, +clear trunk for ⅔ of +height (40' or 50'); bark, +dark brown, thick, furrowed; +leaves, large, +smooth; flowers, large +greenish yellow; fruit, +dark red "cones" formed +of two seeded follicles.</p> + +<p><b>Appearance of Wood</b>: +Color, yellow brown, thick +sapwood, lighter; diffuse-porous; +rings, obscure; +grain, very straight, close, +satiny; rays, numerous +thin.</p> + +<br clear="all" /> +<div class="figleft" style="width: 150px;"><a href="images/50-leaf-500.png"><img src="images/50-leaf-a-150.png" width="150" height="215" alt="leaf" /></a> +<p class="center">Leaf.</p></div> + +<p><b>Physical Qualities</b>: +Light (45th in this list); +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page157" id="page157"></a>157</span> +.... lbs. per cu. ft.; sp. gr., 0.4690; +medium strong (49th in this list); elastic +(38th in this list); medium +hard (41st in this list); shrinkage, 5 +per cent.; warps .........; very durable; +easy to work; splits easily, takes +nails well.</p> + +<p><b>Common Uses</b>: Pump logs, cheap +furniture, shelving.</p> + +<br clear="all" /> + +<div class="figleft" style="width: 200px;"><a href="images/50-cross-section-600.png"><img src="images/50-cross-section-a-200.png" width="200" height="200" alt="cross-section" /></a> +<p class="center">Cross-section, magnified 37½ diameters.</p></div> + +<div class="figleft" style="width: 150px;"><a href="images/50-radial-section-400.png"><img src="images/50-radial-section-a-150.png" width="150" height="300" alt="radial section" /></a> +<p class="center">Radial Section, life size.</p></div> + +<div class="figright" style="width: 150px;"><a href="images/50-tangential-section-400.png"><img src="images/50-tangential-section-a-150.png" width="150" height="300" alt="tangential Section" /></a> +<p class="center">Tangential Section, life size.</p></div> +<br clear="all" /> +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page158" id="page158"></a>158</span> + +<h3>51</h3> + +<h5><span class="sc">Yellow Poplar. Whitewood. Tulip Tree.</span></h5> + +<p class="center"> +Poplar, inappropriate, inasmuch as the tree does not belong to poplar +family. White, refers inappropriately to the color of the wood, which is +greenish yellow. +</p> + +<h5><i>Liriodendron tulipifera</i> Linnaeus.</h5> + +<p class="center"> +<i>Liriodendron</i>, means lily-tree; <i>tulipifera</i> means tulip-bearing. +</p> + +<div class="figleft" style="width: 300px;"><a href="images/51-habitat-600.png"><img src="images/51-habitat-a-300.png" width="300" height="215" alt="habitat" /></a> +<p class="center1">Habitat.</p></div> + +<p><b>Habitat</b>: (See map); +best in lower Ohio valley +and southern Appalachian +mountains.</p> + +<p><b>Characteristics of the +Tree</b>: Height, 70'-90'; +even 200'; diameter, 6'-8', +even 12'; tall, magnificent +trunk, unsurpassed +in grandeur by any eastern +American tree; bark, +brown, aromatic, evenly +furrowed so as to make +clean, neat-looking trunk; +leaves, 4 lobed, apex, peculiarly +truncated, clean +cut; flowers, tulip-like; +fruit, cone, consisting of +many scales.</p> + +<p><b>Appearance of Wood</b>: +Color, light greenish or +yellow brown, sap-wood, +creamy white; diffuse-porous; +rings, close but +distinct; grain, straight; +rays, numerous and plain.</p> + +<br clear="all" /> +<div class="figleft" style="width: 150px;"><a href="images/51-leaf-500.png"><img src="images/51-leaf-a-150.png" width="150" height="215" alt="leaf" /></a> +<p class="center">Leaf.</p></div> +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page159" id="page159"></a>159</span> + +<p><b>Physical Qualities</b>: Light (54th in +this list); 26 lbs. per cu. ft.; sp. gr., +0.4230; medium strong (51st in this +list); elastic (39th in this list); soft +(49th in this list); shrinkage, 5 per +cent.; warps little; durable; easy to +work; brittle and does not split readily, +nails very well.</p> + +<p><b>Common Uses</b>: Construction work, +furniture, interiors, boats, carriage bodies, +wooden pumps.</p> + +<p><b>Remarks</b>: Being substituted largely +for white pine.</p> + +<br clear="all" /> + +<div class="figleft" style="width: 200px;"><a href="images/51-cross-section-600.png"><img src="images/51-cross-section-a-200.png" width="200" height="200" alt="cross-section" /></a> +<p class="center">Cross-section, magnified 37½ diameters.</p></div> + +<div class="figleft" style="width: 150px;"><a href="images/51-radial-section-400.png"><img src="images/51-radial-section-a-150.png" width="150" height="300" alt="radial section" /></a> +<p class="center">Radial Section, life size.</p></div> + +<div class="figright" style="width: 150px;"><a href="images/51-tangential-section-400.png"><img src="images/51-tangential-section-a-150.png" width="150" height="300" alt="tangential Section" /></a> +<p class="center">Tangential Section, life size.</p></div> +<br clear="all" /> +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page160" id="page160"></a>160</span> + +<h3>52</h3> + +<h5><span class="sc">Sweet Gum.</span></h5> +<p class="center"> +Gum, refers to exudations. +</p> + +<h5><i>Liquidambar styraciflua</i> Linnaeus.</h5> + +<p class="center"> +<i>Liquidambar</i>, means liquid gum; <i>styraciflua</i>, means fluid resin (storax). +</p> + +<div class="figleft" style="width: 300px;"><a href="images/52-habitat-600.png"><img src="images/52-habitat-a-300.png" width="300" height="211" alt="habitat" /></a> +<p class="center1">Habitat.</p></div> + +<p><b>Habitat</b>: (See map); +best in the lower Mississippi +valley.</p> + +<p><b>Characteristics of the +Tree</b>: Height, 80'-140'; +diameter, 3'-5'; trunk, +tall, straight; bark, light +brown tinged with red, +deeply fissured; branchlets +often having corky +wings; leaves, star-shaped, +five pointed; conspicuously +purple and crimson +in autumn; fruit, multi-capsular, +spherical, persistent +heads.</p> + +<p><b>Appearance of Wood</b>: +Color, light red brown, +sap-wood almost white; +diffuse-porous; rings, fine +and difficult to distinguish; +grain, straight, +close, polishes well; rays, +numerous, very obscure.</p> + +<br clear="all" /> +<div class="figleft" style="width: 150px;"><a href="images/52-leaf-500.png"><img src="images/52-leaf-a-150.png" width="150" height="214" alt="leaf" /></a> +<p class="center">Leaf.</p></div> + +<p><b>Physical Qualities</b>: +Weight, medium (34th in +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page161" id="page161"></a>161</span> +this list); 37 lbs. per cu. ft.; sp. gr., +0.5909; medium strong (52d in this +list); elasticity medium (44th in this +list); medium hard (36th in this list); +shrinkage, 6 per cent.; warps and +twists badly in seasoning; not durable +when exposed; easy to work; crumbles +in splitting; nails badly.</p> + +<p><b>Common Uses</b>: Building construction, +cabinet-work, veneering, street +pavement, barrel staves and heads.</p> + +<p><b>Remarks</b>: Largely used in veneers, +because when solid it warps and twists +badly. Exudations used in medicine to +some extent.</p> + +<br clear="all" /> + +<div class="figleft" style="width: 200px;"><a href="images/52-cross-section-600.png"><img src="images/52-cross-section-a-200.png" width="200" height="200" alt="cross-section" /></a> +<p class="center">Cross-section, magnified 37½ diameters.</p></div> + +<div class="figleft" style="width: 150px;"><a href="images/52-radial-section-400.png"><img src="images/52-radial-section-a-150.png" width="150" height="300" alt="radial section" /></a> +<p class="center">Radial Section, life size.</p></div> + +<div class="figright" style="width: 150px;"><a href="images/52-tangential-section-400.png"><img src="images/52-tangential-section-a-150.png" width="150" height="300" alt="tangential Section" /></a> +<p class="center">Tangential Section, life size.</p></div> +<br clear="all" /> +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page162" id="page162"></a>162</span> + +<h3>53</h3> + +<h5><span class="sc">Sycamore. Buttonwood. Button Ball. Water Beech.</span></h5> + +<p class="center"> +Sycamore, from two Greek words meaning fig and mulberry; buttonwood +and button-ball, refer to fruit balls. +</p> + +<h5><i>Platanus occidentalis</i> Linnaeus.</h5> + +<p class="center"> +<i>Platanus</i>, refers to the broad leaves; <i>occidentalis</i>, western, to distinguish +it from European species. +</p> + +<div class="figleft" style="width: 300px;"><a href="images/53-habitat-600.png"><img src="images/53-habitat-a-300.png" width="300" height="213" alt="habitat" /></a> +<p class="center1">Habitat.</p></div> + +<p><b>Habitat</b>: (See map); +best in valley of lower +Ohio and Mississippi.</p> + +<p><b>Characteristics of the +Tree</b>: Height, 70'-100', +and even 170'; diameter, +6'-12'; trunk, commonly +divides into 2 or 3 large +branches, limbs spreading, +often dividing angularly; +bark, flakes off in great +irregular masses, leaving +mottled surface, greenish +gray and brown, this peculiarity +due to its rigid +texture; leaves, palmately +3 to 5 lobed, 4"-9" long, +petiole enlarged, enclosing +buds; fruit, large rough +balls, persistent through +winter.</p> + +<p><b>Appearance of Wood</b>: +Color, reddish brown, sap-wood +lighter; diffuse-porous; +rings, marked by +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page163" id="page163"></a>163</span> +broad bands of small ducts; grain, cross, +close; rays, numerous, large, conspicuous.</p> + +<br clear="all" /> +<div class="figleft" style="width: 150px;"><a href="images/53-leaf-500.png"><img src="images/53-leaf-a-150.png" width="150" height="214" alt="leaf" /></a> +<p class="center">Leaf.</p></div> + +<p><b>Physical Qualities</b>: Weight, medium +(38th in this list); 35 lbs. per cu. ft.; +sp. gr., 0.5678; medium strong (54th +in this list); elasticity, medium (43d +in this list); medium hard (30th +in this list); shrinkage, 5 per cent.; +warps little; very durable, once used +for mummy coffins; hard to work; splits +very hard.</p> + +<p><b>Common Uses</b>: Tobacco boxes, yokes, +furniture, butcher blocks.</p> + +<p><b>Remarks</b>: Trunks often very large +and hollow.</p> + +<br clear="all" /> + +<div class="figleft" style="width: 200px;"><a href="images/53-cross-section-600.png"><img src="images/53-cross-section-a-200.png" width="200" height="200" alt="cross-section" /></a> +<p class="center">Cross-section, magnified 37½ diameters.</p></div> + +<div class="figleft" style="width: 150px;"><a href="images/53-radial-section-400.png"><img src="images/53-radial-section-a-150.png" width="150" height="300" alt="radial section" /></a> +<p class="center">Radial Section, life size.</p></div> + +<div class="figright" style="width: 150px;"><a href="images/53-tangential-section-400.png"><img src="images/53-tangential-section-a-150.png" width="150" height="300" alt="tangential Section" /></a> +<p class="center">Tangential Section, life size.</p></div> +<br clear="all" /> +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page164" id="page164"></a>164</span> + +<h3>54</h3> + +<h5><span class="sc">Wild Black Cherry.</span></h5> + +<h5><i>Padus serotina</i> (Ehrhart) Agardh. <i>Prunus serotina</i> Ehrhart.</h5> + +<p class="center"> +<i>Padus</i>, the old Greek name; <i>prunus</i>, the classical Latin name; <i>serotina</i>, +because it blossoms late (June). +</p> + +<div class="figleft" style="width: 300px;"><a href="images/54-habitat-600.png"><img src="images/54-habitat-a-300.png" width="300" height="211" alt="habitat" /></a> +<p class="center1">Habitat.</p></div> + +<p><b>Habitat</b>: (See map); +best on southern Allegheny +mountains.</p> + +<p><b>Characteristics of the +Tree</b>: Height, 40'-50', +even 100'; diameter, 2'-4'; +straight, columnar trunk, +often free from branches +for 70'; bark, blackish +and rough, fissured in all +directions, broken into +small, irregular, scaly +plates, with raised edges; +leaves, oblong to lanceolate, +deep, shiny green; +fruit, black drupe, ½".</p> + +<p><b>Appearance of Wood</b>: +Color, light brown or red, +sap-wood yellow; diffuse-porous; +rings, obscure; +grain, straight, close, fine, +takes fine polish; rays, +numerous.</p> + +<br clear="all" /> +<div class="figleft" style="width: 150px;"><a href="images/54-leaf-500.png"><img src="images/54-leaf-a-150.png" width="150" height="214" alt="leaf" /></a> +<p class="center">Leaf.</p></div> + +<p><b>Physical Qualities</b>: +Weight, medium (35th in +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page165" id="page165"></a>165</span> +this list); 36 lbs. per cu. ft.; sp. gr., +0.5822; strong (35th in this list); elasticity +medium (45th in this list); +hard (16th in this list); shrinkage, 5 +per cent.; warps, little; durability..........; +easily worked; splits easily, +must be nailed with care.</p> + +<p><b>Common Uses</b>: Cabinet-work, costly +interior trim.</p> + +<p><b>Remarks</b>: Grows rapidly.</p> + +<br clear="all" /> + +<div class="figleft" style="width: 200px;"><a href="images/54-cross-section-600.png"><img src="images/54-cross-section-a-200.png" width="200" height="200" alt="cross-section" /></a> +<p class="center">Cross-section, magnified 37½ diameters.</p></div> + +<div class="figleft" style="width: 150px;"><a href="images/54-radial-section-400.png"><img src="images/54-radial-section-a-150.png" width="150" height="300" alt="radial section" /></a> +<p class="center">Radial Section, life size.</p></div> + +<div class="figright" style="width: 150px;"><a href="images/54-tangential-section-400.png"><img src="images/54-tangential-section-a-150.png" width="150" height="300" alt="tangential Section" /></a> +<p class="center">Tangential Section, life size.</p></div> +<br clear="all" /> +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page166" id="page166"></a>166</span> + +<h3>55</h3> + +<h5><span class="sc">Black Locust. Locust. Yellow Locust.</span></h5> + +<p class="center"> +Yellow, from color of sap-wood. +</p> + +<h5><i>Robinia pseudacacia</i> Linnaeus.</h5> + +<p class="center"> +<i>Robinia</i>, in honor of Jean Robin, of France; <i>pseudacacia</i>, means false acacia. +</p> + +<div class="figleft" style="width: 300px;"><a href="images/55-habitat-600.png"><img src="images/55-habitat-a-300.png" width="300" height="215" alt="habitat" /></a> +<p class="center1">Habitat.</p></div> + +<p><b>Habitat</b>: (See map); +best on western Allegheny +mountains in West Virginia.</p> + +<p><b>Characteristics of the +Tree</b>: Height, 50'-80'; +diameter, 3'-4'; bark, +strikingly deeply furrowed, +dark brown; +prickles on small branches, +grows fast, forms thickets, +on account of underground +shoots; leaves, +8"-14" long, pinnately +compound; 7 to 9 leaflets, +close at night and in +rainy weather; fruit, pod +3"-4" long.</p> + +<p><b>Appearance of Wood</b>: +Color, brown, sap-wood +thin, yellowish; ring-porous; +rings, clearly marked +by 2 or 3 rows of large +open ducts; grain, +crooked, compact.</p> + +<br clear="all" /> +<div class="figleft" style="width: 150px;"><a href="images/55-leaf-500.png"><img src="images/55-leaf-a-150.png" width="150" height="213" alt="leaf" /></a> +<p class="center">Leaf.</p></div> +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page167" id="page167"></a>167</span> + +<p><b>Physical Qualities</b>: Heavy (12th in +this list); 45 lbs. per cu. ft.; sp. gr., +0.7333; very strong (1st in this list); +elastic (9th in this list); very hard +(6th in this list); shrinkage, 5 per +cent.; warps badly, very durable; hard +to work, tough; splits in nailing.</p> + +<p><b>Common Uses</b>: Shipbuilding, construction, +"tree-nails" or pins, wagon +hubs.</p> + +<p><b>Remarks</b>: Widely planted and cultivated +east and west. Likely to be infested +with borers.</p> + +<br clear="all" /> + +<div class="figleft" style="width: 200px;"><a href="images/55-cross-section-600.png"><img src="images/55-cross-section-a-200.png" width="200" height="200" alt="cross-section" /></a> +<p class="center">Cross-section, magnified 37½ diameters.</p></div> + +<div class="figleft" style="width: 150px;"><a href="images/55-radial-section-400.png"><img src="images/55-radial-section-a-150.png" width="150" height="300" alt="radial section" /></a> +<p class="center">Radial Section, life size.</p></div> + +<div class="figright" style="width: 150px;"><a href="images/55-tangential-section-400.png"><img src="images/55-tangential-section-a-150.png" width="150" height="300" alt="tangential Section" /></a> +<p class="center">Tangential Section, life size.</p></div> +<br clear="all" /> +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page168" id="page168"></a>168</span> + +<h3>56</h3> + +<h5><span class="sc">Mahogany.</span></h5> + +<h5><i>Swietenia mahagoni</i> Jacquin.</h5> + +<p class="center"> +<i>Swietenia</i>, in honor of Dr. Gerard Van Swieten of Austria; <i>mahagoni</i>, a +South American word. +</p> + +<div class="figleft" style="width: 300px;"><a href="images/56-habitat-600.png"><img src="images/56-habitat-a-300.png" width="300" height="213" alt="habitat" /></a> +<p class="center1">Habitat.</p></div> + +<p><b>Habitat</b>: (See map); +only on Florida Keys in +the United States.</p> + +<p><b>Characteristics of the +Tree</b>: Height, 40'-50'; +diameter, 2' or more, foreign +trees larger; immense +buttresses at base of trunk; +bark, thick, dark red-brown, +having surface of +broad, thick scales; leaves, +4"-6" long, compound, 4 +pairs of leaflets; fruit, +4"-5" long, containing +seeds.</p> + +<p><b>Appearance of Wood</b>: +Color, red-brown, sap-wood, +thin, yellow; diffuse-porous; +rings, inconspicuous; +grain, crooked; +rays, fine and scattered, +but plain.</p> + +<br clear="all" /> +<div class="figleft" style="width: 150px;"><a href="images/56-leaf-500.png"><img src="images/56-leaf-a-150.png" width="150" height="214" alt="leaf" /></a> +<p class="center">Leaf.</p></div> + +<p><b>Physical Qualities</b>: +Heavy (14th in this list); +45 lbs. per cu. ft.; sp. gr., +0.7282; very strong (20th +in this list); elastic (24th +in this list); very hard +(1st in this list); shrinkage, +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page169" id="page169"></a>169</span> +5 per cent.; warps very little; very +durable; genuine mahogany, hard to +work; especially if grain is cross; somewhat +brittle, and comparatively easy to +split, nails with difficulty; polishes and +takes glue well.</p> + +<p><b>Common Uses</b>: Chiefly for cabinet-making, +furniture, interior finishes and +veneers.</p> + +<p><b>Remarks</b>: Mahogany, now in great +demand in the American market for fine +furniture and interior trim comes from +the West Indies, Central America and +West Africa. The so-called Spanish +mahogany, the most highly prized variety, +came originally from the south of +Hayti. The Honduras Mahogany was +often called baywood. Botanically the +varieties are not carefully distinguished; +in the lumber yard the lumber is known +by its sources. The Cuba wood can be +partly distinguished by the white chalk-like +specks in the pores and is cold to +the touch, while the Honduras wood can +be recognized by the black specks or lines +in the grain. Both the Honduras and +West India woods have a softer feel +than the African wood, when rubbed +with the thumb. The Cuba and St. Domingo +wood are preferred to the Honduras, +and still more to the African, but +even experts have difficulty in distinguishing +the varieties.</p> + +<p>Spanish cedar, or furniture cedar +(<i>Cedrela odorata</i>) belongs to the same +family as mahogany and is often sold +for it. It is softer, lighter, and easier +to work.</p> + +<br clear="all" /> + +<div class="figleft" style="width: 150px; margin-left: 225px;"><a href="images/56-radial-section-400.png"><img src="images/56-radial-section-a-150.png" width="150" height="300" alt="radial section" /></a> +<p class="center">Radial Section, life size.</p></div> + +<div class="figright" style="width: 150px;"><a href="images/56-tangential-section-400.png"><img src="images/56-tangential-section-a-150.png" width="150" height="300" alt="tangential Section" /></a> +<p class="center">Tangential Section, life size.</p></div> +<br clear="all" /> + +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page170" id="page170"></a>170</span> + +<h3>57</h3> + +<h5><span class="sc">Oregon Maple. White Maple. Large Leaved Maple.</span></h5> + +<h5><i>Acer macrophyllum</i> Pursh.</h5> + +<p class="center"> +<i>Acer</i>, the classical Latin name; <i>macrophyllum</i>, refers to the large leaves. +</p> + +<div class="figleft" style="width: 300px;"><a href="images/57-habitat-600.png"><img src="images/57-habitat-a-300.png" width="300" height="207" alt="habitat" /></a> +<p class="center1">Habitat.</p></div> + +<p><b>Habitat</b>: (See map); +best in southern Oregon.</p> + +<p><b>Characteristics of the +Tree</b>: Height, 70'-100'; +diameter, 3'-5'; stout, often +pendulous branches, +making a handsome tree; +bark, reddish brown, +deeply furrowed, square +scales; leaves, very large, +8"-12" and long petioles, +deep, narrow sinuses; +fruit, hairy samaras.</p> + +<p><b>Appearance of Wood</b>: +Color, rich brown and red, +sap-wood thick, nearly +white; diffuse-porous; +rings, obscure; grain, +close, fibres interlaced, +sometimes figured, polishes +well; rays, numerous +and thin.</p> + +<br clear="all" /> +<div class="figleft" style="width: 150px;"><a href="images/57-leaf-500.png"><img src="images/57-leaf-a-150.png" width="150" height="214" alt="leaf" /></a> +<p class="center">Leaf.</p></div> + +<p><b>Physical Qualities</b>: +Light in weight (26th in +this list); 30 lbs. per cu. +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page171" id="page171"></a>171</span> +ft.; sp. gr. 0.4909; medium strong (47th +in this list); elasticity medium (57th +in this list); medium hard (31st in this +list); shrinkage, 4 per cent.; warps +..........; not durable; rather hard +to work; splits with difficulty.</p> + +<p><b>Common Uses</b>: Tool and ax handles, +furniture, interior finish.</p> + +<p><b>Remarks</b>: A valuable wood on the +Pacific coast.</p> + +<br clear="all" /> + +<div class="figleft" style="width: 200px;"><a href="images/57-cross-section-600.png"><img src="images/57-cross-section-a-200.png" width="200" height="200" alt="cross-section" /></a> +<p class="center">Cross-section, magnified 37½ diameters.</p></div> + +<div class="figleft" style="width: 150px;"><a href="images/57-radial-section-400.png"><img src="images/57-radial-section-a-150.png" width="150" height="300" alt="radial section" /></a> +<p class="center">Radial Section, life size.</p></div> + +<div class="figright" style="width: 150px;"><a href="images/57-tangential-section-400.png"><img src="images/57-tangential-section-a-150.png" width="150" height="300" alt="tangential Section" /></a> +<p class="center">Tangential Section, life size.</p></div> +<br clear="all" /> +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page172" id="page172"></a>172</span> + +<h3>58</h3> + +<h5><span class="sc">Soft Maple. White Maple. Silver Maple.</span></h5> + +<p class="center"> +Silver, refers to white color of underside of leaf. +</p> + +<h5><i>Acer saccharinum</i> Linnaeus. <i>Acer dasycarpum</i> Ehrhart.</h5> + +<p class="center"> +<i>Acer</i>, the classical Latin name; <i>saccharinum</i>, refers to sweetish juice; +<i>dasycarpum</i>, refers to the wooliness of the fruit when young. +</p> + +<div class="figleft" style="width: 300px;"><a href="images/58-habitat-600.png"><img src="images/58-habitat-a-300.png" width="300" height="213" alt="habitat" /></a> +<p class="center1">Habitat.</p></div> + +<p><b>Habitat</b>: (See map); +best in lower Ohio valley.</p> + +<p><b>Characteristics of the +Tree</b>: Height, 50'-90', +even 120'; diameter, 3'-5'; +form suggests elm; bark, +reddish brown, furrowed, +surface separating into +large, loose scales; leaves, +palmately 5 lobed, with +narrow, acute sinuses, silvery +white beneath, turn +only yellow in autumn; +fruit, divergent, winged +samaras.</p> + +<p><b>Appearance of Wood</b>: +Color, brown and reddish, +sap-wood, cream; diffuse-porous; +rings, obscure; +grain, twisted, wavy, fine, +polishes well; rays, thin, +numerous.</p> + +<br clear="all" /> +<div class="figleft" style="width: 150px;"><a href="images/58-leaf-500.png"><img src="images/58-leaf-a-150.png" width="150" height="213" alt="leaf" /></a> +<p class="center">Leaf.</p></div> + +<p><b>Physical Qualities</b>: +Weight, medium (40th in +this list); 32 lbs. per cu. +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page173" id="page173"></a>173</span> +ft.; sp. gr., 0.5269; very strong (19th +in this list); very elastic (20th in this +list); hard (25th in this list); shrinkage, +5 per cent.; warps, ............; +not durable under exposure; easily +worked; splits in nailing.</p> + +<p><b>Common Uses</b>: Flooring, furniture, +turnery, wooden ware.</p> + +<p><b>Remarks</b>: Grows rapidly. Curly +varieties found. Sap produces some +sugar.</p> + +<br clear="all" /> + +<div class="figleft" style="width: 200px;"><a href="images/58-cross-section-600.png"><img src="images/58-cross-section-a-200.png" width="200" height="200" alt="cross-section" /></a> +<p class="center">Cross-section, magnified 37½ diameters.</p></div> + +<div class="figleft" style="width: 150px;"><a href="images/58-radial-section-400.png"><img src="images/58-radial-section-a-150.png" width="150" height="300" alt="radial section" /></a> +<p class="center">Radial Section, life size.</p></div> + +<div class="figright" style="width: 150px;"><a href="images/58-tangential-section-400.png"><img src="images/58-tangential-section-a-150.png" width="150" height="300" alt="tangential Section" /></a> +<p class="center">Tangential Section, life size.</p></div> +<br clear="all" /> +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page174" id="page174"></a>174</span> + +<h3>59</h3> + +<h5><span class="sc">Red Maple.</span></h5> + +<h5><i>Acer rubrum</i> Linnaeus.</h5> + +<p class="center"> +<i>Acer</i>, the classical Latin name; <i>rubrum</i>, refers to red flowers and +autumn leaves. +</p> + +<div class="figleft" style="width: 300px;"><a href="images/59-habitat-600.png"><img src="images/59-habitat-a-300.png" width="300" height="213" alt="habitat" /></a> +<p class="center1">Habitat.</p></div> + +<p><b>Habitat</b>: (See map); +best in lower Ohio valley.</p> + +<p><b>Characteristics of the +Tree</b>: Height, 80'-120'; +diameter, 2'-4'; branches, +low; bark, dark gray, +shaggy, divided by long +ridges; leaves, palmately +5 lobed, acute sinuses; +fruit, double samaras, +forming characteristic maple +key.</p> + +<p><b>Appearance of Wood</b>: +Color, light reddish brown, +sap-wood, lighter; diffuse-porous; +rings, obscure; +grain, crooked; rays, numerous, +obscure.</p> + +<br clear="all" /> +<div class="figleft" style="width: 150px;"><a href="images/59-leaf-500.png"><img src="images/59-leaf-a-150.png" width="150" height="214" alt="leaf" /></a> +<p class="center">Leaf.</p></div> + +<p><b>Physical Qualities</b>: +Weight, medium (30th in +this list); 38 lbs. per cu. +ft.; sp. gr., 0.6178; strong +(36th in this list); elastic +(36th in this list); +hard (27th in this list); +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page175" id="page175"></a>175</span> +shrinkage, 5 per cent.; warps .......; +not durable; fairly hard to work; splits +with difficulty, splits badly in nailing.</p> + +<p><b>Common Uses</b>: Flooring, turning, +wooden ware.</p> + +<p><b>Remarks</b>: Grows rapidly. Has red +flowers, red keys, red leaf stems, and +leaves scarlet or crimson in autumn.</p> + +<br clear="all" /> + +<div class="figleft" style="width: 200px;"><a href="images/59-cross-section-600.png"><img src="images/59-cross-section-a-200.png" width="200" height="200" alt="cross-section" /></a> +<p class="center">Cross-section, magnified 37½ diameters.</p></div> + +<div class="figleft" style="width: 150px;"><a href="images/59-radial-section-400.png"><img src="images/59-radial-section-a-150.png" width="150" height="300" alt="radial section" /></a> +<p class="center">Radial Section, life size.</p></div> + +<div class="figright" style="width: 150px;"><a href="images/59-tangential-section-400.png"><img src="images/59-tangential-section-a-150.png" width="150" height="300" alt="tangential Section" /></a> +<p class="center">Tangential Section, life size.</p></div> +<br clear="all" /> +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page176" id="page176"></a>176</span> + +<h3>60</h3> + +<h5><span class="sc">Hard Maple. Sugar Maple. Rock Maple.</span></h5> + +<h5><i>Acer saccharum</i> Marshall.</h5> + +<p class="center"> +<i>Acer</i>, the classical Latin name; <i>saccharum</i>, refers to sweet sap. +</p> + +<div class="figleft" style="width: 300px;"><a href="images/60-habitat-600.png"><img src="images/60-habitat-a-300.png" width="300" height="209" alt="habitat" /></a> +<p class="center1">Habitat.</p></div> + +<p><b>Habitat</b>: (See map); +best in regions of Great +Lakes.</p> + +<p><b>Characteristics of the +Tree</b>: Height, 100'-120'; +diameter, 1½'-3', even 4'; +often trees in forest are +without branches for 60'-70' +from ground, in the +open, large impressive +tree; bark, gray brown, +thick, deep, longitudinal +fissures, hard and rough; +leaves, opposite, 3 to 5 +lobed, scarlet and yellow +in autumn; fruit, double, +slightly divergent samaras.</p> + +<p><b>Appearance of Wood</b>: +Color, light brown tinged +with red; diffuse-porous +rings, close but distinct; +grain, crooked, fine, close, +polishes well; rays, fine +but conspicuous.</p> + +<br clear="all" /> +<div class="figleft" style="width: 150px;"><a href="images/60-leaf-500.png"><img src="images/60-leaf-a-150.png" width="150" height="216" alt="leaf" /></a> +<p class="center">Leaf.</p></div> + +<p><b>Physical Qualities</b>: +Heavy (19th in this list); +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page177" id="page177"></a>177</span> +43 lbs. per cu. ft.; sp. gr., 0.6912; very +strong (8th in this list); very elastic +(5th in this list); very hard (7th in +this list); shrinkage, 5 per cent.; warps +badly; not durable when exposed; hard +to work; splits badly in nailing.</p> + +<p><b>Common Uses</b>: School and other furniture, +car construction, carving, wooden +type, tool handles, shoe lasts, piano actions, +ships' keels.</p> + +<p><b>Remarks</b>: Tree very tolerant. The +uses of this wood are chiefly due to its +hardness. Bird's-Eye Maple and Curly +Maple are accidental varieties. Pure +maple sugar is made chiefly from this +species. Its ashes yield large quantities +of potash.</p> + +<br clear="all" /> + +<div class="figleft" style="width: 200px;"><a href="images/60-cross-section-600.png"><img src="images/60-cross-section-a-200.png" width="200" height="200" alt="cross-section" /></a> +<p class="center">Cross-section, magnified 37½ diameters.</p></div> + +<div class="figleft" style="width: 150px;"><a href="images/60-radial-section-400.png"><img src="images/60-radial-section-a-150.png" width="150" height="300" alt="radial section" /></a> +<p class="center">Radial Section, life size.</p></div> + +<div class="figright" style="width: 150px;"><a href="images/60-tangential-section-400.png"><img src="images/60-tangential-section-a-150.png" width="150" height="300" alt="tangential Section" /></a> +<p class="center">Tangential Section, life size.</p></div> +<br clear="all" /> +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page178" id="page178"></a>178</span> + +<h3>61</h3> + +<h5><span class="sc">Basswood. Linden.</span></h5> + +<p class="center"> +Bass, refers to bast or inner bark. +</p> + +<h5><i>Tilia americana</i> Linnaeus.</h5> + +<p class="center"> +<i>Tilia</i>, the classical Latin name. +</p> + +<div class="figleft" style="width: 300px;"><a href="images/61-habitat-600.png"><img src="images/61-habitat-a-300.png" width="300" height="211" alt="habitat" /></a> +<p class="center1">Habitat.</p></div> + +<p><b>Habitat</b>: (See map); +best in bottom lands of +lower Ohio River.</p> + +<p><b>Characteristics of the +Tree</b>: Height, 60'-70', +even 130'; diameter, 2'-4'; +trunk, erect, pillar-like, +branches spreading, making +round heads; bark, +light brown, furrowed, +scaly surface, inner bark +fibrous and tough, used +for matting; leaves, +oblique, heart-shaped, side +nearest branch larger; +fruit clustered on long +pendulous stem, attached +to vein of narrow bract.</p> + +<p><b>Appearance of Wood</b>: +Color, very light brown, +approaching cream color, +sap-wood, hardly distinguishable; +diffuse-porous; +rings, fine and close but +clear; grain, straight; +rays, numerous, obscure.</p> + +<br clear="all" /> +<div class="figleft" style="width: 150px;"><a href="images/61-leaf-500.png"><img src="images/61-leaf-a-150.png" width="150" height="213" alt="leaf" /></a> +<p class="center">Leaf.</p></div> +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page179" id="page179"></a>179</span> + +<p><b>Physical Qualities</b>: Light in weight +(49th in this list); 28 lbs. per cu. ft.; +sp. gr., 0.4525; weak (60th in this list); +elasticity, medium (49th in this list); +soft (64th in this list); shrinkage, 6 +per cent.; warps comparatively little; +quite durable; very easily worked; somewhat +tough to split, nails well.</p> + +<p><b>Common Uses</b>: Woodenware, carriage +bodies, etc., picture molding, paper pulp, +etc.</p> + +<p><b>Remarks</b>: May be propagated by +grafting as well as by seed. Is subject +to attack by many insects. Wood used +for carriage bodies because flexible and +easily nailed.</p> + +<br clear="all" /> + +<div class="figleft" style="width: 200px;"><a href="images/61-cross-section-600.png"><img src="images/61-cross-section-a-200.png" width="200" height="200" alt="cross-section" /></a> +<p class="center">Cross-section, magnified 37½ diameters.</p></div> + +<div class="figleft" style="width: 150px;"><a href="images/61-radial-section-400.png"><img src="images/61-radial-section-a-150.png" width="150" height="300" alt="radial section" /></a> +<p class="center">Radial Section, life size.</p></div> + +<div class="figright" style="width: 150px;"><a href="images/61-tangential-section-400.png"><img src="images/61-tangential-section-a-150.png" width="150" height="300" alt="tangential Section" /></a> +<p class="center">Tangential Section, life size.</p></div> +<br clear="all" /> +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page180" id="page180"></a>180</span> + +<h3>62</h3> + +<h5><span class="sc">Sour Gum. Tupelo. Pepperidge. Black Gum.</span></h5> + +<p class="center"> +Tupelo, the Indian name. +</p> + +<h5><i>Nyssa sylvatica</i> Marshal.</h5> + +<p class="center"> +<i>Nyssa</i>, from Nysa, the realm of moist vegetation and the home of +<i>Dio-nysus</i> (Bacchus) (the tree grows in low wet lands); <i>sylvatica</i>, refers +to its habit of forest growth. +</p> + +<div class="figleft" style="width: 300px;"><a href="images/62-habitat-600.png"><img src="images/62-habitat-a-300.png" width="300" height="213" alt="habitat" /></a> +<p class="center1">Habitat.</p></div> + +<p><b>Habitat</b>: (See map); +best in Southern Appalachian +mountains.</p> + +<p><b>Characteristics of the +Tree</b>: Height, 40'-50', +even 100'; diameter, <ins title="Transcriber's Note: original reads '[1(inch)-6(inches)']">1'6"-3'6"</ins>, +even 5'; variable in +form; bark, brown, deeply +fissured and scaly; leaves, +in sprays, short, petioled, +brilliant scarlet in autumn; +fruit, bluish black, +sour, fleshy drupe.</p> + +<p><b>Appearance of Wood</b>: +Color, pale yellow, sap-wood, +white, hardly distinguishable; +diffuse-porous; +rings, not plain; +grain fine, twisted and interwoven; +rays, numerous, +thin.</p> + +<br clear="all" /> +<div class="figleft" style="width: 150px;"><a href="images/62-leaf-500.png"><img src="images/62-leaf-a-150.png" width="150" height="214" alt="leaf" /></a> +<p class="center">Leaf.</p></div> + +<p><b>Physical Qualities</b>: +Medium heavy (25th in +this list); 39 lbs. per cu. +ft.; sp. gr., 0.6356; +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page181" id="page181"></a>181</span> +strong (34th in this list); elasticity, +medium (51st in this list); hard (20th +in this list); shrinkage, 5 or 6 per +cent.; warps and checks badly; not +durable if exposed; hard to work; splits +hard, tough.</p> + +<p><b>Common Uses</b>: Wagon hubs, handles, +yokes, wooden shoe soles, docks and +wharves, rollers in glass factories.</p> + +<p><b>Remarks</b>: The best grades closely resemble +yellow poplar.</p> + +<br clear="all" /> + +<div class="figleft" style="width: 200px;"><a href="images/62-cross-section-600.png"><img src="images/62-cross-section-a-200.png" width="200" height="200" alt="cross-section" /></a> +<p class="center">Cross-section, magnified 37½ diameters.</p></div> + +<div class="figleft" style="width: 150px;"><a href="images/62-radial-section-400.png"><img src="images/62-radial-section-a-150.png" width="150" height="300" alt="radial section" /></a> +<p class="center">Radial Section, life size.</p></div> + +<div class="figright" style="width: 150px;"><a href="images/62-tangential-section-400.png"><img src="images/62-tangential-section-a-150.png" width="150" height="300" alt="tangential Section" /></a> +<p class="center">Tangential Section, life size.</p></div> +<br clear="all" /> +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page182" id="page182"></a>182</span> + +<h3>63</h3> + +<h5><span class="sc">Black Ash. Hoop Ash.</span></h5> + +<p class="center"> +Hoop, refers to its use for barrel hoops. +</p> + +<h5><i>Fraxinus nigra</i> Marshall. <i>Fraxinus</i> <ins title="Transcriber's Note: original reads 'scambucifolia'"><i>sambucifolia</i></ins>.</h5> + +<p class="center"> +<i>Fraxinus</i>, from a Greek word (<i>phraxis</i>) meaning split, refers to the +cleavability of the wood; <i>sambucifolia</i>, refers to the fact that the leaves are +in odor like those of Elder (Sambucus). +</p> + +<div class="figleft" style="width: 300px;"><a href="images/63-habitat-600.png"><img src="images/63-habitat-a-300.png" width="300" height="209" alt="habitat" /></a> +<p class="center1">Habitat.</p></div> + +<p><b>Habitat</b>: (See map); +best in moist places.</p> + +<p><b>Characteristics of the +Tree</b>: Height, 80'-90'; diameter, +1'-1½'; slenderest +of the forest trees, upright +branches; bark, gray +tinged with red, irregular +plates, with thin scales; +leaves, 10"-16" long, compound, +7 to 11 leaflets, in +autumn rusty brown; +fruit, single samaras in +panicles.</p> + +<p><b>Appearance of Wood</b>: +Color, dark brown, sap-wood +light; ring-porous; +rings, well defined; grain, +straight, burls often form +highly prized veneers; +rays, numerous and thin.</p> + +<br clear="all" /> +<div class="figleft" style="width: 150px;"><a href="images/63-leaf-500.png"><img src="images/63-leaf-a-150.png" width="150" height="212" alt="leaf" /></a> +<p class="center">Leaf.</p></div> + +<p><b>Physical Qualities</b>: +Medium heavy (27th in +this list); 39 lbs. per cu. +ft.; sp. gr., 0.6318; strong +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page183" id="page183"></a>183</span> +(38th in this list); elasticity, medium +(12th in this list); hard (23d in this +list); shrinkage, 5 per cent.; warps, +but not very much; not durable when +exposed; hard to work; separates easily +in layers, hence used for splints.</p> + +<p><b>Common Uses</b>: Interior finish, cabinet +work, fencing, barrel hoops.</p> + +<p><b>Remarks</b>: The flexibility of the +wood largely determines its uses.</p> + +<br clear="all" /> + +<div class="figleft" style="width: 200px;"><a href="images/63-cross-section-600.png"><img src="images/63-cross-section-a-200.png" width="200" height="200" alt="cross-section" /></a> +<p class="center">Cross-section, magnified 37½ diameters.</p></div> + +<div class="figleft" style="width: 150px;"><a href="images/63-radial-section-400.png"><img src="images/63-radial-section-a-150.png" width="150" height="300" alt="radial section" /></a> +<p class="center">Radial Section, life size.</p></div> + +<div class="figright" style="width: 150px;"><a href="images/63-tangential-section-400.png"><img src="images/63-tangential-section-a-150.png" width="150" height="300" alt="tangential Section" /></a> +<p class="center">Tangential Section, life size.</p></div> +<br clear="all" /> +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page184" id="page184"></a>184</span> + +<h3>64</h3> + +<h5><span class="sc">Oregon Ash.</span></h5> + +<h5><i>Fraxinus oregona</i> Nuttall.</h5> + +<p class="center"> +<i>Fraxinus</i>, from a Greek word (<i>phraxis</i>) meaning split, refers to the +cleavability of the wood; <i>oregona</i>, named for the State of Oregon. +</p> + +<div class="figleft" style="width: 300px;"><a href="images/64-habitat-600.png"><img src="images/64-habitat-a-300.png" width="300" height="215" alt="habitat" /></a> +<p class="center1">Habitat.</p></div> + +<p><b>Habitat</b>: (See map); +best in southern Oregon.</p> + +<p><b>Characteristics of the +Tree</b>: Height, 50'-80'; diameter, +1'-1½', even 4'; +branches, stout, erect; +bark, grayish brown, deep +interrupted fissures, broad, +flat ridges, exfoliates; +leaves, 5"-14" long; pinnately +compound, 5 to 7 +leaflets; fruit, single samaras +in clusters.</p> + +<p><b>Appearance of Wood</b>: +Color, brown, sap-wood +thick, lighter; ring-porous; +rings, plainly marked +by large, open, scattered +pores; grain, coarse, +straight; rays, numerous, +thin.</p> + +<br clear="all" /> +<div class="figleft" style="width: 150px;"><a href="images/64-leaf-500.png"><img src="images/64-leaf-a-150.png" width="150" height="214" alt="leaf" /></a> +<p class="center">Leaf.</p></div> + +<p><b>Physical Qualities</b>: +Weight, medium (37th in +this list); 35 lbs. per cu. +ft.; sp. gr., 0.5731; medium +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page185" id="page185"></a>185</span> +strong (50th in this list); elasticity, +medium (48th in this list); medium +hard (29th in this list); shrinkage, +5 per cent.; warps,............; +not durable; hard to work, tough; splits +with difficulty.</p> + +<p><b>Common Uses</b>: Furniture, vehicles, +cooperage.</p> + +<p><b>Remarks</b>: A valuable timber tree of +the Pacific coast.</p> + +<br clear="all" /> + +<div class="figleft" style="width: 200px;"><a href="images/64-cross-section-600.png"><img src="images/64-cross-section-a-200.png" width="200" height="200" alt="cross-section" /></a> +<p class="center">Cross-section, magnified 37½ diameters.</p></div> + +<div class="figleft" style="width: 150px;"><a href="images/64-radial-section-400.png"><img src="images/64-radial-section-a-150.png" width="150" height="300" alt="radial section" /></a> +<p class="center">Radial Section, life size.</p></div> + +<div class="figright" style="width: 150px;"><a href="images/64-tangential-section-400.png"><img src="images/64-tangential-section-a-150.png" width="150" height="300" alt="tangential Section" /></a> +<p class="center">Tangential Section, life size.</p></div> +<br clear="all" /> +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page186" id="page186"></a>186</span> + +<h3>65</h3> + +<h5><span class="sc">Blue Ash.</span></h5> + +<p class="center"> +Blue, refers to blue dye obtained from inner bark. +</p> + +<h5><i>Fraxinus quadrangulata</i> Michaux.</h5> + +<p class="center"> +<i>Fraxinus</i>, from a Greek word (<i>phraxis</i>) meaning split, refers to the +<ins title="Transcriber's Note: original reads 'cleavabilty'">cleavability</ins> of the wood; <i>quadrangulata</i>, refers to four-angled branchlets. +</p> + +<div class="figleft" style="width: 300px;"><a href="images/65-habitat-600.png"><img src="images/65-habitat-a-300.png" width="300" height="215" alt="habitat" /></a> +<p class="center1">Habitat.</p></div> + +<p><b>Habitat</b>: (See map); +best in lower Wabash valley.</p> + +<p><b>Characteristics of the +Tree</b>: Height, 60'-70', +even 120'; diameter, 1'-2'; +tall, slender, four-angled, +branchlets; bark, light +gray, irregularly divided +into large plate-like scales, +inside bark, bluish, yielding +dye; leaves, 8"-12" +long, compound pinnate, +5 to 9 leaflets; fruit, +winged samaras in panicles.</p> + +<p><b>Appearance of Wood</b>: +Color, light yellow, +streaked with brown, sap-wood +lighter; ring-porous; +rings, clearly marked +by 1 to 3 rows of large, +open ducts; grain, +straight; rays, numerous, +obscure.</p> + +<br clear="all" /> +<div class="figleft" style="width: 150px;"><a href="images/65-leaf-500.png"><img src="images/65-leaf-a-150.png" width="150" height="214" alt="leaf" /></a> +<p class="center">Leaf.</p></div> +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page187" id="page187"></a>187</span> + +<p><b>Physical Qualities</b>: Heavy (16th in +this list); 44 lbs. per cu. ft.; sp. gr., +0.7184; strong (37th in this list); elasticity, +medium (58th in this list); hard +(12th in this list); shrinkage, 5 per +cent.; warps, ............; most durable +of the ashes; hard to work; splits +readily, bad for nailing.</p> + +<p><b>Common Uses</b>: Carriage building, +tool handles.</p> + +<p><b>Remarks</b>: Blue ash pitchfork handles +are famous.</p> + +<br clear="all" /> + +<div class="figleft" style="width: 150px; margin-left: 225px;"><a href="images/65-radial-section-400.png"><img src="images/65-radial-section-a-150.png" width="150" height="300" alt="radial section" /></a> +<p class="center">Radial Section, life size.</p></div> + +<div class="figright" style="width: 150px;"><a href="images/65-tangential-section-400.png"><img src="images/65-tangential-section-a-150.png" width="150" height="300" alt="tangential Section" /></a> +<p class="center">Tangential Section, life size.</p></div> +<br clear="all" /> + +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page188" id="page188"></a>188</span> + +<h3>66</h3> + +<h5><span class="sc">Red Ash.</span></h5> + +<p class="center"> +Red, from color of inner bark. +</p> + +<h5><i>Fraxinus pennsylvanica</i> Marshall. <i>Fraxinus pubescens</i> Lambert.</h5> + +<p class="center"> +<i>Fraxinus</i>, from a Greek word (<i>phraxis</i>) meaning split, refers to the +cleavability of the wood; <i>pennsylvanica</i>, in honor of the State of Pennsylvania; +<i>pubescens</i>, refers to down on new leaves and twigs. +</p> + +<div class="figleft" style="width: 300px;"><a href="images/66-habitat-600.png"><img src="images/66-habitat-a-300.png" width="300" height="209" alt="habitat" /></a> +<p class="center1">Habitat.</p></div> + +<p><b>Habitat</b>: (See map); +best east of Alleghany +mountains.</p> + +<p><b>Characteristics of the +Tree</b>: Height, 40'-60'; diameter, +12"-18"; small, +slim, upright branches; +bark, brown or ashy, great, +shallow, longitudinal furrows; +leaves, 10"-12" +long, pinnately compound, +7 to 9 leaflets, covered +with down; fruit, single +samara.</p> + +<p><b>Appearance of Wood</b>: +Color, light brown, sap-wood +lighter and yellowish; +ring porous; rings, +marked by pores; grain, +straight, coarse; rays, +numerous, thin.</p> + +<br clear="all" /> +<div class="figleft" style="width: 150px;"><a href="images/66-leaf-500.png"><img src="images/66-leaf-a-150.png" width="150" height="216" alt="leaf" /></a> +<p class="center">Leaf.</p></div> + +<p><b>Physical Qualities</b>: +Weight, medium (28th in +this list); 39 lbs. per cu. +ft.; sp. gr., 0.6251; strong +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page189" id="page189"></a>189</span> +(30th in this list); elasticity, medium +(53d in this list); hard (17th in this +list); shrinkage, 5 per cent.; warps little; +not durable; hard to work; splits +in nailing.</p> + +<p><b>Common Uses</b>: Agricultural implements, +oars, handles, boats.</p> + +<p><b>Remarks</b>: Often sold with and as +the superior white ash.</p> +<br clear="all" /> + +<div class="figleft" style="width: 200px;"><a href="images/66-cross-section-600.png"><img src="images/66-cross-section-a-200.png" width="200" height="200" alt="cross-section" /></a> +<p class="center">Cross-section, magnified 37½ diameters.</p></div> + +<div class="figleft" style="width: 150px;"><a href="images/66-radial-section-400.png"><img src="images/66-radial-section-a-150.png" width="150" height="300" alt="radial section" /></a> +<p class="center">Radial Section, life size.</p></div> + +<div class="figright" style="width: 150px;"><a href="images/66-tangential-section-400.png"><img src="images/66-tangential-section-a-150.png" width="150" height="300" alt="tangential Section" /></a> +<p class="center">Tangential Section, life size.</p></div> +<br clear="all" /> +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page190" id="page190"></a>190</span> + +<h3>67</h3> + +<h5><span class="sc">White Ash.</span></h5> + +<p class="center"> +White, refers to whitish color of wood. +</p> + +<h5><i>Fraxinus americana</i> Linnaeus.</h5> + +<p class="center"> +<i>Fraxinus</i>, from a Greek word (<i>phraxis</i>) meaning split, refers to the +cleavability of the wood. +</p> + +<div class="figleft" style="width: 300px;"><a href="images/67-habitat-600.png"><img src="images/67-habitat-a-300.png" width="300" height="211" alt="habitat" /></a> +<p class="center1">Habitat.</p></div> + +<p><b>Habitat</b>: (See map); +best in the bottom lands +of lower Ohio valley.</p> + +<p><b>Characteristics of the +Tree</b>: Height, 70'-80', +even 120'; diameter, 3'-6'; +branches rather high, tree +singularly graceful; bark, +gray, narrow furrows, +clean, neat trunk; leaves, +8"-15" long, compound, +tufted, smooth, turns in +autumn to beautiful purples, +browns and yellows; +fruit, panicles of samaras, +persistent till midwinter.</p> + +<p><b>Appearance of Wood</b>: +Color, light reddish brown, +sap-wood whitish; ring-porous, +rings clearly +marked by pores; straight-grained; +pith rays obscure.</p> + +<br clear="all" /> +<div class="figleft" style="width: 150px;"><a href="images/67-leaf-500.png"><img src="images/67-leaf-a-150.png" width="150" height="214" alt="leaf" /></a> +<p class="center">Leaf.</p></div> + +<p><b>Physical Qualities</b>: +Heavy (22d in this list); +39 lbs. per cu. ft.; sp. gr., +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page191" id="page191"></a>191</span> +0.6543; strong (31st in this list); elastic +(30th in this list); hard (17th in +this list); shrinkage, 5 per cent.; warps +little; not durable in contact with soil; +hard and tough; splits readily, nails +badly.</p> + +<p><b>Common Uses</b>: Inside finish, farm +implements, barrels, baskets, oars, carriages.</p> + +<p><b>Remarks</b>: Forms no forests, occurs +scattered. Its uses for handles and oars +determined by combination of strength, +lightness and elasticity.</p> + +<br clear="all" /> + +<div class="figleft" style="width: 200px;"><a href="images/67-cross-section-600.png"><img src="images/67-cross-section-a-200.png" width="200" height="200" alt="cross-section" /></a> +<p class="center">Cross-section, magnified 37½ diameters.</p></div> + +<div class="figleft" style="width: 150px;"><a href="images/67-radial-section-400.png"><img src="images/67-radial-section-a-150.png" width="150" height="300" alt="radial section" /></a> +<p class="center">Radial Section, life size.</p></div> + +<div class="figright" style="width: 150px;"><a href="images/67-tangential-section-400.png"><img src="images/67-tangential-section-a-150.png" width="150" height="300" alt="tangential Section" /></a> +<p class="center">Tangential Section, life size.</p></div> +<br clear="all" /> + +</td></tr></table> +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page192" id="page192"></a>192</span> + +<h5 style="margin-top: 3em;"><span class="sc">List of 66 Common Woods Arranged in the Order of Their Weight.</span></h5> + +<table summary="List of 66 Common Woods Arranged in the Order of Their Weight" align="center"> +<tr><td class="left1q" valign="top"> + 1. Shellbark hickory.<br /> + 2. Post oak.<br /> + 3. Mockernut.<br /> + 4. Pignut.<br /> + 5. Basket oak.<br /> + 6. Cherry birch.<br /> + 7. Slash pine.<br /> + 8. White oak.<br /> + 9. Bur oak.<br /> + 10. Western white oak.<br /> + 11. Western larch.<br /> + 12. Black locust.<br /> + 13. Blue beech.<br /> + 14. Mahogany.<br /> + 15. Cork elm.<br /> + 16. Blue ash.<br /> + 17. Black oak.<br /> + 18. Longleaf pine.<br /> + 19. Hard maple.<br /> + 20. Beech.<br /> + 21. Yellow birch.<br /> + 22. White ash.<br /> + 23. Red oak.<br /> + 24. White elm.<br /> + 25. Sour gum.<br /> + 26. Oregon maple.<br /> + 27. Black ash.<br /> + 28. Red ash.<br /> + 29. Tamarack.<br /> + 30. Red maple.<br /> + 31. Black walnut.<br /> + 32. Shortleaf pine.<br /> + 33. Canoe birch.<br /> + </td><td class="left1q" valign="top"> + 34. Sweet gum.<br /> + 35. Wild black cherry.<br /> + 36. Red birch.<br /> + 37. Oregon ash.<br /> + 38. Sycamore.<br /> + 39. Loblolly pine.<br /> + 40. Soft maple.<br /> + 41. Douglas spruce.<br /> + 42. Red cedar.<br /> + 43. Norway pine.<br /> + 44. Western yellow pine.<br /> + 45. Cucumber tree.<br /> + 46. Lawson cypress.<br /> + 47. Black spruce and<br /> + Red spruce.<br /> + 48. Bald cypress.<br /> + 49. Basswood.<br /> + 50. Chestnut.<br /> + 51. Black willow.<br /> + 52. Tideland spruce.<br /> + 53. Hemlock.<br /> + 54. Yellow poplar.<br /> + 55. Redwood.<br /> + 56. Butternut.<br /> + 57. White spruce.<br /> + 58. Western white pine.<br /> + 59. White pine.<br /> + 60. Western red cedar.<br /> + 61. Sugar pine.<br /> + 62. Grand fir.<br /> + 63. Engelmann's spruce.<br /> + 64. White cedar.<br /> + 65. Big tree.<br /> + </td></tr> +</table> +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page193" id="page193"></a>193</span> + +<h5 style="margin-top: 3em;"><span class="sc">List of 66 Common Woods Arranged in the Order of Their Strength.</span></h5> + +<table summary="List of 66 Common Woods Arranged in the Order of Their Strength" align="center"> +<tr><td class="left1q" valign="top"> + 1. Black locust.<br /> + 2. Yellow birch.<br /> + 3. Western larch.<br /> + 4. Cherry birch.<br /> + 5. Shellbark hickory.<br /> + 6. Slash pine.<br /> + 7. Longleaf pine.<br /> + 8. Hard maple.<br /> + 9. Blue beech.<br /> + 10. Beech.<br /> + 11. Mockernut.<br /> + 12. Basket Oak.<br /> + 13. Cork elm.<br /> + 14. Canoe birch.<br /> + 15. Pignut hickory.<br /> + 16. Bur oak.<br /> + 17. Black oak.<br /> + 18. Shortleaf pine.<br /> + 19. Soft maple.<br /> + 20. Mahogany.<br /> + 21. Red oak.<br /> + 22. Red birch.<br /> + 23. White oak.<br /> + 24. Tamarack.<br /> + 25. Lawson cypress.<br /> + 26. Loblolly pine.<br /> + 27. Douglas spruce.<br /> + 28. Western white oak.<br /> + 29. Post oak.<br /> + 30. Red ash.<br /> + 31. White ash.<br /> + 32. Black walnut.<br /> + 33. White elm. + </td><td class="left1q" valign="top"> + 34. Sour gum.<br /> + 35. Wild black cherry.<br /> + 36. Red maple.<br /> + 37. Blue ash.<br /> + 38. Black ash.<br /> + 39. Norway pine.<br /> + 40. Western red cedar.<br /> + 41. Black spruce and<br /> + Red spruce.<br /> + 42. White spruce.<br /> + 43. Red cedar.<br /> + 44. Hemlock.<br /> + 45. Western yellow pine.<br /> + 46. Chestnut.<br /> + 47. Oregon maple.<br /> + 48. Bald cypress.<br /> + 49. Cucumber tree.<br /> + 50. Oregon ash.<br /> + 51. Yellow poplar.<br /> + 52. Sweet gum.<br /> + 53. Tideland spruce.<br /> + 54. Sycamore.<br /> + 55. White pine.<br /> + 56. Western white pine.<br /> + 57. Butternut.<br /> + 58. Redwood.<br /> + 59. Sugar pine.<br /> + 60. Basswood.<br /> + 61. Engelmann's spruce.<br /> + 62. Grand fir.<br /> + 63. Big tree.<br /> + 64. White cedar.<br /> + 65. Black willow.<br /> + </td></tr> +</table> +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page194" id="page194"></a>194</span> + +<h5 style="margin-top: 3em;"><span class="sc">List of 66 Common Woods Arranged in the Order of Their Elasticity.</span></h5> + +<table summary="List of 66 Common Woods Arranged in the Order of Their Elasticity" align="center"> +<tr><td class="left1q" valign="top"> + 1. Western larch.<br /> + 2. Canoe birch and<br /> + Yellow birch.<br /> + 3. Slash pine.<br /> + 4. Longleaf pine.<br /> + 5. Hard maple.<br /> + 6. Cherry birch.<br /> + 7. Shortleaf pine.<br /> + 8. Shellbark hickory.<br /> + 9. Black locust.<br /> + 10. Douglas spruce.<br /> + 11. Tamarack.<br /> + 12. Lawson cypress.<br /> + 13. Beech.<br /> + 14. Mockernut.<br /> + 15. Blue beech.<br /> + 16. Norway pine.<br /> + 17. Loblolly pine.<br /> + 18. Red oak.<br /> + 19. Red birch.<br /> + 20. Soft maple.<br /> + 21. Red spruce and<br /> + Black spruce.<br /> + 22. Cork elm.<br /> + 23. Black walnut.<br /> + 24. Mahogany.<br /> + 25. Black oak.<br /> + 26. Western red cedar.<br /> + 27. Pignut hickory.<br /> + 28. Bald cypress.<br /> + 29. White spruce.<br /> + 30. White ash.<br /> + 31. Tideland spruce.<br /> + </td><td class="left1q" valign="top"> + 32. White oak.<br /> + 33. Basket oak.<br /> + 34. Grand fir.<br /> + 35. Western white pine.<br /> + 36. Red maple.<br /> + 37. Bur oak.<br /> + 38. Cucumber tree.<br /> + 39. Yellow poplar.<br /> + 40. Hemlock.<br /> + 41. Western yellow pine.<br /> + 42. Black ash.<br /> + 43. Sycamore.<br /> + 44. Sweet gum.<br /> + 45. Wild black cherry.<br /> + 46. Chestnut.<br /> + 47. White pine.<br /> + 48. Oregon ash.<br /> + 49. Bass.<br /> + 50. Post oak.<br /> + 51. Sour gum.<br /> + 52. Butternut.<br /> + 53. Red ash.<br /> + 54. Western white oak.<br /> + 55. Engelmann's spruce.<br /> + 56. Sugar pine.<br /> + 57. Oregon maple.<br /> + 58. Blue ash.<br /> + 59. White elm.<br /> + 60. Redwood.<br /> + 61. Red cedar.<br /> + 62. Big tree.<br /> + 63. White cedar.<br /> + 64. Black willow.<br /> + </td></tr> +</table> +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page195" id="page195"></a>195</span> + +<h5 style="margin-top: 3em;"><span class="sc">List of 66 Common Woods Arranged in the Order of Their Hardness.</span></h5> + +<table summary="List of 66 Common Woods Arranged in the Order of Their Weight" align="center"> +<tr><td class="left1q" valign="top"> + 1. Mahogany.<br /> + 2. Pignut.<br /> + 3. Mockernut.<br /> + 4. Post oak.<br /> + 5. Shellbark hickory.<br /> + 6. Black locust.<br /> + 7. Hard maple.<br /> + 8. Western white oak.<br /> + 9. Bur oak.<br /> + 10. Basket oak.<br /> + 11. Cherry birch.<br /> + 12. Blue ash.<br /> + 13. White oak.<br /> + 14. Blue beech.<br /> + 15. Cork elm.<br /> + 16. Wild black cherry.<br /> + 17. Red ash.<br /> + 18. Black oak.<br /> + 19. White ash.<br /> + 20. Sour gum.<br /> + 21. Black walnut.<br /> + 22. Beech.<br /> + 23. Black ash.<br /> + 24. Slash pine.<br /> + 25. Soft maple.<br /> + 26. Red oak.<br /> + 27. Red maple.<br /> + 28. White elm.<br /> + 29. Oregon ash.<br /> + 30. Sycamore.<br /> + 31. Oregon maple.<br /> + 32. Yellow birch.<br /> + 33. Long leaf pine.<br /> + </td><td class="left1q" valign="top"> + 34. Red cedar.<br /> + 35. Western larch.<br /> + 36. Sweet gum.<br /> + 37. Red birch.<br /> + 38. Short leaf pine.<br /> + 39. Canoe birch.<br /> + 40. Tamarack.<br /> + 41. Cucumber tree.<br /> + 42. Western yellow pine.<br /> + 43. Loblolly pine.<br /> + 44. Chestnut.<br /> + 45. Douglas spruce.<br /> + 46. Black willow.<br /> + 47. Butternut.<br /> + 48. Norway pine.<br /> + 49. Yellow poplar.<br /> + 50. Lawson cypress.<br /> + 51. Hemlock.<br /> + 52. Bald cypress.<br /> + 53. Sugar pine.<br /> + 54. Red spruce and<br /> + Black spruce.<br /> + 55. Redwood.<br /> + 56. Engelmann's spruce.<br /> + 57. White pine.<br /> + 58. White spruce.<br /> + 59. Tideland spruce.<br /> + 60. Western white cedar.<br /> + 61. Big tree.<br /> + 62. White cedar.<br /> + 63. Western white pine.<br /> + 64. Basswood.<br /> + 65. Grand fir.<br /> + </td></tr> +</table> +<br clear="all" /> +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page196" id="page196"></a>196</span> + +<h5 style="margin-top: 3em;">THE PRINCIPAL SPECIES OF WOODS.</h5> + +<ul class="none"> +<li><span class="sc">References:</span>* +<ul class="none2"> +<li>Sargent, <i>Jesup Collection</i>.</li> +<li>Sargent, <i>Manual</i>.</li> +<li>Britton.</li> +<li>Roth, <i>Timber</i>.</li> +<li>Hough, <i>Handbook</i>.</li> +<li>Keeler.</li> +<li>Apgar.</li> +<li>Mohr. <i>For. Bull</i>., No. 22.</li> +<li>Fernow, <i>Forestry Investigations</i>.</li> +<li>Lumber Trade Journals.</li> +<li>Baterden.</li> +<li>Sargent, <i>Silva</i>.</li> +<li>Sargent, <i>Forest Trees</i>, 10th Census, Vol. IX.</li> +<li>Boulger.</li> +<li>Hough, <i>American Woods</i>.</li> +<li>Snow.</li> +<li>Lounsberry.</li> +<li>Spaulding. <i>For. Bull</i>., No. 13.</li> +<li>Sudworth. <i>For. Bull</i>., No. 17.</li> +<li>Forest Service <i>Records of Wholesale Prices of Lumber</i>, List. A.<br /><br /></li> + +<li>For particular trees consult For. Serv., Bulletins and Circulars. See +For. Service <i>Classified List of Publications</i>.</li></ul></li> +</ul> + +<p class="note1"><span style="font-size: 1.2em;">*</span> For general bibliography, see <a class="index" href="#page4">p. 4.</a></p> + +<h2><span class="pagenum" style="font-size: 0.4em; font-weight: normal;"><a name="page197" id="page197"></a>197</span><span class="sc">Chapter IV.</span></h2> + +<h4>THE DISTRIBUTION AND COMPOSITION OF THE NORTH +AMERICAN FORESTS.</h4> + +<p>The forests of the United States, Map, Fig. 44, may be conveniently +divided into two great regions, the Eastern or Atlantic Forest, +and the Western or Pacific Forest. These are separated by the great +treeless plains which are west of the Mississippi River, and east of +the Rocky Mountains, and which extend from North Dakota to western +Texas.<a id="footnotetagChIV1" name="footnotetagChIV1"></a><a href="#footnoteChIV1"><sup>1</sup></a></p> + +<p>The Eastern Forest once consisted of an almost unbroken mass, +lying in three quite distinct regions, (1) the northern belt of conifers, +(2) the southern belt of conifers, and (3) the great deciduous +(hardwood) forest lying between these two.</p> + +<p>(1) The northern belt of conifers or "North Woods" extended +thru northern New England and New York and ran south along the +Appalachians. It reappeared again in northern Michigan, Wisconsin +and Minnesota. White pine, Fig. 45, was the characteristic tree +in the eastern part of this belt, tho spruce was common, Fig. 56, <a class="index" href="#page213">p. 213</a>, +and white and Norway pine and hemlock distinguished it in the +western part. Altho the more valuable timber, especially the pine, +has been cut out, it still remains a largely unbroken forest mainly of +spruce, second growth pine, hemlock and some hardwood.</p> + +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page198" id="page198"></a>198</span> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 600px;"><a href="images/figure-044-w1200.png"><img src="images/figure-044-a-600.png" width="600" height="392" alt="Forest Regions of the United States." /></a> +<p class="center1">Fig. 44. Forest Regions of the United States. <i>U. S. Forest Service</i>.</p></div> + +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page199" id="page199"></a>199-200</span> +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page200" id="page200"></a></span> +<br /> + +<div class="figleft" style="width: 300px;"><a href="images/figure-045-w700.png"><img src="images/figure-045-a-300.png" width="300" height="482" alt="Interior of Dense White Pine Forest, Cass Lake, Minn." /></a> +<p>Fig. 45. Interior of Dense White Pine Forest, Cass Lake, Minn. +<i>U. S. Forest Service</i>.</p></div> + +<div class="figright" style="width: 300px;"><a href="images/figure-046-w700.png"><img src="images/figure-046-a-300.png" width="300" height="485" alt="Long-leaf Pine Forest. Oscilla, Georgia." /></a> +<p>Fig. 46. Long-leaf Pine Forest. Oscilla, Georgia. <i>U. S. Forest +Service</i>.</p></div> +<br clear="all" /> + +<p style="margin-top: 2em;">(2) The southern pine forest formerly extended from the Potomac +River in a belt from one to two hundred miles wide along the +Atlantic coast, across the Florida peninsula, and along the gulf of +Mexico, skipping the Mississippi River and reappearing in a great +forest in Louisiana and Eastern Texas. It was composed of almost +pure stands of pine, the long-leaf, Fig. 46, the short-leaf, and the loblolly, +with cypress in the swamps and bottom lands. In southern +Florida the forest is tropical, Fig. 47, like that of the West Indies, +and in southern Texas it partakes of the character of the Mexican +forest.</p> + +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page201" id="page201"></a>201-2</span> +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page202" id="page202"></a></span> + +<div class="figleft" style="width: 300px;"><a href="images/figure-047-w700.png"><img src="images/figure-047-a-300.png" width="300" height="405" alt="Semi-tropical Forest, Florida" /></a> +<p>Fig. 47. Semi-tropical Forest, Florida. Live Oak, Surrounded by +Cabbage Palmetto, and Hung With Spanish Moss. <i>U. S. Forest Service</i>.</p></div> + +<div class="figright" style="width: 300px;"><a href="images/figure-048-w700.png"><img src="images/figure-048-a-300.png" width="300" height="410" alt="Broad-leaf Forest" /></a> +<p>Fig. 48. Broad-leaf Forest, Protected from Cattle and Fire. +Hancock Co., Indiana. +<i>U. S. Forest Service</i>.</p></div> +<br clear="all" /> + +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page203" id="page203"></a>203</span> +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 600px;"><a href="images/figure-049-w900.png"><img src="images/figure-049-a-600.png" width="600" height="369" alt="Irrigated Ranch on Treeless Alkali Plain" /></a> +<p>Fig. 49. Irrigated Ranch on Treeless Alkali Plain. Rio Blanco +Co., Colorada. <i>U. S. Forest Service</i>.</p></div> + +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page204" id="page204"></a>204</span> +<p style="margin-top: 2em;">(3) Between these north and south coniferous belts, lay the great +broad-leaf or hardwood forest, Fig. 48, which constituted the greater +part of the Eastern Forest and characterized it. It was divided into +two parts by an irregular northeast and southwest line, running from +southern New England to Missouri. The southeast portion consisted +of hardwoods intermixed with conifers. The higher ridges of the +Appalachian Range, really a leg of the northern forest, were occupied +by conifers, mainly spruce, white pine, and hemlock. The northwest +portion of the region, particularly Ohio, Indiana, and Illinois, was +without the conifers. It was essentially a mixed forest, largely oak, +with a variable mixture of maples, beech, chestnut, yellow poplar, +hickory, sycamore, elm, and ash, with birch appearing toward the +north and pine toward the south.</p> + +<p>Taking the Eastern Forest as a whole, its most distinguishing +feature was the prevalence of broad-leaved trees, so that it might +properly be called a deciduous forest. The greatest diversity of trees +was to be found in Kentucky, Tennessee and North Carolina, and this +region is still the source of the best hardwood lumber.</p> + +<p>This great eastern forest, which once extended uninterruptedly +from the Atlantic to the Mississippi and beyond, has now been largely +lumbered off, particularly thru the middle or hardwood portion, making +way for farms and towns. The north and south coniferous belts +are still mainly unbroken, and are sparsely settled, but the big timber +is cut out, giving place to poorer trees. This is particularly true of +the white pine, "the king of American trees," only a little of which, +in valuable sizes, is left in Michigan, Wisconsin and Minnesota. In +the same way in the south, the long-leaf pine, once the characteristic +tree, is fast being lumbered out.</p> + +<p>The Western or Pacific forest extends two great legs, one down +the Rocky Mountain Range, and the other along the Pacific coast. +Between them lies the great treeless alkali plain centering around +Nevada, Fig. 49. In these two regions coniferous trees have almost +a monopoly. Broad-leaved trees are to be found there, along the river +beds and in ravines, but they are of comparatively little importance. +The forest is essentially an evergreen forest. Another marked feature +of this western forest, except in the Puget Sound region, is that the +trees, in many cases, stand far apart, their crowns not even touching, +so that the sun beats down and dries up the forest floor, Fig. 50. +There is no dense "forest cover" or canopy as in the Eastern Forest. +Moreover these western forests are largely broken up, covering but a +part of the mountains, many of which are snow-clad, and interrupted +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page205" id="page205"></a>205</span> +by bare plains. Along the creeks there grow a variety of hardwoods. +It was never a continuous forest as was the Eastern Forest. The openness +of this forest on the Rockies and on the eastern slopes of the +Sierra Nevadas is in marked contrast to the western slopes of the +Sierras, where there are to be seen the densest and most remarkable +woods of the world, Fig. 51. This is due to the peculiar distribution +of the rainfall of the region. The precipitation of the moisture upon +the northwest coast where the trees are dripping with fog a large +part of the time, is unequaled by that of any other locality on the +continent. But the interior of this region, which is shut off by the +high Sierra Nevadas from the western winds, has a very light and +irregular rainfall. Where the rainfall is heavy, the forests are dense; +and where the rainfall is light, the trees are sparse.</p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 600px;"><a href="images/figure-050-w700.png"><img src="images/figure-050-a-600.png" width="600" height="478" alt="Open Western Forest, Bull Pine. Flagstaff, Arizona." /></a> +<p class="center1">Fig. 50. Open Western Forest, Bull Pine. Flagstaff, Arizona. +<i>U. S. Forest Service</i>.</p></div> + +<p>Along the Rockies the characteristic trees are Engelmann's spruce, +bull pine, Douglas fir, and lodgepole pine. As one goes west, the +variety of trees increases and becomes, so far as conifers are concerned, +far greater than in the east. Of 109 conifers in the United States, +80 belong to the +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page206" id="page206"></a>206</span> +western forests and 28 to the eastern. The Pacific +forest is rich in the possession of half a dozen leading species—Douglas +fir, western hemlock, sugar pine, bull pine, cedar and redwood.</p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 400px;"><a href="images/figure-051-w700.png"><img +src="images/figure-051-a-400.png" width="400" height="497" alt="Dense Forest of Puget Sound Region" /></a> +<p>Fig. 51. Dense Forest of Puget Sound Region, Red Fir and Red +Cedar. Pierce Co., +Washington. <i>U. S. Forest Service</i>.</p></div> + +<p>But the far western conifers are remarkable, not only for their +variety, but still more for the density of their growth, already mentioned, +and for their great size, Fig. 52. The pines, spruces and +hemlocks of the Puget Sound region make eastern trees look small, +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page207" id="page207"></a>207</span> +and both the red fir and the redwood often grow to be over 250 feet +high, and yield 100,000 feet, B.M., to the acre as against 10,000 feet, +B.M., of good spruce in Maine. The redwood, Fig. 53, occupies a +belt some twenty miles wide along the coast from southern Oregon to +a point not far north of San Francisco and grows even taller than the +famous big trees. The big trees are the largest known trees in diameter, +occasionally reaching in that measurement 35 feet.</p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 400px;"><a href="images/figure-052-w700.png"><img +src="images/figure-052-a-400.png" width="400" height="494" alt="Virgin Forest of Red Fir, Red Cedar, Western Hemlock, and Oregon Maple" /></a> +<p>Fig. 52. Virgin Forest of Red Fir, Red Cedar, Western Hemlock, +and Oregon Maple. Ashford, Washington. <i>U. S. Forest Service</i>.</p></div> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 400px;"><a href="images/figure-053-w700.png"><img +src="images/figure-053-a-380.png" width="380" height="477" alt="Redwood Forest. Santa Cruz Co., Calif." /></a> +<p>Fig. 53. Redwood Forest. Santa Cruz Co., Calif. <i>U. S. Forest +Service</i>.</p></div> +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page208" id="page208"></a>208</span> + +<p>The big tree, Fig. 54, occurs exclusively in groves, which, however, +are not pure, but are scattered among a much larger number of trees +of other kinds.</p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 600px;"><a href="images/figure-054-w800.png"><img src="images/figure-054-a-600.png" width="600" height="470" alt="Big Tree Forest. Sierra National Forest, California." /></a> +<p class="center1">Fig. 54. Big Tree Forest. Sierra National Forest, California. +<i>U. S. Forest Service</i>.</p></div> + +<p>The great and unsurpassed Puget Sound forest is destined to be +before long the center of the lumber trade of this country.</p> + +<p>These two great forests of the east and the west both run northward +into British America, and are there united in a broad belt of +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page209" id="page209"></a>209</span> +subarctic forest which extends across the continent. At the far north +it is characterized by the white spruce and aspen. The forest is +open, stunted, and of no economic value.</p> + +<p>Taking all the genera and species together, there is a far greater +variety in the eastern than in the western forests. A considerable +number of genera, perhaps a third of the total, grow within both +regions, but the species having continental range are few. They are +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page210" id="page210"></a>210</span> +the following: Larch (<i>Larix laricina</i>), white spruce (<i>Picea +canadensis</i>), +dwarf juniper (<i>Juniperus communis</i>), black willow (<i>Salix +nigra</i>), almond leaf willow (<i>Salix amygdaloides</i>), long leaf willow +(<i>Salix fluviatilis</i>), aspen (<i>Populus tremuloides</i>), balm of Gilead +(<i>Populus balsamifera</i>), and hackberry (<i>Celtis occidentalis</i>).</p> + +<p class="note1"><a id="footnoteChIV1" name="footnoteChIV1"></a><a class="footnote" href="#footnotetagChIV1">Footnote 1:</a></p> +<h5>ORIGINAL FOREST REGIONS OF THE UNITED STATES.</h5> + +<table width="auto" summary="Original forest regions of the united states." align="center"> + +<tr> + <th> </th> + <th>Area</th> + <th>Area</th> +</tr> +<tr> + <th> </th> + <th>Thousand acres</th> + <th>Per cent.</th> +</tr> +<tr> + <td><br />Northern forest</td> + <td class="right1"><br />158,938</td> + <td class="right1"><br />8.4</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td>Hardwood forest</td> + <td class="right1">328,183</td> + <td class="right1">17.3</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td>Southern forest</td> + <td class="right1">249,669</td> + <td class="right1">13.1</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td>Rocky Mountains forest</td> + <td class="right1">155,014</td> + <td class="right1">8.1</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td>Pacific forest</td> + <td class="right1">121,356</td> + <td class="right1">6.4</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td>Treeless area</td> + <td class="right1">887,787</td> + <td class="right1">46.7</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td> </td> + <td class="right1">————</td> + <td class="right1">——</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class="left1a">Total land area</td> + <td class="right1">1,900,947</td> + <td class="right1">100.0</td> +</tr> +</table> + +<h5 style="margin-top: 3em;">THE DISTRIBUTION AND COMPOSITION OF NORTH AMERICAN FORESTS.</h5> + +<ul class="none"> +<li><span class="sc">References:</span>* +<ul class="none2"> +<li>Sargent, <i>Forest Trees</i>, Intro., pp. 3-10.</li> +<li>Bruncken, pp. 5-16.</li> +<li>Roth, <i>First Book</i>, pp. 209-212.</li> +<li>Shaler, I, pp. 489-498.</li> +<li>Fernow, <i>For. Inves</i>., pp. 45-51.</li> +<li>Fernow, <i>Economics</i>, pp. 331-368.</li></ul></li> +</ul> + +<p class="note1"><span style="font-size: 1.2em;">*</span> For general bibliography, see <a class="index" href="#page4">p. 4.</a></p> + +<h2><span class="pagenum" style="font-size: 0.4em; font-weight: normal;"><a name="page211" id="page211"></a>211</span><span class="sc">Chapter V.</span></h2> + +<h4>THE FOREST ORGANISM.</h4> + +<p>The forest is much more than an assemblage of different trees, it +is an organism; that is, the trees that compose it have a vital relation +to each other. It may almost be said to have a life of its own, +since it has a soil and a climate, largely of its own making.</p> + +<p>Without these conditions, and without the help and hindrance +which forest trees give to each other, these trees would not have their +present characteristics, either in shape, habits of growth or nature +of wood grain. Indeed, some of them could not live at all.</p> + +<p>Since by far the greater number of timber trees grow in the forest, +in order to understand the facts about trees and woods, it is necessary +to know something about the conditions of forest life.</p> + +<p>A tree is made up of three distinct parts: (1) the roots which +anchor it in the ground, and draw its nourishment from the moist +soil; (2) the trunk, or bole, or stem, which carries the weight of the +branches and leaves, and conveys the nourishment to and from the +leaves; (3) the crown, composed of the leaves, the branches on which +they hang, and the buds at the ends of the branches. As trees stand +together in the forest, their united crowns make a sort of canopy or +cover, Fig. 55, which, more than anything, determines the factors +affecting forest life, viz., the soil, the temperature, the moisture, and +most important of all, the light.</p> + +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page212" id="page212"></a>212</span> +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 350px;"><a href="images/figure-055-w700.png"><img src="images/figure-055-a-320.png" width="320" height="473" alt="The Forest Cover. Spruce Forest, Bavaria, Germany." /></a> +<p>Fig. 55. The Forest Cover. Spruce Forest, Bavaria, Germany. +<i>U. S. Forest Service</i>.</p></div> + +<p>On the other hand, every species of tree has its own requirements +in respect to these very factors of temperature,—moisture, soil and +light. These are called its <i>silvical characteristics</i>.</p> + +<h3>SOIL.</h3> + +<p>Some trees, as black walnut, flourish on good soil, supplanting +others because they are better able to make use of the richness of the +soil; while some trees occupy poor soil because they alone are able to +live there at all. Spruce, Fig. 56, will grow in the north woods on +such poor soil that it has no competitors, and birches, too, will grow +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page213" id="page213"></a>213</span> +anywhere in the north woods. In general, it is true that mixed forests, +Fig. 57, <i>i.e.</i>, those having a variety of species, grow on good +loamy soil. The great central, deciduous Atlantic Forest grew on such +soil until it was removed to make room for farms. On the other hand, +pure stands—<i>i.e.</i>, forests made up of single varieties—of pine occupy +poor sandy soil. Within a distance of a few yards in the midst of a +pure stand of pine in +the south, a change in +the soil will produce a +dense mixed growth of +broad-leaves and conifers.</p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 400px;"><a href="images/figure-056-w700.png"><img src="images/figure-056-a-380.png" width="380" height="483" alt="Virgin Stand of Red Spruce. White Mountains, New Hampshire." /></a> +<p>Fig. 56. Virgin Stand of Red Spruce. White +Mountains, New Hampshire. <i>U. S. Forest +Service</i>.</p></div> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 400px;"><a href="images/figure-057-w700.png"><img src="images/figure-057-a-380.png" width="380" height="469" alt="Typical Mixed Forest,--Red Spruce, Hemlock, White Ash, Yellow Birch, Balsam Fir, and Red Maple. Raquette Lake, New York." /></a> +<p>Fig. 57. Typical Mixed Forest,—Red Spruce, Hemlock, White Ash, +Yellow Birch, Balsam Fir, and Red Maple. Raquette Lake, New +York. <i>U. S. Forest Service</i>.</p></div> + +<p>The soil in the forest +is largely determined +by the forest itself. +In addition to +the earth, it is composed +of the fallen and +decayed leaves and +twigs and tree trunks, +altogether called the +<i>forest floor</i>. It is +spongy and hence has +the ability to retain +moisture, a fact of +great importance to +the forest.</p> + +<h3>MOISTURE.</h3> + +<p>Some trees, as black ash and cypress, Fig. 58, and cotton gum, +Fig. 59, grow naturally only in moist places; some, as the piñon and +mesquite, a kind of locust, grow only in dry places; while others, as +the juniper and Douglas fir, adapt themselves to either. Both excessively +wet and dry soils tend to diminish the number of kinds of trees. +In many instances the demand for water controls the distribution altogether. +In the Puget Sound region, where there is a heavy rain-fall, +the densest forests in the world are found, whereas on the eastern +slopes of the same mountains, altho the soil is not essentially different, +there are very few trees, because of the constant drouth.</p> +<a name="cyprus" id="cyprus"></a> +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 400px;"><a href="images/figure-058-w700.png"><img src="images/figure-058-a-350.png" width="350" height="484" alt="Cypress and Cypress 'Knees.' Jasper Co., Texas." /></a> +<p>Fig. 58. Cypress and Cypress "Knees." Jasper Co., Texas. +<i>U. S. Forest Service</i>.</p></div> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 600px;"><a href="images/figure-059-w800.png"><img src="images/figure-059-a-600.png" width="600" height="396" alt="Cotton Gums, Showing Buttresses. St. Francis River, Arkansas." /></a> +<p>Fig. 59. Cotton Gums, Showing Buttresses. St. Francis +River, Arkansas. <i>U. S. Forest Service</i>.</p></div> +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page214" id="page214"></a>214</span> + +<h3>TEMPERATURE.</h3> + +<p>The fact that some trees, as paper birch and white spruce, grow +only in cold regions, and some, as rubber trees and cypress, only in +the tropics, is commonplace; but a fact not so well known is that it +is not the average temperature, but the extremes which largely determine +the habitat of trees of different kinds. Trees which would not +live at all where there is frost, might flourish well in a region where +the average temperature was considerably lower. On the other hand, +provided the growing season is long enough for the species, there is +no place on earth too cold for trees to live. Fig. 60.</p> +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page215" id="page215"></a>215</span> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 350px;"><a href="images/figure-060-w600.png"><img src="images/figure-060-a-320.png" width="320" height="475" alt="Northern Forest,—Young Spruce Growing Under Yellow Birch. Santa Clara, New York." /></a> +<p>Fig. 60. Northern Forest,—Young Spruce +Growing Under Yellow Birch. Santa Clara, +New York. <i>U. S. Forest Service</i>.</p></div> +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page216" id="page216"></a>216</span> +<p>In general, cold affects the forest just as poor soil and drought do, +simplifying its composition and stunting its growth. In Canada there +are only a few kinds of trees, of which the hardwoods are stunted; +south of the Great Lakes, there is a great variety of large trees; +farther south in the southern Appalachian region, there is a still +greater variety, and the trees are just as large; and still farther south +in tropical Florida, there is +the greatest variety of all. +The slopes of a high mountain +furnish an illustration +of the effect of temperature. +In ascending it, one may +pass from a tropical forest +at the base, thru a belt +of evergreen, broad-leaved +trees, then thru a belt of deciduous +broad-leaved trees, +then thru a belt of conifers +and up to the timber line +where tree life ceases. Figs. 61, and 62.</p> +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page217" id="page217"></a>217</span> +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 600px;"><a href="images/figure-061-w800.png"><img src="images/figure-061-a-600.png" width="600" height="422" alt="Mixed Hardwoods on Lower Levels. Spruce and Balsam Dominate on Higher Elevations. Mt. McIntyre, Adirondack Mountains, New York." /></a> +<p>Fig. 61. Mixed Hardwoods on Lower Levels. Spruce and Balsam +Dominate +on Higher Elevations. Mt. McIntyre, Adirondack Mountains, New York. +<i>U. S. Forest Service</i>.</p></div> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 600px;"><a href="images/figure-062-w800.png"><img src="images/figure-062-a-600.png" width="600" height="392" alt="Scrub Growth on Mountain Top. Mt. Webster, New Hampshire." /></a> +<p>Fig. 62. Scrub Growth on Mountain Top. Mt. Webster, New Hampshire. <i>U. S. Forest Service</i>.</p></div> + +<h3>LIGHT.</h3> + +<p>More than by any other +factor, the growth of trees +in a forest is determined by +the effect of light. All +trees need light sooner or +later, but some trees have +much more ability than +others to grow in the shade when young. Such trees, of which maple +and spruce are examples, are called <i>tolerant</i>, while others, for instance, +larch, which will endure only a comparatively thin cover or +none at all, are called <i>intolerant</i>. The leaves of tolerant trees endure +shade well, so that their inner and lower leaves flourish under the +shadow of their upper and outer leaves, with the result that the whole +tree, as beech and maple, makes a dense shadow; whereas the leaves +of intolerant trees are either sparse, as in the larch, or are so hung +that the light sifts thru them, as in poplar and oak. The spruces and +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page218" id="page218">218</a></span> +balsam fir have the remarkable power of growing slowly under heavy +shade for many years, and then of growing vigorously when the light +is let in by the fall of their overshadowing neighbors. This can +plainly be seen in the cross-section of balsam fir, Fig. 63, where the +narrow annual rings of the early growth, are followed by the wider +ones of later growth. A common sight in the dense woods is the +maple sending up a +long, spindly stem thru +the trees about it and +having at its top a little +tuft of leaves, Fig. 64. By so doing it +survives. The fact that +a tree can grow without +shade often determines +its possession of +a burnt-over tract. The +order in the North +Woods after a fire is +commonly, first, a +growth of fire weed, +then raspberries or +blackberries, then aspen, +a very intolerant +tree whose light shade +in turn permits under +it the growth of the spruce, to which it is a "nurse," Fig. 65. In +general it may be said that all seedling conifers require some shade +the first two years, while hardwoods in temperate climates, as a rule, +do not.</p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 400px;"><a href="images/figure-063-w700.png"><img src="images/figure-063-a-400.png" width="400" height="398" alt="Cross section of Balsam Fir, Showing Fast Growth After Years of Suppression." /></a> +<p>Fig. 63. Cross section of Balsam Fir, +Showing Fast Growth After Years of +Suppression. Notice the width of the +annual rings in later age compared +with early. <i>U. S. Forest Service</i>.</p></div> +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page219" id="page219"></a>219</span> +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 600px;"><a href="images/figure-064-w800.png"><img src="images/figure-064-a-600.png" width="600" height="493" alt="Tolerant Maple. The trees are too slender to stand alone." /></a> +<p>Fig. 64. Tolerant Maple. The trees are too +slender to stand alone. <i>U. S. Forest Service</i>.</p></div> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 500px;"><a href="images/figure-065-w700.png"><img src="images/figure-065-a-500.png" width="500" height="434" alt="Intolerant Aspen, a 'nurse' of Tolerant Spruce." /></a> +<p>Fig. 65. Intolerant Aspen, a "nurse" of Tolerant Spruce.<i> U. S. Forest Service</i>.</p></div> +<p>This matter of tolerance has also much to do with the branching +of trees. The leaves on the lower branches of an intolerant tree will +not thrive, with the result that those branches die and later drop off. +This is called "cleaning," or natural pruning. Intolerant trees, like +aspen and tulip, Fig. 66, clean themselves well and hence grow with +long, straight boles, while tolerant trees, like spruce and fir, retain +their branches longer.</p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 320px;"><a href="images/figure-066-w700.png"><img src="images/figure-066-a-300.png" width="300" height="486" alt="Intolerant Tulip. Notice the long, straight boles." /></a> +<p>Fig. 66. Intolerant Tulip. Notice the long, straight boles. <i>U. S. Forest Service</i>.</p></div> + +<p>The distribution of a species may also be determined by geographical +barriers, like mountain ranges and oceans. This is why the +western forests differ radically from the eastern forests and why the +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page220" id="page220">220</a></span> +forest of Australasia is sharply distinct from any other forest in the +world.</p> + +<p>Any one or several of these factors, soil, moisture, heat, and light, +may be the determining factor in the make-up of a forest, or it may +be that a particular tree may survive, because of a faster rate of +growth, thus enabling it to overtop its fellows and cut off their light. +The struggle for survival is constant, and that tree survives which can +take the best advantage of the existent conditions.</p> + +<p>Besides these topographical and climatic factors which help determine +the distribution of trees, a very important factor is the historical +one. For example, the only reason by which the location of the few +isolated groves of big trees in California can be accounted for is the +rise and fall of glacial sheets, which left them, as it were, islands +stranded in a sea of ice. As the glaciers retreated, the region gradually +became re-forested, those trees coming up first which were best +able to take advantage of the conditions, whether due to the character +of their seeds, their tolerance, their endurance of moisture or whatever. +This process is still going on and hardwoods are probably gaining +ground.</p> + +<p>Besides these external factors which determine the composition +and organic life of the forest, the trees themselves furnish an important +factor in their methods of reproduction. These, in general, are +two, (1) by sprouts, and (2) by seeds.</p> + +<p>(1) Most conifers have no power of sprouting. The chief exceptions +are pitch pine and, to a remarkable degree, the redwood, +Fig. 67. This power, however, is common in broad-leaved trees, as +may be seen after a fire has swept thru second growth, hardwood +timber. Altho all the young trees are killed down to the ground, the +young sprouts spring up from the still living roots. This may happen +repeatedly. Coppice woods, as of chestnut and oak, which sprout +with great freedom, are the result of this ability. The wood is poor +so that it is chiefly used for fuel.</p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 340px;"><a href="images/figure-067-w700.png"><img src="images/figure-067-a-300.png" width="300" height="383" alt="Sprouting Redwood Stumps. Glen Blair, Calif." /></a> +<p>Fig. 67. Sprouting Redwood Stumps. Glen Blair, Calif. <i>U. S. Forest Service</i>.</p></div> + +<p>(2) Most trees, however, are reproduced by seeds. Trees yield +these in great abundance, to provide for waste,—nature's method. +Many seeds never ripen, many perish, many are eaten by animals, +many fall on barren ground or rocks, and many sprout, only to die. +The weight of seeds has much to do with their distribution. Heavy +seeds like acorns, chestnuts, hickory and other nuts, grow where they +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page221" id="page221"></a>221-2</span> +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page222" id="page222"></a></span> +fall, unless carried down hill by gravity or by water, or scattered by +birds and squirrels.</p> + +<p>Trees with winged seeds, however, Fig. 68, as bass, maple and +pine, or with light seeds, as poplar, often have their seeds carried by +the wind to great distances.</p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 320px;"><a href="images/figure-068-w500.png"><img src="images/figure-068-a-300.png" width="302" height="321" alt="Winged Seeds. 1, Basswood; 2, Box-elder; 3, Elm; 4, Fir; 5, 6, 7, 8, Pines." /></a> +<p>Fig. 68. Winged Seeds. 1, Basswood; 2, Box-elder; 3, Elm; 4, Fir; 5, 6, 7, 8, Pines. <i>U. S. Forest Service</i>.</p></div> + +<p>Again some trees, as spruce, are very fertile, while others, like +beech, have only occasional seed-bearing seasons, once in three or +four years. Willow seeds lose their power of germination in a few +days, and hence, unless they soon reach ground where there is plenty +of moisture, they die. This is why they grow mostly along water +courses. On the other hand, black locust pods and the cones of some +pines keep their seeds perfect for many years, often until a fire bursts +them open, and so they live at the expense of their competitors.</p> +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page223" id="page223"></a>223</span> + +<p>It is such facts as these that +help to account for some of the +acts of forest composition,—why +in one place at one time +there is a growth of aspens, at +another time pines, at still another +oaks; and why beeches +spring up one year and not another. +That red cedars grow +in avenues along fences, is explained +by the fact that the +seeds are dropped there by +birds, Fig. 69.</p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 320px;"><a href="images/figure-069-w600.png"><img src="images/figure-069-a-300.png" width="300" height="402" alt="Red Cedar Avenue. Seeds dropped by birds which perched on the fences. Indiana." /></a> +<p>Fig. 69. Red Cedar Avenue. Seeds dropped by birds which perched on the fences. Indiana. <i>U. S. Forest Service</i>.</p></div> + +<p>The fact that conifers, as +the longleaf pine, Fig. 46, <a class="index" href="#page200">p. 200</a>, and spruce, Fig. 55, <a class="index" href="#page211">p. 211</a>, +are more apt to grow in pure stands than broad-leaved trees, is largely +accounted for by their winged seeds; whereas the broad-leaved trees +grow mostly in mixed stands because their heavy seeds are not plentifully +and widely scattered. This +is a rule not without exceptions, +for beech sometimes covers a +whole mountain side, as Slide +Mountain in the Catskills, and +aspens come in over a wide +area after a fire; but later +other trees creep in until at +length it becomes a mixed +forest.</p> + +<p>The essential facts of the +relation of trees to each other +in the forest has been clearly +stated by Gifford Pinchot +thus:<a id="footnotetagChV1" name="footnotetagChV1"></a><a href="#footnoteChV1"><sup>1</sup></a></p> + +<blockquote><p> +The history of the life of +a forest is a story of the help +and harm which trees receive +from one another. On one side +every tree is engaged in a relentless +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page224" id="page224"></a>224</span> +struggle against its neighbors for light, water and food, the three +things trees need most. On the other side each tree is constantly working +with all its neighbors, even those which stand at some distance, to bring +about the best condition of the soil and air for the growth and fighting power +of every other tree. +</p></blockquote> + +<p>The trees in a forest help each other by enriching the soil in +which they stand with their fallen leaves and twigs, which are not +quickly blown or washed away as are those under a tree in the open. +This collection of "duff" or "the forest floor" retains the moisture +about their roots, and this moist mass tends to keep the temperature +of the forest warmer in winter and cooler in summer. The forest +cover, Fig. 55, <a class="index" href="#page211">p. 211</a>, consisting largely of foliage, has the same effect, +and in addition protects the bark, the roots, and the seedlings of the +trees from the direct and continuous hot rays of the sun. Without +the shade of the leaves, many trees, as white pine, would quickly die, +as may readily be seen by transplanting them to the open. The mass +of standing trees tempers the force of the wind, which might overthrow +some of them, and hinders the drying up of the duff.</p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 600px;"><a href="images/figure-070-w800.png"><img src="images/figure-070-a-600.png" width="600" height="310" alt="Shallow Roots of Hemlock. Bronx Park, New York, N. Y." /></a> +<p>Fig. 70. Shallow Roots of Hemlock. Bronx Park, New York, N. Y.</p></div> + +<p>But trees hinder as well as help each other. There is a constant +struggle between them for nourishment and light. To get food and +water, some trees, as spruces and hemlocks, Fig. 70, spread their roots +out flat; others, as oak and pine, send down a deep tap root. Those +succeed in any environment that find the nourishment they need. +Still more evident is the struggle for light and air. However well a +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page225" id="page225"></a>225</span> +tree is nourished thru its roots, unless its leaves have an abundance +of light and air it will not thrive and make wood.</p> + +<div class="figleft" style="width: 200px;"><a href="images/figure-071-w500.png"><img src="images/figure-071-a-200.png" width="200" height="485" alt="Long-bodied White Oak of the Forest." /></a> +<p>Fig. 71. Long-bodied White Oak of the Forest. <i>U. S. Forest Service</i>.</p></div> + +<p>Even the trees most tolerant of shade in youth, like spruce, must +have light later or perish, and hence in a forest there is the constant +upward reach. This produces +the characteristic "long-bodied" +trunk of the forest tree, Fig. 71, +in contrast to the "short-bodied" +tree of the open, where the +branches reach out in all directions, +Fig. 72. In this constant +struggle for existence is involved +the persistent attempt of scattered +seeds to sprout whenever +there is an opening. The result +is that a typical forest is one in +which all sizes and ages of trees +grow together. Scattered among +these are bushes and scrubby +trees, called "forest weeds," such +as mountain maple and dogwood, +Fig. 80, <a class="index" href="#page233">p. 233</a>, which do not +produce timber.</p> + +<div class="figright" style="width: 380px;"><a href="images/figure-072-w600.png"><img src="images/figure-072-a-350.png" width="350" height="439" alt="Short-bodied White Oak of the Open. Fort Lee, N. J." /></a> +<p>Fig. 72. Short-bodied White Oak of the Open. Fort Lee, N. J.</p></div> + +<br clear="all" /> + +<p class="ind" style="margin-top: 5em;">By foresters the trees themselves +are classified according to +their size into:</p> + +<ul class="none" style="line-height: 130%"> +<li>Seedlings, less than 3' high,</li> +<li>Saplings, +<ul class="none2"> + <li>Small, 3'-10' high.</li> + <li>Large, 4" in diameter, at breast height (4' 6").</li></ul></li> +<li>Poles, +<ul class="none2"> + <li>Small, 4"-8" in diameter, at breast height.</li> + <li>Large, 8"-12" in diameter, at breast height.</li></ul></li> + <li>Standards, 1'-2' in diameter, at breast height.</li> + <li>Veterans, over 2' in diameter, at breast height.</li> +</ul> +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page226" id="page226"></a>226</span> + +<p>Every age has its own dangers. Many seeds never germinate, +many seedlings perish because they do not reach soil, or are killed by +too much or too little moisture, or by heat or cold, or shade. At the +sapling age, the side branches begin to interfere with those of other +saplings. Buds are bruised and lower branches broken by thrashing +in the wind, and their leaves have less light. Only the upper branches +have room and light, and they flourish at the expense of lower ones, +which gradually die and are thus pruned off. Some trees naturally +grow faster than others, and they attain additional light and room to +spread laterally, thus overtopping +others which are suppressed +and finally killed, +beaten in the race for life.</p> + +<p>If the growth should remain +about even so that the +trees grew densely packed together, +the whole group would +be likely to be of a poorer quality, +but ordinarily the few outgrow +the many and they are +called dominant trees. Even +then, they still have to struggle +against their neighbors, and at +this, the large sapling stage, +many perish, and of those that +survive there are great differences +in size. Trees make their +most rapid growth in height, +and lay on the widest yearly "rings," at the large sapling and small +pole age, Fig. 114, <a class="index" href="#page263">p. 263</a>. It is at this stage, too, if the growth is at +all dense, that the young trees (poles) clean themselves most thoroly +of their branches. The growth in diameter continues to the end +of the tree's life, long after the height growth has ceased.</p> + +<div class="figright" style="width: 200px;"><a href="images/figure-073-w300.png"><img src="images/figure-073-a-150.png" width="150" height="521" alt="Flattened Crown of Red Pine." /></a> +<p>Fig. 73. Flattened Crown of Red Pine. <i>U.S. Forest Service</i>.</p></div> + +<p>When trees become "standards," and reach the limit of height +growth, thru their inability to raise water to their tops, their +branches must perforce grow sidewise, or not at all. The struggle +for life thus takes a new form.</p> + +<p>How trees are able to raise water as high as they do is still unexplained, +but we know that the chief reason why some trees grow +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page227" id="page227"></a>227</span> +taller than others, is due to their ability to raise water. The most +remarkable in this respect are the California redwoods, the big trees, +and certain eucalypts in Australia. +This inability of trees to grow above a +certain height results in a flattening of +the crown, Fig. 73, and at this stage, +the trees struggle against each other by +crowding at the side.</p> + +<p>Inasmuch as trees grow more sensitive +to shade with advancing age, the +taller trees have the advantage. Each +survivor is one of a thousand, and has +outlived the others because it is best +fitted for the place.</p> + +<p>This fact has its effect upon the next +generation, because it is these dominant +surviving trees which bear seed most +abundantly. After the tree has finished +growing in height and diameter most +vigorously—the pole stage—and proved +to be fitted for the place, its energy is +largely spent in raising seed. As this +process goes on generation after generation, +only the best coming to maturity +in each, the poorer sorts are sifted out, +and each region and continent has +those species best fitted to meet the conditions +of life there.</p> + +<p>This is the reason why exotics are +very likely to be sensitive and perhaps +succumb to influences to which native +trees are immune.</p> + +<p>Standards and veterans are the survivors +of all the lower stages, each of +which has had its especial dangers. If +left alone, the tree gradually dies and +at last falls and decays, adding somewhat to the fertility of the forest +soil. From the point of view of human use, it would far better +have been cut when ripe and turned into lumber. It is a mistake to +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page228" id="page228"></a>228</span> +suppose that the natural virgin forest is the best possible forest, and +that it should therefore be left alone. In the National Forests the +ripe lumber is sold and a considerable revenue is thus available. But +nature's way with the dead tree is to use it to produce more life. +How she does so will be explained in the next chapter, on the enemies +of the forest.</p> + +<br clear="all" /> + +<p class="note1"><a id="footnoteChV1" name="footnoteChV1"></a><a class="footnote" href="#footnotetagChV1">Footnote 1:</a> Gifford Pinchot, <i>Primer of Forestry</i>, p. 44.</p> + +<h5 style="margin-top: 3em;">THE FOREST ORGANISM.</h5> + +<ul class="none"> +<li><span class="sc">References:</span>* +<ul class="none2"> + +<li>Pinchot, <i>For. Bull</i>. No. 24, I, pp. 25-66.</li> +<li>Bruncken, pp. 13-31.</li> +<li><i>For. Circ</i>. No. 36, p. 8.</li> +<li>Fernow, <i>Economics</i>, pp. 140-164.</li></ul></li> +</ul> + +<p class="note1"><span style="font-size: 1.2em;">*</span> For general bibliography, see <a class="index" href="#page4">p. 4</a></p> + +<h2><span class="pagenum" style="font-size: 0.4em; font-weight: normal;"><a name="page229" id="page229"></a>229</span><span class="sc">Chapter VI.</span></h2> + +<h4>NATURAL ENEMIES OF THE FOREST.</h4> + +<p>The natural enemies of the forest—as distinct from its human +enemies—fall into three groups: (1) Meteorological, (2) Vegetable, +(3) Animal.</p> + +<h3>METEOROLOGICAL FORCES.</h3> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 600px;"><a href="images/figure-074-w800.png"><img src="images/figure-074-a-600.png" width="600" height="397" alt="Effect of Wind, July, 1902, Cass County, Minnesota." /></a> +<p>Fig. 74. Effect of Wind, July, 1902, Cass County, Minnesota. <i>U. S. Forest Service</i>.</p></div> + +<p><i>Wind</i>. "Windfalls" are not an uncommon sight in any forest. +Frequently only small areas are blown down, one large tree upsetting +a few others, or again a vast region is destroyed by great storms, +Fig. 74. An area of many square miles in Florida covered with +long-leaf pine was thus destroyed several years ago. The "slash" +thus formed, when well dried, is particularly liable to catch fire and +burn furiously. Windfalls are especially common among shallow-rooted +trees, as hemlock, basswood and spruce, on sandy soil and on +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page230" id="page230"></a>230-1</span> +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page231" id="page231"></a></span> +shallow soil underlaid with solid stone, especially where open spaces +give the wind free sweep. It follows that an unbroken forest is a +great protection to itself. The only precautions against wind therefore, +that can be taken by the forester, are to keep the forest unbroken +by selecting only the larger trees for felling or to cut down a +given tract by beginning at the side opposite the direction of prevailing +storms and working toward them.</p> + +<p>In sandy regions, the wind does immense harm by blowing the +sand to and fro in constantly shifting dunes, Figs. 75 and 76. These +dunes occupy long stretches of the Atlantic coast and the shore of +Lake Michigan. Such dunes have been estimated to cover 20,000 +square miles of Europe. Along the Bay of Biscay in France, the +sand dunes formerly drifted in ridges along the shore, damming up +the streams and converting what was once a forest into a pestilential +marsh. This region has been reclaimed at great expense by building +fences along the shore to break the wind and thus keep the moving +sand within limits. In this way a million acres of productive forest +have been obtained.</p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 600px;"><a href="images/figure-075-w800.png"><img src="images/figure-075-a-600.png" width="600" height="388" alt="Sand-dunes, Cape May, New Jersey." /></a> +<p>Fig. 75. Sand-dunes, Cape May, New Jersey. <i>U.S. Forest Service</i>.</p></div> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 600px;"><a href="images/figure-076-w800.png"><img src="images/figure-076-a-600.png" width="600" height="402" alt="Sand-dune. Oregon." /></a> +<p>Fig. 76. Sand-dune. Oregon. <i>U.S. Forest Service</i>.</p></div> + +<p>On the other hand winds are beneficial to the forest in scattering +seeds, weeding out weak trees, and developing strength in tree trunks.</p> + +<p><i>Drouth</i> both injures the foliage of trees and causes defects in the +grain of wood, the latter appearing as "false rings." These arise +from the effort +of the tree to +resume growth +when the water +supply is restored. +See <a class="index" href="#page19">p. 19</a>.</p> + +<p><i>Water</i>. Certain +trees have +become accustomed +to living +in much water, +as cedar and cypress have in swamps, and certain trees have become +accustomed to periodical floods, but other trees are killed by much +water. So when lumbermen make a pond which overflows forest +land, the trees soon die, Fig. 77.</p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 600px;"><a href="images/figure-077-w800.png"><img src="images/figure-077-a-600.png" width="600" height="308" alt="Effect of Flooding. First Connecticut Lake, New Hampshire." /></a> +<p>Fig. 77. Effect of Flooding. First Connecticut Lake, New Hampshire. <i>U. S. Forest Service</i>.</p></div> + +<p><i>Lightning</i> frequently blasts single trees, and in dry seasons may +set fire to forests. This is a much more important factor in the west +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page232" id="page232"></a>232</span> +than in the east,—in the Rockies, for instance, where there are electrical +storms without rain.</p> + +<p><i>Fires</i> will be considered later under man's relation to the forest.</p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 600px;"><a href="images/figure-078-w800.png"><img src="images/figure-078-a-600.png" width="600" height="480" alt="Slim Trees Bent Over by Snow; Stouter Trees Unharmed. Zurich, Switzerland." /></a> +<p>Fig. 78. Slim Trees Bent Over by Snow; Stouter Trees Unharmed. Zurich, Switzerland. <i>U. S. Forest Service</i>.</p></div> + +<p><i>Snow and ice</i> often bring serious harm to saplings by permanently +bending them over, Fig. 78, or by breaking off tops and +branches.</p> + +<p><i>Frost</i> kills young plants; and sudden changes in temperature +seriously affect grown timber, producing "frost checks" and "wind +shakes." When there is a sudden fall in temperature, the outside +layers of the tree, which are full of sap, contract more rapidly than +the inner portions, with the result that the tree splits with a sudden +pistol-like report, the check running radially up and down the tree. +This is called a "frost check" or "star shake," Fig. 41.<i>a</i>, <a class="index" href="#page47">p. 47</a>, and +such wounds rarely heal, Fig. 79.</p> + +<p>On the other hand when the temperature rapidly rises, the outside +layers of the tree expand so much more rapidly than the inside, that +they separate with a dull muffled chug, the check extending in a circular +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page233" id="page233"></a>233</span> +direction following the annual rings. Such checks are often +called "wind shakes" and "cup shakes," Fig. 41.<i>c</i>, <a class="index" href="#page47a">p. 47</a>. These injuries +are found in regions where sudden changes of temperature +occur, rather than in the tropics or in very cold climates.</p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 320px;"><a href="images/figure-079-w600.png"><img src="images/figure-079-a-300.png" width="300" height="465" alt="Contraction Frost Check." /></a> +<p>Fig. 79. Contraction Frost Check. <i>U. S. Forest Service</i>.</p></div> + +<h3>VEGETABLE ENEMIES.</h3> + +<p>Under this head may be classed, in addition to fungi, a number +of unrelated plants, including such as: moosewood and dogwood, Fig. 80, +which crowd out young trees; vines, like bitter-sweet, which wind +about trees and often choke them +by pressure, cutting thru the +bark and cambium; saprophytes, +which smother the foliage +of trees, of which Spanish +moss, Fig. 47, <a class="index" href="#page201">p. 201</a>, is an example; +and finally such parasites +as the mistletoes, which +weaken and deform the trees.</p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 320px;"><a href="images/figure-080-w600.png"><img src="images/figure-080-a-300.png" width="300" height="433" alt="A 'Forest Weed', Flowering Dogwood. North Carolina." /></a> +<p>Fig. 80. A "Forest Weed," Flowering Dogwood. North Carolina. <i>U.S. Forest Service</i>.</p></div> + +<p>The most important of the +vegetable enemies of trees are +fungi. It should be remembered, +however, that, without the decay +produced by them, the fallen +trees would soon cover the ground, +and prevent any new growth, thus +destroying the natural forest.</p> + +<p>Every tree, as has been noted +(<a class="index" href="#page17">p. 17</a>), is composed of two parts, +one part, including leaves, young +branches, roots and sap-wood, living, and the other part, namely, the +heart-wood, practically dead.</p> + +<p>Fungi that attack the live parts of a tree are called parasites, +while those that live on dead trunks and branches are designated as +saprophytes. The line, however, between these two classes of fungi +is not well defined, since some parasites live on both living and dead +wood. The parasites are of first importance, for, since they kill many +trees, they control to a large extent the supply of living timber.</p> +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page234" id="page234"></a>234</span> + +<p>Nearly all parasitic fungi have two portions, an external fruiting +portion which bears the spores—which correspond to the seeds of +flowering plants—and an internal portion consisting of a tangle of +threads or filaments, which ramify the tissues of the tree and whose +function is to absorb nutriment for the fungus. Fungi are classified +botanically according to the spore-bearing bodies, their form, color, etc.</p> + +<p>The parasitic fungi which are especially destructive to wood are +those that have naked spores growing on exposed fruiting surfaces +(the <i>Hymenomycetes</i>). In toadstools (the <i>agarics</i>) these exposed +surfaces are thin, flat plates called gills. In the polypores, which include +the shelf fungi, the spore +surfaces are tubes whose openings +constitute the pores. In +the dry-rot, or tear fungus (<i>Merulius +lacrymans</i>), the spore +surfaces are shallow cavities.</p> + +<p>Some varieties, called <i>true</i> +parasites, develop in uninjured +trees, while others, called +<i>wound</i> parasites, can penetrate +the tissues of trees, only where +a cut or injury makes a suitable +lodgment for the spores. +Some fungi attack only a single +species of trees, others +whole genera; some attack +only conifers, others deciduous +trees, while a few attack +trees of nearly all kinds alike.</p> + +<p>Fungal spores when brought +in contact with a wound on a +tree or other suitable place, and provided with suitable conditions of +growth, germinate, penetrate the tissues and grow very rapidly. +These spores send out long threads or filaments which run thru the +cells lengthwise and also pierce them in all directions, soon forming +a network in the wood called the mycelium.</p> + +<p>Rotting, in a large number of cases, is due to the ravages of +fungi. This sometimes shows in the color, as the "red rot" of pine +or the "bluing" of ash. Sometimes as in "pecky" or "peggy" cypress, +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page235" id="page235"></a>235</span> +the decayed tracts are tubular. More commonly the decayed parts are +of irregular shape.</p> + +<p>The decay of wood is due to the ravages of low forms of plant +life, both bacteria and fungi.</p> + +<p>A few of the more destructive forms may be noted.</p> + +<blockquote><p> +<i>Trametes pini</i> (Brot.) Fr. +Foremost among the timber destroying +fungi is the large brown +"punk" or "conch" found in its +typical development on the long-leaf +and short-leaf pines, <i>Pinus +palustris</i> and <i>Pinus echinata</i>, Fig. 81. +The fruiting bodies form +large masses which grow out from +a knot, oftentimes as large as a +child's head. They are cinnamon +brown on the lower surface, and +much fissured and broken, on the +black charcoal-like upper surface. +This fungus probably causes four-fifths +of the destruction brought +about by the timber destroying +fungi. It occurs on most of the +conifers in the United States +which have any value as lumber +trees, and brings about a characteristic +white spotting of the +wood, Fig. 82, which varies with +the kind of tree attacked. (Von Schrenk, <i>Agric. Yr. Bk</i>., 1900, p. 206.) +</p></blockquote> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 350px;"><a href="images/figure-081-w500.png"><img src="images/figure-081-a-350.png" width="350" height="455" alt="A 'Conch', the fruiting body of Trametes pini, on Sugar Pine." /></a> +<p>Fig. 81. A "Conch," the fruiting body of <i>Trametes pini</i>, on Sugar Pine. [<i>Agric. Year Book, 1900</i>, Pl. XXII, Fig. 2.]</p></div> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 600px;"><a href="images/figure-082-w800.png"><img src="images/figure-082-a-600.png" width="600" height="292" alt="Effect of Fungus. (Trametes pini.)" /></a> +<p>Fig. 82. Effect of Fungus. (<i>Trametes pini</i>.) <i>U. S. Dept. Agric</i>.</p></div> +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page236" id="page236"></a>236</span> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 300px;"><a href="images/figure-083-w400.png"><img src="images/figure-083-a-300.png" width="300" height="336" alt="'Shelf' Fungus on Pine." /></a> +<p>Fig. 83. "Shelf" Fungus on Pine. <i>a</i>. Sound wood; <i>b</i>. Resinous +"light" wood; <i>c</i>. Partly decayed +wood or punk; <i>d</i>. Layer +of living spore tubes; <i>e</i>. Old +filled-up spore tubes; <i>f</i>. Fluted +upper surface of the fruiting +body of the fungus, which +gets its food thru a great +number of fine threads (the +mycelium), its vegetative tissue +penetrating the wood and +causing its decay. [<i>After +Hartig</i>.</p></div> + +<p>Of the shelf fungi, which project like brackets from the stems of +trees, and have their pores on their under surfaces, one of the commonest +in many localities is the yellow cheese-like <i>Polyporus sulphureus</i>, +Fig. 83. This is found on oak, poplar, willow, larch, and other +standing timber.</p> + +<blockquote><p> +Its spawnlike threads spread from any exposed portion of cambium into +the pith-rays and between the annual rings, forming thick layers of yellowish-white +felt, and penetrating the vessels of the wood, which thereupon +becomes a deep brown color and decays. +</p></blockquote> + +<p>Of the umbrella-shaped gill-bearing fungi, a yellow toadstool, +called the honey mushroom (<i>Agaricus melleus</i>), is a good example, +Fig. 84.</p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 600px;"><a href="images/figure-084-w800.png"><img src="images/figure-084-a-600.png" width="600" height="453" alt="Honey Mushroom. Agaricus melleus." /></a> +<p>Fig. 84. Honey Mushroom. <i>Agaricus melleus</i>. 1. Cluster of small sporophores. +2. Larger sporophore with root-like organ of attachment. <i>Forestry Bulletin +22</i>. +Plate XII, Figs. 1 and 2.</p></div> + +<blockquote><p> +This fungus, of common occurrence in +the United States as well as in Europe, is +exceedingly destructive to coniferous trees, +the white pine in particular suffering greatly +from its attacks. It also fastens upon various +deciduous species as a parasite, attacking +living trees of all ages, but living as well +upon dead roots and stumps and on wood that +has been cut and worked up, occurring frequently +on bridges, railroad ties, and the +like, and causing prompt decay wherever it +has effected an entrance. The most conspicuous +part of the fungus is found frequently in +the summer and fall on the diseased parts +of the tree or timber infested by it. It is +one of the common toadstools, this particular +species being recognized by its yellowish color, +gills extending downward upon the stem, +which is encircled a little lower down by a +ring, and by its habit of growing in tufts or +little clumps of several or many individuals +together. It is also particularly distinguished +by the formation of slender, dark-colored strings, consisting of compact +mycelium, from which the fruiting parts just described arise. These hard +root-like strings (called rhizomorphs) extend along just beneath the surface +of the ground, often a distance of several feet, and penetrate the roots +of sound trees. By carefully removing the bark from a root thus invaded +the fungus is seen in the form of a dense, nearly white, mass of mycelium, +which, as the parts around decay, gradually produces again the rhizomorphs +already described. These rhizomorphs are a characteristic part of the +fungus. Occurring both in the decayed wood from which they spread to +the adjacent parts, and extending in the soil from root to root, they constitute +a most effective agency in the extension of the disease. * * *</p> +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page237" id="page237"></a>237</span> + +<p>External symptoms, to be observed especially in young specimens recently +attacked, consist in a change of the leaves to a pale sickly color and +often the production of short stunted shoots. A still more marked symptom +is the formation of great quantities of resin, which flow downward thru the +injured parts and out into the ground. (<i>Forestry Bulletin</i> No. 22, p. 51.) +</p></blockquote> + +<p>Of the irregular shaped fungi, one of the most destructive is a +true parasite, <i>i.e.</i>, one that finds lodgment without help, called +<i>Polyporus +annosus</i> and also <i>Trametes radiciperda</i>, Fig. 85. It is peculiar +in developing its fructifications on the exterior of roots, beneath the +soil. Its pores appear on the upper side of the fructifications. It +attacks only conifers.</p> + +<blockquote><p> +Its spores, which can be readily conveyed in the fur of mice or other +burrowing animals, germinate in the moisture around the roots: the fine +threads of "spawn" penetrate the cortex, and spread thru and destroy the +cambium, extending in thin, flat, fan-like, white, silky bands, and, here and +there, bursting thru the cortex in white, oval cushions, on which the subterranean +fructifications are produced. Each of these is a yellowish-white, +felt-like mass, with its outer surface covered with crowded minute tubes or +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page238" id="page238"></a>238</span> +"pores" in which the spores are produced. The wood attacked by this +fungus first becomes rosy or purple, then turns yellowish, and then exhibits +minute black dots, which surround themselves with extending soft white +patches. (Boulger, p. 73.) +</p></blockquote> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 400px;"><a href="images/figure-085-w700.png"><img src="images/figure-085-a-400.png" width="400" height="472" alt="Stump of Norway Spruce, with a sporophore of polyporus annosus several years old; the inner portions of the stump wholly decayed." /></a> +<p>Fig. 85. 1. Stump of Norway Spruce, with a sporophore of <i>polyporus annosus</i> several years old; the inner portions of the stump wholly decayed.</p> + +<p>2. Roots of a diseased spruce tree, with numerous small +sporophores of <i>polyporus annosus</i> attached. <i>Forestry Bulletin +22</i>, Plate XIII, Figs. 1 and 2.</p></div> + +<p>Of the fungi which attack converted timber, the most important +is "dry rot" or "tear fungus" (<i>Merulius lachrymans</i>), Fig. 86. It +flourishes on damp wood in still air, especially around stables and ill +ventilated cellars. It gets its name lachrymans (weeping) from its +habit of dripping moisture.</p> + +<blockquote><p> +The fungus destroys the substance of the timber, lessening its weight +and causing it to warp and crack; until at length it crumbles up when dry +into a fine brown powder, or, readily absorbing any moisture in its neighborhood, +becomes a soft, cheese-like mass. * * * Imperfectly seasoned timber is +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page239" id="page239"></a>239</span> +most susceptible to dry rot: the fungus can be spread either by its +spawn or by spores, and these latter can be carried even by the clothes or +saws of workmen, and are, of course, only too likely to reach sound wood +if diseased timber is left about near it; but on the other hand dry timber +kept dry is proof against dry rot, and exposure to really dry air is fatal to +the fungus. (Boulger, p. 75.) +</p></blockquote> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 400px;"><a href="images/figure-086-w600.png"><img src="images/figure-086-a-400.png" width="400" height="328" alt="Portion of the mycelium of dry rot or tear fungus, Merulius lachrymans." /></a> +<p>Fig. 86. Portion of the mycelium of dry rot or tear fungus, <i>Merulius lachrymans</i>. This +cakelike mass spreads over +the surface of the timber. In +a moist environment pellucid +drops or "tears" distil from +its lower surface: Hence its +name. [Ward: <i>Timber</i>; Fig. 21.]</p></div> + +<p>About all that can be done to protect the forest against fungi is +to keep it clean, that is, to clear out fallen timber and slash, and in +some cases to dig trenches around affected trees to prevent spreading +or to cut them out and destroy +them. Such methods have heretofore +been too expensive to employ +in any ordinary American +forest, but the time is at hand +when such action will prove +profitable in many localities.</p> + +<p>For the preservation of cut +timber from decay, several +methods are used. Fungi need +heat, air, moisture and food. +If any one of these is lacking +the fungus cannot grow. Air +and heat are hard to exclude +from wood, but moisture and +food can be kept from fungi. +The removal of moisture is +called seasoning, and the poisoning of the food of fungi is a process +of impregnating wood with certain chemicals. Both these processes +are described in <i>Handwork in Wood</i>, Chapter III.</p> + +<h3>ANIMAL ENEMIES.</h3> + +<p>The larger animals working damage to our forests are chiefly rodents +and grazing animals. Beavers gnaw the bark, while mice and +squirrels rob the forest of seed and consequently of new trees. The +acorns of white oak are particularly liable to be devoured because of +their sweetness, while those of red and black oak, which afford timber +of comparatively little value, are allowed to sprout, and thus come +to possess the land. Hogs annually consume enormous quantities of +"mast," <i>i.e.</i>, acorns or other nuts, by pasturing in oak and other +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page240" id="page240"></a>240</span> +forests. They, together with goats and sheep, Figs. 87 and 88, deer +and cattle, work harm by trampling and browsing. Browsing destroys +the tender shoots, especially of deciduous trees, but trampling entirely +kills out the seedlings. The cutting up of the soil by the sharp +cleft hoofs injures the forest +floor, by pulverizing it and allowing +it to be readily washed +away by storms until deforestation +may result, as was the +case in France after the Revolution. +It has cost the French +people from thirty to forty +million dollars to repair the +damage begun by the sheep. In +this country, this matter has +become a very serious one on +the Pacific Coast, where there are enormous flocks of sheep, and therefore +the government is trying to regulate the grazing on public lands +there, especially on steep slopes, where erosion takes place rapidly.<a id="footnotetagChVI1" name="footnotetagChVI1"></a><a href="#footnoteChVI1"><sup>1</sup></a></p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 400px;"><a href="images/figure-087-w600.png"><img src="images/figure-087-a-400.png" width="400" height="268" alt="Goats Eating Foliage, New Mexico." /></a> +<p>Fig. 87. Goats Eating Foliage, New Mexico. <i>U.S. Forest Service</i>.</p></div> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 600px;"><a href="images/figure-088-w800.png"><img src="images/figure-088-a-600.png" width="600" height="237" alt="Sheep Grazing in Forest, Idaho." /></a> +<p>Fig. 88. Sheep Grazing in Forest, Idaho. <i>U.S. Forest Service</i>.</p></div> + +<p>The most destructive animal enemies of the forest are the insects. +The average annual loss of trees in the United States from this cause +alone has been estimated to be one hundred million dollars.</p> + +<p>Insects have two objects in their attack on trees, one is to obtain +food, as when they are in the larval stage, and the other is to provide +for offspring, as do certain beetles.</p> +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page241" id="page241"></a>241</span> + +<p>The number of insect enemies of the forest is enormous. At the +St. Louis Exposition, there were on exhibit nearly three hundred +such insects. These belong to some twenty orders, of which the +beetles (<i>Coleoptera</i>), which have horny wings and biting mouth parts, +and the moths and butterflies (<i>Lepidoptera</i>), with membraneous +wings and sucking mouth parts, are the most destructive. Insects +attack every part of +the tree, the seed, the +shoot, the flower, the +root, the leaf, the bark +and the wood, both +standing and cut.</p> + +<p>Of the fruit and +seed pests, the most +destructive are weevils, +worms and gall +insects.</p> + +<p>Of the twig and +shoot pests, beetles, +weevils and caterpillars +are the worst.</p> + +<p>Among insects that +attack roots, the periodical +cicada (17 year +old locust) may be +noted.</p> + +<p>The leaf pests are +far more serious. They +include the true and +false caterpillars, moths, gall insects and plant lice.</p> + +<p>Of the bark pests, the bark beetles are the most destructive. +These are also called Engraver Beetles from the smoothly cut figures +which are their burrows under the bark, Figs. 89, 90, 91.</p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 350px;"><a href="images/figure-089-w600.png"><img src="images/figure-089-a-350.png" width="350" height="439" alt="Work of the Spruce Destroying Beetle." /></a> +<p>Fig. 89. Work of the Spruce Destroying Beetle: +<i>a</i>. Primary gallery; <i>b</i>. Borings packed in side; <i>c</i>. Entrance +and central burrow thru the packed borings; +<i>d</i>. Larval mines. Note how the eggs are grouped on +the sides. [<i>Agric. Year Book</i>, 1902, Fig. 24, p. 268].</p></div> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 350px;"><a href="images/figure-090-w700.png"><img src="images/figure-090-a-350.png" width="350" height="416" alt="Complete brood Galleries of the Hickory Bark Beetle in Surface of Wood." /></a> +<p>Fig. 90. Complete brood Galleries of the Hickory Bark Beetle in Surface of Wood. [<i>Agric. Year Book</i>, +1903, Fig. 28, p. 316.</p></div> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 200px;"><a href="images/figure-091-w400.png"><img src="images/figure-091-a-200.png" width="200" height="407" alt="Brood Galleries of the Oak Bark Beetle." /></a> +<p>Fig. 91. Brood Galleries of the Oak Bark Beetle, showing +Character of Primary Gallery +at <i>b</i>; Larval or Brood Mines at +<i>a</i>. [<i>Agric. Year Book</i>, 1903, Fig. 30, page 318.]</p></div> + +<blockquote><p> +Many pairs of beetles make a simultaneous attack on the lower half of +the main trunk of medium-sized to large trees. They bore thru the outer +bark to the inner living portion, and thru the inner layers of the latter; +they excavate long, irregular, longitudinal galleries, and along the sides of +these at irregular intervals, numerous eggs are closely placed. The eggs +soon hatch and the larvae at once commence to feed on the inner bark, and +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page242" id="page242"></a>242</span> +as they increase in size, extend and enlarge their food burrows in a general +transverse but irregular course, away from the mother galleries (see illustration). +When these young and larval forms are full grown, each excavates +a cavity or cell at the end of its burrow and next to the outer corky +bark. (Hopkins, <i>Agric. Yr. Bk</i>., 1902.) +</p></blockquote> + +<p>Some of the species attack living trees, causing their rapid death, +and are among the most destructive enemies of American forests.</p> + +<p>All of the above indirectly +affect both the +quantity and quality +of the wood supply. +They can be studied +more in detail in the +publications of the U.S. +Bureau of Entomology.</p> + +<p>Of the insects directly +attacking wood, +the most important +are the ambrosia or +timber beetles, the borers, +the ants, and the +carpenter bees. The +most remarkable feature +of the beetle is the +manner of its boring +into the harder parts +of the wood. Its jaws +are particularly constructed +for this work, +being heavy and strong. The boring is done something after the manner +of countersinking, and the jaws are believed to be self-sharpening, +by reason of the peculiar right to left and left to right motion.</p> + +<blockquote><p> +<i>Ambrosia</i> or <i>timber beetles</i>, Fig. 92. This class of insects attacks living, +dead, and felled trees, sawlogs, green lumber, and stave-bolts, often +causing serious injury and loss from the pin-hole and stained-wood defects +caused by their brood galleries. The galleries are excavated by the parent +beetles in the sound sap-wood sometimes extending into the heart-wood, and +the young stages feed on a fungus growth which grows on the walls of +galleries. (Hopkins, Entom. Bulletin No. 48, p. 10.) The growth of this +ambrosia-like fungus is induced or controlled by the parent beetles and the +young are dependent on it for food. (Hopkins, <i>Agric. Yr. Bk</i>., 1904.) +</p></blockquote> +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page243" id="page243"></a>243</span> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 500px;"><a href="images/figure-092-w700.png"><img src="images/figure-092-a-500.png" width="500" height="297" alt="Work of Ambrosia Beetle, Xyloborus celsus." /></a> +<p>Fig. 92. Work of Ambrosia Beetle, +<i>Xyloborus celsus</i>, in Hickory Wood: <i>a</i>, +Larva; <i>b</i>, Pupa; <i>c</i>, Adult beetle; <i>d</i>, Character +of work in lumber cut from injured +log; <i>e</i>, Bark; <i>f</i>, Sap wood; <i>g</i>, Heartwood. +[<i>Agric. Year Book</i>, 1904, Fig. 44, +p. 384.]</p></div> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 500px;"><a href="images/figure-093-w700.png"><img src="images/figure-093-a-500.png" width="500" height="299" alt="Work of Ambrosia Beetles in Oak." /></a> +<p>Fig. 93. Work of Ambrosia Beetles in Oak: <i>a</i>, <i>Monarthum mali</i>, and work; +<i>b</i>, <i>Platypus compositus</i>, and work; <i>c</i>, +Bark; <i>d</i>, Sap-wood; <i>e</i>, Heart-wood; <i>f</i>, +Character of work in lumber from injured +log. [<i>Agric. Year Book</i>, 1904, Fig. 45, p. 384.]</p></div> + +<blockquote><p> +There are two general types or classes of +these galleries, one in which the broods develop +together in the main burrows, the other, +in which the individuals develop in short +separate side chambers extending at right +angles from the primary gallery, Fig. 93. +The galleries of the latter type are usually +accompanied by a distinct staining of the +wood, while those of the former are not. +(Hopkins, <i>Agric. Yr. Bk</i>., 1904, p. 383.)</p> + +<p><i>Bark</i> and <i>wood borers</i>, Fig. 94. This +class of enemies differs from the preceding in the fact that the parent beetles +do not burrow into the wood or bark, but deposit their eggs on the surface. +The elongate, whitish, round-headed (<i>Cerambycid</i>), flat-headed (<i>Buprestid</i>), +or short, stout (<i>Curculionid</i>) +grubs hatching from these +eggs cause injury by burrowing +beneath the bark, or +deep into the sap-wood and +heart-wood of living, injured +and dead trees, sawlogs, +etc. Some of the species +infest living trees, Fig. 95, +causing serious injury +or death. Others attack +only dead or dying bark and +wood, but this injury often +results in great loss from +the so-called wormhole defects. +(A. D. Hopkins, +<i>Entom. Bull</i>., No. 48, p. 10.) +</p></blockquote> +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page244" id="page244"></a>244</span> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 500px;"><a href="images/figure-094-w700.png"><img src="images/figure-094-a-500.png" width="500" height="273" alt="Work of Round-Headed and Flat-Headed Borers in Pine." /></a> +<p>Fig. 94. Work of Round-Headed and Flat-Headed Borers in Pine: <i>a</i>, Work +of round-headed borers, "sawyer," <i>Monohamnus</i> +sp.; <i>b</i>, <i>Ergates spiculatus</i>; <i>c</i>, Work +of flat-headed borer, <i>Buprestis</i>, larva +and adult. [<i>Agric. Year Book</i>, 1904, +Fig. 46, p. 385.]</p></div> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 600px;"><a href="images/figure-095-w800.png"><img src="images/figure-095-a-600.png" width="600" height="492" alt="Hemlock Killed by Buprestid Worms. Hoquiam, Washington." /></a> +<p>Fig. 95. Hemlock Killed by Buprestid Worms. Hoquiam, Washington. <i>U.S. Forest Service</i>.</p></div> + +<blockquote><p> +The pine sawyers are +among the most troublesome +pests in the mill +yard, and their large, +white larvae often do +much damage to logs by +eating great holes thru +their solid interior. While +burrowing in the wood +the larvae make a peculiar +grating sound that +may be heard on quiet +nights at a considerable +distance. This is a familiar +sound in the lumber +camps of the North, +and has probably given rise to the name of the pine sawyers by which these +insects are known. (<i>Forestry Bulletin</i>, No. 22, p. 58.)</p> + +<p><i>Powder-post beetles</i>, Fig. 96. This is a class of insects representing +two or three families of beetles, the larvae of which infest and convert into +fine powder many different kinds of dry and seasoned wood products, such +as hickory and ash handles, wagon spokes, lumber, etc., when wholly or in +part from the sap-wood of trees. Oak and hemlock tan-bark is sometimes +injured to a great extent, and the structural timbers of old houses, barns, +etc, are often seriously injured, while hop poles and like products are attacked +by one set of these insects, the adults of which burrow into the wood +for the purpose of +depositing their +eggs. (Hopkins, +<i>Forestry Bulletin</i> +No. 48, p. 11.) +</p></blockquote> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 500px;"><a href="images/figure-096-w800.png"><img src="images/figure-096-a-500.png" width="500" height="142" alt="Work of Powder Post Beetle, Sinoxylon basilare, in hickory pole." /></a> +<p>Fig. 96. Work of Powder Post Beetle, <i>Sinoxylon basilare</i>, in hickory pole: <i>a</i>, Character of work by larvae; +<i>b</i>, Exit holes made by emerging broods. [<i>Agric. Year +Book</i>, 1904, Fig. 49.]</p></div> + +<blockquote><p> +<i>Timber worms</i>, +Fig. 97. This class +of true wood-boring +"worms," or +grubs, are the larvae +of beetles. +They enter the +wood from eggs deposited +in wounds +in living trees, +from which they +burrow deep into +the heart-wood. +Generation after +generation may +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page245" id="page245"></a>245</span> +develop in the wood of a tree without affecting its life but the wood is rendered +worthless for most purposes by the so-called wormhole and pinhole +defects resulting from their burrows. The same species also breed in the +wood of dying and dead standing trees, and in the stumps and logs of felled +ones, often for many years after the trees are felled. One species sometimes +attacks freshly sawed oak lumber, new stave bolts, etc. They are among +the most destructive enemies +of hardwood forest +trees, especially in reducing +the value of the +wood of the best part of +the trunks. (Hopkins, +<i>Forestry Bulletin</i> No. 48, +p. 10.) +</p></blockquote> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 500px;"><a href="images/figure-097-w700.png"><img src="images/figure-097-a-500.png" width="500" height="311" alt=" Work of Timber Worms in Oak." /></a> +<p>Fig. 97. Work of Timber Worms in Oak: <i>a</i>, Work of oak timber worm, +<i>Eupsalis minuta</i>; <i>b</i>. Barked surface; +<i>c</i>. Bark; <i>d</i>. Sap-wood timber worm, <i>Hylocaetus +lugubris</i>, and its work; <i>e</i>. Sap-wood. +[<i>Agric. Year Book</i>, 1904, Fig. 47, +p. 386.]</p></div> + +<blockquote><p> +The <i>carpenter worms</i>, +Fig. 98. These are large +pinkish caterpillars which are the larvae of stout-bodied moths. They enter +the bark and wood of living oak, locust, poplar and other trees, from eggs +deposited by the moths in the crevices of uninjured bark, or in the edges of +wounds. They burrow deep into the solid wood, where they live for two or +three years before transforming to the adult. The wood is seriously injured +by the very large wormhole defects, and while the life of the tree is but +slightly, if at all, affected +by the earlier attacks, +the continued +operations of this class +of borers year after year, +finally results in the decay +of the heart-wood, or +a hollow trunk and a +dead top. (Hopkins, +<i>Forestry Bulletin</i>, No. +48, p. 11.) +</p></blockquote> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 500px;"><a href="images/figure-098-w600.png"><img src="images/figure-098-a-500.png" width="500" height="274" alt="Worm Holes in Red Oak, Work of the Oak Carpenter Worm." /></a> +<p>Fig. 98. Worm Holes in Red Oak, Work of the Oak Carpenter Worm. [<i>Agric. Year +Book</i>, 1903, Fig. 37, p. 324.]</p></div> + +<blockquote><p> +<i>Columbian Timber-beetle</i> +One of the commonest +wormhole defects +in white oak, rock oak, +beech, and tulip ("whitewood" +or "yellow poplar") +is one known to +the lumber trade as grease spots, patch-worm, or black holes, Fig. 99, steam +boats, Fig. 100, etc., caused by the Columbian timber beetle (<i>Corthylus columbianus +Hopk</i>.) The characteristic feature of this wormhole defect, which +will enable it to be readily recognized in oak and beech, is transverse series +of two or more black holes about the size of the lead in an ordinary lead +pencil, with a streak of stained wood extending with the grain two or three +or more inches each side, as in Fig. 99. In quarter-sawed oak or split or +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page246" id="page246"></a>246</span> +sawed staves, a short longitudinal +section of one of these black +holes is seen attended by the +stained streak on one side of a +thick or curly growth or grain, +Fig. 100. It is this form which +is called "steamboats." In whitewood +(yellow poplar) the black +holes are attended by very long +black, greenish, or bluish streaks, +sometimes five or six feet long. +When this is common in the +lumber it is called "calico poplar." Fig. 101 represents the characteristic appearance +of this defect greatly reduced. (Hopkins, <i>Agric. Yr. Bk</i>., 1903, p. 327.) +</p></blockquote> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 320px;"><a href="images/figure-099-w450.png"><img src="images/figure-099-a-300.png" width="300" height="452" alt="Work of the Columbian Timber Beetle: Black holes and 'grease spots' in white oak." /></a> +<p>Fig. 99. Work of the Columbian Timber Beetle: Black holes and "grease spots" in white oak. +[<i>Agric. Year Book</i>, 1903, Fig. 38, +p. 325.]</p></div> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 500px;"><a href="images/figure-100-w700.png"><img src="images/figure-100-a-500.png" width="500" height="96" alt="Work of the Columbian Timber Beetle: 'Steamboats' in quartered or Split white oak." /></a> +<p>Fig. 100. Work of the Columbian Timber Beetle: "Steamboats" in quartered or Split white oak. [<i>Agric. +Year Book</i>, 1903, Fig. 39, p. 326.]</p></div> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 500px;"><a href="images/figure-101-w800.png"><img src="images/figure-101-a-500.png" width="500" height="249" alt="Work of the Columbian Timber Beetle in Tulip Wood, 'Calico Poplar.'" /></a> +<p>Fig. 101. Work of the Columbian Timber Beetle in Tulip Wood, "Calico Poplar," [<i>Agric. Year Book</i> +1903, Fig. 40, p. 326.]</p></div> + +<blockquote><p> +<i>Carpenter bees</i>. The work of this +class of woodboring bees is shown in Fig. 102. +The injury consists of large augerlike +tunnels in exposed, solid dry wood of +buildings and other structures. It is most +common in soft woods, such as pine, poplar, +redwood and the like. (Hopkins, +<i>Agric. Yr. Bk</i>., 1904, p. 390.) +</p></blockquote> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 220px;"><a href="images/figure-102-w400.png"><img src="images/figure-102-a-180.png" width="180" height="448" alt="Work of the Carpenter Bee, Xylocopa orpifex, in Redwood Lumber." /></a> +<p>Fig. 102. Work of the Carpenter +Bee, <i>Xylocopa orpifex</i>, in Redwood Lumber: <i>a</i>, entrance; +<i>b</i>, galleries; <i>c</i>, cells; <i>d</i>, larva; +<i>e</i>, adult. [<i>Agric. Year Book</i>, +1904, Fig. 53, p. 390.]</p></div> + +<blockquote><p> +<i>Horn tails</i>. This is a class of borers +which are the larvae of the so-called wood +wasps. They may enter the exposed dead +wood of wounds of living trees, but more +commonly attack the wood of dead standing +conifers and hard woods, in the sap-wood +of which they excavate irregular +burrows, which are packed with their borings. +When the adults emerge they leave +the surface perforated with numerous +round holes. Water and fungi entering +these holes cause a very rapid decay of +the wood. (Hopkins, <i>Entom. Bull</i>. No. 48, +p. 11.) +</p></blockquote> + +<p>The tunnels of these various wood pests are most frequently to +be seen in chestnut, ash, hickory, oak, tulip, and cypress.</p> + +<p>One would think +that with such an array +of enemies, the +forest would hardly +survive, but on the +other hand there are +many enemies of these +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page247" id="page247"></a>247</span> +pests. The most destructive are the predaceous and parasitic insects. +Many insects are simply predaceous, pouncing upon and destroying +such other insects as they can overcome. +Still others are parasites, some external, +but most of them living within the bodies +of their victims where they pass their +entire larval life. The eggs are laid on +or in the body of the victim, so that as +soon as one hatches, it has suitable food. +The ichneumon fly, Fig. 103, is such a +parasite; it destroys millions of insect +pests. It has a long and peculiar ovipositor +with which it drills a hole into the +tree and deposits the egg in a burrow of +the Pigeon Horntail, a wood wasp that +burrows into deciduous trees. The larva +soon finds its victim, the grub of the +Pigeon Horntail, and lives on it to its +destruction.</p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 300px;"><a href="images/figure-103-w500.png"><img src="images/figure-103-a-300.png" width="300" height="277" alt="Ichneumon Fly whose Larva Feeds on the Larva of the Pigeon Horn-tail." /></a> +<p>Fig. 103. Ichneumon Fly whose Larva Feeds on the Larva of the Pigeon Horn-tail.</p></div> + +<p>It would seem that it is a hopeless +task to control the insect enemies of forest +trees and forest products or to prevent +losses from their ravages, but the +writer is informed by Dr. A. D. Hopkins, +the expert in the Bureau of Entomology +in charge of forest insect investigations, that the results of their investigations +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page248" id="page248">248</a></span> +show conclusively that there +are many practical and inexpensive methods of control now available +thru the suggestions and recommendations in recent Department publications +on forest insects, as well as thru direct correspondence with +the Department. These methods are based on the principle of prevention +and not on that of extermination. It has been shown that +thru proper adjustment of the details in management of forests and +of the business of manufacturing, storing, transporting, and utilizing +the products a large percentage of the losses can be prevented at small +additional expense, and that even when considerable cost is involved +the amount saved will often represent a handsome profit.</p> +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page249" id="page249"></a>249-50</span> + +<p class="note1a"><a id="footnoteChVI1" name="footnoteChVI1"></a><a class="footnote" href="#footnotetagChVI1">Footnote 1:</a> The evils of grazing are increased by the fact that fires are sometimes +started intentionally in order to increase the area of grazing land.</p> + +<h5 style="margin-top: 3em;">THE NATURAL ENEMIES OF THE FOREST.</h5> + +<ul class="none"> +<li><span class="sc">References:</span>* + +<ul class="none2"> + <li>(1) Meterological. +<ul class="none3"> + <li>Pinchot, <i>Primer</i> I, pp. 75-76.</li> + <li>Roth, <i>First Book</i>, <i>pp</i>. 198-202.</li> + <li>Bruncken, pp. 27-29.<br /><br /></li></ul></li> + + <li> Water. + <ul class="none3"> + <li>Roth, <i>First Book</i>, p. 27.<br /><br /></li></ul></li> + + <li> Snow, ice and frost. + <ul class="none3"> + <li>Pinchot, <i>Primer</i>, I, p. 76.</li> + <li>Bruce, <i>For. and Irr</i>., 8: 159, Ap. '02.<br /><br /></li></ul></li> + + <li>(2) Vegetable. + <ul class="none3"> + <li>Roth, <i>First Book</i>, p. 4.</li> + <li>Boulger, pp. 70-75.</li> + <li>Spaulding, <i>For. Bull</i>., No. 22.</li> + <li>Ward, Chaps. V, VI, VII.</li> + <li>Sickles, pp. 41-45.</li> + <li>von Schrenck, <i>For. Bull</i>., No. 41, Pl. III.</li> + <li>Sherfesee. <i>For. Circ</i>. No. 139.</li> + <li>von Schrenck, <i>Bur. Plant Ind. Bull</i>. No. 36.</li> + <li>von Schrenck, <i>Bur. Plant Ind. Bull</i>. No. 32.</li> + <li>von Schrenck, <i>Agric. Yr. Bk</i>., 1900, p. 199.<br /><br /></li></ul></li> + + <li>(3) Animal.</li> + + <li> Grazing. + <ul class="none3"> + <li>Pinchot, <i>Primer I</i>, pp. 69-73, II, p. 73.</li> + <li>Pinchot, <i>Agric. Yr. Bk</i>., 1898, p. 187</li> + <li>Coville, <i>For. Bull</i>. No. 15, pp. 28-31.</li> + <li>Roth, <i>First Bk</i>., p. 130, 178.<br /><br /></li></ul></li> + + <li> Insects. + <ul class="none3"> + <li>Comstock, passim.</li> + <li>Hopkins, <i>Agric. Yr. Bk</i>., 1902, pp. 265-282.</li> + <li>Roth, <i>First Book</i>, pp. 115-130.</li> + <li>Howard, <i>Entom. Bull</i>., No. 11, n. s.</li> + <li>Hopkins, Spaulding, <i>Entom. Bull</i>., No. 28.</li> + <li>Hopkins, <i>Entom. Bull</i>., No. 48.</li> + <li>Hopkins, <i>Agric. Yr. Bk</i>., 1903, pp. 313-329.</li> + <li>Hopkins, <i>Agric. Yr. Bk</i>., 1904, pp. 382-389, Figs. 43-56.</li> + <li>Pinchot, <i>Primer</i>, I, p. 73.</li> + <li>Felt, N. Y. <i>State Museum Bull</i>., 103, Ent. 25.</li> + <li>Hopkins, <i>Entom. Bull</i>. No. 32.</li> + <li>Hopkins, <i>Entom. Bull</i>. No. 56.</li> + <li>Hopkins, <i>Entom. Bull</i>. No. 58.</li> + <li>Spaulding and Chittenden, <i>For. Bull</i>. No. 22, pp. 55-61.</li></ul></li></ul></li> +</ul> + +<p class="note1"><span style="font-size: 1.2em;">*</span> For general bibliography, see <a class="index" href="#page4">p. 4.</a></p> + +<h2><span class="pagenum" style="font-size: 0.4em; font-weight: normal;"><a name="page251" id="page251"></a>251</span><span class="sc">Chapter VII.</span></h2> + +<h4>THE EXHAUSTION OF THE FOREST.</h4> + +<p>The exhaustion of the forest in the United States is due to two +main causes: (1) Fire, and (2) Destructive Lumbering.</p> + +<h3>FIRE.</h3> + +<p>It is not commonly realized that forest fires are almost entirely +the result of human agency. When cruisers first began to locate +claims in this country, practically no regions had been devastated by +fire. Now such regions are to be seen everywhere. Altho lightning +occasionally sets fire to forests, especially in the Rocky Mountains, +the losses from this cause are trifling compared with the total loss.</p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 600px;"><a href="images/figure-104-w800.png"><img src="images/figure-104-a-600.png" width="600" height="256" alt="Slash, Left in the Woods, and Ready to Catch Fire." /></a> +<p>Fig. 104. Slash, Left in the Woods, and Ready to Catch Fire. +<i>U. S. Forest Service</i>.</p></div> + +<p><i>Opportunities for fire</i>. There are a number of facts that make the +forest peculiarly liable to fire. Especially in the fall there are great +quantities of inflammable material, such as dry leaves, twigs, and duff +lying loose ready for ignition. The bark of some trees, as "paper +birch," and the leaves of others, as conifers, are very inflammable. It +follows that fires are more common in coniferous than in deciduous +forests. After lumbering or windfalls, the accumulated "slash" burns +easily and furiously, Fig. 104. Moreover a region once burned over, +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page252" id="page252"></a>252</span> +is particularly liable to burn again, on account of the accumulation +of dry trunks and branches. See <a class="index" href="#fig107">Fig. 107</a>.</p> + +<p>Long dry seasons and high wind furnish particularly favorable +conditions for fire. On the other hand, the wind by changing in direction +may extinguish the fire by turning it back upon its track. +Indeed the destructive power of fires depends largely upon the wind.</p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 600px;"><a href="images/figure-105-w800.png"><img src="images/figure-105-a-600.png" width="600" height="437" alt="Forest Fire." /></a> +<p>Fig. 105. Forest Fire. <i>U. S. Forest Service</i>.</p></div> + +<p><i>Causes of fire</i>. Forest fires are due to all sorts of causes, accidental +and intentional. Dropped matches, smouldering tobacco, neglected +camp fires and brush fires, locomotive sparks, may all be accidental +causes that under favorable conditions entail tremendous loss. There +is good reason to believe that many forest fires are set intentionally. +The fact that grass and berry bushes will soon spring up after a fire, +leads sheep men, cattle and pig owners, and berry pickers to set fires. +Vast areas are annually burned over in the United States for these +reasons. Most fires run only along the surface of the ground, doing +little harm to the big timber, and if left alone will even go out of +themselves; but if the duff is dry, the fire may smoulder in it a long +time, ready to break out into flame when it reaches good fuel or +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page253" id="page253"></a>253</span> +when it is fanned by the wind, Fig. 105. Even these ground fires +do incalculable damage to seeds and seedlings, and the safest plan is +to put out every fire no matter how small.</p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 250px;"><a href="images/figure-106-w400.png"><img src="images/figure-106-a-220.png" width="220" height="447" alt="Burned Forest of Engelmann Spruce. Foreground, Lodgepole Pine Coming in." /></a> +<p>Fig. 106. Burned Forest of Engelmann Spruce. Foreground, Lodgepole Pine Coming in. <i>U. S. Forest Service</i>.</p></div> + +<p>Altho it is true that the loss of a forest is not irremediable because +vegetation usually begins again at once, Fig. 106, yet the actual +damage is almost incalculable. +The tract may lie year after +year, covered with only worthless +weeds and bushes, and if +hilly, the region at once begins +to be eroded by the rains.</p> + +<p>After the fire, may come +high winds that blow down the +trunks of the trees, preparing +material for another fire, Fig. 107.</p> +<a name="fig107" id="fig107"></a> +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 600px;"><a href="images/figure-107-w800.png"><img src="images/figure-107-a-600.png" width="600" height="458" alt="Effect of Fire and Wind. Colorado." /></a> +<p>Fig. 107. Effect of Fire and Wind. Colorado. <i>U. S. Forest +Service</i>.</p></div> + +<p>The statistics of the actual +annual money loss of the timber +burned in the United States +are not gathered. In 1880 +Professor Sargent collected +much information, and in the +census of that year (10th Census, +Vol. IX) reported 10,000,000 +acres burned that year at +a value of $25,000,000.</p> + +<p>In 1891, the Division of +Forestry collected authentic +records of 12,000,000 acres +burned over in a single year, +at an estimated value of $50,000,000.</p> + +<p>In the Adironacks in the +spring of 1903, an unprecedentedly +dry season, fire after fire caused a direct loss of about $3,500,000.</p> + +<p>In 1902, a fire on the dividing line between Washington and Oregon +destroyed property amounting to $12,000,000. Within comparatively +recent years, the Pacific Coast states have lost over $100,000,000 +worth of timber by fire alone.</p> +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page254" id="page254"></a>254</span> + +<p>During September, 1908, forest fires raged in Minnesota, Michigan, +Wisconsin, Maine, New York and Pennsylvania. The estimates +of loss for northern Michigan alone amounted to $40,000,000. For +two weeks the loss was set at $1,000,000 a day. The two towns of +Hibbing and Chisholm were practically wiped out of existence, and +296 lives were lost.</p> + +<p>Certain forest fires have been so gigantic and terrible as to become +historic.</p> + +<blockquote><p> +One of these is the Miramichi fire of 1825. It began its greatest destruction +about one o'clock in the afternoon of October 7th of that year, at a +place about sixty miles above the town of Newcastle, on the Miramichi River, +in New Brunswick. Before ten o'clock at night it was twenty miles below +New Castle. In nine hours it had destroyed a belt of forest eighty miles long +and twenty-five miles wide. Over more than two and a half million acres +almost every living thing was killed. Even the fish were afterwards found +dead in heaps on the river banks. Many buildings and towns were destroyed, +one hundred and sixty persons perished, and nearly a thousand head of stock. +The loss from the Miramichi fire is estimated at $300,000, not including +the value of the timber. (Pinchot, Part 1. p. 79-80.)</p> +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page255" id="page255"></a>255</span> + +<p>Of such calamities, one of the worst that is on record is that known as +the Peshtigo fire, which, in 1871, during the same month, October, when Chicago +was laid in ashes, devastated the country about the shores of Green +Bay in Wisconsin. More than $3,000,000 worth of property was burnt, at +least two thousand families of settlers were made homeless, villages were +destroyed and over a thousand lives lost. (Bruncken, p. 110.)</p> + +<p>The most destructive fire of more recent years was that which started +near Hinckley, Minn., September 1, 1894. While the area burned over was +less than in some other great fires, the loss of life and property was very +heavy. Hinckley and six other towns were destroyed, about 500 lives were +lost, more than 2,000 persons were left destitute, and the estimated loss in +property of various kinds was $25,000,000. Except for the heroic conduct +of locomotive engineers and other railroad men, the loss of life would have +been far greater.</p> + +<p>This fire was all the more deplorable, because it was wholly unnecessary. +For many days before the high wind came and drove it into uncontrollable +fury, it was burning slowly close to the town of Hinckley and could have +been put out. (Pinchot, Part I, 82-83.) +</p></blockquote> + +<p>One of the most remarkable features of these "crown fires," is the +rapidity with which they travel. The Miramichi fire traveled nine +miles an hour.</p> + +<p>To get an idea of the fury of a forest fire, read this description +from Bruncken. After describing the steady, slow progress of a duff +fire, he proceeds:</p> + +<blockquote><p> +But there comes an evening when nobody thinks of going to bed. All +day the smoke has become denser and denser, until it is no longer a haze, but +a thick yellowish mass of vapor, carrying large particles of sooty cinders, +filling one's eyes and nostrils with biting dust, making breathing oppressive. +There is no escape from it. Closing windows and doors does not bar it out +of the houses; it seems as if it could penetrate solid walls. Everything it +touches feels rough, as if covered with fine ashes. The heat is horrible altho +no ray of sunshine penetrates the heavy pall of smoke.</p> + +<p>In the distance a rumbling, rushing sound is heard. It is the fire +roaring in the tree tops on the hill sides, several miles from town. This is +no longer a number of small fires, slowly smouldering away to eat up a +fallen log; nor little dancing flames running along the dry litter on the +ground, trying to creep up the bark of a tree, where the lichens are thick +and dry, but presently falling back exhausted. The wind has risen, fanning +the flames on all sides, till they leap higher and higher, reaching the lower +branches of the standing timber, enveloping the mighty boles of cork pine +in a sheet of flame, seizing the tall poles of young trees and converting +them into blazing beacons that herald the approach of destruction. Fiercer +and fiercer blows the wind, generated by the fire itself as it sends currents +of heated air rushing upward into infinity. Louder and louder the cracking +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page256" id="page256"></a>256</span> +of the branches as the flames seize one after the other, leaping from crown +to crown, rising high above the tree tops in whirling wreaths of fire, and +belching forth clouds of smoke hundreds of feet still higher. As the heated +air rises more and more, rushing along with a sound like that of a thousand +foaming mountain torrents, burning brands are carried along, whirling on +across the firmament like evil spirits of destruction, bearing the fire miles +away from its origin, then falling among the dry brush heaps of windfall or +slashing, and starting another fire to burn as fiercely as the first. * * *</p> + +<p>There is something horrible in the slow, steady approach of a top fire. +It comes on with the pitiless determination of unavoidable destiny, not +faster than a man can walk. But there is no stopping it. You cannot fight +a fire that seizes tree top after tree top, far above your reach, and showers +down upon the pigmy mortals that attempt to oppose it an avalanch of +burning branches, driving them away to escape the torture and death that +threatens them. (Bruncken, <i>American Forests and Forestry</i>, 106-109.) +</p></blockquote> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 500px;"><a href="images/figure-108-w800.png"><img src="images/figure-108-a-500.png" width="500" height="434" alt="Fighting Forest Fire." /></a> +<p>Fig. 108. Fighting Forest Fire. <i>U. S. Forest Service</i>.</p></div> + +<p>Real forest fires are not usually put out; men only try to limit +them. A common method of limitation is to cut trenches thru the +duff so that the fire cannot pass across, Fig. 108. In serious cases +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page257" id="page257"></a>257</span> +back fires are built on the side +of the paths or roads or trenches +toward the fire, in the expectation +that the two fires will meet. +In such cases great care has to +be taken that the back fire itself +does not escape. Small fires, +however, can sometimes be beaten +out or smothered with dirt and +sand, since water is usually unavailable.</p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 350px;"><a href="images/figure-109-w600.png"><img src="images/figure-109-a-350.png" width="350" height="460" alt="Fire Lane. Worcester Co., Mass." /></a> +<p>Fig. 109. Fire Lane. Worcester Co., Mass. +<i>U. S. Forest Service</i>.</p></div> + +<p>But "an ounce of prevention +is worth a pound of cure." One +of the best of these preventions +is a system of fire lanes. Even +narrow paths of dirt will stop +an ordinary fire. Roads, of +course, are still better. Systems +of fire lanes, Fig. 109, are made great use of in Europe and British +India. Belts of hardwood trees are also cultivated along railways, +and to break up large bodies +of conifers.</p> + +<p>If in lumbering, the slash +were destroyed or even cut up +so as to lie near the ground +and rot quickly, many fires +would be prevented.</p> + +<p>Some states, as New York, +have a fairly well organized +system of fire wardens, +who have the authority to +draft as much male help as +they need at $2.00 a day to +fight forest fires. Unfortunately +"ne'er-do-wells" sometimes +set fire to the woods, in +order to "make work" for +themselves. Much preventive +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page258" id="page258"></a>258</span> +work is also done by educating the public in schools and by the posting +of the fire notices,<a id="footnotetagChVII1" name="footnotetagChVII1"></a><a href="#footnoteChVII1"><sup>1</sup></a> Fig. 110.</p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 330px;"><a href="images/figure-110-w600.png"><img src="images/figure-110-a-330.png" width="330" height="458" alt="Look out for Fire. Rules and Laws." /></a> +<p>Fig. 110. Look out for Fire. Rules and Laws.</p></div> + +<h3>DESTRUCTIVE LUMBERING.</h3> + +<p>How the reckless and destructive methods of lumbering common +in America came into vogue, is worth noting.<a id="footnotetagChVII2" name="footnotetagChVII2"></a><a href="#footnoteChVII2"><sup>2</sup></a></p> + +<p>The great historical fact of the first half century of our country +was the conquest of the wilderness. That wilderness was largely an +unbroken forest. To the early settler, this forest was the greatest of +barriers to agriculture. The crash of a felled tree was to him a +symbol of advancing civilization. The woods were something to be +got rid of to make room for farms, Fig. 111. In Virginia, for example, +where the soil was soon exhausted by tobacco culture and +modern fertilizers were unknown, there was a continual advance into +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page259" id="page259"></a>259-60</span> +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page260" id="page260"></a></span> +the woods to plant on new and richer land. The forest was also full +of enemies to the settler, both animals and Indians, and was a +dreaded field for fire. So there grew up a feeling of hate and fear +for the forest.</p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 600px;"><a href="images/figure-111-w800.png"><img src="images/figure-111-a-600.png" width="600" height="406" alt="Forest Giving Place to Farm Land. North Carolina." /></a> +<p>Fig. 111. Forest Giving Place to Farm Land. North Carolina. <i>U. +S. Forest Service</i>.</p></div> + +<p>More than that the forest seemed exhaustless. The clearings were +at first only specks in the woods, and even when they were pushed +farther and farther back from the seacoast, there was plenty of +timber beyond.</p> + +<blockquote><p> +The idea that the area of this forest could ever be diminished by human +hands to any appreciable extent so that people would become afraid of not +having woodland enough to supply them with the needed lumber, would have +seemed an utter absurdity to the backwoodsman. * * * Thus the legend +arose of the inexhaustible supply of lumber in American forests, a legend +which only within the last twenty years has given place to juster notions. +(Bruncken, p. 57.) +</p></blockquote> + +<p>This tradition of abundant supply and the feeling of hostility to +the forest lasted long after the reasons for them had disappeared. +When we remember that every farm in the eastern United States, is +made from reclaimed forest land and that for decades lumber was +always within reach up the rivers, down which it was floated, it is +not strange that reckless and extravagant methods of cutting and +using it prevailed.</p> + +<p>Following the settler came the lumberman, who continued the +same method of laying waste the forest land. The lumber market +grew slowly at first, but later developed by leaps and bounds, until +now the output is enormous.</p> +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page261" id="page261"></a>261</span> + +<p>Lumbering in America has come to be synonymous with the clearing +off of all the marketable timber, regardless of the future. It +treats the forest as tho it were a mine, not a crop, Fig. 112. Since +1880 the total cut has been over 700,000,000 feet, enough to make a +one inch floor over Vermont, Massachusetts, Connecticut, Rhode Island +and Delaware, or one-half of the State of New York, an area +of 25,000 square miles.</p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 600px;"><a href="images/figure-112-w800.png"><img src="images/figure-112-a-600.png" width="600" height="226" alt="Redwood Forest Turned Into Pasture. California." /></a> +<p>Fig. 112. Redwood Forest Turned Into Pasture. California. +<i>U. S. Forest Service</i>.</p></div> + +<p>Other countries, too, have devastated their forests. Portugal has +a forest area of only 5 per cent. of the total land area, Spain and +Greece, each 13 per cent., Italy 14 per cent. and Turkey 20 per cent. +Whether the destruction of the American forests shall go as far as +this is now a live question which has only just begun to be appreciated.</p> + +<p>Another reason for the reckless American attitude toward the +forest is the frequency and severity of forest fires. This has led to +the fear on the part of lumbermen of losing what stumpage they +had, and so they have cleared their holdings quickly and sold the +timber. Their motto was "cut or lose."</p> + +<p>A third incentive to devastative methods was the levy of what +were considered unjust taxes.</p> + +<blockquote><p> +Hundreds of thousands of acres in the white pine region, notably in +Michigan, Wisconsin, and Minnesota, have been cut over, abandoned, sold +for taxes, and finally reduced by fire to a useless wilderness because of the +shortsighted policy of heavy taxation. To lay heavy taxes on timber land +is to set a premium on forest destruction, a premium that is doing more +than any other single factor to hinder the spread of conservative lumbering +among the owners of large bodies of timber land. * * * Heavy taxes are +responsible for the barrenness of thousands of square miles which should +never have ceased to be productive, and which must now lie fallow for many +decades before they can be counted again among the wealth-making assets +of the nation. (Pinchot, <i>Agric. Yr. Bk</i>., 1898, pp. 184-185.)</p> + +<p>On the treatment of the questions of fire and taxes depends the future +of American forest industries. (Bruncken, p. 226.) +</p></blockquote> + +<p>Undoubtedly much waste has been caused by sheer ignorance of +forest conditions and methods, which, if followed, would secure successive +crops instead of one, but it is safe to say that the desire for +immediate profits has been the dominant cause of reckless lumbering. +So short-sighted has the policy of private owners proved itself, that +it is a question whether any large extent of forest land can safely be +left in private hands. No individual lives long enough to reap more +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page262" id="page262"></a>262</span> +than one forest crop. Only corporations and States can be expected +to have an interest long enough continued to justify the methods of +conservative lumbering.</p> + +<p>As a matter of fact, nearly one-half of the privately owned timber +of the United States is held by 195 great holders, the principal +ones being the Southern Pacific Company, the Weyerhauser Timber +Company, and the Northern Pacific Railway Company, which together +own nearly 11 per cent. of the privately owned forests of the +country. These large holders are cutting little of their timber, their +object, however, being not so much to conserve the forests as to reserve +to themselves the incalculable private profits which are expected +to come with the future enormous increase in the value of +timber.</p> + +<p>Over against this policy, stands that of the United States Forest +Service of increasing the area of the National Forests in order to +conserve them for the public welfare. The pity is that the government +ever let the forests pass out of its hands. Only forty years ago +seventy-five per cent. of the timber now standing was publicly owned. +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page263" id="page263"></a>263</span> +Now about eighty per cent. of it is privately owned. In the meanwhile +its value has increased anywhere from ten to fifty fold, according to +locality.<a id="footnotetagChVII3" name="footnotetagChVII3"></a><a href="#footnoteChVII3"><sup>3</sup></a> Some large corporations, however, like the Pennsylvania +Railroad, the Kirby Lumber Company, of Texas, and the International +Paper Company, have entered upon a policy of conservative +lumbering.</p> + +<p>Of the actual practices which distinguish destructive lumbering, a +few may be cited. Stumps are cut too high and tops too low. Good +lumber is wasted on lumber roads and bridges, Fig. 113. Saplings are +torn down in dragging out logs. Slash is left in condition to foster +fires and left with no shade protection. Seedlings are smothered +with slash. Seed trees are all cut out leaving no chance for reproduction. +Only poorer sorts of trees are left standing, thus insuring +deterioration. Paper pulp cutting goes even farther than lumbering, +and ordinarily leaves nothing behind but a howling wilderness.</p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 600px;"><a href="images/figure-113-w800.png"><img src="images/figure-113-a-600.png" width="600" height="453" alt="Red Spruce Used in Building Skidway, and Left in the Woods. Hamilton Co., New York." /></a> +<p>Fig. 113. Red Spruce Used in Building Skidway, and Left in the Woods. Hamilton Co., New York.</p></div> + +<p>The production of turpentine from the long-leaf pine, Fig. 114, +at the annual rate of 40,000 barrels has meant the devastation of +70,000 acres of virgin forest.</p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 600px;"><a href="images/figure-114-w800.png"><img src="images/figure-114-a-600.png" width="600" height="477" alt="Turpentine Boxing, Cup System. Georgia." /></a> +<p>Fig. 114. Turpentine Boxing, Cup System. Georgia. <i>U. S. Forest Service</i>.</p></div> +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page264" id="page264"></a>264</span> + +<p>In view of this wholesale destruction it becomes of interest to +know how much still remains of the timber supply of the United +States. The latest and most authoritative estimate of standing timber +in continental United States, excluding Alaska, gives a total of +2,800,000,000 M feet B.M.,<a id="footnotetagChVII4" name="footnotetagChVII4"></a><a href="#footnoteChVII4"><sup>4</sup></a> of which 2,200,000,000 M feet are privately +owned, about 539,000,000 M feet are in the National Forests +(Fig. 119, <a class="index" href="#page272">p. 272</a>), and 90,000,000 M feet are on the unreserved public +lands, National parks, State lands and Indian reservations.</p> + +<p>Earlier estimates were hardly more than guesses. For example +the census of 1880 estimated the stumpage of the U. S. at 856,290,100 +M feet, while the census of 1900 gives a total of 1,390,000,000 +M feet. The discrepancy appears still greater when it is remembered +that in the meantime 700,000,000 M feet were cut. Of this amount +500,000,000 M feet were of conifers or 80,000,000 M feet more than +were included in the estimate of 1880. The simple fact is of course +that the earlier estimates were gross underestimates, due to the fact +that they were based on entirely inadequate data, and therefore can +not be used to obscure the now unquestionable fact that the timber +supply of this country is surely and rapidly melting away.</p> + +<p>The Forest Service estimates that the present annual cut of saw +timber is about 50,000,000 M feet. At this rate the present stand +would last about 55 years and the privately owned timber only 44 +years. This estimate does not allow for growth and decay.</p> + +<p>While the population of the United States increased 52 per cent. +from 1880 to 1900, during the same period the lumber-cut increased +94 per cent. In other words the yearly increase in use is 20 to 25 +per cent. per capita, that is, fast as the population grows, the lumber +consumption increases nearly twice as fast. This increase in the +lumber-cut far overbalances the growth of trees.</p> + +<p>It is also to be remembered that this increase in the use of lumber +is in spite of the enormous increase of substitutes for lumber, +such as brick, cement and steel for building, and steel for bridges, +vehicles, fences, machinery, tools, and implements of all kinds.</p> + +<p>How lavishly we use lumber may further be appreciated from the +fact that we consume 260 cubic feet<a id="footnotetagChVII5" name="footnotetagChVII5"></a><a href="#footnoteChVII5"><sup>5</sup></a> per capita, while the average +for 13 European countries is but 49 cubic feet per capita. In other +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page265" id="page265"></a>265</span> +words every person in the U. S. is using five times as much wood as +he would use if he lived in Europe. It is estimated that on an average +each person in this country uses annually the product of 25 acres of +forest. <i>The country as a whole, cuts every year, between three and +four times more wood than all the forests grow in the meantime</i>. By +contrast, the principal countries of Europe, cut just the annual +growth, while Russia, Sweden and Japan, cut less than the growth. +In other words, the 2,800,000,000,000 feet B.M. of the stumpage of +the United States is a capital which is constantly drawn upon, +whereas, the 944,700,000,000 board feet of the forest of the German +Empire is a capital which is untouched but produces annually 300 +board feet per acre.</p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 600px;"><a href="images/figure-115-w800.png"><img src="images/figure-115-a-600.png" width="600" height="142" alt="(Lumber Production by Regions, 1907)." /></a> +<p>Fig. 115. (Lumber Production by Regions, 1907).<br /><br /></p> + +<p>Southern States include: Virginia, North Carolina, South Carolina, +Georgia, Florida, Alabama, Mississippi, Louisiana, Arkansas, Texas and Oklahoma.<br /><br /></p> + +<p>Pacific States include: Washington, Oregon and California.<br /><br /></p> + +<p>North Atlantic States include: New England, New York, Pennsylvania, New +Jersey, Delaware, and Maryland.<br /><br /></p> + +<p>Lake States include: Michigan, Wisconsin, and Minnesota.<br /><br /></p> + +<p>Central States include: Ohio, West Virginia, Kentucky, Tennessee, Indiana, +Illinois, and Missouri.<br /><br /></p> + +<p>Rocky Mountain States include: Montana, Idaho, Wyoming, Nevada, Utah, +Colorado, Arizona, and New Mexico.</p></div> + +<p>One striking evidence of the decrease of the timber supply is the +shifting of its sources. Once the northeastern States produced over +half of the lumber product. They reached their relative maximum +in 1870 when they produced 36 per cent. At that time the Lake +States produced about 24 per cent. By 1890 the Lake States came to +their maximum of 36 per cent. Today the southern States are near +their maximum with 41 per cent., but the center will soon shift to +the Pacific States. Their product rose from less than 10 per cent. of +the whole in 1900 to 17 per cent. in 1908, Figs. 115 and 116. When +that virgin forest has been cut off, there will be no new region to +exploit; whereas, heretofore, when a region was exhausted, the lumbermen +have always had a new one to which to move. At the annual +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page266" id="page266"></a>266</span> +meeting of the Northern Pine Manufacturers' Association in Minneapolis, +Minn., January 22, 1907, Secretary J. E. Rhodes made this +striking statement:</p> + +<blockquote><p> +Since 1895, 248 firms, representing an annual aggregate output of pine +lumber of 4¼ billion feet, have retired from business, due to the exhaustion +of their timber supply. Plants representing approximately 500 million +feet capacity, which sawed in 1906, will not be operated in 1907.</p> + +<p>The shifting of the chief sources of supply has, of course, been accompanied +by a change in the kinds of lumber produced. There was a time +when white pine alone constituted one-half of the total quantity. In 1900 +this species furnished but 21.5 per cent., in 1904 only 15 per cent., of the +lumber cut.<a id="footnotetagChVII6" name="footnotetagChVII6"></a><a href="#footnoteChVII6"><sup>6</sup></a> We do not use less pine because we have found something better, +but because we have to put up with something worse. +</p></blockquote> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 350px;"><a href="images/figure-116-w500.png"><img src="images/figure-116-a-330.png" width="330" height="443" alt="(Lumber Production by States)." /></a> +<p>Fig. 116. (Lumber Production by States).</p></div> + +<p>The present annual cut of southern yellow pine is about 13¼ +million M feet, or a little less than one-third of the total cut of all +the species. At the present rate of consumption, it is evident that +within ten or fifteen years, +there will be a most serious +shortage of it. Meanwhile the +cut of Douglas fir on the Pacific +coast has increased from 5 +per cent. of the total lumber +cut in 1900 to 12 per cent. in +1905. This increase is in spite +of the fact, already noted (<a class="index" href="#page262">p. 262</a>) that the great timber +owning companies of the northwest +are holding their stumpage +for an expected great increase +in value.</p> + +<p>Another evidence of shortage +is the almost total disappearance +of certain valuable +species. Hickory, which once +made American buggies famous, +is getting very scarce, and black walnut once commonly used +for furniture, is available now for only fine cabinet work, veneers, +gun stocks, etc. Hardwoods that are fit for the saw are rapidly decreasing. +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page267" id="page267"></a>267</span> +The hardwood cut of 1900 of 8,634,000 M feet diminished +in 1904 to 6,781,000 M feet.</p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 470px;"><a href="images/figure-117-w800.png"><img src="images/figure-117-a-450.png" width="459" height="464" alt="(Lumber Production by Species)." /></a> +<p>Fig. 117. (Lumber Production by Species).</p></div> + +<p>A still further evidence of the decreasing supply, is the rising +scale of prices. White pine, which sold for $45.00 per M during +1887-1892, sold for $100.00 f.o.b. N. Y., Jan. 1, 1911. Yellow +poplar went up in the same period, 1887-1911, from $29.00 to $63.00. +Yellow pine rose from $18.00 in 1896 to $47.00 in 1911, and hemlock, +the meanest of all woods, from $11.50 in 1889 to $21.00 in +1911, Fig. 118.</p> +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page268" id="page268"></a>268</span> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 450px;"><a href="images/figure-118-w500.png"><img src="images/figure-118-a-350.png" width="350" height="406" alt="Wholesale lumber prices, 1887-1911." /></a> +<p class="note2">Fig. 118. Wholesale lumber prices, 1887-1911.</p> + +<p class="note2">The qualities of lumber shown in the above chart are as follows:</p> + +<p class="note2">White Ash, 1st and 2d, 1" and 1½" x 8" and up by 12'-16'.</p> + +<p class="note2">Basswood, 1st and 2d, 1" x 8" and up by x <ins title="Transcriber's Note: sic: the transcriber has no idea what was meant here.">00"</ins>.</p> + +<p class="note2">White Oak, quarter-sawed, 1st and 2d, all figured, 1" x 6" and up x 10'-16'.</p> + +<p class="note2">Yellow poplar, 1st and 2d, 1" x 7"-17" x 12'-16'.</p> + +<p class="note2">Hemlock, boards</p> + +<p class="note2">Spruce, No. 1 and clear, 1" and 1¼" x 4" x 13'.</p> + +<p class="note2">White pine, rough uppers, 1" x 8" and up x <ins title="Transcriber's Note: sic: the transcriber has no idea what was meant here.">00'</ins>.</p> + +<p class="note2">Yellow pine, edge grain flooring. The curve is approximately correct, for the +standard of quality has been changed several times.</p></div> +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page269" id="page269"></a>269</span> + +<p>It is to be remembered, moreover, that as the timber in any region +becomes scarcer, the minimum cutting limit is constantly lowered, +and the standard of quality constantly depreciated. Poorer +species and qualities and smaller sizes, which were once rejected, are +now accepted in the market. For example, 6 inches is now a common +cutting diameter for pine and spruce, whereas 12 inches was the +minimum limit, and on the Pacific coast there is still nothing cut +below 18 inches. This cutting of smaller sizes is largely due to the +capacious maw of the pulp mill, which swallows even the poorest +stuff. Altho the amount of wood used for paper pulp is small in +comparison with the total lumber production, being about 5.4 per +cent., yet this cutting of young growth keeps the forest land devastated. +In 1906 nearly 9,000,000 tons of wood were used for paper +pulp in the United States.</p> + +<blockquote><p> +No one who is at all familiar with the situation doubts for an instant +that we are rapidly using up our <i>forest capital</i>. In fact it is unquestionably +safe to say that our present annual consumption of wood in all forms is +<i>from three to four times as great as the annual increment of our forests</i>. +Even by accepting the highest estimate of the amount of timber standing +we postpone for only a few years the time when there must be a great curtailment +in the use of wood, if the present methods of forest exploitation +are continued. Every indication points to the fact that under present conditions +the maximum annual yield of forest products for the country as a +whole has been reached, and that in a comparatively short time, there will +be a marked decrease in the total output, as there is now in several items. +(Kellogg, <i>Forestry Circular</i>, No. 97, p. 12.) +</p></blockquote> + +<p>On the other hand, it is to be remembered that there are influences +which tend to save and extend the forest area. These will be +considered in the next chapter, on the Use of the Forest.</p> + +<p class="note1"><a id="footnoteChVII1" name="footnoteChVII1"></a><a class="footnote" href="#footnotetagChVII1">Footnote 1:</a></p> + +<h5>LOOK OUT FOR FIRE!</h5> + +<h6 class="note1"><span class="sc">Rules and Laws.</span></h6> + +<p class="note1">Fires for clearing land near a forest must not be started until the trees +are in full leaf. Before lighting such fires three days' notice, at least, must +be given to the Firewarden and occupants of adjoining lands. After such +fires are lighted, competent persons must remain to guard them until the +fire is completely extinguished, and the persons starting such fires will be +held responsible for all damages notwithstanding notice had been given to +the Firewarden.</p> + +<p class="note3">Fires will be permitted for the purposes of cooking, warmth and insect +smudges, but before such fires are kindled, sufficient space around the spot +where the fire is to be lighted must be cleared from all combustible material; +and before the place is abandoned, fires so lighted must be thoroly quenched.</p> + +<p class="note3">All fires other than those hereinbefore mentioned are absolutely prohibited.</p> + +<p class="note3">Hunters and smokers are cautioned against allowing fires to originate +from the use of firearms, cigars and pipes.</p> + +<p class="note3">Especial care should be taken that lighted matches are extinguished before +throwing them down.</p> + +<p class="note3">All persons are warned that they will be held responsible for any damage +or injury to the forest which may result from their carelessness or neglect.</p> + +<p class="note3">Girdling and peeling bark from standing trees on state land is prohibited. +Fallen timber only may be used for firewood.</p> + +<p class="note3">All citizens are requested to report immediately any cases which may +come to their knowledge of injury to woodlands arising from a violation +of these rules.</p> + +<p class="note3">Then follow quotations from the laws of the state of New York.</p> + +<p class="note1"><a id="footnoteChVII2" name="footnoteChVII2"></a><a class="footnote" href="#footnotetagChVII2">Footnote 2:</a> For the common methods of logging see <i>Handwork in Wood</i>, Chapter I.</p> + +<p class="note1"><a id="footnoteChVII3" name="footnoteChVII3"></a><a class="footnote" href="#footnotetagChVII3">Footnote 3:</a> See Summary of Report of the Commissioner of Corporations on the +Lumber Industry. February 13, 1911. Washington, D. C.</p> + +<p class="note1"><a id="footnoteChVII4" name="footnoteChVII4"></a><a class="footnote" href="#footnotetagChVII4">Footnote 4:</a> A board foot is one foot square and one inch thick.</p> + +<p class="note1"><a id="footnoteChVII5" name="footnoteChVII5"></a><a class="footnote" href="#footnotetagChVII5">Footnote 5:</a> 167 cubic feet equal about 1000 board feet.</p> + +<p class="note1a"><a id="footnoteChVII6" name="footnoteChVII6"></a><a class="footnote" href="#footnotetagChVII6">Footnote 6:</a> <i>Forestry Circular</i>, No. 97.</p> + +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page270" id="page270"></a>270</span> + +<h5 style="margin-top: 3em;">THE EXHAUSTION OF THE FOREST</h5> + +<ul class="none"> +<li><span class="sc">References:</span>* +<ul class="none2"> + <li>(1) Fires. +<ul class="none3"> + <li>Bruncken, pp. 183-207.</li> + <li>Pinchot, <i>Agric. Yr. Bk</i>., p. 189.</li> + <li>Suter, <i>For. Circ</i>. No. 36.</li> + <li>U. S. Tenth Census, Vol. IX, p. 491 ff.</li> + <li>Pinchot, <i>Primer</i>, pp. 77-88.</li> + <li>Roth, <i>First Book</i>, pp. 104-112.</li> + <li>Sterling, <i>Agric. Yr. Bk</i>., 1904, p. 133.<br /><br /></li></ul></li> + + <li>(2) Destructive Lumbering.</li> + + <li> The Settler's Tradition. + <ul class="none3"> + <li>Bruncken, pp. 40-59, 94.</li> + <li>Roth, <i>First Book</i>, pp. 41-45.</li> + <li>Pinchot, <i>Primer</i>, II, p. 82.<br /><br /></li></ul></li> + + <li> Taxation. + <ul class="none3"> + <li><i>For. and Irr</i>., April, '06.</li> + <li>Pinchot, <i>Agric. Yr. Bk</i>., 1898, p. 184.<br /><br /></li></ul></li> + + <li> Reckless Practices. + <ul class="none3"> + <li>Pinchot, <i>Primer</i> II, 42-47.</li> + <li>Pinchot, <i>Agric. Yr. Bk</i>., 1898, p. 184.</li> + <li>Pinchot, <i>For. Circ</i>., No. 25, p. 11.</li> + <li>Price, <i>Agric. Yr. Bk</i>., 1902, p. 310.</li> + <li>Fox, <i>For. Bull</i>., No. 34, p. 40.</li> + <li>Peters, <i>Agric. Yr. Bk</i>., 1905, pp. 483-494.</li> + <li>Graves, <i>Agric. Yr. Bk</i>., 1899, p. 415.</li> + <li>Suter, <i>For. Bull</i>., 26, pp. 58, 69, 76.</li> + <li>Mohr, <i>For. Bull</i>. No. 13, p. 61.</li> + <li>Bruncken, pp. 90-98.<br /><br /></li></ul></li> + + <li> The Timber Supply. + <ul class="none3"> + <li>Kellogg, <i>For. Circ</i>., No. 97 ...</li> + <li>Zon, <i>For. Bull</i>., No. 83.</li> + <li>Fernow, <i>Economics</i>, pp. 35-45.</li> + <li>Report of the Commissioner of Corporations on the Lumber Industry. Part I, Feb. 13, 1911.</li></ul></li></ul></li> +</ul> + +<p class="note1"><span style="font-size: 1.2em;">*</span> For general bibliography, see <a class="index" href="#page4">p. 4.</a></p> + +<h2><span class="pagenum" style="font-size: 0.4em; font-weight: normal;"><a name="page271" id="page271"></a>271</span><span class="sc">Chapter VIII.</span></h2> + +<h4>THE USE OF THE FOREST.</h4> + +<p>Man's relation to the forest has not been entirely destructive and +injurious. He has exerted and is more and more exerting influences +which while still enabling him to use the forest, also preserve and +improve it. These activities may all be included under the term +Forestry.</p> + +<p>The objects of modern forestry then are threefold: 1. The <i>utilization</i> +of the forest and its products, the main object; 2. The <i>preservation</i> +of the forest, <i>i.e.</i>, its continued reproduction; 3. The +<i>improvement</i> +of the forest.</p> + +<h3>UTILIZATION.</h3> + +<p>The uses of the forest are threefold: (1) Protective, (2) Productive, +and (3) Esthetic.</p> + +<p>(1) <i>Protective</i>. The forest may be used as a protection against +floods, wind, shifting sand, heat, drought, etc. The National Forests +of the United States, Fig. 119, with the state forests, which include +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page272" id="page272"></a>272-4</span> +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page273" id="page273"></a></span> + +one-fifth of the total forest area, are largely treated as "protection +forests" to maintain the head waters of streams, Fig. 120, used for +irrigation, for power or for commerce. The attempt now being made +to reserve large areas in the White Mountains and southern Appalachians +is chiefly for this purpose of protection.</p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 600px;"><a href="images/figure-119-w1200.png"><img src="images/figure-119-a-600.png" width="600" height="376" alt="National Forests in the United States." /></a> +<p>Fig. 119. National Forests in the United States.</p></div> + +<p>A comparison of Figs. 120 and 121 shows clearly the difference +between a region protected by forest and one unprotected.<a id="footnotetagChVIII1" name="footnotetagChVIII1"></a><a href="#footnoteChVIII1"><sup>1</sup></a></p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 600px;"><a href="images/figure-120-w800.png"><img src="images/figure-120-a-600.png" width="600" height="370" alt="A Protection Forest, Maintaining the Headwaters of Streams. North Carolina." /></a> +<p>Fig. 120. A Protection Forest, Maintaining the Headwaters of Streams. North Carolina. <i>U. S. Forest Service</i>.</p></div> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 600px;"><a href="images/figure-121-w800.png"><img src="images/figure-121-a-600.png" width="600" height="367" alt="Hillside Erosion. North Carolina." /></a> +<p>Fig. 121. Hillside Erosion. North Carolina. <i>U. S. Forest Service</i></p></div> +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page274" id="page274"></a></span> +<p>(2) <i>Productive</i>. All practical foresters have as their first aim the +<i>yield</i> of the forest. This distinguishes forestry from landscape +architecture, +the object of which may equally be the preservation and improvement +of a given tract. The crop to be produced is as truly the +prime concern of the forester as the raising of agricultural crops is +the prime concern of the farmer. It is for this reason that forestry +is said to be the same thing as conservative lumbering, Fig. 122. The +prejudice of lumbermen against forestry has arisen from a misunderstanding +of its aim. Its aim is not to prevent the cutting down +of trees, but to direct their cutting in such ways that in the future +there will still be trees to cut. "Thru use to a greater use," is the +motto of the Forest Service. The difference between destructive lumbering +and conservative lumbering is that the former cuts one crop +regardless of the future; while the latter plans to cut crop after crop +indefinitely. In other words, in conservative lumbering, the trees to +be cut are not selected solely with reference to their immediate market +value. Not one crop, but many, is the forester's motto.</p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 560px;"><a href="images/figure-122-w700.png"><img src="images/figure-122-a-560.png" width="560" height="461" alt="Conservative Lumbering. Black Hills National Forest, South Dakota." /></a> +<p>Fig. 122. Conservative Lumbering. Black Hills National Forest, South Dakota. +Note the brush, cord-wood, and logs piled separately,—a fine clean-up. Nothing +cut below 12" diameter. <i>U. S. Forest Service</i>.</p></div> + +<p>So long as the supply seemed exhaustless, forests might be and +were treated as mines are, <i>i.e</i>., exploited for the sake of immediate +profit; but now that lumbermen begin to realize that the end of the +supply is in sight, more conservative methods are being adopted. We +cannot afford to kill the goose that lays the golden eggs. In order +then to obtain as rich harvests as possible, the modern forester makes +use of various methods, some negative, some positive.</p> + +<p>Waste is avoided in all possible ways, stumps are cut low and tops +high on the trunk, first class trees are not used for skids, bridges, +roads, etc., care is taken in "falling" trees and in dragging out logs, +that they will not injure other trees. Just as economical disposal of +the log has already been carried to a high degree of perfection in the +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page275" id="page275"></a>275</span> +saw-mill, (see <i>Handwork in Wood</i>, Chapter II,) so one object of +forestry is to carry this economy back into the woods.</p> + +<p>One of the underlying ideas in conservative lumbering is that the +"yield," <i>i.e.</i>, the amount of wood taken out of a healthy forest in a +given time, shall be equal to the amount grown during the same +period. If less is taken out than grows, some trees will overmature +and decay; if more is taken out than grows, the forest will ultimately +be exhausted.</p> + +<p>This principle may be carried out in a number of ways; but in +any case it is necessary to know how fast the forest is reproducing +itself, and this is one of the functions of the forester. The United +States Forest Service makes a definite offer of cooperation with +farmers and lumbermen and owners of forests to provide them with +skilled foresters for direction in this matter.</p> + +<p>In the United States, the most practicable way of determining the +yield is by area, <i>i.e.</i>, a certain fraction of a forest is to be cut over +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page276" id="page276"></a>276</span> +once in a given length of time, a year or longer. The time between +two successive cuttings on the same area must be long enough to allow +the young trees left standing to ripen.</p> + +<p>In a word, conservative lumbering involves (1) the treatment of +the forest as a source of crops, (2) systematic gathering, and (3) +young growth so left as to replace the outgo.</p> + +<p>The important place that forests fill in the national economy may +be realized partly by the citation of a few facts as to the forest +products. The lumber industry is the fourth in value of products +among the great manufacturing industries of the United States, being +exceeded only by the iron and steel, the textile, and the meat +industries. It turns out a finished product worth $567,000,000.00. +And yet lumber constitutes only about one-half of the value of the +total output of forest products. Its annual value is three-fourths of +a billion dollars, ($666,641,367 in 1907,) while the annual value of +wood fuel, is $350,000,000. More than two-thirds of the people +burn wood for fuel. The next largest single item in the list is shingles +and laths, $32,000,000. (See <i>Forestry Bulletin</i> No. 74, p. 7.)</p> + +<blockquote><p> +Outside of food products, no material is so universally used and so +indispensable in human economy as wood. (Fernow, <i>Econ</i>., p. 21.) +</p></blockquote> + +<p>The importance of forest products may also be learned from a +mere list of the varied uses to which they are put. Such a list would +include: fuel, wood and charcoal; houses (over half the population +of the United States live in wooden houses); the wooden parts of +masonry and steel buildings; scaffolding; barns, sheds and outhouses; +ships, with all their parts, and the masts and trim of steel +ships, boats and canoes; oars and paddles; railway ties (annual expenditure +$50,000,000), railway cars, a million in number; trestles +and bridges (more than 2,000 miles in length); posts and fencing; +cooperage stock (low estimate, $25,000,000 annually); packing +crates, including coffins; baskets; electric wire poles (annual cost +about $10,000,000); piles and submerged structures, like canal locks +and water-wheels; windmills; mining timbers (yearly cost, $7,500,000), +indispensable in all mining operations (for every 100 tons of +coal mined, 2 tons of mining timber are needed); street paving; +veneers ($5,000,000.00 worth made annually); vehicles, including +carriages, wagons, automobiles and sleighs; furniture; machines and +their parts; patterns for metal molding; tools and tool handles; +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page277" id="page277"></a>277</span> +musical instruments; cigar boxes; matches; toothpicks; pencils; +(315 million a year in the U. S., requiring over 7 million cubic feet +of wood); engraving blocks; shoe lasts, shoe trees and parts of +shoes; hat blocks; agricultural implements; hop and bean poles; +playthings and toys, for both children and adults; Christmas trees +and decorations; pipes; walking sticks; umbrella handles; crutches +and artificial limbs; household utensils; excelsior.</p> + +<p>Products other than wood: Turpentine and resin (worth $20,000,000 +a year); tar; oils; tan-bark, 1½ million cords (worth $13,000,000 +a year); wood alcohol; wood pulp (worth $15,000,000 a year); +nuts; cellulose for collars, combs and car wheels; balsam, medicines; +lampblack; dyes; paper fiber (xylolin) for textiles; shellac +and varnish ($8,500,000 worth imported in 1907); vinegar and acetic +acid; confections (including maple sugar and syrup at $2,500,000 a +year).</p> + +<p>(3) The <i>Esthetic</i> and sentimental uses of the forest, tho not to +be estimated in dollars and cents, are nevertheless of incalculable +benefit to the community. They would include the use of the forest +as pleasure grounds, for hunting, fishing, camping, photography, and +general sightseeing. Notable instances of the growing appreciation +of these uses of the forest are the reservation of the Yellowstone and +Yosemite Parks as pleasure grounds.</p> + +<h3>PRESERVATION.</h3> + +<p>The second object of forestry is the preservation of the forest, or +continued reproduction.</p> + +<p>In addition to obtaining crops of trees, the forester plans to keep +the forest in such condition that it will constantly reproduce itself +and never become exhausted.</p> + +<p>This does not mean that no forests are to be cut down, or that a +given area, once a forest, is to be always a forest. Just as the individual +farmer needs some land for fields, some for pasture, and some +for woodlots, so the nation needs some for cities, some for farms, +some for pleasure grounds, and some for forests. But it does mean +that fruitful forests shall not be turned into wildernesses as thousands +of square miles now are, by the methods of destructive lumbering.</p> + +<p>In general, better land is necessary for agriculture than for forestry, +and it is therefore only the part of wisdom to use the better +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page278" id="page278"></a>278</span> +land for fields and reserve the poorer land for forests. There are in +the United States enormous regions that are fit for nothing but forests, +but many of these, as in Wisconsin, Minnesota, and Michigan, +have simply been denuded of their trees and no provision has been +made for their reproduction. This then is the second aim of forestry,—to +treat the forest so that it will continue to reproduce itself.</p> + +<p>In order to obtain this result, certain forest conditions have to be +preserved. What these conditions are, we have already noticed (see +Chap. V, The Forest Organism). They are partly topographical and +climatic and partly historical. They include such factors as, soil, +moisture, temperature, and light, +the forest cover, the forest floor, +the density and mixture of +growth, all conditions of forest +growth. It is only as the forester +preserves these conditions, +or to put it otherwise, it is only +as he obeys the laws of the forest +organism that he can preserve +the forest. For a long period +of our national history, we Americans +were compelled to conform +our life and institutions to the +presence of the primeval forest, +but by long observation of what +happens naturally in the forest, +there have been developed in +Europe and in America certain +ways of handling it so as to make +it our servant and not our master.</p> + +<p>These ways are called silvicultural systems. They are all based +on the nature of the forest itself, and they succeed only because they +are modifications of what takes place naturally in the woods.</p> + +<p>As we have seen above (p. 220) trees reproduce themselves either +by sprouts or by seeds. This fact gives rise to two general methods +of reproduction, called the coppice systems and the seed systems.</p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 350px;"><a href="images/figure-123-w500.png"><img src="images/figure-123-a-350.png" width="350" height="475" alt="Chestnut Coppice." /></a> +<p>Fig. 123. Chestnut Coppice. <i>U. S. Forest Service</i>.</p></div> + +<p><i>Coppice</i>, Fig. 123. In the simpler form of this system, the forest +is divided into a certain number of parts, say thirty, and one part is +cut down each year. New sprouts at once start up, which will mature +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page279" id="page279"></a>279</span> +a year later than those in the part cut the previous year. Where +the trees of each part are thirty years old at cutting, thirty years is +called the "rotation period." The coppice is said to be managed on +a thirty-year rotation. The system is widely used in eastern United +States, for fuel, posts, charcoal, railway ties, and other small stuff, +as well as for tan-bark. This system is modified by maintaining an +overwood composed of seedling trees or selected sprouts above a +stand of sprouts. This is called the Reserve Sprout method and is +used with admirable results by the French.</p> + +<p><i>Seed Forests</i>. In contrast with coppice forests, those raised from +seeds produce the best class of timber, such as is used for saw logs.</p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 350px;"><a href="images/figure-124-w600.png"><img src="images/figure-124-a-350.png" width="350" height="462" alt="Seeding from the Side. White Pine. New Hampshire." /></a> +<p>Fig. 124. Seeding from the Side. White Pine. New Hampshire. <i>U. S. Forest Service</i>.</p></div> + +<p><i>Seeding from the side</i>, Fig. 124. Many forests naturally +spread at their borders from +the scattering of their seeds. +"Old field pine" is so called +from its tendency to spread in +this way on old fields. This +natural "Seeding from the +Side" has given rise to the +"Group System," in which an +area of ripe trees is cut off and +the trees alongside are depended +upon to reproduce new +ones on the cut-over area. The +openings are gradually enlarged +until all the old timber is cut +out, and the young growth has +taken its place. In its best +form there is a definite "rotation +period," say eighty years. +This system is simple, safe, and very useful, especially for small openings +in woodlots. A modification of this is the "Strip System," in +which long narrow openings, say seventy-five yards wide, are cut out +and gradually widened. The strips are cut in the proper direction +so that the prevailing winds will cross them, both for the sake of +avoiding windfalls and to help scatter the seed. Where the soil is +very dry, the strips may run east and west to protect the seedlings +from the sun.</p> +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page280" id="page280"></a>280</span> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 350px;"><a href="images/figure-125-w700.png"><img src="images/figure-125-a-350.png" width="350" height="440" alt="Virgin Forest, Trees of All Ages. Jackson Co., North Carolina." /></a> +<p>Fig. 125. Virgin Forest, Trees of All Ages. Jackson Co., North Carolina. +<i>U.S. Forest Service</i>.</p></div> + +<p><i>Selection Forests</i>. The typical virgin forest, Fig. 125, is one in +which trees of all ages are closely intermingled, and it may be either +"mixed" or "pure." If a farmer had a woodlot of this character and +every year went over it with the ax, cutting out such trees as he +needed for his purpose, and also trees whose removal would improve +the woods, but taking care not to cut out each year more than the +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page281" id="page281"></a>281</span> +amount of the average growth, he would be using the "Selection +System." This system is the best way of keeping a forest dense and +of preserving one which is difficult to start afresh, as on a mountain +slope; it is practicable where the woods are small or under a high +state of care, as in Europe, where this system has been in use for +seven centuries. But the cost of road maintenance and of logging is +high and it is therefore impracticable in most lumber regions in the +United States, except for woods of especial value, like black walnut.</p> + +<p><i>Localized Selection</i>. If instead of the whole forest being treated +in this way every year, it were divided up into perhaps twenty parts, +and from each part there were taken out each year as much lumber +as would equal the annual growth of the whole forest, such a system +would be called "Localized Selection." The cost of logging would be +greatly reduced and if care were taken to leave standing some seed +trees and to cut no trees below a determined size, as twelve inches, the +forest would maintain itself in good condition. This system has been +applied with great success in certain private forests in the Adirondacks.</p> + +<p><i>Regular Seed Forest or High Forest</i>. In the system already mentioned +above of seeding from the side, the trees near the cut areas +are depended upon to seed these areas. Moreover, no especial pains +are taken to preserve the forest floor and the forest cover. But all +trees do not bear seeds annually, nor do their seedlings thrive under +such conditions. In other words, in some forests especial pains must +be taken to secure reproduction, and the forest conditions must be +maintained with special reference to the growing crop. For this purpose, +the cuttings take place thru a series of years, sometimes lasting +even twenty years. These reproduction cuttings have reference, now +to a stimulus to the seed trees, now to the preparation of the seed +bed, now to the encouragement of the seedlings. Then later, the old +crop is gradually cut away. Later still, in twenty or thirty years, the +new forest is thinned, and when it reaches maturity, perhaps in one +hundred or two hundred years, the process is repeated. This is +called the "Regular Seed Forest." It produces very valuable timber, +and has been used for a long time in Switzerland, especially for beech +and balsam.</p> + +<p>The system is complicated and therefore unsafe in ignorant hands, +and the logging is expensive.</p> +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page282" id="page282"></a>282</span> + +<p><i>Two-storied Seed Forest</i>. A modification of the system of Regular +Seed Forest is the planting of another and a tolerant species of +tree under older intolerant trees to make a cover for the soil, to +prevent the growth of grass and weeds, and to improve the quality of +the upper growth.<a id="footnotetagChVIII2" name="footnotetagChVIII2"></a><a href="#footnoteChVIII2"><sup>2</sup></a></p> + +<p>An illustration of a natural two-storied seed forest is shown in +Fig. 126.</p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 600px;"><a href="images/figure-126-w800.png"><img src="images/figure-126-a-600.png" width="600" height="450" alt="Two-storied Seed Forest. Fir under Beech, Germany." /></a> +<p>No. 126. Two-storied Seed Forest. Fir under Beech, Germany. <i>U. +S. Forest Service</i>.</p></div> + +<p><i>Planting</i>. The planting of forest trees is a comparatively unimportant +part of modern forestry. It is a mistaken idea, not uncommon, +that the usual way of reproducing forests is to plant trees. It is +true that in the pineries of North Germany and in the spruce forests +of Saxony, it is common to cut clean and then replant, but it is absurd +to conclude, as some have done, that forestry consists of planting +a tree every time one is cut. Even if planting were the best method, +many more than one tree would have to be planted for each one cut, +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page283" id="page283"></a>283</span> +in order to maintain the forest. So far as America is concerned, not +for a long time will planting be much used for reproduction.</p> + +<blockquote><p> +The greater portion of American woodlands is in the condition of culled +forests, that is, forests from which the merchantable trees have been cut, +leaving the younger individuals, as well as all trees belonging to unmarketable +species. Even on the areas where the lumbermen have made a clean +cut of the original timber, new trees will come up of themselves from seeds +blown from the surrounding forests or falling from occasional individuals +left standing. (Bruncken, p. 133.) +</p></blockquote> + +<p>The usefulness of planting in America is mainly for reclaiming +treeless regions, as in the west, and where timber is high priced. The +area of planted timber in the Middle West aggregates many hundred +thousand acres, once waste land, now converted into useful woods.<a id="footnotetagChVIII3" name="footnotetagChVIII3"></a><a href="#footnoteChVIII3"><sup>3</sup></a></p> +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page284" id="page284"></a>284</span> + +<p>Planting has been made possible in the far west by extensive irrigation +systems, and farther east by the lessening of prairie fires, +which once set the limit to tree growth in the prairie states. In many +parts of Illinois, southern Wisconsin and other prairie States, there +is much more forest land than there was twenty-five years ago.</p> + +<p>What planting can do, may be seen on some worn out pastures in +New England, Fig. 127. With the western movement of agriculture, +the abandoned farms of New England are to some extent becoming +re-forested, both naturally and by planting, as with white pine, which +grows even on sandy soil. Between 1820 and 1880, there was a +period of enthusiastic white-pine planting in New England, and tho +the interest died on account of the cheap transportation of western +lumber, those early plantations prove that white pine can be planted +at a profit even on sand barrens. Once worn out and useless pastures +are now worth $150 an acre and produce yearly a net income +of $3 or more an acre.</p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 400px;"><a href="images/figure-127-w700.png"><img src="images/figure-127-a-400.png" width="400" height="456" alt="Planted White Pine, Fifty Years Old, Bridgewater, Mass." /></a> +<p>Fig. 127. Planted White Pine, Fifty Years Old, Bridgewater, Mass. <i>U. S. Forest Service</i>.</p></div> + +<h3>IMPROVEMENT.</h3> + +<p>Besides utilization and preservation, the third main object of forestry +is the improvement of the forest. It is not an uncommon mistake +to suppose that the virgin forest is the best forest for human +purposes. It is a comparatively new idea, especially in America, +that a forest can be improved; that is, that better trees can be raised +than those which grow naturally. Lumbermen commonly say, "You +never can raise a second growth of white pine as good as the first +growth." As if this "first growth" were not itself the successsor of +thousands of other generations! There is even a legend that white +pine will not grow in its old habitat. Says Bruncken,</p> + +<blockquote><p> +Many people probably imagine that a primeval wood, "by nature's +own hand planted," cannot be surpassed in the number and size of its trees, +and consequently in the amount of wood to be derived from it. But the +very opposite is true. No wild forest can ever equal a cultivated one in +productiveness. To hope that it will, is very much as if a farmer were to +expect a full harvest from the grain that may spring up spontaneously in +his fields without his sowing. A tract of wild forest in the first place does +not contain so many trees as might grow thereon, but only so many as may +have survived the struggle for life with their own and other species of +plants occupying the locality. Many of the trees so surviving never attain +their best development, being suppressed, overshadowed, and hindered by +stronger neighbors. Finally much of the space that might be occupied by +valuable timber may be given up to trees having little or no market value. +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page285" id="page285"></a>285</span> +The rule is universal that the amount and value of material that can be +taken from an area of wild forest remains far behind what the same land +may bear if properly treated by the forester. It is certain, therefore, that +in the future, when most American forests shall be in a high state of cultivation, +the annual output of forests will, from a much restricted area, exceed +everything known at the present day. (Bruncken, <i>North American +Forests and Forestry</i>, pp. 134-135.)</p></blockquote> + +<p>It is probable that the virgin forest produces but a tithe of the useful +material which it is capable of producing. (Fernow, p. 98.)</p> + +<p>Mr. Burbank has demonstrated that trees can be bred for any particular +quality,—for largeness, strength, shape, amount of pitch, tannin, sugar +and the like, and for rapidity of growth; in fact that any desirable attribute +of a tree may be developed simply by breeding and selecting. He has +created walnut trees, by crossing common varieties, that have grown six +times as much in thirteen years as their ancestors did in twenty-eight years, +preserving at the same time, the strength, hardness and texture of their +forebears. The grain of the wood has been made more beautiful at the same +time. The trees are fine for fuel and splendidly adapted to furniture manufacture. +(Harwood, <i>The New Earth</i>, p. 179.) +</p> + +<p>Nature provides in the forest merely those varieties that will survive. +Man, by interfering in Nature's processes but obeying her laws, +raises what he wants. Nature says: those trees that survive are fit +and does not care whether the trees be straight or crooked, branched +or clear. Man says: those trees shall survive which are fit for human +uses. Man raises better grains and fruits and vegetables than Nature, +unaided, can, and, in Europe, better trees for lumber. In +America there has been such an abundance of trees good enough for +our purposes that we have simply gone out and gathered them, just +as a savage goes out to gather berries and nuts. Some day our descendants +will smile at our treatment of forests much as we smile at +root-digging savages, unless, indeed, we so far destroy the forests that +they will be more angered than amused. In Europe and Japan, the +original supply of trees having been exhausted, forests have been cultivated +for centuries with the purpose of raising crops larger in +quantity and better in quality.</p> + +<p>There are various methods used in forest improvement. Improvement +cuttings, as the name implies, are cuttings made to improve the +quality of the forest, whether by thinning out poor species of trees, +unsound trees, trees crowding more valuable ones, or trees called +"wolves"; that is, trees unduly overshadowing others. Improvement +cuttings are often necessary as a preliminary step before any silvicultural +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page286" id="page286"></a>286</span> +system can be applied. Indeed, many of the silvicultural +systems involve steady improvement of the forest.</p> + +<p>The pruning of branches is a method of improvement, carrying +on the natural method by which trees in a forest clean themselves of +their branches.</p> + +<p>Seeds of valuable species are often sowed, when the conditions are +proper, in order to introduce a valuable species, just as brooks and +ponds are stocked with fine fish. In general it may be said that improvement +methods are only in their infancy, especially in America.</p> + +<p class="note1"><a id="footnoteChVIII1" name="footnoteChVIII1"></a><a class="footnote" href="#footnotetagChVIII1">Footnote 1:</a> A concise and interesting statement of the relation of the forest to +rain and floods is to be found in Pinchot: <i>Primer of Forestry</i>, Bulletin No. +24, Part II, Chap. III.</p> + +<p class="note1"><a id="footnoteChVIII2" name="footnoteChVIII2"></a><a class="footnote" href="#footnotetagChVIII2">Footnote 2:</a> For an interesting account of an application of this method, see Ward, +p. 35.</p> + +<p class="note1a"><a id="footnoteChVIII3" name="footnoteChVIII3"></a><a class="footnote" href="#footnotetagChVIII3">Footnote 3:</a> To encourage such forest extension, the Forest Service is doing much +by the publication of bulletins recommending methods and trees suited to +special regions, as, e.g., on Forest Planting in Illinois, in the Sand Hill +Region of Nebraska, on Coal Lands in Western Pennsylvania, in Western +Kansas, in Oklahoma and adjacent regions, etc.</p> + +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page287" id="page287"></a>287-8</span> + +<h5 style="margin-top: 3em;">THE USE OF THE FOREST.</h5> + +<ul class="none"> +<li><span class="sc">References</span>:* +<ul class="none2"> +<li>I Utilization. +<ul class="none3"> + <li>Pinchot, <i>Primer</i>, II, pp. 14-18, 38-48.</li> + <li>Bruncken, pp. 121-131, <i>For. Bull</i>. No. 61.<br /><br /></li></ul></li> + + <li> (1) Protective. +<ul class="none3"> + <li>Pinchot, <i>Primer</i>, II, pp. 66-73.</li> + <li>Craft, <i>Agric. Yr. Bk</i>., 1905, pp. 636-641, (Map. p. 639.)</li> + <li>Toumey, <i>Agric. Yr. Bk</i>., 1903, p. 279.</li> + <li>Bruncken, pp. 166-173.</li> + <li><i>For. and Irrig</i>., passim.</li> + <li>Shaler, I, pp. 485-489.<br /><br /></li></ul></li> + + <li> (2) Productive. +<ul class="none3"> + <li>Kellogg, <i>For. Bull</i>., No. 74,</li> + <li>Fernow, <i>For. Invest</i>., p. 9.</li> + <li>Roth, <i>First Book</i>, p. 133.</li> + <li>Zon & Clark, <i>Agric. Yr. Bk</i>., 1907, p. 277.</li> + <li>Boulger, pp. 60-76.</li> + <li>Roth, <i>Agric. Yr. Bk</i>., 1896, p. 391.</li> + <li>Fernow, <i>Economics</i>, pp. 23-33.<br /><br /></li></ul></li> + + <li> (3) Esthetic. +<ul class="none3"> + <li>Roth, <i>First Book</i>, p. 180.<br /><br /></li></ul></li> + +<li>II Preservation. +<ul class="none3"> + <li>Pinchot, <i>Primer</i>, II, pp. 18-36.</li> + <li>Bruncken, pp. 95, 190.</li> + <li>Graves, <i>For. Bull</i>., No. 26, pp. 67-70.</li> + <li>Roth, <i>First Book</i>, pp. 41-76, 193-194.</li> + <li>Roth, <i>For. Bull</i>., No. 16, pp. 8, 9.</li> + <li>Fernow, <i>Economics</i>, 165-196.<br /><br /></li></ul></li> + + <li> Planting. +<ul class="none3"> + <li>Roth, <i>First Book</i>, pp. 76-94, 195-198.</li> + <li>Hall, <i>Agric. Yr. Bk</i>., 1902, pp. 145-156.</li> + <li><i>For. Circs</i>., Nos. 37, 41, 45, 81.</li> + <li>Bruncken, pp. 92, 133.</li> + <li><i>Forestry Bulletins</i> Nos. 18, 45, 52, 65.<br /><br /></li></ul></li> + +<li>III Improvement. +<ul class="none3"> + <li>Bruncken, pp. 134-135, 152-160.</li> + <li>Graves, <i>For. Bull</i>., No. 26, p. 39.</li> + <li>Pinchot, <i>Adirondack Spruce</i>, p. 4.</li> + <li>Harwood, pp. 143-181.<br /><br /></li></ul></li></ul></li> +</ul> + +<p class="note1"><span style="font-size: 1.2em;">*</span> For general bibliography, see <a class="index" href="#page4">p. 4.</a></p> + +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page288" id="page288"></a></span> + +<h2><span class="pagenum" style="font-size: 0.4em; font-weight: normal;"><a name="page289" id="page289"></a>289</span><span class="sc">Appendix.</span></h2> +<a name="wood" id="wood"></a> +<h3>HOW TO DISTINGUISH THE DIFFERENT KINDS OF WOOD.<a href="#woodnote">*</a></h3> + +<h4><span class="sc">By B. E. Fernow and Filibert Roth.</span></h4> + +<p>The carpenter or other artisan who handles different woods, becomes +familiar with those he employs frequently, and learns to distinguish them +thru this familiarity, without usually being able to state the points of +distinction. +If a wood comes before him with which he is not familiar, he +has, of course, no means of determining what it is, and it is possible to +select pieces even of those with which he is well acquainted, different in +appearance from the general run, that will make him doubtful as to their +identification. Furthermore, he may distinguish between hard and soft +pines, between oak and ash, or between maple and birch, which are +characteristically +different; but when it comes to distinguishing between the several +species of pine or oak or ash or birch, the absence of readily recognizable +characters is such that but few practitioners can be relied upon to do it. +Hence, in the market we find many species mixed and sold indiscriminately.</p> + +<p>To identify the different woods it is necessary to have a knowledge of +the definite, invariable differences in their structure, besides that of the +often variable differences in their appearance. These structural differences +may either be readily visible to the naked eye or with a magnifier, or +they may require a microscopical examination. In some cases such an examination +can not be dispensed with, if we would make absolutely sure. +There are instances, as in the pines, where even our knowledge of the minute +anatomical structure is not yet sufficient to make a sure identification.</p> + +<p>In the following key an attempt has been made—the first, so far as we +know, in English literature—to give a synoptical view of the distinctive +features of the commoner woods of the United States, which are found in +the markets or are used in the arts. It will be observed that the distinction +has been carried in most instances no further than to genera or classes of +woods, since the distinction of species can hardly be accomplished without +elaborate microscopic study, and also that, as far as possible, reliance has +been placed only on such characteristics as can be distinguished with the +naked eye or a simple magnifying glass, in order to make the key useful +to the largest number. Recourse has also been taken for the same reason +to the less reliable and more variable general external appearance, color, +taste, smell, weight, etc.</p> + +<p>The user of the key must, however, realize that external appearance, +such, for example, as color, is not only very variable but also very difficult +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page290" id="page290"></a>290</span> +to describe, individual observers differing especially in seeing and describing +shades of color. The same is true of statements of size, when relative, and +not accurately measured, while weight and hardness can perhaps be more +readily approximated. Whether any feature is distinctly or only indistinctly +seen will also depend somewhat on individual eyesight, opinion, or practice. +In some cases the resemblance of different species is so close that only one +other expedient will make distinction possible, namely, a knowledge of the +region from which the wood has come. We know, for instance, that no +longleaf pine grows in Arkansas and that no white pine can come from Alabama, +and we can separate the white cedar, giant arbor vitæ of the West +and the arbor vitæ of the Northeast, only by the difference of the locality +from which the specimen comes. With all these limitations properly appreciated, +the key will be found helpful toward greater familiarity with the +woods which are more commonly met with.</p> + +<p>The features which have been utilized in the key and with which—their +names as well as their appearance—therefore, the reader must familiarize +himself before attempting to use the key, are mostly described as they appear +in cross-section. They are:</p> + +<p>(1) Sap-wood and heart-wood (see <a class="index" href="#page17">p. 17</a>), the former being the wood +from the outer and the latter from the inner part of the tree. In some +cases they differ only in shade, and in others in kind of color, the heart-wood +exhibiting either a darker shade or a pronounced color. Since one +can not always have the two together, or be certain whether he has sap-wood +or heart-wood, reliance upon this feature is, to be sure, unsatisfactory, +yet sometimes it is the only general characteristic that can be relied upon. +If further assurance is desired, microscopic structure must be examined; +in such cases reference has been made to the presence or absence of tracheids +in pith rays and the structure of their walls, especially projections and +spirals.</p> + +<p>(2) Annual rings, their formation having been described on <a class="index" href="#page19">page 19</a>. +(See also Figs. 128-130.) They are more or less distinctly marked, and by +such marking a classification of three great groups of wood is possible.</p> +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page291" id="page291"></a>291</span> + +<p>(3) Spring wood and summer wood, the former being the interior (first +formed wood of the year), the latter the exterior (last formed) part of +the ring. The proportion of each and the manner in which the one merges +into the other are sometimes used, but more frequently the manner in which +the pores appear distributed in either.</p> + +<p>(4) Pores, which are vessels cut thru, appearing as holes in cross-section, +in longitudinal section as channels, scratches, or identifications. (See +<a class="index" href="#page23">p. 23</a> and Figs. 129 and 130.) They appear only in the broad-leaved, so called, +hard woods; their relative size (large, medium, small, minute, and indistinct +when they cease to be visible individually by the naked eye) and manner +of distribution in the ring being of much importance, and especially in +the summer wood, where they appear singly, in groups, or short broken lines, +in continuous concentric, often wavy lines, or in radial branching lines.</p> + +<p>(5) Resin ducts (see p. 26 and Fig. 128) which appear very much like +pores in cross-section, namely, as holes or lighter or darker colored dots, but +much more scattered. They occur only in coniferous woods, and their presence +or absence, size, number, and distribution are an important distinction +in these woods.</p> + +<p>(6) Pith rays (see <a class="index" href="#page21">p. 21</a> and Figs. 129 and 130), which in cross-section +appear as radial lines, and in radial section as interrupted bands of varying +breadth, impart a peculiar luster to that section in some woods. They are +most readily visible with the naked eye or with a magnifier in the broad-leaved +woods. In coniferous woods they are usually so fine and closely +packed that to the casual observer they do not appear. Their breadth and +their greater or less distinctness are used as distinguishing marks, being +styled fine, broad, distinct, very distinct, conspicuous, and indistinct when +no longer visible by the naked (strong) eye.</p> + +<p>(7) Concentric lines, appearing in the summer wood of certain species +more or less distinct, resembling distantly the lines of pores but much +finer and not consisting of pores. (See Fig. 129.)</p> +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page292" id="page292"></a>292</span> + +<p>Of <ins title="Transcriber's Note: original reads 'miscroscopic'">microscopic</ins> features, the following only have been referred to:</p> + +<p>(8) Tracheids, a description of which is to be found on <a class="index" href="#page28">page 28</a>.</p> + +<p>(9) Pits, simple and bordered, especially the number of simple pits in +the cells of the pith rays, which lead into each of the adjoining tracheids.</p> + +<p>For standards of weight, consult table on pages <a class="index" href="#page55">55</a> and <a class="index" href="#page192">192</a>; for standards +of hardness, table on <a class="index" href="#page195">page 195</a>.</p> + +<p>Unless otherwise stated the color refers always to the fresh cross-section +of a piece of dry wood; sometimes distinct kinds of color, sometimes only +shades, and often only general color effects appear.</p> + +<a name="woodnote" id="woodnote"></a> +<p class="note1"><a href="#wood"><span style="font-size: 1.2em;">*</span></a> From Forestry Bulletin No. 10, <i>U. S. Department of Agriculture</i>.</p> + +<h3>HOW TO USE THE KEY.</h3> + +<p>Nobody need expect to be able to use successfully any key for the distinction +of woods or of any other class of natural objects without some +practice. This is especially true with regard to woods, which are apt to +vary much, and when the key is based on such meager general data as the +present. The best course to adopt is to supply one's self with a small +sample collection of woods, accurately named. Small, polished tablets are +of little use for this purpose. The pieces should be large enough, if possible, +to include pith and bark, and of sufficient width to permit ready inspection +of the cross-section. By examining these with the aid of the key, beginning +with the better-known woods, one will soon learn to see the features +described and to form an idea of the relative standards which the maker +of the key had in mind. To aid in this, the accompanying illustrations will +be of advantage. When the reader becomes familiar with the key, the work +of identifying any given piece will be comparatively easy. The material to +be examined must, of course, be suitably prepared. It should be moistened; +all cuts should be made with a very sharp knife or razor and be clean and +smooth, for a bruised surface reveals but little structure. The most useful +cut may be made along one of the edges. Instructive, thin, small sections +may be made with a sharp penknife or razor, and when placed on a piece of +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page293" id="page293"></a>293</span> +thin glass, moistened and covered with another piece of glass, they may be +examined by holding them toward the light.</p> + +<p>Finding, on examination with the magnifier, that it contains pores, we +know it is not coniferous or non-porous. Finding no pores collected in the +spring-wood portion of the annual ring, but all scattered (diffused) thru +the ring, we turn at once to the class of "Diffuse-porous woods." We now +note the size and manner in which the pores are distributed thru the ring. +Finding them very small and neither conspicuously grouped, nor larger +nor more abundant in the spring-wood, we turn to the third group of this +class. We now note the pith rays, and finding them neither broad nor +conspicuous, +but difficult to distinguish, even with the magnifier, we at once +exclude the wood from the first two sections of this group and place it in +the third, which is represented by only one kind, cottonwood. Finding the +wood very soft, white, and on the longitudinal section with a silky luster, +we are further assured that our determination is correct. We may now +turn to the list of woods and obtain further information regarding the +occurrence, +qualities, and uses of the wood.</p> + +<p>Sometimes our progress is not so easy; we may waver in what group +or section to place the wood before us. In such cases we may try each of +the doubtful roads until we reach a point where we find ourselves entirely +wrong and then return and take up another line; or we may anticipate +some of the later mentioned features and finding them apply to our specimen, +gain additional assurance of the direction we ought to travel. Color will +often help us to arrive at a speedy decision. In many cases, especially with +conifers, which are rather difficult to distinguish, a knowledge of the locality +from which the specimen comes is at once decisive. Thus, northern white +cedar, and bald cypress, and the cedar of the Pacific will be identified, even +without the somewhat indefinite criteria given in the key.</p> +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page294" id="page294"></a>294</span> + +<h3 style="margin-top: 3em;">KEY TO THE MORE IMPORTANT WOODS OF NORTH AMERICA.</h3> + +<p>I. <span class="sc">Non-porous woods</span>—Pores not visible or conspicuous on cross-section, +even with magnifier. Annual rings distinct by denser (dark colored) bands +of summer wood (Fig. 128).</p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 600px;"><a href="images/figure-128-w800.png"><img src="images/figure-128-a-600.png" width="600" height="222" alt="'Non-porous' Woods." /></a> +<p>Fig. 128. "Non-porous" Woods. <i>A</i>, fir; <i>B</i>, "hard" +pine; <i>C</i>, soft +pine; <i>ar</i>, annual ring; <i>o.e</i>., outer edge of ring; <i>i.e</i>., +inner edge +of ring; <i>s.w</i>., summer wood; <i>sp.w</i>., spring wood; <i>rd</i>., resin +ducts.</p></div> + +<p>II. <span class="sc">Ring-porous woods</span>—Pores numerous, usually visible on cross-section +without magnifier. Annual rings distinct by a zone of large pores collected +in the spring wood, alternating with the denser summer wood (Fig. 129).</p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 600px;"><a href="images/figure-129-w800.png"><img src="images/figure-129-a-600.png" width="600" height="239" alt="'Ring-porous' Woods White Oak and Hickory." /></a> +<p>Fig. 129. "Ring-porous" Woods White Oak and Hickory. +<i>a. r</i>., annual ring; <i>su. w</i>., summer wood; <i>sp. w</i>., spring +wood; <i>v</i>, vessels or pores; <i>c. l</i>., "concentric" lines; <i>rt</i>, +darker tracts of hard fibers forming the firm part of +oak wood; <i>pr</i>, pith rays.</p></div> + +<p>III. <span class="sc">Diffuse-porous woods</span>—Pores numerous, usually not plainly visible +on cross-section without magnifier. Annual rings distinct by a fine line of +denser summer wood cells, often quite indistinct; pores scattered thru annual +ring, no zone of collected pores in spring wood (Fig. 130).</p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 600px;"><a href="images/figure-130-w800.png"><img src="images/figure-130-a-600.png" width="600" height="252" alt="'Diffuse-porous' Woods." /></a> +<p>Fig. 130. "Diffuse-porous" Woods. <i>ar</i>, annual ring; +<i>pr</i>, pith rays +which are "broad" at <i>a</i>, "fine" at <i>b</i>, "indistinct" at <i>d</i>.</p></div> + +<p><span class="sc">Note.</span>—The above described three groups are exogenous, i.e., they grow +by +adding annually wood on their circumference. A fourth group is formed by the +endogenous woods, like yuccas and palms, which do not grow by such additions.</p> + +<h4 style="margin-top: 2em;">I.—<span class="sc">Non-Porous Woods</span>.</h4> + +<h5>(Includes all coniferous woods.)</h5> + +<table summary="Non-porous woods" align="center" width="auto" border="0"> +<tr> + <td class="lefti0"><span class="outdent1">A. Resin ducts</span> wanting.<a id="tag1" name="tag1"></a><a href="#note1"><sup>1</sup></a></td> + <td width="20%"> </td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class="lefti2"><span class="outdent1">1. No distinct</span> heart-wood.</td> + <td> </td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class="lefti4"><span class="outdent1"><i>a</i>. Color</span> effect yellowish white; summer wood darker yellowish + (under microscope pith ray without tracheids)</td> + <td class="right1b" valign="bottom"><span class="sc">Firs</span>.</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class="lefti4"><span class="outdent1"><i>b</i>. Color</span> effect reddish (roseate)<span class="pagenum"><a name="page295" id="page295"></a>295</span> + (under microscope pith ray with tracheids)</td> + <td class="right1b" valign="bottom"><span class="sc">Hemlock</span>.</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class="lefti2"><span class="outdent1">2. Heart-wood</span> present, color decidedly different in kind from sap-wood.</td> + <td> </td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class="lefti4"><span class="outdent1"><i>a</i>. Heart-wood</span> light orange red; sap-wood, pale lemon; wood, + heavy and hard.</td> + <td class="right1b" valign="bottom"><span class="sc">Yew</span>.</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class="lefti4"><span class="outdent1"><i>b</i>. Heartwood</span> purplish to brownish red; sap-wood yellowish white; + wood soft to medium hard, light, usually with aromatic odor.</td> + <td class="right1b" valign="bottom"><span class="sc">Red Cedar</span>.</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class="lefti4"><span class="outdent1"><i>c</i>. Heart-wood</span> maroon to terra cotta or deep brownish red; sap-wood + light orange to dark amber, very soft and light, no odor; pith rays + very distinct, specially pronounced on radial section.</td> + <td class="right1b" valign="bottom"><span class="sc">Redwood</span>.</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class="lefti2"><span class="outdent1">3. Heart-wood</span> present, color only different in shade from sap-wood, + dingy-yellowish brown.</td> + <td> </td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class="lefti4"><span class="outdent1"><i>a</i>. Odorless</span> and tasteless.</td> + <td class="right1b" valign="bottom"><span class="sc">Bald Cypress</span>.</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class="lefti4"><span class="outdent1"><i>b</i>. Wood with</span> mild resinous odor, but tasteless.</td> + <td class="right1b" valign="bottom"><span class="sc">White Cedar</span>.</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class="lefti4"><span class="outdent1"><i>c</i>. Wood with</span> strong resinous odor and peppery taste when freshly cut.</td> + <td class="right1b" valign="bottom"><span class="sc">Incense Cedar</span>.</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class="lefti0"><span class="outdent1">B. Resin ducts</span> present.</td> + <td> </td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class="lefti2"><span class="outdent1">1. No distinct</span> heartwood; color white, resin ducts very small, not numerous.</td> + <td class="right1b" valign="bottom"><span class="sc">Spruce</span>.</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class="lefti2"><span class="outdent1">2. Distinct</span> heart-wood present.</td> + <td> </td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class="lefti4"><span class="outdent1"><i>a</i>. Resin ducts</span> numerous, evenly scattered thru the ring.</td> + <td> </td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class="lefti6"><span class="outdent1"><i>a'</i>. Transition</span> from spring wood to summer wood gradual; annual + ring distinguished by a fine line of dense summer-wood cells; + color, white to yellowish red; wood soft and light.</td> + <td class="right1b" valign="bottom"><span class="sc">Soft Pines</span>.<a id="tag2" name="tag2"></a><a href="#note2"><sup>2</sup></a></td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class="lefti6"><span class="outdent1"><i>b'</i>. Transition</span> from spring wood to summer wood more or less + abrupt; broad bands of dark-colored summer wood; color from + light to deep orange; wood medium hard and heavy.</td> + <td class="right1b" valign="bottom"><span class="sc">Hard Pines</span>.<a href="#note2"><sup>2</sup></a></td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class="lefti4"><span class="outdent1"><i>b</i>. Resin ducts</span> not numerous nor evenly distributed.<span class="pagenum"><a name="page296" id="page296"></a>296</span></td> + <td> </td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class="lefti6"><span class="outdent1"><i>a'</i>. Color of</span> heart-wood orange-reddish, sap-wood yellowish + (same as hard pine); resin ducts frequently combined in + groups of 8 to 30, forming lines on the cross-section + (tracheids with spirals).</td> + <td class="right1b" valign="bottom"><span class="sc">Douglas Spruce</span>.</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class="lefti6"><span class="outdent1"><i>b'</i>. Color of</span> heart-wood light russet brown; of sap-wood yellowish + brown; resin ducts very few, irregularly scattered (tracheids + without spirals).</td> + <td class="right1b" valign="bottom"><span class="sc">Tamarack</span>.</td> +</tr> +</table> + +<p class="note1"><a id="note1" name="note1"></a><a class="footnote" href="#tag1">Footnote 1:</a> To discover the resin ducts a very smooth surface is necessary, since resin ducts are +frequently seen only with difficulty, appearing on the cross-section as fine whiter or darker +spots normally scattered singly, rarely in groups, usually in the summer wood of the annual +ring. They are often much more easily seen on radial, and still more so on tangential +sections, appearing there as fine lines or dots of open structure of different color or as indentations +or pin scratches in a longitudinal direction.</p> + +<p class="note1"><a id="note2" name="note2"></a><a class="footnote" href="#tag2">Footnote 2:</a> Soft and hard pines are arbitrary distinctions and the two not distinguishable at the +limit.</p> + +<hr class="full" style="color: #000; height: 1px; margin-bottom: -11px;" /> +<hr class="full" style="color: #000; height: 1px; margin-top: -11px;" /> + +<h5>ADDITIONAL NOTES FOR DISTINCTIONS IN THE GROUP.</h5> + +<p>Spruce is hardly distinguishable from fir, except by the existence of the +resin ducts, and microscopically by the presence of tracheids in the medullary +rays. Spruce may also be confounded with soft pine, except for the heart-wood +color of the latter and the larger, more frequent, and more readily visible +resin ducts.</p> + +<p>In the lumber yard, hemlock is usually recognized by color and the silvery +character of its surface. Western hemlocks partake of this last character to +a less degree.</p> + +<p>Microscopically the white pine can be distinguished by having usually +only one large pit, while spruce shows three to five very small pits in the +parenchyma cells of the pith ray communicating with the tracheid.</p> + +<p>The distinction of the pines is possible only by microscopic examination. +The following distinctive features may assist in recognizing, when in the +log or lumber pile, those usually found in the market:</p> + +<p>The light, straw color, combined with great lightness and softness, +distinguishes +the white pines (white pine and sugar pine) from the hard pines +(all others in the market), which may also be recognized by the gradual +change of spring wood into summer wood. This change in hard pines is +abrupt, making the summer wood appear as a sharply defined and more or +less broad band.</p> + +<p>The Norway pine, which may be confounded with the shortleaf pine, can +be distinguished by being much lighter and softer. It may also, but more +rarely, be confounded with heavier white pine, but for the sharper definition +of the annual ring, weight, and hardness.</p> + +<p>The longleaf pine is strikingly heavy, hard, and resinous, and usually +very regular and narrow ringed, showing little sap-wood, and differing in +this respect from the shortleaf pine and loblolly pine, which usually have +wider rings and more sap-wood, the latter excelling in that respect.</p> + +<hr class="full" style="color: #000; height: 1px; margin-bottom: -11px;" /> +<hr class="full" style="color: #000; height: 1px; margin-top: -11px;" /> + +<p>The following convenient and useful classification of pines into four groups, +proposed by Dr. H. Mayr, is based on the appearance of the pith ray as seen +in a radial section of the spring wood of any ring:</p> + +<p><b>Section I.</b> Walls of the tracheids of the pith ray with dentate projections.</p> + +<div style="margin-left: 4em;"> +<p><span class="outdent"> + <b><i>a</i>.</b> One to two large</span>, simple pits to each tracheid on the radial walls of + the cells of the pith ray.—Group 1. Represented in this country only + by <i>P. resinosa</i>.</p> +<p><span class="outdent"> + <b><i>b</i>.</b> Three to six</span> simple pits to each tracheid, on the walls of the cells of + the pith ray.—Group 2. <i>P. taeda</i>, <i>palustris</i>, etc., including most of our + "hard" and "yellow" pines.</p> +</div> +<p><b>Section II.</b> Walls of tracheids of pith ray smooth, without dentate projections.</p> +<div style="margin-left: 4em;"> +<p><span class="outdent"> + <b><i>a</i>.</b> One or two large pits</span> to each tracheid on the radial walls of each cell + of the pith ray.—Group 3. <i>P. strobus, lambertiana</i>, and other true + white pines.</p> +<p><span class="outdent"> + <b><i>b</i>.</b> Three to six small pits</span> on the radial walls of each cell of the pith ray. + Group 4. <i>P. parryana</i>, and other nut pines, including also <i>P. balfouriana</i>.</p> +</div> + +<hr class="full" style="color: #000; height: 1px; margin-bottom: -11px;" /> +<hr class="full" style="color: #000; height: 1px; margin-top: -11px;" /> + +<h4>II.—<span class="sc">Ring-Porous Woods</span>.</h4> + +<p>(Some of Group D and cedar elm imperfectly ring-porous.)</p> + +<table summary="Ring-porous woods" align="center" width="auto" border="0"> + +<tr> + <td class="lefti0"><span class="outdent1">A. Pores in</span> the summer wood minute, scattered singly or in groups, or in + short broken lines, the course of which is never radial.</td> + <td width="20%"> </td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class="lefti2"><span class="outdent1">1. Pith rays</span> minute, scarcely distinct.</td> + <td> </td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class="lefti4"><span class="outdent1"><i>a</i>. Wood heavy</span> and hard; pores in the summer wood not in clusters.</td> + <td> </td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class="lefti6"><span class="outdent1"><i>a'</i>. Color of</span> radial section not yellow.</td> + <td class="right1b" valign="bottom"><span class="sc">Ash</span>.</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class="lefti6"><span class="outdent1"><i>b'</i>. Color of</span> radial section light yellow; by which, together + with its hardness and weight, this species is easily recognized.</td> + <td class="right1b" valign="bottom"><span class="sc">Osage Orange</span>.</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class="lefti4"><span class="outdent1"><i>b</i>. Wood light</span> and soft; pores in the summer wood in clusters of 10 to 30.</td> + <td class="right1b" valign="bottom"><span class="sc">Catalpa</span>.</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class="lefti2"><span class="outdent1">2. Pith rays</span> very fine, yet distinct; pores in summer wood usually single + or in short lines; color of heart-wood reddish brown; of sap-wood + yellowish white; peculiar odor on fresh section.</td> + <td class="right1b" valign="bottom"><span class="sc">Sassafras</span>.</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class="lefti2"><span class="outdent1">3. Pith rays</span> fine, but distinct.</td> + <td> </td> +</tr> + <tr> + <td class="lefti4"><span class="outdent1"><i>a</i>. Very heavy</span> and hard; heart-wood yellowish brown.</td> + <td class="right1b" valign="bottom"><span class="sc">Black Locust</span>.</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class="lefti4"><span class="outdent1"><i>b</i>. Heavy; medium</span> hard to hard.</td> + <td> </td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class="lefti6"><span class="outdent1"><i>a'</i>. Pores in</span> summer wood very minute, usually in small clusters of<span class="pagenum"><a name="page297" id="page297"></a>297</span> + 3 to 8; heart-wood light orange brown.</td> + <td class="right1b" valign="bottom"><span class="sc">Red Mulberry</span>.</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class="lefti6"><span class="outdent1"><i>b'</i>. Pores in</span> summer wood small to minute, usually isolated; heart-wood + cherry red.</td> + <td class="right1b" valign="bottom"><span class="sc">Coffee Tree</span>.</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class="lefti2"><span class="outdent1">4. Pith rays</span> fine but very conspicuous, even without magnifier. Color of + heart-wood red; of sap-wood pale lemon.</td> + <td class="right1b" valign="bottom"><span class="sc">Honey Locust</span>.</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class="lefti0"><span class="outdent1">B. Pores of</span> summer wood minute or small, in concentric wavy and sometimes + branching lines, appearing as finely-feathered hatchings on tangential + section.</td> + <td> </td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class="lefti2"><span class="outdent1">1. Pith rays</span> fine, but very distinct; color greenish white. Heart-wood + absent or imperfectly developed.</td> + <td class="right1b" valign="bottom"><span class="sc">Hackberry</span>.</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class="lefti2"><span class="outdent1">2. Pith rays</span> indistinct; color of heart-wood reddish brown; sap-wood<span class="pagenum"><a name="page298" id="page298"></a>298</span> + grayish to reddish white.</td> + <td class="right1b" valign="bottom"><span class="sc">Elms</span>.</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class="lefti0"><span class="outdent1">C. Pores of</span> summer wood arranged in radial branching lines (when very + crowded radial arrangement somewhat obscured).</td> + <td> </td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class="lefti2"><span class="outdent1">1. Pith rays</span> very minute, hardly visible.</td> + <td class="right1b" valign="bottom"><span class="sc">Chestnut</span>.</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class="lefti2"><span class="outdent1">2. Pith rays</span> very broad and conspicuous.</td> + <td class="right1b" valign="bottom"><span class="sc">Oak</span>.</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class="lefti0"><span class="outdent1">D. Pores of</span> summer wood mostly but little smaller than those of the spring + wood, isolated and scattered; very heavy and hard woods. The pores of + the spring wood sometimes form but an imperfect zone. (Some diffuse-porous + woods of groups A and B may seem to belong here.)</td> + <td> </td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class="lefti2"><span class="outdent1">1. Fine concentric</span> lines (not of pores) as distinct, or nearly so, as the + very fine pith rays; outer summer wood with a tinge of red; heart-wood + light reddish brown.</td> + <td class="right1b" valign="bottom"><span class="sc">Hickory</span>.</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class="lefti2"><span class="outdent1">2. Fine concentric</span> lines, much finer than the pith rays; no reddish tinge + in summer wood; sap-wood white; heart-wood blackish.</td> + <td class="right1b" valign="bottom"><span class="sc">Persimmon</span>.</td> +</tr> +</table><br /> + +<hr class="full" style="color: #000; height: 1px; margin-bottom: -11px;" /> +<hr class="full" style="color: #000; height: 1px; margin-top: -11px;" /> + +<h5>ADDITIONAL NOTES FOR DISTINCTIONS IN THE GROUP.</h5> + +<p>Sassafras and mulberry may be confounded but for the greater weight +and hardness and the absence of odor in the mulberry; the radial section of +mulberry also shows the pith rays conspicuously.</p> + +<p>Honey locust, coffee tree, and black locust are also very similar in appearance. +The honey locust stands out by the conspicuousness of the pith rays, +especially on radial sections, on account of their height, while the black +locust is distinguished by the extremely great weight and hardness, together +with its darker brown color.</p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 600px;"><a href="images/figure-131-w800.png"><img src="images/figure-131-a-600.png" width="600" height="302" alt="Wood of Coffee Tree." /></a> +<p class="center1">Fig. 131. Wood of Coffee Tree.</p></div> + +<p>The ashes, elms, hickories, and oaks may, on casual observation, appear +to resemble one another on account of the pronounced zone of porous spring +wood. (Figs. 129, 132, 135.) The sharply defined large pith rays of the oak +exclude these at once; the wavy lines of pores in the summer wood, appearing +as conspicuous finely-feathered hatchings on tangential section, distinguish +the elms; while the ashes differ from the hickory by the very conspicuously +defined zone of spring wood pores, which in hickory appear more +or less interrupted. The reddish hue of the hickory and the more or less +brown hue of the ash may also aid in ready recognition. The smooth, radial +surface of split hickory will readily separate it from the rest.</p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 500px;"><a href="images/figure-132-w700.png"><img src="images/figure-132-a-500.png" width="500" height="443" alt="A, black ash; B, white ash; C, green ash." /></a> +<p class="center1">Fig. 132. <i>A</i>, black ash; <i>B</i>, white ash; <i>C</i>, green ash.</p></div> + +<p class="ind">The different species of ash may be identified as follows (Fig. 132):</p> + +<table summary="Ash" align="center" width="auto" border="0"> +<tr> + <td class="lefti2"><span class="outdent1">1. Pores in</span> the summer wood more or less united into lines.</td> + <td width="20%"> </td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class="lefti4"><span class="outdent1"><i>a</i>. The lines</span> short and broken, occurring mostly near the limit + of the ring.</td> + <td class="right1b" valign="bottom"><span class="sc">White Ash</span>.</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class="lefti4"><span class="outdent1"><i>b</i>. The lines</span> quite long and conspicuous in most parts of the + summer wood.</td> + <td class="right1b" valign="bottom"><span class="sc">Green Ash</span>.</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class="lefti2"><span class="outdent1">2. Pores in</span> the summer wood not united into lines, or rarely so.</td> + <td> </td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class="lefti4"><span class="outdent1"><i>a</i>. Heart-wood</span> reddish brown and very firm.</td> + <td class="right1b" valign="bottom"><span class="sc">Red Ash</span>.</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class="lefti4"><span class="outdent1"><i>b</i>. Heart-wood</span> grayish brown, and much more porous.</td> + <td class="right1b" valign="bottom"><span class="sc">Black Ash</span>.</td> +</tr> +</table> + + <span class="pagenum"><a name="page299" id="page299"></a>299</span> + +<p>In the oaks, two groups can be readily distinguished by the manner in +which the pores are distributed in the summer wood. (Fig. 133.) In the +white oaks the pores are very fine and numerous and crowded in the outer +part of the summer wood, while in the black or red oaks the pores are +larger, few in number, and mostly isolated. The live oaks, as far as structure +is concerned, belong to the black oaks, but are much less porous, and +are exceedingly heavy and hard.</p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 600px;"><a href="images/figure-133-w800.png"><img src="images/figure-133-a-600.png" width="600" height="298" alt="Wood of Red Oak." /></a> +<p>Fig. 133. Wood of Red Oak. (For white oak +see fig. 129, <a class="index" href="#page294">p. 294</a>.)</p></div> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 600px;"><a href="images/figure-134-w800.png"><img src="images/figure-134-a-600.png" width="600" height="346" alt="Wood of Chestnut." /></a> +<p>Fig. 134. Wood of Chestnut.</p></div> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 600px;"><a href="images/figure-135-w800.png"><img src="images/figure-135-a-600.png" width="600" height="344" alt="Wood of Hickory." /></a> +<p>Fig. 135. Wood of Hickory.</p></div> + + +<hr class="full" style="color: #000; height: 1px; margin-bottom: -11px;" /> +<hr class="full" style="color: #000; height: 1px; margin-top: -11px;" /> + +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page300" id="page300"></a>300</span> + +<h4>III.—<span class="sc">Diffuse-Porous Woods</span>.</h4> + +<p>(A few indistinctly ring-porous woods of Group II, D, and cedar elm may +seem to belong here.)</p> + +<table summary="Diffuse-porous" align="center" width="auto" border="0"> +<tr> + <td class="lefti0"><span class="outdent1">A. Pores varying</span> in size from large to minute; largest in spring wood, + thereby giving sometimes the appearance of a ring-porous arrangement.</td> + <td width="20%"> </td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class="lefti2"><span class="outdent1">1. Heavy and</span> hard; color of heart-wood (especially on longitudinal + section) chocolate brown.</td> + <td class="right1b" valign="bottom"><span class="sc">Black Walnut</span>.</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class="lefti2"><span class="outdent1"> 2. Light and</span> soft; color of heart-wood light reddish brown.</td> + <td class="right1b" valign="bottom"><span class="sc">Butternut</span>.</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class="lefti0"><span class="outdent1">B. Pores all</span> minute and indistinct; most numerous in spring wood, + giving rise to a lighter colored zone or line (especially on + longitudinal section), thereby appearing sometimes ring-porous; + wood hard, heart-wood vinous reddish; pith rays very fine, but very + distinct. (See also the sometimes indistinct ring-porous cedar elm, + and occasionally winged elm, which are readily distinguished by the + concentric wavy lines of pores in the summer wood).</td> + <td class="right1b" valign="bottom"><span class="sc">Cherry</span>.</td> +</tr> + +<tr> + <td class="lefti0"><span class="outdent1">C. Pores minute</span> or indistinct, neither conspicuously larger nor more numerous + in the spring wood and evenly distributed.</td> + <td> </td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class="lefti2"><span class="outdent1">1. Broad pith</span> rays present.</td> + <td> </td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class="lefti4"><span class="outdent1"><i>a</i>. All or most</span> pith rays broad, numerous, and crowded, + especially on tangential sections, medium heavy and hard, + difficult to split.</td> + <td class="right1b" valign="bottom"><span class="sc">Sycamore</span>.</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class="lefti4"><span class="outdent1"><i>b</i>. Only part</span> of the pith rays broad.</td> + <td> </td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class="lefti6"><span class="outdent1"><i>a'</i>. Broad pith</span> rays well defined, quite numerous; + wood reddish white to reddish.</td> + <td class="right1b" valign="bottom"><span class="sc">Beech</span>.</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class="lefti6"><span class="outdent1"><i>b'</i>. Broad pith</span> rays not sharply defined, made up of many + small rays, not numerous. Stem furrowed, and therefore the + periphery of section, and with it the annual rings sinuous, + bending in and out, and the large pith rays generally limited + to the furrows or concave portions. Wood white, not reddish.</td> + <td class="right1b" valign="bottom"><span class="sc">Blue Beech</span>.</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class="lefti2"><span class="outdent1">2. No broad</span> pith rays present.</td> + <td> </td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class="lefti4"><span class="outdent1"><i>a</i>. Pith rays</span> small to very small, but quite distinct.<span class="pagenum"><a name="page301" id="page301"></a>301</span></td> + <td> </td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class="lefti6"><span class="outdent1"><i>a'</i>. Wood hard.</span></td> + <td> </td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class="lefti8"><span class="outdent1"><i>a"</i>. Color reddish</span> white, with dark reddish tinge in outer + summer wood.</td> + <td class="right1b" valign="bottom"><span class="sc">Maple</span>.</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class="lefti8"><span class="outdent1"><i>b"</i>. Color white</span>, without reddish tinge.</td> + <td class="right1b" valign="bottom"><span class="sc">Holly</span>.</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class="lefti6"><span class="outdent1"><i>b'</i>. Wood soft</span> to very soft.</td> + <td> </td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class="lefti8"><span class="outdent1"><i>a"</i>. Pores crowded</span>, occupying nearly all the space between + pith rays.</td> + <td> </td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class="lefti10"><span class="outdent1"><i>a'"</i>. Color yellowish</span> white, often with a greenish tinge in + heart-wood.</td> + <td class="right1b" valign="bottom"><span class="sc">Tulip Poplar</span>.</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class="lefti10"> </td> + <td class="right1b" valign="bottom"><span class="sc">Cucumber Tree</span>.</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class="lefti10"><span class="outdent1"><i>b.'"</i> Color of sap-wood</span> grayish, of heart-wood light to dark + reddish brown.</td> + <td class="right1b" valign="bottom"><span class="sc">Sweet Gum</span>.</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class="lefti8"><span class="outdent1"><i>b"</i>. Pores not crowded</span>, occupying not over one-third the + space between pith rays; heart-wood brownish white to + very light brown.</td> + <td class="right1b" valign="bottom"><span class="sc">Basswood</span>.</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class="lefti4"><span class="outdent1"><i>b</i>. Pith rays</span> scarcely distinct, yet if viewed with ordinary magnifier, + plainly visible.</td> + <td> </td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class="lefti6"><span class="outdent1"><i>a'</i>. Pores indistinct</span> to the naked eye.</td> + <td> </td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class="lefti6"><span class="outdent1"><i>a"</i>. Color uniform</span> pale yellow; pith rays not conspicuous + even on the radial section.</td> + <td class="right1b" valign="bottom"><span class="sc">Buckeye</span>.</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class="lefti8"><span class="outdent1"><i>b"</i>. Sap-wood yellowish</span> gray, heart-wood grayish brown; pith + rays conspicuous on the radial section.</td> + <td class="right1b" valign="bottom"><span class="sc">Sour Gum</span>.</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class="lefti8"><span class="outdent1"><i>b'</i>. Pores scarcely distinct</span>, but mostly visible as grayish specks on + the cross-section; sap-wood whitish, heart-wood reddish</td> + <td class="right1b" valign="bottom"><span class="sc">Birch</span>.</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class="lefti0"><span class="outdent1">D. Pith rays</span> not visible or else indistinct, even if viewed with magnifier.</td> + <td> </td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class="lefti2"><span class="outdent1">1. Wood very soft</span>, white, or in shades of brown, usually with a silky + luster.</td> + <td class="right1b" valign="bottom"><span class="sc">Cottonwood (Poplar)</span>.</td> +</tr> +</table><br /> + +<hr class="full" style="color: #000; height: 1px; margin-bottom: -11px;" /> +<hr class="full" style="color: #000; height: 1px; margin-top: -11px;" /> + +<h5>ADDITIONAL NOTES FOR DISTINCTIONS IN THE GROUP.</h5> + +<p>Cherry and birch are sometimes confounded, the high pith rays on the +cherry on radial sections readily distinguishes it; distinct pores on birch and +spring wood zone in cherry as well as the darker vinous-brown color of the +latter will prove helpful.</p> + +<p>Two groups of birches can be readily distinguished, tho specific distinction +is not always possible.</p> + +<table summary="Birch" align="center" width="auto" border="0"> +<tr> + <td class="lefti2"><span class="outdent1">1. Pith rays</span> fairly distinct, the pores rather few and not more + abundant in the spring wood: wood heavy, usually darker.</td> + <td class="right1b" width="20%" valign="bottom"><span class="sc">Cherry Birch</span> and <span class="sc">Yellow Birch</span>.</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class="lefti2"><span class="outdent1">2. Pith rays</span> barely distinct, pores more numerous and commonly forming + a more porous spring wood zone; wood of medium weight.</td> + <td class="right1b" valign="bottom"><span class="sc">Canoe or Paper Birch</span>.</td> +</tr> +</table> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 600px;"><a href="images/figure-136-w800.png"><img src="images/figure-136-a-600.png" width="600" height="248" alt="Wood of Beech, Sycamore and Birch." /></a> +<p>Fig. 136. Wood of Beech, Sycamore and Birch.</p></div> + +<p>The species of maple may be distinguished as follows:</p> + +<table summary="Maple" align="center" width="auto" border="0"> +<tr> + <td class="lefti2"><span class="outdent1">1. Most of the</span> pith rays broader than the pores and very conspicuous.</td> + <td class="right1b" width="20%" valign="bottom"><span class="sc">Sugar Maple</span>.</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class="lefti2"><span class="outdent1">2. Pith rays</span> not or rarely broader than the pores, fine but conspicuous.<span class="pagenum"><a name="page302" id="page302"></a>302</span></td> + <td> </td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class="lefti4"><span class="outdent1"><i>a</i>. Wood heavy</span> and hard, usually of darker reddish color and + commonly spotted on cross-section.</td> + <td class="right1b" valign="bottom"><span class="sc">Red Maple</span>.</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class="lefti4"><span class="outdent1"><i>b</i>. Wood of medium</span> weight and hardness, usually light colored.</td> + <td class="right1b" valign="bottom"><span class="sc">Silver Maple</span>.</td> +</tr> +</table> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 600px;"><a href="images/figure-137-w800.png"><img src="images/figure-137-a-600.png" width="600" height="343" alt="Wood of Maple." /></a> +<p>Fig. 137. Wood of Maple.</p></div> + +<p>Red maple is not always safely distinguished from soft maple. In box +elder the pores are finer and more numerous than in soft maple. +The various species of elm may be distinguished as follows:</p> + +<table summary="Elm" align="center" width="auto" border="0"> +<tr> + <td class="lefti2"><span class="outdent1">1. Pores of spring</span> wood form a broad band of several rows; easy + splitting, dark brown heart.</td> + <td class="right1b" width="20%" valign="bottom"><span class="sc">Red Elm</span>.</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class="lefti2"><span class="outdent1">2. Pores of spring</span> wood usually in a single row, or nearly so.</td> + <td> </td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class="lefti4"><span class="outdent1"><i>a</i>. Pores of spring</span> wood large, conspicuously so.</td> + <td class="right1b" valign="bottom"><span class="sc">White Elm</span>.</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class="lefti4"><span class="outdent1"><i>b</i>. Pores of spring</span> wood small to minute.</td> + <td> </td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class="lefti6"><span class="outdent1"><i>a'</i>. Lines of pores</span> in summer wood fine, not as wide as the<span class="pagenum"><a name="page303" id="page303"></a>303</span> + intermediate spaces, giving rise to very compact grain.</td> + <td class="right1b" valign="bottom"><span class="sc">Rock Elm</span>.</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class="lefti6"><span class="outdent1"><i>b'</i>. Lines of pores</span> broad, commonly as wide as the + intermediate spaces.</td> + <td class="right1b" valign="bottom"><span class="sc">Winged Elm</span>.</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class="lefti4"><span class="outdent1"><i>c</i>. Pores in spring</span> wood indistinct, and therefore hardly a + ring-porous wood.</td> + <td class="right1b" valign="bottom"><span class="sc">Cedar Elm</span>.</td> +</tr> +</table> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 500px;"><a href="images/figure-138-w700.png"><img src="images/figure-138-a-500.png" width="500" height="429" alt=" Wood of Elm." /></a><p> + +Fig. 138. Wood of Elm. +<i>a</i> red elm; <i>b</i>, white elm; <i>c</i>, winged elm.</p></div> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 400px;"><a href="images/figure-139-w500.png"><img src="images/figure-139-a-400.png" width="400" height="273" alt="Walnut." /></a> +<p>Fig. 139. Walnut. <i>p.r</i>., pith +rays; <i>c.l</i>., concentric lines; +<i>v</i>, vessels or pores; <i>su. w</i>., +summer wood; <i>sp. w</i>., +spring wood.</p></div> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 600px;"><a href="images/figure-140-w700.png"><img src="images/figure-140-a-600.png" width="600" height="329" alt="Wood of Cherry." /></a> +<p>Fig. 140. Wood of Cherry.</p></div> + + +<h2><span class="pagenum" style="font-size: 0.4em; font-weight: normal;"><a name="page304" id="page304"></a>304</span>INDEX.</h2> + +<p class="center"> +<a href="#A">A</a> | <a href="#B">B</a> | <a href="#C">C</a> | <a href="#D">D</a> | +<a href="#E">E</a> | <a href="#F">F</a> | <a href="#G">G</a> | <a href="#H">H</a> | +<a href="#I">I</a> | <a href="#J">J</a> | <a href="#K">K</a> | <a href="#L">L</a> | +<a href="#M">M</a> | <a href="#N">N</a> | <a href="#O">O</a> | <a href="#P">P</a> | +<a href="#Q">Q</a> | <a href="#R">R</a> | <a href="#S">S</a> | <a href="#T">T</a> | +<a href="#U">U</a> | <a href="#V">V</a> | <a href="#W">W</a> | <a href="#Y">Y</a> <br /><br /></p> + +<a name="A" id="A"></a> +<ul class="index"> +<li><i>Abies grandis</i>, <a class="index" href="#page96">96</a>.</li> + +<li><i>Acer dasycarpum</i>, <a class="index" href="#page172">172</a>.</li> + +<li><i>Acer macrophyllum</i>, <a class="index" href="#page170">170</a>.</li> + +<li><i>Acer rubrum</i>, <a class="index" href="#page174">174</a>.</li> + +<li><i>Acer saccharinum</i>, <a class="index" href="#page172">172</a>.</li> + +<li><i>Acer saccharum</i>, <a class="index" href="#page176">176</a>.</li> + +<li><i>Agaricus</i> <ins title="Transcriber's Note: original reads 'mellens'"><i>melleus</i></ins>, <a class="index" href="#page236">236</a>.</li> + +<li><i>Agarics</i>, <a class="index" href="#page234">234</a>, <a class="index" href="#page236">236</a>.</li> + +<li>Alburnum, <a class="index" href="#page17">17</a>.</li> + +<li>Ambrosia beetles, <a class="index" href="#page242">242</a>.</li> + +<li>Angiosperms, <a class="index" href="#page9">9</a>.</li> + +<li>Animal enemies, <a class="index" href="#page239">239</a>.</li> + +<li>Arborvitae, Giant, <a class="index" href="#page104">104</a>.</li> + +<li>Ash, <a class="index" href="#page182">182</a>-191, <a class="index" href="#page296">296</a>.</li> + +<li>Ash, Black, <a class="index" href="#page182">182</a>, <a class="index" href="#page298">298</a>.</li> + +<li>Ash, Blue, <a class="index" href="#page186">186</a>.</li> + +<li>Ash, Hoop, <a class="index" href="#page182">182</a>.</li> + +<li>Ash, Oregon, <a class="index" href="#page184">184</a>.</li> + +<li>Ash, Red, <a class="index" href="#page188">188</a>, <a class="index" href="#page298">298</a>.</li> + +<li>Ash, White, <a class="index" href="#page25">25</a>, <a class="index" href="#page190">190</a>, <a class="index" href="#page298">298</a>.</li> +</ul> + +<a name="B" id="B"></a> +<ul class="index"> +<li>Bamboo, <a class="index" href="#page10">10</a>, <a class="index" href="#page11">11</a>.</li> + +<li>Bark, <a class="index" href="#page10">10</a>, <a class="index" href="#page13">13</a>, <a class="index" href="#page14">14</a>.</li> + +<li>Bark borers, <a class="index" href="#page243">243</a>.</li> + +<li>Basswood, <a class="index" href="#page13">13</a>, <a class="index" href="#page178">178</a>, <a class="index" href="#page301">301</a>.</li> + +<li>Bast, <a class="index" href="#page13">13</a>, <a class="index" href="#page15">15</a>, <a class="index" href="#page16">16</a>, <a class="index" href="#page20">20</a>.</li> + +<li>Beech, <a class="index" href="#page134">134</a>, <a class="index" href="#page300">300</a>.</li> + +<li>Beech, Blue, <a class="index" href="#page124">124</a>, <a class="index" href="#page300">300</a>.</li> + +<li>Beech, Water, <a class="index" href="#page124">124</a>.</li> + +<li>Beech, Water, <a class="index" href="#page162">162</a>.</li> + +<li>Bees, carpenter, <a class="index" href="#page246">246</a>.</li> + +<li>Beetles, <a class="index" href="#page241">241</a>-246.</li> + +<li><i>Betula lenta</i>, <a class="index" href="#page130">130</a>.</li> + +<li><i>Betula lutea</i>, <a class="index" href="#page132">132</a>.</li> + +<li><i>Betula nigra</i>, <a class="index" href="#page128">128</a>.</li> + +<li><i>Betula papyrifera</i>, <a class="index" href="#page126">126</a>.</li> + +<li>Big Tree, <a class="index" href="#page98">98</a>, <a class="index" href="#page208">208</a>, <a class="index" href="#page220">220</a>.</li> + +<li>Birch, Black, <a class="index" href="#page130">130</a>.</li> + +<li>Birch, Canoe, <a class="index" href="#page126">126</a>.</li> + +<li>Birch, Cherry, <a class="index" href="#page130">130</a>.</li> + +<li>Birch, Gray, <a class="index" href="#page132">132</a>.</li> + +<li>Birch, Mahogany, <a class="index" href="#page130">130</a>.</li> + +<li>Birch, Paper, <a class="index" href="#page126">126</a>.</li> + +<li>Birch, Red, <a class="index" href="#page128">128</a>.</li> + +<li>Birch, River, <a class="index" href="#page128">128</a>.</li> + +<li>Birch, Sweet, <a class="index" href="#page130">130</a>.</li> + +<li>Birch, White, <a class="index" href="#page126">126</a>.</li> + +<li>Birch, Yellow, <a class="index" href="#page132">132</a>.</li> + +<li>Bird's eye maple, <a class="index" href="#page36">36</a>.</li> + +<li>Bluing, <a class="index" href="#page234">234</a>.</li> + +<li>Bole, <a class="index" href="#page211">211</a>, <a class="index" href="#page219">219</a>.</li> + +<li>Borers, <a class="index" href="#page243">243</a>-246.</li> + +<li>Bowing, <a class="index" href="#page47">47</a>.</li> + +<li>Branches, <a class="index" href="#page37">37</a>, <a class="index" href="#page219">219</a>, <a class="index" href="#page226">226</a>, +<a class="index" href="#page286">286</a>.</li> + +<li>Brittleness, <a class="index" href="#page53">53</a>.</li> + +<li>Broad-leaved trees. + See Trees, Broad-leaved.</li> + +<li>Browsing, <a class="index" href="#page240">240</a>.</li> + +<li>Buckeye, <a class="index" href="#page301">301</a>.</li> + +<li>Bud, <a class="index" href="#page14">14</a>, <a class="index" href="#page16">16</a>, <a class="index" href="#page36">36</a>.</li> + +<li>Buds, Adventitious, <a class="index" href="#page36">36</a>, <a class="index" href="#page37">37</a>.</li> + +<li>Bullnut, <a class="index" href="#page118">118</a>.</li> + +<li><i>Buprestid</i>, <a class="index" href="#page243">243</a></li> + +<li>Burl, <a class="index" href="#page35">35</a>.</li> + +<li>Butternut, <a class="index" href="#page114">114</a>, <a class="index" href="#page300">300</a>.</li> + +<li>Button Ball, <a class="index" href="#page162">162</a>.</li> + +<li>Buttonwood, <a class="index" href="#page162">162</a>.</li> +</ul> + +<a name="C" id="C"></a> +<ul class="index"> +<li>Calico poplar, <a class="index" href="#page246">246</a>.</li> + +<li>Cambium, <a class="index" href="#page10">10</a>, <a class="index" href="#page13">13</a>, <a class="index" href="#page14">14</a>, +<a class="index" href="#page15">15</a>, <a class="index" href="#page16">16</a>, <a class="index" href="#page22">22</a>, <a class="index" href="#page237">237</a>.</li> + +<li>Canopy, <a class="index" href="#page204">204</a>, <a class="index" href="#page211">211</a>.</li> + +<li>Carpenter worms, <a class="index" href="#page245">245</a>.</li> + +<li>Carpenter bees, <a class="index" href="#page246">246</a>.</li> + +<li><i>Carpinus caroliniana</i>, <a class="index" href="#page124">124</a>.</li> + +<li>Catalpa, <a class="index" href="#page296">296</a>.</li> + +<li><i>Castanea dentata</i>, <a class="index" href="#page136">136</a>.</li> + +<li>Case-hardening, <a class="index" href="#page48">48</a>.</li> + +<li><i>Carya tomentosa</i>, <a class="index" href="#page118">118</a>.</li> + +<li><i>Carya porcina</i>, <a class="index" href="#page122">122</a>.</li> + +<li><i>Carya alba</i>, <a class="index" href="#page120">120</a>.</li> + +<li>Cedar, Canoe, <a class="index" href="#page104">104</a>.</li> + +<li>Cedar Incense, <a class="index" href="#page295">295</a>.</li> + +<li>Cedar, Oregon, <a class="index" href="#page108">108</a>.</li> + +<li>Cedar, Port Orford, <a class="index" href="#page108">108</a>.</li> + +<li>Cedar, Red, <a class="index" href="#page110">110</a>, <a class="index" href="#page223">223</a>, <a class="index" href="#page295">295</a>.</li> + +<li>Cedar, Western Red, <a class="index" href="#page104">104</a>, <a class="index" href="#page206">206</a>, <a class="index" href="#page207">207</a>.</li> + +<li>Cedar, White, <a class="index" href="#page106">106</a>, <a class="index" href="#page295">295</a>.</li> + +<li>Cedar, White, <a class="index" href="#page108">108</a>.</li> + +<li>Cells, Wood, <a class="index" href="#page15">15</a>, <a class="index" href="#page19">19</a>, <a class="index" href="#page20">20</a>, +<a class="index" href="#page21">21</a>, <a class="index" href="#page24">24</a>, <a class="index" href="#page26">26</a>, <a class="index" href="#page41">41</a>, +<a class="index" href="#page42">42</a>.</li> + +<li>Cells, Fibrous, <a class="index" href="#page28">28</a>.</li> + +<li>Cellulose, <a class="index" href="#page15">15</a>.</li> + +<li><i>Cerambycid</i>, <a class="index" href="#page243">243</a>.</li> + +<li><i>Chamaecyparis lawsoniana</i>, <a class="index" href="#page108">108</a>.</li> + +<li><i>Chamaecyparis thyordes</i>, <a class="index" href="#page106">106</a>.</li> + +<li>Checks, <a class="index" href="#page43">43</a>, <a class="index" href="#page47">47</a>, <a class="index" href="#page232">232</a>.<span class="pagenum"><a name="page305" id="page305"></a>305</span></li> + +<li>Cherry, Wild Black, <a class="index" href="#page164">164</a>, <a class="index" href="#page300">300</a>.</li> + +<li>Chestnut, <a class="index" href="#page136">136</a>, <a class="index" href="#page298">298</a>.</li> + +<li>Cleaning, <a class="index" href="#page219">219</a>, <a class="index" href="#page286">286</a>.</li> + +<li>Cleavability of wood, <a class="index" href="#page41">41</a>, <a class="index" href="#page53">53</a>.</li> + +<li>Coffee Tree, <a class="index" href="#page297">297</a>.</li> + +<li>Color of wood, <a class="index" href="#page18">18</a>.</li> + +<li>Cold, <a class="index" href="#page214">214</a>, <a class="index" href="#page216">216</a>.</li> + +<li><i>Coleoptera</i>, <a class="index" href="#page241">241</a>.</li> + +<li>Colors of woods, <a class="index" href="#page17">17</a>, <a class="index" href="#page18">18</a>, <a class="index" href="#page290">290</a>.</li> + +<li>Columbian timber beetle, <a class="index" href="#page245">245</a>.</li> + +<li>Comb-grain, <a class="index" href="#page54">54</a>.</li> + +<li>Composition of forest, <a class="index" href="#page197">197</a>-210, <a class="index" href="#page223">223</a>.</li> + +<li>Compression, <a class="index" href="#page51">51</a>, <a class="index" href="#page52">52</a>.</li> + +<li>Conch, <a class="index" href="#page235">235</a>.</li> + +<li>Cones, Annual, <a class="index" href="#page19">19</a>.</li> + +<li>Conifers, <a class="index" href="#page9">9</a>, <a class="index" href="#page10">10</a>, <a class="index" href="#page12">12</a>, +<a class="index" href="#page24">24</a>-26, <a class="index" href="#page29">29</a>, <a class="index" href="#page30">30</a>, <a class="index" href="#page48">48</a>, +<a class="index" href="#page58">58</a>-111, <a class="index" href="#page205">205</a>, <a class="index" href="#page220">220</a>, <a class="index" href="#page237">237</a>, +<a class="index" href="#page251">251</a>.</li> + +<li>Conservation of forests, <a class="index" href="#page262">262</a>.</li> + +<li>Coppice, <a class="index" href="#page220">220</a>, <a class="index" href="#page278">278</a>, <a class="index" href="#page279">279</a>.</li> + +<li>Cork, <a class="index" href="#page13">13</a>, <a class="index" href="#page19">19</a>.</li> + +<li>Cortex, <a class="index" href="#page13">13</a>, <a class="index" href="#page15">15</a>.</li> + +<li><i>Corthylus columbianus</i>, <a class="index" href="#page245">245</a>.</li> + +<li>Cottonwood, <a class="index" href="#page301">301</a>.</li> + +<li>Cover, <a class="index" href="#page211">211</a>.</li> + +<li>Crop, The Forest, <a class="index" href="#page274">274</a>.</li> + +<li>Crown, <a class="index" href="#page211">211</a>, <a class="index" href="#page227">227</a>.</li> + +<li>Cucumber Tree, <a class="index" href="#page156">156</a>, <a class="index" href="#page301">301</a>.</li> + +<li><i>Curculionid</i>, <a class="index" href="#page243">243</a>.</li> + +<li>Cypress, Bald, <a class="index" href="#page102">102</a>, <a class="index" href="#cyprus">213</a>, <a class="index" href="#page295">295</a>.</li> + +<li>Cypress, Lawson, <a class="index" href="#page108">108</a>.</li> +</ul> + +<a name="D" id="D"></a> +<ul class="index"> +<li>Decay, <a class="index" href="#page235">235</a>.</li> + +<li>Deciduous trees, <a class="index" href="#page10">10</a>.</li> + +<li>Dicotoledons, <a class="index" href="#page9">9</a>, <a class="index" href="#page10">10</a>.</li> + +<li>Differentiation of cells, <a class="index" href="#page16">16</a>.</li> + +<li>Diffuse-porous. See wood, diffuse-porous.</li> + +<li>Distribution of species, <a class="index" href="#page219">219</a>.</li> + +<li>Distribution of forests, <a class="index" href="#page197">197</a>-210.</li> + +<li>Drouth, <a class="index" href="#page213">213</a>, <a class="index" href="#page231">231</a>.</li> + +<li>Dry-rot, <a class="index" href="#page234">234</a>, <a class="index" href="#page238">238</a>.</li> + +<li>Duff, <a class="index" href="#page224">224</a>, <a class="index" href="#page251">251</a>.</li> + +<li>Duramen, <a class="index" href="#page17">17</a>.</li> +</ul> + +<a name="E" id="E"></a> +<ul class="index"> +<li>Elasticity of wood, <a class="index" href="#page41">41</a>, <a class="index" href="#page53">53</a>.</li> + +<li>Elm, <a class="index" href="#page152">152</a>-155, <a class="index" href="#page298">298</a>.</li> + +<li>Elm, American, <a class="index" href="#page154">154</a>.</li> + +<li>Elm, Cedar, <a class="index" href="#page303">303</a>.</li> + +<li>Elm, Cliff, <a class="index" href="#page152">152</a>.</li> + +<li>Elm, Cork, <a class="index" href="#page152">152</a>.</li> + +<li>Elm, Hickory, <a class="index" href="#page152">152</a>.</li> + +<li>Elm, Red, <a class="index" href="#page302">302</a>.</li> + +<li>Elm, Rock, <a class="index" href="#page152">152</a>, <a class="index" href="#page303">303</a>.</li> + +<li>Elm, Slippery, <a class="index" href="#page14">14</a>.</li> + +<li>Elm, Water, <a class="index" href="#page154">154</a>.</li> + +<li>Elm, White, <a class="index" href="#page152">152</a>.</li> + +<li>Elm, White, <a class="index" href="#page154">154</a>, <a class="index" href="#page302">302</a>.</li> + +<li>Elm, Winged, <a class="index" href="#page303">303</a>.</li> + +<li>Endogens, <a class="index" href="#page10">10</a>, <a class="index" href="#page17">17</a>. + See Monocotoledons.</li> + +<li>Enemies of the Forest, <a class="index" href="#page229">229</a>-249.</li> + +<li>Engraver beetles, <a class="index" href="#page241">241</a>.</li> + +<li>Entomology, Bureau of, <a class="index" href="#page248">248</a>.</li> + +<li>Epidermis, <a class="index" href="#page13">13</a>, <a class="index" href="#page15">15</a>.</li> + +<li>Erosion, <a class="index" href="#page273">273</a>.</li> + +<li>Evaporation, <a class="index" href="#page42">42</a>, <a class="index" href="#page47">47</a>.</li> + +<li>Evergreens, <a class="index" href="#page10">10</a>.</li> + +<li>Exotics, <a class="index" href="#page227">227</a>.</li> + +<li>Exogens, <a class="index" href="#page12">12</a>, <a class="index" href="#page16">16</a>.</li> +</ul> + +<a name="F" id="F"></a> +<ul class="index"> +<li><i>Fagus americana</i>, <a class="index" href="#page134">134</a>.</li> + +<li><i>Fagus atropunicea</i>, <a class="index" href="#page134">134</a>.</li> + +<li><i>Fagus ferruginea</i>, <a class="index" href="#page134">134</a>.</li> + +<li><i>Fagus grandifolia</i>, <a class="index" href="#page134">134</a>.</li> + +<li>Figure, <a class="index" href="#page37">37</a>.</li> + +<li>Fir, <a class="index" href="#page96">96</a>, <a class="index" href="#page294">294</a>.</li> + +<li>Fir, Douglas, <a class="index" href="#page94">94</a>.</li> + +<li>Fir, Grand, <a class="index" href="#page96">96</a>.</li> + +<li>Fir, Lowland, <a class="index" href="#page96">96</a>.</li> + +<li>Fir, Red, <a class="index" href="#page94">94</a>, <a class="index" href="#page206">206</a>, <a class="index" href="#page207">207</a>.</li> + +<li>Fir, Silver, <a class="index" href="#page96">96</a>.</li> + +<li>Fir, White, <a class="index" href="#page96">96</a>.</li> + +<li>Fire, <a class="index" href="#page232">232</a>, <a class="index" href="#page251">251</a>-258.</li> + +<li>Fire lanes, <a class="index" href="#page257">257</a>.</li> + +<li>Fire losses, <a class="index" href="#page253">253</a>.</li> + +<li>Fire notice, <a class="index" href="#page258">258</a>.</li> + +<li>Fire trenches, <a class="index" href="#page256">256</a>.</li> + +<li>Fire Wardens, <a class="index" href="#page257">257</a>.</li> + +<li>Fires, Causes of, <a class="index" href="#page252">252</a>.</li> + +<li>Fires, Control of, <a class="index" href="#page256">256</a>-258.</li> + +<li>Fires, Crown, <a class="index" href="#page255">255</a>.</li> + +<li>Fires, Description of, <a class="index" href="#page254">254</a>-256.</li> + +<li>Fires, Fear of, <a class="index" href="#page261">261</a>.</li> + +<li>Fires, Opportunities for, <a class="index" href="#page251">251</a>.</li> + +<li>Fires, Statistics of, <a class="index" href="#page253">253</a>.</li> + +<li>Fires, Surface, <a class="index" href="#page252">252</a>.</li> + +<li>Floor, Forest, <a class="index" href="#page213">213</a>, <a class="index" href="#page224">224</a>.</li> + +<li>Forest, Abundance of, <a class="index" href="#page260">260</a>.</li> + +<li>Forest, Appalachian, <a class="index" href="#page204">204</a>.</li> + +<li>Forest, Atlantic, <a class="index" href="#page197">197</a>.</li> + +<li>Forest, Broadleaf, <a class="index" href="#page202">202</a>.</li> + +<li>Forest, Eastern, <a class="index" href="#page197">197</a>-204.</li> + +<li>Forest, Enemies of, <a class="index" href="#page229">229</a>-249.</li> + +<li>Forest, Exhaustion of, <a class="index" href="#page251">251</a>-270.</li> + +<li>Forest, Esthetic use of, <a class="index" href="#page277">277</a>.</li> + +<li>Forest, Fear of, <a class="index" href="#page260">260</a>.</li> + +<li>Forest, Hardwood, <a class="index" href="#page197">197</a>, 197 (<a class="index" href="#page210">note, 210</a>), <a class="index" href="#page204">204</a>.</li> + +<li>Forest, High, <a class="index" href="#page281">281</a>.</li> + +<li>Forest, Hostility toward, <a class="index" href="#page260">260</a>.</li> + +<li>Forest, Mixed, <a class="index" href="#page204">204</a>, <a class="index" href="#page213">213</a>, <a class="index" href="#page214">214</a>.</li> + +<li>Forest, Northern, <a class="index" href="#page197">197</a>, 197 (<a class="index" href="#page210">note, 210</a>), <a class="index" href="#page215">215</a>.</li> + +<li>Forest, Pacific, <a class="index" href="#page197">197</a>, 197 (<a class="index" href="#page210">note, 210</a>), <a class="index" href="#page204">204</a>-208.</li> + +<li>Forest, Productive, <a class="index" href="#page274">274</a>-277.</li> + +<li>Forest, Protective, <a class="index" href="#page271">271</a>-274.</li> + +<li>Forest, Puget Sound, <a class="index" href="#page206">206</a>.</li> + +<li>Forest, Regular Seed, <a class="index" href="#page281">281</a>.<span class="pagenum"><a name="page306" id="page306"></a>306</span></li> + +<li>Forest, Rocky Mountain, <a class="index" href="#page197">197</a>, 197 (<a class="index" href="#page210">note, 210</a>), <a class="index" href="#page204">204</a>, <a class="index" href="#page205">205</a>.</li> + +<li>Forest, Seed, <a class="index" href="#page279">279</a>-282.</li> + +<li>Forest, Selection, <a class="index" href="#page280">280</a>-281.</li> + +<li>Forest, Southern, 197 (<a class="index" href="#page210">note, 210</a>), <a class="index" href="#page200">200</a>.</li> + +<li>Forest, Subarctic, <a class="index" href="#page209">209</a>.</li> + +<li>Forest, Two-storied Seed, <a class="index" href="#page282">282</a>.</li> + +<li>Forest, Use of, <a class="index" href="#page271">271</a>-287.</li> + +<li>Forest, Utilization of, <a class="index" href="#page271">271</a>-277.</li> + +<li>Forest, Virgin, <a class="index" href="#page280">280</a>.</li> + +<li>Forest, Western, <a class="index" href="#page197">197</a>.</li> + +<li>Forestry, <a class="index" href="#page271">271</a>-287.</li> + +<li>Forests, Composition of North American, <a class="index" href="#page197">197</a>.</li> + +<li>Forests, National, <a class="index" href="#page228">228</a>.</li> + +<li>Forests and agriculture, <a class="index" href="#page258">258</a>, <a class="index" href="#page277">277</a>.</li> + +<li>Forest conditions, <a class="index" href="#page211">211</a>-228, <a class="index" href="#page278">278</a>.</li> + +<li>Forest conservation, <a class="index" href="#page262">262</a>.</li> + +<li>Forest cover, <a class="index" href="#page204">204</a>, <a class="index" href="#page211">211</a>, <a class="index" href="#page212">212</a>, +<a class="index" href="#page224">224</a>.</li> + +<li>Forest crop, <a class="index" href="#page274">274</a>, <a class="index" href="#page276">276</a>.</li> + +<li>Forest devastation, <a class="index" href="#page261">261</a>.</li> + +<li>Forest fires, <a class="index" href="#page251">251</a>-258, <a class="index" href="#page261">261</a>.</li> + +<li>Forest floor, <a class="index" href="#page213">213</a>, <a class="index" href="#page224">224</a>.</li> + +<li>Forest improvement, <a class="index" href="#page284">284</a>-286.</li> + +<li>Forest map, <a class="index" href="#page198">198</a>.</li> + +<li>Forest organism, The, Chapter V., pp. <a class="index" href="#page211">211</a>-228.</li> + +<li>Forest ownership, <a class="index" href="#page262">262</a>.</li> + +<li>Forest planting, <a class="index" href="#page282">282</a>-284.</li> + +<li>Forest preservation, <a class="index" href="#page277">277</a>-284.</li> + +<li>Forest products, <a class="index" href="#page276">276</a>.</li> + +<li>Forest Service, U. S., <a class="index" href="#page262">262</a>, <a class="index" href="#page264">264</a>, <a class="index" href="#page275">275</a>.</li> + +<li><i>Fraxinus americana</i>, <a class="index" href="#page190">190</a>.</li> + +<li><i>Fraxinus nigra</i>, <a class="index" href="#page182">182</a>.</li> + +<li><i>Fraxinus oregona</i>, <a class="index" href="#page184">184</a>.</li> + +<li><i>Fraxinus pennsylvanica</i>, <a class="index" href="#page188">188</a>.</li> + +<li><i>Fraxinus quadrangulata</i>, <a class="index" href="#page186">186</a>.</li> + +<li>Frost, <a class="index" href="#page232">232</a>.</li> + +<li>Frost-check, <a class="index" href="#page232">232</a>.</li> + +<li>Fungi, <a class="index" href="#page26">26</a>, <a class="index" href="#page233">233</a>-239.</li> +</ul> + +<a name="G" id="G"></a> +<ul class="index"> +<li>Ginko, <a class="index" href="#page12">12</a>.</li> + +<li>Gluing, <a class="index" href="#page54">54</a>.</li> + +<li>Goats, <a class="index" href="#page240">240</a>.</li> + +<li>Grain of wood, <a class="index" href="#page19">19</a>, <a class="index" href="#page30">30</a>, <a class="index" href="#page31">31</a>, +<a class="index" href="#page32">32</a>-37, <a class="index" href="#page53">53</a>.</li> + +<li>Grain, Bird's eye, <a class="index" href="#page36">36</a>.</li> + +<li>Grain, coarse, <a class="index" href="#page32">32</a>.</li> + +<li>Grain, cross, <a class="index" href="#page33">33</a>, <a class="index" href="#page53">53</a>.</li> + +<li>Grain, curly, <a class="index" href="#page35">35</a>.</li> + +<li>Grain, fine, <a class="index" href="#page32">32</a>.</li> + +<li>Grain, spiral, <a class="index" href="#page33">33</a>, <a class="index" href="#page35">35</a>.</li> + +<li>Grain, straight, <a class="index" href="#page33">33</a>, <a class="index" href="#page53">53</a>.</li> + +<li>Grain, twisted, <a class="index" href="#page33">33</a>.</li> + +<li>Grain, wavy, <a class="index" href="#page34">34</a>.</li> + +<li>Grazing, <a class="index" href="#page239">239</a>.</li> + +<li>Group system, <a class="index" href="#page279">279</a>.</li> + +<li>Grubs, <a class="index" href="#page243">243</a>, <a class="index" href="#page244">244</a>.</li> + +<li>Gum, Black, <a class="index" href="#page180">180</a>.</li> + +<li>Gum, Sour, <a class="index" href="#page180">180</a>, <a class="index" href="#page301">301</a>.</li> + +<li>Gum, Sweet, <a class="index" href="#page160">160</a>, <a class="index" href="#page301">301</a>.</li> + +<li>Gymnosperms, <a class="index" href="#page9">9</a>.</li> +</ul> + +<a name="H" id="H"></a> +<ul class="index"> +<li>Hackberry, <a class="index" href="#page297">297</a>.</li> + +<li>Hackmatack, <a class="index" href="#page76">76</a>.</li> + +<li>Hardness of wood, <a class="index" href="#page41">41</a>, <a class="index" href="#page54">54</a>.</li> + +<li>Hardwoods, <a class="index" href="#page12">12</a>.</li> + +<li>Heart-wood, <a class="index" href="#page13">13</a>, <a class="index" href="#page17">17</a>, <a class="index" href="#page18">18</a>, +<a class="index" href="#page19">19</a>, <a class="index" href="#page290">290</a>.</li> + +<li>Hemlock, <a class="index" href="#page90">90</a>, <a class="index" href="#page295">295</a>.</li> + +<li>Hemlock, Black, <a class="index" href="#page92">92</a>.</li> + +<li>Hemlock, Western, <a class="index" href="#page92">92</a>, <a class="index" href="#page206">206</a>.</li> + +<li><i>Hicoria alba</i>, <a class="index" href="#page118">118</a>.</li> + +<li><i>Hicoria glabra</i>, <a class="index" href="#page122">122</a>.</li> + +<li><i>Hicoria ovata</i>, <a class="index" href="#page120">120</a>.</li> + +<li>Hickory, <a class="index" href="#page118">118</a>-123, <a class="index" href="#page298">298</a>.</li> + +<li>Hickory, Big-bud, <a class="index" href="#page118">118</a>.</li> + +<li>Hickory, Black, <a class="index" href="#page118">118</a>.</li> + +<li>Hickory, Shagbark, <a class="index" href="#page120">120</a>.</li> + +<li>Hickory, Shellbark, <a class="index" href="#page120">120</a>.</li> + +<li>Hickory, White-heart, <a class="index" href="#page118">118</a>.</li> + +<li>High Forest, <a class="index" href="#page281">281</a>.</li> + +<li>Holly, <a class="index" href="#page301">301</a>.</li> + +<li>Honeycombing, <a class="index" href="#page48">48</a>.</li> + +<li>Hornbeam, <a class="index" href="#page124">124</a>.</li> + +<li>Horn-tails, <a class="index" href="#page246">246</a>.</li> + +<li>Hygroscopicity of wood, <a class="index" href="#page41">41</a>.</li> + +<li><i>Hymenomycetes</i>, <a class="index" href="#page234">234</a>.</li> +</ul> + +<a name="I" id="I"></a> +<ul class="index"> +<li>Ice, <a class="index" href="#page232">232</a>.</li> + +<li>Ichneumon fly, <a class="index" href="#page247">247</a>.</li> + +<li>Identification of woods, <a class="index" href="#page289">289</a>-303.</li> + +<li>Improvement of forests, <a class="index" href="#page284">284</a>-286.</li> + +<li>Inflammability of bark, <a class="index" href="#page14">14</a>, <a class="index" href="#page251">251</a>.</li> + +<li>Insects, <a class="index" href="#page240">240</a>-248.</li> + +<li>Insects, parasitic, <a class="index" href="#page247">247</a>.</li> + +<li>Insects, predaceous, <a class="index" href="#page247">247</a>.</li> + +<li>Intolerance, <a class="index" href="#page217">217</a>, <a class="index" href="#page219">219</a>.</li> + +<li>Iron-wood, <a class="index" href="#page124">124</a>.</li> +</ul> + +<a name="J" id="J"></a> +<ul class="index"> +<li><i>Juglans cinerea</i>, <a class="index" href="#page114">114</a>.</li> + +<li><i>Juglans nigra</i>, <a class="index" href="#page116">116</a>.</li> + +<li><i>Juniperus virginiana</i>, <a class="index" href="#page110">110</a>.</li> +</ul> + +<a name="K" id="K"></a> +<ul class="index"> +<li>Key for the distinction of woods, <a class="index" href="#page292">292</a>-303.</li> + +<li>King-nut, <a class="index" href="#page118">118</a>.</li> + +<li>Knot, <a class="index" href="#page35">35</a>, <a class="index" href="#page37">37</a>, <a class="index" href="#page38">38</a>.</li> +</ul> + +<a name="L" id="L"></a> +<ul class="index"> +<li>Larch, <a class="index" href="#page76">76</a>.</li> + +<li>Larch, Western, <a class="index" href="#page78">78</a>.</li> + +<li><i>Larix americana</i>, <a class="index" href="#page76">76</a>.</li> + +<li><i>Larix laricina</i>, <a class="index" href="#page76">76</a>.</li> + +<li><i>Larix occidentales</i>, <a class="index" href="#page78">78</a>.</li> + +<li>Leaves, <a class="index" href="#page14">14</a>, <a class="index" href="#page216">216</a>.</li> + +<li>Lenticels, <a class="index" href="#page14">14</a>.</li> + +<li><i>Lepidoptera</i>, <a class="index" href="#page241">241</a>.</li> + +<li>Light, <a class="index" href="#page217">217</a>-218.</li> + +<li>Lightning, <a class="index" href="#page232">232</a>, <a class="index" href="#page251">251</a>.</li> + +<li>Lignin, <a class="index" href="#page16">16</a>.</li> + +<li>Linden, <a class="index" href="#page178">178</a>.</li> + +<li><i>Liquidambar styraciflua</i>, <a class="index" href="#page160">160</a>.<span class="pagenum"><a name="page307" id="page307"></a>307</span></li> + +<li><i>Liriodendron tulipifera</i>, <a class="index" href="#page158">158</a>.</li> + +<li>Localized Selection system, <a class="index" href="#page281">281</a>.</li> + +<li>Locust, <a class="index" href="#page166">166</a>.</li> + +<li>Locust, Black, <a class="index" href="#page166">166</a>, <a class="index" href="#page296">296</a>.</li> + +<li>Locust, Honey, <a class="index" href="#page297">297</a>.</li> + +<li>Locust, Yellow, <a class="index" href="#page166">166</a>.</li> + +<li>Long-bodied trunk, <a class="index" href="#page225">225</a>.</li> + +<li>Lumber consumption, <a class="index" href="#page264">264</a>.</li> + +<li>Lumber, <a class="index" href="#page9">9</a>, <a class="index" href="#page10">10</a>.</li> + +<li>Lumber prices, <a class="index" href="#page267">267</a>, <a class="index" href="#page268">268</a>.</li> + +<li>Lumber production, <a class="index" href="#page265">265</a>-267.</li> + +<li>Lumber, substitutes for, <a class="index" href="#page264">264</a>.</li> + +<li>Lumbering, conservative, <a class="index" href="#page274">274</a>, <a class="index" href="#page276">276</a>.</li> + +<li>Lumbering, destructive, <a class="index" href="#page251">251</a>, <a class="index" href="#page258">258</a>-263.</li> + +<li>Lumberman, <a class="index" href="#page260">260</a>.</li> +</ul> + +<a name="M" id="M"></a> +<ul class="index"> +<li><i>Magnolia acuminata</i>, <a class="index" href="#page156">156</a>.</li> + +<li>Magnolia, Mountain, <a class="index" href="#page156">156</a>.</li> + +<li>Mahogany, <a class="index" href="#page168">168</a>.</li> + +<li>Maple, <a class="index" href="#page170">170</a>-177, <a class="index" href="#page301">301</a>.</li> + +<li>Maple, Hard, <a class="index" href="#page25">25</a>, <a class="index" href="#page176">176</a>.</li> + +<li>Maple, Large Leaved, <a class="index" href="#page170">170</a>.</li> + +<li>Maple, Oregon, <a class="index" href="#page170">170</a>,<a class="index" href="#page207"> 207</a>.</li> + +<li>Maple, Red, <a class="index" href="#page174">174</a>, <a class="index" href="#page302">302</a>.</li> + +<li>Maple, Rock, <a class="index" href="#page25">25</a>.</li> + +<li>Maple, Silver, <a class="index" href="#page172">172</a>, <a class="index" href="#page302">302</a>.</li> + +<li>Maple, Soft, <a class="index" href="#page172">172</a>.</li> + +<li>Maple, Sugar, <a class="index" href="#page176">176</a>.</li> + +<li>Maple, White, <a class="index" href="#page170">170</a>.</li> + +<li>Maple, White, <a class="index" href="#page172">172</a>.</li> + +<li>Medullary rays. See Rays.</li> + +<li>Medullary Sheath. See Sheath.</li> + +<li><i>Merulius lachrymans</i>, <a class="index" href="#page234">234</a>, <a class="index" href="#page238">238</a>.</li> + +<li>Meteorological enemies, <a class="index" href="#page229">229</a>-233.</li> + +<li>Mice, <a class="index" href="#page237">237</a>.</li> + +<li>Microscope, <a class="index" href="#page14">14</a>, <a class="index" href="#page24">24</a>-31, <a class="index" href="#page290">290</a>.</li> + +<li>Mine, Forest treated as, <a class="index" href="#page261">261</a>, <a class="index" href="#page274">274</a>.</li> + +<li>Mockernut, <a class="index" href="#page118">118</a>.</li> + +<li>Moisture, <a class="index" href="#page213">213</a>.</li> + +<li>Moisture in wood, <a class="index" href="#page41">41</a>, <a class="index" href="#page52">52</a>.</li> + +<li>Monocotoledons, <a class="index" href="#page9">9</a>, <a class="index" href="#page10">10</a>, <a class="index" href="#page17">17</a>. + See also Endogens.</li> + +<li>Mountain, <a class="index" href="#page216">216</a>.</li> + +<li>Mulberry, Red, <a class="index" href="#page297">297</a>.</li> + +<li>Mushroom, <a class="index" href="#page236">236</a>.</li> + +<li>Mutual aid, <a class="index" href="#page224">224</a>.</li> +</ul> + +<a name="N" id="N"></a> +<ul class="index"> +<li>Nailing, <a class="index" href="#page53">53</a>.</li> + +<li>Needle-leaf trees, <a class="index" href="#page12">12</a>.</li> + +<li>Non-porous. See Wood, non-porous.</li> + +<li>North Woods, <a class="index" href="#page197">197</a>, <a class="index" href="#page218">218</a>.</li> + +<li>Nurse, <a class="index" href="#page218">218</a>, <a class="index" href="#page219">219</a>.</li> + +<li><i>Nyssa sylvatica</i>, <a class="index" href="#page180">180</a>.</li> +</ul> + +<a name="O" id="O"></a> +<ul class="index"> +<li>Oak, <a class="index" href="#page138">138</a>-151, <a class="index" href="#page298">298</a>.</li> + +<li>Oak, Basket, <a class="index" href="#page142">142</a>.</li> + +<li>Oak, Black, <a class="index" href="#page140">140</a>.</li> + +<li>Oak, Bur, <a class="index" href="#page144">144</a>.</li> + +<li>Oak, Cow, <a class="index" href="#page142">142</a>.</li> + +<li>Oak, Live, <a class="index" href="#page201">201</a>.</li> + +<li>Oak, Mossy-cup, <a class="index" href="#page144">144</a>.</li> + +<li>Oak, Over-cup, <a class="index" href="#page144">144</a>.</li> + +<li>Oak, Post, <a class="index" href="#page148">148</a>.</li> + +<li>Oak, Red, <a class="index" href="#page138">138</a>.</li> + +<li>Oak, Stave, <a class="index" href="#page150">150</a>.</li> + +<li>Oak, White, <a class="index" href="#page150">150</a>.</li> + +<li>Oak, White (Western), <a class="index" href="#page146">146</a>.</li> + +<li>Oak, Yellow bark, <a class="index" href="#page140">140</a>.</li> + +<li>Odors of wood, <a class="index" href="#page18">18</a>.</li> + +<li>Osage Orange, <a class="index" href="#page296">296</a>.</li> + +<li>Organism, Forest, <a class="index" href="#page211">211</a>.</li> +</ul> + +<a name="P" id="P"></a> +<ul class="index"> +<li><i>Padus serotina</i>, <a class="index" href="#page164">164</a>.</li> + +<li>Palm, <a class="index" href="#page9">9</a>, <a class="index" href="#page17">17</a>.</li> + +<li>Paper pulp, <a class="index" href="#page263">263</a>.</li> + +<li>Parasites, <a class="index" href="#page233">233</a>.</li> + +<li>Parenchyma, <a class="index" href="#page23">23</a>, <a class="index" href="#page28">28</a>.</li> + +<li>Pecky cypress, <a class="index" href="#page234">234</a>.</li> + +<li>Peggy cypress, <a class="index" href="#page234">234</a>.</li> + +<li>Pepperidge, <a class="index" href="#page180">180</a>.</li> + +<li>Persimmon, <a class="index" href="#page298">298</a>.</li> + +<li>Phanerogamia, <a class="index" href="#page9">9</a>.</li> + +<li>Phloem, <a class="index" href="#page13">13</a>.</li> + +<li><i>Picea alba</i>, <a class="index" href="#page80">80</a>.</li> + +<li><i>Picea canadensis</i>, <a class="index" href="#page80">80</a>.</li> + +<li><i>Picea engelmanni</i>, <a class="index" href="#page86">86</a>.</li> + +<li><i>Picea mariana</i>, <a class="index" href="#page84">84</a>.</li> + +<li><i>Picea nigra</i>, <a class="index" href="#page84">84</a>.</li> + +<li><i>Picea rubens</i>, <a class="index" href="#page82">82</a>.</li> + +<li><i>Picea sitchensis</i>, <a class="index" href="#page88">88</a>.</li> + +<li>Pigeon Horn-tail, <a class="index" href="#page247">247</a>.</li> + +<li>Pignut, <a class="index" href="#page122">122</a>.</li> + +<li>Pines, <a class="index" href="#page58">58</a>-75, <a class="index" href="#page295">295</a>.</li> + +<li>Pine, Bull, <a class="index" href="#page55">55</a> (note 4), <a class="index" href="#page66">66</a>, <a class="index" href="#page205">205</a>-206.</li> + +<li>Pine, Cuban, <a class="index" href="#page74">74</a>.</li> + +<li>Pine, Georgia, <a class="index" href="#page68">68</a>.</li> + +<li>Pine, Loblolly, <a class="index" href="#page72">72</a>.</li> + +<li>Pine, Long-leaf, <a class="index" href="#page68">68</a>, <a class="index" href="#page200">200</a>.</li> + +<li>Pine, Norway, <a class="index" href="#page64">64</a>.</li> + +<li>Pine, Old Field, <a class="index" href="#page72">72</a>.</li> + +<li>Pine, Oregon, <a class="index" href="#page94">94</a>.</li> + +<li>Pine, Red, <a class="index" href="#page64">64</a>.</li> + +<li>Pine, Short-leaf, <a class="index" href="#page70">70</a>.</li> + +<li>Pine, Slash, <a class="index" href="#page74">74</a>.</li> + +<li>Pine, Sugar, <a class="index" href="#page62">62</a>.</li> + +<li>Pine, Western White, <a class="index" href="#page60">60</a>.</li> + +<li>Pine, Western Yellow, <a class="index" href="#page66">66</a>.</li> + +<li>Pine, Weymouth, <a class="index" href="#page58">58</a>.</li> + +<li>Pine, White, <a class="index" href="#page24">24</a>, <a class="index" href="#page58">58</a>, <a class="index" href="#page199">199</a>.</li> + +<li>Pine, Yellow, <a class="index" href="#page70">70</a>.</li> + +<li>Pine sawyers, <a class="index" href="#page244">244</a>.</li> + +<li><i>Pinus caribaea</i>, <a class="index" href="#page74">74</a>.</li> + +<li><i>Pinus echinata</i>, <a class="index" href="#page70">70</a>.</li> + +<li><i>Pinus heterophylla</i>, <a class="index" href="#page74">74</a>.</li> + +<li><i>Pinus lambertiana</i>, <a class="index" href="#page62">62</a>.</li> + +<li><i>Pinus monticola</i>, <a class="index" href="#page60">60</a>.</li> + +<li><i>Pinus palustris</i>, <a class="index" href="#page68">68</a>.</li> + +<li><i>Pinus ponderosa</i>, <a class="index" href="#page66">66</a>.<span class="pagenum"><a name="page308" id="page308"></a>308</span></li> + +<li><i>Pinus resinosa</i>, <a class="index" href="#page64">64</a>.</li> + +<li><i>Pinus strobus</i>, <a class="index" href="#page58">58</a>.</li> + +<li><i>Pinus taeda</i>, <a class="index" href="#page72">72</a>.</li> + +<li>Pith, <a class="index" href="#page10">10</a>, <a class="index" href="#page13">13</a>, <a class="index" href="#page15">15</a>, +<a class="index" href="#page16">16</a>, <a class="index" href="#page23">23</a>, <a class="index" href="#page32">32</a>, <a class="index" href="#page39">39</a>.</li> + +<li>Pith ray. See Ray, medullary.</li> + +<li>Pits, <a class="index" href="#page26">26</a>, <a class="index" href="#page292">292</a>.</li> + +<li>Planting, <a class="index" href="#page282">282</a>-284.</li> + +<li><i>Platanus occidentalis</i>, <a class="index" href="#page162">162</a>.</li> + +<li>Poles, <a class="index" href="#page225">225</a>.</li> + +<li>Polypores, <a class="index" href="#page234">234</a>.</li> + +<li><i>Polyporus annosus</i>, <a class="index" href="#page237">237</a>.</li> + +<li><i>Polyporus sulphureus</i>, <a class="index" href="#page236">236</a>.</li> + +<li>Poplar, yellow, <a class="index" href="#page24">24</a>, <a class="index" href="#page35">35</a>, <a class="index" href="#page158">158</a>, +<a class="index" href="#page204">204</a>, <a class="index" href="#page245">245</a>, <a class="index" href="#page246">246</a>, +<a class="index" href="#page267">267</a>-268.</li> + +<li>Pores, <a class="index" href="#page23">23</a>, <a class="index" href="#page28">28</a>, <a class="index" href="#page29">29</a>, +<a class="index" href="#page291">291</a>.</li> + +<li>Powder-post beetles, <a class="index" href="#page244">244</a>.</li> + +<li>Preservation of forests, <a class="index" href="#page277">277</a>-284.</li> + +<li>Prices of lumber, <a class="index" href="#page267">267</a>, <a class="index" href="#page268">268</a>.</li> + +<li>Primary growth, <a class="index" href="#page17">17</a>, <a class="index" href="#page22">22</a>.</li> + +<li>Procambium strands, <a class="index" href="#page16">16</a>.</li> + +<li>Protection against fungi, <a class="index" href="#page239">239</a>.</li> + +<li>Protection against insects, <a class="index" href="#page247">247</a>.</li> + +<li>Properties of wood, Chap II., p. <a class="index" href="#page41">41</a>.</li> + +<li>Protoplasm, <a class="index" href="#page14">14</a>, <a class="index" href="#page16">16</a>, <a class="index" href="#page23">23</a>, +<a class="index" href="#page41">41</a>.</li> + +<li>Pruning of branches, <a class="index" href="#page286">286</a>.</li> + +<li><i>Prunus serotina</i>, <a class="index" href="#page164">164</a>.</li> + +<li><i>Pseudotsuga mucronata</i>, <a class="index" href="#page94">94</a>.</li> + +<li><i>Pseudotsuga taxifolia</i>, <a class="index" href="#page94">94</a>.</li> +</ul> + +<a name="Q" id="Q"></a> +<ul class="index"> +<li>Quartering a log, <a class="index" href="#page45">45</a>.</li> + +<li>Quartered oak, <a class="index" href="#page22">22</a>.</li> + +<li><i>Quercus alba</i>, <a class="index" href="#page150">150</a>.</li> + +<li><i>Quercus garryana</i>, <a class="index" href="#page146">146</a>.</li> + +<li><i>Quercus macrocarpa</i>, <a class="index" href="#page144">144</a>.</li> + +<li><i>Quercus michauxii</i>, <a class="index" href="#page142">142</a>.</li> + +<li><i>Quercus minor</i>, <a class="index" href="#page148">148</a>.</li> + +<li><i>Quercus obtusiloba</i>, <a class="index" href="#page148">148</a>.</li> + +<li><i>Quercus rubra</i>, <a class="index" href="#page138">138</a>.</li> + +<li><i>Quercus stellata</i>, <a class="index" href="#page148">148</a>.</li> + +<li><i>Quercus tinctoria</i>, <a class="index" href="#page140">140</a>.</li> + +<li><i>Quercus velutina</i>, <a class="index" href="#page140">140</a>.</li> +</ul> + +<a name="R" id="R"></a> +<ul class="index"> +<li>Rainfall, effect on forest, <a class="index" href="#page205">205</a>, <a class="index" href="#page213">213</a>.</li> + +<li>Rays, medullary, <a class="index" href="#page15">15</a>, <a class="index" href="#page16">16</a>, <a class="index" href="#page17">17</a>, +<a class="index" href="#page21">21</a>, <a class="index" href="#page22">22</a>, <a class="index" href="#page23">23</a>, <a class="index" href="#page26">26</a>, +<a class="index" href="#page30">30</a>, <a class="index" href="#page31">31</a>, <a class="index" href="#page37">37</a>, <a class="index" href="#page44">44</a>, +<a class="index" href="#page53">53</a>, <a class="index" href="#page291">291</a>.</li> + +<li>Red rot, <a class="index" href="#page234">234</a>.</li> + +<li>Redwood, <a class="index" href="#page100">100</a>, <a class="index" href="#page207">207</a>, <a class="index" href="#page220">220</a>, +<a class="index" href="#page295">295</a>.</li> + +<li>Regularity of cells, <a class="index" href="#page24">24</a>.</li> + +<li>Reproduction, <a class="index" href="#page220">220</a>.</li> + +<li>Reserve sprout method, <a class="index" href="#page279">279</a>.</li> + +<li>Resin ducts, <a class="index" href="#page26">26</a>, <a class="index" href="#page291">291</a>.</li> + +<li>Rhizomorphs, <a class="index" href="#page236">236</a>.</li> + +<li>Rind, <a class="index" href="#page13">13</a>.</li> + +<li>Ring-porous. See Wood, ring-porous.</li> + +<li>Rings, Annual, <a class="index" href="#page9">9</a>, <a class="index" href="#page10">10</a>, <a class="index" href="#page19">19</a>, +<a class="index" href="#page21">21</a>, <a class="index" href="#page23">23</a>, <a class="index" href="#page44">44</a>, <a class="index" href="#page226">226</a>, +<a class="index" href="#page290">290</a>.</li> + +<li>Rings, False, <a class="index" href="#page19">19</a>, <a class="index" href="#page231">231</a>.</li> + +<li><i>Robinia pseudacacia</i>, <a class="index" href="#page166">166</a>.</li> + +<li>Rodents, <a class="index" href="#page239">239</a>.</li> + +<li>Roots, <a class="index" href="#page211">211</a>, <a class="index" href="#page224">224</a>.</li> + +<li>Rotation period, <a class="index" href="#page279">279</a>.</li> + +<li>Rotting, <a class="index" href="#page234">234</a>.</li> +</ul> + +<a name="S" id="S"></a> +<ul class="index"> +<li><i>Salix nigra</i>, <a class="index" href="#page112">112</a>.</li> + +<li>Sand dunes, <a class="index" href="#page230">230</a>, <a class="index" href="#page231">231</a>.</li> + +<li>Saplings, <a class="index" href="#page225">225</a>, <a class="index" href="#page226">226</a>.</li> + +<li>Saprophytes, <a class="index" href="#page233">233</a>.</li> + +<li>Sap-wood, <a class="index" href="#page13">13</a>, <a class="index" href="#page17">17</a>, <a class="index" href="#page18">18</a>, +<a class="index" href="#page41">41</a>, <a class="index" href="#page42">42</a>, <a class="index" href="#page290">290</a>.</li> + +<li>Sassafras, <a class="index" href="#page296">296</a>.</li> + +<li>Sawyers, Pine, <a class="index" href="#page244">244</a>.</li> + +<li>Seasoning, <a class="index" href="#page42">42</a>.</li> + +<li>Secondary growth, <a class="index" href="#page17">17</a>.</li> + +<li>Section, cross, <a class="index" href="#page21">21</a>, <a class="index" href="#page22">22</a>, <a class="index" href="#page29">29</a>. + See also Section, transverse.</li> + +<li>Section, radial, <a class="index" href="#page19">19</a>, <a class="index" href="#page22">22</a>, <a class="index" href="#page26">26</a>, +<a class="index" href="#page30">30</a>, <a class="index" href="#page31">31</a>.</li> + +<li>Section, tangential, <a class="index" href="#page19">19</a>, <a class="index" href="#page22">22</a>, <a class="index" href="#page26">26</a>, +<a class="index" href="#page30">30</a>, <a class="index" href="#page31">31</a>.</li> + +<li>Section, transverse, <a class="index" href="#page19">19</a>, <a class="index" href="#page24">24</a>, <a class="index" href="#page29">29</a>, +<a class="index" href="#page30">30</a>.</li> + +<li>Sections, transverse, radial and tangential, <a class="index" href="#page12">12</a>.</li> + +<li>Seed forests, <a class="index" href="#page279">279</a>-282.</li> + +<li>Seeding from the side, <a class="index" href="#page279">279</a>.</li> + +<li>Seedlings, <a class="index" href="#page225">225</a>, <a class="index" href="#page226">226</a>.</li> + +<li>Seeds, <a class="index" href="#page220">220</a>-223, <a class="index" href="#page226">226</a>.</li> + +<li>Sequoia, <a class="index" href="#page98">98</a>.</li> + +<li>Sequoia, <a class="index" href="#page100">100</a>.</li> + +<li>Sequoia, Giant, <a class="index" href="#page98">98</a>.</li> + +<li><i>Sequoia gigantea</i>, <a class="index" href="#page98">98</a>.</li> + +<li><i>Sequoia sempervirens</i>, <a class="index" href="#page100">100</a>.</li> + +<li><i>Sequoia washingtoniana</i>, <a class="index" href="#page98">98</a>.</li> + +<li>Settler, <a class="index" href="#page258">258</a>.</li> + +<li>Shake, <a class="index" href="#page47">47</a>, <a class="index" href="#page232">232</a>, <a class="index" href="#page233">233</a>.</li> + +<li>Shearing strength, <a class="index" href="#page52">52</a>.</li> + +<li>Sheep, <a class="index" href="#page240">240</a>.</li> + +<li>Shelf fungus, <a class="index" href="#page234">234</a>, <a class="index" href="#page236">236</a>.</li> + +<li>Short-bodied trunk, <a class="index" href="#page225">225</a>.</li> + +<li>Shrinkage of wood, <a class="index" href="#page41">41</a>, <a class="index" href="#page42">42</a>-47.</li> + +<li>Silver flakes, <a class="index" href="#page22">22</a>. + See Rays, Medullary.</li> + +<li>Silvical characteristics, <a class="index" href="#page212">212</a>.</li> + +<li>Silvicultural systems, <a class="index" href="#page278">278</a>-284.</li> + +<li>Slash, <a class="index" href="#page229">229</a>, <a class="index" href="#page251">251</a>, <a class="index" href="#page257">257</a>.</li> + +<li>Slash-grain, <a class="index" href="#page54">54</a>.</li> + +<li>Slash-sawing, <a class="index" href="#page45">45</a>.</li> + +<li>Snow, <a class="index" href="#page232">232</a>.</li> + +<li>Softwoods, <a class="index" href="#page12">12</a>.</li> + +<li>Soil, <a class="index" href="#page211">211</a>, <a class="index" href="#page213">213</a>.</li> + +<li>Specific gravity. See Weight.</li> + +<li>Splint-wood, <a class="index" href="#page17">17</a>.</li> + +<li>Splitting. See Cleavability.</li> + +<li>Spores, <a class="index" href="#page234">234</a>.</li> + +<li>Spring-wood, <a class="index" href="#page20">20</a>, <a class="index" href="#page21">21</a>, <a class="index" href="#page24">24</a>, +<a class="index" href="#page30">30</a>, <a class="index" href="#page32">32</a>, <a class="index" href="#page44">44</a>, <a class="index" href="#page53">53</a>, +<a class="index" href="#page54">54</a>, <a class="index" href="#page291">291</a>.</li> + +<li>Sprouts, <a class="index" href="#page220">220</a>.</li> + +<li>Spruce, <a class="index" href="#page80">80</a>-89, <a class="index" href="#page295">295</a>.</li> + +<li>Spruce, Black, <a class="index" href="#page84">84</a>.</li> + +<li>Spruce, Douglas, <a class="index" href="#page94">94</a>, <a class="index" href="#page296">296</a>.</li> + +<li>Spruce, Engelmann's, <a class="index" href="#page86">86</a>.<span class="pagenum"><a name="page309" id="page309"></a>309</span></li> + +<li>Spruce, Red, <a class="index" href="#page82">82</a>, <a class="index" href="#page213">213</a>.</li> + +<li>Spruce, Sitka, <a class="index" href="#page88">88</a>.</li> + +<li>Spruce, Tideland, <a class="index" href="#page88">88</a>.</li> + +<li>Spruce, Western White, <a class="index" href="#page86">86</a>.</li> + +<li>Spruce, White, <a class="index" href="#page80">80</a>.</li> + +<li>Stand, mixed, <a class="index" href="#page213">213</a>, <a class="index" href="#page223">223</a>.</li> + +<li>Stand, pure, <a class="index" href="#page213">213</a>, <a class="index" href="#page223">223</a>.</li> + +<li>Standards, <a class="index" href="#page225">225</a>, <a class="index" href="#page226">226</a>.</li> + +<li>Steamboats, <a class="index" href="#page246">246</a>.</li> + +<li>Stem, diagram of cross section, Fig. 4, p. <a class="index" href="#page13">13</a>, fig. 5, p. <a class="index" href="#page15">15</a>; +<a class="index" href="#page211">211</a>.</li> + +<li>Strength of wood, <a class="index" href="#page41">41</a>, <a class="index" href="#page51">51</a>-53.</li> + +<li>Strip system, <a class="index" href="#page279">279</a>.</li> + +<li>Structure of wood, <a class="index" href="#page9">9</a>-40, <a class="index" href="#page29">29</a>, <a class="index" href="#page30">30</a>, +<a class="index" href="#page32">32</a>.</li> + +<li>Struggle for existence, <a class="index" href="#page224">224</a>, <a class="index" href="#page226">226</a>, <a class="index" href="#page227">227</a>.</li> + +<li>Summer-wood, <a class="index" href="#page20">20</a>, <a class="index" href="#page21">21</a>, <a class="index" href="#page24">24</a>, +<a class="index" href="#page30">30</a>, <a class="index" href="#page32">32</a>, <a class="index" href="#page44">44</a>, <a class="index" href="#page53">53</a>, +<a class="index" href="#page54">54</a>, <a class="index" href="#page291">291</a>.</li> + +<li><i>Swietenia mahagoni</i>, <a class="index" href="#page168">168</a>.</li> + +<li>Sycamore, <a class="index" href="#page22">22</a>, <a class="index" href="#page162">162</a>, <a class="index" href="#page300">300</a>.</li> +</ul> + +<a name="T" id="T"></a> +<ul class="index"> +<li>Tamarack, <a class="index" href="#page76">76</a>, <a class="index" href="#page296">296</a>.</li> + +<li>Tamarack, Western, <a class="index" href="#page78">78</a>.</li> + +<li>Taxes on forests, <a class="index" href="#page261">261</a>.</li> + +<li><i>Taxodium distichum</i>, <a class="index" href="#page102">102</a>.</li> + +<li>Tear fungus, <a class="index" href="#page234">234</a>, <a class="index" href="#page238">238</a>.</li> + +<li>Temperature, <a class="index" href="#page214">214</a>.</li> + +<li>Tension, <a class="index" href="#page51">51</a>, <a class="index" href="#page52">52</a>.</li> + +<li>Texture of wood, <a class="index" href="#page32">32</a>.</li> + +<li><i>Thuja gigantea</i>, <a class="index" href="#page104">104</a>.</li> + +<li><i>Thuja plicata</i>, <a class="index" href="#page104">104</a>.</li> + +<li><i>Tilia americana</i>, <a class="index" href="#page178">178</a>.</li> + +<li>Timber beetles, <a class="index" href="#page242">242</a>, <a class="index" href="#page245">245</a>.</li> + +<li>Timber supply of U. S., <a class="index" href="#page264">264</a>-269.</li> + +<li>Timber trees, <a class="index" href="#page10">10</a>.</li> + +<li>Timber worms, <a class="index" href="#page244">244</a>.</li> + +<li>Tissue, <a class="index" href="#page16">16</a>.</li> + +<li>Toadstools, <a class="index" href="#page234">234</a>.</li> + +<li>Tolerance, <a class="index" href="#page219">219</a>, <a class="index" href="#page220">220</a>.</li> + +<li>Toughness of wood, <a class="index" href="#page41">41</a>, <a class="index" href="#page54">54</a>.</li> + +<li>Tracheae, <a class="index" href="#page23">23</a>, <a class="index" href="#page28">28</a>.</li> + +<li>Tracheid, <a class="index" href="#page28">28</a>, <a class="index" href="#page30">30</a>, <a class="index" href="#page290">290</a>, +<a class="index" href="#page292">292</a>.</li> + +<li><i>Trametes pini</i>, <a class="index" href="#page235">235</a>.</li> + +<li><i>Trametes radiciperda</i>, <a class="index" href="#page237">237</a>.</li> + +<li>Tree, parts of, <a class="index" href="#page211">211</a>.</li> + +<li>Treeless area, <a class="index" href="#page197">197</a>, <a class="index" href="#page203">203</a>.</li> + +<li>Trees, Broad-leaved, <a class="index" href="#page9">9</a>, <a class="index" href="#page10">10</a>, <a class="index" href="#page28">28</a>, +<a class="index" href="#page29">29</a>.</li> + +<li>Trees, deciduous, <a class="index" href="#page10">10</a>.</li> + +<li>Trunk, <a class="index" href="#page13">13</a>, <a class="index" href="#page211">211</a>. + Long-bodied, <a class="index" href="#page225">225</a>. + Short-bodied, <a class="index" href="#page225">225</a>.</li> + +<li><i>Tsuga canadensis</i>, <a class="index" href="#page90">90</a>.</li> + +<li><i>Tsuga heterophylla</i>, <a class="index" href="#page92">92</a>.</li> + +<li>Tulip Tree, <a class="index" href="#page158">158</a>. + See Poplar Yellow</li> + +<li>Tupelo, <a class="index" href="#page180">180</a>.</li> + +<li>Turpentine, <a class="index" href="#page263">263</a>.</li> + +<li>Two-storied Seed Forest, <a class="index" href="#page282">282</a>.</li> +</ul> + +<a name="U" id="U"></a> +<ul class="index"> +<li><i>Ulmus americana</i>, <a class="index" href="#page154">154</a>.</li> + +<li><i>Ulmus racemosa</i>, <a class="index" href="#page152">152</a>.</li> + +<li><i>Ulmus thomasi</i>, <a class="index" href="#page152">152</a>.</li> + +<li>Utilization of forests, <a class="index" href="#page271">271</a>-277.</li> +</ul> + +<a name="V" id="V"></a> +<ul class="index"> +<li>Vegetable enemies, <a class="index" href="#page233">233</a>-239.</li> + +<li>Veneer, <a class="index" href="#page10">10</a>, <a class="index" href="#page35">35</a>.</li> + +<li>Vessels, <a class="index" href="#page23">23</a>, <a class="index" href="#page28">28</a>, <a class="index" href="#page29">29</a>.</li> + +<li>Veterans, <a class="index" href="#page225">225</a>.</li> +</ul> + +<a name="W" id="W"></a> +<ul class="index"> +<li>Walnut, Black, <a class="index" href="#page116">116</a>, <a class="index" href="#page300">300</a>.</li> + +<li>Walnut, White, <a class="index" href="#page114">114</a>.</li> + +<li>Warping, <a class="index" href="#page42">42</a>, <a class="index" href="#page47">47</a>.</li> + +<li>Waste, Avoidance of, <a class="index" href="#page274">274</a>.</li> + +<li>Waste in lumbering, <a class="index" href="#page263">263</a>.</li> + +<li>Water, <a class="index" href="#page41">41</a>, <a class="index" href="#page42">42</a>, <a class="index" href="#page226">226</a>, +<a class="index" href="#page231">231</a>.</li> + +<li>Weeds, Forest, <a class="index" href="#page225">225</a>.</li> + +<li>Weight of wood, <a class="index" href="#page41">41</a>, <a class="index" href="#page49">49</a>-51.</li> + +<li>Whitewood, <a class="index" href="#page158">158</a>.</li> + +<li>Wilderness, Conquest of, <a class="index" href="#page258">258</a>.</li> + +<li>Willow, Black, <a class="index" href="#page112">112</a>.</li> + +<li>Wind, <a class="index" href="#page229">229</a>, <a class="index" href="#page252">252</a>, <a class="index" href="#page253">253</a>.</li> + +<li>Windfalls, <a class="index" href="#page229">229</a>.</li> + +<li>Wood, Diffuse-porous, <a class="index" href="#page23">23</a>, <a class="index" href="#page30">30</a>, <a class="index" href="#page300">300</a>-303.</li> + +<li>Wood, Non-porous, <a class="index" href="#page24">24</a>-26, <a class="index" href="#page58">58</a>-111, <a class="index" href="#page294">294</a>-296.</li> + +<li>Wood, Primary, <a class="index" href="#page17">17</a>.</li> + +<li>Wood, Properties of, Chap. II., <a class="index" href="#page41">41</a>-56.</li> + +<li>Wood, Ring-porous, <a class="index" href="#page23">23</a>, <a class="index" href="#page29">29</a>, <a class="index" href="#page296">296</a>-299.</li> + +<li>Wood, secondary, <a class="index" href="#page17">17</a>.</li> + +<li>Wood, Spring, <a class="index" href="#page20">20</a>, <a class="index" href="#page21">21</a>, <a class="index" href="#page24">24</a>, +<a class="index" href="#page30">30</a>, <a class="index" href="#page32">32</a>, <a class="index" href="#page44">44</a>, <a class="index" href="#page53">53</a>, +<a class="index" href="#page54">54</a>, <a class="index" href="#page291">291</a>.</li> + +<li>Wood, Structure of, <a class="index" href="#page9">9</a>-40.</li> + +<li>Wood, summer, <a class="index" href="#page20">20</a>, <a class="index" href="#page21">21</a>, <a class="index" href="#page24">24</a>, +<a class="index" href="#page30">30</a>, <a class="index" href="#page32">32</a>, <a class="index" href="#page44">44</a>, <a class="index" href="#page53">53</a>, +<a class="index" href="#page54">54</a>, <a class="index" href="#page291">291</a>.</li> + +<li>Wood borers, <a class="index" href="#page243">243</a>.</li> + +<li>Wood cells. See Cells.</li> + +<li>Wood. See Sap-wood, Heart wood.</li> + +<li>Wood dyes, <a class="index" href="#page18">18</a>.</li> + +<li>Wood fiber, <a class="index" href="#page28">28</a>.</li> + +<li>Woods, Color of, <a class="index" href="#page17">17</a>, <a class="index" href="#page18">18</a>, <a class="index" href="#page290">290</a>.</li> + +<li>Woods, The distinguishing of, <a class="index" href="#page289">289</a>-303.</li> + +<li>Working, <a class="index" href="#page47">47</a>.</li> + +<li>Worm-holes, <a class="index" href="#page243">243</a>.</li> + +<li>Worms, carpenter, <a class="index" href="#page245">245</a>.</li> + +<li>Worms, Timber, <a class="index" href="#page244">244</a>.</li> + +<li>Wound parasites, <a class="index" href="#page234">234</a>.</li> +</ul> + +<a name="Y" id="Y"></a> +<ul class="index"> +<li>Yew, <a class="index" href="#page295">295</a>.</li> + +<li>Yield, <a class="index" href="#page275">275</a>.</li> + +<li>Yucca, <a class="index" href="#page10">10</a>.</li> +</ul> + +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page310" id="page310"></a>310</span> + +<hr class="full" /> + +<div style="margin-left: 5em; margin-right: 3em;"> + +<h2 style="margin-top: 2em;">Books on the Manual Arts</h2> +<hr class="full" style="color: #000; height: 3px; margin-bottom: -11px;" /> +<hr class="full" style="color: #000; height: 1px; margin-top: -9px;" /> + +<p class="header">DESIGN AND CONSTRUCTION IN WOOD. By William Noyes.</p> + +<p> +A book full of charm and distinction and the first to give due consideration +to the esthetic side of wood-working. It is intended to give to beginners +practice in designing simple projects in wood and an opportunity to acquire +skill in handling tools. The book illustrates a series of projects and gives suggestions +for other similar projects together with information regarding tools +and processes for making. A pleasing volume abundantly and beautifully illustrated. +</p> + +<p class="header">HANDWORK IN WOOD. By William Noyes.</p> + +<p> +A handbook for teachers and a textbook for normal school and college +students. A comprehensive and scholarly treatise, covering logging, saw-milling, +seasoning and measuring, hand tools, wood fastenings, equipment and +care of the shop, the common joints, types of wood structures, principles of +joinery, and wood finishing. 304 illustrations—excellent pen drawings and many +photographs. +</p> + +<p class="header">WOOD AND FOREST. By William Noyes.</p> + +<p> +A companion volume to "Handwork in Wood," by the same author. Especially +adapted as a reference book for teachers of woodworking. Not too +difficult for use as a textbook for normal school and college students. Treats +of wood, distribution of American forests, life of the forest, enemies of the +forest, destruction, conservation and uses of the forest, with a key to the common +woods by Filibert Roth. Describes 67 principal species of wood with maps +of the habitat, leaf drawings, life size photographs and microphotographs of +sections. Contains a general bibliography of books and articles on wood and +forest. Profusely illustrated with photographs from the United States forest +service and with pen and ink drawings by Anna Gausmann Noyes and photographs +by the author. 309 pages. +</p> + +<p class="header">WOODWORK FOR BEGINNERS. By Ira S. Griffith.</p> + +<p> +A remarkably simple treatment of elementary woodworking for students in +the seventh and eighth grades. It deals with tools, processes and materials and +includes only such subject matter as should be taught to grammar grade students. +It meets the requirements of students working in large classes and devoting +the minimum of time to manual training. A practical and unusually attractive +textbook and one that can be used with any course of models and in any +order. +</p> + +<p class="header">BEGINNING WOODWORK, At Home and in School. +By Clinton S. VanDeusen.</p> + +<p> +A full and clear description in detail of the fundamental processes of +elementary benchwork in wood. This description is given thru directions for +making a few simple, useful articles, suitable either for school or home problems. +The book contains more than one hundred original sketches and ten +working drawings. +</p> + +<p class="header">PROBLEMS IN FARM WOODWORK. By Samuel A. Blackburn.</p> + +<p> +A book of working drawings of 100 practical problems relating to agriculture +and farm life. Especially valuable to the student or teacher of agriculture +or manual arts in rural schools and in high schools in agricultural communities, +and to the boy on the farm. There are 60 full-page plates of working +drawings, each accompanied by a page or more of text treating of "Purpose," +"Material," "Bill of Stock," "Tools," "Directions," and "Assembly." A +wonderfully practical book. +</p> + +<p class="header">PROBLEMS IN FURNITURE MAKING. By Fred D. Crawshaw.</p> + +<p> +This book, revised and enlarged, consists of 43 plates of working drawings +suitable for use in grammar and high schools, and 36 pages of text, including +chapters on design, construction and finishes, and notes on the problems. +</p> + +<p class="header">FURNITURE DESIGN FOR SCHOOLS AND SHOPS. +By Fred D. Crawshaw.</p> + +<p> +A manual on furniture design. A book that will stimulate and encourage +designing and initiation on the part of the student. It contains a collection of +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page311" id="page311"></a>311</span> +plates showing perspective drawings of typical designs, representing particular +types of furniture. Each perspective is accompanied by suggestions for rearrangement +and the modeling of parts. The text discusses and illustrates principles +of design as applied to furniture. A practical and helpful book that +should be in the hands of every teacher of cabinet making and designing. +</p> + +<p class="header">PROBLEMS IN WOODWORKING. By M. W. Murray.</p> + +<p> +A convenient collection of good problems consisting of forty plates of working +drawings, of problems in benchwork that have been successfully worked out by boys +in grades seven to nine inclusive. +</p> + +<p class="header">SHOP PROBLEMS. (On Tracing Paper). By Albert F. Siepert.</p> + +<p> +A collection of working drawings of a large variety of projects printed on +tracing paper and ready for blue printing. The projects have all been worked +out in manual arts classes and have proved their value from the standpoint of +design, construction, use, human interest, etc. They are of convenient size, +6x9-inch, and are enclosed in a portfolio. To the teacher, in search of additional +projects to supplement and enrich his course these tracings are worth +far more than the price asked. Published in series. Nos. 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, +and 7. +</p> + +<p class="header">WORKSHOP NOTE-BOOK—WOODWORKING. +By George G. Greene.</p> + +<p> +A small-size textbook and notebook combined. It furnishes a few general +and extremely important directions about tools and processes; and provides +space for additional notes and working drawings of exercises and articles which +the pupil is to construct. It is essentially a collection of helps, ideas, hints, +suggestions, questions, facts, illustrations, etc., which have been prepared by a +practical teacher to meet a real need in his own shop. The notebook is full of +suggestions; shows a keen insight into subject matter and teaching methods +and is an effective teaching tool. +</p> + +<p class="header">PROBLEMS IN WOOD-TURNING. By Fred D. Crawshaw.</p> + +<p> +In the first place this is a book of problems—25 plates covering spindle, +face-plate, and chuck turning. In the second place it is a textbook on the +science and art of wood-turning illustrated by fifty pen sketches. It gives the +mathematical basis for the cuts used in turning. In the third place it is a helpful +discussion of the principles of design as applied to objects turned in wood. +It is a clear, practical and suggestive book on wood-turning. +</p> + +<p class="header">WOOD PATTERN-MAKING. By Horace T. Purfield.</p> + +<p> +This book was written expressly for use as a textbook for high school, +trade school, technical school, and engineering college students. It is a revised, +enlarged, and newly illustrated edition. +</p> + +<p class="header">CORRELATED COURSES IN WOODWORK AND MECHANICAL +DRAWING. By Ira S. Griffith.</p> + +<p> +This book is designed to meet the every-day need of the teacher of woodworking +and mechanical drawing for reliable information concerning organization +of courses, subject matter and methods of teaching. It covers classification +and arrangement of tool operations for grades, 7, 8, 9, and 10, shop organization, +allotment of time design, shop excursions, stock bills, cost of material, +records, shop conduct, the lesson, maintenance, equipment, and lesson +outlines for grammar and high schools. It is based on sound pedagogy, thoro +technical knowledge and successful teaching experience. It is practical. +</p> + +<p class="header">ESSENTIALS OF WOODWORKING. By Ira S. Griffith.</p> + +<p> +A textbook written especially for the use of grammar and high school +students. A clear and comprehensive treatment of woodworking tools, materials, +and processes, to supplement, but not to take the place of the instruction +given by the teacher. The book does not contain a course of models; +it may be used with any course. It is illustrated with photographs and numerous +pen drawings. +</p> +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page312" id="page312"></a>312</span> + +<p class="header">PROJECTS FOR BEGINNING WOODWORK AND MECHANICAL +DRAWING. By Ira S. Griffith.</p> + +<p> +A work book for the use of students in grammar grade classes. It consists +of working drawings and working directions. The projects are such as +have proven of exceptional service where woodworking and mechanical drawing +are taught in a thoro, systematic manner in the seventh and eighth grades. +The aim has been to provide successful rather than unique problems. The 50 +projects in the book were selected and organized with the constant aim of securing +the highest educational results. The book is especially suited for use in +connection with "Essentials of Woodworking," by the same author. +</p> + +<p class="header">FURNITURE MAKING. (Advanced Projects in Woodwork.) +By Ira S. Griffith. +</p> + +<p> +This book is similar to "Projects for Beginning Woodwork and Mechanical +Drawing," but is suited to high school needs. It consists of fifty plates of +problems and accompanying notes. It is essentially a collection of problems +in furniture making selected or designed with reference to school use. On the +plate with each working drawing is a good perspective sketch of the completed +object. In draftsmanship and refinement of design these problems are of superior +quality. It is in every respect an excellent collection. +</p> + +<p class="header">PROBLEMS IN MECHANICAL DRAWING. By Charles A. Bennett.</p> + +<p> +This book consists of 80 plates and a few explanatory notes. Its purpose +is to furnish teachers of classes beginning mechanical drawing with a large +number of simple, practical problems. These have been selected with reference +to the formation of good habits in technique, the interest of the pupils, +and the subjects generally included in a grammar and first-year high school +course. Each problem given is unsolved and therefore in proper form to hand +to the pupil for solution. +</p> + +<p class="header">MECHANICAL DRAWING PROBLEMS. +By Edward Berg and Emil F. Kronquist.</p> + +<p> +A direct and concise text adapted for high school students beginning mechanical +drawing. It covers two year's work and contains 128 full-page plates—excellent +examples of draftsmanship. Text accompanies each plate, giving necessary +facts and helpful hints wherever needed. The underlying principles of +drafting are thoroly covered and the practical applications, which are abundant, +have been most skilfully chosen and admirably presented. The plates tell what +to do, almost at a glance, yet prevent mere copy work. Each problem tests the +ability of the student to think and execute graphically and unconsciously develops +an excellent technique. +</p> + +<p class="header">MECHANICAL DRAFTING. By W. H. Miller.</p> + +<p> +(Revised edition). A textbook for advanced high school students which +presents drafting room practice in practical textbook form. It is so written +that it may be used with any course of exercises or problems and supplements +the instruction of the teacher in such a way as to reduce lecture work to a +minimum. It is a direct and simple treatment of mechanical drafting, giving +due consideration to the needs of the student, the beginning draftsman and the +requirements of the best teaching methods. It is complete, yet condensed and +is well adapted for handbook use by the student and draftsman. It is well illustrated +and is bound in flexible binding, pocket size. A thoroughly practical, +modern textbook. +</p> + +<p class="header">GRAMMAR GRADE PROBLEMS IN MECHANICAL DRAWING. +By Charles A. Bennett.</p> + +<p> +A remarkably simple and carefully graded treatment of the fundamentals +of mechanical drawing for the use of students in the 7th and 8th grades. It +combines an abundance of text and simple problems, accompanied by notes and +directions. Its use insures the early formation of correct habits of technique +and makes possible the development of a standard in grammar grade mechanical +drawing parallel with woodworking. Abundantly and well illustrated. +</p> +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page313" id="page313"></a>313</span> + +<p class="header">MECHANICAL DRAWING FOR BEGINNERS. +By Charles H. Bailey.</p> + +<p> +A textbook suitable wherever this subject is taught to beginners, in Junior +High Schools, High and Continuation Schools. It successfully combines +instructions which are minute and complete, with problems, gradually leading +the student to learn with little or no other help, the essentials and technique of +the work. The matter is condensed but leaves no important points not covered. +</p> + +<p class="header">PROGRESSIVE STEPS IN ARCHITECTURAL DRAWING. +By George W. Seaman.</p> + +<p> +A textbook and practical handbook, describing and illustrating every successive +step in drawing of floor plans, elevations and various details for successful +dwellings. Numerous plates illustrate details of doors, windows, mouldings, +cornices, porches, etc. Architectural orders shown in practical working +forms. "Single line sketches" illustrate method of practical designer in +planning a house. +</p> + +<p class="header">ARCHITECTURAL DRAWING PLATES. By Franklin G. Elwood.</p> + +<p> +A collection of 15 plates showing the various details included in the plans +for frame houses. Names and typical sizes are given and much information +helpful to the student or draftsman. One plate shows eleven "Plan Studies," +another "How Elevations are Worked Up from Plans and Sections." A wonderfully +convenient help in architectural drawing. +</p> + +<p class="header">SIMPLIFIED MECHANICAL PERSPECTIVE. By Frank Forrest Frederick.</p> + +<p> +A book of simple problems covering the essentials of mechanical perspective. +It is planned for pupils of high school age who have already received +some elementary training in mechanical drawing. It is simple, direct and practical. +</p> + +<p class="header">WOODWORK FOR SECONDARY SCHOOLS. By Ira S. Griffith.</p> + +<p> +The most complete and comprehensive textbook on secondary school woodworking +ever published. Treats of Common Woods, Tools and Processes, Woodworking +Machines, Joinery, Wood-Turning, Inlaying and Wood Carving, Wood +Finishing, Furniture Construction, Pattern-Making. Although written for the +student, every teacher of high school or normal school woodwork will find this +text a valuable and necessary volume for reference use. It contains 370 pages +and 580 special illustrations. +</p> + +<p class="header">CARPENTRY. By Ira S. Griffith.</p> + +<p> +A well illustrated textbook for use in vocational schools, trade schools, +technical schools, and by apprentices to the trade, presenting the principles of +house construction in a clear and fundamental way. It treats of the "everyday" +practical problems of the carpenter and house builder from the "laying +of foundations" to the completion of the "interior finish." It meets every requirement +as a textbook and is also well adapted for reference use. It is well +illustrated by photographs taken "on the job." +</p> + +<p class="header">BOY ACTIVITY PROJECTS. By Samuel A. Blackburn.</p> + +<p> +A book of full-page plates and accompanying text giving complete directions +for making 86 projects of interest to the energetic American boy. The projects +are for the school, the home, the playground, the camp, the out-of-doors, and +include a complete wireless telegraph apparatus. The plates give every required +dimension, and show each project complete and in detail. The text is in +reality working directions telling just "how to make," including bills of material, +lists of tools required, etc. A thoroly practical and suggestive book for +school use and rich in inspiration for the boy in his own home shop. +</p> + +<p class="header">SEAT WEAVING. By L. Day Perry.</p> + +<p> +A handbook for teacher or student. Tells how to cane chairs, how to use +cane webbing, how to do rush seating, how to do reed and splint weaving, how +to make seats of reeds and splints, how to prepare raw materials, how to stain, +finish and refinish, etc. Also treats of the use of cane and other seating materials +as a decorative element in furniture construction. Well illustrated, practical +and authoritative. +</p> +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page314" id="page314"></a>314</span> + +<p class="header">FURNITURE UPHOLSTERY FOR SCHOOLS. By Emil A. Johnson.</p> + +<p> +The only text and reference book on upholstery written for school use. +Contains detailed, practical instructions telling how to upholster a variety of +articles, also how to re-upholster old furniture and how to do spring-edge upholstery +work. Describes necessary tools and materials. Abundantly and beautifully +illustrated. +</p> + +<p class="header">PRACTICAL TYPOGRAPHY. By George E. McClellan.</p> + +<p> +A remarkable textbook for students of printing. It contains a course of +exercises ready to place in the hands of pupils, and explains and illustrates the +most approved methods used in correct composition. A valuable feature of the +book lies in the fact that in the early stages of the course the pupil sets up in +type a description of what he is doing with his hands. It contains 63 exercises, +treating of composition from "Correct Spacing" to the "Making up of a +Book," and the "Composition of Tables." +</p> + +<p class="header">ART METALWORK. By Arthur F. Payne.</p> + +<p> +A textbook written by an expert craftsman and experienced teacher. It +treats of the various materials and their production, ores, alloys, commercial +forms, etc.; of tools and equipments suitable for the work, the inexpensive +equipment of the practical craftsman; and of the correlation of art metalwork +with design and other school subjects. It describes in detail all the processes +involved in making articles ranging from a watch fob to a silver loving-cup. It +gives new methods of construction, new finishes, new problems. It is abundantly +and beautifully illustrated, showing work done by students under ordinary +school conditions in a manual training shop. The standard book on the subject. +</p> + +<p class="header">TEACHING THE MANUAL AND INDUSTRIAL ARTS. +By Ira S. Griffith.</p> + +<p> +A text for normal schools or colleges and a reference for manual and vocational +teachers. Presents the philosophy of teaching manual and vocational +education in terms of psychology, social science, and economics. It gives the +conclusions of Thorndike, Judd, Bagley, Dewey and others, and illustrates them +so they serve the teacher as a basis for evaluating the manual and industrial +arts. A book of value to the beginning teacher, the experienced supervisor or +the educational expert; an exceptional source of information on the theory and +practice of its subject. +</p> + +<p class="header">THE MANUAL ARTS. By Charles A. Bennett.</p> + +<p> +A treatise on the selection and organization of subject matter in the manual +arts and on the methods of teaching. It states what manual arts should be +taught in the schools, their place as concerns general and vocational education, +principles underlying the making of courses of instruction and methods of +teaching, and shows the place of the factory system in industrial schools, etc. +Heretofore no book has dealt with the pedagogy of the manual arts in so definite +and clear cut a manner. The author has brought together, with ripened judgment, +the result of years of experience.</p> + +<p>It is especially adapted for normal class and reading circle use and should +be read and studied by every teacher or prospective teacher of the manual arts. +</p> + +<p class="header">EDUCATIONAL TOYS. By Louis C. Petersen.</p> + +<p> +A comprehensive book on toy-making for the school or home. Shows 57 +toys including animals, wheeled toys, stationary toys, moving toys, puzzles, etc., +made chiefly from thin wood, with the coping saw and easily constructed in the +ordinary school room or in the home. Tells how to make each toy, how to +finish and color, about the few simple tools and materials required. Well illustrated +with photographs and full-size pattern drawings. +</p> + +<p class="header">TOY PATTERNS. By Michael C. Dank.</p> + +<p> +A portfolio of toy patterns. Among them are Animals, Animal Rocking +Toys, Wheeled Platform Toys, String Toys, Lever Toys, Freak Toys and Novelties. +Each toy is shown complete and each part is also shown full-size. They +are designed to be made with the coping saw out of thin wood. Twelve sheets, +size 10½" x 14", enclosed in a portfolio with an attractive color design. +</p> +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page315" id="page315"></a>315</span> + +<p class="header">BIRD HOUSES BOYS CAN BUILD. By Albert F. Siepert.</p> + +<p> +A book of rare interest to boys. It is written in the boy spirit and combines +the charm of nature with the allurements of continuation work in wood. +It illustrates hundreds of bird houses and shows working drawings of various +designs, also feeders, shelters, sparrow traps, and other bird accessories. The +common house nesting birds are pictured and described with information regarding +houses, foods, etc., suitable for each. A pleasing and practical book +for wide-awake boys. +</p> + +<p class="header">MANUAL TRAINING TOYS. FOR THE BOYS' WORKSHOP. +By Harris W. Moore.</p> + +<p> +A popular boys' book that is truly educational. It is a collection of forty-two +projects overflowing with "boy" interest and new in the manual training +shop. Full-page working drawings show each project in detail and the text +gives instructions for making, together with information on tools and tool processes. +</p> + +<p class="header">KITECRAFT AND KITE TOURNAMENTS. By Charles M. Miller.</p> + +<p> +An authoritative and comprehensive treatment of kitecraft. The book +deals with the construction and flying of all kinds of kites, and the making and +using of kite accessories. Also aeroplanes, gliders, propellers, motors, etc. Four +chapters are devoted to presenting a detailed description of kite flying tournaments. +Abundantly illustrated and attractively bound. +</p> + +<p class="header">THE CONSTRUCTION AND FLYING OF KITES. +By Charles M. Miller.</p> + + +<p> +This contains seven full-page plates of drawings of kites, and fifteen figures—over +forty kites shown. Details of construction given; a kite tournament +is described. Full of interesting suggestions. +</p> + +<p class="header">COPING SAW WORK. By Ben W. Johnson.</p> + +<p> +Contains working drawings and suggestions for teaching a course of +work in thin wood that is full of fun for the children, and affords ample means +for training in form study, construction, invention and careful work. Has been +called "applied mechanics for the fourth grade." +</p> + +<p class="header">SELECTED SHOP PROBLEMS. By George A. Seaton.</p> + +<p> +A collection of sixteen problems in woodworking made to meet the needs +of busy teachers of manual training. Each problem has been put to the test +and has proven satisfactory to the teacher who designed it and to the pupil +who made it. +</p> + +<p class="header">MANUAL TRAINING MAGAZINE.</p> + +<p> +A magazine of "quality." The professional journal of the teachers of +manual, vocational and industrial education. It publishes practical articles on +the ways and means of "doing things." It discusses vital problems in teaching +the manual arts and presents the best current thought on the development +of manual training and vocational education. To the inexperienced teacher, it +is valuable in solving numerous problems, and to the experienced teacher, it is +a means of keeping abreast of the times. It is ably edited, attractively printed, +and well illustrated with photographs and drawings made especially for its +pages. Published monthly. $1.50 a year; Canada, $1.80; Foreign, $2.00. +</p> + +<hr class="full" style="color: #000; height: 1px; margin-bottom: -11px;" /> +<hr class="full" style="color: #000; height: 3px; margin-top: -11px;" /> + +</div> + +<h3 style="margin-top: 0"><i>Published by</i></h3> + +<h2 style="margin-top: 0">Manual Arts Press :: Peoria, Illinois</h2> + +<h6>We can supply you with any book on the Manual Arts</h6> + + + + + + + + +<pre> + + + + + +End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of Wood and Forest, by William Noyes + +*** END OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK WOOD AND FOREST *** + +***** This file should be named 35419-h.htm or 35419-h.zip ***** +This and all associated files of various formats will be found in: + https://www.gutenberg.org/3/5/4/1/35419/ + +Produced by Peter Vachuska, Chris Curnow and the Online +Distributed Proofreading Team at https://www.pgdp.net + + +Updated editions will replace the previous one--the old editions +will be renamed. + +Creating the works from public domain print editions means that no +one owns a United States copyright in these works, so the Foundation +(and you!) can copy and distribute it in the United States without +permission and without paying copyright royalties. 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