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+The Project Gutenberg EBook of Wood and Forest, by William Noyes
+
+This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with
+almost no restrictions whatsoever.  You may copy it, give it away or
+re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included
+with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org
+
+
+Title: Wood and Forest
+
+Author: William Noyes
+
+Release Date: February 27, 2011 [EBook #35419]
+
+Language: English
+
+Character set encoding: ISO-8859-1
+
+*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK WOOD AND FOREST ***
+
+
+
+
+Produced by Lesley Halamek, Peter Vachuska, Chris Curnow and the
+Online Distributed Proofreading Team at https://www.pgdp.net
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+  WOOD AND FOREST
+
+  _By_ WILLIAM NOYES, M.A.
+
+  Formerly Assistant Professor of Industrial Arts
+  Teachers College, Columbia University
+
+  NEW YORK CITY
+
+  [Illustration]
+
+  THE MANUAL ARTS PRESS
+
+  PEORIA, ILLINOIS
+
+
+  COPYRIGHT
+
+  WILLIAM NOYES
+
+  1912
+
+  _FIFTH EDITION, 1921_
+
+  _Printed in United States of America_
+
+
+
+
+FOREWORD
+
+
+This book has been prepared as a companion volume to the author's
+_Handwork in Wood_.[1] It is an attempt to collect and arrange in
+available form useful information, now widely scattered, about our
+common woods, their sources, growth, properties and uses.
+
+As in the other volume, the credit for the successful completion of
+the book is to be given to my wife, Anna Gausmann Noyes, who has made
+the drawings and maps, corrected the text, read the proof, and carried
+the work thru to its final completion.
+
+Acknowledgments are hereby thankfully made for corrections and
+suggestions in the text to the following persons:
+
+Mr. A. D. Hopkins, of the United States Department of Agriculture,
+Bureau of Entomology, for revision of the text relating to Insect
+Enemies of the Forest, in Chapter VI.
+
+Mr. George G. Hedgcock, of the United States Bureau of Agriculture,
+Bureau of Plant Industry, for revision of the text relating to the
+fungal enemies of the forest, in Chapter VI.
+
+Mr. S. T. Dana and Mr. Burnett Barrows, of the United States
+Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, for revision of Chapters
+IV, V, VI, VII, and VIII.
+
+Professor Charles R. Richards, formerly Head of the Manual Training
+Department of Teachers College, my predecessor as lecturer of the
+course out of which this book has grown.
+
+Professor M. A. Bigelow, Head of the Department of Botany of Teachers
+College, for revision of Chapter I, on the Structure of Wood.
+
+Mr. Romeyn B. Hough, of Lowville, N. Y., author of _American Woods_
+and _Handbook of the Trees of the Northern States and Canada_, for
+suggestions in preparing the maps in Chapter III.
+
+The Forest Service, Washington, D. C., for photographs and maps
+credited to it, and for permission to reprint the key to the
+identification of woods which appears in Forest Service Bulletin No.
+10, _Timber_, by Filibert Roth.
+
+The Division of Publications, U. S. Department of Agriculture, for
+permission to copy illustrations in bulletins.
+
+The Macmillan Company, New York, for permission to reproduce Fig.
+86, Portion of the Mycelium of Dry Rot, from _Timber and Some of its
+Diseases_, by H. M. Ward.
+
+Mrs. Katharine Golden Bitting, of Lafayette, Indiana, for the
+photograph of the cross-section of a bud, Figure 5.
+
+Finally and not least I hereby acknowledge my obligations to the
+various writers and publishers whose books and articles I have freely
+used. As far as possible, appropriate credit is given in the paged
+references at the end of each chapter.
+
+    [Footnote 1: William Noyes, _Handwork in Wood_, Peoria, Ill.
+    The Manual Arts Press, 231 pp., $2.]
+
+
+
+
+CONTENTS.
+
+  CHAPTER                                                       PAGE
+
+         General Bibliography                                     4
+
+     I   The Structure of Wood                                    9
+
+    II   Properties of Wood                                      41
+
+   III   The Principal Species of American Woods                 57
+
+    IV   The Distribution and Composition of the
+         North American Forests                                 197
+
+     V   The Forest Organism                                    211
+
+    VI   Natural Enemies of the Forest                          229
+
+   VII   The Exhaustion of the Forest                           251
+
+  VIII   The Use of the Forest                                  271
+
+         Appendix                                               289
+
+         Index                                                  304
+
+
+
+
+GENERAL BIBLIOGRAPHY
+
+
+Apgar, A. G., _Trees of the Northern United States_. N. Y.:
+    American Book Co., 224 pp. A small book dealing with the botany
+    of trees, giving descriptions of their essential organs, and
+    particularly valuable for the leaf key to the trees. It should
+    be supplemented by Keeler or Hough's Handbook.
+
+Baterden, J. R., _Timber_. N. Y.: D. Van Nostrand Co., 1908,
+    351 pp. A description of the timbers of various countries,
+    discussion of timber defects, timber tests, etc.
+
+Bitting, K. G., _The Structure of Wood_. _Wood Craft_, 5: 76,
+    106, 144, 172, June-Sept., '06. A very scholarly and valuable
+    series of articles on wood structure and growth. Excellent
+    microphotographs.
+
+Britton, Nathaniel Lord, _North American Trees_. N. Y.: Henry
+    Holt & Co., 1908, 894 pp. A description of all the kinds of trees
+    growing independently of cultivation in North America, north of
+    Mexico, and the West Indies. The standard Botany of trees.
+
+Boulger, G. S., _Wood_. London: Edward Arnold, 369 pp. A thoro
+    discussion of wood structure, with chapters on the recognition
+    and classification of woods, defects, preservation, uses, tests,
+    supplies, and sources of wood. Good illustrations.
+
+Bruce, E. S., _Frost Checks and Wind Shakes_. _Forestry and
+    Irrigation_, 8: 159, April, '02. An original study of the
+    splitting of trees by sudden frost and thaw.
+
+Bruncken, Ernest, _North American Forests and Forestry_. N. Y.:
+    G. P. Putnam's Sons. 265 pp. A comprehensive survey of American
+    Forestry conditions including the forest industries, fires,
+    taxation, and management. No illustrations.
+
+Busbridge, Harold, _The Shrinkage and Warping of Timber_.
+    _Sci. Amer. Suppl._, No. 1500, Oct. 1, 1904. Good photographic
+    illustrations.
+
+Comstock, J. H. and A. B., _A Manual for the Study of Insects_.
+    Ithaca, N. Y.: Comstock Publishing Co., 701 pp.
+    Valuable for reference in classifying insects injurious to wood.
+
+Curtis, Carleton C., _Nature and Development of Plants_. N. Y.:
+    Henry Holt & Co., 1907, 471 pp. Chapter III is a very clear and
+    excellent discussion of the structure of the stem of plants
+    (including wood).
+
+Encyclopedia Brittannica, Eleventh Edition, Cambridge: At the
+    University Press. Article: _Forests and Forestry_, Vol. 10, p.
+    645. Article: _Plants_, Anatomy of, Vol. 21, p. 741. Article:
+    _Timber_ Vol. 26, p. 978.
+
+Felt, E. P., _The Gypsy and Brown Tail Moths_. N. Y. State Museum:
+    Bulletin 103, Entomology, 25. Valuable for colored illustrations
+    as well as for detailed descriptions.
+
+Fernow, B. E., _Economics of Forestry_. N. Y.: T. Y. Crowell
+    & Co. 1902, quarto 520 pp. A treatment of forests and forestry
+    from the standpoint of economics, including a comprehensive
+    exposition of the forester's art, with chapters on forest
+    conditions, silviculture, forest policies, and methods of
+    business conduct, with a bibliography.
+
+Fernow, B. E., _Report upon the Forestry Investigation of the U. S.
+    Department of Agriculture_, 1887-1898. Fifty-fifth Congress,
+    House of Representatives, Document No. 181. Quarto, 401 pp.
+    A review of forests and forestry in the U. S., of forest policies
+    of European nations, particularly of Germany, of the principles
+    of silviculture, of a discussion of forest influences, and a
+    section on timber physics.
+
+Harwood, W. S., _The New Earth_. N. Y.: The Macmillan Co., 1906.
+    378 pp. A recital of the triumphs of modern agriculture.
+    Chap. X on modern forestry, describes what has been done in
+    different states in conservative lumbering.
+
+Hough, Romeyn B., _American Woods_. Lowville, N. Y.: The
+    author. An invaluable collection in eleven volumes (boxes)
+    of sections of 275 species of American woods. There are three
+    sections of each species, cross, radial, and tangential,
+    mounted in cardboard panels. Accompanied by a list of
+    descriptions and analytical keys.
+
+Hough, Romeyn B., _Handbook of the Trees of the Northern
+    States and Canada_. Lowville, N. Y.: The author. 470 pp.
+    A unique, elegant, and sumptuously illustrated book, with
+    photographs of tree, trunk, leaf, fruit, bud, and sometimes
+    wood, a map of the habitat of each species, and a full and
+    careful description of tree and wood. Intended for botanists,
+    foresters and lumbermen.
+
+Johnson, J. B., _The Materials of Construction_. N. Y.: John
+    Wiley & Sons. 1898. 775 pp. Chapter XIII is identical with
+    Forestry Bulletin X, Roth's _Timber_.
+
+Keeler, Harriet, _Our Native Trees_. N. Y.: Scribner's. 1900.
+    533 pp. A very attractive and popular book showing great
+    familiarity with the common trees and love of them. Numerous
+    photographs and drawings.
+
+Lounsberry, Alice, _A Guide to the Trees_. N. Y.: Frederick
+    A. Stokes Co. 313 pp. A popular description of some 200 common
+    trees, with plentiful illustrations.
+
+Pinchot, Gifford, _A Primer of Forestry_. Parts I and II, U.
+    S. Dept. of Agric. For. Serv. Bull. No. 24. 88 pp. and 88
+    pp. A concise, clear, and fully illustrated little manual of
+    forestry conditions, forest enemies, forestry principles and
+    practice abroad and in the U. S.
+
+Pinchot, Gifford. _The Adirondack Spruce._ N. Y.: G. P. Putnam's
+    Sons. A technical account of the author's investigations on a
+    forest estate in Northern New York.
+
+Price, O. W., _Saving the Southern Forests_. _World's Work_,
+    5: 3207, March, '03. A plea for conservative lumbering;
+    excellent illustrations.
+
+Record, Samuel J., _Characterization of the Grain and Texture
+    of Wood_. Woodcraft, 15: 3, June, 1911.
+
+Roth, Filibert, _A First Book of Forestry_. Boston: Ginn & Co.
+    291 pp. A book for young people, giving in an interesting form
+    many valuable facts about American forests and their care and
+    use. It includes a leaf key to the trees.
+
+Sargent, Charles Sprague, _Forest Trees of North America_. U.
+    S. 10th Census, Vol. 9. Quarto, 612 pp. Part I deals with
+    the distribution of the forests, and gives a catalog and
+    description of the forest trees of North America, exclusive of
+    Mexico. Part II. Tables of properties of the woods of the U.
+    S. Part III. The economic aspects of the forests of the U. S.
+    considered geographically, and maps showing distributions and
+    densities. Exceedingly valuable.
+
+Sargent, Charles Sprague, _Jesup Collection, The Woods of
+    the U. S._ N. Y.: D. Appleton & Co., 203 pp. A detailed
+    description of the Jesup Collection of North American Woods
+    in the American Museum of Natural History, N. Y. City, with
+    valuable tables as to strength, elasticity, hardness, weight,
+    etc. Condensed from Vol. IX of 10th U. S. Census.
+
+Sargent, Charles Sprague, _Manual of the Trees of North
+    America_. Boston: Houghton, Mifflin & Co. 826 pp. A compact
+    mine of information, with some errors, about the known trees
+    of North America and their woods, summarized from Sargent's
+    larger work, "The Silva of North America." (See below.)
+
+Sargent, Charles Sprague, _The Silva of North America_.
+    Boston: Houghton, Mifflin Co. A monumental and sumptuous work
+    of 14 quarto volumes, describing in great detail all the known
+    trees of North America and their woods, with beautiful line
+    drawings of leaves and fruits.
+
+Shaler, Nathaniel S., _The United States of America_. Vol. 1,
+    pp. 485-517. N. Y.: D. Appleton & Co. Chapter IX is a popular
+    description of American forests and the Lumber Industry.
+
+Snow, Chas. Henry, _The Principal Species of Wood_. N. Y.:
+    John Wiley & Sons. 203 pp. Descriptions and data regarding
+    the economically important varieties of wood, with excellent
+    photographs of trees and woods.
+
+Strasburger, Noll, Schenck, and Schimper. _A Text Book of
+    Botany._ N. Y.: Macmillan & Co. 746 pp. Valuable for minute
+    information about the morphology of wood.
+
+U. S. Tenth Census, Vol. IX. See Sargent.
+
+U. S. Department of Agriculture, _Forest Service Bulletins_.
+    The character of these government pamphlets is well indicated
+    by their titles. No. 10 is an exceedingly valuable summary of
+    the facts about the structure and properties of wood, contains
+    the best available key to identification of common American
+    woods (not trees) and a concise description of each. It is
+    incorporated, as Chap. XIII, in Johnson's, "_The Materials for
+    Construction_." N. Y.: John Wiley & Sons. Nos. 13 and 22 are
+    large monographs containing much valuable information.
+
+    No. 10. Filibert Roth, _Timber_.
+
+    No. 13. Charles Mohr, _The Timber Pines of the Southern United
+    States_.
+
+    No. 15. Frederick V. Coville, _Forest Growth and Sheep Grazing
+    in the Cascade Mountains of Oregon_.
+
+    No. 16. Filibert Roth, _Forestry Conditions in Wisconsin_.
+
+    No. 17. George B. Sudworth, _Check List of the Forest Trees of
+    the United States_, 1898.
+
+    No. 18. Charles A. Keffer, _Experimental Tree Planting on the
+    Plains_.
+
+    No. 22. V. M. Spalding and F. H. Chittenden, _The White Pine_.
+
+    No. 24. Gifford Pinchot, _A Primer of Forestry_.
+
+    No. 26. Henry S. Graves, _Practical Forestry in the
+    Adirondacks_.
+
+    No. 41. Herman von Schrenck, _Seasoning of Timber_.
+
+    No. 45. Harold B. Kempton, _The Planting of White Pine in New
+    England_.
+
+    No. 52. Royal S. Kellogg, _Forest Planting in Western Kansas_.
+
+    No. 61. _Terms Used in Forestry and Logging_.
+
+    No. 65. George L. Clothier, _Advice for Forest Planters in
+    Oklahoma and Adjacent Regions_.
+
+    No. 74. R. S. Kellogg and H. M. Hale, _Forest Products of the
+    U. S._, 1905.
+
+U. S. Department of Agriculture, _Forest Service Circulars_.
+
+    No. 3. George William Hill, _Publications for Sale_.
+
+    No. 25. Gifford Pinchot, _The Lumberman and the Forester_.
+
+    No. 26. H. M. Suter, _Forest Fires in the Adirondacks in
+    1903_.
+
+    No. 36. The Forest Service: _What it is, and how it deals with
+    Forest Problems_. Also _Classified List of Publications and
+    Guide to Their Contents_.
+
+    No. 37. _Forest Planting in the Sand Hill Region of Nebraska_.
+
+    No. 40. H. B. Holroyd, _The Utilization of Tupelo_.
+
+    No. 41. S. N. Spring, _Forest Planting on Coal Lands in
+    Western Pennsylvania_.
+
+    No. 45. Frank G. Miller, _Forest Planting in Eastern
+    Nebraska_.
+
+    No. 81. R. S. Kellogg, _Forest Planting in Illinois_.
+
+    No. 97. R. S. Kellogg, _Timber Supply of the United States_.
+
+    No. 153. A. H. Pierson, _Exports and Imports of Forest
+    Products, 1907_.
+
+U. S. Department of Agriculture Year Books for:
+
+    1896. Filibert Roth, _The Uses of Wood_.
+
+    1898, p. 181. Gifford Pinchot, _Notes on some Forest
+    Problems_.
+
+    1899, p. 415. Henry S. Graves, _The Practice of Forestry by
+    Private Owners_.
+
+    1900, p. 199. Hermann von Schrenck, _Fungous Diseases of
+    Forest Trees_.
+
+    1902, p. 145. William L. Hall, _Forest Extension in the Middle
+    West_.
+
+    1902, p. 265. A. D. Hopkins, _Some of the Principal Insect
+    Enemies of Coniferous Forests in the United States_.
+
+    1902, p. 309. Overton, W. Price, _Influence of Forestry on the
+    Lumber Supply_.
+
+    1903, p. 279. James W. Toumey, _The Relation of Forests to
+    Stream Flow_.
+
+    1903, p. 313. A. D. Hopkins, _Insect Injuries to Hardwood
+    Forest Trees_.
+
+    1904, p. 133. E. A. Sterling, _The Attitude of Lumbermen
+    toward Forest Fires_.
+
+    1904, p. 381. A. D. Hopkins, _Insect Injuries to Forest Products_.
+
+    1905, p. 455. Henry Grinell, _Prolonging the Life of Telephone
+    Poles_.
+
+    1905, p. 483. J. Grivin Peters, _Waste in Logging Southern
+    Yellow Pine_.
+
+    1905, p. 636. Quincy R. Craft, _Progress of Forestry in 1905_.
+
+    1907, p 277. Raphael Zon and E. H. Clapp, _Cutting Timber in
+    the National Forests_.
+
+U. S. Department of Agriculture, Division of Entomology
+    Bulletins:
+
+    No. 11. n. s. L. O. Howard, _The Gypsy Moth in America_.
+
+    No. 28. A. D. Hopkins, _Insect Enemies of the Spruce in the
+    Northeast_.
+
+    No. 32. n. s. A. D. Hopkins, _Insect Enemies of the Pine in
+    the Black Hills Forest Reserve_.
+
+    No. 48. A. D. Hopkins, _Catalog of Exhibits of Insect Enemies
+    of Forest and Forest Products at the Louisiana Purchase
+    Exposition, St. Louis, Mo._, 1904.
+
+    No. 56. A. D. Hopkins, _The Black Hills Beetle_.
+
+    No. 58. Part 1, A. D. Hopkins, _The Locust Borer_.
+
+    No. 58. Part II, J. L. Webb, _The Western Pine Destroying Bark
+    Beetle_.
+
+U. S. Department of Agriculture, Bureau of Plant Industry,
+    Bulletins:
+
+    No. 32. Herman von Schrenck, _A Disease of the White Ash
+    Caused by Polyporus Fraxinophilus_, 1903.
+
+    No. 36. Hermann von Schrenck, _The "Bluing" and "Red Rot" of
+    the Western Yellow Pine_, 1903.
+
+_Report of the Commissioner of Corporations on the Lumber
+    Industry_, Part I, _Standing Timber_, February, 1911. The
+    latest and most reliable investigation into the amount and
+    ownership of the forests of the United States.
+
+Ward, H. Marshall, _Timber and some of its Diseases_.
+    London: Macmillan & Co., 295 pp. An English book that needs
+    supplementing by information on American wood diseases, such
+    as is included in the list of government publications given
+    herewith. The book includes a description of the character,
+    structure, properties, varieties, and classification of
+    timbers.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER I.
+
+THE STRUCTURE OF WOOD.
+
+
+When it is remembered that the suitability of wood for a particular
+purpose depends most of all upon its internal structure, it is plain
+that the woodworker should know the essential characteristics of that
+structure. While his main interest in wood is as lumber, dead material
+to be used in woodworking, he can properly understand its structure
+only by knowing something of it as a live, growing organism. To
+facilitate this, a knowledge of its position in the plant world is
+helpful.
+
+All the useful woods are to be found in the highest sub-kingdom of
+the plant world, the flowering plants or Phanerogamia of the botanist.
+These flowering plants are to be classified as follows:
+
+                         {  I. Gymnosperms.  (Naked seeds.)
+                         {       1. Cycadaceae.  (Palms, ferns, etc.)
+                         {       2. Gnetaceae.  (Joint firs.)
+                         {       3. Conifers. Pines, firs, etc.
+Phanerogamia,            { II. Angiosperms. (Fruits.)
+(Flowering plants)       {       1. Monocotyledons. (One seed-leaf.)
+                         {           (Palms, bamboos, grasses, etc.)
+                         {       2. Dicotyledons. (Two seed-leaves.)
+                         {           a.  Herbs.
+                         {           b.  Broad-leaved trees.
+
+Under the division of naked-seeded plants (gymnosperms), practically
+the only valuable timber-bearing plants are the needle-leaved trees
+or the conifers, including such trees as the pines, cedars, spruces,
+firs, etc. Their wood grows rapidly in concentric annual rings, like
+that of the broad-leaved trees; is easily worked, and is more widely
+used than the wood of any other class of trees.
+
+Of fruit-bearing trees (angiosperms), there are two classes, those
+that have one seed-leaf as they germinate, and those that have two
+seed-leaves.
+
+The one seed-leaf plants (monocotyledons) include the grasses, lilies,
+bananas, palms, etc. Of these there are only a few that reach
+the dimensions of trees. They are strikingly distinguished by the
+structure of their stems. They have no cambium layer and no distinct
+bark and pith; they have unbranched stems, which as a rule do not
+increase in diameter after the first stages of growth, but grow only
+terminally. Instead of having concentric annual rings and thus growing
+larger year by year, the woody tissue grows here and there thru the
+stem, but mostly crowded together toward the outer surfaces. Even
+where there is radial growth, as in yucca, the structure is not
+in annual rings, but irregular. These one seed-leaf trees
+(monocotyledons) are not of much economic value as lumber, being used
+chiefly "in the round," and to some extent for veneers and inlays;
+_e.g._, cocoanut-palm and porcupine wood are so used.
+
+The most useful of the monocotyledons, or endogens, ("inside growers,"
+as they are sometimes called,) are the bamboos, which are giant
+members of the group of grasses, Fig. 1. They grow in dense forests,
+some varieties often 70 feet high and 6 inches in diameter, shooting
+up their entire height in a single season. Bamboo is very highly
+valued in the Orient, where it is used for masts, for house rafters,
+and other building purposes, for gutters and water-pipes and in
+countless other ways. It is twice as strong as any of our woods.
+
+Under the fruit-bearing trees (angiosperms), timber trees are chiefly
+found among those that have two seed-leaves (the dicotyledons) and
+include the great mass of broad-leaved or deciduous trees such as
+chestnut, oak, ash and maple. It is to these and to the conifers that
+our principal attention will be given, since they constitute the bulk
+of the wood in common use.
+
+The timber-bearing trees, then, are the:
+
+(1) Conifers, the needle-leaved, naked-seeded trees, such as pine,
+cedar, etc. Fig. 45, p. 199.
+
+(2) Endogens, which have one seed-leaf, such as bamboos, Fig. 1.
+
+(3) Broad-leaved trees, having two seed-leaves, such as oak, beech,
+and elm. Fig. 48, p. 202.
+
+The common classifications of trees are quite inaccurate. Many of
+the so-called deciduous (Latin, _deciduus_, falling off) trees are
+evergreen, such as holly, and, in the south, live oak, magnolia and
+cherry. So, too, some of the alleged "evergreens," like bald cypress
+and tamarack, shed their leaves annually.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 1. A Bamboo Grove, Kioto, Japan.]
+
+Not all of the "conifers" bear cones. For example, the juniper bears
+a berry. The ginko, Fig. 2, tho classed among the "conifers," the
+"evergreens," and the "needle-leaf" trees, bears no cones, has broad
+leaves and is deciduous. It has an especial interest as being the sole
+survivor of many species which grew abundantly in the carboniferous
+age.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 2. Ginko Leaf.]
+
+Also, the terms used by lumbermen, "hard woods" for broad-leaved trees
+and "soft woods" for conifers, are still less exact, for the wood of
+some broad-leaved trees, as bass and poplar, is much softer than that
+of some conifers, as Georgia pine and lignum vitae.
+
+Another classification commonly made is that of "endogens" (inside
+growers) including bamboos, palms, etc., and exogens (outside growers)
+which would include both conifers and broad-leaved trees.
+
+One reason why so many classifications have come into use is that none
+of them is quite accurate. A better one will be explained later. See
+p. 23.
+
+As in the study of all woods three sections are made, it is well at
+the outset to understand clearly what these are.
+
+The sections of a tree made for its study are (Fig. 3):
+
+(1) Transverse, a plane at right angles to the organic axis.
+
+(2) Radial, a longitudinal plane, including the organic axis.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 3.
+
+A.
+
+  A, B, C, D, Transverse Section.
+  B, D, E, F, Radial Section.
+  G, H, I, J, Tangential Section.
+
+B.
+
+  A, B, C, Transverse Section.
+  A, B, D, E, Radial Section.
+  B, C, E, F, Tangential Section.
+]
+
+(3) Tangential, a longitudinal plane not including the organic axis.
+
+If a transverse section of the trunk of a conifer or of a broad-leaved
+tree is made, it is to be noted that it consists of several distinct
+parts. See Fig. 4. These, beginning at the outside, are:
+
+(1) Rind or bark
+  (a) Cortex
+  (b) Bast
+
+(2) Cambium
+
+(3) Wood
+  (a) Sap-wood
+  (b) Heart-wood
+
+(4) Pith.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 4. Diagram of Cross-section of Three Year Old Stem
+of Basswood.]
+
+(1) The rind or _bark_ is made up of two layers, the outer of which,
+the "cortex," is corky and usually scales or pulls off easily; while
+the inner one is a fibrous coat called "bast" or "phloem." Together
+they form a cone, widest, thickest, and roughest at the base and
+becoming narrower toward the top of the tree. The cortex or outer bark
+serves to protect the stem of the tree from extremes of heat and cold,
+from atmospheric changes, and from the browsing of animals. It is made
+up of a tough water-proof layer of cork which has taken the place of
+the tender skin or "epidermis" of the twig. Because it is water-proof
+the outside tissue is cut off from the water supply of the tree, and
+so dries up and peels off, a mass of dead matter. The cork and the
+dead stuff together are called the bark. As we shall see later, the
+cork grows from the inside, being formed in the inner layers of the
+cortex, the outer layers of dry bark being thus successively cut off.
+
+The characteristics of the tree bark are due to the positions and
+kinds of tissue of these new layers of cork. Each tree has its own
+kind of bark, and the bark of some is so characteristic as to make the
+tree easily recognizable.
+
+Bark may be classified according to formation and method of
+separation, as scale bark, which detaches from the tree in plates,
+as in the willows; membraneous bark, which comes off in ribbons and
+films, as in the birches; fibrous bark, which is in the form of stiff
+threads, as in the grape vine; and fissured bark, which breaks up
+in longitudinal fissures, showing ridges, grooves and broad, angular
+patches, as in oak, chestnut and locust. The last is the commonest
+form of bark.
+
+The bark of certain kinds of trees, as cherry and birch, has peculiar
+markings which consist of oblong raised spots or marks, especially
+on the young branches. These are called lenticels (Latin _lenticula_,
+freckle), and have two purposes: they admit air to the internal
+tissues, as it were for breathing, and they also emit water vapor.
+These lenticels are to be found on all trees, even where the bark is
+very thick, as old oaks and chestnuts, but in these the lenticels are
+in the bottoms of the deep cracks. There is a great difference in
+the inflammability of bark, some, like that of the big trees of
+California, Fig. 54, p. 209, which is often two feet thick, being
+practically incombustible, and hence serving to protect the tree;
+while some bark, as canoe birch, is laden with an oil which burns
+furiously. It therefore makes admirable kindling for camp fires, even
+in wet weather.
+
+Inside the cork is the "phloem" or "bast," which, by the way, gives
+its name to the bass tree, the inner bark of which is very tough and
+fibrous and therefore used for mat and rope making. In a living tree,
+the bast fibers serve to conduct the nourishment which has been made
+in the leaves down thru the stem to the growing parts.
+
+(2) The _cambium_. Inside of the rind and between it and the wood,
+there is, on living trees, a slimy coat called cambium (Med. Latin,
+exchange). This is the living, growing part of the stem, familiar to
+all who have peeled it as the sticky, slimy coat between the bark
+and the wood of a twig. This is what constitutes the fragrant,
+mucilaginous inner part of the bark of slippery elm. Cambium is a
+tissue of young and growing cells, in which the new cells are formed,
+the inner ones forming the wood and the outer ones the bark.
+
+In order to understand the cambium and its function, consider its
+appearance in a bud, Fig. 5. A cross-section of the bud of a growing
+stem examined under the microscope, looks like a delicate mesh of thin
+membrane, filled in with a viscid semi-fluid substance which is called
+"protoplasm" (Greek, _protos_, first; _plasma_, form). These meshes
+were first called "cells" by Robert Hooke, in 1667, because of their
+resemblance to the chambers of a honeycomb. The walls of these
+"cells" are their most prominent feature and, when first studied,
+were supposed to be the essential part; but later the slimy, colorless
+substance which filled the cells was found to be the essential part.
+This slimy substance, called protoplasm, constitutes the primal stuff
+of all living things. The cell walls themselves are formed from it.
+These young cells, at the apex of a stem, are all alike, very small,
+filled with protoplasm, and as yet, unaltered. They form embryonic
+tissue, _i.e._ one which will change. One change to which an cell
+filled with protoplasm is liable is division into two, a new partition
+wall forming within it. This is the way plant cells increase.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 5. Young Stem, Magnified 18-1/2 Diameters, Showing
+Primary and Secondary Bundles. _By Courtesy of Mrs. Katharine Golden
+Bitting._
+
+E, epidermis, the single outside layer of cells.
+
+C, cortex, the region outside of the bundles.
+
+HB, hard bast, the black, irregular ring protecting the soft bast.
+
+SB, soft bast, the light, crescent-shaped parts.
+
+Ca, cambium, the line between the soft bast and the wood.
+
+W, wood, segments showing pores.
+
+MR, medullary rays, lines between the bundles connecting the pith and
+the cortex.
+
+MS, medullary sheath, the dark, irregular ring just inside the
+bundles.
+
+P, pith, the central mass of cells.]
+
+In young plant cells, the whole cavity of the chamber is filled with
+protoplasm, but as the cells grow older and larger, the protoplasm
+develops into different parts, one part forming the cell wall and in
+many cases leaving cavities within the cell, which become filled with
+sap. The substance of the cell wall is called cellulose (cotton and
+flax fibers consist of almost pure cellulose). At first it has no
+definite structure, but as growth goes on, it may become thickened
+in layers, or gummy, or hardened into lignin (wood), according to the
+function to be performed. Where there are a group of similar cells
+performing the same functions, the group is called a tissue or, if
+large enough, a tissue system.
+
+When cells are changed into new forms, or "differentiated," as it is
+called, they become permanent tissues. These permanent tissues of the
+tree trunk constitute the various parts which we have noticed, viz.,
+the rind, the pith and the wood.
+
+The essentially living part of the tree, it should be remembered, is
+the protoplasm: where there is protoplasm, there is life and growth.
+In the stems of the conifers and broad-leaved trees--sometimes
+together called exogens--this protoplasm is to be found in the buds
+and in the cambium sheath, and these are the growing parts of the
+tree. If we followed up the sheath of cambium which envelopes a stem,
+into a terminal bud, we should find that it passed without break into
+the protoplasm of the bud.
+
+In the cross-section of a young shoot, we might see around the central
+pith or medulla, a ring of wedge-shaped patches. These are really
+bundles of cells running longitudinally from the rudiments of leaves
+thru the stem to the roots. They are made of protoplasm and are called
+the "procambium strands," Fig. 6.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 6. Three Stages in the Development of an Exogenous
+Stem. P, pith; PB, primary bast; SB, secondary bast; C, cambium;
+PR, pith ray; PW, primary wood; SW, secondary wood; PS, procambium
+strands. _After Boulger._]
+
+In the monocotyledons (endogens) these procambium strands change
+completely into wood and bast, and so losing all their protoplasmic
+cambium, become incapable of further growth. This is why palms can
+grow only lengthwise, or else by forming new fibers more densely in
+the central mass. But in the conifers and broad-leaved trees, the
+inner part of each strand becomes wood and the outer part bast (bark).
+Between these bundles, connecting the pith in the center with the
+cortex on the outside of the ring of bundles, are parts of the
+original pith tissue of the stem. They are the primary pith or
+medullary rays (Latin, _medulla_, pith). The number of medullary rays
+depends upon the number of the bundles; and their form, on the width
+of the bundles, so that they are often large and conspicuous, as in
+oak, or small and indeed invisible, as in some of the conifers. But
+they are present in all exogenous woods, and can readily be seen with
+the microscope. Stretching across these pith rays from the cambium
+layer in one procambium strand to that in the others, the cambium
+formation extends, making a complete cylindrical sheath from the bud
+downward over the whole stem. This is the cambium sheath and is the
+living, growing part of the stem from which is formed the wood on the
+inside and the rind (bark) on the outside.
+
+In the first year the wood and the bast are formed directly by the
+growth and change of the inner and outer cells respectively of the
+procambium strand, and all such material is called "primary;" but
+in subsequent years all wood, pith rays, and bast, originate in the
+cambium, and these growths are called "secondary."
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 7. Sap-wood and Heart-wood, Lignum Vitae.]
+
+(3) The _wood_ of most exogens is made up of two parts, a lighter
+part called the sap-wood or splint-wood or alburnum, and a darker part
+called the heart-wood or duramen, Fig. 7. Sap-wood is really immature
+heartwood. The difference in color between them is very marked in some
+woods, as in lignum vitae and black walnut, and very slight in
+others, as spruce and bass. Indeed, some species never form a distinct
+heart-wood, birch (_Betula alba_) being an example.
+
+In a living tree, sap-wood and heart-wood perform primarily quite
+different functions. The sap-wood carries the water from the roots to
+the leaves, stores away starch at least in winter, and in other ways
+assists the life of the tree. The proportional amount of sapwood
+varies greatly, often, as in long-leaf pine, constituting 40 per cent.
+of the stem.
+
+As the sap-wood grows older, its cells become choked so that the sap
+can no longer flow thru them. It loses its protoplasm and starch and
+becomes heartwood, in which all cells are dead and serve only the
+mechanical function of holding up the great weight of the tree and
+in resisting wind pressures. This is the reason why a tree may become
+decayed and hollow and yet be alive and bear fruit. In a tree that is
+actually dead the sap-wood rots first.
+
+Chemical substances infiltrate into the cell walls of heart-wood and
+hence it has a darker color than the sap-wood. Persimmon turns black,
+walnut purplish brown, sumac yellow, oak light brown, tulip and poplar
+yellowish, redwood and cedar brownish red. Many woods, as mahogany and
+oak, darken under exposure, which shows that the substances producing
+the color are oxidizable and unstable. Wood dyes are obtained by
+boiling and distilling such woods as sumach, logwood, red sanders,
+and fustic. Many woods also acquire distinct odors, as camphor,
+sandalwood, cedar, cypress, pine and mahogany, indicating the presence
+of oil.
+
+As a rule heart-wood is more valuable for timber, being harder,
+heavier, and drier than sap-wood. In woods like hickory and ash,
+however, which are used for purposes that require pliability, as in
+baskets, or elasticity as in handles of rakes and hoes, sap-wood is
+more valuable than heart-wood.
+
+In a transverse section of a conifer, for example Douglas spruce, Fig.
+8, the wood is seen to lie in concentric rings, the outer part of the
+ring being darker in color than the inner part. In reality each
+of these rings is a section of an irregular hollow cone, each cone
+enveloping its inner neighbor. Each cone ordinarily constitutes a
+year's growth, and therefore there is a greater number of them at
+the base of a tree than higher up. These cones vary greatly in
+_thickness_, or, looking at a cross-section, the rings vary in
+_width_; in general, those at the center being thicker than those
+toward the bark. Variations from year to year may also be noticed,
+showing that the tree was well nourished one year and poorly nourished
+another year. Rings, however, do not always indicate a year's growth.
+"False rings" are sometimes formed by a cessation in the growth due
+to drouth, fire or other accident, followed by renewed growth the same
+season.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 8. Section of Douglas Fir, Showing Annual Rings
+and Knots at Center of Trunk. _American Museum of Natural History, N.
+Y._]
+
+In a radial section of a log, Fig. 8, these "rings" appear as a series
+of parallel lines and if one could examine a long enough log these
+lines would converge, as would the cut edges in a nest of cones, if
+they were cut up thru the center, as in Fig. 9.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 9. Diagram of Radial Section of Log (exaggerated)
+Showing Annual Cones of Growth.]
+
+In a tangential section, the lines appear as broad bands, and since
+almost no tree grows perfectly straight, these lines are wavy, and
+give the characteristic pleasing "grain" of wood. Fig. 27, p. 35. The
+annual rings can sometimes be discerned in the bark as well as in the
+wood, as in corks, which are made of the outer bark of the cork oak, a
+product of southern Europe and northern Africa. Fig. 10.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 10. Annual Rings in Bark (cork).]
+
+The growth of the wood of exogenous trees takes place thru the
+ability, already noted, of protoplasmic cells to divide. The cambium
+cells, which have very thin walls, are rectangular in shape, broader
+tangentially than radially, and tapering above and below to a chisel
+edge, Fig. 11. After they have grown somewhat radially, partition
+walls form across them in the longitudinal, tangential direction,
+so that in place of one initial cell, there are two daughter cells
+radially disposed. Each of these small cells grows and re-divides, as
+in Fig. 12. Finally the innermost cell ceases to divide, and uses its
+protoplasm to become thick and hard wood. In like manner the outermost
+cambium cell becomes bast, while the cells between them continue to
+grow and divide, and so the process goes on. In nearly all stems,
+there is much more abundant formation of wood than of bast cells. In
+other words, more cambium cells turn to wood than to bast.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 11. Diagram Showing Grain of Spruce Highly
+Magnified. PR, pith rays; BP, bordered pits; Sp W, spring wood; SW,
+summer wood; CC, overlapping of chisel shaped ends.]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 12. Diagram Showing the Mode of Division of the
+Cambium Cells. The cambium cell is shaded to distinguish it from the
+cells derived from it. Note in the last division at the right that
+the inner daughter cell becomes the cambium cell while the outer cell
+develops into a bast cell. _From Curtis: Nature and Development of
+Plants._]
+
+In the spring when there is comparatively little light and heat, when
+the roots and leaves are inactive and feeble, and when the bark, split
+by winter, does not bind very tightly, the inner cambium cells produce
+radially wide wood cells with relatively thin walls. These constitute
+the spring wood. But in summer the jacket of bark binds tightly, there
+is plenty of heat and light, and the leaves and roots are very active,
+so that the cambium cells produce thicker walled cells, called summer
+wood. During the winter the trees rest, and no development takes
+place until spring, when the large thin-walled cells are formed again,
+making a sharp contrast with those formed at the end of the previous
+season.
+
+It is only at the tips of the branches that the cambium cells grow
+much in length; so that if a nail were driven into a tree twenty years
+old at, say, four feet from the ground, it would still be four feet
+from the ground one hundred years later.
+
+Looking once more at the cross-section, say, of spruce, the inner
+portion of each ring is lighter in color and softer in texture than
+the outer portion. On a radial or tangential section, one's finger
+nail can easily indent the inner portion of the ring, tho the outer
+dark part of the ring may be very hard. The inner, light, soft portion
+of the ring is the part that grows in the spring and early summer,
+and is called the "spring wood" while the part that grows later in the
+season is called "summer wood." As the summer wood is hard and heavy,
+it largely determines the strength and weight of the wood, so that as
+a rule, the greater the proportion of the summer growth, the better
+the wood. This can be controlled to some extent by proper forestry
+methods, as is done in European larch forests, by "underplanting" them
+with beech.
+
+In a normal tree, the summer growth forms a greater proportion of the
+wood formed during the period of thriftiest growth, so that in neither
+youth nor old age, is there so great a proportion of summer wood as in
+middle age.
+
+It will help to make clear the general structure of wood if one
+imagines the trunk of a tree to consist of a bundle of rubber tubes
+crushed together, so that they assume angular shapes and have no
+spaces between them. If the tubes are laid in concentric layers, first
+a layer which has thin walls, then successive layers having thicker
+and thicker walls, then suddenly a layer of thin-walled tubes and
+increasing again to thick-walled ones and so on, such an arrangement
+would represent the successive annual "rings" of conifers.
+
+_The medullary rays._ While most of the elements in wood run
+longitudinally in the log, it is also to be noted that running at
+right angles to these and radially to the log, are other groups of
+cells called pith rays or medullary rays (Latin, _medulla_, which
+means pith). These are the large "silver flakes" to be seen in
+quartered oak, which give it its beautiful and distinctive grain, Fig.
+32, p. 38. They appear as long, grayish lines on a cross-section, as
+broad, shining bands on the radial section, and as short, thick lines
+tapering at each end on the tangential section. In other words, they
+are like flat, rectangular plates standing on edge and radiating
+lengthwise from the center of the tree. They vary greatly in size in
+different woods. In sycamore they are very prominent, Fig. 13. In oak
+they are often several hundred cells wide (_i.e._, up and down in the
+tree). This may amount to an inch or two. They are often twenty cells
+thick, tapering to one cell at the edge. In oak very many are also
+small, even microscopic. But in the conifers and also in some of the
+broad-leaved trees, altho they can be discerned with the naked eye on
+a split radial surface, still they are all very small. In pine there
+are some 15,000 of them to a square inch of a tangential section. They
+are to be found in all exogens. In a cross-section, say of oak, Fig.
+14, it can readily be seen that some pith rays begin at the center
+of the tree and some farther out. Those that start from the pith are
+formed the first year and are called primary pith rays, while those
+that begin in a subsequent year, starting at the cambium of that year,
+are called secondary rays.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 13. Tangential Section of Sycamore, Magnified 37
+Diameters. Note the large size of the pith rays, A, A (end view).]
+
+The function of the pith rays is twofold. (1) They transfer formative
+material from one part of a stem to another, communicating with both
+wood and bark by means of the simple and bordered pits in them, and
+(2) they bind the trunk together from pith to bark. On the other hand
+their presence makes it easier for the wood to split radially.
+
+The substance of which they are composed is "parenchyma" (Greek,
+_beside_, to _pour_), which also constitutes the pith, the rays
+forming a sort of connecting link between the first and last growth of
+the tree, as the cambium cells form new wood each year.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 14 Cross-section of White Oak. The Radiating White
+Lines are the Pith Rays.]
+
+If a cambium cell is opposite to a pith ray, it divides crosswise
+(transversely) into eight or ten cells one above another, which
+stretch out radially, retaining their protoplasm, and so continue the
+pith ray. As the tree grows larger, new, or secondary medullary rays
+start from the cambium then active, so that every year new rays are
+formed both thinner and shorter than the primary rays, Fig. 14.
+
+Now suppose that laid among the ordinary thin-walled tubes were quite
+large tubes, so that one could tell the "ring" not only by the thin
+walls but by the presence of large tubes. That would represent the
+ring-porous woods, and the large tubes would be called vessels, or
+_tracheæ_. Suppose again that these large tubes were scattered
+in disorder thru the layers. This arrangement would represent the
+diffuse-porous woods.
+
+By holding up to the light, thin cross-sections of spruce or pine,
+Fig. 15, oak or ash, Fig. 16, and bass or maple, Fig. 17, these three
+quite distinct arrangements in the structure may be distinguished.
+This fact has led to the classification of woods according to the
+presence and distribution of "pores," or as they are technically
+called, "vessels" or "tracheae." By this classification we have:
+
+(1) _Non-porous_ woods, which comprise the conifers, as pine and
+spruce.
+
+(2) _Ring-porous_ woods, in which the pores appear (in a
+cross-section) in concentric rings, as in chestnut, ash and elm.
+
+(3) _Diffuse-porous_ woods, in which (in a cross-section) the rings
+are scattered irregularly thru the wood, as in bass, maple and yellow
+poplar.
+
+In order to fully understand the structure of wood, it is necessary to
+examine it still more closely thru the microscope, and since the three
+classes of wood, non-porous, ring-porous and diffuse-porous, differ
+considerably in their minute structure, it is well to consider them
+separately, taking the simplest first.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 15. Cross-section of Non-porous Wood, White Pine,
+Full Size (top toward pith).]
+
+_Non-porous woods._ In examining thru the microscope a transverse
+section of white pine, Fig. 18:
+
+(1) The most noticeable characteristic is the regularity of
+arrangement of the cells. They are roughly rectangular and arranged in
+ranks and files.
+
+(2) Another noticeable feature is that they are arranged in belts, the
+thickness of their walls gradually increasing as the size of the cells
+diminishes. Then the large thin-walled cells suddenly begin again,
+and so on. The width of one of these belts is the amount of a single
+year's growth, the thin-walled cells being those that formed in
+spring, and the thick-walled ones those that formed in summer, the
+darker color of the summer wood as well as its greater strength being
+caused by there being more material in the same volume.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 16. Cross-section of Ring-porous Wood, White Ash,
+Full Size (top toward pith).]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 17. Cross-section of Diffuse-porous Wood, Hard
+Maple, full size (top toward pith).]
+
+(3) Running radially (up and down in the picture) directly thru the
+annual belts or rings are to be seen what looks like fibers. These are
+the pith or medullary rays. They serve to transfer formative material
+from one part of the stem to another and to bind the tree together
+from pith to bark.
+
+(4) Scattered here and there among the regular cells, are to be seen
+irregular gray or yellow dots which disturb the regularity of the
+arrangement. These are _resin ducts_. (See cross-section of white
+pine, Fig. 18.) They are not cells, but openings between cells, in
+which the resin, an excretion of the tree, accumulates, oozing out
+when the tree is injured. At least one function of resin is to protect
+the tree from attacks of fungi.
+
+Looking now at the radial section, Fig. 18:
+
+(5) The first thing to notice is the straightness of the long cells
+and their overlapping where they meet endwise, like the ends of two
+chisels laid together, Fig. 11.
+
+(6) On the walls of the cells can be seen round spots called "pits."
+These are due to the fact that as the cell grows, the cell walls
+thicken, except in these small spots, where the walls remain thin and
+delicate. The pit in a cell wall always coincides with the pit in
+an adjoining cell, there being only a thin membrane between, so that
+there is practically free communication of fluids between the two
+cells. In a cross-section the pit appears as a canal, the length of
+which depends upon the thickness of the walls. In some cells, the
+thickening around the pits becomes elevated, forming a border,
+perforated in the center. Such pits are called bordered pits. These
+pits, both simple and bordered, are waterways between the different
+cells. They are helps in carrying the sap up the tree.
+
+(7) The pith rays are also to be seen running across and interwoven
+in the other cells. It is to be noticed that they consist of several
+cells, one above another.
+
+In the tangential section, Fig. 18:
+
+(8) The straightness and overlapping of the cells is to be seen again,
+and
+
+(9) The numerous ends of the pith rays appear.
+
+In a word, the structure of coniferous wood is very regular and
+simple, consisting mainly of cells of one sort, the pith rays being
+comparatively unnoticeable. This uniformity is what makes the wood of
+conifers technically valuable.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 18.]
+
+The cells of conifers are called tracheids, meaning "like _tracheæ_."
+They are cells in which the end walls persist, that is, are not
+absorbed and broken down when they meet end to end. In other words,
+conifers do not have continuous pores or vessels or "_tracheæ_," and
+hence are called "non-porous" woods.
+
+But in other woods, the ends of some cells which meet endwise
+are absorbed, thus forming a continuous series of elements which
+constitute an open tube. Such tubes are known as pores, or vessels,
+or "tracheæ," and sometimes extend thru the whole stem. Besides this
+marked difference between the porous and non-porous woods, the porous
+woods are also distinguished by the fact that instead of being made
+up, like the conifers of cells of practically only one kind, namely
+tracheids, they are composed of several varieties of cells. Besides
+the tracheae and tracheids already noted are such cells as "wood
+fiber," "fibrous cells," and "parenchyma." Fig. 19. Wood fiber proper
+has much thickened lignified walls and no pits, and its main function
+is mechanical support. Fibrous cells are like the wood fibers except
+that they retain their protoplasm. Parenchyma is composed of vertical
+groups of short cells, the end ones of each group tapering to a point,
+and each group originates from the transverse division of one
+cambium cell. They are commonly grouped around the vessels (tracheæ).
+Parenchyma constitutes the pith rays and other similar fibers, retains
+its protoplasm, and becomes filled with starch in autumn.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 19. Isolated Fibers and Cells. _a_, four cells of
+wood parenchyma; _b_, two cells from a pith ray; _c_, a single cell
+or joint of a vessel, the openings, x, x, leading into its upper and
+lower neighbors; _d_, tracheid; _e_, wood fiber proper. _After Roth._]
+
+The most common type of structure among the broad-leaved trees
+contains tracheæ, trachæids, woody fiber, fibrous cells and
+parenchyma. Examples are poplars, birch, walnut, linden and locust. In
+some, as ash, the tracheids are wanting; apple and maple have no woody
+fiber, and oak and plum no fibrous cells.
+
+This recital is enough to show that the wood of the broad-leaved trees
+is much more complex in structure than that of the conifers. It is by
+means of the number and distribution of these elements that particular
+woods are identified microscopically. See p. 289.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 20.]
+
+_Ring-porous woods._ Looking thru the microscope at a cross-section of
+ash, a ring-porous wood, Fig. 20:
+
+(1) The large round or oval pores or vessels grouped mostly in the
+spring wood first attract attention. Smaller ones, but still quite
+distinct, are to be seen scattered all thru the wood. It is by the
+number and distribution of these pores that the different oak woods
+are distinguished, those in white oak being smaller and more numerous,
+while in red oak they are fewer and larger. It is evident that the
+greater their share in the volume, the lighter in weight and the
+weaker will be the wood. In a magnified cross-section of some woods,
+as black locust, white elm and chestnut, see Chap. III, beautiful
+patterns are to be seen composed of these pores. It is because of the
+size of these pores and their great number that chestnut is so weak.
+
+(2) The summer wood is also distinguishable by the fact that, as with
+the conifers, its cells are smaller and its cell walls thicker than
+those of the spring wood. The summer wood appears only as a narrow,
+dark line along the largest pores in each ring.
+
+(3) The lines of the pith rays are very plain in some woods, as in
+oak. No. 47, Chap. III.
+
+(4) The irregular arrangement and
+
+(5) Complex structure are evident, and these are due to the fact that
+the wood substance consists of a number of different elements and not
+one (tracheids) as in the conifers.
+
+Looking at the radial section, Fig. 20:
+
+(6) If the piece is oak, the great size of the medullary rays is most
+noticeable. Fig. 32, p. 38. They are often an inch or more wide; that
+is, high, as they grow in the tree. In ash they are plain, seen thru
+the microscope, but are not prominent.
+
+(7) The interweaving of the different fibers and the variety of their
+forms show the structure as being very complex.
+
+In the tangential section, Fig. 20:
+
+(8) The pattern of the grain is seen to be marked not so much by
+the denseness of the summer wood as by the presence of the vessels
+(pores).
+
+(9) The ends of the pith rays are also clear.
+
+In _diffuse porous woods_, the main features to be noticed are: In the
+transverse section, Fig. 21:
+
+(1) The irregularity with which the pores are scattered,
+
+(2) The fine line of dense cells which mark the end of the year's
+growth,
+
+(3) The radiating pith rays,
+
+(4) The irregular arrangement and,
+
+(5) The complex structure.
+
+In the radial section, Fig. 21:
+
+(6) The pith rays are evident. In sycamore, No. 53, Chap. III, they
+are quite large.
+
+(7) The interweaving of the fibers is to be noted and also their
+variety.
+
+In the tangential section, Fig. 21:
+
+(8) The grain is to be traced only dimly, but the fibers are seen to
+run in waves around the pith rays.
+
+(9) The pith rays, the ends of which are plainly visible.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 21.]
+
+
+THE GRAIN OF WOOD.
+
+The term "grain" is used in a variety of meanings which is likely to
+cause confusion. This confusion may be avoided, at least in part,
+by distinguishing between grain and texture, using the word grain to
+refer to the arrangement or direction of the wood elements, and the
+word texture to refer to their size or quality, so far as these affect
+the structural character of the wood. Hence such qualifying adjectives
+as coarse and fine, even and uneven, straight and cross, including
+spiral, twisted, wavy, curly, mottled, bird's-eye, gnarly, etc., may
+all be applied to grain to give it definite meaning, while to texture
+the proper modifying adjectives are coarse and fine, even and uneven.
+
+Usually the word grain means the pattern or "figure" formed by the
+distinction between the spring wood and the summer wood. If the annual
+rings are wide, the wood is, in common usage, called "coarse grained,"
+if narrow, "fine grained," so that of two trees of the same species,
+one may be coarse grained and the other fine grained, depending solely
+on the accident of fast or slow growth.
+
+The terms coarse grain and fine grain are also frequently used to
+distinguish such ring-porous woods as have large prominent pores, like
+chestnut and ash, from those having small or no pores, as cherry and
+lignum vitae. A better expression in this case would be coarse and
+fine textured. When such coarse textured woods are stained, the large
+pores in the spring wood absorb more stain than the smaller elements
+in the summer wood, and hence the former part appears darker. In the
+"fine grained" (or better, fine textured,) woods the pores are absent
+or are small and scattered, and the wood is hard, so that they are
+capable of taking a high polish. This indicates the meaning of the
+words coarse and fine in the mind of the cabinet-maker, the reference
+being primarily to texture.
+
+If the elements of which a wood are composed are of approximately
+uniform size, it would be said to have a uniform texture, as in
+white pine, while uniform grain would mean, that the elements, tho
+of varying sizes, were evenly distributed, as in the diffuse-porous
+woods.
+
+The term "grain" also refers to the regularity of the wood structure.
+An ideal tree would be composed of a succession of regular cones, but
+few trees are truly circular in cross-section and even in those that
+are circular, the pith is rarely in the center, showing that one side
+of the tree, usually the south side, is better nourished than the
+other, Fig. 14, p. 23.
+
+The normal direction of the fibers of wood is parallel to the axis of
+the stem in which they grow. Such wood is called "straight-grained,"
+Fig. 22, but there are many deviations from this rule. Whenever the
+grain of the wood in a board is, in whole or in part, oblique to the
+sides of the board, it is called "cross-grained." An illustration of
+this is a bend in the fibers, due to a bend in the whole tree or to
+the presence of a neighboring knot. This bend makes the board more
+difficult to plane. In many cases, probably in more cases than not,
+the wood fibers twist around the tree. (See some of the logs in Fig.
+107, p. 254.) This produces "spiral" or "twisted" grain.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 22. Straight Grained Long-leaf Pine (full size).]
+
+Often, as in mahogany and sweet gum, the fibers of several layers
+twist first in one direction and then those of the next few layers
+twist the other way, Fig. 24. Such wood is peculiarly cross-grained,
+and is of course hard to plane smooth. But when a piece is smoothly
+finished the changing reflection of light from the surface gives a
+beautiful appearance, which can be enhanced by staining and polishing.
+It constitutes the characteristic "grain" of striped mahogany, Fig.
+23. It is rarely found in the inner part of the tree.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 23. Mahogany, Showing Alternately Twisted Grain
+(full size).]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 24. Spiral Grain in Cypress.
+_After Roth._]
+
+Sometimes the grain of wood is "cross," because it is "wavy" either in
+a radial or a tangential section, as in maple, Fig. 25, and Fig. 26.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 25. Planed Surface of Wavy-Grained Maple (full
+size).]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 26. Split Surface of Wavy-Grained Maple (full
+size).]
+
+"Curly grain" refers to the figure of circlets and islets and
+contours, often of great beauty, caused by cutting a flat surface in
+crooked-grained wood. See Fig. 27, curly long-leaf pine, and Fig.
+28, yellow poplar. When such crookedness is fine and the fibers are
+contorted and, as it were, crowded out of place, as is common in and
+near the roots of trees, the effect is called "burl," Fig. 29. The
+term burl is also used to designate knots and knobs on tree trunks,
+Fig. 31. Burl is used chiefly in veneers.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 27. Curly Grained Long-leaf Pine (full size).]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 28. Curly Yellow Poplar (full size).]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 29. Redwood Burl (full size).]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 30. Bird's-eye Maple (full size.)]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 31. Burl on White Oak.]
+
+Irregularity of grain is often caused by the presence of adventitious
+and dormant buds, which may be plainly seen as little knobs on
+the surface of some trees under the bark. In most trees, these
+irregularities are soon buried and smoothed over by the successive
+annual layers of wood, but in some woods there is a tendency to
+preserve the irregularities. On slash (tangent) boards of such wood,
+a great number of little circlets appear, giving a beautiful grain,
+as in "Bird's-eye maple," Fig. 30. These markings are found to
+predominate in the inner part of the tree. This is not at all a
+distinct variety of maple, as is sometimes supposed, but the common
+variety, in which the phenomenon frequently appears. Logs of great
+value, having bird's-eyes, have often unsuspectingly been chopped up
+for fire wood.
+
+The term "grain" may also mean the "figure" formed by the presence of
+pith rays, as in oak, Fig. 32, or beech, or the word "grain" may refer
+simply to the uneven deposit of coloring matter as is common in sweet
+gum, Fig. 33, black ash, or Circassian walnut.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 32. Figure Formed by Pith Rays in Oak (full
+size).]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 33. Sweet Gum, Showing Uneven Deposit of Coloring
+Matter (full size.)]
+
+The presence of a limb constitutes a knot and makes great irregularity
+in the grain of wood, Fig. 34. In the first place, the fibers on the
+upper and lower sides of the limb behave differently, those on the
+lower side running uninterruptedly from the stem into the limb,
+while on the upper side the fibers bend aside making an imperfect
+connection. Consequently to split a knot it is always necessary to
+start the split from the lower side. On the other hand it is easier to
+split around a knot than thru it. The texture as well as the grain of
+wood is modified by the presence of a branch. The wood in and around a
+knot is much harder than the main body of the trunk on account of the
+crowding together of the elements. Knots are the remnants of branches
+left in the trunk. These once had all the parts of the trunk itself,
+namely bark, cambium, wood, and pith. Normally, branches grow from the
+pith, tho some trees, as Jack pine and redwood, among the conifers,
+and most of the broad-leaf trees have the power of putting out at any
+time adventitious buds which may develop into branches. When a branch
+dies, the annual layer of wood no longer grows upon it, but the
+successive layers of wood on the trunk itself close tighter and
+tighter around it, until it is broken off. Then, unless it has begun
+to decay, it is successively overgrown by annual layers, so that
+no sign of it appears until the trunk is cut open. A large trunk
+perfectly clean of branches on the outside may have many knots around
+its center, remnants of branches which grew there in its youth, as in
+Fig. 34, and Fig. 8, p. 18. The general effect of the presence of a
+knot is, that the fibers that grow around and over it are bent, and
+this, of course, produces crooked grain.
+
+Following are the designations given to different knots by lumbermen:
+A _sound_ knot is one which is solid across its face and is as hard as
+the wood surrounding it and fixed in position. A _pin_ knot is sound,
+but not over 1/4" in diameter. A _standard_ knot is sound, but not
+over 1-1/2" in diameter. A _large_ knot is sound, and over 1-1/2"
+in diameter. A _spike_ knot is one sawn in a lengthwise position. A
+_dead_, or, _loose_ knot is one not firmly held in place by growth or
+position.
+
+(4) _Pith._ At the center or axis of the tree is the pith or
+_medulla_, Fig. 34. In every bud, that is, at the apex of every stem
+and branch, the pith is the growing part; but as the stem lengthens
+and becomes overgrown by successive layers of wood the pith loses its
+vital function. It does not grow with the plant except at the buds.
+It varies in thickness, being very small,--hardly more than 1/16", in
+cedar and larch,--and so small in oak as to be hardly discernible;
+and what there is of it turns hard and dark. In herbs and shoots it is
+relatively large, Fig. 5, p. 15, in a three-year old shoot of elder,
+for example, being as wide as the wood. In elder, moreover, it dies
+early and pulverizes, leaving the stem hollow. Its function is one of
+only temporary value to the plant.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 34. Section Thru the Trunk of a Seven Year Old
+Tree, Showing Relation of Branches to Main Stem. A, B, two branches
+which were killed after a few years' growth by shading, and which have
+been overgrown by the annual rings of wood; C, a limb which lived four
+years, then died and broke off near the stem, leaving the part to the
+left of XY a "sound" knot, and the part to the right a "dead" knot,
+which unless rotting sets in, would in time be entirely covered by the
+growing trunk; D, a branch that has remained alive and has increased
+in size like the main stem; P, P, pith of both stem and limb.]
+
+
+THE STRUCTURE OF WOOD.
+
+REFERENCES:[A]
+
+Roth, _Forest Bull._ No. 10, pp. 11-23.
+Boulger, pp. 1-39.
+Sickles, pp. 11-20.
+Pinchot, _Forest Bull._ No. 24, I, pp. 11-24.
+Keeler, pp. 514-517.
+Curtis, pp. 62-85.
+Woodcraft, 15: 3, p. 90.
+Bitting, _Wood Craft_, 5: 76, 106, 144, 172, (June-Sept. 1906).
+Ward, pp. 1-38.
+_Encyc. Brit._, 11th Ed., "Plants," p. 741.
+Strasburger, pp. 120-144 and Part II, Sec. II.
+Snow, pp. 7-9, 183.
+
+    [Footnote A: For general bibliography, see p. 4.]
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER II.
+
+PROPERTIES OF WOOD.
+
+
+There are many properties of wood,--some predominant in one species,
+some in another,--that make it suitable for a great variety of uses.
+Sometimes it is a combination of properties that gives value to a
+wood. Among these properties are hygroscopicity, shrinkage, weight,
+strength, cleavability, elasticity, hardness, and toughness.
+
+
+THE HYGROSCOPICITY[1] OF WOOD.
+
+It is evident that water plays a large part in the economy of the
+tree. It occurs in wood in three different ways: In the sap which
+fills or partly fills the cavities of the wood cells, in the cell
+walls which it saturates, and in the live protoplasm, of which it
+constitutes 90 per cent. The younger the wood, the more water it
+contains, hence the sap-wood contains much more than the heart-wood,
+at times even twice as much.
+
+In fresh sap-wood, 60 per cent. of the water is in the cell
+cavities, 35 per cent. in the cell walls, and only 5 per cent. in the
+protoplasm. There is so much water in green wood that a sappy pole
+will soon sink when set afloat. The reason why there is much less
+water in heart-wood is because its cells are dead and inactive, and
+hence without sap and without protoplasm. There is only what saturates
+the cell walls. Even so, there is considerable water in heart-wood.[2]
+
+The lighter kinds have the most water in the sap-wood, thus sycamore
+has more than hickory.
+
+Curiously enough, a tree contains about as much water in winter as
+in summer. The water is held there, it is supposed, by capillary
+attraction, since the cells are inactive, so that at all times the
+water in wood keeps the cell walls distended.
+
+
+THE SHRINKAGE OF WOOD.
+
+When a tree is cut down, its water at once begins to evaporate. This
+process is called "seasoning."[A] In drying, the free water within the
+cells keeps the cell walls saturated; but when all the free water has
+been removed, the cell walls begin to yield up their moisture. Water
+will not flow out of wood unless it is forced out by heat, as when
+green wood is put on a fire. Ordinarily it evaporates slowly.
+
+    [Footnote A: See _Handwork in Wood_, Chapter III.]
+
+The water evaporates faster from some kinds of wood than from other
+kinds, _e.g._, from white pine than from oak, from small pieces than
+from large, and from end grain than from a longitudinal section; and
+it also evaporates faster in high than in low temperatures.
+
+Evaporation affects wood in three respects, weight, strength, and
+size. The weight is reduced, the strength is increased, and shrinkage
+takes place. The reduction in weight and increase in strength,
+important as they are, are of less importance than the shrinkage,
+which often involves warping and other distortions. The water in wood
+affects its size by keeping the cell walls distended.
+
+If all the cells of a piece of wood were the same size, and had
+walls the same thickness, and all ran in the same direction, then the
+shrinkage would be uniform. But, as we have seen, the structure of
+wood is not homogeneous. Some cellular elements are large, some small,
+some have thick walls, some thin walls, some run longitudinally and
+some (the pith rays) run radially. The effects will be various in
+differently shaped pieces of wood but they can easily be accounted for
+if one bears in mind these three facts: (1) that the shrinkage is in
+the cell wall, and therefore (2) that the thick-walled cells shrink
+more than thin-walled cells and (3) that the cells do not shrink much,
+if any, lengthwise.
+
+(1) The shrinkage of wood takes place in the walls of the cells that
+compose it, that is, the cell walls become thinner, as indicated by
+the dotted lines in Fig. 35, which is a cross-section of a single
+cell. The diameter of the whole cell becomes less, and the opening, or
+lumen, of the cell becomes larger.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 35. How Cell Walls Shrink.]
+
+(2) Thick-walled cells shrink more than thin-walled cells, that is,
+summer cells more than spring cells. This is due to the fact that they
+contain more shrinkable substance. The thicker the wall, the more the
+shrinkage.
+
+Consider the effects of these changes; ordinarily a log when drying
+begins to "check" at the end. This is to be explained thus:
+Inasmuch as evaporation takes place faster from a cross than from a
+longitudinal section, because at the cross-section all the cells are
+cut open, it is to be expected that the end of a piece of timber, Fig.
+36, A, will shrink first. This would tend to make the end fibers bend
+toward the center of the piece as in B, Fig. 36. But the fibers are
+stiff and resist this bending with the result that the end splits or
+"checks" as in C, Fig. 36. But later, as the rest of the timber dries
+out and shrinks, it becomes of equal thickness again and the "checks"
+tend to close.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 36. The Shrinkage and Checking at the End of a
+Beam.]
+
+(3) For some reason, which has not been discovered, the cells or
+fibers of wood do not shrink in length to any appreciable extent. This
+is as true of the cells of pith rays, which run radially in the log,
+as of the ordinary cells, which run longitudinally in it.
+
+In addition to "checking" at the end, logs ordinarily show the effect
+of shrinkage by splitting open radially, as in Fig. 37. This is to
+be explained by two factors, (1) the disposition of the pith (or
+medullary) rays, and (2) the arrangement of the wood in annual rings.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 37. The Shrinkage and Splitting of a Log.]
+
+(1) The cells of the pith rays, as we have seen in Chapter I, run at
+right angles to the direction of the mass of wood fibers, and since
+they shrink according to the same laws that other cells do, viz., by
+the cell wall becoming thinner but not shorter, the strain of their
+shrinkage is contrary to that of the main cells. The pith rays, which
+consist of a number of cells one above the other, tend to shrink
+parallel to the length of the wood, and whatever little longitudinal
+shrinkage there is in a board is probably due mostly to the
+shrinkage of the pith rays. But because the cells of pith rays do not
+appreciably shrink in their length, this fact tends to prevent the
+main body of wood from shrinking radially, and the result is that wood
+shrinks less radially than tangentially. Tangentially is the only way
+left for it to shrink. The pith rays may be compared to the ribs of
+a folding fan, which keep the radius of unaltered length while
+permitting comparative freedom for circumferential contraction.
+
+(2) It is evident that since summer wood shrinks more than spring
+wood, this fact will interfere with the even shrinkage of the log.
+Consider first the tangential shrinkage. If a section of a single
+annual ring of green wood of the shape A B C D, in Fig. 38, is dried
+and the mass shrinks according to the thickness of the cell walls,
+it will assume the shape A' B' C' D'. When a number of rings together
+shrink, the tangential shrinkage of the summer wood tends to contract
+the adjoining rings of spring wood more than they would naturally
+shrink of themselves. Since there is more of the summer-wood
+substance, the spring-wood must yield, and the log shrinks
+circumferentially. The radial shrinkage of the summer-wood, however,
+is constantly interrupted by the alternate rows of spring-wood, so
+that there would not be so much radial as circumferential shrinkage.
+As a matter of fact, the tangential or circumferential shrinkage is
+twice as great as the radial shrinkage.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 38. Diagram to Show the Greater Shrinkage of
+Summer Cells, A, B, than of Spring Cells, C, D.]
+
+Putting these two factors together, namely, the lengthwise resistance
+of the pith rays to the radial shrinkage of the mass of other fibers,
+and second, the continuous bands of summer wood, comparatively free to
+shrink circumferentially, and the inevitable happens; the log splits.
+If the bark is left on and evaporation hindered, the splits will not
+open so wide.
+
+There is still another effect of shrinkage. If, immediately after
+felling, a log is sawn in two lengthwise, the radial splitting may be
+largely avoided, but the flat sides will tend to become convex, as in
+Fig. 39. This is explained by the fact that circumferential shrinkage
+is greater than radial shrinkage.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 39. Shrinkage of a Halved Log.]
+
+If a log is "quartered,"[A] the quarters split still less, as the
+inevitable shrinkage takes place more easily. The quarters then
+tend to assume the shape shown in Fig. 40, C. If a log is sawed into
+timber, it checks from the center of the faces toward the pith, Fig.
+40, D. Sometimes the whole amount of shrinkage may be collected in one
+large split. When a log is slash-sawed, Fig. 40, I, each board tends
+to warp so that the concave side is away from the center of the tree.
+If one plank includes the pith, Fig. 40, E and H, that board will
+become thinner at its edges than at its center, _i.e._, convex on
+both faces. Other forms assumed by wood in shrinking are shown in Fig.
+40. In the cases A-F the explanation is the same; the circumferential
+shrinkage is more than the radial. In J and K the shapes are accounted
+for by the fact that wood shrinks very little longitudinally.
+
+    [Footnote A: See _Handwork in Wood_, p. 42.]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 40. Shapes Assumed by Wood in Shrinking.]
+
+Warping is uneven shrinkage, one side of the board contracting
+more than the other. Whenever a slash board warps under ordinary
+conditions, the convex side is the one which was toward the center of
+the tree. However, a board may be made to warp artificially the other
+way by applying heat to the side of the board toward the center of the
+tree, and by keeping the other side moist. The board will warp only
+sidewise; lengthwise it remains straight unless the treatment is very
+severe. This shows again that water distends the cells laterally but
+not longitudinally.
+
+The thinning of the cell walls due to evaporation, is thus seen
+to have three results, all included in the term "working," viz.:
+_shrinkage_, a diminution in size, _splitting_, due to the inability
+of parts to cohere under the strains to which they are subjected, and
+_warping_, or uneven shrinkage.
+
+In order to neutralize warping as much as possible in broad board
+structures, it is common to joint the board with the annual rings
+of each alternate board curving in opposite directions, as shown in
+_Handwork in Wood_, Fig. 280, _a_, p. 188.
+
+Under warping is included bowing. Bowing, that is, bending in the form
+of a bow, is, so to speak, longitudinal warping. It is largely due to
+crookedness or irregularity of grain, and is likely to occur in boards
+with large pith rays, as oak and sycamore. But even a straight-grained
+piece of wood, left standing on end or subjected to heat on one side
+and dampness on the other, will bow, as, for instance a board lying on
+the damp ground and in the sun.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 41. _a_, Star Shakes; _b_, Heart Shakes; _c_, Cup
+Shakes or Ring Shakes; _d_, Honeycombing.]
+
+Splitting takes various names, according to its form in the tree.
+"Check" is a term used for all sorts of cracks, and more particularly
+for a longitudinal crack in timber. "Shakes" are splits of various
+forms as: _star shakes_, Fig. 41, _a_, splits which radiate from the
+pith along the pith rays and widen outward; _heart shakes_, Fig. 41,
+_b_, splits crossing the central rings and widening toward the center;
+and _cup_ or _ring shakes_, Fig. 41, _c_, splits between the annual
+rings. _Honeycombing_, Fig. 41, _d_, is splitting along the pith rays
+and is due largely to case hardening.
+
+These are not all due to shrinkage in drying, but may occur in the
+growing tree from various harmful causes. See p. 232.
+
+Wood that has once been dried may again be swelled to nearly if not
+fully its original size, by being soaked in water or subjected to wet
+steam. This fact is taken advantage of in wetting wooden wedges
+to split some kinds of soft stone. The processes of shrinking and
+swelling can be repeated indefinitely, and no temperature short of
+burning, completely prevents wood from shrinking and swelling.
+
+Rapid drying of wood tends to "case harden" it, _i.e._, to dry and
+shrink the outer part before the inside has had a chance to do the
+same. This results in checking separately both the outside and the
+inside, hence special precautions need to be taken in the seasoning of
+wood to prevent this. When wood is once thoroly bent out of shape in
+shrinking, it is very difficult to straighten it again.
+
+Woods vary considerably in the amounts of their shrinkage. The
+conifers with their regular structure shrink less and shrink more
+evenly than the broad-leaved woods.[3] Wood, even after it has been
+well seasoned, is subject to frequent changes in volume due to the
+varying amount of moisture in the atmosphere. This involves constant
+care in handling it and wisdom in its use. These matters are
+considered in _Handwork in Wood_, Chapter III, on the Seasoning of
+Wood.
+
+
+THE WEIGHT OF WOOD.
+
+Wood substance itself is heavier than water, as can readily be proved
+by immersing a very thin cross-section of pine in water. Since the
+cells are cut across, the water readily enters the cavities, and
+the wood being heavier than the water, sinks. In fact, it is the air
+enclosed in the cell cavities that ordinarily keeps wood afloat, just
+as it does a corked empty bottle, altho glass is heavier than water.
+A longitudinal shaving of pine will float longer than a cross shaving
+for the simple reason that it takes longer for the water to penetrate
+the cells, and a good sized white pine log would be years in getting
+water-soaked enough to sink. As long as a majority of the cells are
+filled with air it would float.
+
+In any given piece of wood, then, the weight is determined by
+two factors, the amount of wood substance and the amount of water
+contained therein. The amount of wood substance is constant, but the
+amount of water contained is variable, and hence the weight varies
+accordingly. Moreover, considering the wood substance alone, the
+weight of wood substance of different kinds of wood is about the same;
+namely, 1.6 times as heavy as water, whether it is oak or pine, ebony
+or poplar. The reason why a given bulk of some woods is lighter than
+an equal bulk of others, is because there are more thin-walled and
+air-filled cells in the light woods. Many hard woods, as lignum vitae,
+are so heavy that they will not float at all. This is because the wall
+of the wood cells is very thick, and the lumina are small.
+
+In order, then, to find out the comparative weights of different
+woods, that is, to see how much wood substance there is in a given
+volume of any wood, it is necessary to test absolutely dry specimens.
+
+The weight of wood is indicated either as the weight per cubic foot or
+as specific gravity.
+
+It is an interesting fact that different parts of the same tree have
+different weights, the wood at the base of the tree weighing more than
+that higher up, and the wood midway between the pith and bark weighing
+more than either the center or the outside.[4]
+
+The weight of wood has a very important bearing upon its use. A
+mallet-head, for example, needs weight in a small volume, but it
+must also be tough to resist shocks, and elastic so as to impart its
+momentum gradually and not all at once, as an iron head does.
+
+Weight is important, too, in objects of wood that are movable. The
+lighter the wood the better, if it is strong enough. That is why
+spruce is valuable for ladders; it is both light and strong. Chestnut
+would be a valuable wood for furniture if it were not weak, especially
+in the spring wood.
+
+The weight of wood is one measure of its strength. Heavy wood is
+stronger than light wood of the same kind, for the simple reason that
+weight and strength are dependent upon the number and compactness of
+the fibers.[5]
+
+
+THE STRENGTH OF WOOD.
+
+Strength is a factor of prime importance in wood. By strength is meant
+the ability to resist stresses, either of tension (pulling), or
+of compression (pushing), or both together, cross stresses. When a
+horizontal timber is subjected to a downward cross stress, the lower
+half is under tension, the upper half is under compression and the
+line between is called the neutral axis, Fig. 42.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 42. A Timber Under Cross Stress, Showing Neutral
+Axis, and the Lines of Tension and Compression. A knot occurring in
+such a timber should be in the upper half, as at A.]
+
+Wood is much stronger than is commonly supposed. A hickory bar will
+stand more strain under tension than a wrought iron bar of the same
+length and weight, and a block of long-leaf pine a greater compression
+endwise than a block of wrought iron of the same height and weight. It
+approaches the strength of cast iron under the same conditions.
+
+Strength depends on two factors: the strength of the individual
+fibers, and the adhesive power of the fibers to each other. So, when
+a piece of wood is pulled apart, some of the fibers break and some are
+pulled out from among their neighbors. Under compression, however,
+the fibers seem to act quite independently of each other, each bending
+over like the strands of a rope when the ends are pushed together. As
+a consequence, we find that wood is far stronger under tension than
+under compression, varying from two to four times.
+
+Woods do not vary nearly so much under compression as under tension,
+the straight-grained conifers, like larch and longleaf pine, being
+nearly as strong under compression as the hard woods, like hickory and
+elm, which have entangled fibers, whereas the hard woods are nearly
+twice as strong as the conifers under tension.
+
+Moisture has more effect on the strength of wood than any other
+extrinsic condition. In sound wood under ordinary conditions, it
+outweighs all other causes which affect strength. When thoroly
+seasoned, wood is two or three times stronger, both under compression
+and in bending, than when green or water soaked.[6]
+
+The tension or pulling strength of wood is much affected by the
+direction of the grain, a cross-grained piece being only 1/10th to
+1/20th as strong as a straight-grained piece. But under compression
+there is not much difference; so that if a timber is to be subjected
+to cross strain, that is the lower half under tension and the upper
+half under compression, a knot or other cross-grained portion should
+be in the upper half.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 43. Shearing Strength is Measured by the Adhesion
+of the Portion A, B, C, D or to the Wood on both sides of it.]
+
+Strength also includes the ability to resist shear. This is called
+"_shearing strength_." It is a measure of the adhesion of one part of
+the wood to an adjoining part. Shearing is what takes place when the
+portion of wood beyond a mortise near the end of a timber, A B C D,
+Fig. 43, is forced out by the tenon. In this case it would be shearing
+along the grain, sometimes called detrusion. The resistance of the
+portion A B C D, _i.e._, its power of adhesion to the wood adjacent
+to it on both sides, is its shearing strength. If the mortised piece
+were forced downward until it broke off the tenon at the shoulder,
+that would be shearing across the grain. The shearing resistance
+either with or across the grain is small compared with tension and
+compression. Green wood shears much more easily than dry, because
+moisture softens the wood and this reduces the adhesion of the fibers
+to each other.[7]
+
+
+CLEAVABILITY OF WOOD.
+
+Closely connected with shearing strength is cohesion, a property
+usually considered under the name of its opposite, cleavability,
+_i.e._, the ease of splitting.
+
+When an ax is stuck into the end of a piece of wood, the wood splits
+in advance of the ax edge. See _Handwork in Wood_, Fig. 59, p. 52. The
+wood is not cut but pulled across the grain just as truly as if one
+edge were held and a weight were attached to the other edge and it
+were torn apart by tension. The length of the cleft ahead of the blade
+is determined by the elasticity of the wood. The longer the cleft, the
+easier to split. Elasticity helps splitting, and shearing strength and
+hardness hinder it.
+
+A normal piece of wood splits easily along two surfaces, (1) along any
+radial plane, principally because of the presence of the pith rays,
+and, in regular grained wood like pine, because the cells are radially
+regular; and (2) along the annual rings, because the spring-wood
+separates easily from the next ring of summer-wood. Of the two, radial
+cleavage is 50 to 100 per cent. easier. Straight-grained wood is
+much easier to split than cross-grained wood in which the fibers are
+interlaced, and soft wood, provided it is elastic, splits easier than
+hard. Woods with sharp contrast between spring and summer wood, like
+yellow pine and chestnut, split very easily tangentially.
+
+All these facts are important in relation to the use of nails. For
+instance, the reason why yellow pine is hard to nail and bass easy is
+because of their difference in cleavability.
+
+
+ELASTICITY OF WOOD.
+
+Elasticity is the ability of a substance when forced out of
+shape,--bent, twisted, compressed or stretched, to regain its former
+shape. When the elasticity of wood is spoken of, its ability to spring
+back from bending is usually meant. The opposite of elasticity is
+brittleness. Hickory is elastic, white pine is brittle.
+
+Stiffness is the ability to resist bending, and hence is the opposite
+of pliability or flexibility. A wood may be both stiff and elastic; it
+may be even stiff and pliable, as ash, which may be made into splints
+for baskets and may also be used for oars. Willow sprouts are flexible
+when green, but quite brittle when dry.
+
+Elasticity is of great importance in some uses of wood, as in long
+tool handles used in agricultural implements, such as rakes, hoes,
+scythes, and in axes, in archery bows, in golf sticks, etc., in all of
+which, hickory, our most elastic wood, is used.[8]
+
+
+HARDNESS OF WOOD.
+
+Hardness is the ability of wood to resist indentations, and depends
+primarily upon the thickness of the cell walls and the smallness
+of the cell cavities, or, in general, upon the density of the wood
+structure. Summer wood, as we have seen, is much harder than spring
+wood, hence it is important in using such wood as yellow pine on
+floors to use comb-grain boards, so as to present the softer spring
+wood in as narrow surfaces as possible. See _Handwork in Wood_, p. 41,
+and Fig. 55. In slash-grain boards, broad surfaces of both spring
+and summer wood appear. Maple which is uniformly hard makes the best
+floors, even better than oak, parts of which are comparatively soft.
+
+The hardness of wood is of much consequence in gluing pieces together.
+Soft woods, like pine, can be glued easily, because the fibers can
+be forced close together. As a matter of fact, the joint when dry is
+stronger than the rest of the board. In gluing hard woods, however, it
+is necessary to scratch the surfaces to be glued in order to insure a
+strong joint. It is for the same reason that a joint made with liquid
+glue is safe on soft wood when it would be weak on hard wood.[9]
+
+
+TOUGHNESS OF WOOD.
+
+Toughness may be defined as the ability to resist sudden shocks and
+blows. This requires a combination of various qualities, strength,
+hardness, elasticity and pliability. The tough woods, _par
+excellence_, are hickory, rock elm and ash. They can be pounded,
+pulled, compressed and sheared. It is because of this quality that
+hickory is used for wheel spokes and for handles, elm for hubs, etc.
+
+In the selection of wood for particular purposes, it is sometimes one,
+sometimes another, and more often still, a combination of qualities
+that makes it fit for use.[10]
+
+It will be remembered that it was knowledge of the special values
+of different woods that made "the one horse shay," "The Deacon's
+Masterpiece."
+
+  "So the Deacon inquired of the village folk
+  Where he could find the strongest oak,
+  That couldn't be split nor bent nor broke,--
+  That was for spokes and floor and sills;
+  He sent for lancewood to make the thills;
+  The cross bars were ash, from the straightest trees,
+  The panels of whitewood, that cuts like cheese,
+  But lasts like iron for things like these.
+  The hubs of logs from the "Settler's Ellum,"--
+  Last of its timber,--they couldn't sell 'em.
+  Never an ax had seen their chips,
+  And the wedges flew from between their lips,
+  Their blunt ends frizzled like celery tips;
+  Step and prop-iron, bolt and screw,
+  Spring, tire, axle and linch pin too,
+  Steel of the finest, bright and blue;
+  Thorough brace, bison skin, thick and wide;
+  Boot, top dasher from tough old hide,
+  Found in the pit when the tanner died.
+  That was the way to "put her through."
+  'There!' said the Deacon, 'naow she'll dew!'"
+
+    [Footnote 1: Hygroscopicity, "the property possessed by
+    vegetable tissues of absorbing or discharging moisture and
+    expanding or shrinking accordingly."--_Century Dictionary._]
+
+    [Footnote 2: This is shown by the following table, from
+    Forestry Bulletin No. 10, p. 31, _Timber_, by Filibert Roth:
+
+    POUNDS OF WATER LOST IN DRYING 100 POUNDS OF GREEN WOOD IN THE KILN.
+
+                                                Sap-wood or  Heart-wood
+                                                outer part.  or interior.
+
+    1. Pines, cedars, spruces, and firs             45-65        16-25
+    2. Cypress, extremely variable                  50-65        18-60
+    3. Poplar, cottonwood, basswood                 60-65        40-60
+    4. Oak, beech, ash, elm, maple, birch, hickory,
+         chestnut, walnut, and sycamore             40-50        30-40
+    ]
+
+    [Footnote 3: The following table from Roth, p. 37, gives the
+    approximate shrinkage of a board, or set of boards, 100 inches
+    wide, drying in the open air:
+
+                                                          Shrinkage
+                                                           Inches.
+    1. All light conifers (soft pine, spruce, cedar, cypress)  3
+
+    2. Heavy conifers (hard pine, tamarack, yew, honey locust,
+    box elder, wood of old oaks)                               4
+
+    3. Ash, elm, walnut, poplar, maple, beech, sycamore,
+    cherry, black locust                                       5
+
+    4. Basswood, birch, chestnut, horse chestnut, blue beech,
+    young locust                                               6
+
+    5. Hickory, young oak, especially red oak           Up to 10
+
+    The figures are the average of radial and tangential
+    shrinkages.]
+
+    [Footnote 4: How much different woods vary may be seen by the
+    following table, taken from Filibert Roth, _Timber_, Forest
+    Service Bulletin No. 10, p. 28:
+
+    WEIGHT OF KILN-DRIED WOOD OF DIFFERENT SPECIES.
+
+------------------------------------+---------------------------------
+                                    |       Approximate.
+                                    +-----------+---------------------
+                                    |           |    Weight of
+                                    |           +---------+-----------
+                                    | Specific  | 1 cubic | 1,000 feet
+                                    |  weight.  |  foot.  | of lumber.
+------------------------------------+-----------+---------+-----------
+                                    |           |  Pounds |  Pounds
+(a) Very heavy woods:               |           |         |
+     Hickory, oak, persimmon,       |           |         |
+       osage, orange, black         |           |         |
+       locust, hackberry, blue      |           |         |
+       beech, best of elm, and ash  | 0.70-0.80 |  42-48  |  3,700
+(b) Heavy woods:                    |           |         |
+     Ash, elm, cherry, birch,       |           |         |
+       maple, beech, walnut, sour   |           |         |
+       gum, coffee tree, honey      |           |         |
+       locust, best of southern     |           |         |
+       pine, and tamarack           |  .60-.70  |  36-42  |  3,200
+(c) Woods of medium weight:         |           |         |
+     Southern pine, pitch pine,     |           |         |
+       tamarack, Douglas spruce,    |           |         |
+       western hemlock, sweet gum,  |           |         |
+       soft maple, sycamore, light  |           |         |
+       sassafras, mulberry,         |           |         |
+       grades of birch and cherry   |  .50-.60  |  30-36  |  2,700
+(d) Light woods:                    |           |         |
+     Norway and bull pine, red      |           |         |
+       cedar, cypress, hemlock,     |           |         |
+       the heavier spruce and fir,  |           |         |
+       redwood, basswood, chestnut, |           |         |
+       butternut, tulip, catalpa,   |           |         |
+       buckeye, heavier grades of   |           |         |
+       poplar                       |  .40-.50  |  24-30  |  2,200
+(e) Very light woods:               |           |         |
+     White pine, spruce, fir, white |           |         |
+       cedar, poplar                |  .30-.40  |  18-24  |  1,800
+------------------------------------+-----------+---------+-----------
+
+    ]
+
+    [Footnote 5: For table of weights of different woods see
+    Sargent, _Jesup Collection,_ pp. 153-157.]
+
+    [Footnote 6: See Forestry Bulletin No. 70, pp. 11, 12, and
+    Forestry Circular No. 108.]
+
+    [Footnote 7: For table of strengths of different woods, see
+    Sargent, _Jesup Collection_, pp. 166 ff.]
+
+    [Footnote 8: For table of elasticity of different woods, see
+    Sargent, _Jesup Collection_, pp. 163 ff.]
+
+    [Footnote 9: For table of hardnesses of different woods, see
+    Sargent, _Jesup Collection_, pp. 173 ff.]
+
+    [Footnote 10: For detailed characteristics of different woods
+    see Chapter III.]
+
+
+THE PROPERTIES OF WOOD.
+
+REFERENCES[A]
+
+Moisture and Shrinkage.
+
+  Roth, _For. Bull._, No. 10, pp. 25-37.
+  Busbridge, _Sci. Am. Sup._ No. 1500. Oct. 1, '04.
+
+Weight, Strength, Cleavability, Elasticity and Toughness.
+
+  Roth, _For. Bull._, 10, p. 37-50.
+  Boulger, pp. 89-108, 129-140.
+  Roth, _First Book_, pp. 229-233.
+  Sargent, _Jesup Collection_, pp. 153-176.
+
+Forest Circulars Nos. 108 and 139.
+
+    [Footnote A: For general bibliography, see p. 4.]
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER III.
+
+THE PRINCIPAL SPECIES OF AMERICAN WOODS.
+
+NOTES.
+
+
+The photographs of tangential and radial sections are life size.
+The microphotographs are of cross-sections and are enlarged 37-1/2
+diameters.
+
+Following the precedent of U. S. Forest Bulletin No. 17, Sudworth's
+_Check List of the Forest Trees of the United States_, the complicated
+rules for the capitalization of the names of species are abandoned and
+they are uniformly not capitalized.
+
+On pages 192-195 will be found lists of the woods described, arranged
+in the order of their comparative weight, strength, elasticity, and
+hardness. These lists are based upon the figures in Sargent's _The
+Jesup Collection_.
+
+In the appendix, p. 289, will be found a key for distinguishing the
+various kinds of wood.
+
+Information as to current wholesale prices in the principal markets of
+the country can be had from the U. S. Dept. of Agriculture, The Forest
+Service, Washington, D. C., _Record of Wholesale Prices of Lumber,
+List A._ These lists are published periodically. No attempt is made in
+this book to give prices because: (1) only lists of wholesale prices
+are available; (2) the cuts and grades differ considerably, especially
+in soft woods (conifers); (3) prices are constantly varying; (4) the
+prices differ much in different localities.
+
+
+1
+
+WHITE PINE, WEYMOUTH PINE.
+
+    Named for Lord Weymouth, who cultivated it in England.
+
+_Pinus strobus_ Linnaeus.
+
+    _Pinus_, the classical Latin name; _strobus_ refers to the
+    cone, or strobile, from a Greek word, _strobus_, meaning
+    twist.
+
+
+[Illustration: Habitat.]
+
+HABITAT: (See map); now best in Michigan, Wisconsin and Minnesota.
+
+CHARACTERISTICS OF THE TREE: Height, 100'-120', even 200'; diameter,
+2'-4'; branches in whorls, cleans poorly; bark, dark gray, divided by
+deep longitudinal fissures into broad ridges; leaves in clusters of 5,
+3"-5" long; cone drooping, 4"-10" long.
+
+APPEARANCE OF WOOD: Color, heart-wood, very light brown, almost cream
+color, sap-wood, nearly white; non-porous; rings, fine but distinct;
+grain, straight; pith rays, very faint; resin ducts, small,
+inconspicuous.
+
+[Illustration: Leaf.]
+
+PHYSICAL QUALITIES: Weight, very light (59th in this list); 27 lbs.
+per cu. ft.; sp. gr. 0.3854; strength, medium (55th in this list);
+elasticity, medium (47th in this list); soft (57th in this list);
+shrinkage 3 per cent.; warps very little; durability, moderate; works
+easily in every way; splits easily but nails well.
+
+COMMON USES: Doors, window sashes and other carpentry, pattern-making,
+cabinet-work, matches.
+
+REMARKS: This best of American woods is now rapidly becoming scarce
+and higher in price. Its uses are due to its uniform grain, on account
+of which it is easily worked and stands well. Known in the English
+market as yellow pine.
+
+[Illustration: Radial Section, life size.]
+
+[Illustration: Cross-section, magnified 37-1/2 diameters.]
+
+[Illustration: Tangential Section, life size.]
+
+
+2
+
+WESTERN WHITE PINE.
+
+_Pinus monticola_ Douglas.
+
+    _Pinus_, the classical Latin name; _monticola_ means
+    mountain-dweller.
+
+[Illustration: Habitat.]
+
+HABITAT: (See map); grows at great elevations, 7,000'-10,000'. Best in
+northern Idaho.
+
+[Illustration: Leaf.]
+
+CHARACTERISTICS OF THE TREE: Height, 100'-160'; diameter, 4' to even
+8'; branches, slender, spreading; bark, gray and brown, divided into
+squarish plates by deep longitudinal and cross fissures; leaves, 5 in
+sheath; cones, 12"×18" long.
+
+APPEARANCE OF WOOD: Color, light brown or red, sap-wood nearly white;
+non-porous; rings, summer wood, thin and not conspicuous; grain,
+straight; rays, numerous, obscure; resin ducts, numerous and
+conspicuous tho not large.
+
+PHYSICAL QUALITIES: Weight, very light (58th in this list); 24 lbs.
+per cu. ft.; sp. gr. 0.3908; strength, medium (56th in this list);
+elastic (35th in this list); soft (63d in this list); shrinkage, 3 per
+cent.; warps little; moderately durable; easy to work; splits readily
+but nails well.
+
+COMMON USES: Lumber for construction and interior finish.
+
+REMARKS: Closely resembles _Pinus Strobus_ in appearance and quality
+of wood.
+
+[Illustration: Radial Section, life size.]
+
+[Illustration: Cross-section, magnified 37-1/2 diameters.]
+
+[Illustration: Tangential Section, life size.]
+
+
+3
+
+SUGAR PINE.
+
+    Sugar refers to sweetish exudation.
+
+_Pinus lambertiana_ Douglas.
+
+    _Pinus_, the classical Latin name; _lambertiana_, from the
+    botanist, A. B. Lambert, whose chief work was on Pines.
+
+[Illustration: Habitat.]
+
+HABITAT: (See map); grows on high elevations (5,000'), best in
+northern California.
+
+[Illustration: Leaf.]
+
+CHARACTERISTICS OF THE TREE: Height, 100'-300'; diameter, 15"-20";
+branches, in remote regular whorls; bark, rich purple or brown, thick,
+deep irregular fissures making long, flaky ridges; leaves, stout,
+rigid, in bundles of five; cones, 10"-18" long.
+
+APPEARANCE OF WOOD: Color, pinkish brown, sap-wood, cream white;
+non-porous; rings, distinct; grain, straight; rays, numerous, obscure;
+resin ducts, numerous, large and conspicuous.
+
+PHYSICAL QUALITIES: Weight, very light (61st in this list); 22 lbs.
+per cu. ft.; sp. gr. 0.3684; strength, weak (59th in this list);
+elasticity, medium (56th in this list); soft (53d in this list);
+shrinkage, 3 per cent.; warps little; durable; easily worked; splits
+little, nails well.
+
+COMMON USES: Carpentry, interior finish, doors, blinds, shingles,
+barrels, etc.
+
+REMARKS: Exudes a sweet substance from heart-wood. A magnificent and
+important lumber tree on Pacific coast.
+
+[Illustration: Radial Section, life size.]
+
+[Illustration: Cross-section, magnified 37-1/2 diameters.]
+
+[Illustration: Tangential Section, life size.]
+
+
+4
+
+NORWAY PINE. RED PINE.
+
+    Red refers to color of bark.
+
+_Pinus resinosa_ Solander.
+
+    _Pinus_, the classical Latin name; _resinosa_ refers to very
+    resinous wood.
+
+[Illustration: Habitat.]
+
+HABITAT: (See map); grows best in northern Michigan, Wisconsin, and
+Minnesota.
+
+[Illustration: Leaf.]
+
+CHARACTERISTICS OF THE TREE: Height, 70'-90'; diameter, 2'-3'; tall,
+straight; branches in whorls, low; bark, thin, scaly, purplish and
+reddish-brown; longitudinal furrows, broad flat ridges; leaves, in
+twos in long sheaths; cones, 2".
+
+APPEARANCE OF WOOD: Color of wood, pale red, sap-wood, wide, whitish;
+non-porous; rings summer wood broad, dark; grain, straight; rays,
+numerous, pronounced, thin; very resinous, but ducts small and few.
+
+PHYSICAL QUALITIES: Weight, light, (43d in this list); 31 lbs. per cu.
+ft.; sp. gr. 0.4854; strong (39th in this list); elastic (16th in
+this list); soft (48th in this list); shrinkage, 3 per cent.; warps
+moderately; not durable; easy to work; splits readily, nails well.
+
+COMMON USES: Piles, electric wire poles, masts, flooring.
+
+REMARKS: Often sold with and as white pine. Resembles Scotch pine
+(_Pinus sylvestris_). Bark used to some extent for tanning. Grows in
+open groves.
+
+[Illustration: Radial Section, life size.]
+
+[Illustration: Cross-section, magnified 37-1/2 diameters.]
+
+[Illustration: Tangential Section, life size.]
+
+
+5
+
+WESTERN YELLOW PINE. BULL PINE.
+
+    Bull refers to great size of trunk.
+
+_Pinus ponderosa_ Lawson.
+
+    _Pinus_, the classical Latin name; _ponderosa_ refers to great
+    size of trunk.
+
+[Illustration: Habitat.]
+
+HABITAT: (See map); best in Rocky Mountains.
+
+[Illustration: Leaf.]
+
+CHARACTERISTICS OF THE TREE: Height, 100' to 300'; diameter, 6' to
+even 12'; branches, low, short trunk; bark, thick, dark brown, deep,
+meandering furrows, large, irregular plates, scaly; leaves, in twos or
+threes, 5" to 11" long; cones 3" to 6" long.
+
+APPEARANCE OF WOOD: Color, light red, sap-wood, thick, nearly white,
+and very distinct; non-porous; rings, conspicuous; grain, straight;
+rays, numerous, obscure; very resinous but ducts small.
+
+PHYSICAL QUALITIES: Weight, light (44th in this list); 25-30 lbs.
+per cu. ft.; sp. gr. 0.4715; strength, medium (45th in this list);
+elasticity, medium (41st in this list); hardness, medium (42nd in this
+list); shrinkage, 4 per cent.; warps ...........; not durable; hard to
+work, brittle; splits easily in nailing.
+
+COMMON USES: Lumber, railway ties, mine timbers.
+
+REMARKS: Forms extensive open forests.
+
+[Illustration: Radial Section, life size.]
+
+[Illustration: Cross-section, magnified 37-1/2 diameters.]
+
+[Illustration: Tangential Section, life size.]
+
+
+6
+
+LONG-LEAF PINE. GEORGIA PINE.
+
+_Pinus palustris_ Miller.
+
+    _Pinus_, the classical Latin name; _palustris_ means swampy,
+    inappropriate here.
+
+[Illustration: Habitat.]
+
+HABITAT: (See map); best in Louisiana and East Texas.
+
+[Illustration: Leaf.]
+
+CHARACTERISTICS OF THE TREE: Height, 80'-100'; diameter, 2'-3';
+trunk, straight, clean, branches high; bark, light brown, large, thin,
+irregular papery scales; leaves 8"-12" long, 3 in a sheath; cones
+6"-10" long.
+
+APPEARANCE OF WOOD: Heart-wood, spring wood light yellow, summer
+wood, red brown; sap wood, lighter; non-porous; rings, very plain and
+strongly marked; grain, straight; rays, numerous, conspicuous; very
+resinous, but resin ducts few and not large.
+
+PHYSICAL QUALITIES: Heavy (18th in this list); 38 lbs. per cu. ft.;
+sp. gr. 0.6999; very strong (7th in this list); very elastic (4th
+in this list); hardness, medium (33d in this list); shrinkage, 4 per
+cent.; warps very little; quite durable; works hard, tough; splits
+badly in nailing.
+
+COMMON USES: Joists, beams, bridge and building trusses, interior
+finish, ship building, and general construction work.
+
+REMARKS: Almost exclusively the source of turpentine, tar, pitch and
+resin in the United States. Known in the English market as pitch pine.
+
+[Illustration: Radial Section, life size.]
+
+[Illustration: Cross-section, magnified 37-1/2 diameters.]
+
+[Illustration: Tangential Section, life size.]
+
+
+7
+
+SHORT-LEAF PINE. YELLOW PINE.
+
+_Pinus echinata_ Miller.
+
+    _Pinus_, the classical Latin name; _echinata_ refers to spiny
+    cones.
+
+[Illustration: Habitat.]
+
+HABITAT: (See map); best in lower Mississippi basin.
+
+[Illustration: Leaf.]
+
+CHARACTERISTICS OF THE TREE: Straight, tall trunk, sometimes 100'
+high; branches high; diameter 2'-4'; bark, pale grayish red-brown,
+fissures, running helter-skelter, making large irregular plates,
+covered with small scales; leaves in twos, 3" long; cones small.
+
+APPEARANCE OF WOOD: Color, heartwood, summer wood, red, spring-wood,
+yellow; sap-wood, lighter; non-porous; annual rings very plain, sharp
+contrast between spring and summer wood; grain, straight, coarse;
+rays, numerous, conspicuous; very resinous, ducts large and many.
+
+PHYSICAL QUALITIES: Weight, medium (32nd in this list); 32 lbs.
+per cu. ft.; sp. gr., 0.6104; very strong (18th in this list); very
+elastic (8th in this list); soft (38th in this list); shrinkage, 4
+per cent.; warps little; durable; troublesome to work; likely to split
+along annual rings in nailing.
+
+COMMON USES: Heavy construction, railroad ties, house trim, ship
+building, cars, docks, bridges.
+
+REMARKS: Wood hardly distinguishable from long-leaf pine. Often forms
+pure forests. The most desirable yellow pine, much less resinous and
+more easily worked than others.
+
+[Illustration: Radial Section, life size.]
+
+[Illustration: Cross-section, magnified 37-1/2 diameters.]
+
+[Illustration: Tangential Section, life size.]
+
+
+8
+
+LOBLOLLY PINE. OLD FIELD PINE.
+
+    _Loblolly_ may refer to the inferiority of the wood; old field
+    refers to habit of spontaneous growth on old fields.
+
+_Pinus taeda_ Linnaeus.
+
+    _Pinus_, the classical Latin name; _taeda_, the classical
+    Latin name for pitch-pine, which was used for torches.
+
+[Illustration: Habitat.]
+
+HABITAT: (See map); grows best in eastern Virginia, and eastern North
+Carolina.
+
+[Illustration: Leaf.]
+
+CHARACTERISTICS OF THE TREE: Height, 100'-150'; diameter, often 4'-5';
+branches high; bark, purplish brown, shallow, meandering fissures,
+broad, flat, scaly ridges; leaves, 3 in sheath, 4"-7" long; cones
+3"-5" long.
+
+APPEARANCE OF WOOD: Color, heart-wood orange, sap-wood lighter;
+non-porous; rings very plain, sharp contrast between spring wood and
+summer wood; grain, straight, coarse; rays conspicuous; very resinous,
+but ducts few and small.
+
+PHYSICAL QUALITIES: Weight, medium (39th in this list); 33 lbs. per
+cu. ft.; sp. gr. 0.5441; strong (26th in this list); elastic (17th
+in this list); medium hard (43d in this list); shrinkage, 4 per cent.;
+warps little; not durable; difficult to work, brittle; splits along
+rings in nailing.
+
+COMMON USES: Heavy construction, beams, ship building, docks, bridges,
+flooring, house trim.
+
+REMARKS: Resembles Long-leaf Pine, and often sold as such. Rarely
+makes pure forests.
+
+[Illustration: Radial Section, life size.]
+
+[Illustration: Cross-section, magnified 37-1/2 diameters.]
+
+[Illustration: Tangential Section, life size.]
+
+
+9
+
+SLASH PINE. CUBAN PINE.
+
+_Pinus caribaea_ Morelet. _Pinus heterophylla_ (Ell.) Sudworth.
+
+    _Pinus_, the classical Latin name; _caribaea_ refers to the
+    Caribbean Islands; _heterophylla_ refers to two kinds of
+    leaves.
+
+[Illustration: Habitat.]
+
+HABITAT: (See map); grows best in Alabama, Mississippi, and Louisiana.
+
+[Illustration: Leaf.]
+
+CHARACTERISTICS OF THE TREE: Height, sometimes 110', straight, tall,
+branching high; diameter 1'-3'; bark, dark red and brown, shallow
+irregular fissures; leaves, 2 or 3 in a sheath, 8"-12" long; cones,
+4"-5" long.
+
+APPEARANCE OF WOOD: Color, dark orange, sapwood lighter; non-porous;
+annual rings, plain, sharp contrast between spring wood and summer
+wood; grain, straight; rays numerous, rather prominent; very resinous,
+but ducts few.
+
+PHYSICAL QUALITIES: Heavy (7th in this list); 39 lbs. per cu. ft.; sp.
+gr. 0.7504; very strong (6th in this list); very elastic (3d in this
+list); hard (24th in this list); shrinkage, 4 per cent.; warps little;
+quite durable; troublesome to work; splits along annual rings in
+nailing.
+
+COMMON USES: Heavy construction, ship building, railroad ties, docks,
+bridges, house trim.
+
+REMARKS: Similar to and often sold as Long-leaf Pine.
+
+[Illustration: Radial Section, life size.]
+
+[Illustration: Cross-section, magnified 37-1/2 diameters.]
+
+[Illustration: Tangential Section, life size.]
+
+
+10
+
+TAMARACK. LARCH. HACKMATACK.
+
+_Larix laricina_ (Du Roi) Koch. _Larix americana_ Michaux.
+
+    _Larix_, the classical Latin name.
+
+[Illustration: Habitat.]
+
+HABITAT: (See map); prefers swamps, "Tamarack swamps."
+
+[Illustration: Leaf.]
+
+CHARACTERISTICS OF THE TREE: Height, 50'-60' and even 90', diameter
+1'-3'; intolerant; tall, slender trunk; bark, cinnamon brown, no
+ridges, breaking into flakes; leaves, deciduous, pea-green, in tufts;
+cone, 1/2"-3/4", bright brown.
+
+APPEARANCE OF WOOD: Color, light brown, sapwood hardly
+distinguishable; non-porous; rings, summer wood, thin but distinct,
+dark colored; grain, straight, coarse; rays, numerous, hardly
+distinguishable; very resinous, but ducts few and small.
+
+PHYSICAL QUALITIES: Weight, medium (29th in this list); 39 lbs. per
+cu. ft.; sp. gr. 0.6236; strong (24th in this list); elastic (11th in
+this list); medium hard (40th in this list); shrinkage, 3 per cent.;
+warps .........; very durable; easy to work; splits easily.
+
+COMMON USES: Ship building, electric wire poles, and railroad ties;
+used for boat ribs because of its naturally crooked knees; slenderness
+prevents common use as lumber.
+
+REMARKS: Tree desolate looking in winter.
+
+[Illustration: Radial Section, life size.]
+
+[Illustration: Cross-section, magnified 37-1/2 diameters.]
+
+[Illustration: Tangential Section, life size.]
+
+
+11
+
+WESTERN LARCH. TAMARACK.
+
+_Larix occidentalis_ Nuttall.
+
+    _Larix_, the classical Latin name; _occidentalis_ means
+    western.
+
+[Illustration: Habitat.]
+
+HABITAT: (See map); best in northern Montana and Idaho, on high
+elevations.
+
+[Illustration: Leaf.]
+
+CHARACTERISTICS OF THE TREE: Height, 90'-130', even 250'; diameter
+6'-8'; tall, slender, naked trunk, with branches high; bark, cinnamon
+red or purplish, often 12" thick, breaking into irregular plates,
+often 2' long; leaves, in tufts; deciduous; cones small.
+
+APPEARANCE OF WOOD: Color, light red, thin, whitish, sap-wood;
+non-porous; grain, straight, fine; rays numerous, thin; very resinous,
+but ducts small and obscure.
+
+PHYSICAL QUALITIES: Weight, heavy (11th in this list); 46 lbs. per cu.
+ft.; sp. gr. 0.7407; very strong (3d in this list); very elastic (1st
+in this list); medium hard (35th in this list); shrinkage, 4 per
+cent.; warps ..........; very durable; rather hard to work, takes fine
+polish; splits with difficulty.
+
+COMMON USES: Posts, railroad ties, fencing, cabinet material and fuel.
+
+REMARKS: A valuable tree in the Northwest.
+
+[Illustration: Radial Section, life size.]
+
+[Illustration: Cross-section, magnified 37-1/2 diameters.]
+
+[Illustration: Tangential Section, life size.]
+
+
+12
+
+WHITE SPRUCE.
+
+_Picea canadensis_ (Miller) B. S. P. _Picea alba_ Link.
+
+    _Picea_, the classical Latin name; white and _alba_ refers to
+    the pale color of the leaves, especially when young, and to
+    the whitish bark.
+
+[Illustration: Habitat.]
+
+HABITAT: (See map).
+
+[Illustration: Leaf.]
+
+CHARACTERISTICS OF THE TREE: Height, 60'-100' and even 150'; diameter,
+1'-2' and even 4'; long, thick branches; bark, light grayish brown,
+separating into thin plate-like scales, rather smooth appearance,
+resin from cuts forms white gum; leaves, set thickly on all sides
+of branch, finer than red spruce, odor disagreeable; cones, 2" long,
+cylindrical, slender, fall during second summer.
+
+APPEARANCE OF WOOD: Color, light yellow, sap-wood, hardly
+distinguishable; non-porous; rings, wide, summer wood thin, not
+conspicuous; grain, straight; rays, numerous, prominent; resin ducts,
+few and minute.
+
+PHYSICAL QUALITIES: Weight, light (51st in this list); 25 lbs. per cu.
+ft.; sp. gr., 0.4051; medium strong (42d in this list); elastic
+(29th in this list); soft (58th in this list); shrinks 3 per cent.;
+warps ........; fairly durable; easy to work, satiny surface; splits
+readily.
+
+COMMON USES: Lumber and paper pulp; (not distinguished from Red and
+Black Spruce in market).
+
+REMARKS: Wood very resonant, hence used for sounding boards. The most
+important lumber tree of the sub-arctic forest of British Columbia.
+
+[Illustration: Radial Section, life size.]
+
+[Illustration: Cross-section, magnified 37-1/2 diameters.]
+
+[Illustration: Tangential Section, life size.]
+
+
+13
+
+RED SPRUCE.[A]
+
+_Picea rubens_ Sargent.
+
+    _Picea_, the classical Latin name for the pitch pine; _rubens_
+    refers to reddish bark, and perhaps to the reddish streaks in
+    the wood.
+
+[Illustration: Habitat.]
+
+HABITAT: (See map); stunted in north.
+
+[Illustration: Leaf.]
+
+CHARACTERISTICS OF THE TREE: Height, 70'-80', even 100'; diameter,
+2'-3', grows slowly; trunk, straight, columnar, branches in whorls,
+cleans well in forest; bark, reddish brown with thin irregular
+scales; leaves, needle-shaped, four-sided, pointing everywhere; cones,
+1-1/4"-2" long, pendent, fall during the first winter.
+
+APPEARANCE OF WOOD: Color, dull white with occasional reddish streaks;
+sap-wood not distinct; non-porous; rings, summer rings thin, but
+clearly defined; grain, straight; rays, faintly discernible; resin
+ducts, few and small.
+
+PHYSICAL QUALITIES: Weight, light (47th in this list); 28 lbs. per cu.
+ft.; sp. gr., 0.4584; medium strong (41st in this list); elastic (21st
+in this list); soft (54th in this list); shrinkage, 3 per cent.; warps
+little; not durable; easy to plane, tolerably easy to saw, hard to
+chisel neatly; splits easily in nailing.
+
+COMMON USES: Sounding boards, construction, paper pulp, ladders.
+
+REMARKS: The exudations from this species are used as chewing gum.
+Bark of twigs is used in the domestic manufacture of beer. The use of
+the wood for sounding boards is due to its resonance, and for ladders
+to its strength and lightness.
+
+[Illustration: Radial Section, life size.]
+
+[Illustration: Cross-section, magnified 37-1/2 diameters.]
+
+[Illustration: Tangential Section, life size.]
+
+    [Footnote A: Not distinguished in the Jesup collection from
+    _Picea nigra_.]
+
+
+14
+
+BLACK SPRUCE.[A]
+
+_Picea mariana_ (Miller) B. S. P. _Picea nigra_ Link.
+
+    _Picea_, the classical Latin name for the pitch pine;
+    _mariana_ named for Queen Mary; black and _nigra_ refer to
+    dark foliage.
+
+[Illustration: Habitat.]
+
+HABITAT: (See map); best in Canada.
+
+[Illustration: Leaf.]
+
+CHARACTERISTICS OF THE TREE: Height, 50'-80' and even 100'; diameter,
+6"-1' even 2'; branches, whorled, pendulous with upward curve; bark,
+gray, loosely attached flakes; leaves, pale blue-green, spirally set,
+pointing in all directions; cones, small, ovate-oblong, persistent for
+many years.
+
+APPEARANCE OF WOOD: Color, pale, reddish, sap-wood, thin, white,
+not very distinct; non-porous; rings, summer wood, small thin cells;
+grain, straight; rays, few, conspicuous; resin ducts, few and minute.
+
+PHYSICAL QUALITIES: Weight, light (47th in this list); 33 lbs. per cu.
+ft.; sp. gr., 0.4584; medium strong (41st in this list); elastic (21st
+in this list); soft (54th in this list); shrinkage, 3 per cent.; warps
+little; not durable; easy to work; splits easily in nailing.
+
+COMMON USES: Sounding boards, lumber in Manitoba.
+
+REMARKS: Not distinguished from Red Spruce commercially.
+
+[Illustration: Radial Section, life size.]
+
+[Illustration: Cross-section, magnified 37-1/2 diameters.]
+
+[Illustration: Tangential Section, life size.]
+
+    [Footnote A: Not distinguished in Jesup Collection from _Picea
+    rubens_.]
+
+
+15
+
+WHITE SPRUCE. ENGELMANN'S SPRUCE.
+
+_Picea engelmanni_ (Parry) Engelmann.
+
+    Named for George Engelmann, an American botanist.
+
+[Illustration: Habitat.]
+
+HABITAT: (See map); grows at very high elevations, forming forest at
+8,000'-10,000'; best in British Columbia.
+
+[Illustration: Leaf.]
+
+CHARACTERISTICS OF THE TREE: Height, 75'-100', even 150'; diameter,
+2'-3', even 5'; branches whorled, spreading; bark, deeply furrowed,
+red-brown to purplish brown, thin, large, loose scales; leaves,
+blue-green, point in all directions; cones, 2" long, oblong,
+cylindrical.
+
+APPEARANCE OF WOOD: Color, pale yellow or reddish, sap-wood hardly
+distinguishable; non-porous; rings, very fine, summer wood, narrow,
+not conspicuous; grain, straight, close; rays, numerous, conspicuous;
+resin ducts, small and few.
+
+PHYSICAL QUALITIES: Weight, very light (57th in this list); 22 lbs.
+per cu. ft.; sp. gr. 0.3449; weak (61st in this list); elasticity
+medium (55th in this list); soft (56th in this list); shrinkage, 3 per
+cent.; warps .........; durable; easy to work; splits easily.
+
+COMMON USES: Lumber.
+
+REMARKS: A valuable lumber tree in the Rocky Mountains and the
+Cascades. Bark used for tanning.
+
+[Illustration: Radial Section, life size.]
+
+[Illustration: Cross-section, magnified 37-1/2 diameters].
+
+[Illustration: Tangential Section, life size.]
+
+
+16
+
+TIDELAND SPRUCE. SITKA SPRUCE.
+
+_Picea sitchensis_ (Bongard) Carrière.
+
+    _Picea_, the classical Latin name for the pitch pine.
+    Tideland refers to its habit of growth along the sea coast;
+    _sitchensis_, named for Sitka.
+
+[Illustration: Habitat.]
+
+HABITAT: (See map); best on Pacific slope of British Columbia and
+northwestern United States.
+
+[Illustration: Leaf.]
+
+CHARACTERISTICS OF THE TREE: Height, 100'-150' and even 200' high;
+diameter 3'-4' and even 15'; trunk base enlarged; bark, thick,
+red-brown, scaly; leaves, standing out in all directions; cones,
+2-1/2"-4" long, pendent, cylindrical, oval.
+
+APPEARANCE OF WOOD: Color, light brown, sap-wood whitish; non-porous;
+rings, wide, summer wood, thin but very distinct, spring wood, not
+plain; grain, straight, coarse; rays, numerous, rather prominent;
+resin ducts, few and small.
+
+PHYSICAL QUALITIES: Weight, light (52d in this list); 27 lbs. per cu.
+ft.; sp. gr. 0.4287; medium strong (53d in this list); elastic (31st
+in this list); soft (59th in this list); shrinkage, 3 per cent.;
+warps ...........; durable; easy to work; splits easily.
+
+COMMON USES: Interior finish, boat building and cooperage.
+
+REMARKS: Largest of the spruces. Common in the coast belt forest.
+
+[Illustration: Radial Section, life size.]
+
+[Illustration: Cross-section, magnified 37-1/2 diameters.]
+
+[Illustration: Tangential Section, life size.]
+
+
+17
+
+HEMLOCK.
+
+_Tsuga canadensis_ (Linnaeus) Carrière.
+
+    _Tsuga_, the Japanese name latinized; _canadensis_ named for
+    Canada.
+
+[Illustration: Habitat.]
+
+HABITAT: (See map); best in North Carolina and Tennessee.
+
+[Illustration: Leaf.]
+
+CHARACTERISTICS OF THE TREE: Height, 60'-70', sometimes 100';
+diameter, 2'-3'; branches, persistent, making trunk not very clean;
+bark, red-gray, narrow, rounded ridges, deeply and irregularly
+fissured; leaves, spirally arranged, but appear two-ranked; cones,
+3/4" long, graceful.
+
+APPEARANCE OF WOOD: Color, reddish brown, sap-wood just
+distinguishable; non-porous; rings, rather broad, conspicuous; grain,
+crooked; rays, numerous, thin; non-resinous.
+
+PHYSICAL QUALITIES: Weight, light (53d in this list); 26 lbs. per cu.
+ft.; sp. gr. 0.4239; medium strong (44th in this list); elasticity,
+medium (40th in this list); soft (51st in this list); shrinkage, 3
+per cent.; warps and checks badly; not durable; difficult to work,
+splintery, brittle; splits easily, holds nails well.
+
+COMMON USES: Coarse, cheap lumber, as joists, rafters, plank walks and
+laths.
+
+REMARKS: The poorest lumber. Bark chief source of tanning material.
+
+[Illustration: Radial Section, life size.]
+
+[Illustration: Cross-section, magnified 37-1/2 diameters.]
+
+[Illustration: Tangential Section, life size.]
+
+
+18
+
+WESTERN HEMLOCK. BLACK HEMLOCK.
+
+_Tsuga heterophylla_ (Rafinesque) Sargent.
+
+    _Tsuga_, the Japanese name latinized; _heterophylla_ refers to
+    two kinds of leaves.
+
+[Illustration: Habitat.]
+
+HABITAT: (See map); best on coast of Washington and Oregon.
+
+[Illustration: Leaf.]
+
+CHARACTERISTICS OF THE TREE: Height, 150'-200'; diameter, 6'-10';
+branches, pendent, slender; bark, reddish gray, deep, longitudinal
+fissures between, broad, oblique, flat ridges; leaves, dark green,
+two-ranked; cones, small, like Eastern Hemlock.
+
+APPEARANCE OF WOOD: Color, pale brown, sap-wood thin, whitish;
+non-porous; rings, narrow, summer wood thin but distinct; grain,
+straight, close; rays, numerous, prominent; non-resinous.
+
+PHYSICAL QUALITIES: Light in weight, strong, elastic, hard;[A]
+shrinkage, 3 per cent.; warps ..........; durable, more so than other
+American hemlocks; easier to work than eastern variety; splits badly.
+
+COMMON USES: Lumber for construction.
+
+REMARKS: Coming to be recognized as a valuable lumber tree.
+
+[Illustration: Radial Section, life size.]
+
+[Illustration: Cross-section, magnified 37-1/2 diameters.]
+
+[Illustration: Tangential Section, life size.]
+
+    [Footnote A: Not in Jesup Collection.]
+
+
+19
+
+DOUGLAS SPRUCE. OREGON PINE. RED FIR. DOUGLAS FIR.
+
+_Pseudotsuga mucronata_ (Rafinesque) Sudworth.
+
+_Pseudotsuga taxifolia_ (Lambert) Britton.
+
+    _Pseudotsuga_ means false hemlock; _mucronata_ refers to
+    abrupt short point of leaf; _taxifolia_ means yew leaf.
+
+[Illustration: Habitat.]
+
+HABITAT: (See map); best in Puget Sound region.
+
+[Illustration: Leaf.]
+
+CHARACTERISTICS OF THE TREE: Height, 175'-300'; diameter, 3'-5',
+sometimes 10'; branches high, leaving clean trunk; bark, rough, gray,
+great broad-rounded ridges, often appears braided; leaves, radiating
+from stem; cones, 2"-4" long.
+
+APPEARANCE OF WOOD: Color, light red to yellow, sap-wood white;
+non-porous; rings, dark colored, conspicuous, very pronounced summer
+wood; grain, straight, coarse; rays, numerous, obscure; resinous.
+
+PHYSICAL QUALITIES: Weight, medium (41st in this list); 32 lbs. per
+cu. ft, sp. gr. 0.5157; strong (21st in this list); very elastic (10th
+in this list); medium hard (45th in this list); shrinkage, 3 per cent.
+or 4 per cent.;, warps ...............; durable; difficult to work,
+flinty, splits readily.
+
+COMMON USES: Heavy construction, masts, flag poles, piles, railway
+ties.
+
+REMARKS: One of the greatest and the most valuable of the western
+timber trees. Forms extensive forests.
+
+[Illustration: Radial Section, life size.]
+
+[Illustration: Cross-section, magnified 37-1/2 diameters.]
+
+[Illustration: Tangential Section, life size.]
+
+
+20
+
+GRAND FIR. WHITE FIR. LOWLAND FIR. SILVER FIR.
+
+_Abies grandis_ Lindley.
+
+    _Abies_, the classical Latin name.
+
+[Illustration: Habitat.]
+
+HABITAT: (See map); best in Puget Sound region.
+
+[Illustration: Leaf.]
+
+CHARACTERISTICS OF THE TREE: Height, in interior 100'; diameter, 2';
+on coast, 250'-300' high; diameter, 2'-5'; long pendulous branches;
+bark, quite gray or gray brown, shallow fissures, flat ridges; leaves,
+shiny green above, silvery below, 1-1/2"-2" long, roughly two-ranked;
+cones, cylindrical, 2"-4" long.
+
+APPEARANCE OF WOOD: Color, light brown, sap-wood lighter; non-porous;
+rings, summer cells broader than in other American species, dark
+colored, conspicuous; grain straight, coarse; rays, numerous, obscure;
+resinous.
+
+PHYSICAL QUALITIES: Very light (62d in this list); 22 lbs. per cu.
+ft.; sp. gr., 0.3545; weak (62d in this list); elastic (34th in this
+list); soft (65th in this list); shrinkage, 3 per cent.; warps little;
+not durable; works easily; splits readily.
+
+COMMON USES: Lumber and packing cases.
+
+REMARKS: No resin ducts. Not a very valuable wood.
+
+[Illustration: Radial Section, life size.]
+
+[Illustration: Cross-section, magnified 37-1/2 diameters.]
+
+[Illustration: Tangential Section, life size.]
+
+
+21
+
+BIG TREE. SEQUOIA. GIANT SEQUOIA.
+
+_Sequoia washingtoniana_ (Winslow) Sudworth. _Sequoia gigantea_,
+Decaisne.
+
+    _Sequoia_ latinized from Sequoiah, a Cherokee Indian;
+    _washingtoniana_, in honor of George Washington.
+
+[Illustration: Habitat.]
+
+HABITAT: (See map); in ten groves in southern California, at high
+elevation.
+
+[Illustration: Leaf.]
+
+CHARACTERISTICS OF THE TREE: Height, 275', sometimes 320'; diameter,
+20', sometimes 35'; trunk, swollen and often buttressed at base,
+ridged, often clear for 150'; thick horizontal branches; bark, 1'-2'
+thick, in great ridges, separates into loose, fibrous, cinnamon red
+scales, almost non-combustible; leaves, very small, growing close to
+stem; cones, 2"-3" long.
+
+APPEARANCE OF WOOD: Color, red, turning dark on exposure, sap-wood
+thin, whitish; non-porous; rings, very plain; grain straight, coarse;
+rays, numerous, thin; non-resinous.
+
+PHYSICAL QUALITIES: Light (65th in this list); 18 lbs. per cu. ft.;
+sp. gr., 0.2882; weak (63d in this list); brittle (62d in this
+list); very soft (61st in this list); shrinks little; warps little;
+remarkably durable; easy to work, splits readily, takes nails well.
+
+COMMON USES: Construction, lumber, coffins, shingles.
+
+REMARKS: Dimensions and age are unequalled; Big Tree and Redwood
+survivors of a prehistoric genus, once widely distributed. Some
+specimens 3600 years old.
+
+[Illustration: Radial Section, life size.]
+
+[Illustration: Cross-section, magnified 37-1/2 diameters.]
+
+[Illustration: Tangential Section, life size.]
+
+
+22
+
+REDWOOD. COAST REDWOOD. SEQUOIA.
+
+_Sequoia sempervirens_ (Lambert) Endlicher.
+
+    _Sequoia_, latinized from Sequoiah, a Cherokee Indian;
+    _sempervirens_ means ever living.
+
+[Illustration: Habitat.]
+
+HABITAT: (See map); best in southern Oregon and northern California,
+near coast.
+
+[Illustration: Leaf.]
+
+CHARACTERISTICS OF THE TREE: Height, 200'-340'; diameter, 10'-15',
+rarely 25'; clean trunk, much buttressed and swollen at base, somewhat
+fluted, branches very high; bark, very thick, 6"-12", rounded ridges,
+dark scales falling reveal inner red bark; leaves, small, two-ranked;
+cones, small, 1" long.
+
+APPEARANCE OF WOOD: Color, red, turning to brown on seasoning,
+sap-wood whitish; non-porous; rings, distinct; grain, straight; rays,
+numerous, very obscure; non-resinous.
+
+PHYSICAL QUALITIES: Light in weight (55th in this list); 26 lbs. per
+cu. ft.; sp. gr. 0.4208; weak (58th in this list); brittle (60th in
+this list); soft (55th in this list); shrinks little; warps little;
+very durable; easily worked; splits readily; takes nails well.
+
+COMMON USES: Shingles, construction, timber, fence posts, coffins,
+railway ties, water pipes, curly specimens used in cabinet work.
+
+REMARKS: Low branches rare. Burns with difficulty. Chief construction
+wood of Pacific Coast. Use determined largely by durability.
+
+[Illustration: Radial Section, life size.]
+
+[Illustration: Cross-section, magnified 37-1/2 diameters.]
+
+[Illustration: Tangential Section, life size.]
+
+
+23
+
+BALD CYPRESS.
+
+    Bald refers to leaflessness of tree in winter.
+
+_Taxodium distichum_ (Linnaeus) L. C. Richard.
+
+    _Taxodium_ means yew-like; _distichum_ refers to the
+    two-ranked leaves.
+
+[Illustration: Habitat.]
+
+HABITAT: (See map); best in South Atlantic and Gulf States.
+
+[Illustration: Leaf.]
+
+CHARACTERISTICS OF THE TREE: Height, 75', occasionally 150'; diameter,
+4'-5'; roots project upward into peculiar knees; trunk strongly
+buttressed at base, straight, majestic and tapering; bark, light red,
+shallow fissures, flat plates, peeling into fibrous strips; leaves,
+long, thin, two-ranked, deciduous; cones, nearly globular, 1" in
+diameter.
+
+APPEARANCE OF WOOD: Color, heart-wood, reddish brown, sap-wood,
+nearly white; non-porous; rings, fine and well marked; grain,
+nearly straight, burl is beautifully figured; rays, very obscure;
+non-resinous.
+
+PHYSICAL QUALITIES: Light in weight (48th in this list); 29 lbs. per
+cu. ft.; sp. gr. 0.4543; medium strong (48th in this list); elastic
+(28th in this list); soft (52d in this list); shrinkage, 3 per cent.;
+warps but little, likely to check; very durable; easy to work, in
+splitting, crumbles or breaks; nails well.
+
+COMMON USES: Shingles, posts, interior finish, cooperage, railroad
+ties, boats, and various construction work, especially conservatories.
+
+REMARKS: Forms forests in swamps; subject to a fungous disease, making
+wood "peggy" or "pecky"; use largely determined by its durability. In
+New Orleans 90,000 fresh water cisterns are said to be made of it.
+
+[Illustration: Radial Section, life size.]
+
+[Illustration: Cross-section, magnified 37-1/2 diameters.]
+
+[Illustration: Tangential Section, life size.]
+
+
+24
+
+WESTERN RED CEDAR. CANOE CEDAR. GIANT ARBORVITAE.
+
+_Thuja plicata_ D. Don. _Thuya gigantea_ Nuttall.
+
+    _Thuya_ or _Thuja_, the classical Greek name; _plicata_ refers
+    to the folded leaves; _gigantea_ refers to the gigantic size
+    of the tree.
+
+[Illustration: Habitat.]
+
+HABITAT: (See map); best in Puget Sound region.
+
+[Illustration: Leaf.]
+
+CHARACTERISTICS OF THE TREE: Height, 100'-200'; diameter, 2'-10', even
+15'; trunk has immense buttresses, often 16' in diameter, then tapers;
+branches, horizontal, short, making a dense conical tree; bark, bright
+cinnamon red, shallow fissures, broad ridges, peeling into long,
+narrow, stringy scales; leaves, very small, overlapping in 4 ranks,
+on older twigs, sharper and more remote; cones, _1/2"_ long, small,
+erect.
+
+APPEARANCE OF WOOD: Color, dull brown or red, thin sap-wood nearly
+white; non-porous; rings, summer bands thin, dark colored, distinct;
+grain, straight, rather coarse; rays, numerous, obscure; non-resinous.
+
+PHYSICAL QUALITIES: Very light in weight (60th in this list); medium
+strong (40th in this list); elastic (26th in this list); soft (60th
+in this list); shrinkage, 3 per cent.; warps and checks little; very
+durable; easy to work; splits easily.
+
+COMMON USES: Interior finish, cabinet making, cooperage, shingles,
+electric wire poles.
+
+REMARKS: Wood used by Indians for war canoes, totems and planks for
+lodges; inner bark used for ropes and textiles.
+
+[Illustration: Radial Section, life size.]
+
+[Illustration: Cross-section, magnified 37-1/2 diameters.]
+
+[Illustration: Tangential Section, life size.]
+
+
+25
+
+WHITE CEDAR.
+
+_Chamaecyparis thyoides_ (Linnaeus) B. S. P.
+
+    _Chamaecyparis_ means low cypress; _thyoides_ means like
+    _thuya_ (_Aborvitae_).
+
+[Illustration: Habitat.]
+
+HABITAT: (See map); best in Virginia and North Carolina.
+
+[Illustration: Leaf.]
+
+CHARACTERISTICS OF THE TREE: Height, 60'-80'; diameter, 2'-4';
+branches, low, often forming impenetrable thickets; bark, light
+reddish brown, many fine longitudinal fissures, often spirally twisted
+around stem; leaves, scale-like, four-ranked; cones, globular, 1/4"
+diameter.
+
+APPEARANCE OF WOOD: Color, pink to brown, sap-wood lighter;
+non-porous; rings, sharp and distinct; grain, straight; rays,
+numerous, obscure; non-resinous.
+
+PHYSICAL QUALITIES: Very light in weight (64th in this list); 23 lbs.
+per cu. ft.; sp. gr. 0.3322); weak (64th in this list); brittle (63d
+in this list; soft (62d in this list); shrinkage 3 per cent.; warps
+little; extremely durable; easily worked; splits easily; nails well.
+
+COMMON USES: Boats, shingles, posts, railway ties, cooperage.
+
+REMARKS: Grows chiefly in swamps, often in dense pure forests. Uses
+determined largely by its durability.
+
+[Illustration: Radial Section, life size.]
+
+[Illustration: Cross-section, magnified 37-1/2 diameters.]
+
+[Illustration: Tangential Section, life size.]
+
+
+26
+
+LAWSON CYPRESS. PORT ORFORD CEDAR. OREGON CEDAR. WHITE CEDAR.
+
+_Chamaecyparis lawsoniana_ (A. Murray) Parlatore.
+
+    _Chamaecyparis_ means low cypress.
+
+[Illustration: Habitat.]
+
+[Illustration: Leaf.]
+
+HABITAT: (See map); best on coast of Oregon.
+
+CHARACTERISTICS OF THE TREE: Height, 100'-200'; diameter, 4'-8', even
+12'; base of trunk abruptly enlarged; bark, very thick, even 10" at
+base of trunk, inner and outer layers distinct, very deep fissures,
+rounded ridges; leaves, very small, 1/16" long, four-ranked,
+overlapped, flat sprays; cones, small, 1/4", globular.
+
+APPEARANCE OF WOOD: Color, pinkish brown, sap-wood hardly
+distinguishable; non-porous; rings, summer wood thin, not conspicuous;
+grain, straight, close; rays, numerous, very obscure; non-resinous.
+
+PHYSICAL QUALITIES: Light in weight (46th in this list); 28 lbs. per
+cu. ft.; sp. gr. 0.4621; strong (25th in this list); elastic (12th
+in this list); soft (50th in this list); shrinkage 3 or 4 per cent.;
+warps little; durable; easily worked; splits easily.
+
+COMMON USES: Matches (almost exclusively on the Pacific Coast),
+interior finish, ship and boat building.
+
+REMARKS: Resin, a powerful diuretic and insecticide.
+
+[Illustration: Radial Section, life size.]
+
+[Illustration: Cross-section, magnified 37-1/2 diameters.]
+
+[Illustration: Tangential Section, life size.]
+
+
+27
+
+RED CEDAR.
+
+_Juniperus virginiana_ Linnaeus.
+
+    _Juniperus_, the classical Latin name; _virginiana_, in honor
+    of the State of Virginia.
+
+[Illustration: Habitat.]
+
+HABITAT: (See map); best in Gulf States in swamps, especially on the
+west coast of Florida.
+
+[Illustration: Leaf.]
+
+CHARACTERISTICS OF THE TREE: Height, 40'-50', even 80'; diameter,
+1'-2'; trunk, ridged, sometimes expanded; branches, low; bark, light
+brown, loose, ragged, separating into long, narrow, persistent,
+stringy scales; leaves, opposite, of two kinds, awl-shaped, and
+scale-shaped; fruit, dark blue berry.
+
+APPEARANCE OF WOOD: Color, dull red, sap-wood white; non-porous;
+rings, easily distinguished; grain, straight; rays, numerous, very
+obscure; non-resinous.
+
+PHYSICAL QUALITIES: Very light in weight (42d in this list); 30 lbs.
+per cu. ft.; sp. gr. 0.4826; medium strong (43d in this list); brittle
+(61st in this list); medium hard (34th in this list); shrinkage, 3 per
+cent.; warps little; very durable; easy to work; splits readily, takes
+nails well.
+
+COMMON USES: Pencils, chests, cigar boxes, pails, interior finish.
+
+REMARKS: Fragrant. Pencils are made almost exclusively of this wood,
+because it is light, strong, stiff, straight and fine-grained and
+easily whittled; supply being rapidly depleted.
+
+[Illustration: Radial Section, life size.]
+
+[Illustration: Cross-section, magnified 37-1/2 diameters.]
+
+[Illustration: Tangential Section, life size.]
+
+
+28
+
+BLACK WILLOW.
+
+_Salix nigra_ Marshall.
+
+    _Salix_, from two Celtic words meaning near-water; _nigra_
+    refers to the dark bark.
+
+[Illustration: Habitat.]
+
+HABITAT: (See map); grows largest in southern Illinois, Indiana and
+Texas, on moist banks.
+
+[Illustration: Leaf.]
+
+CHARACTERISTICS OF THE TREE: Height, 30'-40', sometimes 120';
+diameter, 1'-2', rarely 3'-4'; stout, upright, spreading branches,
+from common base; bark, rough and dark brown or black, often tinged
+with yellow or brown; leaves, lanceolate, often scythe-shaped, serrate
+edges; fruit, a capsule containing small, hairy seeds.
+
+APPEARANCE OF WOOD: Color, light reddish brown, sap-wood, thin,
+whitish; diffuse-porous; rings, obscure; grain, close and weak; rays,
+obscure.
+
+PHYSICAL QUALITIES: Light in weight (51st in this list); 27.77 lbs.
+per cu. ft.; sp. gr. 0.4456; weak (65th in this list); very brittle
+(64th in this list); soft (46th in this list); shrinks considerably;
+warps and checks badly; soft, weak, indents without breaking; splits
+easily.
+
+COMMON USES: Lap-boards, baskets, water wheels, fuel and charcoal for
+gunpowder.
+
+REMARKS: Its characteristic of indenting without breaking has given it
+use as lining for carts and as cricket bats. Of the many willows, the
+most tree like in proportion in eastern North America. Bark contains
+salycylic acid.
+
+[Illustration: Radial Section, life size.]
+
+[Illustration: Cross-section, magnified 37-1/2 diameters.]
+
+[Illustration: Tangential Section, life size.]
+
+
+29
+
+BUTTERNUT. WHITE WALNUT.
+
+    Butternut, because the nuts are rich in oil.
+
+_Juglans cinerea_ Linnaeus.
+
+    _Juglans_ means Jove's nut; _cinerea_ refers to ash-colored
+    bark.
+
+[Illustration: Habitat.]
+
+HABITAT:: (See map); best in Ohio basin.
+
+[Illustration: Leaf.]
+
+CHARACTERISTICS OF THE TREE: Height, 75'-100'; diameter, 2'-4';
+branches low, broad spreading deep roots; bark, grayish brown,
+deep fissures broad ridges; leaves 15"-30" long, compound 11 to 17
+leaflets, hairy and rough; fruit, oblong, pointed, edible, oily nut.
+
+APPEARANCE OF WOOD: Color, light brown, darkening with exposure,
+sap-wood whitish; diffuse, porous; rings, not prominent; grain, fairly
+straight, coarse, takes high polish; rays, distinct, thin, obscure.
+
+PHYSICAL QUALITIES: Light in weight (56th in this list); 25 lbs. per
+cu. ft.; sp. gr. 0.4086; weak (57th in this list); elasticity, medium
+(52d in this list); soft (47th in this list); shrinkage ....... per
+cent.; warps little; durable; easy to work; splits easily.
+
+COMMON USES: Cabinet work, inside trim.
+
+REMARKS: Green husks of fruit give yellow dye. Sugar made from sap.
+
+[Illustration: Radial Section, life size.]
+
+[Illustration: Cross-section, magnified 37-1/2 diameters.]
+
+[Illustration: Tangential Section, life size.]
+
+
+30
+
+BLACK WALNUT.
+
+_Juglans nigra_ Linnaeus.
+
+    _Juglans_ means Jove's nut; _nigra_ refers to the dark wood.
+
+[Illustration: Habitat.]
+
+HABITAT: (See map); best in western North Carolina and Tennessee.
+
+[Illustration: Leaf.]
+
+CHARACTERISTICS OF THE TREE: Height, 90'-120', even 150'; diameter, 3'
+to even 8'; clean of branches for 50' to 60'; bark, brownish, almost
+black, deep fissures, and broad, rounded ridges; leaves, 1'-2' long,
+compound pinnate, 15 to 23 leaflets, fall early; fruit, nut, with
+adherent husk, and edible kernel.
+
+APPEARANCE OF WOOD: Color, chocolate brown, sap-wood much lighter;
+diffuse-porous; rings, marked by slightly larger pores; grain,
+straight; rays, numerous, thin, not conspicuous.
+
+PHYSICAL QUALITIES: Weight, medium (31st in this list); 38 lbs. per
+cu. ft.; sp. gr. 0.6115; strong (32d in this list); elastic (23d in
+this list); hard (21st in this list); shrinkage, 5 per cent.; warps
+little; very durable; easy to work; splits with some difficulty, takes
+and holds nails well.
+
+COMMON USES: Gun stocks (since 17th century), veneers, cabinet making.
+
+REMARKS: Formerly much used for furniture, now scarce. Plentiful
+in California. Most valuable wood of North American forests. Wood
+superior to European variety.
+
+[Illustration: Radial Section, life size.]
+
+[Illustration: Cross-section, magnified 37-1/2 diameters.]
+
+[Illustration: Tangential Section, life size.]
+
+
+31
+
+MOCKERNUT. BLACK HICKORY. BULL-NUT. BIG-BUD HICKORY. WHITE-HEART
+HICKORY. KING NUT.
+
+    Mockernut refers to disappointing character of nuts.
+
+_Hicoria alba_ (Linnaeus) Britton. _Carya tomentosa_ Nuttall.
+
+    _Hicoria_, shortened and latinized from _Pawcohicora_, the
+    Indian name for the liquor obtained from the kernels; _alba_
+    refers to the white wood, _carya_, the Greek name for walnut;
+    _tomentosa_ refers to hairy under surface of leaf.
+
+[Illustration: Habitat.]
+
+HABITAT: (See map); best in lower Ohio valley, Missouri and Arkansas.
+
+[Illustration: Leaf.]
+
+CHARACTERISTICS OF THE TREE: Height, 75', rarely 100'; diameter,
+2'-3'; rises high in forest; bark, dark gray, shallow, irregular
+interrupted fissures, rough but not shaggy in old trees; leaves,
+8"-12" long, compound, 7-9 leaflets, fragrant when crushed; fruit,
+spherical nut, thick shell, edible kernel.
+
+APPEARANCE OF WOOD: Color, dark brown, sap-wood nearly white;
+ring-porous; rings, marked by few large regularly distributed open
+ducts; grain, usually straight, close; rays, numerous, thin, obscure.
+
+PHYSICAL QUALITIES: Very heavy (3d in this list); 53 lbs. per cu. ft.;
+sp. gr., 0.8218; very strong (11th in this list); very elastic (14th
+in this list); very hard (3d in this list); shrinkage, 10 per cent.;
+warps ..........; not durable; very hard to work; splits with great
+difficulty, almost impossible to nail.
+
+COMMON USES: Wheels, runners, tool and axe handles, agricultural
+implements.
+
+REMARKS: Confounded commercially with shellbark hickory.
+
+[Illustration: Radial Section, life size.]
+
+[Illustration: Cross-section, magnified 37-1/2 diameters.]
+
+[Illustration: Tangential Section, life size.]
+
+
+32
+
+SHELLBARK HICKORY. SHAGBARK HICKORY.
+
+_Hicoria ovata_ (Millar) Britton. _Carya alba_ Nuttall.
+
+    _Hickory_ is shortened and latinized from _Pawcohicora_, the
+    Indian name for the liquor obtained from the kernels; _ovata_
+    refers to oval nut; _carya_, the Greek name for walnut.
+
+[Illustration: Habitat.]
+
+HABITAT: (See map); best in lower Ohio valley.
+
+[Illustration: Leaf.]
+
+CHARACTERISTICS OF THE TREE: Height, 70'-90' and even 120'; diameter,
+2'-3', even 4'; straight, columnar trunk; bark, dark gray, separates
+into long, hard, plate-like strips, which cling to tree by middle, on
+young trees very smooth and close; leaves, 8"-20" long, compound 5
+or (7) leaflets; nuts, globular, husk, four-valved, split easily,
+thin-shelled, edible.
+
+APPEARANCE OF WOOD: Color, reddish brown, sap-wood whitish;
+ring-porous; rings, clearly marked; grain, straight; rays, numerous,
+thin.
+
+PHYSICAL QUALITIES: Very Heavy (1st in this list); 51 lbs. per cu.
+ft.; sp. gr., 0.8372; very strong (5th in this list); very elastic
+(7th in this list); very hard (5th in this list); shrinkage, 10 per
+cent.; warps badly; not very durable under exposure; hard to work,
+very tough; hard to split, very difficult to nail.
+
+COMMON USES: Agricultural implements, handles, wheel spokes.
+
+REMARKS: American hickory is famous both for buggies and ax handles,
+because it is flexible and very tough in resistance to blows.
+
+
+[Illustration: Radial Section, life size.]
+
+[Illustration: Cross-section, magnified 37-1/2 diameters.]
+
+[Illustration: Tangential Section, life size.]
+
+
+33
+
+PIGNUT.
+
+Nuts eaten by swine.
+
+_Hicoria glabra_ (Miller) Britton. _Carya porcina._
+
+    _Hicoria_ is shortened and latinized from _Pawcohicora_, the
+    Indian name for the liquor obtained from the kernel; _glabra_
+    refers to smooth bark; _Carya_ the Greek name for walnut;
+    _porcina_ means pertaining to hogs.
+
+[Illustration: Habitat.]
+
+HABITAT: (See map); best in lower Ohio valley.
+
+[Illustration: Leaf.]
+
+CHARACTERISTICS OF THE TREE: Height, 80'-100'; diameter 2'-4'; trunk
+often forked; bark, light gray, shallow fissures, rather smooth,
+rarely exfoliates; leaves, 8"-12" long, compound 7 leaflets, sharply
+serrate; fruit, a thick-shelled nut, bitter kernel.
+
+APPEARANCE OF WOOD: Color, light or dark brown, the thick sap-wood
+lighter, often nearly white; ring-porous; rings marked by many large
+open ducts; grain, straight; rays, small and insignificant.
+
+PHYSICAL QUALITIES: Very heavy (4th in this list); 56 lbs. per cu.
+ft.; sp. gr., 0.8217; very strong (15th in this list); elastic (27th
+in this list); very hard (2d in this list); shrinkage, 10 per cent.;
+warps ..........; hard to work; splits with difficulty, hard to drive
+nails into.
+
+COMMON USES: Agricultural implements, wheels, runners, tool handles.
+
+REMARKS: Wood not distinguished from shellbark hickory in commerce.
+
+[Illustration: Radial Section, life size.]
+
+[Illustration: Cross-section, magnified 37-1/2 diameters.]
+
+[Illustration: Tangential Section, life size.]
+
+
+34
+
+BLUE BEECH. HORNBEAM. WATER BEECH. IRON-WOOD.
+
+Blue refers to color of bark; the trunk resembles beech; horn refers
+to horny texture of wood.
+
+_Carpinus caroliniana_ Walter.
+
+    _Carpinus_, classical Latin name; _caroliniana_, named from
+    the state.
+
+[Illustration: Habitat.]
+
+HABITAT: (See map); best on western slopes of Southern Allegheny
+Mountains and in southern Arkansas and Texas.
+
+[Illustration: Leaf.]
+
+CHARACTERISTICS OF THE TREE: Height, a small tree, 30'-50' high;
+diameter, 6"-2'; short, fluted, sinewy trunk; bark, smooth, bluish
+gray; leaves, falcate, doubly serrate; fruit, small oval nut, enclosed
+in leaf-like bract.
+
+APPEARANCE OF WOOD: Color, light brown, sap-wood thick, whitish;
+diffuse-porous; rings, obscure; grain, close; rays, numerous, broad.
+
+PHYSICAL QUALITIES: Heavy (13th in this list); 45 lbs. per cu. ft.;
+sp. gr. 0.7286; very strong (9th in this list); very stiff (15th in
+this list); hard (14th in this list); shrinkage, 6 per cent.; warps
+and checks badly; not durable; hard to work; splits with great
+difficulty.
+
+COMMON USES: Levers, tool handles.
+
+REMARKS: No other wood so good for levers, because of stiffness.
+
+[Illustration: Radial Section, life size.]
+
+[Illustration: Cross-section, magnified 37-1/2 diameters.]
+
+[Illustration: Tangential Section, life size.]
+
+
+35
+
+CANOE BIRCH. WHITE BIRCH. PAPER BIRCH.
+
+    All names refer to bark.
+
+_Betula papyrifera_ Marshall.
+
+    _Betula_, the classical Latin name; _papyrifera_ refers to
+    paper bearing bark.
+
+[Illustration: Habitat.]
+
+HABITAT: (See map); best west of Rocky Mountains.
+
+[Illustration: Leaf.]
+
+CHARACTERISTICS OF THE TREE: Height, 60'-80'; diameter, 2'-3'; stem
+rarely quite straight; bark, smooth, white, exterior marked with
+lenticels, peeling freely horizontally into thin papery layers,
+showing brown or orange beneath, contains oil which burns hotly,
+formerly used by Indians for canoes, very remarkable (see Keeler,
+page 304); leaves, heart-shaped, irregularly serrate; fruit, pendulous
+strobiles.
+
+APPEARANCE OF WOOD: Color, brown or reddish, sap-wood white;
+diffuse-porous; rings, obscure; grain, fairly straight; rays,
+numerous, obscure.
+
+PHYSICAL QUALITIES: Weight, medium (33d in this list); 37 lbs. per cu.
+ft.; sp. gr. 0.5955; very strong (14th in this list); very elastic
+(2d in this list); medium hard (39th in this list); shrinkage, 6
+per cent.; warps, .........; not durable, except bark; easy to work;
+splits with difficulty, nails well, tough.
+
+COMMON USES: Spools, shoe lasts and pegs, turnery, bark for canoes.
+
+REMARKS: Forms forests. Sap yields syrup. Bark yields starch. Valuable
+to woodsmen in many ways.
+
+[Illustration: Radial Section, life size.]
+
+[Illustration: Cross-section, magnified 37-1/2 diameters.]
+
+[Illustration: Tangential Section, life size.]
+
+
+36
+
+RED BIRCH. RIVER BIRCH.
+
+    Red refers to color of bark; river, prefers river bottoms.
+
+_Betula nigra_ Linnaeus.
+
+    _Betula_, the classical Latin name.
+
+[Illustration: Habitat.]
+
+HABITAT: (See map); best in Florida, Louisiana and Texas.
+
+[Illustration: Leaf.]
+
+CHARACTERISTICS OF THE TREE: Height, 30'-80', and even higher;
+diameter, 1', even 5'; trunk, often divided low; bark, dark brown,
+marked by horizontal lenticels, peels into paper plates, curling back;
+leaves, doubly serrate, often almost lobed; fruit, pubescent, erect,
+strobiles.
+
+APPEARANCE OF WOOD: Color, light brown, thick sap-wood, whitish;
+diffuse-porous; rings, not plain; grain, close, rather crooked; rays,
+numerous, obscure.
+
+PHYSICAL QUALITIES: Weight, medium (36th in this list); 35 lbs. per
+cu. ft.; sp. gr. 0.5762; strong (22d in this list); very elastic
+(19th in this list); medium hard (37th in this list); shrinkage, 6 per
+cent.; warps, .......; not durable when exposed; hard to work, tough;
+splits with difficulty, nails well.
+
+COMMON USES: Shoe lasts, yokes, furniture.
+
+REMARKS: Prefers moist land.
+
+[Illustration: Radial Section, life size.]
+
+[Illustration: Cross-section, magnified 37-1/2 diameters.]
+
+[Illustration: Tangential Section, life size.]
+
+
+37
+
+CHERRY BIRCH. SWEET BIRCH. BLACK BIRCH. MAHOGANY BIRCH.
+
+    Cherry, because bark resembles that of cherry tree; sweet,
+    refers to the taste of the spicy bark.
+
+_Betula lenta_ Linnaeus.
+
+    _Betula_, the classical Latin name; _lenta_, meaning
+    tenacious, sticky, may refer to the gum which exudes from the
+    trunk.
+
+[Illustration: Habitat.]
+
+HABITAT: (See map); best in Tennessee Mountains.
+
+[Illustration: Leaf.]
+
+CHARACTERISTICS OF THE TREE: Height, 50'-80'; diameter, 2'-5'; trunk,
+rarely straight; bark, dark reddish brown, on old trunks deeply
+furrowed and broken into thick, irregular plates, marked with
+horizontal lenticels; resembles cherry; spicy, aromatic; leaves,
+ovate, oblong, 2"-6" long, irregularly serrate; fruit, erect
+strobiles.
+
+APPEARANCE OF WOOD: Color, dark, reddish brown; diffuse-porous; rings,
+obscure; grain, close, satiny, polishes well, often stained to imitate
+mahogany; rays, numerous, obscure.
+
+PHYSICAL QUALITIES: Heavy (6th in this list); 47 lbs. per cu. ft.; sp.
+gr., 0.7617; very strong (4th in this list); very elastic (6th in
+this list); hard (11th in this list); shrinkage, 6 per cent.; warps,
+little; not durable if exposed; rather hard to work; splits hard,
+tough.
+
+COMMON USES: Dowel pins, wooden ware, boats and ships.
+
+REMARKS: The birches are not usually distinguished from one another in
+the market.
+
+[Illustration: Radial Section, life size.]
+
+[Illustration: Cross-section, magnified 37-1/2 diameters.]
+
+[Illustration: Tangential Section, life size.]
+
+
+38
+
+YELLOW BIRCH. GRAY BIRCH.
+
+Yellow and gray, both refer to the color of the bark.
+
+_Betula lutea_ F. A. Michaux.
+
+    _Betula_, the classical Latin name; _lutea_ refers to the
+    yellow color of the bark.
+
+[Illustration: Habitat.]
+
+HABITAT: (See map); best in northern New York and New England.
+
+[Illustration: Leaf.]
+
+CHARACTERISTICS OF THE TREE: Height, 60'-100'; diameter, 3'-4';
+branches, low; bark, silvery, yellow, gray, peeling horizontally into
+thin, papery, persistent layers, but on very old trunks, there are
+rough, irregular, plate-like scales; leaves, ovate, sharply, doubly
+serrate; fruit, erect, 1" strobiles.
+
+APPEARANCE OF WOOD: Color, light reddish brown, sap-wood white;
+diffuse-porous; rings, obscure; grain, close, fairly straight; rays,
+numerous, obscure.
+
+PHYSICAL QUALITIES: Heavy (21st in this list); 40 lbs. per cu. ft.;
+sp. gr., 0.6553; very strong (2nd in this list); very elastic (2d in
+this list); medium hard (22d in this list); shrinkage, 6 per cent.;
+warps .........; not durable; rather hard to work, polishes well;
+splits with difficulty, holds nails well.
+
+COMMON USES: Furniture, spools, button molds, shoe lasts, shoe pegs,
+pill boxes, yokes.
+
+REMARKS: The birches are not usually distinguished from one another in
+the market.
+
+[Illustration: Radial Section, life size.]
+
+[Illustration: Cross-section, magnified 37-1/2 diameters.]
+
+[Illustration: Tangential Section, life size.]
+
+
+39
+
+BEECH.
+
+_Fagus grandifolia_ Ehrhart. _Fagus americana_ Sweet. _Fagus
+ferruginea_ Aiton. _Fagus atropunicea_ (Marshall) Sudworth.
+
+    _Fagus_ (Greek _phago_ means to eat), refers to edible nut;
+    _ferruginea_, refers to the iron rust color of the leaves in
+    the fall; _atropunicea_, meaning dark red or purple, may refer
+    to the color of the leaves of the copper beech.
+
+[Illustration: Habitat.]
+
+HABITAT: (See map); best in southern Alleghany Mountains and lower
+Ohio valley.
+
+[Illustration: Leaf.]
+
+CHARACTERISTICS OF THE TREE: Height, 70'-80' and even 120'; diameter,
+3'-4'; in forest, trunk tall, slender, sinewy; bark, smooth, ashy
+gray; leaves, feather-veined, wedge-shaped, serrate; leaf buds, long,
+pointed; fruit, 2 small triangular nuts, enclosed in burr, seeds about
+once in 3 years.
+
+APPEARANCE OF WOOD: Color, reddish, variable, sap-wood white;
+diffuse-porous; rings, obscure; grain, straight; rays, broad, very
+conspicuous.
+
+PHYSICAL QUALITIES: Heavy (20th in this list); 42 lbs. per cu. ft.;
+sp. gr., 0.6883; very strong (10th in this list); elastic (13th in
+this list); hard (22d in this list); shrinkage, 5 per cent.; warps and
+checks during seasoning; not durable; hard to work, takes fine polish;
+splits with difficulty, hard to nail.
+
+COMMON USES: Plane stocks, shoe lasts, tool handles, chairs.
+
+REMARKS: Often forms pure forests. Uses due to its hardness.
+
+[Illustration: Radial Section, life size.]
+
+[Illustration: Cross-section, magnified 37-1/2 diameters].
+
+[Illustration: Tangential Section, life size.]
+
+
+40
+
+CHESTNUT.
+
+_Castanea dentata_ (Marshall) Borkhausen.
+
+    _Castanea_, the classical Greek and Latin name; _dentata_,
+    refers to toothed leaf.
+
+[Illustration: Habitat.]
+
+HABITAT: (See map); best in western North Carolina, and eastern
+Tennessee.
+
+[Illustration: Leaf.]
+
+CHARACTERISTICS OF THE TREE: Height, 75'-100'; diameter, 3'-4', and
+even 12'; branches, low; bark, thick, shallow, irregular, fissures,
+broad, grayish brown ridges; leaves, lanceolate, coarsely serrate,
+midribs and veins prominent; fruit, nuts, thin-shelled, sweet,
+enclosed in prickly burrs.
+
+APPEARANCE OF WOOD: Color, reddish brown, sap-wood lighter;
+ring-porous; rings, plain, pores large; grain, straight; rays,
+numerous, obscure.
+
+PHYSICAL QUALITIES: Weight, light (50th in this list); 28 lbs. per cu.
+ft.; sp. gr., 0.4504; medium strong (46th in this list); elasticity,
+medium (46th in this list); medium hard (44th in this list);
+shrinkage, 6 per cent.; warps badly; very durable, especially in
+contact with soil, fairly easy to plane, chisel and saw; splits
+easily.
+
+COMMON USES: Railway ties, fence posts, interior finish.
+
+REMARKS: Grows rapidly, and lives to great age. Wood contains much
+tannic acid. Uses depend largely upon its durability. Lately whole
+regions depleted by fungous pest.
+
+[Illustration: Radial Section, life size.]
+
+[Illustration: Cross-section, magnified 37-1/2 diameters.]
+
+[Illustration: Tangential Section, life size.]
+
+
+41
+
+RED OAK.
+
+_Quercus rubra_ Linnaeus.
+
+    _Quercus_, the classical Latin name; _rubra_, refers to red
+    color of wood.
+
+[Illustration: Habitat.]
+
+HABITAT: (See map); best in Massachusetts and north of the Ohio river.
+
+[Illustration: Leaf.]
+
+CHARACTERISTICS OF THE TREE: Height, 70'-100', even 150'; diameter,
+3'-6'; a tall, handsome tree, branches rather low; bark, brownish
+gray, broad, thin, rounded ridges, rather smooth; leaves, 7 to
+9 triangular pointed lobes, with rounded sinuses; acorns,
+characteristically large, in flat shallow cups.
+
+APPEARANCE OF WOOD: Color, reddish brown, sap-wood darker;
+ring-porous; rings, marked by several rows of very large open ducts;
+grain, crooked, coarse; rays, few, but broad, conspicuous.
+
+PHYSICAL QUALITIES: Heavy (23d in this list); 45 lbs. per cu. ft.; sp.
+gr., 0.6540; strong (21st in this list); elastic (18th in this list);
+hard (26th in this list); shrinkage 6 to 10 per cent.; warps and
+checks badly; moderately durable; easier to work than white oak;
+splits readily, nails badly.
+
+COMMON USES: Cooperage, interior finish, furniture.
+
+REMARKS: Grows rapidly. An inferior substitute for white oak. Bark
+used in tanning.
+
+[Illustration: Radial Section, life size.]
+
+[Illustration: Cross-section, magnified 37-1/2 diameters.]
+
+[Illustration: Tangential Section, life size.]
+
+
+42
+
+BLACK OAK. YELLOW BARK OAK.
+
+    Black refers to color of outer bark; yellow bark, refers to
+    the inner bark, which is orange yellow.
+
+_Quercus velutina_ Lamarck. _Quercus tinctoria_ Michaux.
+
+    _Quercus_, the classical Latin name; _velutina_, refers to the
+    velvety surface of the young leaf; _tinctoria_, refers to dye
+    obtained from inner bark.
+
+[Illustration: Habitat.]
+
+HABITAT: (See map); best in lower Ohio valley.
+
+[Illustration: Leaf.]
+
+CHARACTERISTICS OF THE TREE: Height, 70'-80', even 150'; diameter
+3'-4'; branches, low; bark, dark gray to black, deep fissures, broad,
+rounded, firm ridges, inner bark, yellow, yielding dye; leaves, large,
+lustrous, leathery, of varied forms; acorns, small; kernel, yellow,
+bitter.
+
+APPEARANCE OF WOOD: Color, reddish brown, sap-wood lighter;
+ring-porous; rings, marked by several rows of very large open ducts;
+grain, crooked; rays, thin.
+
+PHYSICAL QUALITIES: Heavy (17th in this list); 45 lbs. per cu. ft.;
+sp. gr., 0.7045; very strong (17th in this list); elastic (25th in
+this list); hard (18th in this list); shrinkage, 4 per cent. or more;
+warps and checks in drying; durable; rather hard to work; splits
+readily, nails badly.
+
+COMMON USES: Furniture, interior trim, cooperage, construction.
+
+REMARKS: Foliage handsome in fall; persists thru winter.
+
+[Illustration: Radial Section, life size.]
+
+[Illustration: Cross-section, magnified 37-1/2 diameters.]
+
+[Illustration: Tangential Section, life size.]
+
+
+43
+
+BASKET OAK. COW OAK.
+
+    Cow refers to the fact that its acorns are eaten by cattle.
+
+_Quercus michauxii_ Nuttall.
+
+    _Quercus_, the classical Latin name; _michauxii_, named for
+    the botanist Michaux.
+
+[Illustration: Habitat.]
+
+HABITAT: (See map); best in Arkansas and Louisiana, especially in
+river bottoms.
+
+[Illustration: Leaf.]
+
+CHARACTERISTICS OF THE TREE: Height, 80'-100'; diameter 3', even 7';
+trunk, often clean and straight for 40' or 50'; bark, conspicuous,
+light gray, rough with loose ashy gray, scaly ridges; leaves, obovate,
+regularly scalloped; acorns, edible for cattle.
+
+APPEARANCE OF WOOD: Color, light brown, sap-wood light buff;
+ring-porous; rings, marked by few rather large, open ducts; grain,
+likely to be crooked; rays, broad, conspicuous.
+
+PHYSICAL QUALITIES: Very heavy (5th in this list); 46 lbs. per cu.
+ft.; sp. gr., 0.8039; very strong (12th in this list); elastic (33d in
+this list); hard (10th in this list); shrinkage, 4 per cent. or more;
+warps unless carefully seasoned; durable; hard and tough to work;
+splits easily, bad to nail.
+
+COMMON USES: Construction, agricultural implements, wheel stock,
+baskets.
+
+REMARKS: The best white oak of the south. Not distinguished from white
+oak in the market.
+
+[Illustration: Radial Section, life size.]
+
+[Illustration: Cross-section, magnified 37-1/2 diameters.]
+
+[Illustration: Tangential Section, life size.]
+
+
+44
+
+BUR OAK. MOSSY-CUP OAK. OVER-CUP OAK.
+
+_Quercus macrocarpa_ Michaux.
+
+    _Quercus_, the classical Latin name; _macrocarpa_, refers to
+    the large acorn.
+
+[Illustration: Habitat.]
+
+HABITAT: (See map); best in southern Indiana, Illinois and Kansas.
+
+[Illustration: Leaf.]
+
+CHARACTERISTICS OF THE TREE: Height, 70'-130', even 170'; diameter,
+5'-7'; branches, high; corky wings on young branches; bark, gray
+brown, deeply furrowed; deep opposite sinuses on large leaves; acorns,
+half enclosed in mossy-fringed cup.
+
+APPEARANCE OF WOOD: Color, rich brown, sap-wood, thin, lighter;
+ring-porous; rings, marked by 1 to 3 rows of small open ducts; grain,
+crooked; rays, broad, and conspicuous.
+
+PHYSICAL QUALITIES: Heavy (9th in this list); 46 lbs. per cu. ft.; sp.
+gr., 0.7453; very strong (16th in this list); elastic (37th in this
+list); hard (9th in this list); shrinkage, 4 per cent. or more;
+warps, ..........; hard, and tough to work; splits easily, resists
+nailing.
+
+COMMON USES: Ship building, cabinet work, railway ties, cooperage.
+
+REMARKS: Good for prairie planting. One of the most valuable woods of
+North America. Not distinguished from White Oak in commerce.
+
+[Illustration: Radial Section, life size.]
+
+[Illustration: Cross-section, magnified 37-1/2 diameters.]
+
+[Illustration: Tangential Section, life size.]
+
+
+45
+
+WHITE OAK (Western).
+
+_Quercus garryana_ Douglas.
+
+    _Quercus_, the classical Latin name; _garryana_, named for
+    Garry.
+
+[Illustration: Habitat.]
+
+HABITAT: (See map); best in western Washington and Oregon.
+
+[Illustration: Leaf.]
+
+CHARACTERISTICS OF THE TREE: Height, 60'-70', even 100'; diameter,
+2'-3'; branches, spreading; bark, light brown, shallow fissures, broad
+ridges; leaves, coarsely pinnatified, lobed; fruit, large acorns.
+
+APPEARANCE OF WOOD: Color, light brown, sap-wood whitish; ring-porous;
+rings, marked by 1 to 3 rows of open ducts; grain, close, crooked;
+rays, varying greatly in width, often conspicuous.
+
+PHYSICAL QUALITIES: Heavy (10th in this list); 46 lbs. per cu. ft.;
+sp. gr., 0.7449; strong (28th in this list); elasticity medium (54th
+in this list); hard (8th in this list); shrinkage, 5 or 6 per cent.;
+warps, unless carefully seasoned; durable; hard to work, very tough;
+splits badly in nailing.
+
+COMMON USES: Ship building, vehicles, furniture, interior finish.
+
+REMARKS: Best of Pacific oaks. Shrubby at high elevations.
+
+[Illustration: Radial Section, life size.]
+
+[Illustration: Cross-section, magnified 37-1/2 diameters.]
+
+[Illustration: Tangential Section, life size.]
+
+
+46
+
+POST OAK.
+
+_Quercus stellata_ Wangenheim. _Quercus minor_ (Marsh) Sargent.
+_Quercus obtusiloba_ Michaux.
+
+    _Quercus_, the classical Latin name; _stellata_, refers to the
+    stellate hairs on upper side of leaf; _minor_, refers to size
+    of tree, which is often shrubby; _obtusiloba_, refers to the
+    blunt lobes of leaves.
+
+[Illustration: Habitat.]
+
+HABITAT: (See map); best in Mississippi basin.
+
+[Illustration: Leaf.]
+
+CHARACTERISTICS OF THE TREE: Height, 50'-75', even 100'; but often a
+shrub; diameter, 2'-3'; branches, spreading into dense round-topped
+head; bark, red or brown, deep, vertical, almost continuous, fissures
+and broad ridges, looks corrugated; leaves, in large tufts at ends of
+branchlets; acorns, small, sessile.
+
+APPEARANCE OF WOOD: Color, brown, thick, sap-wood, lighter;
+ring-porous; rings, 1 to 3 rows of not large open ducts; grain,
+crooked; rays, numerous, conspicuous.
+
+PHYSICAL QUALITIES: Very heavy (2d in this list); 50 lbs. per cu. ft.;
+sp. gr., 0.8367; strong (29th in this list); medium elastic (50th in
+this list); very hard (4th in this list); shrinkage, 4 per cent. or
+more; warps and checks badly in seasoning; durable; hard to work;
+splits readily, bad to nail.
+
+COMMON USES: Cooperage, railway ties, fencing, construction.
+
+REMARKS: Wood often undistinguished from white oak.
+
+[Illustration: Radial Section, life size.]
+
+[Illustration: Cross-section, magnified 37-1/2 diameters.]
+
+[Illustration: Tangential Section, life size.]
+
+
+47
+
+WHITE OAK. STAVE OAK.
+
+_Quercus alba_ Linnaeus.
+
+    _Quercus_, the classical Latin name; white and _alba_, refer
+    to white bark.
+
+[Illustration: Habitat.]
+
+HABITAT: (See map); best on western slopes of Southern Alleghany
+Mountains, and in lower Ohio river valley.
+
+[Illustration: Leaf.]
+
+CHARACTERISTICS OF THE TREE: Height, 80'-100'; diameter, 3'-5'; trunk,
+in forest, tall, in open, short; bark, easily distinguished, light
+gray with shallow fissures, scaly; leaves, rounded lobes, and sinuses;
+acorns, 3/4" to 1" long, ripen first year.
+
+APPEARANCE OF WOOD: Color, light brown, sap-wood paler; ring-porous;
+rings, plainly defined by pores; grain crooked; rays, broad, very
+conspicuous and irregular.
+
+PHYSICAL QUALITIES: Heavy (8th in this list); 50 lbs. per cu. ft.; sp.
+gr., 0.7470; strong (23d in this list); elastic (32d in this list);
+hard (13th in this list); shrinkage, from 4 to 10 per cent.; warps and
+checks considerably, unless carefully seasoned; very durable, hard to
+work; splits somewhat hard, very difficult to nail.
+
+COMMON USES: Interior finish, furniture, construction, ship building,
+farm implements, cabinet making.
+
+REMARKS: The most important of American oaks.
+
+[Illustration: Radial Section, life size.]
+
+[Illustration: Cross-section, magnified 37-1/2 diameters.]
+
+[Illustration: Tangential Section, life size.]
+
+
+48
+
+CORK ELM. ROCK ELM. HICKORY ELM. WHITE ELM. CLIFF ELM.
+
+    Cork refers to corky ridges on branches.
+
+_Ulmus thomasi_ Sargent. _Ulmus racemosa_ Thomas.
+
+    _Ulmus_, the classical Latin name; _racemosa_, refers to
+    racemes of flowers.
+
+[Illustration: Habitat.]
+
+HABITAT: (See map); best in Ontario and southern Michigan.
+
+[Illustration: Leaf.]
+
+CHARACTERISTICS OF THE TREE: Height, 80'-100'; diameter, 2'-3', trunk
+often clear for 60'; bark, gray tinged with red, corky, irregular
+projections, give shaggy appearance; leaves, obovate, doubly serrate,
+3"-4" long; fruit, pubescent, samaras.
+
+APPEARANCE OF WOOD: Color, light brown or red; sap-wood yellowish;
+ring-porous; rings, marked with one or two rows of small open ducts;
+grain, interlaced; rays, numerous, obscure.
+
+PHYSICAL QUALITIES: Heavy (15th in this list); 45 lbs. per cu. ft.;
+sp. gr., 0.7263; very strong (13th in this list); elastic (22d in
+this list); hard (15th in this list); shrinkage, 5 per cent.;
+warps, ........; very durable; hard to work; splits and nails with
+difficulty.
+
+COMMON USES: Hubs, agricultural implements, sills, bridge timbers.
+
+REMARKS: The best of the elm woods.
+
+[Illustration: Radial Section, life size.]
+
+[Illustration: Cross-section, magnified 37-1/2 diameters.]
+
+[Illustration: Tangential Section, life size.]
+
+
+49
+
+WHITE ELM. AMERICAN ELM. WATER ELM.
+
+    Water, because it flourishes on river banks.
+
+_Ulmus americana_ Linnaeus.
+
+    _Ulmus_, the classical Latin name.
+
+[Illustration: Habitat.]
+
+HABITAT: (See map); best northward on river bottoms.
+
+[Illustration: Leaf.]
+
+CHARACTERISTICS OF THE TREE: Height, 90', even 120'; diameter, 3'-8';
+trunk, usually divides at 30'-40' from ground into upright branches,
+making triangular outline; bark, ashy gray, deep longitudinal
+fissures, broad ridges; leaves, 4"-6" long, oblique obovate, doubly
+serrate, smooth one way; fruit, small, roundish, flat, smooth,
+samaras.
+
+APPEARANCE OF WOOD: Color, light brown, sap-wood yellowish;
+ring-porous; rings, marked by several rows of large open ducts; grain,
+interlaced; rays, numerous, thin.
+
+PHYSICAL QUALITIES: Heavy (24th in this list); 34 lbs. per cu. ft.; sp.
+gr., 0.6506; strong (33d in this list); elasticity, medium (59th in
+this list); medium hard (28th in this list); shrinkage, 5 per cent.;
+warps .........; not durable; hard to work, tough, will not polish;
+splits with difficulty.
+
+COMMON USES: Cooperage, wheel stock, flooring.
+
+REMARKS: Favorite ornamental tree, but shade light, and leaves fall
+early.
+
+[Illustration: Radial Section, life size.]
+
+[Illustration: Cross-section, magnified 37-1/2 diameters.]
+
+[Illustration: Tangential Section, life size.]
+
+
+50
+
+CUCUMBER TREE. MOUNTAIN MAGNOLIA.
+
+    Cucumber, refers to the shape of the fruit.
+
+_Magnolia acuminata_ Linnaeus.
+
+    _Magnolia_, named for Pierre Magnol, a French botanist;
+    _acuminata_, refers to pointed fruit.
+
+[Illustration: Habitat.]
+
+HABITAT: (See map); best at the base of mountains in North Carolina
+and South Carolina and Tennessee.
+
+[Illustration: Leaf.]
+
+CHARACTERISTICS OF THE TREE: Height, 60'-90'; diameter, 3'-4'; in
+forest, clear trunk for 2/3 of height (40' or 50'); bark, dark brown,
+thick, furrowed; leaves, large, smooth; flowers, large greenish
+yellow; fruit, dark red "cones" formed of two seeded follicles.
+
+APPEARANCE OF WOOD: Color, yellow brown, thick sapwood, lighter;
+diffuse-porous; rings, obscure; grain, very straight, close, satiny;
+rays, numerous thin.
+
+PHYSICAL QUALITIES: Light (45th in this list); .... lbs. per cu. ft.;
+sp. gr., 0.4690; medium strong (49th in this list); elastic (38th in
+this list); medium hard (41st in this list); shrinkage, 5 per cent.;
+warps .........; very durable; easy to work; splits easily, takes
+nails well.
+
+COMMON USES: Pump logs, cheap furniture, shelving.
+
+REMARKS: Wood similar to yellow poplar, and often sold with it.
+
+[Illustration: Radial Section, life size.]
+
+[Illustration: Cross-section, magnified 37-1/2 diameters.]
+
+[Illustration: Tangential Section, life size.]
+
+
+51
+
+YELLOW POPLAR. WHITEWOOD. TULIP TREE.
+
+    Poplar, inappropriate, inasmuch as the tree does not belong to
+    poplar family. White, refers inappropriately to the color of
+    the wood, which is greenish yellow.
+
+_Liriodendron tulipifera_ Linnaeus.
+
+    _Liriodendron_, means lily-tree; _tulipifera_ means
+    tulip-bearing.
+
+[Illustration: Habitat.]
+
+HABITAT: (See map); best in lower Ohio valley and southern Appalachian
+mountains.
+
+[Illustration: Leaf.]
+
+CHARACTERISTICS OF THE TREE: Height, 70'-90'; even 200'; diameter,
+6'-8', even 12'; tall, magnificent trunk, unsurpassed in grandeur by
+any eastern American tree; bark, brown, aromatic, evenly furrowed
+so as to make clean, neat-looking trunk; leaves, 4 lobed, apex,
+peculiarly truncated, clean cut; flowers, tulip-like; fruit, cone,
+consisting of many scales.
+
+APPEARANCE OF WOOD: Color, light greenish or yellow brown, sap-wood,
+creamy white; diffuse-porous; rings, close but distinct; grain,
+straight; rays, numerous and plain.
+
+PHYSICAL QUALITIES: Light (54th in this list); 26 lbs. per cu. ft.;
+sp. gr., 0.4230; medium strong (51st in this list); elastic (39th in
+this list); soft (49th in this list); shrinkage, 5 per cent.; warps
+little; durable; easy to work; brittle and does not split readily,
+nails very well.
+
+COMMON USES: Construction work, furniture, interiors, boats, carriage
+bodies, wooden pumps.
+
+REMARKS: Being substituted largely for white pine.
+
+[Illustration: Radial Section, life size.]
+
+[Illustration: Cross-section, magnified 37-1/2 diameters.]
+
+[Illustration: Tangential Section, life size.]
+
+
+52
+
+    SWEET GUM. Gum, refers to exudations.
+
+_Liquidambar styraciflua_ Linnaeus.
+
+    _Liquidambar_, means liquid gum; _styraciflua_, means fluid
+    resin (storax).
+
+[Illustration: Habitat.]
+
+HABITAT: (See map); best in the lower Mississippi valley.
+
+[Illustration: Leaf.]
+
+CHARACTERISTICS OF THE TREE: Height, 80'-140'; diameter, 3'-5'; trunk,
+tall, straight; bark, light brown tinged with red, deeply fissured;
+branchlets often having corky wings; leaves, star-shaped, five
+pointed; conspicuously purple and crimson in autumn; fruit,
+multi-capsular, spherical, persistent heads.
+
+APPEARANCE OF WOOD: Color, light red brown, sap-wood almost white;
+diffuse-porous; rings, fine and difficult to distinguish; grain,
+straight, close, polishes well; rays, numerous, very obscure.
+
+PHYSICAL QUALITIES: Weight, medium (34th in this list); 37 lbs. per
+cu. ft.; sp. gr., 0.5909; medium strong (52d in this list); elasticity
+medium (44th in this list); medium hard (36th in this list);
+shrinkage, 6 per cent.; warps and twists badly in seasoning; not
+durable when exposed; easy to work; crumbles in splitting; nails
+badly.
+
+COMMON USES: Building construction, cabinet-work, veneering, street
+pavement, barrel staves and heads.
+
+REMARKS: Largely used in veneers, because when solid it warps and
+twists badly. Exudations used in medicine to some extent.
+
+[Illustration: Radial Section, life size.]
+
+[Illustration: Cross-section, magnified 37-1/2 diameters.]
+
+[Illustration: Tangential Section, life size.]
+
+
+53
+
+SYCAMORE. BUTTONWOOD. BUTTON BALL. WATER BEECH.
+
+    Sycamore, from two Greek words meaning fig and mulberry;
+    buttonwood and button-ball, refer to fruit balls.
+
+_Platanus occidentalis_ Linnaeus.
+
+    _Platanus_, refers to the broad leaves; _occidentalis_,
+    western, to distinguish it from European species.
+
+[Illustration: Habitat.]
+
+HABITAT: (See map); best in valley of lower Ohio and Mississippi.
+
+[Illustration: Leaf.]
+
+CHARACTERISTICS OF THE TREE: Height, 70'-100', and even 170';
+diameter, 6'-12'; trunk, commonly divides into 2 or 3 large branches,
+limbs spreading, often dividing angularly; bark, flakes off in great
+irregular masses, leaving mottled surface, greenish gray and brown,
+this peculiarity due to its rigid texture; leaves, palmately 3 to
+5 lobed, 4"-9" long, petiole enlarged, enclosing buds; fruit, large
+rough balls, persistent through winter.
+
+APPEARANCE OF WOOD: Color, reddish brown, sap-wood lighter;
+diffuse-porous; rings, marked by broad bands of small ducts; grain,
+cross, close; rays, numerous, large, conspicuous.
+
+PHYSICAL QUALITIES: Weight, medium (38th in this list); 35 lbs.
+per cu. ft.; sp. gr., 0.5678; medium strong (54th in this list);
+elasticity, medium (43d in this list); medium hard (30th in this list);
+shrinkage, 5 per cent.; warps little; very durable, once used for
+mummy coffins; hard to work; splits very hard.
+
+COMMON USES: Tobacco boxes, yokes, furniture, butcher blocks.
+
+REMARKS: Trunks often very large and hollow.
+
+[Illustration: Radial Section, life size.]
+
+[Illustration: Cross-section, magnified 37-1/2 diameters.]
+
+[Illustration: Tangential Section, life size.]
+
+
+54
+
+WILD BLACK CHERRY.
+
+_Padus serotina_ (Ehrhart) Agardh. _Prunus serotina_ Ehrhart.
+
+    _Padus_, the old Greek name; _prunus_, the classical Latin
+    name; _serotina_, because it blossoms late (June).
+
+[Illustration: Habitat.]
+
+HABITAT: (See map); best on southern Allegheny mountains.
+
+[Illustration: Leaf.]
+
+CHARACTERISTICS OF THE TREE: Height, 40'-50', even 100'; diameter,
+2'-4'; straight, columnar trunk, often free from branches for 70';
+bark, blackish and rough, fissured in all directions, broken into
+small, irregular, scaly plates, with raised edges; leaves, oblong to
+lanceolate, deep, shiny green; fruit, black drupe, 1/2".
+
+APPEARANCE OF WOOD: Color, light brown or red, sap-wood yellow;
+diffuse-porous; rings, obscure; grain, straight, close, fine, takes
+fine polish; rays, numerous.
+
+PHYSICAL QUALITIES: Weight, medium (35th in this list); 36 lbs. per
+cu. ft.; sp. gr., 0.5822; strong (35th in this list); elasticity
+medium (45th in this list); hard (16th in this list); shrinkage, 5
+per cent.; warps, little; durability .........; easily worked; splits
+easily, must be nailed with care.
+
+COMMON USES: Cabinet-work, costly interior trim.
+
+REMARKS: Grows rapidly.
+
+[Illustration: Radial Section, life size.]
+
+[Illustration: Cross-section, magnified 37-1/2 diameters.]
+
+[Illustration: Tangential Section, life size.]
+
+
+55
+
+BLACK LOCUST. LOCUST. YELLOW LOCUST.
+
+    Yellow, from color of sap-wood.
+
+_Robinia pseudacacia_ Linnaeus.
+
+    _Robinia_, in honor of Jean Robin, of France; _pseudacacia_,
+    means false acacia.
+
+[Illustration: Habitat.]
+
+HABITAT: (See map); best on western Allegheny mountains in West
+Virginia.
+
+[Illustration: Leaf.]
+
+CHARACTERISTICS OF THE TREE: Height, 50'-80'; diameter, 3'-4'; bark,
+strikingly deeply furrowed, dark brown; prickles on small branches,
+grows fast, forms thickets, on account of underground shoots; leaves,
+8"-14" long, pinnately compound; 7 to 9 leaflets, close at night and
+in rainy weather; fruit, pod 3"-4" long.
+
+APPEARANCE OF WOOD: Color, brown, sap-wood thin, yellowish;
+ring-porous; rings, clearly marked by 2 or 3 rows of large open ducts;
+grain, crooked, compact.
+
+PHYSICAL QUALITIES: Heavy (12th in this list); 45 lbs. per cu. ft.;
+sp. gr., 0.7333; very strong (1st in this list); elastic (9th in this
+list); very hard (6th in this list); shrinkage, 5 per cent.; warps
+badly, very durable; hard to work, tough; splits in nailing.
+
+COMMON USES: Shipbuilding, construction, "tree-nails" or pins, wagon
+hubs.
+
+REMARKS: Widely planted and cultivated east and west. Likely to be
+infested with borers.
+
+[Illustration: Radial Section, life size.]
+
+[Illustration: Cross-section, magnified 37-1/2 diameters.]
+
+[Illustration: Tangential Section, life size.]
+
+
+56
+
+MAHOGANY.
+
+_Swietenia mahagoni_ Jacquin.
+
+    _Swietenia_, in honor of Dr. Gerard Van Swieten of Austria;
+    _mahagoni_, a South American word.
+
+[Illustration: Habitat.]
+
+HABITAT: (See map); only on Florida Keys in the United States.
+
+[Illustration: Leaf.]
+
+CHARACTERISTICS OF THE TREE: Height, 40'-50'; diameter, 2' or more,
+foreign trees larger; immense buttresses at base of trunk; bark,
+thick, dark red-brown, having surface of broad, thick scales;
+leaves, 4"-6" long, compound, 4 pairs of leaflets; fruit, 4"-5" long,
+containing seeds.
+
+APPEARANCE OF WOOD: Color, red-brown, sap-wood, thin, yellow;
+diffuse-porous; rings, inconspicuous; grain, crooked; rays, fine and
+scattered, but plain.
+
+PHYSICAL QUALITIES: Heavy (14th in this list); 45 lbs. per cu. ft.;
+sp. gr., 0.7282; very strong (20th in this list); elastic (24th in
+this list); very hard (1st in this list); shrinkage, 5 per cent.;
+warps very little; very durable; genuine mahogany, hard to work;
+especially if grain is cross; somewhat brittle, and comparatively easy
+to split, nails with difficulty; polishes and takes glue well.
+
+COMMON USES: Chiefly for cabinet-making, furniture, interior finishes
+and veneers.
+
+REMARKS: Mahogany, now in great demand in the American market for
+fine furniture and interior trim comes from the West Indies, Central
+America and West Africa. The so-called Spanish mahogany, the most
+highly prized variety, came originally from the south of Hayti. The
+Honduras Mahogany was often called baywood. Botanically the varieties
+are not carefully distinguished; in the lumber yard the lumber is
+known by its sources. The Cuba wood can be partly distinguished by the
+white chalk-like specks in the pores and is cold to the touch, while
+the Honduras wood can be recognized by the black specks or lines in
+the grain. Both the Honduras and West India woods have a softer feel
+than the African wood, when rubbed with the thumb. The Cuba and St.
+Domingo wood are preferred to the Honduras, and still more to the
+African, but even experts have difficulty in distinguishing the
+varieties.
+
+Spanish cedar, or furniture cedar (_Cedrela odorata_) belongs to
+the same family as mahogany and is often sold for it. It is softer,
+lighter, and easier to work.
+
+[Illustration: Radial Section, life size.]
+
+[Illustration: Tangential Section, life size.]
+
+
+57
+
+OREGON MAPLE. WHITE MAPLE. LARGE LEAVED MAPLE.
+
+_Acer macrophyllum_ Pursh.
+
+    _Acer_, the classical Latin name; _macrophyllum_, refers to
+    the large leaves.
+
+[Illustration: Habitat.]
+
+HABITAT: (See map); best in southern Oregon.
+
+[Illustration: Leaf.]
+
+CHARACTERISTICS OF THE TREE: Height, 70'-100'; diameter, 3'-5'; stout,
+often pendulous branches, making a handsome tree; bark, reddish brown,
+deeply furrowed, square scales; leaves, very large, 8"-12" and long
+petioles, deep, narrow sinuses; fruit, hairy samaras.
+
+APPEARANCE OF WOOD: Color, rich brown and red, sap-wood thick,
+nearly white; diffuse-porous; rings, obscure; grain, close, fibres
+interlaced, sometimes figured, polishes well; rays, numerous and thin.
+
+PHYSICAL QUALITIES: Light in weight (26th in this list); 30 lbs. per
+cu. ft.; sp. gr. 0.4909; medium strong (47th in this list); elasticity
+medium (57th in this list); medium hard (31st in this list);
+shrinkage, 4 per cent.; warps ..........; not durable; rather hard to
+work; splits with difficulty.
+
+COMMON USES: Tool and ax handles, furniture, interior finish.
+
+REMARKS: A valuable wood on the Pacific coast.
+
+[Illustration: Radial Section, life size.]
+
+[Illustration: Cross-section, magnified 37-1/2 diameters.]
+
+[Illustration: Tangential Section, life size.]
+
+
+58
+
+SOFT MAPLE. WHITE MAPLE. SILVER MAPLE.
+
+    Silver, refers to white color of underside of leaf.
+
+_Acer saccharinum_ Linnaeus. _Acer dasycarpum_ Ehrhart.
+
+    _Acer_, the classical Latin name; _saccharinum_, refers to
+    sweetish juice; _dasycarpum_, refers to the wooliness of the
+    fruit when young.
+
+[Illustration: Habitat.]
+
+HABITAT: (See map); best in lower Ohio valley.
+
+[Illustration: Leaf.]
+
+CHARACTERISTICS OF THE TREE: Height, 50'-90', even 120'; diameter,
+3'-5'; form suggests elm; bark, reddish brown, furrowed, surface
+separating into large, loose scales; leaves, palmately 5 lobed, with
+narrow, acute sinuses, silvery white beneath, turn only yellow in
+autumn; fruit, divergent, winged samaras.
+
+APPEARANCE OF WOOD: Color, brown and reddish, sap-wood, cream;
+diffuse-porous; rings, obscure; grain, twisted, wavy, fine, polishes
+well; rays, thin, numerous.
+
+PHYSICAL QUALITIES: Weight, medium (40th in this list); 32 lbs.
+per cu. ft.; sp. gr., 0.5269; very strong (19th in this list); very
+elastic (20th in this list); hard (25th in this list); shrinkage, 5
+per cent.; warps, ............; not durable under exposure; easily
+worked; splits in nailing.
+
+COMMON USES: Flooring, furniture, turnery, wooden ware.
+
+REMARKS: Grows rapidly. Curly varieties found. Sap produces some
+sugar.
+
+[Illustration: Radial Section, life size.]
+
+[Illustration: Cross-section, magnified 37-1/2 diameters.]
+
+[Illustration: Tangential Section, life size.]
+
+
+59
+
+RED MAPLE.
+
+_Acer rubrum_ Linnaeus.
+
+    _Acer_, the classical Latin name; _rubrum_, refers to red
+    flowers and autumn leaves.
+
+[Illustration: Habitat.]
+
+HABITAT: (See map); best in lower Ohio valley.
+
+[Illustration: Leaf.]
+
+CHARACTERISTICS OF THE TREE: Height, 80'-120'; diameter, 2'-4';
+branches, low; bark, dark gray, shaggy, divided by long ridges;
+leaves, palmately 5 lobed, acute sinuses; fruit, double samaras,
+forming characteristic maple key.
+
+APPEARANCE OF WOOD: Color, light reddish brown, sap-wood, lighter;
+diffuse-porous; rings, obscure; grain, crooked; rays, numerous,
+obscure.
+
+PHYSICAL QUALITIES: Weight, medium (30th in this list); 38 lbs. per
+cu. ft.; sp. gr., 0.6178; strong (36th in this list); elastic (36th
+in this list); hard (27th in this list); shrinkage, 5 per cent.;
+warps .......; not durable; fairly hard to work; splits with
+difficulty, splits badly in nailing.
+
+COMMON USES: Flooring, turning, wooden ware.
+
+REMARKS: Grows rapidly. Has red flowers, red keys, red leaf stems, and
+leaves scarlet or crimson in autumn.
+
+[Illustration: Radial Section, life size.]
+
+[Illustration: Cross-section, magnified 37-1/2 diameters.]
+
+[Illustration: Tangential Section, life size.]
+
+
+60
+
+HARD MAPLE. SUGAR MAPLE. ROCK MAPLE.
+
+_Acer saccharum_ Marshall.
+
+    _Acer_, the classical Latin name; _saccharum_, refers to sweet
+    sap.
+
+[Illustration: Habitat.]
+
+HABITAT: (See map); best in regions of Great Lakes.
+
+[Illustration: Leaf.]
+
+CHARACTERISTICS OF THE TREE: Height, 100'-120'; diameter, 1-1/2'-3',
+even 4'; often trees in forest are without branches for 60'-70' from
+ground, in the open, large impressive tree; bark, gray brown, thick,
+deep, longitudinal fissures, hard and rough; leaves, opposite, 3 to 5
+lobed, scarlet and yellow in autumn; fruit, double, slightly divergent
+samaras.
+
+APPEARANCE OF WOOD: Color, light brown tinged with red; diffuse-porous
+rings, close but distinct; grain, crooked, fine, close, polishes well;
+rays, fine but conspicuous.
+
+PHYSICAL QUALITIES: Heavy (19th in this list); 43 lbs. per cu. ft.;
+sp. gr., 0.6912; very strong (8th in this list); very elastic (5th
+in this list); very hard (7th in this list); shrinkage, 5 per cent.;
+warps badly; not durable when exposed; hard to work; splits badly in
+nailing.
+
+COMMON USES: School and other furniture, car construction, carving,
+wooden type, tool handles, shoe lasts, piano actions, ships' keels.
+
+REMARKS: Tree very tolerant. The uses of this wood are chiefly due
+to its hardness. Bird's-Eye Maple and Curly Maple are accidental
+varieties. Pure maple sugar is made chiefly from this species. Its
+ashes yield large quantities of potash.
+
+[Illustration: Radial Section, life size.]
+
+[Illustration: Cross-section, magnified 37-1/2 diameters.]
+
+[Illustration: Tangential Section, life size.]
+
+
+61
+
+BASSWOOD. LINDEN.
+
+    Bass, refers to bast or inner bark.
+
+_Tilia americana_ Linnaeus.
+
+    _Tilia_, the classical Latin name.
+
+[Illustration: Habitat.]
+
+HABITAT: (See map); best in bottom lands of lower Ohio River.
+
+[Illustration: Leaf.]
+
+CHARACTERISTICS OF THE TREE: Height, 60'-70', even 130'; diameter,
+2'-4'; trunk, erect, pillar-like, branches spreading, making round
+heads; bark, light brown, furrowed, scaly surface, inner bark fibrous
+and tough, used for matting; leaves, oblique, heart-shaped, side
+nearest branch larger; fruit clustered on long pendulous stem,
+attached to vein of narrow bract.
+
+APPEARANCE OF WOOD: Color, very light brown, approaching cream color,
+sap-wood, hardly distinguishable; diffuse-porous; rings, fine and
+close but clear; grain, straight; rays, numerous, obscure.
+
+PHYSICAL QUALITIES: Light in weight (49th in this list); 28 lbs. per
+cu. ft.; sp. gr., 0.4525; weak (60th in this list); elasticity, medium
+(49th in this list); soft (64th in this list); shrinkage, 6 per
+cent.; warps comparatively little; quite durable; very easily worked;
+somewhat tough to split, nails well.
+
+COMMON USES: Woodenware, carriage bodies, etc., picture molding, paper
+pulp, etc.
+
+REMARKS: May be propagated by grafting as well as by seed. Is subject
+to attack by many insects. Wood used for carriage bodies because
+flexible and easily nailed.
+
+[Illustration: Radial Section, life size.]
+
+[Illustration: Cross-section, magnified 37-1/2 diameters.]
+
+[Illustration: Tangential Section, life size.]
+
+
+62
+
+SOUR GUM. TUPELO. PEPPERIDGE. BLACK GUM.
+
+    Tupelo, the Indian name.
+
+_Nyssa sylvatica_ Marshal.
+
+    _Nyssa_, from Nysa, the realm of moist vegetation and the home
+    of _Dio-nysus_ (Bacchus) (the tree grows in low wet lands);
+    _sylvatica_, refers to its habit of forest growth.
+
+[Illustration: Habitat.]
+
+HABITAT: (See map); best in Southern Appalachian mountains.
+
+[Illustration: Leaf.]
+
+CHARACTERISTICS OF THE TREE: Height, 40'-50', even 100'; diameter,
+1'6"-3'6", even 5'; variable in form; bark, brown, deeply fissured
+and scaly; leaves, in sprays, short, petioled, brilliant scarlet in
+autumn; fruit, bluish black, sour, fleshy drupe.
+
+APPEARANCE OF WOOD: Color, pale yellow, sap-wood, white, hardly
+distinguishable; diffuse-porous; rings, not plain; grain fine, twisted
+and interwoven; rays, numerous, thin.
+
+PHYSICAL QUALITIES: Medium heavy (25th in this list); 39 lbs. per cu.
+ft.; sp. gr., 0.6356; strong (34th in this list); elasticity, medium
+(51st in this list); hard (20th in this list); shrinkage, 5 or 6 per
+cent.; warps and checks badly; not durable if exposed; hard to work;
+splits hard, tough.
+
+COMMON USES: Wagon hubs, handles, yokes, wooden shoe soles, docks and
+wharves, rollers in glass factories.
+
+REMARKS: The best grades closely resemble yellow poplar.
+
+[Illustration: Radial Section, life size.]
+
+[Illustration: Cross-section, magnified 37-1/2 diameters.]
+
+[Illustration: Tangential Section, life size.]
+
+
+63
+
+BLACK ASH. HOOP ASH.
+
+    Hoop, refers to its use for barrel hoops.
+
+_Fraxinus nigra_ Marshall. _Fraxinus sambucifolia._
+
+    _Fraxinus_, from a Greek word (_phraxis_) meaning split,
+    refers to the cleavability of the wood; _sambucifolia_, refers
+    to the fact that the leaves are in odor like those of Elder
+    (Sambucus).
+
+[Illustration: Habitat.]
+
+HABITAT: (See map); best in moist places.
+
+[Illustration: Leaf.]
+
+CHARACTERISTICS OF THE TREE: Height, 80'-90'; diameter, 1'-1-1/2';
+slenderest of the forest trees, upright branches; bark, gray tinged
+with red, irregular plates, with thin scales; leaves, 10"-16" long,
+compound, 7 to 11 leaflets, in autumn rusty brown; fruit, single
+samaras in panicles.
+
+APPEARANCE OF WOOD: Color, dark brown, sap-wood light; ring-porous;
+rings, well defined; grain, straight, burls often form highly prized
+veneers; rays, numerous and thin.
+
+PHYSICAL QUALITIES: Medium heavy (27th in this list); 39 lbs. per cu.
+ft.; sp. gr., 0.6318; strong (38th in this list); elasticity, medium
+(12th in this list); hard (23d in this list); shrinkage, 5 per cent.;
+warps, but not very much; not durable when exposed; hard to work;
+separates easily in layers, hence used for splints.
+
+COMMON USES: Interior finish, cabinet work, fencing, barrel hoops.
+
+REMARKS: The flexibility of the wood largely determines its uses.
+
+[Illustration: Radial Section, life size.]
+
+[Illustration: Cross-section, magnified 37-1/2 diameters.]
+
+[Illustration: Tangential Section, life size.]
+
+
+64
+
+OREGON ASH.
+
+_Fraxinus oregona_ Nuttall.
+
+    _Fraxinus_, from a Greek word (_phraxis_) meaning split,
+    refers to the cleavability of the wood; _oregona_, named for
+    the State of Oregon.
+
+[Illustration: Habitat.]
+
+HABITAT: (See map); best in southern Oregon.
+
+[Illustration: Leaf.]
+
+CHARACTERISTICS OF THE TREE: Height, 50'-80'; diameter, 1'-1-1/2',
+even 4'; branches, stout, erect; bark, grayish brown, deep interrupted
+fissures, broad, flat ridges, exfoliates; leaves, 5"-14" long;
+pinnately compound, 5 to 7 leaflets; fruit, single samaras in
+clusters.
+
+APPEARANCE OF WOOD: Color, brown, sap-wood thick, lighter;
+ring-porous; rings, plainly marked by large, open, scattered pores;
+grain, coarse, straight; rays, numerous, thin.
+
+PHYSICAL QUALITIES: Weight, medium (37th in this list); 35 lbs.
+per cu. ft.; sp. gr., 0.5731; medium strong (50th in this list);
+elasticity, medium (48th in this list); medium hard (29th in this
+list); shrinkage, 5 per cent.; warps,............; not durable; hard
+to work, tough; splits with difficulty.
+
+COMMON USES: Furniture, vehicles, cooperage.
+
+REMARKS: A valuable timber tree of the Pacific coast.
+
+[Illustration: Radial Section, life size.]
+
+[Illustration: Cross-section, magnified 37-1/2 diameters.]
+
+[Illustration: Tangential Section, life size.]
+
+
+65
+
+BLUE ASH.
+
+    Blue, refers to blue dye obtained from inner bark.
+
+_Fraxinus quadrangulata_ Michaux.
+
+    _Fraxinus_, from a Greek word (_phraxis_) meaning split,
+    refers to the cleavability of the wood; _quadrangulata_,
+    refers to four-angled branchlets.
+
+[Illustration: Habitat.]
+
+HABITAT: (See map); best in lower Wabash valley.
+
+[Illustration: Leaf.]
+
+CHARACTERISTICS OF THE TREE: Height, 60'-70', even 120'; diameter,
+1'-2'; tall, slender, four-angled, branchlets; bark, light gray,
+irregularly divided into large plate-like scales, inside bark, bluish,
+yielding dye; leaves, 8"-12" long, compound pinnate, 5 to 9 leaflets;
+fruit, winged samaras in panicles.
+
+APPEARANCE OF WOOD: Color, light yellow, streaked with brown, sap-wood
+lighter; ring-porous; rings, clearly marked by 1 to 3 rows of large,
+open ducts; grain, straight; rays, numerous, obscure.
+
+PHYSICAL QUALITIES: Heavy (16th in this list); 44 lbs. per cu. ft.;
+sp. gr., 0.7184; strong (37th in this list); elasticity, medium (58th
+in this list); hard (12th in this list); shrinkage, 5 per cent.;
+warps, ............; most durable of the ashes; hard to work; splits
+readily, bad for nailing.
+
+COMMON USES: Carriage building, tool handles.
+
+REMARKS: Blue ash pitchfork handles are famous.
+
+[Illustration: Radial Section, life size.]
+
+[Illustration: Tangential Section, life size.]
+
+
+66
+
+RED ASH.
+
+    Red, from color of inner bark.
+
+_Fraxinus pennsylvanica_ Marshall. _Fraxinus pubescens_ Lambert.
+
+    _Fraxinus_, from a Greek word (_phraxis_) meaning split,
+    refers to the cleavability of the wood; _pennsylvanica_, in
+    honor of the State of Pennsylvania; _pubescens_, refers to
+    down on new leaves and twigs.
+
+[Illustration: Habitat.]
+
+HABITAT: (See map); best east of Alleghany mountains.
+
+[Illustration: Leaf.]
+
+CHARACTERISTICS OF THE TREE: Height, 40'-60'; diameter, 12"-18";
+small, slim, upright branches; bark, brown or ashy, great, shallow,
+longitudinal furrows; leaves, 10"-12" long, pinnately compound, 7 to 9
+leaflets, covered with down; fruit, single samara.
+
+APPEARANCE OF WOOD: Color, light brown, sap-wood lighter and
+yellowish; ring porous; rings, marked by pores; grain, straight,
+coarse; rays, numerous, thin.
+
+PHYSICAL QUALITIES: Weight, medium (28th in this list); 39 lbs. per
+cu. ft.; sp. gr., 0.6251; strong (30th in this list); elasticity,
+medium (53d in this list); hard (17th in this list); shrinkage, 5 per
+cent.; warps little; not durable; hard to work; splits in nailing.
+
+COMMON USES: Agricultural implements, oars, handles, boats.
+
+REMARKS: Often sold with and as the superior white ash.
+
+[Illustration: Radial Section, life size.]
+
+[Illustration: Cross-section, magnified 37-1/2 diameters.]
+
+[Illustration: Tangential Section, life size.]
+
+
+67
+
+WHITE ASH.
+
+    White, refers to whitish color of wood.
+
+_Fraxinus americana_ Linnaeus.
+
+    _Fraxinus_, from a Greek word (_phraxis_) meaning split,
+    refers to the cleavability of the wood.
+
+[Illustration: Habitat.]
+
+HABITAT: (See map); best in the bottom lands of lower Ohio valley.
+
+[Illustration: Leaf.]
+
+CHARACTERISTICS OF THE TREE: Height, 70'-80', even 120'; diameter,
+3'-6'; branches rather high, tree singularly graceful; bark, gray,
+narrow furrows, clean, neat trunk; leaves, 8"-15" long, compound,
+tufted, smooth, turns in autumn to beautiful purples, browns and
+yellows; fruit, panicles of samaras, persistent till midwinter.
+
+APPEARANCE OF WOOD: Color, light reddish brown, sap-wood whitish;
+ring-porous, rings clearly marked by pores; straight-grained; pith
+rays obscure.
+
+PHYSICAL QUALITIES: Heavy (22d in this list); 39 lbs. per cu. ft.; sp.
+gr., 0.6543; strong (31st in this list); elastic (30th in this list);
+hard (17th in this list); shrinkage, 5 per cent.; warps little; not
+durable in contact with soil; hard and tough; splits readily, nails
+badly.
+
+COMMON USES: Inside finish, farm implements, barrels, baskets, oars,
+carriages.
+
+REMARKS: Forms no forests, occurs scattered. Its uses for handles and
+oars determined by combination of strength, lightness and elasticity.
+
+[Illustration: Radial Section, life size.]
+
+[Illustration: Cross-section, magnified 37-1/2 diameters.]
+
+[Illustration: Tangential Section, life size.]
+
+
+LIST OF 66 COMMON WOODS ARRANGED IN THE ORDER OF THEIR WEIGHT.
+
+   1. Shellbark hickory.
+   2. Post oak.
+   3. Mockernut.
+   4. Pignut.
+   5. Basket oak.
+   6. Cherry birch.
+   7. Slash pine.
+   8. White oak.
+   9. Bur oak.
+  10. Western white oak.
+  11. Western larch.
+  12. Black locust.
+  13. Blue beech.
+  14. Mahogany.
+  15. Cork elm.
+  16. Blue ash.
+  17. Black oak.
+  18. Longleaf pine.
+  19. Hard maple.
+  20. Beech.
+  21. Yellow birch.
+  22. White ash.
+  23. Red oak.
+  24. White elm.
+  25. Sour gum.
+  26. Oregon maple.
+  27. Black ash.
+  28. Red ash.
+  29. Tamarack.
+  30. Red maple.
+  31. Black walnut.
+  32. Shortleaf pine.
+  33. Canoe birch.
+  34. Sweet gum.
+  35. Wild black cherry.
+  36. Red birch.
+  37. Oregon ash.
+  38. Sycamore.
+  39. Loblolly pine.
+  40. Soft maple.
+  41. Douglas spruce.
+  42. Red cedar.
+  43. Norway pine.
+  44. Western yellow pine.
+  45. Cucumber tree.
+  46. Lawson cypress.
+  47. Black spruce and Red spruce.
+  48. Bald cypress.
+  49. Basswood.
+  50. Chestnut.
+  51. Black willow.
+  52. Tideland spruce.
+  53. Hemlock.
+  54. Yellow poplar.
+  55. Redwood.
+  56. Butternut.
+  57. White spruce.
+  58. Western white pine.
+  59. White pine.
+  60. Western red cedar.
+  61. Sugar pine.
+  62. Grand fir.
+  63. Engelmann's spruce.
+  64. White cedar.
+  65. Big tree.
+
+
+LIST OF 66 COMMON WOODS ARRANGED IN THE ORDER OF THEIR STRENGTH.
+
+   1. Black locust.
+   2. Yellow birch.
+   3. Western larch.
+   4. Cherry birch.
+   5. Shellbark hickory.
+   6. Slash pine.
+   7. Longleaf pine.
+   8. Hard maple.
+   9. Blue beech.
+  10. Beech.
+  11. Mockernut.
+  12. Basket Oak.
+  13. Cork elm.
+  14. Canoe birch.
+  15. Pignut hickory.
+  16. Bur oak.
+  17. Black oak.
+  18. Shortleaf pine.
+  19. Soft maple.
+  20. Mahogany.
+  21. Red oak.
+  22. Red birch.
+  23. White oak.
+  24. Tamarack.
+  25. Lawson cypress.
+  26. Loblolly pine.
+  27. Douglas spruce.
+  28. Western white oak.
+  29. Post oak.
+  30. Red ash.
+  31. White ash.
+  32. Black walnut.
+  33. White elm.
+  34. Sour gum.
+  35. Wild black cherry.
+  36. Red maple.
+  37. Blue ash.
+  38. Black ash.
+  39. Norway pine.
+  40. Western red cedar.
+  41. Black spruce and Red spruce.
+  42. White spruce.
+  43. Red cedar.
+  44. Hemlock.
+  45. Western yellow pine.
+  46. Chestnut.
+  47. Oregon maple.
+  48. Bald cypress.
+  49. Cucumber tree.
+  50. Oregon ash.
+  51. Yellow poplar.
+  52. Sweet gum.
+  53. Tideland spruce.
+  54. Sycamore.
+  55. White pine.
+  56. Western white pine.
+  57. Butternut.
+  58. Redwood.
+  59. Sugar pine.
+  60. Basswood.
+  61. Engelmann's spruce.
+  62. Grand fir.
+  63. Big tree.
+  64. White cedar.
+  65. Black willow.
+
+
+LIST OF 66 COMMON WOODS ARRANGED IN THE ORDER OF THEIR ELASTICITY.
+
+   1. Western larch.
+   2. Canoe birch and Yellow birch.
+   3. Slash pine.
+   4. Longleaf pine.
+   5. Hard maple.
+   6. Cherry birch.
+   7. Shortleaf pine.
+   8. Shellbark hickory.
+   9. Black locust.
+  10. Douglas spruce.
+  11. Tamarack.
+  12. Lawson cypress.
+  13. Beech.
+  14. Mockernut.
+  15. Blue beech.
+  16. Norway pine.
+  17. Loblolly pine.
+  18. Red oak.
+  19. Red birch.
+  20. Soft maple.
+  21. Red spruce and Black spruce.
+  22. Cork elm.
+  23. Black walnut.
+  24. Mahogany.
+  25. Black oak.
+  26. Western red cedar.
+  27. Pignut hickory.
+  28. Bald cypress.
+  29. White spruce.
+  30. White ash.
+  31. Tideland spruce.
+  32. White oak.
+  33. Basket oak.
+  34. Grand fir.
+  35. Western white pine.
+  36. Red maple.
+  37. Bur oak.
+  38. Cucumber tree.
+  39. Yellow poplar.
+  40. Hemlock.
+  41. Western yellow pine.
+  42. Black ash.
+  43. Sycamore.
+  44. Sweet gum.
+  45. Wild black cherry.
+  46. Chestnut.
+  47. White pine.
+  48. Oregon ash.
+  49. Bass.
+  50. Post oak.
+  51. Sour gum.
+  52. Butternut.
+  53. Red ash.
+  54. Western white oak.
+  55. Engelmann's spruce.
+  56. Sugar pine.
+  57. Oregon maple.
+  58. Blue ash.
+  59. White elm.
+  60. Redwood.
+  61. Red cedar.
+  62. Big tree.
+  63. White cedar.
+  64. Black willow.
+
+
+LIST OF 66 COMMON WOODS ARRANGED IN THE ORDER OF THEIR HARDNESS.
+
+   1. Mahogany.
+   2. Pignut.
+   3. Mockernut.
+   4. Post oak.
+   5. Shellbark hickory.
+   6. Black locust.
+   7. Hard maple.
+   8. Western white oak.
+   9. Bur oak.
+  10. Basket oak.
+  11. Cherry birch.
+  12. Blue ash.
+  13. White oak.
+  14. Blue beech.
+  15. Cork elm.
+  16. Wild black cherry.
+  17. Red ash.
+  18. Black oak.
+  19. White ash.
+  20. Sour gum.
+  21. Black walnut.
+  22. Beech.
+  23. Black ash.
+  24. Slash pine.
+  25. Soft maple.
+  26. Red oak.
+  27. Red maple.
+  28. White elm.
+  29. Oregon ash.
+  30. Sycamore.
+  31. Oregon maple.
+  32. Yellow birch.
+  33. Long leaf pine.
+  34. Red cedar.
+  35. Western larch.
+  36. Sweet gum.
+  37. Red birch.
+  38. Short leaf pine.
+  39. Canoe birch.
+  40. Tamarack.
+  41. Cucumber tree.
+  42. Western yellow pine.
+  43. Loblolly pine.
+  44. Chestnut.
+  45. Douglas spruce.
+  46. Black willow.
+  47. Butternut.
+  48. Norway pine.
+  49. Yellow poplar.
+  50. Lawson cypress.
+  51. Hemlock.
+  52. Bald cypress.
+  53. Sugar pine.
+  54. Red spruce and Black spruce.
+  55. Redwood.
+  56. Engelmann's spruce.
+  57. White pine.
+  58. White spruce.
+  59. Tideland spruce.
+  60. Western white cedar.
+  61. Big tree.
+  62. White cedar.
+  63. Western white pine.
+  64. Basswood.
+  65. Grand fir.
+
+
+THE PRINCIPAL SPECIES OF WOODS.
+
+REFERENCES:[A]
+
+Sargent, _Jesup Collection_.
+Sargent, _Manual_.
+Britton.
+Roth, _Timber_.
+Hough, _Handbook_.
+Keeler.
+Apgar.
+Mohr. _For. Bull._, No. 22.
+Fernow, _Forestry Investigations_.
+Lumber Trade Journals.
+Baterden.
+Sargent, _Silva_.
+Sargent, _Forest Trees_, 10th Census, Vol. IX.
+Boulger.
+Hough, _American Woods_.
+Snow.
+Lounsberry.
+Spaulding. _For. Bull._, No. 13.
+Sudworth. _For. Bull._, No. 17.
+Forest Service _Records of Wholesale Prices of Lumber_, List. A.
+
+For particular trees consult For. Serv., Bulletins and Circulars. See
+For. Service _Classified List of Publications_.
+
+    [Footnote A: For general bibliography, see p. 4.]
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER IV.
+
+THE DISTRIBUTION AND COMPOSITION OF THE NORTH AMERICAN FORESTS.
+
+
+The forests of the United States, Map, Fig. 44, may be conveniently
+divided into two great regions, the Eastern or Atlantic Forest,
+and the Western or Pacific Forest. These are separated by the great
+treeless plains which are west of the Mississippi River, and east of
+the Rocky Mountains, and which extend from North Dakota to western
+Texas.[1]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 44. Forest Regions of the United States. _U. S.
+Forest Service._]
+
+The Eastern Forest once consisted of an almost unbroken mass, lying in
+three quite distinct regions, (1) the northern belt of conifers, (2)
+the southern belt of conifers, and (3) the great deciduous (hardwood)
+forest lying between these two.
+
+(1) The northern belt of conifers or "North Woods" extended
+thru northern New England and New York and ran south along the
+Appalachians. It reappeared again in northern Michigan, Wisconsin and
+Minnesota. White pine, Fig. 45, was the characteristic tree in the
+eastern part of this belt, tho spruce was common, Fig. 56, p. 213,
+and white and Norway pine and hemlock distinguished it in the western
+part. Altho the more valuable timber, especially the pine, has been
+cut out, it still remains a largely unbroken forest mainly of spruce,
+second growth pine, hemlock and some hardwood.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 45. Interior of Dense White Pine Forest, Cass
+Lake, Minn. _U. S. Forest Service._]
+
+(2) The southern pine forest formerly extended from the Potomac River
+in a belt from one to two hundred miles wide along the Atlantic coast,
+across the Florida peninsula, and along the gulf of Mexico, skipping
+the Mississippi River and reappearing in a great forest in Louisiana
+and Eastern Texas. It was composed of almost pure stands of pine, the
+long-leaf, Fig. 46, the short-leaf, and the loblolly, with cypress
+in the swamps and bottom lands. In southern Florida the forest is
+tropical, Fig. 47, like that of the West Indies, and in southern Texas
+it partakes of the character of the Mexican forest.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 46. Long-leaf Pine Forest. Oscilla, Georgia. _U.
+S. Forest Service._]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 47. Semi-tropical Forest, Florida. Live Oak,
+Surrounded by Cabbage Palmetto, and Hung With Spanish Moss. _U. S.
+Forest Service._]
+
+(3) Between these north and south coniferous belts, lay the great
+broad-leaf or hardwood forest, Fig. 48, which constituted the greater
+part of the Eastern Forest and characterized it. It was divided into
+two parts by an irregular northeast and southwest line, running from
+southern New England to Missouri. The southeast portion consisted
+of hardwoods intermixed with conifers. The higher ridges of the
+Appalachian Range, really a leg of the northern forest, were occupied
+by conifers, mainly spruce, white pine, and hemlock. The northwest
+portion of the region, particularly Ohio, Indiana, and Illinois, was
+without the conifers. It was essentially a mixed forest, largely oak,
+with a variable mixture of maples, beech, chestnut, yellow poplar,
+hickory, sycamore, elm, and ash, with birch appearing toward the north
+and pine toward the south.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 48. Broad-leaf Forest, Protected from Cattle and
+Fire. Hancock Co., Indiana. _U. S. Forest Service._]
+
+Taking the Eastern Forest as a whole, its most distinguishing feature
+was the prevalence of broad-leaved trees, so that it might properly be
+called a deciduous forest. The greatest diversity of trees was to be
+found in Kentucky, Tennessee and North Carolina, and this region is
+still the source of the best hardwood lumber.
+
+This great eastern forest, which once extended uninterruptedly from
+the Atlantic to the Mississippi and beyond, has now been largely
+lumbered off, particularly thru the middle or hardwood portion, making
+way for farms and towns. The north and south coniferous belts are
+still mainly unbroken, and are sparsely settled, but the big timber
+is cut out, giving place to poorer trees. This is particularly true of
+the white pine, "the king of American trees," only a little of which,
+in valuable sizes, is left in Michigan, Wisconsin and Minnesota. In
+the same way in the south, the long-leaf pine, once the characteristic
+tree, is fast being lumbered out.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 49. Irrigated Ranch on Treeless Alkali Plain. Rio
+Blanco Co., Colorada. _U. S. Forest Service._]
+
+The Western or Pacific forest extends two great legs, one down the
+Rocky Mountain Range, and the other along the Pacific coast. Between
+them lies the great treeless alkali plain centering around Nevada,
+Fig. 49. In these two regions coniferous trees have almost a monopoly.
+Broad-leaved trees are to be found there, along the river beds and in
+ravines, but they are of comparatively little importance. The forest
+is essentially an evergreen forest. Another marked feature of this
+western forest, except in the Puget Sound region, is that the trees,
+in many cases, stand far apart, their crowns not even touching, so
+that the sun beats down and dries up the forest floor, Fig. 50.
+There is no dense "forest cover" or canopy as in the Eastern Forest.
+Moreover these western forests are largely broken up, covering but a
+part of the mountains, many of which are snow-clad, and interrupted
+by bare plains. Along the creeks there grow a variety of hardwoods. It
+was never a continuous forest as was the Eastern Forest. The openness
+of this forest on the Rockies and on the eastern slopes of the Sierra
+Nevadas is in marked contrast to the western slopes of the Sierras,
+where there are to be seen the densest and most remarkable woods of
+the world, Fig. 51. This is due to the peculiar distribution of the
+rainfall of the region. The precipitation of the moisture upon the
+northwest coast where the trees are dripping with fog a large part of
+the time, is unequaled by that of any other locality on the continent.
+But the interior of this region, which is shut off by the high
+Sierra Nevadas from the western winds, has a very light and irregular
+rainfall. Where the rainfall is heavy, the forests are dense; and
+where the rainfall is light, the trees are sparse.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 50. Open Western Forest, Bull Pine. Flagstaff,
+Arizona. _U. S. Forest Service._]
+
+Along the Rockies the characteristic trees are Engelmann's spruce,
+bull pine, Douglas fir, and lodgepole pine. As one goes west, the
+variety of trees increases and becomes, so far as conifers are
+concerned, far greater than in the east. Of 109 conifers in the United
+States, 80 belong to the western forests and 28 to the eastern. The
+Pacific forest is rich in the possession of half a dozen leading
+species--Douglas fir, western hemlock, sugar pine, bull pine, cedar
+and redwood.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 51. Dense Forest of Puget Sound Region, Red Fir
+and Red Cedar. Pierce Co., Washington. _U. S. Forest Service._]
+
+But the far western conifers are remarkable, not only for their
+variety, but still more for the density of their growth, already
+mentioned, and for their great size, Fig. 52. The pines, spruces and
+hemlocks of the Puget Sound region make eastern trees look small, and
+both the red fir and the redwood often grow to be over 250 feet high,
+and yield 100,000 feet, B.M., to the acre as against 10,000 feet,
+B.M., of good spruce in Maine. The redwood, Fig. 53, occupies a belt
+some twenty miles wide along the coast from southern Oregon to a point
+not far north of San Francisco and grows even taller than the famous
+big trees. The big trees are the largest known trees in diameter,
+occasionally reaching in that measurement 35 feet.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 52. Virgin Forest of Red Fir, Red Cedar, Western
+Hemlock, and Oregon Maple. Ashford, Washington. _U. S. Forest
+Service._]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 53. Redwood Forest. Santa Cruz Co., Calif. _U. S.
+Forest Service._]
+
+The big tree, Fig. 54, occurs exclusively in groves, which, however,
+are not pure, but are scattered among a much larger number of trees of
+other kinds.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 54. Big Tree Forest. Sierra National Forest,
+California. _U. S. Forest Service._]
+
+The great and unsurpassed Puget Sound forest is destined to be before
+long the center of the lumber trade of this country.
+
+These two great forests of the east and the west both run northward
+into British America, and are there united in a broad belt of
+subarctic forest which extends across the continent. At the far north
+it is characterized by the white spruce and aspen. The forest is open,
+stunted, and of no economic value.
+
+Taking all the genera and species together, there is a far greater
+variety in the eastern than in the western forests. A considerable
+number of genera, perhaps a third of the total, grow within both
+regions, but the species having continental range are few. They
+are the following: Larch (_Larix laricina_), white spruce (_Picea
+canadensis_), dwarf juniper (_Juniperus communis_), black willow
+(_Salix nigra_), almond leaf willow (_Salix amygdaloides_), long leaf
+willow (_Salix fluviatilis_), aspen (_Populus tremuloides_), balm of
+Gilead (_Populus balsamifera_), and hackberry (_Celtis occidentalis_).
+
+    [Footnote 1: ORIGINAL FOREST REGIONS OF THE UNITED STATES.
+
+                                        Area        Area
+                                  Thousand acres  Per cent.
+    Northern forest                   158,938        8.4
+    Hardwood forest                   328,183       17.3
+    Southern forest                   249,669       13.1
+    Rocky Mountains forest            155,014        8.1
+    Pacific forest                    121,356        6.4
+    Treeless area                     887,787       46.7
+                                    ---------      -----
+    Total land area                 1,900,947      100.0
+    ]
+
+
+THE DISTRIBUTION AND COMPOSITION OF NORTH AMERICAN FORESTS.
+
+REFERENCES:[A]
+
+Sargent, _Forest Trees_, Intro., pp. 3-10.
+Bruncken, pp. 5-16.
+Roth, _First Book_, pp. 209-212.
+Shaler, I, pp. 489-498.
+Fernow, _For. Inves._, pp. 45-51.
+Fernow, _Economics_, pp. 331-368.
+
+    [Footnote A: For general bibliography, see p. 4.]
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER V.
+
+THE FOREST ORGANISM.
+
+
+The forest is much more than an assemblage of different trees, it is
+an organism; that is, the trees that compose it have a vital relation
+to each other. It may almost be said to have a life of its own, since
+it has a soil and a climate, largely of its own making.
+
+Without these conditions, and without the help and hindrance which
+forest trees give to each other, these trees would not have their
+present characteristics, either in shape, habits of growth or nature
+of wood grain. Indeed, some of them could not live at all.
+
+Since by far the greater number of timber trees grow in the forest, in
+order to understand the facts about trees and woods, it is necessary
+to know something about the conditions of forest life.
+
+A tree is made up of three distinct parts: (1) the roots which anchor
+it in the ground, and draw its nourishment from the moist soil; (2)
+the trunk, or bole, or stem, which carries the weight of the branches
+and leaves, and conveys the nourishment to and from the leaves; (3)
+the crown, composed of the leaves, the branches on which they hang,
+and the buds at the ends of the branches. As trees stand together in
+the forest, their united crowns make a sort of canopy or cover, Fig.
+55, which, more than anything, determines the factors affecting
+forest life, viz., the soil, the temperature, the moisture, and most
+important of all, the light.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 55. The Forest Cover. Spruce Forest, Bavaria,
+Germany. _U. S. Forest Service._]
+
+On the other hand, every species of tree has its own requirements
+in respect to these very factors of temperature,--moisture, soil and
+light. These are called its _silvical characteristics_.
+
+
+SOIL.
+
+Some trees, as black walnut, flourish on good soil, supplanting others
+because they are better able to make use of the richness of the soil;
+while some trees occupy poor soil because they alone are able to live
+there at all. Spruce, Fig. 56, will grow in the north woods on such
+poor soil that it has no competitors, and birches, too, will grow
+anywhere in the north woods. In general, it is true that mixed
+forests, Fig. 57, _i.e._, those having a variety of species, grow on
+good loamy soil. The great central, deciduous Atlantic Forest grew on
+such soil until it was removed to make room for farms. On the other
+hand, pure stands--_i.e._, forests made up of single varieties--of
+pine occupy poor sandy soil. Within a distance of a few yards in the
+midst of a pure stand of pine in the south, a change in the soil will
+produce a dense mixed growth of broad-leaves and conifers.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 56. Virgin Stand of Red Spruce. White Mountains,
+New Hampshire. _U. S. Forest Service._]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 57. Typical Mixed Forest,--Red Spruce, Hemlock,
+White Ash, Yellow Birch, Balsam Fir, and Red Maple. Raquette Lake, New
+York. _U. S. Forest Service._]
+
+The soil in the forest is largely determined by the forest itself. In
+addition to the earth, it is composed of the fallen and decayed leaves
+and twigs and tree trunks, altogether called the _forest floor_. It is
+spongy and hence has the ability to retain moisture, a fact of great
+importance to the forest.
+
+
+MOISTURE.
+
+Some trees, as black ash and cypress, Fig. 58, and cotton gum, Fig.
+59, grow naturally only in moist places; some, as the piñon and
+mesquite, a kind of locust, grow only in dry places; while others,
+as the juniper and Douglas fir, adapt themselves to either. Both
+excessively wet and dry soils tend to diminish the number of kinds
+of trees. In many instances the demand for water controls the
+distribution altogether. In the Puget Sound region, where there is a
+heavy rain-fall, the densest forests in the world are found, whereas
+on the eastern slopes of the same mountains, altho the soil is not
+essentially different, there are very few trees, because of the
+constant drouth.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 58. Cypress and Cypress "Knees." Jasper Co.,
+Texas. _U. S. Forest Service._]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 59. Cotton Gums, Showing Buttresses. St. Francis
+River, Arkansas. _U. S. Forest Service._]
+
+
+TEMPERATURE.
+
+The fact that some trees, as paper birch and white spruce, grow only
+in cold regions, and some, as rubber trees and cypress, only in the
+tropics, is commonplace; but a fact not so well known is that it is
+not the average temperature, but the extremes which largely determine
+the habitat of trees of different kinds. Trees which would not live
+at all where there is frost, might flourish well in a region where
+the average temperature was considerably lower. On the other hand,
+provided the growing season is long enough for the species, there is
+no place on earth too cold for trees to live. Fig. 60.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 60. Northern Forest,--Young Spruce Growing Under
+Yellow Birch. Santa Clara, New York. _U. S. Forest Service._]
+
+In general, cold affects the forest just as poor soil and drought do,
+simplifying its composition and stunting its growth. In Canada there
+are only a few kinds of trees, of which the hardwoods are stunted;
+south of the Great Lakes, there is a great variety of large trees;
+farther south in the southern Appalachian region, there is a still
+greater variety, and the trees are just as large; and still farther
+south in tropical Florida, there is the greatest variety of all. The
+slopes of a high mountain furnish an illustration of the effect of
+temperature. In ascending it, one may pass from a tropical forest at
+the base, thru a belt of evergreen, broad-leaved trees, then thru a
+belt of deciduous broad-leaved trees, then thru a belt of conifers and
+up to the timber line where tree life ceases. Figs. 61, and 62.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 61. Mixed Hardwoods on Lower Levels. Spruce
+and Balsam Dominate on Higher Elevations. Mt. McIntyre, Adirondack
+Mountains, New York. _U. S. Forest Service._]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 62. Scrub Growth on Mountain Top. Mt. Webster, New
+Hampshire. _U. S. Forest Service._]
+
+
+LIGHT.
+
+More than by any other factor, the growth of trees in a forest is
+determined by the effect of light. All trees need light sooner or
+later, but some trees have much more ability than others to grow
+in the shade when young. Such trees, of which maple and spruce are
+examples, are called _tolerant_, while others, for instance, larch,
+which will endure only a comparatively thin cover or none at all, are
+called _intolerant_. The leaves of tolerant trees endure shade well,
+so that their inner and lower leaves flourish under the shadow of
+their upper and outer leaves, with the result that the whole tree,
+as beech and maple, makes a dense shadow; whereas the leaves of
+intolerant trees are either sparse, as in the larch, or are so hung
+that the light sifts thru them, as in poplar and oak. The spruces and
+balsam fir have the remarkable power of growing slowly under heavy
+shade for many years, and then of growing vigorously when the light is
+let in by the fall of their overshadowing neighbors. This can plainly
+be seen in the cross-section of balsam fir, Fig. 63, where the narrow
+annual rings of the early growth, are followed by the wider ones of
+later growth. A common sight in the dense woods is the maple sending
+up a long, spindly stem thru the trees about it and having at its top
+a little tuft of leaves, Fig. 64. By so doing it survives. The fact
+that a tree can grow without shade often determines its possession
+of a burnt-over tract. The order in the North Woods after a fire
+is commonly, first, a growth of fire weed, then raspberries or
+blackberries, then aspen, a very intolerant tree whose light shade
+in turn permits under it the growth of the spruce, to which it is a
+"nurse," Fig. 65. In general it may be said that all seedling conifers
+require some shade the first two years, while hardwoods in temperate
+climates, as a rule, do not.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 63. Cross section of Balsam Fir, Showing Fast
+Growth After Years of Suppression. Notice the width of the annual
+rings in later age compared with early. _U. S. Forest Service._]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 64. Tolerant Maple. The trees are too slender to
+stand alone. _U. S. Forest Service._]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 65. Intolerant Aspen, a "nurse" of Tolerant
+Spruce._ U. S. Forest Service._]
+
+This matter of tolerance has also much to do with the branching of
+trees. The leaves on the lower branches of an intolerant tree will not
+thrive, with the result that those branches die and later drop off.
+This is called "cleaning," or natural pruning. Intolerant trees, like
+aspen and tulip, Fig. 66, clean themselves well and hence grow with
+long, straight boles, while tolerant trees, like spruce and fir,
+retain their branches longer.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 66. Intolerant Tulip. Notice the long, straight
+boles. _U. S. Forest Service._]
+
+The distribution of a species may also be determined by geographical
+barriers, like mountain ranges and oceans. This is why the western
+forests differ radically from the eastern forests and why the forest
+of Australasia is sharply distinct from any other forest in the world.
+
+Any one or several of these factors, soil, moisture, heat, and light,
+may be the determining factor in the make-up of a forest, or it may
+be that a particular tree may survive, because of a faster rate of
+growth, thus enabling it to overtop its fellows and cut off their
+light. The struggle for survival is constant, and that tree survives
+which can take the best advantage of the existent conditions.
+
+Besides these topographical and climatic factors which help determine
+the distribution of trees, a very important factor is the historical
+one. For example, the only reason by which the location of the few
+isolated groves of big trees in California can be accounted for is the
+rise and fall of glacial sheets, which left them, as it were, islands
+stranded in a sea of ice. As the glaciers retreated, the region
+gradually became re-forested, those trees coming up first which were
+best able to take advantage of the conditions, whether due to the
+character of their seeds, their tolerance, their endurance of moisture
+or whatever. This process is still going on and hardwoods are probably
+gaining ground.
+
+Besides these external factors which determine the composition and
+organic life of the forest, the trees themselves furnish an important
+factor in their methods of reproduction. These, in general, are two,
+(1) by sprouts, and (2) by seeds.
+
+(1) Most conifers have no power of sprouting. The chief exceptions
+are pitch pine and, to a remarkable degree, the redwood, Fig. 67. This
+power, however, is common in broad-leaved trees, as may be seen after
+a fire has swept thru second growth, hardwood timber. Altho all the
+young trees are killed down to the ground, the young sprouts spring
+up from the still living roots. This may happen repeatedly. Coppice
+woods, as of chestnut and oak, which sprout with great freedom, are
+the result of this ability. The wood is poor so that it is chiefly
+used for fuel.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 67. Sprouting Redwood Stumps. Glen Blair, Calif.
+_U. S. Forest Service._]
+
+(2) Most trees, however, are reproduced by seeds. Trees yield these
+in great abundance, to provide for waste,--nature's method. Many seeds
+never ripen, many perish, many are eaten by animals, many fall on
+barren ground or rocks, and many sprout, only to die. The weight of
+seeds has much to do with their distribution. Heavy seeds like acorns,
+chestnuts, hickory and other nuts, grow where they fall, unless
+carried down hill by gravity or by water, or scattered by birds and
+squirrels.
+
+Trees with winged seeds, however, Fig. 68, as bass, maple and pine,
+or with light seeds, as poplar, often have their seeds carried by the
+wind to great distances.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 68. Winged Seeds. 1, Basswood; 2, Box-elder; 3,
+Elm; 4, Fir; 5, 6, 7, 8, Pines. _U. S. Forest Service._]
+
+Again some trees, as spruce, are very fertile, while others, like
+beech, have only occasional seed-bearing seasons, once in three or
+four years. Willow seeds lose their power of germination in a few
+days, and hence, unless they soon reach ground where there is plenty
+of moisture, they die. This is why they grow mostly along water
+courses. On the other hand, black locust pods and the cones of some
+pines keep their seeds perfect for many years, often until a
+fire bursts them open, and so they live at the expense of their
+competitors.
+
+It is such facts as these that help to account for some of the acts of
+forest composition,--why in one place at one time there is a growth of
+aspens, at another time pines, at still another oaks; and why beeches
+spring up one year and not another. That red cedars grow in avenues
+along fences, is explained by the fact that the seeds are dropped
+there by birds, Fig. 69.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 69. Red Cedar Avenue. Seeds dropped by birds which
+perched on the fences. Indiana. _U. S. Forest Service._]
+
+The fact that conifers, as the longleaf pine, Fig. 46, p. 200, and
+spruce, Fig. 55, p. 212, are more apt to grow in pure stands than
+broad-leaved trees, is largely accounted for by their winged seeds;
+whereas the broad-leaved trees grow mostly in mixed stands because
+their heavy seeds are not plentifully and widely scattered. This is
+a rule not without exceptions, for beech sometimes covers a whole
+mountain side, as Slide Mountain in the Catskills, and aspens come in
+over a wide area after a fire; but later other trees creep in until at
+length it becomes a mixed forest.
+
+The essential facts of the relation of trees to each other in the
+forest has been clearly stated by Gifford Pinchot thus:[1]
+
+    The history of the life of a forest is a story of the help and
+    harm which trees receive from one another. On one side every
+    tree is engaged in a relentless struggle against its neighbors
+    for light, water and food, the three things trees need most.
+    On the other side each tree is constantly working with all its
+    neighbors, even those which stand at some distance, to bring
+    about the best condition of the soil and air for the growth
+    and fighting power of every other tree.
+
+The trees in a forest help each other by enriching the soil in which
+they stand with their fallen leaves and twigs, which are not quickly
+blown or washed away as are those under a tree in the open. This
+collection of "duff" or "the forest floor" retains the moisture about
+their roots, and this moist mass tends to keep the temperature of the
+forest warmer in winter and cooler in summer. The forest cover, Fig.
+55, p. 212, consisting largely of foliage, has the same effect, and in
+addition protects the bark, the roots, and the seedlings of the trees
+from the direct and continuous hot rays of the sun. Without the shade
+of the leaves, many trees, as white pine, would quickly die, as
+may readily be seen by transplanting them to the open. The mass of
+standing trees tempers the force of the wind, which might overthrow
+some of them, and hinders the drying up of the duff.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 70. Shallow Roots of Hemlock. Bronx Park, New
+York, N. Y.]
+
+But trees hinder as well as help each other. There is a constant
+struggle between them for nourishment and light. To get food and
+water, some trees, as spruces and hemlocks, Fig. 70, spread their
+roots out flat; others, as oak and pine, send down a deep tap root.
+Those succeed in any environment that find the nourishment they need.
+Still more evident is the struggle for light and air. However well a
+tree is nourished thru its roots, unless its leaves have an abundance
+of light and air it will not thrive and make wood.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 71. Long-bodied White Oak of the Forest. _U. S.
+Forest Service._]
+
+Even the trees most tolerant of shade in youth, like spruce, must have
+light later or perish, and hence in a forest there is the constant
+upward reach. This produces the characteristic "long-bodied" trunk of
+the forest tree, Fig. 71, in contrast to the "short-bodied" tree of
+the open, where the branches reach out in all directions, Fig. 72.
+In this constant struggle for existence is involved the persistent
+attempt of scattered seeds to sprout whenever there is an opening. The
+result is that a typical forest is one in which all sizes and ages
+of trees grow together. Scattered among these are bushes and scrubby
+trees, called "forest weeds," such as mountain maple and dogwood, Fig.
+80, p. 234, which do not produce timber.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 72. Short-bodied White Oak of the Open. Fort Lee,
+N. J.]
+
+By foresters the trees themselves are classified according to their
+size into:
+
+Seedlings, less than 3' high,
+Saplings,
+  Small, 3'-10' high.
+  Large, 4" in diameter, at breast height (4' 6").
+Poles,
+  Small, 4"-8" in diameter, at breast height.
+  Large, 8"-12" in diameter, at breast height.
+  Standards, 1'-2' in diameter, at breast height.
+  Veterans, over 2' in diameter, at breast height.
+
+Every age has its own dangers. Many seeds never germinate, many
+seedlings perish because they do not reach soil, or are killed by
+too much or too little moisture, or by heat or cold, or shade. At the
+sapling age, the side branches begin to interfere with those of other
+saplings. Buds are bruised and lower branches broken by thrashing in
+the wind, and their leaves have less light. Only the upper branches
+have room and light, and they flourish at the expense of lower ones,
+which gradually die and are thus pruned off. Some trees naturally
+grow faster than others, and they attain additional light and room
+to spread laterally, thus overtopping others which are suppressed and
+finally killed, beaten in the race for life.
+
+If the growth should remain about even so that the trees grew densely
+packed together, the whole group would be likely to be of a poorer
+quality, but ordinarily the few outgrow the many and they are called
+dominant trees. Even then, they still have to struggle against their
+neighbors, and at this, the large sapling stage, many perish, and of
+those that survive there are great differences in size. Trees make
+their most rapid growth in height, and lay on the widest yearly
+"rings," at the large sapling and small pole age, Fig. 114, p. 263. It
+is at this stage, too, if the growth is at all dense, that the young
+trees (poles) clean themselves most thoroly of their branches. The
+growth in diameter continues to the end of the tree's life, long after
+the height growth has ceased.
+
+When trees become "standards," and reach the limit of height growth,
+thru their inability to raise water to their tops, their branches
+must perforce grow sidewise, or not at all. The struggle for life thus
+takes a new form.
+
+How trees are able to raise water as high as they do is still
+unexplained, but we know that the chief reason why some trees grow
+taller than others, is due to their ability to raise water. The most
+remarkable in this respect are the California redwoods, the big trees,
+and certain eucalypts in Australia. This inability of trees to grow
+above a certain height results in a flattening of the crown, Fig. 73,
+and at this stage, the trees struggle against each other by crowding
+at the side.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 73. Flattened Crown of Red Pine. _U.S. Forest
+Service._]
+
+Inasmuch as trees grow more sensitive to shade with advancing age, the
+taller trees have the advantage. Each survivor is one of a thousand,
+and has outlived the others because it is best fitted for the place.
+
+This fact has its effect upon the next generation, because it is these
+dominant surviving trees which bear seed most abundantly. After the
+tree has finished growing in height and diameter most vigorously--the
+pole stage--and proved to be fitted for the place, its energy is
+largely spent in raising seed. As this process goes on generation
+after generation, only the best coming to maturity in each, the poorer
+sorts are sifted out, and each region and continent has those species
+best fitted to meet the conditions of life there.
+
+This is the reason why exotics are very likely to be sensitive and
+perhaps succumb to influences to which native trees are immune.
+
+Standards and veterans are the survivors of all the lower stages,
+each of which has had its especial dangers. If left alone, the tree
+gradually dies and at last falls and decays, adding somewhat to the
+fertility of the forest soil. From the point of view of human use, it
+would far better have been cut when ripe and turned into lumber. It
+is a mistake to suppose that the natural virgin forest is the best
+possible forest, and that it should therefore be left alone. In the
+National Forests the ripe lumber is sold and a considerable revenue
+is thus available. But nature's way with the dead tree is to use it
+to produce more life. How she does so will be explained in the next
+chapter, on the enemies of the forest.
+
+    [Footnote 1: Gifford Pinchot, _Primer of Forestry_, p. 44.]
+
+
+THE FOREST ORGANISM.
+
+REFERENCES:[A]
+
+Pinchot, _For. Bull._ No. 24, I, pp. 25-66.
+Bruncken, pp. 13-31.
+_For. Circ._ No. 36, p. 8.
+Fernow, _Economics_, pp. 140-164.
+
+    [Footnote A: For general bibliography, see p. 4]
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER VI.
+
+NATURAL ENEMIES OF THE FOREST.
+
+
+The natural enemies of the forest--as distinct from its human
+enemies--fall into three groups: (1) Meteorological, (2) Vegetable,
+(3) Animal.
+
+
+METEOROLOGICAL FORCES.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 74. Effect of Wind, July, 1902, Cass County,
+Minnesota. _U. S. Forest Service._]
+
+_Wind._ "Windfalls" are not an uncommon sight in any forest.
+Frequently only small areas are blown down, one large tree upsetting a
+few others, or again a vast region is destroyed by great storms, Fig.
+74. An area of many square miles in Florida covered with long-leaf
+pine was thus destroyed several years ago. The "slash" thus formed,
+when well dried, is particularly liable to catch fire and burn
+furiously. Windfalls are especially common among shallow-rooted trees,
+as hemlock, basswood and spruce, on sandy soil and on shallow soil
+underlaid with solid stone, especially where open spaces give the wind
+free sweep. It follows that an unbroken forest is a great protection
+to itself. The only precautions against wind therefore, that can be
+taken by the forester, are to keep the forest unbroken by selecting
+only the larger trees for felling or to cut down a given tract by
+beginning at the side opposite the direction of prevailing storms and
+working toward them.
+
+In sandy regions, the wind does immense harm by blowing the sand to
+and fro in constantly shifting dunes, Figs. 75 and 76. These dunes
+occupy long stretches of the Atlantic coast and the shore of Lake
+Michigan. Such dunes have been estimated to cover 20,000 square miles
+of Europe. Along the Bay of Biscay in France, the sand dunes formerly
+drifted in ridges along the shore, damming up the streams and
+converting what was once a forest into a pestilential marsh. This
+region has been reclaimed at great expense by building fences along
+the shore to break the wind and thus keep the moving sand within
+limits. In this way a million acres of productive forest have been
+obtained.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 75. Sand-dunes, Cape May, New Jersey. _U.S. Forest
+Service._]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 76. Sand-dune. Oregon. _U.S. Forest Service._]
+
+On the other hand winds are beneficial to the forest in scattering
+seeds, weeding out weak trees, and developing strength in tree trunks.
+
+_Drouth_ both injures the foliage of trees and causes defects in the
+grain of wood, the latter appearing as "false rings." These arise
+from the effort of the tree to resume growth when the water supply is
+restored. See p. 19.
+
+_Water._ Certain trees have become accustomed to living in much water,
+as cedar and cypress have in swamps, and certain trees have become
+accustomed to periodical floods, but other trees are killed by much
+water. So when lumbermen make a pond which overflows forest land, the
+trees soon die, Fig. 77.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 77. Effect of Flooding. First Connecticut Lake,
+New Hampshire. _U. S. Forest Service._]
+
+_Lightning_ frequently blasts single trees, and in dry seasons may set
+fire to forests. This is a much more important factor in the west than
+in the east,--in the Rockies, for instance, where there are electrical
+storms without rain.
+
+_Fires_ will be considered later under man's relation to the forest.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 78. Slim Trees Bent Over by Snow; Stouter Trees
+Unharmed. Zurich, Switzerland. _U. S. Forest Service._]
+
+_Snow and ice_ often bring serious harm to saplings by permanently
+bending them over, Fig. 78, or by breaking off tops and branches.
+
+_Frost_ kills young plants; and sudden changes in temperature
+seriously affect grown timber, producing "frost checks" and "wind
+shakes." When there is a sudden fall in temperature, the outside
+layers of the tree, which are full of sap, contract more rapidly than
+the inner portions, with the result that the tree splits with a sudden
+pistol-like report, the check running radially up and down the tree.
+This is called a "frost check" or "star shake," Fig. 41._a_, p. 47,
+and such wounds rarely heal, Fig. 79.
+
+On the other hand when the temperature rapidly rises, the outside
+layers of the tree expand so much more rapidly than the inside, that
+they separate with a dull muffled chug, the check extending in a
+circular direction following the annual rings. Such checks are often
+called "wind shakes" and "cup shakes," Fig. 41._c_, p. 47. These
+injuries are found in regions where sudden changes of temperature
+occur, rather than in the tropics or in very cold climates.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 79. Contraction Frost Check. _U. S. Forest
+Service._]
+
+
+VEGETABLE ENEMIES.
+
+Under this head may be classed, in addition to fungi, a number of
+unrelated plants, including such as: moosewood and dogwood, Fig. 80,
+which crowd out young trees; vines, like bitter-sweet, which wind
+about trees and often choke them by pressure, cutting thru the bark
+and cambium; saprophytes, which smother the foliage of trees, of
+which Spanish moss, Fig. 47, p. 201, is an example; and finally such
+parasites as the mistletoes, which weaken and deform the trees.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 80. A "Forest Weed," Flowering Dogwood. North
+Carolina. _U.S. Forest Service._]
+
+The most important of the vegetable enemies of trees are fungi. It
+should be remembered, however, that, without the decay produced by
+them, the fallen trees would soon cover the ground, and prevent any
+new growth, thus destroying the natural forest.
+
+Every tree, as has been noted (p. 17), is composed of two parts, one
+part, including leaves, young branches, roots and sap-wood, living,
+and the other part, namely, the heart-wood, practically dead.
+
+Fungi that attack the live parts of a tree are called parasites,
+while those that live on dead trunks and branches are designated as
+saprophytes. The line, however, between these two classes of fungi is
+not well defined, since some parasites live on both living and dead
+wood. The parasites are of first importance, for, since they kill many
+trees, they control to a large extent the supply of living timber.
+
+Nearly all parasitic fungi have two portions, an external fruiting
+portion which bears the spores--which correspond to the seeds of
+flowering plants--and an internal portion consisting of a tangle of
+threads or filaments, which ramify the tissues of the tree and whose
+function is to absorb nutriment for the fungus. Fungi are classified
+botanically according to the spore-bearing bodies, their form, color,
+etc.
+
+The parasitic fungi which are especially destructive to wood are
+those that have naked spores growing on exposed fruiting surfaces (the
+_Hymenomycetes_). In toadstools (the _agarics_) these exposed surfaces
+are thin, flat plates called gills. In the polypores, which include
+the shelf fungi, the spore surfaces are tubes whose openings
+constitute the pores. In the dry-rot, or tear fungus (_Merulius
+lacrymans_), the spore surfaces are shallow cavities.
+
+Some varieties, called _true_ parasites, develop in uninjured trees,
+while others, called _wound_ parasites, can penetrate the tissues of
+trees, only where a cut or injury makes a suitable lodgment for the
+spores. Some fungi attack only a single species of trees, others whole
+genera; some attack only conifers, others deciduous trees, while a few
+attack trees of nearly all kinds alike.
+
+Fungal spores when brought in contact with a wound on a tree or other
+suitable place, and provided with suitable conditions of growth,
+germinate, penetrate the tissues and grow very rapidly. These spores
+send out long threads or filaments which run thru the cells lengthwise
+and also pierce them in all directions, soon forming a network in the
+wood called the mycelium.
+
+Rotting, in a large number of cases, is due to the ravages of fungi.
+This sometimes shows in the color, as the "red rot" of pine or the
+"bluing" of ash. Sometimes as in "pecky" or "peggy" cypress, the
+decayed tracts are tubular. More commonly the decayed parts are of
+irregular shape.
+
+The decay of wood is due to the ravages of low forms of plant life,
+both bacteria and fungi.
+
+A few of the more destructive forms may be noted.
+
+    _Trametes pini_ (Brot.) Fr. Foremost among the timber
+    destroying fungi is the large brown "punk" or "conch" found in
+    its typical development on the long-leaf and short-leaf pines,
+    _Pinus palustris_ and _Pinus echinata_, Fig. 81. The
+    fruiting bodies form large masses which grow out from a knot,
+    oftentimes as large as a child's head. They are cinnamon brown
+    on the lower surface, and much fissured and broken, on the
+    black charcoal-like upper surface. This fungus probably causes
+    four-fifths of the destruction brought about by the timber
+    destroying fungi. It occurs on most of the conifers in the
+    United States which have any value as lumber trees, and brings
+    about a characteristic white spotting of the wood, Fig. 82,
+    which varies with the kind of tree attacked. (Von Schrenk,
+    _Agric. Yr. Bk._, 1900, p. 206.)
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 81. A "Conch," the fruiting body of _Trametes
+pini_, on Sugar Pine. [_Agric. Year Book, 1900_, Pl. XXII, Fig. 2.]]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 82. Effect of Fungus. (_Trametes pini._) _U. S.
+Dept. Agric._]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 83. "Shelf" Fungus on Pine. _a._ Sound wood; _b._
+Resinous "light" wood; _c._ Partly decayed wood or punk; _d._ Layer of
+living spore tubes; _e._ Old filled-up spore tubes; _f._ Fluted upper
+surface of the fruiting body of the fungus, which gets its food thru
+a great number of fine threads (the mycelium), its vegetative tissue
+penetrating the wood and causing its decay. [_After Hartig._]]
+
+Of the shelf fungi, which project like brackets from the stems of
+trees, and have their pores on their under surfaces, one of the
+commonest in many localities is the yellow cheese-like _Polyporus
+sulphureus_, Fig. 83. This is found on oak, poplar, willow, larch, and
+other standing timber.
+
+    Its spawnlike threads spread from any exposed portion of
+    cambium into the pith-rays and between the annual rings,
+    forming thick layers of yellowish-white felt, and penetrating
+    the vessels of the wood, which thereupon becomes a deep brown
+    color and decays.
+
+Of the umbrella-shaped gill-bearing fungi, a yellow toadstool, called
+the honey mushroom (_Agaricus melleus_), is a good example, Fig. 84.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 84. Honey Mushroom. _Agaricus melleus._ 1. Cluster
+of small sporophores. 2. Larger sporophore with root-like organ of
+attachment. _Forestry Bulletin 22._ Plate XII, Figs. 1 and 2.]
+
+    This fungus, of common occurrence in the United States as well
+    as in Europe, is exceedingly destructive to coniferous trees,
+    the white pine in particular suffering greatly from its
+    attacks. It also fastens upon various deciduous species as a
+    parasite, attacking living trees of all ages, but living as
+    well upon dead roots and stumps and on wood that has been cut
+    and worked up, occurring frequently on bridges, railroad
+    ties, and the like, and causing prompt decay wherever it has
+    effected an entrance. The most conspicuous part of the fungus
+    is found frequently in the summer and fall on the diseased
+    parts of the tree or timber infested by it. It is one of the
+    common toadstools, this particular species being recognized by
+    its yellowish color, gills extending downward upon the stem,
+    which is encircled a little lower down by a ring, and by its
+    habit of growing in tufts or little clumps of several or many
+    individuals together. It is also particularly distinguished by
+    the formation of slender, dark-colored strings, consisting of
+    compact mycelium, from which the fruiting parts just described
+    arise. These hard root-like strings (called rhizomorphs)
+    extend along just beneath the surface of the ground, often
+    a distance of several feet, and penetrate the roots of sound
+    trees. By carefully removing the bark from a root thus invaded
+    the fungus is seen in the form of a dense, nearly white,
+    mass of mycelium, which, as the parts around decay, gradually
+    produces again the rhizomorphs already described. These
+    rhizomorphs are a characteristic part of the fungus. Occurring
+    both in the decayed wood from which they spread to the
+    adjacent parts, and extending in the soil from root to root,
+    they constitute a most effective agency in the extension of
+    the disease. * * *
+
+    External symptoms, to be observed especially in young
+    specimens recently attacked, consist in a change of the leaves
+    to a pale sickly color and often the production of short
+    stunted shoots. A still more marked symptom is the formation
+    of great quantities of resin, which flow downward thru the
+    injured parts and out into the ground. (_Forestry Bulletin_
+    No. 22, p. 51.)
+
+Of the irregular shaped fungi, one of the most destructive is a
+true parasite, _i.e._, one that finds lodgment without help, called
+_Polyporus annosus_ and also _Trametes radiciperda_, Fig. 85. It is
+peculiar in developing its fructifications on the exterior of
+roots, beneath the soil. Its pores appear on the upper side of the
+fructifications. It attacks only conifers.
+
+    Its spores, which can be readily conveyed in the fur of mice
+    or other burrowing animals, germinate in the moisture around
+    the roots: the fine threads of "spawn" penetrate the cortex,
+    and spread thru and destroy the cambium, extending in thin,
+    flat, fan-like, white, silky bands, and, here and there,
+    bursting thru the cortex in white, oval cushions, on which the
+    subterranean fructifications are produced. Each of these is
+    a yellowish-white, felt-like mass, with its outer surface
+    covered with crowded minute tubes or "pores" in which the
+    spores are produced. The wood attacked by this fungus first
+    becomes rosy or purple, then turns yellowish, and then
+    exhibits minute black dots, which surround themselves with
+    extending soft white patches. (Boulger, p. 73.)
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 85. 1. Stump of Norway Spruce, with a sporophore
+of _polyporus annosus_ several years old; the inner portions of the
+stump wholly decayed.
+
+2. Roots of a diseased spruce tree, with numerous small sporophores
+of _polyporus annosus_ attached. _Forestry Bulletin 22_, Plate XIII,
+Figs. 1 and 2.]
+
+Of the fungi which attack converted timber, the most important is "dry
+rot" or "tear fungus" (_Merulius lachrymans_), Fig. 86. It flourishes
+on damp wood in still air, especially around stables and ill
+ventilated cellars. It gets its name lachrymans (weeping) from its
+habit of dripping moisture.
+
+    The fungus destroys the substance of the timber, lessening its
+    weight and causing it to warp and crack; until at length it
+    crumbles up when dry into a fine brown powder, or, readily
+    absorbing any moisture in its neighborhood, becomes a soft,
+    cheese-like mass. * * * Imperfectly seasoned timber is most
+    susceptible to dry rot: the fungus can be spread either by its
+    spawn or by spores, and these latter can be carried even by
+    the clothes or saws of workmen, and are, of course, only too
+    likely to reach sound wood if diseased timber is left about
+    near it; but on the other hand dry timber kept dry is proof
+    against dry rot, and exposure to really dry air is fatal to
+    the fungus. (Boulger, p. 75.)
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 86. Portion of the mycelium of dry rot or tear
+fungus, _Merulius lachrymans_. This cakelike mass spreads over the
+surface of the timber. In a moist environment pellucid drops or
+"tears" distil from its lower surface: Hence its name. [Ward:
+_Timber_; Fig. 21.]]
+
+About all that can be done to protect the forest against fungi is to
+keep it clean, that is, to clear out fallen timber and slash, and in
+some cases to dig trenches around affected trees to prevent spreading
+or to cut them out and destroy them. Such methods have heretofore been
+too expensive to employ in any ordinary American forest, but the time
+is at hand when such action will prove profitable in many localities.
+
+For the preservation of cut timber from decay, several methods are
+used. Fungi need heat, air, moisture and food. If any one of these is
+lacking the fungus cannot grow. Air and heat are hard to exclude from
+wood, but moisture and food can be kept from fungi. The removal of
+moisture is called seasoning, and the poisoning of the food of fungi
+is a process of impregnating wood with certain chemicals. Both these
+processes are described in _Handwork in Wood_, Chapter III.
+
+
+ANIMAL ENEMIES.
+
+The larger animals working damage to our forests are chiefly rodents
+and grazing animals. Beavers gnaw the bark, while mice and squirrels
+rob the forest of seed and consequently of new trees. The acorns of
+white oak are particularly liable to be devoured because of their
+sweetness, while those of red and black oak, which afford timber of
+comparatively little value, are allowed to sprout, and thus come to
+possess the land. Hogs annually consume enormous quantities of "mast,"
+_i.e._, acorns or other nuts, by pasturing in oak and other forests.
+They, together with goats and sheep, Figs. 87 and 88, deer and cattle,
+work harm by trampling and browsing. Browsing destroys the tender
+shoots, especially of deciduous trees, but trampling entirely kills
+out the seedlings. The cutting up of the soil by the sharp cleft hoofs
+injures the forest floor, by pulverizing it and allowing it to be
+readily washed away by storms until deforestation may result, as was
+the case in France after the Revolution. It has cost the French people
+from thirty to forty million dollars to repair the damage begun by the
+sheep. In this country, this matter has become a very serious one
+on the Pacific Coast, where there are enormous flocks of sheep, and
+therefore the government is trying to regulate the grazing on public
+lands there, especially on steep slopes, where erosion takes place
+rapidly.[1]
+
+    [Footnote 1: The evils of grazing are increased by the fact
+    that fires are sometimes started intentionally in order to
+    increase the area of grazing land.]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 87. Goats Eating Foliage, New Mexico. _U.S. Forest
+Service._]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 88. Sheep Grazing in Forest, Idaho. _U.S. Forest
+Service._]
+
+The most destructive animal enemies of the forest are the insects.
+The average annual loss of trees in the United States from this cause
+alone has been estimated to be one hundred million dollars.
+
+Insects have two objects in their attack on trees, one is to obtain
+food, as when they are in the larval stage, and the other is to
+provide for offspring, as do certain beetles.
+
+The number of insect enemies of the forest is enormous. At the St.
+Louis Exposition, there were on exhibit nearly three hundred such
+insects. These belong to some twenty orders, of which the beetles
+(_Coleoptera_), which have horny wings and biting mouth parts, and
+the moths and butterflies (_Lepidoptera_), with membraneous wings and
+sucking mouth parts, are the most destructive. Insects attack every
+part of the tree, the seed, the shoot, the flower, the root, the leaf,
+the bark and the wood, both standing and cut.
+
+Of the fruit and seed pests, the most destructive are weevils, worms
+and gall insects.
+
+Of the twig and shoot pests, beetles, weevils and caterpillars are the
+worst.
+
+Among insects that attack roots, the periodical cicada (17 year old
+locust) may be noted.
+
+The leaf pests are far more serious. They include the true and false
+caterpillars, moths, gall insects and plant lice.
+
+Of the bark pests, the bark beetles are the most destructive. These
+are also called Engraver Beetles from the smoothly cut figures which
+are their burrows under the bark, Figs. 89, 90, 91.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 89. Work of the Spruce Destroying Beetle: _a._
+Primary gallery; _b._ Borings packed in side; _c._ Entrance and
+central burrow thru the packed borings; _d._ Larval mines. Note how
+the eggs are grouped on the sides. [_Agric. Year Book_, 1902, Fig. 24,
+p. 268.]]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 90. Complete brood Galleries of the Hickory Bark
+Beetle in Surface of Wood. [_Agric. Year Book_, 1903, Fig. 28, p.
+316.]]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 91. Brood Galleries of the Oak Bark Beetle,
+showing Character of Primary Gallery at _b_; Larval or Brood Mines at
+_a._ [_Agric. Year Book_, 1903, Fig. 30, page 318.]]
+
+    Many pairs of beetles make a simultaneous attack on the lower
+    half of the main trunk of medium-sized to large trees. They
+    bore thru the outer bark to the inner living portion, and thru
+    the inner layers of the latter; they excavate long, irregular,
+    longitudinal galleries, and along the sides of these at
+    irregular intervals, numerous eggs are closely placed. The
+    eggs soon hatch and the larvae at once commence to feed on the
+    inner bark, and as they increase in size, extend and enlarge
+    their food burrows in a general transverse but irregular
+    course, away from the mother galleries (see illustration).
+    When these young and larval forms are full grown, each
+    excavates a cavity or cell at the end of its burrow and next
+    to the outer corky bark. (Hopkins, _Agric. Yr. Bk._, 1902.)
+
+Some of the species attack living trees, causing their rapid death,
+and are among the most destructive enemies of American forests.
+
+All of the above indirectly affect both the quantity and quality
+of the wood supply. They can be studied more in detail in the
+publications of the U.S. Bureau of Entomology.
+
+Of the insects directly attacking wood, the most important are the
+ambrosia or timber beetles, the borers, the ants, and the carpenter
+bees. The most remarkable feature of the beetle is the manner of its
+boring into the harder parts of the wood. Its jaws are particularly
+constructed for this work, being heavy and strong. The boring is
+done something after the manner of countersinking, and the jaws are
+believed to be self-sharpening, by reason of the peculiar right to
+left and left to right motion.
+
+    _Ambrosia_ or _timber beetles_, Fig. 92. This class of insects
+    attacks living, dead, and felled trees, sawlogs, green lumber,
+    and stave-bolts, often causing serious injury and loss from
+    the pin-hole and stained-wood defects caused by their brood
+    galleries. The galleries are excavated by the parent beetles
+    in the sound sap-wood sometimes extending into the heart-wood,
+    and the young stages feed on a fungus growth which grows on
+    the walls of galleries. (Hopkins, Entom. Bulletin No. 48, p.
+    10.) The growth of this ambrosia-like fungus is induced or
+    controlled by the parent beetles and the young are dependent
+    on it for food. (Hopkins, _Agric. Yr. Bk._, 1904.)
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 92. Work of Ambrosia Beetle, _Xyloborus celsus_,
+in Hickory Wood: _a_, Larva; _b_, Pupa; _c_, Adult beetle; _d_,
+Character of work in lumber cut from injured log; _e_, Bark; _f_, Sap
+wood; _g_, Heartwood. [_Agric. Year Book_, 1904, Fig. 44, p. 384.]]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 93. Work of Ambrosia Beetles in Oak: _a_,
+_Monarthum mali_, and work; _b_, _Platypus compositus_, and work; _c_,
+Bark; _d_, Sap-wood; _e_, Heart-wood; _f_, Character of work in lumber
+from injured log. [_Agric. Year Book_, 1904, Fig. 45, p. 384.]]
+
+    There are two general types or classes of these galleries, one
+    in which the broods develop together in the main burrows, the
+    other, in which the individuals develop in short separate side
+    chambers extending at right angles from the primary gallery,
+    Fig. 93. The galleries of the latter type are usually
+    accompanied by a distinct staining of the wood, while those of
+    the former are not. (Hopkins, _Agric. Yr. Bk._, 1904, p. 383.)
+
+    _Bark_ and _wood borers_, Fig. 94. This class of enemies
+    differs from the preceding in the fact that the parent beetles
+    do not burrow into the wood or bark, but deposit their eggs
+    on the surface. The elongate, whitish, round-headed
+    (_Cerambycid_), flat-headed (_Buprestid_), or short, stout
+    (_Curculionid_) grubs hatching from these eggs cause injury
+    by burrowing beneath the bark, or deep into the sap-wood and
+    heart-wood of living, injured and dead trees, sawlogs, etc.
+    Some of the species infest living trees, Fig. 95, causing
+    serious injury or death. Others attack only dead or dying bark
+    and wood, but this injury often results in great loss from the
+    so-called wormhole defects. (A. D. Hopkins, _Entom. Bull._, No.
+    48, p. 10.)
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 94. Work of Round-Headed and Flat-Headed Borers
+in Pine: _a_, Work of round-headed borers, "sawyer," _Monohamnus_
+sp.; _b_, _Ergates spiculatus_; _c_, Work of flat-headed borer,
+_Buprestis_, larva and adult. [_Agric. Year Book_, 1904, Fig. 46, p.
+385.]]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 95. Hemlock Killed by Buprestid Worms. Hoquiam,
+Washington. _U.S. Forest Service._]
+
+    The pine sawyers are among the most troublesome pests in the
+    mill yard, and their large, white larvae often do much damage
+    to logs by eating great holes thru their solid interior. While
+    burrowing in the wood the larvae make a peculiar grating sound
+    that may be heard on quiet nights at a considerable distance.
+    This is a familiar sound in the lumber camps of the North,
+    and has probably given rise to the name of the pine sawyers by
+    which these insects are known. (_Forestry Bulletin_, No. 22,
+    p. 58.)
+
+    _Powder-post beetles_, Fig. 96. This is a class of insects
+    representing two or three families of beetles, the larvae of
+    which infest and convert into fine powder many different kinds
+    of dry and seasoned wood products, such as hickory and ash
+    handles, wagon spokes, lumber, etc., when wholly or in part
+    from the sap-wood of trees. Oak and hemlock tan-bark is
+    sometimes injured to a great extent, and the structural
+    timbers of old houses, barns, etc., are often seriously
+    injured, while hop poles and like products are attacked by one
+    set of these insects, the adults of which burrow into the wood
+    for the purpose of depositing their eggs. (Hopkins, _Forestry
+    Bulletin_ No. 48, p. 11.)
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 96. Work of Powder Post Beetle, _Sinoxylon
+basilare_, in hickory pole: _a_, Character of work by larvae; _b_,
+Exit holes made by emerging broods. [_Agric. Year Book_, 1904, Fig.
+49.]]
+
+    _Timber worms_, Fig. 97. This class of true wood-boring
+    "worms," or grubs, are the larvae of beetles. They enter the
+    wood from eggs deposited in wounds in living trees, from
+    which they burrow deep into the heart-wood. Generation after
+    generation may develop in the wood of a tree without affecting
+    its life but the wood is rendered worthless for most purposes
+    by the so-called wormhole and pinhole defects resulting from
+    their burrows. The same species also breed in the wood of
+    dying and dead standing trees, and in the stumps and logs of
+    felled ones, often for many years after the trees are felled.
+    One species sometimes attacks freshly sawed oak lumber, new
+    stave bolts, etc. They are among the most destructive enemies
+    of hardwood forest trees, especially in reducing the value of
+    the wood of the best part of the trunks. (Hopkins, _Forestry
+    Bulletin_ No. 48, p. 10.)
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 97. Work of Timber Worms in Oak: _a_, Work of oak
+timber worm, _Eupsalis minuta_; _b._ Barked surface; _c._ Bark;
+_d._ Sap-wood timber worm, _Hylocaetus lugubris_, and its work; _e._
+Sap-wood. [_Agric. Year Book_, 1904, Fig. 47, p. 386.]]
+
+    The _carpenter worms_, Fig. 98. These are large pinkish
+    caterpillars which are the larvae of stout-bodied moths. They
+    enter the bark and wood of living oak, locust, poplar and
+    other trees, from eggs deposited by the moths in the crevices
+    of uninjured bark, or in the edges of wounds. They burrow deep
+    into the solid wood, where they live for two or three years
+    before transforming to the adult. The wood is seriously
+    injured by the very large wormhole defects, and while the
+    life of the tree is but slightly, if at all, affected by the
+    earlier attacks, the continued operations of this class of
+    borers year after year, finally results in the decay of
+    the heart-wood, or a hollow trunk and a dead top. (Hopkins,
+    _Forestry Bulletin_, No. 48, p. 11.)
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 98. Worm Holes in Red Oak, Work of the Oak
+Carpenter Worm. [_Agric. Year Book_, 1903, Fig. 37, p. 324.]]
+
+    _Columbian Timber-beetle_ One of the commonest wormhole defects
+    in white oak, rock oak, beech, and tulip ("whitewood" or
+    "yellow poplar") is one known to the lumber trade as grease
+    spots, patch-worm, or black holes, Fig. 99, steam boats, Fig.
+    100, etc., caused by the Columbian timber beetle (_Corthylus
+    columbianus Hopk_.) The characteristic feature of this
+    wormhole defect, which will enable it to be readily recognized
+    in oak and beech, is transverse series of two or more black
+    holes about the size of the lead in an ordinary lead pencil,
+    with a streak of stained wood extending with the grain two
+    or three or more inches each side, as in Fig. 99. In
+    quarter-sawed oak or split or sawed staves, a short
+    longitudinal section of one of these black holes is seen
+    attended by the stained streak on one side of a thick or curly
+    growth or grain, Fig. 100. It is this form which is called
+    "steamboats." In whitewood (yellow poplar) the black holes
+    are attended by very long black, greenish, or bluish streaks,
+    sometimes five or six feet long. When this is common in the
+    lumber it is called "calico poplar." Fig. 101 represents the
+    characteristic appearance of this defect greatly reduced.
+    (Hopkins, _Agric. Yr. Bk._, 1903, p. 327.)
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 99. Work of the Columbian Timber Beetle: Black
+holes and "grease spots" in white oak. [_Agric. Year Book_, 1903, Fig.
+38, p. 325.]]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 100. Work of the Columbian Timber Beetle:
+"Steamboats" in quartered or Split white oak. [_Agric. Year Book_,
+1903, Fig. 39, p. 326.]]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 101. Work of the Columbian Timber Beetle in Tulip
+Wood, "Calico Poplar," [_Agric. Year Book_ 1903, Fig. 40, p. 326.]]
+
+    _Carpenter bees._ The work of this class of woodboring bees
+    is shown in Fig. 102. The injury consists of large augerlike
+    tunnels in exposed, solid dry wood of buildings and other
+    structures. It is most common in soft woods, such as pine,
+    poplar, redwood and the like. (Hopkins, _Agric. Yr. Bk._,
+    1904, p. 390.)
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 102. Work of the Carpenter Bee, _Xylocopa
+orpifex_, in Redwood Lumber: _a_, entrance; _b_, galleries; _c_,
+cells; _d_, larva; _e_, adult. [_Agric. Year Book_, 1904, Fig. 53, p.
+390.]]
+
+    _Horn tails._ This is a class of borers which are the larvae
+    of the so-called wood wasps. They may enter the exposed dead
+    wood of wounds of living trees, but more commonly attack the
+    wood of dead standing conifers and hard woods, in the sap-wood
+    of which they excavate irregular burrows, which are packed
+    with their borings. When the adults emerge they leave the
+    surface perforated with numerous round holes. Water and fungi
+    entering these holes cause a very rapid decay of the wood.
+    (Hopkins, _Entom. Bull._ No. 48, p. 11.)
+
+The tunnels of these various wood pests are most frequently to be seen
+in chestnut, ash, hickory, oak, tulip, and cypress.
+
+One would think that with such an array of enemies, the forest would
+hardly survive, but on the other hand there are many enemies of these
+pests. The most destructive are the predaceous and parasitic insects.
+Many insects are simply predaceous, pouncing upon and destroying such
+other insects as they can overcome. Still others are parasites, some
+external, but most of them living within the bodies of their victims
+where they pass their entire larval life. The eggs are laid on or
+in the body of the victim, so that as soon as one hatches, it has
+suitable food. The ichneumon fly, Fig. 103, is such a parasite;
+it destroys millions of insect pests. It has a long and peculiar
+ovipositor with which it drills a hole into the tree and deposits the
+egg in a burrow of the Pigeon Horntail, a wood wasp that burrows into
+deciduous trees. The larva soon finds its victim, the grub of the
+Pigeon Horntail, and lives on it to its destruction.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 103. Ichneumon Fly whose Larva Feeds on the Larva
+of the Pigeon Horn-tail.]
+
+It would seem that it is a hopeless task to control the insect enemies
+of forest trees and forest products or to prevent losses from their
+ravages, but the writer is informed by Dr. A. D. Hopkins, the expert
+in the Bureau of Entomology in charge of forest insect investigations,
+that the results of their investigations show conclusively that there
+are many practical and inexpensive methods of control now available
+thru the suggestions and recommendations in recent Department
+publications on forest insects, as well as thru direct correspondence
+with the Department. These methods are based on the principle of
+prevention and not on that of extermination. It has been shown that
+thru proper adjustment of the details in management of forests and of
+the business of manufacturing, storing, transporting, and utilizing
+the products a large percentage of the losses can be prevented at
+small additional expense, and that even when considerable cost is
+involved the amount saved will often represent a handsome profit.
+
+
+THE NATURAL ENEMIES OF THE FOREST.
+
+REFERENCES:[A]
+
+(1) Meterological.
+
+      Pinchot, _Primer_ I, pp. 75-76.
+      Roth, _First Book_, _pp._ 198-202.
+      Bruncken, pp. 27-29.
+
+    Water.
+      Roth, _First Book_, p. 27.
+
+    Snow, ice and frost.
+      Pinchot, _Primer_, I, p. 76.
+      Bruce, _For. and Irr._, 8: 159, Ap. '02.
+
+
+(2) Vegetable.
+
+      Roth, _First Book_, p. 4.
+      Boulger, pp. 70-75.
+      Spaulding, _For. Bull._, No. 22.
+      Ward, Chaps. V, VI, VII.
+      Sickles, pp. 41-45.
+      von Schrenck, _For. Bull._, No. 41, Pl. III.
+      Sherfesee. _For. Circ._ No. 139.
+      von Schrenck, _Bur. Plant Ind. Bull._ No. 36.
+      von Schrenck, _Bur. Plant Ind. Bull._ No. 32.
+      von Schrenck, _Agric. Yr. Bk._, 1900, p. 199.
+
+
+(3) Animal.
+
+    Grazing.
+      Pinchot, _Primer I_, pp. 69-73, II, p. 73.
+      Pinchot, _Agric. Yr. Bk._, 1898, p. 187
+      Coville, _For. Bull._ No. 15, pp. 28-31.
+      Roth, _First Bk._, p. 130, 178.
+
+    Insects.
+      Comstock, passim.
+      Hopkins, _Agric. Yr. Bk._, 1902, pp. 265-282.
+      Roth, _First Book_, pp. 115-130.
+      Howard, _Entom. Bull._, No. 11, n. s.
+      Hopkins, Spaulding, _Entom. Bull._, No. 28.
+      Hopkins, _Entom. Bull._, No. 48.
+      Hopkins, _Agric. Yr. Bk._, 1903, pp. 313-329.
+      Hopkins, _Agric. Yr. Bk._, 1904, pp. 382-389, Figs. 43-56.
+      Pinchot, _Primer_, I, p. 73.
+      Felt, N. Y. _State Museum Bull._, 103, Ent. 25.
+      Hopkins, _Entom. Bull._ No. 32.
+      Hopkins, _Entom. Bull._ No. 56.
+      Hopkins, _Entom. Bull._ No. 58.
+      Spaulding and Chittenden, _For. Bull._ No. 22, pp. 55-61.
+
+    [Footnote A: For general bibliography, see p. 4.]
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER VII.
+
+THE EXHAUSTION OF THE FOREST.
+
+
+The exhaustion of the forest in the United States is due to two main
+causes: (1) Fire, and (2) Destructive Lumbering.
+
+
+FIRE.
+
+It is not commonly realized that forest fires are almost entirely the
+result of human agency. When cruisers first began to locate claims in
+this country, practically no regions had been devastated by fire. Now
+such regions are to be seen everywhere. Altho lightning occasionally
+sets fire to forests, especially in the Rocky Mountains, the losses
+from this cause are trifling compared with the total loss.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 104. Slash, Left in the Woods, and Ready to Catch
+Fire. _U. S. Forest Service._]
+
+_Opportunities for fire._ There are a number of facts that make the
+forest peculiarly liable to fire. Especially in the fall there are
+great quantities of inflammable material, such as dry leaves, twigs,
+and duff lying loose ready for ignition. The bark of some trees,
+as "paper birch," and the leaves of others, as conifers, are very
+inflammable. It follows that fires are more common in coniferous than
+in deciduous forests. After lumbering or windfalls, the accumulated
+"slash" burns easily and furiously, Fig. 104. Moreover a region once
+burned over, is particularly liable to burn again, on account of the
+accumulation of dry trunks and branches. See Fig. 107.
+
+Long dry seasons and high wind furnish particularly favorable
+conditions for fire. On the other hand, the wind by changing in
+direction may extinguish the fire by turning it back upon its track.
+Indeed the destructive power of fires depends largely upon the wind.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 105. Forest Fire. _U. S. Forest Service._]
+
+_Causes of fire._ Forest fires are due to all sorts of causes,
+accidental and intentional. Dropped matches, smouldering tobacco,
+neglected camp fires and brush fires, locomotive sparks, may all be
+accidental causes that under favorable conditions entail tremendous
+loss. There is good reason to believe that many forest fires are set
+intentionally. The fact that grass and berry bushes will soon spring
+up after a fire, leads sheep men, cattle and pig owners, and berry
+pickers to set fires. Vast areas are annually burned over in the
+United States for these reasons. Most fires run only along the surface
+of the ground, doing little harm to the big timber, and if left alone
+will even go out of themselves; but if the duff is dry, the fire may
+smoulder in it a long time, ready to break out into flame when it
+reaches good fuel or when it is fanned by the wind, Fig. 105. Even
+these ground fires do incalculable damage to seeds and seedlings, and
+the safest plan is to put out every fire no matter how small.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 106. Burned Forest of Engelmann Spruce.
+Foreground, Lodgepole Pine Coming in. _U. S. Forest Service._]
+
+Altho it is true that the loss of a forest is not irremediable because
+vegetation usually begins again at once, Fig. 106, yet the actual
+damage is almost incalculable. The tract may lie year after year,
+covered with only worthless weeds and bushes, and if hilly, the region
+at once begins to be eroded by the rains.
+
+After the fire, may come high winds that blow down the trunks of the
+trees, preparing material for another fire, Fig. 107.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 107. Effect of Fire and Wind. Colorado. _U. S.
+Forest Service._]
+
+The statistics of the actual annual money loss of the timber burned
+in the United States are not gathered. In 1880 Professor Sargent
+collected much information, and in the census of that year (10th
+Census, Vol. IX) reported 10,000,000 acres burned that year at a value
+of $25,000,000.
+
+In 1891, the Division of Forestry collected authentic records of
+12,000,000 acres burned over in a single year, at an estimated value
+of $50,000,000.
+
+In the Adironacks in the spring of 1903, an unprecedentedly dry
+season, fire after fire caused a direct loss of about $3,500,000.
+
+In 1902, a fire on the dividing line between Washington and Oregon
+destroyed property amounting to $12,000,000. Within comparatively
+recent years, the Pacific Coast states have lost over $100,000,000
+worth of timber by fire alone.
+
+During September, 1908, forest fires raged in Minnesota, Michigan,
+Wisconsin, Maine, New York and Pennsylvania. The estimates of loss
+for northern Michigan alone amounted to $40,000,000. For two weeks
+the loss was set at $1,000,000 a day. The two towns of Hibbing and
+Chisholm were practically wiped out of existence, and 296 lives were
+lost.
+
+Certain forest fires have been so gigantic and terrible as to become
+historic.
+
+    One of these is the Miramichi fire of 1825. It began its
+    greatest destruction about one o'clock in the afternoon of
+    October 7th of that year, at a place about sixty miles
+    above the town of Newcastle, on the Miramichi River, in New
+    Brunswick. Before ten o'clock at night it was twenty miles
+    below New Castle. In nine hours it had destroyed a belt of
+    forest eighty miles long and twenty-five miles wide. Over more
+    than two and a half million acres almost every living thing
+    was killed. Even the fish were afterwards found dead in heaps
+    on the river banks. Many buildings and towns were destroyed,
+    one hundred and sixty persons perished, and nearly a thousand
+    head of stock. The loss from the Miramichi fire is estimated
+    at $300,000, not including the value of the timber. (Pinchot,
+    Part 1. p. 79-80.)
+
+    Of such calamities, one of the worst that is on record is that
+    known as the Peshtigo fire, which, in 1871, during the same
+    month, October, when Chicago was laid in ashes, devastated the
+    country about the shores of Green Bay in Wisconsin. More than
+    $3,000,000 worth of property was burnt, at least two thousand
+    families of settlers were made homeless, villages were
+    destroyed and over a thousand lives lost. (Bruncken, p. 110.)
+
+    The most destructive fire of more recent years was that which
+    started near Hinckley, Minn., September 1, 1894. While the
+    area burned over was less than in some other great fires, the
+    loss of life and property was very heavy. Hinckley and six
+    other towns were destroyed, about 500 lives were lost, more
+    than 2,000 persons were left destitute, and the estimated loss
+    in property of various kinds was $25,000,000. Except for the
+    heroic conduct of locomotive engineers and other railroad men,
+    the loss of life would have been far greater.
+
+    This fire was all the more deplorable, because it was wholly
+    unnecessary. For many days before the high wind came and drove
+    it into uncontrollable fury, it was burning slowly close to
+    the town of Hinckley and could have been put out. (Pinchot,
+    Part I, 82-83.)
+
+One of the most remarkable features of these "crown fires," is the
+rapidity with which they travel. The Miramichi fire traveled nine
+miles an hour.
+
+To get an idea of the fury of a forest fire, read this description
+from Bruncken. After describing the steady, slow progress of a duff
+fire, he proceeds:
+
+    But there comes an evening when nobody thinks of going to bed.
+    All day the smoke has become denser and denser, until it is no
+    longer a haze, but a thick yellowish mass of vapor, carrying
+    large particles of sooty cinders, filling one's eyes and
+    nostrils with biting dust, making breathing oppressive. There
+    is no escape from it. Closing windows and doors does not bar
+    it out of the houses; it seems as if it could penetrate solid
+    walls. Everything it touches feels rough, as if covered with
+    fine ashes. The heat is horrible altho no ray of sunshine
+    penetrates the heavy pall of smoke.
+
+    In the distance a rumbling, rushing sound is heard. It is the
+    fire roaring in the tree tops on the hill sides, several miles
+    from town. This is no longer a number of small fires, slowly
+    smouldering away to eat up a fallen log; nor little dancing
+    flames running along the dry litter on the ground, trying to
+    creep up the bark of a tree, where the lichens are thick and
+    dry, but presently falling back exhausted. The wind has risen,
+    fanning the flames on all sides, till they leap higher and
+    higher, reaching the lower branches of the standing timber,
+    enveloping the mighty boles of cork pine in a sheet of flame,
+    seizing the tall poles of young trees and converting them
+    into blazing beacons that herald the approach of destruction.
+    Fiercer and fiercer blows the wind, generated by the fire
+    itself as it sends currents of heated air rushing upward into
+    infinity. Louder and louder the cracking of the branches as
+    the flames seize one after the other, leaping from crown to
+    crown, rising high above the tree tops in whirling wreaths
+    of fire, and belching forth clouds of smoke hundreds of feet
+    still higher. As the heated air rises more and more, rushing
+    along with a sound like that of a thousand foaming mountain
+    torrents, burning brands are carried along, whirling on across
+    the firmament like evil spirits of destruction, bearing the
+    fire miles away from its origin, then falling among the dry
+    brush heaps of windfall or slashing, and starting another fire
+    to burn as fiercely as the first. * * *
+
+    There is something horrible in the slow, steady approach of
+    a top fire. It comes on with the pitiless determination of
+    unavoidable destiny, not faster than a man can walk. But there
+    is no stopping it. You cannot fight a fire that seizes tree
+    top after tree top, far above your reach, and showers down
+    upon the pigmy mortals that attempt to oppose it an avalanch
+    of burning branches, driving them away to escape the torture
+    and death that threatens them. (Bruncken, _American Forests
+    and Forestry_, 106-109.)
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 108. Fighting Forest Fire. _U. S. Forest
+Service._]
+
+Real forest fires are not usually put out; men only try to limit them.
+A common method of limitation is to cut trenches thru the duff so that
+the fire cannot pass across, Fig. 108. In serious cases back fires are
+built on the side of the paths or roads or trenches toward the fire,
+in the expectation that the two fires will meet. In such cases great
+care has to be taken that the back fire itself does not escape. Small
+fires, however, can sometimes be beaten out or smothered with dirt and
+sand, since water is usually unavailable.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 109. Fire Lane. Worcester Co., Mass. _U. S. Forest
+Service._]
+
+But "an ounce of prevention is worth a pound of cure." One of the best
+of these preventions is a system of fire lanes. Even narrow paths of
+dirt will stop an ordinary fire. Roads, of course, are still better.
+Systems of fire lanes, Fig. 109, are made great use of in Europe
+and British India. Belts of hardwood trees are also cultivated along
+railways, and to break up large bodies of conifers.
+
+If in lumbering, the slash were destroyed or even cut up so as to lie
+near the ground and rot quickly, many fires would be prevented.
+
+Some states, as New York, have a fairly well organized system of fire
+wardens, who have the authority to draft as much male help as
+they need at $2.00 a day to fight forest fires. Unfortunately
+"ne'er-do-wells" sometimes set fire to the woods, in order to "make
+work" for themselves. Much preventive work is also done by educating
+the public in schools and by the posting of the fire notices,[1] Fig.
+110.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 110. Look out for Fire. Rules and Laws.]
+
+
+DESTRUCTIVE LUMBERING.
+
+How the reckless and destructive methods of lumbering common in
+America came into vogue, is worth noting.[2]
+
+The great historical fact of the first half century of our country
+was the conquest of the wilderness. That wilderness was largely an
+unbroken forest. To the early settler, this forest was the greatest
+of barriers to agriculture. The crash of a felled tree was to him a
+symbol of advancing civilization. The woods were something to be got
+rid of to make room for farms, Fig. 111. In Virginia, for example,
+where the soil was soon exhausted by tobacco culture and modern
+fertilizers were unknown, there was a continual advance into the woods
+to plant on new and richer land. The forest was also full of enemies
+to the settler, both animals and Indians, and was a dreaded field for
+fire. So there grew up a feeling of hate and fear for the forest.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 111. Forest Giving Place to Farm Land. North
+Carolina. _U. S. Forest Service._]
+
+More than that the forest seemed exhaustless. The clearings were at
+first only specks in the woods, and even when they were pushed farther
+and farther back from the seacoast, there was plenty of timber beyond.
+
+    The idea that the area of this forest could ever be diminished
+    by human hands to any appreciable extent so that people would
+    become afraid of not having woodland enough to supply them
+    with the needed lumber, would have seemed an utter absurdity
+    to the backwoodsman. * * * Thus the legend arose of the
+    inexhaustible supply of lumber in American forests, a legend
+    which only within the last twenty years has given place to
+    juster notions. (Bruncken, p. 57.)
+
+This tradition of abundant supply and the feeling of hostility to the
+forest lasted long after the reasons for them had disappeared. When
+we remember that every farm in the eastern United States, is made from
+reclaimed forest land and that for decades lumber was always within
+reach up the rivers, down which it was floated, it is not strange that
+reckless and extravagant methods of cutting and using it prevailed.
+
+Following the settler came the lumberman, who continued the same
+method of laying waste the forest land. The lumber market grew slowly
+at first, but later developed by leaps and bounds, until now the
+output is enormous.
+
+Lumbering in America has come to be synonymous with the clearing off
+of all the marketable timber, regardless of the future. It treats the
+forest as tho it were a mine, not a crop, Fig. 112. Since 1880 the
+total cut has been over 700,000,000 feet, enough to make a one inch
+floor over Vermont, Massachusetts, Connecticut, Rhode Island and
+Delaware, or one-half of the State of New York, an area of 25,000
+square miles.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 112. Redwood Forest Turned Into Pasture.
+California. _U. S. Forest Service._]
+
+Other countries, too, have devastated their forests. Portugal has
+a forest area of only 5 per cent. of the total land area, Spain and
+Greece, each 13 per cent., Italy 14 per cent. and Turkey 20 per cent.
+Whether the destruction of the American forests shall go as far
+as this is now a live question which has only just begun to be
+appreciated.
+
+Another reason for the reckless American attitude toward the forest is
+the frequency and severity of forest fires. This has led to the fear
+on the part of lumbermen of losing what stumpage they had, and so they
+have cleared their holdings quickly and sold the timber. Their motto
+was "cut or lose."
+
+A third incentive to devastative methods was the levy of what were
+considered unjust taxes.
+
+    Hundreds of thousands of acres in the white pine region,
+    notably in Michigan, Wisconsin, and Minnesota, have been cut
+    over, abandoned, sold for taxes, and finally reduced by fire
+    to a useless wilderness because of the shortsighted policy of
+    heavy taxation. To lay heavy taxes on timber land is to set
+    a premium on forest destruction, a premium that is doing
+    more than any other single factor to hinder the spread of
+    conservative lumbering among the owners of large bodies
+    of timber land. * * * Heavy taxes are responsible for the
+    barrenness of thousands of square miles which should never
+    have ceased to be productive, and which must now lie fallow
+    for many decades before they can be counted again among the
+    wealth-making assets of the nation. (Pinchot, _Agric. Yr.
+    Bk._, 1898, pp. 184-185.)
+
+    On the treatment of the questions of fire and taxes depends
+    the future of American forest industries. (Bruncken, p. 226.)
+
+Undoubtedly much waste has been caused by sheer ignorance of forest
+conditions and methods, which, if followed, would secure successive
+crops instead of one, but it is safe to say that the desire for
+immediate profits has been the dominant cause of reckless lumbering.
+So short-sighted has the policy of private owners proved itself, that
+it is a question whether any large extent of forest land can safely
+be left in private hands. No individual lives long enough to reap more
+than one forest crop. Only corporations and States can be expected
+to have an interest long enough continued to justify the methods of
+conservative lumbering.
+
+As a matter of fact, nearly one-half of the privately owned timber
+of the United States is held by 195 great holders, the principal ones
+being the Southern Pacific Company, the Weyerhauser Timber Company,
+and the Northern Pacific Railway Company, which together own nearly 11
+per cent. of the privately owned forests of the country. These large
+holders are cutting little of their timber, their object, however,
+being not so much to conserve the forests as to reserve to themselves
+the incalculable private profits which are expected to come with the
+future enormous increase in the value of timber.
+
+Over against this policy, stands that of the United States Forest
+Service of increasing the area of the National Forests in order to
+conserve them for the public welfare. The pity is that the government
+ever let the forests pass out of its hands. Only forty years ago
+seventy-five per cent. of the timber now standing was publicly owned.
+Now about eighty per cent. of it is privately owned. In the meanwhile
+its value has increased anywhere from ten to fifty fold, according to
+locality.[3] Some large corporations, however, like the Pennsylvania
+Railroad, the Kirby Lumber Company, of Texas, and the International
+Paper Company, have entered upon a policy of conservative lumbering.
+
+Of the actual practices which distinguish destructive lumbering, a few
+may be cited. Stumps are cut too high and tops too low. Good lumber is
+wasted on lumber roads and bridges, Fig. 113. Saplings are torn down
+in dragging out logs. Slash is left in condition to foster fires and
+left with no shade protection. Seedlings are smothered with slash.
+Seed trees are all cut out leaving no chance for reproduction. Only
+poorer sorts of trees are left standing, thus insuring deterioration.
+Paper pulp cutting goes even farther than lumbering, and ordinarily
+leaves nothing behind but a howling wilderness.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 113. Red Spruce Used in Building Skidway, and Left
+in the Woods. Hamilton Co., New York.]
+
+The production of turpentine from the long-leaf pine, Fig. 114, at
+the annual rate of 40,000 barrels has meant the devastation of 70,000
+acres of virgin forest.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 114. Turpentine Boxing, Cup System. Georgia. _U.
+S. Forest Service._]
+
+In view of this wholesale destruction it becomes of interest to know
+how much still remains of the timber supply of the United States.
+The latest and most authoritative estimate of standing timber
+in continental United States, excluding Alaska, gives a total of
+2,800,000,000 M feet B.M.,[4] of which 2,200,000,000 M feet are
+privately owned, about 539,000,000 M feet are in the National Forests
+(Fig. 119, p. 271,) and 90,000,000 M feet are on the unreserved public
+lands, National parks, State lands and Indian reservations.
+
+Earlier estimates were hardly more than guesses. For example the
+census of 1880 estimated the stumpage of the U. S. at 856,290,100 M
+feet, while the census of 1900 gives a total of 1,390,000,000 M feet.
+The discrepancy appears still greater when it is remembered that in
+the meantime 700,000,000 M feet were cut. Of this amount 500,000,000 M
+feet were of conifers or 80,000,000 M feet more than were included in
+the estimate of 1880. The simple fact is of course that the earlier
+estimates were gross underestimates, due to the fact that they were
+based on entirely inadequate data, and therefore can not be used to
+obscure the now unquestionable fact that the timber supply of this
+country is surely and rapidly melting away.
+
+The Forest Service estimates that the present annual cut of saw timber
+is about 50,000,000 M feet. At this rate the present stand would last
+about 55 years and the privately owned timber only 44 years. This
+estimate does not allow for growth and decay.
+
+While the population of the United States increased 52 per cent. from
+1880 to 1900, during the same period the lumber-cut increased 94 per
+cent. In other words the yearly increase in use is 20 to 25 per
+cent. per capita, that is, fast as the population grows, the lumber
+consumption increases nearly twice as fast. This increase in the
+lumber-cut far overbalances the growth of trees.
+
+It is also to be remembered that this increase in the use of lumber is
+in spite of the enormous increase of substitutes for lumber, such as
+brick, cement and steel for building, and steel for bridges, vehicles,
+fences, machinery, tools, and implements of all kinds.
+
+How lavishly we use lumber may further be appreciated from the fact
+that we consume 260 cubic feet[5] per capita, while the average for
+13 European countries is but 49 cubic feet per capita. In other words
+every person in the U. S. is using five times as much wood as he would
+use if he lived in Europe. It is estimated that on an average each
+person in this country uses annually the product of 25 acres of
+forest. _The country as a whole, cuts every year, between three and
+four times more wood than all the forests grow in the meantime._
+By contrast, the principal countries of Europe, cut just the annual
+growth, while Russia, Sweden and Japan, cut less than the growth. In
+other words, the 2,800,000,000,000 feet B.M. of the stumpage of the
+United States is a capital which is constantly drawn upon, whereas,
+the 944,700,000,000 board feet of the forest of the German Empire is
+a capital which is untouched but produces annually 300 board feet per
+acre.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 115. (Lumber Production by Regions, 1907).
+
+Southern States include: Virginia, North Carolina, South Carolina,
+Georgia, Florida, Alabama, Mississippi, Louisiana, Arkansas, Texas and
+Oklahoma.
+
+Pacific States include: Washington, Oregon and California.
+
+North Atlantic States include: New England, New York, Pennsylvania,
+New Jersey, Delaware, and Maryland.
+
+Lake States include: Michigan, Wisconsin, and Minnesota.
+
+Central States include: Ohio, West Virginia, Kentucky, Tennessee,
+Indiana, Illinois, and Missouri.
+
+Rocky Mountain States include: Montana, Idaho, Wyoming, Nevada, Utah,
+Colorado, Arizona, and New Mexico.]
+
+One striking evidence of the decrease of the timber supply is the
+shifting of its sources. Once the northeastern States produced over
+half of the lumber product. They reached their relative maximum in
+1870 when they produced 36 per cent. At that time the Lake States
+produced about 24 per cent. By 1890 the Lake States came to their
+maximum of 36 per cent. Today the southern States are near their
+maximum with 41 per cent., but the center will soon shift to the
+Pacific States. Their product rose from less than 10 per cent. of the
+whole in 1900 to 17 per cent. in 1908, Figs. 115 and 116. When
+that virgin forest has been cut off, there will be no new region
+to exploit; whereas, heretofore, when a region was exhausted, the
+lumbermen have always had a new one to which to move. At the
+annual meeting of the Northern Pine Manufacturers' Association in
+Minneapolis, Minn., January 22, 1907, Secretary J. E. Rhodes made this
+striking statement:
+
+    Since 1895, 248 firms, representing an annual aggregate
+    output of pine lumber of 4-1/4 billion feet, have retired from
+    business, due to the exhaustion of their timber supply. Plants
+    representing approximately 500 million feet capacity, which
+    sawed in 1906, will not be operated in 1907.
+
+    The shifting of the chief sources of supply has, of course,
+    been accompanied by a change in the kinds of lumber produced.
+    There was a time when white pine alone constituted one-half
+    of the total quantity. In 1900 this species furnished but 21.5
+    per cent., in 1904 only 15 per cent., of the lumber cut.[6] We
+    do not use less pine because we have found something better,
+    but because we have to put up with something worse.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 116. (Lumber Production by States).]
+
+The present annual cut of southern yellow pine is about 13-1/4 million
+M feet, or a little less than one-third of the total cut of all the
+species. At the present rate of consumption, it is evident that within
+ten or fifteen years, there will be a most serious shortage of it.
+Meanwhile the cut of Douglas fir on the Pacific coast has increased
+from 5 per cent. of the total lumber cut in 1900 to 12 per cent. in
+1905. This increase is in spite of the fact, already noted (p. 262)
+that the great timber owning companies of the northwest are holding
+their stumpage for an expected great increase in value.
+
+Another evidence of shortage is the almost total disappearance of
+certain valuable species. Hickory, which once made American buggies
+famous, is getting very scarce, and black walnut once commonly used
+for furniture, is available now for only fine cabinet work, veneers,
+gun stocks, etc. Hardwoods that are fit for the saw are rapidly
+decreasing. The hardwood cut of 1900 of 8,634,000 M feet diminished in
+1904 to 6,781,000 M feet.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 117. (Lumber Production by Species).]
+
+A still further evidence of the decreasing supply, is the rising scale
+of prices. White pine, which sold for $45.00 per M during 1887-1892,
+sold for $100.00 f.o.b. N. Y., Jan. 1, 1911. Yellow poplar went up in
+the same period, 1887-1911, from $29.00 to $63.00. Yellow pine rose
+from $18.00 in 1896 to $47.00 in 1911, and hemlock, the meanest of all
+woods, from $11.50 in 1889 to $21.00 in 1911, Fig. 118.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 118. Wholesale lumber prices, 1887-1911.
+
+The qualities of lumber shown in the above chart are as follows:
+
+White Ash, 1st and 2d, 1" and 1-1/2" x 8" and up by 12'-16'.
+
+Basswood, 1st and 2d, 1" x 8" and up by x 00".
+
+White Oak, quarter-sawed, 1st and 2d, all figured, 1" x 6" and up x
+10'-16'.
+
+Yellow poplar, 1st and 2d, 1" x 7"-17" x 12'-16'.
+
+Hemlock, boards
+
+Spruce, No. 1 and clear, 1" and 1-1/4" x 4" x 13'.
+
+White pine, rough uppers, 1" x 8" and up x 00'.
+
+Yellow pine, edge grain flooring. The curve is approximately correct,
+for the standard of quality has been changed several times.]
+
+It is to be remembered, moreover, that as the timber in any region
+becomes scarcer, the minimum cutting limit is constantly lowered, and
+the standard of quality constantly depreciated. Poorer species
+and qualities and smaller sizes, which were once rejected, are now
+accepted in the market. For example, 6 inches is now a common cutting
+diameter for pine and spruce, whereas 12 inches was the minimum limit,
+and on the Pacific coast there is still nothing cut below 18 inches.
+This cutting of smaller sizes is largely due to the capacious maw of
+the pulp mill, which swallows even the poorest stuff. Altho the amount
+of wood used for paper pulp is small in comparison with the total
+lumber production, being about 5.4 per cent., yet this cutting
+of young growth keeps the forest land devastated. In 1906 nearly
+9,000,000 tons of wood were used for paper pulp in the United States.
+
+    No one who is at all familiar with the situation doubts for an
+    instant that we are rapidly using up our _forest capital_. In
+    fact it is unquestionably safe to say that our present annual
+    consumption of wood in all forms is _from three to four times
+    as great as the annual increment of our forests_. Even
+    by accepting the highest estimate of the amount of timber
+    standing we postpone for only a few years the time when there
+    must be a great curtailment in the use of wood, if the present
+    methods of forest exploitation are continued. Every indication
+    points to the fact that under present conditions the maximum
+    annual yield of forest products for the country as a whole has
+    been reached, and that in a comparatively short time, there
+    will be a marked decrease in the total output, as there is now
+    in several items. (Kellogg, _Forestry Circular_, No. 97, p.
+    12.)
+
+On the other hand, it is to be remembered that there are influences
+which tend to save and extend the forest area. These will be
+considered in the next chapter, on the Use of the Forest.
+
+    [Footnote 1:
+
+    LOOK OUT FOR FIRE!
+
+    RULES AND LAWS.
+
+    Fires for clearing land near a forest must not be started
+    until the trees are in full leaf. Before lighting such fires
+    three days' notice, at least, must be given to the Firewarden
+    and occupants of adjoining lands. After such fires are
+    lighted, competent persons must remain to guard them until the
+    fire is completely extinguished, and the persons starting such
+    fires will be held responsible for all damages notwithstanding
+    notice had been given to the Firewarden.
+
+    Fires will be permitted for the purposes of cooking, warmth
+    and insect smudges, but before such fires are kindled,
+    sufficient space around the spot where the fire is to be
+    lighted must be cleared from all combustible material; and
+    before the place is abandoned, fires so lighted must be
+    thoroly quenched.
+
+    All fires other than those hereinbefore mentioned are
+    absolutely prohibited.
+
+    Hunters and smokers are cautioned against allowing fires to
+    originate from the use of firearms, cigars and pipes.
+
+    Especial care should be taken that lighted matches are
+    extinguished before throwing them down.
+
+    All persons are warned that they will be held responsible for
+    any damage or injury to the forest which may result from their
+    carelessness or neglect.
+
+    Girdling and peeling bark from standing trees on state land is
+    prohibited. Fallen timber only may be used for firewood.
+
+    All citizens are requested to report immediately any cases
+    which may come to their knowledge of injury to woodlands
+    arising from a violation of these rules.
+
+    Then follow quotations from the laws of the state of New York.
+    ]
+
+    [Footnote 2: For the common methods of logging see _Handwork
+    in Wood_, Chapter I.]
+
+    [Footnote 3: See Summary of Report of the Commissioner of
+    Corporations on the Lumber Industry. February 13, 1911.
+    Washington, D. C.]
+
+    [Footnote 4: A board foot is one foot square and one inch
+    thick.]
+
+    [Footnote 5: 167 cubic feet equal about 1000 board feet.]
+
+    [Footnote 6: _Forestry Circular_, No. 97.]
+
+
+THE EXHAUSTION OF THE FOREST
+
+REFERENCES:[A]
+
+(1) Fires.
+
+      Bruncken, pp. 183-207.
+      Pinchot, _Agric. Yr. Bk._, p. 189.
+      Suter, _For. Circ._ No. 36.
+      U. S. Tenth Census, Vol. IX, p. 491 ff.
+      Pinchot, _Primer_, pp. 77-88.
+      Roth, _First Book_, pp. 104-112.
+      Sterling, _Agric. Yr. Bk._, 1904, p. 133.
+
+(2) Destructive Lumbering.
+
+    The Settler's Tradition.
+      Bruncken, pp. 40-59, 94.
+      Roth, _First Book_, pp. 41-45.
+      Pinchot, _Primer_, II, p. 82.
+
+    Taxation.
+      _For. and Irr._, April, '06.
+      Pinchot, _Agric. Yr. Bk._, 1898, p. 184.
+
+    Reckless Practices.
+      Pinchot, _Primer_ II, 42-47.
+      Pinchot, _Agric. Yr. Bk._, 1898, p. 184.
+      Pinchot, _For. Circ._, No. 25, p. 11.
+      Price, _Agric. Yr. Bk._, 1902, p. 310.
+      Fox, _For. Bull._, No. 34, p. 40.
+      Peters, _Agric. Yr. Bk._, 1905, pp. 483-494.
+      Graves, _Agric. Yr. Bk._, 1899, p. 415.
+      Suter, _For. Bull._, 26, pp. 58, 69, 76.
+      Mohr, _For. Bull._ No. 13, p. 61.
+      Bruncken, pp. 90-98.
+
+    The Timber Supply.
+      Kellogg, _For. Circ._, No. 97 ...
+      Zon, _For. Bull._, No. 83.
+      Fernow, _Economics_, pp. 35-45.
+      Report of the Commissioner of Corporations on the Lumber Industry.
+        Part I, Feb. 13, 1911.
+
+    [Footnote A: For general bibliography, see p. 4.]
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER VIII.
+
+THE USE OF THE FOREST.
+
+
+Man's relation to the forest has not been entirely destructive and
+injurious. He has exerted and is more and more exerting influences
+which while still enabling him to use the forest, also preserve
+and improve it. These activities may all be included under the term
+Forestry.
+
+The objects of modern forestry then are threefold: 1. The
+_utilization_ of the forest and its products, the main object; 2. The
+_preservation_ of the forest, _i.e._, its continued reproduction; 3.
+The _improvement_ of the forest.
+
+
+UTILIZATION.
+
+The uses of the forest are threefold: (1) Protective, (2) Productive,
+and (3) Esthetic.
+
+(1) _Protective._ The forest may be used as a protection against
+floods, wind, shifting sand, heat, drought, etc. The National Forests
+of the United States, Fig. 119, with the state forests, which include
+one-fifth of the total forest area, are largely treated as "protection
+forests" to maintain the head waters of streams, Fig. 120, used for
+irrigation, for power or for commerce. The attempt now being made to
+reserve large areas in the White Mountains and southern Appalachians
+is chiefly for this purpose of protection.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 119. National Forests in the United States.]
+
+A comparison of Figs. 120 and 121 shows clearly the difference between
+a region protected by forest and one unprotected.[1]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 120. A Protection Forest, Maintaining the
+Headwaters of Streams. North Carolina. _U. S. Forest Service._]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 121. Hillside Erosion. North Carolina. _U. S.
+Forest Service_]
+
+(2) _Productive._ All practical foresters have as their first aim
+the _yield_ of the forest. This distinguishes forestry from landscape
+architecture, the object of which may equally be the preservation and
+improvement of a given tract. The crop to be produced is as truly the
+prime concern of the forester as the raising of agricultural crops is
+the prime concern of the farmer. It is for this reason that forestry
+is said to be the same thing as conservative lumbering, Fig. 122.
+The prejudice of lumbermen against forestry has arisen from a
+misunderstanding of its aim. Its aim is not to prevent the cutting
+down of trees, but to direct their cutting in such ways that in the
+future there will still be trees to cut. "Thru use to a greater use,"
+is the motto of the Forest Service. The difference between destructive
+lumbering and conservative lumbering is that the former cuts one crop
+regardless of the future; while the latter plans to cut crop after
+crop indefinitely. In other words, in conservative lumbering, the
+trees to be cut are not selected solely with reference to their
+immediate market value. Not one crop, but many, is the forester's
+motto.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 122. Conservative Lumbering. Black Hills National
+Forest, South Dakota. Note the brush, cord-wood, and logs piled
+separately,--a fine clean-up. Nothing cut below 12" diameter. _U. S.
+Forest Service._]
+
+So long as the supply seemed exhaustless, forests might be and were
+treated as mines are, _i.e._, exploited for the sake of immediate
+profit; but now that lumbermen begin to realize that the end of the
+supply is in sight, more conservative methods are being adopted. We
+cannot afford to kill the goose that lays the golden eggs. In order
+then to obtain as rich harvests as possible, the modern forester makes
+use of various methods, some negative, some positive.
+
+Waste is avoided in all possible ways, stumps are cut low and tops
+high on the trunk, first class trees are not used for skids, bridges,
+roads, etc., care is taken in "falling" trees and in dragging out
+logs, that they will not injure other trees. Just as economical
+disposal of the log has already been carried to a high degree of
+perfection in the saw-mill, (see _Handwork in Wood_, Chapter II,) so
+one object of forestry is to carry this economy back into the woods.
+
+One of the underlying ideas in conservative lumbering is that the
+"yield," _i.e._, the amount of wood taken out of a healthy forest
+in a given time, shall be equal to the amount grown during the same
+period. If less is taken out than grows, some trees will overmature
+and decay; if more is taken out than grows, the forest will ultimately
+be exhausted.
+
+This principle may be carried out in a number of ways; but in any case
+it is necessary to know how fast the forest is reproducing itself, and
+this is one of the functions of the forester. The United States
+Forest Service makes a definite offer of cooperation with farmers and
+lumbermen and owners of forests to provide them with skilled foresters
+for direction in this matter.
+
+In the United States, the most practicable way of determining the
+yield is by area, _i.e._, a certain fraction of a forest is to be
+cut over once in a given length of time, a year or longer. The time
+between two successive cuttings on the same area must be long enough
+to allow the young trees left standing to ripen.
+
+In a word, conservative lumbering involves (1) the treatment of the
+forest as a source of crops, (2) systematic gathering, and (3) young
+growth so left as to replace the outgo.
+
+The important place that forests fill in the national economy may
+be realized partly by the citation of a few facts as to the forest
+products. The lumber industry is the fourth in value of products
+among the great manufacturing industries of the United States,
+being exceeded only by the iron and steel, the textile, and the meat
+industries. It turns out a finished product worth $567,000,000.00. And
+yet lumber constitutes only about one-half of the value of the total
+output of forest products. Its annual value is three-fourths of a
+billion dollars, ($666,641,367 in 1907,) while the annual value of
+wood fuel, is $350,000,000. More than two-thirds of the people burn
+wood for fuel. The next largest single item in the list is shingles
+and laths, $32,000,000. (See _Forestry Bulletin_ No. 74, p. 7.)
+
+    Outside of food products, no material is so universally
+    used and so indispensable in human economy as wood. (Fernow,
+    _Econ._, p. 21.)
+
+The importance of forest products may also be learned from a mere list
+of the varied uses to which they are put. Such a list would include:
+fuel, wood and charcoal; houses (over half the population of the
+United States live in wooden houses); the wooden parts of masonry and
+steel buildings; scaffolding; barns, sheds and outhouses; ships, with
+all their parts, and the masts and trim of steel ships, boats
+and canoes; oars and paddles; railway ties (annual expenditure
+$50,000,000), railway cars, a million in number; trestles and bridges
+(more than 2,000 miles in length); posts and fencing; cooperage
+stock (low estimate, $25,000,000 annually); packing crates, including
+coffins; baskets; electric wire poles (annual cost about $10,000,000);
+piles and submerged structures, like canal locks and water-wheels;
+windmills; mining timbers (yearly cost, $7,500,000), indispensable
+in all mining operations (for every 100 tons of coal mined, 2 tons of
+mining timber are needed); street paving; veneers ($5,000,000.00 worth
+made annually); vehicles, including carriages, wagons, automobiles
+and sleighs; furniture; machines and their parts; patterns for metal
+molding; tools and tool handles; musical instruments; cigar boxes;
+matches; toothpicks; pencils; (315 million a year in the U. S.,
+requiring over 7 million cubic feet of wood); engraving blocks;
+shoe lasts, shoe trees and parts of shoes; hat blocks; agricultural
+implements; hop and bean poles; playthings and toys, for both children
+and adults; Christmas trees and decorations; pipes; walking sticks;
+umbrella handles; crutches and artificial limbs; household utensils;
+excelsior.
+
+Products other than wood: Turpentine and resin (worth $20,000,000 a
+year); tar; oils; tan-bark, 1-1/2 million cords (worth $13,000,000
+a year); wood alcohol; wood pulp (worth $15,000,000 a year); nuts;
+cellulose for collars, combs and car wheels; balsam, medicines;
+lampblack; dyes; paper fiber (xylolin) for textiles; shellac and
+varnish ($8,500,000 worth imported in 1907); vinegar and acetic acid;
+confections (including maple sugar and syrup at $2,500,000 a year).
+
+(3) The _Esthetic_ and sentimental uses of the forest, tho not to
+be estimated in dollars and cents, are nevertheless of incalculable
+benefit to the community. They would include the use of the forest
+as pleasure grounds, for hunting, fishing, camping, photography, and
+general sightseeing. Notable instances of the growing appreciation of
+these uses of the forest are the reservation of the Yellowstone and
+Yosemite Parks as pleasure grounds.
+
+
+PRESERVATION.
+
+The second object of forestry is the preservation of the forest, or
+continued reproduction.
+
+In addition to obtaining crops of trees, the forester plans to keep
+the forest in such condition that it will constantly reproduce itself
+and never become exhausted.
+
+This does not mean that no forests are to be cut down, or that a given
+area, once a forest, is to be always a forest. Just as the individual
+farmer needs some land for fields, some for pasture, and some for
+woodlots, so the nation needs some for cities, some for farms, some
+for pleasure grounds, and some for forests. But it does mean that
+fruitful forests shall not be turned into wildernesses as thousands of
+square miles now are, by the methods of destructive lumbering.
+
+In general, better land is necessary for agriculture than for
+forestry, and it is therefore only the part of wisdom to use the
+better land for fields and reserve the poorer land for forests. There
+are in the United States enormous regions that are fit for nothing but
+forests, but many of these, as in Wisconsin, Minnesota, and Michigan,
+have simply been denuded of their trees and no provision has been made
+for their reproduction. This then is the second aim of forestry,--to
+treat the forest so that it will continue to reproduce itself.
+
+In order to obtain this result, certain forest conditions have to be
+preserved. What these conditions are, we have already noticed (see
+Chap. V, The Forest Organism). They are partly topographical and
+climatic and partly historical. They include such factors as, soil,
+moisture, temperature, and light, the forest cover, the forest floor,
+the density and mixture of growth, all conditions of forest growth.
+It is only as the forester preserves these conditions, or to put it
+otherwise, it is only as he obeys the laws of the forest organism that
+he can preserve the forest. For a long period of our national history,
+we Americans were compelled to conform our life and institutions to
+the presence of the primeval forest, but by long observation of what
+happens naturally in the forest, there have been developed in Europe
+and in America certain ways of handling it so as to make it our
+servant and not our master.
+
+These ways are called silvicultural systems. They are all based on the
+nature of the forest itself, and they succeed only because they are
+modifications of what takes place naturally in the woods.
+
+As we have seen above (p. 220) trees reproduce themselves either by
+sprouts or by seeds. This fact gives rise to two general methods of
+reproduction, called the coppice systems and the seed systems.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 123. Chestnut Coppice. _U. S. Forest Service._]
+
+_Coppice_, Fig. 123. In the simpler form of this system, the forest
+is divided into a certain number of parts, say thirty, and one part is
+cut down each year. New sprouts at once start up, which will mature
+a year later than those in the part cut the previous year. Where the
+trees of each part are thirty years old at cutting, thirty years is
+called the "rotation period." The coppice is said to be managed on
+a thirty-year rotation. The system is widely used in eastern United
+States, for fuel, posts, charcoal, railway ties, and other small
+stuff, as well as for tan-bark. This system is modified by maintaining
+an overwood composed of seedling trees or selected sprouts above a
+stand of sprouts. This is called the Reserve Sprout method and is used
+with admirable results by the French.
+
+_Seed Forests._ In contrast with coppice forests, those raised from
+seeds produce the best class of timber, such as is used for saw logs.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 124. Seeding from the Side. White Pine. New
+Hampshire. _U. S. Forest Service._]
+
+_Seeding from the side_, Fig. 124. Many forests naturally spread at
+their borders from the scattering of their seeds. "Old field pine" is
+so called from its tendency to spread in this way on old fields. This
+natural "Seeding from the Side" has given rise to the "Group System,"
+in which an area of ripe trees is cut off and the trees alongside are
+depended upon to reproduce new ones on the cut-over area. The openings
+are gradually enlarged until all the old timber is cut out, and the
+young growth has taken its place. In its best form there is a definite
+"rotation period," say eighty years. This system is simple, safe, and
+very useful, especially for small openings in woodlots. A modification
+of this is the "Strip System," in which long narrow openings, say
+seventy-five yards wide, are cut out and gradually widened. The strips
+are cut in the proper direction so that the prevailing winds will
+cross them, both for the sake of avoiding windfalls and to help
+scatter the seed. Where the soil is very dry, the strips may run east
+and west to protect the seedlings from the sun.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 125. Virgin Forest, Trees of All Ages. Jackson
+Co., North Carolina. _U.S. Forest Service._]
+
+_Selection Forests._ The typical virgin forest, Fig. 125, is one in
+which trees of all ages are closely intermingled, and it may be either
+"mixed" or "pure." If a farmer had a woodlot of this character and
+every year went over it with the ax, cutting out such trees as he
+needed for his purpose, and also trees whose removal would improve the
+woods, but taking care not to cut out each year more than the amount
+of the average growth, he would be using the "Selection System." This
+system is the best way of keeping a forest dense and of preserving
+one which is difficult to start afresh, as on a mountain slope; it is
+practicable where the woods are small or under a high state of care,
+as in Europe, where this system has been in use for seven centuries.
+But the cost of road maintenance and of logging is high and it is
+therefore impracticable in most lumber regions in the United States,
+except for woods of especial value, like black walnut.
+
+_Localized Selection._ If instead of the whole forest being treated in
+this way every year, it were divided up into perhaps twenty parts, and
+from each part there were taken out each year as much lumber as would
+equal the annual growth of the whole forest, such a system would be
+called "Localized Selection." The cost of logging would be greatly
+reduced and if care were taken to leave standing some seed trees and
+to cut no trees below a determined size, as twelve inches, the forest
+would maintain itself in good condition. This system has been applied
+with great success in certain private forests in the Adirondacks.
+
+_Regular Seed Forest or High Forest._ In the system already mentioned
+above of seeding from the side, the trees near the cut areas are
+depended upon to seed these areas. Moreover, no especial pains are
+taken to preserve the forest floor and the forest cover. But all trees
+do not bear seeds annually, nor do their seedlings thrive under such
+conditions. In other words, in some forests especial pains must
+be taken to secure reproduction, and the forest conditions must
+be maintained with special reference to the growing crop. For this
+purpose, the cuttings take place thru a series of years, sometimes
+lasting even twenty years. These reproduction cuttings have reference,
+now to a stimulus to the seed trees, now to the preparation of the
+seed bed, now to the encouragement of the seedlings. Then later,
+the old crop is gradually cut away. Later still, in twenty or thirty
+years, the new forest is thinned, and when it reaches maturity,
+perhaps in one hundred or two hundred years, the process is repeated.
+This is called the "Regular Seed Forest." It produces very valuable
+timber, and has been used for a long time in Switzerland, especially
+for beech and balsam.
+
+The system is complicated and therefore unsafe in ignorant hands, and
+the logging is expensive.
+
+_Two-storied Seed Forest._ A modification of the system of Regular
+Seed Forest is the planting of another and a tolerant species of tree
+under older intolerant trees to make a cover for the soil, to prevent
+the growth of grass and weeds, and to improve the quality of the upper
+growth.[2]
+
+An illustration of a natural two-storied seed forest is shown in Fig.
+126.
+
+[Illustration: No. 126. Two-storied Seed Forest. Fir under Beech,
+Germany. _U. S. Forest Service._]
+
+_Planting._ The planting of forest trees is a comparatively
+unimportant part of modern forestry. It is a mistaken idea, not
+uncommon, that the usual way of reproducing forests is to plant trees.
+It is true that in the pineries of North Germany and in the spruce
+forests of Saxony, it is common to cut clean and then replant, but it
+is absurd to conclude, as some have done, that forestry consists of
+planting a tree every time one is cut. Even if planting were the best
+method, many more than one tree would have to be planted for each one
+cut, in order to maintain the forest. So far as America is concerned,
+not for a long time will planting be much used for reproduction.
+
+    The greater portion of American woodlands is in the
+    condition of culled forests, that is, forests from which
+    the merchantable trees have been cut, leaving the younger
+    individuals, as well as all trees belonging to unmarketable
+    species. Even on the areas where the lumbermen have made a
+    clean cut of the original timber, new trees will come up of
+    themselves from seeds blown from the surrounding forests or
+    falling from occasional individuals left standing. (Bruncken,
+    p. 133.)
+
+The usefulness of planting in America is mainly for reclaiming
+treeless regions, as in the west, and where timber is high priced.
+The area of planted timber in the Middle West aggregates many hundred
+thousand acres, once waste land, now converted into useful woods.[3]
+
+Planting has been made possible in the far west by extensive
+irrigation systems, and farther east by the lessening of prairie
+fires, which once set the limit to tree growth in the prairie states.
+In many parts of Illinois, southern Wisconsin and other prairie
+States, there is much more forest land than there was twenty-five
+years ago.
+
+What planting can do, may be seen on some worn out pastures in New
+England, Fig. 127. With the western movement of agriculture,
+the abandoned farms of New England are to some extent becoming
+re-forested, both naturally and by planting, as with white pine, which
+grows even on sandy soil. Between 1820 and 1880, there was a period of
+enthusiastic white-pine planting in New England, and tho the interest
+died on account of the cheap transportation of western lumber, those
+early plantations prove that white pine can be planted at a profit
+even on sand barrens. Once worn out and useless pastures are now worth
+$150 an acre and produce yearly a net income of $3 or more an acre.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 127. Planted White Pine, Fifty Years Old,
+Bridgewater, Mass. _U. S. Forest Service._]
+
+
+IMPROVEMENT.
+
+Besides utilization and preservation, the third main object of
+forestry is the improvement of the forest. It is not an uncommon
+mistake to suppose that the virgin forest is the best forest for human
+purposes. It is a comparatively new idea, especially in America, that
+a forest can be improved; that is, that better trees can be raised
+than those which grow naturally. Lumbermen commonly say, "You never
+can raise a second growth of white pine as good as the first growth."
+As if this "first growth" were not itself the successsor of thousands
+of other generations! There is even a legend that white pine will not
+grow in its old habitat. Says Bruncken,
+
+    Many people probably imagine that a primeval wood, "by
+    nature's own hand planted," cannot be surpassed in the number
+    and size of its trees, and consequently in the amount of wood
+    to be derived from it. But the very opposite is true. No wild
+    forest can ever equal a cultivated one in productiveness. To
+    hope that it will, is very much as if a farmer were to expect
+    a full harvest from the grain that may spring up spontaneously
+    in his fields without his sowing. A tract of wild forest in
+    the first place does not contain so many trees as might grow
+    thereon, but only so many as may have survived the struggle
+    for life with their own and other species of plants occupying
+    the locality. Many of the trees so surviving never attain
+    their best development, being suppressed, overshadowed, and
+    hindered by stronger neighbors. Finally much of the space that
+    might be occupied by valuable timber may be given up to trees
+    having little or no market value. The rule is universal that
+    the amount and value of material that can be taken from an
+    area of wild forest remains far behind what the same land
+    may bear if properly treated by the forester. It is certain,
+    therefore, that in the future, when most American forests
+    shall be in a high state of cultivation, the annual output of
+    forests will, from a much restricted area, exceed everything
+    known at the present day. (Bruncken, _North American Forests
+    and Forestry_, pp. 134-135.)
+
+    It is probable that the virgin forest produces but a tithe of
+    the useful material which it is capable of producing. (Fernow,
+    p. 98.)
+
+    Mr. Burbank has demonstrated that trees can be bred for any
+    particular quality,--for largeness, strength, shape, amount of
+    pitch, tannin, sugar and the like, and for rapidity of
+    growth; in fact that any desirable attribute of a tree may
+    be developed simply by breeding and selecting. He has created
+    walnut trees, by crossing common varieties, that have grown
+    six times as much in thirteen years as their ancestors did in
+    twenty-eight years, preserving at the same time, the strength,
+    hardness and texture of their forebears. The grain of the wood
+    has been made more beautiful at the same time. The trees are
+    fine for fuel and splendidly adapted to furniture manufacture.
+    (Harwood, _The New Earth_, p. 179.)
+
+Nature provides in the forest merely those varieties that will
+survive. Man, by interfering in Nature's processes but obeying her
+laws, raises what he wants. Nature says: those trees that survive
+are fit and does not care whether the trees be straight or crooked,
+branched or clear. Man says: those trees shall survive which are fit
+for human uses. Man raises better grains and fruits and vegetables
+than Nature, unaided, can, and, in Europe, better trees for lumber. In
+America there has been such an abundance of trees good enough for our
+purposes that we have simply gone out and gathered them, just as a
+savage goes out to gather berries and nuts. Some day our descendants
+will smile at our treatment of forests much as we smile at
+root-digging savages, unless, indeed, we so far destroy the forests
+that they will be more angered than amused. In Europe and Japan, the
+original supply of trees having been exhausted, forests have been
+cultivated for centuries with the purpose of raising crops larger in
+quantity and better in quality.
+
+There are various methods used in forest improvement. Improvement
+cuttings, as the name implies, are cuttings made to improve the
+quality of the forest, whether by thinning out poor species of trees,
+unsound trees, trees crowding more valuable ones, or trees called
+"wolves"; that is, trees unduly overshadowing others. Improvement
+cuttings are often necessary as a preliminary step before any
+silvicultural system can be applied. Indeed, many of the silvicultural
+systems involve steady improvement of the forest.
+
+The pruning of branches is a method of improvement, carrying on the
+natural method by which trees in a forest clean themselves of their
+branches.
+
+Seeds of valuable species are often sowed, when the conditions are
+proper, in order to introduce a valuable species, just as brooks
+and ponds are stocked with fine fish. In general it may be said that
+improvement methods are only in their infancy, especially in America.
+
+    [Footnote 1: A concise and interesting statement of the
+    relation of the forest to rain and floods is to be found in
+    Pinchot: _Primer of Forestry_, Bulletin No. 24, Part II, Chap.
+    III.]
+
+    [Footnote 2: For an interesting account of an application of
+    this method, see Ward, p. 35.]
+
+    [Footnote 3: To encourage such forest extension, the Forest
+    Service is doing much by the publication of bulletins
+    recommending methods and trees suited to special regions, as,
+    e.g., on Forest Planting in Illinois, in the Sand Hill Region
+    of Nebraska, on Coal Lands in Western Pennsylvania, in Western
+    Kansas, in Oklahoma and adjacent regions, etc.]
+
+
+THE USE OF THE FOREST.
+
+REFERENCES:[A]
+
+
+  I Utilization.
+
+      Pinchot, _Primer_, II, pp. 14-18, 38-48.
+      Bruncken, pp. 121-131, _For. Bull._ No. 61.
+
+  (1) Protective.
+
+        Pinchot, _Primer_, II, pp. 66-73.
+        Craft, _Agric. Yr. Bk._, 1905, pp.  636-641, (Map. p. 639.)
+        Toumey, _Agric. Yr. Bk._, 1903, p. 279.
+        Bruncken, pp. 166-173.
+        _For. and Irrig._, passim.
+        Shaler, I, pp. 485-489.
+
+  (2) Productive.
+
+        Kellogg, _For. Bull._, No. 74,
+        Fernow, _For. Invest._, p. 9.
+        Roth, _First Book_, p. 133.
+        Zon & Clark, _Agric. Yr. Bk._, 1907, p. 277.
+        Boulger, pp. 60-76.
+        Roth, _Agric. Yr. Bk._, 1896, p. 391.
+        Fernow, _Economics_, pp. 23-33.
+
+  (3) Esthetic.
+
+        Roth, _First Book_, p. 180.
+
+ II Preservation.
+
+      Pinchot, _Primer_, II, pp. 18-36.
+      Bruncken, pp. 95, 190.
+      Graves, _For. Bull._, No. 26, pp. 67-70.
+      Roth, _First Book_, pp. 41-76, 193-194.
+      Roth, _For. Bull._, No. 16, pp. 8, 9.
+      Fernow, _Economics_, 165-196.
+
+     Planting.
+
+        Roth, _First Book_, pp. 76-94, 195-198.
+        Hall, _Agric. Yr. Bk._, 1902, pp. 145-156.
+        _For. Circs._, Nos. 37, 41, 45, 81.
+        Bruncken, pp. 92, 133.
+        _Forestry Bulletins_ Nos. 18, 45, 52, 65.
+
+III Improvement.
+
+        Bruncken, pp. 134-135, 152-160.
+        Graves, _For. Bull._, No. 26, p. 39.
+        Pinchot, _Adirondack Spruce_, p. 4.
+        Harwood, pp. 143-181.
+
+    [Footnote A: For general bibliography, see p. 4.]
+
+
+
+
+APPENDIX.
+
+HOW TO DISTINGUISH THE DIFFERENT KINDS OF WOOD.[A]
+
+BY B. E. FERNOW AND FILIBERT ROTH.
+
+
+The carpenter or other artisan who handles different woods, becomes
+familiar with those he employs frequently, and learns to distinguish
+them thru this familiarity, without usually being able to state the
+points of distinction. If a wood comes before him with which he is not
+familiar, he has, of course, no means of determining what it is, and
+it is possible to select pieces even of those with which he is well
+acquainted, different in appearance from the general run, that will
+make him doubtful as to their identification. Furthermore, he may
+distinguish between hard and soft pines, between oak and ash, or
+between maple and birch, which are characteristically different; but
+when it comes to distinguishing between the several species of pine or
+oak or ash or birch, the absence of readily recognizable characters is
+such that but few practitioners can be relied upon to do it. Hence, in
+the market we find many species mixed and sold indiscriminately.
+
+To identify the different woods it is necessary to have a knowledge of
+the definite, invariable differences in their structure, besides
+that of the often variable differences in their appearance. These
+structural differences may either be readily visible to the naked eye
+or with a magnifier, or they may require a microscopical examination.
+In some cases such an examination can not be dispensed with, if we
+would make absolutely sure. There are instances, as in the pines,
+where even our knowledge of the minute anatomical structure is not yet
+sufficient to make a sure identification.
+
+In the following key an attempt has been made--the first, so far as
+we know, in English literature--to give a synoptical view of the
+distinctive features of the commoner woods of the United States, which
+are found in the markets or are used in the arts. It will be observed
+that the distinction has been carried in most instances no further
+than to genera or classes of woods, since the distinction of species
+can hardly be accomplished without elaborate microscopic study, and
+also that, as far as possible, reliance has been placed only on such
+characteristics as can be distinguished with the naked eye or a simple
+magnifying glass, in order to make the key useful to the largest
+number. Recourse has also been taken for the same reason to the less
+reliable and more variable general external appearance, color, taste,
+smell, weight, etc.
+
+The user of the key must, however, realize that external appearance,
+such, for example, as color, is not only very variable but also very
+difficult to describe, individual observers differing especially in
+seeing and describing shades of color. The same is true of statements
+of size, when relative, and not accurately measured, while weight and
+hardness can perhaps be more readily approximated. Whether any feature
+is distinctly or only indistinctly seen will also depend somewhat
+on individual eyesight, opinion, or practice. In some cases the
+resemblance of different species is so close that only one other
+expedient will make distinction possible, namely, a knowledge of the
+region from which the wood has come. We know, for instance, that no
+longleaf pine grows in Arkansas and that no white pine can come from
+Alabama, and we can separate the white cedar, giant arbor vitæ of the
+West and the arbor vitæ of the Northeast, only by the difference of
+the locality from which the specimen comes. With all these limitations
+properly appreciated, the key will be found helpful toward greater
+familiarity with the woods which are more commonly met with.
+
+The features which have been utilized in the key and with which--their
+names as well as their appearance--therefore, the reader must
+familiarize himself before attempting to use the key, are mostly
+described as they appear in cross-section. They are:
+
+(1) Sap-wood and heart-wood (see p. 17), the former being the wood
+from the outer and the latter from the inner part of the tree. In some
+cases they differ only in shade, and in others in kind of color, the
+heart-wood exhibiting either a darker shade or a pronounced color.
+Since one can not always have the two together, or be certain whether
+he has sap-wood or heart-wood, reliance upon this feature is, to
+be sure, unsatisfactory, yet sometimes it is the only general
+characteristic that can be relied upon. If further assurance is
+desired, microscopic structure must be examined; in such cases
+reference has been made to the presence or absence of tracheids in
+pith rays and the structure of their walls, especially projections and
+spirals.
+
+(2) Annual rings, their formation having been described on page 19.
+(See also Figs. 128-130.) They are more or less distinctly marked,
+and by such marking a classification of three great groups of wood is
+possible.
+
+(3) Spring wood and summer wood, the former being the interior (first
+formed wood of the year), the latter the exterior (last formed) part
+of the ring. The proportion of each and the manner in which the one
+merges into the other are sometimes used, but more frequently the
+manner in which the pores appear distributed in either.
+
+(4) Pores, which are vessels cut thru, appearing as holes in
+cross-section, in longitudinal section as channels, scratches, or
+identifications. (See p. 23 and Figs. 129 and 130.) They appear
+only in the broad-leaved, so called, hard woods; their relative size
+(large, medium, small, minute, and indistinct when they cease to be
+visible individually by the naked eye) and manner of distribution in
+the ring being of much importance, and especially in the summer
+wood, where they appear singly, in groups, or short broken lines, in
+continuous concentric, often wavy lines, or in radial branching lines.
+
+(5) Resin ducts (see p. 26 and Fig. 128) which appear very much like
+pores in cross-section, namely, as holes or lighter or darker colored
+dots, but much more scattered. They occur only in coniferous woods,
+and their presence or absence, size, number, and distribution are an
+important distinction in these woods.
+
+(6) Pith rays (see p. 21 and Figs. 129 and 130), which in
+cross-section appear as radial lines, and in radial section as
+interrupted bands of varying breadth, impart a peculiar luster to that
+section in some woods. They are most readily visible with the naked
+eye or with a magnifier in the broad-leaved woods. In coniferous
+woods they are usually so fine and closely packed that to the casual
+observer they do not appear. Their breadth and their greater or less
+distinctness are used as distinguishing marks, being styled fine,
+broad, distinct, very distinct, conspicuous, and indistinct when no
+longer visible by the naked (strong) eye.
+
+(7) Concentric lines, appearing in the summer wood of certain species
+more or less distinct, resembling distantly the lines of pores but
+much finer and not consisting of pores. (See Fig. 129.)
+
+Of microscopic features, the following only have been referred to:
+
+(8) Tracheids, a description of which is to be found on page 28.
+
+(9) Pits, simple and bordered, especially the number of simple pits
+in the cells of the pith rays, which lead into each of the adjoining
+tracheids.
+
+For standards of weight, consult table on pages 50 and 192; for
+standards of hardness, table on page 195.
+
+Unless otherwise stated the color refers always to the fresh
+cross-section of a piece of dry wood; sometimes distinct kinds of
+color, sometimes only shades, and often only general color effects
+appear.
+
+    [Footnote A: From Forestry Bulletin No. 10, _U. S. Department
+    of Agriculture_.]
+
+
+HOW TO USE THE KEY.
+
+Nobody need expect to be able to use successfully any key for the
+distinction of woods or of any other class of natural objects without
+some practice. This is especially true with regard to woods, which
+are apt to vary much, and when the key is based on such meager general
+data as the present. The best course to adopt is to supply one's self
+with a small sample collection of woods, accurately named. Small,
+polished tablets are of little use for this purpose. The pieces
+should be large enough, if possible, to include pith and bark, and of
+sufficient width to permit ready inspection of the cross-section.
+By examining these with the aid of the key, beginning with the
+better-known woods, one will soon learn to see the features described
+and to form an idea of the relative standards which the maker of the
+key had in mind. To aid in this, the accompanying illustrations will
+be of advantage. When the reader becomes familiar with the key, the
+work of identifying any given piece will be comparatively easy. The
+material to be examined must, of course, be suitably prepared. It
+should be moistened; all cuts should be made with a very sharp knife
+or razor and be clean and smooth, for a bruised surface reveals but
+little structure. The most useful cut may be made along one of the
+edges. Instructive, thin, small sections may be made with a sharp
+penknife or razor, and when placed on a piece of thin glass, moistened
+and covered with another piece of glass, they may be examined by
+holding them toward the light.
+
+Finding, on examination with the magnifier, that it contains pores, we
+know it is not coniferous or non-porous. Finding no pores collected
+in the spring-wood portion of the annual ring, but all scattered
+(diffused) thru the ring, we turn at once to the class of
+"Diffuse-porous woods." We now note the size and manner in which
+the pores are distributed thru the ring. Finding them very small and
+neither conspicuously grouped, nor larger nor more abundant in the
+spring-wood, we turn to the third group of this class. We now note
+the pith rays, and finding them neither broad nor conspicuous, but
+difficult to distinguish, even with the magnifier, we at once exclude
+the wood from the first two sections of this group and place it in the
+third, which is represented by only one kind, cottonwood. Finding the
+wood very soft, white, and on the longitudinal section with a silky
+luster, we are further assured that our determination is correct.
+We may now turn to the list of woods and obtain further information
+regarding the occurrence, qualities, and uses of the wood.
+
+Sometimes our progress is not so easy; we may waver in what group or
+section to place the wood before us. In such cases we may try each
+of the doubtful roads until we reach a point where we find ourselves
+entirely wrong and then return and take up another line; or we may
+anticipate some of the later mentioned features and finding them apply
+to our specimen, gain additional assurance of the direction we ought
+to travel. Color will often help us to arrive at a speedy decision.
+In many cases, especially with conifers, which are rather difficult to
+distinguish, a knowledge of the locality from which the specimen comes
+is at once decisive. Thus, northern white cedar, and bald cypress, and
+the cedar of the Pacific will be identified, even without the somewhat
+indefinite criteria given in the key.
+
+
+KEY TO THE MORE IMPORTANT WOODS OF NORTH AMERICA.
+
+I. NON-POROUS WOODS--Pores not visible or conspicuous on
+cross-section, even with magnifier. Annual rings distinct by denser
+(dark colored) bands of summer wood (Fig. 128).
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 128. "Non-porous" Woods. _A_, fir; _B_, "hard"
+pine; _C_, soft pine; _ar_, annual ring; _o.e._, outer edge of ring;
+_i.e._, inner edge of ring; _s.w._, summer wood; _sp.w._, spring wood;
+_rd._, resin ducts.]
+
+II. RING-POROUS WOODS--Pores numerous, usually visible on
+cross-section without magnifier. Annual rings distinct by a zone of
+large pores collected in the spring wood, alternating with the denser
+summer wood (Fig. 129).
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 129. "Ring-porous" Woods White Oak and Hickory.
+_a. r._, annual ring; _su. w._, summer wood; _sp. w._, spring wood;
+_v_, vessels or pores; _c. l._, "concentric" lines; _rt_, darker
+tracts of hard fibers forming the firm part of oak wood; _pr_, pith
+rays.]
+
+III. DIFFUSE-POROUS WOODS--Pores numerous, usually not plainly visible
+on cross-section without magnifier. Annual rings distinct by a fine
+line of denser summer wood cells, often quite indistinct; pores
+scattered thru annual ring, no zone of collected pores in spring wood
+(Fig. 130).
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 130. "Diffuse-porous" Woods. _ar_, annual ring;
+_pr_, pith rays which are "broad" at _a_, "fine" at _b_, "indistinct"
+at _d_.]
+
+NOTE.--The above described three groups are exogenous, i.e., they
+grow by adding annually wood on their circumference. A fourth group
+is formed by the endogenous woods, like yuccas and palms, which do not
+grow by such additions.
+
+
+I.--NON-POROUS WOODS.
+
+(Includes all coniferous woods.)
+
+A. Resin ducts wanting.[1]
+
+   1. No distinct heart-wood.
+
+     _a._ Color effect yellowish white; summer wood darker yellowish
+          (under microscope pith ray without tracheids)..........FIRS.
+
+     _b._ Color effect reddish (roseate) (under microscope pith
+          ray with tracheids) ................................HEMLOCK.
+
+   2. Heart-wood present, color decidedly different in kind from
+      sap-wood.
+
+     _a._ Heart-wood light orange red; sap-wood, pale lemon; wood,
+          heavy and hard .........................................YEW.
+
+     _b._ Heartwood purplish to brownish red; sap-wood yellowish
+          white; wood soft to medium hard, light, usually with
+          aromatic odor, ...................................RED CEDAR.
+
+     _c._ Heart-wood maroon to terra cotta or deep brownish red;
+          sap-wood light orange to dark amber, very soft and light,
+          no odor; pith rays  very distinct, specially pronounced
+          on radial section ..................................REDWOOD.
+
+   3. Heart-wood present, color only different in shade from sap-wood,
+      dingy-yellowish brown.
+
+     _a._ Odorless and tasteless ........................BALD CYPRESS.
+
+     _b._ Wood with mild resinous odor, but tasteless ....WHITE CEDAR.
+
+     _c._ Wood with strong resinous odor and peppery taste when
+           freshly cut, ................................INCENSE CEDAR.
+
+B. Resin ducts present.
+   1. No distinct heartwood; color white, resin ducts very small,
+      not numerous ............................................SPRUCE.
+
+   2. Distinct heart-wood present.
+
+     _a._ Resin ducts numerous, evenly scattered thru the ring.
+
+         _a.'_ Transition from spring wood to summer wood gradual;
+               annual ring distinguished by a fine line of dense
+               summer-wood cells; color, white to yellowish red;
+               wood soft and light .......................SOFT PINES.[2]
+
+         _b.'_ Transition from spring wood to summer wood more or
+               less abrupt; broad bands of dark-colored summer
+               wood; color from light to deep orange; wood medium
+               hard and heavy ............................HARD PINES.[2]
+
+     _b._ Resin ducts not numerous nor evenly distributed.
+
+         _a'._ Color of heart-wood orange-reddish, sap-wood yellowish
+               (same as hard pine); resin ducts frequently combined in
+               groups of 8 to 30, forming lines on the cross-section
+               (tracheids with spirals), ..............DOUGLAS SPRUCE.
+
+         _b'._ Color of heart-wood light russet brown; of sap-wood
+               yellowish brown; resin ducts very few, irregularly
+               scattered (tracheids without spirals) ........TAMARACK.
+
+
+    [Footnote 1: Soft and hard pines are arbitrary distinctions
+    and the two not distinguishable at the limit.]
+
+    [Footnote 2: To discover the resin ducts a very smooth surface
+    is necessary, since resin ducts are frequently seen only with
+    difficulty, appearing on the cross-section as fine whiter
+    or darker spots normally scattered singly, rarely in groups,
+    usually in the summer wood of the annual ring. They are
+    often much more easily seen on radial, and still more so on
+    tangential sections, appearing there as fine lines or dots of
+    open structure of different color or as indentations or pin
+    scratches in a longitudinal direction.]
+
+====
+
+
+ADDITIONAL NOTES FOR DISTINCTIONS IN THE GROUP.
+
+Spruce is hardly distinguishable from fir, except by the existence of
+the resin ducts, and microscopically by the presence of tracheids
+in the medullary rays. Spruce may also be confounded with soft pine,
+except for the heart-wood color of the latter and the larger, more
+frequent, and more readily visible resin ducts.
+
+In the lumber yard, hemlock is usually recognized by color and the
+silvery character of its surface. Western hemlocks partake of this
+last character to a less degree.
+
+Microscopically the white pine can be distinguished by having usually
+only one large pit, while spruce shows three to five very small
+pits in the parenchyma cells of the pith ray communicating with the
+tracheid.
+
+The distinction of the pines is possible only by microscopic
+examination. The following distinctive features may assist in
+recognizing, when in the log or lumber pile, those usually found in
+the market:
+
+The light, straw color, combined with great lightness and softness,
+distinguishes the white pines (white pine and sugar pine) from the
+hard pines (all others in the market), which may also be recognized
+by the gradual change of spring wood into summer wood. This change
+in hard pines is abrupt, making the summer wood appear as a sharply
+defined and more or less broad band.
+
+The Norway pine, which may be confounded with the shortleaf pine, can
+be distinguished by being much lighter and softer. It may also,
+but more rarely, be confounded with heavier white pine, but for the
+sharper definition of the annual ring, weight, and hardness.
+
+The longleaf pine is strikingly heavy, hard, and resinous, and usually
+very regular and narrow ringed, showing little sap-wood, and differing
+in this respect from the shortleaf pine and loblolly pine, which
+usually have wider rings and more sap-wood, the latter excelling in
+that respect.
+
+
+The following convenient and useful classification of pines into four
+groups, proposed by Dr. H. Mayr, is based on the appearance of the
+pith ray as seen in a radial section of the spring wood of any ring:
+
+Section I. Walls of the tracheids of the pith ray with dentate
+           projections.
+
+   _a._ One to two large, simple pits to each tracheid on the radial
+        walls of the cells of the pith ray.--Group 1. Represented in
+        this country only by _P. resinosa_.
+
+   _b._ Three to six simple pits to each tracheid, on the walls of
+        the cells of the pith ray.--Group 2. _P. taeda_, _palustris_,
+        etc., including most of our "hard" and "yellow" pines.
+
+Section II. Walls of tracheids of pith ray smooth, without dentate
+            projections.
+
+   _a._ One or two large pits to each tracheid on the radial walls of
+        each cell of the pith ray.--Group 3. _P. strobus, lambertiana_,
+        and other true white pines.
+
+   _b._ Three to six small pits on the radial walls of each cell of
+        the pith ray. Group 4. _P. parryana_, and other nut pines,
+        including also _P. balfouriana_.
+
+====
+
+
+II.--RING-POROUS WOODS.
+
+(Some of Group D and cedar elm imperfectly ring-porous.)
+
+A. Pores in the summer wood minute, scattered singly or in groups, or in
+   short broken lines, the course of which is never radial.
+
+   1. Pith rays minute, scarcely distinct.
+
+      _a._ Wood heavy and hard; pores in the summer wood not in clusters.
+
+         _a.'_ Color of radial section not yellow.................ASH.
+
+         _b.'_ Color of radial section light yellow; by which,
+               together with its hardness and weight, this
+               species is easily recognized, ............OSAGE ORANGE.
+
+      _b._ Wood light and soft; pores in the summer wood in clusters
+           of 10 to 30 .......................................CATALPA.
+
+   2. Pith rays very fine, yet distinct; pores in summer wood
+      usually single or in short lines; color of heart-wood
+      reddish brown; of sap-wood yellowish white; peculiar odor
+      on fresh section .....................................SASSAFRAS.
+
+   3. Pith rays fine, but distinct.
+
+       _a._ Very heavy and hard; heart-wood yellowish brown.
+                                                         BLACK LOCUST.
+
+       _b._ Heavy; medium hard to hard.
+
+          _a.'_ Pores in summer wood very minute, usually in small
+                clusters of 3 to 8; heart-wood light orange brown.
+                                                         RED MULBERRY.
+
+          _b.'_ Pores in summer wood small to minute, usually
+                isolated; heart-wood cherry red ..........COFFEE TREE.
+
+
+   4. Pith rays fine but very conspicuous, even without magnifier.
+      Color of heart-wood red; of sap-wood pale lemon ...HONEY LOCUST.
+
+B. Pores of summer wood minute or small, in concentric wavy and
+   sometimes branching lines, appearing as finely-feathered hatchings
+   on tangential section.
+
+   1. Pith rays fine, but very distinct; color greenish white.
+      Heart-wood absent or imperfectly developed ...........HACKBERRY.
+
+   2. Pith rays indistinct; color of heart-wood reddish brown;
+      sap-wood grayish to reddish white .........................ELMS.
+
+C. Pores of summer wood arranged in radial branching lines (when very
+   crowded radial arrangement somewhat obscured).
+
+   1. Pith rays very minute, hardly visible .................CHESTNUT.
+
+   2. Pith rays very broad and conspicuous .......................OAK.
+
+D. Pores of summer wood mostly but little smaller than those of the
+   spring wood, isolated and scattered; very heavy and hard woods.
+   The pores of the spring wood sometimes form but an imperfect zone.
+   (Some diffuse-porous woods of groups A and B may seem to belong
+   here.)
+
+   1. Fine concentric lines (not of pores) as distinct, or nearly so,
+      as the very fine pith rays; outer summer wood with a tinge of
+      red; heart-wood light reddish brown ....................HICKORY.
+
+   2. Fine concentric lines, much finer than the pith rays; no
+      reddish tinge in summer wood; sap-wood white; heart-wood
+      blackish .............................................PERSIMMON.
+
+====
+
+
+ADDITIONAL NOTES FOR DISTINCTIONS IN THE GROUP.
+
+Sassafras and mulberry may be confounded but for the greater weight
+and hardness and the absence of odor in the mulberry; the radial
+section of mulberry also shows the pith rays conspicuously.
+
+Honey locust, coffee tree, and black locust are also very similar in
+appearance. The honey locust stands out by the conspicuousness of the
+pith rays, especially on radial sections, on account of their height,
+while the black locust is distinguished by the extremely great weight
+and hardness, together with its darker brown color.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 131. Wood of Coffee Tree.]
+
+The ashes, elms, hickories, and oaks may, on casual observation,
+appear to resemble one another on account of the pronounced zone of
+porous spring wood. (Figs. 129, 132, 135.) The sharply defined large
+pith rays of the oak exclude these at once; the wavy lines of pores in
+the summer wood, appearing as conspicuous finely-feathered hatchings
+on tangential section, distinguish the elms; while the ashes differ
+from the hickory by the very conspicuously defined zone of spring wood
+pores, which in hickory appear more or less interrupted. The reddish
+hue of the hickory and the more or less brown hue of the ash may also
+aid in ready recognition. The smooth, radial surface of split hickory
+will readily separate it from the rest.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 132. _A_, black ash; _B_, white ash; _C_, green
+ash.]
+
+The different species of ash may be identified as follows (Fig. 132):
+
+  1. Pores in the summer wood more or less united into lines.
+
+    _a._ The lines short and broken, occurring mostly near the limit
+         of the ring .......................................WHITE ASH.
+
+    _b._ The lines quite long and conspicuous in most parts of the
+         summer wood .......................................GREEN ASH.
+
+  2. Pores in the summer wood not united into lines, or rarely so.
+
+    _a._ Heart-wood reddish brown and very firm ..............RED ASH.
+
+    _b._ Heart-wood grayish brown, and much more porous ....BLACK ASH.
+
+In the oaks, two groups can be readily distinguished by the manner in
+which the pores are distributed in the summer wood. (Fig. 133.) In
+the white oaks the pores are very fine and numerous and crowded in
+the outer part of the summer wood, while in the black or red oaks the
+pores are larger, few in number, and mostly isolated. The live oaks,
+as far as structure is concerned, belong to the black oaks, but are
+much less porous, and are exceedingly heavy and hard.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 133. Wood of Red Oak. (For white oak see fig. 129,
+p. 291.)]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 134. Wood of Chestnut.]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 135. Wood of Hickory.]
+
+====
+
+
+III.--DIFFUSE-POROUS WOODS.
+
+(A few indistinctly ring-porous woods of Group II, D, and cedar elm
+may seem to belong here.)
+
+A. Pores varying in size from large to minute; largest in spring wood,
+   thereby giving sometimes the appearance of a ring-porous arrangement.
+
+   1. Heavy and hard; color of heart-wood (especially on longitudinal
+      section) chocolate brown ..........................BLACK WALNUT.
+
+   2. Light and soft; color of heart-wood light reddish brown
+                                                            BUTTERNUT.
+
+B. Pores all minute and indistinct; most numerous in spring wood,
+   giving rise to a lighter colored zone or line (especially on
+   longitudinal section), thereby appearing sometimes ring-porous;
+   wood hard, heart-wood vinous reddish; pith rays very fine, but very
+   distinct. (See also the sometimes indistinct ring-porous cedar elm,
+   and occasionally winged elm, which are readily distinguished by the
+   concentric wavy lines of pores in the summer wood) .........CHERRY.
+
+C. Pores minute or indistinct, neither conspicuously larger nor more
+   numerous in the spring wood and evenly distributed.
+
+   1. Broad pith rays present.
+
+     _a._ All or most pith rays broad, numerous, and crowded,
+         especially on tangential sections, medium heavy and hard,
+         difficult to split. ................................SYCAMORE.
+
+     _b._ Only part of the pith rays broad.
+
+        _a.'_ Broad pith rays well defined, quite numerous;
+              wood reddish white to reddish ....................BEECH.
+
+        _b.'_ Broad pith rays not sharply defined, made up of many
+              small rays, not numerous. Stem furrowed, and therefore
+              the periphery of section, and with it the annual rings
+              sinuous, bending in and out, and the large pith rays
+              generally limited to the furrows or concave portions.
+              Wood white, not reddish .....................BLUE BEECH.
+
+   2. No broad pith rays present.
+
+      _a._ Pith rays small to very small, but quite distinct.
+
+         _a.'_ Wood hard.
+
+            _a."_ Color reddish white, with dark reddish tinge in
+                   outer summer wood ...........................MAPLE.
+
+            _b."_ Color white, without reddish tinge ...........HOLLY.
+
+        _b.'_ Wood soft to very soft.
+
+          _a."_ Pores crowded, occupying nearly all the space between
+                pith rays.
+
+            _a.'"_ Color yellowish white, often with a greenish tinge
+                   in heart-wood ........................TULIP POPLAR.
+                                                        CUCUMBER TREE.
+
+            _b.'"_ Color of sap-wood grayish, of heart-wood light to
+                   dark reddish brown ......................SWEET GUM.
+
+          _b."_ Pores not crowded, occupying not over one-third the
+                space between pith rays; heart-wood brownish white
+                to very light brown .........................BASSWOOD.
+
+      _b._ Pith rays scarcely distinct, yet if viewed with ordinary
+           magnifier, plainly visible.
+
+         _a.'_ Pores indistinct to the naked eye.
+
+            _a."_ Color uniform pale yellow; pith rays not
+                  conspicuous even on the radial section .....BUCKEYE.
+
+            _b."_ Sap-wood yellowish gray, heart-wood grayish brown;
+                  pith rays conspicuous on the radial section.
+                                                             SOUR GUM.
+
+         _b.'_ Pores scarcely distinct, but mostly visible as grayish
+               specks on the cross-section; sap-wood whitish,
+               heart-wood reddish ..............................BIRCH.
+
+D. Pith rays not visible or else indistinct, even if viewed with
+   magnifier.
+
+   1. Wood very soft, white, or in shades of brown, usually with a
+    silky luster .................................COTTONWOOD (POPLAR).
+
+====
+
+
+ADDITIONAL NOTES FOR DISTINCTIONS IN THE GROUP.
+
+Cherry and birch are sometimes confounded, the high pith rays on the
+cherry on radial sections readily distinguishes it; distinct pores
+on birch and spring wood zone in cherry as well as the darker
+vinous-brown color of the latter will prove helpful.
+
+Two groups of birches can be readily distinguished, tho specific
+distinction is not always possible.
+
+  1. Pith rays fairly distinct, the pores rather few and not more
+     abundant in the spring wood: wood heavy, usually darker,
+                                        CHERRY BIRCH and YELLOW BIRCH.
+
+  2. Pith rays barely distinct, pores more numerous and commonly
+     forming a more porous spring wood zone; wood of medium weight,
+                                                 CANOE OR PAPER BIRCH.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 136. Wood of Beech, Sycamore and Birch.]
+
+The species of maple may be distinguished as follows:
+
+   1. Most of the pith rays broader than the pores and very
+      conspicuous ........................................SUGAR MAPLE.
+
+   2. Pith rays not or rarely broader than the pores, fine but
+      conspicuous.
+
+     _a._ Wood heavy and hard, usually of darker reddish color and
+           commonly spotted on cross-section ...............RED MAPLE.
+
+     _b._ Wood of medium weight and hardness, usually light colored.
+                                                         SILVER MAPLE.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 137. Wood of Maple.]
+
+Red maple is not always safely distinguished from soft maple. In box
+elder the pores are finer and more numerous than in soft maple. The
+various species of elm may be distinguished as follows:
+
+   1. Pores of spring wood form a broad band of several rows; easy
+      splitting, dark brown heart ............................RED ELM.
+
+   2. Pores of spring wood usually in a single row, or nearly so.
+
+     _a._ Pores of spring wood large, conspicuously so
+                                                            WHITE ELM.
+
+     _b._ Pores of spring wood small to minute.
+
+        _a.'_ Lines of pores in summer wood fine, not as wide as the
+              intermediate spaces, giving rise to very compact grain
+                                                             ROCK ELM.
+
+        _b.'_ Lines of pores broad, commonly as wide as the
+              intermediate spaces .........................WINGED ELM.
+
+     _c._ Pores in spring wood indistinct, and therefore hardly a
+          ring-porous wood .................................CEDAR ELM.
+
+[Illustration:
+
+Fig. 138. Wood of Elm.
+_a_ red elm; _b_, white elm; _c_, winged elm.]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 139. Walnut. _p.r._, pith rays; _c.l._, concentric
+lines; _v_, vessels or pores; _su. w._, summer wood; _sp. w._, spring
+wood.]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 140. Wood of Cherry.]
+
+
+
+
+INDEX.
+
+
+_Abies grandis_, 96.
+
+_Acer dasycarpum_, 172.
+
+_Acer macrophyllum_, 170.
+
+_Acer rubrum_, 174.
+
+_Acer saccharinum_, 172.
+
+_Acer saccharum_, 176.
+
+_Agaricus melleus_, 236.
+
+_Agarics_, 234, 236.
+
+Alburnum, 17.
+
+Ambrosia beetles, 242.
+
+Angiosperms, 9.
+
+Animal enemies, 239.
+
+Arborvitae, Giant, 104.
+
+Ash, 182-191, 296.
+
+Ash, Black, 182, 298.
+
+Ash, Blue, 186.
+
+Ash, Hoop, 182.
+
+Ash, Oregon, 184.
+
+Ash, Red, 188, 298.
+
+Ash, White, 25, 190, 298.
+
+
+Bamboo, 10, 11.
+
+Bark, 10, 13, 14.
+
+Bark borers, 243.
+
+Basswood, 14, 178, 301.
+
+Bast, 13, 15, 16, 20.
+
+Beech, 134, 300.
+
+Beech, Blue, 124, 300.
+
+Beech, Water, 124.
+
+Beech, Water, 162.
+
+Bees, carpenter, 246.
+
+Beetles, 241-246.
+
+_Betula lenta_, 130.
+
+_Betula lutea_, 132.
+
+_Betula nigra_, 128.
+
+_Betula papyrifera_, 126.
+
+Big Tree, 98, 208, 209, 220.
+
+Birch, Black, 130.
+
+Birch, Canoe, 126.
+
+Birch, Cherry, 130.
+
+Birch, Gray, 132.
+
+Birch, Mahogany, 130.
+
+Birch, Paper, 126.
+
+Birch, Red, 128.
+
+Birch, River, 128.
+
+Birch, Sweet, 130.
+
+Birch, White, 126.
+
+Birch, Yellow, 132.
+
+Bird's eye maple, 36.
+
+Bluing, 234.
+
+Bole, 211, 218.
+
+Borers, 243-246.
+
+Bowing, 47.
+
+Branches, 37, 218, 226, 286.
+
+Brittleness, 53.
+
+Broad-leaved trees.
+  See Trees, Broad-leaved.
+
+Browsing, 240.
+
+Buckeye, 301.
+
+Bud, 14, 16, 36.
+
+Buds, Adventitious, 36, 37.
+
+Bullnut, 118.
+
+_Buprestid_, 243.
+
+Burl, 35.
+
+Butternut, 144, 300.
+
+Button Ball, 162.
+
+Buttonwood, 162.
+
+
+Calico poplar, 246.
+
+Cambium, 10, 13, 14, 15, 16, 22, 237.
+
+Canopy, 204, 211, 212.
+
+Carpenter worms, 245.
+
+Carpenter bees, 246.
+
+_Carpinus caroliniana_, 124.
+
+Catalpa, 296.
+
+_Castanea dentata_, 136.
+
+Case-hardening, 48.
+
+_Carya tomentosa_, 118.
+
+_Carya porcina_, 122.
+
+_Carya alba_, 120.
+
+Cedar, Canoe, 104.
+
+Cedar Incense, 295.
+
+Cedar, Oregon, 108.
+
+Cedar, Port Orford, 108.
+
+Cedar, Red, 110, 223, 295.
+
+Cedar, Western Red, 104, 206, 207.
+
+Cedar, White, 106, 295.
+
+Cedar, White, 108.
+
+Cells, Wood, 15, 19, 20, 21, 24, 26, 41, 42.
+
+Cells, Fibrous, 28.
+
+Cellulose, 15.
+
+_Cerambycid_, 243.
+
+_Chamaecyparis lawsoniana_, 108.
+
+_Chamaecyparis thyordes_, 106.
+
+Checks, 43, 47, 232.
+
+Cherry, Wild Black, 164, 300.
+
+Chestnut, 136, 298.
+
+Cleaning, 218, 286.
+
+Cleavability of wood, 41, 53.
+
+Coffee Tree, 297.
+
+Color of wood, 18.
+
+Cold, 214, 216.
+
+_Coleoptera_, 241.
+
+Colors of woods, 17, 18, 290.
+
+Columbian timber beetle, 245.
+
+Comb-grain, 54.
+
+Composition of forest, 197-210, 223.
+
+Compression, 51, 52.
+
+Conch, 235.
+
+Cones, Annual, 19.
+
+Conifers, 9, 10, 12, 24-26, 29, 30, 48, 58-111, 205, 220, 237, 251.
+
+Conservation of forests, 262.
+
+Coppice, 220, 278, 279.
+
+Cork, 13, 19.
+
+Cortex, 13, 15.
+
+_Corthylus columbianus_, 245.
+
+Cottonwood, 301.
+
+Cover, 211.
+
+Crop, The Forest, 274.
+
+Crown, 211, 227.
+
+Cucumber Tree, 156, 301.
+
+_Curculionid_, 243.
+
+Cypress, Bald, 102, 215, 295.
+
+Cypress, Lawson, 108.
+
+
+Decay, 235.
+
+Deciduous trees, 10.
+
+Dicotoledons, 9, 10.
+
+Differentiation of cells, 16.
+
+Diffuse-porous. See wood, diffuse-porous.
+
+Distribution of species, 218.
+
+Distribution of forests, 197-210.
+
+Drouth, 213, 231.
+
+Dry-rot, 234, 238.
+
+Duff, 224, 251.
+
+Duramen, 17.
+
+
+Elasticity of wood, 41, 53.
+
+Elm, 152-155, 298.
+
+Elm, American, 154.
+
+Elm, Cedar, 303.
+
+Elm, Cliff, 152.
+
+Elm, Cork, 152.
+
+Elm, Hickory, 152.
+
+Elm, Red, 302.
+
+Elm, Rock, 152, 303.
+
+Elm, Slippery, 14.
+
+Elm, Water, 154.
+
+Elm, White, 152.
+
+Elm, White, 154, 302.
+
+Elm, Winged, 303.
+
+Endogens, 10, 17.
+  See Monocotoledons.
+
+Enemies of the Forest, 229-249.
+
+Engraver beetles, 241.
+
+Entomology, Bureau of, 247.
+
+Epidermis, 13, 15.
+
+Erosion, 273.
+
+Evaporation, 42, 47.
+
+Evergreens, 10.
+
+Exotics, 227.
+
+Exogens, 12, 16.
+
+
+_Fagus americana_, 134.
+
+_Fagus atropunicea_, 134.
+
+_Fagus ferruginea_, 134.
+
+_Fagus grandifolia_, 134.
+
+Figure, 37.
+
+Fir, 96, 294.
+
+Fir, Douglas, 94.
+
+Fir, Grand, 96.
+
+Fir, Lowland, 96.
+
+Fir, Red, 94, 206, 207.
+
+Fir, Silver, 96.
+
+Fir, White, 96.
+
+Fire, 232, 251-258.
+
+Fire lanes, 257.
+
+Fire losses, 253.
+
+Fire notice, 258.
+
+Fire trenches, 256.
+
+Fire Wardens, 257.
+
+Fires, Causes of, 252.
+
+Fires, Control of, 256-258.
+
+Fires, Crown, 255.
+
+Fires, Description of, 254-256.
+
+Fires, Fear of, 261.
+
+Fires, Opportunities for, 251.
+
+Fires, Statistics of, 253.
+
+Fires, Surface, 252.
+
+Floor, Forest, 213, 224.
+
+Forest, Abundance of, 260.
+
+Forest, Appalachian, 204.
+
+Forest, Atlantic, 197.
+
+Forest, Broadleaf, 202.
+
+Forest, Eastern, 197-204.
+
+Forest, Enemies of, 229-249.
+
+Forest, Exhaustion of, 241-270.
+
+Forest, Esthetic use of, 277.
+
+Forest, Fear of, 260.
+
+Forest, Hardwood, 197.
+
+Forest, High, 281.
+
+Forest, Hostility toward, 260.
+
+Forest, Mixed, 204, 213, 214.
+
+Forest, Northern, 197, 216.
+
+Forest, Pacific, 197, 204-208.
+
+Forest, Productive, 274-277.
+
+Forest, Protective, 271-274.
+
+Forest, Puget Sound, 206.
+
+Forest, Regular Seed, 281.
+
+Forest, Rocky Mountain, 197, 204, 205.
+
+Forest, Seed, 297-282.
+
+Forest, Selection, 280-281.
+
+Forest, Southern, 197.
+
+Forest, Subarctic, 209.
+
+Forest, Two-storied Seed, 282.
+
+Forest, Use of, 271-287.
+
+Forest, Utilization of, 271-277.
+
+Forest, Virgin, 280.
+
+Forest, Western, 197.
+
+Forestry, 271-287.
+
+Forests, Composition of North American, 197.
+
+Forests, National, 228.
+
+Forests and agriculture, 258, 277.
+
+Forest conditions, 211-228, 278.
+
+Forest conservation, 262.
+
+Forest cover, 204, 211, 212, 224.
+
+Forest crop, 274, 276.
+
+Forest devastation, 261.
+
+Forest fires, 251-258, 261.
+
+Forest floor, 213, 224.
+
+Forest improvement, 284-286.
+
+Forest map, 198.
+
+Forest organism, The, Chapter V., pp. 211-228.
+
+Forest ownership, 262.
+
+Forest planting, 282-284.
+
+Forest preservation, 277-284.
+
+Forest products, 276.
+
+Forest Service, U. S., 262, 264, 275.
+
+_Fraxinus americana_, 190.
+
+_Fraxinus nigra_, 182.
+
+_Fraxinus oregona_, 184.
+
+_Fraxinus pennsylvanica_, 188.
+
+_Fraxinus quadrangulata_, 186.
+
+Frost, 232.
+
+Frost-check, 232.
+
+Fungi, 20, 233-239.
+
+
+Ginko, 12.
+
+Gluing, 54.
+
+Goats, 240.
+
+Grain of wood, 19, 30, 31, 32-37, 53.
+
+Grain, Bird's eye.
+
+Grain, coarse, 32.
+
+Grain, cross, 33, 53.
+
+Grain, curly, 35.
+
+Grain, fine, 32.
+
+Grain, spiral, 33.
+
+Grain, straight, 33, 53.
+
+Grain, twisted, 33.
+
+Grain, wavy, 34.
+
+Grazing, 239.
+
+Group system, 279.
+
+Grubs, 243, 244.
+
+Gum, Black, 180.
+
+Gum, Sour, 180, 301.
+
+Gum, Sweet, 160, 301.
+
+Gymnosperms, 9.
+
+
+Hackberry, 297.
+
+Hackmatack, 76.
+
+Hardness of wood, 41, 54.
+
+Hardwoods, 12.
+
+Heart-wood, 13, 17, 18, 19, 290.
+
+Hemlock, 90, 295.
+
+Hemlock, Black, 92.
+
+Hemlock, Western, 92, 206.
+
+_Hicoria alba_, 118.
+
+_Hicoria glabra_, 122.
+
+_Hicoria ovata_, 120.
+
+Hickory, 118-123, 298.
+
+Hickory, Big-bud, 118.
+
+Hickory, Black, 118.
+
+Hickory, Shagbark, 120.
+
+Hickory, Shellbark, 120.
+
+Hickory, White-heart, 118.
+
+High Forest, 281.
+
+Holly, 301.
+
+Honeycombing, 48.
+
+Hornbeam, 124.
+
+Horn-tails, 246.
+
+Hygroscopicity of wood, 41.
+
+_Hymenomycetes_, 234.
+
+
+Ice, 232.
+
+Ichneumon fly, 247.
+
+Identification of woods, 289-303.
+
+Improvement of forests, 284-286.
+
+Inflammability of bark, 14, 251.
+
+Insects, 240-248.
+
+Insects, parasitic, 247.
+
+Insects, predaceous, 247.
+
+Intolerance, 216, 219, 221.
+
+Iron-wood, 124.
+
+
+_Juglans cinerea_, 114.
+
+_Juglans nigra_, 116.
+
+_Juniperus virginiana_, 110.
+
+
+Key for the distinction of woods, 292-303.
+
+King-nut, 118.
+
+Knot, 35, 37, 38.
+
+
+Larch, 76.
+
+Larch, Western, 78.
+
+_Larix americana_, 76.
+
+_Larix laricina_, 76.
+
+_Larix occidentales_, 78.
+
+Leaves, 14, 216.
+
+Lenticels, 14.
+
+_Lepidoptera_, 241.
+
+Light, 216-218.
+
+Lightning, 231, 251.
+
+Lignin, 16.
+
+Linden, 178.
+
+_Liquidambar styraciflua_, 160.
+
+_Liriodendron tulipifera_, 158.
+
+Localized Selection system, 281.
+
+Locust, 166.
+
+Locust, Black, 166, 296.
+
+Locust, Honey, 166, 297.
+
+Locust, Yellow, 166.
+
+Long-bodied trunk, 225.
+
+Lumber consumption, 264.
+
+Lumber, 9, 10.
+
+Lumber prices, 267, 268.
+
+Lumber production, 265-267.
+
+Lumber, substitutes for, 264.
+
+Lumbering, conservative, 274, 276.
+
+Lumbering, destructive, 251, 258-263.
+
+Lumberman, 260.
+
+
+_Magnolia acuminata_, 156.
+
+Magnolia, Mountain, 156.
+
+Mahogany, 168.
+
+Maple, 170-177, 301.
+
+Maple, Hard, 25, 176.
+
+Maple, Large Leaved, 170.
+
+Maple, Oregon, 170, 207.
+
+Maple, Red, 174, 302.
+
+Maple, Rock, 25, 176.
+
+Maple, Silver, 172, 302.
+
+Maple, Soft, 172.
+
+Maple, Sugar, 176.
+
+Maple, White, 170.
+
+Maple, White, 172.
+
+Medullary rays. See Rays.
+
+Medullary Sheath. See Sheath.
+
+_Merulius lachrymans_, 234, 238.
+
+Meteorological enemies, 229-233.
+
+Mice, 237.
+
+Microscope, 14, 24-31, 290.
+
+Mine, Forest treated as, 261, 274.
+
+Mockernut, 118.
+
+Moisture, 213.
+
+Moisture in wood, 41, 52.
+
+Monocotoledons, 9, 10, 17.
+  See also Endogens.
+
+Mountain, 216.
+
+Mulberry, Red, 297.
+
+Mushroom, 236.
+
+Mutual aid, 224.
+
+
+Nailing, 53.
+
+Needle-leaf trees, 12.
+
+Non-porous. See Wood, non-porous.
+
+North Woods, 197, 218.
+
+Nurse, 218, 219.
+
+_Nyssa sylvatica_, 180.
+
+
+Oak, 138-151, 298.
+
+Oak, Basket, 142.
+
+Oak, Black, 140.
+
+Oak, Bur, 144.
+
+Oak, Cow, 142.
+
+Oak, Live, 201.
+
+Oak, Mossy-cup, 144.
+
+Oak, Over-cup, 144.
+
+Oak, Post, 148.
+
+Oak, Red, 138.
+
+Oak, Stave, 150.
+
+Oak, White, 150.
+
+Oak, White (Western), 146.
+
+Oak, Yellow bark, 140.
+
+Odors of wood, 18.
+
+Osage Orange, 296.
+
+Organism, Forest, 211.
+
+
+_Padus serotina_, 164.
+
+Palm, 9, 17.
+
+Paper pulp, 263.
+
+Parasites, 233.
+
+Parenchyma, 23, 28.
+
+Pecky cypress, 234.
+
+Peggy cypress, 234.
+
+Pepperidge, 180.
+
+Persimmon, 298.
+
+Phanerogamia, 9.
+
+Phloem, 13.
+
+_Picea alba_, 80.
+
+_Picea canadensis_, 80.
+
+_Picea engelmanni_, 86.
+
+_Picea mariana_, 84.
+
+_Picea nigra_, 84.
+
+_Picea rubens_, 82.
+
+_Picea sitchensis_, 88.
+
+Pigeon Horn-tail, 247.
+
+Pignut, 122.
+
+Pines, 58-75, 295.
+
+Pine, Bull, 66, 205, 282.
+
+Pine, Cuban, 74.
+
+Pine, Georgia, 68.
+
+Pine, Loblolly, 72.
+
+Pine, Long-leaf, 68, 200.
+
+Pine, Norway, 64.
+
+Pine, Old Field, 72.
+
+Pine, Oregon, 94.
+
+Pine, Red, 64.
+
+Pine, Short-leaf, 70.
+
+Pine, Slash, 74.
+
+Pine, Sugar, 62.
+
+Pine, Western White, 60.
+
+Pine, Western Yellow, 66.
+
+Pine, Weymouth, 58.
+
+Pine, White, 24, 58, 199.
+
+Pine, Yellow, 70.
+
+Pine sawyers, 244.
+
+_Pinus caribaea_, 74.
+
+_Pinus echinata_, 70.
+
+_Pinus heterophylla_, 74.
+
+_Pinus lambertiana_, 62.
+
+_Pinus monticola_, 60.
+
+_Pinus palustris_, 68.
+
+_Pinus ponderosa_, 66.
+
+_Pinus resinosa_, 64.
+
+_Pinus strobus_, 58.
+
+_Pinus taeda_, 72.
+
+Pith, 10, 13, 15, 16, 23, 32, 39.
+
+Pith ray. See Ray, medullary.
+
+Pits, 26, 292.
+
+Planting, 282-284.
+
+_Platanus occidentalis_, 162.
+
+Poles, 225.
+
+Polypores, 234
+
+_Polyporus annosus_, 237.
+
+_Polyporus sulphureus_, 236.
+
+Poplar, yellow, 158, 221, 245, 246, 301.
+
+Pores, 23, 28, 29, 291.
+
+Powder-post beetles, 244.
+
+Preservation of forests, 277-284.
+
+Prices of lumber, 267, 268.
+
+Primary growth, 17, 22.
+
+Procambium strands, 16.
+
+Protection against fungi, 239.
+
+Protection against insects, 247.
+
+Properties of wood, Chap II., p. 41.
+
+Protoplasm, 14, 16, 23, 41.
+
+Pruning of branches, 286.
+
+_Prunus serotina_, 164.
+
+_Pseudotsuga mucronata_, 94.
+
+_Pseudotsuga taxifolia_, 94.
+
+
+Quartering a log, 45.
+
+Quartered oak, 22.
+
+_Quercus alba_, 150.
+
+_Quercus garryana_, 146.
+
+_Quercus macrocarpa_, 144.
+
+_Quercus michauxii_, 142.
+
+_Quercus minor_, 148.
+
+_Quercus obtusiloba_, 148.
+
+_Quercus rubra_, 138.
+
+_Quercus stellata_, 148.
+
+_Quercus tinctoria_, 140.
+
+_Quercus velutina_, 140.
+
+
+Rainfall, effect on forest, 205, 213.
+
+Rays, medullary, 15, 16, 17, 21, 22, 23, 26, 30, 31, 37, 44, 53, 291.
+
+Red rot, 234.
+
+Redwood, 100, 207, 208, 222, 295.
+
+Regularity of cells, 24.
+
+Reproduction, 220.
+
+Reserve sprout method, 279.
+
+Resin ducts, 26, 291.
+
+Rhizomorphs, 236.
+
+Rind, 13.
+
+Ring-porous. See Wood, ring-porous.
+
+Rings, Annual, 9, 18, 19, 21, 23, 44, 226, 290.
+
+Rings, False, 19, 231.
+
+_Robinia pseudacacia_, 166.
+
+Rodents, 239.
+
+Roots, 211, 224.
+
+Rotation period, 279.
+
+Rotting, 234.
+
+
+_Salix nigra_, 112.
+
+Sand dunes, 230, 231.
+
+Saplings, 225, 226.
+
+Saprophytes, 233.
+
+Sap-wood, 13, 17, 18, 41, 42, 290.
+
+Sassafras, 296.
+
+Sawyers, Pine, 244.
+
+Secondary growth, 17.
+
+Section, cross, 21, 22, 29.
+  See also Section, transverse.
+
+Section, radial, 19, 22, 26, 30, 31.
+
+Section, tangential, 19, 22, 26, 30, 31.
+
+Section, transverse, 19, 24, 29, 30.
+
+Seasoning, 42.
+
+Sections, transverse, radial and tangential, 12.
+
+Seed forests, 279-282.
+
+Seeding from the side, 279.
+
+Seedlings, 225, 226.
+
+Seeds, 220-223, 226.
+
+Sequoia, 98.
+
+Sequoia, 100.
+
+Sequoia, Giant, 98.
+
+_Sequoia gigantea_, 98.
+
+_Sequoia sempervirens_, 100.
+
+_Sequoia washingtoniana_, 98.
+
+Settler, 258.
+
+Shake, 47, 232, 233.
+
+Shearing strength, 52.
+
+Sheep, 240.
+
+Shelf fungus, 234, 236.
+
+Short-bodied trunk, 225, 226.
+
+Shrinkage of wood, 41, 42-47.
+
+Silver flakes, 22.
+  See Rays, Medullary.
+
+Silvical characteristics, 211.
+
+Silvicultural systems, 278-284.
+
+Slash, 229, 251, 257.
+
+Slash-grain, 54.
+
+Snow, 232.
+
+Slash-sawing, 45, 47.
+
+Softwoods, 12.
+
+Soil, 211, 213.
+
+Specific gravity. See Weight.
+
+Splint-wood, 17.
+
+Splitting. See Cleavability.
+
+Spores, 234.
+
+Spring-wood, 20, 21, 24, 30, 32, 44, 53, 54, 291.
+
+Sprouts, 220, 222.
+
+Spruce, 80-89, 295.
+
+Spruce, Black, 84.
+
+Spruce, Douglas, 94, 296.
+
+Spruce, Engelmann's, 86.
+
+Spruce, Red, 82, 213.
+
+Spruce, Sitka, 88.
+
+Spruce, Tideland, 88.
+
+Spruce, Western White, 86.
+
+Spruce, White, 80.
+
+Stand, mixed, 213, 223.
+
+Stand, pure, 213, 223.
+
+Standards, 225, 226.
+
+Steamboats, 246.
+
+Stem, diagram of cross section, Fig. 4, p. 13, fig. 5, p. 15, 211.
+
+Strength of wood, 41, 51-53.
+
+Strip system, 279.
+
+Structure of wood, 9-40, 29, 30, 32.
+
+Struggle for existence, 224, 226, 227.
+
+Summer-wood, 20, 21, 24, 30, 32, 44, 53, 54, 291.
+
+_Swietenia mahagoni_, 168.
+
+Sycamore, 22, 162, 300.
+
+
+Tamarack, 76, 296.
+
+Tamarack, Western, 78.
+
+Taxes on forests, 261.
+
+_Taxodium distichum_, 102.
+
+Tear fungus, 234, 238.
+
+Temperature, 214.
+
+Tension, 51, 52.
+
+Texture of wood, 32.
+
+_Thuja gigantea_, 104.
+
+_Thuja plicata_, 104.
+
+_Tilia americana_, 178.
+
+Timber beetles, 242, 245.
+
+Timber supply of U. S., 264-269.
+
+Timber trees, 10.
+
+Timber worms, 244.
+
+Tissue, 16.
+
+Toadstools, 234.
+
+Tolerance, 216, 219.
+
+Toughness of wood, 41, 54.
+
+Tracheae, 23, 28.
+
+Tracheid, 28, 30, 290, 292.
+
+_Trametes pini_, 235.
+
+_Trametes radiciperda_, 237.
+
+Tree, parts of, 211.
+
+Treeless area, 197, 203.
+
+Trees, Broad-leaved, 9, 10, 28, 29.
+
+Trees, deciduous, 10.
+
+Trunk, 13, 211.
+  Long-bodied, 225.
+  Short-bodied, 225.
+
+_Tsuga canadensis_, 90.
+
+_Tsuga heterophylla_, 92.
+
+Tulip Tree, 158.
+  See Poplar Yellow
+
+Tupelo, 180.
+
+Turpentine, 263.
+
+Two-storied Seed Forest, 282.
+
+
+_Ulmus americana_, 154.
+
+_Ulmus racemosa_, 152.
+
+_Ulmus thomasi_, 152.
+
+Utilization of forests, 271-277.
+
+
+Vegetable enemies, 233-239.
+
+Veneer, 10, 35.
+
+Vessels, 23, 28, 29.
+
+Veterans, 225.
+
+
+Walnut, Black, 116, 300.
+
+Walnut, White, 114.
+
+Warping, 45-47.
+
+Waste, Avoidance of, 274.
+
+Waste in lumbering, 263.
+
+Water, 41, 42, 226, 231.
+
+Weeds, Forest, 225.
+
+Weight of wood, 41, 49-51.
+
+Whitewood, 158.
+
+Wilderness, Conquest of, 258.
+
+Willow, Black, 112.
+
+Wind, 229, 252, 253.
+
+Windfalls, 229.
+
+Wood, Diffuse-porous, 23, 30, 300-303.
+
+Wood, Non-porous, 24-26, 58-111, 294-296.
+
+Wood, Primary, 17.
+
+Wood, Properties of, Chap. II., 41-56.
+
+Wood, Ring-porous, 23, 29, 296-299.
+
+Wood, Spring, 20, 21, 24, 30, 32, 44, 53, 54, 291.
+
+Wood, Structure of, 9-40.
+
+Wood, secondary, 17.
+
+Wood, summer, 20, 21, 24, 30, 32, 44, 53, 54, 291.
+
+Wood borers, 243.
+
+Wood cells. See Cells.
+
+Wood. See Sap-wood, Heart wood.
+
+Wood dyes, 18.
+
+Wood fiber, 28.
+
+Woods, Color of, 17, 18, 290.
+
+Woods, The distinguishing of, 289-303.
+
+Working, 47.
+
+Worm-holes, 243.
+
+Worms, carpenter, 245.
+
+Worms, Timber, 244.
+
+Wound parasites, 234.
+
+
+Yew, 295.
+
+Yield, 275.
+
+Yucca, 10.
+
+
+
+
+Books on the Manual Arts
+
+
+DESIGN AND CONSTRUCTION IN WOOD. By William Noyes.
+
+    A book full of charm and distinction and the first to give
+    due consideration to the esthetic side of wood-working. It
+    is intended to give to beginners practice in designing simple
+    projects in wood and an opportunity to acquire skill in
+    handling tools. The book illustrates a series of projects and
+    gives suggestions for other similar projects together with
+    information regarding tools and processes for making. A
+    pleasing volume abundantly and beautifully illustrated.
+
+HANDWORK IN WOOD. By William Noyes.
+
+    A handbook for teachers and a textbook for normal school and
+    college students. A comprehensive and scholarly treatise,
+    covering logging, saw-milling, seasoning and measuring, hand
+    tools, wood fastenings, equipment and care of the shop,
+    the common joints, types of wood structures, principles of
+    joinery, and wood finishing. 304 illustrations--excellent pen
+    drawings and many photographs.
+
+WOOD AND FOREST. By William Noyes.
+
+    A companion volume to "Handwork in Wood," by the same author.
+    Especially adapted as a reference book for teachers of
+    woodworking. Not too difficult for use as a textbook
+    for normal school and college students. Treats of wood,
+    distribution of American forests, life of the forest, enemies
+    of the forest, destruction, conservation and uses of the
+    forest, with a key to the common woods by Filibert Roth.
+    Describes 67 principal species of wood with maps of
+    the habitat, leaf drawings, life size photographs and
+    microphotographs of sections. Contains a general bibliography
+    of books and articles on wood and forest. Profusely
+    illustrated with photographs from the United States forest
+    service and with pen and ink drawings by Anna Gausmann Noyes
+    and photographs by the author. 309 pages.
+
+WOODWORK FOR BEGINNERS. By Ira S. Griffith.
+
+    A remarkably simple treatment of elementary woodworking for
+    students in the seventh and eighth grades. It deals with
+    tools, processes and materials and includes only such subject
+    matter as should be taught to grammar grade students. It meets
+    the requirements of students working in large classes and
+    devoting the minimum of time to manual training. A practical
+    and unusually attractive textbook and one that can be used
+    with any course of models and in any order.
+
+BEGINNING WOODWORK, At Home and in School.
+By Clinton S. VanDeusen.
+
+    A full and clear description in detail of the fundamental
+    processes of elementary benchwork in wood. This description
+    is given thru directions for making a few simple, useful
+    articles, suitable either for school or home problems. The
+    book contains more than one hundred original sketches and ten
+    working drawings.
+
+PROBLEMS IN FARM WOODWORK. By Samuel A. Blackburn.
+
+    A book of working drawings of 100 practical problems relating
+    to agriculture and farm life. Especially valuable to the
+    student or teacher of agriculture or manual arts in rural
+    schools and in high schools in agricultural communities,
+    and to the boy on the farm. There are 60 full-page plates of
+    working drawings, each accompanied by a page or more of text
+    treating of "Purpose," "Material," "Bill of Stock," "Tools,"
+    "Directions," and "Assembly." A wonderfully practical book.
+
+PROBLEMS IN FURNITURE MAKING. By Fred D. Crawshaw.
+
+    This book, revised and enlarged, consists of 43 plates of
+    working drawings suitable for use in grammar and high
+    schools, and 36 pages of text, including chapters on design,
+    construction and finishes, and notes on the problems.
+
+FURNITURE DESIGN FOR SCHOOLS AND SHOPS.
+By Fred D. Crawshaw.
+
+    A manual on furniture design. A book that will stimulate and
+    encourage designing and initiation on the part of the student.
+    It contains a collection of plates showing perspective
+    drawings of typical designs, representing particular types of
+    furniture. Each perspective is accompanied by suggestions for
+    rearrangement and the modeling of parts. The text discusses
+    and illustrates principles of design as applied to furniture.
+    A practical and helpful book that should be in the hands of
+    every teacher of cabinet making and designing.
+
+PROBLEMS IN WOODWORKING. By M. W. Murray.
+
+    A convenient collection of good problems consisting of forty
+    plates of working drawings, of problems in benchwork that have
+    been successfully worked out by boys in grades seven to nine
+    inclusive.
+
+SHOP PROBLEMS. (On Tracing Paper). By Albert F. Siepert.
+
+    A collection of working drawings of a large variety of
+    projects printed on tracing paper and ready for blue printing.
+    The projects have all been worked out in manual arts classes
+    and have proved their value from the standpoint of design,
+    construction, use, human interest, etc. They are of convenient
+    size, 6x9-inch, and are enclosed in a portfolio. To the
+    teacher, in search of additional projects to supplement and
+    enrich his course these tracings are worth far more than the
+    price asked. Published in series. Nos. 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, and
+    7.
+
+WORKSHOP NOTE-BOOK--WOODWORKING.
+By George G. Greene.
+
+    A small-size textbook and notebook combined. It furnishes a
+    few general and extremely important directions about tools and
+    processes; and provides space for additional notes and working
+    drawings of exercises and articles which the pupil is to
+    construct. It is essentially a collection of helps, ideas,
+    hints, suggestions, questions, facts, illustrations, etc.,
+    which have been prepared by a practical teacher to meet a real
+    need in his own shop. The notebook is full of suggestions;
+    shows a keen insight into subject matter and teaching methods
+    and is an effective teaching tool.
+
+PROBLEMS IN WOOD-TURNING. By Fred D. Crawshaw.
+
+    In the first place this is a book of problems--25 plates
+    covering spindle, face-plate, and chuck turning. In the second
+    place it is a textbook on the science and art of wood-turning
+    illustrated by fifty pen sketches. It gives the mathematical
+    basis for the cuts used in turning. In the third place it is
+    a helpful discussion of the principles of design as applied
+    to objects turned in wood. It is a clear, practical and
+    suggestive book on wood-turning.
+
+WOOD PATTERN-MAKING. By Horace T. Purfield.
+
+    This book was written expressly for use as a textbook for
+    high school, trade school, technical school, and engineering
+    college students. It is a revised, enlarged, and newly
+    illustrated edition.
+
+CORRELATED COURSES IN WOODWORK AND MECHANICAL
+DRAWING. By Ira S. Griffith.
+
+    This book is designed to meet the every-day need of the
+    teacher of woodworking and mechanical drawing for reliable
+    information concerning organization of courses, subject
+    matter and methods of teaching. It covers classification and
+    arrangement of tool operations for grades, 7, 8, 9, and 10,
+    shop organization, allotment of time design, shop excursions,
+    stock bills, cost of material, records, shop conduct, the
+    lesson, maintenance, equipment, and lesson outlines for
+    grammar and high schools. It is based on sound pedagogy, thoro
+    technical knowledge and successful teaching experience. It is
+    practical.
+
+ESSENTIALS OF WOODWORKING. By Ira S. Griffith.
+
+    A textbook written especially for the use of grammar and
+    high school students. A clear and comprehensive treatment of
+    woodworking tools, materials, and processes, to supplement,
+    but not to take the place of the instruction given by the
+    teacher. The book does not contain a course of models; it may
+    be used with any course. It is illustrated with photographs
+    and numerous pen drawings.
+
+PROJECTS FOR BEGINNING WOODWORK AND MECHANICAL
+DRAWING. By Ira S. Griffith.
+
+    A work book for the use of students in grammar grade classes.
+    It consists of working drawings and working directions. The
+    projects are such as have proven of exceptional service where
+    woodworking and mechanical drawing are taught in a thoro,
+    systematic manner in the seventh and eighth grades. The aim
+    has been to provide successful rather than unique problems.
+    The 50 projects in the book were selected and organized with
+    the constant aim of securing the highest educational results.
+    The book is especially suited for use in connection with
+    "Essentials of Woodworking," by the same author.
+
+FURNITURE MAKING. (Advanced Projects in Woodwork.)
+By Ira S. Griffith.
+
+    This book is similar to "Projects for Beginning Woodwork and
+    Mechanical Drawing," but is suited to high school needs. It
+    consists of fifty plates of problems and accompanying notes.
+    It is essentially a collection of problems in furniture making
+    selected or designed with reference to school use. On the
+    plate with each working drawing is a good perspective sketch
+    of the completed object. In draftsmanship and refinement of
+    design these problems are of superior quality. It is in every
+    respect an excellent collection.
+
+PROBLEMS IN MECHANICAL DRAWING. By Charles A. Bennett.
+
+    This book consists of 80 plates and a few explanatory notes.
+    Its purpose is to furnish teachers of classes beginning
+    mechanical drawing with a large number of simple, practical
+    problems. These have been selected with reference to the
+    formation of good habits in technique, the interest of the
+    pupils, and the subjects generally included in a grammar and
+    first-year high school course. Each problem given is unsolved
+    and therefore in proper form to hand to the pupil for
+    solution.
+
+MECHANICAL DRAWING PROBLEMS.
+By Edward Berg and Emil F. Kronquist.
+
+    A direct and concise text adapted for high school students
+    beginning mechanical drawing. It covers two year's work
+    and contains 128 full-page plates--excellent examples of
+    draftsmanship. Text accompanies each plate, giving necessary
+    facts and helpful hints wherever needed. The underlying
+    principles of drafting are thoroly covered and the practical
+    applications, which are abundant, have been most skilfully
+    chosen and admirably presented. The plates tell what to do,
+    almost at a glance, yet prevent mere copy work. Each problem
+    tests the ability of the student to think and execute
+    graphically and unconsciously develops an excellent technique.
+
+MECHANICAL DRAFTING. By W. H. Miller.
+
+    (Revised edition). A textbook for advanced high school
+    students which presents drafting room practice in practical
+    textbook form. It is so written that it may be used with
+    any course of exercises or problems and supplements the
+    instruction of the teacher in such a way as to reduce lecture
+    work to a minimum. It is a direct and simple treatment of
+    mechanical drafting, giving due consideration to the needs of
+    the student, the beginning draftsman and the requirements of
+    the best teaching methods. It is complete, yet condensed and
+    is well adapted for handbook use by the student and draftsman.
+    It is well illustrated and is bound in flexible binding,
+    pocket size. A thoroughly practical, modern textbook.
+
+GRAMMAR GRADE PROBLEMS IN MECHANICAL DRAWING.
+By Charles A. Bennett.
+
+    A remarkably simple and carefully graded treatment of the
+    fundamentals of mechanical drawing for the use of students in
+    the 7th and 8th grades. It combines an abundance of text and
+    simple problems, accompanied by notes and directions. Its use
+    insures the early formation of correct habits of technique and
+    makes possible the development of a standard in grammar grade
+    mechanical drawing parallel with woodworking. Abundantly and
+    well illustrated.
+
+MECHANICAL DRAWING FOR BEGINNERS.
+By Charles H. Bailey.
+
+    A textbook suitable wherever this subject is taught to
+    beginners, in Junior High Schools, High and Continuation
+    Schools. It successfully combines instructions which are
+    minute and complete, with problems, gradually leading the
+    student to learn with little or no other help, the essentials
+    and technique of the work. The matter is condensed but leaves
+    no important points not covered.
+
+PROGRESSIVE STEPS IN ARCHITECTURAL DRAWING.
+By George W. Seaman.
+
+    A textbook and practical handbook, describing and illustrating
+    every successive step in drawing of floor plans, elevations
+    and various details for successful dwellings. Numerous plates
+    illustrate details of doors, windows, mouldings, cornices,
+    porches, etc. Architectural orders shown in practical working
+    forms. "Single line sketches" illustrate method of practical
+    designer in planning a house.
+
+ARCHITECTURAL DRAWING PLATES. By Franklin G. Elwood.
+
+    A collection of 15 plates showing the various details included
+    in the plans for frame houses. Names and typical sizes
+    are given and much information helpful to the student or
+    draftsman. One plate shows eleven "Plan Studies," another
+    "How Elevations are Worked Up from Plans and Sections." A
+    wonderfully convenient help in architectural drawing.
+
+SIMPLIFIED MECHANICAL PERSPECTIVE. By Frank Forrest Frederick.
+
+    A book of simple problems covering the essentials of
+    mechanical perspective. It is planned for pupils of high
+    school age who have already received some elementary training
+    in mechanical drawing. It is simple, direct and practical.
+
+WOODWORK FOR SECONDARY SCHOOLS. By Ira S. Griffith.
+
+    The most complete and comprehensive textbook on secondary
+    school woodworking ever published. Treats of Common
+    Woods, Tools and Processes, Woodworking Machines, Joinery,
+    Wood-Turning, Inlaying and Wood Carving, Wood Finishing,
+    Furniture Construction, Pattern-Making. Although written for
+    the student, every teacher of high school or normal school
+    woodwork will find this text a valuable and necessary volume
+    for reference use. It contains 370 pages and 580 special
+    illustrations.
+
+CARPENTRY. By Ira S. Griffith.
+
+    A well illustrated textbook for use in vocational schools,
+    trade schools, technical schools, and by apprentices to the
+    trade, presenting the principles of house construction in
+    a clear and fundamental way. It treats of the "everyday"
+    practical problems of the carpenter and house builder from
+    the "laying of foundations" to the completion of the "interior
+    finish." It meets every requirement as a textbook and is also
+    well adapted for reference use. It is well illustrated by
+    photographs taken "on the job."
+
+BOY ACTIVITY PROJECTS. By Samuel A. Blackburn.
+
+    A book of full-page plates and accompanying text giving
+    complete directions for making 86 projects of interest to the
+    energetic American boy. The projects are for the school, the
+    home, the playground, the camp, the out-of-doors, and include
+    a complete wireless telegraph apparatus. The plates give every
+    required dimension, and show each project complete and in
+    detail. The text is in reality working directions telling just
+    "how to make," including bills of material, lists of tools
+    required, etc. A thoroly practical and suggestive book
+    for school use and rich in inspiration for the boy in his own
+    home shop.
+
+SEAT WEAVING. By L. Day Perry.
+
+    A handbook for teacher or student. Tells how to cane chairs,
+    how to use cane webbing, how to do rush seating, how to
+    do reed and splint weaving, how to make seats of reeds and
+    splints, how to prepare raw materials, how to stain, finish
+    and refinish, etc. Also treats of the use of cane and other
+    seating materials as a decorative element in furniture
+    construction. Well illustrated, practical and authoritative.
+
+FURNITURE UPHOLSTERY FOR SCHOOLS. By Emil A. Johnson.
+
+    The only text and reference book on upholstery written for
+    school use. Contains detailed, practical instructions
+    telling how to upholster a variety of articles, also how
+    to re-upholster old furniture and how to do spring-edge
+    upholstery work. Describes necessary tools and materials.
+    Abundantly and beautifully illustrated.
+
+PRACTICAL TYPOGRAPHY. By George E. McClellan.
+
+    A remarkable textbook for students of printing. It contains a
+    course of exercises ready to place in the hands of pupils,
+    and explains and illustrates the most approved methods used
+    in correct composition. A valuable feature of the book lies in
+    the fact that in the early stages of the course the pupil sets
+    up in type a description of what he is doing with his hands.
+    It contains 63 exercises, treating of composition from
+    "Correct Spacing" to the "Making up of a Book," and the
+    "Composition of Tables."
+
+ART METALWORK. By Arthur F. Payne.
+
+    A textbook written by an expert craftsman and experienced
+    teacher. It treats of the various materials and their
+    production, ores, alloys, commercial forms, etc.; of tools and
+    equipments suitable for the work, the inexpensive equipment
+    of the practical craftsman; and of the correlation of art
+    metalwork with design and other school subjects. It describes
+    in detail all the processes involved in making articles
+    ranging from a watch fob to a silver loving-cup. It gives new
+    methods of construction, new finishes, new problems. It is
+    abundantly and beautifully illustrated, showing work done by
+    students under ordinary school conditions in a manual training
+    shop. The standard book on the subject.
+
+TEACHING THE MANUAL AND INDUSTRIAL ARTS.
+By Ira S. Griffith.
+
+    A text for normal schools or colleges and a reference for
+    manual and vocational teachers. Presents the philosophy
+    of teaching manual and vocational education in terms of
+    psychology, social science, and economics. It gives the
+    conclusions of Thorndike, Judd, Bagley, Dewey and others,
+    and illustrates them so they serve the teacher as a basis for
+    evaluating the manual and industrial arts. A book of value
+    to the beginning teacher, the experienced supervisor or the
+    educational expert; an exceptional source of information on
+    the theory and practice of its subject.
+
+THE MANUAL ARTS. By Charles A. Bennett.
+
+    A treatise on the selection and organization of subject matter
+    in the manual arts and on the methods of teaching. It states
+    what manual arts should be taught in the schools, their place
+    as concerns general and vocational education, principles
+    underlying the making of courses of instruction and methods
+    of teaching, and shows the place of the factory system in
+    industrial schools, etc. Heretofore no book has dealt with
+    the pedagogy of the manual arts in so definite and clear cut
+    a manner. The author has brought together, with ripened
+    judgment, the result of years of experience.
+
+    It is especially adapted for normal class and reading circle
+    use and should be read and studied by every teacher or
+    prospective teacher of the manual arts.
+
+EDUCATIONAL TOYS. By Louis C. Petersen.
+
+    A comprehensive book on toy-making for the school or home.
+    Shows 57 toys including animals, wheeled toys, stationary
+    toys, moving toys, puzzles, etc., made chiefly from thin wood,
+    with the coping saw and easily constructed in the ordinary
+    school room or in the home. Tells how to make each toy, how
+    to finish and color, about the few simple tools and materials
+    required. Well illustrated with photographs and full-size
+    pattern drawings.
+
+TOY PATTERNS. By Michael C. Dank.
+
+    A portfolio of toy patterns. Among them are Animals, Animal
+    Rocking Toys, Wheeled Platform Toys, String Toys, Lever Toys,
+    Freak Toys and Novelties. Each toy is shown complete and each
+    part is also shown full-size. They are designed to be made
+    with the coping saw out of thin wood. Twelve sheets, size
+    10-1/2" x 14", enclosed in a portfolio with an attractive
+    color design.
+
+BIRD HOUSES BOYS CAN BUILD. By Albert F. Siepert.
+
+    A book of rare interest to boys. It is written in the boy
+    spirit and combines the charm of nature with the allurements
+    of continuation work in wood. It illustrates hundreds of bird
+    houses and shows working drawings of various designs, also
+    feeders, shelters, sparrow traps, and other bird accessories.
+    The common house nesting birds are pictured and described with
+    information regarding houses, foods, etc., suitable for each.
+    A pleasing and practical book for wide-awake boys.
+
+MANUAL TRAINING TOYS. FOR THE BOYS' WORKSHOP.
+By Harris W. Moore.
+
+    A popular boys' book that is truly educational. It is a
+    collection of forty-two projects overflowing with "boy"
+    interest and new in the manual training shop. Full-page
+    working drawings show each project in detail and the text
+    gives instructions for making, together with information on
+    tools and tool processes.
+
+KITECRAFT AND KITE TOURNAMENTS. By Charles M. Miller.
+
+    An authoritative and comprehensive treatment of kitecraft. The
+    book deals with the construction and flying of all kinds of
+    kites, and the making and using of kite accessories. Also
+    aeroplanes, gliders, propellers, motors, etc. Four chapters
+    are devoted to presenting a detailed description of kite
+    flying tournaments. Abundantly illustrated and attractively
+    bound.
+
+THE CONSTRUCTION AND FLYING OF KITES.
+By Charles M. Miller.
+
+    This contains seven full-page plates of drawings of kites,
+    and fifteen figures--over forty kites shown. Details of
+    construction given; a kite tournament is described. Full of
+    interesting suggestions.
+
+COPING SAW WORK. By Ben W. Johnson.
+
+    Contains working drawings and suggestions for teaching a
+    course of work in thin wood that is full of fun for the
+    children, and affords ample means for training in form study,
+    construction, invention and careful work. Has been called
+    "applied mechanics for the fourth grade."
+
+SELECTED SHOP PROBLEMS. By George A. Seaton.
+
+    A collection of sixteen problems in woodworking made to meet
+    the needs of busy teachers of manual training. Each problem
+    has been put to the test and has proven satisfactory to the
+    teacher who designed it and to the pupil who made it.
+
+MANUAL TRAINING MAGAZINE.
+
+    A magazine of "quality." The professional journal of the
+    teachers of manual, vocational and industrial education. It
+    publishes practical articles on the ways and means of "doing
+    things." It discusses vital problems in teaching the manual
+    arts and presents the best current thought on the development
+    of manual training and vocational education. To the
+    inexperienced teacher, it is valuable in solving numerous
+    problems, and to the experienced teacher, it is a means of
+    keeping abreast of the times. It is ably edited, attractively
+    printed, and well illustrated with photographs and drawings
+    made especially for its pages. Published monthly. $1.50 a
+    year; Canada, $1.80; Foreign, $2.00.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+_Published by_
+
+Manual Arts Press :: Peoria, Illinois
+
+We can supply you with any book on the Manual Arts
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+Transcriber's Note:
+
+Transcriber's Note: 'M', in the context of lumber measurement, means
+'1000 feet'. From 'Handwork in Wood', Chapter III, page 48. Also
+(ibid): "There are several methods of measuring lumber. The general
+rule is to multiply the length in feet by the width and thickness in
+inches and divide by 12, thus: 1" × 6" × 15' ÷ 12 = 7½ feet."
+
+In the interests of clarity, some Illustrations have been moved closer
+to their descriptive text.
+
+Hyphenation and spelling are not uniform throughout this book, e.g.,
+'sapwood' and 'sap-wood' both occur; '_Columbian Timber-beetle_' and
+'Columbian timber beetle' occur in the same paragraph.
+
+Chapter II has three types of footnotes, with different notations.
+References to the author's previous book, being short, are placed at
+the end of the paragraph; numbered technical or tabular footnotes, or
+footnotes referencing other publications are collected at the end of
+the Chapter, before the Chapter Bibliography; and Chapter Bibliography
+footnotes are placed at the end of the Chapter Bibliography. In later
+Chapters, numbered footnotes are placed either at the end of the
+Chapter (before the Bibliography) or at the end of a relevant section
+of a Chapter.
+
+Chapter III lists 67 trees; The (following) Lists from the Jesup
+Collection list 66 trees, including the 'tied place' trees. The tree
+missing from the Jesup Collection is No. 18: Western Hemlock, or Black
+Hemlock.
+
+Damaged or missing punctuation has been repaired.
+
+Page 18: 'sumac' and 'sumach'. Both spellings correct. Also 'sumak',
+shoomak. From Arabic 'summ[=a]q'.
+
+Page 19: 'charactistic' corrected to 'characteristic' ... "and give
+the characteristic pleasing "grain" of wood."
+
+Page 23: inconsistent spelling--_tracheæ_, tracheae. The two
+spellings occur in the book; also trachæids, tracheids. All have been
+retained. The author's bibliography is extensive.
+
+Page 124 etc.: The Allegheny Mountain Range (also spelled Alleghany
+and Allegany, ~Wikipedia).
+
+Page 143: 'distinguised' corrected to 'distinguished' ... "Not
+distinguished from white oak in the market."
+
+Page 180: diameter, '1"-6", even 5';' corrected to 'diameter,
+1'6"-3'6", even 5';' (Wikipedia)
+
+Page 182: 'scambucifolia' corrected to 'sambucifolia' ... "_Fraxinus
+nigra_ Marshall. _Fraxinus sambucifolia._"
+
+Page 186: 'cleavabilty' corrected to 'cleavability' ... "refers to the
+cleavability of the wood;"
+
+Page 268: Fig. 118 text: Basswood, 1st and 2d, 1" x 8" and up by x 00".
+and: White pine, rough uppers, 1" x 8" and up x 00'.
+This is as printed; the transcriber has no idea what was meant by '00"'
+and '00'', or what it should have been.
+
+Page 292: 'miscroscopic' corrected to 'microscopic' ... "Of microscopic
+features, the following only have been referred to:"
+
+Page 304: 'Agaricus mellens' corrected to 'Agaricus melleus'.
+
+The (archaic) U.S. American spellings, 'drouth' (='drought'), 'thoroly',
+'tho', 'altho', 'tire' (='tyre'), etc., are correct.
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of Wood and Forest, by William Noyes
+
+*** END OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK WOOD AND FOREST ***
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+
+<pre>
+
+The Project Gutenberg EBook of Wood and Forest, by William Noyes
+
+This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with
+almost no restrictions whatsoever.  You may copy it, give it away or
+re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included
+with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org
+
+
+Title: Wood and Forest
+
+Author: William Noyes
+
+Release Date: February 27, 2011 [EBook #35419]
+
+Language: English
+
+Character set encoding: ISO-8859-1
+
+*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK WOOD AND FOREST ***
+
+
+
+
+Produced by Lesley Halamek, Peter Vachuska, Chris Curnow and the
+Online Distributed Proofreading Team at https://www.pgdp.net
+
+
+
+
+
+
+</pre>
+
+    <table class="tn" summary="tn" align="center" style="margin-bottom: 3em;">
+<tr>
+    <td class="note">
+	<a name="note" id="note"></a>
+
+	<h4>Transcriber's Note:</h4>
+
+<p>'M', in the context of lumber measurement, means '1000
+feet'. From 'Handwork in Wood'*, Chapter III, page 48. Also (ibid):
+"There are several methods of measuring lumber. The general rule is to multiply
+the length in feet by the width and thickness in inches and divide by 12, thus:
+1" × 6" × 15' ÷ 12 = 7½ feet."</p>
+<p class="note3">* By the same author:  [https://www.gutenberg.org/etext/20846].</p>
+
+<p>In the interests of clarity, some Illustrations have been moved closer to their
+descriptive text, and links to some page numbers adjusted.</p>
+
+<p>Hyphenation and spelling are not uniform throughout this book, e.g., 'sapwood'
+and 'sap-wood' both occur; '<i>Columbian Timber-beetle</i>' and 'Columbian timber beetle'
+occur in the same paragraph.</p>
+
+<p>Chapter II has three types of footnotes, with different notations. References to
+the author's previous book, being short, are placed at the end of the paragraph;
+numbered technical or tabular footnotes, or footnotes referencing other publications are
+collected at the end of the Chapter, before the Chapter Bibliography; and
+Chapter Bibliography footnotes are placed at the end of the Chapter
+Bibliography. In later Chapters, numbered footnotes are placed either at the end of the
+Chapter (before the Bibliography) or at the end of a relevant section of a
+Chapter.</p>
+
+<p>Chapter III (et alia): As this e-book has been prepared from scanned images,
+it is impossible to accurately depict the sizes of some of the illustrations. Each 'Leaf' illustration
+is supplied with a 1 inch scale measure, as the size of the leaves and cone/fruit varied considerably. However,
+the cross-sections of wood were shown as 'magnified 37&frac12; diameters', and the radial and tangential
+sections were shown 'life size', and the illustrations in the original book were of uniform size. The illustrations of the sections
+in this e-book are of uniform size, but the correct size of each would be somewhere between the image on the page
+and the enlargement.</p>
+
+<p>Chapter III lists 67 trees; The (following) Lists from the Jesup
+Collection list 66 trees, including the 'tied place' trees. The tree
+missing from the Jesup Collection is No. 18: Western Hemlock, or Black
+Hemlock.</p>
+
+<p>Sundry damaged or missing punctuation has been repaired.</p>
+
+<p>Page 18: 'sumac' and 'sumach'. Both spellings correct. Also 'sumak', shoomak.
+From Arabic 'summ&#257;q'. (Oxford).</p>
+
+<p>Page 19: 'charactistic' corrected to 'characteristic' ... "and give the
+characteristic pleasing "grain" of wood."</p>
+
+<p>Page 23: inconsistent spelling&mdash;<i>tracheæ</i>, tracheae. The two spellings
+occur in the book; also trachæids, tracheids. All have been retained. The
+author's bibliography is extensive.</p>
+
+<p>Page 124 etc.: The Allegheny Mountain Range (also spelled Alleghany and
+Allegany, ~Wikipedia).</p>
+
+<p>Page 143: 'distinguised' corrected to 'distinguished' ... "Not distinguished
+from white oak in the market."</p>
+
+<p>Page 180: diameter, '1"-6", even 5';' corrected to 'diameter, 1'6"-3'6", even
+5';' (Wikipedia)</p>
+
+<p>Page 182: 'scambucifolia' corrected to 'sambucifolia' ... "<i>Fraxinus nigra</i>
+Marshall. <i>Fraxinus sambucifolia</i>."</p>
+
+<p>Page 186: 'cleavabilty' corrected to 'cleavability' ... "refers to the
+cleavability of the wood;"</p>
+
+<p>Page 268: Fig. 118 text: Basswood, 1st and 2d, 1" x 8" and up by x 00".
+and: White pine, rough uppers, 1" x 8" and up x 00'.
+This is as printed; the transcriber has no idea what was meant by '00"'
+and '00'', or what it should have been.</p>
+
+<p>Page 292: 'miscroscopic' corrected to 'microscopic' ..."Of microscopic
+features, the following only have been referred to:" </p>
+
+<p>Page 304: 'Agaricus mellens' corrected to 'Agaricus melleus'.</p>
+
+<p>The corrections made are also indicated by dotted lines under the corrections.
+Scroll the mouse over the word and the original text will <ins title="Transcriber's Note: original reads 'apprear'">appear</ins>.</p>
+
+<p>The (archaic) U.S. American spellings, 'drouth' (='drought'), 'thoroly',
+'tho', 'altho', 'tire' (='tyre'), etc., are correct.</p>
+
+<p>Parts of the Appendix have been re-arranged for smoother flow.</p>
+
+<p>The 'Additional Notes....' were on the lower half of the pages,
+separated from the 'Key' by a double line. They have been gathered
+together after their relevant section, and separated from the Appendix
+proper by double lines:</p>
+
+<hr class="full" style="color: #000; height: 1px; margin-bottom: -11px;" />
+<hr class="full" style="color: #000; height: 1px; margin-top: -11px;" />
+
+</td></tr></table>
+
+<hr class="full" />
+
+<h1>  WOOD AND FOREST</h1>
+
+<h3 style="margin-top: 3em;">  <i>By</i> WILLIAM NOYES, M.A.</h3>
+
+<h5>Formerly Assistant Professor of Industrial Arts<br />
+  Teachers College, Columbia University</h5>
+
+<h4>  NEW YORK CITY</h4>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 200px;"><img src="images/front-200.png" width="200" height="248" alt="seal" /></div>
+
+<h5>  <span class="sc">The Manual Arts Press</span></h5>
+
+<h5>  <span class="sc">Peoria, Illinois</span></h5>
+
+<h5 style="margin-top: 5em;">  COPYRIGHT</h5>
+
+<h5>  WILLIAM NOYES</h5>
+
+<h5>  1912</h5>
+
+<h5>  <i>FIFTH EDITION, 1921</i></h5>
+
+<h6 style="margin-top: 5em;"><i>Printed in United States of America</i></h6>
+
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page1" id="page1"></a>1</span>
+
+<h3 style="margin-top: 3em;">FOREWORD</h3>
+
+<p>This book has been prepared as a companion volume to the author's
+<i>Handwork in Wood</i>.<a id="footnotetagF1" name="footnotetagF1"></a><a href="#footnoteF1"><sup>1</sup></a> It is an attempt to collect and arrange
+in available form useful information, now widely scattered, about
+our common woods, their sources, growth, properties and uses.</p>
+
+<p>As in the other volume, the credit for the successful completion
+of the book is to be given to my wife, Anna Gausmann Noyes, who
+has made the drawings and maps, corrected the text, read the proof,
+and carried the work thru to its final completion.</p>
+
+<p>Acknowledgments are hereby thankfully made for corrections and
+suggestions in the text to the following persons:</p>
+
+<p>Mr. A. D. Hopkins, of the United States Department of Agriculture,
+Bureau of Entomology, for revision of the text relating to
+Insect Enemies of the Forest, in Chapter VI.</p>
+
+<p>Mr. George G. Hedgcock, of the United States Bureau of Agriculture,
+Bureau of Plant Industry, for revision of the text relating
+to the fungal enemies of the forest, in Chapter VI.</p>
+
+<p>Mr. S. T. Dana and Mr. Burnett Barrows, of the United States
+Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, for revision of Chapters
+IV, V, VI, VII, and VIII.</p>
+
+<p>Professor Charles R. Richards, formerly Head of the Manual
+Training Department of Teachers College, my predecessor as lecturer
+of the course out of which this book has grown.</p>
+
+<p>Professor M. A. Bigelow, Head of the Department of Botany of
+Teachers College, for revision of Chapter I, on the Structure of Wood.</p>
+
+<p>Mr. Romeyn B. Hough, of Lowville, N. Y., author of <i>American
+Woods</i> and <i>Handbook of the Trees of the Northern States and Canada</i>,
+for suggestions in preparing the maps in Chapter III.</p>
+
+<p>The Forest Service, Washington, D. C., for photographs and
+maps credited to it, and for permission to reprint the key to the
+identification of woods which appears in Forest Service Bulletin No.
+10, <i>Timber</i>, by Filibert Roth.</p>
+
+<p>The Division of Publications, U. S. Department of Agriculture,
+for permission to copy illustrations in bulletins.</p>
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page2" id="page2"></a>2</span>
+
+<p>The Macmillan Company, New York, for permission to reproduce
+Fig. 86, Portion of the Mycelium of Dry Rot, from <i>Timber and
+Some of its Diseases</i>, by H. M. Ward.</p>
+
+<p>Mrs. Katharine Golden Bitting, of Lafayette, Indiana, for the
+photograph of the cross-section of a bud, Figure 5.</p>
+
+<p>Finally and not least I hereby acknowledge my obligations to the
+various writers and publishers whose books and articles I have freely
+used. As far as possible, appropriate credit is given in the paged
+references at the end of each chapter.</p>
+
+<p class="note1"><a id="footnoteF1" name="footnoteF1"></a><a class="footnote" href="#footnotetagF1">Footnote 1:</a> William Noyes, <i>Handwork in Wood</i>, Peoria, Ill. The Manual Arts Press,
+231 pp., $2.</p>
+
+<h2>CONTENTS.<span class="pagenum" style="font-size: 0.4em; font-weight: normal;"><a name="page3" id="page3"></a>3</span></h2>
+
+<table width="auto" align="center" border="0" summary="contents" style="margin-bottom: 5em;">
+<tr>
+ <td class="left1" valign="top">CHAPTER<br /><br /></td>
+ <td class="left1" valign="top">&nbsp;</td>
+ <td class="right" valign="top">PAGE</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+       <td class="left1" valign="top">&nbsp;</td>
+	   <td class="left" valign="top"><a class="contents" href="#page4">General Bibliography</a></td>
+       <td class="right" valign="top"><a href="#page4">4</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+       <td class="right1a" valign="top">I.</td>
+	   <td class="left" valign="top"><a class="contents" href="#page9">The Structure of Wood</a></td>
+       <td class="right" valign="top"><a href="#page9">9</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+       <td class="right1a" valign="top">II.</td>
+	   <td class="left" valign="top"><a class="contents" href="#page41">Properties of Wood</a></td>
+       <td class="right" valign="top"><a href="#page41">41</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+       <td class="right1a" valign="top">III.</td>
+	   <td class="left" valign="top"><a class="contents" href="#page57">The Principal Species of American Woods</a></td>
+	   <td class="right" valign="top"><a href="#page57">57</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+       <td class="right1a" valign="top">IV.</td>
+	   <td class="left" valign="top"><a class="contents" href="#page197">The Distribution and Composition of the North American Forests</a></td>
+       <td class="right" valign="top"><a href="#page197">197</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+       <td class="right1a" valign="top">V.</td>
+	   <td class="left" valign="top"><a class="contents" href="#page211">The Forest Organism</a></td>
+       <td class="right" valign="top"><a href="#page211">211</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+       <td class="right1a" valign="top">VI.</td>
+	   <td class="left" valign="top"><a class="contents" href="#page229">Natural Enemies of the Forest</a></td>
+	   <td class="right" valign="top"><a href="#page229">229</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+       <td class="right1a"  valign="top">VII.</td>
+	   <td class="left" valign="top"><a class="contents" href="#page251">The Exhaustion of the Forest</a></td>
+       <td class="right" valign="top"><a href="#page251">251</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+       <td class="right1a" valign="top">VIII.</td>
+	   <td class="left" valign="top"><a class="contents" href="#page271">The Use of the Forest</a></td>
+       <td class="right" valign="top"><a href="#page271">271</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+       <td class="left1" valign="top">&nbsp;</td>
+	   <td class="left" valign="top"><a class="contents" href="#page289">Appendix</a></td>
+       <td class="right" valign="top"><a href="#page289">289</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+       <td class="left1" valign="top" style="">&nbsp;</td>
+	   <td class="left" valign="top"><a class="contents" href="#page304">Index</a></td>
+       <td class="right" valign="top"><a href="#page304">304</a></td>
+</tr>
+</table>
+
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page4" id="page4"></a>4</span>
+
+<h3>GENERAL BIBLIOGRAPHY</h3>
+<div style="margin-left: 5em; margin-right: 3em;">
+<p><span class="outdent"><b>Apgar, A. G.</b>,</span> <i>Trees of the Northern United States</i>. N. Y.: American Book
+Co., 224 pp. A small book dealing with the botany of trees, giving
+descriptions of their essential organs, and particularly valuable for the
+leaf key to the trees. It should be supplemented by Keeler or Hough's
+Handbook.</p>
+
+<p><span class="outdent"><b>Baterden, J. R.</b>,</span> <i>Timber</i>. N. Y.: D. Van Nostrand Co., 1908, 351 pp. A
+description of the timbers of various countries, discussion of timber
+defects, timber tests, etc.</p>
+
+<p><span class="outdent"><b>Bitting, K. G.</b>,</span> <i>The Structure of Wood</i>. <i>Wood Craft</i>, 5: 76, 106, 144, 172,
+June-Sept., '06. A very scholarly and valuable series of articles on
+wood structure and growth. Excellent microphotographs.</p>
+
+<p><span class="outdent"><b>Britton, Nathaniel Lord</b>,</span> <i>North American Trees</i>. N. Y.: Henry Holt &amp; Co.,
+1908, 894 pp. A description of all the kinds of trees growing independently
+of cultivation in North America, north of Mexico, and the
+West Indies. The standard Botany of trees.</p>
+
+<p><span class="outdent"><b>Boulger, G. S.</b>,</span> <i>Wood</i>. London: Edward Arnold, 369 pp. A thoro discussion
+of wood structure, with chapters on the recognition and classification
+of woods, defects, preservation, uses, tests, supplies, and sources
+of wood. Good illustrations.</p>
+
+<p><span class="outdent"><b>Bruce, E. S.</b>,</span> <i>Frost Checks and Wind Shakes</i>. <i>Forestry and Irrigation</i>, 8:
+159, April, '02. An original study of the splitting of trees by sudden
+frost and thaw.</p>
+
+<p><span class="outdent"><b>Bruncken, Ernest</b>,</span> <i>North American Forests and Forestry</i>. N. Y.: G. P.
+Putnam's Sons. 265 pp. A comprehensive survey of American Forestry
+conditions including the forest industries, fires, taxation, and management.
+No illustrations.</p>
+
+<p><span class="outdent"><b>Busbridge, Harold</b>,</span> <i>The Shrinkage and Warping of Timber</i>. <i>Sci. Amer. Suppl</i>.,
+No. 1500, Oct. 1, 1904. Good photographic illustrations.</p>
+
+<p><span class="outdent"><b>Comstock, J. H. and A. B.</b>,</span> <i>A Manual for the Study of Insects</i>. Ithaca,
+N. Y.: Comstock Publishing Co., 701 pp. Valuable for reference in
+classifying insects injurious to wood.</p>
+
+<p><span class="outdent"><b>Curtis, Carleton C.</b>,</span> <i>Nature and Development of Plants</i>. N. Y.: Henry Holt
+&amp; Co., 1907, 471 pp. Chapter III is a very clear and excellent discussion
+of the structure of the stem of plants (including wood).</p>
+
+<p><span class="outdent"><b>Encyclopedia Brittannica</b>,</span> Eleventh Edition, Cambridge: At the University
+Press. Article: <i>Forests and Forestry</i>, Vol. 10, p. 645. Article: <i>Plants</i>,
+Anatomy of, Vol. 21, p. 741. Article: <i>Timber</i> Vol. 26, p. 978.</p>
+
+<p><span class="outdent"><b>Felt, E. P.</b>,</span> <i>The Gypsy and Brown Tail Moths</i>. N. Y. State Museum: Bulletin
+103, Entomology, 25. Valuable for colored illustrations as well
+as for detailed descriptions.</p>
+
+<p><span class="outdent"><b>Fernow, B. E.</b>,</span> <i>Economics of Forestry</i>. N. Y.: T. Y. Crowell &amp; Co. 1902,
+quarto 520 pp. A treatment of forests and forestry from the standpoint
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page5" id="page5"></a>5</span>
+of economics, including a comprehensive exposition of the forester's art,
+with chapters on forest conditions, silviculture, forest policies, and
+methods of business conduct, with a bibliography.</p>
+
+<p><span class="outdent"><b>Fernow, B. E.</b>,</span> <i>Report upon the Forestry Investigation of the U. S. Department
+of Agriculture</i>, 1887-1898. Fifty-fifth Congress, House of Representatives,
+Document No. 181. Quarto, 401 pp. A review of forests
+and forestry in the U. S., of forest policies of European nations, particularly
+of Germany, of the principles of silviculture, of a discussion
+of forest influences, and a section on timber physics.</p>
+
+<p><span class="outdent"><b>Harwood, W. S.</b>,</span> <i>The New Earth</i>. N. Y.: The Macmillan Co., 1906. 378
+pp. A recital of the triumphs of modern agriculture. Chap. X on
+modern forestry, describes what has been done in different states in
+conservative lumbering.</p>
+
+<p><span class="outdent"><b>Hough, Romeyn B.</b>,</span> <i>American Woods</i>. Lowville, N. Y.: The author. An
+invaluable collection in eleven volumes (boxes) of sections of 275 species
+of American woods. There are three sections of each species, cross,
+radial, and tangential, mounted in cardboard panels. Accompanied by
+a list of descriptions and analytical keys.</p>
+
+<p><span class="outdent"><b>Hough, Romeyn B.</b>,</span> <i>Handbook of the Trees of the Northern States and Canada</i>.
+Lowville, N. Y.: The author. 470 pp. A unique, elegant, and
+sumptuously illustrated book, with photographs of tree, trunk, leaf,
+fruit, bud, and sometimes wood, a map of the habitat of each species,
+and a full and careful description of tree and wood. Intended for botanists,
+foresters and lumbermen.</p>
+
+<p><span class="outdent"><b>Johnson, J. B.</b>,</span> <i>The Materials of Construction</i>. N. Y.: John Wiley &amp; Sons.
+1898. 775 pp. Chapter XIII is identical with Forestry Bulletin X,
+Roth's <i>Timber</i>.</p>
+
+<p><span class="outdent"><b>Keeler, Harriet</b>,</span> <i>Our Native Trees</i>. N. Y.: Scribner's. 1900. 533 pp. A
+very attractive and popular book showing great familiarity with the
+common trees and love of them. Numerous photographs and drawings.</p>
+
+<p><span class="outdent"><b>Lounsberry, Alice</b>,</span> <i>A Guide to the Trees</i>. N. Y.: Frederick A. Stokes Co.
+313 pp. A popular description of some 200 common trees, with plentiful
+illustrations.</p>
+
+<p><span class="outdent"><b>Pinchot, Gifford</b>,</span> <i>A Primer of Forestry</i>. Parts I and II, U. S. Dept. of
+Agric. For. Serv. Bull. No. 24. 88 pp. and 88 pp. A concise, clear, and
+fully illustrated little manual of forestry conditions, forest enemies,
+forestry principles and practice abroad and in the U. S.</p>
+
+<p><span class="outdent"><b>Pinchot, Gifford</b>,</span> <i>The Adirondack Spruce</i>. N. Y.: G. P. Putnam's Sons.
+A technical account of the author's investigations on a forest estate in
+Northern New York.</p>
+
+<p><span class="outdent"><b>Price, O. W.</b>,</span> <i>Saving the Southern Forests</i>. <i>World's Work</i>, 5: 3207, March,
+'03. A plea for conservative lumbering; excellent illustrations.</p>
+
+<p><span class="outdent"><b>Record</b>,</span> Samuel J., <i>Characterization of the Grain and Texture of Wood</i>.
+Woodcraft, 15: 3, June, 1911.</p>
+
+<p><span class="outdent"><b>Roth, Filibert</b>,</span> <i>A First Book of Forestry</i>. Boston: Ginn &amp; Co. 291 pp. A
+book for young people, giving in an interesting form many valuable
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page6" id="page6"></a>6</span>
+facts about American forests and their care and use. It includes a
+leaf key to the trees.</p>
+
+<p><span class="outdent"><b>Sargent, Charles Sprague</b>,</span> <i>Forest Trees of North America</i>. U. S. 10th
+Census, Vol. 9. Quarto, 612 pp. Part I deals with the distribution
+of the forests, and gives a catalog and description of the forest trees
+of North America, exclusive of Mexico. Part II. Tables of properties
+of the woods of the U. S. Part III. The economic aspects of the forests
+of the U. S. considered geographically, and maps showing distributions
+and densities. Exceedingly valuable.</p>
+
+<p><span class="outdent"><b>Sargent, Charles Sprague</b>,</span> <i>Jesup Collection, The Woods of the U. S</i>. N. Y.:
+D. Appleton &amp; Co., 203 pp. A detailed description of the Jesup Collection
+of North American Woods in the American Museum of Natural
+History, N. Y. City, with valuable tables as to strength, elasticity,
+hardness, weight, etc. Condensed from Vol. IX of 10th U. S. Census.</p>
+
+<p><span class="outdent"><b>Sargent, Charles Sprague</b>,</span> <i>Manual of the Trees of North America</i>. Boston:
+Houghton, Mifflin &amp; Co. 826 pp. A compact mine of information, with
+some errors, about the known trees of North America and their woods,
+summarized from Sargent's larger work, "The Silva of North America."
+(See below.)</p>
+
+<p><span class="outdent"><b>Sargent, Charles Sprague</b>,</span> <i>The Silva of North America</i>. Boston: Houghton,
+Mifflin Co. A monumental and sumptuous work of 14 quarto volumes,
+describing in great detail all the known trees of North America and
+their woods, with beautiful line drawings of leaves and fruits.</p>
+
+<p><span class="outdent"><b>Shaler, Nathaniel S.</b>,</span> <i>The United States of America</i>. Vol. 1, pp. 485-517.
+N. Y.: D. Appleton &amp; Co. Chapter IX is a popular description of
+American forests and the Lumber Industry.</p>
+
+<p><span class="outdent"><b>Snow, Chas. Henry</b>,</span> <i>The Principal Species of Wood</i>. N. Y.: John Wiley &amp;
+Sons. 203 pp. Descriptions and data regarding the economically important
+varieties of wood, with excellent photographs of trees and woods.</p>
+
+<p><span class="outdent"><b>Strasburger, Noll, Schenck, and Schimper</b>.</span> <i>A Text Book of Botany</i>. N. Y.:
+Macmillan &amp; Co. 746 pp. Valuable for minute information about the
+morphology of wood.</p>
+
+<p><span class="outdent"><b>U. S. Tenth Census, Vol. IX</b>.</span> See Sargent.</p>
+
+<p><span class="outdent"><b>U. S. Department of Agriculture</b>,</span> <i>Forest Service Bulletins</i>. The character
+of these government pamphlets is well indicated by their titles. No.
+10 is an exceedingly valuable summary of the facts about the structure
+and properties of wood, contains the best available key to identification
+of common American woods (not trees) and a concise description of
+each. It is incorporated, as Chap. XIII, in Johnson's, "<i>The Materials
+for Construction</i>." N. Y.: John Wiley &amp; Sons. Nos. 13 and 22 are
+large monographs containing much valuable information.</p>
+
+<p>No. 10. Filibert Roth, <i>Timber</i>.</p>
+
+<p>No. 13. Charles Mohr, <i>The Timber Pines of the Southern United States</i>.</p>
+
+<p>No. 15. Frederick V. Coville, <i>Forest Growth and Sheep Grazing in the
+Cascade Mountains of Oregon</i>.</p>
+
+<p>No. 16. Filibert Roth, <i>Forestry Conditions in Wisconsin</i>.</p>
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page7" id="page7"></a>7</span>
+
+<p>No. 17. George B. Sudworth, <i>Check List of the Forest Trees of the
+United States</i>, 1898.</p>
+
+<p>No. 18. Charles A. Keffer, <i>Experimental Tree Planting on the Plains</i>.</p>
+
+<p>No. 22. V. M. Spalding and F. H. Chittenden, <i>The White Pine</i>.</p>
+
+<p>No. 24. Gifford Pinchot, <i>A Primer of Forestry</i>.</p>
+
+<p>No. 26. Henry S. Graves, <i>Practical Forestry in the Adirondacks</i>.</p>
+
+<p>No. 41. Herman von Schrenck, <i>Seasoning of Timber</i>.</p>
+
+<p>No. 45. Harold B. Kempton, <i>The Planting of White Pine in New England</i>.</p>
+
+<p>No. 52. Royal S. Kellogg, <i>Forest Planting in Western Kansas</i>.</p>
+
+<p>No. 61. <i>Terms Used in Forestry and Logging</i>.</p>
+
+<p>No. 65. George L. Clothier, <i>Advice for Forest Planters in Oklahoma and
+Adjacent Regions</i>.</p>
+
+<p>No. 74. R. S. Kellogg and H. M. Hale, <i>Forest Products of the U. S</i>.,
+1905.</p>
+
+<p><span class="outdent"><b>U. S. Department of Agriculture</b>,</span> <i>Forest Service Circulars</i>.</p>
+
+<p>No. 3. George William Hill, <i>Publications for Sale</i>.</p>
+
+<p>No. 25. Gifford Pinchot, <i>The Lumberman and the Forester</i>.</p>
+
+<p>No. 26. H. M. Suter, <i>Forest Fires in the Adirondacks in 1903</i>.</p>
+
+<p>No. 36. The Forest Service: <i>What it is, and how it deals with Forest
+Problems</i>. Also <i>Classified List of Publications and Guide to
+Their Contents</i>.</p>
+
+<p>No. 37. <i>Forest Planting in the Sand Hill Region of Nebraska</i>.</p>
+
+<p>No. 40. H. B. Holroyd, <i>The Utilization of Tupelo</i>.</p>
+
+<p>No. 41. S. N. Spring, <i>Forest Planting on Coal Lands in Western
+Pennsylvania</i>.</p>
+
+<p>No. 45. Frank G. Miller, <i>Forest Planting in Eastern Nebraska</i>.</p>
+
+<p>No. 81. R. S. Kellogg, <i>Forest Planting in Illinois</i>.</p>
+
+<p>No. 97. R. S. Kellogg, <i>Timber Supply of the United States</i>.</p>
+
+<p>No. 153. A. H. Pierson, <i>Exports and Imports of Forest Products, 1907</i>.</p>
+
+<p><span class="outdent"><b>U. S. Department of Agriculture</b></span> <b>Year Books for:</b></p>
+
+<p>1896. Filibert Roth, <i>The Uses of Wood</i>.</p>
+
+<p>1898, p. 181. Gifford Pinchot, <i>Notes on some Forest Problems</i>.</p>
+
+<p>1899, p. 415. Henry S. Graves, <i>The Practice of Forestry by Private
+Owners</i>.</p>
+
+<p>1900, p. 199. Hermann von Schrenck, <i>Fungous Diseases of Forest Trees</i>.</p>
+
+<p>1902, p. 145. William L. Hall, <i>Forest Extension in the Middle West</i>.</p>
+
+<p>1902, p. 265. A. D. Hopkins, <i>Some of the Principal Insect Enemies of
+Coniferous Forests in the United States</i>.</p>
+
+<p>1902, p. 309. Overton, W. Price, <i>Influence of Forestry on the Lumber
+Supply</i>.</p>
+
+<p>1903, p. 279. James W. Toumey, <i>The Relation of Forests to Stream
+Flow</i>.</p>
+
+<p>1903, p. 313. A. D. Hopkins, <i>Insect Injuries to Hardwood Forest Trees</i>.</p>
+
+<p>1904, p. 133. E. A. Sterling, <i>The Attitude of Lumbermen toward Forest
+Fires</i>.</p>
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page8" id="page8"></a>8</span>
+
+<p>1904, p. 381. A. D. Hopkins, <i>Insect Injuries to Forest Products</i>.</p>
+
+<p>1905, p. 455. Henry Grinell, <i>Prolonging the Life of Telephone Poles</i>.</p>
+
+<p>1905, p. 483. J. Grivin Peters, <i>Waste in Logging Southern Yellow Pine</i>.</p>
+
+<p>1905, p. 636. Quincy R. Craft, <i>Progress of Forestry in 1905</i>.</p>
+
+<p>1907, p 277. Raphael Zon and E. H. Clapp, <i>Cutting Timber in the
+National Forests</i>.</p>
+
+<p><span class="outdent"><b>U. S. Department of Agriculture, Division of Entomology Bulletins</b>:</span></p>
+
+<p>No. 11. n. s. L. O. Howard, <i>The Gypsy Moth in America</i>.</p>
+
+<p>No. 28. A. D. Hopkins, <i>Insect Enemies of the Spruce in the Northeast</i>.</p>
+
+<p>No. 32. n. s. A. D. Hopkins, <i>Insect Enemies of the Pine in the Black
+Hills Forest Reserve</i>.</p>
+
+<p>No. 48. A. D. Hopkins, <i>Catalog of Exhibits of Insect Enemies of Forest
+and Forest Products at the Louisiana Purchase Exposition, St.
+Louis, Mo</i>., 1904.</p>
+
+<p>No. 56. A. D. Hopkins, <i>The Black Hills Beetle</i>.</p>
+
+<p>No. 58. Part 1, A. D. Hopkins, <i>The Locust Borer</i>.</p>
+
+<p>No. 58. Part II, J. L. Webb, <i>The Western Pine Destroying Bark Beetle</i>.</p>
+
+<p><span class="outdent"><b>U. S. Department of Agriculture, Bureau of Plant Industry, Bulletins</b>:</span></p>
+
+<p>No. 32. Herman von Schrenck, <i>A Disease of the White Ash Caused by
+Polyporus Fraxinophilus</i>, 1903.</p>
+
+<p>No. 36. Hermann von Schrenck, <i>The "Bluing" and "Red Rot" of the
+Western Yellow Pine</i>, 1903.</p>
+
+<p><span class="outdent"><b><i>Report of the</i></b></span> <b><i>Commissioner of Corporations on the Lumber Industry</i>, Part I</b>,
+<i>Standing Timber</i>, February, 1911. The latest and most reliable investigation
+into the amount and ownership of the forests of the United
+States.</p>
+
+<p><span class="outdent"><b>Ward, H. Marshall</b>,</span> <i>Timber and some of its Diseases</i>. London: Macmillan &amp;
+Co., 295 pp. An English book that needs supplementing by information
+on American wood diseases, such as is included in the list of government
+publications given herewith. The book includes a description
+of the character, structure, properties, varieties, and classification of
+timbers.
+</p></div>
+
+<h2><span class="pagenum" style="font-size: 0.4em; font-weight: normal;"><a name="page9" id="page9"></a>9</span><span class="sc">Chapter I.</span></h2>
+
+<h4>THE STRUCTURE OF WOOD.</h4>
+
+<p>When it is remembered that the suitability of wood for a particular
+purpose depends most of all upon its internal structure, it
+is plain that the woodworker should know the essential characteristics
+of that structure. While his main interest in wood is as lumber,
+dead material to be used in woodworking, he can properly understand
+its structure only by knowing something of it as a live,
+growing organism. To facilitate this, a knowledge of its position
+in the plant world is helpful.</p>
+
+<p>All the useful woods are to be found in the highest sub-kingdom
+of the plant world, the flowering plants or Phanerogamia of the
+botanist. These flowering plants are to be classified as follows:</p>
+
+<table width="auto" summary="classification of flowering plants" align="center">
+<tr>
+       <td class="main" style="line-height: 180%">Phanerogamia,<br />(Flowering plants)</td>
+       <td><img src="images/leftbrace4.png" width="21" height="312" alt="leftbrace" border="0" /></td>
+       <td class="left1" style="line-height: 180%">&nbsp;I. Gymnosperms.  (Naked seeds.)<br />
+           &nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;1. Cycadaceae.  (Palms, ferns, etc.)<br />
+           &nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;2. Gnetaceae.  (Joint firs.)<br />
+           &nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;3. Conifers. Pines, firs, etc.<br />
+          II. Angiosperms. (Fruits.)<br />
+           &nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;1. Monocotyledons. (One seed-leaf.)<br />
+           &nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;(Palms, bamboos, grasses, etc.)<br />
+           &nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;2. Dicotyledons. (Two seed-leaves.)<br />
+           &nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;a.  Herbs.<br />
+           &nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;b.  Broad-leaved trees.</td>
+</tr>
+</table>
+
+<p>Under the division of naked-seeded plants (gymnosperms), practically
+the only valuable timber-bearing plants are the needle-leaved
+trees or the conifers, including such trees as the pines, cedars, spruces,
+firs, etc. Their wood grows rapidly in concentric annual rings, like
+that of the broad-leaved trees; is easily worked, and is more widely
+used than the wood of any other class of trees.</p>
+
+<p>Of fruit-bearing trees (angiosperms), there are two classes, those
+that have one seed-leaf as they germinate, and those that have two
+seed-leaves.</p>
+
+<p>The one seed-leaf plants (monocotyledons) include the grasses,
+lilies, bananas, palms, etc. Of these there are only a few that reach
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page10" id="page10"></a>10</span>
+the dimensions of trees. They are strikingly distinguished by the
+structure of their stems. They have no cambium layer and no distinct
+bark and pith; they have unbranched stems, which as a rule
+do not increase in diameter after the first stages of growth, but grow
+only terminally. Instead of having concentric annual rings and
+thus growing larger year by year, the woody tissue grows here and
+there thru the stem, but mostly crowded together toward the outer
+surfaces. Even where there is radial growth, as in yucca, the structure
+is not in annual rings, but irregular. These one seed-leaf trees
+(monocotyledons) are not of much economic value as lumber, being
+used chiefly "in the round," and to some extent for veneers and
+inlays; <i>e. g</i>., cocoanut-palm and porcupine wood are so used.</p>
+
+<p>The most useful of the monocotyledons, or endogens, ("inside
+growers," as they are sometimes called,) are the bamboos, which are
+giant members of the group of grasses, Fig. 1. They grow in dense
+forests, some varieties often 70 feet high and 6 inches in diameter,
+shooting up their entire height in a single season. Bamboo is very
+highly valued in the Orient, where it is used for masts, for house
+rafters, and other building purposes, for gutters and water-pipes
+and in countless other ways. It is twice as strong as any of our
+woods.</p>
+
+<p>Under the fruit-bearing trees (angiosperms), timber trees are
+chiefly found among those that have two seed-leaves (the dicotyledons)
+and include the great mass of broad-leaved or deciduous trees
+such as chestnut, oak, ash and maple. It is to these and to the conifers
+that our principal attention will be given, since they constitute
+the bulk of the wood in common use.</p>
+
+<p>The timber-bearing trees, then, are the:</p>
+
+<p> (1) Conifers, the needle-leaved, naked-seeded trees, such as pine,
+cedar, etc. Fig. 45, <a class="index" href="#page199">p. 199</a>.</p>
+
+<p> (2) Endogens, which have one seed-leaf, such as bamboos, Fig. 1.</p>
+
+<p> (3) Broad-leaved trees, having two seed-leaves, such as oak,
+beech, and elm. Fig. 48, <a class="index" href="#page203">p. 203</a>.</p>
+
+<p>The common classifications of trees are quite inaccurate. Many
+of the so-called deciduous (Latin, <i>deciduus</i>, falling off) trees are
+evergreen, such as holly, and, in the south, live oak, magnolia and
+cherry. So, too, some of the alleged "evergreens," like bald cypress
+and tamarack, shed their leaves annually.</p>
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page11" id="page11"></a>11</span>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 300px;"><a href="images/figure-001-w800.png"><img src="images/figure-001-a-300.png" width="300" height="480" alt="A Bamboo Grove, Kioto, Japan." /></a>
+<p class="center1">Fig. 1. A Bamboo Grove, Kioto, Japan.</p></div>
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page12" id="page12"></a>12</span>
+
+<div class="figleft" style="width: 150px; margin-top: 1em;"><a href="images/figure-002-w300.png"><img src="images/figure-002-a-150.png" width="150" height="245" alt="Ginko Leaf." /></a>
+<p class="center1">Fig. 2. Ginko Leaf.</p></div>
+<p>Not all of the "conifers" bear cones. For example, the juniper
+bears a berry. The ginko, Fig. 2, tho classed among the "conifers,"
+the "evergreens," and the "needle-leaf" trees, bears no cones, has
+broad leaves and is deciduous. It has an especial interest as being
+the sole survivor of many species which grew
+abundantly in the carboniferous age.</p>
+
+<p>Also, the terms used by lumbermen, "hard
+woods" for broad-leaved trees and "soft woods"
+for conifers, are still less exact, for the wood
+of some broad-leaved trees, as bass and poplar,
+is much softer than that of some conifers, as
+Georgia pine and lignum vitae.</p>
+
+<p>Another classification commonly made is
+that of "endogens" (inside growers) including
+bamboos, palms, etc., and exogens (outside
+growers) which would include both conifers and
+broad-leaved trees.</p>
+
+<p>One reason why so many classifications have come into use is
+that none of them is quite accurate. A better one will be explained
+later. See <a class="index" href="#page23">p. 23</a>.</p>
+
+<p>As in the study of all woods three sections are made, it is well
+at the outset to understand clearly what these are.</p>
+
+<p>The sections of a tree made for its study are (Fig. 3):</p>
+
+<p>(1) Transverse, a plane at right angles to the organic axis.</p>
+
+<p>(2) Radial, a longitudinal plane, including the organic axis.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 560px;"><a href="images/figure-003-w800.png"><img src="images/figure-003-a-560.png" width="568" height="260" alt="Figure 3." /></a>
+<p class="center">Fig. 3.</p></div>
+
+<table summary="tree sections" width="auto" align="center" border="0">
+
+<tr>
+       <td class="center" width="180px">A.</td>
+       <td class="center" width="360px">B.</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+       <td>A, B, C, D, Transverse Section.<br />
+  B, D, E, F, Radial Section.<br />
+  G, H, I, J, Tangential Section.</td>
+       <td style="padding-left: 5em;"> A, B, C, Transverse Section.<br />
+  A, B, D, E, Radial Section.<br />
+  B, C, E, F, Tangential Section.</td>
+</tr>
+</table>
+
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page13" id="page13"></a>13</span>
+
+<p>(3) Tangential, a longitudinal plane not including the organic axis.</p>
+
+<p>If a transverse section of the trunk of a conifer or of a broad-leaved
+tree is made, it is to be noted that it consists of several distinct
+parts. See Fig. 4. These, beginning at the outside, are:</p>
+
+<ul class="none">
+<li>(1) Rind or bark
+  <ul class="none2"><li>(a) Cortex</li>
+  <li>(b) Bast</li></ul></li>
+
+<li>(2) Cambium</li>
+
+<li>(3) Wood
+  <ul class="none2"><li>(a) Sap-wood</li>
+  <li>(b) Heart-wood</li></ul></li>
+
+<li>(4) Pith.</li></ul>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 500px;"><a href="images/figure-004-w600.png"><img src="images/figure-004-a-300.png" width="300" height="452" alt="Diagram of Cross-section of Three Year Old Stem of Basswood." /></a>
+<p class="center">Fig. 4. Diagram of Cross-section of Three
+Year Old Stem of Basswood.</p></div>
+
+<p>(1) The rind or <i>bark</i> is made up of two layers, the outer of which, the "cortex,"
+is corky and usually scales or pulls off easily; while the inner one is a fibrous coat called
+"bast" or "phloem." Together they form a cone, widest, thickest, and roughest at
+the base and becoming narrower toward the top of the tree. The cortex or outer
+bark serves to protect the stem of the tree from extremes of
+heat and cold, from atmospheric changes, and from the browsing of
+animals. It is made up of a tough water-proof layer of cork which
+has taken the place of the tender skin or "epidermis" of the twig.
+Because it is water-proof the outside tissue is cut off from the water
+supply of the tree, and so dries up and peels off, a mass of dead
+matter. The cork and the dead stuff together are called the bark.
+As we shall see later, the cork grows from the inside, being formed
+in the inner layers of the cortex, the outer layers of dry bark being
+thus successively cut off.</p>
+
+<p>The characteristics of the tree bark are due to the positions and
+kinds of tissue of these new layers of cork. Each tree has its own
+kind of bark, and the bark of some is so characteristic as to make
+the tree easily recognizable.</p>
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page14" id="page14"></a>14</span>
+
+<p>Bark may be classified according to formation and method of
+separation, as scale bark, which detaches from the tree in plates, as
+in the willows; membraneous bark, which comes off in ribbons and
+films, as in the birches; fibrous bark, which is in the form of stiff
+threads, as in the grape vine; and fissured bark, which breaks up
+in longitudinal fissures, showing ridges, grooves and broad, angular
+patches, as in oak, chestnut and locust. The last is the commonest
+form of bark.</p>
+
+<p>The bark of certain kinds of trees, as cherry and birch, has peculiar
+markings which consist of oblong raised spots or marks, especially
+on the young branches. These are called lenticels (Latin <i>lenticula</i>,
+freckle), and have two purposes: they admit air to the internal
+tissues, as it were for breathing, and they also emit water vapor.
+These lenticels are to be found on all trees, even where the bark is
+very thick, as old oaks and chestnuts, but in these the lenticels are
+in the bottoms of the deep cracks. There is a great difference in the
+inflammability of bark, some, like that of the big trees of California,
+Fig. 54, <a class="index" href="#page208">p. 208</a>, which is often two feet thick, being practically incombustible,
+and hence serving to protect the tree; while some bark,
+as canoe birch, is laden with an oil which burns furiously. It therefore
+makes admirable kindling for camp fires, even in wet weather.</p>
+
+<p>Inside the cork is the "phloem" or "bast," which, by the way,
+gives its name to the bass tree, the inner bark of which is very tough
+and fibrous and therefore used for mat and rope making. In a living
+tree, the bast fibers serve to conduct the nourishment which has
+been made in the leaves down thru the stem to the growing parts.</p>
+
+<p>(2) The <i>cambium</i>. Inside of the rind and between it and the
+wood, there is, on living trees, a slimy coat called cambium (Med.
+Latin, exchange). This is the living, growing part of the stem,
+familiar to all who have peeled it as the sticky, slimy coat between
+the bark and the wood of a twig. This is what constitutes the fragrant,
+mucilaginous inner part of the bark of slippery elm. Cambium
+is a tissue of young and growing cells, in which the new cells are
+formed, the inner ones forming the wood and the outer ones the bark.</p>
+
+<div class="figright" style="width: 420px;"><a href="images/figure-005-w700.png"><img src="images/figure-005-a-350.png" width="350" height="415" alt="Young Stem." /></a>
+
+<p>Fig. 5. Young Stem, Magnified 18&#189; Diameters, Showing
+Primary and Secondary Bundles. <i>By Courtesy of
+Mrs. Katharine Golden Bitting</i>.<br /><br /></p>
+
+<p>E, epidermis, the single outside layer of cells.<br /><br /></p>
+
+<p>C, cortex, the region outside of the bundles.<br /><br /></p>
+
+<p>HB, hard bast, the black, irregular ring protecting
+the soft bast.<br /><br /></p>
+
+<p>SB, soft bast, the light, crescent-shaped parts.<br /><br /></p>
+
+<p>Ca, cambium, the line between the soft bast and the
+wood.<br /><br /></p>
+
+<p>W, wood, segments showing pores.<br /><br /></p>
+
+<p>MR, medullary rays, lines between the bundles connecting
+the pith and the cortex.<br /><br /></p>
+
+<p>MS, medullary sheath, the dark, irregular ring just
+inside the bundles.<br /><br /></p>
+
+<p>P, pith, the central mass of cells.</p></div>
+
+<p>In order to understand the cambium and its function, consider its
+appearance in a bud, Fig. 5. A cross-section of the bud of a growing
+stem examined under the microscope, looks like a delicate mesh of thin
+membrane, filled in with a viscid semi-fluid substance which is called
+"protoplasm" (Greek, <i>protos</i>, first; <i>plasma</i>, form). These meshes
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page15" id="page15"></a>15</span>
+were first called "cells" by Robert Hooke, in 1667, because of their
+resemblance to the chambers of a honeycomb. The walls of these
+"cells" are their most prominent feature and, when first studied,
+were supposed to be the essential part; but later the slimy, colorless
+substance which filled the cells was found to be the essential part.
+This slimy substance, called protoplasm, constitutes the primal stuff
+of all living things. The cell walls themselves are formed from it.
+These young cells, at the apex of a stem, are all alike, very small,
+filled with protoplasm, and as yet, unaltered. They form embryonic
+tissue, <i>i.e.</i> one which will change. One change to which an
+cell filled with protoplasm is liable is division into two, a new
+partition wall forming within it. This is the way plant cells increase.</p>
+
+<p>In young plant cells, the whole cavity of the chamber is filled with
+protoplasm, but as the cells grow older and larger, the protoplasm
+develops into different parts, one part forming the cell wall and in
+many cases leaving cavities within the cell, which become filled with sap.
+The substance of the cell wall is called cellulose (cotton and flax fibers
+consist of almost pure cellulose). At first it has no definite structure,
+but as growth goes on, it may become thickened in layers, or gummy, or
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page16" id="page16"></a>16</span>
+hardened into lignin (wood), according to the function to be performed.
+Where there are a group of similar cells performing the
+same functions, the group is called a tissue or, if large enough, a
+tissue system.</p>
+
+<p>When cells are changed into new forms, or "differentiated," as it
+is called, they become permanent tissues. These permanent tissues
+of the tree trunk constitute the various parts which we have noticed,
+viz., the rind, the pith and the wood.</p>
+
+<p>The essentially living part of the tree, it should be remembered,
+is the protoplasm: where there is protoplasm, there is life and
+growth. In the stems of the conifers and broad-leaved trees&mdash;sometimes
+together called exogens&mdash;this protoplasm is to be found in the
+buds and in the cambium sheath, and these are the growing parts of
+the tree. If we followed up the sheath of cambium which envelopes
+a stem, into a terminal bud, we should find that it passed without
+break into the protoplasm of the bud.</p>
+
+<p>In the cross-section of a young shoot, we might see around the
+central pith or medulla, a ring of wedge-shaped patches. These are
+really bundles of cells running longitudinally from the rudiments of
+leaves thru the stem to the roots. They are made of protoplasm and
+are called the "procambium strands," Fig. 6.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 580px;"><a href="images/figure-006-w800.png"><img src="images/figure-006-a-560.png" width="560" height="433" alt="Cross-section of a young shoot." /></a>
+<p>Fig. 6. Three Stages in the Development of an Exogenous
+Stem. P, pith; PB, primary bast; SB, secondary bast; C,
+cambium; PR, pith ray; PW, primary wood; SW, secondary
+wood; PS, procambium strands. <i>After Boulger</i>.</p></div>
+
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page17" id="page17"></a>17</span>
+
+<p>In the monocotyledons (endogens) these procambium strands
+change completely into wood and bast, and so losing all their protoplasmic
+cambium, become incapable of further growth. This is why
+palms can grow only lengthwise, or else by forming new fibers more
+densely in the central mass. But in the conifers and broad-leaved
+trees, the inner part of each strand becomes wood and the outer part
+bast (bark). Between these bundles, connecting the pith in the center
+with the cortex on the outside of the ring of bundles, are parts
+of the original pith tissue of the stem. They are the primary pith
+or medullary rays (Latin, <i>medulla</i>, pith). The number of medullary
+rays depends upon the number of the bundles; and their form, on
+the width of the bundles, so that they are often large and conspicuous,
+as in oak, or small and indeed invisible, as in some of the conifers.
+But they are present in all exogenous woods, and can readily
+be seen with the microscope. Stretching across these pith rays from
+the cambium layer in one procambium strand to that in the others,
+the cambium formation extends, making a complete cylindrical sheath
+from the bud downward over the whole stem. This is the cambium
+sheath and is the living, growing part of the stem from which is
+formed the wood on the inside and the rind (bark) on the outside.</p>
+
+<p>In the first year the wood
+and the bast are formed directly
+by the growth and
+change of the inner and outer
+cells respectively of the procambium
+strand, and all such
+material is called "primary;"
+but in subsequent years all
+wood, pith rays, and bast,
+originate in the cambium, and
+these growths are called "secondary."</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 300px;"><a href="images/figure-007-w600.png"><img src="images/figure-007-a-300.png" width="300" height="290" alt="Sap-wood and Heart-wood, Lignum Vitae." /></a>
+<p>Fig. 7. Sap-wood and Heart-wood, Lignum Vitae.</p></div>
+
+<p>(3) The <i>wood</i> of most
+exogens is made up of two
+parts, a lighter part called the
+sap-wood or splint-wood or alburnum, and a darker part called the
+heart-wood or duramen, Fig. 7. Sap-wood is really immature heartwood.
+The difference in color between them is very marked in some
+woods, as in lignum vitae and black walnut, and very slight in others,
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page18" id="page18"></a>18</span>
+as spruce and bass. Indeed, some species never form a distinct heart-wood,
+birch (<i>Betula alba</i>) being an example.</p>
+
+<p>In a living tree, sap-wood and heart-wood perform primarily
+quite different functions. The sap-wood carries the water from the
+roots to the leaves, stores away starch at least in winter, and in other
+ways assists the life of the tree. The proportional amount of sapwood
+varies greatly, often, as in long-leaf pine, constituting 40 per
+cent. of the stem.</p>
+
+<p>As the sap-wood grows older, its cells become choked so that the
+sap can no longer flow thru them. It loses its protoplasm and starch
+and becomes heartwood, in which all cells are dead and serve only the mechanical
+function of holding up the great weight of the tree and in resisting wind pressures.
+This is the reason why a tree may become decayed and hollow and yet be alive
+and bear fruit. In a tree that is actually dead the sap-wood rots first.</p>
+
+<p>Chemical substances infiltrate into the cell walls of heart-wood
+and hence it has a darker color than the sap-wood. Persimmon
+turns black, walnut purplish brown, sumac yellow, oak light brown,
+tulip and poplar yellowish, redwood and cedar brownish red. Many
+woods, as mahogany and oak, darken under exposure, which shows
+that the substances producing the color are oxidizable and unstable.
+Wood dyes are obtained by boiling and distilling such woods as sumach,
+logwood, red sanders, and fustic. Many woods also acquire
+distinct odors, as camphor, sandalwood, cedar, cypress, pine and
+mahogany, indicating the presence of oil.</p>
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page19" id="page19"></a>19</span>
+
+<p>As a rule heart-wood is more valuable for timber, being harder,
+heavier, and drier than sap-wood. In woods like hickory and ash,
+however, which are used for purposes that require pliability, as in
+baskets, or elasticity as in handles of rakes and hoes, sap-wood is
+more valuable than heart-wood.</p>
+
+<p>In a transverse section of a conifer, for example Douglas spruce,
+Fig. 8, the wood is seen to lie in concentric rings, the outer part of
+the ring being darker in color than the inner part. In reality each
+of these rings is a section of an irregular hollow cone, each cone enveloping
+its inner neighbor. Each cone ordinarily
+constitutes a year's growth, and therefore there
+is a greater number of them at the base of a tree
+than higher up. These cones vary greatly in
+<i>thickness</i>, or, looking at a cross-section, the rings
+vary in <i>width</i>; in general, those at the center
+being thicker than those toward the bark. Variations
+from year to year may also be noticed,
+showing that the tree was well nourished one
+year and poorly nourished another year. Rings,
+however, do not always indicate a year's growth.
+"False rings" are sometimes formed by a cessation
+in the growth due to drouth, fire or other
+accident, followed by renewed growth the same
+season.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 400px;"><a href="images/figure-008-w700.png"><img src="images/figure-008-a-350.png" width="350" height="440" alt="Section of Douglas Fir, Showing Annual Rings and Knots at Center of Trunk." /></a>
+<p>Fig. 8. Section of Douglas Fir, Showing Annual
+Rings and Knots at Center of Trunk. <i>American
+Museum of Natural History, N. Y</i>.</p></div>
+
+<p>In a radial section of a log, Fig. 8, these
+"rings" appear as a series of parallel lines and
+if one could examine a long enough log these
+lines would converge, as would the cut edges in a nest of cones, if
+they were cut up thru the center, as in Fig. 9.</p>
+
+<div class="figleft" style="width: 150px;"><a href="images/figure-009-w300.png"><img src="images/figure-009-a-150.png" width="150" height="316" alt="Diagram of Radial Section of Log (exaggerated) Showing Annual Cones of Growth." /></a>
+<p>Fig. 9. Diagram of Radial Section of Log (exaggerated) Showing Annual Cones of Growth.</p></div>
+
+<p>In a tangential section, the lines appear as broad bands, and
+since almost no tree grows perfectly straight, these lines are wavy,
+and give the <ins title="Transcriber's Note: original reads 'charactistic'">characteristic</ins> pleasing "grain" of wood. Fig. 27, <a class="index" href="#page35">p. 35</a>.
+The annual rings can sometimes be discerned in the bark as well as
+in the wood, as in corks, which are made of the outer bark of the
+cork oak, a product of southern Europe and northern Africa. Fig. 10.</p>
+
+<div class="figright" style="width: 400px;"><a href="images/figure-010-w600.png"><img src="images/figure-010-a-400.png" width="400" height="183" alt="Annual Rings in Bark (cork)." /></a>
+<p class="center1">Fig. 10. Annual Rings in Bark (cork).</p></div>
+
+<p>The growth of the wood of exogenous trees takes place thru the
+ability, already noted, of protoplasmic cells to divide. The cambium
+cells, which have very thin walls, are rectangular in shape, broader
+tangentially than radially, and tapering above and below to a chisel
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page20" id="page20"></a>20</span>
+edge, Fig. 11. After they have grown somewhat radially, partition
+walls form across them in the longitudinal, tangential direction, so
+that in place of one initial cell, there are two daughter cells radially
+disposed. Each of these small cells grows and re-divides, as in
+Fig. 12. Finally the innermost cell ceases to divide, and
+uses its protoplasm to become thick and hard wood. In like
+manner the outermost cambium cell becomes bast, while the cells
+between them continue to grow and divide, and so the process goes on. In nearly all stems,
+there is much more abundant formation of wood than of bast cells.
+In other words, more cambium cells turn to wood than to bast.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 500px;"><a href="images/figure-011-w700.png"><img src="images/figure-011-a-500.png" width="500" height="474" alt="Diagram Showing Grain of Spruce Highly Magnified." /></a>
+<p>Fig. 11. Diagram Showing Grain of Spruce
+Highly Magnified. PR, pith rays; BP, bordered
+pits; Sp W, spring wood; SW, summer wood;
+CC, overlapping of chisel shaped ends.</p></div>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 500px;"><a href="images/figure-012-w600.png"><img src="images/figure-012-a-500.png" width="500" height="102" alt="Diagram Showing the Mode of Division of the Cambium Cells." /></a>
+<p>Fig. 12. Diagram Showing the Mode of Division
+of the Cambium Cells. The cambium
+cell is shaded to distinguish it from the
+cells derived from it. Note in the last division
+at the right that the inner daughter
+cell becomes the cambium cell while the
+outer cell develops into a bast cell. <i>From
+Curtis: Nature and Development of Plants</i>.</p></div>
+
+<p>In the spring when there is comparatively little light and heat, when
+the roots and leaves are inactive and feeble, and when the bark, split
+by winter, does not bind very tightly, the inner cambium cells produce
+radially wide wood cells with relatively thin walls. These constitute
+the spring wood. But in summer the jacket of bark binds tightly, there
+is plenty of heat and light, and the leaves and roots are very active,
+so that the cambium cells produce thicker walled cells, called summer
+wood. During the winter the trees rest, and no
+development takes place until spring, when the large thin-walled cells
+are formed again, making a sharp contrast with those formed at the
+end of the previous season.</p>
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page21" id="page21"></a>21</span>
+
+<p>It is only at the tips of the branches that the cambium cells grow
+much in length; so that if a nail were driven into a tree twenty
+years old at, say, four feet from the ground, it would still be four
+feet from the ground one hundred years later.</p>
+
+<p>Looking once more at the cross-section, say, of spruce, the inner
+portion of each ring is lighter in color and softer in texture than
+the outer portion. On a radial or tangential section, one's finger
+nail can easily indent the inner portion of the ring, tho the outer
+dark part of the ring may be very hard. The inner, light, soft
+portion of the ring is the part that grows in the spring and early
+summer, and is called the "spring wood" while the part that grows
+later in the season is called "summer wood." As the summer wood is
+hard and heavy, it largely determines the strength and weight of the
+wood, so that as a rule, the greater the proportion of the summer
+growth, the better the wood. This can be controlled to some extent
+by proper forestry methods, as is done in European larch forests, by
+"underplanting" them with beech.</p>
+
+<p>In a normal tree, the summer growth forms a greater proportion
+of the wood formed during the period of thriftiest growth, so that
+in neither youth nor old age, is there so great a proportion of summer
+wood as in middle age.</p>
+
+<p>It will help to make clear the general structure of wood if one
+imagines the trunk of a tree to consist of a bundle of rubber tubes
+crushed together, so that they assume angular shapes and have no
+spaces between them. If the tubes are laid in concentric layers, first
+a layer which has thin walls, then successive layers having thicker
+and thicker walls, then suddenly a layer of thin-walled tubes and increasing
+again to thick-walled ones and so on, such an arrangement
+would represent the successive annual "rings" of conifers.</p>
+
+<p><i>The medullary rays</i>. While most of the elements in wood run
+longitudinally in the log, it is also to be noted that running at right
+angles to these and radially to the log, are other groups of cells
+called pith rays or medullary rays (Latin, <i>medulla</i>, which means
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page22" id="page22"></a>22</span>
+pith). These are the large "silver flakes" to be seen in quartered
+oak, which give it its beautiful and distinctive grain, Fig. 32, <a class="index" href="#page37">p. 37</a>.
+They appear as long, grayish lines on a cross-section, as broad, shining
+bands on the radial section, and as short, thick lines tapering at
+each end on the tangential section. In other words, they are like
+flat, rectangular plates standing on edge and radiating lengthwise
+from the center of the tree. They vary greatly in size in different
+woods. In sycamore they are very prominent, Fig. 13. In oak they
+are often several hundred cells wide (<i>i.e.</i>, up and down in the tree).
+This may amount to an inch or two. They are often twenty cells thick,
+tapering to one cell at the edge. In oak very many are also small,
+even microscopic. But in the conifers and also in some of the broad-leaved
+trees, altho they can be discerned with the naked eye on a split
+radial surface, still they are all very small. In pine there are some 15,000
+of them to a square inch of a tangential section. They are to be
+found in all exogens. In
+a cross-section, say of oak, Fig. 14, it can readily be seen that some
+pith rays begin at the center of the tree and some farther out. Those
+that start from the pith are formed the first year and are called primary
+pith rays, while those that begin in a subsequent year, starting
+at the cambium of that year, are called secondary rays.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 500px;"><a href="images/figure-013-w700.png"><img src="images/figure-013-a-400.png" width="400" height="400" alt="Tangential Section of Sycamore." /></a>
+<p>Fig. 13. Tangential Section of Sycamore, Magnified
+37 Diameters. Note the large size of the
+pith rays, A, <span class="sc">A</span> (end view).</p></div>
+
+<p>The function of the pith rays is twofold. (1) They transfer
+formative material from one part of a stem to another, communicating
+with both wood and bark by means of the simple and bordered
+pits in them, and (2) they bind the trunk together from pith to
+bark. On the other hand their presence makes it easier for the
+wood to split radially.</p>
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page23" id="page23"></a>23</span>
+
+<p>The substance of which they are composed is "parenchyma"
+(Greek, <i>beside</i>, to <i>pour</i>), which also constitutes the pith, the
+rays
+forming a sort of connecting link between the first and last growth
+of the tree, as the cambium cells form new wood each year.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 500px;"><a href="images/figure-014-w700.png"><img src="images/figure-014-a-400.png" width="400" height="393" alt="Cross-section of White Oak." /></a>
+<p>Fig. 14 Cross-section of White Oak. The Radiating White
+Lines are the Pith Rays.</p></div>
+
+<p>If a cambium cell is opposite to a pith ray, it divides crosswise
+(transversely) into eight or ten cells one above another, which
+stretch out radially, retaining their protoplasm,
+and so continue the pith ray. As the tree grows larger,
+new, or secondary medullary rays start from the cambium
+then active, so that every year new rays are formed both
+thinner and shorter than the primary rays, Fig. 14.</p>
+
+<p>Now suppose that laid among
+the ordinary thin-walled tubes were quite large tubes, so that one
+could tell the "ring" not only by the thin walls but by the presence
+of large tubes. That would represent the ring-porous woods, and the
+large tubes would be called vessels, or <i>tracheæ</i>. Suppose again that
+these large tubes were scattered in disorder thru the layers. This arrangement
+would represent the diffuse-porous woods.</p>
+
+<p>By holding up to the light, thin cross-sections of spruce or pine,
+Fig. 15, oak or ash, Fig. 16, and bass or maple, Fig. 17, these three
+quite distinct arrangements in the structure may be distinguished.
+This fact has led to the classification of woods according to the
+presence and distribution of "pores," or as they are technically called,
+"vessels" or "tracheae." By this classification we have:</p>
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page24" id="page24"></a>24</span>
+
+<p>(1) <i>Non-porous</i> woods, which comprise the conifers, as pine and
+spruce.</p>
+
+<p>(2) <i>Ring-porous</i> woods, in which the pores appear (in a cross-section)
+in concentric rings, as in chestnut, ash and elm.</p>
+
+<p>(3) <i>Diffuse-porous</i> woods, in which (in a cross-section) the rings
+are scattered irregularly thru the wood, as in bass, maple and yellow poplar.</p>
+
+<p>In order to fully understand the structure of wood, it is necessary
+to examine it still more closely thru the microscope, and since the three
+classes of wood, non-porous, ring-porous and diffuse-porous, differ considerably
+in their minute structure, it is well to consider them separately, taking the simplest
+first.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 500px;"><a href="images/figure-015-w700.png"><img src="images/figure-015-a-400.png" width="400" height="400" alt="Cross-section of Non-porous Wood, White Pine." /></a>
+<p>Fig. 15. Cross-section of Non-porous Wood, White
+Pine, Full Size (top toward pith).</p></div>
+
+<p><i>Non-porous woods</i>. In examining thru the microscope a transverse
+section of white pine, Fig. 18:</p>
+
+<p> (1) The most noticeable characteristic is the regularity of arrangement
+of the cells. They are roughly rectangular and arranged
+in ranks and files.</p>
+
+<p> (2) Another noticeable feature is that they are arranged in belts,
+the thickness of their walls gradually increasing as the size of the
+cells diminishes. Then the large thin-walled cells suddenly begin
+again, and so on. The width of one of these belts is the amount of
+a single year's growth, the thin-walled cells being those that formed
+in spring, and the thick-walled ones those that formed in summer,
+the darker color of the summer wood as well as its greater strength
+being caused by there being more material in the same volume.</p>
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page25" id="page25"></a>25</span>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 500px;"><a href="images/figure-016-w700.png"><img src="images/figure-016-a-400.png" width="400" height="400" alt="Cross-section of Ring-porous Wood, White Ash." /></a>
+<p>Fig. 16. Cross-section of Ring-porous Wood, White
+Ash, Full Size (top toward pith).</p></div>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 520px;"><a href="images/figure-017-w700.png"><img src="images/figure-017-a-400.png" width="400" height="400" alt="Cross-section of Diffuse-porous Wood, Hard Maple." /></a>
+<p>Fig. 17. Cross-section of Diffuse-porous Wood, Hard
+Maple, full size (top toward pith).</p></div>
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page26" id="page26"></a>26</span>
+
+<p>(3) Running radially (up and down in the picture) directly thru
+the annual belts or rings are to be seen what looks like fibers. These
+are the pith or medullary rays. They serve to transfer formative
+material from one part of the stem to another and to bind the tree
+together from pith to bark.</p>
+
+<p>(4) Scattered here and there among the regular cells, are to be
+seen irregular gray or yellow dots which disturb the regularity of
+the arrangement. These are <i>resin ducts</i>. (See cross-section of white
+pine, Fig. 18.) They are not cells, but openings between cells, in
+which the resin, an excretion of the tree, accumulates, oozing out
+when the tree is injured. At least one function of resin is to protect
+the tree from attacks of fungi.</p>
+
+<p>Looking now at the radial section, Fig. 18:</p>
+
+<p>(5) The first thing to notice is the straightness of the long cells
+and their overlapping where they meet endwise, like the ends of two
+chisels laid together, Fig. 11.</p>
+
+<p>(6) On the walls of the cells can be seen round spots called "pits."
+These are due to the fact that as the cell grows, the cell walls thicken,
+except in these small spots, where the walls remain thin and delicate.
+The pit in a cell wall always coincides with the pit in an adjoining
+cell, there being only a thin membrane between, so that there is practically
+free communication of fluids between the two cells. In a
+cross-section the pit appears as a canal, the length of which depends
+upon the thickness of the walls. In some cells, the thickening around
+the pits becomes elevated, forming a border, perforated in the center.
+Such pits are called bordered pits. These pits, both simple and bordered,
+are waterways between the different cells. They are helps in
+carrying the sap up the tree.</p>
+
+<p>(7) The pith rays are also to be seen running across and interwoven
+in the other cells. It is to be noticed that they consist of
+several cells, one above another.</p>
+
+<p>In the tangential section, Fig. 18:</p>
+
+<p>(8) The straightness and overlapping of the cells is to be seen
+again, and</p>
+
+<p>(9) The numerous ends of the pith rays appear.</p>
+
+<p>In a word, the structure of coniferous wood is very regular and
+simple, consisting mainly of cells of one sort, the pith rays being
+comparatively unnoticeable. This uniformity is what makes the wood
+of conifers technically valuable.</p>
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page27" id="page27"></a>27</span>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 320px;"><a href="images/figure-018-w800.png"><img src="images/figure-018-a-320.png" width="320" height="494" alt="Sections of non-porous wood - white pine." /></a>
+<p class="center">Fig. 18.</p></div>
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page28" id="page28"></a>28</span>
+
+<div class="figleft" style="width: 250px; margin-top: 1em;"><a href="images/figure-019-w400.png"><img src="images/figure-019-a-200.png" width="200" height="481" alt="Isolated Fibers and Cells." /></a>
+<p>Fig. 19. Isolated Fibers and
+Cells. <i>a</i>, four cells of wood
+parenchyma; <i>b</i>, two cells from
+a pith ray; <i>c</i>, a single cell or
+joint of a vessel, the openings,
+x, x, leading into its upper
+and lower neighbors; <i>d</i>,
+tracheid; <i>e</i>, wood fiber proper.
+<i>After Roth</i>.</p></div>
+
+<p>The cells of conifers are called tracheids, meaning "like <i>tracheæ</i>."
+They are cells in which the end walls persist, that is, are not absorbed
+and broken down when they meet end to end. In other
+words, conifers do not have continuous pores or vessels or "<i>tracheæ</i>,"
+and hence are called "non-porous" woods.</p>
+
+<p>But in other woods, the ends of
+some cells which meet endwise are absorbed,
+thus forming a continuous series
+of elements which constitute an open
+tube. Such tubes are known as pores,
+or vessels, or "tracheæ," and sometimes
+extend thru the whole stem. Besides
+this marked difference between the porous
+and non-porous woods, the porous
+woods are also distinguished by the fact
+that instead of being made up, like the
+conifers of cells of practically only one
+kind, namely tracheids, they are composed
+of several varieties of cells. Besides
+the tracheae and tracheids already
+noted are such cells as "wood fiber,"
+"fibrous cells," and "parenchyma." Fig. 19.
+Wood fiber proper has much thickened
+lignified walls and no pits, and its
+main function is mechanical support.
+Fibrous cells are like the wood fibers
+except that they retain their protoplasm.
+Parenchyma is composed of
+vertical groups of short cells, the end
+ones of each group tapering to a point,
+and each group originates from the
+transverse division of one cambium cell.
+They are commonly grouped around the
+vessels (tracheæ). Parenchyma constitutes the pith rays and other
+similar fibers, retains its protoplasm, and becomes filled with starch
+in autumn.</p>
+
+<p>The most common type of structure among the broad-leaved trees
+contains tracheæ, trachæids, woody fiber, fibrous cells and parenchyma.
+Examples are poplars, birch, walnut, linden and locust. In
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page29" id="page29"></a>29</span>
+some, as ash, the tracheids are wanting; apple and maple have no
+woody fiber, and oak and plum no fibrous cells.</p>
+
+<p>This recital is enough to show that the wood of the broad-leaved
+trees is much more complex in structure than that of the conifers. It
+is by means of the number and distribution of these elements that
+particular woods are identified microscopically. See <a class="index" href="#page289">p. 289</a>.</p>
+<br clear="all" />
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 400px;"><a href="images/figure-020-w800.png"><img src="images/figure-020-a-400.png" width="400" height="448" alt="Ring-porous wood" /></a>
+<p class="center">Fig. 20.</p></div>
+
+<p><i>Ring-porous woods</i>. Looking thru the microscope at a cross-section
+of ash, a ring-porous wood, Fig. 20:</p>
+
+<ul class="none2">
+<li>(1) The large round or oval pores or vessels grouped mostly in
+the spring wood first attract attention. Smaller ones, but still quite
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page30" id="page30"></a>30</span>
+distinct, are to be seen scattered all thru the wood. It is by the number
+and distribution of these pores that the different oak woods are
+distinguished, those in white oak being smaller and more numerous,
+while in red oak they are fewer and larger. It is evident that the
+greater their share in the volume, the lighter in weight and the
+weaker will be the wood. In a magnified cross-section of some woods,
+as black locust, white elm and chestnut, see <a class="index" href="#page57">Chap. III</a>, beautiful patterns
+are to be seen composed of these pores. It is because of the
+size of these pores and their great number that chestnut is so weak.<br /><br /></li>
+
+<li>(2) The summer wood is also distinguishable by the fact that, as
+with the conifers, its cells are smaller and its cell walls thicker than
+those of the spring wood. The summer wood appears only as a narrow,
+dark line along the largest pores in each ring.<br /><br /></li>
+
+<li>(3) The lines of the pith rays are very plain in some woods, as in
+oak. <a class="index" href="#page150">No. 47</a>, Chap. III.<br /><br /></li>
+
+<li>(4) The irregular arrangement and<br /><br /></li>
+
+<li>(5) Complex structure are evident, and these are due to the fact
+that the wood substance consists of a number of different elements
+and not one (tracheids) as in the conifers.</li>
+</ul>
+
+<p>Looking at the radial section, Fig. 20:</p>
+
+<ul class="none2">
+<li>(6) If the piece is oak, the great size of the medullary rays is
+most noticeable. Fig. 32, <a class="index" href="#page37">p. 37</a>. They are often an inch or more
+wide; that is, high, as they grow in the tree. In ash they are plain,
+seen thru the microscope, but are not prominent.<br /><br /></li>
+
+<li>(7) The interweaving of the different fibers and the variety of
+their forms show the structure as being very complex.<br /><br /></li>
+</ul>
+
+<p>In the tangential section, Fig. 20:</p>
+
+<ul class="none2">
+<li>(8) The pattern of the grain is seen to be marked not so much by
+the denseness of the summer wood as by the presence of the vessels
+(pores).<br /><br /></li>
+
+<li>(9) The ends of the pith rays are also clear.</li>
+</ul>
+
+<p>In <i>diffuse porous woods</i>, the main features to be noticed are: In
+the transverse section, Fig. 21:</p>
+
+<ul class="none2">
+<li>(1) The irregularity with which the pores are scattered,<br /><br /></li>
+
+<li>(2) The fine line of dense cells which mark the end of the year's
+growth,<br /><br /></li>
+
+<li>(3) The radiating pith rays,<br /><br /></li>
+
+<li>(4) The irregular arrangement and,<br /><br /></li>
+
+<li>(5) The complex structure.</li>
+</ul>
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page31" id="page31"></a>31</span>
+
+<p>In the radial section, Fig. 21:</p>
+
+<ul class="none2">
+<li>(6) The pith rays are evident. In sycamore, <a class="index" href="#page163">No. 53</a>, Chap. III,
+they are quite large.<br /><br /></li>
+
+<li>(7) The interweaving of the fibers is to be noted and also their
+variety.</li>
+</ul>
+
+<p>In the tangential section, Fig. 21:</p>
+
+<ul class="none2">
+<li>(8) The grain is to be traced only dimly, but the fibers are seen
+to run in waves around the pith rays.<br /><br /></li>
+
+<li>(9) The pith rays, the ends of which are plainly visible.</li>
+</ul>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 400px;"><a href="images/figure-021-w800.png"><img src="images/figure-021-a-400.png" width="400" height="451" alt="Diffuse porous woods." /></a>
+<p class="center1">Fig. 21.</p></div>
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page32" id="page32"></a>32</span>
+
+<h3>THE GRAIN OF WOOD.</h3>
+
+<p>The term "grain" is used in a variety of meanings which is likely
+to cause confusion. This confusion may be avoided, at least in part,
+by distinguishing between grain and texture, using the word grain
+to refer to the arrangement or direction of the wood elements, and the
+word texture to refer to their size or quality, so far as these affect the
+structural character of the wood. Hence such qualifying adjectives
+as coarse and fine, even and uneven, straight and cross, including
+spiral, twisted, wavy, curly, mottled, bird's-eye, gnarly, etc., may all
+be applied to grain to give it definite meaning, while to texture the
+proper modifying adjectives are coarse and fine, even and uneven.</p>
+
+<p>Usually the word grain means the pattern or "figure" formed by
+the distinction between the spring wood and the summer wood. If
+the annual rings are wide, the wood is, in common usage, called
+"coarse grained," if narrow, "fine grained," so that of two trees of
+the same species, one may be coarse grained and the other fine
+grained, depending solely on the accident of fast or slow growth.</p>
+
+<p>The terms coarse grain and fine grain are also frequently used to
+distinguish such ring-porous woods as have large prominent pores,
+like chestnut and ash, from those having small or no pores, as cherry
+and lignum vitae. A better expression in this case would be coarse
+and fine textured. When such coarse textured woods are stained, the
+large pores in the spring wood absorb more stain than the smaller
+elements in the summer wood, and hence the former part appears
+darker. In the "fine grained" (or better, fine textured,) woods the
+pores are absent or are small and scattered, and the wood is hard, so
+that they are capable of taking a high polish. This indicates the
+meaning of the words coarse and fine in the mind of the cabinet-maker,
+the reference being primarily to texture.</p>
+
+<p>If the elements of which a wood are composed are of approximately
+uniform size, it would be said to have a uniform texture, as
+in white pine, while uniform grain would mean, that the elements,
+tho of varying sizes, were evenly distributed, as in the diffuse-porous
+woods.</p>
+
+<p>The term "grain" also refers to the regularity of the wood structure.
+An ideal tree would be composed of a succession of regular
+cones, but few trees are truly circular in cross-section and even in
+those that are circular, the pith is rarely in the center, showing that
+one side of the tree, usually the south side,
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page33" id="page33"></a>33</span>
+ is better nourished than
+the other, Fig. 14, <a class="index" href="#page23">p. 23</a>.</p>
+
+<p>The normal direction of the fibers of wood is parallel to the axis
+of the stem in which they grow. Such wood is called "straight-grained,"
+Fig. 22, but there are many deviations from this rule.
+Whenever the grain of the wood in a board is, in whole or in part,
+oblique to the sides of the board, it is called "cross-grained." An illustration
+of this is a bend in the fibers, due to a bend in the whole
+tree or to the presence of a neighboring knot. This bend makes the
+board more difficult to plane. In many cases, probably in more cases
+than not, the wood fibers twist around the tree. (See some of the
+logs in Fig. 107, <a class="index" href="#page253">p. 253</a>.) This produces "spiral" or "twisted" grain.</p>
+
+<div class="figleft" style="width: 360px;"><a href="images/figure-022-w600.png"><img src="images/figure-022a-200.png" width="200" height="400" alt="Straight Grained Long-leaf Pine." /></a>
+<p class="center1">Fig. 22.</p>
+<p class="center1">Straight Grained Long-leaf Pine (full size).</p></div>
+
+<div class="figright" style="width: 360px;"><a href="images/figure-023-w600.png"><img src="images/figure-023a-200.png" width="200" height="397" alt="Mahogany, Showing Alternately Twisted Grain." /></a>
+<p class="center1">Fig. 23.</p>
+<p class="center1">Mahogany, Showing Alternately Twisted Grain (full size).</p></div>
+
+<br clear="all" />
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page34" id="page34"></a>34</span>
+
+<p>Often, as in mahogany and
+sweet gum, the fibers of several
+layers twist first in one direction
+and then those of the next
+few layers twist the other way,
+Fig. 24. Such wood is peculiarly
+cross-grained, and is of
+course hard to plane smooth.
+But when a piece is smoothly
+finished the changing reflection
+of light from the surface
+gives a beautiful appearance,
+which can be enhanced by
+staining and polishing. It
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page35" id="page35"></a>35</span>
+constitutes the characteristic "grain" of striped mahogany, Fig. 23.
+It is rarely found in the inner part of the tree.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 440px;"><a href="images/figure-024-w600.png"><img src="images/figure-024-a-440.png" width="440" height="472" alt="Spiral Grain in Cypress." /></a>
+<p>Fig. 24. Spiral Grain in Cypress.</p>
+
+<p class="rindent"><i>After Roth</i>.&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;</p></div>
+
+<p>Sometimes the grain of wood is "cross," because it is "wavy" either
+in a radial or a tangential section, as in maple, Fig. 25, and Fig. 26.</p>
+
+<div class="figleft" style="width: 360px;"><a href="images/figure-025-w600.png"><img src="images/figure-025a-200.png" width="200" height="400" alt="Planed Surface of Wavy-Grained Maple." /></a>
+<p class="center1">Fig. 25.</p>
+<p class="center1">Planed Surface of Wavy-Grained Maple (full size).</p></div>
+
+<div class="figright" style="width: 360px;"><a href="images/figure-026-w600.png"><img src="images/figure-026a-200.png" width="200" height="400" alt="Split Surface of Wavy-Grained Maple." /></a>
+<p class="center1">Fig. 26.</p>
+<p class="center1">Split Surface of Wavy-Grained Maple (full size).</p></div>
+<br clear="all" />
+
+<p>"Curly grain" refers to the figure of circlets and islets and contours,
+often of great beauty, caused by cutting a flat surface in
+crooked-grained wood. See Fig. 27, curly long-leaf pine, and Fig. 28,
+yellow poplar. When such crookedness is fine and the fibers are contorted
+and, as it were, crowded out of place, as is common in and
+near the roots of trees, the effect is called "burl," Fig. 29. The term
+burl is also used to designate knots and knobs on tree trunks, Fig. 31.
+Burl is used chiefly in veneers.</p>
+
+<div class="figleft" style="width: 360px;"><a href="images/figure-027-w600.png"><img src="images/figure-027a-200.png" width="200" height="400" alt="Curly Grained Long-leaf Pine." /></a>
+<p class="center1">Fig. 27.</p>
+<p class="center1">Curly Grained Long-leaf Pine (full size).</p></div>
+
+<div class="figright" style="width: 360px;"><a href="images/figure-028-w600.png"><img src="images/figure-028a-200.png" width="200" height="400" alt="Curly Yellow Poplar." /></a>
+<p class="center1">Fig. 28.</p>
+<p class="center1">Curly Yellow Poplar (full size).</p></div>
+<br clear="all" />
+
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page36" id="page36"></a>36</span>
+
+<p>Irregularity of grain is often caused by the presence of adventitious
+and dormant buds, which may be plainly seen as little knobs
+on the surface of some trees under the bark. In most trees, these
+irregularities are soon buried and smoothed over by the successive annual
+layers of wood, but in some woods there is a tendency to preserve
+the irregularities. On slash (tangent) boards of such wood,
+a great number of little circlets appear, giving a beautiful grain, as
+in "Bird's-eye maple," Fig. 30. These markings are found to predominate
+in the inner part of the tree. This is not at all a distinct
+variety of maple, as is sometimes supposed, but the common variety,
+in which the phenomenon frequently appears. Logs of great value,
+having bird's-eyes, have often unsuspectingly been chopped up for
+fire wood.</p>
+
+<div class="figleft" style="width: 360px;"><a href="images/figure-029-w600.png"><img src="images/figure-029a-200.png" width="200" height="400" alt="Redwood Burl." /></a>
+<p class="center1">Fig. 29.</p>
+<p class="center1">Redwood Burl (full size).</p></div>
+
+<div class="figright" style="width: 360px;"><a href="images/figure-030-w600.png"><img src="images/figure-030a-200.png" width="200" height="400" alt="Bird's-eye Maple." /></a>
+<p class="center1">Fig. 30.</p>
+<p class="center1">Bird's-eye Maple (full size.)</p></div>
+<br clear="all" />
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 300px;"><a href="images/figure-031-w700.png"><img src="images/figure-031-a-300.png" width="300" height="451" alt="Burl on White Oak." /></a>
+<p class="center1">Fig. 31.
+Burl on White Oak.</p></div>
+
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page37" id="page37"></a>37</span>
+
+<p>The term "grain" may also mean the "figure" formed by the
+presence of pith rays, as in oak, Fig. 32, or beech, or the word "grain"
+may refer simply to the uneven deposit of coloring matter as is common
+in sweet gum, Fig. 33, black ash, or Circassian walnut.</p>
+
+<div class="figleft" style="width: 360px;"><a href="images/figure-032-w600.png"><img src="images/figure-032a-200.png" width="200" height="400" alt="Figure Formed by Pith Rays in Oak." /></a>
+<p class="center1">Fig. 32.</p>
+<p class="center1">Figure Formed by Pith Rays
+in Oak (full size).</p></div>
+
+<div class="figright" style="width: 360px;"><a href="images/figure-033-w600.png"><img src="images/figure-033a-200.png" width="200" height="400" alt="Sweet Gum, Showing Uneven Deposit of Coloring Matter." /></a>
+<p class="center1">Fig. 33.</p>
+<p class="center1">Sweet Gum, Showing Uneven
+Deposit of Coloring Matter (full size.)</p></div>
+<br clear="all" />
+
+<p>The presence of a limb constitutes a knot and makes great irregularity
+in the grain of wood, Fig. 34. In the first place, the fibers on
+the upper and lower
+sides of the limb behave
+differently, those on the
+lower side running uninterruptedly
+from the
+stem into the limb, while
+on the upper side the
+fibers bend aside making
+an imperfect connection.
+Consequently to split a
+knot it is always necessary
+to start the split
+from the lower side. On
+the other hand it is easier
+to split around a
+knot than thru it. The
+texture as well as the
+grain of wood is modified
+by the presence of a
+branch. The wood in
+and around a knot is
+much harder than the
+main body of the trunk
+on account of the crowding
+together of the elements.
+Knots are the
+remnants of branches left in the trunk. These once had all the parts
+of the trunk itself, namely bark, cambium, wood, and pith. Normally,
+branches grow from the pith, tho some trees, as Jack pine and
+redwood, among the conifers, and most of the broad-leaf trees have
+the power of putting out at any time adventitious buds which may
+develop into branches. When a branch dies, the annual layer of
+wood no longer grows upon it, but the successive layers of wood on
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page38" id="page38"></a>38</span>
+the trunk itself close tighter and tighter around it, until it is broken
+off. Then, unless it has begun to decay, it is successively overgrown
+by annual layers, so that no sign of it appears until the trunk is cut
+open. A large trunk perfectly clean of branches on the outside may
+have many knots around its center, remnants of branches which grew
+there in its youth, as in Fig. 34, and Fig. 8, <a class="index" href="#page19">p. 19</a>. The general effect
+of the presence of a knot is, that the fibers that grow around and
+over it are bent, and this, of course, produces crooked grain.</p>
+
+<p>Following are the designations given to different knots by lumbermen:
+A <i>sound</i> knot is one which is solid across its face and is as
+hard as the wood surrounding it and fixed in position. A <i>pin</i> knot
+is sound, but not over &#188;" in diameter. A <i>standard</i> knot is sound,
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page39" id="page39"></a>39</span>
+but not over 1&#189;" in diameter. A <i>large</i> knot is sound, and over 1&#189;"
+in diameter. A <i>spike</i> knot is one sawn in a lengthwise position. A
+<i>dead</i>, or, <i>loose</i> knot is one not firmly held in place by growth or
+position.</p>
+
+<p>(4) <i>Pith</i>. At the
+center or axis of the
+tree is the pith or
+<i>medulla</i>, Fig. 34. In
+every bud, that is, at
+the apex of every stem
+and branch, the pith is
+the growing part; but
+as the stem lengthens
+and becomes overgrown
+by successive layers of
+wood the pith loses its
+vital function. It does
+not grow with the
+plant except at the
+buds. It varies in
+thickness, being very
+small,&mdash;hardly more
+than 1/16", in cedar
+and larch,&mdash;and so
+small in oak as to be
+hardly discernible; and
+what there is of it
+turns hard and dark.
+In herbs and shoots it
+is relatively large, Fig. 5, <a class="index" href="#page15">p. 15</a>, in a three-year
+old shoot of elder,
+for example, being
+as wide as the wood. In elder, moreover, it dies early and pulverizes,
+leaving the stem hollow. Its function is one of only temporary
+value to the plant.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 400px;"><a href="images/figure-034-w700.png"><img src="images/figure-034-a-340.png" width="340" height="466" alt="Section Thru the Trunk of a Seven Year Old Tree." /></a>
+<p class="center1">Fig. 34.</p>
+<p>Section Thru the Trunk of a Seven Year
+Old Tree, Showing Relation of Branches to Main
+Stem. A, B, two branches which were killed after
+a few years' growth by shading, and which have
+been overgrown by the annual rings of wood; C, a
+limb which lived four years, then died and broke
+off near the stem, leaving the part to the left of
+XY a "sound" knot, and the part to the right a
+"dead" knot, which unless rotting sets in, would
+in time be entirely covered by the growing trunk;
+D, a branch that has remained alive and has increased
+in size like the main stem; P, P, pith of
+both stem and limb.</p></div>
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page40" id="page40"></a>40</span>
+
+<h5 style="margin-top: 3em;">THE STRUCTURE OF WOOD.</h5>
+
+<ul class="none">
+<li><span class="sc">References</span>:*
+<ul class="none2">
+<li>Roth, <i>Forest Bull</i>. No. 10, pp. 11-23.</li>
+<li>Boulger, pp. 1-39.</li>
+<li>Sickles, pp. 11-20.</li>
+<li>Pinchot, <i>Forest Bull</i>. No. 24, I, pp. 11-24.</li>
+<li>Keeler, pp. 514-517.</li>
+<li>Curtis, pp. 62-85.</li>
+<li>Woodcraft, 15: 3, p. 90.</li>
+<li>Bitting, <i>Wood Craft</i>, 5: 76, 106, 144, 172, (June-Sept. 1906).</li>
+<li>Ward, pp. 1-38.</li>
+<li><i>Encyc. Brit</i>., 11th Ed., "Plants," p. 741.</li>
+<li>Strasburger, pp. 120-144 and Part II, Sec. II.</li>
+<li>Snow, pp. 7-9, 183.</li></ul></li>
+</ul>
+
+<p class="note1"><span style="font-size: 1.2em;">*</span> For general bibliography, see <a class="index" href="#page4">p. 4.</a></p>
+
+<h2><span class="pagenum" style="font-size: 0.4em; font-weight: normal;"><a name="page41" id="page41"></a>41</span><span class="sc">Chapter</span> II.</h2>
+
+<h4>PROPERTIES OF WOOD.</h4>
+
+<p>There are many properties of wood,&mdash;some predominant in one
+species, some in another,&mdash;that make it suitable for a great variety
+of uses. Sometimes it is a combination of properties that gives value
+to a wood. Among these properties are hygroscopicity, shrinkage,
+weight, strength, cleavability, elasticity, hardness, and toughness.</p>
+
+<h3>THE HYGROSCOPICITY<a id="footnotetagChII1" name="footnotetagChII1"></a><a href="#footnoteChII1"><sup>1</sup></a> OF WOOD.</h3>
+
+<p>It is evident that water plays a large part in the economy of the
+tree. It occurs in wood in three different ways: In the sap which
+fills or partly fills the cavities of the wood cells, in the cell walls which
+it saturates, and in the live protoplasm, of which it constitutes 90
+per cent. The younger the wood, the more water it contains, hence
+the sap-wood contains much more than the heart-wood, at times even
+twice as much.</p>
+
+<p>In fresh sap-wood, 60 per cent. of the water is in the cell cavities,
+35 per cent. in the cell walls, and only 5 per cent. in the protoplasm.
+There is so much water in green wood that a sappy pole will soon
+sink when set afloat. The reason why there is much less water in
+heart-wood is because its cells are dead and inactive, and hence without
+sap and without protoplasm. There is only what saturates the
+cell walls. Even so, there is considerable water in heart-wood.<a id="footnotetagChII2" name="footnotetagChII2"></a><a href="#footnoteChII2"><sup>2</sup></a></p>
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page42" id="page42"></a>42</span>
+
+<p>The lighter kinds have the most water in the sap-wood, thus
+sycamore has more than hickory.</p>
+
+<p>Curiously enough, a tree contains about as much water in winter
+as in summer. The water is held there, it is supposed, by capillary
+attraction, since the cells are inactive, so that at all times the water
+in wood keeps the cell walls distended.</p>
+
+<h3>THE SHRINKAGE OF WOOD.</h3>
+
+<p>When a tree is cut down, its water at once begins to evaporate.
+This process is called "seasoning."* In drying, the free water within
+the cells keeps the cell walls saturated; but when all the free water
+has been removed, the cell walls begin to yield up their moisture.
+Water will not flow out of wood unless it is forced out by heat, as
+when green wood is put on a fire. Ordinarily it evaporates slowly.</p>
+
+<p class="note1"><span style="font-size: 1.2em;">*</span> See <i>Handwork in Wood</i> , Chapter III.</p>
+
+<p>The water evaporates faster from some kinds of wood than from
+other kinds, <i>e. g</i>., from white pine than from oak, from small pieces
+than from large, and from end grain than from a longitudinal section;
+and it also evaporates faster in high than in low temperatures.</p>
+
+<p>Evaporation affects wood in three respects, weight, strength, and
+size. The weight is reduced, the strength is increased, and shrinkage
+takes place. The reduction in weight and increase in strength, important
+as they are, are of less importance than the shrinkage, which
+often involves warping and other distortions. The water in wood
+affects its size by keeping the cell walls distended.</p>
+
+<p>If all the cells of a piece of wood were the same size, and had
+walls the same thickness, and all ran in the same direction, then the
+shrinkage would be uniform. But, as we have seen, the structure of
+wood is not homogeneous. Some cellular elements are large, some
+small, some have thick walls, some thin walls, some run longitudinally
+and some (the pith rays) run radially. The effects will be various
+in differently shaped pieces of wood but they can easily be accounted
+for if one bears in mind these three facts: (1) that the shrinkage is
+in the cell wall, and therefore (2) that the thick-walled cells shrink
+more than thin-walled cells and (3) that the cells do not shrink
+much, if any, lengthwise.</p>
+
+<p>(1) The shrinkage of wood takes place in the walls of the cells
+that compose it, that is, the cell walls become thinner, as indicated
+by the dotted lines in Fig. 35, which is a cross-section of a single cell.
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page43" id="page43"></a>43</span>
+The diameter of the whole cell becomes less, and the opening, or
+lumen, of the cell becomes larger.</p>
+
+<div class="figright" style="width: 300px;"><a href="images/figure-035-w500.png"><img src="images/figure-035-a-300.png" width="300" height="150" alt="How Cell Walls Shrink." /></a>
+<p class="center1">Fig. 35. How Cell Walls Shrink.</p></div>
+
+<p>(2) Thick-walled cells shrink more than thin-walled cells, that
+is, summer cells more than spring cells. This is due to the fact that
+they contain more shrinkable substance. The thicker the wall, the
+more the shrinkage.</p>
+
+<p>Consider the effects of these
+changes; ordinarily a log
+when drying begins to "check"
+at the end. This is to be explained
+thus: Inasmuch as
+evaporation takes place faster
+from a cross than from a longitudinal
+section, because at
+the cross-section all the cells are cut open, it is to be expected that
+the end of a piece of timber, Fig. 36, A, will shrink first. This
+would tend to make the end fibers bend toward the center of the
+piece as in B, Fig. 36. But the fibers are stiff and resist this bending
+with the result that the end splits or "checks" as in C, Fig. 36.
+But later, as the rest of the timber dries out and shrinks, it becomes
+of equal thickness again and the "checks" tend to close.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 600px;"><a href="images/figure-036-w800.png"><img src="images/figure-036-a-560.png" width="560" height="203" alt="The Shrinkage and Checking at the End of a Beam." /></a>
+<p class="center1">Fig. 36. The Shrinkage and Checking at the End of a Beam.</p></div>
+
+<p>(3) For some reason, which has not been discovered, the cells or
+fibers of wood do not shrink in length to any appreciable extent.
+This is as true of the cells of pith rays, which run radially in the
+log, as of the ordinary cells, which run longitudinally in it.</p>
+
+<p>In addition to "checking" at the end, logs ordinarily show the
+effect of shrinkage by splitting open radially, as in Fig. 37. This is
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page44" id="page44"></a>44</span>
+to be explained by two factors, (1) the disposition of the pith (or
+medullary) rays, and (2) the arrangement of the wood in annual rings.</p>
+
+<div class="figleft" style="width: 300px;"><a href="images/figure-037-w600.png"><img src="images/figure-037-a-300.png" width="300" height="320" alt="The Shrinkage and Splitting of a Log." /></a>
+<p class="center1">Fig. 37. The Shrinkage and Splitting
+of a Log.</p></div>
+
+<p>(1) The cells of the pith rays, as we have seen in Chapter I, run
+at right angles to the direction of the mass of wood fibers, and since
+they shrink according to the same laws that other cells do, viz., by
+the cell wall becoming thinner but not shorter, the strain of their
+shrinkage is contrary to that of
+the main cells. The pith rays,
+which consist of a number of
+cells one above the other,
+tend to shrink parallel to the
+length of the wood, and whatever
+little longitudinal shrinkage
+there is in a board is probably
+due mostly to the shrinkage of
+the pith rays. But because the
+cells of pith rays do not appreciably
+shrink in their length, this
+fact tends to prevent the main
+body of wood from shrinking
+radially, and the result is that
+wood shrinks less radially than
+tangentially. Tangentially is the only way left for it to shrink. The
+pith rays may be compared to the ribs of a folding fan, which keep
+the radius of unaltered length while permitting comparative freedom
+for circumferential contraction.</p>
+
+<p>(2) It is evident that since summer wood shrinks more than
+spring wood, this fact will interfere with the even shrinkage of the
+log. Consider first the tangential
+shrinkage. If a section of a
+single annual ring of green wood
+of the shape A B C D, in Fig. 38,
+is dried and the mass shrinks
+according to the thickness of the
+cell walls, it will assume the
+shape A' B' C' D'. When a number
+of rings together shrink, the tangential shrinkage of the summer
+wood tends to contract the adjoining rings of spring wood more than
+they would naturally shrink of themselves. Since there is more of
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page45" id="page45"></a>45</span>
+the summer-wood substance, the spring-wood must yield, and the log
+shrinks circumferentially. The radial shrinkage of the summer-wood,
+however, is constantly interrupted by the alternate rows of spring-wood,
+so that there would not be so much radial as circumferential
+shrinkage. As a matter of fact, the tangential or circumferential
+shrinkage is twice as great as the radial shrinkage.</p>
+
+<div class="figright" style="width: 300px;"><a href="images/figure-038-w600.png"><img src="images/figure-038-a-300.png" width="300" height="140" alt="Diagram to Show the Greater Shrinkage of Summer Cells, A, B, than of Spring Cells, C, D." /></a>
+<p>Fig. 38. Diagram to Show the Greater
+Shrinkage of Summer Cells, A, B, than
+of Spring Cells, C, D.</p></div>
+
+<p>Putting these two factors
+together, namely, the lengthwise
+resistance of the pith rays
+to the radial shrinkage of the
+mass of other fibers, and second,
+the continuous bands of
+summer wood, comparatively
+free to shrink circumferentially,
+and the inevitable happens; the
+log splits. If the bark is left
+on and evaporation hindered,
+the splits will not open so wide.</p>
+
+<p>There is still another effect
+of shrinkage. If, immediately
+after felling, a log is sawn in
+two lengthwise, the radial splitting may be largely avoided, but the
+flat sides will tend to become convex, as in Fig. 39. This is explained
+by the fact that circumferential shrinkage is greater than
+radial shrinkage.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 300px;"><a href="images/figure-039-w600.png"><img src="images/figure-039-a-300.png" width="300" height="286" alt="Shrinkage of a Halved Log." /></a>
+<p class="center1">Fig. 39. Shrinkage of a Halved Log.</p></div>
+
+<p>If a log is "quartered,"* the quarters split still less, as the inevitable
+shrinkage takes place more easily. The quarters then tend to assume
+the shape shown in Fig. 40, C. If a log is sawed into timber, it checks
+from the center of the faces toward the pith, Fig. 40, D. Sometimes
+the whole amount of shrinkage may be collected in one large split.
+When a log is slash-sawed, Fig. 40, I, each board tends to warp so
+that the concave side is away from the center of the tree. If one
+plank includes the pith, Fig. 40, E and H, that board will become
+thinner at its edges than at its center, <i>i.e.</i>, convex on both faces.
+Other forms assumed by wood in shrinking are shown in Fig. 40.
+In the cases A-F the explanation is the same; the circumferential
+shrinkage is more than the radial. In J and K the shapes are accounted
+for by the fact that wood shrinks very little longitudinally.</p>
+
+<p class="note1"><span style="font-size: 1.2em;">*</span> See <i>Handwork in Wood</i>, p. 42.</p>
+
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page46" id="page46"></a>46</span>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 350px;"><a href="images/figure-040-w800.png"><img src="images/figure-040-a-350.png" width="350" height="471" alt="Shapes Assumed by Wood in Shrinking." /></a>
+<p class="center1">Fig. 40. Shapes Assumed by Wood in Shrinking.</p></div>
+
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page47" id="page47"></a>47</span>
+
+<p>Warping is uneven shrinkage, one side of the board contracting
+more than the other. Whenever a slash board warps under ordinary
+conditions, the convex side is the one which was toward the center
+of the tree. However, a board may be made to warp artificially the
+other way by applying heat to the side of the board toward the
+center of the tree, and by keeping the other side moist. The board
+will warp only sidewise; lengthwise it remains straight unless the
+treatment is very severe. This shows again that water distends the
+cells laterally but not longitudinally.</p>
+
+<p>The thinning of the cell walls due to evaporation, is thus seen
+to have three results, all included in the term "working," viz.:
+<i>shrinkage</i>, a diminution in size, <i>splitting</i>, due to the inability
+of
+parts to cohere under the strains to which they are subjected, and
+<i>warping</i>, or uneven shrinkage.</p>
+
+<p>In order to neutralize warping as much as possible in broad board
+structures, it is common to joint the board with the annual rings of
+each alternate board curving in opposite directions, as shown in
+<i>Handwork in Wood</i>, Fig. 280, <i>a</i>, p. 188.</p>
+
+<p>Under warping is included
+bowing. Bowing, that is, bending
+in the form of a bow, is,
+so to speak, longitudinal warping.
+It is largely due to
+crookedness or irregularity of
+grain, and is likely to occur in
+boards with large pith rays, as
+oak and sycamore. But even
+a straight-grained piece of
+wood, left standing on end or
+subjected to heat on one side
+and dampness on the other, will
+bow, as, for instance a board
+lying on the damp ground and
+in the sun.</p>
+<a name="page47a" id="page47a"></a>
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 400px;"><a href="images/figure-041-w600.png"><img src="images/figure-041-a-390.png" width="390" height="470" alt="Shakes." /></a>
+<p>Fig. 41. <i>a</i>, Star Shakes; <i>b</i>, Heart Shakes;
+<i>c</i>, Cup Shakes or Ring Shakes; <i>d</i>, Honeycombing.</p></div>
+
+<p>Splitting takes various
+names, according to its form in
+the tree. "Check" is a term used for all sorts of cracks, and more
+particularly for a longitudinal crack in timber. "Shakes" are splits
+of various forms as: <i>star shakes</i>, Fig. 41, <i>a</i>, splits which radiate
+from
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page48" id="page48"></a>48</span>
+the pith along the pith rays and widen outward; <i>heart shakes</i>, Fig. 41, <i>b</i>,
+splits crossing the central rings and widening toward the center;
+and <i>cup</i> or <i>ring shakes</i>, Fig. 41, <i>c</i>, splits between the
+annual rings. <i>Honeycombing</i>, Fig. 41, <i>d</i>, is splitting along the pith rays
+and is due largely to case hardening.</p>
+
+<p>These are not all due to shrinkage in drying, but may occur in
+the growing tree from various harmful causes. See<a class="index" href="#page232"> p. 232</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Wood that has once been dried may again be swelled to nearly if
+not fully its original size, by being soaked in water or subjected to
+wet steam. This fact is taken advantage of in wetting wooden
+wedges to split some kinds of soft stone. The processes of shrinking
+and swelling can be repeated indefinitely, and no temperature short
+of burning, completely prevents wood from shrinking and swelling.</p>
+
+<p>Rapid drying of wood tends to "case harden" it, <i>i.e.</i>, to dry and
+shrink the outer part before the inside has had a chance to do the
+same. This results in checking separately both the outside and the
+inside, hence special precautions need to be taken in the seasoning
+of wood to prevent this. When wood is once thoroly bent out of
+shape in shrinking, it is very difficult to straighten it again.</p>
+
+<p>Woods vary considerably in the amounts of their shrinkage. The
+conifers with their regular structure shrink less and shrink more
+evenly than the broad-leaved woods.<a id="footnotetagChII3" name="footnotetagChII3"></a><a href="#footnoteChII3"><sup>3</sup></a> Wood, even after it has been
+well seasoned, is subject to frequent changes in volume due to the
+varying amount of moisture in the atmosphere. This involves constant
+care in handling it and wisdom in its use. These matters are
+considered in <i>Handwork in Wood</i>, Chapter III, on the Seasoning of
+Wood.</p>
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page49" id="page49"></a>49</span>
+
+<h3>THE WEIGHT OF WOOD.</h3>
+
+<p>Wood substance itself is heavier than water, as can readily be
+proved by immersing a very thin cross-section of pine in water. Since
+the cells are cut across, the water readily enters the cavities, and the
+wood being heavier than the water, sinks. In fact, it is the air enclosed
+in the cell cavities that ordinarily keeps wood afloat, just as
+it does a corked empty bottle, altho glass is heavier than water. A
+longitudinal shaving of pine will float longer than a cross shaving
+for the simple reason that it takes longer for the water to penetrate
+the cells, and a good sized white pine log would be years in getting
+water-soaked enough to sink. As long as a majority of the cells are
+filled with air it would float.</p>
+
+<p>In any given piece of wood, then, the weight is determined by
+two factors, the amount of wood substance and the amount of water
+contained therein. The amount of wood substance is constant, but
+the amount of water contained is variable, and hence the weight varies
+accordingly. Moreover, considering the wood substance alone,
+the weight of wood substance of different kinds of wood is about the
+same; namely, 1.6 times as heavy as water, whether it is oak or pine,
+ebony or poplar. The reason why a given bulk of some woods is
+lighter than an equal bulk of others, is because there are more thin-walled
+and air-filled cells in the light woods. Many hard woods, as
+lignum vitae, are so heavy that they will not float at all. This is
+because the wall of the wood cells is very thick, and the lumina are
+small.</p>
+
+<p>In order, then, to find out the comparative weights of different
+woods, that is, to see how much wood substance there is in a given
+volume of any wood, it is necessary to test absolutely dry specimens.</p>
+
+<p>The weight of wood is indicated either as the weight per cubic
+foot or as specific gravity.</p>
+
+<p>It is an interesting fact that different parts of the same tree have
+different weights, the wood at the base of the tree weighing more
+than that higher up, and the wood midway between the pith and bark
+weighing more than either the center or the outside.<a id="footnotetagChII4" name="footnotetagChII4"></a><a href="#footnoteChII4"><sup>4</sup></a></p>
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page50" id="page50"></a>50</span>
+
+<p>The weight of wood has a very important bearing upon its use.
+A mallet-head, for example, needs weight in a small volume, but it
+must also be tough to resist shocks, and elastic so as to impart its
+momentum gradually and not all at once, as an iron head does.</p>
+
+<p>Weight is important, too, in objects of wood that are movable.
+The lighter the wood the better, if it is strong enough. That is why
+spruce is valuable for ladders; it is both light and strong. Chestnut
+would be a valuable wood for furniture if it were not weak, especially
+in the spring wood.</p>
+
+<p>The weight of wood is one measure of its strength. Heavy wood
+is stronger than light wood of the same kind, for the simple reason
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page51" id="page51"></a>51</span>
+that weight and strength are dependent upon the number and compactness
+of the fibers.<a id="footnotetagChII5" name="footnotetagChII5"></a><a href="#footnoteChII5"><sup>5</sup></a></p>
+
+<h3>THE STRENGTH OF WOOD.</h3>
+
+<p>Strength is a factor of prime importance in wood. By strength
+is meant the ability to resist stresses, either of tension (pulling), or
+of compression (pushing), or both together, cross stresses. When a
+horizontal timber is subjected to a downward cross stress, the lower
+half is under tension, the upper half is under compression and the
+line between is called the neutral axis, Fig. 42.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 500px;"><a href="images/figure-042-w800.png"><img src="images/figure-042-a-500.png" width="500" height="183" alt="Timber Under Cross Stress." /></a>
+<p>Fig. 42. A Timber Under Cross Stress, Showing Neutral Axis, and
+the Lines of
+Tension and Compression. A knot occurring in such a timber should be in the
+upper half, as at A.</p></div>
+
+<p>Wood is much stronger than is commonly supposed. A hickory
+bar will stand more strain under tension than a wrought iron bar
+of the same length and weight, and a block of long-leaf pine a greater
+compression endwise than a block of wrought iron of the same height
+and weight. It approaches the strength of cast iron under the same
+conditions.</p>
+
+<p>Strength depends on two factors: the strength of the individual
+fibers, and the adhesive power of the fibers to each other. So, when
+a piece of wood is pulled apart, some of the fibers break and some are
+pulled out from among their neighbors. Under compression, however,
+the fibers seem to act quite independently of each other, each
+bending over like the strands of a rope when the ends are pushed
+together. As a consequence, we find that wood is far stronger under
+tension than under compression, varying from two to four times.</p>
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page52" id="page52"></a>52</span>
+
+<p>Woods do not vary nearly so much under compression as under
+tension, the straight-grained conifers, like larch and longleaf pine,
+being nearly as strong under compression as the hard woods, like
+hickory and elm, which have entangled fibers, whereas the hard woods
+are nearly twice as strong as the conifers under tension.</p>
+
+<p>Moisture has more effect on the strength of wood than any other
+extrinsic condition. In sound wood under ordinary conditions, it
+outweighs all other causes which affect strength. When thoroly seasoned,
+wood is two or three times stronger, both under compression
+and in bending, than when
+green or water soaked.<a id="footnotetagChII6" name="footnotetagChII6"></a><a href="#footnoteChII6"><sup>6</sup></a></p>
+
+<p>The tension or pulling
+strength of wood is much affected
+by the direction of the
+grain, a cross-grained piece being
+only <span style="font-size: 0.8em;"><sup>1</sup></span>&frasl;<span style="font-size: 0.7em;">10</span><span style="font-size: 0.9em;">th</span> to
+<span style="font-size: 0.8em;"><sup>1</sup></span>&frasl;<span style="font-size: 0.7em;">20</span><span style="font-size: 0.9em;">th</span> as
+strong as a straight-grained
+piece. But under compression
+there is not much difference;
+so that if a timber is to be
+subjected to cross strain, that
+is the lower half under tension
+and the upper half under compression,
+a knot or other cross-grained
+portion should be in the upper half.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 300px;"><a href="images/figure-043-w600.png"><img src="images/figure-043-a-300.png" width="300" height="265" alt="Shearing Strength." /></a>
+<p>Fig. 43. Shearing Strength is Measured
+by the Adhesion of the Portion A, B, C,
+D or to the Wood on both sides of it.</p></div>
+
+<p>Strength also includes the ability to resist shear. This is called
+"<i>shearing strength</i>." It is a measure of the adhesion of one part of
+the wood to an adjoining part. Shearing is what takes place when
+the portion of wood beyond a mortise near the end of a timber,
+A B C D, Fig. 43, is forced out by the tenon. In this case it would
+be shearing along the grain, sometimes called detrusion. The resistance
+of the portion A B C D, <i>i.e.</i>, its power of adhesion to the wood
+adjacent to it on both sides, is its shearing strength. If the mortised
+piece were forced downward until it broke off the tenon at the shoulder,
+that would be shearing across the grain. The shearing resistance
+either with or across the grain is small compared with tension and
+compression. Green wood shears much more easily than dry, because
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page53" id="page53"></a>53</span>
+moisture softens the wood and this reduces the adhesion of the
+fibers to each other.<a id="footnotetagChII7" name="footnotetagChII7"></a><a href="#footnoteChII7"><sup>7</sup></a></p>
+
+<h3>CLEAVABILITY OF WOOD.</h3>
+
+<p>Closely connected with shearing strength is cohesion, a property
+usually considered under the name of its opposite, cleavability, <i>i.e.</i>,
+the ease of splitting.</p>
+
+<p>When an ax is stuck into the end of a piece of wood, the wood
+splits in advance of the ax edge. See <i>Handwork in Wood</i>, Fig. 59,
+p. 52. The wood is not cut but pulled across the grain just as truly
+as if one edge were held and a weight were attached to the other
+edge and it were torn apart by tension. The length of the cleft
+ahead of the blade is determined by the elasticity of the wood. The
+longer the cleft, the easier to split. Elasticity helps splitting, and
+shearing strength and hardness hinder it.</p>
+
+<p>A normal piece of wood splits easily along two surfaces, (1) along
+any radial plane, principally because of the presence of the pith rays,
+and, in regular grained wood like pine, because the cells are radially
+regular; and (2) along the annual rings, because the spring-wood separates
+easily from the next ring of summer-wood. Of the two, radial
+cleavage is 50 to 100 per cent. easier. Straight-grained wood is much
+easier to split than cross-grained wood in which the fibers are interlaced,
+and soft wood, provided it is elastic, splits easier than hard.
+Woods with sharp contrast between spring and summer wood, like
+yellow pine and chestnut, split very easily tangentially.</p>
+
+<p>All these facts are important in relation to the use of nails. For
+instance, the reason why yellow pine is hard to nail and bass easy
+is because of their difference in cleavability.</p>
+
+<h3>ELASTICITY OF WOOD.</h3>
+
+<p>Elasticity is the ability of a substance when forced out of shape,&mdash;bent,
+twisted, compressed or stretched, to regain its former shape.
+When the elasticity of wood is spoken of, its ability to spring back
+from bending is usually meant. The opposite of elasticity is brittleness.
+Hickory is elastic, white pine is brittle.</p>
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page54" id="page54"></a>54</span>
+
+<p>Stiffness is the ability to resist bending, and hence is the opposite
+of pliability or flexibility. A wood may be both stiff and elastic; it
+may be even stiff and pliable, as ash, which may be made into splints
+for baskets and may also be used for oars. Willow sprouts are flexible
+when green, but quite brittle when dry.</p>
+
+<p>Elasticity is of great importance in some uses of wood, as in long
+tool handles used in agricultural implements, such as rakes, hoes,
+scythes, and in axes, in archery bows, in golf sticks, etc., in all of
+which, hickory, our most elastic wood, is used.<a id="footnotetagChII8" name="footnotetagChII8"></a><a href="#footnoteChII8"><sup>8</sup></a></p>
+
+<h3>HARDNESS OF WOOD.</h3>
+
+<p>Hardness is the ability of wood to resist indentations, and depends
+primarily upon the thickness of the cell walls and the smallness
+of the cell cavities, or, in general, upon the density of the wood
+structure. Summer wood, as we have seen, is much harder than
+spring wood, hence it is important in using such wood as yellow pine
+on floors to use comb-grain boards, so as to present the softer spring
+wood in as narrow surfaces as possible. See <i>Handwork in Wood</i>,
+p. 41, and Fig. 55. In slash-grain boards, broad surfaces of both
+spring and summer wood appear. Maple which is uniformly hard
+makes the best floors, even better than oak, parts of which are comparatively
+soft.</p>
+
+<p>The hardness of wood is of much consequence in gluing pieces together.
+Soft woods, like pine, can be glued easily, because the fibers
+can be forced close together. As a matter of fact, the joint when dry
+is stronger than the rest of the board. In gluing hard woods, however,
+it is necessary to scratch the surfaces to be glued in order to
+insure a strong joint. It is for the same reason that a joint made
+with liquid glue is safe on soft wood when it would be weak on
+hard wood.<a id="footnotetagChII9" name="footnotetagChII9"></a><a href="#footnoteChII9"><sup>9</sup></a></p>
+
+<h3>TOUGHNESS OF WOOD.</h3>
+
+<p>Toughness may be defined as the ability to resist sudden shocks
+and blows. This requires a combination of various qualities, strength,
+hardness, elasticity and pliability. The tough woods, <i>par excellence</i>,
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page55" id="page55"></a>55</span>
+are hickory, rock elm and ash. They can be pounded, pulled, compressed
+and sheared. It is because of this quality that hickory is
+used for wheel spokes and for handles, elm for hubs, etc.</p>
+
+<p>In the selection of wood for particular purposes, it is sometimes
+one, sometimes another, and more often still, a combination of qualities
+that makes it fit for use.<a id="footnotetagChII10" name="footnotetagChII10"></a><a href="#footnoteChII10"><sup>10</sup></a></p>
+
+<p>It will be remembered that it was knowledge of the special values
+of different woods that made "the one horse shay," "The Deacon's
+Masterpiece."</p>
+
+<div class="poem">  <div class="stanza">
+<p>"So the Deacon inquired of the village folk</p>
+<p>Where he could find the strongest oak,</p>
+<p>That couldn't be split nor bent nor broke,&mdash;</p>
+<p>That was for spokes and floor and sills;</p>
+<p>He sent for lancewood to make the thills;</p>
+<p>The cross bars were ash, from the straightest trees,</p>
+<p>The panels of whitewood, that cuts like cheese,</p>
+<p>But lasts like iron for things like these.</p>
+<p>The hubs of logs from the "Settler's Ellum,"&mdash;</p>
+<p>Last of its timber,&mdash;they couldn't sell 'em.</p>
+<p>Never an ax had seen their chips,</p>
+<p>And the wedges flew from between their lips,</p>
+<p>Their blunt ends frizzled like celery tips;</p>
+<p>Step and prop-iron, bolt and screw,</p>
+<p>Spring, tire, axle and linch pin too,</p>
+<p>Steel of the finest, bright and blue;</p>
+<p>Thorough brace, bison skin, thick and wide;</p>
+<p>Boot, top dasher from tough old hide,</p>
+<p>Found in the pit when the tanner died.</p>
+<p>That was the way to "put her through."</p>
+<p>'There!' said the Deacon, 'naow she'll dew!'"</p>
+  </div>  </div>
+
+<p class="note1"><a id="footnoteChII1" name="footnoteChII1"></a><a class="footnote" href="#footnotetagChII1">Footnote 1:</a> Hygroscopicity, "the property possessed by vegetable tissues of absorbing
+or discharging moisture and expanding or shrinking accordingly."&mdash;<i>Century
+Dictionary</i>.</p>
+
+<p class="note1"><a id="footnoteChII2" name="footnoteChII2"></a><a class="footnote" href="#footnotetagChII2">Footnote 2:</a> This is shown by the following table, from Forestry Bulletin No. 10,
+p. 31, <i>Timber</i>, by Filibert Roth:</p>
+
+<h5>POUNDS OF WATER LOST IN DRYING 100 POUNDS OF GREEN WOOD IN THE KILN.</h5>
+
+<table width="auto" summary="Pounds of water lost in drying 100 pounds of green wood in the kiln." align="center" border="0">
+
+<tr>
+       <td>&nbsp;</td>
+       <td class="right">Sap-wood or<br />outer part.</td>
+       <td class="right">Heart-wood<br />or interior.</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+       <td>1. Pines, cedars, spruces, and firs</td>
+       <td class="right">45-65</td>
+       <td class="right">16-25</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+       <td> 2. Cypress, extremely variable</td>
+       <td class="right">50-65</td>
+       <td class="right">18-60</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+       <td>3. Poplar, cottonwood, basswood</td>
+       <td class="right">60-65</td>
+       <td class="right">40-60</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+       <td>4. Oak, beech, ash, elm, maple, birch, hickory,<br />
+         &nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;chestnut, walnut, and sycamore</td>
+       <td class="right">40-50</td>
+       <td class="right">30-40</td>
+</tr>
+</table>
+
+<p class="note1"><a id="footnoteChII3" name="footnoteChII3"></a><a class="footnote" href="#footnotetagChII3">Footnote 3:</a> The following table from Roth, p. 37, gives the approximate shrinkage
+of a board, or set of boards, 100 inches wide, drying in the open air:</p>
+
+<table width="auto" summary="shrinkage" align="center" border="0">
+<tr>
+       <td>&nbsp;</td>
+       <td>Shrinkage<br />Inches.</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+       <td>1. All light conifers (soft pine, spruce, cedar, cypress)</td>
+       <td class="right">3</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+       <td>2. Heavy conifers (hard pine, tamarack, yew, honey locust,
+    box elder, wood of old oaks)</td>
+       <td class="right">4</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+       <td>3. Ash, elm, walnut, poplar, maple, beech, sycamore,
+    cherry, black locust</td>
+       <td class="right">5</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+       <td>4. Basswood, birch, chestnut, horse chestnut, blue beech,
+    young locust </td>
+       <td class="right">6</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+       <td>5. Hickory, young oak, especially red oak</td>
+       <td class="right">Up to 10</td>
+</tr>
+</table>
+<p class="note3">
+The figures are the average of radial and tangential shrinkages.</p>
+
+<p class="note1"><a id="footnoteChII4" name="footnoteChII4"></a><a class="footnote" href="#footnotetagChII4">Footnote 4:</a> How much different woods vary may be seen by the following table,
+taken from Filibert Roth, <i>Timber</i>, Forest Service Bulletin No. 10, p. 28:</p>
+
+<h5>WEIGHT OF KILN-DRIED WOOD OF DIFFERENT SPECIES.</h5>
+
+<table width="auto" summary="Weight of kiln-dried wood of different species." align="center" style="border-collapse: collapse;" border="0">
+<tr>
+<td rowspan="3" style="border: 1px solid black">&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="center" colspan="3" style="border: 1px solid black;">Approximate.</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="right" rowspan="2" valign="bottom" style="border: 1px solid black; padding-bottom: 0.5em;">Specific weight.</td>
+<td class="center" colspan="2" style="border: 1px solid black;">Weight of</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="right" style="border: 1px solid black;">1 cubic foot.</td>
+<td class="right" style="border: 1px solid black;">1,000 feet of lumber.</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td style="border-left: 1px solid black;">&nbsp;</td>
+<td  width="15%" style="border-left: 1px solid black;">&nbsp;</td>
+<td  width="15%" class="right" valign="top" style="border-left: 1px solid black;">Pounds</td>
+<td  width="15%" class="right" valign="top" style="border-left: 1px solid black; border-right: 1px solid black;">Pounds</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="leftq" style="border-left: 1px solid black;"><span class="outdent2">(a) Very heavy woods:</span><br />
+  <span class="outdent1">Hickory,</span> oak, persimmon,
+    osage, orange, black locust,
+     hackberry, blue beech, best
+    of elm, and ash</td>
+<td class="right" valign="bottom" style="border-left: 1px solid black; padding-bottom: 0.5em;">0.70-0.80</td>
+<td class="right" valign="bottom" style="border-left: 1px solid black; padding-bottom: 0.5em;">42-48</td>
+<td class="right" valign="bottom" style="border-left: 1px solid black; border-right: 1px solid black; padding-bottom: 0.5em;">3,700</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="leftq" style="border-left: 1px solid black;"><span class="outdent2">(b) Heavy woods:</span><br />
+  <span class="outdent1">Ash, elm,</span> cherry, birch, maple,
+     beech, walnut, sour gum,
+     coffee tree, honey locust,
+     best of southern pine, and
+     tamarack</td>
+<td class="right" valign="bottom" style="border-left: 1px solid black; padding-bottom: 0.5em;">.60-.70</td>
+<td class="right" valign="bottom" style="border-left: 1px solid black; padding-bottom: 0.5em;">36-42</td>
+<td class="right" valign="bottom" style="border-left: 1px solid black; border-right: 1px solid black; padding-bottom: 0.5em;">3,200</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="leftq" style="border-left: 1px solid black;"><span class="outdent2">(c) Woods of medium weight:</span><br />
+    <span class="outdent1">Southern pine,</span> pitch pine,
+     tamarack, Douglas spruce,
+      western hemlock, sweet gum,
+     soft maple, sycamore, light
+      sassafras, mulberry, grades
+       of birch and cherry</td>
+<td class="right" valign="bottom" style="border-left: 1px solid black; padding-bottom: 0.5em;">.50-.60</td>
+<td class="right" valign="bottom" style="border-left: 1px solid black; padding-bottom: 0.5em;">30-36</td>
+<td class="right" valign="bottom" style="border-left: 1px solid black; border-right: 1px solid black; padding-bottom: 0.5em;">2,700</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="leftq" style="border-left: 1px solid black;"><span class="outdent2">(d) Light woods:</span><br />
+    <span class="outdent1">Norway</span> and bull pine, red cedar,
+    cypress, hemlock, the heavier
+     spruce and fir, redwood,
+       basswood, chestnut, butternut,
+       tulip, catalpa, buckeye, heavier
+     grades of poplar</td>
+<td class="right" valign="bottom" style="border-left: 1px solid black; padding-bottom: 0.5em; padding-bottom: 0.5em;">.40-.50</td>
+<td class="right" valign="bottom" style="border-left: 1px solid black; padding-bottom: 0.5em; padding-bottom: 0.5em;">24-30</td>
+<td class="right" valign="bottom" style="border-left: 1px solid black; border-right: 1px solid black; padding-bottom: 0.5em; padding-bottom: 0.5em;">2,200</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="leftq" style="border-left: 1px solid black; border-bottom: 1px solid black;"><span class="outdent2">(e) Very light woods:</span><br />
+    <span class="outdent1">White pine,</span> spruce, fir, white
+    cedar, poplar</td>
+<td class="right" valign="bottom" style="border-left: 1px solid black; border-bottom: 1px solid black; padding-bottom: 0.5em;">.30-.40</td>
+<td class="right" valign="bottom" style="border-left: 1px solid black; border-bottom: 1px solid black; padding-bottom: 0.5em;">18-24</td>
+<td class="right" valign="bottom" style="border-left: 1px solid black; border-right: 1px solid black; border-bottom: 1px solid black; padding-bottom: 0.5em;">1,800</td>
+</tr>
+</table>
+
+<p class="note1"><a id="footnoteChII5" name="footnoteChII5"></a><a class="footnote" href="#footnotetagChII5">Footnote 5:</a>  For table of weights of different woods see Sargent, <i>Jesup Collection,</i>
+pp. 153-157.</p>
+
+<p class="note1"><a id="footnoteChII6" name="footnoteChII6"></a><a class="footnote" href="#footnotetagChII6">Footnote 6:</a> See Forestry Bulletin No. 70, pp. 11, 12, and Forestry Circular No. 108.</p>
+
+<p class="note1"><a id="footnoteChII7" name="footnoteChII7"></a><a class="footnote" href="#footnotetagChII7">Footnote 7:</a> For table of strengths of different woods, see Sargent, <i>Jesup Collection</i>,
+pp. 166 ff.</p>
+
+<p class="note1"><a id="footnoteChII8" name="footnoteChII8"></a><a class="footnote" href="#footnotetagChII8">Footnote 8:</a> For table of elasticity of different woods, see Sargent, <i>Jesup Collection</i>,
+pp. 163 ff.</p>
+
+<p class="note1"><a id="footnoteChII9" name="footnoteChII9"></a><a class="footnote" href="#footnotetagChII9">Footnote 9:</a> For table of hardnesses of different woods, see Sargent, <i>Jesup Collection</i>,
+pp. 173 ff.</p>
+
+<p class="note1a"><a id="footnoteChII10" name="footnoteChII10"></a><a class="footnote" href="#footnotetagChII10">Footnote 10:</a> For detailed characteristics of different woods see Chapter III.</p>
+
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page56" id="page56"></a>56</span>
+
+<h5 style="margin-top: 3em;">THE PROPERTIES OF WOOD.</h5>
+
+<ul class="none">
+<li><span class="sc">References</span>*
+    <ul class="none2">
+    <li>Moisture and Shrinkage.
+        <ul class="none3">
+        <li>Roth, <i>For. Bull</i>., No. 10, pp. 25-37.</li>
+        <li>Busbridge, <i>Sci. Am. Sup</i>. No. 1500. Oct. 1, '04.<br /><br /></li></ul></li>
+
+    <li>Weight, Strength, Cleavability, Elasticity and Toughness.
+        <ul class="none3">
+        <li>Roth, <i>For. Bull</i>., 10, p. 37-50.</li>
+        <li>Boulger, pp. 89-108, 129-140.</li>
+        <li>Roth, <i>First Book</i>, pp. 229-233.</li>
+        <li>Sargent, <i>Jesup Collection</i>, pp. 153-176.<br /><br /></li></ul></li>
+
+    <li>Forest Circulars Nos. 108 and 139.</li></ul></li>
+</ul>
+
+<p class="note1"><span style="font-size: 1.2em;">*</span> For general bibliography, see <a class="index" href="#page4">p. 4.</a></p>
+
+<h2><span class="pagenum" style="font-size: 0.4em; font-weight: normal;"><a name="page57" id="page57"></a>57</span><span class="sc">Chapter III.</span></h2>
+
+<h4>THE PRINCIPAL SPECIES OF AMERICAN WOODS.</h4>
+
+<h5>NOTES.</h5>
+
+<p>The photographs of tangential and radial sections are life size.
+The microphotographs are of cross-sections and are enlarged 37&#189;
+diameters.</p>
+
+<p>Following the precedent of U. S. Forest Bulletin No. 17, Sudworth's
+<i>Check List of the Forest Trees of the United States</i>, the complicated
+rules for the capitalization of the names of species are abandoned
+and they are uniformly not capitalized.</p>
+
+<p>On pages <a class="index" href="#page192">192</a>-195 will be found lists of the woods described, arranged
+in the order of their comparative weight, strength, elasticity,
+and hardness. These lists are based upon the figures in Sargent's
+<i>The Jesup Collection</i>.</p>
+
+<p>In the appendix, <a class="index" href="#page289">p. 289</a>, will be found a key for distinguishing the
+various kinds of wood.</p>
+
+<p>Information as to current wholesale prices in the principal markets
+of the country can be had from the U. S. Dept. of Agriculture,
+The Forest Service, Washington, D. C., <i>Record of Wholesale Prices
+of Lumber, List A</i>. These lists are published periodically. No attempt
+is made in this book to give prices because: (1) only lists of
+wholesale prices are available; (2) the cuts and grades differ considerably,
+especially in soft woods (conifers); (3) prices are constantly
+varying; (4) the prices differ much in different localities.</p>
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page58" id="page58"></a>58</span>
+
+<table summary="the principal species of american woods" width="600px" align="center" border="0">
+<tr><td>
+
+<h3>1</h3>
+
+<h5><span class="sc">White Pine, Weymouth Pine.</span></h5>
+
+<p class="center">
+Named for Lord Weymouth, who cultivated it in England.
+</p>
+
+<h5><i>Pinus strobus</i> Linnaeus.</h5>
+
+<p class="center">
+<i>Pinus</i>, the classical Latin name; <i>strobus</i> refers to the cone, or strobile,
+from a Greek word, <i>strobus</i>, meaning twist.
+</p>
+<br clear="all" />
+<div class="figleft" style="width: 300px;"><a href="images/01-habitat-600.png"><img src="images/01-habitat-a-300.png" width="300" height="209" alt="habitat" /></a>
+<p class="center1">Habitat.</p></div>
+
+<p><b>Habitat</b>: (See map);
+now best in Michigan,
+Wisconsin and Minnesota.</p>
+
+<p><b>Characteristics of the
+Tree</b>: Height, 100'-120',
+even 200'; diameter, 2'-4';
+branches in whorls, cleans
+poorly; bark, dark gray,
+divided by deep longitudinal
+fissures into broad
+ridges; leaves in clusters
+of 5, 3"-5" long; cone
+drooping, 4"-10" long.</p>
+
+<p><b>Appearance of Wood</b>:
+Color, heart-wood, very
+light brown, almost cream
+color, sap-wood, nearly
+white; non-porous; rings,
+fine but distinct; grain,
+straight; pith rays, very
+faint; resin ducts, small,
+inconspicuous.</p>
+
+<div class="figleft" style="width: 150px;"><a href="images/01-leaf-450.png"><img src="images/01-leaf-a-150.png" width="150" height="213" alt="leaf" /></a>
+<p class="center">Leaf.</p></div>
+
+<p><b>Physical Qualities</b>:
+Weight, very light (59th
+in this list); 27 lbs. per
+cu. ft.; sp. gr. 0.3854;
+strength, medium (55th in
+this list); elasticity, medium
+(47th in this list);
+soft (57th in this list);
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page59" id="page59"></a>59</span>
+shrinkage 3 per cent.; warps very little;
+durability, moderate; works easily in
+every way; splits easily but nails well.</p>
+
+<p><b>Common Uses</b>: Doors, window sashes
+and other carpentry, pattern-making,
+cabinet-work, matches.</p>
+
+<p><b>Remarks</b>: This best of American
+woods is now rapidly becoming scarce and
+higher in price. Its uses are due to its
+uniform grain, on account of which it
+is easily worked and stands well. Known
+in the English market as yellow pine.</p>
+<br clear="all" />
+
+<div class="figleft" style="width: 200px;"><a href="images/01-cross-section-600.png"><img src="images/01-cross-section-a-200.png" width="200" height="200" alt="cross-section" /></a>
+<p class="center">Cross-section, magnified 37&#189; diameters.</p></div>
+
+<div class="figleft" style="width: 150px;"><a href="images/01-radial-section-400.png"><img src="images/01-radial-section-a-150.png" width="150" height="300" alt="radial section" /></a>
+<p class="center">Radial Section, life size.</p></div>
+
+<div class="figright" style="width: 150px;"><a href="images/01-tangential-section-400.png"><img src="images/01-tangential-section-a-150.png" width="150" height="300" alt="tangential Section" /></a>
+<p class="center">Tangential Section, life size.</p></div>
+<br clear="all" />
+
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page60" id="page60"></a>60</span>
+
+<h3>2</h3>
+
+<h5><span class="sc">Western White Pine.</span></h5>
+
+<h5><i>Pinus monticola</i> Douglas.</h5>
+
+<p class="center">
+<i>Pinus</i>, the classical Latin name; <i>monticola</i> means mountain-dweller.
+</p>
+
+<div class="figleft" style="width: 300px;"><a href="images/02-habitat-600.png"><img src="images/02-habitat-a-300.png" width="300" height="207" alt="habitat" /></a>
+<p class="center1">Habitat.</p></div>
+
+<p><b>Habitat</b>: (See map);
+grows at great elevations,
+7,000'-10,000'. Best in
+northern Idaho.</p>
+
+<p><b>Characteristics of the
+Tree</b>: Height, 100'-160';
+diameter, 4' to even 8';
+branches, slender, spreading;
+bark, gray and
+brown, divided into squarish
+plates by deep longitudinal
+and cross fissures;
+leaves, 5 in sheath; cones,
+12"×18" long.</p>
+
+<p><b>Appearance of Wood</b>:
+Color, light brown or red,
+sap-wood nearly white;
+non-porous; rings, summer
+wood, thin and not
+conspicuous; grain,
+straight; rays, numerous,
+obscure; resin ducts, numerous
+and conspicuous
+tho not large.</p>
+<br clear="all" />
+<div class="figleft" style="width: 150px;"><a href="images/02-leaf-500.png"><img src="images/02-leaf-a-150.png" width="150" height="213" alt="leaf" /></a>
+<p class="center">Leaf.</p></div>
+
+<p><b>Physical Qualities</b>:
+Weight, very light (58th
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page61" id="page61"></a>61</span>
+in this list); 24 lbs. per cu. ft.; sp. gr.
+0.3908; strength, medium (56th in this
+list); elastic (35th in this list); soft
+(63d in this list); shrinkage, 3 per cent.;
+warps little; moderately durable; easy
+to work; splits readily but nails well.</p>
+
+<p><b>Common Uses</b>: Lumber for construction
+and interior finish.</p>
+
+<p><b>Remarks</b>: Closely resembles <i>Pinus
+Strobus</i> in appearance and quality of
+wood.</p>
+
+<br clear="all" />
+
+<div class="figleft" style="width: 200px;"><a href="images/02-cross-section-600.png"><img src="images/02-cross-section-a-200.png" width="200" height="200" alt="cross-section" /></a>
+<p class="center">Cross-section, magnified 37&#189; diameters.</p></div>
+
+<div class="figleft" style="width: 150px;"><a href="images/02-radial-section-400.png"><img src="images/02-radial-section-a-150.png" width="150" height="300" alt="radial section" /></a>
+<p class="center">Radial Section, life size.</p></div>
+
+<div class="figright" style="width: 150px;"><a href="images/02-tangential-section-400.png"><img src="images/02-tangential-section-a-150.png" width="150" height="300" alt="tangential Section" /></a>
+<p class="center">Tangential Section, life size.</p></div>
+<br clear="all" />
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page62" id="page62"></a>62</span>
+
+<h3>3</h3>
+
+<h5><span class="sc">Sugar Pine.</span></h5>
+
+<p class="center">
+Sugar refers to sweetish exudation.
+</p>
+
+<h5><i>Pinus lambertiana</i> Douglas.</h5>
+
+<p class="center">
+<i>Pinus</i>, the classical Latin name; <i>lambertiana</i>, from the botanist, A. B.
+Lambert, whose chief work was on Pines.
+</p>
+
+<div class="figleft" style="width: 300px;"><a href="images/03-habitat-600.png"><img src="images/03-habitat-a-300.png" width="300" height="215" alt="habitat" /></a>
+<p class="center1">Habitat.</p></div>
+
+<p><b>Habitat</b>: (See map);
+grows on high elevations
+(5,000'), best in northern
+California.</p>
+
+<p><b>Characteristics of the
+Tree</b>: Height, 100'-300';
+diameter, 15"-20";
+branches, in remote regular
+whorls; bark, rich
+purple or brown, thick,
+deep irregular fissures
+making long, flaky ridges;
+leaves, stout, rigid, in
+bundles of five; cones,
+10"-18" long.</p>
+
+<p><b>Appearance of Wood</b>:
+Color, pinkish brown, sap-wood,
+cream white; non-porous;
+rings, distinct;
+grain, straight; rays, numerous,
+obscure; resin
+ducts, numerous, large
+and conspicuous.</p>
+<br clear="all" />
+<div class="figleft" style="width: 150px;"><a href="images/03-leaf-500.png"><img src="images/03-leaf-a-150.png" width="150" height="213" alt="leaf" /></a>
+<p class="center">Leaf.</p></div>
+
+<p><b>Physical Qualities</b>:
+Weight, very light (61st
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page63" id="page63"></a>63</span>
+in this list); 22 lbs. per cu. ft.; sp. gr.
+0.3684; strength, weak (59th in this
+list); elasticity, medium (56th in this
+list); soft (53d in this list); shrinkage,
+3 per cent.; warps little; durable;
+easily worked; splits little, nails well.</p>
+
+<p><b>Common Uses</b>: Carpentry, interior
+finish, doors, blinds, shingles, barrels,
+etc.</p>
+
+<p><b>Remarks</b>: Exudes a sweet substance
+from heart-wood. A magnificent and
+important lumber tree on Pacific coast.</p>
+
+<br clear="all" />
+
+<div class="figleft" style="width: 200px;"><a href="images/03-cross-section-600.png"><img src="images/03-cross-section-a-200.png" width="200" height="200" alt="cross-section" /></a>
+<p class="center">Cross-section, magnified 37&#189; diameters.</p></div>
+
+<div class="figleft" style="width: 150px;"><a href="images/03-radial-section-400.png"><img src="images/03-radial-section-a-150.png" width="150" height="300" alt="radial section" /></a>
+<p class="center">Radial Section, life size.</p></div>
+
+<div class="figright" style="width: 150px;"><a href="images/03-tangential-section-400.png"><img src="images/03-tangential-section-a-150.png" width="150" height="300" alt="tangential Section" /></a>
+<p class="center">Tangential Section, life size.</p></div>
+<br clear="all" />
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page64" id="page64"></a>64</span>
+
+<h3>4</h3>
+
+<h5><span class="sc">Norway Pine. Red Pine.</span></h5>
+
+<p class="center">
+Red refers to color of bark.
+</p>
+
+<h5><i>Pinus resinosa</i> Solander.</h5>
+
+<p class="center">
+<i>Pinus</i>, the classical Latin name; <i>resinosa</i> refers to very resinous wood.
+</p>
+
+<div class="figleft" style="width: 300px;"><a href="images/04-habitat-600.png"><img src="images/04-habitat-a-300.png" width="300" height="211" alt="habitat" /></a>
+<p class="center1">Habitat.</p></div>
+
+<p><b>Habitat</b>: (See map);
+grows best in northern
+Michigan, Wisconsin, and
+Minnesota.</p>
+
+<p><b>Characteristics of the
+Tree</b>: Height, 70'-90';
+diameter, 2'-3'; tall,
+straight; branches in
+whorls, low; bark, thin,
+scaly, purplish and reddish-brown;
+longitudinal
+furrows, broad flat ridges;
+leaves, in twos in long
+sheaths; cones, 2".</p>
+
+<p><b>Appearance of Wood</b>:
+Color of wood, pale red,
+sap-wood, wide, whitish;
+non-porous; rings summer
+wood broad, dark;
+grain, straight; rays, numerous,
+pronounced, thin;
+very resinous, but ducts
+small and few.</p>
+<br clear="all" />
+<div class="figleft" style="width: 150px;"><a href="images/04-leaf-500.png"><img src="images/04-leaf-a-150.png" width="150" height="213" alt="leaf" /></a>
+<p class="center">Leaf.</p></div>
+
+<p><b>Physical Qualities</b>:
+Weight, light, (43d in this
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page65" id="page65"></a>65</span>
+list); 31 lbs. per cu. ft.; sp. gr. 0.4854;
+strong (39th in this list); elastic (16th
+in this list); soft (48th in this list);
+shrinkage, 3 per cent.; warps moderately;
+not durable; easy to work; splits
+readily, nails well.</p>
+
+<p><b>Common Uses</b>: Piles, electric wire
+poles, masts, flooring.</p>
+
+<p><b>Remarks</b>: Often sold with and as
+white pine. Resembles Scotch pine
+(<i>Pinus sylvestris</i>). Bark used to some
+extent for tanning. Grows in open
+groves.</p>
+
+<br clear="all" />
+
+<div class="figleft" style="width: 200px;"><a href="images/04-cross-section-600.png"><img src="images/04-cross-section-a-200.png" width="200" height="200" alt="cross-section" /></a>
+<p class="center">Cross-section, magnified 37&#189; diameters.</p></div>
+
+<div class="figleft" style="width: 150px;"><a href="images/04-radial-section-400.png"><img src="images/04-radial-section-a-150.png" width="150" height="300" alt="radial section" /></a>
+<p class="center">Radial Section, life size.</p></div>
+
+<div class="figright" style="width: 150px;"><a href="images/04-tangential-section-400.png"><img src="images/04-tangential-section-a-150.png" width="150" height="300" alt="tangential Section" /></a>
+<p class="center">Tangential Section, life size.</p></div>
+<br clear="all" />
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page66" id="page66"></a>66</span>
+
+<h3>5</h3>
+
+<h5><span class="sc">Western Yellow Pine. Bull Pine.</span></h5>
+
+<p class="center">
+Bull refers to great size of trunk.
+</p>
+
+<h5><i>Pinus ponderosa</i> Lawson.</h5>
+
+<p class="center">
+<i>Pinus</i>, the classical Latin name; <i>ponderosa</i> refers to great size of trunk.
+</p>
+
+<div class="figleft" style="width: 300px;"><a href="images/05-habitat-600.png"><img src="images/05-habitat-a-300.png" width="300" height="213" alt="habitat" /></a>
+<p class="center1">Habitat.</p></div>
+
+<p><b>Habitat</b>: (See map);
+best in Rocky Mountains.</p>
+
+<p><b>Characteristics of the
+Tree</b>: Height, 100' to
+300'; diameter, 6' to even
+12'; branches, low, short
+trunk; bark, thick, dark
+brown, deep, meandering
+furrows, large, irregular
+plates, scaly; leaves, in
+twos or threes, 5" to 11"
+long; cones 3" to 6" long.</p>
+
+<p><b>Appearance of Wood</b>:
+Color, light red, sap-wood,
+thick, nearly white, and
+very distinct; non-porous;
+rings, conspicuous; grain,
+straight; rays, numerous,
+obscure; very resinous but
+ducts small.</p>
+<br clear="all" />
+<div class="figleft" style="width: 150px;"><a href="images/05-leaf-500.png"><img src="images/05-leaf-a-150.png" width="150" height="213" alt="leaf" /></a>
+<p class="center">Leaf.</p></div>
+
+<p><b>Physical Qualities</b>:
+Weight, light (44th in
+this list); 25-30 lbs. per
+cu. ft.; sp. gr. 0.4715;
+strength, medium (45th
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page67" id="page67"></a>67</span>
+in this list); elasticity, medium (41st in
+this list); hardness, medium (42nd in
+this list); shrinkage, 4 per cent.; warps
+...........; not durable; hard to work,
+brittle; splits easily in nailing.</p>
+
+<p><b>Common Uses</b>: Lumber, railway ties,
+mine timbers.</p>
+
+<p><b>Remarks</b>: Forms extensive open forests.</p>
+
+<br clear="all" />
+
+<div class="figleft" style="width: 200px;"><a href="images/05-cross-section-600.png"><img src="images/05-cross-section-a-200.png" width="200" height="200" alt="cross-section" /></a>
+<p class="center">Cross-section, magnified 37&#189; diameters.</p></div>
+
+<div class="figleft" style="width: 150px;"><a href="images/05-radial-section-400.png"><img src="images/05-radial-section-a-150.png" width="150" height="300" alt="radial section" /></a>
+<p class="center">Radial Section, life size.</p></div>
+
+<div class="figright" style="width: 150px;"><a href="images/05-tangential-section-400.png"><img src="images/05-tangential-section-a-150.png" width="150" height="300" alt="tangential Section" /></a>
+<p class="center">Tangential Section, life size.</p></div>
+<br clear="all" />
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page68" id="page68"></a>68</span>
+
+<h3>6</h3>
+
+<h5><span class="sc">Long-Leaf Pine. Georgia Pine.</span></h5>
+
+<h5><i>Pinus palustris</i> Miller.</h5>
+
+<p class="center">
+<i>Pinus</i>, the classical Latin name; <i>palustris</i> means swampy, inappropriate
+here.
+</p>
+
+<div class="figleft" style="width: 300px;"><a href="images/06-habitat-600.png"><img src="images/06-habitat-a-300.png" width="300" height="214" alt="habitat" /></a>
+<p class="center1">Habitat.</p></div>
+
+<p><b>Habitat</b>: (See map);
+best in Louisiana and East
+Texas.</p>
+
+<p><b>Characteristics of the
+Tree</b>: Height, 80'-100';
+diameter, 2'-3'; trunk,
+straight, clean, branches
+high; bark, light brown,
+large, thin, irregular papery
+scales; leaves 8"-12"
+long, 3 in a sheath; cones
+6"-10" long.</p>
+
+<p><b>Appearance of Wood</b>:
+Heart-wood, spring wood
+light yellow, summer
+wood, red brown; sap
+wood, lighter; non-porous;
+rings, very plain and
+strongly marked; grain,
+straight; rays, numerous,
+conspicuous; very resinous,
+but resin ducts few
+and not large.</p>
+<br clear="all" />
+<div class="figleft" style="width: 150px;"><a href="images/06-leaf-500.png"><img src="images/06-leaf-a-150.png" width="150" height="213" alt="leaf" /></a>
+<p class="center">Leaf.</p></div>
+
+<p><b>Physical Qualities</b>:
+Heavy (18th in this list);
+38 lbs. per cu. ft.; sp. gr.
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page69" id="page69"></a>69</span>
+0.6999; very strong (7th in this list);
+very elastic (4th in this list); hardness,
+medium (33d in this list); shrinkage,
+4 per cent.; warps very little; quite
+durable; works hard, tough; splits
+badly in nailing.</p>
+
+<p><b>Common Uses</b>: Joists, beams, bridge
+and building trusses, interior finish, ship
+building, and general construction work.</p>
+
+<p><b>Remarks</b>: Almost exclusively the
+source of turpentine, tar, pitch and resin
+in the United States. Known in the
+English market as pitch pine.</p>
+
+<br clear="all" />
+
+<div class="figleft" style="width: 200px;"><a href="images/06-cross-section-600.png"><img src="images/06-cross-section-a-200.png" width="200" height="200" alt="cross-section" /></a>
+<p class="center">Cross-section, magnified 37&#189; diameters.</p></div>
+
+<div class="figleft" style="width: 150px;"><a href="images/06-radial-section-400.png"><img src="images/06-radial-section-a-150.png" width="150" height="300" alt="radial section" /></a>
+<p class="center">Radial Section, life size.</p></div>
+
+<div class="figright" style="width: 150px;"><a href="images/06-tangential-section-400.png"><img src="images/06-tangential-section-a-150.png" width="150" height="300" alt="tangential Section" /></a>
+<p class="center">Tangential Section, life size.</p></div>
+<br clear="all" />
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page70" id="page70"></a>70</span>
+
+<h3>7</h3>
+
+<h5><span class="sc">Short-Leaf Pine. Yellow Pine.</span></h5>
+
+<h5><i>Pinus echinata</i> Miller.</h5>
+
+<p class="center">
+<i>Pinus</i>, the classical Latin name; <i>echinata</i> refers to spiny cones.
+</p>
+
+<div class="figleft" style="width: 300px;"><a href="images/07-habitat-600.png"><img src="images/07-habitat-a-300.png" width="300" height="209" alt="habitat" /></a>
+<p class="center1">Habitat.</p></div>
+
+<p><b>Habitat</b>: (See map);
+best in lower Mississippi
+basin.</p>
+
+<p><b>Characteristics of the
+Tree</b>: Straight, tall trunk,
+sometimes 100' high;
+branches high; diameter
+2'-4'; bark, pale grayish
+red-brown, fissures, running
+helter-skelter, making
+large irregular plates,
+covered with small scales;
+leaves in twos, 3" long;
+cones small.</p>
+
+<p><b>Appearance of Wood</b>:
+Color, heartwood, summer
+wood, red, spring-wood,
+yellow; sap-wood,
+lighter; non-porous; annual
+rings very plain,
+sharp contrast between
+spring and summer wood;
+grain, straight, coarse;
+rays, numerous, conspicuous;
+very resinous, ducts
+large and many.</p>
+<br clear="all" />
+<div class="figleft" style="width: 150px;"><a href="images/07-leaf-500.png"><img src="images/07-leaf-a-150.png" width="150" height="214" alt="leaf" /></a>
+<p class="center">Leaf.</p></div>
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page71" id="page71"></a>71</span>
+
+<p><b>Physical Qualities</b>: Weight, medium
+(32nd in this list); 32 lbs. per cu. ft.;
+sp. gr., 0.6104; very strong (18th in
+this list); very elastic (8th in this list);
+soft (38th in this list); shrinkage, 4
+per cent.; warps little; durable; troublesome
+to work; likely to split along annual
+rings in nailing.</p>
+
+<p><b>Common Uses</b>: Heavy construction,
+railroad ties, house trim, ship building,
+cars, docks, bridges.</p>
+
+<p><b>Remarks</b>: Wood hardly distinguishable
+from long-leaf pine. Often forms
+pure forests. The most desirable yellow
+pine, much less resinous and more easily
+worked than others.</p>
+
+<br clear="all" />
+
+<div class="figleft" style="width: 200px;"><a href="images/07-cross-section-600.png"><img src="images/07-cross-section-a-200.png" width="200" height="200" alt="cross-section" /></a>
+<p class="center">Cross-section, magnified 37&#189; diameters.</p></div>
+
+<div class="figleft" style="width: 150px;"><a href="images/07-radial-section-400.png"><img src="images/07-radial-section-a-150.png" width="150" height="300" alt="radial section" /></a>
+<p class="center">Radial Section, life size.</p></div>
+
+<div class="figright" style="width: 150px;"><a href="images/07-tangential-section-400.png"><img src="images/07-tangential-section-a-150.png" width="150" height="300" alt="tangential Section" /></a>
+<p class="center">Tangential Section, life size.</p></div>
+<br clear="all" />
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page72" id="page72"></a>72</span>
+
+<h3>8</h3>
+
+<h5><span class="sc">Loblolly Pine. Old Field Pine.</span></h5>
+
+<p class="center">
+<i>Loblolly</i> may refer to the inferiority of the wood; old field refers to
+habit of spontaneous growth on old fields.
+</p>
+
+<h5><i>Pinus taeda</i> Linnaeus.</h5>
+
+<p class="center">
+<i>Pinus</i>, the classical Latin name; <i>taeda</i>, the classical Latin name for
+pitch-pine, which was used for torches.
+</p>
+
+<div class="figleft" style="width: 300px;"><a href="images/08-habitat-600.png"><img src="images/08-habitat-a-300.png" width="300" height="209" alt="habitat" /></a>
+<p class="center1">Habitat.</p></div>
+
+<p><b>Habitat</b>: (See map);
+grows best in eastern Virginia,
+and eastern North
+Carolina.</p>
+
+<p><b>Characteristics of the
+Tree</b>: Height, 100'-150';
+diameter, often 4'-5';
+branches high; bark,
+purplish brown, shallow,
+meandering fissures, broad,
+flat, scaly ridges; leaves,
+3 in sheath, 4"-7" long;
+cones 3"-5" long.</p>
+
+<p><b>Appearance of Wood</b>:
+Color, heart-wood orange,
+sap-wood lighter; non-porous;
+rings very plain,
+sharp contrast between
+spring wood and summer
+wood; grain, straight,
+coarse; rays conspicuous;
+very resinous, but ducts
+few and small.</p>
+<br clear="all" />
+<div class="figleft" style="width: 150px;"><a href="images/08-leaf-500.png"><img src="images/08-leaf-a-150.png" width="150" height="213" alt="leaf" /></a>
+<p class="center">Leaf.</p></div>
+
+<p><b>Physical Qualities</b>:
+Weight, medium (39th in
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page73" id="page73"></a>73</span>
+this list); 33 lbs. per cu. ft.; sp. gr.
+0.5441; strong (26th in this list); elastic
+(17th in this list); medium hard
+(43d in this list); shrinkage, 4 per
+cent.; warps little; not durable; difficult
+to work, brittle; splits along rings
+in nailing.</p>
+
+<p><b>Common Uses</b>: Heavy construction,
+beams, ship building, docks, bridges,
+flooring, house trim.</p>
+
+<p><b>Remarks</b>: Resembles Long-leaf Pine,
+and often sold as such. Rarely makes
+pure forests.</p>
+
+<br clear="all" />
+
+<div class="figleft" style="width: 200px;"><a href="images/08-cross-section-600.png"><img src="images/08-cross-section-a-200.png" width="200" height="200" alt="cross-section" /></a>
+<p class="center">Cross-section, magnified 37&#189; diameters.</p></div>
+
+<div class="figleft" style="width: 150px;"><a href="images/08-radial-section-400.png"><img src="images/08-radial-section-a-150.png" width="150" height="300" alt="radial section" /></a>
+<p class="center">Radial Section, life size.</p></div>
+
+<div class="figright" style="width: 150px;"><a href="images/08-tangential-section-400.png"><img src="images/08-tangential-section-a-150.png" width="150" height="300" alt="tangential Section" /></a>
+<p class="center">Tangential Section, life size.</p></div>
+<br clear="all" />
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page74" id="page74"></a>74</span>
+
+<h3>9</h3>
+
+<h5><span class="sc">Slash Pine. Cuban Pine.</span></h5>
+
+<h5><i>Pinus caribaea</i> Morelet. <i>Pinus heterophylla</i> (Ell.) Sudworth.</h5>
+
+<p class="center">
+<i>Pinus</i>, the classical Latin name; <i>caribaea</i> refers to the Caribbean Islands;
+<i>heterophylla</i> refers to two kinds of leaves.
+</p>
+
+<div class="figleft" style="width: 300px;"><a href="images/09-habitat-600.png"><img src="images/09-habitat-a-300.png" width="300" height="209" alt="habitat" /></a>
+<p class="center1">Habitat.</p></div>
+
+<p><b>Habitat</b>: (See map);
+grows best in Alabama,
+Mississippi, and Louisiana.</p>
+
+<p><b>Characteristics of the
+Tree</b>: Height, sometimes
+110', straight, tall, branching
+high; diameter 1'-3';
+bark, dark red and brown,
+shallow irregular fissures;
+leaves, 2 or 3 in a sheath,
+8"-12" long; cones, 4"-5"
+long.</p>
+
+<p><b>Appearance of Wood</b>:
+Color, dark orange, sapwood
+lighter; non-porous;
+annual rings, plain,
+sharp contrast between
+spring wood and summer
+wood; grain, straight;
+rays numerous, rather
+prominent; very resinous,
+but ducts few.</p>
+<br clear="all" />
+<div class="figleft" style="width: 150px;"><a href="images/09-leaf-500.png"><img src="images/09-leaf-a-150.png" width="150" height="213" alt="leaf" /></a>
+<p class="center">Leaf.</p></div>
+
+<p><b>Physical Qualities</b>:
+Heavy (7th in this list);
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page75" id="page75"></a>75</span>
+39 lbs. per cu. ft.; sp. gr. 0.7504; very
+strong (6th in this list); very elastic
+(3d in this list); hard (24th in this
+list); shrinkage, 4 per cent.; warps little;
+quite durable; troublesome to work;
+splits along annual rings in nailing.</p>
+
+<p><b>Common Uses</b>: Heavy construction,
+ship building, railroad ties, docks,
+bridges, house trim.</p>
+
+<p><b>Remarks</b>: Similar to and often sold
+as Long-leaf Pine.</p>
+
+<br clear="all" />
+
+<div class="figleft" style="width: 200px;"><a href="images/09-cross-section-600.png"><img src="images/09-cross-section-a-200.png" width="200" height="200" alt="cross-section" /></a>
+<p class="center">Cross-section, magnified 37&#189; diameters.</p></div>
+
+<div class="figleft" style="width: 150px;"><a href="images/09-radial-section-400.png"><img src="images/09-radial-section-a-150.png" width="150" height="300" alt="radial section" /></a>
+<p class="center">Radial Section, life size.</p></div>
+
+<div class="figright" style="width: 150px;"><a href="images/09-tangential-section-400.png"><img src="images/09-tangential-section-a-150.png" width="150" height="300" alt="tangential Section" /></a>
+<p class="center">Tangential Section, life size.</p></div>
+<br clear="all" />
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page76" id="page76"></a>76</span>
+
+<h3>10</h3>
+
+<h5><span class="sc">Tamarack. Larch. Hackmatack.</span></h5>
+
+<h5><i>Larix laricina</i> (Du Roi) Koch. <i>Larix americana</i> Michaux.</h5>
+
+<p class="center">
+<i>Larix</i>, the classical Latin name.
+</p>
+
+<div class="figleft" style="width: 300px;"><a href="images/10-habitat-600.png"><img src="images/10-habitat-a-300.png" width="300" height="209" alt="habitat" /></a>
+<p class="center1">Habitat.</p></div>
+
+<p><b>Habitat</b>: (See map);
+prefers swamps, "Tamarack
+swamps."</p>
+
+<p><b>Characteristics of the
+Tree</b>: Height, 50'-60'
+and even 90', diameter 1'-3';
+intolerant; tall, slender
+trunk; bark, cinnamon
+brown, no ridges,
+breaking into flakes;
+leaves, deciduous, pea-green,
+in tufts; cone, &#189;"-&#190;",
+bright brown.</p>
+
+<p><b>Appearance of Wood</b>:
+Color, light brown, sapwood
+hardly distinguishable;
+non-porous; rings,
+summer wood, thin but
+distinct, dark colored;
+grain, straight, coarse;
+rays, numerous, hardly
+distinguishable; very resinous,
+but ducts few and
+small.</p>
+<br clear="all" />
+<div class="figleft" style="width: 150px;"><a href="images/10-leaf-500.png"><img src="images/10-leaf-a-150.png" width="150" height="213" alt="leaf" /></a>
+<p class="center">Leaf.</p></div>
+
+<p><b>Physical Qualities</b>:
+Weight, medium (29th in
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page77" id="page77"></a>77</span>
+this list); 39 lbs. per cu. ft.; sp. gr.
+0.6236; strong (24th in this list); elastic
+(11th in this list); medium hard
+(40th in this list); shrinkage, 3 per
+cent.; warps ........; very durable;
+easy to work; splits easily.</p>
+
+<p><b>Common Uses</b>: Ship building, electric
+wire poles, and railroad ties; used
+for boat ribs because of its naturally
+crooked knees; slenderness prevents common
+use as lumber.</p>
+
+<p><b>Remarks</b>: Tree desolate looking in
+winter.</p>
+
+<br clear="all" />
+
+<div class="figleft" style="width: 200px;"><a href="images/10-cross-section-600.png"><img src="images/10-cross-section-a-200.png" width="200" height="200" alt="cross-section" /></a>
+<p class="center">Cross-section, magnified 37&#189; diameters.</p></div>
+
+<div class="figleft" style="width: 150px;"><a href="images/10-radial-section-400.png"><img src="images/10-radial-section-a-150.png" width="150" height="300" alt="radial section" /></a>
+<p class="center">Radial Section, life size.</p></div>
+
+<div class="figright" style="width: 150px;"><a href="images/10-tangential-section-400.png"><img src="images/10-tangential-section-a-150.png" width="150" height="300" alt="tangential Section" /></a>
+<p class="center">Tangential Section, life size.</p></div>
+<br clear="all" />
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page78" id="page78"></a>78</span>
+
+<h3>11</h3>
+
+<h5><span class="sc">Western Larch. Tamarack.</span></h5>
+
+<h5><i>Larix occidentalis</i> Nuttall.</h5>
+
+<p class="center">
+<i>Larix</i>, the classical Latin name; <i>occidentalis</i> means western.
+</p>
+
+<div class="figleft" style="width: 300px;"><a href="images/11-habitat-600.png"><img src="images/11-habitat-a-300.png" width="300" height="214" alt="habitat" /></a>
+<p class="center1">Habitat.</p></div>
+
+<p><b>Habitat</b>: (See map);
+best in northern Montana
+and Idaho, on high elevations.</p>
+
+<p><b>Characteristics of the
+Tree</b>: Height, 90'-130',
+even 250'; diameter 6'-8';
+tall, slender, naked trunk,
+with branches high; bark,
+cinnamon red or purplish,
+often 12" thick, breaking
+into irregular plates, often
+2' long; leaves, in tufts;
+deciduous; cones small.</p>
+
+<p><b>Appearance of Wood</b>:
+Color, light red, thin,
+whitish, sap-wood; non-porous;
+grain, straight,
+fine; rays numerous, thin;
+very resinous, but ducts
+small and obscure.</p>
+<br clear="all" />
+<div class="figleft" style="width: 150px;"><a href="images/11-leaf-500.png"><img src="images/11-leaf-a-150.png" width="150" height="213" alt="leaf" /></a>
+<p class="center">Leaf.</p></div>
+
+<p><b>Physical Qualities</b>:
+Weight, heavy (11th in
+this list); 46 lbs. per cu.
+ft.; sp. gr. 0.7407; very
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page79" id="page79"></a>79</span>
+strong (3d in this list); very elastic
+(1st in this list); medium hard (35th
+in this list); shrinkage, 4 per cent.;
+warps .........; very durable; rather
+hard to work, takes fine polish; splits
+with difficulty.</p>
+
+<p><b>Common Uses</b>: Posts, railroad ties,
+fencing, cabinet material and fuel.</p>
+
+<p><b>Remarks</b>: A valuable tree in the
+Northwest.</p>
+
+<br clear="all" />
+
+<div class="figleft" style="width: 200px;"><a href="images/11-cross-section-600.png"><img src="images/11-cross-section-a-200.png" width="200" height="200" alt="cross-section" /></a>
+<p class="center">Cross-section, magnified 37&#189; diameters.</p></div>
+
+<div class="figleft" style="width: 150px;"><a href="images/11-radial-section-400.png"><img src="images/11-radial-section-a-150.png" width="150" height="300" alt="radial section" /></a>
+<p class="center">Radial Section, life size.</p></div>
+
+<div class="figright" style="width: 150px;"><a href="images/11-tangential-section-400.png"><img src="images/11-tangential-section-a-150.png" width="150" height="300" alt="tangential Section" /></a>
+<p class="center">Tangential Section, life size.</p></div>
+<br clear="all" />
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page80" id="page80"></a>80</span>
+
+<h3>12</h3>
+
+<h5><span class="sc">White Spruce.</span></h5>
+
+<h5><i>Picea canadensis</i> (Miller) B. S. P. <i>Picea alba</i> Link.</h5>
+
+<p class="center">
+<i>Picea</i>, the classical Latin name; white and <i>alba</i> refers to the pale color
+of the leaves, especially when young, and to the whitish bark.
+</p>
+
+<div class="figleft" style="width: 300px;"><a href="images/12-habitat-600.png"><img src="images/12-habitat-a-300.png" width="300" height="212" alt="habitat" /></a>
+<p class="center1">Habitat.</p></div>
+
+<p><b>Habitat</b>: (See map).</p>
+
+<p><b>Characteristics of the
+Tree</b>: Height, 60'-100'
+and even 150'; diameter,
+1'-2' and even 4'; long,
+thick branches; bark,
+light grayish brown, separating
+into thin plate-like
+scales, rather smooth appearance,
+resin from cuts
+forms white gum; leaves,
+set thickly on all sides of
+branch, finer than red
+spruce, odor disagreeable;
+cones, 2" long, cylindrical,
+slender, fall during second
+summer.</p>
+
+<p><b>Appearance of Wood</b>:
+Color, light yellow, sap-wood,
+hardly distinguishable;
+non-porous; rings,
+wide, summer wood thin,
+not conspicuous; grain,
+straight; rays, numerous,
+prominent; resin ducts,
+few and minute.</p>
+<br clear="all" />
+<div class="figleft" style="width: 150px;"><a href="images/12-leaf-500.png"><img src="images/12-leaf-a-150.png" width="150" height="213" alt="leaf" /></a>
+<p class="center">Leaf.</p></div>
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page81" id="page81"></a>81</span>
+
+<p><b>Physical Qualities</b>: Weight, light
+(51st in this list); 25 lbs. per cu. ft.; sp.
+gr., 0.4051; medium strong (42d in this
+list); elastic (29th in this list); soft
+(58th in this list); shrinks 3 per cent.;
+warps ........; fairly durable; easy to
+work, satiny surface; splits readily.</p>
+
+<p><b>Common Uses</b>: Lumber and paper
+pulp; (not distinguished from Red and
+Black Spruce in market).</p>
+
+<p><b>Remarks</b>: Wood very resonant, hence
+used for sounding boards. The most important
+lumber tree of the sub-arctic
+forest of British Columbia.</p>
+
+<br clear="all" />
+
+<div class="figleft" style="width: 200px;"><a href="images/12-cross-section-600.png"><img src="images/12-cross-section-a-200.png" width="200" height="200" alt="cross-section" /></a>
+<p class="center">Cross-section, magnified 37&#189; diameters.</p></div>
+
+<div class="figleft" style="width: 150px;"><a href="images/12-radial-section-400.png"><img src="images/12-radial-section-a-150.png" width="150" height="300" alt="radial section" /></a>
+<p class="center">Radial Section, life size.</p></div>
+
+<div class="figright" style="width: 150px;"><a href="images/12-tangential-section-350.png"><img src="images/12-tangential-section-a-150.png" width="150" height="300" alt="tangential Section" /></a>
+<p class="center">Tangential Section, life size.</p></div>
+<br clear="all" />
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page82" id="page82"></a>82</span>
+
+<h3>13</h3>
+<a name="redspruce" id="redspruce"></a>
+<h5><span class="sc">Red Spruce.</span><a href="#redsprucenote">*</a></h5>
+
+<h5><i>Picea rubens</i> Sargent.</h5>
+
+<p class="center">
+<i>Picea</i>, the classical Latin name for the pitch pine; <i>rubens</i> refers to reddish
+bark, and perhaps to the reddish streaks in the wood.
+</p>
+
+<div class="figleft" style="width: 300px;"><a href="images/13-habitat-600.png"><img src="images/13-habitat-a-300.png" width="300" height="210" alt="habitat" /></a>
+<p class="center1">Habitat.</p></div>
+
+<p><b>Habitat</b>: (See map);
+stunted in north.</p>
+
+<p><b>Characteristics of the
+Tree</b>: Height, 70'-80',
+even 100'; diameter, 2'-3',
+grows slowly; trunk,
+straight, columnar,
+branches in whorls, cleans
+well in forest; bark, reddish
+brown with thin irregular
+scales; leaves,
+needle-shaped, four-sided,
+pointing everywhere;
+cones, 1&#188;"-2" long, pendent,
+fall during the first
+winter.</p>
+
+<p><b>Appearance of Wood</b>:
+Color, dull white with occasional
+reddish streaks;
+sap-wood not distinct;
+non-porous; rings, summer
+rings thin, but clearly
+defined; grain, straight;
+rays, faintly discernible;
+resin ducts, few and small.</p>
+<br clear="all" />
+<div class="figleft" style="width: 150px;"><a href="images/13-leaf-500.png"><img src="images/13-leaf-a-150.png" width="150" height="214" alt="leaf" /></a>
+<p class="center">Leaf.</p></div>
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page83" id="page83"></a>83</span>
+
+<p><b>Physical Qualities</b>: Weight, light
+(47th in this list); 28 lbs. per cu. ft.;
+sp. gr., 0.4584; medium strong (41st in
+this list); elastic (21st in this list);
+soft (54th in this list); shrinkage, 3
+per cent.; warps little; not durable; easy
+to plane, tolerably easy to saw, hard to
+chisel neatly; splits easily in nailing.</p>
+
+<p><b>Common Uses</b>: Sounding boards,
+construction, paper pulp, ladders.</p>
+
+<p><b>Remarks</b>: The exudations from this
+species are used as chewing gum. Bark
+of twigs is used in the domestic manufacture
+of beer. The use of the wood for
+sounding boards is due to its resonance,
+and for ladders to its strength and
+lightness.</p>
+
+<br clear="all" />
+
+<div class="figleft" style="width: 200px;"><a href="images/13-cross-section-600.png"><img src="images/13-cross-section-a-200.png" width="200" height="200" alt="cross-section" /></a>
+<p class="center">Cross-section, magnified 37&#189; diameters.</p></div>
+
+<div class="figleft" style="width: 150px;"><a href="images/13-radial-section-400.png"><img src="images/13-radial-section-a-150.png" width="150" height="300" alt="radial section" /></a>
+<p class="center">Radial Section, life size.</p></div>
+
+<div class="figright" style="width: 150px;"><a href="images/13-tangential-section-400.png"><img src="images/13-tangential-section-a-150.png" width="150" height="300" alt="tangential Section" /></a>
+<p class="center">Tangential Section, life size.</p></div>
+<br clear="all" />
+
+<a name="redsprucenote" id="redsprucenote"></a>
+<p class="note1"><a href="#redspruce"><span style="font-size: 1.2em;">*</span></a> Not distinguished in the Jesup collection from <i>Picea nigra</i>.</p>
+
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page84" id="page84"></a>84</span>
+
+<h3>14</h3>
+<a name="blackspruce" id="blackspruce"></a>
+<h5><span class="sc">Black Spruce.</span><a href="#blacksprucenote">*</a></h5>
+
+<h5><i>Picea mariana</i> (Miller) B. S. P. <i>Picea nigra</i> Link.</h5>
+
+<p class="center">
+<i>Picea</i>, the classical Latin name for the pitch pine; <i>mariana</i> named for
+Queen Mary; black and <i>nigra</i> refer to dark foliage.
+</p>
+
+<div class="figleft" style="width: 300px;"><a href="images/14-habitat-600.png"><img src="images/14-habitat-a-300.png" width="300" height="206" alt="habitat" /></a>
+<p class="center1">Habitat.</p></div>
+
+<p><b>Habitat</b>: (See map);
+best in Canada.</p>
+
+<p><b>Characteristics of the
+Tree</b>: Height, 50'-80'
+and even 100'; diameter,
+6"-1' even 2'; branches,
+whorled, pendulous with
+upward curve; bark,
+gray, loosely attached
+flakes; leaves, pale blue-green,
+spirally set, pointing
+in all directions;
+cones, small, ovate-oblong,
+persistent for many
+years.</p>
+
+<p><b>Appearance of Wood</b>:
+Color, pale, reddish, sap-wood,
+thin, white, not
+very distinct; non-porous;
+rings, summer wood,
+small thin cells; grain,
+straight; rays, few, conspicuous;
+resin ducts, few
+and minute.</p>
+<br clear="all" />
+<div class="figleft" style="width: 150px;"><a href="images/14-leaf-500.png"><img src="images/14-leaf-a-150.png" width="150" height="215" alt="leaf" /></a>
+<p class="center">Leaf.</p></div>
+
+<p><b>Physical Qualities</b>:
+Weight, light (47th in
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page85" id="page85"></a>85</span>
+this list); 33 lbs. per cu. ft.; sp. gr.,
+0.4584; medium strong (41st in this
+list); elastic (21st in this list); soft
+(54th in this list); shrinkage, 3 per
+cent.; warps little; not durable; easy
+to work; splits easily in nailing.</p>
+
+<p><b>Common Uses</b>: Sounding boards,
+lumber in Manitoba.</p>
+
+<p><b>Remarks</b>: Not distinguished from
+Red Spruce commercially.</p>
+
+<br clear="all" />
+
+<div class="figleft" style="width: 200px;"><a href="images/14-cross-section-600.png"><img src="images/14-cross-section-a-200.png" width="200" height="200" alt="cross-section" /></a>
+<p class="center">Cross-section, magnified 37&#189; diameters.</p></div>
+
+<div class="figleft" style="width: 150px;"><a href="images/14-radial-section-400.png"><img src="images/14-radial-section-a-150.png" width="150" height="300" alt="radial section" /></a>
+<p class="center">Radial Section, life size.</p></div>
+
+<div class="figright" style="width: 150px;"><a href="images/14-tangential-section-400.png"><img src="images/14-tangential-section-a-150.png" width="150" height="300" alt="tangential Section" /></a>
+<p class="center">Tangential Section, life size.</p></div>
+<br clear="all" />
+
+<a name="blacksprucenote" id="blacksprucenote"></a>
+<p class="note1"><a href="#blackspruce"><span style="font-size: 1.2em;">*</span></a> Not distinguished in Jesup Collection from <i>Picea rubens</i>.</p>
+
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page86" id="page86"></a>86</span>
+
+<h3>15</h3>
+
+<h5><span class="sc">White Spruce. Engelmann's Spruce.</span></h5>
+
+<h5><i>Picea engelmanni</i> (Parry) Engelmann.</h5>
+
+<p class="center">
+Named for George Engelmann, an American botanist.
+</p>
+
+<div class="figleft" style="width: 300px;"><a href="images/15-habitat-600.png"><img src="images/15-habitat-a-300.png" width="300" height="216" alt="habitat" /></a>
+<p class="center1">Habitat.</p></div>
+
+<p><b>Habitat</b>: (See map);
+grows at very high elevations,
+forming forest at
+8,000'-10,000'; best in
+British Columbia.</p>
+
+<p><b>Characteristics of the
+Tree</b>: Height, 75'-100',
+even 150'; diameter, 2'-3',
+even 5'; branches whorled,
+spreading; bark, deeply
+furrowed, red-brown to
+purplish brown, thin,
+large, loose scales; leaves,
+blue-green, point in all
+directions; cones, 2"
+long, oblong, cylindrical.</p>
+
+<p><b>Appearance of Wood</b>:
+Color, pale yellow or reddish,
+sap-wood hardly distinguishable;
+non-porous;
+rings, very fine, summer
+wood, narrow, not conspicuous;
+grain, straight,
+close; rays, numerous,
+conspicuous; resin ducts,
+small and few.</p>
+<br clear="all" />
+<div class="figleft" style="width: 150px;"><a href="images/15-leaf-500.png"><img src="images/15-leaf-a-150.png" width="150" height="215" alt="leaf" /></a>
+<p class="center">Leaf.</p></div>
+
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page87" id="page87"></a>87</span>
+
+<p><b>Physical Qualities</b>: Weight, very
+light (57th in this list); 22 lbs. per
+cu. ft.; sp. gr. 0.3449; weak (61st in
+this list); elasticity medium (55th in
+this list); soft (56th in this list);
+shrinkage, 3 per cent.; warps .........;
+durable; easy to work; splits easily.</p>
+
+<p><b>Common Uses</b>: Lumber.</p>
+
+<p><b>Remarks</b>: A valuable lumber tree
+in the Rocky Mountains and the Cascades.
+Bark used for tanning.</p>
+
+<br clear="all" />
+
+<div class="figleft" style="width: 200px;"><a href="images/15-cross-section-600.png"><img src="images/15-cross-section-a-200.png" width="200" height="200" alt="cross-section" /></a>
+<p class="center">Cross-section, magnified 37&#189; diameters.</p></div>
+
+<div class="figleft" style="width: 150px;"><a href="images/15-radial-section-400.png"><img src="images/15-radial-section-a-150.png" width="150" height="300" alt="radial section" /></a>
+<p class="center">Radial Section, life size.</p></div>
+
+<div class="figright" style="width: 150px;"><a href="images/15-tangential-section-400.png"><img src="images/15-tangential-section-a-150.png" width="150" height="300" alt="tangential Section" /></a>
+<p class="center">Tangential Section, life size.</p></div>
+<br clear="all" />
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page88" id="page88"></a>88</span>
+
+<h3>16</h3>
+
+<h5><span class="sc">Tideland Spruce. Sitka Spruce.</span></h5>
+
+<h5><i>Picea sitchensis</i> (Bongard) Carri&#232;re.</h5>
+
+<p class="center">
+<i>Picea</i>, the classical Latin name for the pitch pine. Tideland refers to
+its habit of growth along the sea coast; <i>sitchensis</i>, named for Sitka.
+</p>
+
+<div class="figleft" style="width: 300px;"><a href="images/16-habitat-600.png"><img src="images/16-habitat-a-300.png" width="300" height="207" alt="habitat" /></a>
+<p class="center1">Habitat.</p></div>
+
+<p><b>Habitat</b>: (See map);
+best on Pacific slope of
+British Columbia and
+northwestern United
+States.</p>
+
+<p><b>Characteristics of the
+Tree</b>: Height, 100'-150'
+and even 200' high; diameter
+3'-4' and even 15';
+trunk base enlarged; bark,
+thick, red-brown, scaly;
+leaves, standing out in
+all directions; cones,
+2&#189;"-4" long, pendent,
+cylindrical, oval.</p>
+
+<p><b>Appearance of Wood</b>:
+Color, light brown, sap-wood
+whitish; non-porous;
+rings, wide, summer
+wood, thin but very
+distinct, spring wood, not
+plain; grain, straight,
+coarse; rays, numerous,
+rather prominent; resin
+ducts, few and small.</p>
+<br clear="all" />
+<div class="figleft" style="width: 150px;"><a href="images/16-leaf-500.png"><img src="images/16-leaf-a-150.png" width="150" height="214" alt="leaf" /></a>
+<p class="center">Leaf.</p></div>
+
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page89" id="page89"></a>89</span>
+
+<p><b>Physical Qualities</b>: Weight, light
+(52d in this list); 27 lbs. per cu. ft.;
+sp. gr. 0.4287; medium strong (53d in
+this list); elastic (31st in this list);
+soft (59th in this list); shrinkage, 3
+per cent.; warps ...........; durable;
+easy to work; splits easily.</p>
+
+<p><b>Common Uses</b>: Interior finish, boat
+building and cooperage.</p>
+
+<p><b>Remarks</b>: Largest of the spruces.
+Common in the coast belt forest.</p>
+
+<br clear="all" />
+
+<div class="figleft" style="width: 200px;"><a href="images/16-cross-section-600.png"><img src="images/16-cross-section-a-200.png" width="200" height="200" alt="cross-section" /></a>
+<p class="center">Cross-section, magnified 37&#189; diameters.</p></div>
+
+<div class="figleft" style="width: 150px;"><a href="images/16-radial-section-400.png"><img src="images/16-radial-section-a-150.png" width="150" height="300" alt="radial section" /></a>
+<p class="center">Radial Section, life size.</p></div>
+
+<div class="figright" style="width: 150px;"><a href="images/16-tangential-section-400.png"><img src="images/16-tangential-section-a-150.png" width="150" height="300" alt="tangential Section" /></a>
+<p class="center">Tangential Section, life size.</p></div>
+<br clear="all" />
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page90" id="page90"></a>90</span>
+
+<h3>17</h3>
+
+<h5><span class="sc">Hemlock.</span></h5>
+
+<h5><i>Tsuga canadensis</i> (Linnaeus) Carri&#232;re.</h5>
+
+<p class="center">
+<i>Tsuga</i>, the Japanese name latinized; <i>canadensis</i> named for Canada.
+</p>
+
+<div class="figleft" style="width: 300px;"><a href="images/17-habitat-600.png"><img src="images/17-habitat-a-300.png" width="300" height="211" alt="habitat" /></a>
+<p class="center1">Habitat.</p></div>
+
+<p><b>Habitat</b>: (See map);
+best in North Carolina
+and Tennessee.</p>
+
+<p><b>Characteristics of the
+Tree</b>: Height, 60'-70',
+sometimes 100'; diameter,
+2'-3'; branches, persistent,
+making trunk not
+very clean; bark, red-gray,
+narrow, rounded ridges,
+deeply and irregularly
+fissured; leaves, spirally
+arranged, but appear two-ranked;
+cones, &#190;" long,
+graceful.</p>
+
+<p><b>Appearance of Wood</b>:
+Color, reddish brown, sap-wood
+just distinguishable;
+non-porous; rings, rather
+broad, conspicuous; grain,
+crooked; rays, numerous,
+thin; non-resinous.</p>
+<br clear="all" />
+<div class="figleft" style="width: 150px;"><a href="images/17-leaf-500.png"><img src="images/17-leaf-a-150.png" width="150" height="216" alt="leaf" /></a>
+<p class="center">Leaf.</p></div>
+
+<p><b>Physical Qualities</b>:
+Weight, light (53d in
+this list); 26 lbs. per cu.
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page91" id="page91"></a>91</span>
+ft.; sp. gr. 0.4239; medium strong (44th
+in this list); elasticity, medium (40th
+in this list); soft (51st in this list);
+shrinkage, 3 per cent.; warps and checks
+badly; not durable; difficult to work,
+splintery, brittle; splits easily, holds
+nails well.</p>
+
+<p><b>Common Uses</b>: Coarse, cheap lumber,
+as joists, rafters, plank walks and
+laths.</p>
+
+<p><b>Remarks</b>: The poorest lumber. Bark
+chief source of tanning material.</p>
+
+<br clear="all" />
+
+<div class="figleft" style="width: 200px;"><a href="images/17-cross-section-600.png"><img src="images/17-cross-section-a-200.png" width="200" height="200" alt="cross-section" /></a>
+<p class="center">Cross-section, magnified 37&#189; diameters.</p></div>
+
+<div class="figleft" style="width: 150px;"><a href="images/17-radial-section-400.png"><img src="images/17-radial-section-a-150.png" width="150" height="300" alt="radial section" /></a>
+<p class="center">Radial Section, life size.</p></div>
+
+<div class="figright" style="width: 150px;"><a href="images/17-tangential-section-400.png"><img src="images/17-tangential-section-a-150.png" width="150" height="300" alt="tangential Section" /></a>
+<p class="center">Tangential Section, life size.</p></div>
+<br clear="all" />
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page92" id="page92"></a>92</span>
+
+<h3>18</h3>
+
+<h5><span class="sc">Western Hemlock. Black Hemlock.</span></h5>
+
+<h5><i>Tsuga heterophylla</i> (Rafinesque) Sargent.</h5>
+
+<p class="center">
+<i>Tsuga</i>, the Japanese name latinized; <i>heterophylla</i> refers to two kinds
+of leaves.
+</p>
+
+<div class="figleft" style="width: 300px;"><a href="images/18-habitat-600.png"><img src="images/18-habitat-a-300.png" width="300" height="211" alt="habitat" /></a>
+<p class="center1">Habitat.</p></div>
+
+<p><b>Habitat</b>: (See map);
+best on coast of Washington
+and Oregon.</p>
+
+<p><b>Characteristics of the
+Tree</b>: Height, 150'-200';
+diameter, 6'-10'; branches,
+pendent, slender; bark,
+reddish gray, deep, longitudinal
+fissures between,
+broad, oblique, flat ridges;
+leaves, dark green, two-ranked;
+cones, small, like
+Eastern Hemlock.</p>
+
+<p><b>Appearance of Wood</b>:
+Color, pale brown, sap-wood
+thin, whitish; non-porous;
+rings, narrow,
+summer wood thin but
+distinct; grain, straight,
+close; rays, numerous,
+prominent; non-resinous.</p>
+<br clear="all" />
+<div class="figleft" style="width: 150px;"><a href="images/18-leaf-500.png"><img src="images/18-leaf-a-150.png" width="150" height="214" alt="leaf" /></a>
+<p class="center">Leaf.</p></div>
+
+<a name="tsuga" id="tsuga"></a>
+<p><b>Physical Qualities</b>:
+Light in weight, strong,
+elastic, hard;<a href="#tsuganote">*</a> shrinkage,
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page93" id="page93"></a>93</span>
+3 per cent.; warps ..........; durable,
+more so than other American hemlocks;
+easier to work than eastern variety;
+splits badly.</p>
+
+<p><b>Common Uses</b>: Lumber for construction.</p>
+
+<p><b>Remarks</b>: Coming to be recognized
+as a valuable lumber tree.</p>
+
+<br clear="all" />
+
+<div class="figleft" style="width: 200px;"><a href="images/18-cross-section-600.png"><img src="images/18-cross-section-a-200.png" width="200" height="200" alt="cross-section" /></a>
+<p class="center">Cross-section, magnified 37&#189; diameters.</p></div>
+
+<div class="figleft" style="width: 150px;"><a href="images/18-radial-section-400.png"><img src="images/18-radial-section-a-150.png" width="150" height="300" alt="radial section" /></a>
+<p class="center">Radial Section, life size.</p></div>
+
+<div class="figright" style="width: 150px;"><a href="images/18-tangential-section-400.png"><img src="images/18-tangential-section-a-150.png" width="150" height="300" alt="tangential Section" /></a>
+<p class="center">Tangential Section, life size.</p></div>
+<br clear="all" />
+
+<a name="tsuganote" id="tsuganote"></a>
+<p class="note1"><a href="#tsuga"><span style="font-size: 1.2em;">*</span></a> Not in Jesup Collection.</p>
+
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page94" id="page94"></a>94</span>
+
+<h3>19</h3>
+
+<h5><span class="sc">Douglas Spruce. Oregon Pine. Red Fir. Douglas Fir.</span></h5>
+
+<h5><i>Pseudotsuga mucronata</i> (Rafinesque) Sudworth.</h5>
+
+<h5><i>Pseudotsuga taxifolia</i> (Lambert) Britton.</h5>
+
+<p class="center">
+<i>Pseudotsuga</i> means false hemlock; <i>mucronata</i> refers to abrupt short
+point of leaf; <i>taxifolia</i> means yew leaf.
+</p>
+
+<div class="figleft" style="width: 300px;"><a href="images/19-habitat-600.png"><img src="images/19-habitat-a-300.png" width="300" height="209" alt="habitat" /></a>
+<p class="center1">Habitat.</p></div>
+
+<p><b>Habitat</b>: (See map);
+best in Puget Sound region.</p>
+<p><b>Characteristics of the
+Tree</b>: Height, 175'-300';
+diameter, 3'-5', sometimes
+10'; branches high, leaving
+clean trunk; bark,
+rough, gray, great broad-rounded
+ridges, often appears
+braided; leaves, radiating
+from stem; cones,
+2"-4" long.</p>
+
+<p><b>Appearance of Wood</b>: Color, light red to yellow,
+sap-wood white; non-porous;
+rings, dark colored,
+conspicuous, very pronounced
+summer wood;
+grain, straight, coarse;
+rays, numerous, obscure;
+resinous.</p>
+
+<br clear="all" />
+<div class="figleft" style="width: 150px;"><a href="images/19-leaf-500.png"><img src="images/19-leaf-a-150.png" width="150" height="215" alt="leaf" /></a>
+<p class="center">Leaf.</p></div>
+
+<p><b>Physical Qualities</b>:
+Weight, medium (41st in
+this list); 32 lbs. per cu.
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page95" id="page95"></a>95</span>
+ft, sp. gr. 0.5157; strong (21st in this
+list); very elastic (10th in this list);
+medium hard (45th in this list); shrinkage,
+3 per cent. or 4 per cent.;, warps
+...............; durable; difficult to work,
+flinty, splits readily.</p>
+
+<p><b>Common Uses</b>: Heavy construction,
+masts, flag poles, piles, railway ties.</p>
+
+<p><b>Remarks</b>: One of the greatest and
+the most valuable of the western timber
+trees. Forms extensive forests.</p>
+
+<br clear="all" />
+
+<div class="figleft" style="width: 200px;"><a href="images/19-cross-section-600.png"><img src="images/19-cross-section-a-200.png" width="200" height="200" alt="cross-section" /></a>
+<p class="center">Cross-section, magnified 37&#189; diameters.</p></div>
+
+<div class="figleft" style="width: 150px;"><a href="images/19-radial-section-400.png"><img src="images/19-radial-section-a-150.png" width="150" height="300" alt="radial section" /></a>
+<p class="center">Radial Section, life size.</p></div>
+
+<div class="figright" style="width: 150px;"><a href="images/19-tangential-section-400.png"><img src="images/19-tangential-section-a-150.png" width="150" height="300" alt="tangential Section" /></a>
+<p class="center">Tangential Section, life size.</p></div>
+<br clear="all" />
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page96" id="page96"></a>96</span>
+
+<h3>20</h3>
+
+<h5><span class="sc">Grand Fir. White Fir. Lowland Fir. Silver Fir.</span></h5>
+
+<h5><i>Abies grandis</i> Lindley.</h5>
+
+<p class="center">
+<i>Abies</i>, the classical Latin name.
+</p>
+
+<div class="figleft" style="width: 300px;"><a href="images/20-habitat-600.png"><img src="images/20-habitat-a-300.png" width="300" height="212" alt="habitat" /></a>
+<p class="center1">Habitat.</p></div>
+
+<p><b>Habitat</b>: (See map);
+best in Puget Sound region.</p>
+
+<p><b>Characteristics of the
+Tree</b>: Height, in interior
+100'; diameter, 2'; on
+coast, 250'-300' high; diameter,
+2'-5'; long pendulous
+branches; bark,
+quite gray or gray brown,
+shallow fissures, flat
+ridges; leaves, shiny
+green above, silvery below,
+1&#189;"-2" long, roughly
+two-ranked; cones, cylindrical,
+2"-4" long.</p>
+
+<p><b>Appearance of Wood</b>:
+Color, light brown, sap-wood
+lighter; non-porous;
+rings, summer cells
+broader than in other
+American species, dark
+colored, conspicuous; grain
+straight, coarse; rays, numerous,
+obscure; resinous.</p>
+<br clear="all" />
+<div class="figleft" style="width: 150px;"><a href="images/20-leaf-500.png"><img src="images/20-leaf-a-150.png" width="150" height="213" alt="leaf" /></a>
+<p class="center">Leaf.</p></div>
+
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page97" id="page97"></a>97</span>
+
+<p><b>Physical Qualities</b>: Very light (62d
+in this list); 22 lbs. per cu. ft.; sp. gr.,
+0.3545; weak (62d in this list); elastic
+(34th in this list); soft (65th in
+this list); shrinkage, 3 per cent.; warps
+little; not durable; works easily; splits
+readily.</p>
+
+<p><b>Common Uses</b>: Lumber and packing
+cases.</p>
+
+<p><b>Remarks</b>: No resin ducts. Not a
+very valuable wood.</p>
+
+<br clear="all" />
+
+<div class="figleft" style="width: 200px;"><a href="images/20-cross-section-600.png"><img src="images/20-cross-section-a-200.png" width="200" height="200" alt="cross-section" /></a>
+<p class="center">Cross-section, magnified 37&#189; diameters.</p></div>
+
+<div class="figleft" style="width: 150px;"><a href="images/20-radial-section-400.png"><img src="images/20-radial-section-a-150.png" width="150" height="300" alt="radial section" /></a>
+<p class="center">Radial Section, life size.</p></div>
+
+<div class="figright" style="width: 150px;"><a href="images/20-tangential-section-400.png"><img src="images/20-tangential-section-a-150.png" width="150" height="300" alt="tangential Section" /></a>
+<p class="center">Tangential Section, life size.</p></div>
+<br clear="all" />
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page98" id="page98"></a>98</span>
+
+<h3>21</h3>
+
+<h5><span class="sc">Big Tree. Sequoia. Giant Sequoia.</span></h5>
+
+<h5><i>Sequoia washingtoniana</i> (Winslow) Sudworth. <i>Sequoia gigantea</i>,
+Decaisne.</h5>
+
+<p class="center">
+<i>Sequoia</i> latinized from Sequoiah, a Cherokee Indian; <i>washingtoniana</i>, in
+honor of George Washington.
+</p>
+
+<div class="figleft" style="width: 300px;"><a href="images/21-habitat-600.png"><img src="images/21-habitat-a-300.png" width="300" height="209" alt="habitat" /></a>
+<p class="center1">Habitat.</p></div>
+
+<p><b>Habitat</b>: (See map);
+in ten groves in southern
+California, at high elevation.</p>
+
+<p><b>Characteristics of the
+Tree</b>: Height, 275',
+sometimes 320'; diameter,
+20', sometimes 35';
+trunk, swollen and often
+buttressed at base, ridged,
+often clear for 150'; thick
+horizontal branches; bark,
+1'-2' thick, in great ridges,
+separates into loose,
+fibrous, cinnamon red
+scales, almost non-combustible;
+leaves, very
+small, growing close to
+stem; cones, 2"-3" long.</p>
+
+<p><b>Appearance of Wood</b>:
+Color, red, turning dark
+on exposure, sap-wood
+thin, whitish; non-porous;
+rings, very plain;
+grain straight, coarse;
+rays, numerous, thin;
+non-resinous.</p>
+<br clear="all" />
+<div class="figleft" style="width: 150px;"><a href="images/21-leaf-500.png"><img src="images/21-leaf-a-150.png" width="150" height="213" alt="leaf" /></a>
+<p class="center">Leaf.</p></div>
+
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page99" id="page99"></a>99</span>
+
+<p><b>Physical Qualities:</b> Light (65th in
+this list); 18 lbs. per cu. ft.; sp. gr.,
+0.2882; weak (63d in this list); brittle
+(62d in this list); very soft (61st
+in this list); shrinks little; warps little;
+remarkably durable; easy to work,
+splits readily, takes nails well.</p>
+
+<p><b>Common Uses:</b> Construction, lumber,
+coffins, shingles.</p>
+
+<p><b>Remarks:</b> Dimensions and age are
+unequalled; Big Tree and Redwood
+survivors of a prehistoric genus, once
+widely distributed. Some specimens
+3600 years old.</p>
+<br clear="all" />
+
+<div class="figleft" style="width: 200px;"><a href="images/21-cross-section-600.png"><img src="images/21-cross-section-a-200.png" width="200" height="200" alt="cross-section" /></a>
+<p class="center">Cross-section, magnified 37&#189; diameters.</p></div>
+
+<div class="figleft" style="width: 150px;"><a href="images/21-radial-section-400.png"><img src="images/21-radial-section-a-150.png" width="150" height="300" alt="radial section" /></a>
+<p class="center">Radial Section, life size.</p></div>
+
+<div class="figright" style="width: 150px;"><a href="images/21-tangential-section-400.png"><img src="images/21-tangential-section-a-150.png" width="150" height="300" alt="tangential Section" /></a>
+<p class="center">Tangential Section, life size.</p></div>
+<br clear="all" />
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page100" id="page100"></a>100</span>
+
+<h3>22</h3>
+
+<h5><span class="sc">Redwood. Coast Redwood. Sequoia.</span></h5>
+
+<h5><i>Sequoia sempervirens</i> (Lambert) Endlicher.</h5>
+
+<p class="center">
+<i>Sequoia</i>, latinized from Sequoiah, a Cherokee Indian; <i>sempervirens</i>
+means ever living.
+</p>
+
+<div class="figleft" style="width: 300px;"><a href="images/22-habitat-600.png"><img src="images/22-habitat-a-300.png" width="300" height="209" alt="habitat" /></a>
+<p class="center1">Habitat.</p></div>
+
+<p><b>Habitat</b>: (See map);
+best in southern Oregon
+and northern California,
+near coast.</p>
+
+<p><b>Characteristics of the
+Tree</b>: Height, 200'-340';
+diameter, 10'-15', rarely
+25'; clean trunk, much
+buttressed and swollen at
+base, somewhat fluted,
+branches very high; bark,
+very thick, 6"-12", rounded
+ridges, dark scales
+falling reveal inner red
+bark; leaves, small, two-ranked;
+cones, small, 1"
+long.</p>
+
+<p><b>Appearance of Wood</b>:
+Color, red, turning to
+brown on seasoning, sap-wood
+whitish; non-porous;
+rings, distinct;
+grain, straight; rays, numerous,
+very obscure; non-resinous.</p>
+<br clear="all" />
+<div class="figleft" style="width: 150px;"><a href="images/22-leaf-500.png"><img src="images/22-leaf-a-150.png" width="150" height="213" alt="leaf" /></a>
+<p class="center">Leaf.</p></div>
+
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page101" id="page101"></a>101</span>
+
+<p><b>Physical Qualities</b>: Light in weight
+(55th in this list); 26 lbs. per cu. ft.;
+sp. gr. 0.4208; weak (58th in this list);
+brittle (60th in this list); soft (55th
+in this list); shrinks little; warps little;
+very durable; easily worked; splits
+readily; takes nails well.</p>
+
+<p><b>Common Uses</b>: Shingles, construction,
+timber, fence posts, coffins, railway
+ties, water pipes, curly specimens
+used in cabinet work.</p>
+
+<p><b>Remarks</b>: Low branches rare. Burns
+with difficulty. Chief construction wood
+of Pacific Coast. Use determined
+largely by durability.</p>
+
+<br clear="all" />
+
+<div class="figleft" style="width: 200px;"><a href="images/22-cross-section-600.png"><img src="images/22-cross-section-a-200.png" width="200" height="200" alt="cross-section" /></a>
+<p class="center">Cross-section, magnified 37&#189; diameters.</p></div>
+
+<div class="figleft" style="width: 150px;"><a href="images/22-radial-section-400.png"><img src="images/22-radial-section-a-150.png" width="150" height="300" alt="radial section" /></a>
+<p class="center">Radial Section, life size.</p></div>
+
+<div class="figright" style="width: 150px;"><a href="images/22-tangential-section-400.png"><img src="images/22-tangential-section-a-150.png" width="150" height="300" alt="tangential Section" /></a>
+<p class="center">Tangential Section, life size.</p></div>
+<br clear="all" />
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page102" id="page102"></a>102</span>
+
+<h3>23</h3>
+
+<h5><span class="sc">Bald Cypress.</span></h5>
+
+<p class="center">
+Bald refers to leaflessness of tree in winter.
+</p>
+
+<h5><i>Taxodium distichum</i> (Linnaeus) L. C. Richard.</h5>
+
+<p class="center">
+<i>Taxodium</i> means yew-like; <i>distichum</i> refers to the two-ranked leaves.
+</p>
+
+<div class="figleft" style="width: 300px;"><a href="images/23-habitat-600.png"><img src="images/23-habitat-a-300.png" width="300" height="209" alt="habitat" /></a>
+<p class="center1">Habitat.</p></div>
+
+<p><b>Habitat</b>: (See map);
+best in South Atlantic
+and Gulf States.</p>
+
+<p><b>Characteristics of the
+Tree</b>: Height, 75', occasionally
+150'; diameter,
+4'-5'; roots project
+upward into peculiar
+knees; trunk strongly
+buttressed at base,
+straight, majestic and
+tapering; bark, light red,
+shallow fissures, flat
+plates, peeling into
+fibrous strips; leaves,
+long, thin, two-ranked,
+deciduous; cones, nearly
+globular, 1" in diameter.</p>
+
+<p><b>Appearance of Wood</b>:
+Color, heart-wood, reddish
+brown, sap-wood,
+nearly white; non-porous;
+rings, fine and well
+marked; grain, nearly
+straight, burl is beautifully
+figured; rays, very
+obscure; non-resinous.</p>
+<br clear="all" />
+<div class="figleft" style="width: 150px;"><a href="images/23-leaf-500.png"><img src="images/23-leaf-a-150.png" width="150" height="213" alt="leaf" /></a>
+<p class="center">Leaf.</p></div>
+
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page103" id="page103"></a>103</span>
+
+<p><b>Physical Qualities</b>: Light in weight
+(48th in this list); 29 lbs. per cu. ft.;
+sp. gr. 0.4543; medium strong (48th in
+this list); elastic (28th in this list);
+soft (52d in this list); shrinkage, 3
+per cent.; warps but little, likely to
+check; very durable; easy to work, in
+splitting, crumbles or breaks; nails well.</p>
+
+<p><b>Common Uses</b>: Shingles, posts, interior
+finish, cooperage, railroad ties,
+boats, and various construction work,
+especially conservatories.</p>
+
+<p><b>Remarks</b>: Forms forests in swamps;
+subject to a fungous disease, making
+wood "peggy" or "pecky"; use largely
+determined by its durability. In New
+Orleans 90,000 fresh water cisterns are
+said to be made of it.</p>
+
+<br clear="all" />
+
+<div class="figleft" style="width: 200px;"><a href="images/23-cross-section-600.png"><img src="images/23-cross-section-a-200.png" width="200" height="200" alt="cross-section" /></a>
+<p class="center">Cross-section, magnified 37&#189; diameters.</p></div>
+
+<div class="figleft" style="width: 150px;"><a href="images/23-radial-section-400.png"><img src="images/23-radial-section-a-150.png" width="150" height="300" alt="radial section" /></a>
+<p class="center">Radial Section, life size.</p></div>
+
+<div class="figright" style="width: 150px;"><a href="images/23-tangential-section-400.png"><img src="images/23-tangential-section-a-150.png" width="150" height="300" alt="tangential Section" /></a>
+<p class="center">Tangential Section, life size.</p></div>
+<br clear="all" />
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page104" id="page104"></a>104</span>
+
+<h3>24</h3>
+
+<h5><span class="sc">Western Red Cedar. Canoe Cedar. Giant Arborvitae.</span></h5>
+
+<h5><i>Thuja plicata</i> D. Don. <i>Thuya gigantea</i> Nuttall.</h5>
+
+<p class="center">
+<i>Thuya</i> or <i>Thuja</i>, the classical Greek name; <i>plicata</i> refers to the folded
+leaves; <i>gigantea</i> refers to the gigantic size of the tree.
+</p>
+
+<div class="figleft" style="width: 300px;"><a href="images/24-habitat-600.png"><img src="images/24-habitat-a-300.png" width="300" height="214" alt="habitat" /></a>
+<p class="center1">Habitat.</p></div>
+
+<p><b>Habitat</b>: (See map);
+best in Puget Sound region.</p>
+
+<p><b>Characteristics of the
+Tree</b>: Height, 100'-200';
+diameter, 2'-10', even 15';
+trunk has immense buttresses,
+often 16' in diameter,
+then tapers;
+branches, horizontal,
+short, making a dense
+conical tree; bark, bright
+cinnamon red, shallow
+fissures, broad ridges,
+peeling into long, narrow,
+stringy scales;
+leaves, very small, overlapping
+in 4 ranks, on
+older twigs, sharper and
+more remote; cones, <i>&#189;"</i>
+long, small, erect.</p>
+
+<p><b>Appearance of Wood</b>:
+Color, dull brown or red,
+thin sap-wood nearly
+white; non-porous; rings,
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page105" id="page105"></a>105</span>
+summer bands thin, dark colored, distinct;
+grain, straight, rather coarse;
+rays, numerous, obscure; non-resinous.</p>
+
+<br clear="all" />
+<div class="figleft" style="width: 150px;"><a href="images/24-leaf-500.png"><img src="images/24-leaf-a-150.png" width="150" height="215" alt="leaf" /></a>
+<p class="center">Leaf.</p></div>
+
+<p><b>Physical Qualities</b>: Very light in
+weight (60th in this list); medium
+strong (40th in this list); elastic (26th
+in this list); soft (60th in this list);
+shrinkage, 3 per cent.; warps and checks
+little; very durable; easy to work; splits
+easily.</p>
+
+<p><b>Common Uses</b>: Interior finish, cabinet
+making, cooperage, shingles, electric
+wire poles.</p>
+
+<p><b>Remarks</b>: Wood used by Indians
+for war canoes, totems and planks for
+lodges; inner bark used for ropes and
+textiles.</p>
+
+<br clear="all" />
+
+<div class="figleft" style="width: 200px;"><a href="images/24-cross-section-600.png"><img src="images/24-cross-section-a-200.png" width="200" height="200" alt="cross-section" /></a>
+<p class="center">Cross-section, magnified 37&#189; diameters.</p></div>
+
+<div class="figleft" style="width: 150px;"><a href="images/24-radial-section-400.png"><img src="images/24-radial-section-a-150.png" width="150" height="300" alt="radial section" /></a>
+<p class="center">Radial Section, life size.</p></div>
+
+<div class="figright" style="width: 150px;"><a href="images/24-tangential-section-400.png"><img src="images/24-tangential-section-a-150.png" width="150" height="300" alt="tangential Section" /></a>
+<p class="center">Tangential Section, life size.</p></div>
+<br clear="all" />
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page106" id="page106"></a>106</span>
+
+<h3>25</h3>
+
+<h5><span class="sc">White Cedar.</span></h5>
+
+<h5><i>Chamaecyparis thyoides</i> (Linnaeus) B. S. P.</h5>
+
+<p class="center">
+<i>Chamaecyparis</i> means low cypress; <i>thyoides</i> means like <i>thuya</i> (<i>Aborvitae</i>).
+</p>
+
+<div class="figleft" style="width: 300px;"><a href="images/25-habitat-600.png"><img src="images/25-habitat-a-300.png" width="300" height="212" alt="habitat" /></a>
+<p class="center1">Habitat.</p></div>
+
+<p><b>Habitat</b>: (See map);
+best in Virginia and
+North Carolina.</p>
+
+<p><b>Characteristics of the
+Tree</b>: Height, 60'-80';
+diameter, 2'-4'; branches,
+low, often forming impenetrable
+thickets; bark,
+light reddish brown,
+many fine longitudinal
+fissures, often spirally
+twisted around stem;
+leaves, scale-like, four-ranked;
+cones, globular,
+&#188;" diameter.</p>
+
+<p><b>Appearance of Wood</b>:
+Color, pink to brown,
+sap-wood lighter; non-porous;
+rings, sharp and
+distinct; grain, straight;
+rays, numerous, obscure;
+non-resinous.</p>
+
+<br clear="all" />
+<div class="figleft" style="width: 150px;"><a href="images/25-leaf-500.png"><img src="images/25-leaf-a-150.png" width="150" height="215" alt="leaf" /></a>
+<p class="center">Leaf.</p></div>
+
+<p><b>Physical Qualities</b>:
+Very light in weight
+(64th in this list); 23
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page107" id="page107"></a>107</span>
+lbs. per cu. ft.; sp. gr. 0.3322); weak
+(64th in this list); brittle (63d in this
+list; soft (62d in this list); shrinkage
+3 per cent.; warps little; extremely durable;
+easily worked; splits easily; nails
+well.</p>
+
+<p><b>Common Uses</b>: Boats, shingles, posts,
+railway ties, cooperage.</p>
+
+<p><b>Remarks</b>: Grows chiefly in swamps,
+often in dense pure forests. Uses determined
+largely by its durability.</p>
+<br clear="all" />
+
+<div class="figleft" style="width: 200px;"><a href="images/25-cross-section-600.png"><img src="images/25-cross-section-a-200.png" width="200" height="200" alt="cross-section" /></a>
+<p class="center">Cross-section, magnified 37&#189; diameters.</p></div>
+
+<div class="figleft" style="width: 150px;"><a href="images/25-radial-section-400.png"><img src="images/25-radial-section-a-150.png" width="150" height="300" alt="radial section" /></a>
+<p class="center">Radial Section, life size.</p></div>
+
+<div class="figright" style="width: 150px;"><a href="images/25-tangential-section-400.png"><img src="images/25-tangential-section-a-150.png" width="150" height="300" alt="tangential Section" /></a>
+<p class="center">Tangential Section, life size.</p></div>
+<br clear="all" />
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page108" id="page108"></a>108</span>
+
+<h3>26</h3>
+
+<h5><span class="sc">Lawson Cypress. Port Orford Cedar. Oregon Cedar.
+White Cedar.</span></h5>
+
+<h5><i>Chamaecyparis lawsoniana</i> (A. Murray) Parlatore.</h5>
+
+<p class="center">
+<i>Chamaecyparis</i> means low cypress.
+</p>
+
+<div class="figleft" style="width: 300px;"><a href="images/26-habitat-600.png"><img src="images/26-habitat-a-300.png" width="300" height="212" alt="habitat" /></a>
+<p class="center1">Habitat.</p></div>
+
+<p><b>Habitat</b>: (See map);
+best on coast of Oregon.</p>
+
+<p><b>Characteristics of the
+Tree</b>: Height, 100'-200';
+diameter, 4'-8', even 12';
+base of trunk abruptly
+enlarged; bark, very
+thick, even 10" at base
+of trunk, inner and outer
+layers distinct, very deep
+fissures, rounded ridges;
+leaves, very small, 1/16"
+long, four-ranked, overlapped,
+flat sprays; cones,
+small, &#188;", globular.</p>
+
+<p><b>Appearance of Wood</b>:
+Color, pinkish brown,
+sap-wood hardly distinguishable;
+non-porous;
+rings, summer wood thin,
+not conspicuous; grain,
+straight, close; rays, numerous,
+very obscure;
+non-resinous.</p>
+
+<br clear="all" />
+<div class="figleft" style="width: 150px;"><a href="images/26-leaf-500.png"><img src="images/26-leaf-a-150.png" width="150" height="215" alt="leaf" /></a>
+<p class="center">Leaf.</p></div>
+
+<p><b>Physical Qualities</b>:
+Light in weight (46th in
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page109" id="page109"></a>109</span>
+this list); 28 lbs. per cu. ft.; sp. gr.
+0.4621; strong (25th in this list); elastic
+(12th in this list); soft (50th in
+this list); shrinkage 3 or 4 per cent.;
+warps little; durable; easily worked;
+splits easily.</p>
+
+<p><b>Common Uses</b>: Matches (almost exclusively
+on the Pacific Coast), interior
+finish, ship and boat building.</p>
+
+<p><b>Remarks</b>: Resin, a powerful diuretic
+and insecticide.</p>
+
+<br clear="all" />
+
+<div class="figleft" style="width: 200px;"><a href="images/26-cross-section-600.png"><img src="images/26-cross-section-a-200.png" width="200" height="200" alt="cross-section" /></a>
+<p class="center">Cross-section, magnified 37&#189; diameters.</p></div>
+
+<div class="figleft" style="width: 150px;"><a href="images/26-radial-section-400.png"><img src="images/26-radial-section-a-150.png" width="150" height="300" alt="radial section" /></a>
+<p class="center">Radial Section, life size.</p></div>
+
+<div class="figright" style="width: 150px;"><a href="images/26-tangential-section-400.png"><img src="images/26-tangential-section-a-150.png" width="150" height="300" alt="tangential Section" /></a>
+<p class="center">Tangential Section, life size.</p></div>
+<br clear="all" />
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page110" id="page110"></a>110</span>
+
+<h3>27</h3>
+
+<h5><span class="sc">Red Cedar.</span></h5>
+
+<h5><i>Juniperus virginiana</i> Linnaeus.</h5>
+
+<p class="center">
+<i>Juniperus</i>, the classical Latin name; <i>virginiana</i>, in honor of the State
+of Virginia.
+</p>
+
+<div class="figleft" style="width: 300px;"><a href="images/27-habitat-600.png"><img src="images/27-habitat-a-300.png" width="300" height="210" alt="habitat" /></a>
+<p class="center1">Habitat.</p></div>
+
+<p><b>Habitat</b>: (See map);
+best in Gulf States in
+swamps, especially on the
+west coast of Florida.</p>
+
+<p><b>Characteristics of the
+Tree</b>: Height, 40'-50',
+even 80'; diameter, 1'-2';
+trunk, ridged, sometimes
+expanded; branches, low;
+bark, light brown, loose,
+ragged, separating into
+long, narrow, persistent,
+stringy scales; leaves, opposite,
+of two kinds, awl-shaped,
+and scale-shaped;
+fruit, dark blue berry.</p>
+
+<p><b>Appearance of Wood</b>:
+Color, dull red, sap-wood
+white; non-porous; rings,
+easily distinguished;
+grain, straight; rays, numerous,
+very obscure;
+non-resinous.</p>
+
+<br clear="all" />
+<div class="figleft" style="width: 150px;"><a href="images/27-leaf-500.png"><img src="images/27-leaf-a-150.png" width="150" height="213" alt="leaf" /></a>
+<p class="center">Leaf.</p></div>
+
+<p><b>Physical Qualities</b>:
+Very light in weight
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page111" id="page111"></a>111</span>
+(42d in this list); 30 lbs. per cu. ft.;
+sp. gr. 0.4826; medium strong (43d in
+this list); brittle (61st in this list);
+medium hard (34th in this list); shrinkage,
+3 per cent.; warps little; very durable;
+easy to work; splits readily, takes
+nails well.</p>
+
+<p><b>Common Uses</b>: Pencils, chests, cigar
+boxes, pails, interior finish.</p>
+
+<p><b>Remarks</b>: Fragrant. Pencils are
+made almost exclusively of this wood,
+because it is light, strong, stiff, straight
+and fine-grained and easily whittled;
+supply being rapidly depleted.</p>
+
+<br clear="all" />
+
+<div class="figleft" style="width: 200px;"><a href="images/27-cross-section-600.png"><img src="images/27-cross-section-a-200.png" width="200" height="200" alt="cross-section" /></a>
+<p class="center">Cross-section, magnified 37&#189; diameters.</p></div>
+
+<div class="figleft" style="width: 150px;"><a href="images/27-radial-section-400.png"><img src="images/27-radial-section-a-150.png" width="150" height="300" alt="radial section" /></a>
+<p class="center">Radial Section, life size.</p></div>
+
+<div class="figright" style="width: 150px;"><a href="images/27-tangential-section-400.png"><img src="images/27-tangential-section-a-150.png" width="150" height="300" alt="tangential Section" /></a>
+<p class="center">Tangential Section, life size.</p></div>
+<br clear="all" />
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page112" id="page112"></a>112</span>
+
+<h3>28</h3>
+
+<h5><span class="sc">Black Willow.</span></h5>
+
+<h5><i>Salix nigra</i> Marshall.</h5>
+
+<p class="center">
+<i>Salix</i>, from two Celtic words meaning near-water; <i>nigra</i> refers to the
+dark bark.
+</p>
+
+<div class="figleft" style="width: 300px;"><a href="images/28-habitat-600.png"><img src="images/28-habitat-a-300.png" width="300" height="211" alt="habitat" /></a>
+<p class="center1">Habitat.</p></div>
+
+<p><b>Habitat</b>: (See map);
+grows largest in southern
+Illinois, Indiana and
+Texas, on moist banks.</p>
+
+<p><b>Characteristics of the
+Tree</b>: Height, 30'-40',
+sometimes 120'; diameter,
+1'-2', rarely 3'-4';
+stout, upright, spreading
+branches, from common
+base; bark, rough and
+dark brown or black, often
+tinged with yellow or
+brown; leaves, lanceolate,
+often scythe-shaped,
+serrate edges; fruit, a
+capsule containing small,
+hairy seeds.</p>
+
+<p><b>Appearance of Wood</b>:
+Color, light reddish
+brown, sap-wood, thin,
+whitish; diffuse-porous;
+rings, obscure; grain,
+close and weak; rays,
+obscure.</p>
+
+<br clear="all" />
+<div class="figleft" style="width: 150px;"><a href="images/28-leaf-500.png"><img src="images/28-leaf-a-150.png" width="150" height="214" alt="leaf" /></a>
+<p class="center">Leaf.</p></div>
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page113" id="page113"></a>113</span>
+
+<p><b>Physical Qualities</b>: Light in weight
+(51st in this list); 27.77 lbs. per cu. ft.;
+sp. gr. 0.4456; weak (65th in this list);
+very brittle (64th in this list); soft
+(46th in this list); shrinks considerably;
+warps and checks badly; soft, weak,
+indents without breaking; splits easily.</p>
+
+<p><b>Common Uses</b>: Lap-boards, baskets,
+water wheels, fuel and charcoal for gunpowder.</p>
+
+<p><b>Remarks</b>: Its characteristic of indenting
+without breaking has given it
+use as lining for carts and as cricket
+bats. Of the many willows, the most
+tree like in proportion in eastern North
+America. Bark contains salycylic acid.</p>
+
+<br clear="all" />
+
+<div class="figleft" style="width: 200px;"><a href="images/28-cross-section-600.png"><img src="images/28-cross-section-a-200.png" width="200" height="200" alt="cross-section" /></a>
+<p class="center">Cross-section, magnified 37&#189; diameters.</p></div>
+
+<div class="figleft" style="width: 150px;"><a href="images/28-radial-section-400.png"><img src="images/28-radial-section-a-150.png" width="150" height="300" alt="radial section" /></a>
+<p class="center">Radial Section, life size.</p></div>
+
+<div class="figright" style="width: 150px;"><a href="images/28-tangential-section-400.png"><img src="images/28-tangential-section-a-150.png" width="150" height="300" alt="tangential Section" /></a>
+<p class="center">Tangential Section, life size.</p></div>
+<br clear="all" />
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page114" id="page114"></a>114</span>
+
+<h3>29</h3>
+
+<h5><span class="sc">Butternut. White Walnut.</span></h5>
+
+<p class="center">
+Butternut, because the nuts are rich in oil.
+</p>
+
+<h5><i>Juglans cinerea</i> Linnaeus.</h5>
+
+<p class="center">
+<i>Juglans</i> means Jove's nut; <i>cinerea</i> refers to ash-colored bark.
+</p>
+
+<div class="figleft" style="width: 300px;"><a href="images/29-habitat-600.png"><img src="images/29-habitat-a-300.png" width="300" height="210" alt="habitat" /></a>
+<p class="center1">Habitat.</p></div>
+
+<p><b>Habitat:</b>: (See map);
+best in Ohio basin.</p>
+
+<p><b>Characteristics of the
+Tree</b>: Height, 75'-100';
+diameter, 2'-4'; branches
+low, broad spreading
+deep roots; bark, grayish
+brown, deep fissures
+broad ridges; leaves
+15"-30" long, compound
+11 to 17 leaflets, hairy
+and rough; fruit, oblong,
+pointed, edible, oily
+nut.</p>
+
+<p><b>Appearance of Wood</b>:
+Color, light brown, darkening
+with exposure, sap-wood
+whitish; diffuse,
+porous; rings, not prominent;
+grain, fairly
+straight, coarse, takes
+high polish; rays, distinct,
+thin, obscure.</p>
+
+<br clear="all" />
+<div class="figleft" style="width: 150px;"><a href="images/29-leaf-500.png"><img src="images/29-leaf-a-150.png" width="150" height="214" alt="leaf" /></a>
+<p class="center">Leaf.</p></div>
+
+<p><b>Physical Qualities</b>:
+Light in weight (56th in
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page115" id="page115"></a>115</span>
+this list); 25 lbs. per cu. ft.; sp. gr.
+0.4086; weak (57th in this list); elasticity,
+medium (52d in this list); soft
+(47th in this list); shrinkage .......
+per cent.; warps little; durable; easy
+to work; splits easily.</p>
+
+<p><b>Common Uses</b>: Cabinet work, inside
+trim.</p>
+
+<p><b>Remarks</b>: Green husks of fruit give
+yellow dye. Sugar made from sap.</p>
+
+<br clear="all" />
+
+<div class="figleft" style="width: 200px;"><a href="images/29-cross-section-600.png"><img src="images/29-cross-section-a-200.png" width="200" height="200" alt="cross-section" /></a>
+<p class="center">Cross-section, magnified 37&#189; diameters.</p></div>
+
+<div class="figleft" style="width: 150px;"><a href="images/29-radial-section-400.png"><img src="images/29-radial-section-a-150.png" width="150" height="300" alt="radial section" /></a>
+<p class="center">Radial Section, life size.</p></div>
+
+<div class="figright" style="width: 150px;"><a href="images/29-tangential-section-400.png"><img src="images/29-tangential-section-a-150.png" width="150" height="300" alt="tangential Section" /></a>
+<p class="center">Tangential Section, life size.</p></div>
+<br clear="all" />
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page116" id="page116"></a>116</span>
+
+<h3>30</h3>
+
+<h5><span class="sc">Black Walnut.</span></h5>
+
+<h5><i>Juglans nigra</i> Linnaeus.</h5>
+
+<p class="center">
+<i>Juglans</i> means Jove's nut; <i>nigra</i> refers to the dark wood.
+</p>
+
+<div class="figleft" style="width: 300px;"><a href="images/30-habitat-600.png"><img src="images/30-habitat-a-300.png" width="300" height="213" alt="habitat" /></a>
+<p class="center1">Habitat.</p></div>
+
+<p><b>Habitat</b>: (See map);
+best in western North
+Carolina and Tennessee.</p>
+
+<p><b>Characteristics of the
+Tree</b>: Height, 90'-120',
+even 150'; diameter, 3'
+to even 8'; clean of
+branches for 50' to 60';
+bark, brownish, almost
+black, deep fissures, and
+broad, rounded ridges;
+leaves, 1'-2' long, compound
+pinnate, 15 to 23
+leaflets, fall early; fruit,
+nut, with adherent husk,
+and edible kernel.</p>
+
+<p><b>Appearance of Wood</b>:
+Color, chocolate brown,
+sap-wood much lighter;
+diffuse-porous; rings,
+marked by slightly larger
+pores; grain, straight;
+rays, numerous, thin, not
+conspicuous.</p>
+
+<br clear="all" />
+<div class="figleft" style="width: 150px;"><a href="images/30-leaf-500.png"><img src="images/30-leaf-a-150.png" width="150" height="213" alt="leaf" /></a>
+<p class="center">Leaf.</p></div>
+
+<p><b>Physical Qualities</b>:
+Weight, medium (31st
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page117" id="page117"></a>117</span>
+in this list); 38 lbs. per cu. ft.; sp. gr.
+0.6115; strong (32d in this list); elastic
+(23d in this list); hard (21st in
+this list); shrinkage, 5 per cent.; warps
+little; very durable; easy to work; splits
+with some difficulty, takes and holds nails
+well.</p>
+
+<p><b>Common Uses</b>: Gun stocks (since
+17th century), veneers, cabinet making.</p>
+
+<p><b>Remarks</b>: Formerly much used for
+furniture, now scarce. Plentiful in California.
+Most valuable wood of North
+American forests. Wood superior to
+European variety.</p>
+
+<br clear="all" />
+
+<div class="figleft" style="width: 200px;"><a href="images/30-cross-section-600.png"><img src="images/30-cross-section-a-200.png" width="200" height="200" alt="cross-section" /></a>
+<p class="center">Cross-section, magnified 37&#189; diameters.</p></div>
+
+<div class="figleft" style="width: 150px;"><a href="images/30-radial-section-400.png"><img src="images/30-radial-section-a-150.png" width="150" height="300" alt="radial section" /></a>
+<p class="center">Radial Section, life size.</p></div>
+
+<div class="figright" style="width: 150px;"><a href="images/30-tangential-section-400.png"><img src="images/30-tangential-section-a-150.png" width="150" height="300" alt="tangential Section" /></a>
+<p class="center">Tangential Section, life size.</p></div>
+<br clear="all" />
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page118" id="page118"></a>118</span>
+
+<h3>31</h3>
+
+<h5><span class="sc">Mockernut. Black Hickory. Bull-nut. Big-bud Hickory.
+White-heart Hickory. King Nut.</span></h5>
+
+<p class="center">
+Mockernut refers to disappointing character of nuts.
+</p>
+
+<h5><i>Hicoria alba</i> (Linnaeus) Britton. <i>Carya tomentosa</i> Nuttall.</h5>
+
+<p class="center">
+<i>Hicoria</i>, shortened and latinized from <i>Pawcohicora</i>, the Indian name
+for the liquor obtained from the kernels; <i>alba</i> refers to the white wood,
+<i>carya</i>, the Greek name for walnut; <i>tomentosa</i> refers to hairy under surface
+of leaf.
+</p>
+
+<div class="figleft" style="width: 300px;"><a href="images/31-habitat-600.png"><img src="images/31-habitat-a-300.png" width="300" height="214" alt="habitat" /></a>
+<p class="center1">Habitat.</p></div>
+
+<p><b>Habitat</b>: (See map);
+best in lower Ohio valley,
+Missouri and Arkansas.</p>
+
+<p><b>Characteristics of the
+Tree</b>: Height, 75',
+rarely 100'; diameter,
+2'-3'; rises high in forest;
+bark, dark gray,
+shallow, irregular interrupted
+fissures, rough
+but not shaggy in old
+trees; leaves, 8"-12" long,
+compound, 7-9 leaflets,
+fragrant when crushed;
+fruit, spherical nut, thick
+shell, edible kernel.</p>
+
+<p><b>Appearance of Wood</b>:
+Color, dark brown, sap-wood
+nearly white; ring-porous;
+rings, marked by
+few large regularly distributed
+open ducts;
+grain, usually straight,
+close; rays, numerous,
+thin, obscure.</p>
+
+<br clear="all" />
+<div class="figleft" style="width: 150px;"><a href="images/31-leaf-500.png"><img src="images/31-leaf-a-150.png" width="150" height="216" alt="leaf" /></a>
+<p class="center">Leaf.</p></div>
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page119" id="page119"></a>119</span>
+
+<p><b>Physical Qualities</b>: Very heavy (3d
+in this list); 53 lbs. per cu. ft.; sp. gr.,
+0.8218; very strong (11th in this list);
+very elastic (14th in this list); very
+hard (3d in this list); shrinkage, 10
+per cent.; warps ..........; not durable;
+very hard to work; splits with
+great difficulty, almost impossible to
+nail.</p>
+
+<p><b>Common Uses</b>: Wheels, runners, tool
+and axe handles, agricultural implements.</p>
+
+<p><b>Remarks</b>: Confounded commercially
+with shellbark hickory.</p>
+<br clear="all" />
+
+<div class="figleft" style="width: 200px;"><a href="images/31-cross-section-600.png"><img src="images/31-cross-section-a-200.png" width="200" height="200" alt="cross-section" /></a>
+<p class="center">Cross-section, magnified 37&#189; diameters.</p></div>
+
+<div class="figleft" style="width: 150px;"><a href="images/31-radial-section-400.png"><img src="images/31-radial-section-a-150.png" width="150" height="300" alt="radial section" /></a>
+<p class="center">Radial Section, life size.</p></div>
+
+<div class="figright" style="width: 150px;"><a href="images/31-tangential-section-400.png"><img src="images/31-tangential-section-a-150.png" width="150" height="300" alt="tangential Section" /></a>
+<p class="center">Tangential Section, life size.</p></div>
+<br clear="all" />
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page120" id="page120"></a>120</span>
+
+<h3>32</h3>
+
+<h5><span class="sc">Shellbark Hickory. Shagbark Hickory.</span></h5>
+
+<h5><i>Hicoria ovata</i> (Millar) Britton. <i>Carya alba</i> Nuttall.</h5>
+
+<p class="center">
+<i>Hickory</i> is shortened and latinized from <i>Pawcohicora</i>, the Indian name
+for the liquor obtained from the kernels; <i>ovata</i> refers to oval nut; <i>carya</i>,
+the Greek name for walnut.
+</p>
+
+<div class="figleft" style="width: 300px;"><a href="images/32-habitat-600.png"><img src="images/32-habitat-a-300.png" width="300" height="209" alt="habitat" /></a>
+<p class="center1">Habitat.</p></div>
+
+<p><b>Habitat</b>: (See map);
+best in lower Ohio valley.</p>
+
+<p><b>Characteristics of the
+Tree</b>: Height, 70'-90'
+and even 120'; diameter,
+2'-3', even 4'; straight,
+columnar trunk; bark,
+dark gray, separates into
+long, hard, plate-like
+strips, which cling to
+tree by middle, on young
+trees very smooth and
+close; leaves, 8"-20"
+long, compound 5 or
+(7) leaflets; nuts, globular,
+husk, four-valved,
+split easily, thin-shelled,
+edible.</p>
+
+<p><b>Appearance of Wood</b>:
+Color, reddish brown,
+sap-wood whitish; ring-porous;
+rings, clearly
+marked; grain, straight;
+rays, numerous, thin.</p>
+
+<br clear="all" />
+<div class="figleft" style="width: 150px;"><a href="images/32-leaf-500.png"><img src="images/32-leaf-a-150.png" width="150" height="213" alt="leaf" /></a>
+<p class="center">Leaf.</p></div>
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page121" id="page121"></a>121</span>
+
+<p><b>Physical Qualities</b>: Very heavy (1st
+in this list); 51 lbs. per cu. ft.; sp. gr.,
+0.8372; very strong (5th in this list);
+very elastic (7th in this list); very hard
+(5th in this list); shrinkage, 10 per
+cent.; warps badly; not very durable
+under exposure; hard to work, very
+tough; hard to split, very difficult to
+nail.</p>
+
+<p><b>Common Uses</b>: Agricultural implements,
+handles, wheel spokes.</p>
+
+<p><b>Remarks</b>: American hickory is famous
+both for buggies and ax handles,
+because it is flexible and very tough in
+resistance to blows.</p>
+
+<br clear="all" />
+
+<div class="figleft" style="width: 200px;"><a href="images/32-cross-section-600.png"><img src="images/32-cross-section-a-200.png" width="200" height="200" alt="cross-section" /></a>
+<p class="center">Cross-section, magnified 37&#189; diameters.</p></div>
+
+<div class="figleft" style="width: 150px;"><a href="images/32-radial-section-400.png"><img src="images/32-radial-section-a-150.png" width="150" height="300" alt="radial section" /></a>
+<p class="center">Radial Section, life size.</p></div>
+
+<div class="figright" style="width: 150px;"><a href="images/32-tangential-section-400.png"><img src="images/32-tangential-section-a-150.png" width="150" height="300" alt="tangential Section" /></a>
+<p class="center">Tangential Section, life size.</p></div>
+<br clear="all" />
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page122" id="page122"></a>122</span>
+
+<h3>33</h3>
+
+<h5><span class="sc">Pignut.</span></h5>
+
+<p class="center">Nuts eaten by swine.</p>
+
+<h5><i>Hicoria glabra</i> (Miller) Britton. <i>Carya porcina</i>.</h5>
+
+<p class="center">
+<i>Hicoria</i> is shortened and latinized from <i>Pawcohicora</i>, the Indian name
+for the liquor obtained from the kernel; <i>glabra</i> refers to smooth bark;
+<i>Carya</i> the Greek name for walnut; <i>porcina</i> means pertaining to hogs.
+</p>
+
+<div class="figleft" style="width: 300px;"><a href="images/33-habitat-600.png"><img src="images/33-habitat-a-300.png" width="300" height="211" alt="habitat" /></a>
+<p class="center1">Habitat.</p></div>
+
+<p><b>Habitat</b>: (See map);
+best in lower Ohio valley.</p>
+
+<p><b>Characteristics of the
+Tree</b>: Height, 80'-100';
+diameter 2'-4'; trunk often
+forked; bark, light
+gray, shallow fissures,
+rather smooth, rarely exfoliates;
+leaves, 8"-12"
+long, compound 7 leaflets,
+sharply serrate; fruit, a
+thick-shelled nut, bitter
+kernel.</p>
+
+<p><b>Appearance of Wood</b>:
+Color, light or dark brown,
+the thick sap-wood
+lighter, often nearly
+white; ring-porous; rings
+marked by many large
+open ducts; grain,
+straight; rays, small and
+insignificant.</p>
+
+<br clear="all" />
+<div class="figleft" style="width: 150px;"><a href="images/33-leaf-500.png"><img src="images/33-leaf-a-150.png" width="150" height="216" alt="leaf" /></a>
+<p class="center">Leaf.</p></div>
+
+<p><b>Physical Qualities</b>:
+Very heavy (4th in this
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page123" id="page123"></a>123</span>
+list); 56 lbs. per cu. ft.; sp. gr., 0.8217;
+very strong (15th in this list); elastic
+(27th in this list); very hard (2d in
+this list); shrinkage, 10 per cent.;
+warps ..........; hard to work; splits
+with difficulty, hard to drive nails into.</p>
+
+<p><b>Common Uses</b>: Agricultural implements,
+wheels, runners, tool handles.</p>
+
+<p><b>Remarks</b>: Wood not distinguished
+from shellbark hickory in commerce.</p>
+
+<br clear="all" />
+
+<div class="figleft" style="width: 200px;"><a href="images/33-cross-section-600.png"><img src="images/33-cross-section-a-200.png" width="200" height="200" alt="cross-section" /></a>
+<p class="center">Cross-section, magnified 37&#189; diameters.</p></div>
+
+<div class="figleft" style="width: 150px;"><a href="images/33-radial-section-400.png"><img src="images/33-radial-section-a-150.png" width="150" height="300" alt="radial section" /></a>
+<p class="center">Radial Section, life size.</p></div>
+
+<div class="figright" style="width: 150px;"><a href="images/33-tangential-section-400.png"><img src="images/33-tangential-section-a-150.png" width="150" height="300" alt="tangential Section" /></a>
+<p class="center">Tangential Section, life size.</p></div>
+<br clear="all" />
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page124" id="page124"></a>124</span>
+
+<h3>34</h3>
+
+<h5><span class="sc">Blue Beech. Hornbeam. Water Beech. Iron-wood.</span></h5>
+
+<p>Blue refers to color of bark; the trunk resembles beech; horn refers to
+horny texture of wood.</p>
+
+<h5><i>Carpinus caroliniana</i> Walter.</h5>
+
+<p class="center">
+<i>Carpinus</i>, classical Latin name; <i>caroliniana</i>, named from the state.
+</p>
+
+<div class="figleft" style="width: 300px;"><a href="images/34-habitat-600.png"><img src="images/34-habitat-a-300.png" width="300" height="212" alt="habitat" /></a>
+<p class="center1">Habitat.</p></div>
+
+<p><b>Habitat</b>: (See map);
+best on western slopes
+of Southern Allegheny
+Mountains and in southern
+Arkansas and Texas.</p>
+
+<p><b>Characteristics of the
+Tree</b>: Height, a small
+tree, 30'-50' high; diameter,
+6"-2'; short, fluted,
+sinewy trunk; bark,
+smooth, bluish gray;
+leaves, falcate, doubly
+serrate; fruit, small oval
+nut, enclosed in leaf-like
+bract.</p>
+
+<p><b>Appearance of Wood</b>:
+Color, light brown, sap-wood
+thick, whitish; diffuse-porous;
+rings, obscure;
+grain, close; rays,
+numerous, broad.</p>
+
+<br clear="all" />
+<div class="figleft" style="width: 150px;"><a href="images/34-leaf-500.png"><img src="images/34-leaf-a-150.png" width="150" height="214" alt="leaf" /></a>
+<p class="center">Leaf.</p></div>
+
+<p><b>Physical Qualities</b>:
+Heavy (13th in this
+list); 45 lbs. per cu. ft.;
+sp. gr. 0.7286; very
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page125" id="page125"></a>125</span>
+strong (9th in this list); very stiff (15th
+in this list); hard (14th in this list);
+shrinkage, 6 per cent.; warps and checks
+badly; not durable; hard to work; splits
+with great difficulty.</p>
+
+<p><b>Common Uses</b>: Levers, tool handles.</p>
+
+<p><b>Remarks</b>: No other wood so good
+for levers, because of stiffness.</p>
+<br clear="all" />
+
+<div class="figleft" style="width: 200px;"><a href="images/34-cross-section-600.png"><img src="images/34-cross-section-a-200.png" width="200" height="200" alt="cross-section" /></a>
+<p class="center">Cross-section, magnified 37&#189; diameters.</p></div>
+
+<div class="figleft" style="width: 150px;"><a href="images/34-radial-section-400.png"><img src="images/34-radial-section-a-150.png" width="150" height="300" alt="radial section" /></a>
+<p class="center">Radial Section, life size.</p></div>
+
+<div class="figright" style="width: 150px;"><a href="images/34-tangential-section-400.png"><img src="images/34-tangential-section-a-150.png" width="150" height="300" alt="tangential Section" /></a>
+<p class="center">Tangential Section, life size.</p></div>
+<br clear="all" />
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page126" id="page126"></a>126</span>
+
+<h3>35</h3>
+
+<h5><span class="sc">Canoe Birch. White Birch. Paper Birch.</span></h5>
+
+<p class="center">
+All names refer to bark.
+</p>
+
+<h5><i>Betula papyrifera</i> Marshall.</h5>
+
+<p class="center">
+<i>Betula</i>, the classical Latin name; <i>papyrifera</i> refers to paper bearing bark.
+</p>
+
+<div class="figleft" style="width: 300px;"><a href="images/35-habitat-600.png"><img src="images/35-habitat-a-300.png" width="300" height="204" alt="habitat" /></a>
+<p class="center1">Habitat.</p></div>
+
+<p><b>Habitat</b>: (See map);
+best west of Rocky Mountains.</p>
+
+<p><b>Characteristics of the
+Tree</b>: Height, 60'-80';
+diameter, 2'-3'; stem
+rarely quite straight;
+bark, smooth, white, exterior
+marked with lenticels,
+peeling freely
+horizontally into thin
+papery layers, showing
+brown or orange beneath,
+contains oil which
+burns hotly, formerly
+used by Indians for canoes,
+very remarkable
+(see Keeler, page 304);
+leaves, heart-shaped, irregularly
+serrate; fruit,
+pendulous strobiles.</p>
+
+<p><b>Appearance of Wood</b>:
+Color, brown or reddish,
+sap-wood white; diffuse-porous;
+rings, obscure;
+grain, fairly straight;
+rays, numerous, obscure.</p>
+
+<br clear="all" />
+<div class="figleft" style="width: 150px;"><a href="images/35-leaf-500.png"><img src="images/35-leaf-a-150.png" width="150" height="215" alt="leaf" /></a>
+<p class="center">Leaf.</p></div>
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page127" id="page127"></a>127</span>
+
+<p><b>Physical Qualities</b>: Weight, medium
+(33d in this list); 37 lbs. per cu. ft.;
+sp. gr. 0.5955; very strong (14th in this
+list); very elastic (2d in this list); medium
+hard (39th in this list); shrinkage,
+6 per cent.; warps, .........; not
+durable, except bark; easy to work; splits
+with difficulty, nails well, tough.</p>
+
+<p><b>Common Uses</b>: Spools, shoe lasts and
+pegs, turnery, bark for canoes.</p>
+
+<p><b>Remarks</b>: Forms forests. Sap yields
+syrup. Bark yields starch. Valuable to
+woodsmen in many ways.</p>
+
+<br clear="all" />
+
+<div class="figleft" style="width: 200px;"><a href="images/35-cross-section-600.png"><img src="images/35-cross-section-a-200.png" width="200" height="200" alt="cross-section" /></a>
+<p class="center">Cross-section, magnified 37&#189; diameters.</p></div>
+
+<div class="figleft" style="width: 150px;"><a href="images/35-radial-section-400.png"><img src="images/35-radial-section-a-150.png" width="150" height="300" alt="radial section" /></a>
+<p class="center">Radial Section, life size.</p></div>
+
+<div class="figright" style="width: 150px;"><a href="images/35-tangential-section-400.png"><img src="images/35-tangential-section-a-150.png" width="150" height="300" alt="tangential Section" /></a>
+<p class="center">Tangential Section, life size.</p></div>
+<br clear="all" />
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page128" id="page128"></a>128</span>
+
+<h3>36</h3>
+
+<h5><span class="sc">Red Birch. River Birch.</span></h5>
+
+<p class="center">
+Red refers to color of bark; river, prefers river bottoms.
+</p>
+
+<h5><i>Betula nigra</i> Linnaeus.</h5>
+
+<p class="center">
+<i>Betula</i>, the classical Latin name.
+</p>
+
+<div class="figleft" style="width: 300px;"><a href="images/36-habitat-600.png"><img src="images/36-habitat-a-300.png" width="300" height="208" alt="habitat" /></a>
+<p class="center1">Habitat.</p></div>
+
+<p><b>Habitat</b>: (See map);
+best in Florida, Louisiana
+and Texas.</p>
+
+<p><b>Characteristics of the
+Tree</b>: Height, 30'-80',
+and even higher; diameter,
+1', even 5'; trunk,
+often divided low; bark,
+dark brown, marked by
+horizontal lenticels, peels
+into paper plates, curling
+back; leaves, doubly
+serrate, often almost
+lobed; fruit, pubescent,
+erect, strobiles.</p>
+
+<p><b>Appearance of Wood</b>:
+Color, light brown, thick
+sap-wood, whitish; diffuse-porous;
+rings, not
+plain; grain, close, rather
+crooked; rays, numerous,
+obscure.</p>
+
+<br clear="all" />
+<div class="figleft" style="width: 150px;"><a href="images/36-leaf-500.png"><img src="images/36-leaf-a-150.png" width="150" height="214" alt="leaf" /></a>
+<p class="center">Leaf.</p></div>
+
+<p><b>Physical Qualities</b>:
+Weight, medium (36th
+in this list); 35 lbs. per
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page129" id="page129"></a>129</span>
+cu. ft.; sp. gr. 0.5762; strong (22d in
+this list); very elastic (19th in this
+list); medium hard (37th in this list);
+shrinkage, 6 per cent.; warps, .......;
+not durable when exposed; hard to
+work, tough; splits with difficulty, nails
+well.</p>
+
+<p><b>Common Uses</b>: Shoe lasts, yokes,
+furniture.</p>
+
+<p><b>Remarks</b>: Prefers moist land.</p>
+
+<br clear="all" />
+
+<div class="figleft" style="width: 200px;"><a href="images/36-cross-section-600.png"><img src="images/36-cross-section-a-200.png" width="200" height="200" alt="cross-section" /></a>
+<p class="center">Cross-section, magnified 37&#189; diameters.</p></div>
+
+<div class="figleft" style="width: 150px;"><a href="images/36-radial-section-400.png"><img src="images/36-radial-section-a-150.png" width="150" height="300" alt="radial section" /></a>
+<p class="center">Radial Section, life size.</p></div>
+
+<div class="figright" style="width: 150px;"><a href="images/36-tangential-section-400.png"><img src="images/36-tangential-section-a-150.png" width="150" height="300" alt="tangential Section" /></a>
+<p class="center">Tangential Section, life size.</p></div>
+<br clear="all" />
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page130" id="page130"></a>130</span>
+
+<h3>37</h3>
+
+<h5><span class="sc">Cherry Birch. Sweet Birch. Black Birch. Mahogany
+Birch.</span></h5>
+
+<p class="center">
+Cherry, because bark resembles that of cherry tree; sweet, refers to the
+taste of the spicy bark.
+</p>
+
+<h5><i>Betula lenta</i> Linnaeus.</h5>
+
+<p class="center">
+<i>Betula</i>, the classical Latin name; <i>lenta</i>, meaning tenacious, sticky, may
+refer to the gum which exudes from the trunk.
+</p>
+
+<div class="figleft" style="width: 300px;"><a href="images/37-habitat-600.png"><img src="images/37-habitat-a-300.png" width="300" height="207" alt="habitat" /></a>
+<p class="center1">Habitat.</p></div>
+
+<p><b>Habitat</b>: (See map);
+best in Tennessee Mountains.</p>
+
+<p><b>Characteristics of the
+Tree</b>: Height, 50'-80';
+diameter, 2'-5'; trunk,
+rarely straight; bark,
+dark reddish brown, on
+old trunks deeply furrowed
+and broken into
+thick, irregular plates,
+marked with horizontal
+lenticels; resembles
+cherry; spicy, aromatic;
+leaves, ovate, oblong, 2"-6"
+long, irregularly serrate;
+fruit, erect strobiles.</p>
+
+<p><b>Appearance of Wood</b>:
+Color, dark, reddish
+brown; diffuse-porous;
+rings, obscure; grain,
+close, satiny, polishes
+well, often stained to
+imitate mahogany; rays,
+numerous, obscure.</p>
+
+<br clear="all" />
+<div class="figleft" style="width: 150px;"><a href="images/37-leaf-500.png"><img src="images/37-leaf-a-150.png" width="150" height="214" alt="leaf" /></a>
+<p class="center">Leaf.</p></div>
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page131" id="page131"></a>131</span>
+
+<p><b>Physical Qualities</b>: Heavy (6th in
+this list); 47 lbs. per cu. ft.; sp. gr.,
+0.7617; very strong (4th in this list);
+very elastic (6th in this list); hard
+(11th in this list); shrinkage, 6 per cent.;
+warps, little; not durable if exposed;
+rather hard to work; splits hard, tough.</p>
+
+<p><b>Common Uses</b>: Dowel pins, wooden
+ware, boats and ships.</p>
+
+<p><b>Remarks</b>: The birches are not usually
+distinguished from one another in
+the market.</p>
+
+<br clear="all" />
+
+<div class="figleft" style="width: 200px;"><a href="images/37-cross-section-600.png"><img src="images/37-cross-section-a-200.png" width="200" height="200" alt="cross-section" /></a>
+<p class="center">Cross-section, magnified 37&#189; diameters.</p></div>
+
+<div class="figleft" style="width: 150px;"><a href="images/37-radial-section-400.png"><img src="images/37-radial-section-a-150.png" width="150" height="300" alt="radial section" /></a>
+<p class="center">Radial Section, life size.</p></div>
+
+<div class="figright" style="width: 150px;"><a href="images/37-tangential-section-400.png"><img src="images/37-tangential-section-a-150.png" width="150" height="300" alt="tangential Section" /></a>
+<p class="center">Tangential Section, life size.</p></div>
+<br clear="all" />
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page132" id="page132"></a>132</span>
+
+<h3>38</h3>
+
+<h5><span class="sc">Yellow Birch. Gray Birch.</span></h5>
+
+<p class="center">Yellow and gray, both refer to the color of the bark.</p>
+
+<h5><i>Betula lutea</i> F. A. Michaux.</h5>
+
+<p class="center">
+<i>Betula</i>, the classical Latin name; <i>lutea</i> refers to the yellow color of the
+bark.
+</p>
+
+<div class="figleft" style="width: 300px;"><a href="images/38-habitat-600.png"><img src="images/38-habitat-a-300.png" width="300" height="212" alt="habitat" /></a>
+<p class="center1">Habitat.</p></div>
+
+<p><b>Habitat</b>: (See map);
+best in northern New
+York and New England.</p>
+
+<p><b>Characteristics of the
+Tree</b>: Height, 60'-100'; diameter,
+3'-4'; branches,
+low; bark, silvery, yellow,
+gray, peeling horizontally
+into thin, papery, persistent
+layers, but on very old
+trunks, there are rough,
+irregular, plate-like scales;
+leaves, ovate, sharply,
+doubly serrate; fruit,
+erect, 1" strobiles.</p>
+
+<p><b>Appearance of Wood</b>:
+Color, light reddish brown,
+sap-wood white; diffuse-porous;
+rings, obscure;
+grain, close, fairly
+straight; rays, numerous,
+obscure.</p>
+
+<br clear="all" />
+<div class="figleft" style="width: 150px;"><a href="images/38-leaf-500.png"><img src="images/38-leaf-a-150.png" width="150" height="214" alt="leaf" /></a>
+<p class="center">Leaf.</p></div>
+
+<p><b>Physical Qualities</b>:
+Heavy (21st in this list);
+40 lbs. per cu. ft.; sp. gr.,
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page133" id="page133"></a>133</span>
+0.6553; very strong (2nd in this list);
+very elastic (2d in this list); medium
+hard (22d in this list); shrinkage, 6
+per cent.; warps .........; not durable;
+rather hard to work, polishes well; splits
+with difficulty, holds nails well.</p>
+
+<p><b>Common Uses</b>: Furniture, spools,
+button molds, shoe lasts, shoe pegs, pill
+boxes, yokes.</p>
+
+<p><b>Remarks</b>: The birches are not usually
+distinguished from one another in
+the market.</p>
+
+<br clear="all" />
+
+<div class="figleft" style="width: 200px;"><a href="images/38-cross-section-600.png"><img src="images/38-cross-section-a-200.png" width="200" height="200" alt="cross-section" /></a>
+<p class="center">Cross-section, magnified 37&#189; diameters.</p></div>
+
+<div class="figleft" style="width: 150px;"><a href="images/38-radial-section-400.png"><img src="images/38-radial-section-a-150.png" width="150" height="300" alt="radial section" /></a>
+<p class="center">Radial Section, life size.</p></div>
+
+<div class="figright" style="width: 150px;"><a href="images/38-tangential-section-400.png"><img src="images/38-tangential-section-a-150.png" width="150" height="300" alt="tangential Section" /></a>
+<p class="center">Tangential Section, life size.</p></div>
+<br clear="all" />
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page134" id="page134"></a>134</span>
+
+<h3>39</h3>
+
+<h5><span class="sc">Beech.</span></h5>
+
+<h5><i>Fagus grandifolia</i> Ehrhart. <i>Fagus americana</i> Sweet. <i>Fagus
+ferruginea</i>
+Aiton. <i>Fagus atropunicea</i> (Marshall) Sudworth.</h5>
+
+<p class="center">
+<i>Fagus</i> (Greek <i>phago</i> means to eat), refers to edible nut; <i>ferruginea</i>,
+refers to the iron rust color of the leaves in the fall; <i>atropunicea</i>, meaning
+dark red or purple, may refer to the color of the leaves of the copper
+beech.
+</p>
+
+<div class="figleft" style="width: 300px;"><a href="images/39-habitat-600.png"><img src="images/39-habitat-a-300.png" width="300" height="210" alt="habitat" /></a>
+<p class="center1">Habitat.</p></div>
+
+<p><b>Habitat</b>: (See map);
+best in southern Alleghany
+Mountains and lower Ohio
+valley.</p>
+
+<p><b>Characteristics of the
+Tree</b>: Height, 70'-80' and
+even 120'; diameter, 3'-4';
+in forest, trunk tall, slender,
+sinewy; bark, smooth,
+ashy gray; leaves, feather-veined,
+wedge-shaped, serrate;
+leaf buds, long,
+pointed; fruit, 2 small
+triangular nuts, enclosed
+in burr, seeds about once
+in 3 years.</p>
+
+<p><b>Appearance of Wood</b>:
+Color, reddish, variable,
+sap-wood white; diffuse-porous;
+rings, obscure;
+grain, straight; rays,
+broad, very conspicuous.</p>
+
+<br clear="all" />
+<div class="figleft" style="width: 150px;"><a href="images/39-leaf-500.png"><img src="images/39-leaf-a-150.png" width="150" height="213" alt="leaf" /></a>
+<p class="center">Leaf.</p></div>
+
+<p><b>Physical Qualities</b>:
+Heavy (20th in this list);
+42 lbs. per cu. ft.; sp. gr.,
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page135" id="page135"></a>135</span>
+0.6883; very strong (10th in this list);
+elastic (13th in this list); hard (22d in
+this list); shrinkage, 5 per cent.; warps
+and checks during seasoning; not durable;
+hard to work, takes fine polish;
+splits with difficulty, hard to nail.</p>
+
+<p><b>Common Uses</b>: Plane stocks, shoe
+lasts, tool handles, chairs.</p>
+
+<p><b>Remarks</b>: Often forms pure forests.
+Uses due to its hardness.</p>
+
+<br clear="all" />
+
+<div class="figleft" style="width: 200px;"><a href="images/39-cross-section-600.png"><img src="images/39-cross-section-a-200.png" width="200" height="200" alt="cross-section" /></a>
+<p class="center">Cross-section, magnified 37&#189; diameters.</p></div>
+
+<div class="figleft" style="width: 150px;"><a href="images/39-radial-section-400.png"><img src="images/39-radial-section-a-150.png" width="150" height="300" alt="radial section" /></a>
+<p class="center">Radial Section, life size.</p></div>
+
+<div class="figright" style="width: 150px;"><a href="images/39-tangential-section-400.png"><img src="images/39-tangential-section-a-150.png" width="150" height="300" alt="tangential Section" /></a>
+<p class="center">Tangential Section, life size.</p></div>
+<br clear="all" />
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page136" id="page136"></a>136</span>
+
+<h3>40</h3>
+
+<h5><span class="sc">Chestnut.</span></h5>
+
+<h5><i>Castanea dentata</i> (Marshall) Borkhausen.</h5>
+
+<p class="center">
+<i>Castanea</i>, the classical Greek and Latin name; <i>dentata</i>, refers to toothed leaf.
+</p>
+
+<div class="figleft" style="width: 300px;"><a href="images/40-habitat-600.png"><img src="images/40-habitat-a-300.png" width="300" height="215" alt="habitat" /></a>
+<p class="center1">Habitat.</p></div>
+
+<p><b>Habitat</b>: (See map);
+best in western North Carolina,
+and eastern Tennessee.</p>
+
+<p><b>Characteristics of the
+Tree</b>: Height, 75'-100';
+diameter, 3'-4', and even
+12'; branches, low; bark,
+thick, shallow, irregular,
+fissures, broad, grayish
+brown ridges; leaves,
+lanceolate, coarsely serrate,
+midribs and veins
+prominent; fruit, nuts,
+thin-shelled, sweet, enclosed
+in prickly burrs.</p>
+
+<p><b>Appearance of Wood</b>:
+Color, reddish brown, sap-wood
+lighter; ring-porous;
+rings, plain, pores large;
+grain, straight; rays, numerous,
+obscure.</p>
+
+<br clear="all" />
+<div class="figleft" style="width: 150px;"><a href="images/40-leaf-500.png"><img src="images/40-leaf-a-150.png" width="150" height="215" alt="leaf" /></a>
+<p class="center">Leaf.</p></div>
+
+<p><b>Physical Qualities</b>:
+Weight, light (50th in
+this list); 28 lbs. per cu.
+ft.; sp. gr., 0.4504; medium
+strong (46th in this
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page137" id="page137"></a>137</span>
+list); elasticity, medium (46th in this
+list); medium hard (44th in this list);
+shrinkage, 6 per cent.; warps badly;
+very durable, especially in contact with
+soil, fairly easy to plane, chisel and
+saw; splits easily.</p>
+
+<p><b>Common Uses</b>: Railway ties, fence
+posts, interior finish.</p>
+
+<p><b>Remarks</b>: Grows rapidly, and lives
+to great age. Wood contains much tannic
+acid. Uses depend largely upon its
+durability. Lately whole regions depleted
+by fungous pest.</p>
+<br clear="all" />
+
+<div class="figleft" style="width: 200px;"><a href="images/40-cross-section-600.png"><img src="images/40-cross-section-a-200.png" width="200" height="200" alt="cross-section" /></a>
+<p class="center">Cross-section, magnified 37&#189; diameters.</p></div>
+
+<div class="figleft" style="width: 150px;"><a href="images/40-radial-section-400.png"><img src="images/40-radial-section-a-150.png" width="150" height="300" alt="radial section" /></a>
+<p class="center">Radial Section, life size.</p></div>
+
+<div class="figright" style="width: 150px;"><a href="images/40-tangential-section-400.png"><img src="images/40-tangential-section-a-150.png" width="150" height="300" alt="tangential Section" /></a>
+<p class="center">Tangential Section, life size.</p></div>
+<br clear="all" />
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page138" id="page138"></a>138</span>
+
+<h3>41</h3>
+
+<h5><span class="sc">Red Oak.</span></h5>
+
+<h5><i>Quercus rubra</i> Linnaeus.</h5>
+
+<p class="center">
+<i>Quercus</i>, the classical Latin name; <i>rubra</i>, refers to red color of wood.
+</p>
+
+<div class="figleft" style="width: 300px;"><a href="images/41-habitat-600.png"><img src="images/41-habitat-a-300.png" width="300" height="214" alt="habitat" /></a>
+<p class="center1">Habitat.</p></div>
+
+<p><b>Habitat</b>: (See map);
+best in Massachusetts and
+north of the Ohio river.</p>
+
+<p><b>Characteristics of the
+Tree</b>: Height, 70'-100',
+even 150'; diameter, 3'-6';
+a tall, handsome tree,
+branches rather low; bark,
+brownish gray, broad, thin,
+rounded ridges, rather
+smooth; leaves, 7 to 9 triangular
+pointed lobes,
+with rounded sinuses;
+acorns, characteristically
+large, in flat shallow cups.</p>
+
+<p><b>Appearance of Wood</b>:
+Color, reddish brown, sap-wood
+darker; ring-porous;
+rings, marked by several
+rows of very large
+open ducts; grain, crooked,
+coarse; rays, few, but
+broad, conspicuous.</p>
+
+<br clear="all" />
+<div class="figleft" style="width: 150px;"><a href="images/41-leaf-500.png"><img src="images/41-leaf-a-150.png" width="150" height="215" alt="leaf" /></a>
+<p class="center">Leaf.</p></div>
+
+<p><b>Physical Qualities</b>:
+Heavy (23d in this list);
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page139" id="page139"></a>139</span>
+45 lbs. per cu. ft.; sp. gr., 0.6540; strong
+(21st in this list); elastic (18th in this
+list); hard (26th in this list); shrinkage
+6 to 10 per cent.; warps and checks
+badly; moderately durable; easier to
+work than white oak; splits readily,
+nails badly.</p>
+
+<p><b>Common Uses</b>: Cooperage, interior
+finish, furniture.</p>
+
+<p><b>Remarks</b>: Grows rapidly. An inferior
+substitute for white oak. Bark used
+in tanning.</p>
+
+<br clear="all" />
+
+<div class="figleft" style="width: 200px;"><a href="images/41-cross-section-600.png"><img src="images/41-cross-section-a-200.png" width="200" height="200" alt="cross-section" /></a>
+<p class="center">Cross-section, magnified 37&#189; diameters.</p></div>
+
+<div class="figleft" style="width: 150px;"><a href="images/41-radial-section-400.png"><img src="images/41-radial-section-a-150.png" width="150" height="300" alt="radial section" /></a>
+<p class="center">Radial Section, life size.</p></div>
+
+<div class="figright" style="width: 150px;"><a href="images/41-tangential-section-400.png"><img src="images/41-tangential-section-a-150.png" width="150" height="300" alt="tangential Section" /></a>
+<p class="center">Tangential Section, life size.</p></div>
+<br clear="all" />
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page140" id="page140"></a>140</span>
+
+<h3>42</h3>
+
+<h5><span class="sc">Black Oak. Yellow Bark Oak.</span></h5>
+
+<p class="center">
+Black refers to color of outer bark; yellow bark, refers to the inner
+bark, which is orange yellow.
+</p>
+
+<h5><i>Quercus velutina</i> Lamarck. <i>Quercus tinctoria</i> Michaux.</h5>
+
+<p class="center">
+<i>Quercus</i>, the classical Latin name; <i>velutina</i>, refers to the velvety surface
+of the young leaf; <i>tinctoria</i>, refers to dye obtained from inner bark.
+</p>
+
+<div class="figleft" style="width: 300px;"><a href="images/42-habitat-600.png"><img src="images/42-habitat-a-300.png" width="300" height="215" alt="habitat" /></a>
+<p class="center1">Habitat.</p></div>
+
+<p><b>Habitat</b>: (See map);
+best in lower Ohio valley.</p>
+
+<p><b>Characteristics of the
+Tree</b>: Height, 70'-80',
+even 150'; diameter 3'-4';
+branches, low; bark, dark
+gray to black, deep fissures,
+broad, rounded,
+firm ridges, inner bark,
+yellow, yielding dye;
+leaves, large, lustrous,
+leathery, of varied forms;
+acorns, small; kernel, yellow,
+bitter.</p>
+
+<p><b>Appearance of Wood</b>:
+Color, reddish brown, sap-wood
+lighter; ring-porous;
+rings, marked by
+several rows of very large
+open ducts; grain,
+crooked; rays, thin.</p>
+
+<br clear="all" />
+<div class="figleft" style="width: 150px;"><a href="images/42-leaf-500.png"><img src="images/42-leaf-a-150.png" width="150" height="215" alt="leaf" /></a>
+<p class="center">Leaf.</p></div>
+
+<p><b>Physical Qualities</b>:
+Heavy (17th in this list);
+45 lbs. per cu. ft.; sp. gr.,
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page141" id="page141"></a>141</span>
+0.7045; very strong (17th in this list);
+elastic (25th in this list); hard (18th
+in this list); shrinkage, 4 per cent. or
+more; warps and checks in drying; durable;
+rather hard to work; splits readily,
+nails badly.</p>
+
+<p><b>Common Uses</b>: Furniture, interior
+trim, cooperage, construction.</p>
+
+<p><b>Remarks</b>: Foliage handsome in fall;
+persists thru winter.</p>
+
+<br clear="all" />
+
+<div class="figleft" style="width: 200px;"><a href="images/42-cross-section-600.png"><img src="images/42-cross-section-a-200.png" width="200" height="200" alt="cross-section" /></a>
+<p class="center">Cross-section, magnified 37&#189; diameters.</p></div>
+
+<div class="figleft" style="width: 150px;"><a href="images/42-radial-section-400.png"><img src="images/42-radial-section-a-150.png" width="150" height="300" alt="radial section" /></a>
+<p class="center">Radial Section, life size.</p></div>
+
+<div class="figright" style="width: 150px;"><a href="images/42-tangential-section-400.png"><img src="images/42-tangential-section-a-150.png" width="150" height="300" alt="tangential Section" /></a>
+<p class="center">Tangential Section, life size.</p></div>
+<br clear="all" />
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page142" id="page142"></a>142</span>
+
+<h3>43</h3>
+
+<h5><span class="sc">Basket Oak. Cow Oak.</span></h5>
+
+<p class="center">
+Cow refers to the fact that its acorns are eaten by cattle.
+</p>
+
+<h5><i>Quercus michauxii</i> Nuttall.</h5>
+
+<p class="center">
+<i>Quercus</i>, the classical Latin name; <i>michauxii</i>, named for the botanist
+Michaux.
+</p>
+
+<div class="figleft" style="width: 300px;"><a href="images/43-habitat-600.png"><img src="images/43-habitat-a-300.png" width="300" height="211" alt="habitat" /></a>
+<p class="center1">Habitat.</p></div>
+
+<p><b>Habitat</b>: (See map);
+best in Arkansas and
+Louisiana, especially in
+river bottoms.</p>
+
+<p><b>Characteristics of the
+Tree</b>: Height, 80'-100';
+diameter 3', even 7';
+trunk, often clean and
+straight for 40' or 50';
+bark, conspicuous, light
+gray, rough with loose
+ashy gray, scaly ridges;
+leaves, obovate, regularly
+scalloped; acorns, edible
+for cattle.</p>
+
+<p><b>Appearance of Wood</b>:
+Color, light brown, sap-wood
+light buff; ring-porous;
+rings, marked by
+few rather large, open
+ducts; grain, likely to be
+crooked; rays, broad, conspicuous.</p>
+
+<br clear="all" />
+<div class="figleft" style="width: 150px;"><a href="images/43-leaf-500.png"><img src="images/43-leaf-a-150.png" width="150" height="214" alt="leaf" /></a>
+<p class="center">Leaf.</p></div>
+
+<p><b>Physical Qualities</b>:
+Very heavy (5th in this
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page143" id="page143"></a>143</span>
+list); 46 lbs. per cu. ft.; sp. gr., 0.8039;
+very strong (12th in this list); elastic
+(33d in this list); hard (10th in this
+list); shrinkage, 4 per cent. or more;
+warps unless carefully seasoned; durable;
+hard and tough to work; splits
+easily, bad to nail.</p>
+
+<p><b>Common Uses</b>: Construction, agricultural
+implements, wheel stock, baskets.</p>
+
+<p><b>Remarks</b>: The best white oak of the
+south. Not <ins title="Transcriber's Note: original reads 'distinguised'">distinguished</ins> from white
+oak in the market.</p>
+
+<br clear="all" />
+
+<div class="figleft" style="width: 200px;"><a href="images/43-cross-section-600.png"><img src="images/43-cross-section-a-200.png" width="200" height="200" alt="cross-section" /></a>
+<p class="center">Cross-section, magnified 37&#189; diameters.</p></div>
+
+<div class="figleft" style="width: 150px;"><a href="images/43-radial-section-400.png"><img src="images/43-radial-section-a-150.png" width="150" height="300" alt="radial section" /></a>
+<p class="center">Radial Section, life size.</p></div>
+
+<div class="figright" style="width: 150px;"><a href="images/43-tangential-section-400.png"><img src="images/43-tangential-section-a-150.png" width="150" height="300" alt="tangential Section" /></a>
+<p class="center">Tangential Section, life size.</p></div>
+<br clear="all" />
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page144" id="page144"></a>144</span>
+
+<h3>44</h3>
+
+<h5><span class="sc">Bur Oak. Mossy-Cup Oak. Over-Cup Oak.</span></h5>
+
+<h5><i>Quercus macrocarpa</i> Michaux.</h5>
+
+<p class="center">
+<i>Quercus</i>, the classical Latin name; <i>macrocarpa</i>, refers to the large acorn.
+</p>
+
+<div class="figleft" style="width: 300px;"><a href="images/44-habitat-600.png"><img src="images/44-habitat-a-300.png" width="300" height="213" alt="habitat" /></a>
+<p class="center1">Habitat.</p></div>
+
+<p><b>Habitat</b>: (See map);
+best in southern Indiana,
+Illinois and Kansas.</p>
+
+<p><b>Characteristics of the
+Tree</b>: Height, 70'-130',
+even 170'; diameter, 5'-7';
+branches, high; corky
+wings on young branches;
+bark, gray brown, deeply
+furrowed; deep opposite
+sinuses on large leaves;
+acorns, half enclosed in
+mossy-fringed cup.</p>
+
+<p><b>Appearance of Wood</b>:
+Color, rich brown, sap-wood,
+thin, lighter; ring-porous;
+rings, marked by
+1 to 3 rows of small open
+ducts; grain, crooked;
+rays, broad, and conspicuous.</p>
+
+<br clear="all" />
+<div class="figleft" style="width: 150px;"><a href="images/44-leaf-500.png"><img src="images/44-leaf-a-150.png" width="150" height="214" alt="leaf" /></a>
+<p class="center">Leaf.</p></div>
+
+<p><b>Physical Qualities</b>:
+Heavy (9th in this list);
+46 lbs. per cu. ft.; sp. gr.,
+0.7453; very strong (16th
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page145" id="page145"></a>145</span>
+in this list); elastic (37th in this list);
+hard (9th in this list); shrinkage, 4 per
+cent. or more; warps,..........; hard,
+and tough to work; splits easily, resists
+nailing.</p>
+
+<p><b>Common Uses</b>: Ship building, cabinet
+work, railway ties, cooperage.</p>
+
+<p><b>Remarks</b>: Good for prairie planting.
+One of the most valuable woods of
+North America. Not distinguished from
+White Oak in commerce.</p>
+
+<br clear="all" />
+
+<div class="figleft" style="width: 200px;"><a href="images/44-cross-section-600.png"><img src="images/44-cross-section-a-200.png" width="200" height="200" alt="cross-section" /></a>
+<p class="center">Cross-section, magnified 37&#189; diameters.</p></div>
+
+<div class="figleft" style="width: 150px;"><a href="images/44-radial-section-400.png"><img src="images/44-radial-section-a-150.png" width="150" height="300" alt="radial section" /></a>
+<p class="center">Radial Section, life size.</p></div>
+
+<div class="figright" style="width: 150px;"><a href="images/44-tangential-section-400.png"><img src="images/44-tangential-section-a-150.png" width="150" height="300" alt="tangential Section" /></a>
+<p class="center">Tangential Section, life size.</p></div>
+<br clear="all" />
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page146" id="page146"></a>146</span>
+
+<h3>45</h3>
+
+<h5><span class="sc">White Oak</span> (Western).</h5>
+
+<h5><i>Quercus garryana</i> Douglas.</h5>
+
+<p class="center">
+<i>Quercus</i>, the classical Latin name; <i>garryana</i>, named for Garry.
+</p>
+
+<div class="figleft" style="width: 300px;"><a href="images/45-habitat-600.png"><img src="images/45-habitat-a-300.png" width="300" height="202" alt="habitat" /></a>
+<p class="center1">Habitat.</p></div>
+
+<p><b>Habitat</b>: (See map);
+best in western Washington
+and Oregon.</p>
+
+<p><b>Characteristics of the
+Tree</b>: Height, 60'-70',
+even 100'; diameter, 2'-3';
+branches, spreading;
+bark, light brown, shallow
+fissures, broad ridges;
+leaves, coarsely pinnatified,
+lobed; fruit, large
+acorns.</p>
+
+<p><b>Appearance of Wood</b>:
+Color, light brown, sap-wood
+whitish; ring-porous;
+rings, marked by 1
+to 3 rows of open ducts;
+grain, close, crooked;
+rays, varying greatly in
+width, often conspicuous.</p>
+
+<br clear="all" />
+<div class="figleft" style="width: 150px;"><a href="images/45-leaf-500.png"><img src="images/45-leaf-a-150.png" width="150" height="214" alt="leaf" /></a>
+<p class="center">Leaf.</p></div>
+
+<p><b>Physical Qualities</b>:
+Heavy (10th in this list);
+46 lbs. per cu. ft.; sp. gr.,
+0.7449; strong (28th in
+this list); elasticity medium
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page147" id="page147"></a>147</span>
+(54th in this list); hard (8th in
+this list); shrinkage, 5 or 6 per cent.;
+warps, unless carefully seasoned; durable;
+hard to work, very tough; splits
+badly in nailing.</p>
+
+<p><b>Common Uses</b>: Ship building, vehicles,
+furniture, interior finish.</p>
+
+<p><b>Remarks</b>: Best of Pacific oaks.
+Shrubby at high elevations.</p>
+
+<br clear="all" />
+
+<div class="figleft" style="width: 200px;"><a href="images/45-cross-section-600.png"><img src="images/45-cross-section-a-200.png" width="200" height="200" alt="cross-section" /></a>
+<p class="center">Cross-section, magnified 37&#189; diameters.</p></div>
+
+<div class="figleft" style="width: 150px;"><a href="images/45-radial-section-400.png"><img src="images/45-radial-section-a-150.png" width="150" height="300" alt="radial section" /></a>
+<p class="center">Radial Section, life size.</p></div>
+
+<div class="figright" style="width: 150px;"><a href="images/45-tangential-section-400.png"><img src="images/45-tangential-section-a-150.png" width="150" height="300" alt="tangential Section" /></a>
+<p class="center">Tangential Section, life size.</p></div>
+<br clear="all" />
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page148" id="page148"></a>148</span>
+
+<h3>46</h3>
+
+<h5><span class="sc">Post Oak.</span></h5>
+
+<h5><i>Quercus stellata</i> Wangenheim. <i>Quercus minor</i> (Marsh) Sargent.
+<i>Quercus obtusiloba</i> Michaux.</h5>
+
+<p class="center">
+<i>Quercus</i>, the classical Latin name; <i>stellata</i>, refers to the stellate hairs
+on upper side of leaf; <i>minor</i>, refers to size of tree, which is often shrubby;
+<i>obtusiloba</i>, refers to the blunt lobes of leaves.
+</p>
+<div class="figleft" style="width: 300px;"><a href="images/46-habitat-600.png"><img src="images/46-habitat-a-300.png" width="300" height="214" alt="habitat" /></a>
+<p class="center1">Habitat.</p></div>
+
+<p><b>Habitat</b>: (See map);
+best in Mississippi basin.</p>
+
+<p><b>Characteristics of the
+Tree</b>: Height, 50'-75',
+even 100'; but often a
+shrub; diameter, 2'-3';
+branches, spreading into
+dense round-topped head;
+bark, red or brown, deep,
+vertical, almost continuous,
+fissures and broad
+ridges, looks corrugated;
+leaves, in large tufts at
+ends of branchlets; acorns,
+small, sessile.</p>
+
+<p><b>Appearance of Wood</b>:
+Color, brown, thick, sap-wood,
+lighter; ring-porous;
+rings, 1 to 3 rows of
+not large open ducts;
+grain, crooked; rays, numerous,
+conspicuous.</p>
+
+<br clear="all" />
+<div class="figleft" style="width: 150px;"><a href="images/46-leaf-500.png"><img src="images/46-leaf-a-150.png" width="150" height="217" alt="leaf" /></a>
+<p class="center">Leaf.</p></div>
+
+<p><b>Physical Qualities</b>:
+Very heavy (2d in this
+list); 50 lbs. per cu. ft.;
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page149" id="page149"></a>149</span>
+sp. gr., 0.8367; strong (29th in this
+list); medium elastic (50th in this list);
+very hard (4th in this list); shrinkage,
+4 per cent. or more; warps and checks
+badly in seasoning; durable; hard to
+work; splits readily, bad to nail.</p>
+
+<p><b>Common Uses</b>: Cooperage, railway
+ties, fencing, construction.</p>
+
+<p><b>Remarks</b>: Wood often undistinguished
+from white oak.</p>
+
+<br clear="all" />
+
+<div class="figleft" style="width: 200px;"><a href="images/46-cross-section-600.png"><img src="images/46-cross-section-a-200.png" width="200" height="200" alt="cross-section" /></a>
+<p class="center">Cross-section, magnified 37&#189; diameters.</p></div>
+
+<div class="figleft" style="width: 150px;"><a href="images/46-radial-section-400.png"><img src="images/46-radial-section-a-150.png" width="150" height="300" alt="radial section" /></a>
+<p class="center">Radial Section, life size.</p></div>
+
+<div class="figright" style="width: 150px;"><a href="images/46-tangential-section-400.png"><img src="images/46-tangential-section-a-150.png" width="150" height="300" alt="tangential Section" /></a>
+<p class="center">Tangential Section, life size.</p></div>
+<br clear="all" />
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page150" id="page150"></a>150</span>
+
+<h3>47</h3>
+
+<h5><span class="sc">White Oak. Stave Oak.</span></h5>
+
+<h5><i>Quercus alba</i> Linnaeus.</h5>
+
+<p class="center">
+<i>Quercus</i>, the classical Latin name; white and <i>alba</i>, refer to white bark.
+</p>
+
+<div class="figleft" style="width: 300px;"><a href="images/47-habitat-600.png"><img src="images/47-habitat-a-300.png" width="300" height="216" alt="habitat" /></a>
+<p class="center1">Habitat.</p></div>
+
+<p><b>Habitat</b>: (See map);
+best on western slopes
+of Southern Alleghany
+Mountains, and in lower
+Ohio river valley.</p>
+
+<p><b>Characteristics of the
+Tree</b>: Height, 80'-100';
+diameter, 3'-5'; trunk, in
+forest, tall, in open, short;
+bark, easily distinguished,
+light gray with shallow
+fissures, scaly; leaves,
+rounded lobes, and sinuses;
+acorns, &#190;" to 1"
+long, ripen first year.</p>
+
+<p><b>Appearance of Wood</b>:
+Color, light brown, sap-wood
+paler; ring-porous;
+rings, plainly defined by
+pores; grain crooked;
+rays, broad, very conspicuous
+and irregular.</p>
+
+<br clear="all" />
+<div class="figleft" style="width: 150px;"><a href="images/47-leaf-500.png"><img src="images/47-leaf-a-150.png" width="150" height="214" alt="leaf" /></a>
+<p class="center">Leaf.</p></div>
+
+<p><b>Physical Qualities</b>:
+Heavy (8th in this list);
+50 lbs. per cu. ft.; sp.
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page151" id="page151"></a>151</span>
+gr., 0.7470; strong (23d in this list);
+elastic (32d in this list); hard (13th
+in this list); shrinkage, from 4 to 10
+per cent.; warps and checks considerably,
+unless carefully seasoned; very durable,
+hard to work; splits somewhat
+hard, very difficult to nail.</p>
+
+<p><b>Common Uses</b>: Interior finish, furniture,
+construction, ship building, farm
+implements, cabinet making.</p>
+
+<p><b>Remarks</b>: The most important of
+American oaks.</p>
+
+<br clear="all" />
+
+<div class="figleft" style="width: 200px;"><a href="images/47-cross-section-600.png"><img src="images/47-cross-section-a-200.png" width="200" height="200" alt="cross-section" /></a>
+<p class="center">Cross-section, magnified 37&#189; diameters.</p></div>
+
+<div class="figleft" style="width: 150px;"><a href="images/47-radial-section-400.png"><img src="images/47-radial-section-a-150.png" width="150" height="300" alt="radial section" /></a>
+<p class="center">Radial Section, life size.</p></div>
+
+<div class="figright" style="width: 150px;"><a href="images/47-tangential-section-400.png"><img src="images/47-tangential-section-a-150.png" width="150" height="300" alt="tangential Section" /></a>
+<p class="center">Tangential Section, life size.</p></div>
+<br clear="all" />
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page152" id="page152"></a>152</span>
+
+<h3>48</h3>
+
+<h5><span class="sc">Cork Elm. Rock Elm. Hickory Elm. White Elm.
+Cliff Elm.</span></h5>
+
+<p class="center">
+Cork refers to corky ridges on branches.
+</p>
+
+<h5><i>Ulmus thomasi</i> Sargent. <i>Ulmus racemosa</i> Thomas.</h5>
+
+<p class="center">
+<i>Ulmus</i>, the classical Latin name; <i>racemosa</i>, refers to racemes of flowers.
+</p>
+
+<div class="figleft" style="width: 300px;"><a href="images/48-habitat-600.png"><img src="images/48-habitat-a-300.png" width="300" height="210" alt="habitat" /></a>
+<p class="center1">Habitat.</p></div>
+
+<p><b>Habitat</b>: (See map);
+best in Ontario and southern
+Michigan.</p>
+
+<p><b>Characteristics of the
+Tree</b>: Height, 80'-100';
+diameter, 2'-3', trunk often
+clear for 60'; bark,
+gray tinged with red,
+corky, irregular projections,
+give shaggy appearance;
+leaves, obovate,
+doubly serrate, 3"-4" long;
+fruit, pubescent, samaras.</p>
+
+<p><b>Appearance of Wood</b>:
+Color, light brown or red;
+sap-wood yellowish; ring-porous;
+rings, marked
+with one or two rows of
+small open ducts; grain,
+interlaced; rays, numerous,
+obscure.</p>
+
+<br clear="all" />
+<div class="figleft" style="width: 150px;"><a href="images/48-leaf-500.png"><img src="images/48-leaf-a-150.png" width="150" height="213" alt="leaf" /></a>
+<p class="center">Leaf.</p></div>
+
+<p><b>Physical Qualities</b>:
+Heavy (15th in this list);
+45 lbs. per cu. ft.; sp. gr.,
+0.7263; very strong (13th
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page153" id="page153"></a>153</span>
+in this list); elastic (22d in this list);
+hard (15th in this list); shrinkage, 5
+per cent.; warps, ........; very durable;
+hard to work; splits and nails
+with difficulty.</p>
+
+<p><b>Common Uses</b>: Hubs, agricultural
+implements, sills, bridge timbers.</p>
+
+<p><b>Remarks</b>: The best of the elm
+woods.</p>
+
+<br clear="all" />
+
+<div class="figleft" style="width: 200px;"><a href="images/48-cross-section-600.png"><img src="images/48-cross-section-a-200.png" width="200" height="200" alt="cross-section" /></a>
+<p class="center">Cross-section, magnified 37&#189; diameters.</p></div>
+
+<div class="figleft" style="width: 150px;"><a href="images/48-radial-section-400.png"><img src="images/48-radial-section-a-150.png" width="150" height="300" alt="radial section" /></a>
+<p class="center">Radial Section, life size.</p></div>
+
+<div class="figright" style="width: 150px;"><a href="images/48-tangential-section-400.png"><img src="images/48-tangential-section-a-150.png" width="150" height="300" alt="tangential Section" /></a>
+<p class="center">Tangential Section, life size.</p></div>
+<br clear="all" />
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page154" id="page154"></a>154</span>
+
+<h3>49</h3>
+
+<h5><span class="sc">White Elm. American Elm. Water Elm.</span></h5>
+
+<p class="center">
+Water, because it flourishes on river banks.
+</p>
+
+<h5><i>Ulmus americana</i> Linnaeus.</h5>
+
+<p class="center">
+<i>Ulmus</i>, the classical Latin name.
+</p>
+
+<div class="figleft" style="width: 300px;"><a href="images/49-habitat-600.png"><img src="images/49-habitat-a-300.png" width="300" height="208" alt="habitat" /></a>
+<p class="center1">Habitat.</p></div>
+
+<p><b>Habitat</b>: (See map);
+best northward on river
+bottoms.</p>
+
+<p><b>Characteristics of the
+Tree</b>: Height, 90', even
+120'; diameter, 3'-8';
+trunk, usually divides at
+30'-40' from ground into
+upright branches, making
+triangular outline; bark,
+ashy gray, deep longitudinal
+fissures, broad
+ridges; leaves, 4"-6"
+long, oblique obovate,
+doubly serrate, smooth
+one way; fruit, small,
+roundish, flat, smooth, samaras.</p>
+
+<p><b>Appearance of Wood</b>:
+Color, light brown, sap-wood
+yellowish; ring-porous;
+rings, marked by
+several rows of large open
+ducts; grain, interlaced;
+rays, numerous, thin.</p>
+
+<br clear="all" />
+<div class="figleft" style="width: 150px;"><a href="images/49-leaf-500.png"><img src="images/49-leaf-a-150.png" width="150" height="214" alt="leaf" /></a>
+<p class="center">Leaf.</p></div>
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page155" id="page155"></a>155</span>
+
+<p><b>Physical Qualities</b>: Heavy (24th in
+this list); 34 lbs. per cu. ft.; sp.
+gr., 0.6506; strong (33d in this list);
+elasticity, medium (59th in this list);
+medium hard (28th in this list); shrinkage,
+5 per cent.; warps .........; not
+durable; hard to work, tough, will not
+polish; splits with difficulty.</p>
+
+<p><b>Common Uses</b>: Cooperage, wheel
+stock, flooring.</p>
+
+<p><b>Remarks</b>: Favorite ornamental tree,
+but shade light, and leaves fall early.</p>
+
+<br clear="all" />
+
+<div class="figleft" style="width: 200px;"><a href="images/49-cross-section-600.png"><img src="images/49-cross-section-a-200.png" width="200" height="200" alt="cross-section" /></a>
+<p class="center">Cross-section, magnified 37&#189; diameters.</p></div>
+
+<div class="figleft" style="width: 150px;"><a href="images/49-radial-section-400.png"><img src="images/49-radial-section-a-150.png" width="150" height="300" alt="radial section" /></a>
+<p class="center">Radial Section, life size.</p></div>
+
+<div class="figright" style="width: 150px;"><a href="images/49-tangential-section-400.png"><img src="images/49-tangential-section-a-150.png" width="150" height="300" alt="tangential Section" /></a>
+<p class="center">Tangential Section, life size.</p></div>
+<br clear="all" />
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page156" id="page156"></a>156</span>
+
+<h3>50</h3>
+
+<h5><span class="sc">Cucumber Tree. Mountain Magnolia.</span></h5>
+
+<p class="center">
+Cucumber, refers to the shape of the fruit.
+</p>
+
+<h5><i>Magnolia acuminata</i> Linnaeus.</h5>
+
+<p class="center">
+<i>Magnolia</i>, named for Pierre Magnol, a French botanist; <i>acuminata</i>, refers
+to pointed fruit.
+</p>
+
+<div class="figleft" style="width: 300px;"><a href="images/50-habitat-600.png"><img src="images/50-habitat-a-300.png" width="300" height="212" alt="habitat" /></a>
+<p class="center1">Habitat.</p></div>
+
+<p><b>Habitat</b>: (See map);
+best at the base of mountains
+in North Carolina
+and South Carolina and
+Tennessee.</p>
+
+<p><b>Characteristics of the
+Tree</b>: Height, 60'-90';
+diameter, 3'-4'; in forest,
+clear trunk for &#8532; of
+height (40' or 50'); bark,
+dark brown, thick, furrowed;
+leaves, large,
+smooth; flowers, large
+greenish yellow; fruit,
+dark red "cones" formed
+of two seeded follicles.</p>
+
+<p><b>Appearance of Wood</b>:
+Color, yellow brown, thick
+sapwood, lighter; diffuse-porous;
+rings, obscure;
+grain, very straight, close,
+satiny; rays, numerous
+thin.</p>
+
+<br clear="all" />
+<div class="figleft" style="width: 150px;"><a href="images/50-leaf-500.png"><img src="images/50-leaf-a-150.png" width="150" height="215" alt="leaf" /></a>
+<p class="center">Leaf.</p></div>
+
+<p><b>Physical Qualities</b>:
+Light (45th in this list);
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page157" id="page157"></a>157</span>
+.... lbs. per cu. ft.; sp. gr., 0.4690;
+medium strong (49th in this list); elastic
+(38th in this list); medium
+hard (41st in this list); shrinkage, 5
+per cent.; warps .........; very durable;
+easy to work; splits easily, takes
+nails well.</p>
+
+<p><b>Common Uses</b>: Pump logs, cheap
+furniture, shelving.</p>
+
+<br clear="all" />
+
+<div class="figleft" style="width: 200px;"><a href="images/50-cross-section-600.png"><img src="images/50-cross-section-a-200.png" width="200" height="200" alt="cross-section" /></a>
+<p class="center">Cross-section, magnified 37&#189; diameters.</p></div>
+
+<div class="figleft" style="width: 150px;"><a href="images/50-radial-section-400.png"><img src="images/50-radial-section-a-150.png" width="150" height="300" alt="radial section" /></a>
+<p class="center">Radial Section, life size.</p></div>
+
+<div class="figright" style="width: 150px;"><a href="images/50-tangential-section-400.png"><img src="images/50-tangential-section-a-150.png" width="150" height="300" alt="tangential Section" /></a>
+<p class="center">Tangential Section, life size.</p></div>
+<br clear="all" />
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page158" id="page158"></a>158</span>
+
+<h3>51</h3>
+
+<h5><span class="sc">Yellow Poplar. Whitewood. Tulip Tree.</span></h5>
+
+<p class="center">
+Poplar, inappropriate, inasmuch as the tree does not belong to poplar
+family. White, refers inappropriately to the color of the wood, which is
+greenish yellow.
+</p>
+
+<h5><i>Liriodendron tulipifera</i> Linnaeus.</h5>
+
+<p class="center">
+<i>Liriodendron</i>, means lily-tree; <i>tulipifera</i> means tulip-bearing.
+</p>
+
+<div class="figleft" style="width: 300px;"><a href="images/51-habitat-600.png"><img src="images/51-habitat-a-300.png" width="300" height="215" alt="habitat" /></a>
+<p class="center1">Habitat.</p></div>
+
+<p><b>Habitat</b>: (See map);
+best in lower Ohio valley
+and southern Appalachian
+mountains.</p>
+
+<p><b>Characteristics of the
+Tree</b>: Height, 70'-90';
+even 200'; diameter, 6'-8',
+even 12'; tall, magnificent
+trunk, unsurpassed
+in grandeur by any eastern
+American tree; bark,
+brown, aromatic, evenly
+furrowed so as to make
+clean, neat-looking trunk;
+leaves, 4 lobed, apex, peculiarly
+truncated, clean
+cut; flowers, tulip-like;
+fruit, cone, consisting of
+many scales.</p>
+
+<p><b>Appearance of Wood</b>:
+Color, light greenish or
+yellow brown, sap-wood,
+creamy white; diffuse-porous;
+rings, close but
+distinct; grain, straight;
+rays, numerous and plain.</p>
+
+<br clear="all" />
+<div class="figleft" style="width: 150px;"><a href="images/51-leaf-500.png"><img src="images/51-leaf-a-150.png" width="150" height="215" alt="leaf" /></a>
+<p class="center">Leaf.</p></div>
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page159" id="page159"></a>159</span>
+
+<p><b>Physical Qualities</b>: Light (54th in
+this list); 26 lbs. per cu. ft.; sp. gr.,
+0.4230; medium strong (51st in this
+list); elastic (39th in this list); soft
+(49th in this list); shrinkage, 5 per
+cent.; warps little; durable; easy to
+work; brittle and does not split readily,
+nails very well.</p>
+
+<p><b>Common Uses</b>: Construction work,
+furniture, interiors, boats, carriage bodies,
+wooden pumps.</p>
+
+<p><b>Remarks</b>: Being substituted largely
+for white pine.</p>
+
+<br clear="all" />
+
+<div class="figleft" style="width: 200px;"><a href="images/51-cross-section-600.png"><img src="images/51-cross-section-a-200.png" width="200" height="200" alt="cross-section" /></a>
+<p class="center">Cross-section, magnified 37&#189; diameters.</p></div>
+
+<div class="figleft" style="width: 150px;"><a href="images/51-radial-section-400.png"><img src="images/51-radial-section-a-150.png" width="150" height="300" alt="radial section" /></a>
+<p class="center">Radial Section, life size.</p></div>
+
+<div class="figright" style="width: 150px;"><a href="images/51-tangential-section-400.png"><img src="images/51-tangential-section-a-150.png" width="150" height="300" alt="tangential Section" /></a>
+<p class="center">Tangential Section, life size.</p></div>
+<br clear="all" />
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page160" id="page160"></a>160</span>
+
+<h3>52</h3>
+
+<h5><span class="sc">Sweet Gum.</span></h5>
+<p class="center">
+Gum, refers to exudations.
+</p>
+
+<h5><i>Liquidambar styraciflua</i> Linnaeus.</h5>
+
+<p class="center">
+<i>Liquidambar</i>, means liquid gum; <i>styraciflua</i>, means fluid resin (storax).
+</p>
+
+<div class="figleft" style="width: 300px;"><a href="images/52-habitat-600.png"><img src="images/52-habitat-a-300.png" width="300" height="211" alt="habitat" /></a>
+<p class="center1">Habitat.</p></div>
+
+<p><b>Habitat</b>: (See map);
+best in the lower Mississippi
+valley.</p>
+
+<p><b>Characteristics of the
+Tree</b>: Height, 80'-140';
+diameter, 3'-5'; trunk,
+tall, straight; bark, light
+brown tinged with red,
+deeply fissured; branchlets
+often having corky
+wings; leaves, star-shaped,
+five pointed; conspicuously
+purple and crimson
+in autumn; fruit, multi-capsular,
+spherical, persistent
+heads.</p>
+
+<p><b>Appearance of Wood</b>:
+Color, light red brown,
+sap-wood almost white;
+diffuse-porous; rings, fine
+and difficult to distinguish;
+grain, straight,
+close, polishes well; rays,
+numerous, very obscure.</p>
+
+<br clear="all" />
+<div class="figleft" style="width: 150px;"><a href="images/52-leaf-500.png"><img src="images/52-leaf-a-150.png" width="150" height="214" alt="leaf" /></a>
+<p class="center">Leaf.</p></div>
+
+<p><b>Physical Qualities</b>:
+Weight, medium (34th in
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page161" id="page161"></a>161</span>
+this list); 37 lbs. per cu. ft.; sp. gr.,
+0.5909; medium strong (52d in this
+list); elasticity medium (44th in this
+list); medium hard (36th in this list);
+shrinkage, 6 per cent.; warps and
+twists badly in seasoning; not durable
+when exposed; easy to work; crumbles
+in splitting; nails badly.</p>
+
+<p><b>Common Uses</b>: Building construction,
+cabinet-work, veneering, street
+pavement, barrel staves and heads.</p>
+
+<p><b>Remarks</b>: Largely used in veneers,
+because when solid it warps and twists
+badly. Exudations used in medicine to
+some extent.</p>
+
+<br clear="all" />
+
+<div class="figleft" style="width: 200px;"><a href="images/52-cross-section-600.png"><img src="images/52-cross-section-a-200.png" width="200" height="200" alt="cross-section" /></a>
+<p class="center">Cross-section, magnified 37&#189; diameters.</p></div>
+
+<div class="figleft" style="width: 150px;"><a href="images/52-radial-section-400.png"><img src="images/52-radial-section-a-150.png" width="150" height="300" alt="radial section" /></a>
+<p class="center">Radial Section, life size.</p></div>
+
+<div class="figright" style="width: 150px;"><a href="images/52-tangential-section-400.png"><img src="images/52-tangential-section-a-150.png" width="150" height="300" alt="tangential Section" /></a>
+<p class="center">Tangential Section, life size.</p></div>
+<br clear="all" />
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page162" id="page162"></a>162</span>
+
+<h3>53</h3>
+
+<h5><span class="sc">Sycamore. Buttonwood. Button Ball. Water Beech.</span></h5>
+
+<p class="center">
+Sycamore, from two Greek words meaning fig and mulberry; buttonwood
+and button-ball, refer to fruit balls.
+</p>
+
+<h5><i>Platanus occidentalis</i> Linnaeus.</h5>
+
+<p class="center">
+<i>Platanus</i>, refers to the broad leaves; <i>occidentalis</i>, western, to distinguish
+it from European species.
+</p>
+
+<div class="figleft" style="width: 300px;"><a href="images/53-habitat-600.png"><img src="images/53-habitat-a-300.png" width="300" height="213" alt="habitat" /></a>
+<p class="center1">Habitat.</p></div>
+
+<p><b>Habitat</b>: (See map);
+best in valley of lower
+Ohio and Mississippi.</p>
+
+<p><b>Characteristics of the
+Tree</b>: Height, 70'-100',
+and even 170'; diameter,
+6'-12'; trunk, commonly
+divides into 2 or 3 large
+branches, limbs spreading,
+often dividing angularly;
+bark, flakes off in great
+irregular masses, leaving
+mottled surface, greenish
+gray and brown, this peculiarity
+due to its rigid
+texture; leaves, palmately
+3 to 5 lobed, 4"-9" long,
+petiole enlarged, enclosing
+buds; fruit, large rough
+balls, persistent through
+winter.</p>
+
+<p><b>Appearance of Wood</b>:
+Color, reddish brown, sap-wood
+lighter; diffuse-porous;
+rings, marked by
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page163" id="page163"></a>163</span>
+broad bands of small ducts; grain, cross,
+close; rays, numerous, large, conspicuous.</p>
+
+<br clear="all" />
+<div class="figleft" style="width: 150px;"><a href="images/53-leaf-500.png"><img src="images/53-leaf-a-150.png" width="150" height="214" alt="leaf" /></a>
+<p class="center">Leaf.</p></div>
+
+<p><b>Physical Qualities</b>: Weight, medium
+(38th in this list); 35 lbs. per cu. ft.;
+sp. gr., 0.5678; medium strong (54th
+in this list); elasticity, medium (43d
+in this list); medium hard (30th
+in this list); shrinkage, 5 per cent.;
+warps little; very durable, once used
+for mummy coffins; hard to work; splits
+very hard.</p>
+
+<p><b>Common Uses</b>: Tobacco boxes, yokes,
+furniture, butcher blocks.</p>
+
+<p><b>Remarks</b>: Trunks often very large
+and hollow.</p>
+
+<br clear="all" />
+
+<div class="figleft" style="width: 200px;"><a href="images/53-cross-section-600.png"><img src="images/53-cross-section-a-200.png" width="200" height="200" alt="cross-section" /></a>
+<p class="center">Cross-section, magnified 37&#189; diameters.</p></div>
+
+<div class="figleft" style="width: 150px;"><a href="images/53-radial-section-400.png"><img src="images/53-radial-section-a-150.png" width="150" height="300" alt="radial section" /></a>
+<p class="center">Radial Section, life size.</p></div>
+
+<div class="figright" style="width: 150px;"><a href="images/53-tangential-section-400.png"><img src="images/53-tangential-section-a-150.png" width="150" height="300" alt="tangential Section" /></a>
+<p class="center">Tangential Section, life size.</p></div>
+<br clear="all" />
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page164" id="page164"></a>164</span>
+
+<h3>54</h3>
+
+<h5><span class="sc">Wild Black Cherry.</span></h5>
+
+<h5><i>Padus serotina</i> (Ehrhart) Agardh. <i>Prunus serotina</i> Ehrhart.</h5>
+
+<p class="center">
+<i>Padus</i>, the old Greek name; <i>prunus</i>, the classical Latin name; <i>serotina</i>,
+because it blossoms late (June).
+</p>
+
+<div class="figleft" style="width: 300px;"><a href="images/54-habitat-600.png"><img src="images/54-habitat-a-300.png" width="300" height="211" alt="habitat" /></a>
+<p class="center1">Habitat.</p></div>
+
+<p><b>Habitat</b>: (See map);
+best on southern Allegheny
+mountains.</p>
+
+<p><b>Characteristics of the
+Tree</b>: Height, 40'-50',
+even 100'; diameter, 2'-4';
+straight, columnar trunk,
+often free from branches
+for 70'; bark, blackish
+and rough, fissured in all
+directions, broken into
+small, irregular, scaly
+plates, with raised edges;
+leaves, oblong to lanceolate,
+deep, shiny green;
+fruit, black drupe, &#189;".</p>
+
+<p><b>Appearance of Wood</b>:
+Color, light brown or red,
+sap-wood yellow; diffuse-porous;
+rings, obscure;
+grain, straight, close, fine,
+takes fine polish; rays,
+numerous.</p>
+
+<br clear="all" />
+<div class="figleft" style="width: 150px;"><a href="images/54-leaf-500.png"><img src="images/54-leaf-a-150.png" width="150" height="214" alt="leaf" /></a>
+<p class="center">Leaf.</p></div>
+
+<p><b>Physical Qualities</b>:
+Weight, medium (35th in
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page165" id="page165"></a>165</span>
+this list); 36 lbs. per cu. ft.; sp. gr.,
+0.5822; strong (35th in this list); elasticity
+medium (45th in this list);
+hard (16th in this list); shrinkage, 5
+per cent.; warps, little; durability..........;
+easily worked; splits easily,
+must be nailed with care.</p>
+
+<p><b>Common Uses</b>: Cabinet-work, costly
+interior trim.</p>
+
+<p><b>Remarks</b>: Grows rapidly.</p>
+
+<br clear="all" />
+
+<div class="figleft" style="width: 200px;"><a href="images/54-cross-section-600.png"><img src="images/54-cross-section-a-200.png" width="200" height="200" alt="cross-section" /></a>
+<p class="center">Cross-section, magnified 37&#189; diameters.</p></div>
+
+<div class="figleft" style="width: 150px;"><a href="images/54-radial-section-400.png"><img src="images/54-radial-section-a-150.png" width="150" height="300" alt="radial section" /></a>
+<p class="center">Radial Section, life size.</p></div>
+
+<div class="figright" style="width: 150px;"><a href="images/54-tangential-section-400.png"><img src="images/54-tangential-section-a-150.png" width="150" height="300" alt="tangential Section" /></a>
+<p class="center">Tangential Section, life size.</p></div>
+<br clear="all" />
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page166" id="page166"></a>166</span>
+
+<h3>55</h3>
+
+<h5><span class="sc">Black Locust. Locust. Yellow Locust.</span></h5>
+
+<p class="center">
+Yellow, from color of sap-wood.
+</p>
+
+<h5><i>Robinia pseudacacia</i> Linnaeus.</h5>
+
+<p class="center">
+<i>Robinia</i>, in honor of Jean Robin, of France; <i>pseudacacia</i>, means false acacia.
+</p>
+
+<div class="figleft" style="width: 300px;"><a href="images/55-habitat-600.png"><img src="images/55-habitat-a-300.png" width="300" height="215" alt="habitat" /></a>
+<p class="center1">Habitat.</p></div>
+
+<p><b>Habitat</b>: (See map);
+best on western Allegheny
+mountains in West Virginia.</p>
+
+<p><b>Characteristics of the
+Tree</b>: Height, 50'-80';
+diameter, 3'-4'; bark,
+strikingly deeply furrowed,
+dark brown;
+prickles on small branches,
+grows fast, forms thickets,
+on account of underground
+shoots; leaves,
+8"-14" long, pinnately
+compound; 7 to 9 leaflets,
+close at night and in
+rainy weather; fruit, pod
+3"-4" long.</p>
+
+<p><b>Appearance of Wood</b>:
+Color, brown, sap-wood
+thin, yellowish; ring-porous;
+rings, clearly marked
+by 2 or 3 rows of large
+open ducts; grain,
+crooked, compact.</p>
+
+<br clear="all" />
+<div class="figleft" style="width: 150px;"><a href="images/55-leaf-500.png"><img src="images/55-leaf-a-150.png" width="150" height="213" alt="leaf" /></a>
+<p class="center">Leaf.</p></div>
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page167" id="page167"></a>167</span>
+
+<p><b>Physical Qualities</b>: Heavy (12th in
+this list); 45 lbs. per cu. ft.; sp. gr.,
+0.7333; very strong (1st in this list);
+elastic (9th in this list); very hard
+(6th in this list); shrinkage, 5 per
+cent.; warps badly, very durable; hard
+to work, tough; splits in nailing.</p>
+
+<p><b>Common Uses</b>: Shipbuilding, construction,
+"tree-nails" or pins, wagon
+hubs.</p>
+
+<p><b>Remarks</b>: Widely planted and cultivated
+east and west. Likely to be infested
+with borers.</p>
+
+<br clear="all" />
+
+<div class="figleft" style="width: 200px;"><a href="images/55-cross-section-600.png"><img src="images/55-cross-section-a-200.png" width="200" height="200" alt="cross-section" /></a>
+<p class="center">Cross-section, magnified 37&#189; diameters.</p></div>
+
+<div class="figleft" style="width: 150px;"><a href="images/55-radial-section-400.png"><img src="images/55-radial-section-a-150.png" width="150" height="300" alt="radial section" /></a>
+<p class="center">Radial Section, life size.</p></div>
+
+<div class="figright" style="width: 150px;"><a href="images/55-tangential-section-400.png"><img src="images/55-tangential-section-a-150.png" width="150" height="300" alt="tangential Section" /></a>
+<p class="center">Tangential Section, life size.</p></div>
+<br clear="all" />
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page168" id="page168"></a>168</span>
+
+<h3>56</h3>
+
+<h5><span class="sc">Mahogany.</span></h5>
+
+<h5><i>Swietenia mahagoni</i> Jacquin.</h5>
+
+<p class="center">
+<i>Swietenia</i>, in honor of Dr. Gerard Van Swieten of Austria; <i>mahagoni</i>, a
+South American word.
+</p>
+
+<div class="figleft" style="width: 300px;"><a href="images/56-habitat-600.png"><img src="images/56-habitat-a-300.png" width="300" height="213" alt="habitat" /></a>
+<p class="center1">Habitat.</p></div>
+
+<p><b>Habitat</b>: (See map);
+only on Florida Keys in
+the United States.</p>
+
+<p><b>Characteristics of the
+Tree</b>: Height, 40'-50';
+diameter, 2' or more, foreign
+trees larger; immense
+buttresses at base of trunk;
+bark, thick, dark red-brown,
+having surface of
+broad, thick scales; leaves,
+4"-6" long, compound, 4
+pairs of leaflets; fruit,
+4"-5" long, containing
+seeds.</p>
+
+<p><b>Appearance of Wood</b>:
+Color, red-brown, sap-wood,
+thin, yellow; diffuse-porous;
+rings, inconspicuous;
+grain, crooked;
+rays, fine and scattered,
+but plain.</p>
+
+<br clear="all" />
+<div class="figleft" style="width: 150px;"><a href="images/56-leaf-500.png"><img src="images/56-leaf-a-150.png" width="150" height="214" alt="leaf" /></a>
+<p class="center">Leaf.</p></div>
+
+<p><b>Physical Qualities</b>:
+Heavy (14th in this list);
+45 lbs. per cu. ft.; sp. gr.,
+0.7282; very strong (20th
+in this list); elastic (24th
+in this list); very hard
+(1st in this list); shrinkage,
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page169" id="page169"></a>169</span>
+5 per cent.; warps very little; very
+durable; genuine mahogany, hard to
+work; especially if grain is cross; somewhat
+brittle, and comparatively easy to
+split, nails with difficulty; polishes and
+takes glue well.</p>
+
+<p><b>Common Uses</b>: Chiefly for cabinet-making,
+furniture, interior finishes and
+veneers.</p>
+
+<p><b>Remarks</b>: Mahogany, now in great
+demand in the American market for fine
+furniture and interior trim comes from
+the West Indies, Central America and
+West Africa. The so-called Spanish
+mahogany, the most highly prized variety,
+came originally from the south of
+Hayti. The Honduras Mahogany was
+often called baywood. Botanically the
+varieties are not carefully distinguished;
+in the lumber yard the lumber is known
+by its sources. The Cuba wood can be
+partly distinguished by the white chalk-like
+specks in the pores and is cold to
+the touch, while the Honduras wood can
+be recognized by the black specks or lines
+in the grain. Both the Honduras and
+West India woods have a softer feel
+than the African wood, when rubbed
+with the thumb. The Cuba and St. Domingo
+wood are preferred to the Honduras,
+and still more to the African, but
+even experts have difficulty in distinguishing
+the varieties.</p>
+
+<p>Spanish cedar, or furniture cedar
+(<i>Cedrela odorata</i>) belongs to the same
+family as mahogany and is often sold
+for it. It is softer, lighter, and easier
+to work.</p>
+
+<br clear="all" />
+
+<div class="figleft" style="width: 150px; margin-left: 225px;"><a href="images/56-radial-section-400.png"><img src="images/56-radial-section-a-150.png" width="150" height="300" alt="radial section" /></a>
+<p class="center">Radial Section, life size.</p></div>
+
+<div class="figright" style="width: 150px;"><a href="images/56-tangential-section-400.png"><img src="images/56-tangential-section-a-150.png" width="150" height="300" alt="tangential Section" /></a>
+<p class="center">Tangential Section, life size.</p></div>
+<br clear="all" />
+
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page170" id="page170"></a>170</span>
+
+<h3>57</h3>
+
+<h5><span class="sc">Oregon Maple. White Maple. Large Leaved Maple.</span></h5>
+
+<h5><i>Acer macrophyllum</i> Pursh.</h5>
+
+<p class="center">
+<i>Acer</i>, the classical Latin name; <i>macrophyllum</i>, refers to the large leaves.
+</p>
+
+<div class="figleft" style="width: 300px;"><a href="images/57-habitat-600.png"><img src="images/57-habitat-a-300.png" width="300" height="207" alt="habitat" /></a>
+<p class="center1">Habitat.</p></div>
+
+<p><b>Habitat</b>: (See map);
+best in southern Oregon.</p>
+
+<p><b>Characteristics of the
+Tree</b>: Height, 70'-100';
+diameter, 3'-5'; stout, often
+pendulous branches,
+making a handsome tree;
+bark, reddish brown,
+deeply furrowed, square
+scales; leaves, very large,
+8"-12" and long petioles,
+deep, narrow sinuses;
+fruit, hairy samaras.</p>
+
+<p><b>Appearance of Wood</b>:
+Color, rich brown and red,
+sap-wood thick, nearly
+white; diffuse-porous;
+rings, obscure; grain,
+close, fibres interlaced,
+sometimes figured, polishes
+well; rays, numerous
+and thin.</p>
+
+<br clear="all" />
+<div class="figleft" style="width: 150px;"><a href="images/57-leaf-500.png"><img src="images/57-leaf-a-150.png" width="150" height="214" alt="leaf" /></a>
+<p class="center">Leaf.</p></div>
+
+<p><b>Physical Qualities</b>:
+Light in weight (26th in
+this list); 30 lbs. per cu.
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page171" id="page171"></a>171</span>
+ft.; sp. gr. 0.4909; medium strong (47th
+in this list); elasticity medium (57th
+in this list); medium hard (31st in this
+list); shrinkage, 4 per cent.; warps
+..........; not durable; rather hard
+to work; splits with difficulty.</p>
+
+<p><b>Common Uses</b>: Tool and ax handles,
+furniture, interior finish.</p>
+
+<p><b>Remarks</b>: A valuable wood on the
+Pacific coast.</p>
+
+<br clear="all" />
+
+<div class="figleft" style="width: 200px;"><a href="images/57-cross-section-600.png"><img src="images/57-cross-section-a-200.png" width="200" height="200" alt="cross-section" /></a>
+<p class="center">Cross-section, magnified 37&#189; diameters.</p></div>
+
+<div class="figleft" style="width: 150px;"><a href="images/57-radial-section-400.png"><img src="images/57-radial-section-a-150.png" width="150" height="300" alt="radial section" /></a>
+<p class="center">Radial Section, life size.</p></div>
+
+<div class="figright" style="width: 150px;"><a href="images/57-tangential-section-400.png"><img src="images/57-tangential-section-a-150.png" width="150" height="300" alt="tangential Section" /></a>
+<p class="center">Tangential Section, life size.</p></div>
+<br clear="all" />
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page172" id="page172"></a>172</span>
+
+<h3>58</h3>
+
+<h5><span class="sc">Soft Maple. White Maple. Silver Maple.</span></h5>
+
+<p class="center">
+Silver, refers to white color of underside of leaf.
+</p>
+
+<h5><i>Acer saccharinum</i> Linnaeus. <i>Acer dasycarpum</i> Ehrhart.</h5>
+
+<p class="center">
+<i>Acer</i>, the classical Latin name; <i>saccharinum</i>, refers to sweetish juice;
+<i>dasycarpum</i>, refers to the wooliness of the fruit when young.
+</p>
+
+<div class="figleft" style="width: 300px;"><a href="images/58-habitat-600.png"><img src="images/58-habitat-a-300.png" width="300" height="213" alt="habitat" /></a>
+<p class="center1">Habitat.</p></div>
+
+<p><b>Habitat</b>: (See map);
+best in lower Ohio valley.</p>
+
+<p><b>Characteristics of the
+Tree</b>: Height, 50'-90',
+even 120'; diameter, 3'-5';
+form suggests elm; bark,
+reddish brown, furrowed,
+surface separating into
+large, loose scales; leaves,
+palmately 5 lobed, with
+narrow, acute sinuses, silvery
+white beneath, turn
+only yellow in autumn;
+fruit, divergent, winged
+samaras.</p>
+
+<p><b>Appearance of Wood</b>:
+Color, brown and reddish,
+sap-wood, cream; diffuse-porous;
+rings, obscure;
+grain, twisted, wavy, fine,
+polishes well; rays, thin,
+numerous.</p>
+
+<br clear="all" />
+<div class="figleft" style="width: 150px;"><a href="images/58-leaf-500.png"><img src="images/58-leaf-a-150.png" width="150" height="213" alt="leaf" /></a>
+<p class="center">Leaf.</p></div>
+
+<p><b>Physical Qualities</b>:
+Weight, medium (40th in
+this list); 32 lbs. per cu.
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page173" id="page173"></a>173</span>
+ft.; sp. gr., 0.5269; very strong (19th
+in this list); very elastic (20th in this
+list); hard (25th in this list); shrinkage,
+5 per cent.; warps, ............;
+not durable under exposure; easily
+worked; splits in nailing.</p>
+
+<p><b>Common Uses</b>: Flooring, furniture,
+turnery, wooden ware.</p>
+
+<p><b>Remarks</b>: Grows rapidly. Curly
+varieties found. Sap produces some
+sugar.</p>
+
+<br clear="all" />
+
+<div class="figleft" style="width: 200px;"><a href="images/58-cross-section-600.png"><img src="images/58-cross-section-a-200.png" width="200" height="200" alt="cross-section" /></a>
+<p class="center">Cross-section, magnified 37&#189; diameters.</p></div>
+
+<div class="figleft" style="width: 150px;"><a href="images/58-radial-section-400.png"><img src="images/58-radial-section-a-150.png" width="150" height="300" alt="radial section" /></a>
+<p class="center">Radial Section, life size.</p></div>
+
+<div class="figright" style="width: 150px;"><a href="images/58-tangential-section-400.png"><img src="images/58-tangential-section-a-150.png" width="150" height="300" alt="tangential Section" /></a>
+<p class="center">Tangential Section, life size.</p></div>
+<br clear="all" />
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page174" id="page174"></a>174</span>
+
+<h3>59</h3>
+
+<h5><span class="sc">Red Maple.</span></h5>
+
+<h5><i>Acer rubrum</i> Linnaeus.</h5>
+
+<p class="center">
+<i>Acer</i>, the classical Latin name; <i>rubrum</i>, refers to red flowers and
+autumn leaves.
+</p>
+
+<div class="figleft" style="width: 300px;"><a href="images/59-habitat-600.png"><img src="images/59-habitat-a-300.png" width="300" height="213" alt="habitat" /></a>
+<p class="center1">Habitat.</p></div>
+
+<p><b>Habitat</b>: (See map);
+best in lower Ohio valley.</p>
+
+<p><b>Characteristics of the
+Tree</b>: Height, 80'-120';
+diameter, 2'-4'; branches,
+low; bark, dark gray,
+shaggy, divided by long
+ridges; leaves, palmately
+5 lobed, acute sinuses;
+fruit, double samaras,
+forming characteristic maple
+key.</p>
+
+<p><b>Appearance of Wood</b>:
+Color, light reddish brown,
+sap-wood, lighter; diffuse-porous;
+rings, obscure;
+grain, crooked; rays, numerous,
+obscure.</p>
+
+<br clear="all" />
+<div class="figleft" style="width: 150px;"><a href="images/59-leaf-500.png"><img src="images/59-leaf-a-150.png" width="150" height="214" alt="leaf" /></a>
+<p class="center">Leaf.</p></div>
+
+<p><b>Physical Qualities</b>:
+Weight, medium (30th in
+this list); 38 lbs. per cu.
+ft.; sp. gr., 0.6178; strong
+(36th in this list); elastic
+(36th in this list);
+hard (27th in this list);
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page175" id="page175"></a>175</span>
+shrinkage, 5 per cent.; warps .......;
+not durable; fairly hard to work; splits
+with difficulty, splits badly in nailing.</p>
+
+<p><b>Common Uses</b>: Flooring, turning,
+wooden ware.</p>
+
+<p><b>Remarks</b>: Grows rapidly. Has red
+flowers, red keys, red leaf stems, and
+leaves scarlet or crimson in autumn.</p>
+
+<br clear="all" />
+
+<div class="figleft" style="width: 200px;"><a href="images/59-cross-section-600.png"><img src="images/59-cross-section-a-200.png" width="200" height="200" alt="cross-section" /></a>
+<p class="center">Cross-section, magnified 37&#189; diameters.</p></div>
+
+<div class="figleft" style="width: 150px;"><a href="images/59-radial-section-400.png"><img src="images/59-radial-section-a-150.png" width="150" height="300" alt="radial section" /></a>
+<p class="center">Radial Section, life size.</p></div>
+
+<div class="figright" style="width: 150px;"><a href="images/59-tangential-section-400.png"><img src="images/59-tangential-section-a-150.png" width="150" height="300" alt="tangential Section" /></a>
+<p class="center">Tangential Section, life size.</p></div>
+<br clear="all" />
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page176" id="page176"></a>176</span>
+
+<h3>60</h3>
+
+<h5><span class="sc">Hard Maple. Sugar Maple. Rock Maple.</span></h5>
+
+<h5><i>Acer saccharum</i> Marshall.</h5>
+
+<p class="center">
+<i>Acer</i>, the classical Latin name; <i>saccharum</i>, refers to sweet sap.
+</p>
+
+<div class="figleft" style="width: 300px;"><a href="images/60-habitat-600.png"><img src="images/60-habitat-a-300.png" width="300" height="209" alt="habitat" /></a>
+<p class="center1">Habitat.</p></div>
+
+<p><b>Habitat</b>: (See map);
+best in regions of Great
+Lakes.</p>
+
+<p><b>Characteristics of the
+Tree</b>: Height, 100'-120';
+diameter, 1&#189;'-3', even 4';
+often trees in forest are
+without branches for 60'-70'
+from ground, in the
+open, large impressive
+tree; bark, gray brown,
+thick, deep, longitudinal
+fissures, hard and rough;
+leaves, opposite, 3 to 5
+lobed, scarlet and yellow
+in autumn; fruit, double,
+slightly divergent samaras.</p>
+
+<p><b>Appearance of Wood</b>:
+Color, light brown tinged
+with red; diffuse-porous
+rings, close but distinct;
+grain, crooked, fine, close,
+polishes well; rays, fine
+but conspicuous.</p>
+
+<br clear="all" />
+<div class="figleft" style="width: 150px;"><a href="images/60-leaf-500.png"><img src="images/60-leaf-a-150.png" width="150" height="216" alt="leaf" /></a>
+<p class="center">Leaf.</p></div>
+
+<p><b>Physical Qualities</b>:
+Heavy (19th in this list);
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page177" id="page177"></a>177</span>
+43 lbs. per cu. ft.; sp. gr., 0.6912; very
+strong (8th in this list); very elastic
+(5th in this list); very hard (7th in
+this list); shrinkage, 5 per cent.; warps
+badly; not durable when exposed; hard
+to work; splits badly in nailing.</p>
+
+<p><b>Common Uses</b>: School and other furniture,
+car construction, carving, wooden
+type, tool handles, shoe lasts, piano actions,
+ships' keels.</p>
+
+<p><b>Remarks</b>: Tree very tolerant. The
+uses of this wood are chiefly due to its
+hardness. Bird's-Eye Maple and Curly
+Maple are accidental varieties. Pure
+maple sugar is made chiefly from this
+species. Its ashes yield large quantities
+of potash.</p>
+
+<br clear="all" />
+
+<div class="figleft" style="width: 200px;"><a href="images/60-cross-section-600.png"><img src="images/60-cross-section-a-200.png" width="200" height="200" alt="cross-section" /></a>
+<p class="center">Cross-section, magnified 37&#189; diameters.</p></div>
+
+<div class="figleft" style="width: 150px;"><a href="images/60-radial-section-400.png"><img src="images/60-radial-section-a-150.png" width="150" height="300" alt="radial section" /></a>
+<p class="center">Radial Section, life size.</p></div>
+
+<div class="figright" style="width: 150px;"><a href="images/60-tangential-section-400.png"><img src="images/60-tangential-section-a-150.png" width="150" height="300" alt="tangential Section" /></a>
+<p class="center">Tangential Section, life size.</p></div>
+<br clear="all" />
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page178" id="page178"></a>178</span>
+
+<h3>61</h3>
+
+<h5><span class="sc">Basswood. Linden.</span></h5>
+
+<p class="center">
+Bass, refers to bast or inner bark.
+</p>
+
+<h5><i>Tilia americana</i> Linnaeus.</h5>
+
+<p class="center">
+<i>Tilia</i>, the classical Latin name.
+</p>
+
+<div class="figleft" style="width: 300px;"><a href="images/61-habitat-600.png"><img src="images/61-habitat-a-300.png" width="300" height="211" alt="habitat" /></a>
+<p class="center1">Habitat.</p></div>
+
+<p><b>Habitat</b>: (See map);
+best in bottom lands of
+lower Ohio River.</p>
+
+<p><b>Characteristics of the
+Tree</b>: Height, 60'-70',
+even 130'; diameter, 2'-4';
+trunk, erect, pillar-like,
+branches spreading, making
+round heads; bark,
+light brown, furrowed,
+scaly surface, inner bark
+fibrous and tough, used
+for matting; leaves,
+oblique, heart-shaped, side
+nearest branch larger;
+fruit clustered on long
+pendulous stem, attached
+to vein of narrow bract.</p>
+
+<p><b>Appearance of Wood</b>:
+Color, very light brown,
+approaching cream color,
+sap-wood, hardly distinguishable;
+diffuse-porous;
+rings, fine and close but
+clear; grain, straight;
+rays, numerous, obscure.</p>
+
+<br clear="all" />
+<div class="figleft" style="width: 150px;"><a href="images/61-leaf-500.png"><img src="images/61-leaf-a-150.png" width="150" height="213" alt="leaf" /></a>
+<p class="center">Leaf.</p></div>
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page179" id="page179"></a>179</span>
+
+<p><b>Physical Qualities</b>: Light in weight
+(49th in this list); 28 lbs. per cu. ft.;
+sp. gr., 0.4525; weak (60th in this list);
+elasticity, medium (49th in this list);
+soft (64th in this list); shrinkage, 6
+per cent.; warps comparatively little;
+quite durable; very easily worked; somewhat
+tough to split, nails well.</p>
+
+<p><b>Common Uses</b>: Woodenware, carriage
+bodies, etc., picture molding, paper pulp,
+etc.</p>
+
+<p><b>Remarks</b>: May be propagated by
+grafting as well as by seed. Is subject
+to attack by many insects. Wood used
+for carriage bodies because flexible and
+easily nailed.</p>
+
+<br clear="all" />
+
+<div class="figleft" style="width: 200px;"><a href="images/61-cross-section-600.png"><img src="images/61-cross-section-a-200.png" width="200" height="200" alt="cross-section" /></a>
+<p class="center">Cross-section, magnified 37&#189; diameters.</p></div>
+
+<div class="figleft" style="width: 150px;"><a href="images/61-radial-section-400.png"><img src="images/61-radial-section-a-150.png" width="150" height="300" alt="radial section" /></a>
+<p class="center">Radial Section, life size.</p></div>
+
+<div class="figright" style="width: 150px;"><a href="images/61-tangential-section-400.png"><img src="images/61-tangential-section-a-150.png" width="150" height="300" alt="tangential Section" /></a>
+<p class="center">Tangential Section, life size.</p></div>
+<br clear="all" />
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page180" id="page180"></a>180</span>
+
+<h3>62</h3>
+
+<h5><span class="sc">Sour Gum. Tupelo. Pepperidge. Black Gum.</span></h5>
+
+<p class="center">
+Tupelo, the Indian name.
+</p>
+
+<h5><i>Nyssa sylvatica</i> Marshal.</h5>
+
+<p class="center">
+<i>Nyssa</i>, from Nysa, the realm of moist vegetation and the home of
+<i>Dio-nysus</i> (Bacchus) (the tree grows in low wet lands); <i>sylvatica</i>, refers
+to its habit of forest growth.
+</p>
+
+<div class="figleft" style="width: 300px;"><a href="images/62-habitat-600.png"><img src="images/62-habitat-a-300.png" width="300" height="213" alt="habitat" /></a>
+<p class="center1">Habitat.</p></div>
+
+<p><b>Habitat</b>: (See map);
+best in Southern Appalachian
+mountains.</p>
+
+<p><b>Characteristics of the
+Tree</b>: Height, 40'-50',
+even 100'; diameter, <ins title="Transcriber's Note: original reads '[1(inch)-6(inches)']">1'6"-3'6"</ins>,
+even 5'; variable in
+form; bark, brown, deeply
+fissured and scaly; leaves,
+in sprays, short, petioled,
+brilliant scarlet in autumn;
+fruit, bluish black,
+sour, fleshy drupe.</p>
+
+<p><b>Appearance of Wood</b>:
+Color, pale yellow, sap-wood,
+white, hardly distinguishable;
+diffuse-porous;
+rings, not plain;
+grain fine, twisted and interwoven;
+rays, numerous,
+thin.</p>
+
+<br clear="all" />
+<div class="figleft" style="width: 150px;"><a href="images/62-leaf-500.png"><img src="images/62-leaf-a-150.png" width="150" height="214" alt="leaf" /></a>
+<p class="center">Leaf.</p></div>
+
+<p><b>Physical Qualities</b>:
+Medium heavy (25th in
+this list); 39 lbs. per cu.
+ft.; sp. gr., 0.6356;
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page181" id="page181"></a>181</span>
+strong (34th in this list); elasticity,
+medium (51st in this list); hard (20th
+in this list); shrinkage, 5 or 6 per
+cent.; warps and checks badly; not
+durable if exposed; hard to work; splits
+hard, tough.</p>
+
+<p><b>Common Uses</b>: Wagon hubs, handles,
+yokes, wooden shoe soles, docks and
+wharves, rollers in glass factories.</p>
+
+<p><b>Remarks</b>: The best grades closely resemble
+yellow poplar.</p>
+
+<br clear="all" />
+
+<div class="figleft" style="width: 200px;"><a href="images/62-cross-section-600.png"><img src="images/62-cross-section-a-200.png" width="200" height="200" alt="cross-section" /></a>
+<p class="center">Cross-section, magnified 37&#189; diameters.</p></div>
+
+<div class="figleft" style="width: 150px;"><a href="images/62-radial-section-400.png"><img src="images/62-radial-section-a-150.png" width="150" height="300" alt="radial section" /></a>
+<p class="center">Radial Section, life size.</p></div>
+
+<div class="figright" style="width: 150px;"><a href="images/62-tangential-section-400.png"><img src="images/62-tangential-section-a-150.png" width="150" height="300" alt="tangential Section" /></a>
+<p class="center">Tangential Section, life size.</p></div>
+<br clear="all" />
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page182" id="page182"></a>182</span>
+
+<h3>63</h3>
+
+<h5><span class="sc">Black Ash. Hoop Ash.</span></h5>
+
+<p class="center">
+Hoop, refers to its use for barrel hoops.
+</p>
+
+<h5><i>Fraxinus nigra</i> Marshall. <i>Fraxinus</i> <ins title="Transcriber's Note: original reads 'scambucifolia'"><i>sambucifolia</i></ins>.</h5>
+
+<p class="center">
+<i>Fraxinus</i>, from a Greek word (<i>phraxis</i>) meaning split, refers to the
+cleavability of the wood; <i>sambucifolia</i>, refers to the fact that the leaves are
+in odor like those of Elder (Sambucus).
+</p>
+
+<div class="figleft" style="width: 300px;"><a href="images/63-habitat-600.png"><img src="images/63-habitat-a-300.png" width="300" height="209" alt="habitat" /></a>
+<p class="center1">Habitat.</p></div>
+
+<p><b>Habitat</b>: (See map);
+best in moist places.</p>
+
+<p><b>Characteristics of the
+Tree</b>: Height, 80'-90'; diameter,
+1'-1&#189;'; slenderest
+of the forest trees, upright
+branches; bark, gray
+tinged with red, irregular
+plates, with thin scales;
+leaves, 10"-16" long, compound,
+7 to 11 leaflets, in
+autumn rusty brown;
+fruit, single samaras in
+panicles.</p>
+
+<p><b>Appearance of Wood</b>:
+Color, dark brown, sap-wood
+light; ring-porous;
+rings, well defined; grain,
+straight, burls often form
+highly prized veneers;
+rays, numerous and thin.</p>
+
+<br clear="all" />
+<div class="figleft" style="width: 150px;"><a href="images/63-leaf-500.png"><img src="images/63-leaf-a-150.png" width="150" height="212" alt="leaf" /></a>
+<p class="center">Leaf.</p></div>
+
+<p><b>Physical Qualities</b>:
+Medium heavy (27th in
+this list); 39 lbs. per cu.
+ft.; sp. gr., 0.6318; strong
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page183" id="page183"></a>183</span>
+(38th in this list); elasticity, medium
+(12th in this list); hard (23d in this
+list); shrinkage, 5 per cent.; warps,
+but not very much; not durable when
+exposed; hard to work; separates easily
+in layers, hence used for splints.</p>
+
+<p><b>Common Uses</b>: Interior finish, cabinet
+work, fencing, barrel hoops.</p>
+
+<p><b>Remarks</b>: The flexibility of the
+wood largely determines its uses.</p>
+
+<br clear="all" />
+
+<div class="figleft" style="width: 200px;"><a href="images/63-cross-section-600.png"><img src="images/63-cross-section-a-200.png" width="200" height="200" alt="cross-section" /></a>
+<p class="center">Cross-section, magnified 37&#189; diameters.</p></div>
+
+<div class="figleft" style="width: 150px;"><a href="images/63-radial-section-400.png"><img src="images/63-radial-section-a-150.png" width="150" height="300" alt="radial section" /></a>
+<p class="center">Radial Section, life size.</p></div>
+
+<div class="figright" style="width: 150px;"><a href="images/63-tangential-section-400.png"><img src="images/63-tangential-section-a-150.png" width="150" height="300" alt="tangential Section" /></a>
+<p class="center">Tangential Section, life size.</p></div>
+<br clear="all" />
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page184" id="page184"></a>184</span>
+
+<h3>64</h3>
+
+<h5><span class="sc">Oregon Ash.</span></h5>
+
+<h5><i>Fraxinus oregona</i> Nuttall.</h5>
+
+<p class="center">
+<i>Fraxinus</i>, from a Greek word (<i>phraxis</i>) meaning split, refers to the
+cleavability of the wood; <i>oregona</i>, named for the State of Oregon.
+</p>
+
+<div class="figleft" style="width: 300px;"><a href="images/64-habitat-600.png"><img src="images/64-habitat-a-300.png" width="300" height="215" alt="habitat" /></a>
+<p class="center1">Habitat.</p></div>
+
+<p><b>Habitat</b>: (See map);
+best in southern Oregon.</p>
+
+<p><b>Characteristics of the
+Tree</b>: Height, 50'-80'; diameter,
+1'-1&#189;', even 4';
+branches, stout, erect;
+bark, grayish brown, deep
+interrupted fissures, broad,
+flat ridges, exfoliates;
+leaves, 5"-14" long; pinnately
+compound, 5 to 7
+leaflets; fruit, single samaras
+in clusters.</p>
+
+<p><b>Appearance of Wood</b>:
+Color, brown, sap-wood
+thick, lighter; ring-porous;
+rings, plainly marked
+by large, open, scattered
+pores; grain, coarse,
+straight; rays, numerous,
+thin.</p>
+
+<br clear="all" />
+<div class="figleft" style="width: 150px;"><a href="images/64-leaf-500.png"><img src="images/64-leaf-a-150.png" width="150" height="214" alt="leaf" /></a>
+<p class="center">Leaf.</p></div>
+
+<p><b>Physical Qualities</b>:
+Weight, medium (37th in
+this list); 35 lbs. per cu.
+ft.; sp. gr., 0.5731; medium
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page185" id="page185"></a>185</span>
+strong (50th in this list); elasticity,
+medium (48th in this list); medium
+hard (29th in this list); shrinkage,
+5 per cent.; warps,............;
+not durable; hard to work, tough; splits
+with difficulty.</p>
+
+<p><b>Common Uses</b>: Furniture, vehicles,
+cooperage.</p>
+
+<p><b>Remarks</b>: A valuable timber tree of
+the Pacific coast.</p>
+
+<br clear="all" />
+
+<div class="figleft" style="width: 200px;"><a href="images/64-cross-section-600.png"><img src="images/64-cross-section-a-200.png" width="200" height="200" alt="cross-section" /></a>
+<p class="center">Cross-section, magnified 37&#189; diameters.</p></div>
+
+<div class="figleft" style="width: 150px;"><a href="images/64-radial-section-400.png"><img src="images/64-radial-section-a-150.png" width="150" height="300" alt="radial section" /></a>
+<p class="center">Radial Section, life size.</p></div>
+
+<div class="figright" style="width: 150px;"><a href="images/64-tangential-section-400.png"><img src="images/64-tangential-section-a-150.png" width="150" height="300" alt="tangential Section" /></a>
+<p class="center">Tangential Section, life size.</p></div>
+<br clear="all" />
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page186" id="page186"></a>186</span>
+
+<h3>65</h3>
+
+<h5><span class="sc">Blue Ash.</span></h5>
+
+<p class="center">
+Blue, refers to blue dye obtained from inner bark.
+</p>
+
+<h5><i>Fraxinus quadrangulata</i> Michaux.</h5>
+
+<p class="center">
+<i>Fraxinus</i>, from a Greek word (<i>phraxis</i>) meaning split, refers to the
+<ins title="Transcriber's Note: original reads 'cleavabilty'">cleavability</ins> of the wood; <i>quadrangulata</i>, refers to four-angled branchlets.
+</p>
+
+<div class="figleft" style="width: 300px;"><a href="images/65-habitat-600.png"><img src="images/65-habitat-a-300.png" width="300" height="215" alt="habitat" /></a>
+<p class="center1">Habitat.</p></div>
+
+<p><b>Habitat</b>: (See map);
+best in lower Wabash valley.</p>
+
+<p><b>Characteristics of the
+Tree</b>: Height, 60'-70',
+even 120'; diameter, 1'-2';
+tall, slender, four-angled,
+branchlets; bark, light
+gray, irregularly divided
+into large plate-like scales,
+inside bark, bluish, yielding
+dye; leaves, 8"-12"
+long, compound pinnate,
+5 to 9 leaflets; fruit,
+winged samaras in panicles.</p>
+
+<p><b>Appearance of Wood</b>:
+Color, light yellow,
+streaked with brown, sap-wood
+lighter; ring-porous;
+rings, clearly marked
+by 1 to 3 rows of large,
+open ducts; grain,
+straight; rays, numerous,
+obscure.</p>
+
+<br clear="all" />
+<div class="figleft" style="width: 150px;"><a href="images/65-leaf-500.png"><img src="images/65-leaf-a-150.png" width="150" height="214" alt="leaf" /></a>
+<p class="center">Leaf.</p></div>
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page187" id="page187"></a>187</span>
+
+<p><b>Physical Qualities</b>: Heavy (16th in
+this list); 44 lbs. per cu. ft.; sp. gr.,
+0.7184; strong (37th in this list); elasticity,
+medium (58th in this list); hard
+(12th in this list); shrinkage, 5 per
+cent.; warps, ............; most durable
+of the ashes; hard to work; splits
+readily, bad for nailing.</p>
+
+<p><b>Common Uses</b>: Carriage building,
+tool handles.</p>
+
+<p><b>Remarks</b>: Blue ash pitchfork handles
+are famous.</p>
+
+<br clear="all" />
+
+<div class="figleft" style="width: 150px; margin-left: 225px;"><a href="images/65-radial-section-400.png"><img src="images/65-radial-section-a-150.png" width="150" height="300" alt="radial section" /></a>
+<p class="center">Radial Section, life size.</p></div>
+
+<div class="figright" style="width: 150px;"><a href="images/65-tangential-section-400.png"><img src="images/65-tangential-section-a-150.png" width="150" height="300" alt="tangential Section" /></a>
+<p class="center">Tangential Section, life size.</p></div>
+<br clear="all" />
+
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page188" id="page188"></a>188</span>
+
+<h3>66</h3>
+
+<h5><span class="sc">Red Ash.</span></h5>
+
+<p class="center">
+Red, from color of inner bark.
+</p>
+
+<h5><i>Fraxinus pennsylvanica</i> Marshall. <i>Fraxinus pubescens</i> Lambert.</h5>
+
+<p class="center">
+<i>Fraxinus</i>, from a Greek word (<i>phraxis</i>) meaning split, refers to the
+cleavability of the wood; <i>pennsylvanica</i>, in honor of the State of Pennsylvania;
+<i>pubescens</i>, refers to down on new leaves and twigs.
+</p>
+
+<div class="figleft" style="width: 300px;"><a href="images/66-habitat-600.png"><img src="images/66-habitat-a-300.png" width="300" height="209" alt="habitat" /></a>
+<p class="center1">Habitat.</p></div>
+
+<p><b>Habitat</b>: (See map);
+best east of Alleghany
+mountains.</p>
+
+<p><b>Characteristics of the
+Tree</b>: Height, 40'-60'; diameter,
+12"-18"; small,
+slim, upright branches;
+bark, brown or ashy, great,
+shallow, longitudinal furrows;
+leaves, 10"-12"
+long, pinnately compound,
+7 to 9 leaflets, covered
+with down; fruit, single
+samara.</p>
+
+<p><b>Appearance of Wood</b>:
+Color, light brown, sap-wood
+lighter and yellowish;
+ring porous; rings,
+marked by pores; grain,
+straight, coarse; rays,
+numerous, thin.</p>
+
+<br clear="all" />
+<div class="figleft" style="width: 150px;"><a href="images/66-leaf-500.png"><img src="images/66-leaf-a-150.png" width="150" height="216" alt="leaf" /></a>
+<p class="center">Leaf.</p></div>
+
+<p><b>Physical Qualities</b>:
+Weight, medium (28th in
+this list); 39 lbs. per cu.
+ft.; sp. gr., 0.6251; strong
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page189" id="page189"></a>189</span>
+(30th in this list); elasticity, medium
+(53d in this list); hard (17th in this
+list); shrinkage, 5 per cent.; warps little;
+not durable; hard to work; splits
+in nailing.</p>
+
+<p><b>Common Uses</b>: Agricultural implements,
+oars, handles, boats.</p>
+
+<p><b>Remarks</b>: Often sold with and as
+the superior white ash.</p>
+<br clear="all" />
+
+<div class="figleft" style="width: 200px;"><a href="images/66-cross-section-600.png"><img src="images/66-cross-section-a-200.png" width="200" height="200" alt="cross-section" /></a>
+<p class="center">Cross-section, magnified 37&#189; diameters.</p></div>
+
+<div class="figleft" style="width: 150px;"><a href="images/66-radial-section-400.png"><img src="images/66-radial-section-a-150.png" width="150" height="300" alt="radial section" /></a>
+<p class="center">Radial Section, life size.</p></div>
+
+<div class="figright" style="width: 150px;"><a href="images/66-tangential-section-400.png"><img src="images/66-tangential-section-a-150.png" width="150" height="300" alt="tangential Section" /></a>
+<p class="center">Tangential Section, life size.</p></div>
+<br clear="all" />
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page190" id="page190"></a>190</span>
+
+<h3>67</h3>
+
+<h5><span class="sc">White Ash.</span></h5>
+
+<p class="center">
+White, refers to whitish color of wood.
+</p>
+
+<h5><i>Fraxinus americana</i> Linnaeus.</h5>
+
+<p class="center">
+<i>Fraxinus</i>, from a Greek word (<i>phraxis</i>) meaning split, refers to the
+cleavability of the wood.
+</p>
+
+<div class="figleft" style="width: 300px;"><a href="images/67-habitat-600.png"><img src="images/67-habitat-a-300.png" width="300" height="211" alt="habitat" /></a>
+<p class="center1">Habitat.</p></div>
+
+<p><b>Habitat</b>: (See map);
+best in the bottom lands
+of lower Ohio valley.</p>
+
+<p><b>Characteristics of the
+Tree</b>: Height, 70'-80',
+even 120'; diameter, 3'-6';
+branches rather high, tree
+singularly graceful; bark,
+gray, narrow furrows,
+clean, neat trunk; leaves,
+8"-15" long, compound,
+tufted, smooth, turns in
+autumn to beautiful purples,
+browns and yellows;
+fruit, panicles of samaras,
+persistent till midwinter.</p>
+
+<p><b>Appearance of Wood</b>:
+Color, light reddish brown,
+sap-wood whitish; ring-porous,
+rings clearly
+marked by pores; straight-grained;
+pith rays obscure.</p>
+
+<br clear="all" />
+<div class="figleft" style="width: 150px;"><a href="images/67-leaf-500.png"><img src="images/67-leaf-a-150.png" width="150" height="214" alt="leaf" /></a>
+<p class="center">Leaf.</p></div>
+
+<p><b>Physical Qualities</b>:
+Heavy (22d in this list);
+39 lbs. per cu. ft.; sp. gr.,
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page191" id="page191"></a>191</span>
+0.6543; strong (31st in this list); elastic
+(30th in this list); hard (17th in
+this list); shrinkage, 5 per cent.; warps
+little; not durable in contact with soil;
+hard and tough; splits readily, nails
+badly.</p>
+
+<p><b>Common Uses</b>: Inside finish, farm
+implements, barrels, baskets, oars, carriages.</p>
+
+<p><b>Remarks</b>: Forms no forests, occurs
+scattered. Its uses for handles and oars
+determined by combination of strength,
+lightness and elasticity.</p>
+
+<br clear="all" />
+
+<div class="figleft" style="width: 200px;"><a href="images/67-cross-section-600.png"><img src="images/67-cross-section-a-200.png" width="200" height="200" alt="cross-section" /></a>
+<p class="center">Cross-section, magnified 37&#189; diameters.</p></div>
+
+<div class="figleft" style="width: 150px;"><a href="images/67-radial-section-400.png"><img src="images/67-radial-section-a-150.png" width="150" height="300" alt="radial section" /></a>
+<p class="center">Radial Section, life size.</p></div>
+
+<div class="figright" style="width: 150px;"><a href="images/67-tangential-section-400.png"><img src="images/67-tangential-section-a-150.png" width="150" height="300" alt="tangential Section" /></a>
+<p class="center">Tangential Section, life size.</p></div>
+<br clear="all" />
+
+</td></tr></table>
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page192" id="page192"></a>192</span>
+
+<h5 style="margin-top: 3em;"><span class="sc">List of 66 Common Woods Arranged in the Order of Their Weight.</span></h5>
+
+<table summary="List of 66 Common Woods Arranged in the Order of Their Weight" align="center">
+<tr><td class="left1q" valign="top">
+   &nbsp;&nbsp;1. Shellbark hickory.<br />
+   &nbsp;&nbsp;2. Post oak.<br />
+   &nbsp;&nbsp;3. Mockernut.<br />
+   &nbsp;&nbsp;4. Pignut.<br />
+   &nbsp;&nbsp;5. Basket oak.<br />
+   &nbsp;&nbsp;6. Cherry birch.<br />
+   &nbsp;&nbsp;7. Slash pine.<br />
+   &nbsp;&nbsp;8. White oak.<br />
+   &nbsp;&nbsp;9. Bur oak.<br />
+  10. Western white oak.<br />
+  11. Western larch.<br />
+  12. Black locust.<br />
+  13. Blue beech.<br />
+  14. Mahogany.<br />
+  15. Cork elm.<br />
+  16. Blue ash.<br />
+  17. Black oak.<br />
+  18. Longleaf pine.<br />
+  19. Hard maple.<br />
+  20. Beech.<br />
+  21. Yellow birch.<br />
+  22. White ash.<br />
+  23. Red oak.<br />
+  24. White elm.<br />
+  25. Sour gum.<br />
+  26. Oregon maple.<br />
+  27. Black ash.<br />
+  28. Red ash.<br />
+  29. Tamarack.<br />
+  30. Red maple.<br />
+  31. Black walnut.<br />
+  32. Shortleaf pine.<br />
+  33. Canoe birch.<br />
+  </td><td class="left1q" valign="top">
+  34. Sweet gum.<br />
+  35. Wild black cherry.<br />
+  36. Red birch.<br />
+  37. Oregon ash.<br />
+  38. Sycamore.<br />
+  39. Loblolly pine.<br />
+  40. Soft maple.<br />
+  41. Douglas spruce.<br />
+  42. Red cedar.<br />
+  43. Norway pine.<br />
+  44. Western yellow pine.<br />
+  45. Cucumber tree.<br />
+  46. Lawson cypress.<br />
+  47. Black spruce and<br />
+  &nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Red spruce.<br />
+  48. Bald cypress.<br />
+  49. Basswood.<br />
+  50. Chestnut.<br />
+  51. Black willow.<br />
+  52. Tideland spruce.<br />
+  53. Hemlock.<br />
+  54. Yellow poplar.<br />
+  55. Redwood.<br />
+  56. Butternut.<br />
+  57. White spruce.<br />
+  58. Western white pine.<br />
+  59. White pine.<br />
+  60. Western red cedar.<br />
+  61. Sugar pine.<br />
+  62. Grand fir.<br />
+  63. Engelmann's spruce.<br />
+  64. White cedar.<br />
+  65. Big tree.<br />
+  </td></tr>
+</table>
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page193" id="page193"></a>193</span>
+
+<h5 style="margin-top: 3em;"><span class="sc">List of 66 Common Woods Arranged in the Order of Their Strength.</span></h5>
+
+<table summary="List of 66 Common Woods Arranged in the Order of Their Strength" align="center">
+<tr><td class="left1q" valign="top">
+   &nbsp;&nbsp;1. Black locust.<br />
+   &nbsp;&nbsp;2. Yellow birch.<br />
+   &nbsp;&nbsp;3. Western larch.<br />
+   &nbsp;&nbsp;4. Cherry birch.<br />
+   &nbsp;&nbsp;5. Shellbark hickory.<br />
+   &nbsp;&nbsp;6. Slash pine.<br />
+   &nbsp;&nbsp;7. Longleaf pine.<br />
+   &nbsp;&nbsp;8. Hard maple.<br />
+   &nbsp;&nbsp;9. Blue beech.<br />
+  10. Beech.<br />
+  11. Mockernut.<br />
+  12. Basket Oak.<br />
+  13. Cork elm.<br />
+  14. Canoe birch.<br />
+  15. Pignut hickory.<br />
+  16. Bur oak.<br />
+  17. Black oak.<br />
+  18. Shortleaf pine.<br />
+  19. Soft maple.<br />
+  20. Mahogany.<br />
+  21. Red oak.<br />
+  22. Red birch.<br />
+  23. White oak.<br />
+  24. Tamarack.<br />
+  25. Lawson cypress.<br />
+  26. Loblolly pine.<br />
+  27. Douglas spruce.<br />
+  28. Western white oak.<br />
+  29. Post oak.<br />
+  30. Red ash.<br />
+  31. White ash.<br />
+  32. Black walnut.<br />
+  33. White elm.
+  </td><td class="left1q" valign="top">
+  34. Sour gum.<br />
+  35. Wild black cherry.<br />
+  36. Red maple.<br />
+  37. Blue ash.<br />
+  38. Black ash.<br />
+  39. Norway pine.<br />
+  40. Western red cedar.<br />
+  41. Black spruce and<br />
+  &nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Red spruce.<br />
+  42. White spruce.<br />
+  43. Red cedar.<br />
+  44. Hemlock.<br />
+  45. Western yellow pine.<br />
+  46. Chestnut.<br />
+  47. Oregon maple.<br />
+  48. Bald cypress.<br />
+  49. Cucumber tree.<br />
+  50. Oregon ash.<br />
+  51. Yellow poplar.<br />
+  52. Sweet gum.<br />
+  53. Tideland spruce.<br />
+  54. Sycamore.<br />
+  55. White pine.<br />
+  56. Western white pine.<br />
+  57. Butternut.<br />
+  58. Redwood.<br />
+  59. Sugar pine.<br />
+  60. Basswood.<br />
+  61. Engelmann's spruce.<br />
+  62. Grand fir.<br />
+  63. Big tree.<br />
+  64. White cedar.<br />
+  65. Black willow.<br />
+  </td></tr>
+</table>
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page194" id="page194"></a>194</span>
+
+<h5 style="margin-top: 3em;"><span class="sc">List of 66 Common Woods Arranged in the Order of Their Elasticity.</span></h5>
+
+<table summary="List of 66 Common Woods Arranged in the Order of Their Elasticity" align="center">
+<tr><td class="left1q" valign="top">
+   &nbsp;&nbsp;1. Western larch.<br />
+   &nbsp;&nbsp;2. Canoe birch and<br />
+   &nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Yellow birch.<br />
+   &nbsp;&nbsp;3. Slash pine.<br />
+   &nbsp;&nbsp;4. Longleaf pine.<br />
+   &nbsp;&nbsp;5. Hard maple.<br />
+   &nbsp;&nbsp;6. Cherry birch.<br />
+   &nbsp;&nbsp;7. Shortleaf pine.<br />
+   &nbsp;&nbsp;8. Shellbark hickory.<br />
+   &nbsp;&nbsp;9. Black locust.<br />
+  10. Douglas spruce.<br />
+  11. Tamarack.<br />
+  12. Lawson cypress.<br />
+  13. Beech.<br />
+  14. Mockernut.<br />
+  15. Blue beech.<br />
+  16. Norway pine.<br />
+  17. Loblolly pine.<br />
+  18. Red oak.<br />
+  19. Red birch.<br />
+  20. Soft maple.<br />
+  21. Red spruce and<br />
+  &nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Black spruce.<br />
+  22. Cork elm.<br />
+  23. Black walnut.<br />
+  24. Mahogany.<br />
+  25. Black oak.<br />
+  26. Western red cedar.<br />
+  27. Pignut hickory.<br />
+  28. Bald cypress.<br />
+  29. White spruce.<br />
+  30. White ash.<br />
+  31. Tideland spruce.<br />
+  </td><td class="left1q" valign="top">
+  32. White oak.<br />
+  33. Basket oak.<br />
+  34. Grand fir.<br />
+  35. Western white pine.<br />
+  36. Red maple.<br />
+  37. Bur oak.<br />
+  38. Cucumber tree.<br />
+  39. Yellow poplar.<br />
+  40. Hemlock.<br />
+  41. Western yellow pine.<br />
+  42. Black ash.<br />
+  43. Sycamore.<br />
+  44. Sweet gum.<br />
+  45. Wild black cherry.<br />
+  46. Chestnut.<br />
+  47. White pine.<br />
+  48. Oregon ash.<br />
+  49. Bass.<br />
+  50. Post oak.<br />
+  51. Sour gum.<br />
+  52. Butternut.<br />
+  53. Red ash.<br />
+  54. Western white oak.<br />
+  55. Engelmann's spruce.<br />
+  56. Sugar pine.<br />
+  57. Oregon maple.<br />
+  58. Blue ash.<br />
+  59. White elm.<br />
+  60. Redwood.<br />
+  61. Red cedar.<br />
+  62. Big tree.<br />
+  63. White cedar.<br />
+  64. Black willow.<br />
+  </td></tr>
+</table>
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page195" id="page195"></a>195</span>
+
+<h5 style="margin-top: 3em;"><span class="sc">List of 66 Common Woods Arranged in the Order of Their Hardness.</span></h5>
+
+<table summary="List of 66 Common Woods Arranged in the Order of Their Weight" align="center">
+<tr><td class="left1q" valign="top">
+   &nbsp;&nbsp;1. Mahogany.<br />
+   &nbsp;&nbsp;2. Pignut.<br />
+   &nbsp;&nbsp;3. Mockernut.<br />
+   &nbsp;&nbsp;4. Post oak.<br />
+   &nbsp;&nbsp;5. Shellbark hickory.<br />
+   &nbsp;&nbsp;6. Black locust.<br />
+   &nbsp;&nbsp;7. Hard maple.<br />
+   &nbsp;&nbsp;8. Western white oak.<br />
+   &nbsp;&nbsp;9. Bur oak.<br />
+  10. Basket oak.<br />
+  11. Cherry birch.<br />
+  12. Blue ash.<br />
+  13. White oak.<br />
+  14. Blue beech.<br />
+  15. Cork elm.<br />
+  16. Wild black cherry.<br />
+  17. Red ash.<br />
+  18. Black oak.<br />
+  19. White ash.<br />
+  20. Sour gum.<br />
+  21. Black walnut.<br />
+  22. Beech.<br />
+  23. Black ash.<br />
+  24. Slash pine.<br />
+  25. Soft maple.<br />
+  26. Red oak.<br />
+  27. Red maple.<br />
+  28. White elm.<br />
+  29. Oregon ash.<br />
+  30. Sycamore.<br />
+  31. Oregon maple.<br />
+  32. Yellow birch.<br />
+  33. Long leaf pine.<br />
+  </td><td class="left1q" valign="top">
+  34. Red cedar.<br />
+  35. Western larch.<br />
+  36. Sweet gum.<br />
+  37. Red birch.<br />
+  38. Short leaf pine.<br />
+  39. Canoe birch.<br />
+  40. Tamarack.<br />
+  41. Cucumber tree.<br />
+  42. Western yellow pine.<br />
+  43. Loblolly pine.<br />
+  44. Chestnut.<br />
+  45. Douglas spruce.<br />
+  46. Black willow.<br />
+  47. Butternut.<br />
+  48. Norway pine.<br />
+  49. Yellow poplar.<br />
+  50. Lawson cypress.<br />
+  51. Hemlock.<br />
+  52. Bald cypress.<br />
+  53. Sugar pine.<br />
+  54. Red spruce and<br />
+  &nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Black spruce.<br />
+  55. Redwood.<br />
+  56. Engelmann's spruce.<br />
+  57. White pine.<br />
+  58. White spruce.<br />
+  59. Tideland spruce.<br />
+  60. Western white cedar.<br />
+  61. Big tree.<br />
+  62. White cedar.<br />
+  63. Western white pine.<br />
+  64. Basswood.<br />
+  65. Grand fir.<br />
+  </td></tr>
+</table>
+<br clear="all" />
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page196" id="page196"></a>196</span>
+
+<h5 style="margin-top: 3em;">THE PRINCIPAL SPECIES OF WOODS.</h5>
+
+<ul class="none">
+<li><span class="sc">References:</span>*
+<ul class="none2">
+<li>Sargent, <i>Jesup Collection</i>.</li>
+<li>Sargent, <i>Manual</i>.</li>
+<li>Britton.</li>
+<li>Roth, <i>Timber</i>.</li>
+<li>Hough, <i>Handbook</i>.</li>
+<li>Keeler.</li>
+<li>Apgar.</li>
+<li>Mohr. <i>For. Bull</i>., No. 22.</li>
+<li>Fernow, <i>Forestry Investigations</i>.</li>
+<li>Lumber Trade Journals.</li>
+<li>Baterden.</li>
+<li>Sargent, <i>Silva</i>.</li>
+<li>Sargent, <i>Forest Trees</i>, 10th Census, Vol. IX.</li>
+<li>Boulger.</li>
+<li>Hough, <i>American Woods</i>.</li>
+<li>Snow.</li>
+<li>Lounsberry.</li>
+<li>Spaulding. <i>For. Bull</i>., No. 13.</li>
+<li>Sudworth. <i>For. Bull</i>., No. 17.</li>
+<li>Forest Service <i>Records of Wholesale Prices of Lumber</i>, List. A.<br /><br /></li>
+
+<li>For particular trees consult For. Serv., Bulletins and Circulars. See
+For. Service <i>Classified List of Publications</i>.</li></ul></li>
+</ul>
+
+<p class="note1"><span style="font-size: 1.2em;">*</span> For general bibliography, see <a class="index" href="#page4">p. 4.</a></p>
+
+<h2><span class="pagenum" style="font-size: 0.4em; font-weight: normal;"><a name="page197" id="page197"></a>197</span><span class="sc">Chapter IV.</span></h2>
+
+<h4>THE DISTRIBUTION AND COMPOSITION OF THE NORTH
+AMERICAN FORESTS.</h4>
+
+<p>The forests of the United States, Map, Fig. 44, may be conveniently
+divided into two great regions, the Eastern or Atlantic Forest,
+and the Western or Pacific Forest. These are separated by the great
+treeless plains which are west of the Mississippi River, and east of
+the Rocky Mountains, and which extend from North Dakota to western
+Texas.<a id="footnotetagChIV1" name="footnotetagChIV1"></a><a href="#footnoteChIV1"><sup>1</sup></a></p>
+
+<p>The Eastern Forest once consisted of an almost unbroken mass,
+lying in three quite distinct regions, (1) the northern belt of conifers,
+(2) the southern belt of conifers, and (3) the great deciduous
+(hardwood) forest lying between these two.</p>
+
+<p>(1) The northern belt of conifers or "North Woods" extended
+thru northern New England and New York and ran south along the
+Appalachians. It reappeared again in northern Michigan, Wisconsin
+and Minnesota. White pine, Fig. 45, was the characteristic tree
+in the eastern part of this belt, tho spruce was common, Fig. 56, <a class="index" href="#page213">p. 213</a>,
+and white and Norway pine and hemlock distinguished it in the
+western part. Altho the more valuable timber, especially the pine,
+has been cut out, it still remains a largely unbroken forest mainly of
+spruce, second growth pine, hemlock and some hardwood.</p>
+
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page198" id="page198"></a>198</span>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 600px;"><a href="images/figure-044-w1200.png"><img src="images/figure-044-a-600.png" width="600" height="392" alt="Forest Regions of the United States." /></a>
+<p class="center1">Fig. 44. Forest Regions of the United States. <i>U. S. Forest Service</i>.</p></div>
+
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page199" id="page199"></a>199-200</span>
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page200" id="page200"></a></span>
+<br />
+
+<div class="figleft" style="width: 300px;"><a href="images/figure-045-w700.png"><img src="images/figure-045-a-300.png" width="300" height="482" alt="Interior of Dense White Pine Forest, Cass Lake, Minn." /></a>
+<p>Fig. 45. Interior of Dense White Pine Forest, Cass Lake, Minn.&nbsp;&nbsp;
+<i>U. S. Forest Service</i>.</p></div>
+
+<div class="figright" style="width: 300px;"><a href="images/figure-046-w700.png"><img src="images/figure-046-a-300.png" width="300" height="485" alt="Long-leaf Pine Forest. Oscilla, Georgia." /></a>
+<p>Fig. 46. Long-leaf Pine Forest. Oscilla, Georgia. <i>U. S. Forest
+Service</i>.</p></div>
+<br clear="all" />
+
+<p style="margin-top: 2em;">(2) The southern pine forest formerly extended from the Potomac
+River in a belt from one to two hundred miles wide along the
+Atlantic coast, across the Florida peninsula, and along the gulf of
+Mexico, skipping the Mississippi River and reappearing in a great
+forest in Louisiana and Eastern Texas. It was composed of almost
+pure stands of pine, the long-leaf, Fig. 46, the short-leaf, and the loblolly,
+with cypress in the swamps and bottom lands. In southern
+Florida the forest is tropical, Fig. 47, like that of the West Indies,
+and in southern Texas it partakes of the character of the Mexican
+forest.</p>
+
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page201" id="page201"></a>201-2</span>
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page202" id="page202"></a></span>
+
+<div class="figleft" style="width: 300px;"><a href="images/figure-047-w700.png"><img src="images/figure-047-a-300.png" width="300" height="405" alt="Semi-tropical Forest, Florida" /></a>
+<p>Fig. 47. Semi-tropical Forest, Florida. Live Oak, Surrounded by
+Cabbage Palmetto, and Hung With Spanish Moss. <i>U. S. Forest Service</i>.</p></div>
+
+<div class="figright" style="width: 300px;"><a href="images/figure-048-w700.png"><img src="images/figure-048-a-300.png" width="300" height="410" alt="Broad-leaf Forest" /></a>
+<p>Fig. 48. Broad-leaf Forest, Protected from Cattle and Fire.
+Hancock Co., Indiana.
+<i>U. S. Forest Service</i>.</p></div>
+<br clear="all" />
+
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page203" id="page203"></a>203</span>
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 600px;"><a href="images/figure-049-w900.png"><img src="images/figure-049-a-600.png" width="600" height="369" alt="Irrigated Ranch on Treeless Alkali Plain" /></a>
+<p>Fig. 49. Irrigated Ranch on Treeless Alkali Plain. Rio Blanco
+Co., Colorada. <i>U. S. Forest Service</i>.</p></div>
+
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page204" id="page204"></a>204</span>
+<p style="margin-top: 2em;">(3) Between these north and south coniferous belts, lay the great
+broad-leaf or hardwood forest, Fig. 48, which constituted the greater
+part of the Eastern Forest and characterized it. It was divided into
+two parts by an irregular northeast and southwest line, running from
+southern New England to Missouri. The southeast portion consisted
+of hardwoods intermixed with conifers. The higher ridges of the
+Appalachian Range, really a leg of the northern forest, were occupied
+by conifers, mainly spruce, white pine, and hemlock. The northwest
+portion of the region, particularly Ohio, Indiana, and Illinois, was
+without the conifers. It was essentially a mixed forest, largely oak,
+with a variable mixture of maples, beech, chestnut, yellow poplar,
+hickory, sycamore, elm, and ash, with birch appearing toward the
+north and pine toward the south.</p>
+
+<p>Taking the Eastern Forest as a whole, its most distinguishing
+feature was the prevalence of broad-leaved trees, so that it might
+properly be called a deciduous forest. The greatest diversity of trees
+was to be found in Kentucky, Tennessee and North Carolina, and this
+region is still the source of the best hardwood lumber.</p>
+
+<p>This great eastern forest, which once extended uninterruptedly
+from the Atlantic to the Mississippi and beyond, has now been largely
+lumbered off, particularly thru the middle or hardwood portion, making
+way for farms and towns. The north and south coniferous belts
+are still mainly unbroken, and are sparsely settled, but the big timber
+is cut out, giving place to poorer trees. This is particularly true of
+the white pine, "the king of American trees," only a little of which,
+in valuable sizes, is left in Michigan, Wisconsin and Minnesota. In
+the same way in the south, the long-leaf pine, once the characteristic
+tree, is fast being lumbered out.</p>
+
+<p>The Western or Pacific forest extends two great legs, one down
+the Rocky Mountain Range, and the other along the Pacific coast.
+Between them lies the great treeless alkali plain centering around
+Nevada, Fig. 49. In these two regions coniferous trees have almost
+a monopoly. Broad-leaved trees are to be found there, along the river
+beds and in ravines, but they are of comparatively little importance.
+The forest is essentially an evergreen forest. Another marked feature
+of this western forest, except in the Puget Sound region, is that the
+trees, in many cases, stand far apart, their crowns not even touching,
+so that the sun beats down and dries up the forest floor, Fig. 50.
+There is no dense "forest cover" or canopy as in the Eastern Forest.
+Moreover these western forests are largely broken up, covering but a
+part of the mountains, many of which are snow-clad, and interrupted
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page205" id="page205"></a>205</span>
+by bare plains. Along the creeks there grow a variety of hardwoods.
+It was never a continuous forest as was the Eastern Forest. The openness
+of this forest on the Rockies and on the eastern slopes of the
+Sierra Nevadas is in marked contrast to the western slopes of the
+Sierras, where there are to be seen the densest and most remarkable
+woods of the world, Fig. 51. This is due to the peculiar distribution
+of the rainfall of the region. The precipitation of the moisture upon
+the northwest coast where the trees are dripping with fog a large
+part of the time, is unequaled by that of any other locality on the
+continent. But the interior of this region, which is shut off by the
+high Sierra Nevadas from the western winds, has a very light and
+irregular rainfall. Where the rainfall is heavy, the forests are dense;
+and where the rainfall is light, the trees are sparse.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 600px;"><a href="images/figure-050-w700.png"><img src="images/figure-050-a-600.png" width="600" height="478" alt="Open Western Forest, Bull Pine. Flagstaff, Arizona." /></a>
+<p class="center1">Fig. 50. Open Western Forest, Bull Pine. Flagstaff, Arizona.
+<i>U. S. Forest Service</i>.</p></div>
+
+<p>Along the Rockies the characteristic trees are Engelmann's spruce,
+bull pine, Douglas fir, and lodgepole pine. As one goes west, the
+variety of trees increases and becomes, so far as conifers are concerned,
+far greater than in the east. Of 109 conifers in the United States,
+80 belong to the
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page206" id="page206"></a>206</span>
+western forests and 28 to the eastern. The Pacific
+forest is rich in the possession of half a dozen leading species&mdash;Douglas
+fir, western hemlock, sugar pine, bull pine, cedar and redwood.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 400px;"><a href="images/figure-051-w700.png"><img
+src="images/figure-051-a-400.png" width="400" height="497" alt="Dense Forest of Puget Sound Region" /></a>
+<p>Fig. 51. Dense Forest of Puget Sound Region, Red Fir and Red
+Cedar. Pierce Co.,
+Washington. <i>U. S. Forest Service</i>.</p></div>
+
+<p>But the far western conifers are remarkable, not only for their
+variety, but still more for the density of their growth, already mentioned,
+and for their great size, Fig. 52. The pines, spruces and
+hemlocks of the Puget Sound region make eastern trees look small,
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page207" id="page207"></a>207</span>
+and both the red fir and the redwood often grow to be over 250 feet
+high, and yield 100,000 feet, B.M., to the acre as against 10,000 feet,
+B.M., of good spruce in Maine. The redwood, Fig. 53, occupies a
+belt some twenty miles wide along the coast from southern Oregon to
+a point not far north of San Francisco and grows even taller than the
+famous big trees. The big trees are the largest known trees in diameter,
+occasionally reaching in that measurement 35 feet.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 400px;"><a href="images/figure-052-w700.png"><img
+src="images/figure-052-a-400.png" width="400" height="494" alt="Virgin Forest of Red Fir, Red Cedar, Western Hemlock, and Oregon Maple" /></a>
+<p>Fig. 52. Virgin Forest of Red Fir, Red Cedar, Western Hemlock,
+and Oregon Maple. Ashford, Washington. <i>U. S. Forest Service</i>.</p></div>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 400px;"><a href="images/figure-053-w700.png"><img
+src="images/figure-053-a-380.png" width="380" height="477" alt="Redwood Forest. Santa Cruz Co., Calif." /></a>
+<p>Fig. 53. Redwood Forest. Santa Cruz Co., Calif. <i>U. S. Forest
+Service</i>.</p></div>
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page208" id="page208"></a>208</span>
+
+<p>The big tree, Fig. 54, occurs exclusively in groves, which, however,
+are not pure, but are scattered among a much larger number of trees
+of other kinds.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 600px;"><a href="images/figure-054-w800.png"><img src="images/figure-054-a-600.png" width="600" height="470" alt="Big Tree Forest. Sierra National Forest, California." /></a>
+<p class="center1">Fig. 54. Big Tree Forest. Sierra National Forest, California.
+<i>U. S. Forest Service</i>.</p></div>
+
+<p>The great and unsurpassed Puget Sound forest is destined to be
+before long the center of the lumber trade of this country.</p>
+
+<p>These two great forests of the east and the west both run northward
+into British America, and are there united in a broad belt of
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page209" id="page209"></a>209</span>
+subarctic forest which extends across the continent. At the far north
+it is characterized by the white spruce and aspen. The forest is
+open, stunted, and of no economic value.</p>
+
+<p>Taking all the genera and species together, there is a far greater
+variety in the eastern than in the western forests. A considerable
+number of genera, perhaps a third of the total, grow within both
+regions, but the species having continental range are few. They are
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page210" id="page210"></a>210</span>
+the following: Larch (<i>Larix laricina</i>), white spruce (<i>Picea
+canadensis</i>),
+dwarf juniper (<i>Juniperus communis</i>), black willow (<i>Salix
+nigra</i>), almond leaf willow (<i>Salix amygdaloides</i>), long leaf willow
+(<i>Salix fluviatilis</i>), aspen (<i>Populus tremuloides</i>), balm of Gilead
+(<i>Populus balsamifera</i>), and hackberry (<i>Celtis occidentalis</i>).</p>
+
+<p class="note1"><a id="footnoteChIV1" name="footnoteChIV1"></a><a class="footnote" href="#footnotetagChIV1">Footnote 1:</a></p>
+<h5>ORIGINAL FOREST REGIONS OF THE UNITED STATES.</h5>
+
+<table width="auto" summary="Original forest regions of the united states." align="center">
+
+<tr>
+       <th>&nbsp;</th>
+       <th>Area</th>
+       <th>Area</th>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+       <th>&nbsp;</th>
+       <th>Thousand acres</th>
+       <th>Per cent.</th>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+       <td><br />Northern forest</td>
+       <td class="right1"><br />158,938</td>
+       <td class="right1"><br />8.4</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+       <td>Hardwood forest</td>
+       <td class="right1">328,183</td>
+       <td class="right1">17.3</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+       <td>Southern forest</td>
+       <td class="right1">249,669</td>
+       <td class="right1">13.1</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+       <td>Rocky Mountains forest</td>
+       <td class="right1">155,014</td>
+       <td class="right1">8.1</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+       <td>Pacific forest</td>
+       <td class="right1">121,356</td>
+       <td class="right1">6.4</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+       <td>Treeless area</td>
+       <td class="right1">887,787</td>
+       <td class="right1">46.7</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+       <td>&nbsp;</td>
+       <td class="right1">&mdash;&mdash;&mdash;&mdash;</td>
+       <td class="right1">&mdash;&mdash;</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+       <td class="left1a">Total land area</td>
+       <td class="right1">1,900,947</td>
+       <td class="right1">100.0</td>
+</tr>
+</table>
+
+<h5 style="margin-top: 3em;">THE DISTRIBUTION AND COMPOSITION OF NORTH AMERICAN FORESTS.</h5>
+
+<ul class="none">
+<li><span class="sc">References:</span>*
+<ul class="none2">
+<li>Sargent, <i>Forest Trees</i>, Intro., pp. 3-10.</li>
+<li>Bruncken, pp. 5-16.</li>
+<li>Roth, <i>First Book</i>, pp. 209-212.</li>
+<li>Shaler, I, pp. 489-498.</li>
+<li>Fernow, <i>For. Inves</i>., pp. 45-51.</li>
+<li>Fernow, <i>Economics</i>, pp. 331-368.</li></ul></li>
+</ul>
+
+<p class="note1"><span style="font-size: 1.2em;">*</span> For general bibliography, see <a class="index" href="#page4">p. 4.</a></p>
+
+<h2><span class="pagenum" style="font-size: 0.4em; font-weight: normal;"><a name="page211" id="page211"></a>211</span><span class="sc">Chapter V.</span></h2>
+
+<h4>THE FOREST ORGANISM.</h4>
+
+<p>The forest is much more than an assemblage of different trees, it
+is an organism; that is, the trees that compose it have a vital relation
+to each other. It may almost be said to have a life of its own,
+since it has a soil and a climate, largely of its own making.</p>
+
+<p>Without these conditions, and without the help and hindrance
+which forest trees give to each other, these trees would not have their
+present characteristics, either in shape, habits of growth or nature
+of wood grain. Indeed, some of them could not live at all.</p>
+
+<p>Since by far the greater number of timber trees grow in the forest,
+in order to understand the facts about trees and woods, it is necessary
+to know something about the conditions of forest life.</p>
+
+<p>A tree is made up of three distinct parts: (1) the roots which
+anchor it in the ground, and draw its nourishment from the moist
+soil; (2) the trunk, or bole, or stem, which carries the weight of the
+branches and leaves, and conveys the nourishment to and from the
+leaves; (3) the crown, composed of the leaves, the branches on which
+they hang, and the buds at the ends of the branches. As trees stand
+together in the forest, their united crowns make a sort of canopy or
+cover, Fig. 55, which, more than anything, determines the factors
+affecting forest life, viz., the soil, the temperature, the moisture, and
+most important of all, the light.</p>
+
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page212" id="page212"></a>212</span>
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 350px;"><a href="images/figure-055-w700.png"><img src="images/figure-055-a-320.png" width="320" height="473" alt="The Forest Cover. Spruce Forest, Bavaria, Germany." /></a>
+<p>Fig. 55. The Forest Cover. Spruce Forest, Bavaria, Germany.
+<i>U. S. Forest Service</i>.</p></div>
+
+<p>On the other hand, every species of tree has its own requirements
+in respect to these very factors of temperature,&mdash;moisture, soil and
+light. These are called its <i>silvical characteristics</i>.</p>
+
+<h3>SOIL.</h3>
+
+<p>Some trees, as black walnut, flourish on good soil, supplanting
+others because they are better able to make use of the richness of the
+soil; while some trees occupy poor soil because they alone are able to
+live there at all. Spruce, Fig. 56, will grow in the north woods on
+such poor soil that it has no competitors, and birches, too, will grow
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page213" id="page213"></a>213</span>
+anywhere in the north woods. In general, it is true that mixed forests,
+Fig. 57, <i>i.e.</i>, those having a variety of species, grow on good
+loamy soil. The great central, deciduous Atlantic Forest grew on such
+soil until it was removed to make room for farms. On the other hand,
+pure stands&mdash;<i>i.e.</i>, forests made up of single varieties&mdash;of pine occupy
+poor sandy soil. Within a distance of a few yards in the midst of a
+pure stand of pine in
+the south, a change in
+the soil will produce a
+dense mixed growth of
+broad-leaves and conifers.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 400px;"><a href="images/figure-056-w700.png"><img src="images/figure-056-a-380.png" width="380" height="483" alt="Virgin Stand of Red Spruce. White Mountains, New Hampshire." /></a>
+<p>Fig. 56. Virgin Stand of Red Spruce. White
+Mountains, New Hampshire. <i>U. S. Forest
+Service</i>.</p></div>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 400px;"><a href="images/figure-057-w700.png"><img src="images/figure-057-a-380.png" width="380" height="469" alt="Typical Mixed Forest,--Red Spruce, Hemlock, White Ash, Yellow Birch, Balsam Fir, and Red Maple. Raquette Lake, New York." /></a>
+<p>Fig. 57. Typical Mixed Forest,&mdash;Red Spruce, Hemlock, White Ash,
+Yellow Birch, Balsam Fir, and Red Maple. Raquette Lake, New
+York. <i>U. S. Forest Service</i>.</p></div>
+
+<p>The soil in the forest
+is largely determined
+by the forest itself.
+In addition to
+the earth, it is composed
+of the fallen and
+decayed leaves and
+twigs and tree trunks,
+altogether called the
+<i>forest floor</i>. It is
+spongy and hence has
+the ability to retain
+moisture, a fact of
+great importance to
+the forest.</p>
+
+<h3>MOISTURE.</h3>
+
+<p>Some trees, as black ash and cypress, Fig. 58, and cotton gum,
+Fig. 59, grow naturally only in moist places; some, as the pi&#241;on and
+mesquite, a kind of locust, grow only in dry places; while others, as
+the juniper and Douglas fir, adapt themselves to either. Both excessively
+wet and dry soils tend to diminish the number of kinds of trees.
+In many instances the demand for water controls the distribution altogether.
+In the Puget Sound region, where there is a heavy rain-fall,
+the densest forests in the world are found, whereas on the eastern
+slopes of the same mountains, altho the soil is not essentially different,
+there are very few trees, because of the constant drouth.</p>
+<a name="cyprus" id="cyprus"></a>
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 400px;"><a href="images/figure-058-w700.png"><img src="images/figure-058-a-350.png" width="350" height="484" alt="Cypress and Cypress 'Knees.' Jasper Co., Texas." /></a>
+<p>Fig. 58. Cypress and Cypress "Knees." Jasper Co., Texas.
+<i>U. S. Forest Service</i>.</p></div>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 600px;"><a href="images/figure-059-w800.png"><img src="images/figure-059-a-600.png" width="600" height="396" alt="Cotton Gums, Showing Buttresses. St. Francis River, Arkansas." /></a>
+<p>Fig. 59. Cotton Gums, Showing Buttresses. St. Francis
+River, Arkansas. <i>U. S. Forest Service</i>.</p></div>
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page214" id="page214"></a>214</span>
+
+<h3>TEMPERATURE.</h3>
+
+<p>The fact that some trees, as paper birch and white spruce, grow
+only in cold regions, and some, as rubber trees and cypress, only in
+the tropics, is commonplace; but a fact not so well known is that it
+is not the average temperature, but the extremes which largely determine
+the habitat of trees of different kinds. Trees which would not
+live at all where there is frost, might flourish well in a region where
+the average temperature was considerably lower. On the other hand,
+provided the growing season is long enough for the species, there is
+no place on earth too cold for trees to live. Fig. 60.</p>
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page215" id="page215"></a>215</span>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 350px;"><a href="images/figure-060-w600.png"><img src="images/figure-060-a-320.png" width="320" height="475" alt="Northern Forest,&mdash;Young Spruce Growing Under Yellow Birch. Santa Clara, New York." /></a>
+<p>Fig. 60. Northern Forest,&mdash;Young Spruce
+Growing Under Yellow Birch. Santa Clara,
+New York. <i>U. S. Forest Service</i>.</p></div>
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page216" id="page216"></a>216</span>
+<p>In general, cold affects the forest just as poor soil and drought do,
+simplifying its composition and stunting its growth. In Canada there
+are only a few kinds of trees, of which the hardwoods are stunted;
+south of the Great Lakes, there is a great variety of large trees;
+farther south in the southern Appalachian region, there is a still
+greater variety, and the trees are just as large; and still farther south
+in tropical Florida, there is
+the greatest variety of all.
+The slopes of a high mountain
+furnish an illustration
+of the effect of temperature.
+In ascending it, one may
+pass from a tropical forest
+at the base, thru a belt
+of evergreen, broad-leaved
+trees, then thru a belt of deciduous
+broad-leaved trees,
+then thru a belt of conifers
+and up to the timber line
+where tree life ceases. Figs. 61, and 62.</p>
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page217" id="page217"></a>217</span>
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 600px;"><a href="images/figure-061-w800.png"><img src="images/figure-061-a-600.png" width="600" height="422" alt="Mixed Hardwoods on Lower Levels. Spruce and Balsam Dominate on Higher Elevations. Mt. McIntyre, Adirondack Mountains, New York." /></a>
+<p>Fig. 61. Mixed Hardwoods on Lower Levels. Spruce and Balsam
+Dominate
+on Higher Elevations. Mt. McIntyre, Adirondack Mountains, New York.
+<i>U. S. Forest Service</i>.</p></div>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 600px;"><a href="images/figure-062-w800.png"><img src="images/figure-062-a-600.png" width="600" height="392" alt="Scrub Growth on Mountain Top. Mt. Webster, New Hampshire." /></a>
+<p>Fig. 62. Scrub Growth on Mountain Top. Mt. Webster, New Hampshire. <i>U. S. Forest Service</i>.</p></div>
+
+<h3>LIGHT.</h3>
+
+<p>More than by any other
+factor, the growth of trees
+in a forest is determined by
+the effect of light. All
+trees need light sooner or
+later, but some trees have
+much more ability than
+others to grow in the shade when young. Such trees, of which maple
+and spruce are examples, are called <i>tolerant</i>, while others, for instance,
+larch, which will endure only a comparatively thin cover or
+none at all, are called <i>intolerant</i>. The leaves of tolerant trees endure
+shade well, so that their inner and lower leaves flourish under the
+shadow of their upper and outer leaves, with the result that the whole
+tree, as beech and maple, makes a dense shadow; whereas the leaves
+of intolerant trees are either sparse, as in the larch, or are so hung
+that the light sifts thru them, as in poplar and oak. The spruces and
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page218" id="page218">218</a></span>
+balsam fir have the remarkable power of growing slowly under heavy
+shade for many years, and then of growing vigorously when the light
+is let in by the fall of their overshadowing neighbors. This can
+plainly be seen in the cross-section of balsam fir, Fig. 63, where the
+narrow annual rings of the early growth, are followed by the wider
+ones of later growth. A common sight in the dense woods is the
+maple sending up a
+long, spindly stem thru
+the trees about it and
+having at its top a little
+tuft of leaves, Fig. 64. By so doing it
+survives. The fact that
+a tree can grow without
+shade often determines
+its possession of
+a burnt-over tract. The
+order in the North
+Woods after a fire is
+commonly, first, a
+growth of fire weed,
+then raspberries or
+blackberries, then aspen,
+a very intolerant
+tree whose light shade
+in turn permits under
+it the growth of the spruce, to which it is a "nurse," Fig. 65. In
+general it may be said that all seedling conifers require some shade
+the first two years, while hardwoods in temperate climates, as a rule,
+do not.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 400px;"><a href="images/figure-063-w700.png"><img src="images/figure-063-a-400.png" width="400" height="398" alt="Cross section of Balsam Fir, Showing Fast Growth After Years of Suppression." /></a>
+<p>Fig. 63. Cross section of Balsam Fir,
+Showing Fast Growth After Years of
+Suppression. Notice the width of the
+annual rings in later age compared
+with early. <i>U. S. Forest Service</i>.</p></div>
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page219" id="page219"></a>219</span>
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 600px;"><a href="images/figure-064-w800.png"><img src="images/figure-064-a-600.png" width="600" height="493" alt="Tolerant Maple. The trees are too slender to stand alone." /></a>
+<p>Fig. 64. Tolerant Maple. The trees are too
+slender to stand alone. <i>U. S. Forest Service</i>.</p></div>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 500px;"><a href="images/figure-065-w700.png"><img src="images/figure-065-a-500.png" width="500" height="434" alt="Intolerant Aspen, a 'nurse' of Tolerant Spruce." /></a>
+<p>Fig. 65. Intolerant Aspen, a "nurse" of Tolerant Spruce.<i> U. S. Forest Service</i>.</p></div>
+<p>This matter of tolerance has also much to do with the branching
+of trees. The leaves on the lower branches of an intolerant tree will
+not thrive, with the result that those branches die and later drop off.
+This is called "cleaning," or natural pruning. Intolerant trees, like
+aspen and tulip, Fig. 66, clean themselves well and hence grow with
+long, straight boles, while tolerant trees, like spruce and fir, retain
+their branches longer.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 320px;"><a href="images/figure-066-w700.png"><img src="images/figure-066-a-300.png" width="300" height="486" alt="Intolerant Tulip. Notice the long, straight boles." /></a>
+<p>Fig. 66. Intolerant Tulip. Notice the long, straight boles. <i>U. S. Forest Service</i>.</p></div>
+
+<p>The distribution of a species may also be determined by geographical
+barriers, like mountain ranges and oceans. This is why the
+western forests differ radically from the eastern forests and why the
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page220" id="page220">220</a></span>
+forest of Australasia is sharply distinct from any other forest in the
+world.</p>
+
+<p>Any one or several of these factors, soil, moisture, heat, and light,
+may be the determining factor in the make-up of a forest, or it may
+be that a particular tree may survive, because of a faster rate of
+growth, thus enabling it to overtop its fellows and cut off their light.
+The struggle for survival is constant, and that tree survives which can
+take the best advantage of the existent conditions.</p>
+
+<p>Besides these topographical and climatic factors which help determine
+the distribution of trees, a very important factor is the historical
+one. For example, the only reason by which the location of the few
+isolated groves of big trees in California can be accounted for is the
+rise and fall of glacial sheets, which left them, as it were, islands
+stranded in a sea of ice. As the glaciers retreated, the region gradually
+became re-forested, those trees coming up first which were best
+able to take advantage of the conditions, whether due to the character
+of their seeds, their tolerance, their endurance of moisture or whatever.
+This process is still going on and hardwoods are probably gaining
+ground.</p>
+
+<p>Besides these external factors which determine the composition
+and organic life of the forest, the trees themselves furnish an important
+factor in their methods of reproduction. These, in general, are
+two, (1) by sprouts, and (2) by seeds.</p>
+
+<p>(1) Most conifers have no power of sprouting. The chief exceptions
+are pitch pine and, to a remarkable degree, the redwood,
+Fig. 67. This power, however, is common in broad-leaved trees, as
+may be seen after a fire has swept thru second growth, hardwood
+timber. Altho all the young trees are killed down to the ground, the
+young sprouts spring up from the still living roots. This may happen
+repeatedly. Coppice woods, as of chestnut and oak, which sprout
+with great freedom, are the result of this ability. The wood is poor
+so that it is chiefly used for fuel.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 340px;"><a href="images/figure-067-w700.png"><img src="images/figure-067-a-300.png" width="300" height="383" alt="Sprouting Redwood Stumps. Glen Blair, Calif." /></a>
+<p>Fig. 67. Sprouting Redwood Stumps. Glen Blair, Calif. <i>U. S. Forest Service</i>.</p></div>
+
+<p>(2) Most trees, however, are reproduced by seeds. Trees yield
+these in great abundance, to provide for waste,&mdash;nature's method.
+Many seeds never ripen, many perish, many are eaten by animals,
+many fall on barren ground or rocks, and many sprout, only to die.
+The weight of seeds has much to do with their distribution. Heavy
+seeds like acorns, chestnuts, hickory and other nuts, grow where they
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page221" id="page221"></a>221-2</span>
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page222" id="page222"></a></span>
+fall, unless carried down hill by gravity or by water, or scattered by
+birds and squirrels.</p>
+
+<p>Trees with winged seeds, however, Fig. 68, as bass, maple and
+pine, or with light seeds, as poplar, often have their seeds carried by
+the wind to great distances.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 320px;"><a href="images/figure-068-w500.png"><img src="images/figure-068-a-300.png" width="302" height="321" alt="Winged Seeds. 1, Basswood; 2, Box-elder; 3, Elm; 4, Fir; 5, 6, 7, 8, Pines." /></a>
+<p>Fig. 68. Winged Seeds. 1, Basswood; 2, Box-elder; 3, Elm; 4, Fir; 5, 6, 7, 8, Pines. <i>U. S. Forest Service</i>.</p></div>
+
+<p>Again some trees, as spruce, are very fertile, while others, like
+beech, have only occasional seed-bearing seasons, once in three or
+four years. Willow seeds lose their power of germination in a few
+days, and hence, unless they soon reach ground where there is plenty
+of moisture, they die. This is why they grow mostly along water
+courses. On the other hand, black locust pods and the cones of some
+pines keep their seeds perfect for many years, often until a fire bursts
+them open, and so they live at the expense of their competitors.</p>
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page223" id="page223"></a>223</span>
+
+<p>It is such facts as these that
+help to account for some of the
+acts of forest composition,&mdash;why
+in one place at one time
+there is a growth of aspens, at
+another time pines, at still another
+oaks; and why beeches
+spring up one year and not another.
+That red cedars grow
+in avenues along fences, is explained
+by the fact that the
+seeds are dropped there by
+birds, Fig. 69.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 320px;"><a href="images/figure-069-w600.png"><img src="images/figure-069-a-300.png" width="300" height="402" alt="Red Cedar Avenue. Seeds dropped by birds which perched on the fences. Indiana." /></a>
+<p>Fig. 69. Red Cedar Avenue. Seeds dropped by birds which perched on the fences. Indiana. <i>U. S. Forest Service</i>.</p></div>
+
+<p>The fact that conifers, as
+the longleaf pine, Fig. 46, <a class="index" href="#page200">p. 200</a>, and spruce, Fig. 55, <a class="index" href="#page211">p. 211</a>,
+are more apt to grow in pure stands than broad-leaved trees, is largely
+accounted for by their winged seeds; whereas the broad-leaved trees
+grow mostly in mixed stands because their heavy seeds are not plentifully
+and widely scattered. This
+is a rule not without exceptions,
+for beech sometimes covers a
+whole mountain side, as Slide
+Mountain in the Catskills, and
+aspens come in over a wide
+area after a fire; but later
+other trees creep in until at
+length it becomes a mixed
+forest.</p>
+
+<p>The essential facts of the
+relation of trees to each other
+in the forest has been clearly
+stated by Gifford Pinchot
+thus:<a id="footnotetagChV1" name="footnotetagChV1"></a><a href="#footnoteChV1"><sup>1</sup></a></p>
+
+<blockquote><p>
+The history of the life of
+a forest is a story of the help
+and harm which trees receive
+from one another. On one side
+every tree is engaged in a relentless
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page224" id="page224"></a>224</span>
+struggle against its neighbors for light, water and food, the three
+things trees need most. On the other side each tree is constantly working
+with all its neighbors, even those which stand at some distance, to bring
+about the best condition of the soil and air for the growth and fighting power
+of every other tree.
+</p></blockquote>
+
+<p>The trees in a forest help each other by enriching the soil in
+which they stand with their fallen leaves and twigs, which are not
+quickly blown or washed away as are those under a tree in the open.
+This collection of "duff" or "the forest floor" retains the moisture
+about their roots, and this moist mass tends to keep the temperature
+of the forest warmer in winter and cooler in summer. The forest
+cover, Fig. 55, <a class="index" href="#page211">p. 211</a>, consisting largely of foliage, has the same effect,
+and in addition protects the bark, the roots, and the seedlings of the
+trees from the direct and continuous hot rays of the sun. Without
+the shade of the leaves, many trees, as white pine, would quickly die,
+as may readily be seen by transplanting them to the open. The mass
+of standing trees tempers the force of the wind, which might overthrow
+some of them, and hinders the drying up of the duff.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 600px;"><a href="images/figure-070-w800.png"><img src="images/figure-070-a-600.png" width="600" height="310" alt="Shallow Roots of Hemlock. Bronx Park, New York, N. Y." /></a>
+<p>Fig. 70. Shallow Roots of Hemlock. Bronx Park, New York, N. Y.</p></div>
+
+<p>But trees hinder as well as help each other. There is a constant
+struggle between them for nourishment and light. To get food and
+water, some trees, as spruces and hemlocks, Fig. 70, spread their roots
+out flat; others, as oak and pine, send down a deep tap root. Those
+succeed in any environment that find the nourishment they need.
+Still more evident is the struggle for light and air. However well a
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page225" id="page225"></a>225</span>
+tree is nourished thru its roots, unless its leaves have an abundance
+of light and air it will not thrive and make wood.</p>
+
+<div class="figleft" style="width: 200px;"><a href="images/figure-071-w500.png"><img src="images/figure-071-a-200.png" width="200" height="485" alt="Long-bodied White Oak of the Forest." /></a>
+<p>Fig. 71. Long-bodied White Oak of the Forest. <i>U. S. Forest Service</i>.</p></div>
+
+<p>Even the trees most tolerant of shade in youth, like spruce, must
+have light later or perish, and hence in a forest there is the constant
+upward reach. This produces
+the characteristic "long-bodied"
+trunk of the forest tree, Fig. 71,
+in contrast to the "short-bodied"
+tree of the open, where the
+branches reach out in all directions,
+Fig. 72. In this constant
+struggle for existence is involved
+the persistent attempt of scattered
+seeds to sprout whenever
+there is an opening. The result
+is that a typical forest is one in
+which all sizes and ages of trees
+grow together. Scattered among
+these are bushes and scrubby
+trees, called "forest weeds," such
+as mountain maple and dogwood,
+Fig. 80, <a class="index" href="#page233">p. 233</a>, which do not
+produce timber.</p>
+
+<div class="figright" style="width: 380px;"><a href="images/figure-072-w600.png"><img src="images/figure-072-a-350.png" width="350" height="439" alt="Short-bodied White Oak of the Open. Fort Lee, N. J." /></a>
+<p>Fig. 72. Short-bodied White Oak of the Open. Fort Lee, N. J.</p></div>
+
+<br clear="all" />
+
+<p class="ind" style="margin-top: 5em;">By foresters the trees themselves
+are classified according to
+their size into:</p>
+
+<ul class="none" style="line-height: 130%">
+<li>Seedlings, less than 3' high,</li>
+<li>Saplings,
+<ul class="none2">
+  <li>Small, 3'-10' high.</li>
+  <li>Large, 4" in diameter, at breast height (4' 6").</li></ul></li>
+<li>Poles,
+<ul class="none2">
+  <li>Small, 4"-8" in diameter, at breast height.</li>
+  <li>Large, 8"-12" in diameter, at breast height.</li></ul></li>
+  <li>Standards, 1'-2' in diameter, at breast height.</li>
+  <li>Veterans, over 2' in diameter, at breast height.</li>
+</ul>
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page226" id="page226"></a>226</span>
+
+<p>Every age has its own dangers. Many seeds never germinate,
+many seedlings perish because they do not reach soil, or are killed by
+too much or too little moisture, or by heat or cold, or shade. At the
+sapling age, the side branches begin to interfere with those of other
+saplings. Buds are bruised and lower branches broken by thrashing
+in the wind, and their leaves have less light. Only the upper branches
+have room and light, and they flourish at the expense of lower ones,
+which gradually die and are thus pruned off. Some trees naturally
+grow faster than others, and they attain additional light and room to
+spread laterally, thus overtopping
+others which are suppressed
+and finally killed,
+beaten in the race for life.</p>
+
+<p>If the growth should remain
+about even so that the
+trees grew densely packed together,
+the whole group would
+be likely to be of a poorer quality,
+but ordinarily the few outgrow
+the many and they are
+called dominant trees. Even
+then, they still have to struggle
+against their neighbors, and at
+this, the large sapling stage,
+many perish, and of those that
+survive there are great differences
+in size. Trees make their
+most rapid growth in height,
+and lay on the widest yearly "rings," at the large sapling and small
+pole age, Fig. 114, <a class="index" href="#page263">p. 263</a>. It is at this stage, too, if the growth is at
+all dense, that the young trees (poles) clean themselves most thoroly
+of their branches. The growth in diameter continues to the end
+of the tree's life, long after the height growth has ceased.</p>
+
+<div class="figright" style="width: 200px;"><a href="images/figure-073-w300.png"><img src="images/figure-073-a-150.png" width="150" height="521" alt="Flattened Crown of Red Pine." /></a>
+<p>Fig. 73. Flattened Crown of Red Pine. <i>U.S. Forest Service</i>.</p></div>
+
+<p>When trees become "standards," and reach the limit of height
+growth, thru their inability to raise water to their tops, their
+branches must perforce grow sidewise, or not at all. The struggle
+for life thus takes a new form.</p>
+
+<p>How trees are able to raise water as high as they do is still unexplained,
+but we know that the chief reason why some trees grow
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page227" id="page227"></a>227</span>
+taller than others, is due to their ability to raise water. The most
+remarkable in this respect are the California redwoods, the big trees,
+and certain eucalypts in Australia.
+This inability of trees to grow above a
+certain height results in a flattening of
+the crown, Fig. 73, and at this stage,
+the trees struggle against each other by
+crowding at the side.</p>
+
+<p>Inasmuch as trees grow more sensitive
+to shade with advancing age, the
+taller trees have the advantage. Each
+survivor is one of a thousand, and has
+outlived the others because it is best
+fitted for the place.</p>
+
+<p>This fact has its effect upon the next
+generation, because it is these dominant
+surviving trees which bear seed most
+abundantly. After the tree has finished
+growing in height and diameter most
+vigorously&mdash;the pole stage&mdash;and proved
+to be fitted for the place, its energy is
+largely spent in raising seed. As this
+process goes on generation after generation,
+only the best coming to maturity
+in each, the poorer sorts are sifted out,
+and each region and continent has
+those species best fitted to meet the conditions
+of life there.</p>
+
+<p>This is the reason why exotics are
+very likely to be sensitive and perhaps
+succumb to influences to which native
+trees are immune.</p>
+
+<p>Standards and veterans are the survivors
+of all the lower stages, each of
+which has had its especial dangers. If
+left alone, the tree gradually dies and
+at last falls and decays, adding somewhat to the fertility of the forest
+soil. From the point of view of human use, it would far better
+have been cut when ripe and turned into lumber. It is a mistake to
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page228" id="page228"></a>228</span>
+suppose that the natural virgin forest is the best possible forest, and
+that it should therefore be left alone. In the National Forests the
+ripe lumber is sold and a considerable revenue is thus available. But
+nature's way with the dead tree is to use it to produce more life.
+How she does so will be explained in the next chapter, on the enemies
+of the forest.</p>
+
+<br clear="all" />
+
+<p class="note1"><a id="footnoteChV1" name="footnoteChV1"></a><a class="footnote" href="#footnotetagChV1">Footnote 1:</a> Gifford Pinchot, <i>Primer of Forestry</i>, p. 44.</p>
+
+<h5 style="margin-top: 3em;">THE FOREST ORGANISM.</h5>
+
+<ul class="none">
+<li><span class="sc">References:</span>*
+<ul class="none2">
+
+<li>Pinchot, <i>For. Bull</i>. No. 24, I, pp. 25-66.</li>
+<li>Bruncken, pp. 13-31.</li>
+<li><i>For. Circ</i>. No. 36, p. 8.</li>
+<li>Fernow, <i>Economics</i>, pp. 140-164.</li></ul></li>
+</ul>
+
+<p class="note1"><span style="font-size: 1.2em;">*</span> For general bibliography, see <a class="index" href="#page4">p. 4</a></p>
+
+<h2><span class="pagenum" style="font-size: 0.4em; font-weight: normal;"><a name="page229" id="page229"></a>229</span><span class="sc">Chapter VI.</span></h2>
+
+<h4>NATURAL ENEMIES OF THE FOREST.</h4>
+
+<p>The natural enemies of the forest&mdash;as distinct from its human
+enemies&mdash;fall into three groups: (1) Meteorological, (2) Vegetable,
+(3) Animal.</p>
+
+<h3>METEOROLOGICAL FORCES.</h3>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 600px;"><a href="images/figure-074-w800.png"><img src="images/figure-074-a-600.png" width="600" height="397" alt="Effect of Wind, July, 1902, Cass County, Minnesota." /></a>
+<p>Fig. 74. Effect of Wind, July, 1902, Cass County, Minnesota. <i>U. S. Forest Service</i>.</p></div>
+
+<p><i>Wind</i>. "Windfalls" are not an uncommon sight in any forest.
+Frequently only small areas are blown down, one large tree upsetting
+a few others, or again a vast region is destroyed by great storms,
+Fig. 74. An area of many square miles in Florida covered with
+long-leaf pine was thus destroyed several years ago. The "slash"
+thus formed, when well dried, is particularly liable to catch fire and
+burn furiously. Windfalls are especially common among shallow-rooted
+trees, as hemlock, basswood and spruce, on sandy soil and on
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page230" id="page230"></a>230-1</span>
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page231" id="page231"></a></span>
+shallow soil underlaid with solid stone, especially where open spaces
+give the wind free sweep. It follows that an unbroken forest is a
+great protection to itself. The only precautions against wind therefore,
+that can be taken by the forester, are to keep the forest unbroken
+by selecting only the larger trees for felling or to cut down a
+given tract by beginning at the side opposite the direction of prevailing
+storms and working toward them.</p>
+
+<p>In sandy regions, the wind does immense harm by blowing the
+sand to and fro in constantly shifting dunes, Figs. 75 and 76. These
+dunes occupy long stretches of the Atlantic coast and the shore of
+Lake Michigan. Such dunes have been estimated to cover 20,000
+square miles of Europe. Along the Bay of Biscay in France, the
+sand dunes formerly drifted in ridges along the shore, damming up
+the streams and converting what was once a forest into a pestilential
+marsh. This region has been reclaimed at great expense by building
+fences along the shore to break the wind and thus keep the moving
+sand within limits. In this way a million acres of productive forest
+have been obtained.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 600px;"><a href="images/figure-075-w800.png"><img src="images/figure-075-a-600.png" width="600" height="388" alt="Sand-dunes, Cape May, New Jersey." /></a>
+<p>Fig. 75. Sand-dunes, Cape May, New Jersey. <i>U.S. Forest Service</i>.</p></div>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 600px;"><a href="images/figure-076-w800.png"><img src="images/figure-076-a-600.png" width="600" height="402" alt="Sand-dune. Oregon." /></a>
+<p>Fig. 76. Sand-dune. Oregon. <i>U.S. Forest Service</i>.</p></div>
+
+<p>On the other hand winds are beneficial to the forest in scattering
+seeds, weeding out weak trees, and developing strength in tree trunks.</p>
+
+<p><i>Drouth</i> both injures the foliage of trees and causes defects in the
+grain of wood, the latter appearing as "false rings." These arise
+from the effort
+of the tree to
+resume growth
+when the water
+supply is restored.
+See <a class="index" href="#page19">p. 19</a>.</p>
+
+<p><i>Water</i>. Certain
+trees have
+become accustomed
+to living
+in much water,
+as cedar and cypress have in swamps, and certain trees have become
+accustomed to periodical floods, but other trees are killed by much
+water. So when lumbermen make a pond which overflows forest
+land, the trees soon die, Fig. 77.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 600px;"><a href="images/figure-077-w800.png"><img src="images/figure-077-a-600.png" width="600" height="308" alt="Effect of Flooding. First Connecticut Lake, New Hampshire." /></a>
+<p>Fig. 77. Effect of Flooding. First Connecticut Lake, New Hampshire. <i>U. S. Forest Service</i>.</p></div>
+
+<p><i>Lightning</i> frequently blasts single trees, and in dry seasons may
+set fire to forests. This is a much more important factor in the west
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page232" id="page232"></a>232</span>
+than in the east,&mdash;in the Rockies, for instance, where there are electrical
+storms without rain.</p>
+
+<p><i>Fires</i> will be considered later under man's relation to the forest.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 600px;"><a href="images/figure-078-w800.png"><img src="images/figure-078-a-600.png" width="600" height="480" alt="Slim Trees Bent Over by Snow; Stouter Trees Unharmed. Zurich, Switzerland." /></a>
+<p>Fig. 78. Slim Trees Bent Over by Snow; Stouter Trees Unharmed. Zurich, Switzerland. <i>U. S. Forest Service</i>.</p></div>
+
+<p><i>Snow and ice</i> often bring serious harm to saplings by permanently
+bending them over, Fig. 78, or by breaking off tops and
+branches.</p>
+
+<p><i>Frost</i> kills young plants; and sudden changes in temperature
+seriously affect grown timber, producing "frost checks" and "wind
+shakes." When there is a sudden fall in temperature, the outside
+layers of the tree, which are full of sap, contract more rapidly than
+the inner portions, with the result that the tree splits with a sudden
+pistol-like report, the check running radially up and down the tree.
+This is called a "frost check" or "star shake," Fig. 41.<i>a</i>, <a class="index" href="#page47">p. 47</a>, and
+such wounds rarely heal, Fig. 79.</p>
+
+<p>On the other hand when the temperature rapidly rises, the outside
+layers of the tree expand so much more rapidly than the inside, that
+they separate with a dull muffled chug, the check extending in a circular
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page233" id="page233"></a>233</span>
+direction following the annual rings. Such checks are often
+called "wind shakes" and "cup shakes," Fig. 41.<i>c</i>, <a class="index" href="#page47a">p. 47</a>. These injuries
+are found in regions where sudden changes of temperature
+occur, rather than in the tropics or in very cold climates.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 320px;"><a href="images/figure-079-w600.png"><img src="images/figure-079-a-300.png" width="300" height="465" alt="Contraction Frost Check." /></a>
+<p>Fig. 79. Contraction Frost Check. <i>U. S. Forest Service</i>.</p></div>
+
+<h3>VEGETABLE ENEMIES.</h3>
+
+<p>Under this head may be classed, in addition to fungi, a number
+of unrelated plants, including such as: moosewood and dogwood, Fig. 80,
+which crowd out young trees; vines, like bitter-sweet, which wind
+about trees and often choke them
+by pressure, cutting thru the
+bark and cambium; saprophytes,
+which smother the foliage
+of trees, of which Spanish
+moss, Fig. 47, <a class="index" href="#page201">p. 201</a>, is an example;
+and finally such parasites
+as the mistletoes, which
+weaken and deform the trees.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 320px;"><a href="images/figure-080-w600.png"><img src="images/figure-080-a-300.png" width="300" height="433" alt="A 'Forest Weed', Flowering Dogwood. North Carolina." /></a>
+<p>Fig. 80. A "Forest Weed," Flowering Dogwood. North Carolina. <i>U.S. Forest Service</i>.</p></div>
+
+<p>The most important of the
+vegetable enemies of trees are
+fungi. It should be remembered,
+however, that, without the decay
+produced by them, the fallen
+trees would soon cover the ground,
+and prevent any new growth, thus
+destroying the natural forest.</p>
+
+<p>Every tree, as has been noted
+(<a class="index" href="#page17">p. 17</a>), is composed of two parts,
+one part, including leaves, young
+branches, roots and sap-wood, living, and the other part, namely, the
+heart-wood, practically dead.</p>
+
+<p>Fungi that attack the live parts of a tree are called parasites,
+while those that live on dead trunks and branches are designated as
+saprophytes. The line, however, between these two classes of fungi
+is not well defined, since some parasites live on both living and dead
+wood. The parasites are of first importance, for, since they kill many
+trees, they control to a large extent the supply of living timber.</p>
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page234" id="page234"></a>234</span>
+
+<p>Nearly all parasitic fungi have two portions, an external fruiting
+portion which bears the spores&mdash;which correspond to the seeds of
+flowering plants&mdash;and an internal portion consisting of a tangle of
+threads or filaments, which ramify the tissues of the tree and whose
+function is to absorb nutriment for the fungus. Fungi are classified
+botanically according to the spore-bearing bodies, their form, color, etc.</p>
+
+<p>The parasitic fungi which are especially destructive to wood are
+those that have naked spores growing on exposed fruiting surfaces
+(the <i>Hymenomycetes</i>). In toadstools (the <i>agarics</i>) these exposed
+surfaces are thin, flat plates called gills. In the polypores, which include
+the shelf fungi, the spore
+surfaces are tubes whose openings
+constitute the pores. In
+the dry-rot, or tear fungus (<i>Merulius
+lacrymans</i>), the spore
+surfaces are shallow cavities.</p>
+
+<p>Some varieties, called <i>true</i>
+parasites, develop in uninjured
+trees, while others, called
+<i>wound</i> parasites, can penetrate
+the tissues of trees, only where
+a cut or injury makes a suitable
+lodgment for the spores.
+Some fungi attack only a single
+species of trees, others
+whole genera; some attack
+only conifers, others deciduous
+trees, while a few attack
+trees of nearly all kinds alike.</p>
+
+<p>Fungal spores when brought
+in contact with a wound on a
+tree or other suitable place, and provided with suitable conditions of
+growth, germinate, penetrate the tissues and grow very rapidly.
+These spores send out long threads or filaments which run thru the
+cells lengthwise and also pierce them in all directions, soon forming
+a network in the wood called the mycelium.</p>
+
+<p>Rotting, in a large number of cases, is due to the ravages of
+fungi. This sometimes shows in the color, as the "red rot" of pine
+or the "bluing" of ash. Sometimes as in "pecky" or "peggy" cypress,
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page235" id="page235"></a>235</span>
+the decayed tracts are tubular. More commonly the decayed parts are
+of irregular shape.</p>
+
+<p>The decay of wood is due to the ravages of low forms of plant
+life, both bacteria and fungi.</p>
+
+<p>A few of the more destructive forms may be noted.</p>
+
+<blockquote><p>
+<i>Trametes pini</i> (Brot.) Fr.
+Foremost among the timber destroying
+fungi is the large brown
+"punk" or "conch" found in its
+typical development on the long-leaf
+and short-leaf pines, <i>Pinus
+palustris</i> and <i>Pinus echinata</i>, Fig. 81.
+The fruiting bodies form
+large masses which grow out from
+a knot, oftentimes as large as a
+child's head. They are cinnamon
+brown on the lower surface, and
+much fissured and broken, on the
+black charcoal-like upper surface.
+This fungus probably causes four-fifths
+of the destruction brought
+about by the timber destroying
+fungi. It occurs on most of the
+conifers in the United States
+which have any value as lumber
+trees, and brings about a characteristic
+white spotting of the
+wood, Fig. 82, which varies with
+the kind of tree attacked. (Von Schrenk, <i>Agric. Yr. Bk</i>., 1900, p. 206.)
+</p></blockquote>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 350px;"><a href="images/figure-081-w500.png"><img src="images/figure-081-a-350.png" width="350" height="455" alt="A 'Conch', the fruiting body of Trametes pini, on Sugar Pine." /></a>
+<p>Fig. 81. A "Conch," the fruiting body of <i>Trametes pini</i>, on Sugar Pine. [<i>Agric. Year Book, 1900</i>, Pl. XXII, Fig. 2.]</p></div>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 600px;"><a href="images/figure-082-w800.png"><img src="images/figure-082-a-600.png" width="600" height="292" alt="Effect of Fungus. (Trametes pini.)" /></a>
+<p>Fig. 82. Effect of Fungus. (<i>Trametes pini</i>.) <i>U. S. Dept. Agric</i>.</p></div>
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page236" id="page236"></a>236</span>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 300px;"><a href="images/figure-083-w400.png"><img src="images/figure-083-a-300.png" width="300" height="336" alt="'Shelf' Fungus on Pine." /></a>
+<p>Fig. 83. "Shelf" Fungus on Pine. <i>a</i>. Sound wood; <i>b</i>. Resinous
+"light" wood; <i>c</i>. Partly decayed
+wood or punk; <i>d</i>. Layer
+of living spore tubes; <i>e</i>. Old
+filled-up spore tubes; <i>f</i>. Fluted
+upper surface of the fruiting
+body of the fungus, which
+gets its food thru a great
+number of fine threads (the
+mycelium), its vegetative tissue
+penetrating the wood and
+causing its decay. [<i>After
+Hartig</i>.</p></div>
+
+<p>Of the shelf fungi, which project like brackets from the stems of
+trees, and have their pores on their under surfaces, one of the commonest
+in many localities is the yellow cheese-like <i>Polyporus sulphureus</i>,
+Fig. 83. This is found on oak, poplar, willow, larch, and other
+standing timber.</p>
+
+<blockquote><p>
+Its spawnlike threads spread from any exposed portion of cambium into
+the pith-rays and between the annual rings, forming thick layers of yellowish-white
+felt, and penetrating the vessels of the wood, which thereupon
+becomes a deep brown color and decays.
+</p></blockquote>
+
+<p>Of the umbrella-shaped gill-bearing fungi, a yellow toadstool,
+called the honey mushroom (<i>Agaricus melleus</i>), is a good example,
+Fig. 84.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 600px;"><a href="images/figure-084-w800.png"><img src="images/figure-084-a-600.png" width="600" height="453" alt="Honey Mushroom. Agaricus melleus." /></a>
+<p>Fig. 84. Honey Mushroom. <i>Agaricus melleus</i>. 1. Cluster of small sporophores.
+2. Larger sporophore with root-like organ of attachment. <i>Forestry Bulletin
+22</i>.
+Plate XII, Figs. 1 and 2.</p></div>
+
+<blockquote><p>
+This fungus, of common occurrence in
+the United States as well as in Europe, is
+exceedingly destructive to coniferous trees,
+the white pine in particular suffering greatly
+from its attacks. It also fastens upon various
+deciduous species as a parasite, attacking
+living trees of all ages, but living as well
+upon dead roots and stumps and on wood that
+has been cut and worked up, occurring frequently
+on bridges, railroad ties, and the
+like, and causing prompt decay wherever it
+has effected an entrance. The most conspicuous
+part of the fungus is found frequently in
+the summer and fall on the diseased parts
+of the tree or timber infested by it. It is
+one of the common toadstools, this particular
+species being recognized by its yellowish color,
+gills extending downward upon the stem,
+which is encircled a little lower down by a
+ring, and by its habit of growing in tufts or
+little clumps of several or many individuals
+together. It is also particularly distinguished
+by the formation of slender, dark-colored strings, consisting of compact
+mycelium, from which the fruiting parts just described arise. These hard
+root-like strings (called rhizomorphs) extend along just beneath the surface
+of the ground, often a distance of several feet, and penetrate the roots
+of sound trees. By carefully removing the bark from a root thus invaded
+the fungus is seen in the form of a dense, nearly white, mass of mycelium,
+which, as the parts around decay, gradually produces again the rhizomorphs
+already described. These rhizomorphs are a characteristic part of the
+fungus. Occurring both in the decayed wood from which they spread to
+the adjacent parts, and extending in the soil from root to root, they constitute
+a most effective agency in the extension of the disease. * * *</p>
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page237" id="page237"></a>237</span>
+
+<p>External symptoms, to be observed especially in young specimens recently
+attacked, consist in a change of the leaves to a pale sickly color and
+often the production of short stunted shoots. A still more marked symptom
+is the formation of great quantities of resin, which flow downward thru the
+injured parts and out into the ground. (<i>Forestry Bulletin</i> No. 22, p. 51.)
+</p></blockquote>
+
+<p>Of the irregular shaped fungi, one of the most destructive is a
+true parasite, <i>i.e.</i>, one that finds lodgment without help, called
+<i>Polyporus
+annosus</i> and also <i>Trametes radiciperda</i>, Fig. 85. It is peculiar
+in developing its fructifications on the exterior of roots, beneath the
+soil. Its pores appear on the upper side of the fructifications. It
+attacks only conifers.</p>
+
+<blockquote><p>
+Its spores, which can be readily conveyed in the fur of mice or other
+burrowing animals, germinate in the moisture around the roots: the fine
+threads of "spawn" penetrate the cortex, and spread thru and destroy the
+cambium, extending in thin, flat, fan-like, white, silky bands, and, here and
+there, bursting thru the cortex in white, oval cushions, on which the subterranean
+fructifications are produced. Each of these is a yellowish-white,
+felt-like mass, with its outer surface covered with crowded minute tubes or
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page238" id="page238"></a>238</span>
+"pores" in which the spores are produced. The wood attacked by this
+fungus first becomes rosy or purple, then turns yellowish, and then exhibits
+minute black dots, which surround themselves with extending soft white
+patches. (Boulger, p. 73.)
+</p></blockquote>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 400px;"><a href="images/figure-085-w700.png"><img src="images/figure-085-a-400.png" width="400" height="472" alt="Stump of Norway Spruce, with a sporophore of polyporus annosus several years old; the inner portions of the stump wholly decayed." /></a>
+<p>Fig. 85. 1. Stump of Norway Spruce, with a sporophore of <i>polyporus annosus</i> several years old; the inner portions of the stump wholly decayed.</p>
+
+<p>2. Roots of a diseased spruce tree, with numerous small
+sporophores of <i>polyporus annosus</i> attached. <i>Forestry Bulletin
+22</i>, Plate XIII, Figs. 1 and 2.</p></div>
+
+<p>Of the fungi which attack converted timber, the most important
+is "dry rot" or "tear fungus" (<i>Merulius lachrymans</i>), Fig. 86. It
+flourishes on damp wood in still air, especially around stables and ill
+ventilated cellars. It gets its name lachrymans (weeping) from its
+habit of dripping moisture.</p>
+
+<blockquote><p>
+The fungus destroys the substance of the timber, lessening its weight
+and causing it to warp and crack; until at length it crumbles up when dry
+into a fine brown powder, or, readily absorbing any moisture in its neighborhood,
+becomes a soft, cheese-like mass. * * * Imperfectly seasoned timber is
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page239" id="page239"></a>239</span>
+most susceptible to dry rot: the fungus can be spread either by its
+spawn or by spores, and these latter can be carried even by the clothes or
+saws of workmen, and are, of course, only too likely to reach sound wood
+if diseased timber is left about near it; but on the other hand dry timber
+kept dry is proof against dry rot, and exposure to really dry air is fatal to
+the fungus.  (Boulger, p. 75.)
+</p></blockquote>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 400px;"><a href="images/figure-086-w600.png"><img src="images/figure-086-a-400.png" width="400" height="328" alt="Portion of the mycelium of dry rot or tear fungus, Merulius lachrymans." /></a>
+<p>Fig. 86. Portion of the mycelium of dry rot or tear fungus, <i>Merulius lachrymans</i>. This
+cakelike mass spreads over
+the surface of the timber. In
+a moist environment pellucid
+drops or "tears" distil from
+its lower surface: Hence its
+name. [Ward: <i>Timber</i>; Fig. 21.]</p></div>
+
+<p>About all that can be done to protect the forest against fungi is
+to keep it clean, that is, to clear out fallen timber and slash, and in
+some cases to dig trenches around affected trees to prevent spreading
+or to cut them out and destroy
+them. Such methods have heretofore
+been too expensive to employ
+in any ordinary American
+forest, but the time is at hand
+when such action will prove
+profitable in many localities.</p>
+
+<p>For the preservation of cut
+timber from decay, several
+methods are used. Fungi need
+heat, air, moisture and food.
+If any one of these is lacking
+the fungus cannot grow. Air
+and heat are hard to exclude
+from wood, but moisture and
+food can be kept from fungi.
+The removal of moisture is
+called seasoning, and the poisoning of the food of fungi is a process
+of impregnating wood with certain chemicals. Both these processes
+are described in <i>Handwork in Wood</i>, Chapter III.</p>
+
+<h3>ANIMAL ENEMIES.</h3>
+
+<p>The larger animals working damage to our forests are chiefly rodents
+and grazing animals. Beavers gnaw the bark, while mice and
+squirrels rob the forest of seed and consequently of new trees. The
+acorns of white oak are particularly liable to be devoured because of
+their sweetness, while those of red and black oak, which afford timber
+of comparatively little value, are allowed to sprout, and thus come
+to possess the land. Hogs annually consume enormous quantities of
+"mast," <i>i.e.</i>, acorns or other nuts, by pasturing in oak and other
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page240" id="page240"></a>240</span>
+forests. They, together with goats and sheep, Figs. 87 and 88, deer
+and cattle, work harm by trampling and browsing. Browsing destroys
+the tender shoots, especially of deciduous trees, but trampling entirely
+kills out the seedlings. The cutting up of the soil by the sharp
+cleft hoofs injures the forest
+floor, by pulverizing it and allowing
+it to be readily washed
+away by storms until deforestation
+may result, as was the
+case in France after the Revolution.
+It has cost the French
+people from thirty to forty
+million dollars to repair the
+damage begun by the sheep. In
+this country, this matter has
+become a very serious one on
+the Pacific Coast, where there are enormous flocks of sheep, and therefore
+the government is trying to regulate the grazing on public lands
+there, especially on steep slopes, where erosion takes place rapidly.<a id="footnotetagChVI1" name="footnotetagChVI1"></a><a href="#footnoteChVI1"><sup>1</sup></a></p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 400px;"><a href="images/figure-087-w600.png"><img src="images/figure-087-a-400.png" width="400" height="268" alt="Goats Eating Foliage, New Mexico." /></a>
+<p>Fig. 87. Goats Eating Foliage, New Mexico. <i>U.S. Forest Service</i>.</p></div>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 600px;"><a href="images/figure-088-w800.png"><img src="images/figure-088-a-600.png" width="600" height="237" alt="Sheep Grazing in Forest, Idaho." /></a>
+<p>Fig. 88. Sheep Grazing in Forest, Idaho. <i>U.S. Forest Service</i>.</p></div>
+
+<p>The most destructive animal enemies of the forest are the insects.
+The average annual loss of trees in the United States from this cause
+alone has been estimated to be one hundred million dollars.</p>
+
+<p>Insects have two objects in their attack on trees, one is to obtain
+food, as when they are in the larval stage, and the other is to provide
+for offspring, as do certain beetles.</p>
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page241" id="page241"></a>241</span>
+
+<p>The number of insect enemies of the forest is enormous. At the
+St. Louis Exposition, there were on exhibit nearly three hundred
+such insects. These belong to some twenty orders, of which the
+beetles (<i>Coleoptera</i>), which have horny wings and biting mouth parts,
+and the moths and butterflies (<i>Lepidoptera</i>), with membraneous
+wings and sucking mouth parts, are the most destructive. Insects
+attack every part of
+the tree, the seed, the
+shoot, the flower, the
+root, the leaf, the bark
+and the wood, both
+standing and cut.</p>
+
+<p>Of the fruit and
+seed pests, the most
+destructive are weevils,
+worms and gall
+insects.</p>
+
+<p>Of the twig and
+shoot pests, beetles,
+weevils and caterpillars
+are the worst.</p>
+
+<p>Among insects that
+attack roots, the periodical
+cicada (17 year
+old locust) may be
+noted.</p>
+
+<p>The leaf pests are
+far more serious. They
+include the true and
+false caterpillars, moths, gall insects and plant lice.</p>
+
+<p>Of the bark pests, the bark beetles are the most destructive.
+These are also called Engraver Beetles from the smoothly cut figures
+which are their burrows under the bark, Figs. 89, 90, 91.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 350px;"><a href="images/figure-089-w600.png"><img src="images/figure-089-a-350.png" width="350" height="439" alt="Work of the Spruce Destroying Beetle." /></a>
+<p>Fig. 89. Work of the Spruce Destroying Beetle:
+<i>a</i>. Primary gallery; <i>b</i>. Borings packed in side; <i>c</i>. Entrance
+and central burrow thru the packed borings;
+<i>d</i>. Larval mines. Note how the eggs are grouped on
+the sides. [<i>Agric. Year Book</i>, 1902, Fig. 24, p. 268].</p></div>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 350px;"><a href="images/figure-090-w700.png"><img src="images/figure-090-a-350.png" width="350" height="416" alt="Complete brood Galleries of the Hickory Bark Beetle in Surface of Wood." /></a>
+<p>Fig. 90. Complete brood Galleries of the Hickory Bark Beetle in Surface of Wood. [<i>Agric. Year Book</i>,
+1903, Fig. 28, p. 316.</p></div>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 200px;"><a href="images/figure-091-w400.png"><img src="images/figure-091-a-200.png" width="200" height="407" alt="Brood Galleries of the Oak Bark Beetle." /></a>
+<p>Fig. 91. Brood Galleries of the Oak Bark Beetle, showing
+Character of Primary Gallery
+at <i>b</i>; Larval or Brood Mines at
+<i>a</i>. [<i>Agric. Year Book</i>, 1903, Fig. 30, page 318.]</p></div>
+
+<blockquote><p>
+Many pairs of beetles make a simultaneous attack on the lower half of
+the main trunk of medium-sized to large trees. They bore thru the outer
+bark to the inner living portion, and thru the inner layers of the latter;
+they excavate long, irregular, longitudinal galleries, and along the sides of
+these at irregular intervals, numerous eggs are closely placed. The eggs
+soon hatch and the larvae at once commence to feed on the inner bark, and
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page242" id="page242"></a>242</span>
+as they increase in size, extend and enlarge their food burrows in a general
+transverse but irregular course, away from the mother galleries (see illustration).
+When these young and larval forms are full grown, each excavates
+a cavity or cell at the end of its burrow and next to the outer corky
+bark.  (Hopkins, <i>Agric. Yr. Bk</i>., 1902.)
+</p></blockquote>
+
+<p>Some of the species attack living trees, causing their rapid death,
+and are among the most destructive enemies of American forests.</p>
+
+<p>All of the above indirectly
+affect both the
+quantity and quality
+of the wood supply.
+They can be studied
+more in detail in the
+publications of the U.S.
+Bureau of Entomology.</p>
+
+<p>Of the insects directly
+attacking wood,
+the most important
+are the ambrosia or
+timber beetles, the borers,
+the ants, and the
+carpenter bees. The
+most remarkable feature
+of the beetle is the
+manner of its boring
+into the harder parts
+of the wood. Its jaws
+are particularly constructed
+for this work,
+being heavy and strong. The boring is done something after the manner
+of countersinking, and the jaws are believed to be self-sharpening,
+by reason of the peculiar right to left and left to right motion.</p>
+
+<blockquote><p>
+<i>Ambrosia</i> or <i>timber beetles</i>, Fig. 92. This class of insects attacks living,
+dead, and felled trees, sawlogs, green lumber, and stave-bolts, often
+causing serious injury and loss from the pin-hole and stained-wood defects
+caused by their brood galleries. The galleries are excavated by the parent
+beetles in the sound sap-wood sometimes extending into the heart-wood, and
+the young stages feed on a fungus growth which grows on the walls of
+galleries. (Hopkins, Entom. Bulletin No. 48, p. 10.) The growth of this
+ambrosia-like fungus is induced or controlled by the parent beetles and the
+young are dependent on it for food. (Hopkins, <i>Agric. Yr. Bk</i>., 1904.)
+</p></blockquote>
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page243" id="page243"></a>243</span>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 500px;"><a href="images/figure-092-w700.png"><img src="images/figure-092-a-500.png" width="500" height="297" alt="Work of Ambrosia Beetle, Xyloborus celsus." /></a>
+<p>Fig. 92. Work of Ambrosia Beetle,
+<i>Xyloborus celsus</i>, in Hickory Wood: <i>a</i>,
+Larva; <i>b</i>, Pupa; <i>c</i>, Adult beetle; <i>d</i>, Character
+of work in lumber cut from injured
+log; <i>e</i>, Bark; <i>f</i>, Sap wood; <i>g</i>, Heartwood.
+[<i>Agric. Year Book</i>, 1904, Fig. 44,
+p. 384.]</p></div>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 500px;"><a href="images/figure-093-w700.png"><img src="images/figure-093-a-500.png" width="500" height="299" alt="Work of Ambrosia Beetles in Oak." /></a>
+<p>Fig. 93. Work of Ambrosia Beetles in Oak: <i>a</i>, <i>Monarthum mali</i>, and work;
+<i>b</i>, <i>Platypus compositus</i>, and work; <i>c</i>,
+Bark; <i>d</i>, Sap-wood; <i>e</i>, Heart-wood; <i>f</i>,
+Character of work in lumber from injured
+log. [<i>Agric. Year Book</i>, 1904, Fig. 45, p. 384.]</p></div>
+
+<blockquote><p>
+There are two general types or classes of
+these galleries, one in which the broods develop
+together in the main burrows, the other,
+in which the individuals develop in short
+separate side chambers extending at right
+angles from the primary gallery, Fig. 93.
+The galleries of the latter type are usually
+accompanied by a distinct staining of the
+wood, while those of the former are not.
+(Hopkins, <i>Agric. Yr. Bk</i>., 1904, p. 383.)</p>
+
+<p><i>Bark</i> and <i>wood borers</i>, Fig. 94. This
+class of enemies differs from the preceding in the fact that the parent beetles
+do not burrow into the wood or bark, but deposit their eggs on the surface.
+The elongate, whitish, round-headed (<i>Cerambycid</i>), flat-headed (<i>Buprestid</i>),
+or short, stout (<i>Curculionid</i>)
+grubs hatching from these
+eggs cause injury by burrowing
+beneath the bark, or
+deep into the sap-wood and
+heart-wood of living, injured
+and dead trees, sawlogs,
+etc. Some of the species
+infest living trees, Fig. 95,
+causing serious injury
+or death. Others attack
+only dead or dying bark and
+wood, but this injury often
+results in great loss from
+the so-called wormhole defects.
+(A. D. Hopkins,
+<i>Entom. Bull</i>., No. 48, p. 10.)
+</p></blockquote>
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page244" id="page244"></a>244</span>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 500px;"><a href="images/figure-094-w700.png"><img src="images/figure-094-a-500.png" width="500" height="273" alt="Work of Round-Headed and Flat-Headed Borers in Pine." /></a>
+<p>Fig. 94. Work of Round-Headed and Flat-Headed Borers in Pine: <i>a</i>, Work
+of round-headed borers, "sawyer," <i>Monohamnus</i>
+sp.; <i>b</i>, <i>Ergates spiculatus</i>; <i>c</i>, Work
+of flat-headed borer, <i>Buprestis</i>, larva
+and adult. [<i>Agric. Year Book</i>, 1904,
+Fig. 46, p. 385.]</p></div>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 600px;"><a href="images/figure-095-w800.png"><img src="images/figure-095-a-600.png" width="600" height="492" alt="Hemlock Killed by Buprestid Worms. Hoquiam, Washington." /></a>
+<p>Fig. 95. Hemlock Killed by Buprestid Worms. Hoquiam, Washington. <i>U.S. Forest Service</i>.</p></div>
+
+<blockquote><p>
+The pine sawyers are
+among the most troublesome
+pests in the mill
+yard, and their large,
+white larvae often do
+much damage to logs by
+eating great holes thru
+their solid interior. While
+burrowing in the wood
+the larvae make a peculiar
+grating sound that
+may be heard on quiet
+nights at a considerable
+distance. This is a familiar
+sound in the lumber
+camps of the North,
+and has probably given rise to the name of the pine sawyers by which these
+insects are known.  (<i>Forestry Bulletin</i>, No. 22, p. 58.)</p>
+
+<p><i>Powder-post beetles</i>, Fig. 96. This is a class of insects representing
+two or three families of beetles, the larvae of which infest and convert into
+fine powder many different kinds of dry and seasoned wood products, such
+as hickory and ash handles, wagon spokes, lumber, etc., when wholly or in
+part from the sap-wood of trees. Oak and hemlock tan-bark is sometimes
+injured to a great extent, and the structural timbers of old houses, barns,
+etc, are often seriously injured, while hop poles and like products are attacked
+by one set of these insects, the adults of which burrow into the wood
+for the purpose of
+depositing their
+eggs.  (Hopkins,
+<i>Forestry Bulletin</i>
+No. 48, p. 11.)
+</p></blockquote>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 500px;"><a href="images/figure-096-w800.png"><img src="images/figure-096-a-500.png" width="500" height="142" alt="Work of Powder Post Beetle, Sinoxylon basilare, in hickory pole." /></a>
+<p>Fig. 96. Work of Powder Post Beetle, <i>Sinoxylon basilare</i>, in hickory pole: <i>a</i>, Character of work by larvae;
+<i>b</i>, Exit holes made by emerging broods. [<i>Agric. Year
+Book</i>, 1904, Fig. 49.]</p></div>
+
+<blockquote><p>
+<i>Timber worms</i>,
+Fig. 97. This class
+of true wood-boring
+"worms," or
+grubs, are the larvae
+of beetles.
+They enter the
+wood from eggs deposited
+in wounds
+in living trees,
+from which they
+burrow deep into
+the heart-wood.
+Generation after
+generation  may
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page245" id="page245"></a>245</span>
+develop in the wood of a tree without affecting its life but the wood is rendered
+worthless for most purposes by the so-called wormhole and pinhole
+defects resulting from their burrows. The same species also breed in the
+wood of dying and dead standing trees, and in the stumps and logs of felled
+ones, often for many years after the trees are felled. One species sometimes
+attacks freshly sawed oak lumber, new stave bolts, etc. They are among
+the most destructive enemies
+of hardwood forest
+trees, especially in reducing
+the value of the
+wood of the best part of
+the trunks. (Hopkins,
+<i>Forestry Bulletin</i> No. 48,
+p. 10.)
+</p></blockquote>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 500px;"><a href="images/figure-097-w700.png"><img src="images/figure-097-a-500.png" width="500" height="311" alt=" Work of Timber Worms in Oak." /></a>
+<p>Fig. 97. Work of Timber Worms in Oak: <i>a</i>, Work of oak timber worm,
+<i>Eupsalis minuta</i>; <i>b</i>. Barked surface;
+<i>c</i>. Bark; <i>d</i>. Sap-wood timber worm, <i>Hylocaetus
+lugubris</i>, and its work; <i>e</i>. Sap-wood.
+[<i>Agric. Year Book</i>, 1904, Fig. 47,
+p. 386.]</p></div>
+
+<blockquote><p>
+The <i>carpenter worms</i>,
+Fig. 98. These are large
+pinkish caterpillars which are the larvae of stout-bodied moths. They enter
+the bark and wood of living oak, locust, poplar and other trees, from eggs
+deposited by the moths in the crevices of uninjured bark, or in the edges of
+wounds. They burrow deep into the solid wood, where they live for two or
+three years before transforming to the adult. The wood is seriously injured
+by the very large wormhole defects, and while the life of the tree is but
+slightly, if at all, affected
+by the earlier attacks,
+the continued
+operations of this class
+of borers year after year,
+finally results in the decay
+of the heart-wood, or
+a hollow trunk and a
+dead  top.  (Hopkins,
+<i>Forestry  Bulletin</i>,  No.
+48, p. 11.)
+</p></blockquote>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 500px;"><a href="images/figure-098-w600.png"><img src="images/figure-098-a-500.png" width="500" height="274" alt="Worm Holes in Red Oak, Work of the Oak Carpenter Worm." /></a>
+<p>Fig. 98. Worm Holes in Red Oak, Work of the Oak Carpenter Worm. [<i>Agric. Year
+Book</i>, 1903, Fig. 37, p. 324.]</p></div>
+
+<blockquote><p>
+<i>Columbian Timber-beetle</i>
+One of the commonest
+wormhole defects
+in white oak, rock oak,
+beech, and tulip ("whitewood"
+or "yellow poplar")
+is one known to
+the lumber trade as grease spots, patch-worm, or black holes, Fig. 99, steam
+boats, Fig. 100, etc., caused by the Columbian timber beetle (<i>Corthylus columbianus
+Hopk</i>.) The characteristic feature of this wormhole defect, which
+will enable it to be readily recognized in oak and beech, is transverse series
+of two or more black holes about the size of the lead in an ordinary lead
+pencil, with a streak of stained wood extending with the grain two or three
+or more inches each side, as in Fig. 99. In quarter-sawed oak or split or
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page246" id="page246"></a>246</span>
+sawed staves, a short longitudinal
+section of one of these black
+holes is seen attended by the
+stained streak on one side of a
+thick or curly growth or grain,
+Fig. 100. It is this form which
+is called "steamboats." In whitewood
+(yellow poplar) the black
+holes are attended by very long
+black, greenish, or bluish streaks,
+sometimes five or six feet long.
+When this is common in the
+lumber it is called "calico poplar." Fig. 101 represents the characteristic appearance
+of this defect greatly reduced. (Hopkins, <i>Agric. Yr. Bk</i>., 1903, p. 327.)
+</p></blockquote>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 320px;"><a href="images/figure-099-w450.png"><img src="images/figure-099-a-300.png" width="300" height="452" alt="Work of the Columbian Timber Beetle: Black holes and 'grease spots' in white oak." /></a>
+<p>Fig. 99. Work of the Columbian Timber Beetle: Black holes and "grease spots" in white oak.
+[<i>Agric. Year Book</i>, 1903, Fig. 38,
+p. 325.]</p></div>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 500px;"><a href="images/figure-100-w700.png"><img src="images/figure-100-a-500.png" width="500" height="96" alt="Work of the Columbian Timber Beetle: 'Steamboats' in quartered or Split white oak." /></a>
+<p>Fig. 100. Work of the Columbian Timber Beetle: "Steamboats" in quartered or Split white oak. [<i>Agric.
+Year Book</i>, 1903, Fig. 39, p. 326.]</p></div>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 500px;"><a href="images/figure-101-w800.png"><img src="images/figure-101-a-500.png" width="500" height="249" alt="Work of the Columbian Timber Beetle in Tulip Wood, 'Calico Poplar.'" /></a>
+<p>Fig. 101. Work of the Columbian Timber Beetle in Tulip Wood, "Calico Poplar," [<i>Agric. Year Book</i>
+1903, Fig. 40, p. 326.]</p></div>
+
+<blockquote><p>
+<i>Carpenter bees</i>. The work of this
+class of woodboring bees is shown in Fig. 102.
+The injury consists of large augerlike
+tunnels in exposed, solid dry wood of
+buildings and other structures. It is most
+common in soft woods, such as pine, poplar,
+redwood and the like. (Hopkins,
+<i>Agric. Yr. Bk</i>., 1904, p. 390.)
+</p></blockquote>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 220px;"><a href="images/figure-102-w400.png"><img src="images/figure-102-a-180.png" width="180" height="448" alt="Work of the Carpenter Bee, Xylocopa orpifex, in Redwood Lumber." /></a>
+<p>Fig. 102. Work of the Carpenter
+Bee, <i>Xylocopa orpifex</i>, in Redwood Lumber: <i>a</i>, entrance;
+<i>b</i>, galleries; <i>c</i>, cells; <i>d</i>, larva;
+<i>e</i>, adult. [<i>Agric. Year Book</i>,
+1904, Fig. 53, p. 390.]</p></div>
+
+<blockquote><p>
+<i>Horn tails</i>. This is a class of borers
+which are the larvae of the so-called wood
+wasps. They may enter the exposed dead
+wood of wounds of living trees, but more
+commonly attack the wood of dead standing
+conifers and hard woods, in the sap-wood
+of which they excavate irregular
+burrows, which are packed with their borings.
+When the adults emerge they leave
+the surface perforated with numerous
+round holes. Water and fungi entering
+these holes cause a very rapid decay of
+the wood. (Hopkins, <i>Entom. Bull</i>. No. 48,
+p. 11.)
+</p></blockquote>
+
+<p>The tunnels of these various wood pests are most frequently to
+be seen in chestnut, ash, hickory, oak, tulip, and cypress.</p>
+
+<p>One would think
+that with such an array
+of enemies, the
+forest would hardly
+survive, but on the
+other hand there are
+many enemies of these
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page247" id="page247"></a>247</span>
+pests. The most destructive are the predaceous and parasitic insects.
+Many insects are simply predaceous, pouncing upon and destroying
+such other insects as they can overcome.
+Still others are parasites, some external,
+but most of them living within the bodies
+of their victims where they pass their
+entire larval life. The eggs are laid on
+or in the body of the victim, so that as
+soon as one hatches, it has suitable food.
+The ichneumon fly, Fig. 103, is such a
+parasite; it destroys millions of insect
+pests. It has a long and peculiar ovipositor
+with which it drills a hole into the
+tree and deposits the egg in a burrow of
+the Pigeon Horntail, a wood wasp that
+burrows into deciduous trees. The larva
+soon finds its victim, the grub of the
+Pigeon Horntail, and lives on it to its
+destruction.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 300px;"><a href="images/figure-103-w500.png"><img src="images/figure-103-a-300.png" width="300" height="277" alt="Ichneumon Fly whose Larva Feeds on the Larva of the Pigeon Horn-tail." /></a>
+<p>Fig. 103. Ichneumon Fly whose Larva Feeds on the Larva of the Pigeon Horn-tail.</p></div>
+
+<p>It would seem that it is a hopeless
+task to control the insect enemies of forest
+trees and forest products or to prevent
+losses from their ravages, but the
+writer is informed by Dr. A. D. Hopkins,
+the expert in the Bureau of Entomology
+in charge of forest insect investigations, that the results of their investigations
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page248" id="page248">248</a></span>
+show conclusively that there
+are many practical and inexpensive methods of control now available
+thru the suggestions and recommendations in recent Department publications
+on forest insects, as well as thru direct correspondence with
+the Department. These methods are based on the principle of prevention
+and not on that of extermination. It has been shown that
+thru proper adjustment of the details in management of forests and
+of the business of manufacturing, storing, transporting, and utilizing
+the products a large percentage of the losses can be prevented at small
+additional expense, and that even when considerable cost is involved
+the amount saved will often represent a handsome profit.</p>
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page249" id="page249"></a>249-50</span>
+
+<p class="note1a"><a id="footnoteChVI1" name="footnoteChVI1"></a><a class="footnote" href="#footnotetagChVI1">Footnote 1:</a> The evils of grazing are increased by the fact that fires are sometimes
+started intentionally in order to increase the area of grazing land.</p>
+
+<h5 style="margin-top: 3em;">THE NATURAL ENEMIES OF THE FOREST.</h5>
+
+<ul class="none">
+<li><span class="sc">References:</span>*
+
+<ul class="none2">
+  <li>(1) Meterological.
+<ul class="none3">
+            <li>Pinchot, <i>Primer</i> I, pp. 75-76.</li>
+            <li>Roth, <i>First Book</i>, <i>pp</i>. 198-202.</li>
+            <li>Bruncken, pp. 27-29.<br /><br /></li></ul></li>
+
+      <li>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Water.
+	<ul class="none3">
+            <li>Roth, <i>First Book</i>, p. 27.<br /><br /></li></ul></li>
+
+      <li>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Snow, ice and frost.
+	 <ul class="none3">
+            <li>Pinchot, <i>Primer</i>, I, p. 76.</li>
+            <li>Bruce, <i>For. and Irr</i>., 8: 159, Ap. '02.<br /><br /></li></ul></li>
+
+  <li>(2) Vegetable.
+     <ul class="none3">
+            <li>Roth, <i>First Book</i>, p. 4.</li>
+            <li>Boulger, pp. 70-75.</li>
+            <li>Spaulding, <i>For. Bull</i>., No. 22.</li>
+            <li>Ward, Chaps. V, VI, VII.</li>
+            <li>Sickles, pp. 41-45.</li>
+            <li>von Schrenck, <i>For. Bull</i>., No. 41, Pl. III.</li>
+            <li>Sherfesee. <i>For. Circ</i>. No. 139.</li>
+            <li>von Schrenck, <i>Bur. Plant Ind. Bull</i>. No. 36.</li>
+            <li>von Schrenck, <i>Bur. Plant Ind. Bull</i>. No. 32.</li>
+            <li>von Schrenck, <i>Agric. Yr. Bk</i>., 1900, p. 199.<br /><br /></li></ul></li>
+
+  <li>(3) Animal.</li>
+
+      <li>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Grazing.
+	  <ul class="none3">
+            <li>Pinchot, <i>Primer I</i>, pp. 69-73, II, p. 73.</li>
+            <li>Pinchot, <i>Agric. Yr. Bk</i>., 1898, p. 187</li>
+            <li>Coville, <i>For. Bull</i>. No. 15, pp. 28-31.</li>
+            <li>Roth, <i>First Bk</i>., p. 130, 178.<br /><br /></li></ul></li>
+
+      <li>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Insects.
+	  <ul class="none3">
+            <li>Comstock, passim.</li>
+            <li>Hopkins,  <i>Agric.  Yr.  Bk</i>., 1902, pp. 265-282.</li>
+            <li>Roth, <i>First Book</i>, pp. 115-130.</li>
+            <li>Howard, <i>Entom. Bull</i>., No. 11, n. s.</li>
+            <li>Hopkins, Spaulding, <i>Entom. Bull</i>., No. 28.</li>
+            <li>Hopkins, <i>Entom. Bull</i>., No. 48.</li>
+            <li>Hopkins, <i>Agric. Yr. Bk</i>., 1903, pp. 313-329.</li>
+            <li>Hopkins, <i>Agric. Yr. Bk</i>., 1904, pp. 382-389, Figs. 43-56.</li>
+            <li>Pinchot, <i>Primer</i>, I, p. 73.</li>
+            <li>Felt, N. Y. <i>State Museum Bull</i>., 103, Ent. 25.</li>
+            <li>Hopkins, <i>Entom. Bull</i>. No. 32.</li>
+            <li>Hopkins, <i>Entom. Bull</i>. No. 56.</li>
+            <li>Hopkins, <i>Entom. Bull</i>. No. 58.</li>
+            <li>Spaulding and Chittenden, <i>For. Bull</i>. No. 22, pp. 55-61.</li></ul></li></ul></li>
+</ul>
+
+<p class="note1"><span style="font-size: 1.2em;">*</span> For general bibliography, see <a class="index" href="#page4">p. 4.</a></p>
+
+<h2><span class="pagenum" style="font-size: 0.4em; font-weight: normal;"><a name="page251" id="page251"></a>251</span><span class="sc">Chapter VII.</span></h2>
+
+<h4>THE EXHAUSTION OF THE FOREST.</h4>
+
+<p>The exhaustion of the forest in the United States is due to two
+main causes: (1) Fire, and (2) Destructive Lumbering.</p>
+
+<h3>FIRE.</h3>
+
+<p>It is not commonly realized that forest fires are almost entirely
+the result of human agency. When cruisers first began to locate
+claims in this country, practically no regions had been devastated by
+fire. Now such regions are to be seen everywhere. Altho lightning
+occasionally sets fire to forests, especially in the Rocky Mountains,
+the losses from this cause are trifling compared with the total loss.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 600px;"><a href="images/figure-104-w800.png"><img src="images/figure-104-a-600.png" width="600" height="256" alt="Slash, Left in the Woods, and Ready to Catch Fire." /></a>
+<p>Fig. 104. Slash, Left in the Woods, and Ready to Catch Fire.
+<i>U. S. Forest Service</i>.</p></div>
+
+<p><i>Opportunities for fire</i>. There are a number of facts that make the
+forest peculiarly liable to fire. Especially in the fall there are great
+quantities of inflammable material, such as dry leaves, twigs, and duff
+lying loose ready for ignition. The bark of some trees, as "paper
+birch," and the leaves of others, as conifers, are very inflammable. It
+follows that fires are more common in coniferous than in deciduous
+forests. After lumbering or windfalls, the accumulated "slash" burns
+easily and furiously, Fig. 104. Moreover a region once burned over,
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page252" id="page252"></a>252</span>
+is particularly liable to burn again, on account of the accumulation
+of dry trunks and branches. See <a class="index" href="#fig107">Fig. 107</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Long dry seasons and high wind furnish particularly favorable
+conditions for fire. On the other hand, the wind by changing in direction
+may extinguish the fire by turning it back upon its track.
+Indeed the destructive power of fires depends largely upon the wind.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 600px;"><a href="images/figure-105-w800.png"><img src="images/figure-105-a-600.png" width="600" height="437" alt="Forest Fire." /></a>
+<p>Fig. 105. Forest Fire. <i>U. S. Forest Service</i>.</p></div>
+
+<p><i>Causes of fire</i>. Forest fires are due to all sorts of causes, accidental
+and intentional. Dropped matches, smouldering tobacco, neglected
+camp fires and brush fires, locomotive sparks, may all be accidental
+causes that under favorable conditions entail tremendous loss. There
+is good reason to believe that many forest fires are set intentionally.
+The fact that grass and berry bushes will soon spring up after a fire,
+leads sheep men, cattle and pig owners, and berry pickers to set fires.
+Vast areas are annually burned over in the United States for these
+reasons. Most fires run only along the surface of the ground, doing
+little harm to the big timber, and if left alone will even go out of
+themselves; but if the duff is dry, the fire may smoulder in it a long
+time, ready to break out into flame when it reaches good fuel or
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page253" id="page253"></a>253</span>
+when it is fanned by the wind, Fig. 105. Even these ground fires
+do incalculable damage to seeds and seedlings, and the safest plan is
+to put out every fire no matter how small.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 250px;"><a href="images/figure-106-w400.png"><img src="images/figure-106-a-220.png" width="220" height="447" alt="Burned Forest of Engelmann Spruce. Foreground, Lodgepole Pine Coming in." /></a>
+<p>Fig. 106. Burned Forest of Engelmann Spruce. Foreground, Lodgepole Pine Coming in. <i>U. S. Forest Service</i>.</p></div>
+
+<p>Altho it is true that the loss of a forest is not irremediable because
+vegetation usually begins again at once, Fig. 106, yet the actual
+damage is almost incalculable.
+The tract may lie year after
+year, covered with only worthless
+weeds and bushes, and if
+hilly, the region at once begins
+to be eroded by the rains.</p>
+
+<p>After the fire, may come
+high winds that blow down the
+trunks of the trees, preparing
+material for another fire, Fig. 107.</p>
+<a name="fig107" id="fig107"></a>
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 600px;"><a href="images/figure-107-w800.png"><img src="images/figure-107-a-600.png" width="600" height="458" alt="Effect of Fire and Wind. Colorado." /></a>
+<p>Fig. 107. Effect of Fire and Wind. Colorado. <i>U. S. Forest
+Service</i>.</p></div>
+
+<p>The statistics of the actual
+annual money loss of the timber
+burned in the United States
+are not gathered. In 1880
+Professor Sargent collected
+much information, and in the
+census of that year (10th Census,
+Vol. IX) reported 10,000,000
+acres burned that year at
+a value of $25,000,000.</p>
+
+<p>In 1891, the Division of
+Forestry collected authentic
+records of 12,000,000 acres
+burned over in a single year,
+at an estimated value of $50,000,000.</p>
+
+<p>In the Adironacks in the
+spring of 1903, an unprecedentedly
+dry season, fire after fire caused a direct loss of about $3,500,000.</p>
+
+<p>In 1902, a fire on the dividing line between Washington and Oregon
+destroyed property amounting to $12,000,000. Within comparatively
+recent years, the Pacific Coast states have lost over $100,000,000
+worth of timber by fire alone.</p>
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page254" id="page254"></a>254</span>
+
+<p>During September, 1908, forest fires raged in Minnesota, Michigan,
+Wisconsin, Maine, New York and Pennsylvania. The estimates
+of loss for northern Michigan alone amounted to $40,000,000. For
+two weeks the loss was set at $1,000,000 a day. The two towns of
+Hibbing and Chisholm were practically wiped out of existence, and
+296 lives were lost.</p>
+
+<p>Certain forest fires have been so gigantic and terrible as to become
+historic.</p>
+
+<blockquote><p>
+One of these is the Miramichi fire of 1825. It began its greatest destruction
+about one o'clock in the afternoon of October 7th of that year, at a
+place about sixty miles above the town of Newcastle, on the Miramichi River,
+in New Brunswick. Before ten o'clock at night it was twenty miles below
+New Castle. In nine hours it had destroyed a belt of forest eighty miles long
+and twenty-five miles wide. Over more than two and a half million acres
+almost every living thing was killed. Even the fish were afterwards found
+dead in heaps on the river banks. Many buildings and towns were destroyed,
+one hundred and sixty persons perished, and nearly a thousand head of stock.
+The loss from the Miramichi fire is estimated at $300,000, not including
+the value of the timber. (Pinchot, Part 1. p. 79-80.)</p>
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page255" id="page255"></a>255</span>
+
+<p>Of such calamities, one of the worst that is on record is that known as
+the Peshtigo fire, which, in 1871, during the same month, October, when Chicago
+was laid in ashes, devastated the country about the shores of Green
+Bay in Wisconsin. More than $3,000,000 worth of property was burnt, at
+least two thousand families of settlers were made homeless, villages were
+destroyed and over a thousand lives lost.  (Bruncken, p. 110.)</p>
+
+<p>The most destructive fire of more recent years was that which started
+near Hinckley, Minn., September 1, 1894. While the area burned over was
+less than in some other great fires, the loss of life and property was very
+heavy. Hinckley and six other towns were destroyed, about 500 lives were
+lost, more than 2,000 persons were left destitute, and the estimated loss in
+property of various kinds was $25,000,000. Except for the heroic conduct
+of locomotive engineers and other railroad men, the loss of life would have
+been far greater.</p>
+
+<p>This fire was all the more deplorable, because it was wholly unnecessary.
+For many days before the high wind came and drove it into uncontrollable
+fury, it was burning slowly close to the town of Hinckley and could have
+been put out. (Pinchot, Part I, 82-83.)
+</p></blockquote>
+
+<p>One of the most remarkable features of these "crown fires," is the
+rapidity with which they travel. The Miramichi fire traveled nine
+miles an hour.</p>
+
+<p>To get an idea of the fury of a forest fire, read this description
+from Bruncken. After describing the steady, slow progress of a duff
+fire, he proceeds:</p>
+
+<blockquote><p>
+But there comes an evening when nobody thinks of going to bed. All
+day the smoke has become denser and denser, until it is no longer a haze, but
+a thick yellowish mass of vapor, carrying large particles of sooty cinders,
+filling one's eyes and nostrils with biting dust, making breathing oppressive.
+There is no escape from it. Closing windows and doors does not bar it out
+of the houses; it seems as if it could penetrate solid walls. Everything it
+touches feels rough, as if covered with fine ashes. The heat is horrible altho
+no ray of sunshine penetrates the heavy pall of smoke.</p>
+
+<p>In the distance a rumbling, rushing sound is heard. It is the fire
+roaring in the tree tops on the hill sides, several miles from town. This is
+no longer a number of small fires, slowly smouldering away to eat up a
+fallen log; nor little dancing flames running along the dry litter on the
+ground, trying to creep up the bark of a tree, where the lichens are thick
+and dry, but presently falling back exhausted. The wind has risen, fanning
+the flames on all sides, till they leap higher and higher, reaching the lower
+branches of the standing timber, enveloping the mighty boles of cork pine
+in a sheet of flame, seizing the tall poles of young trees and converting
+them into blazing beacons that herald the approach of destruction. Fiercer
+and fiercer blows the wind, generated by the fire itself as it sends currents
+of heated air rushing upward into infinity. Louder and louder the cracking
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page256" id="page256"></a>256</span>
+of the branches as the flames seize one after the other, leaping from crown
+to crown, rising high above the tree tops in whirling wreaths of fire, and
+belching forth clouds of smoke hundreds of feet still higher. As the heated
+air rises more and more, rushing along with a sound like that of a thousand
+foaming mountain torrents, burning brands are carried along, whirling on
+across the firmament like evil spirits of destruction, bearing the fire miles
+away from its origin, then falling among the dry brush heaps of windfall or
+slashing, and starting another fire to burn as fiercely as the first. * * *</p>
+
+<p>There is something horrible in the slow, steady approach of a top fire.
+It comes on with the pitiless determination of unavoidable destiny, not
+faster than a man can walk. But there is no stopping it. You cannot fight
+a fire that seizes tree top after tree top, far above your reach, and showers
+down upon the pigmy mortals that attempt to oppose it an avalanch of
+burning branches, driving them away to escape the torture and death that
+threatens them.  (Bruncken, <i>American Forests and Forestry</i>, 106-109.)
+</p></blockquote>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 500px;"><a href="images/figure-108-w800.png"><img src="images/figure-108-a-500.png" width="500" height="434" alt="Fighting Forest Fire." /></a>
+<p>Fig. 108. Fighting Forest Fire. <i>U. S. Forest Service</i>.</p></div>
+
+<p>Real forest fires are not usually put out; men only try to limit
+them. A common method of limitation is to cut trenches thru the
+duff so that the fire cannot pass across, Fig. 108. In serious cases
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page257" id="page257"></a>257</span>
+back fires are built on the side
+of the paths or roads or trenches
+toward the fire, in the expectation
+that the two fires will meet.
+In such cases great care has to
+be taken that the back fire itself
+does not escape. Small fires,
+however, can sometimes be beaten
+out or smothered with dirt and
+sand, since water is usually unavailable.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 350px;"><a href="images/figure-109-w600.png"><img src="images/figure-109-a-350.png" width="350" height="460" alt="Fire Lane. Worcester Co., Mass." /></a>
+<p>Fig. 109. Fire Lane. Worcester Co., Mass.
+<i>U. S. Forest Service</i>.</p></div>
+
+<p>But "an ounce of prevention
+is worth a pound of cure." One
+of the best of these preventions
+is a system of fire lanes. Even
+narrow paths of dirt will stop
+an ordinary fire. Roads, of
+course, are still better. Systems
+of fire lanes, Fig. 109, are made great use of in Europe and British
+India. Belts of hardwood trees are also cultivated along railways,
+and to break up large bodies
+of conifers.</p>
+
+<p>If in lumbering, the slash
+were destroyed or even cut up
+so as to lie near the ground
+and rot quickly, many fires
+would be prevented.</p>
+
+<p>Some states, as New York,
+have a fairly well organized
+system of fire wardens,
+who have the authority to
+draft as much male help as
+they need at $2.00 a day to
+fight forest fires. Unfortunately
+"ne'er-do-wells" sometimes
+set fire to the woods, in
+order to "make work" for
+themselves. Much preventive
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page258" id="page258"></a>258</span>
+work is also done by educating the public in schools and by the posting
+of the fire notices,<a id="footnotetagChVII1" name="footnotetagChVII1"></a><a href="#footnoteChVII1"><sup>1</sup></a> Fig. 110.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 330px;"><a href="images/figure-110-w600.png"><img src="images/figure-110-a-330.png" width="330" height="458" alt="Look out for Fire. Rules and Laws." /></a>
+<p>Fig. 110. Look out for Fire. Rules and Laws.</p></div>
+
+<h3>DESTRUCTIVE LUMBERING.</h3>
+
+<p>How the reckless and destructive methods of lumbering common
+in America came into vogue, is worth noting.<a id="footnotetagChVII2" name="footnotetagChVII2"></a><a href="#footnoteChVII2"><sup>2</sup></a></p>
+
+<p>The great historical fact of the first half century of our country
+was the conquest of the wilderness. That wilderness was largely an
+unbroken forest. To the early settler, this forest was the greatest of
+barriers to agriculture. The crash of a felled tree was to him a
+symbol of advancing civilization. The woods were something to be
+got rid of to make room for farms, Fig. 111. In Virginia, for example,
+where the soil was soon exhausted by tobacco culture and
+modern fertilizers were unknown, there was a continual advance into
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page259" id="page259"></a>259-60</span>
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page260" id="page260"></a></span>
+the woods to plant on new and richer land. The forest was also full
+of enemies to the settler, both animals and Indians, and was a
+dreaded field for fire. So there grew up a feeling of hate and fear
+for the forest.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 600px;"><a href="images/figure-111-w800.png"><img src="images/figure-111-a-600.png" width="600" height="406" alt="Forest Giving Place to Farm Land. North Carolina." /></a>
+<p>Fig. 111. Forest Giving Place to Farm Land. North Carolina. <i>U.
+S. Forest Service</i>.</p></div>
+
+<p>More than that the forest seemed exhaustless. The clearings were
+at first only specks in the woods, and even when they were pushed
+farther and farther back from the seacoast, there was plenty of
+timber beyond.</p>
+
+<blockquote><p>
+The idea that the area of this forest could ever be diminished by human
+hands to any appreciable extent so that people would become afraid of not
+having woodland enough to supply them with the needed lumber, would have
+seemed an utter absurdity to the backwoodsman. * * * Thus the legend
+arose of the inexhaustible supply of lumber in American forests, a legend
+which only within the last twenty years has given place to juster notions.
+(Bruncken, p. 57.)
+</p></blockquote>
+
+<p>This tradition of abundant supply and the feeling of hostility to
+the forest lasted long after the reasons for them had disappeared.
+When we remember that every farm in the eastern United States, is
+made from reclaimed forest land and that for decades lumber was
+always within reach up the rivers, down which it was floated, it is
+not strange that reckless and extravagant methods of cutting and
+using it prevailed.</p>
+
+<p>Following the settler came the lumberman, who continued the
+same method of laying waste the forest land. The lumber market
+grew slowly at first, but later developed by leaps and bounds, until
+now the output is enormous.</p>
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page261" id="page261"></a>261</span>
+
+<p>Lumbering in America has come to be synonymous with the clearing
+off of all the marketable timber, regardless of the future. It
+treats the forest as tho it were a mine, not a crop, Fig. 112. Since
+1880 the total cut has been over 700,000,000 feet, enough to make a
+one inch floor over Vermont, Massachusetts, Connecticut, Rhode Island
+and Delaware, or one-half of the State of New York, an area
+of 25,000 square miles.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 600px;"><a href="images/figure-112-w800.png"><img src="images/figure-112-a-600.png" width="600" height="226" alt="Redwood Forest Turned Into Pasture. California." /></a>
+<p>Fig. 112. Redwood Forest Turned Into Pasture. California.
+<i>U. S. Forest Service</i>.</p></div>
+
+<p>Other countries, too, have devastated their forests. Portugal has
+a forest area of only 5 per cent. of the total land area, Spain and
+Greece, each 13 per cent., Italy 14 per cent. and Turkey 20 per cent.
+Whether the destruction of the American forests shall go as far as
+this is now a live question which has only just begun to be appreciated.</p>
+
+<p>Another reason for the reckless American attitude toward the
+forest is the frequency and severity of forest fires. This has led to
+the fear on the part of lumbermen of losing what stumpage they
+had, and so they have cleared their holdings quickly and sold the
+timber. Their motto was "cut or lose."</p>
+
+<p>A third incentive to devastative methods was the levy of what
+were considered unjust taxes.</p>
+
+<blockquote><p>
+Hundreds of thousands of acres in the white pine region, notably in
+Michigan, Wisconsin, and Minnesota, have been cut over, abandoned, sold
+for taxes, and finally reduced by fire to a useless wilderness because of the
+shortsighted policy of heavy taxation. To lay heavy taxes on timber land
+is to set a premium on forest destruction, a premium that is doing more
+than any other single factor to hinder the spread of conservative lumbering
+among the owners of large bodies of timber land. * * * Heavy taxes are
+responsible for the barrenness of thousands of square miles which should
+never have ceased to be productive, and which must now lie fallow for many
+decades before they can be counted again among the wealth-making assets
+of the nation.  (Pinchot, <i>Agric. Yr. Bk</i>., 1898, pp. 184-185.)</p>
+
+<p>On the treatment of the questions of fire and taxes depends the future
+of American forest industries.  (Bruncken, p. 226.)
+</p></blockquote>
+
+<p>Undoubtedly much waste has been caused by sheer ignorance of
+forest conditions and methods, which, if followed, would secure successive
+crops instead of one, but it is safe to say that the desire for
+immediate profits has been the dominant cause of reckless lumbering.
+So short-sighted has the policy of private owners proved itself, that
+it is a question whether any large extent of forest land can safely be
+left in private hands. No individual lives long enough to reap more
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page262" id="page262"></a>262</span>
+than one forest crop. Only corporations and States can be expected
+to have an interest long enough continued to justify the methods of
+conservative lumbering.</p>
+
+<p>As a matter of fact, nearly one-half of the privately owned timber
+of the United States is held by 195 great holders, the principal
+ones being the Southern Pacific Company, the Weyerhauser Timber
+Company, and the Northern Pacific Railway Company, which together
+own nearly 11 per cent. of the privately owned forests of the
+country. These large holders are cutting little of their timber, their
+object, however, being not so much to conserve the forests as to reserve
+to themselves the incalculable private profits which are expected
+to come with the future enormous increase in the value of
+timber.</p>
+
+<p>Over against this policy, stands that of the United States Forest
+Service of increasing the area of the National Forests in order to
+conserve them for the public welfare. The pity is that the government
+ever let the forests pass out of its hands. Only forty years ago
+seventy-five per cent. of the timber now standing was publicly owned.
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page263" id="page263"></a>263</span>
+Now about eighty per cent. of it is privately owned. In the meanwhile
+its value has increased anywhere from ten to fifty fold, according to
+locality.<a id="footnotetagChVII3" name="footnotetagChVII3"></a><a href="#footnoteChVII3"><sup>3</sup></a> Some large corporations, however, like the Pennsylvania
+Railroad, the Kirby Lumber Company, of Texas, and the International
+Paper Company, have entered upon a policy of conservative
+lumbering.</p>
+
+<p>Of the actual practices which distinguish destructive lumbering, a
+few may be cited. Stumps are cut too high and tops too low. Good
+lumber is wasted on lumber roads and bridges, Fig. 113. Saplings are
+torn down in dragging out logs. Slash is left in condition to foster
+fires and left with no shade protection. Seedlings are smothered
+with slash. Seed trees are all cut out leaving no chance for reproduction.
+Only poorer sorts of trees are left standing, thus insuring
+deterioration. Paper pulp cutting goes even farther than lumbering,
+and ordinarily leaves nothing behind but a howling wilderness.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 600px;"><a href="images/figure-113-w800.png"><img src="images/figure-113-a-600.png" width="600" height="453" alt="Red Spruce Used in Building Skidway, and Left in the Woods. Hamilton Co., New York." /></a>
+<p>Fig. 113. Red Spruce Used in Building Skidway, and Left in the Woods. Hamilton Co., New York.</p></div>
+
+<p>The production of turpentine from the long-leaf pine, Fig. 114,
+at the annual rate of 40,000 barrels has meant the devastation of
+70,000 acres of virgin forest.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 600px;"><a href="images/figure-114-w800.png"><img src="images/figure-114-a-600.png" width="600" height="477" alt="Turpentine Boxing, Cup System. Georgia." /></a>
+<p>Fig. 114. Turpentine Boxing, Cup System. Georgia. <i>U. S. Forest Service</i>.</p></div>
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page264" id="page264"></a>264</span>
+
+<p>In view of this wholesale destruction it becomes of interest to
+know how much still remains of the timber supply of the United
+States. The latest and most authoritative estimate of standing timber
+in continental United States, excluding Alaska, gives a total of
+2,800,000,000 M feet B.M.,<a id="footnotetagChVII4" name="footnotetagChVII4"></a><a href="#footnoteChVII4"><sup>4</sup></a> of which 2,200,000,000 M feet are privately
+owned, about 539,000,000 M feet are in the National Forests
+(Fig. 119, <a class="index" href="#page272">p. 272</a>), and 90,000,000 M feet are on the unreserved public
+lands, National parks, State lands and Indian reservations.</p>
+
+<p>Earlier estimates were hardly more than guesses. For example
+the census of 1880 estimated the stumpage of the U. S. at 856,290,100
+M feet, while the census of 1900 gives a total of 1,390,000,000
+M feet. The discrepancy appears still greater when it is remembered
+that in the meantime 700,000,000 M feet were cut. Of this amount
+500,000,000 M feet were of conifers or 80,000,000 M feet more than
+were included in the estimate of 1880. The simple fact is of course
+that the earlier estimates were gross underestimates, due to the fact
+that they were based on entirely inadequate data, and therefore can
+not be used to obscure the now unquestionable fact that the timber
+supply of this country is surely and rapidly melting away.</p>
+
+<p>The Forest Service estimates that the present annual cut of saw
+timber is about 50,000,000 M feet. At this rate the present stand
+would last about 55 years and the privately owned timber only 44
+years. This estimate does not allow for growth and decay.</p>
+
+<p>While the population of the United States increased 52 per cent.
+from 1880 to 1900, during the same period the lumber-cut increased
+94 per cent. In other words the yearly increase in use is 20 to 25
+per cent. per capita, that is, fast as the population grows, the lumber
+consumption increases nearly twice as fast. This increase in the
+lumber-cut far overbalances the growth of trees.</p>
+
+<p>It is also to be remembered that this increase in the use of lumber
+is in spite of the enormous increase of substitutes for lumber,
+such as brick, cement and steel for building, and steel for bridges,
+vehicles, fences, machinery, tools, and implements of all kinds.</p>
+
+<p>How lavishly we use lumber may further be appreciated from the
+fact that we consume 260 cubic feet<a id="footnotetagChVII5" name="footnotetagChVII5"></a><a href="#footnoteChVII5"><sup>5</sup></a> per capita, while the average
+for 13 European countries is but 49 cubic feet per capita. In other
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page265" id="page265"></a>265</span>
+words every person in the U. S. is using five times as much wood as
+he would use if he lived in Europe. It is estimated that on an average
+each person in this country uses annually the product of 25 acres of
+forest. <i>The country as a whole, cuts every year, between three and
+four times more wood than all the forests grow in the meantime</i>. By
+contrast, the principal countries of Europe, cut just the annual
+growth, while Russia, Sweden and Japan, cut less than the growth.
+In other words, the 2,800,000,000,000 feet B.M. of the stumpage of
+the United States is a capital which is constantly drawn upon,
+whereas, the 944,700,000,000 board feet of the forest of the German
+Empire is a capital which is untouched but produces annually 300
+board feet per acre.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 600px;"><a href="images/figure-115-w800.png"><img src="images/figure-115-a-600.png" width="600" height="142" alt="(Lumber Production by Regions, 1907)." /></a>
+<p>Fig. 115. (Lumber Production by Regions, 1907).<br /><br /></p>
+
+<p>Southern States include: Virginia, North Carolina, South Carolina,
+Georgia, Florida, Alabama, Mississippi, Louisiana, Arkansas, Texas and Oklahoma.<br /><br /></p>
+
+<p>Pacific States include: Washington, Oregon and California.<br /><br /></p>
+
+<p>North Atlantic States include: New England, New York, Pennsylvania, New
+Jersey, Delaware, and Maryland.<br /><br /></p>
+
+<p>Lake States include: Michigan, Wisconsin, and Minnesota.<br /><br /></p>
+
+<p>Central States include: Ohio, West Virginia, Kentucky, Tennessee, Indiana,
+Illinois, and Missouri.<br /><br /></p>
+
+<p>Rocky Mountain States include: Montana, Idaho, Wyoming, Nevada, Utah,
+Colorado, Arizona, and New Mexico.</p></div>
+
+<p>One striking evidence of the decrease of the timber supply is the
+shifting of its sources. Once the northeastern States produced over
+half of the lumber product. They reached their relative maximum
+in 1870 when they produced 36 per cent. At that time the Lake
+States produced about 24 per cent. By 1890 the Lake States came to
+their maximum of 36 per cent. Today the southern States are near
+their maximum with 41 per cent., but the center will soon shift to
+the Pacific States. Their product rose from less than 10 per cent. of
+the whole in 1900 to 17 per cent. in 1908, Figs. 115 and 116. When
+that virgin forest has been cut off, there will be no new region to
+exploit; whereas, heretofore, when a region was exhausted, the lumbermen
+have always had a new one to which to move. At the annual
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page266" id="page266"></a>266</span>
+meeting of the Northern Pine Manufacturers' Association in Minneapolis,
+Minn., January 22, 1907, Secretary J. E. Rhodes made this
+striking statement:</p>
+
+<blockquote><p>
+Since 1895, 248 firms, representing an annual aggregate output of pine
+lumber of 4&#188; billion feet, have retired from business, due to the exhaustion
+of their timber supply. Plants representing approximately 500 million
+feet capacity, which sawed in 1906, will not be operated in 1907.</p>
+
+<p>The shifting of the chief sources of supply has, of course, been accompanied
+by a change in the kinds of lumber produced. There was a time
+when white pine alone constituted one-half of the total quantity. In 1900
+this species furnished but 21.5 per cent., in 1904 only 15 per cent., of the
+lumber cut.<a id="footnotetagChVII6" name="footnotetagChVII6"></a><a href="#footnoteChVII6"><sup>6</sup></a> We do not use less pine because we have found something better,
+but because we have to put up with something worse.
+</p></blockquote>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 350px;"><a href="images/figure-116-w500.png"><img src="images/figure-116-a-330.png" width="330" height="443" alt="(Lumber Production by States)." /></a>
+<p>Fig. 116. (Lumber Production by States).</p></div>
+
+<p>The present annual cut of southern yellow pine is about 13&#188;
+million M feet, or a little less than one-third of the total cut of all
+the species. At the present rate of consumption, it is evident that
+within ten or fifteen years,
+there will be a most serious
+shortage of it. Meanwhile the
+cut of Douglas fir on the Pacific
+coast has increased from 5
+per cent. of the total lumber
+cut in 1900 to 12 per cent. in
+1905. This increase is in spite
+of the fact, already noted (<a class="index" href="#page262">p. 262</a>) that the great timber
+owning companies of the northwest
+are holding their stumpage
+for an expected great increase
+in value.</p>
+
+<p>Another evidence of shortage
+is the almost total disappearance
+of certain valuable
+species. Hickory, which once
+made American buggies famous,
+is getting very scarce, and black walnut once commonly used
+for furniture, is available now for only fine cabinet work, veneers,
+gun stocks, etc. Hardwoods that are fit for the saw are rapidly decreasing.
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page267" id="page267"></a>267</span>
+The hardwood cut of 1900 of 8,634,000 M feet diminished
+in 1904 to 6,781,000 M feet.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 470px;"><a href="images/figure-117-w800.png"><img src="images/figure-117-a-450.png" width="459" height="464" alt="(Lumber Production by Species)." /></a>
+<p>Fig. 117. (Lumber Production by Species).</p></div>
+
+<p>A still further evidence of the decreasing supply, is the rising
+scale of prices. White pine, which sold for $45.00 per M during
+1887-1892, sold for $100.00 f.o.b. N. Y., Jan. 1, 1911. Yellow
+poplar went up in the same period, 1887-1911, from $29.00 to $63.00.
+Yellow pine rose from $18.00 in 1896 to $47.00 in 1911, and hemlock,
+the meanest of all woods, from $11.50 in 1889 to $21.00 in
+1911, Fig. 118.</p>
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page268" id="page268"></a>268</span>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 450px;"><a href="images/figure-118-w500.png"><img src="images/figure-118-a-350.png" width="350" height="406" alt="Wholesale lumber prices, 1887-1911." /></a>
+<p class="note2">Fig. 118. Wholesale lumber prices, 1887-1911.</p>
+
+<p class="note2">The qualities of lumber shown in the above chart are as follows:</p>
+
+<p class="note2">White Ash, 1st and 2d, 1" and 1&#189;" x 8" and up by 12'-16'.</p>
+
+<p class="note2">Basswood, 1st and 2d, 1" x 8" and up by x <ins title="Transcriber's Note: sic: the transcriber has no idea what was meant here.">00"</ins>.</p>
+
+<p class="note2">White Oak, quarter-sawed, 1st and 2d, all figured, 1" x 6" and up x 10'-16'.</p>
+
+<p class="note2">Yellow poplar, 1st and 2d, 1" x 7"-17" x 12'-16'.</p>
+
+<p class="note2">Hemlock, boards</p>
+
+<p class="note2">Spruce, No. 1 and clear, 1" and 1&#188;" x 4" x 13'.</p>
+
+<p class="note2">White pine, rough uppers, 1" x 8" and up x <ins title="Transcriber's Note: sic: the transcriber has no idea what was meant here.">00'</ins>.</p>
+
+<p class="note2">Yellow pine, edge grain flooring. The curve is approximately correct, for the
+standard of quality has been changed several times.</p></div>
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page269" id="page269"></a>269</span>
+
+<p>It is to be remembered, moreover, that as the timber in any region
+becomes scarcer, the minimum cutting limit is constantly lowered,
+and the standard of quality constantly depreciated. Poorer
+species and qualities and smaller sizes, which were once rejected, are
+now accepted in the market. For example, 6 inches is now a common
+cutting diameter for pine and spruce, whereas 12 inches was the
+minimum limit, and on the Pacific coast there is still nothing cut
+below 18 inches. This cutting of smaller sizes is largely due to the
+capacious maw of the pulp mill, which swallows even the poorest
+stuff. Altho the amount of wood used for paper pulp is small in
+comparison with the total lumber production, being about 5.4 per
+cent., yet this cutting of young growth keeps the forest land devastated.
+In 1906 nearly 9,000,000 tons of wood were used for paper
+pulp in the United States.</p>
+
+<blockquote><p>
+No one who is at all familiar with the situation doubts for an instant
+that we are rapidly using up our <i>forest capital</i>. In fact it is unquestionably
+safe to say that our present annual consumption of wood in all forms is
+<i>from three to four times as great as the annual increment of our forests</i>.
+Even by accepting the highest estimate of the amount of timber standing
+we postpone for only a few years the time when there must be a great curtailment
+in the use of wood, if the present methods of forest exploitation
+are continued. Every indication points to the fact that under present conditions
+the maximum annual yield of forest products for the country as a
+whole has been reached, and that in a comparatively short time, there will
+be a marked decrease in the total output, as there is now in several items.
+(Kellogg, <i>Forestry Circular</i>, No. 97, p. 12.)
+</p></blockquote>
+
+<p>On the other hand, it is to be remembered that there are influences
+which tend to save and extend the forest area. These will be
+considered in the next chapter, on the Use of the Forest.</p>
+
+<p class="note1"><a id="footnoteChVII1" name="footnoteChVII1"></a><a class="footnote" href="#footnotetagChVII1">Footnote 1:</a></p>
+
+<h5>LOOK OUT FOR FIRE!</h5>
+
+<h6 class="note1"><span class="sc">Rules and Laws.</span></h6>
+
+<p class="note1">Fires for clearing land near a forest must not be started until the trees
+are in full leaf. Before lighting such fires three days' notice, at least, must
+be given to the Firewarden and occupants of adjoining lands. After such
+fires are lighted, competent persons must remain to guard them until the
+fire is completely extinguished, and the persons starting such fires will be
+held responsible for all damages notwithstanding notice had been given to
+the Firewarden.</p>
+
+<p class="note3">Fires will be permitted for the purposes of cooking, warmth and insect
+smudges, but before such fires are kindled, sufficient space around the spot
+where the fire is to be lighted must be cleared from all combustible material;
+and before the place is abandoned, fires so lighted must be thoroly quenched.</p>
+
+<p class="note3">All fires other than those hereinbefore mentioned are absolutely prohibited.</p>
+
+<p class="note3">Hunters and smokers are cautioned against allowing fires to originate
+from the use of firearms, cigars and pipes.</p>
+
+<p class="note3">Especial care should be taken that lighted matches are extinguished before
+throwing them down.</p>
+
+<p class="note3">All persons are warned that they will be held responsible for any damage
+or injury to the forest which may result from their carelessness or neglect.</p>
+
+<p class="note3">Girdling and peeling bark from standing trees on state land is prohibited.
+Fallen timber only may be used for firewood.</p>
+
+<p class="note3">All citizens are requested to report immediately any cases which may
+come to their knowledge of injury to woodlands arising from a violation
+of these rules.</p>
+
+<p class="note3">Then follow quotations from the laws of the state of New York.</p>
+
+<p class="note1"><a id="footnoteChVII2" name="footnoteChVII2"></a><a class="footnote" href="#footnotetagChVII2">Footnote 2:</a> For the common methods of logging see <i>Handwork in Wood</i>, Chapter I.</p>
+
+<p class="note1"><a id="footnoteChVII3" name="footnoteChVII3"></a><a class="footnote" href="#footnotetagChVII3">Footnote 3:</a> See Summary of Report of the Commissioner of Corporations on the
+Lumber Industry. February 13, 1911. Washington, D. C.</p>
+
+<p class="note1"><a id="footnoteChVII4" name="footnoteChVII4"></a><a class="footnote" href="#footnotetagChVII4">Footnote 4:</a> A board foot is one foot square and one inch thick.</p>
+
+<p class="note1"><a id="footnoteChVII5" name="footnoteChVII5"></a><a class="footnote" href="#footnotetagChVII5">Footnote 5:</a> 167 cubic feet equal about 1000 board feet.</p>
+
+<p class="note1a"><a id="footnoteChVII6" name="footnoteChVII6"></a><a class="footnote" href="#footnotetagChVII6">Footnote 6:</a> <i>Forestry Circular</i>, No. 97.</p>
+
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page270" id="page270"></a>270</span>
+
+<h5 style="margin-top: 3em;">THE EXHAUSTION OF THE FOREST</h5>
+
+<ul class="none">
+<li><span class="sc">References:</span>*
+<ul class="none2">
+      <li>(1) Fires.
+<ul class="none3">
+            <li>Bruncken, pp. 183-207.</li>
+            <li>Pinchot, <i>Agric. Yr. Bk</i>., p. 189.</li>
+            <li>Suter, <i>For. Circ</i>. No. 36.</li>
+            <li>U. S. Tenth Census, Vol. IX, p. 491 ff.</li>
+            <li>Pinchot, <i>Primer</i>, pp. 77-88.</li>
+            <li>Roth, <i>First Book</i>, pp. 104-112.</li>
+            <li>Sterling, <i>Agric. Yr. Bk</i>., 1904, p. 133.<br /><br /></li></ul></li>
+
+      <li>(2) Destructive Lumbering.</li>
+
+      <li>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;The Settler's Tradition.
+	  <ul class="none3">
+            <li>Bruncken, pp. 40-59, 94.</li>
+            <li>Roth, <i>First Book</i>, pp. 41-45.</li>
+            <li>Pinchot, <i>Primer</i>, II, p. 82.<br /><br /></li></ul></li>
+
+      <li>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Taxation.
+	  <ul class="none3">
+            <li><i>For. and Irr</i>., April, '06.</li>
+            <li>Pinchot, <i>Agric. Yr. Bk</i>., 1898, p. 184.<br /><br /></li></ul></li>
+
+      <li>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Reckless Practices.
+	  <ul class="none3">
+            <li>Pinchot, <i>Primer</i> II, 42-47.</li>
+            <li>Pinchot, <i>Agric. Yr. Bk</i>., 1898, p. 184.</li>
+            <li>Pinchot, <i>For. Circ</i>., No. 25, p. 11.</li>
+            <li>Price, <i>Agric. Yr. Bk</i>., 1902, p. 310.</li>
+            <li>Fox, <i>For. Bull</i>., No. 34, p. 40.</li>
+            <li>Peters, <i>Agric. Yr. Bk</i>., 1905, pp. 483-494.</li>
+            <li>Graves, <i>Agric. Yr. Bk</i>., 1899, p. 415.</li>
+            <li>Suter, <i>For. Bull</i>., 26, pp. 58, 69, 76.</li>
+            <li>Mohr, <i>For. Bull</i>. No. 13, p. 61.</li>
+            <li>Bruncken, pp. 90-98.<br /><br /></li></ul></li>
+
+      <li>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;The Timber Supply.
+	  <ul class="none3">
+            <li>Kellogg, <i>For. Circ</i>., No. 97 ...</li>
+            <li>Zon, <i>For. Bull</i>., No. 83.</li>
+            <li>Fernow, <i>Economics</i>, pp. 35-45.</li>
+            <li>Report of the Commissioner of Corporations on the Lumber Industry. Part I, Feb. 13, 1911.</li></ul></li></ul></li>
+</ul>
+
+<p class="note1"><span style="font-size: 1.2em;">*</span> For general bibliography, see <a class="index" href="#page4">p. 4.</a></p>
+
+<h2><span class="pagenum" style="font-size: 0.4em; font-weight: normal;"><a name="page271" id="page271"></a>271</span><span class="sc">Chapter VIII.</span></h2>
+
+<h4>THE USE OF THE FOREST.</h4>
+
+<p>Man's relation to the forest has not been entirely destructive and
+injurious. He has exerted and is more and more exerting influences
+which while still enabling him to use the forest, also preserve and
+improve it. These activities may all be included under the term
+Forestry.</p>
+
+<p>The objects of modern forestry then are threefold: 1. The <i>utilization</i>
+of the forest and its products, the main object; 2. The <i>preservation</i>
+of the forest, <i>i.e.</i>, its continued reproduction; 3. The
+<i>improvement</i>
+of the forest.</p>
+
+<h3>UTILIZATION.</h3>
+
+<p>The uses of the forest are threefold: (1) Protective, (2) Productive,
+and (3) Esthetic.</p>
+
+<p>(1) <i>Protective</i>. The forest may be used as a protection against
+floods, wind, shifting sand, heat, drought, etc. The National Forests
+of the United States, Fig. 119, with the state forests, which include
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page272" id="page272"></a>272-4</span>
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page273" id="page273"></a></span>
+
+one-fifth of the total forest area, are largely treated as "protection
+forests" to maintain the head waters of streams, Fig. 120, used for
+irrigation, for power or for commerce. The attempt now being made
+to reserve large areas in the White Mountains and southern Appalachians
+is chiefly for this purpose of protection.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 600px;"><a href="images/figure-119-w1200.png"><img src="images/figure-119-a-600.png" width="600" height="376" alt="National Forests in the United States." /></a>
+<p>Fig. 119. National Forests in the United States.</p></div>
+
+<p>A comparison of Figs. 120 and 121 shows clearly the difference
+between a region protected by forest and one unprotected.<a id="footnotetagChVIII1" name="footnotetagChVIII1"></a><a href="#footnoteChVIII1"><sup>1</sup></a></p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 600px;"><a href="images/figure-120-w800.png"><img src="images/figure-120-a-600.png" width="600" height="370" alt="A Protection Forest, Maintaining the Headwaters of Streams. North Carolina." /></a>
+<p>Fig. 120. A Protection Forest, Maintaining the Headwaters of Streams. North Carolina. <i>U. S. Forest Service</i>.</p></div>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 600px;"><a href="images/figure-121-w800.png"><img src="images/figure-121-a-600.png" width="600" height="367" alt="Hillside Erosion. North Carolina." /></a>
+<p>Fig. 121. Hillside Erosion. North Carolina. <i>U. S. Forest Service</i></p></div>
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page274" id="page274"></a></span>
+<p>(2) <i>Productive</i>. All practical foresters have as their first aim the
+<i>yield</i> of the forest. This distinguishes forestry from landscape
+architecture,
+the object of which may equally be the preservation and improvement
+of a given tract. The crop to be produced is as truly the
+prime concern of the forester as the raising of agricultural crops is
+the prime concern of the farmer. It is for this reason that forestry
+is said to be the same thing as conservative lumbering, Fig. 122. The
+prejudice of lumbermen against forestry has arisen from a misunderstanding
+of its aim. Its aim is not to prevent the cutting down
+of trees, but to direct their cutting in such ways that in the future
+there will still be trees to cut. "Thru use to a greater use," is the
+motto of the Forest Service. The difference between destructive lumbering
+and conservative lumbering is that the former cuts one crop
+regardless of the future; while the latter plans to cut crop after crop
+indefinitely. In other words, in conservative lumbering, the trees to
+be cut are not selected solely with reference to their immediate market
+value. Not one crop, but many, is the forester's motto.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 560px;"><a href="images/figure-122-w700.png"><img src="images/figure-122-a-560.png" width="560" height="461" alt="Conservative Lumbering. Black Hills National Forest, South Dakota." /></a>
+<p>Fig. 122. Conservative Lumbering. Black Hills National Forest, South Dakota.
+Note the brush, cord-wood, and logs piled separately,&mdash;a fine clean-up. Nothing
+cut below 12" diameter. <i>U. S. Forest Service</i>.</p></div>
+
+<p>So long as the supply seemed exhaustless, forests might be and
+were treated as mines are, <i>i.e</i>., exploited for the sake of immediate
+profit; but now that lumbermen begin to realize that the end of the
+supply is in sight, more conservative methods are being adopted. We
+cannot afford to kill the goose that lays the golden eggs. In order
+then to obtain as rich harvests as possible, the modern forester makes
+use of various methods, some negative, some positive.</p>
+
+<p>Waste is avoided in all possible ways, stumps are cut low and tops
+high on the trunk, first class trees are not used for skids, bridges,
+roads, etc., care is taken in "falling" trees and in dragging out logs,
+that they will not injure other trees. Just as economical disposal of
+the log has already been carried to a high degree of perfection in the
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page275" id="page275"></a>275</span>
+saw-mill, (see <i>Handwork in Wood</i>, Chapter II,) so one object of
+forestry is to carry this economy back into the woods.</p>
+
+<p>One of the underlying ideas in conservative lumbering is that the
+"yield," <i>i.e.</i>, the amount of wood taken out of a healthy forest in a
+given time, shall be equal to the amount grown during the same
+period. If less is taken out than grows, some trees will overmature
+and decay; if more is taken out than grows, the forest will ultimately
+be exhausted.</p>
+
+<p>This principle may be carried out in a number of ways; but in
+any case it is necessary to know how fast the forest is reproducing
+itself, and this is one of the functions of the forester. The United
+States Forest Service makes a definite offer of cooperation with
+farmers and lumbermen and owners of forests to provide them with
+skilled foresters for direction in this matter.</p>
+
+<p>In the United States, the most practicable way of determining the
+yield is by area, <i>i.e.</i>, a certain fraction of a forest is to be cut over
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page276" id="page276"></a>276</span>
+once in a given length of time, a year or longer. The time between
+two successive cuttings on the same area must be long enough to allow
+the young trees left standing to ripen.</p>
+
+<p>In a word, conservative lumbering involves (1) the treatment of
+the forest as a source of crops, (2) systematic gathering, and (3)
+young growth so left as to replace the outgo.</p>
+
+<p>The important place that forests fill in the national economy may
+be realized partly by the citation of a few facts as to the forest
+products. The lumber industry is the fourth in value of products
+among the great manufacturing industries of the United States, being
+exceeded only by the iron and steel, the textile, and the meat
+industries. It turns out a finished product worth $567,000,000.00.
+And yet lumber constitutes only about one-half of the value of the
+total output of forest products. Its annual value is three-fourths of
+a billion dollars, ($666,641,367 in 1907,) while the annual value of
+wood fuel, is $350,000,000. More than two-thirds of the people
+burn wood for fuel. The next largest single item in the list is shingles
+and laths, $32,000,000. (See <i>Forestry Bulletin</i> No. 74, p. 7.)</p>
+
+<blockquote><p>
+Outside of food products, no material is so universally used and so
+indispensable in human economy as wood. (Fernow, <i>Econ</i>., p. 21.)
+</p></blockquote>
+
+<p>The importance of forest products may also be learned from a
+mere list of the varied uses to which they are put. Such a list would
+include: fuel, wood and charcoal; houses (over half the population
+of the United States live in wooden houses); the wooden parts of
+masonry and steel buildings; scaffolding; barns, sheds and outhouses;
+ships, with all their parts, and the masts and trim of steel
+ships, boats and canoes; oars and paddles; railway ties (annual expenditure
+$50,000,000), railway cars, a million in number; trestles
+and bridges (more than 2,000 miles in length); posts and fencing;
+cooperage stock (low estimate, $25,000,000 annually); packing
+crates, including coffins; baskets; electric wire poles (annual cost
+about $10,000,000); piles and submerged structures, like canal locks
+and water-wheels; windmills; mining timbers (yearly cost, $7,500,000),
+indispensable in all mining operations (for every 100 tons of
+coal mined, 2 tons of mining timber are needed); street paving;
+veneers ($5,000,000.00 worth made annually); vehicles, including
+carriages, wagons, automobiles and sleighs; furniture; machines and
+their parts; patterns for metal molding; tools and tool handles;
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page277" id="page277"></a>277</span>
+musical instruments; cigar boxes; matches; toothpicks; pencils;
+(315 million a year in the U. S., requiring over 7 million cubic feet
+of wood); engraving blocks; shoe lasts, shoe trees and parts of
+shoes; hat blocks; agricultural implements; hop and bean poles;
+playthings and toys, for both children and adults; Christmas trees
+and decorations; pipes; walking sticks; umbrella handles; crutches
+and artificial limbs; household utensils; excelsior.</p>
+
+<p>Products other than wood: Turpentine and resin (worth $20,000,000
+a year); tar; oils; tan-bark, 1&#189; million cords (worth $13,000,000
+a year); wood alcohol; wood pulp (worth $15,000,000 a year);
+nuts; cellulose for collars, combs and car wheels; balsam, medicines;
+lampblack; dyes; paper fiber (xylolin) for textiles; shellac
+and varnish ($8,500,000 worth imported in 1907); vinegar and acetic
+acid; confections (including maple sugar and syrup at $2,500,000 a
+year).</p>
+
+<p>(3) The <i>Esthetic</i> and sentimental uses of the forest, tho not to
+be estimated in dollars and cents, are nevertheless of incalculable
+benefit to the community. They would include the use of the forest
+as pleasure grounds, for hunting, fishing, camping, photography, and
+general sightseeing. Notable instances of the growing appreciation
+of these uses of the forest are the reservation of the Yellowstone and
+Yosemite Parks as pleasure grounds.</p>
+
+<h3>PRESERVATION.</h3>
+
+<p>The second object of forestry is the preservation of the forest, or
+continued reproduction.</p>
+
+<p>In addition to obtaining crops of trees, the forester plans to keep
+the forest in such condition that it will constantly reproduce itself
+and never become exhausted.</p>
+
+<p>This does not mean that no forests are to be cut down, or that a
+given area, once a forest, is to be always a forest. Just as the individual
+farmer needs some land for fields, some for pasture, and some
+for woodlots, so the nation needs some for cities, some for farms,
+some for pleasure grounds, and some for forests. But it does mean
+that fruitful forests shall not be turned into wildernesses as thousands
+of square miles now are, by the methods of destructive lumbering.</p>
+
+<p>In general, better land is necessary for agriculture than for forestry,
+and it is therefore only the part of wisdom to use the better
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page278" id="page278"></a>278</span>
+land for fields and reserve the poorer land for forests. There are in
+the United States enormous regions that are fit for nothing but forests,
+but many of these, as in Wisconsin, Minnesota, and Michigan,
+have simply been denuded of their trees and no provision has been
+made for their reproduction. This then is the second aim of forestry,&mdash;to
+treat the forest so that it will continue to reproduce itself.</p>
+
+<p>In order to obtain this result, certain forest conditions have to be
+preserved. What these conditions are, we have already noticed (see
+Chap. V, The Forest Organism). They are partly topographical and
+climatic and partly historical. They include such factors as, soil,
+moisture, temperature, and light,
+the forest cover, the forest floor,
+the density and mixture of
+growth, all conditions of forest
+growth. It is only as the forester
+preserves these conditions,
+or to put it otherwise, it is only
+as he obeys the laws of the forest
+organism that he can preserve
+the forest. For a long period
+of our national history, we Americans
+were compelled to conform
+our life and institutions to the
+presence of the primeval forest,
+but by long observation of what
+happens naturally in the forest,
+there have been developed in
+Europe and in America certain
+ways of handling it so as to make
+it our servant and not our master.</p>
+
+<p>These ways are called silvicultural systems. They are all based
+on the nature of the forest itself, and they succeed only because they
+are modifications of what takes place naturally in the woods.</p>
+
+<p>As we have seen above (p. 220) trees reproduce themselves either
+by sprouts or by seeds. This fact gives rise to two general methods
+of reproduction, called the coppice systems and the seed systems.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 350px;"><a href="images/figure-123-w500.png"><img src="images/figure-123-a-350.png" width="350" height="475" alt="Chestnut Coppice." /></a>
+<p>Fig. 123. Chestnut Coppice. <i>U. S. Forest Service</i>.</p></div>
+
+<p><i>Coppice</i>, Fig. 123. In the simpler form of this system, the forest
+is divided into a certain number of parts, say thirty, and one part is
+cut down each year. New sprouts at once start up, which will mature
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page279" id="page279"></a>279</span>
+a year later than those in the part cut the previous year. Where
+the trees of each part are thirty years old at cutting, thirty years is
+called the "rotation period." The coppice is said to be managed on
+a thirty-year rotation. The system is widely used in eastern United
+States, for fuel, posts, charcoal, railway ties, and other small stuff,
+as well as for tan-bark. This system is modified by maintaining an
+overwood composed of seedling trees or selected sprouts above a
+stand of sprouts. This is called the Reserve Sprout method and is
+used with admirable results by the French.</p>
+
+<p><i>Seed Forests</i>. In contrast with coppice forests, those raised from
+seeds produce the best class of timber, such as is used for saw logs.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 350px;"><a href="images/figure-124-w600.png"><img src="images/figure-124-a-350.png" width="350" height="462" alt="Seeding from the Side. White Pine. New Hampshire." /></a>
+<p>Fig. 124. Seeding from the Side. White Pine. New Hampshire. <i>U. S. Forest Service</i>.</p></div>
+
+<p><i>Seeding from the side</i>, Fig. 124. Many forests naturally
+spread at their borders from
+the scattering of their seeds.
+"Old field pine" is so called
+from its tendency to spread in
+this way on old fields. This
+natural "Seeding from the
+Side" has given rise to the
+"Group System," in which an
+area of ripe trees is cut off and
+the trees alongside are depended
+upon to reproduce new
+ones on the cut-over area. The
+openings are gradually enlarged
+until all the old timber is cut
+out, and the young growth has
+taken its place. In its best
+form there is a definite "rotation
+period," say eighty years.
+This system is simple, safe, and very useful, especially for small openings
+in woodlots. A modification of this is the "Strip System," in
+which long narrow openings, say seventy-five yards wide, are cut out
+and gradually widened. The strips are cut in the proper direction
+so that the prevailing winds will cross them, both for the sake of
+avoiding windfalls and to help scatter the seed. Where the soil is
+very dry, the strips may run east and west to protect the seedlings
+from the sun.</p>
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page280" id="page280"></a>280</span>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 350px;"><a href="images/figure-125-w700.png"><img src="images/figure-125-a-350.png" width="350" height="440" alt="Virgin Forest, Trees of All Ages. Jackson Co., North Carolina." /></a>
+<p>Fig. 125. Virgin Forest, Trees of All Ages. Jackson Co., North Carolina.
+<i>U.S. Forest Service</i>.</p></div>
+
+<p><i>Selection Forests</i>. The typical virgin forest, Fig. 125, is one in
+which trees of all ages are closely intermingled, and it may be either
+"mixed" or "pure." If a farmer had a woodlot of this character and
+every year went over it with the ax, cutting out such trees as he
+needed for his purpose, and also trees whose removal would improve
+the woods, but taking care not to cut out each year more than the
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page281" id="page281"></a>281</span>
+amount of the average growth, he would be using the "Selection
+System." This system is the best way of keeping a forest dense and
+of preserving one which is difficult to start afresh, as on a mountain
+slope; it is practicable where the woods are small or under a high
+state of care, as in Europe, where this system has been in use for
+seven centuries. But the cost of road maintenance and of logging is
+high and it is therefore impracticable in most lumber regions in the
+United States, except for woods of especial value, like black walnut.</p>
+
+<p><i>Localized Selection</i>. If instead of the whole forest being treated
+in this way every year, it were divided up into perhaps twenty parts,
+and from each part there were taken out each year as much lumber
+as would equal the annual growth of the whole forest, such a system
+would be called "Localized Selection." The cost of logging would be
+greatly reduced and if care were taken to leave standing some seed
+trees and to cut no trees below a determined size, as twelve inches, the
+forest would maintain itself in good condition. This system has been
+applied with great success in certain private forests in the Adirondacks.</p>
+
+<p><i>Regular Seed Forest or High Forest</i>. In the system already mentioned
+above of seeding from the side, the trees near the cut areas
+are depended upon to seed these areas. Moreover, no especial pains
+are taken to preserve the forest floor and the forest cover. But all
+trees do not bear seeds annually, nor do their seedlings thrive under
+such conditions. In other words, in some forests especial pains must
+be taken to secure reproduction, and the forest conditions must be
+maintained with special reference to the growing crop. For this purpose,
+the cuttings take place thru a series of years, sometimes lasting
+even twenty years. These reproduction cuttings have reference, now
+to a stimulus to the seed trees, now to the preparation of the seed
+bed, now to the encouragement of the seedlings. Then later, the old
+crop is gradually cut away. Later still, in twenty or thirty years, the
+new forest is thinned, and when it reaches maturity, perhaps in one
+hundred or two hundred years, the process is repeated. This is
+called the "Regular Seed Forest." It produces very valuable timber,
+and has been used for a long time in Switzerland, especially for beech
+and balsam.</p>
+
+<p>The system is complicated and therefore unsafe in ignorant hands,
+and the logging is expensive.</p>
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page282" id="page282"></a>282</span>
+
+<p><i>Two-storied Seed Forest</i>. A modification of the system of Regular
+Seed Forest is the planting of another and a tolerant species of
+tree under older intolerant trees to make a cover for the soil, to
+prevent the growth of grass and weeds, and to improve the quality of
+the upper growth.<a id="footnotetagChVIII2" name="footnotetagChVIII2"></a><a href="#footnoteChVIII2"><sup>2</sup></a></p>
+
+<p>An illustration of a natural two-storied seed forest is shown in
+Fig. 126.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 600px;"><a href="images/figure-126-w800.png"><img src="images/figure-126-a-600.png" width="600" height="450" alt="Two-storied Seed Forest. Fir under Beech, Germany." /></a>
+<p>No. 126. Two-storied Seed Forest. Fir under Beech, Germany. <i>U.
+S. Forest Service</i>.</p></div>
+
+<p><i>Planting</i>. The planting of forest trees is a comparatively unimportant
+part of modern forestry. It is a mistaken idea, not uncommon,
+that the usual way of reproducing forests is to plant trees. It is
+true that in the pineries of North Germany and in the spruce forests
+of Saxony, it is common to cut clean and then replant, but it is absurd
+to conclude, as some have done, that forestry consists of planting
+a tree every time one is cut. Even if planting were the best method,
+many more than one tree would have to be planted for each one cut,
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page283" id="page283"></a>283</span>
+in order to maintain the forest. So far as America is concerned, not
+for a long time will planting be much used for reproduction.</p>
+
+<blockquote><p>
+The greater portion of American woodlands is in the condition of culled
+forests, that is, forests from which the merchantable trees have been cut,
+leaving the younger individuals, as well as all trees belonging to unmarketable
+species. Even on the areas where the lumbermen have made a clean
+cut of the original timber, new trees will come up of themselves from seeds
+blown from the surrounding forests or falling from occasional individuals
+left standing.  (Bruncken, p. 133.)
+</p></blockquote>
+
+<p>The usefulness of planting in America is mainly for reclaiming
+treeless regions, as in the west, and where timber is high priced. The
+area of planted timber in the Middle West aggregates many hundred
+thousand acres, once waste land, now converted into useful woods.<a id="footnotetagChVIII3" name="footnotetagChVIII3"></a><a href="#footnoteChVIII3"><sup>3</sup></a></p>
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page284" id="page284"></a>284</span>
+
+<p>Planting has been made possible in the far west by extensive irrigation
+systems, and farther east by the lessening of prairie fires,
+which once set the limit to tree growth in the prairie states. In many
+parts of Illinois, southern Wisconsin and other prairie States, there
+is much more forest land than there was twenty-five years ago.</p>
+
+<p>What planting can do, may be seen on some worn out pastures in
+New England, Fig. 127. With the western movement of agriculture,
+the abandoned farms of New England are to some extent becoming
+re-forested, both naturally and by planting, as with white pine, which
+grows even on sandy soil. Between 1820 and 1880, there was a
+period of enthusiastic white-pine planting in New England, and tho
+the interest died on account of the cheap transportation of western
+lumber, those early plantations prove that white pine can be planted
+at a profit even on sand barrens. Once worn out and useless pastures
+are now worth $150 an acre and produce yearly a net income
+of $3 or more an acre.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 400px;"><a href="images/figure-127-w700.png"><img src="images/figure-127-a-400.png" width="400" height="456" alt="Planted White Pine, Fifty Years Old, Bridgewater, Mass." /></a>
+<p>Fig. 127. Planted White Pine, Fifty Years Old, Bridgewater, Mass. <i>U. S. Forest Service</i>.</p></div>
+
+<h3>IMPROVEMENT.</h3>
+
+<p>Besides utilization and preservation, the third main object of forestry
+is the improvement of the forest. It is not an uncommon mistake
+to suppose that the virgin forest is the best forest for human
+purposes. It is a comparatively new idea, especially in America,
+that a forest can be improved; that is, that better trees can be raised
+than those which grow naturally. Lumbermen commonly say, "You
+never can raise a second growth of white pine as good as the first
+growth." As if this "first growth" were not itself the successsor of
+thousands of other generations! There is even a legend that white
+pine will not grow in its old habitat. Says Bruncken,</p>
+
+<blockquote><p>
+Many people probably imagine that a primeval wood, "by nature's
+own hand planted," cannot be surpassed in the number and size of its trees,
+and consequently in the amount of wood to be derived from it. But the
+very opposite is true. No wild forest can ever equal a cultivated one in
+productiveness. To hope that it will, is very much as if a farmer were to
+expect a full harvest from the grain that may spring up spontaneously in
+his fields without his sowing. A tract of wild forest in the first place does
+not contain so many trees as might grow thereon, but only so many as may
+have survived the struggle for life with their own and other species of
+plants occupying the locality. Many of the trees so surviving never attain
+their best development, being suppressed, overshadowed, and hindered by
+stronger neighbors. Finally much of the space that might be occupied by
+valuable timber may be given up to trees having little or no market value.
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page285" id="page285"></a>285</span>
+The rule is universal that the amount and value of material that can be
+taken from an area of wild forest remains far behind what the same land
+may bear if properly treated by the forester. It is certain, therefore, that
+in the future, when most American forests shall be in a high state of cultivation,
+the annual output of forests will, from a much restricted area, exceed
+everything known at the present day. (Bruncken, <i>North American
+Forests and Forestry</i>, pp. 134-135.)</p></blockquote>
+
+<p>It is probable that the virgin forest produces but a tithe of the useful
+material which it is capable of producing. (Fernow, p. 98.)</p>
+
+<p>Mr. Burbank has demonstrated that trees can be bred for any particular
+quality,&mdash;for largeness, strength, shape, amount of pitch, tannin, sugar
+and the like, and for rapidity of growth; in fact that any desirable attribute
+of a tree may be developed simply by breeding and selecting. He has
+created walnut trees, by crossing common varieties, that have grown six
+times as much in thirteen years as their ancestors did in twenty-eight years,
+preserving at the same time, the strength, hardness and texture of their
+forebears. The grain of the wood has been made more beautiful at the same
+time. The trees are fine for fuel and splendidly adapted to furniture manufacture.
+(Harwood, <i>The New Earth</i>, p. 179.)
+</p>
+
+<p>Nature provides in the forest merely those varieties that will survive.
+Man, by interfering in Nature's processes but obeying her laws,
+raises what he wants. Nature says: those trees that survive are fit
+and does not care whether the trees be straight or crooked, branched
+or clear. Man says: those trees shall survive which are fit for human
+uses. Man raises better grains and fruits and vegetables than Nature,
+unaided, can, and, in Europe, better trees for lumber. In
+America there has been such an abundance of trees good enough for
+our purposes that we have simply gone out and gathered them, just
+as a savage goes out to gather berries and nuts. Some day our descendants
+will smile at our treatment of forests much as we smile at
+root-digging savages, unless, indeed, we so far destroy the forests that
+they will be more angered than amused. In Europe and Japan, the
+original supply of trees having been exhausted, forests have been cultivated
+for centuries with the purpose of raising crops larger in
+quantity and better in quality.</p>
+
+<p>There are various methods used in forest improvement. Improvement
+cuttings, as the name implies, are cuttings made to improve the
+quality of the forest, whether by thinning out poor species of trees,
+unsound trees, trees crowding more valuable ones, or trees called
+"wolves"; that is, trees unduly overshadowing others. Improvement
+cuttings are often necessary as a preliminary step before any silvicultural
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page286" id="page286"></a>286</span>
+system can be applied. Indeed, many of the silvicultural
+systems involve steady improvement of the forest.</p>
+
+<p>The pruning of branches is a method of improvement, carrying
+on the natural method by which trees in a forest clean themselves of
+their branches.</p>
+
+<p>Seeds of valuable species are often sowed, when the conditions are
+proper, in order to introduce a valuable species, just as brooks and
+ponds are stocked with fine fish. In general it may be said that improvement
+methods are only in their infancy, especially in America.</p>
+
+<p class="note1"><a id="footnoteChVIII1" name="footnoteChVIII1"></a><a class="footnote" href="#footnotetagChVIII1">Footnote 1:</a> A concise and interesting statement of the relation of the forest to
+rain and floods is to be found in Pinchot: <i>Primer of Forestry</i>, Bulletin No.
+24, Part II, Chap. III.</p>
+
+<p class="note1"><a id="footnoteChVIII2" name="footnoteChVIII2"></a><a class="footnote" href="#footnotetagChVIII2">Footnote 2:</a> For an interesting account of an application of this method, see Ward,
+p. 35.</p>
+
+<p class="note1a"><a id="footnoteChVIII3" name="footnoteChVIII3"></a><a class="footnote" href="#footnotetagChVIII3">Footnote 3:</a> To encourage such forest extension, the Forest Service is doing much
+by the publication of bulletins recommending methods and trees suited to
+special regions, as, e.g., on Forest Planting in Illinois, in the Sand Hill
+Region of Nebraska, on Coal Lands in Western Pennsylvania, in Western
+Kansas, in Oklahoma and adjacent regions, etc.</p>
+
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page287" id="page287"></a>287-8</span>
+
+<h5 style="margin-top: 3em;">THE USE OF THE FOREST.</h5>
+
+<ul class="none">
+<li><span class="sc">References</span>:*
+<ul class="none2">
+<li>I Utilization.
+<ul class="none3">
+            <li>Pinchot, <i>Primer</i>, II, pp. 14-18, 38-48.</li>
+            <li>Bruncken, pp. 121-131, <i>For. Bull</i>. No. 61.<br /><br /></li></ul></li>
+
+      <li>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;(1) Protective.
+<ul class="none3">
+            <li>Pinchot, <i>Primer</i>, II, pp. 66-73.</li>
+            <li>Craft, <i>Agric. Yr. Bk</i>., 1905, pp.  636-641, (Map. p. 639.)</li>
+            <li>Toumey, <i>Agric. Yr. Bk</i>., 1903, p. 279.</li>
+            <li>Bruncken, pp. 166-173.</li>
+            <li><i>For. and Irrig</i>., passim.</li>
+            <li>Shaler, I, pp. 485-489.<br /><br /></li></ul></li>
+
+      <li>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;(2) Productive.
+<ul class="none3">
+            <li>Kellogg, <i>For. Bull</i>., No. 74,</li>
+            <li>Fernow, <i>For. Invest</i>., p. 9.</li>
+            <li>Roth, <i>First Book</i>, p. 133.</li>
+            <li>Zon &amp; Clark, <i>Agric. Yr. Bk</i>., 1907, p. 277.</li>
+            <li>Boulger, pp. 60-76.</li>
+            <li>Roth, <i>Agric. Yr. Bk</i>., 1896, p. 391.</li>
+            <li>Fernow, <i>Economics</i>, pp. 23-33.<br /><br /></li></ul></li>
+
+      <li>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;(3) Esthetic.
+<ul class="none3">
+            <li>Roth, <i>First Book</i>, p. 180.<br /><br /></li></ul></li>
+
+<li>II Preservation.
+<ul class="none3">
+            <li>Pinchot, <i>Primer</i>, II, pp. 18-36.</li>
+            <li>Bruncken, pp. 95, 190.</li>
+            <li>Graves, <i>For. Bull</i>., No. 26, pp. 67-70.</li>
+            <li>Roth, <i>First Book</i>, pp. 41-76, 193-194.</li>
+            <li>Roth, <i>For. Bull</i>., No. 16, pp. 8, 9.</li>
+            <li>Fernow, <i>Economics</i>, 165-196.<br /><br /></li></ul></li>
+
+      <li>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Planting.
+<ul class="none3">
+            <li>Roth, <i>First Book</i>, pp. 76-94, 195-198.</li>
+            <li>Hall, <i>Agric. Yr. Bk</i>., 1902, pp. 145-156.</li>
+            <li><i>For. Circs</i>., Nos. 37, 41, 45, 81.</li>
+            <li>Bruncken, pp. 92, 133.</li>
+            <li><i>Forestry Bulletins</i> Nos. 18, 45, 52, 65.<br /><br /></li></ul></li>
+
+<li>III Improvement.
+<ul class="none3">
+            <li>Bruncken,  pp.  134-135,  152-160.</li>
+            <li>Graves, <i>For. Bull</i>., No. 26, p. 39.</li>
+            <li>Pinchot, <i>Adirondack Spruce</i>, p. 4.</li>
+            <li>Harwood, pp. 143-181.<br /><br /></li></ul></li></ul></li>
+</ul>
+
+<p class="note1"><span style="font-size: 1.2em;">*</span> For general bibliography, see <a class="index" href="#page4">p. 4.</a></p>
+
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page288" id="page288"></a></span>
+
+<h2><span class="pagenum" style="font-size: 0.4em; font-weight: normal;"><a name="page289" id="page289"></a>289</span><span class="sc">Appendix.</span></h2>
+<a name="wood" id="wood"></a>
+<h3>HOW TO DISTINGUISH THE DIFFERENT KINDS OF WOOD.<a href="#woodnote">*</a></h3>
+
+<h4><span class="sc">By B. E. Fernow and Filibert Roth.</span></h4>
+
+<p>The carpenter or other artisan who handles different woods, becomes
+familiar with those he employs frequently, and learns to distinguish them
+thru this familiarity, without usually being able to state the points of
+distinction.
+If a wood comes before him with which he is not familiar, he
+has, of course, no means of determining what it is, and it is possible to
+select pieces even of those with which he is well acquainted, different in
+appearance from the general run, that will make him doubtful as to their
+identification. Furthermore, he may distinguish between hard and soft
+pines, between oak and ash, or between maple and birch, which are
+characteristically
+different; but when it comes to distinguishing between the several
+species of pine or oak or ash or birch, the absence of readily recognizable
+characters is such that but few practitioners can be relied upon to do it.
+Hence, in the market we find many species mixed and sold indiscriminately.</p>
+
+<p>To identify the different woods it is necessary to have a knowledge of
+the definite, invariable differences in their structure, besides that of the
+often variable differences in their appearance. These structural differences
+may either be readily visible to the naked eye or with a magnifier, or
+they may require a microscopical examination. In some cases such an examination
+can not be dispensed with, if we would make absolutely sure.
+There are instances, as in the pines, where even our knowledge of the minute
+anatomical structure is not yet sufficient to make a sure identification.</p>
+
+<p>In the following key an attempt has been made&mdash;the first, so far as we
+know, in English literature&mdash;to give a synoptical view of the distinctive
+features of the commoner woods of the United States, which are found in
+the markets or are used in the arts. It will be observed that the distinction
+has been carried in most instances no further than to genera or classes of
+woods, since the distinction of species can hardly be accomplished without
+elaborate microscopic study, and also that, as far as possible, reliance has
+been placed only on such characteristics as can be distinguished with the
+naked eye or a simple magnifying glass, in order to make the key useful
+to the largest number. Recourse has also been taken for the same reason
+to the less reliable and more variable general external appearance, color,
+taste, smell, weight, etc.</p>
+
+<p>The user of the key must, however, realize that external appearance,
+such, for example, as color, is not only very variable but also very difficult
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page290" id="page290"></a>290</span>
+to describe, individual observers differing especially in seeing and describing
+shades of color. The same is true of statements of size, when relative, and
+not accurately measured, while weight and hardness can perhaps be more
+readily approximated. Whether any feature is distinctly or only indistinctly
+seen will also depend somewhat on individual eyesight, opinion, or practice.
+In some cases the resemblance of different species is so close that only one
+other expedient will make distinction possible, namely, a knowledge of the
+region from which the wood has come. We know, for instance, that no
+longleaf pine grows in Arkansas and that no white pine can come from Alabama,
+and we can separate the white cedar, giant arbor vitæ of the West
+and the arbor vitæ of the Northeast, only by the difference of the locality
+from which the specimen comes. With all these limitations properly appreciated,
+the key will be found helpful toward greater familiarity with the
+woods which are more commonly met with.</p>
+
+<p>The features which have been utilized in the key and with which&mdash;their
+names as well as their appearance&mdash;therefore, the reader must familiarize
+himself before attempting to use the key, are mostly described as they appear
+in cross-section. They are:</p>
+
+<p>(1) Sap-wood and heart-wood (see <a class="index" href="#page17">p. 17</a>), the former being the wood
+from the outer and the latter from the inner part of the tree. In some
+cases they differ only in shade, and in others in kind of color, the heart-wood
+exhibiting either a darker shade or a pronounced color. Since one
+can not always have the two together, or be certain whether he has sap-wood
+or heart-wood, reliance upon this feature is, to be sure, unsatisfactory,
+yet sometimes it is the only general characteristic that can be relied upon.
+If further assurance is desired, microscopic structure must be examined;
+in such cases reference has been made to the presence or absence of tracheids
+in pith rays and the structure of their walls, especially projections and
+spirals.</p>
+
+<p>(2) Annual rings, their formation having been described on <a class="index" href="#page19">page 19</a>.
+(See also Figs. 128-130.) They are more or less distinctly marked, and by
+such marking a classification of three great groups of wood is possible.</p>
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page291" id="page291"></a>291</span>
+
+<p>(3) Spring wood and summer wood, the former being the interior (first
+formed wood of the year), the latter the exterior (last formed) part of
+the ring. The proportion of each and the manner in which the one merges
+into the other are sometimes used, but more frequently the manner in which
+the pores appear distributed in either.</p>
+
+<p>(4) Pores, which are vessels cut thru, appearing as holes in cross-section,
+in longitudinal section as channels, scratches, or identifications. (See
+<a class="index" href="#page23">p. 23</a> and Figs. 129 and 130.) They appear only in the broad-leaved, so called,
+hard woods; their relative size (large, medium, small, minute, and indistinct
+when they cease to be visible individually by the naked eye) and manner
+of distribution in the ring being of much importance, and especially in
+the summer wood, where they appear singly, in groups, or short broken lines,
+in continuous concentric, often wavy lines, or in radial branching lines.</p>
+
+<p>(5) Resin ducts (see p. 26 and Fig. 128) which appear very much like
+pores in cross-section, namely, as holes or lighter or darker colored dots, but
+much more scattered. They occur only in coniferous woods, and their presence
+or absence, size, number, and distribution are an important distinction
+in these woods.</p>
+
+<p>(6) Pith rays (see <a class="index" href="#page21">p. 21</a> and Figs. 129 and 130), which in cross-section
+appear as radial lines, and in radial section as interrupted bands of varying
+breadth, impart a peculiar luster to that section in some woods. They are
+most readily visible with the naked eye or with a magnifier in the broad-leaved
+woods. In coniferous woods they are usually so fine and closely
+packed that to the casual observer they do not appear. Their breadth and
+their greater or less distinctness are used as distinguishing marks, being
+styled fine, broad, distinct, very distinct, conspicuous, and indistinct when
+no longer visible by the naked (strong) eye.</p>
+
+<p>(7) Concentric lines, appearing in the summer wood of certain species
+more or less distinct, resembling distantly the lines of pores but much
+finer and not consisting of pores. (See Fig. 129.)</p>
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page292" id="page292"></a>292</span>
+
+<p>Of <ins title="Transcriber's Note: original reads 'miscroscopic'">microscopic</ins> features, the following only have been referred to:</p>
+
+<p>(8) Tracheids, a description of which is to be found on <a class="index" href="#page28">page 28</a>.</p>
+
+<p>(9) Pits, simple and bordered, especially the number of simple pits in
+the cells of the pith rays, which lead into each of the adjoining tracheids.</p>
+
+<p>For standards of weight, consult table on pages <a class="index" href="#page55">55</a> and <a class="index" href="#page192">192</a>; for standards
+of hardness, table on <a class="index" href="#page195">page 195</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Unless otherwise stated the color refers always to the fresh cross-section
+of a piece of dry wood; sometimes distinct kinds of color, sometimes only
+shades, and often only general color effects appear.</p>
+
+<a name="woodnote" id="woodnote"></a>
+<p class="note1"><a href="#wood"><span style="font-size: 1.2em;">*</span></a> From Forestry Bulletin No. 10, <i>U. S. Department of Agriculture</i>.</p>
+
+<h3>HOW TO USE THE KEY.</h3>
+
+<p>Nobody need expect to be able to use successfully any key for the distinction
+of woods or of any other class of natural objects without some
+practice. This is especially true with regard to woods, which are apt to
+vary much, and when the key is based on such meager general data as the
+present. The best course to adopt is to supply one's self with a small
+sample collection of woods, accurately named. Small, polished tablets are
+of little use for this purpose. The pieces should be large enough, if possible,
+to include pith and bark, and of sufficient width to permit ready inspection
+of the cross-section. By examining these with the aid of the key, beginning
+with the better-known woods, one will soon learn to see the features
+described and to form an idea of the relative standards which the maker
+of the key had in mind. To aid in this, the accompanying illustrations will
+be of advantage. When the reader becomes familiar with the key, the work
+of identifying any given piece will be comparatively easy. The material to
+be examined must, of course, be suitably prepared. It should be moistened;
+all cuts should be made with a very sharp knife or razor and be clean and
+smooth, for a bruised surface reveals but little structure. The most useful
+cut may be made along one of the edges. Instructive, thin, small sections
+may be made with a sharp penknife or razor, and when placed on a piece of
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page293" id="page293"></a>293</span>
+thin glass, moistened and covered with another piece of glass, they may be
+examined by holding them toward the light.</p>
+
+<p>Finding, on examination with the magnifier, that it contains pores, we
+know it is not coniferous or non-porous. Finding no pores collected in the
+spring-wood portion of the annual ring, but all scattered (diffused) thru
+the ring, we turn at once to the class of "Diffuse-porous woods." We now
+note the size and manner in which the pores are distributed thru the ring.
+Finding them very small and neither conspicuously grouped, nor larger
+nor more abundant in the spring-wood, we turn to the third group of this
+class. We now note the pith rays, and finding them neither broad nor
+conspicuous,
+but difficult to distinguish, even with the magnifier, we at once
+exclude the wood from the first two sections of this group and place it in
+the third, which is represented by only one kind, cottonwood. Finding the
+wood very soft, white, and on the longitudinal section with a silky luster,
+we are further assured that our determination is correct. We may now
+turn to the list of woods and obtain further information regarding the
+occurrence,
+qualities, and uses of the wood.</p>
+
+<p>Sometimes our progress is not so easy; we may waver in what group
+or section to place the wood before us. In such cases we may try each of
+the doubtful roads until we reach a point where we find ourselves entirely
+wrong and then return and take up another line; or we may anticipate
+some of the later mentioned features and finding them apply to our specimen,
+gain additional assurance of the direction we ought to travel. Color will
+often help us to arrive at a speedy decision. In many cases, especially with
+conifers, which are rather difficult to distinguish, a knowledge of the locality
+from which the specimen comes is at once decisive. Thus, northern white
+cedar, and bald cypress, and the cedar of the Pacific will be identified, even
+without the somewhat indefinite criteria given in the key.</p>
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page294" id="page294"></a>294</span>
+
+<h3 style="margin-top: 3em;">KEY TO THE MORE IMPORTANT WOODS OF NORTH AMERICA.</h3>
+
+<p>I. <span class="sc">Non-porous woods</span>&mdash;Pores not visible or conspicuous on cross-section,
+even with magnifier. Annual rings distinct by denser (dark colored) bands
+of summer wood (Fig. 128).</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 600px;"><a href="images/figure-128-w800.png"><img src="images/figure-128-a-600.png" width="600" height="222" alt="'Non-porous' Woods." /></a>
+<p>Fig. 128. "Non-porous" Woods. <i>A</i>, fir; <i>B</i>, "hard"
+pine; <i>C</i>, soft
+pine; <i>ar</i>, annual ring; <i>o.e</i>., outer edge of ring; <i>i.e</i>.,
+inner edge
+of ring; <i>s.w</i>., summer wood; <i>sp.w</i>., spring wood; <i>rd</i>., resin
+ducts.</p></div>
+
+<p>II. <span class="sc">Ring-porous woods</span>&mdash;Pores numerous, usually visible on cross-section
+without magnifier. Annual rings distinct by a zone of large pores collected
+in the spring wood, alternating with the denser summer wood (Fig. 129).</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 600px;"><a href="images/figure-129-w800.png"><img src="images/figure-129-a-600.png" width="600" height="239" alt="'Ring-porous' Woods White Oak and Hickory." /></a>
+<p>Fig. 129. "Ring-porous" Woods White Oak and Hickory.
+<i>a. r</i>., annual ring; <i>su. w</i>., summer wood; <i>sp. w</i>., spring
+wood; <i>v</i>, vessels or pores; <i>c. l</i>., "concentric" lines; <i>rt</i>,
+darker tracts of hard fibers forming the firm part of
+oak wood; <i>pr</i>, pith rays.</p></div>
+
+<p>III. <span class="sc">Diffuse-porous woods</span>&mdash;Pores numerous, usually not plainly visible
+on cross-section without magnifier. Annual rings distinct by a fine line of
+denser summer wood cells, often quite indistinct; pores scattered thru annual
+ring, no zone of collected pores in spring wood (Fig. 130).</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 600px;"><a href="images/figure-130-w800.png"><img src="images/figure-130-a-600.png" width="600" height="252" alt="'Diffuse-porous' Woods." /></a>
+<p>Fig. 130. "Diffuse-porous" Woods. <i>ar</i>, annual ring;
+<i>pr</i>, pith rays
+which are "broad" at <i>a</i>, "fine" at <i>b</i>, "indistinct" at <i>d</i>.</p></div>
+
+<p><span class="sc">Note.</span>&mdash;The above described three groups are exogenous, i.e., they grow
+by
+adding annually wood on their circumference. A fourth group is formed by the
+endogenous woods, like yuccas and palms, which do not grow by such additions.</p>
+
+<h4 style="margin-top: 2em;">I.&mdash;<span class="sc">Non-Porous Woods</span>.</h4>
+
+<h5>(Includes all coniferous woods.)</h5>
+
+<table summary="Non-porous woods" align="center" width="auto" border="0">
+<tr>
+       <td class="lefti0"><span class="outdent1">A. Resin ducts</span> wanting.<a id="tag1" name="tag1"></a><a href="#note1"><sup>1</sup></a></td>
+       <td width="20%">&nbsp;</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+       <td class="lefti2"><span class="outdent1">1. No distinct</span> heart-wood.</td>
+       <td>&nbsp;</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+       <td class="lefti4"><span class="outdent1"><i>a</i>. Color</span> effect yellowish white; summer wood darker yellowish
+	   (under microscope pith ray without tracheids)</td>
+       <td class="right1b" valign="bottom"><span class="sc">Firs</span>.</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+       <td class="lefti4"><span class="outdent1"><i>b</i>. Color</span> effect reddish (roseate)<span class="pagenum"><a name="page295" id="page295"></a>295</span>
+      (under microscope pith ray with tracheids)</td>
+       <td class="right1b" valign="bottom"><span class="sc">Hemlock</span>.</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+       <td class="lefti2"><span class="outdent1">2. Heart-wood</span> present, color decidedly different in kind from sap-wood.</td>
+       <td>&nbsp;</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+       <td class="lefti4"><span class="outdent1"><i>a</i>. Heart-wood</span> light orange red; sap-wood, pale lemon; wood,
+      heavy and hard.</td>
+       <td class="right1b" valign="bottom"><span class="sc">Yew</span>.</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+       <td class="lefti4"><span class="outdent1"><i>b</i>. Heartwood</span> purplish to brownish red; sap-wood yellowish white;
+      wood soft to medium hard, light, usually with aromatic odor.</td>
+       <td class="right1b" valign="bottom"><span class="sc">Red Cedar</span>.</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+       <td class="lefti4"><span class="outdent1"><i>c</i>. Heart-wood</span> maroon to terra cotta or deep brownish red; sap-wood
+      light orange to dark amber, very soft and light, no odor; pith rays
+      very distinct, specially pronounced on radial section.</td>
+       <td class="right1b" valign="bottom"><span class="sc">Redwood</span>.</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+       <td class="lefti2"><span class="outdent1">3. Heart-wood</span> present, color only different in shade from sap-wood,
+   dingy-yellowish brown.</td>
+       <td>&nbsp;</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+       <td class="lefti4"><span class="outdent1"><i>a</i>. Odorless</span> and tasteless.</td>
+       <td class="right1b" valign="bottom"><span class="sc">Bald Cypress</span>.</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+       <td class="lefti4"><span class="outdent1"><i>b</i>. Wood with</span> mild resinous odor, but tasteless.</td>
+       <td class="right1b" valign="bottom"><span class="sc">White Cedar</span>.</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+       <td class="lefti4"><span class="outdent1"><i>c</i>. Wood with</span> strong resinous odor and peppery taste when freshly cut.</td>
+       <td class="right1b" valign="bottom"><span class="sc">Incense Cedar</span>.</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+       <td class="lefti0"><span class="outdent1">B. Resin ducts</span> present.</td>
+       <td>&nbsp;</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+       <td class="lefti2"><span class="outdent1">1. No distinct</span> heartwood; color white, resin ducts very small, not numerous.</td>
+       <td class="right1b" valign="bottom"><span class="sc">Spruce</span>.</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+       <td class="lefti2"><span class="outdent1">2. Distinct</span> heart-wood present.</td>
+       <td>&nbsp;</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+       <td class="lefti4"><span class="outdent1"><i>a</i>. Resin ducts</span> numerous, evenly scattered thru the ring.</td>
+       <td>&nbsp;</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+       <td class="lefti6"><span class="outdent1"><i>a'</i>. Transition</span> from spring wood to summer wood gradual; annual
+            ring distinguished by a fine line of dense summer-wood cells;
+            color, white to yellowish red; wood soft and light.</td>
+       <td class="right1b" valign="bottom"><span class="sc">Soft Pines</span>.<a id="tag2" name="tag2"></a><a href="#note2"><sup>2</sup></a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+       <td class="lefti6"><span class="outdent1"><i>b'</i>. Transition</span> from spring wood to summer wood more or less
+            abrupt; broad bands of dark-colored summer wood; color from
+            light to deep orange; wood medium hard and heavy.</td>
+       <td class="right1b" valign="bottom"><span class="sc">Hard Pines</span>.<a href="#note2"><sup>2</sup></a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+       <td class="lefti4"><span class="outdent1"><i>b</i>. Resin ducts</span> not numerous nor evenly distributed.<span class="pagenum"><a name="page296" id="page296"></a>296</span></td>
+       <td>&nbsp;</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+       <td class="lefti6"><span class="outdent1"><i>a'</i>. Color of</span> heart-wood orange-reddish, sap-wood yellowish
+          (same as hard pine); resin ducts frequently combined in
+          groups of 8 to 30, forming lines on the cross-section
+          (tracheids with spirals).</td>
+       <td class="right1b" valign="bottom"><span class="sc">Douglas Spruce</span>.</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+       <td class="lefti6"><span class="outdent1"><i>b'</i>. Color of</span> heart-wood light russet brown; of sap-wood yellowish
+           brown; resin ducts very few, irregularly scattered (tracheids
+           without spirals).</td>
+       <td class="right1b" valign="bottom"><span class="sc">Tamarack</span>.</td>
+</tr>
+</table>
+
+<p class="note1"><a id="note1" name="note1"></a><a class="footnote" href="#tag1">Footnote 1:</a> To discover the resin ducts a very smooth surface is necessary, since resin ducts are
+frequently seen only with difficulty, appearing on the cross-section as fine whiter or darker
+spots normally scattered singly, rarely in groups, usually in the summer wood of the annual
+ring. They are often much more easily seen on radial, and still more so on tangential
+sections, appearing there as fine lines or dots of open structure of different color or as indentations
+or pin scratches in a longitudinal direction.</p>
+
+<p class="note1"><a id="note2" name="note2"></a><a class="footnote" href="#tag2">Footnote 2:</a> Soft and hard pines are arbitrary distinctions and the two not distinguishable at the
+limit.</p>
+
+<hr class="full" style="color: #000; height: 1px; margin-bottom: -11px;" />
+<hr class="full" style="color: #000; height: 1px; margin-top: -11px;" />
+
+<h5>ADDITIONAL NOTES FOR DISTINCTIONS IN THE GROUP.</h5>
+
+<p>Spruce is hardly distinguishable from fir, except by the existence of the
+resin ducts, and microscopically by the presence of tracheids in the medullary
+rays. Spruce may also be confounded with soft pine, except for the heart-wood
+color of the latter and the larger, more frequent, and more readily visible
+resin ducts.</p>
+
+<p>In the lumber yard, hemlock is usually recognized by color and the silvery
+character of its surface. Western hemlocks partake of this last character to
+a less degree.</p>
+
+<p>Microscopically the white pine can be distinguished by having usually
+only one large pit, while spruce shows three to five very small pits in the
+parenchyma cells of the pith ray communicating with the tracheid.</p>
+
+<p>The distinction of the pines is possible only by microscopic examination.
+The following distinctive features may assist in recognizing, when in the
+log or lumber pile, those usually found in the market:</p>
+
+<p>The light, straw color, combined with great lightness and softness,
+distinguishes
+the white pines (white pine and sugar pine) from the hard pines
+(all others in the market), which may also be recognized by the gradual
+change of spring wood into summer wood. This change in hard pines is
+abrupt, making the summer wood appear as a sharply defined and more or
+less broad band.</p>
+
+<p>The Norway pine, which may be confounded with the shortleaf pine, can
+be distinguished by being much lighter and softer. It may also, but more
+rarely, be confounded with heavier white pine, but for the sharper definition
+of the annual ring, weight, and hardness.</p>
+
+<p>The longleaf pine is strikingly heavy, hard, and resinous, and usually
+very regular and narrow ringed, showing little sap-wood, and differing in
+this respect from the shortleaf pine and loblolly pine, which usually have
+wider rings and more sap-wood, the latter excelling in that respect.</p>
+
+<hr class="full" style="color: #000; height: 1px; margin-bottom: -11px;" />
+<hr class="full" style="color: #000; height: 1px; margin-top: -11px;" />
+
+<p>The following convenient and useful classification of pines into four groups,
+proposed by Dr. H. Mayr, is based on the appearance of the pith ray as seen
+in a radial section of the spring wood of any ring:</p>
+
+<p><b>Section I.</b> Walls of the tracheids of the pith ray with dentate projections.</p>
+
+<div style="margin-left: 4em;">
+<p><span class="outdent">
+   <b><i>a</i>.</b> One to two large</span>, simple pits to each tracheid on the radial walls of
+      the cells of the pith ray.&mdash;Group 1. Represented in this country only
+      by <i>P. resinosa</i>.</p>
+<p><span class="outdent">
+   <b><i>b</i>.</b> Three to six</span> simple pits to each tracheid, on the walls of the cells of
+      the pith ray.&mdash;Group 2. <i>P. taeda</i>, <i>palustris</i>, etc., including most of our
+      "hard" and "yellow" pines.</p>
+</div>
+<p><b>Section II.</b> Walls of tracheids of pith ray smooth, without dentate projections.</p>
+<div style="margin-left: 4em;">
+<p><span class="outdent">
+   <b><i>a</i>.</b> One or two large pits</span> to each tracheid on the radial walls of each cell
+      of the pith ray.&mdash;Group 3. <i>P. strobus, lambertiana</i>, and other true
+      white pines.</p>
+<p><span class="outdent">
+   <b><i>b</i>.</b> Three to six small pits</span> on the radial walls of each cell of the pith ray.
+      Group 4. <i>P. parryana</i>, and other nut pines, including also <i>P. balfouriana</i>.</p>
+</div>
+
+<hr class="full" style="color: #000; height: 1px; margin-bottom: -11px;" />
+<hr class="full" style="color: #000; height: 1px; margin-top: -11px;" />
+
+<h4>II.&mdash;<span class="sc">Ring-Porous Woods</span>.</h4>
+
+<p>(Some of Group D and cedar elm imperfectly ring-porous.)</p>
+
+<table summary="Ring-porous woods" align="center" width="auto" border="0">
+
+<tr>
+       <td class="lefti0"><span class="outdent1">A. Pores in</span> the summer wood minute, scattered singly or in groups, or in
+   short broken lines, the course of which is never radial.</td>
+       <td width="20%">&nbsp;</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+       <td class="lefti2"><span class="outdent1">1. Pith rays</span> minute, scarcely distinct.</td>
+       <td>&nbsp;</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+       <td class="lefti4"><span class="outdent1"><i>a</i>. Wood heavy</span> and hard; pores in the summer wood not in clusters.</td>
+       <td>&nbsp;</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+       <td class="lefti6"><span class="outdent1"><i>a'</i>. Color of</span> radial section not yellow.</td>
+       <td class="right1b" valign="bottom"><span class="sc">Ash</span>.</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+       <td class="lefti6"><span class="outdent1"><i>b'</i>. Color of</span> radial section light yellow; by which, together
+             with its hardness and weight, this species is easily recognized.</td>
+       <td class="right1b" valign="bottom"><span class="sc">Osage Orange</span>.</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+       <td class="lefti4"><span class="outdent1"><i>b</i>. Wood light</span> and soft; pores in the summer wood in clusters of 10 to 30.</td>
+       <td class="right1b" valign="bottom"><span class="sc">Catalpa</span>.</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+       <td class="lefti2"><span class="outdent1">2. Pith rays</span> very fine, yet distinct; pores in summer wood usually single
+     or in short lines; color of heart-wood reddish brown; of sap-wood
+     yellowish white; peculiar odor on fresh section.</td>
+       <td class="right1b" valign="bottom"><span class="sc">Sassafras</span>.</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+       <td class="lefti2"><span class="outdent1">3. Pith rays</span> fine, but distinct.</td>
+       <td>&nbsp;</td>
+</tr>
+ <tr>
+       <td class="lefti4"><span class="outdent1"><i>a</i>. Very heavy</span> and hard; heart-wood yellowish brown.</td>
+       <td class="right1b" valign="bottom"><span class="sc">Black Locust</span>.</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+       <td class="lefti4"><span class="outdent1"><i>b</i>. Heavy; medium</span> hard to hard.</td>
+       <td>&nbsp;</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+       <td class="lefti6"><span class="outdent1"><i>a'</i>. Pores in</span> summer wood very minute, usually in small clusters of<span class="pagenum"><a name="page297" id="page297"></a>297</span>
+          3 to 8; heart-wood light orange brown.</td>
+       <td class="right1b" valign="bottom"><span class="sc">Red Mulberry</span>.</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+       <td class="lefti6"><span class="outdent1"><i>b'</i>. Pores in</span> summer wood small to minute, usually isolated; heart-wood
+          cherry red.</td>
+       <td class="right1b" valign="bottom"><span class="sc">Coffee Tree</span>.</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+       <td class="lefti2"><span class="outdent1">4. Pith rays</span> fine but very conspicuous, even without magnifier. Color of
+      heart-wood red; of sap-wood pale lemon.</td>
+       <td class="right1b" valign="bottom"><span class="sc">Honey Locust</span>.</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+       <td class="lefti0"><span class="outdent1">B. Pores of</span> summer wood minute or small, in concentric wavy and sometimes
+   branching lines, appearing as finely-feathered hatchings on tangential
+   section.</td>
+       <td>&nbsp;</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+       <td class="lefti2"><span class="outdent1">1. Pith rays</span> fine, but very distinct; color greenish white. Heart-wood
+     absent or imperfectly developed.</td>
+       <td class="right1b" valign="bottom"><span class="sc">Hackberry</span>.</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+       <td class="lefti2"><span class="outdent1">2. Pith rays</span> indistinct; color of heart-wood reddish brown; sap-wood<span class="pagenum"><a name="page298" id="page298"></a>298</span>
+      grayish to reddish white.</td>
+       <td class="right1b" valign="bottom"><span class="sc">Elms</span>.</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+       <td class="lefti0"><span class="outdent1">C. Pores of</span> summer wood arranged in radial branching lines (when very
+   crowded radial arrangement somewhat obscured).</td>
+       <td>&nbsp;</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+       <td class="lefti2"><span class="outdent1">1. Pith rays</span> very minute, hardly visible.</td>
+       <td class="right1b" valign="bottom"><span class="sc">Chestnut</span>.</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+       <td class="lefti2"><span class="outdent1">2. Pith rays</span> very broad and conspicuous.</td>
+       <td class="right1b" valign="bottom"><span class="sc">Oak</span>.</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+       <td class="lefti0"><span class="outdent1">D. Pores of</span> summer wood mostly but little smaller than those of the spring
+   wood, isolated and scattered; very heavy and hard woods. The pores of
+   the spring wood sometimes form but an imperfect zone. (Some diffuse-porous
+   woods of groups A and B may seem to belong here.)</td>
+       <td>&nbsp;</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+       <td class="lefti2"><span class="outdent1">1. Fine concentric</span> lines (not of pores) as distinct, or nearly so, as the
+     very fine pith rays; outer summer wood with a tinge of red; heart-wood
+     light reddish brown.</td>
+       <td class="right1b" valign="bottom"><span class="sc">Hickory</span>.</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+       <td class="lefti2"><span class="outdent1">2. Fine concentric</span> lines, much finer than the pith rays; no reddish tinge
+     in summer wood; sap-wood white; heart-wood blackish.</td>
+       <td class="right1b" valign="bottom"><span class="sc">Persimmon</span>.</td>
+</tr>
+</table><br />
+
+<hr class="full" style="color: #000; height: 1px; margin-bottom: -11px;" />
+<hr class="full" style="color: #000; height: 1px; margin-top: -11px;" />
+
+<h5>ADDITIONAL NOTES FOR DISTINCTIONS IN THE GROUP.</h5>
+
+<p>Sassafras and mulberry may be confounded but for the greater weight
+and hardness and the absence of odor in the mulberry; the radial section of
+mulberry also shows the pith rays conspicuously.</p>
+
+<p>Honey locust, coffee tree, and black locust are also very similar in appearance.
+The honey locust stands out by the conspicuousness of the pith rays,
+especially on radial sections, on account of their height, while the black
+locust is distinguished by the extremely great weight and hardness, together
+with its darker brown color.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 600px;"><a href="images/figure-131-w800.png"><img src="images/figure-131-a-600.png" width="600" height="302" alt="Wood of Coffee Tree." /></a>
+<p class="center1">Fig. 131. Wood of Coffee Tree.</p></div>
+
+<p>The ashes, elms, hickories, and oaks may, on casual observation, appear
+to resemble one another on account of the pronounced zone of porous spring
+wood. (Figs. 129, 132, 135.) The sharply defined large pith rays of the oak
+exclude these at once; the wavy lines of pores in the summer wood, appearing
+as conspicuous finely-feathered hatchings on tangential section, distinguish
+the elms; while the ashes differ from the hickory by the very conspicuously
+defined zone of spring wood pores, which in hickory appear more
+or less interrupted. The reddish hue of the hickory and the more or less
+brown hue of the ash may also aid in ready recognition. The smooth, radial
+surface of split hickory will readily separate it from the rest.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 500px;"><a href="images/figure-132-w700.png"><img src="images/figure-132-a-500.png" width="500" height="443" alt="A, black ash; B, white ash; C, green ash." /></a>
+<p class="center1">Fig. 132. <i>A</i>, black ash; <i>B</i>, white ash; <i>C</i>, green ash.</p></div>
+
+<p class="ind">The different species of ash may be identified as follows (Fig. 132):</p>
+
+<table summary="Ash" align="center" width="auto" border="0">
+<tr>
+       <td class="lefti2"><span class="outdent1">1. Pores in</span> the summer wood more or less united into lines.</td>
+       <td width="20%">&nbsp;</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+       <td class="lefti4"><span class="outdent1"><i>a</i>. The lines</span> short and broken, occurring mostly near the limit
+         of the ring.</td>
+       <td class="right1b" valign="bottom"><span class="sc">White Ash</span>.</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+       <td class="lefti4"><span class="outdent1"><i>b</i>. The lines</span> quite long and conspicuous in most parts of the
+         summer wood.</td>
+       <td class="right1b" valign="bottom"><span class="sc">Green Ash</span>.</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+       <td class="lefti2"><span class="outdent1">2. Pores in</span> the summer wood not united into lines, or rarely so.</td>
+       <td>&nbsp;</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+       <td class="lefti4"><span class="outdent1"><i>a</i>. Heart-wood</span> reddish brown and very firm.</td>
+       <td class="right1b" valign="bottom"><span class="sc">Red Ash</span>.</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+       <td class="lefti4"><span class="outdent1"><i>b</i>. Heart-wood</span> grayish brown, and much more porous.</td>
+       <td class="right1b" valign="bottom"><span class="sc">Black Ash</span>.</td>
+</tr>
+</table>
+
+ <span class="pagenum"><a name="page299" id="page299"></a>299</span>
+
+<p>In the oaks, two groups can be readily distinguished by the manner in
+which the pores are distributed in the summer wood. (Fig. 133.) In the
+white oaks the pores are very fine and numerous and crowded in the outer
+part of the summer wood, while in the black or red oaks the pores are
+larger, few in number, and mostly isolated. The live oaks, as far as structure
+is concerned, belong to the black oaks, but are much less porous, and
+are exceedingly heavy and hard.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 600px;"><a href="images/figure-133-w800.png"><img src="images/figure-133-a-600.png" width="600" height="298" alt="Wood of Red Oak." /></a>
+<p>Fig. 133. Wood of Red Oak. (For white oak
+see fig. 129, <a class="index" href="#page294">p. 294</a>.)</p></div>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 600px;"><a href="images/figure-134-w800.png"><img src="images/figure-134-a-600.png" width="600" height="346" alt="Wood of Chestnut." /></a>
+<p>Fig. 134. Wood of Chestnut.</p></div>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 600px;"><a href="images/figure-135-w800.png"><img src="images/figure-135-a-600.png" width="600" height="344" alt="Wood of Hickory." /></a>
+<p>Fig. 135. Wood of Hickory.</p></div>
+
+
+<hr class="full" style="color: #000; height: 1px; margin-bottom: -11px;" />
+<hr class="full" style="color: #000; height: 1px; margin-top: -11px;" />
+
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page300" id="page300"></a>300</span>
+
+<h4>III.&mdash;<span class="sc">Diffuse-Porous Woods</span>.</h4>
+
+<p>(A few indistinctly ring-porous woods of Group II, D, and cedar elm may
+seem to belong here.)</p>
+
+<table summary="Diffuse-porous" align="center" width="auto" border="0">
+<tr>
+       <td class="lefti0"><span class="outdent1">A. Pores varying</span> in size from large to minute; largest in spring wood,
+   thereby giving sometimes the appearance of a ring-porous arrangement.</td>
+       <td width="20%">&nbsp;</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+       <td class="lefti2"><span class="outdent1">1. Heavy and</span> hard; color of heart-wood (especially on longitudinal
+      section) chocolate brown.</td>
+       <td class="right1b" valign="bottom"><span class="sc">Black Walnut</span>.</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+       <td class="lefti2"><span class="outdent1"> 2. Light and</span> soft; color of heart-wood light reddish brown.</td>
+       <td class="right1b" valign="bottom"><span class="sc">Butternut</span>.</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+       <td class="lefti0"><span class="outdent1">B. Pores all</span> minute and indistinct; most numerous in spring wood,
+   giving rise to a lighter colored zone or line (especially on
+   longitudinal section), thereby appearing sometimes ring-porous;
+   wood hard, heart-wood vinous reddish; pith rays very fine, but very
+   distinct. (See also the sometimes indistinct ring-porous cedar elm,
+   and occasionally winged elm, which are readily distinguished by the
+   concentric wavy lines of pores in the summer wood).</td>
+       <td class="right1b" valign="bottom"><span class="sc">Cherry</span>.</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+       <td class="lefti0"><span class="outdent1">C. Pores minute</span> or indistinct, neither conspicuously larger nor more numerous
+   in the spring wood and evenly distributed.</td>
+       <td>&nbsp;</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+       <td class="lefti2"><span class="outdent1">1. Broad pith</span> rays present.</td>
+       <td>&nbsp;</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+       <td class="lefti4"><span class="outdent1"><i>a</i>. All or most</span> pith rays broad, numerous, and crowded,
+         especially on tangential sections, medium heavy and hard,
+         difficult to split.</td>
+       <td class="right1b" valign="bottom"><span class="sc">Sycamore</span>.</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+       <td class="lefti4"><span class="outdent1"><i>b</i>. Only part</span> of the pith rays broad.</td>
+       <td>&nbsp;</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+       <td class="lefti6"><span class="outdent1"><i>a'</i>. Broad pith</span> rays well defined, quite numerous;
+            wood reddish white to reddish.</td>
+       <td class="right1b" valign="bottom"><span class="sc">Beech</span>.</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+       <td class="lefti6"><span class="outdent1"><i>b'</i>. Broad pith</span> rays not sharply defined, made up of many
+            small rays, not numerous. Stem furrowed, and therefore the
+            periphery of section, and with it the annual rings sinuous,
+            bending in and out, and the large pith rays generally limited
+            to the furrows or concave portions. Wood white, not reddish.</td>
+       <td class="right1b" valign="bottom"><span class="sc">Blue Beech</span>.</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+       <td class="lefti2"><span class="outdent1">2. No broad</span> pith rays present.</td>
+       <td>&nbsp;</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+       <td class="lefti4"><span class="outdent1"><i>a</i>. Pith rays</span> small to very small, but quite distinct.<span class="pagenum"><a name="page301" id="page301"></a>301</span></td>
+       <td>&nbsp;</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+       <td class="lefti6"><span class="outdent1"><i>a'</i>. Wood hard.</span></td>
+       <td>&nbsp;</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+       <td class="lefti8"><span class="outdent1"><i>a"</i>. Color reddish</span> white, with dark reddish tinge in outer
+                summer wood.</td>
+       <td class="right1b" valign="bottom"><span class="sc">Maple</span>.</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+       <td class="lefti8"><span class="outdent1"><i>b"</i>. Color white</span>, without reddish tinge.</td>
+       <td class="right1b" valign="bottom"><span class="sc">Holly</span>.</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+       <td class="lefti6"><span class="outdent1"><i>b'</i>. Wood soft</span> to very soft.</td>
+       <td>&nbsp;</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+       <td class="lefti8"><span class="outdent1"><i>a"</i>. Pores crowded</span>, occupying nearly all the space between
+                pith rays.</td>
+       <td>&nbsp;</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+       <td class="lefti10"><span class="outdent1"><i>a'"</i>. Color yellowish</span> white, often with a greenish tinge in
+                   heart-wood.</td>
+       <td class="right1b" valign="bottom"><span class="sc">Tulip Poplar</span>.</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+       <td class="lefti10">&nbsp;</td>
+       <td class="right1b" valign="bottom"><span class="sc">Cucumber Tree</span>.</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+       <td class="lefti10"><span class="outdent1"><i>b.'"</i> Color of sap-wood</span> grayish, of heart-wood light to dark
+                   reddish brown.</td>
+       <td class="right1b" valign="bottom"><span class="sc">Sweet Gum</span>.</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+       <td class="lefti8"><span class="outdent1"><i>b"</i>. Pores not crowded</span>, occupying not over one-third the
+                space between pith rays; heart-wood brownish white to
+                very light brown.</td>
+       <td class="right1b" valign="bottom"><span class="sc">Basswood</span>.</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+       <td class="lefti4"><span class="outdent1"><i>b</i>. Pith rays</span> scarcely distinct, yet if viewed with ordinary magnifier,
+           plainly visible.</td>
+       <td>&nbsp;</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+       <td class="lefti6"><span class="outdent1"><i>a'</i>. Pores indistinct</span> to the naked eye.</td>
+       <td>&nbsp;</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+       <td class="lefti6"><span class="outdent1"><i>a"</i>. Color uniform</span> pale yellow; pith rays not conspicuous
+                even on the radial section.</td>
+       <td class="right1b" valign="bottom"><span class="sc">Buckeye</span>.</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+       <td class="lefti8"><span class="outdent1"><i>b"</i>. Sap-wood yellowish</span> gray, heart-wood grayish brown; pith
+                rays conspicuous on the radial section.</td>
+       <td class="right1b" valign="bottom"><span class="sc">Sour Gum</span>.</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+       <td class="lefti8"><span class="outdent1"><i>b'</i>. Pores scarcely distinct</span>, but mostly visible as grayish specks on
+              the cross-section; sap-wood whitish, heart-wood reddish</td>
+       <td class="right1b" valign="bottom"><span class="sc">Birch</span>.</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+       <td class="lefti0"><span class="outdent1">D. Pith rays</span> not visible or else indistinct, even if viewed with magnifier.</td>
+       <td>&nbsp;</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+       <td class="lefti2"><span class="outdent1">1. Wood very soft</span>, white, or in shades of brown, usually with a silky
+     luster.</td>
+       <td class="right1b" valign="bottom"><span class="sc">Cottonwood (Poplar)</span>.</td>
+</tr>
+</table><br />
+
+<hr class="full" style="color: #000; height: 1px; margin-bottom: -11px;" />
+<hr class="full" style="color: #000; height: 1px; margin-top: -11px;" />
+
+<h5>ADDITIONAL NOTES FOR DISTINCTIONS IN THE GROUP.</h5>
+
+<p>Cherry and birch are sometimes confounded, the high pith rays on the
+cherry on radial sections readily distinguishes it; distinct pores on birch and
+spring wood zone in cherry as well as the darker vinous-brown color of the
+latter will prove helpful.</p>
+
+<p>Two groups of birches can be readily distinguished, tho specific distinction
+is not always possible.</p>
+
+<table summary="Birch" align="center" width="auto" border="0">
+<tr>
+       <td class="lefti2"><span class="outdent1">1. Pith rays</span> fairly distinct, the pores rather few and not more
+     abundant in the spring wood: wood heavy, usually darker.</td>
+       <td class="right1b" width="20%" valign="bottom"><span class="sc">Cherry Birch</span> and <span class="sc">Yellow Birch</span>.</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+       <td class="lefti2"><span class="outdent1">2. Pith rays</span> barely distinct, pores more numerous and commonly forming
+     a more porous spring wood zone; wood of medium weight.</td>
+       <td class="right1b" valign="bottom"><span class="sc">Canoe or Paper Birch</span>.</td>
+</tr>
+</table>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 600px;"><a href="images/figure-136-w800.png"><img src="images/figure-136-a-600.png" width="600" height="248" alt="Wood of Beech, Sycamore and Birch." /></a>
+<p>Fig. 136. Wood of Beech, Sycamore and Birch.</p></div>
+
+<p>The species of maple may be distinguished as follows:</p>
+
+<table summary="Maple" align="center" width="auto" border="0">
+<tr>
+       <td class="lefti2"><span class="outdent1">1. Most of the</span> pith rays broader than the pores and very conspicuous.</td>
+       <td class="right1b" width="20%" valign="bottom"><span class="sc">Sugar Maple</span>.</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+       <td class="lefti2"><span class="outdent1">2. Pith rays</span> not or rarely broader than the pores, fine but conspicuous.<span class="pagenum"><a name="page302" id="page302"></a>302</span></td>
+       <td>&nbsp;</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+       <td class="lefti4"><span class="outdent1"><i>a</i>. Wood heavy</span> and hard, usually of darker reddish color and
+           commonly spotted on cross-section.</td>
+       <td class="right1b" valign="bottom"><span class="sc">Red Maple</span>.</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+       <td class="lefti4"><span class="outdent1"><i>b</i>. Wood of medium</span> weight and hardness, usually light colored.</td>
+       <td class="right1b" valign="bottom"><span class="sc">Silver Maple</span>.</td>
+</tr>
+</table>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 600px;"><a href="images/figure-137-w800.png"><img src="images/figure-137-a-600.png" width="600" height="343" alt="Wood of Maple." /></a>
+<p>Fig. 137. Wood of Maple.</p></div>
+
+<p>Red maple is not always safely distinguished from soft maple. In box
+elder the pores are finer and more numerous than in soft maple.
+The various species of elm may be distinguished as follows:</p>
+
+<table summary="Elm" align="center" width="auto" border="0">
+<tr>
+       <td class="lefti2"><span class="outdent1">1. Pores of spring</span> wood form a broad band of several rows; easy
+     splitting, dark brown heart.</td>
+       <td class="right1b" width="20%" valign="bottom"><span class="sc">Red Elm</span>.</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+       <td class="lefti2"><span class="outdent1">2. Pores of spring</span> wood usually in a single row, or nearly so.</td>
+       <td>&nbsp;</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+       <td class="lefti4"><span class="outdent1"><i>a</i>. Pores of spring</span> wood large, conspicuously so.</td>
+       <td class="right1b" valign="bottom"><span class="sc">White Elm</span>.</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+       <td class="lefti4"><span class="outdent1"><i>b</i>. Pores of spring</span> wood small to minute.</td>
+       <td>&nbsp;</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+       <td class="lefti6"><span class="outdent1"><i>a'</i>. Lines of pores</span> in summer wood fine, not as wide as the<span class="pagenum"><a name="page303" id="page303"></a>303</span>
+              intermediate spaces, giving rise to very compact grain.</td>
+       <td class="right1b" valign="bottom"><span class="sc">Rock Elm</span>.</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+       <td class="lefti6"><span class="outdent1"><i>b'</i>. Lines of pores</span> broad, commonly as wide as the
+              intermediate spaces.</td>
+       <td class="right1b" valign="bottom"><span class="sc">Winged Elm</span>.</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+       <td class="lefti4"><span class="outdent1"><i>c</i>. Pores in spring</span> wood indistinct, and therefore hardly a
+           ring-porous wood.</td>
+       <td class="right1b" valign="bottom"><span class="sc">Cedar Elm</span>.</td>
+</tr>
+</table>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 500px;"><a href="images/figure-138-w700.png"><img src="images/figure-138-a-500.png" width="500" height="429" alt=" Wood of Elm." /></a><p>
+
+Fig. 138. Wood of Elm.
+<i>a</i> red elm; <i>b</i>, white elm; <i>c</i>, winged elm.</p></div>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 400px;"><a href="images/figure-139-w500.png"><img src="images/figure-139-a-400.png" width="400" height="273" alt="Walnut." /></a>
+<p>Fig. 139. Walnut. <i>p.r</i>., pith
+rays; <i>c.l</i>., concentric lines;
+<i>v</i>, vessels or pores; <i>su. w</i>.,
+summer wood; <i>sp. w</i>.,
+spring wood.</p></div>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 600px;"><a href="images/figure-140-w700.png"><img src="images/figure-140-a-600.png" width="600" height="329" alt="Wood of Cherry." /></a>
+<p>Fig. 140. Wood of Cherry.</p></div>
+
+
+<h2><span class="pagenum" style="font-size: 0.4em; font-weight: normal;"><a name="page304" id="page304"></a>304</span>INDEX.</h2>
+
+<p class="center">
+<a href="#A">A</a> | <a href="#B">B</a> | <a href="#C">C</a> | <a href="#D">D</a> |
+<a href="#E">E</a> | <a href="#F">F</a> | <a href="#G">G</a> | <a href="#H">H</a> |
+<a href="#I">I</a> | <a href="#J">J</a> | <a href="#K">K</a> | <a href="#L">L</a> |
+<a href="#M">M</a> | <a href="#N">N</a> | <a href="#O">O</a> | <a href="#P">P</a> |
+<a href="#Q">Q</a> | <a href="#R">R</a> | <a href="#S">S</a> | <a href="#T">T</a> |
+<a href="#U">U</a> | <a href="#V">V</a> | <a href="#W">W</a> | <a href="#Y">Y</a> <br /><br /></p>
+
+<a name="A" id="A"></a>
+<ul class="index">
+<li><i>Abies grandis</i>, <a class="index" href="#page96">96</a>.</li>
+
+<li><i>Acer dasycarpum</i>, <a class="index" href="#page172">172</a>.</li>
+
+<li><i>Acer macrophyllum</i>, <a class="index" href="#page170">170</a>.</li>
+
+<li><i>Acer rubrum</i>, <a class="index" href="#page174">174</a>.</li>
+
+<li><i>Acer saccharinum</i>, <a class="index" href="#page172">172</a>.</li>
+
+<li><i>Acer saccharum</i>, <a class="index" href="#page176">176</a>.</li>
+
+<li><i>Agaricus</i> <ins title="Transcriber's Note: original reads 'mellens'"><i>melleus</i></ins>, <a class="index" href="#page236">236</a>.</li>
+
+<li><i>Agarics</i>, <a class="index" href="#page234">234</a>, <a class="index" href="#page236">236</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Alburnum, <a class="index" href="#page17">17</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Ambrosia beetles, <a class="index" href="#page242">242</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Angiosperms, <a class="index" href="#page9">9</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Animal enemies, <a class="index" href="#page239">239</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Arborvitae, Giant, <a class="index" href="#page104">104</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Ash, <a class="index" href="#page182">182</a>-191, <a class="index" href="#page296">296</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Ash, Black, <a class="index" href="#page182">182</a>, <a class="index" href="#page298">298</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Ash, Blue, <a class="index" href="#page186">186</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Ash, Hoop, <a class="index" href="#page182">182</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Ash, Oregon, <a class="index" href="#page184">184</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Ash, Red, <a class="index" href="#page188">188</a>, <a class="index" href="#page298">298</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Ash, White, <a class="index" href="#page25">25</a>, <a class="index" href="#page190">190</a>, <a class="index" href="#page298">298</a>.</li>
+</ul>
+
+<a name="B" id="B"></a>
+<ul class="index">
+<li>Bamboo, <a class="index" href="#page10">10</a>, <a class="index" href="#page11">11</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Bark, <a class="index" href="#page10">10</a>, <a class="index" href="#page13">13</a>, <a class="index" href="#page14">14</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Bark borers, <a class="index" href="#page243">243</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Basswood, <a class="index" href="#page13">13</a>, <a class="index" href="#page178">178</a>, <a class="index" href="#page301">301</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Bast, <a class="index" href="#page13">13</a>, <a class="index" href="#page15">15</a>, <a class="index" href="#page16">16</a>, <a class="index" href="#page20">20</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Beech, <a class="index" href="#page134">134</a>, <a class="index" href="#page300">300</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Beech, Blue, <a class="index" href="#page124">124</a>, <a class="index" href="#page300">300</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Beech, Water, <a class="index" href="#page124">124</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Beech, Water, <a class="index" href="#page162">162</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Bees, carpenter, <a class="index" href="#page246">246</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Beetles, <a class="index" href="#page241">241</a>-246.</li>
+
+<li><i>Betula lenta</i>, <a class="index" href="#page130">130</a>.</li>
+
+<li><i>Betula lutea</i>, <a class="index" href="#page132">132</a>.</li>
+
+<li><i>Betula nigra</i>, <a class="index" href="#page128">128</a>.</li>
+
+<li><i>Betula papyrifera</i>, <a class="index" href="#page126">126</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Big Tree, <a class="index" href="#page98">98</a>, <a class="index" href="#page208">208</a>, <a class="index" href="#page220">220</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Birch, Black, <a class="index" href="#page130">130</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Birch, Canoe, <a class="index" href="#page126">126</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Birch, Cherry, <a class="index" href="#page130">130</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Birch, Gray, <a class="index" href="#page132">132</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Birch, Mahogany, <a class="index" href="#page130">130</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Birch, Paper, <a class="index" href="#page126">126</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Birch, Red, <a class="index" href="#page128">128</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Birch, River, <a class="index" href="#page128">128</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Birch, Sweet, <a class="index" href="#page130">130</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Birch, White, <a class="index" href="#page126">126</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Birch, Yellow, <a class="index" href="#page132">132</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Bird's eye maple, <a class="index" href="#page36">36</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Bluing, <a class="index" href="#page234">234</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Bole, <a class="index" href="#page211">211</a>, <a class="index" href="#page219">219</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Borers, <a class="index" href="#page243">243</a>-246.</li>
+
+<li>Bowing, <a class="index" href="#page47">47</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Branches, <a class="index" href="#page37">37</a>, <a class="index" href="#page219">219</a>, <a class="index" href="#page226">226</a>,
+<a class="index" href="#page286">286</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Brittleness, <a class="index" href="#page53">53</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Broad-leaved trees.
+  See Trees, Broad-leaved.</li>
+
+<li>Browsing, <a class="index" href="#page240">240</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Buckeye, <a class="index" href="#page301">301</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Bud, <a class="index" href="#page14">14</a>, <a class="index" href="#page16">16</a>, <a class="index" href="#page36">36</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Buds, Adventitious, <a class="index" href="#page36">36</a>, <a class="index" href="#page37">37</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Bullnut, <a class="index" href="#page118">118</a>.</li>
+
+<li><i>Buprestid</i>, <a class="index" href="#page243">243</a></li>
+
+<li>Burl, <a class="index" href="#page35">35</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Butternut, <a class="index" href="#page114">114</a>, <a class="index" href="#page300">300</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Button Ball, <a class="index" href="#page162">162</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Buttonwood, <a class="index" href="#page162">162</a>.</li>
+</ul>
+
+<a name="C" id="C"></a>
+<ul class="index">
+<li>Calico poplar, <a class="index" href="#page246">246</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Cambium, <a class="index" href="#page10">10</a>, <a class="index" href="#page13">13</a>, <a class="index" href="#page14">14</a>,
+<a class="index" href="#page15">15</a>, <a class="index" href="#page16">16</a>, <a class="index" href="#page22">22</a>, <a class="index" href="#page237">237</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Canopy, <a class="index" href="#page204">204</a>, <a class="index" href="#page211">211</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Carpenter worms, <a class="index" href="#page245">245</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Carpenter bees, <a class="index" href="#page246">246</a>.</li>
+
+<li><i>Carpinus caroliniana</i>, <a class="index" href="#page124">124</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Catalpa, <a class="index" href="#page296">296</a>.</li>
+
+<li><i>Castanea dentata</i>, <a class="index" href="#page136">136</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Case-hardening, <a class="index" href="#page48">48</a>.</li>
+
+<li><i>Carya tomentosa</i>, <a class="index" href="#page118">118</a>.</li>
+
+<li><i>Carya porcina</i>, <a class="index" href="#page122">122</a>.</li>
+
+<li><i>Carya alba</i>, <a class="index" href="#page120">120</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Cedar, Canoe, <a class="index" href="#page104">104</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Cedar Incense, <a class="index" href="#page295">295</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Cedar, Oregon, <a class="index" href="#page108">108</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Cedar, Port Orford, <a class="index" href="#page108">108</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Cedar, Red, <a class="index" href="#page110">110</a>, <a class="index" href="#page223">223</a>, <a class="index" href="#page295">295</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Cedar, Western Red, <a class="index" href="#page104">104</a>, <a class="index" href="#page206">206</a>, <a class="index" href="#page207">207</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Cedar, White, <a class="index" href="#page106">106</a>, <a class="index" href="#page295">295</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Cedar, White, <a class="index" href="#page108">108</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Cells, Wood, <a class="index" href="#page15">15</a>, <a class="index" href="#page19">19</a>, <a class="index" href="#page20">20</a>,
+<a class="index" href="#page21">21</a>, <a class="index" href="#page24">24</a>, <a class="index" href="#page26">26</a>, <a class="index" href="#page41">41</a>,
+<a class="index" href="#page42">42</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Cells, Fibrous, <a class="index" href="#page28">28</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Cellulose, <a class="index" href="#page15">15</a>.</li>
+
+<li><i>Cerambycid</i>, <a class="index" href="#page243">243</a>.</li>
+
+<li><i>Chamaecyparis lawsoniana</i>, <a class="index" href="#page108">108</a>.</li>
+
+<li><i>Chamaecyparis thyordes</i>, <a class="index" href="#page106">106</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Checks, <a class="index" href="#page43">43</a>, <a class="index" href="#page47">47</a>, <a class="index" href="#page232">232</a>.<span class="pagenum"><a name="page305" id="page305"></a>305</span></li>
+
+<li>Cherry, Wild Black, <a class="index" href="#page164">164</a>, <a class="index" href="#page300">300</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Chestnut, <a class="index" href="#page136">136</a>, <a class="index" href="#page298">298</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Cleaning, <a class="index" href="#page219">219</a>, <a class="index" href="#page286">286</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Cleavability of wood, <a class="index" href="#page41">41</a>, <a class="index" href="#page53">53</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Coffee Tree, <a class="index" href="#page297">297</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Color of wood, <a class="index" href="#page18">18</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Cold, <a class="index" href="#page214">214</a>, <a class="index" href="#page216">216</a>.</li>
+
+<li><i>Coleoptera</i>, <a class="index" href="#page241">241</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Colors of woods, <a class="index" href="#page17">17</a>, <a class="index" href="#page18">18</a>, <a class="index" href="#page290">290</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Columbian timber beetle, <a class="index" href="#page245">245</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Comb-grain, <a class="index" href="#page54">54</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Composition of forest, <a class="index" href="#page197">197</a>-210, <a class="index" href="#page223">223</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Compression, <a class="index" href="#page51">51</a>, <a class="index" href="#page52">52</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Conch, <a class="index" href="#page235">235</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Cones, Annual, <a class="index" href="#page19">19</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Conifers, <a class="index" href="#page9">9</a>, <a class="index" href="#page10">10</a>, <a class="index" href="#page12">12</a>,
+<a class="index" href="#page24">24</a>-26, <a class="index" href="#page29">29</a>, <a class="index" href="#page30">30</a>, <a class="index" href="#page48">48</a>,
+<a class="index" href="#page58">58</a>-111, <a class="index" href="#page205">205</a>, <a class="index" href="#page220">220</a>, <a class="index" href="#page237">237</a>,
+<a class="index" href="#page251">251</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Conservation of forests, <a class="index" href="#page262">262</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Coppice, <a class="index" href="#page220">220</a>, <a class="index" href="#page278">278</a>, <a class="index" href="#page279">279</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Cork, <a class="index" href="#page13">13</a>, <a class="index" href="#page19">19</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Cortex, <a class="index" href="#page13">13</a>, <a class="index" href="#page15">15</a>.</li>
+
+<li><i>Corthylus columbianus</i>, <a class="index" href="#page245">245</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Cottonwood, <a class="index" href="#page301">301</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Cover, <a class="index" href="#page211">211</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Crop, The Forest, <a class="index" href="#page274">274</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Crown, <a class="index" href="#page211">211</a>, <a class="index" href="#page227">227</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Cucumber Tree, <a class="index" href="#page156">156</a>, <a class="index" href="#page301">301</a>.</li>
+
+<li><i>Curculionid</i>, <a class="index" href="#page243">243</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Cypress, Bald, <a class="index" href="#page102">102</a>, <a class="index" href="#cyprus">213</a>, <a class="index" href="#page295">295</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Cypress, Lawson, <a class="index" href="#page108">108</a>.</li>
+</ul>
+
+<a name="D" id="D"></a>
+<ul class="index">
+<li>Decay, <a class="index" href="#page235">235</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Deciduous trees, <a class="index" href="#page10">10</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Dicotoledons, <a class="index" href="#page9">9</a>, <a class="index" href="#page10">10</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Differentiation of cells, <a class="index" href="#page16">16</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Diffuse-porous.  See wood, diffuse-porous.</li>
+
+<li>Distribution of species, <a class="index" href="#page219">219</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Distribution of forests, <a class="index" href="#page197">197</a>-210.</li>
+
+<li>Drouth, <a class="index" href="#page213">213</a>, <a class="index" href="#page231">231</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Dry-rot, <a class="index" href="#page234">234</a>, <a class="index" href="#page238">238</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Duff, <a class="index" href="#page224">224</a>, <a class="index" href="#page251">251</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Duramen, <a class="index" href="#page17">17</a>.</li>
+</ul>
+
+<a name="E" id="E"></a>
+<ul class="index">
+<li>Elasticity of wood, <a class="index" href="#page41">41</a>, <a class="index" href="#page53">53</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Elm, <a class="index" href="#page152">152</a>-155, <a class="index" href="#page298">298</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Elm, American, <a class="index" href="#page154">154</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Elm, Cedar, <a class="index" href="#page303">303</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Elm, Cliff, <a class="index" href="#page152">152</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Elm, Cork, <a class="index" href="#page152">152</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Elm, Hickory, <a class="index" href="#page152">152</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Elm, Red, <a class="index" href="#page302">302</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Elm, Rock, <a class="index" href="#page152">152</a>, <a class="index" href="#page303">303</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Elm, Slippery, <a class="index" href="#page14">14</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Elm, Water, <a class="index" href="#page154">154</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Elm, White, <a class="index" href="#page152">152</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Elm, White, <a class="index" href="#page154">154</a>, <a class="index" href="#page302">302</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Elm, Winged, <a class="index" href="#page303">303</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Endogens, <a class="index" href="#page10">10</a>, <a class="index" href="#page17">17</a>.
+  See Monocotoledons.</li>
+
+<li>Enemies of the Forest, <a class="index" href="#page229">229</a>-249.</li>
+
+<li>Engraver beetles, <a class="index" href="#page241">241</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Entomology, Bureau of, <a class="index" href="#page248">248</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Epidermis, <a class="index" href="#page13">13</a>, <a class="index" href="#page15">15</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Erosion, <a class="index" href="#page273">273</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Evaporation, <a class="index" href="#page42">42</a>, <a class="index" href="#page47">47</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Evergreens, <a class="index" href="#page10">10</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Exotics, <a class="index" href="#page227">227</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Exogens, <a class="index" href="#page12">12</a>, <a class="index" href="#page16">16</a>.</li>
+</ul>
+
+<a name="F" id="F"></a>
+<ul class="index">
+<li><i>Fagus americana</i>, <a class="index" href="#page134">134</a>.</li>
+
+<li><i>Fagus atropunicea</i>, <a class="index" href="#page134">134</a>.</li>
+
+<li><i>Fagus ferruginea</i>, <a class="index" href="#page134">134</a>.</li>
+
+<li><i>Fagus grandifolia</i>, <a class="index" href="#page134">134</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Figure, <a class="index" href="#page37">37</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Fir, <a class="index" href="#page96">96</a>, <a class="index" href="#page294">294</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Fir, Douglas, <a class="index" href="#page94">94</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Fir, Grand, <a class="index" href="#page96">96</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Fir, Lowland, <a class="index" href="#page96">96</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Fir, Red, <a class="index" href="#page94">94</a>, <a class="index" href="#page206">206</a>, <a class="index" href="#page207">207</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Fir, Silver, <a class="index" href="#page96">96</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Fir, White, <a class="index" href="#page96">96</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Fire, <a class="index" href="#page232">232</a>, <a class="index" href="#page251">251</a>-258.</li>
+
+<li>Fire lanes, <a class="index" href="#page257">257</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Fire losses, <a class="index" href="#page253">253</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Fire notice, <a class="index" href="#page258">258</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Fire trenches, <a class="index" href="#page256">256</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Fire Wardens, <a class="index" href="#page257">257</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Fires, Causes of, <a class="index" href="#page252">252</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Fires, Control of, <a class="index" href="#page256">256</a>-258.</li>
+
+<li>Fires, Crown, <a class="index" href="#page255">255</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Fires, Description of, <a class="index" href="#page254">254</a>-256.</li>
+
+<li>Fires, Fear of, <a class="index" href="#page261">261</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Fires, Opportunities for, <a class="index" href="#page251">251</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Fires, Statistics of, <a class="index" href="#page253">253</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Fires, Surface, <a class="index" href="#page252">252</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Floor, Forest, <a class="index" href="#page213">213</a>, <a class="index" href="#page224">224</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Forest, Abundance of, <a class="index" href="#page260">260</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Forest, Appalachian, <a class="index" href="#page204">204</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Forest, Atlantic, <a class="index" href="#page197">197</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Forest, Broadleaf, <a class="index" href="#page202">202</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Forest, Eastern, <a class="index" href="#page197">197</a>-204.</li>
+
+<li>Forest, Enemies of, <a class="index" href="#page229">229</a>-249.</li>
+
+<li>Forest, Exhaustion of, <a class="index" href="#page251">251</a>-270.</li>
+
+<li>Forest, Esthetic use of, <a class="index" href="#page277">277</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Forest, Fear of, <a class="index" href="#page260">260</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Forest, Hardwood, <a class="index" href="#page197">197</a>, 197 (<a class="index" href="#page210">note, 210</a>), <a class="index" href="#page204">204</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Forest, High, <a class="index" href="#page281">281</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Forest, Hostility toward, <a class="index" href="#page260">260</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Forest, Mixed, <a class="index" href="#page204">204</a>, <a class="index" href="#page213">213</a>, <a class="index" href="#page214">214</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Forest, Northern, <a class="index" href="#page197">197</a>, 197 (<a class="index" href="#page210">note, 210</a>), <a class="index" href="#page215">215</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Forest, Pacific, <a class="index" href="#page197">197</a>, 197 (<a class="index" href="#page210">note, 210</a>), <a class="index" href="#page204">204</a>-208.</li>
+
+<li>Forest, Productive, <a class="index" href="#page274">274</a>-277.</li>
+
+<li>Forest, Protective, <a class="index" href="#page271">271</a>-274.</li>
+
+<li>Forest, Puget Sound, <a class="index" href="#page206">206</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Forest, Regular Seed, <a class="index" href="#page281">281</a>.<span class="pagenum"><a name="page306" id="page306"></a>306</span></li>
+
+<li>Forest, Rocky Mountain, <a class="index" href="#page197">197</a>, 197 (<a class="index" href="#page210">note, 210</a>), <a class="index" href="#page204">204</a>, <a class="index" href="#page205">205</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Forest, Seed, <a class="index" href="#page279">279</a>-282.</li>
+
+<li>Forest, Selection, <a class="index" href="#page280">280</a>-281.</li>
+
+<li>Forest, Southern, 197 (<a class="index" href="#page210">note, 210</a>), <a class="index" href="#page200">200</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Forest, Subarctic, <a class="index" href="#page209">209</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Forest, Two-storied Seed, <a class="index" href="#page282">282</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Forest, Use of, <a class="index" href="#page271">271</a>-287.</li>
+
+<li>Forest, Utilization of, <a class="index" href="#page271">271</a>-277.</li>
+
+<li>Forest, Virgin, <a class="index" href="#page280">280</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Forest, Western, <a class="index" href="#page197">197</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Forestry, <a class="index" href="#page271">271</a>-287.</li>
+
+<li>Forests, Composition of North American, <a class="index" href="#page197">197</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Forests, National, <a class="index" href="#page228">228</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Forests and agriculture, <a class="index" href="#page258">258</a>, <a class="index" href="#page277">277</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Forest conditions, <a class="index" href="#page211">211</a>-228, <a class="index" href="#page278">278</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Forest conservation, <a class="index" href="#page262">262</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Forest cover, <a class="index" href="#page204">204</a>, <a class="index" href="#page211">211</a>, <a class="index" href="#page212">212</a>,
+<a class="index" href="#page224">224</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Forest crop, <a class="index" href="#page274">274</a>, <a class="index" href="#page276">276</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Forest devastation, <a class="index" href="#page261">261</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Forest fires, <a class="index" href="#page251">251</a>-258, <a class="index" href="#page261">261</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Forest floor, <a class="index" href="#page213">213</a>, <a class="index" href="#page224">224</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Forest improvement, <a class="index" href="#page284">284</a>-286.</li>
+
+<li>Forest map, <a class="index" href="#page198">198</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Forest organism, The, Chapter V., pp. <a class="index" href="#page211">211</a>-228.</li>
+
+<li>Forest ownership, <a class="index" href="#page262">262</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Forest planting, <a class="index" href="#page282">282</a>-284.</li>
+
+<li>Forest preservation, <a class="index" href="#page277">277</a>-284.</li>
+
+<li>Forest products, <a class="index" href="#page276">276</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Forest Service, U. S., <a class="index" href="#page262">262</a>, <a class="index" href="#page264">264</a>, <a class="index" href="#page275">275</a>.</li>
+
+<li><i>Fraxinus americana</i>, <a class="index" href="#page190">190</a>.</li>
+
+<li><i>Fraxinus nigra</i>, <a class="index" href="#page182">182</a>.</li>
+
+<li><i>Fraxinus oregona</i>, <a class="index" href="#page184">184</a>.</li>
+
+<li><i>Fraxinus pennsylvanica</i>, <a class="index" href="#page188">188</a>.</li>
+
+<li><i>Fraxinus quadrangulata</i>, <a class="index" href="#page186">186</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Frost, <a class="index" href="#page232">232</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Frost-check, <a class="index" href="#page232">232</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Fungi, <a class="index" href="#page26">26</a>, <a class="index" href="#page233">233</a>-239.</li>
+</ul>
+
+<a name="G" id="G"></a>
+<ul class="index">
+<li>Ginko, <a class="index" href="#page12">12</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Gluing, <a class="index" href="#page54">54</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Goats, <a class="index" href="#page240">240</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Grain of wood, <a class="index" href="#page19">19</a>, <a class="index" href="#page30">30</a>, <a class="index" href="#page31">31</a>,
+<a class="index" href="#page32">32</a>-37, <a class="index" href="#page53">53</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Grain, Bird's eye, <a class="index" href="#page36">36</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Grain, coarse, <a class="index" href="#page32">32</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Grain, cross, <a class="index" href="#page33">33</a>, <a class="index" href="#page53">53</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Grain, curly, <a class="index" href="#page35">35</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Grain, fine, <a class="index" href="#page32">32</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Grain, spiral, <a class="index" href="#page33">33</a>, <a class="index" href="#page35">35</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Grain, straight, <a class="index" href="#page33">33</a>, <a class="index" href="#page53">53</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Grain, twisted, <a class="index" href="#page33">33</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Grain, wavy, <a class="index" href="#page34">34</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Grazing, <a class="index" href="#page239">239</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Group system, <a class="index" href="#page279">279</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Grubs, <a class="index" href="#page243">243</a>, <a class="index" href="#page244">244</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Gum, Black, <a class="index" href="#page180">180</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Gum, Sour, <a class="index" href="#page180">180</a>, <a class="index" href="#page301">301</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Gum, Sweet, <a class="index" href="#page160">160</a>, <a class="index" href="#page301">301</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Gymnosperms, <a class="index" href="#page9">9</a>.</li>
+</ul>
+
+<a name="H" id="H"></a>
+<ul class="index">
+<li>Hackberry, <a class="index" href="#page297">297</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Hackmatack, <a class="index" href="#page76">76</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Hardness of wood, <a class="index" href="#page41">41</a>, <a class="index" href="#page54">54</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Hardwoods, <a class="index" href="#page12">12</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Heart-wood, <a class="index" href="#page13">13</a>, <a class="index" href="#page17">17</a>, <a class="index" href="#page18">18</a>,
+<a class="index" href="#page19">19</a>, <a class="index" href="#page290">290</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Hemlock, <a class="index" href="#page90">90</a>, <a class="index" href="#page295">295</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Hemlock, Black, <a class="index" href="#page92">92</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Hemlock, Western, <a class="index" href="#page92">92</a>, <a class="index" href="#page206">206</a>.</li>
+
+<li><i>Hicoria alba</i>, <a class="index" href="#page118">118</a>.</li>
+
+<li><i>Hicoria glabra</i>, <a class="index" href="#page122">122</a>.</li>
+
+<li><i>Hicoria ovata</i>, <a class="index" href="#page120">120</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Hickory, <a class="index" href="#page118">118</a>-123, <a class="index" href="#page298">298</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Hickory, Big-bud, <a class="index" href="#page118">118</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Hickory, Black, <a class="index" href="#page118">118</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Hickory, Shagbark, <a class="index" href="#page120">120</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Hickory, Shellbark, <a class="index" href="#page120">120</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Hickory, White-heart, <a class="index" href="#page118">118</a>.</li>
+
+<li>High Forest, <a class="index" href="#page281">281</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Holly, <a class="index" href="#page301">301</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Honeycombing, <a class="index" href="#page48">48</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Hornbeam, <a class="index" href="#page124">124</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Horn-tails, <a class="index" href="#page246">246</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Hygroscopicity of wood, <a class="index" href="#page41">41</a>.</li>
+
+<li><i>Hymenomycetes</i>, <a class="index" href="#page234">234</a>.</li>
+</ul>
+
+<a name="I" id="I"></a>
+<ul class="index">
+<li>Ice, <a class="index" href="#page232">232</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Ichneumon fly, <a class="index" href="#page247">247</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Identification of woods, <a class="index" href="#page289">289</a>-303.</li>
+
+<li>Improvement of forests, <a class="index" href="#page284">284</a>-286.</li>
+
+<li>Inflammability of bark, <a class="index" href="#page14">14</a>, <a class="index" href="#page251">251</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Insects, <a class="index" href="#page240">240</a>-248.</li>
+
+<li>Insects, parasitic, <a class="index" href="#page247">247</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Insects, predaceous, <a class="index" href="#page247">247</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Intolerance, <a class="index" href="#page217">217</a>, <a class="index" href="#page219">219</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Iron-wood, <a class="index" href="#page124">124</a>.</li>
+</ul>
+
+<a name="J" id="J"></a>
+<ul class="index">
+<li><i>Juglans cinerea</i>, <a class="index" href="#page114">114</a>.</li>
+
+<li><i>Juglans nigra</i>, <a class="index" href="#page116">116</a>.</li>
+
+<li><i>Juniperus virginiana</i>, <a class="index" href="#page110">110</a>.</li>
+</ul>
+
+<a name="K" id="K"></a>
+<ul class="index">
+<li>Key for the distinction of woods, <a class="index" href="#page292">292</a>-303.</li>
+
+<li>King-nut, <a class="index" href="#page118">118</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Knot, <a class="index" href="#page35">35</a>, <a class="index" href="#page37">37</a>, <a class="index" href="#page38">38</a>.</li>
+</ul>
+
+<a name="L" id="L"></a>
+<ul class="index">
+<li>Larch, <a class="index" href="#page76">76</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Larch, Western, <a class="index" href="#page78">78</a>.</li>
+
+<li><i>Larix americana</i>, <a class="index" href="#page76">76</a>.</li>
+
+<li><i>Larix laricina</i>, <a class="index" href="#page76">76</a>.</li>
+
+<li><i>Larix occidentales</i>, <a class="index" href="#page78">78</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Leaves, <a class="index" href="#page14">14</a>, <a class="index" href="#page216">216</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Lenticels, <a class="index" href="#page14">14</a>.</li>
+
+<li><i>Lepidoptera</i>, <a class="index" href="#page241">241</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Light, <a class="index" href="#page217">217</a>-218.</li>
+
+<li>Lightning, <a class="index" href="#page232">232</a>, <a class="index" href="#page251">251</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Lignin, <a class="index" href="#page16">16</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Linden, <a class="index" href="#page178">178</a>.</li>
+
+<li><i>Liquidambar styraciflua</i>, <a class="index" href="#page160">160</a>.<span class="pagenum"><a name="page307" id="page307"></a>307</span></li>
+
+<li><i>Liriodendron tulipifera</i>, <a class="index" href="#page158">158</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Localized Selection system, <a class="index" href="#page281">281</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Locust, <a class="index" href="#page166">166</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Locust, Black, <a class="index" href="#page166">166</a>, <a class="index" href="#page296">296</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Locust, Honey, <a class="index" href="#page297">297</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Locust, Yellow, <a class="index" href="#page166">166</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Long-bodied trunk, <a class="index" href="#page225">225</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Lumber consumption, <a class="index" href="#page264">264</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Lumber, <a class="index" href="#page9">9</a>, <a class="index" href="#page10">10</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Lumber prices, <a class="index" href="#page267">267</a>, <a class="index" href="#page268">268</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Lumber production, <a class="index" href="#page265">265</a>-267.</li>
+
+<li>Lumber, substitutes for, <a class="index" href="#page264">264</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Lumbering, conservative, <a class="index" href="#page274">274</a>, <a class="index" href="#page276">276</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Lumbering, destructive, <a class="index" href="#page251">251</a>, <a class="index" href="#page258">258</a>-263.</li>
+
+<li>Lumberman, <a class="index" href="#page260">260</a>.</li>
+</ul>
+
+<a name="M" id="M"></a>
+<ul class="index">
+<li><i>Magnolia acuminata</i>, <a class="index" href="#page156">156</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Magnolia, Mountain, <a class="index" href="#page156">156</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Mahogany, <a class="index" href="#page168">168</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Maple, <a class="index" href="#page170">170</a>-177, <a class="index" href="#page301">301</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Maple, Hard, <a class="index" href="#page25">25</a>, <a class="index" href="#page176">176</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Maple, Large Leaved, <a class="index" href="#page170">170</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Maple, Oregon, <a class="index" href="#page170">170</a>,<a class="index" href="#page207"> 207</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Maple, Red, <a class="index" href="#page174">174</a>, <a class="index" href="#page302">302</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Maple, Rock, <a class="index" href="#page25">25</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Maple, Silver, <a class="index" href="#page172">172</a>, <a class="index" href="#page302">302</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Maple, Soft, <a class="index" href="#page172">172</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Maple, Sugar, <a class="index" href="#page176">176</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Maple, White, <a class="index" href="#page170">170</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Maple, White, <a class="index" href="#page172">172</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Medullary rays. See Rays.</li>
+
+<li>Medullary Sheath.  See Sheath.</li>
+
+<li><i>Merulius lachrymans</i>, <a class="index" href="#page234">234</a>, <a class="index" href="#page238">238</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Meteorological enemies, <a class="index" href="#page229">229</a>-233.</li>
+
+<li>Mice, <a class="index" href="#page237">237</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Microscope, <a class="index" href="#page14">14</a>, <a class="index" href="#page24">24</a>-31, <a class="index" href="#page290">290</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Mine, Forest treated as, <a class="index" href="#page261">261</a>, <a class="index" href="#page274">274</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Mockernut, <a class="index" href="#page118">118</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Moisture, <a class="index" href="#page213">213</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Moisture in wood, <a class="index" href="#page41">41</a>, <a class="index" href="#page52">52</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Monocotoledons, <a class="index" href="#page9">9</a>, <a class="index" href="#page10">10</a>, <a class="index" href="#page17">17</a>.
+  See also Endogens.</li>
+
+<li>Mountain, <a class="index" href="#page216">216</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Mulberry, Red, <a class="index" href="#page297">297</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Mushroom, <a class="index" href="#page236">236</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Mutual aid, <a class="index" href="#page224">224</a>.</li>
+</ul>
+
+<a name="N" id="N"></a>
+<ul class="index">
+<li>Nailing, <a class="index" href="#page53">53</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Needle-leaf trees, <a class="index" href="#page12">12</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Non-porous.  See Wood, non-porous.</li>
+
+<li>North Woods, <a class="index" href="#page197">197</a>, <a class="index" href="#page218">218</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Nurse, <a class="index" href="#page218">218</a>, <a class="index" href="#page219">219</a>.</li>
+
+<li><i>Nyssa sylvatica</i>, <a class="index" href="#page180">180</a>.</li>
+</ul>
+
+<a name="O" id="O"></a>
+<ul class="index">
+<li>Oak, <a class="index" href="#page138">138</a>-151, <a class="index" href="#page298">298</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Oak, Basket, <a class="index" href="#page142">142</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Oak, Black, <a class="index" href="#page140">140</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Oak, Bur, <a class="index" href="#page144">144</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Oak, Cow, <a class="index" href="#page142">142</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Oak, Live, <a class="index" href="#page201">201</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Oak, Mossy-cup, <a class="index" href="#page144">144</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Oak, Over-cup, <a class="index" href="#page144">144</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Oak, Post, <a class="index" href="#page148">148</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Oak, Red, <a class="index" href="#page138">138</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Oak, Stave, <a class="index" href="#page150">150</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Oak, White, <a class="index" href="#page150">150</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Oak, White (Western), <a class="index" href="#page146">146</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Oak, Yellow bark, <a class="index" href="#page140">140</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Odors of wood, <a class="index" href="#page18">18</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Osage Orange, <a class="index" href="#page296">296</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Organism, Forest, <a class="index" href="#page211">211</a>.</li>
+</ul>
+
+<a name="P" id="P"></a>
+<ul class="index">
+<li><i>Padus serotina</i>, <a class="index" href="#page164">164</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Palm, <a class="index" href="#page9">9</a>, <a class="index" href="#page17">17</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Paper pulp, <a class="index" href="#page263">263</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Parasites, <a class="index" href="#page233">233</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Parenchyma, <a class="index" href="#page23">23</a>, <a class="index" href="#page28">28</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Pecky cypress, <a class="index" href="#page234">234</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Peggy cypress, <a class="index" href="#page234">234</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Pepperidge, <a class="index" href="#page180">180</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Persimmon, <a class="index" href="#page298">298</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Phanerogamia, <a class="index" href="#page9">9</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Phloem, <a class="index" href="#page13">13</a>.</li>
+
+<li><i>Picea alba</i>, <a class="index" href="#page80">80</a>.</li>
+
+<li><i>Picea canadensis</i>, <a class="index" href="#page80">80</a>.</li>
+
+<li><i>Picea engelmanni</i>, <a class="index" href="#page86">86</a>.</li>
+
+<li><i>Picea mariana</i>, <a class="index" href="#page84">84</a>.</li>
+
+<li><i>Picea nigra</i>, <a class="index" href="#page84">84</a>.</li>
+
+<li><i>Picea rubens</i>, <a class="index" href="#page82">82</a>.</li>
+
+<li><i>Picea sitchensis</i>, <a class="index" href="#page88">88</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Pigeon Horn-tail, <a class="index" href="#page247">247</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Pignut, <a class="index" href="#page122">122</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Pines, <a class="index" href="#page58">58</a>-75, <a class="index" href="#page295">295</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Pine, Bull, <a class="index" href="#page55">55</a> (note 4), <a class="index" href="#page66">66</a>, <a class="index" href="#page205">205</a>-206.</li>
+
+<li>Pine, Cuban, <a class="index" href="#page74">74</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Pine, Georgia, <a class="index" href="#page68">68</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Pine, Loblolly, <a class="index" href="#page72">72</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Pine, Long-leaf, <a class="index" href="#page68">68</a>, <a class="index" href="#page200">200</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Pine, Norway, <a class="index" href="#page64">64</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Pine, Old Field, <a class="index" href="#page72">72</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Pine, Oregon, <a class="index" href="#page94">94</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Pine, Red, <a class="index" href="#page64">64</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Pine, Short-leaf, <a class="index" href="#page70">70</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Pine, Slash, <a class="index" href="#page74">74</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Pine, Sugar, <a class="index" href="#page62">62</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Pine, Western White, <a class="index" href="#page60">60</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Pine, Western Yellow, <a class="index" href="#page66">66</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Pine, Weymouth, <a class="index" href="#page58">58</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Pine, White, <a class="index" href="#page24">24</a>, <a class="index" href="#page58">58</a>, <a class="index" href="#page199">199</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Pine, Yellow, <a class="index" href="#page70">70</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Pine sawyers, <a class="index" href="#page244">244</a>.</li>
+
+<li><i>Pinus caribaea</i>, <a class="index" href="#page74">74</a>.</li>
+
+<li><i>Pinus echinata</i>, <a class="index" href="#page70">70</a>.</li>
+
+<li><i>Pinus heterophylla</i>, <a class="index" href="#page74">74</a>.</li>
+
+<li><i>Pinus lambertiana</i>, <a class="index" href="#page62">62</a>.</li>
+
+<li><i>Pinus monticola</i>, <a class="index" href="#page60">60</a>.</li>
+
+<li><i>Pinus palustris</i>, <a class="index" href="#page68">68</a>.</li>
+
+<li><i>Pinus ponderosa</i>, <a class="index" href="#page66">66</a>.<span class="pagenum"><a name="page308" id="page308"></a>308</span></li>
+
+<li><i>Pinus resinosa</i>, <a class="index" href="#page64">64</a>.</li>
+
+<li><i>Pinus strobus</i>, <a class="index" href="#page58">58</a>.</li>
+
+<li><i>Pinus taeda</i>, <a class="index" href="#page72">72</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Pith, <a class="index" href="#page10">10</a>, <a class="index" href="#page13">13</a>, <a class="index" href="#page15">15</a>,
+<a class="index" href="#page16">16</a>, <a class="index" href="#page23">23</a>, <a class="index" href="#page32">32</a>, <a class="index" href="#page39">39</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Pith ray. See Ray, medullary.</li>
+
+<li>Pits, <a class="index" href="#page26">26</a>, <a class="index" href="#page292">292</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Planting, <a class="index" href="#page282">282</a>-284.</li>
+
+<li><i>Platanus occidentalis</i>, <a class="index" href="#page162">162</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Poles, <a class="index" href="#page225">225</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Polypores, <a class="index" href="#page234">234</a>.</li>
+
+<li><i>Polyporus annosus</i>, <a class="index" href="#page237">237</a>.</li>
+
+<li><i>Polyporus sulphureus</i>, <a class="index" href="#page236">236</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Poplar, yellow, <a class="index" href="#page24">24</a>, <a class="index" href="#page35">35</a>, <a class="index" href="#page158">158</a>,
+<a class="index" href="#page204">204</a>, <a class="index" href="#page245">245</a>, <a class="index" href="#page246">246</a>,
+<a class="index" href="#page267">267</a>-268.</li>
+
+<li>Pores, <a class="index" href="#page23">23</a>, <a class="index" href="#page28">28</a>, <a class="index" href="#page29">29</a>,
+<a class="index" href="#page291">291</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Powder-post beetles, <a class="index" href="#page244">244</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Preservation of forests, <a class="index" href="#page277">277</a>-284.</li>
+
+<li>Prices of lumber, <a class="index" href="#page267">267</a>, <a class="index" href="#page268">268</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Primary growth, <a class="index" href="#page17">17</a>, <a class="index" href="#page22">22</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Procambium strands, <a class="index" href="#page16">16</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Protection against fungi, <a class="index" href="#page239">239</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Protection against insects, <a class="index" href="#page247">247</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Properties of wood, Chap II., p. <a class="index" href="#page41">41</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Protoplasm, <a class="index" href="#page14">14</a>, <a class="index" href="#page16">16</a>, <a class="index" href="#page23">23</a>,
+<a class="index" href="#page41">41</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Pruning of branches, <a class="index" href="#page286">286</a>.</li>
+
+<li><i>Prunus serotina</i>, <a class="index" href="#page164">164</a>.</li>
+
+<li><i>Pseudotsuga mucronata</i>, <a class="index" href="#page94">94</a>.</li>
+
+<li><i>Pseudotsuga taxifolia</i>, <a class="index" href="#page94">94</a>.</li>
+</ul>
+
+<a name="Q" id="Q"></a>
+<ul class="index">
+<li>Quartering a log, <a class="index" href="#page45">45</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Quartered oak, <a class="index" href="#page22">22</a>.</li>
+
+<li><i>Quercus alba</i>, <a class="index" href="#page150">150</a>.</li>
+
+<li><i>Quercus garryana</i>, <a class="index" href="#page146">146</a>.</li>
+
+<li><i>Quercus macrocarpa</i>, <a class="index" href="#page144">144</a>.</li>
+
+<li><i>Quercus michauxii</i>, <a class="index" href="#page142">142</a>.</li>
+
+<li><i>Quercus minor</i>, <a class="index" href="#page148">148</a>.</li>
+
+<li><i>Quercus obtusiloba</i>, <a class="index" href="#page148">148</a>.</li>
+
+<li><i>Quercus rubra</i>, <a class="index" href="#page138">138</a>.</li>
+
+<li><i>Quercus stellata</i>, <a class="index" href="#page148">148</a>.</li>
+
+<li><i>Quercus tinctoria</i>, <a class="index" href="#page140">140</a>.</li>
+
+<li><i>Quercus velutina</i>, <a class="index" href="#page140">140</a>.</li>
+</ul>
+
+<a name="R" id="R"></a>
+<ul class="index">
+<li>Rainfall, effect on forest, <a class="index" href="#page205">205</a>, <a class="index" href="#page213">213</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Rays, medullary, <a class="index" href="#page15">15</a>, <a class="index" href="#page16">16</a>, <a class="index" href="#page17">17</a>,
+<a class="index" href="#page21">21</a>, <a class="index" href="#page22">22</a>, <a class="index" href="#page23">23</a>, <a class="index" href="#page26">26</a>,
+<a class="index" href="#page30">30</a>, <a class="index" href="#page31">31</a>, <a class="index" href="#page37">37</a>, <a class="index" href="#page44">44</a>,
+<a class="index" href="#page53">53</a>, <a class="index" href="#page291">291</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Red rot, <a class="index" href="#page234">234</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Redwood, <a class="index" href="#page100">100</a>, <a class="index" href="#page207">207</a>, <a class="index" href="#page220">220</a>,
+<a class="index" href="#page295">295</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Regularity of cells, <a class="index" href="#page24">24</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Reproduction, <a class="index" href="#page220">220</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Reserve sprout method, <a class="index" href="#page279">279</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Resin ducts, <a class="index" href="#page26">26</a>, <a class="index" href="#page291">291</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Rhizomorphs, <a class="index" href="#page236">236</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Rind, <a class="index" href="#page13">13</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Ring-porous. See Wood, ring-porous.</li>
+
+<li>Rings, Annual, <a class="index" href="#page9">9</a>, <a class="index" href="#page10">10</a>, <a class="index" href="#page19">19</a>,
+<a class="index" href="#page21">21</a>, <a class="index" href="#page23">23</a>, <a class="index" href="#page44">44</a>, <a class="index" href="#page226">226</a>,
+<a class="index" href="#page290">290</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Rings, False, <a class="index" href="#page19">19</a>, <a class="index" href="#page231">231</a>.</li>
+
+<li><i>Robinia pseudacacia</i>, <a class="index" href="#page166">166</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Rodents, <a class="index" href="#page239">239</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Roots, <a class="index" href="#page211">211</a>, <a class="index" href="#page224">224</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Rotation period, <a class="index" href="#page279">279</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Rotting, <a class="index" href="#page234">234</a>.</li>
+</ul>
+
+<a name="S" id="S"></a>
+<ul class="index">
+<li><i>Salix nigra</i>, <a class="index" href="#page112">112</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Sand dunes, <a class="index" href="#page230">230</a>, <a class="index" href="#page231">231</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Saplings, <a class="index" href="#page225">225</a>, <a class="index" href="#page226">226</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Saprophytes, <a class="index" href="#page233">233</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Sap-wood, <a class="index" href="#page13">13</a>, <a class="index" href="#page17">17</a>, <a class="index" href="#page18">18</a>,
+<a class="index" href="#page41">41</a>, <a class="index" href="#page42">42</a>, <a class="index" href="#page290">290</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Sassafras, <a class="index" href="#page296">296</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Sawyers, Pine, <a class="index" href="#page244">244</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Seasoning, <a class="index" href="#page42">42</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Secondary growth, <a class="index" href="#page17">17</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Section, cross, <a class="index" href="#page21">21</a>, <a class="index" href="#page22">22</a>, <a class="index" href="#page29">29</a>.
+  See also Section, transverse.</li>
+
+<li>Section, radial, <a class="index" href="#page19">19</a>, <a class="index" href="#page22">22</a>, <a class="index" href="#page26">26</a>,
+<a class="index" href="#page30">30</a>, <a class="index" href="#page31">31</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Section, tangential, <a class="index" href="#page19">19</a>, <a class="index" href="#page22">22</a>, <a class="index" href="#page26">26</a>,
+<a class="index" href="#page30">30</a>, <a class="index" href="#page31">31</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Section, transverse, <a class="index" href="#page19">19</a>, <a class="index" href="#page24">24</a>, <a class="index" href="#page29">29</a>,
+<a class="index" href="#page30">30</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Sections, transverse, radial and tangential, <a class="index" href="#page12">12</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Seed forests, <a class="index" href="#page279">279</a>-282.</li>
+
+<li>Seeding from the side, <a class="index" href="#page279">279</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Seedlings, <a class="index" href="#page225">225</a>, <a class="index" href="#page226">226</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Seeds, <a class="index" href="#page220">220</a>-223, <a class="index" href="#page226">226</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Sequoia, <a class="index" href="#page98">98</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Sequoia, <a class="index" href="#page100">100</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Sequoia, Giant, <a class="index" href="#page98">98</a>.</li>
+
+<li><i>Sequoia gigantea</i>, <a class="index" href="#page98">98</a>.</li>
+
+<li><i>Sequoia sempervirens</i>, <a class="index" href="#page100">100</a>.</li>
+
+<li><i>Sequoia washingtoniana</i>, <a class="index" href="#page98">98</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Settler, <a class="index" href="#page258">258</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Shake, <a class="index" href="#page47">47</a>, <a class="index" href="#page232">232</a>, <a class="index" href="#page233">233</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Shearing strength, <a class="index" href="#page52">52</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Sheep, <a class="index" href="#page240">240</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Shelf fungus, <a class="index" href="#page234">234</a>, <a class="index" href="#page236">236</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Short-bodied trunk, <a class="index" href="#page225">225</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Shrinkage of wood, <a class="index" href="#page41">41</a>, <a class="index" href="#page42">42</a>-47.</li>
+
+<li>Silver flakes, <a class="index" href="#page22">22</a>.
+  See Rays, Medullary.</li>
+
+<li>Silvical characteristics, <a class="index" href="#page212">212</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Silvicultural systems, <a class="index" href="#page278">278</a>-284.</li>
+
+<li>Slash, <a class="index" href="#page229">229</a>, <a class="index" href="#page251">251</a>, <a class="index" href="#page257">257</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Slash-grain, <a class="index" href="#page54">54</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Slash-sawing, <a class="index" href="#page45">45</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Snow, <a class="index" href="#page232">232</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Softwoods, <a class="index" href="#page12">12</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Soil, <a class="index" href="#page211">211</a>, <a class="index" href="#page213">213</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Specific gravity. See Weight.</li>
+
+<li>Splint-wood, <a class="index" href="#page17">17</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Splitting. See Cleavability.</li>
+
+<li>Spores, <a class="index" href="#page234">234</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Spring-wood, <a class="index" href="#page20">20</a>, <a class="index" href="#page21">21</a>, <a class="index" href="#page24">24</a>,
+<a class="index" href="#page30">30</a>, <a class="index" href="#page32">32</a>, <a class="index" href="#page44">44</a>, <a class="index" href="#page53">53</a>,
+<a class="index" href="#page54">54</a>, <a class="index" href="#page291">291</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Sprouts, <a class="index" href="#page220">220</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Spruce, <a class="index" href="#page80">80</a>-89, <a class="index" href="#page295">295</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Spruce, Black, <a class="index" href="#page84">84</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Spruce, Douglas, <a class="index" href="#page94">94</a>, <a class="index" href="#page296">296</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Spruce, Engelmann's, <a class="index" href="#page86">86</a>.<span class="pagenum"><a name="page309" id="page309"></a>309</span></li>
+
+<li>Spruce, Red, <a class="index" href="#page82">82</a>, <a class="index" href="#page213">213</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Spruce, Sitka, <a class="index" href="#page88">88</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Spruce, Tideland, <a class="index" href="#page88">88</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Spruce, Western White, <a class="index" href="#page86">86</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Spruce, White, <a class="index" href="#page80">80</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Stand, mixed, <a class="index" href="#page213">213</a>, <a class="index" href="#page223">223</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Stand, pure, <a class="index" href="#page213">213</a>, <a class="index" href="#page223">223</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Standards, <a class="index" href="#page225">225</a>, <a class="index" href="#page226">226</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Steamboats, <a class="index" href="#page246">246</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Stem, diagram of cross section, Fig. 4, p. <a class="index" href="#page13">13</a>, fig. 5, p. <a class="index" href="#page15">15</a>;
+<a class="index" href="#page211">211</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Strength of wood, <a class="index" href="#page41">41</a>, <a class="index" href="#page51">51</a>-53.</li>
+
+<li>Strip system, <a class="index" href="#page279">279</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Structure of wood, <a class="index" href="#page9">9</a>-40, <a class="index" href="#page29">29</a>, <a class="index" href="#page30">30</a>,
+<a class="index" href="#page32">32</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Struggle for existence, <a class="index" href="#page224">224</a>, <a class="index" href="#page226">226</a>, <a class="index" href="#page227">227</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Summer-wood, <a class="index" href="#page20">20</a>, <a class="index" href="#page21">21</a>, <a class="index" href="#page24">24</a>,
+<a class="index" href="#page30">30</a>, <a class="index" href="#page32">32</a>, <a class="index" href="#page44">44</a>, <a class="index" href="#page53">53</a>,
+<a class="index" href="#page54">54</a>, <a class="index" href="#page291">291</a>.</li>
+
+<li><i>Swietenia mahagoni</i>, <a class="index" href="#page168">168</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Sycamore, <a class="index" href="#page22">22</a>, <a class="index" href="#page162">162</a>, <a class="index" href="#page300">300</a>.</li>
+</ul>
+
+<a name="T" id="T"></a>
+<ul class="index">
+<li>Tamarack, <a class="index" href="#page76">76</a>, <a class="index" href="#page296">296</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Tamarack, Western, <a class="index" href="#page78">78</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Taxes on forests, <a class="index" href="#page261">261</a>.</li>
+
+<li><i>Taxodium distichum</i>, <a class="index" href="#page102">102</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Tear fungus, <a class="index" href="#page234">234</a>, <a class="index" href="#page238">238</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Temperature, <a class="index" href="#page214">214</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Tension, <a class="index" href="#page51">51</a>, <a class="index" href="#page52">52</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Texture of wood, <a class="index" href="#page32">32</a>.</li>
+
+<li><i>Thuja gigantea</i>, <a class="index" href="#page104">104</a>.</li>
+
+<li><i>Thuja plicata</i>, <a class="index" href="#page104">104</a>.</li>
+
+<li><i>Tilia americana</i>, <a class="index" href="#page178">178</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Timber beetles, <a class="index" href="#page242">242</a>, <a class="index" href="#page245">245</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Timber supply of U. S., <a class="index" href="#page264">264</a>-269.</li>
+
+<li>Timber trees, <a class="index" href="#page10">10</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Timber worms, <a class="index" href="#page244">244</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Tissue, <a class="index" href="#page16">16</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Toadstools, <a class="index" href="#page234">234</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Tolerance, <a class="index" href="#page219">219</a>, <a class="index" href="#page220">220</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Toughness of wood, <a class="index" href="#page41">41</a>, <a class="index" href="#page54">54</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Tracheae, <a class="index" href="#page23">23</a>, <a class="index" href="#page28">28</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Tracheid, <a class="index" href="#page28">28</a>, <a class="index" href="#page30">30</a>, <a class="index" href="#page290">290</a>,
+<a class="index" href="#page292">292</a>.</li>
+
+<li><i>Trametes pini</i>, <a class="index" href="#page235">235</a>.</li>
+
+<li><i>Trametes radiciperda</i>, <a class="index" href="#page237">237</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Tree, parts of, <a class="index" href="#page211">211</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Treeless area, <a class="index" href="#page197">197</a>, <a class="index" href="#page203">203</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Trees, Broad-leaved, <a class="index" href="#page9">9</a>, <a class="index" href="#page10">10</a>, <a class="index" href="#page28">28</a>,
+<a class="index" href="#page29">29</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Trees, deciduous, <a class="index" href="#page10">10</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Trunk, <a class="index" href="#page13">13</a>, <a class="index" href="#page211">211</a>.
+  Long-bodied, <a class="index" href="#page225">225</a>.
+  Short-bodied, <a class="index" href="#page225">225</a>.</li>
+
+<li><i>Tsuga canadensis</i>, <a class="index" href="#page90">90</a>.</li>
+
+<li><i>Tsuga heterophylla</i>, <a class="index" href="#page92">92</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Tulip Tree, <a class="index" href="#page158">158</a>.
+  See Poplar Yellow</li>
+
+<li>Tupelo, <a class="index" href="#page180">180</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Turpentine, <a class="index" href="#page263">263</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Two-storied Seed Forest, <a class="index" href="#page282">282</a>.</li>
+</ul>
+
+<a name="U" id="U"></a>
+<ul class="index">
+<li><i>Ulmus americana</i>, <a class="index" href="#page154">154</a>.</li>
+
+<li><i>Ulmus racemosa</i>, <a class="index" href="#page152">152</a>.</li>
+
+<li><i>Ulmus thomasi</i>, <a class="index" href="#page152">152</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Utilization of forests, <a class="index" href="#page271">271</a>-277.</li>
+</ul>
+
+<a name="V" id="V"></a>
+<ul class="index">
+<li>Vegetable enemies, <a class="index" href="#page233">233</a>-239.</li>
+
+<li>Veneer, <a class="index" href="#page10">10</a>, <a class="index" href="#page35">35</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Vessels, <a class="index" href="#page23">23</a>, <a class="index" href="#page28">28</a>, <a class="index" href="#page29">29</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Veterans, <a class="index" href="#page225">225</a>.</li>
+</ul>
+
+<a name="W" id="W"></a>
+<ul class="index">
+<li>Walnut, Black, <a class="index" href="#page116">116</a>, <a class="index" href="#page300">300</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Walnut, White, <a class="index" href="#page114">114</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Warping, <a class="index" href="#page42">42</a>, <a class="index" href="#page47">47</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Waste, Avoidance of, <a class="index" href="#page274">274</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Waste in lumbering, <a class="index" href="#page263">263</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Water, <a class="index" href="#page41">41</a>, <a class="index" href="#page42">42</a>, <a class="index" href="#page226">226</a>,
+<a class="index" href="#page231">231</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Weeds, Forest, <a class="index" href="#page225">225</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Weight of wood, <a class="index" href="#page41">41</a>, <a class="index" href="#page49">49</a>-51.</li>
+
+<li>Whitewood, <a class="index" href="#page158">158</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Wilderness, Conquest of, <a class="index" href="#page258">258</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Willow, Black, <a class="index" href="#page112">112</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Wind, <a class="index" href="#page229">229</a>, <a class="index" href="#page252">252</a>, <a class="index" href="#page253">253</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Windfalls, <a class="index" href="#page229">229</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Wood, Diffuse-porous, <a class="index" href="#page23">23</a>, <a class="index" href="#page30">30</a>, <a class="index" href="#page300">300</a>-303.</li>
+
+<li>Wood, Non-porous, <a class="index" href="#page24">24</a>-26, <a class="index" href="#page58">58</a>-111, <a class="index" href="#page294">294</a>-296.</li>
+
+<li>Wood, Primary, <a class="index" href="#page17">17</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Wood, Properties of, Chap. II., <a class="index" href="#page41">41</a>-56.</li>
+
+<li>Wood, Ring-porous, <a class="index" href="#page23">23</a>, <a class="index" href="#page29">29</a>, <a class="index" href="#page296">296</a>-299.</li>
+
+<li>Wood, secondary, <a class="index" href="#page17">17</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Wood, Spring, <a class="index" href="#page20">20</a>, <a class="index" href="#page21">21</a>, <a class="index" href="#page24">24</a>,
+<a class="index" href="#page30">30</a>, <a class="index" href="#page32">32</a>, <a class="index" href="#page44">44</a>, <a class="index" href="#page53">53</a>,
+<a class="index" href="#page54">54</a>, <a class="index" href="#page291">291</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Wood, Structure of, <a class="index" href="#page9">9</a>-40.</li>
+
+<li>Wood, summer, <a class="index" href="#page20">20</a>, <a class="index" href="#page21">21</a>, <a class="index" href="#page24">24</a>,
+<a class="index" href="#page30">30</a>, <a class="index" href="#page32">32</a>, <a class="index" href="#page44">44</a>, <a class="index" href="#page53">53</a>,
+<a class="index" href="#page54">54</a>, <a class="index" href="#page291">291</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Wood borers, <a class="index" href="#page243">243</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Wood cells. See Cells.</li>
+
+<li>Wood. See Sap-wood, Heart wood.</li>
+
+<li>Wood dyes, <a class="index" href="#page18">18</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Wood fiber, <a class="index" href="#page28">28</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Woods, Color of, <a class="index" href="#page17">17</a>, <a class="index" href="#page18">18</a>, <a class="index" href="#page290">290</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Woods, The distinguishing of, <a class="index" href="#page289">289</a>-303.</li>
+
+<li>Working, <a class="index" href="#page47">47</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Worm-holes, <a class="index" href="#page243">243</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Worms, carpenter, <a class="index" href="#page245">245</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Worms, Timber, <a class="index" href="#page244">244</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Wound parasites, <a class="index" href="#page234">234</a>.</li>
+</ul>
+
+<a name="Y" id="Y"></a>
+<ul class="index">
+<li>Yew, <a class="index" href="#page295">295</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Yield, <a class="index" href="#page275">275</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Yucca, <a class="index" href="#page10">10</a>.</li>
+</ul>
+
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page310" id="page310"></a>310</span>
+
+<hr class="full" />
+
+<div style="margin-left: 5em; margin-right: 3em;">
+
+<h2 style="margin-top: 2em;">Books on the Manual Arts</h2>
+<hr class="full" style="color: #000; height: 3px; margin-bottom: -11px;" />
+<hr class="full" style="color: #000; height: 1px; margin-top: -9px;" />
+
+<p class="header">DESIGN AND CONSTRUCTION IN WOOD. By William Noyes.</p>
+
+<p>
+A book full of charm and distinction and the first to give due consideration
+to the esthetic side of wood-working. It is intended to give to beginners
+practice in designing simple projects in wood and an opportunity to acquire
+skill in handling tools. The book illustrates a series of projects and gives suggestions
+for other similar projects together with information regarding tools
+and processes for making. A pleasing volume abundantly and beautifully illustrated.
+</p>
+
+<p class="header">HANDWORK IN WOOD. By William Noyes.</p>
+
+<p>
+A handbook for teachers and a textbook for normal school and college
+students. A comprehensive and scholarly treatise, covering logging, saw-milling,
+seasoning and measuring, hand tools, wood fastenings, equipment and
+care of the shop, the common joints, types of wood structures, principles of
+joinery, and wood finishing. 304 illustrations&mdash;excellent pen drawings and many
+photographs.
+</p>
+
+<p class="header">WOOD AND FOREST. By William Noyes.</p>
+
+<p>
+A companion volume to "Handwork in Wood," by the same author. Especially
+adapted as a reference book for teachers of woodworking. Not too
+difficult for use as a textbook for normal school and college students. Treats
+of wood, distribution of American forests, life of the forest, enemies of the
+forest, destruction, conservation and uses of the forest, with a key to the common
+woods by Filibert Roth. Describes 67 principal species of wood with maps
+of the habitat, leaf drawings, life size photographs and microphotographs of
+sections. Contains a general bibliography of books and articles on wood and
+forest. Profusely illustrated with photographs from the United States forest
+service and with pen and ink drawings by Anna Gausmann Noyes and photographs
+by the author.  309 pages.
+</p>
+
+<p class="header">WOODWORK FOR BEGINNERS. By Ira S. Griffith.</p>
+
+<p>
+A remarkably simple treatment of elementary woodworking for students in
+the seventh and eighth grades. It deals with tools, processes and materials and
+includes only such subject matter as should be taught to grammar grade students.
+It meets the requirements of students working in large classes and devoting
+the minimum of time to manual training. A practical and unusually attractive
+textbook and one that can be used with any course of models and in any
+order.
+</p>
+
+<p class="header">BEGINNING WOODWORK, At Home and in School.
+By Clinton S. VanDeusen.</p>
+
+<p>
+A full and clear description in detail of the fundamental processes of
+elementary benchwork in wood. This description is given thru directions for
+making a few simple, useful articles, suitable either for school or home problems.
+The book contains more than one hundred original sketches and ten
+working drawings.
+</p>
+
+<p class="header">PROBLEMS IN FARM WOODWORK. By Samuel A. Blackburn.</p>
+
+<p>
+A book of working drawings of 100 practical problems relating to agriculture
+and farm life. Especially valuable to the student or teacher of agriculture
+or manual arts in rural schools and in high schools in agricultural communities,
+and to the boy on the farm. There are 60 full-page plates of working
+drawings, each accompanied by a page or more of text treating of "Purpose,"
+"Material," "Bill of Stock," "Tools," "Directions," and "Assembly." A
+wonderfully practical book.
+</p>
+
+<p class="header">PROBLEMS IN FURNITURE MAKING. By Fred D. Crawshaw.</p>
+
+<p>
+This book, revised and enlarged, consists of 43 plates of working drawings
+suitable for use in grammar and high schools, and 36 pages of text, including
+chapters on design, construction and finishes, and notes on the problems.
+</p>
+
+<p class="header">FURNITURE DESIGN FOR SCHOOLS AND SHOPS.
+By Fred D. Crawshaw.</p>
+
+<p>
+A manual on furniture design. A book that will stimulate and encourage
+designing and initiation on the part of the student. It contains a collection of
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page311" id="page311"></a>311</span>
+plates showing perspective drawings of typical designs, representing particular
+types of furniture. Each perspective is accompanied by suggestions for rearrangement
+and the modeling of parts. The text discusses and illustrates principles
+of design as applied to furniture. A practical and helpful book that
+should be in the hands of every teacher of cabinet making and designing.
+</p>
+
+<p class="header">PROBLEMS IN WOODWORKING. By M. W. Murray.</p>
+
+<p>
+A convenient collection of good problems consisting of forty plates of working
+drawings, of problems in benchwork that have been successfully worked out by boys
+in grades seven to nine inclusive.
+</p>
+
+<p class="header">SHOP PROBLEMS. (On Tracing Paper). By Albert F. Siepert.</p>
+
+<p>
+A collection of working drawings of a large variety of projects printed on
+tracing paper and ready for blue printing. The projects have all been worked
+out in manual arts classes and have proved their value from the standpoint of
+design, construction, use, human interest, etc. They are of convenient size,
+6x9-inch, and are enclosed in a portfolio. To the teacher, in search of additional
+projects to supplement and enrich his course these tracings are worth
+far more than the price asked. Published in series. Nos. 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6,
+and 7.
+</p>
+
+<p class="header">WORKSHOP NOTE-BOOK&mdash;WOODWORKING.
+By George G. Greene.</p>
+
+<p>
+A small-size textbook and notebook combined. It furnishes a few general
+and extremely important directions about tools and processes; and provides
+space for additional notes and working drawings of exercises and articles which
+the pupil is to construct. It is essentially a collection of helps, ideas, hints,
+suggestions, questions, facts, illustrations, etc., which have been prepared by a
+practical teacher to meet a real need in his own shop. The notebook is full of
+suggestions; shows a keen insight into subject matter and teaching methods
+and is an effective teaching tool.
+</p>
+
+<p class="header">PROBLEMS IN WOOD-TURNING. By Fred D. Crawshaw.</p>
+
+<p>
+In the first place this is a book of problems&mdash;25 plates covering spindle,
+face-plate, and chuck turning. In the second place it is a textbook on the
+science and art of wood-turning illustrated by fifty pen sketches. It gives the
+mathematical basis for the cuts used in turning. In the third place it is a helpful
+discussion of the principles of design as applied to objects turned in wood.
+It is a clear, practical and suggestive book on wood-turning.
+</p>
+
+<p class="header">WOOD PATTERN-MAKING. By Horace T. Purfield.</p>
+
+<p>
+This book was written expressly for use as a textbook for high school,
+trade school, technical school, and engineering college students. It is a revised,
+enlarged, and newly illustrated edition.
+</p>
+
+<p class="header">CORRELATED COURSES IN WOODWORK AND MECHANICAL
+DRAWING. By Ira S. Griffith.</p>
+
+<p>
+This book is designed to meet the every-day need of the teacher of woodworking
+and mechanical drawing for reliable information concerning organization
+of courses, subject matter and methods of teaching. It covers classification
+and arrangement of tool operations for grades, 7, 8, 9, and 10, shop organization,
+allotment of time design, shop excursions, stock bills, cost of material,
+records, shop conduct, the lesson, maintenance, equipment, and lesson
+outlines for grammar and high schools. It is based on sound pedagogy, thoro
+technical knowledge and successful teaching experience. It is practical.
+</p>
+
+<p class="header">ESSENTIALS OF WOODWORKING. By Ira S. Griffith.</p>
+
+<p>
+A textbook written especially for the use of grammar and high school
+students. A clear and comprehensive treatment of woodworking tools, materials,
+and processes, to supplement, but not to take the place of the instruction
+given by the teacher. The book does not contain a course of models;
+it may be used with any course. It is illustrated with photographs and numerous
+pen drawings.
+</p>
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page312" id="page312"></a>312</span>
+
+<p class="header">PROJECTS FOR BEGINNING WOODWORK AND MECHANICAL
+DRAWING. By Ira S. Griffith.</p>
+
+<p>
+A work book for the use of students in grammar grade classes. It consists
+of working drawings and working directions. The projects are such as
+have proven of exceptional service where woodworking and mechanical drawing
+are taught in a thoro, systematic manner in the seventh and eighth grades.
+The aim has been to provide successful rather than unique problems. The 50
+projects in the book were selected and organized with the constant aim of securing
+the highest educational results. The book is especially suited for use in
+connection with "Essentials of Woodworking," by the same author.
+</p>
+
+<p class="header">FURNITURE MAKING. (Advanced Projects in Woodwork.)
+By Ira S. Griffith.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+This book is similar to "Projects for Beginning Woodwork and Mechanical
+Drawing," but is suited to high school needs. It consists of fifty plates of
+problems and accompanying notes. It is essentially a collection of problems
+in furniture making selected or designed with reference to school use. On the
+plate with each working drawing is a good perspective sketch of the completed
+object. In draftsmanship and refinement of design these problems are of superior
+quality. It is in every respect an excellent collection.
+</p>
+
+<p class="header">PROBLEMS IN MECHANICAL DRAWING. By Charles A. Bennett.</p>
+
+<p>
+This book consists of 80 plates and a few explanatory notes. Its purpose
+is to furnish teachers of classes beginning mechanical drawing with a large
+number of simple, practical problems. These have been selected with reference
+to the formation of good habits in technique, the interest of the pupils,
+and the subjects generally included in a grammar and first-year high school
+course. Each problem given is unsolved and therefore in proper form to hand
+to the pupil for solution.
+</p>
+
+<p class="header">MECHANICAL DRAWING PROBLEMS.
+By Edward Berg and Emil F. Kronquist.</p>
+
+<p>
+A direct and concise text adapted for high school students beginning mechanical
+drawing. It covers two year's work and contains 128 full-page plates&mdash;excellent
+examples of draftsmanship. Text accompanies each plate, giving necessary
+facts and helpful hints wherever needed. The underlying principles of
+drafting are thoroly covered and the practical applications, which are abundant,
+have been most skilfully chosen and admirably presented. The plates tell what
+to do, almost at a glance, yet prevent mere copy work. Each problem tests the
+ability of the student to think and execute graphically and unconsciously develops
+an excellent technique.
+</p>
+
+<p class="header">MECHANICAL DRAFTING. By W. H. Miller.</p>
+
+<p>
+(Revised edition). A textbook for advanced high school students which
+presents drafting room practice in practical textbook form. It is so written
+that it may be used with any course of exercises or problems and supplements
+the instruction of the teacher in such a way as to reduce lecture work to a
+minimum. It is a direct and simple treatment of mechanical drafting, giving
+due consideration to the needs of the student, the beginning draftsman and the
+requirements of the best teaching methods. It is complete, yet condensed and
+is well adapted for handbook use by the student and draftsman. It is well illustrated
+and is bound in flexible binding, pocket size. A thoroughly practical,
+modern textbook.
+</p>
+
+<p class="header">GRAMMAR GRADE PROBLEMS IN MECHANICAL DRAWING.
+By Charles A. Bennett.</p>
+
+<p>
+A remarkably simple and carefully graded treatment of the fundamentals
+of mechanical drawing for the use of students in the 7th and 8th grades. It
+combines an abundance of text and simple problems, accompanied by notes and
+directions. Its use insures the early formation of correct habits of technique
+and makes possible the development of a standard in grammar grade mechanical
+drawing parallel with woodworking. Abundantly and well illustrated.
+</p>
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page313" id="page313"></a>313</span>
+
+<p class="header">MECHANICAL DRAWING FOR BEGINNERS.
+By Charles H. Bailey.</p>
+
+<p>
+A textbook suitable wherever this subject is taught to beginners, in Junior
+High Schools, High and Continuation Schools. It successfully combines
+instructions which are minute and complete, with problems, gradually leading
+the student to learn with little or no other help, the essentials and technique of
+the work. The matter is condensed but leaves no important points not covered.
+</p>
+
+<p class="header">PROGRESSIVE STEPS IN ARCHITECTURAL DRAWING.
+By George W. Seaman.</p>
+
+<p>
+A textbook and practical handbook, describing and illustrating every successive
+step in drawing of floor plans, elevations and various details for successful
+dwellings. Numerous plates illustrate details of doors, windows, mouldings,
+cornices, porches, etc. Architectural orders shown in practical working
+forms. "Single line sketches" illustrate method of practical designer in
+planning a house.
+</p>
+
+<p class="header">ARCHITECTURAL DRAWING PLATES. By Franklin G. Elwood.</p>
+
+<p>
+A collection of 15 plates showing the various details included in the plans
+for frame houses. Names and typical sizes are given and much information
+helpful to the student or draftsman. One plate shows eleven "Plan Studies,"
+another "How Elevations are Worked Up from Plans and Sections." A wonderfully
+convenient help in architectural drawing.
+</p>
+
+<p class="header">SIMPLIFIED MECHANICAL PERSPECTIVE. By Frank Forrest Frederick.</p>
+
+<p>
+A book of simple problems covering the essentials of mechanical perspective.
+It is planned for pupils of high school age who have already received
+some elementary training in mechanical drawing. It is simple, direct and practical.
+</p>
+
+<p class="header">WOODWORK FOR SECONDARY SCHOOLS. By Ira S. Griffith.</p>
+
+<p>
+The most complete and comprehensive textbook on secondary school woodworking
+ever published. Treats of Common Woods, Tools and Processes, Woodworking
+Machines, Joinery, Wood-Turning, Inlaying and Wood Carving, Wood
+Finishing, Furniture Construction, Pattern-Making. Although written for the
+student, every teacher of high school or normal school woodwork will find this
+text a valuable and necessary volume for reference use. It contains 370 pages
+and 580 special illustrations.
+</p>
+
+<p class="header">CARPENTRY. By Ira S. Griffith.</p>
+
+<p>
+A well illustrated textbook for use in vocational schools, trade schools,
+technical schools, and by apprentices to the trade, presenting the principles of
+house construction in a clear and fundamental way. It treats of the "everyday"
+practical problems of the carpenter and house builder from the "laying
+of foundations" to the completion of the "interior finish." It meets every requirement
+as a textbook and is also well adapted for reference use. It is well
+illustrated by photographs taken "on the job."
+</p>
+
+<p class="header">BOY ACTIVITY PROJECTS. By Samuel A. Blackburn.</p>
+
+<p>
+A book of full-page plates and accompanying text giving complete directions
+for making 86 projects of interest to the energetic American boy. The projects
+are for the school, the home, the playground, the camp, the out-of-doors, and
+include a complete wireless telegraph apparatus. The plates give every required
+dimension, and show each project complete and in detail. The text is in
+reality working directions telling just "how to make," including bills of material,
+lists of tools required, etc. A thoroly practical and suggestive book for
+school use and rich in inspiration for the boy in his own home shop.
+</p>
+
+<p class="header">SEAT WEAVING. By L. Day Perry.</p>
+
+<p>
+A handbook for teacher or student. Tells how to cane chairs, how to use
+cane webbing, how to do rush seating, how to do reed and splint weaving, how
+to make seats of reeds and splints, how to prepare raw materials, how to stain,
+finish and refinish, etc. Also treats of the use of cane and other seating materials
+as a decorative element in furniture construction. Well illustrated, practical
+and authoritative.
+</p>
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page314" id="page314"></a>314</span>
+
+<p class="header">FURNITURE UPHOLSTERY FOR SCHOOLS. By Emil A. Johnson.</p>
+
+<p>
+The only text and reference book on upholstery written for school use.
+Contains detailed, practical instructions telling how to upholster a variety of
+articles, also how to re-upholster old furniture and how to do spring-edge upholstery
+work. Describes necessary tools and materials. Abundantly and beautifully
+illustrated.
+</p>
+
+<p class="header">PRACTICAL TYPOGRAPHY. By George E. McClellan.</p>
+
+<p>
+A remarkable textbook for students of printing. It contains a course of
+exercises ready to place in the hands of pupils, and explains and illustrates the
+most approved methods used in correct composition. A valuable feature of the
+book lies in the fact that in the early stages of the course the pupil sets up in
+type a description of what he is doing with his hands. It contains 63 exercises,
+treating of composition from "Correct Spacing" to the "Making up of a
+Book," and the "Composition of Tables."
+</p>
+
+<p class="header">ART METALWORK. By Arthur F. Payne.</p>
+
+<p>
+A textbook written by an expert craftsman and experienced teacher. It
+treats of the various materials and their production, ores, alloys, commercial
+forms, etc.; of tools and equipments suitable for the work, the inexpensive
+equipment of the practical craftsman; and of the correlation of art metalwork
+with design and other school subjects. It describes in detail all the processes
+involved in making articles ranging from a watch fob to a silver loving-cup. It
+gives new methods of construction, new finishes, new problems. It is abundantly
+and beautifully illustrated, showing work done by students under ordinary
+school conditions in a manual training shop.  The standard book on the subject.
+</p>
+
+<p class="header">TEACHING THE MANUAL AND INDUSTRIAL ARTS.
+By Ira S. Griffith.</p>
+
+<p>
+A text for normal schools or colleges and a reference for manual and vocational
+teachers. Presents the philosophy of teaching manual and vocational
+education in terms of psychology, social science, and economics. It gives the
+conclusions of Thorndike, Judd, Bagley, Dewey and others, and illustrates them
+so they serve the teacher as a basis for evaluating the manual and industrial
+arts. A book of value to the beginning teacher, the experienced supervisor or
+the educational expert; an exceptional source of information on the theory and
+practice of its subject.
+</p>
+
+<p class="header">THE MANUAL ARTS. By Charles A. Bennett.</p>
+
+<p>
+A treatise on the selection and organization of subject matter in the manual
+arts and on the methods of teaching. It states what manual arts should be
+taught in the schools, their place as concerns general and vocational education,
+principles underlying the making of courses of instruction and methods of
+teaching, and shows the place of the factory system in industrial schools, etc.
+Heretofore no book has dealt with the pedagogy of the manual arts in so definite
+and clear cut a manner. The author has brought together, with ripened judgment,
+the result of years of experience.</p>
+
+<p>It is especially adapted for normal class and reading circle use and should
+be read and studied by every teacher or prospective teacher of the manual arts.
+</p>
+
+<p class="header">EDUCATIONAL TOYS. By Louis C. Petersen.</p>
+
+<p>
+A comprehensive book on toy-making for the school or home. Shows 57
+toys including animals, wheeled toys, stationary toys, moving toys, puzzles, etc.,
+made chiefly from thin wood, with the coping saw and easily constructed in the
+ordinary school room or in the home. Tells how to make each toy, how to
+finish and color, about the few simple tools and materials required. Well illustrated
+with photographs and full-size pattern drawings.
+</p>
+
+<p class="header">TOY PATTERNS. By Michael C. Dank.</p>
+
+<p>
+A portfolio of toy patterns. Among them are Animals, Animal Rocking
+Toys, Wheeled Platform Toys, String Toys, Lever Toys, Freak Toys and Novelties.
+Each toy is shown complete and each part is also shown full-size. They
+are designed to be made with the coping saw out of thin wood. Twelve sheets,
+size 10&#189;" x 14", enclosed in a portfolio with an attractive color design.
+</p>
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page315" id="page315"></a>315</span>
+
+<p class="header">BIRD HOUSES BOYS CAN BUILD. By Albert F. Siepert.</p>
+
+<p>
+A book of rare interest to boys. It is written in the boy spirit and combines
+the charm of nature with the allurements of continuation work in wood.
+It illustrates hundreds of bird houses and shows working drawings of various
+designs, also feeders, shelters, sparrow traps, and other bird accessories. The
+common house nesting birds are pictured and described with information regarding
+houses, foods, etc., suitable for each. A pleasing and practical book
+for wide-awake boys.
+</p>
+
+<p class="header">MANUAL TRAINING TOYS. FOR THE BOYS' WORKSHOP.
+By Harris W. Moore.</p>
+
+<p>
+A popular boys' book that is truly educational. It is a collection of forty-two
+projects overflowing with "boy" interest and new in the manual training
+shop. Full-page working drawings show each project in detail and the text
+gives instructions for making, together with information on tools and tool processes.
+</p>
+
+<p class="header">KITECRAFT AND KITE TOURNAMENTS. By Charles M. Miller.</p>
+
+<p>
+An authoritative and comprehensive treatment of kitecraft. The book
+deals with the construction and flying of all kinds of kites, and the making and
+using of kite accessories. Also aeroplanes, gliders, propellers, motors, etc. Four
+chapters are devoted to presenting a detailed description of kite flying tournaments.
+Abundantly illustrated and attractively bound.
+</p>
+
+<p class="header">THE CONSTRUCTION AND FLYING OF KITES.
+By Charles M. Miller.</p>
+
+
+<p>
+This contains seven full-page plates of drawings of kites, and fifteen figures&mdash;over
+forty kites shown. Details of construction given; a kite tournament
+is described. Full of interesting suggestions.
+</p>
+
+<p class="header">COPING SAW WORK. By Ben W. Johnson.</p>
+
+<p>
+Contains working drawings and suggestions for teaching a course of
+work in thin wood that is full of fun for the children, and affords ample means
+for training in form study, construction, invention and careful work. Has been
+called "applied mechanics for the fourth grade."
+</p>
+
+<p class="header">SELECTED SHOP PROBLEMS. By George A. Seaton.</p>
+
+<p>
+A collection of sixteen problems in woodworking made to meet the needs
+of busy teachers of manual training. Each problem has been put to the test
+and has proven satisfactory to the teacher who designed it and to the pupil
+who made it.
+</p>
+
+<p class="header">MANUAL TRAINING MAGAZINE.</p>
+
+<p>
+A magazine of "quality." The professional journal of the teachers of
+manual, vocational and industrial education. It publishes practical articles on
+the ways and means of "doing things." It discusses vital problems in teaching
+the manual arts and presents the best current thought on the development
+of manual training and vocational education. To the inexperienced teacher, it
+is valuable in solving numerous problems, and to the experienced teacher, it is
+a means of keeping abreast of the times. It is ably edited, attractively printed,
+and well illustrated with photographs and drawings made especially for its
+pages. Published monthly. $1.50 a year; Canada, $1.80; Foreign, $2.00.
+</p>
+
+<hr class="full" style="color: #000; height: 1px; margin-bottom: -11px;" />
+<hr class="full" style="color: #000; height: 3px; margin-top: -11px;" />
+
+</div>
+
+<h3 style="margin-top: 0"><i>Published by</i></h3>
+
+<h2 style="margin-top: 0">Manual Arts Press :: Peoria, Illinois</h2>
+
+<h6>We can supply you with any book on the Manual Arts</h6>
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+<pre>
+
+
+
+
+
+End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of Wood and Forest, by William Noyes
+
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+The Project Gutenberg EBook of Wood and Forest, by William Noyes
+
+This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with
+almost no restrictions whatsoever.  You may copy it, give it away or
+re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included
+with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org
+
+
+Title: Wood and Forest
+
+Author: William Noyes
+
+Release Date: February 27, 2011 [EBook #35419]
+
+Language: English
+
+Character set encoding: ASCII
+
+*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK WOOD AND FOREST ***
+
+
+
+
+Produced by Lesley Halamek, Peter Vachuska, Chris Curnow and the
+Online Distributed Proofreading Team at https://www.pgdp.net
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+  WOOD AND FOREST
+
+  _By_ WILLIAM NOYES, M.A.
+
+  Formerly Assistant Professor of Industrial Arts
+  Teachers College, Columbia University
+
+  NEW YORK CITY
+
+  [Illustration]
+
+  THE MANUAL ARTS PRESS
+
+  PEORIA, ILLINOIS
+
+
+  COPYRIGHT
+
+  WILLIAM NOYES
+
+  1912
+
+  _FIFTH EDITION, 1921_
+
+  _Printed in United States of America_
+
+
+
+
+FOREWORD
+
+
+This book has been prepared as a companion volume to the author's
+_Handwork in Wood_.[1] It is an attempt to collect and arrange in
+available form useful information, now widely scattered, about our
+common woods, their sources, growth, properties and uses.
+
+As in the other volume, the credit for the successful completion of
+the book is to be given to my wife, Anna Gausmann Noyes, who has made
+the drawings and maps, corrected the text, read the proof, and carried
+the work thru to its final completion.
+
+Acknowledgments are hereby thankfully made for corrections and
+suggestions in the text to the following persons:
+
+Mr. A. D. Hopkins, of the United States Department of Agriculture,
+Bureau of Entomology, for revision of the text relating to Insect
+Enemies of the Forest, in Chapter VI.
+
+Mr. George G. Hedgcock, of the United States Bureau of Agriculture,
+Bureau of Plant Industry, for revision of the text relating to the
+fungal enemies of the forest, in Chapter VI.
+
+Mr. S. T. Dana and Mr. Burnett Barrows, of the United States
+Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, for revision of Chapters
+IV, V, VI, VII, and VIII.
+
+Professor Charles R. Richards, formerly Head of the Manual Training
+Department of Teachers College, my predecessor as lecturer of the
+course out of which this book has grown.
+
+Professor M. A. Bigelow, Head of the Department of Botany of Teachers
+College, for revision of Chapter I, on the Structure of Wood.
+
+Mr. Romeyn B. Hough, of Lowville, N. Y., author of _American Woods_
+and _Handbook of the Trees of the Northern States and Canada_, for
+suggestions in preparing the maps in Chapter III.
+
+The Forest Service, Washington, D. C., for photographs and maps
+credited to it, and for permission to reprint the key to the
+identification of woods which appears in Forest Service Bulletin No.
+10, _Timber_, by Filibert Roth.
+
+The Division of Publications, U. S. Department of Agriculture, for
+permission to copy illustrations in bulletins.
+
+The Macmillan Company, New York, for permission to reproduce Fig.
+86, Portion of the Mycelium of Dry Rot, from _Timber and Some of its
+Diseases_, by H. M. Ward.
+
+Mrs. Katharine Golden Bitting, of Lafayette, Indiana, for the
+photograph of the cross-section of a bud, Figure 5.
+
+Finally and not least I hereby acknowledge my obligations to the
+various writers and publishers whose books and articles I have freely
+used. As far as possible, appropriate credit is given in the paged
+references at the end of each chapter.
+
+    [Footnote 1: William Noyes, _Handwork in Wood_, Peoria, Ill.
+    The Manual Arts Press, 231 pp., $2.]
+
+
+
+
+CONTENTS.
+
+  CHAPTER                                                       PAGE
+
+         General Bibliography                                     4
+
+     I   The Structure of Wood                                    9
+
+    II   Properties of Wood                                      41
+
+   III   The Principal Species of American Woods                 57
+
+    IV   The Distribution and Composition of the
+         North American Forests                                 197
+
+     V   The Forest Organism                                    211
+
+    VI   Natural Enemies of the Forest                          229
+
+   VII   The Exhaustion of the Forest                           251
+
+  VIII   The Use of the Forest                                  271
+
+         Appendix                                               289
+
+         Index                                                  304
+
+
+
+
+GENERAL BIBLIOGRAPHY
+
+
+Apgar, A. G., _Trees of the Northern United States_. N. Y.:
+    American Book Co., 224 pp. A small book dealing with the botany
+    of trees, giving descriptions of their essential organs, and
+    particularly valuable for the leaf key to the trees. It should
+    be supplemented by Keeler or Hough's Handbook.
+
+Baterden, J. R., _Timber_. N. Y.: D. Van Nostrand Co., 1908,
+    351 pp. A description of the timbers of various countries,
+    discussion of timber defects, timber tests, etc.
+
+Bitting, K. G., _The Structure of Wood_. _Wood Craft_, 5: 76,
+    106, 144, 172, June-Sept., '06. A very scholarly and valuable
+    series of articles on wood structure and growth. Excellent
+    microphotographs.
+
+Britton, Nathaniel Lord, _North American Trees_. N. Y.: Henry
+    Holt & Co., 1908, 894 pp. A description of all the kinds of trees
+    growing independently of cultivation in North America, north of
+    Mexico, and the West Indies. The standard Botany of trees.
+
+Boulger, G. S., _Wood_. London: Edward Arnold, 369 pp. A thoro
+    discussion of wood structure, with chapters on the recognition
+    and classification of woods, defects, preservation, uses, tests,
+    supplies, and sources of wood. Good illustrations.
+
+Bruce, E. S., _Frost Checks and Wind Shakes_. _Forestry and
+    Irrigation_, 8: 159, April, '02. An original study of the
+    splitting of trees by sudden frost and thaw.
+
+Bruncken, Ernest, _North American Forests and Forestry_. N. Y.:
+    G. P. Putnam's Sons. 265 pp. A comprehensive survey of American
+    Forestry conditions including the forest industries, fires,
+    taxation, and management. No illustrations.
+
+Busbridge, Harold, _The Shrinkage and Warping of Timber_.
+    _Sci. Amer. Suppl._, No. 1500, Oct. 1, 1904. Good photographic
+    illustrations.
+
+Comstock, J. H. and A. B., _A Manual for the Study of Insects_.
+    Ithaca, N. Y.: Comstock Publishing Co., 701 pp.
+    Valuable for reference in classifying insects injurious to wood.
+
+Curtis, Carleton C., _Nature and Development of Plants_. N. Y.:
+    Henry Holt & Co., 1907, 471 pp. Chapter III is a very clear and
+    excellent discussion of the structure of the stem of plants
+    (including wood).
+
+Encyclopedia Brittannica, Eleventh Edition, Cambridge: At the
+    University Press. Article: _Forests and Forestry_, Vol. 10, p.
+    645. Article: _Plants_, Anatomy of, Vol. 21, p. 741. Article:
+    _Timber_ Vol. 26, p. 978.
+
+Felt, E. P., _The Gypsy and Brown Tail Moths_. N. Y. State Museum:
+    Bulletin 103, Entomology, 25. Valuable for colored illustrations
+    as well as for detailed descriptions.
+
+Fernow, B. E., _Economics of Forestry_. N. Y.: T. Y. Crowell
+    & Co. 1902, quarto 520 pp. A treatment of forests and forestry
+    from the standpoint of economics, including a comprehensive
+    exposition of the forester's art, with chapters on forest
+    conditions, silviculture, forest policies, and methods of
+    business conduct, with a bibliography.
+
+Fernow, B. E., _Report upon the Forestry Investigation of the U. S.
+    Department of Agriculture_, 1887-1898. Fifty-fifth Congress,
+    House of Representatives, Document No. 181. Quarto, 401 pp.
+    A review of forests and forestry in the U. S., of forest policies
+    of European nations, particularly of Germany, of the principles
+    of silviculture, of a discussion of forest influences, and a
+    section on timber physics.
+
+Harwood, W. S., _The New Earth_. N. Y.: The Macmillan Co., 1906.
+    378 pp. A recital of the triumphs of modern agriculture.
+    Chap. X on modern forestry, describes what has been done in
+    different states in conservative lumbering.
+
+Hough, Romeyn B., _American Woods_. Lowville, N. Y.: The
+    author. An invaluable collection in eleven volumes (boxes)
+    of sections of 275 species of American woods. There are three
+    sections of each species, cross, radial, and tangential,
+    mounted in cardboard panels. Accompanied by a list of
+    descriptions and analytical keys.
+
+Hough, Romeyn B., _Handbook of the Trees of the Northern
+    States and Canada_. Lowville, N. Y.: The author. 470 pp.
+    A unique, elegant, and sumptuously illustrated book, with
+    photographs of tree, trunk, leaf, fruit, bud, and sometimes
+    wood, a map of the habitat of each species, and a full and
+    careful description of tree and wood. Intended for botanists,
+    foresters and lumbermen.
+
+Johnson, J. B., _The Materials of Construction_. N. Y.: John
+    Wiley & Sons. 1898. 775 pp. Chapter XIII is identical with
+    Forestry Bulletin X, Roth's _Timber_.
+
+Keeler, Harriet, _Our Native Trees_. N. Y.: Scribner's. 1900.
+    533 pp. A very attractive and popular book showing great
+    familiarity with the common trees and love of them. Numerous
+    photographs and drawings.
+
+Lounsberry, Alice, _A Guide to the Trees_. N. Y.: Frederick
+    A. Stokes Co. 313 pp. A popular description of some 200 common
+    trees, with plentiful illustrations.
+
+Pinchot, Gifford, _A Primer of Forestry_. Parts I and II, U.
+    S. Dept. of Agric. For. Serv. Bull. No. 24. 88 pp. and 88
+    pp. A concise, clear, and fully illustrated little manual of
+    forestry conditions, forest enemies, forestry principles and
+    practice abroad and in the U. S.
+
+Pinchot, Gifford. _The Adirondack Spruce._ N. Y.: G. P. Putnam's
+    Sons. A technical account of the author's investigations on a
+    forest estate in Northern New York.
+
+Price, O. W., _Saving the Southern Forests_. _World's Work_,
+    5: 3207, March, '03. A plea for conservative lumbering;
+    excellent illustrations.
+
+Record, Samuel J., _Characterization of the Grain and Texture
+    of Wood_. Woodcraft, 15: 3, June, 1911.
+
+Roth, Filibert, _A First Book of Forestry_. Boston: Ginn & Co.
+    291 pp. A book for young people, giving in an interesting form
+    many valuable facts about American forests and their care and
+    use. It includes a leaf key to the trees.
+
+Sargent, Charles Sprague, _Forest Trees of North America_. U.
+    S. 10th Census, Vol. 9. Quarto, 612 pp. Part I deals with
+    the distribution of the forests, and gives a catalog and
+    description of the forest trees of North America, exclusive of
+    Mexico. Part II. Tables of properties of the woods of the U.
+    S. Part III. The economic aspects of the forests of the U. S.
+    considered geographically, and maps showing distributions and
+    densities. Exceedingly valuable.
+
+Sargent, Charles Sprague, _Jesup Collection, The Woods of
+    the U. S._ N. Y.: D. Appleton & Co., 203 pp. A detailed
+    description of the Jesup Collection of North American Woods
+    in the American Museum of Natural History, N. Y. City, with
+    valuable tables as to strength, elasticity, hardness, weight,
+    etc. Condensed from Vol. IX of 10th U. S. Census.
+
+Sargent, Charles Sprague, _Manual of the Trees of North
+    America_. Boston: Houghton, Mifflin & Co. 826 pp. A compact
+    mine of information, with some errors, about the known trees
+    of North America and their woods, summarized from Sargent's
+    larger work, "The Silva of North America." (See below.)
+
+Sargent, Charles Sprague, _The Silva of North America_.
+    Boston: Houghton, Mifflin Co. A monumental and sumptuous work
+    of 14 quarto volumes, describing in great detail all the known
+    trees of North America and their woods, with beautiful line
+    drawings of leaves and fruits.
+
+Shaler, Nathaniel S., _The United States of America_. Vol. 1,
+    pp. 485-517. N. Y.: D. Appleton & Co. Chapter IX is a popular
+    description of American forests and the Lumber Industry.
+
+Snow, Chas. Henry, _The Principal Species of Wood_. N. Y.:
+    John Wiley & Sons. 203 pp. Descriptions and data regarding
+    the economically important varieties of wood, with excellent
+    photographs of trees and woods.
+
+Strasburger, Noll, Schenck, and Schimper. _A Text Book of
+    Botany._ N. Y.: Macmillan & Co. 746 pp. Valuable for minute
+    information about the morphology of wood.
+
+U. S. Tenth Census, Vol. IX. See Sargent.
+
+U. S. Department of Agriculture, _Forest Service Bulletins_.
+    The character of these government pamphlets is well indicated
+    by their titles. No. 10 is an exceedingly valuable summary of
+    the facts about the structure and properties of wood, contains
+    the best available key to identification of common American
+    woods (not trees) and a concise description of each. It is
+    incorporated, as Chap. XIII, in Johnson's, "_The Materials for
+    Construction_." N. Y.: John Wiley & Sons. Nos. 13 and 22 are
+    large monographs containing much valuable information.
+
+    No. 10. Filibert Roth, _Timber_.
+
+    No. 13. Charles Mohr, _The Timber Pines of the Southern United
+    States_.
+
+    No. 15. Frederick V. Coville, _Forest Growth and Sheep Grazing
+    in the Cascade Mountains of Oregon_.
+
+    No. 16. Filibert Roth, _Forestry Conditions in Wisconsin_.
+
+    No. 17. George B. Sudworth, _Check List of the Forest Trees of
+    the United States_, 1898.
+
+    No. 18. Charles A. Keffer, _Experimental Tree Planting on the
+    Plains_.
+
+    No. 22. V. M. Spalding and F. H. Chittenden, _The White Pine_.
+
+    No. 24. Gifford Pinchot, _A Primer of Forestry_.
+
+    No. 26. Henry S. Graves, _Practical Forestry in the
+    Adirondacks_.
+
+    No. 41. Herman von Schrenck, _Seasoning of Timber_.
+
+    No. 45. Harold B. Kempton, _The Planting of White Pine in New
+    England_.
+
+    No. 52. Royal S. Kellogg, _Forest Planting in Western Kansas_.
+
+    No. 61. _Terms Used in Forestry and Logging_.
+
+    No. 65. George L. Clothier, _Advice for Forest Planters in
+    Oklahoma and Adjacent Regions_.
+
+    No. 74. R. S. Kellogg and H. M. Hale, _Forest Products of the
+    U. S._, 1905.
+
+U. S. Department of Agriculture, _Forest Service Circulars_.
+
+    No. 3. George William Hill, _Publications for Sale_.
+
+    No. 25. Gifford Pinchot, _The Lumberman and the Forester_.
+
+    No. 26. H. M. Suter, _Forest Fires in the Adirondacks in
+    1903_.
+
+    No. 36. The Forest Service: _What it is, and how it deals with
+    Forest Problems_. Also _Classified List of Publications and
+    Guide to Their Contents_.
+
+    No. 37. _Forest Planting in the Sand Hill Region of Nebraska_.
+
+    No. 40. H. B. Holroyd, _The Utilization of Tupelo_.
+
+    No. 41. S. N. Spring, _Forest Planting on Coal Lands in
+    Western Pennsylvania_.
+
+    No. 45. Frank G. Miller, _Forest Planting in Eastern
+    Nebraska_.
+
+    No. 81. R. S. Kellogg, _Forest Planting in Illinois_.
+
+    No. 97. R. S. Kellogg, _Timber Supply of the United States_.
+
+    No. 153. A. H. Pierson, _Exports and Imports of Forest
+    Products, 1907_.
+
+U. S. Department of Agriculture Year Books for:
+
+    1896. Filibert Roth, _The Uses of Wood_.
+
+    1898, p. 181. Gifford Pinchot, _Notes on some Forest
+    Problems_.
+
+    1899, p. 415. Henry S. Graves, _The Practice of Forestry by
+    Private Owners_.
+
+    1900, p. 199. Hermann von Schrenck, _Fungous Diseases of
+    Forest Trees_.
+
+    1902, p. 145. William L. Hall, _Forest Extension in the Middle
+    West_.
+
+    1902, p. 265. A. D. Hopkins, _Some of the Principal Insect
+    Enemies of Coniferous Forests in the United States_.
+
+    1902, p. 309. Overton, W. Price, _Influence of Forestry on the
+    Lumber Supply_.
+
+    1903, p. 279. James W. Toumey, _The Relation of Forests to
+    Stream Flow_.
+
+    1903, p. 313. A. D. Hopkins, _Insect Injuries to Hardwood
+    Forest Trees_.
+
+    1904, p. 133. E. A. Sterling, _The Attitude of Lumbermen
+    toward Forest Fires_.
+
+    1904, p. 381. A. D. Hopkins, _Insect Injuries to Forest Products_.
+
+    1905, p. 455. Henry Grinell, _Prolonging the Life of Telephone
+    Poles_.
+
+    1905, p. 483. J. Grivin Peters, _Waste in Logging Southern
+    Yellow Pine_.
+
+    1905, p. 636. Quincy R. Craft, _Progress of Forestry in 1905_.
+
+    1907, p 277. Raphael Zon and E. H. Clapp, _Cutting Timber in
+    the National Forests_.
+
+U. S. Department of Agriculture, Division of Entomology
+    Bulletins:
+
+    No. 11. n. s. L. O. Howard, _The Gypsy Moth in America_.
+
+    No. 28. A. D. Hopkins, _Insect Enemies of the Spruce in the
+    Northeast_.
+
+    No. 32. n. s. A. D. Hopkins, _Insect Enemies of the Pine in
+    the Black Hills Forest Reserve_.
+
+    No. 48. A. D. Hopkins, _Catalog of Exhibits of Insect Enemies
+    of Forest and Forest Products at the Louisiana Purchase
+    Exposition, St. Louis, Mo._, 1904.
+
+    No. 56. A. D. Hopkins, _The Black Hills Beetle_.
+
+    No. 58. Part 1, A. D. Hopkins, _The Locust Borer_.
+
+    No. 58. Part II, J. L. Webb, _The Western Pine Destroying Bark
+    Beetle_.
+
+U. S. Department of Agriculture, Bureau of Plant Industry,
+    Bulletins:
+
+    No. 32. Herman von Schrenck, _A Disease of the White Ash
+    Caused by Polyporus Fraxinophilus_, 1903.
+
+    No. 36. Hermann von Schrenck, _The "Bluing" and "Red Rot" of
+    the Western Yellow Pine_, 1903.
+
+_Report of the Commissioner of Corporations on the Lumber
+    Industry_, Part I, _Standing Timber_, February, 1911. The
+    latest and most reliable investigation into the amount and
+    ownership of the forests of the United States.
+
+Ward, H. Marshall, _Timber and some of its Diseases_.
+    London: Macmillan & Co., 295 pp. An English book that needs
+    supplementing by information on American wood diseases, such
+    as is included in the list of government publications given
+    herewith. The book includes a description of the character,
+    structure, properties, varieties, and classification of
+    timbers.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER I.
+
+THE STRUCTURE OF WOOD.
+
+
+When it is remembered that the suitability of wood for a particular
+purpose depends most of all upon its internal structure, it is plain
+that the woodworker should know the essential characteristics of that
+structure. While his main interest in wood is as lumber, dead material
+to be used in woodworking, he can properly understand its structure
+only by knowing something of it as a live, growing organism. To
+facilitate this, a knowledge of its position in the plant world is
+helpful.
+
+All the useful woods are to be found in the highest sub-kingdom of
+the plant world, the flowering plants or Phanerogamia of the botanist.
+These flowering plants are to be classified as follows:
+
+                         {  I. Gymnosperms.  (Naked seeds.)
+                         {       1. Cycadaceae.  (Palms, ferns, etc.)
+                         {       2. Gnetaceae.  (Joint firs.)
+                         {       3. Conifers. Pines, firs, etc.
+Phanerogamia,            { II. Angiosperms. (Fruits.)
+(Flowering plants)       {       1. Monocotyledons. (One seed-leaf.)
+                         {           (Palms, bamboos, grasses, etc.)
+                         {       2. Dicotyledons. (Two seed-leaves.)
+                         {           a.  Herbs.
+                         {           b.  Broad-leaved trees.
+
+Under the division of naked-seeded plants (gymnosperms), practically
+the only valuable timber-bearing plants are the needle-leaved trees
+or the conifers, including such trees as the pines, cedars, spruces,
+firs, etc. Their wood grows rapidly in concentric annual rings, like
+that of the broad-leaved trees; is easily worked, and is more widely
+used than the wood of any other class of trees.
+
+Of fruit-bearing trees (angiosperms), there are two classes, those
+that have one seed-leaf as they germinate, and those that have two
+seed-leaves.
+
+The one seed-leaf plants (monocotyledons) include the grasses, lilies,
+bananas, palms, etc. Of these there are only a few that reach
+the dimensions of trees. They are strikingly distinguished by the
+structure of their stems. They have no cambium layer and no distinct
+bark and pith; they have unbranched stems, which as a rule do not
+increase in diameter after the first stages of growth, but grow only
+terminally. Instead of having concentric annual rings and thus growing
+larger year by year, the woody tissue grows here and there thru the
+stem, but mostly crowded together toward the outer surfaces. Even
+where there is radial growth, as in yucca, the structure is not
+in annual rings, but irregular. These one seed-leaf trees
+(monocotyledons) are not of much economic value as lumber, being used
+chiefly "in the round," and to some extent for veneers and inlays;
+_e.g._, cocoanut-palm and porcupine wood are so used.
+
+The most useful of the monocotyledons, or endogens, ("inside growers,"
+as they are sometimes called,) are the bamboos, which are giant
+members of the group of grasses, Fig. 1. They grow in dense forests,
+some varieties often 70 feet high and 6 inches in diameter, shooting
+up their entire height in a single season. Bamboo is very highly
+valued in the Orient, where it is used for masts, for house rafters,
+and other building purposes, for gutters and water-pipes and in
+countless other ways. It is twice as strong as any of our woods.
+
+Under the fruit-bearing trees (angiosperms), timber trees are chiefly
+found among those that have two seed-leaves (the dicotyledons) and
+include the great mass of broad-leaved or deciduous trees such as
+chestnut, oak, ash and maple. It is to these and to the conifers that
+our principal attention will be given, since they constitute the bulk
+of the wood in common use.
+
+The timber-bearing trees, then, are the:
+
+(1) Conifers, the needle-leaved, naked-seeded trees, such as pine,
+cedar, etc. Fig. 45, p. 199.
+
+(2) Endogens, which have one seed-leaf, such as bamboos, Fig. 1.
+
+(3) Broad-leaved trees, having two seed-leaves, such as oak, beech,
+and elm. Fig. 48, p. 202.
+
+The common classifications of trees are quite inaccurate. Many of
+the so-called deciduous (Latin, _deciduus_, falling off) trees are
+evergreen, such as holly, and, in the south, live oak, magnolia and
+cherry. So, too, some of the alleged "evergreens," like bald cypress
+and tamarack, shed their leaves annually.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 1. A Bamboo Grove, Kioto, Japan.]
+
+Not all of the "conifers" bear cones. For example, the juniper bears
+a berry. The ginko, Fig. 2, tho classed among the "conifers," the
+"evergreens," and the "needle-leaf" trees, bears no cones, has broad
+leaves and is deciduous. It has an especial interest as being the sole
+survivor of many species which grew abundantly in the carboniferous
+age.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 2. Ginko Leaf.]
+
+Also, the terms used by lumbermen, "hard woods" for broad-leaved trees
+and "soft woods" for conifers, are still less exact, for the wood of
+some broad-leaved trees, as bass and poplar, is much softer than that
+of some conifers, as Georgia pine and lignum vitae.
+
+Another classification commonly made is that of "endogens" (inside
+growers) including bamboos, palms, etc., and exogens (outside growers)
+which would include both conifers and broad-leaved trees.
+
+One reason why so many classifications have come into use is that none
+of them is quite accurate. A better one will be explained later. See
+p. 23.
+
+As in the study of all woods three sections are made, it is well at
+the outset to understand clearly what these are.
+
+The sections of a tree made for its study are (Fig. 3):
+
+(1) Transverse, a plane at right angles to the organic axis.
+
+(2) Radial, a longitudinal plane, including the organic axis.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 3.
+
+A.
+
+  A, B, C, D, Transverse Section.
+  B, D, E, F, Radial Section.
+  G, H, I, J, Tangential Section.
+
+B.
+
+  A, B, C, Transverse Section.
+  A, B, D, E, Radial Section.
+  B, C, E, F, Tangential Section.
+]
+
+(3) Tangential, a longitudinal plane not including the organic axis.
+
+If a transverse section of the trunk of a conifer or of a broad-leaved
+tree is made, it is to be noted that it consists of several distinct
+parts. See Fig. 4. These, beginning at the outside, are:
+
+(1) Rind or bark
+  (a) Cortex
+  (b) Bast
+
+(2) Cambium
+
+(3) Wood
+  (a) Sap-wood
+  (b) Heart-wood
+
+(4) Pith.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 4. Diagram of Cross-section of Three Year Old Stem
+of Basswood.]
+
+(1) The rind or _bark_ is made up of two layers, the outer of which,
+the "cortex," is corky and usually scales or pulls off easily; while
+the inner one is a fibrous coat called "bast" or "phloem." Together
+they form a cone, widest, thickest, and roughest at the base and
+becoming narrower toward the top of the tree. The cortex or outer bark
+serves to protect the stem of the tree from extremes of heat and cold,
+from atmospheric changes, and from the browsing of animals. It is made
+up of a tough water-proof layer of cork which has taken the place of
+the tender skin or "epidermis" of the twig. Because it is water-proof
+the outside tissue is cut off from the water supply of the tree, and
+so dries up and peels off, a mass of dead matter. The cork and the
+dead stuff together are called the bark. As we shall see later, the
+cork grows from the inside, being formed in the inner layers of the
+cortex, the outer layers of dry bark being thus successively cut off.
+
+The characteristics of the tree bark are due to the positions and
+kinds of tissue of these new layers of cork. Each tree has its own
+kind of bark, and the bark of some is so characteristic as to make the
+tree easily recognizable.
+
+Bark may be classified according to formation and method of
+separation, as scale bark, which detaches from the tree in plates,
+as in the willows; membraneous bark, which comes off in ribbons and
+films, as in the birches; fibrous bark, which is in the form of stiff
+threads, as in the grape vine; and fissured bark, which breaks up
+in longitudinal fissures, showing ridges, grooves and broad, angular
+patches, as in oak, chestnut and locust. The last is the commonest
+form of bark.
+
+The bark of certain kinds of trees, as cherry and birch, has peculiar
+markings which consist of oblong raised spots or marks, especially
+on the young branches. These are called lenticels (Latin _lenticula_,
+freckle), and have two purposes: they admit air to the internal
+tissues, as it were for breathing, and they also emit water vapor.
+These lenticels are to be found on all trees, even where the bark is
+very thick, as old oaks and chestnuts, but in these the lenticels are
+in the bottoms of the deep cracks. There is a great difference in
+the inflammability of bark, some, like that of the big trees of
+California, Fig. 54, p. 209, which is often two feet thick, being
+practically incombustible, and hence serving to protect the tree;
+while some bark, as canoe birch, is laden with an oil which burns
+furiously. It therefore makes admirable kindling for camp fires, even
+in wet weather.
+
+Inside the cork is the "phloem" or "bast," which, by the way, gives
+its name to the bass tree, the inner bark of which is very tough and
+fibrous and therefore used for mat and rope making. In a living tree,
+the bast fibers serve to conduct the nourishment which has been made
+in the leaves down thru the stem to the growing parts.
+
+(2) The _cambium_. Inside of the rind and between it and the wood,
+there is, on living trees, a slimy coat called cambium (Med. Latin,
+exchange). This is the living, growing part of the stem, familiar to
+all who have peeled it as the sticky, slimy coat between the bark
+and the wood of a twig. This is what constitutes the fragrant,
+mucilaginous inner part of the bark of slippery elm. Cambium is a
+tissue of young and growing cells, in which the new cells are formed,
+the inner ones forming the wood and the outer ones the bark.
+
+In order to understand the cambium and its function, consider its
+appearance in a bud, Fig. 5. A cross-section of the bud of a growing
+stem examined under the microscope, looks like a delicate mesh of thin
+membrane, filled in with a viscid semi-fluid substance which is called
+"protoplasm" (Greek, _protos_, first; _plasma_, form). These meshes
+were first called "cells" by Robert Hooke, in 1667, because of their
+resemblance to the chambers of a honeycomb. The walls of these
+"cells" are their most prominent feature and, when first studied,
+were supposed to be the essential part; but later the slimy, colorless
+substance which filled the cells was found to be the essential part.
+This slimy substance, called protoplasm, constitutes the primal stuff
+of all living things. The cell walls themselves are formed from it.
+These young cells, at the apex of a stem, are all alike, very small,
+filled with protoplasm, and as yet, unaltered. They form embryonic
+tissue, _i.e._ one which will change. One change to which an cell
+filled with protoplasm is liable is division into two, a new partition
+wall forming within it. This is the way plant cells increase.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 5. Young Stem, Magnified 18-1/2 Diameters, Showing
+Primary and Secondary Bundles. _By Courtesy of Mrs. Katharine Golden
+Bitting._
+
+E, epidermis, the single outside layer of cells.
+
+C, cortex, the region outside of the bundles.
+
+HB, hard bast, the black, irregular ring protecting the soft bast.
+
+SB, soft bast, the light, crescent-shaped parts.
+
+Ca, cambium, the line between the soft bast and the wood.
+
+W, wood, segments showing pores.
+
+MR, medullary rays, lines between the bundles connecting the pith and
+the cortex.
+
+MS, medullary sheath, the dark, irregular ring just inside the
+bundles.
+
+P, pith, the central mass of cells.]
+
+In young plant cells, the whole cavity of the chamber is filled with
+protoplasm, but as the cells grow older and larger, the protoplasm
+develops into different parts, one part forming the cell wall and in
+many cases leaving cavities within the cell, which become filled with
+sap. The substance of the cell wall is called cellulose (cotton and
+flax fibers consist of almost pure cellulose). At first it has no
+definite structure, but as growth goes on, it may become thickened
+in layers, or gummy, or hardened into lignin (wood), according to the
+function to be performed. Where there are a group of similar cells
+performing the same functions, the group is called a tissue or, if
+large enough, a tissue system.
+
+When cells are changed into new forms, or "differentiated," as it is
+called, they become permanent tissues. These permanent tissues of the
+tree trunk constitute the various parts which we have noticed, viz.,
+the rind, the pith and the wood.
+
+The essentially living part of the tree, it should be remembered, is
+the protoplasm: where there is protoplasm, there is life and growth.
+In the stems of the conifers and broad-leaved trees--sometimes
+together called exogens--this protoplasm is to be found in the buds
+and in the cambium sheath, and these are the growing parts of the
+tree. If we followed up the sheath of cambium which envelopes a stem,
+into a terminal bud, we should find that it passed without break into
+the protoplasm of the bud.
+
+In the cross-section of a young shoot, we might see around the central
+pith or medulla, a ring of wedge-shaped patches. These are really
+bundles of cells running longitudinally from the rudiments of leaves
+thru the stem to the roots. They are made of protoplasm and are called
+the "procambium strands," Fig. 6.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 6. Three Stages in the Development of an Exogenous
+Stem. P, pith; PB, primary bast; SB, secondary bast; C, cambium;
+PR, pith ray; PW, primary wood; SW, secondary wood; PS, procambium
+strands. _After Boulger._]
+
+In the monocotyledons (endogens) these procambium strands change
+completely into wood and bast, and so losing all their protoplasmic
+cambium, become incapable of further growth. This is why palms can
+grow only lengthwise, or else by forming new fibers more densely in
+the central mass. But in the conifers and broad-leaved trees, the
+inner part of each strand becomes wood and the outer part bast (bark).
+Between these bundles, connecting the pith in the center with the
+cortex on the outside of the ring of bundles, are parts of the
+original pith tissue of the stem. They are the primary pith or
+medullary rays (Latin, _medulla_, pith). The number of medullary rays
+depends upon the number of the bundles; and their form, on the width
+of the bundles, so that they are often large and conspicuous, as in
+oak, or small and indeed invisible, as in some of the conifers. But
+they are present in all exogenous woods, and can readily be seen with
+the microscope. Stretching across these pith rays from the cambium
+layer in one procambium strand to that in the others, the cambium
+formation extends, making a complete cylindrical sheath from the bud
+downward over the whole stem. This is the cambium sheath and is the
+living, growing part of the stem from which is formed the wood on the
+inside and the rind (bark) on the outside.
+
+In the first year the wood and the bast are formed directly by the
+growth and change of the inner and outer cells respectively of the
+procambium strand, and all such material is called "primary;" but
+in subsequent years all wood, pith rays, and bast, originate in the
+cambium, and these growths are called "secondary."
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 7. Sap-wood and Heart-wood, Lignum Vitae.]
+
+(3) The _wood_ of most exogens is made up of two parts, a lighter
+part called the sap-wood or splint-wood or alburnum, and a darker part
+called the heart-wood or duramen, Fig. 7. Sap-wood is really immature
+heartwood. The difference in color between them is very marked in some
+woods, as in lignum vitae and black walnut, and very slight in
+others, as spruce and bass. Indeed, some species never form a distinct
+heart-wood, birch (_Betula alba_) being an example.
+
+In a living tree, sap-wood and heart-wood perform primarily quite
+different functions. The sap-wood carries the water from the roots to
+the leaves, stores away starch at least in winter, and in other ways
+assists the life of the tree. The proportional amount of sapwood
+varies greatly, often, as in long-leaf pine, constituting 40 per cent.
+of the stem.
+
+As the sap-wood grows older, its cells become choked so that the sap
+can no longer flow thru them. It loses its protoplasm and starch and
+becomes heartwood, in which all cells are dead and serve only the
+mechanical function of holding up the great weight of the tree and
+in resisting wind pressures. This is the reason why a tree may become
+decayed and hollow and yet be alive and bear fruit. In a tree that is
+actually dead the sap-wood rots first.
+
+Chemical substances infiltrate into the cell walls of heart-wood and
+hence it has a darker color than the sap-wood. Persimmon turns black,
+walnut purplish brown, sumac yellow, oak light brown, tulip and poplar
+yellowish, redwood and cedar brownish red. Many woods, as mahogany and
+oak, darken under exposure, which shows that the substances producing
+the color are oxidizable and unstable. Wood dyes are obtained by
+boiling and distilling such woods as sumach, logwood, red sanders,
+and fustic. Many woods also acquire distinct odors, as camphor,
+sandalwood, cedar, cypress, pine and mahogany, indicating the presence
+of oil.
+
+As a rule heart-wood is more valuable for timber, being harder,
+heavier, and drier than sap-wood. In woods like hickory and ash,
+however, which are used for purposes that require pliability, as in
+baskets, or elasticity as in handles of rakes and hoes, sap-wood is
+more valuable than heart-wood.
+
+In a transverse section of a conifer, for example Douglas spruce, Fig.
+8, the wood is seen to lie in concentric rings, the outer part of the
+ring being darker in color than the inner part. In reality each
+of these rings is a section of an irregular hollow cone, each cone
+enveloping its inner neighbor. Each cone ordinarily constitutes a
+year's growth, and therefore there is a greater number of them at
+the base of a tree than higher up. These cones vary greatly in
+_thickness_, or, looking at a cross-section, the rings vary in
+_width_; in general, those at the center being thicker than those
+toward the bark. Variations from year to year may also be noticed,
+showing that the tree was well nourished one year and poorly nourished
+another year. Rings, however, do not always indicate a year's growth.
+"False rings" are sometimes formed by a cessation in the growth due
+to drouth, fire or other accident, followed by renewed growth the same
+season.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 8. Section of Douglas Fir, Showing Annual Rings
+and Knots at Center of Trunk. _American Museum of Natural History, N.
+Y._]
+
+In a radial section of a log, Fig. 8, these "rings" appear as a series
+of parallel lines and if one could examine a long enough log these
+lines would converge, as would the cut edges in a nest of cones, if
+they were cut up thru the center, as in Fig. 9.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 9. Diagram of Radial Section of Log (exaggerated)
+Showing Annual Cones of Growth.]
+
+In a tangential section, the lines appear as broad bands, and since
+almost no tree grows perfectly straight, these lines are wavy, and
+give the characteristic pleasing "grain" of wood. Fig. 27, p. 35. The
+annual rings can sometimes be discerned in the bark as well as in the
+wood, as in corks, which are made of the outer bark of the cork oak, a
+product of southern Europe and northern Africa. Fig. 10.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 10. Annual Rings in Bark (cork).]
+
+The growth of the wood of exogenous trees takes place thru the
+ability, already noted, of protoplasmic cells to divide. The cambium
+cells, which have very thin walls, are rectangular in shape, broader
+tangentially than radially, and tapering above and below to a chisel
+edge, Fig. 11. After they have grown somewhat radially, partition
+walls form across them in the longitudinal, tangential direction,
+so that in place of one initial cell, there are two daughter cells
+radially disposed. Each of these small cells grows and re-divides, as
+in Fig. 12. Finally the innermost cell ceases to divide, and uses its
+protoplasm to become thick and hard wood. In like manner the outermost
+cambium cell becomes bast, while the cells between them continue to
+grow and divide, and so the process goes on. In nearly all stems,
+there is much more abundant formation of wood than of bast cells. In
+other words, more cambium cells turn to wood than to bast.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 11. Diagram Showing Grain of Spruce Highly
+Magnified. PR, pith rays; BP, bordered pits; Sp W, spring wood; SW,
+summer wood; CC, overlapping of chisel shaped ends.]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 12. Diagram Showing the Mode of Division of the
+Cambium Cells. The cambium cell is shaded to distinguish it from the
+cells derived from it. Note in the last division at the right that
+the inner daughter cell becomes the cambium cell while the outer cell
+develops into a bast cell. _From Curtis: Nature and Development of
+Plants._]
+
+In the spring when there is comparatively little light and heat, when
+the roots and leaves are inactive and feeble, and when the bark, split
+by winter, does not bind very tightly, the inner cambium cells produce
+radially wide wood cells with relatively thin walls. These constitute
+the spring wood. But in summer the jacket of bark binds tightly, there
+is plenty of heat and light, and the leaves and roots are very active,
+so that the cambium cells produce thicker walled cells, called summer
+wood. During the winter the trees rest, and no development takes
+place until spring, when the large thin-walled cells are formed again,
+making a sharp contrast with those formed at the end of the previous
+season.
+
+It is only at the tips of the branches that the cambium cells grow
+much in length; so that if a nail were driven into a tree twenty years
+old at, say, four feet from the ground, it would still be four feet
+from the ground one hundred years later.
+
+Looking once more at the cross-section, say, of spruce, the inner
+portion of each ring is lighter in color and softer in texture than
+the outer portion. On a radial or tangential section, one's finger
+nail can easily indent the inner portion of the ring, tho the outer
+dark part of the ring may be very hard. The inner, light, soft portion
+of the ring is the part that grows in the spring and early summer,
+and is called the "spring wood" while the part that grows later in the
+season is called "summer wood." As the summer wood is hard and heavy,
+it largely determines the strength and weight of the wood, so that as
+a rule, the greater the proportion of the summer growth, the better
+the wood. This can be controlled to some extent by proper forestry
+methods, as is done in European larch forests, by "underplanting" them
+with beech.
+
+In a normal tree, the summer growth forms a greater proportion of the
+wood formed during the period of thriftiest growth, so that in neither
+youth nor old age, is there so great a proportion of summer wood as in
+middle age.
+
+It will help to make clear the general structure of wood if one
+imagines the trunk of a tree to consist of a bundle of rubber tubes
+crushed together, so that they assume angular shapes and have no
+spaces between them. If the tubes are laid in concentric layers, first
+a layer which has thin walls, then successive layers having thicker
+and thicker walls, then suddenly a layer of thin-walled tubes and
+increasing again to thick-walled ones and so on, such an arrangement
+would represent the successive annual "rings" of conifers.
+
+_The medullary rays._ While most of the elements in wood run
+longitudinally in the log, it is also to be noted that running at
+right angles to these and radially to the log, are other groups of
+cells called pith rays or medullary rays (Latin, _medulla_, which
+means pith). These are the large "silver flakes" to be seen in
+quartered oak, which give it its beautiful and distinctive grain, Fig.
+32, p. 38. They appear as long, grayish lines on a cross-section, as
+broad, shining bands on the radial section, and as short, thick lines
+tapering at each end on the tangential section. In other words, they
+are like flat, rectangular plates standing on edge and radiating
+lengthwise from the center of the tree. They vary greatly in size in
+different woods. In sycamore they are very prominent, Fig. 13. In oak
+they are often several hundred cells wide (_i.e._, up and down in the
+tree). This may amount to an inch or two. They are often twenty cells
+thick, tapering to one cell at the edge. In oak very many are also
+small, even microscopic. But in the conifers and also in some of the
+broad-leaved trees, altho they can be discerned with the naked eye on
+a split radial surface, still they are all very small. In pine there
+are some 15,000 of them to a square inch of a tangential section. They
+are to be found in all exogens. In a cross-section, say of oak, Fig.
+14, it can readily be seen that some pith rays begin at the center
+of the tree and some farther out. Those that start from the pith are
+formed the first year and are called primary pith rays, while those
+that begin in a subsequent year, starting at the cambium of that year,
+are called secondary rays.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 13. Tangential Section of Sycamore, Magnified 37
+Diameters. Note the large size of the pith rays, A, A (end view).]
+
+The function of the pith rays is twofold. (1) They transfer formative
+material from one part of a stem to another, communicating with both
+wood and bark by means of the simple and bordered pits in them, and
+(2) they bind the trunk together from pith to bark. On the other hand
+their presence makes it easier for the wood to split radially.
+
+The substance of which they are composed is "parenchyma" (Greek,
+_beside_, to _pour_), which also constitutes the pith, the rays
+forming a sort of connecting link between the first and last growth of
+the tree, as the cambium cells form new wood each year.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 14 Cross-section of White Oak. The Radiating White
+Lines are the Pith Rays.]
+
+If a cambium cell is opposite to a pith ray, it divides crosswise
+(transversely) into eight or ten cells one above another, which
+stretch out radially, retaining their protoplasm, and so continue the
+pith ray. As the tree grows larger, new, or secondary medullary rays
+start from the cambium then active, so that every year new rays are
+formed both thinner and shorter than the primary rays, Fig. 14.
+
+Now suppose that laid among the ordinary thin-walled tubes were quite
+large tubes, so that one could tell the "ring" not only by the thin
+walls but by the presence of large tubes. That would represent the
+ring-porous woods, and the large tubes would be called vessels, or
+_tracheae_. Suppose again that these large tubes were scattered
+in disorder thru the layers. This arrangement would represent the
+diffuse-porous woods.
+
+By holding up to the light, thin cross-sections of spruce or pine,
+Fig. 15, oak or ash, Fig. 16, and bass or maple, Fig. 17, these three
+quite distinct arrangements in the structure may be distinguished.
+This fact has led to the classification of woods according to the
+presence and distribution of "pores," or as they are technically
+called, "vessels" or "tracheae." By this classification we have:
+
+(1) _Non-porous_ woods, which comprise the conifers, as pine and
+spruce.
+
+(2) _Ring-porous_ woods, in which the pores appear (in a
+cross-section) in concentric rings, as in chestnut, ash and elm.
+
+(3) _Diffuse-porous_ woods, in which (in a cross-section) the rings
+are scattered irregularly thru the wood, as in bass, maple and yellow
+poplar.
+
+In order to fully understand the structure of wood, it is necessary to
+examine it still more closely thru the microscope, and since the three
+classes of wood, non-porous, ring-porous and diffuse-porous, differ
+considerably in their minute structure, it is well to consider them
+separately, taking the simplest first.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 15. Cross-section of Non-porous Wood, White Pine,
+Full Size (top toward pith).]
+
+_Non-porous woods._ In examining thru the microscope a transverse
+section of white pine, Fig. 18:
+
+(1) The most noticeable characteristic is the regularity of
+arrangement of the cells. They are roughly rectangular and arranged in
+ranks and files.
+
+(2) Another noticeable feature is that they are arranged in belts, the
+thickness of their walls gradually increasing as the size of the cells
+diminishes. Then the large thin-walled cells suddenly begin again,
+and so on. The width of one of these belts is the amount of a single
+year's growth, the thin-walled cells being those that formed in
+spring, and the thick-walled ones those that formed in summer, the
+darker color of the summer wood as well as its greater strength being
+caused by there being more material in the same volume.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 16. Cross-section of Ring-porous Wood, White Ash,
+Full Size (top toward pith).]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 17. Cross-section of Diffuse-porous Wood, Hard
+Maple, full size (top toward pith).]
+
+(3) Running radially (up and down in the picture) directly thru the
+annual belts or rings are to be seen what looks like fibers. These are
+the pith or medullary rays. They serve to transfer formative material
+from one part of the stem to another and to bind the tree together
+from pith to bark.
+
+(4) Scattered here and there among the regular cells, are to be seen
+irregular gray or yellow dots which disturb the regularity of the
+arrangement. These are _resin ducts_. (See cross-section of white
+pine, Fig. 18.) They are not cells, but openings between cells, in
+which the resin, an excretion of the tree, accumulates, oozing out
+when the tree is injured. At least one function of resin is to protect
+the tree from attacks of fungi.
+
+Looking now at the radial section, Fig. 18:
+
+(5) The first thing to notice is the straightness of the long cells
+and their overlapping where they meet endwise, like the ends of two
+chisels laid together, Fig. 11.
+
+(6) On the walls of the cells can be seen round spots called "pits."
+These are due to the fact that as the cell grows, the cell walls
+thicken, except in these small spots, where the walls remain thin and
+delicate. The pit in a cell wall always coincides with the pit in
+an adjoining cell, there being only a thin membrane between, so that
+there is practically free communication of fluids between the two
+cells. In a cross-section the pit appears as a canal, the length of
+which depends upon the thickness of the walls. In some cells, the
+thickening around the pits becomes elevated, forming a border,
+perforated in the center. Such pits are called bordered pits. These
+pits, both simple and bordered, are waterways between the different
+cells. They are helps in carrying the sap up the tree.
+
+(7) The pith rays are also to be seen running across and interwoven
+in the other cells. It is to be noticed that they consist of several
+cells, one above another.
+
+In the tangential section, Fig. 18:
+
+(8) The straightness and overlapping of the cells is to be seen again,
+and
+
+(9) The numerous ends of the pith rays appear.
+
+In a word, the structure of coniferous wood is very regular and
+simple, consisting mainly of cells of one sort, the pith rays being
+comparatively unnoticeable. This uniformity is what makes the wood of
+conifers technically valuable.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 18.]
+
+The cells of conifers are called tracheids, meaning "like _tracheae_."
+They are cells in which the end walls persist, that is, are not
+absorbed and broken down when they meet end to end. In other words,
+conifers do not have continuous pores or vessels or "_tracheae_," and
+hence are called "non-porous" woods.
+
+But in other woods, the ends of some cells which meet endwise
+are absorbed, thus forming a continuous series of elements which
+constitute an open tube. Such tubes are known as pores, or vessels,
+or "tracheae," and sometimes extend thru the whole stem. Besides this
+marked difference between the porous and non-porous woods, the porous
+woods are also distinguished by the fact that instead of being made
+up, like the conifers of cells of practically only one kind, namely
+tracheids, they are composed of several varieties of cells. Besides
+the tracheae and tracheids already noted are such cells as "wood
+fiber," "fibrous cells," and "parenchyma." Fig. 19. Wood fiber proper
+has much thickened lignified walls and no pits, and its main function
+is mechanical support. Fibrous cells are like the wood fibers except
+that they retain their protoplasm. Parenchyma is composed of vertical
+groups of short cells, the end ones of each group tapering to a point,
+and each group originates from the transverse division of one
+cambium cell. They are commonly grouped around the vessels (tracheae).
+Parenchyma constitutes the pith rays and other similar fibers, retains
+its protoplasm, and becomes filled with starch in autumn.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 19. Isolated Fibers and Cells. _a_, four cells of
+wood parenchyma; _b_, two cells from a pith ray; _c_, a single cell
+or joint of a vessel, the openings, x, x, leading into its upper and
+lower neighbors; _d_, tracheid; _e_, wood fiber proper. _After Roth._]
+
+The most common type of structure among the broad-leaved trees
+contains tracheae, trachaeids, woody fiber, fibrous cells and
+parenchyma. Examples are poplars, birch, walnut, linden and locust. In
+some, as ash, the tracheids are wanting; apple and maple have no woody
+fiber, and oak and plum no fibrous cells.
+
+This recital is enough to show that the wood of the broad-leaved trees
+is much more complex in structure than that of the conifers. It is by
+means of the number and distribution of these elements that particular
+woods are identified microscopically. See p. 289.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 20.]
+
+_Ring-porous woods._ Looking thru the microscope at a cross-section of
+ash, a ring-porous wood, Fig. 20:
+
+(1) The large round or oval pores or vessels grouped mostly in the
+spring wood first attract attention. Smaller ones, but still quite
+distinct, are to be seen scattered all thru the wood. It is by the
+number and distribution of these pores that the different oak woods
+are distinguished, those in white oak being smaller and more numerous,
+while in red oak they are fewer and larger. It is evident that the
+greater their share in the volume, the lighter in weight and the
+weaker will be the wood. In a magnified cross-section of some woods,
+as black locust, white elm and chestnut, see Chap. III, beautiful
+patterns are to be seen composed of these pores. It is because of the
+size of these pores and their great number that chestnut is so weak.
+
+(2) The summer wood is also distinguishable by the fact that, as with
+the conifers, its cells are smaller and its cell walls thicker than
+those of the spring wood. The summer wood appears only as a narrow,
+dark line along the largest pores in each ring.
+
+(3) The lines of the pith rays are very plain in some woods, as in
+oak. No. 47, Chap. III.
+
+(4) The irregular arrangement and
+
+(5) Complex structure are evident, and these are due to the fact that
+the wood substance consists of a number of different elements and not
+one (tracheids) as in the conifers.
+
+Looking at the radial section, Fig. 20:
+
+(6) If the piece is oak, the great size of the medullary rays is most
+noticeable. Fig. 32, p. 38. They are often an inch or more wide; that
+is, high, as they grow in the tree. In ash they are plain, seen thru
+the microscope, but are not prominent.
+
+(7) The interweaving of the different fibers and the variety of their
+forms show the structure as being very complex.
+
+In the tangential section, Fig. 20:
+
+(8) The pattern of the grain is seen to be marked not so much by
+the denseness of the summer wood as by the presence of the vessels
+(pores).
+
+(9) The ends of the pith rays are also clear.
+
+In _diffuse porous woods_, the main features to be noticed are: In the
+transverse section, Fig. 21:
+
+(1) The irregularity with which the pores are scattered,
+
+(2) The fine line of dense cells which mark the end of the year's
+growth,
+
+(3) The radiating pith rays,
+
+(4) The irregular arrangement and,
+
+(5) The complex structure.
+
+In the radial section, Fig. 21:
+
+(6) The pith rays are evident. In sycamore, No. 53, Chap. III, they
+are quite large.
+
+(7) The interweaving of the fibers is to be noted and also their
+variety.
+
+In the tangential section, Fig. 21:
+
+(8) The grain is to be traced only dimly, but the fibers are seen to
+run in waves around the pith rays.
+
+(9) The pith rays, the ends of which are plainly visible.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 21.]
+
+
+THE GRAIN OF WOOD.
+
+The term "grain" is used in a variety of meanings which is likely to
+cause confusion. This confusion may be avoided, at least in part,
+by distinguishing between grain and texture, using the word grain to
+refer to the arrangement or direction of the wood elements, and the
+word texture to refer to their size or quality, so far as these affect
+the structural character of the wood. Hence such qualifying adjectives
+as coarse and fine, even and uneven, straight and cross, including
+spiral, twisted, wavy, curly, mottled, bird's-eye, gnarly, etc., may
+all be applied to grain to give it definite meaning, while to texture
+the proper modifying adjectives are coarse and fine, even and uneven.
+
+Usually the word grain means the pattern or "figure" formed by the
+distinction between the spring wood and the summer wood. If the annual
+rings are wide, the wood is, in common usage, called "coarse grained,"
+if narrow, "fine grained," so that of two trees of the same species,
+one may be coarse grained and the other fine grained, depending solely
+on the accident of fast or slow growth.
+
+The terms coarse grain and fine grain are also frequently used to
+distinguish such ring-porous woods as have large prominent pores, like
+chestnut and ash, from those having small or no pores, as cherry and
+lignum vitae. A better expression in this case would be coarse and
+fine textured. When such coarse textured woods are stained, the large
+pores in the spring wood absorb more stain than the smaller elements
+in the summer wood, and hence the former part appears darker. In the
+"fine grained" (or better, fine textured,) woods the pores are absent
+or are small and scattered, and the wood is hard, so that they are
+capable of taking a high polish. This indicates the meaning of the
+words coarse and fine in the mind of the cabinet-maker, the reference
+being primarily to texture.
+
+If the elements of which a wood are composed are of approximately
+uniform size, it would be said to have a uniform texture, as in
+white pine, while uniform grain would mean, that the elements, tho
+of varying sizes, were evenly distributed, as in the diffuse-porous
+woods.
+
+The term "grain" also refers to the regularity of the wood structure.
+An ideal tree would be composed of a succession of regular cones, but
+few trees are truly circular in cross-section and even in those that
+are circular, the pith is rarely in the center, showing that one side
+of the tree, usually the south side, is better nourished than the
+other, Fig. 14, p. 23.
+
+The normal direction of the fibers of wood is parallel to the axis of
+the stem in which they grow. Such wood is called "straight-grained,"
+Fig. 22, but there are many deviations from this rule. Whenever the
+grain of the wood in a board is, in whole or in part, oblique to the
+sides of the board, it is called "cross-grained." An illustration of
+this is a bend in the fibers, due to a bend in the whole tree or to
+the presence of a neighboring knot. This bend makes the board more
+difficult to plane. In many cases, probably in more cases than not,
+the wood fibers twist around the tree. (See some of the logs in Fig.
+107, p. 254.) This produces "spiral" or "twisted" grain.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 22. Straight Grained Long-leaf Pine (full size).]
+
+Often, as in mahogany and sweet gum, the fibers of several layers
+twist first in one direction and then those of the next few layers
+twist the other way, Fig. 24. Such wood is peculiarly cross-grained,
+and is of course hard to plane smooth. But when a piece is smoothly
+finished the changing reflection of light from the surface gives a
+beautiful appearance, which can be enhanced by staining and polishing.
+It constitutes the characteristic "grain" of striped mahogany, Fig.
+23. It is rarely found in the inner part of the tree.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 23. Mahogany, Showing Alternately Twisted Grain
+(full size).]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 24. Spiral Grain in Cypress.
+_After Roth._]
+
+Sometimes the grain of wood is "cross," because it is "wavy" either in
+a radial or a tangential section, as in maple, Fig. 25, and Fig. 26.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 25. Planed Surface of Wavy-Grained Maple (full
+size).]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 26. Split Surface of Wavy-Grained Maple (full
+size).]
+
+"Curly grain" refers to the figure of circlets and islets and
+contours, often of great beauty, caused by cutting a flat surface in
+crooked-grained wood. See Fig. 27, curly long-leaf pine, and Fig.
+28, yellow poplar. When such crookedness is fine and the fibers are
+contorted and, as it were, crowded out of place, as is common in and
+near the roots of trees, the effect is called "burl," Fig. 29. The
+term burl is also used to designate knots and knobs on tree trunks,
+Fig. 31. Burl is used chiefly in veneers.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 27. Curly Grained Long-leaf Pine (full size).]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 28. Curly Yellow Poplar (full size).]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 29. Redwood Burl (full size).]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 30. Bird's-eye Maple (full size.)]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 31. Burl on White Oak.]
+
+Irregularity of grain is often caused by the presence of adventitious
+and dormant buds, which may be plainly seen as little knobs on
+the surface of some trees under the bark. In most trees, these
+irregularities are soon buried and smoothed over by the successive
+annual layers of wood, but in some woods there is a tendency to
+preserve the irregularities. On slash (tangent) boards of such wood,
+a great number of little circlets appear, giving a beautiful grain,
+as in "Bird's-eye maple," Fig. 30. These markings are found to
+predominate in the inner part of the tree. This is not at all a
+distinct variety of maple, as is sometimes supposed, but the common
+variety, in which the phenomenon frequently appears. Logs of great
+value, having bird's-eyes, have often unsuspectingly been chopped up
+for fire wood.
+
+The term "grain" may also mean the "figure" formed by the presence of
+pith rays, as in oak, Fig. 32, or beech, or the word "grain" may refer
+simply to the uneven deposit of coloring matter as is common in sweet
+gum, Fig. 33, black ash, or Circassian walnut.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 32. Figure Formed by Pith Rays in Oak (full
+size).]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 33. Sweet Gum, Showing Uneven Deposit of Coloring
+Matter (full size.)]
+
+The presence of a limb constitutes a knot and makes great irregularity
+in the grain of wood, Fig. 34. In the first place, the fibers on the
+upper and lower sides of the limb behave differently, those on the
+lower side running uninterruptedly from the stem into the limb,
+while on the upper side the fibers bend aside making an imperfect
+connection. Consequently to split a knot it is always necessary to
+start the split from the lower side. On the other hand it is easier to
+split around a knot than thru it. The texture as well as the grain of
+wood is modified by the presence of a branch. The wood in and around a
+knot is much harder than the main body of the trunk on account of the
+crowding together of the elements. Knots are the remnants of branches
+left in the trunk. These once had all the parts of the trunk itself,
+namely bark, cambium, wood, and pith. Normally, branches grow from the
+pith, tho some trees, as Jack pine and redwood, among the conifers,
+and most of the broad-leaf trees have the power of putting out at any
+time adventitious buds which may develop into branches. When a branch
+dies, the annual layer of wood no longer grows upon it, but the
+successive layers of wood on the trunk itself close tighter and
+tighter around it, until it is broken off. Then, unless it has begun
+to decay, it is successively overgrown by annual layers, so that
+no sign of it appears until the trunk is cut open. A large trunk
+perfectly clean of branches on the outside may have many knots around
+its center, remnants of branches which grew there in its youth, as in
+Fig. 34, and Fig. 8, p. 18. The general effect of the presence of a
+knot is, that the fibers that grow around and over it are bent, and
+this, of course, produces crooked grain.
+
+Following are the designations given to different knots by lumbermen:
+A _sound_ knot is one which is solid across its face and is as hard as
+the wood surrounding it and fixed in position. A _pin_ knot is sound,
+but not over 1/4" in diameter. A _standard_ knot is sound, but not
+over 1-1/2" in diameter. A _large_ knot is sound, and over 1-1/2"
+in diameter. A _spike_ knot is one sawn in a lengthwise position. A
+_dead_, or, _loose_ knot is one not firmly held in place by growth or
+position.
+
+(4) _Pith._ At the center or axis of the tree is the pith or
+_medulla_, Fig. 34. In every bud, that is, at the apex of every stem
+and branch, the pith is the growing part; but as the stem lengthens
+and becomes overgrown by successive layers of wood the pith loses its
+vital function. It does not grow with the plant except at the buds.
+It varies in thickness, being very small,--hardly more than 1/16", in
+cedar and larch,--and so small in oak as to be hardly discernible;
+and what there is of it turns hard and dark. In herbs and shoots it is
+relatively large, Fig. 5, p. 15, in a three-year old shoot of elder,
+for example, being as wide as the wood. In elder, moreover, it dies
+early and pulverizes, leaving the stem hollow. Its function is one of
+only temporary value to the plant.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 34. Section Thru the Trunk of a Seven Year Old
+Tree, Showing Relation of Branches to Main Stem. A, B, two branches
+which were killed after a few years' growth by shading, and which have
+been overgrown by the annual rings of wood; C, a limb which lived four
+years, then died and broke off near the stem, leaving the part to the
+left of XY a "sound" knot, and the part to the right a "dead" knot,
+which unless rotting sets in, would in time be entirely covered by the
+growing trunk; D, a branch that has remained alive and has increased
+in size like the main stem; P, P, pith of both stem and limb.]
+
+
+THE STRUCTURE OF WOOD.
+
+REFERENCES:[A]
+
+Roth, _Forest Bull._ No. 10, pp. 11-23.
+Boulger, pp. 1-39.
+Sickles, pp. 11-20.
+Pinchot, _Forest Bull._ No. 24, I, pp. 11-24.
+Keeler, pp. 514-517.
+Curtis, pp. 62-85.
+Woodcraft, 15: 3, p. 90.
+Bitting, _Wood Craft_, 5: 76, 106, 144, 172, (June-Sept. 1906).
+Ward, pp. 1-38.
+_Encyc. Brit._, 11th Ed., "Plants," p. 741.
+Strasburger, pp. 120-144 and Part II, Sec. II.
+Snow, pp. 7-9, 183.
+
+    [Footnote A: For general bibliography, see p. 4.]
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER II.
+
+PROPERTIES OF WOOD.
+
+
+There are many properties of wood,--some predominant in one species,
+some in another,--that make it suitable for a great variety of uses.
+Sometimes it is a combination of properties that gives value to a
+wood. Among these properties are hygroscopicity, shrinkage, weight,
+strength, cleavability, elasticity, hardness, and toughness.
+
+
+THE HYGROSCOPICITY[1] OF WOOD.
+
+It is evident that water plays a large part in the economy of the
+tree. It occurs in wood in three different ways: In the sap which
+fills or partly fills the cavities of the wood cells, in the cell
+walls which it saturates, and in the live protoplasm, of which it
+constitutes 90 per cent. The younger the wood, the more water it
+contains, hence the sap-wood contains much more than the heart-wood,
+at times even twice as much.
+
+In fresh sap-wood, 60 per cent. of the water is in the cell
+cavities, 35 per cent. in the cell walls, and only 5 per cent. in the
+protoplasm. There is so much water in green wood that a sappy pole
+will soon sink when set afloat. The reason why there is much less
+water in heart-wood is because its cells are dead and inactive, and
+hence without sap and without protoplasm. There is only what saturates
+the cell walls. Even so, there is considerable water in heart-wood.[2]
+
+The lighter kinds have the most water in the sap-wood, thus sycamore
+has more than hickory.
+
+Curiously enough, a tree contains about as much water in winter as
+in summer. The water is held there, it is supposed, by capillary
+attraction, since the cells are inactive, so that at all times the
+water in wood keeps the cell walls distended.
+
+
+THE SHRINKAGE OF WOOD.
+
+When a tree is cut down, its water at once begins to evaporate. This
+process is called "seasoning."[A] In drying, the free water within the
+cells keeps the cell walls saturated; but when all the free water has
+been removed, the cell walls begin to yield up their moisture. Water
+will not flow out of wood unless it is forced out by heat, as when
+green wood is put on a fire. Ordinarily it evaporates slowly.
+
+    [Footnote A: See _Handwork in Wood_, Chapter III.]
+
+The water evaporates faster from some kinds of wood than from other
+kinds, _e.g._, from white pine than from oak, from small pieces than
+from large, and from end grain than from a longitudinal section; and
+it also evaporates faster in high than in low temperatures.
+
+Evaporation affects wood in three respects, weight, strength, and
+size. The weight is reduced, the strength is increased, and shrinkage
+takes place. The reduction in weight and increase in strength,
+important as they are, are of less importance than the shrinkage,
+which often involves warping and other distortions. The water in wood
+affects its size by keeping the cell walls distended.
+
+If all the cells of a piece of wood were the same size, and had
+walls the same thickness, and all ran in the same direction, then the
+shrinkage would be uniform. But, as we have seen, the structure of
+wood is not homogeneous. Some cellular elements are large, some small,
+some have thick walls, some thin walls, some run longitudinally and
+some (the pith rays) run radially. The effects will be various in
+differently shaped pieces of wood but they can easily be accounted for
+if one bears in mind these three facts: (1) that the shrinkage is in
+the cell wall, and therefore (2) that the thick-walled cells shrink
+more than thin-walled cells and (3) that the cells do not shrink much,
+if any, lengthwise.
+
+(1) The shrinkage of wood takes place in the walls of the cells that
+compose it, that is, the cell walls become thinner, as indicated by
+the dotted lines in Fig. 35, which is a cross-section of a single
+cell. The diameter of the whole cell becomes less, and the opening, or
+lumen, of the cell becomes larger.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 35. How Cell Walls Shrink.]
+
+(2) Thick-walled cells shrink more than thin-walled cells, that is,
+summer cells more than spring cells. This is due to the fact that they
+contain more shrinkable substance. The thicker the wall, the more the
+shrinkage.
+
+Consider the effects of these changes; ordinarily a log when drying
+begins to "check" at the end. This is to be explained thus:
+Inasmuch as evaporation takes place faster from a cross than from a
+longitudinal section, because at the cross-section all the cells are
+cut open, it is to be expected that the end of a piece of timber, Fig.
+36, A, will shrink first. This would tend to make the end fibers bend
+toward the center of the piece as in B, Fig. 36. But the fibers are
+stiff and resist this bending with the result that the end splits or
+"checks" as in C, Fig. 36. But later, as the rest of the timber dries
+out and shrinks, it becomes of equal thickness again and the "checks"
+tend to close.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 36. The Shrinkage and Checking at the End of a
+Beam.]
+
+(3) For some reason, which has not been discovered, the cells or
+fibers of wood do not shrink in length to any appreciable extent. This
+is as true of the cells of pith rays, which run radially in the log,
+as of the ordinary cells, which run longitudinally in it.
+
+In addition to "checking" at the end, logs ordinarily show the effect
+of shrinkage by splitting open radially, as in Fig. 37. This is to
+be explained by two factors, (1) the disposition of the pith (or
+medullary) rays, and (2) the arrangement of the wood in annual rings.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 37. The Shrinkage and Splitting of a Log.]
+
+(1) The cells of the pith rays, as we have seen in Chapter I, run at
+right angles to the direction of the mass of wood fibers, and since
+they shrink according to the same laws that other cells do, viz., by
+the cell wall becoming thinner but not shorter, the strain of their
+shrinkage is contrary to that of the main cells. The pith rays, which
+consist of a number of cells one above the other, tend to shrink
+parallel to the length of the wood, and whatever little longitudinal
+shrinkage there is in a board is probably due mostly to the
+shrinkage of the pith rays. But because the cells of pith rays do not
+appreciably shrink in their length, this fact tends to prevent the
+main body of wood from shrinking radially, and the result is that wood
+shrinks less radially than tangentially. Tangentially is the only way
+left for it to shrink. The pith rays may be compared to the ribs of
+a folding fan, which keep the radius of unaltered length while
+permitting comparative freedom for circumferential contraction.
+
+(2) It is evident that since summer wood shrinks more than spring
+wood, this fact will interfere with the even shrinkage of the log.
+Consider first the tangential shrinkage. If a section of a single
+annual ring of green wood of the shape A B C D, in Fig. 38, is dried
+and the mass shrinks according to the thickness of the cell walls,
+it will assume the shape A' B' C' D'. When a number of rings together
+shrink, the tangential shrinkage of the summer wood tends to contract
+the adjoining rings of spring wood more than they would naturally
+shrink of themselves. Since there is more of the summer-wood
+substance, the spring-wood must yield, and the log shrinks
+circumferentially. The radial shrinkage of the summer-wood, however,
+is constantly interrupted by the alternate rows of spring-wood, so
+that there would not be so much radial as circumferential shrinkage.
+As a matter of fact, the tangential or circumferential shrinkage is
+twice as great as the radial shrinkage.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 38. Diagram to Show the Greater Shrinkage of
+Summer Cells, A, B, than of Spring Cells, C, D.]
+
+Putting these two factors together, namely, the lengthwise resistance
+of the pith rays to the radial shrinkage of the mass of other fibers,
+and second, the continuous bands of summer wood, comparatively free to
+shrink circumferentially, and the inevitable happens; the log splits.
+If the bark is left on and evaporation hindered, the splits will not
+open so wide.
+
+There is still another effect of shrinkage. If, immediately after
+felling, a log is sawn in two lengthwise, the radial splitting may be
+largely avoided, but the flat sides will tend to become convex, as in
+Fig. 39. This is explained by the fact that circumferential shrinkage
+is greater than radial shrinkage.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 39. Shrinkage of a Halved Log.]
+
+If a log is "quartered,"[A] the quarters split still less, as the
+inevitable shrinkage takes place more easily. The quarters then
+tend to assume the shape shown in Fig. 40, C. If a log is sawed into
+timber, it checks from the center of the faces toward the pith, Fig.
+40, D. Sometimes the whole amount of shrinkage may be collected in one
+large split. When a log is slash-sawed, Fig. 40, I, each board tends
+to warp so that the concave side is away from the center of the tree.
+If one plank includes the pith, Fig. 40, E and H, that board will
+become thinner at its edges than at its center, _i.e._, convex on
+both faces. Other forms assumed by wood in shrinking are shown in Fig.
+40. In the cases A-F the explanation is the same; the circumferential
+shrinkage is more than the radial. In J and K the shapes are accounted
+for by the fact that wood shrinks very little longitudinally.
+
+    [Footnote A: See _Handwork in Wood_, p. 42.]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 40. Shapes Assumed by Wood in Shrinking.]
+
+Warping is uneven shrinkage, one side of the board contracting
+more than the other. Whenever a slash board warps under ordinary
+conditions, the convex side is the one which was toward the center of
+the tree. However, a board may be made to warp artificially the other
+way by applying heat to the side of the board toward the center of the
+tree, and by keeping the other side moist. The board will warp only
+sidewise; lengthwise it remains straight unless the treatment is very
+severe. This shows again that water distends the cells laterally but
+not longitudinally.
+
+The thinning of the cell walls due to evaporation, is thus seen
+to have three results, all included in the term "working," viz.:
+_shrinkage_, a diminution in size, _splitting_, due to the inability
+of parts to cohere under the strains to which they are subjected, and
+_warping_, or uneven shrinkage.
+
+In order to neutralize warping as much as possible in broad board
+structures, it is common to joint the board with the annual rings
+of each alternate board curving in opposite directions, as shown in
+_Handwork in Wood_, Fig. 280, _a_, p. 188.
+
+Under warping is included bowing. Bowing, that is, bending in the form
+of a bow, is, so to speak, longitudinal warping. It is largely due to
+crookedness or irregularity of grain, and is likely to occur in boards
+with large pith rays, as oak and sycamore. But even a straight-grained
+piece of wood, left standing on end or subjected to heat on one side
+and dampness on the other, will bow, as, for instance a board lying on
+the damp ground and in the sun.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 41. _a_, Star Shakes; _b_, Heart Shakes; _c_, Cup
+Shakes or Ring Shakes; _d_, Honeycombing.]
+
+Splitting takes various names, according to its form in the tree.
+"Check" is a term used for all sorts of cracks, and more particularly
+for a longitudinal crack in timber. "Shakes" are splits of various
+forms as: _star shakes_, Fig. 41, _a_, splits which radiate from the
+pith along the pith rays and widen outward; _heart shakes_, Fig. 41,
+_b_, splits crossing the central rings and widening toward the center;
+and _cup_ or _ring shakes_, Fig. 41, _c_, splits between the annual
+rings. _Honeycombing_, Fig. 41, _d_, is splitting along the pith rays
+and is due largely to case hardening.
+
+These are not all due to shrinkage in drying, but may occur in the
+growing tree from various harmful causes. See p. 232.
+
+Wood that has once been dried may again be swelled to nearly if not
+fully its original size, by being soaked in water or subjected to wet
+steam. This fact is taken advantage of in wetting wooden wedges
+to split some kinds of soft stone. The processes of shrinking and
+swelling can be repeated indefinitely, and no temperature short of
+burning, completely prevents wood from shrinking and swelling.
+
+Rapid drying of wood tends to "case harden" it, _i.e._, to dry and
+shrink the outer part before the inside has had a chance to do the
+same. This results in checking separately both the outside and the
+inside, hence special precautions need to be taken in the seasoning of
+wood to prevent this. When wood is once thoroly bent out of shape in
+shrinking, it is very difficult to straighten it again.
+
+Woods vary considerably in the amounts of their shrinkage. The
+conifers with their regular structure shrink less and shrink more
+evenly than the broad-leaved woods.[3] Wood, even after it has been
+well seasoned, is subject to frequent changes in volume due to the
+varying amount of moisture in the atmosphere. This involves constant
+care in handling it and wisdom in its use. These matters are
+considered in _Handwork in Wood_, Chapter III, on the Seasoning of
+Wood.
+
+
+THE WEIGHT OF WOOD.
+
+Wood substance itself is heavier than water, as can readily be proved
+by immersing a very thin cross-section of pine in water. Since the
+cells are cut across, the water readily enters the cavities, and
+the wood being heavier than the water, sinks. In fact, it is the air
+enclosed in the cell cavities that ordinarily keeps wood afloat, just
+as it does a corked empty bottle, altho glass is heavier than water.
+A longitudinal shaving of pine will float longer than a cross shaving
+for the simple reason that it takes longer for the water to penetrate
+the cells, and a good sized white pine log would be years in getting
+water-soaked enough to sink. As long as a majority of the cells are
+filled with air it would float.
+
+In any given piece of wood, then, the weight is determined by
+two factors, the amount of wood substance and the amount of water
+contained therein. The amount of wood substance is constant, but the
+amount of water contained is variable, and hence the weight varies
+accordingly. Moreover, considering the wood substance alone, the
+weight of wood substance of different kinds of wood is about the same;
+namely, 1.6 times as heavy as water, whether it is oak or pine, ebony
+or poplar. The reason why a given bulk of some woods is lighter than
+an equal bulk of others, is because there are more thin-walled and
+air-filled cells in the light woods. Many hard woods, as lignum vitae,
+are so heavy that they will not float at all. This is because the wall
+of the wood cells is very thick, and the lumina are small.
+
+In order, then, to find out the comparative weights of different
+woods, that is, to see how much wood substance there is in a given
+volume of any wood, it is necessary to test absolutely dry specimens.
+
+The weight of wood is indicated either as the weight per cubic foot or
+as specific gravity.
+
+It is an interesting fact that different parts of the same tree have
+different weights, the wood at the base of the tree weighing more than
+that higher up, and the wood midway between the pith and bark weighing
+more than either the center or the outside.[4]
+
+The weight of wood has a very important bearing upon its use. A
+mallet-head, for example, needs weight in a small volume, but it
+must also be tough to resist shocks, and elastic so as to impart its
+momentum gradually and not all at once, as an iron head does.
+
+Weight is important, too, in objects of wood that are movable. The
+lighter the wood the better, if it is strong enough. That is why
+spruce is valuable for ladders; it is both light and strong. Chestnut
+would be a valuable wood for furniture if it were not weak, especially
+in the spring wood.
+
+The weight of wood is one measure of its strength. Heavy wood is
+stronger than light wood of the same kind, for the simple reason that
+weight and strength are dependent upon the number and compactness of
+the fibers.[5]
+
+
+THE STRENGTH OF WOOD.
+
+Strength is a factor of prime importance in wood. By strength is meant
+the ability to resist stresses, either of tension (pulling), or
+of compression (pushing), or both together, cross stresses. When a
+horizontal timber is subjected to a downward cross stress, the lower
+half is under tension, the upper half is under compression and the
+line between is called the neutral axis, Fig. 42.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 42. A Timber Under Cross Stress, Showing Neutral
+Axis, and the Lines of Tension and Compression. A knot occurring in
+such a timber should be in the upper half, as at A.]
+
+Wood is much stronger than is commonly supposed. A hickory bar will
+stand more strain under tension than a wrought iron bar of the same
+length and weight, and a block of long-leaf pine a greater compression
+endwise than a block of wrought iron of the same height and weight. It
+approaches the strength of cast iron under the same conditions.
+
+Strength depends on two factors: the strength of the individual
+fibers, and the adhesive power of the fibers to each other. So, when
+a piece of wood is pulled apart, some of the fibers break and some are
+pulled out from among their neighbors. Under compression, however,
+the fibers seem to act quite independently of each other, each bending
+over like the strands of a rope when the ends are pushed together. As
+a consequence, we find that wood is far stronger under tension than
+under compression, varying from two to four times.
+
+Woods do not vary nearly so much under compression as under tension,
+the straight-grained conifers, like larch and longleaf pine, being
+nearly as strong under compression as the hard woods, like hickory and
+elm, which have entangled fibers, whereas the hard woods are nearly
+twice as strong as the conifers under tension.
+
+Moisture has more effect on the strength of wood than any other
+extrinsic condition. In sound wood under ordinary conditions, it
+outweighs all other causes which affect strength. When thoroly
+seasoned, wood is two or three times stronger, both under compression
+and in bending, than when green or water soaked.[6]
+
+The tension or pulling strength of wood is much affected by the
+direction of the grain, a cross-grained piece being only 1/10th to
+1/20th as strong as a straight-grained piece. But under compression
+there is not much difference; so that if a timber is to be subjected
+to cross strain, that is the lower half under tension and the upper
+half under compression, a knot or other cross-grained portion should
+be in the upper half.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 43. Shearing Strength is Measured by the Adhesion
+of the Portion A, B, C, D or to the Wood on both sides of it.]
+
+Strength also includes the ability to resist shear. This is called
+"_shearing strength_." It is a measure of the adhesion of one part of
+the wood to an adjoining part. Shearing is what takes place when the
+portion of wood beyond a mortise near the end of a timber, A B C D,
+Fig. 43, is forced out by the tenon. In this case it would be shearing
+along the grain, sometimes called detrusion. The resistance of the
+portion A B C D, _i.e._, its power of adhesion to the wood adjacent
+to it on both sides, is its shearing strength. If the mortised piece
+were forced downward until it broke off the tenon at the shoulder,
+that would be shearing across the grain. The shearing resistance
+either with or across the grain is small compared with tension and
+compression. Green wood shears much more easily than dry, because
+moisture softens the wood and this reduces the adhesion of the fibers
+to each other.[7]
+
+
+CLEAVABILITY OF WOOD.
+
+Closely connected with shearing strength is cohesion, a property
+usually considered under the name of its opposite, cleavability,
+_i.e._, the ease of splitting.
+
+When an ax is stuck into the end of a piece of wood, the wood splits
+in advance of the ax edge. See _Handwork in Wood_, Fig. 59, p. 52. The
+wood is not cut but pulled across the grain just as truly as if one
+edge were held and a weight were attached to the other edge and it
+were torn apart by tension. The length of the cleft ahead of the blade
+is determined by the elasticity of the wood. The longer the cleft, the
+easier to split. Elasticity helps splitting, and shearing strength and
+hardness hinder it.
+
+A normal piece of wood splits easily along two surfaces, (1) along any
+radial plane, principally because of the presence of the pith rays,
+and, in regular grained wood like pine, because the cells are radially
+regular; and (2) along the annual rings, because the spring-wood
+separates easily from the next ring of summer-wood. Of the two, radial
+cleavage is 50 to 100 per cent. easier. Straight-grained wood is
+much easier to split than cross-grained wood in which the fibers are
+interlaced, and soft wood, provided it is elastic, splits easier than
+hard. Woods with sharp contrast between spring and summer wood, like
+yellow pine and chestnut, split very easily tangentially.
+
+All these facts are important in relation to the use of nails. For
+instance, the reason why yellow pine is hard to nail and bass easy is
+because of their difference in cleavability.
+
+
+ELASTICITY OF WOOD.
+
+Elasticity is the ability of a substance when forced out of
+shape,--bent, twisted, compressed or stretched, to regain its former
+shape. When the elasticity of wood is spoken of, its ability to spring
+back from bending is usually meant. The opposite of elasticity is
+brittleness. Hickory is elastic, white pine is brittle.
+
+Stiffness is the ability to resist bending, and hence is the opposite
+of pliability or flexibility. A wood may be both stiff and elastic; it
+may be even stiff and pliable, as ash, which may be made into splints
+for baskets and may also be used for oars. Willow sprouts are flexible
+when green, but quite brittle when dry.
+
+Elasticity is of great importance in some uses of wood, as in long
+tool handles used in agricultural implements, such as rakes, hoes,
+scythes, and in axes, in archery bows, in golf sticks, etc., in all of
+which, hickory, our most elastic wood, is used.[8]
+
+
+HARDNESS OF WOOD.
+
+Hardness is the ability of wood to resist indentations, and depends
+primarily upon the thickness of the cell walls and the smallness
+of the cell cavities, or, in general, upon the density of the wood
+structure. Summer wood, as we have seen, is much harder than spring
+wood, hence it is important in using such wood as yellow pine on
+floors to use comb-grain boards, so as to present the softer spring
+wood in as narrow surfaces as possible. See _Handwork in Wood_, p. 41,
+and Fig. 55. In slash-grain boards, broad surfaces of both spring
+and summer wood appear. Maple which is uniformly hard makes the best
+floors, even better than oak, parts of which are comparatively soft.
+
+The hardness of wood is of much consequence in gluing pieces together.
+Soft woods, like pine, can be glued easily, because the fibers can
+be forced close together. As a matter of fact, the joint when dry is
+stronger than the rest of the board. In gluing hard woods, however, it
+is necessary to scratch the surfaces to be glued in order to insure a
+strong joint. It is for the same reason that a joint made with liquid
+glue is safe on soft wood when it would be weak on hard wood.[9]
+
+
+TOUGHNESS OF WOOD.
+
+Toughness may be defined as the ability to resist sudden shocks and
+blows. This requires a combination of various qualities, strength,
+hardness, elasticity and pliability. The tough woods, _par
+excellence_, are hickory, rock elm and ash. They can be pounded,
+pulled, compressed and sheared. It is because of this quality that
+hickory is used for wheel spokes and for handles, elm for hubs, etc.
+
+In the selection of wood for particular purposes, it is sometimes one,
+sometimes another, and more often still, a combination of qualities
+that makes it fit for use.[10]
+
+It will be remembered that it was knowledge of the special values
+of different woods that made "the one horse shay," "The Deacon's
+Masterpiece."
+
+  "So the Deacon inquired of the village folk
+  Where he could find the strongest oak,
+  That couldn't be split nor bent nor broke,--
+  That was for spokes and floor and sills;
+  He sent for lancewood to make the thills;
+  The cross bars were ash, from the straightest trees,
+  The panels of whitewood, that cuts like cheese,
+  But lasts like iron for things like these.
+  The hubs of logs from the "Settler's Ellum,"--
+  Last of its timber,--they couldn't sell 'em.
+  Never an ax had seen their chips,
+  And the wedges flew from between their lips,
+  Their blunt ends frizzled like celery tips;
+  Step and prop-iron, bolt and screw,
+  Spring, tire, axle and linch pin too,
+  Steel of the finest, bright and blue;
+  Thorough brace, bison skin, thick and wide;
+  Boot, top dasher from tough old hide,
+  Found in the pit when the tanner died.
+  That was the way to "put her through."
+  'There!' said the Deacon, 'naow she'll dew!'"
+
+    [Footnote 1: Hygroscopicity, "the property possessed by
+    vegetable tissues of absorbing or discharging moisture and
+    expanding or shrinking accordingly."--_Century Dictionary._]
+
+    [Footnote 2: This is shown by the following table, from
+    Forestry Bulletin No. 10, p. 31, _Timber_, by Filibert Roth:
+
+    POUNDS OF WATER LOST IN DRYING 100 POUNDS OF GREEN WOOD IN THE KILN.
+
+                                                Sap-wood or  Heart-wood
+                                                outer part.  or interior.
+
+    1. Pines, cedars, spruces, and firs             45-65        16-25
+    2. Cypress, extremely variable                  50-65        18-60
+    3. Poplar, cottonwood, basswood                 60-65        40-60
+    4. Oak, beech, ash, elm, maple, birch, hickory,
+         chestnut, walnut, and sycamore             40-50        30-40
+    ]
+
+    [Footnote 3: The following table from Roth, p. 37, gives the
+    approximate shrinkage of a board, or set of boards, 100 inches
+    wide, drying in the open air:
+
+                                                          Shrinkage
+                                                           Inches.
+    1. All light conifers (soft pine, spruce, cedar, cypress)  3
+
+    2. Heavy conifers (hard pine, tamarack, yew, honey locust,
+    box elder, wood of old oaks)                               4
+
+    3. Ash, elm, walnut, poplar, maple, beech, sycamore,
+    cherry, black locust                                       5
+
+    4. Basswood, birch, chestnut, horse chestnut, blue beech,
+    young locust                                               6
+
+    5. Hickory, young oak, especially red oak           Up to 10
+
+    The figures are the average of radial and tangential
+    shrinkages.]
+
+    [Footnote 4: How much different woods vary may be seen by the
+    following table, taken from Filibert Roth, _Timber_, Forest
+    Service Bulletin No. 10, p. 28:
+
+    WEIGHT OF KILN-DRIED WOOD OF DIFFERENT SPECIES.
+
+------------------------------------+---------------------------------
+                                    |       Approximate.
+                                    +-----------+---------------------
+                                    |           |    Weight of
+                                    |           +---------+-----------
+                                    | Specific  | 1 cubic | 1,000 feet
+                                    |  weight.  |  foot.  | of lumber.
+------------------------------------+-----------+---------+-----------
+                                    |           |  Pounds |  Pounds
+(a) Very heavy woods:               |           |         |
+     Hickory, oak, persimmon,       |           |         |
+       osage, orange, black         |           |         |
+       locust, hackberry, blue      |           |         |
+       beech, best of elm, and ash  | 0.70-0.80 |  42-48  |  3,700
+(b) Heavy woods:                    |           |         |
+     Ash, elm, cherry, birch,       |           |         |
+       maple, beech, walnut, sour   |           |         |
+       gum, coffee tree, honey      |           |         |
+       locust, best of southern     |           |         |
+       pine, and tamarack           |  .60-.70  |  36-42  |  3,200
+(c) Woods of medium weight:         |           |         |
+     Southern pine, pitch pine,     |           |         |
+       tamarack, Douglas spruce,    |           |         |
+       western hemlock, sweet gum,  |           |         |
+       soft maple, sycamore, light  |           |         |
+       sassafras, mulberry,         |           |         |
+       grades of birch and cherry   |  .50-.60  |  30-36  |  2,700
+(d) Light woods:                    |           |         |
+     Norway and bull pine, red      |           |         |
+       cedar, cypress, hemlock,     |           |         |
+       the heavier spruce and fir,  |           |         |
+       redwood, basswood, chestnut, |           |         |
+       butternut, tulip, catalpa,   |           |         |
+       buckeye, heavier grades of   |           |         |
+       poplar                       |  .40-.50  |  24-30  |  2,200
+(e) Very light woods:               |           |         |
+     White pine, spruce, fir, white |           |         |
+       cedar, poplar                |  .30-.40  |  18-24  |  1,800
+------------------------------------+-----------+---------+-----------
+
+    ]
+
+    [Footnote 5: For table of weights of different woods see
+    Sargent, _Jesup Collection,_ pp. 153-157.]
+
+    [Footnote 6: See Forestry Bulletin No. 70, pp. 11, 12, and
+    Forestry Circular No. 108.]
+
+    [Footnote 7: For table of strengths of different woods, see
+    Sargent, _Jesup Collection_, pp. 166 ff.]
+
+    [Footnote 8: For table of elasticity of different woods, see
+    Sargent, _Jesup Collection_, pp. 163 ff.]
+
+    [Footnote 9: For table of hardnesses of different woods, see
+    Sargent, _Jesup Collection_, pp. 173 ff.]
+
+    [Footnote 10: For detailed characteristics of different woods
+    see Chapter III.]
+
+
+THE PROPERTIES OF WOOD.
+
+REFERENCES[A]
+
+Moisture and Shrinkage.
+
+  Roth, _For. Bull._, No. 10, pp. 25-37.
+  Busbridge, _Sci. Am. Sup._ No. 1500. Oct. 1, '04.
+
+Weight, Strength, Cleavability, Elasticity and Toughness.
+
+  Roth, _For. Bull._, 10, p. 37-50.
+  Boulger, pp. 89-108, 129-140.
+  Roth, _First Book_, pp. 229-233.
+  Sargent, _Jesup Collection_, pp. 153-176.
+
+Forest Circulars Nos. 108 and 139.
+
+    [Footnote A: For general bibliography, see p. 4.]
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER III.
+
+THE PRINCIPAL SPECIES OF AMERICAN WOODS.
+
+NOTES.
+
+
+The photographs of tangential and radial sections are life size.
+The microphotographs are of cross-sections and are enlarged 37-1/2
+diameters.
+
+Following the precedent of U. S. Forest Bulletin No. 17, Sudworth's
+_Check List of the Forest Trees of the United States_, the complicated
+rules for the capitalization of the names of species are abandoned and
+they are uniformly not capitalized.
+
+On pages 192-195 will be found lists of the woods described, arranged
+in the order of their comparative weight, strength, elasticity, and
+hardness. These lists are based upon the figures in Sargent's _The
+Jesup Collection_.
+
+In the appendix, p. 289, will be found a key for distinguishing the
+various kinds of wood.
+
+Information as to current wholesale prices in the principal markets of
+the country can be had from the U. S. Dept. of Agriculture, The Forest
+Service, Washington, D. C., _Record of Wholesale Prices of Lumber,
+List A._ These lists are published periodically. No attempt is made in
+this book to give prices because: (1) only lists of wholesale prices
+are available; (2) the cuts and grades differ considerably, especially
+in soft woods (conifers); (3) prices are constantly varying; (4) the
+prices differ much in different localities.
+
+
+1
+
+WHITE PINE, WEYMOUTH PINE.
+
+    Named for Lord Weymouth, who cultivated it in England.
+
+_Pinus strobus_ Linnaeus.
+
+    _Pinus_, the classical Latin name; _strobus_ refers to the
+    cone, or strobile, from a Greek word, _strobus_, meaning
+    twist.
+
+
+[Illustration: Habitat.]
+
+HABITAT: (See map); now best in Michigan, Wisconsin and Minnesota.
+
+CHARACTERISTICS OF THE TREE: Height, 100'-120', even 200'; diameter,
+2'-4'; branches in whorls, cleans poorly; bark, dark gray, divided by
+deep longitudinal fissures into broad ridges; leaves in clusters of 5,
+3"-5" long; cone drooping, 4"-10" long.
+
+APPEARANCE OF WOOD: Color, heart-wood, very light brown, almost cream
+color, sap-wood, nearly white; non-porous; rings, fine but distinct;
+grain, straight; pith rays, very faint; resin ducts, small,
+inconspicuous.
+
+[Illustration: Leaf.]
+
+PHYSICAL QUALITIES: Weight, very light (59th in this list); 27 lbs.
+per cu. ft.; sp. gr. 0.3854; strength, medium (55th in this list);
+elasticity, medium (47th in this list); soft (57th in this list);
+shrinkage 3 per cent.; warps very little; durability, moderate; works
+easily in every way; splits easily but nails well.
+
+COMMON USES: Doors, window sashes and other carpentry, pattern-making,
+cabinet-work, matches.
+
+REMARKS: This best of American woods is now rapidly becoming scarce
+and higher in price. Its uses are due to its uniform grain, on account
+of which it is easily worked and stands well. Known in the English
+market as yellow pine.
+
+[Illustration: Radial Section, life size.]
+
+[Illustration: Cross-section, magnified 37-1/2 diameters.]
+
+[Illustration: Tangential Section, life size.]
+
+
+2
+
+WESTERN WHITE PINE.
+
+_Pinus monticola_ Douglas.
+
+    _Pinus_, the classical Latin name; _monticola_ means
+    mountain-dweller.
+
+[Illustration: Habitat.]
+
+HABITAT: (See map); grows at great elevations, 7,000'-10,000'. Best in
+northern Idaho.
+
+[Illustration: Leaf.]
+
+CHARACTERISTICS OF THE TREE: Height, 100'-160'; diameter, 4' to even
+8'; branches, slender, spreading; bark, gray and brown, divided into
+squarish plates by deep longitudinal and cross fissures; leaves, 5 in
+sheath; cones, 12"x18" long.
+
+APPEARANCE OF WOOD: Color, light brown or red, sap-wood nearly white;
+non-porous; rings, summer wood, thin and not conspicuous; grain,
+straight; rays, numerous, obscure; resin ducts, numerous and
+conspicuous tho not large.
+
+PHYSICAL QUALITIES: Weight, very light (58th in this list); 24 lbs.
+per cu. ft.; sp. gr. 0.3908; strength, medium (56th in this list);
+elastic (35th in this list); soft (63d in this list); shrinkage, 3 per
+cent.; warps little; moderately durable; easy to work; splits readily
+but nails well.
+
+COMMON USES: Lumber for construction and interior finish.
+
+REMARKS: Closely resembles _Pinus Strobus_ in appearance and quality
+of wood.
+
+[Illustration: Radial Section, life size.]
+
+[Illustration: Cross-section, magnified 37-1/2 diameters.]
+
+[Illustration: Tangential Section, life size.]
+
+
+3
+
+SUGAR PINE.
+
+    Sugar refers to sweetish exudation.
+
+_Pinus lambertiana_ Douglas.
+
+    _Pinus_, the classical Latin name; _lambertiana_, from the
+    botanist, A. B. Lambert, whose chief work was on Pines.
+
+[Illustration: Habitat.]
+
+HABITAT: (See map); grows on high elevations (5,000'), best in
+northern California.
+
+[Illustration: Leaf.]
+
+CHARACTERISTICS OF THE TREE: Height, 100'-300'; diameter, 15"-20";
+branches, in remote regular whorls; bark, rich purple or brown, thick,
+deep irregular fissures making long, flaky ridges; leaves, stout,
+rigid, in bundles of five; cones, 10"-18" long.
+
+APPEARANCE OF WOOD: Color, pinkish brown, sap-wood, cream white;
+non-porous; rings, distinct; grain, straight; rays, numerous, obscure;
+resin ducts, numerous, large and conspicuous.
+
+PHYSICAL QUALITIES: Weight, very light (61st in this list); 22 lbs.
+per cu. ft.; sp. gr. 0.3684; strength, weak (59th in this list);
+elasticity, medium (56th in this list); soft (53d in this list);
+shrinkage, 3 per cent.; warps little; durable; easily worked; splits
+little, nails well.
+
+COMMON USES: Carpentry, interior finish, doors, blinds, shingles,
+barrels, etc.
+
+REMARKS: Exudes a sweet substance from heart-wood. A magnificent and
+important lumber tree on Pacific coast.
+
+[Illustration: Radial Section, life size.]
+
+[Illustration: Cross-section, magnified 37-1/2 diameters.]
+
+[Illustration: Tangential Section, life size.]
+
+
+4
+
+NORWAY PINE. RED PINE.
+
+    Red refers to color of bark.
+
+_Pinus resinosa_ Solander.
+
+    _Pinus_, the classical Latin name; _resinosa_ refers to very
+    resinous wood.
+
+[Illustration: Habitat.]
+
+HABITAT: (See map); grows best in northern Michigan, Wisconsin, and
+Minnesota.
+
+[Illustration: Leaf.]
+
+CHARACTERISTICS OF THE TREE: Height, 70'-90'; diameter, 2'-3'; tall,
+straight; branches in whorls, low; bark, thin, scaly, purplish and
+reddish-brown; longitudinal furrows, broad flat ridges; leaves, in
+twos in long sheaths; cones, 2".
+
+APPEARANCE OF WOOD: Color of wood, pale red, sap-wood, wide, whitish;
+non-porous; rings summer wood broad, dark; grain, straight; rays,
+numerous, pronounced, thin; very resinous, but ducts small and few.
+
+PHYSICAL QUALITIES: Weight, light, (43d in this list); 31 lbs. per cu.
+ft.; sp. gr. 0.4854; strong (39th in this list); elastic (16th in
+this list); soft (48th in this list); shrinkage, 3 per cent.; warps
+moderately; not durable; easy to work; splits readily, nails well.
+
+COMMON USES: Piles, electric wire poles, masts, flooring.
+
+REMARKS: Often sold with and as white pine. Resembles Scotch pine
+(_Pinus sylvestris_). Bark used to some extent for tanning. Grows in
+open groves.
+
+[Illustration: Radial Section, life size.]
+
+[Illustration: Cross-section, magnified 37-1/2 diameters.]
+
+[Illustration: Tangential Section, life size.]
+
+
+5
+
+WESTERN YELLOW PINE. BULL PINE.
+
+    Bull refers to great size of trunk.
+
+_Pinus ponderosa_ Lawson.
+
+    _Pinus_, the classical Latin name; _ponderosa_ refers to great
+    size of trunk.
+
+[Illustration: Habitat.]
+
+HABITAT: (See map); best in Rocky Mountains.
+
+[Illustration: Leaf.]
+
+CHARACTERISTICS OF THE TREE: Height, 100' to 300'; diameter, 6' to
+even 12'; branches, low, short trunk; bark, thick, dark brown, deep,
+meandering furrows, large, irregular plates, scaly; leaves, in twos or
+threes, 5" to 11" long; cones 3" to 6" long.
+
+APPEARANCE OF WOOD: Color, light red, sap-wood, thick, nearly white,
+and very distinct; non-porous; rings, conspicuous; grain, straight;
+rays, numerous, obscure; very resinous but ducts small.
+
+PHYSICAL QUALITIES: Weight, light (44th in this list); 25-30 lbs.
+per cu. ft.; sp. gr. 0.4715; strength, medium (45th in this list);
+elasticity, medium (41st in this list); hardness, medium (42nd in this
+list); shrinkage, 4 per cent.; warps ...........; not durable; hard to
+work, brittle; splits easily in nailing.
+
+COMMON USES: Lumber, railway ties, mine timbers.
+
+REMARKS: Forms extensive open forests.
+
+[Illustration: Radial Section, life size.]
+
+[Illustration: Cross-section, magnified 37-1/2 diameters.]
+
+[Illustration: Tangential Section, life size.]
+
+
+6
+
+LONG-LEAF PINE. GEORGIA PINE.
+
+_Pinus palustris_ Miller.
+
+    _Pinus_, the classical Latin name; _palustris_ means swampy,
+    inappropriate here.
+
+[Illustration: Habitat.]
+
+HABITAT: (See map); best in Louisiana and East Texas.
+
+[Illustration: Leaf.]
+
+CHARACTERISTICS OF THE TREE: Height, 80'-100'; diameter, 2'-3';
+trunk, straight, clean, branches high; bark, light brown, large, thin,
+irregular papery scales; leaves 8"-12" long, 3 in a sheath; cones
+6"-10" long.
+
+APPEARANCE OF WOOD: Heart-wood, spring wood light yellow, summer
+wood, red brown; sap wood, lighter; non-porous; rings, very plain and
+strongly marked; grain, straight; rays, numerous, conspicuous; very
+resinous, but resin ducts few and not large.
+
+PHYSICAL QUALITIES: Heavy (18th in this list); 38 lbs. per cu. ft.;
+sp. gr. 0.6999; very strong (7th in this list); very elastic (4th
+in this list); hardness, medium (33d in this list); shrinkage, 4 per
+cent.; warps very little; quite durable; works hard, tough; splits
+badly in nailing.
+
+COMMON USES: Joists, beams, bridge and building trusses, interior
+finish, ship building, and general construction work.
+
+REMARKS: Almost exclusively the source of turpentine, tar, pitch and
+resin in the United States. Known in the English market as pitch pine.
+
+[Illustration: Radial Section, life size.]
+
+[Illustration: Cross-section, magnified 37-1/2 diameters.]
+
+[Illustration: Tangential Section, life size.]
+
+
+7
+
+SHORT-LEAF PINE. YELLOW PINE.
+
+_Pinus echinata_ Miller.
+
+    _Pinus_, the classical Latin name; _echinata_ refers to spiny
+    cones.
+
+[Illustration: Habitat.]
+
+HABITAT: (See map); best in lower Mississippi basin.
+
+[Illustration: Leaf.]
+
+CHARACTERISTICS OF THE TREE: Straight, tall trunk, sometimes 100'
+high; branches high; diameter 2'-4'; bark, pale grayish red-brown,
+fissures, running helter-skelter, making large irregular plates,
+covered with small scales; leaves in twos, 3" long; cones small.
+
+APPEARANCE OF WOOD: Color, heartwood, summer wood, red, spring-wood,
+yellow; sap-wood, lighter; non-porous; annual rings very plain, sharp
+contrast between spring and summer wood; grain, straight, coarse;
+rays, numerous, conspicuous; very resinous, ducts large and many.
+
+PHYSICAL QUALITIES: Weight, medium (32nd in this list); 32 lbs.
+per cu. ft.; sp. gr., 0.6104; very strong (18th in this list); very
+elastic (8th in this list); soft (38th in this list); shrinkage, 4
+per cent.; warps little; durable; troublesome to work; likely to split
+along annual rings in nailing.
+
+COMMON USES: Heavy construction, railroad ties, house trim, ship
+building, cars, docks, bridges.
+
+REMARKS: Wood hardly distinguishable from long-leaf pine. Often forms
+pure forests. The most desirable yellow pine, much less resinous and
+more easily worked than others.
+
+[Illustration: Radial Section, life size.]
+
+[Illustration: Cross-section, magnified 37-1/2 diameters.]
+
+[Illustration: Tangential Section, life size.]
+
+
+8
+
+LOBLOLLY PINE. OLD FIELD PINE.
+
+    _Loblolly_ may refer to the inferiority of the wood; old field
+    refers to habit of spontaneous growth on old fields.
+
+_Pinus taeda_ Linnaeus.
+
+    _Pinus_, the classical Latin name; _taeda_, the classical
+    Latin name for pitch-pine, which was used for torches.
+
+[Illustration: Habitat.]
+
+HABITAT: (See map); grows best in eastern Virginia, and eastern North
+Carolina.
+
+[Illustration: Leaf.]
+
+CHARACTERISTICS OF THE TREE: Height, 100'-150'; diameter, often 4'-5';
+branches high; bark, purplish brown, shallow, meandering fissures,
+broad, flat, scaly ridges; leaves, 3 in sheath, 4"-7" long; cones
+3"-5" long.
+
+APPEARANCE OF WOOD: Color, heart-wood orange, sap-wood lighter;
+non-porous; rings very plain, sharp contrast between spring wood and
+summer wood; grain, straight, coarse; rays conspicuous; very resinous,
+but ducts few and small.
+
+PHYSICAL QUALITIES: Weight, medium (39th in this list); 33 lbs. per
+cu. ft.; sp. gr. 0.5441; strong (26th in this list); elastic (17th
+in this list); medium hard (43d in this list); shrinkage, 4 per cent.;
+warps little; not durable; difficult to work, brittle; splits along
+rings in nailing.
+
+COMMON USES: Heavy construction, beams, ship building, docks, bridges,
+flooring, house trim.
+
+REMARKS: Resembles Long-leaf Pine, and often sold as such. Rarely
+makes pure forests.
+
+[Illustration: Radial Section, life size.]
+
+[Illustration: Cross-section, magnified 37-1/2 diameters.]
+
+[Illustration: Tangential Section, life size.]
+
+
+9
+
+SLASH PINE. CUBAN PINE.
+
+_Pinus caribaea_ Morelet. _Pinus heterophylla_ (Ell.) Sudworth.
+
+    _Pinus_, the classical Latin name; _caribaea_ refers to the
+    Caribbean Islands; _heterophylla_ refers to two kinds of
+    leaves.
+
+[Illustration: Habitat.]
+
+HABITAT: (See map); grows best in Alabama, Mississippi, and Louisiana.
+
+[Illustration: Leaf.]
+
+CHARACTERISTICS OF THE TREE: Height, sometimes 110', straight, tall,
+branching high; diameter 1'-3'; bark, dark red and brown, shallow
+irregular fissures; leaves, 2 or 3 in a sheath, 8"-12" long; cones,
+4"-5" long.
+
+APPEARANCE OF WOOD: Color, dark orange, sapwood lighter; non-porous;
+annual rings, plain, sharp contrast between spring wood and summer
+wood; grain, straight; rays numerous, rather prominent; very resinous,
+but ducts few.
+
+PHYSICAL QUALITIES: Heavy (7th in this list); 39 lbs. per cu. ft.; sp.
+gr. 0.7504; very strong (6th in this list); very elastic (3d in this
+list); hard (24th in this list); shrinkage, 4 per cent.; warps little;
+quite durable; troublesome to work; splits along annual rings in
+nailing.
+
+COMMON USES: Heavy construction, ship building, railroad ties, docks,
+bridges, house trim.
+
+REMARKS: Similar to and often sold as Long-leaf Pine.
+
+[Illustration: Radial Section, life size.]
+
+[Illustration: Cross-section, magnified 37-1/2 diameters.]
+
+[Illustration: Tangential Section, life size.]
+
+
+10
+
+TAMARACK. LARCH. HACKMATACK.
+
+_Larix laricina_ (Du Roi) Koch. _Larix americana_ Michaux.
+
+    _Larix_, the classical Latin name.
+
+[Illustration: Habitat.]
+
+HABITAT: (See map); prefers swamps, "Tamarack swamps."
+
+[Illustration: Leaf.]
+
+CHARACTERISTICS OF THE TREE: Height, 50'-60' and even 90', diameter
+1'-3'; intolerant; tall, slender trunk; bark, cinnamon brown, no
+ridges, breaking into flakes; leaves, deciduous, pea-green, in tufts;
+cone, 1/2"-3/4", bright brown.
+
+APPEARANCE OF WOOD: Color, light brown, sapwood hardly
+distinguishable; non-porous; rings, summer wood, thin but distinct,
+dark colored; grain, straight, coarse; rays, numerous, hardly
+distinguishable; very resinous, but ducts few and small.
+
+PHYSICAL QUALITIES: Weight, medium (29th in this list); 39 lbs. per
+cu. ft.; sp. gr. 0.6236; strong (24th in this list); elastic (11th in
+this list); medium hard (40th in this list); shrinkage, 3 per cent.;
+warps .........; very durable; easy to work; splits easily.
+
+COMMON USES: Ship building, electric wire poles, and railroad ties;
+used for boat ribs because of its naturally crooked knees; slenderness
+prevents common use as lumber.
+
+REMARKS: Tree desolate looking in winter.
+
+[Illustration: Radial Section, life size.]
+
+[Illustration: Cross-section, magnified 37-1/2 diameters.]
+
+[Illustration: Tangential Section, life size.]
+
+
+11
+
+WESTERN LARCH. TAMARACK.
+
+_Larix occidentalis_ Nuttall.
+
+    _Larix_, the classical Latin name; _occidentalis_ means
+    western.
+
+[Illustration: Habitat.]
+
+HABITAT: (See map); best in northern Montana and Idaho, on high
+elevations.
+
+[Illustration: Leaf.]
+
+CHARACTERISTICS OF THE TREE: Height, 90'-130', even 250'; diameter
+6'-8'; tall, slender, naked trunk, with branches high; bark, cinnamon
+red or purplish, often 12" thick, breaking into irregular plates,
+often 2' long; leaves, in tufts; deciduous; cones small.
+
+APPEARANCE OF WOOD: Color, light red, thin, whitish, sap-wood;
+non-porous; grain, straight, fine; rays numerous, thin; very resinous,
+but ducts small and obscure.
+
+PHYSICAL QUALITIES: Weight, heavy (11th in this list); 46 lbs. per cu.
+ft.; sp. gr. 0.7407; very strong (3d in this list); very elastic (1st
+in this list); medium hard (35th in this list); shrinkage, 4 per
+cent.; warps ..........; very durable; rather hard to work, takes fine
+polish; splits with difficulty.
+
+COMMON USES: Posts, railroad ties, fencing, cabinet material and fuel.
+
+REMARKS: A valuable tree in the Northwest.
+
+[Illustration: Radial Section, life size.]
+
+[Illustration: Cross-section, magnified 37-1/2 diameters.]
+
+[Illustration: Tangential Section, life size.]
+
+
+12
+
+WHITE SPRUCE.
+
+_Picea canadensis_ (Miller) B. S. P. _Picea alba_ Link.
+
+    _Picea_, the classical Latin name; white and _alba_ refers to
+    the pale color of the leaves, especially when young, and to
+    the whitish bark.
+
+[Illustration: Habitat.]
+
+HABITAT: (See map).
+
+[Illustration: Leaf.]
+
+CHARACTERISTICS OF THE TREE: Height, 60'-100' and even 150'; diameter,
+1'-2' and even 4'; long, thick branches; bark, light grayish brown,
+separating into thin plate-like scales, rather smooth appearance,
+resin from cuts forms white gum; leaves, set thickly on all sides
+of branch, finer than red spruce, odor disagreeable; cones, 2" long,
+cylindrical, slender, fall during second summer.
+
+APPEARANCE OF WOOD: Color, light yellow, sap-wood, hardly
+distinguishable; non-porous; rings, wide, summer wood thin, not
+conspicuous; grain, straight; rays, numerous, prominent; resin ducts,
+few and minute.
+
+PHYSICAL QUALITIES: Weight, light (51st in this list); 25 lbs. per cu.
+ft.; sp. gr., 0.4051; medium strong (42d in this list); elastic
+(29th in this list); soft (58th in this list); shrinks 3 per cent.;
+warps ........; fairly durable; easy to work, satiny surface; splits
+readily.
+
+COMMON USES: Lumber and paper pulp; (not distinguished from Red and
+Black Spruce in market).
+
+REMARKS: Wood very resonant, hence used for sounding boards. The most
+important lumber tree of the sub-arctic forest of British Columbia.
+
+[Illustration: Radial Section, life size.]
+
+[Illustration: Cross-section, magnified 37-1/2 diameters.]
+
+[Illustration: Tangential Section, life size.]
+
+
+13
+
+RED SPRUCE.[A]
+
+_Picea rubens_ Sargent.
+
+    _Picea_, the classical Latin name for the pitch pine; _rubens_
+    refers to reddish bark, and perhaps to the reddish streaks in
+    the wood.
+
+[Illustration: Habitat.]
+
+HABITAT: (See map); stunted in north.
+
+[Illustration: Leaf.]
+
+CHARACTERISTICS OF THE TREE: Height, 70'-80', even 100'; diameter,
+2'-3', grows slowly; trunk, straight, columnar, branches in whorls,
+cleans well in forest; bark, reddish brown with thin irregular
+scales; leaves, needle-shaped, four-sided, pointing everywhere; cones,
+1-1/4"-2" long, pendent, fall during the first winter.
+
+APPEARANCE OF WOOD: Color, dull white with occasional reddish streaks;
+sap-wood not distinct; non-porous; rings, summer rings thin, but
+clearly defined; grain, straight; rays, faintly discernible; resin
+ducts, few and small.
+
+PHYSICAL QUALITIES: Weight, light (47th in this list); 28 lbs. per cu.
+ft.; sp. gr., 0.4584; medium strong (41st in this list); elastic (21st
+in this list); soft (54th in this list); shrinkage, 3 per cent.; warps
+little; not durable; easy to plane, tolerably easy to saw, hard to
+chisel neatly; splits easily in nailing.
+
+COMMON USES: Sounding boards, construction, paper pulp, ladders.
+
+REMARKS: The exudations from this species are used as chewing gum.
+Bark of twigs is used in the domestic manufacture of beer. The use of
+the wood for sounding boards is due to its resonance, and for ladders
+to its strength and lightness.
+
+[Illustration: Radial Section, life size.]
+
+[Illustration: Cross-section, magnified 37-1/2 diameters.]
+
+[Illustration: Tangential Section, life size.]
+
+    [Footnote A: Not distinguished in the Jesup collection from
+    _Picea nigra_.]
+
+
+14
+
+BLACK SPRUCE.[A]
+
+_Picea mariana_ (Miller) B. S. P. _Picea nigra_ Link.
+
+    _Picea_, the classical Latin name for the pitch pine;
+    _mariana_ named for Queen Mary; black and _nigra_ refer to
+    dark foliage.
+
+[Illustration: Habitat.]
+
+HABITAT: (See map); best in Canada.
+
+[Illustration: Leaf.]
+
+CHARACTERISTICS OF THE TREE: Height, 50'-80' and even 100'; diameter,
+6"-1' even 2'; branches, whorled, pendulous with upward curve; bark,
+gray, loosely attached flakes; leaves, pale blue-green, spirally set,
+pointing in all directions; cones, small, ovate-oblong, persistent for
+many years.
+
+APPEARANCE OF WOOD: Color, pale, reddish, sap-wood, thin, white,
+not very distinct; non-porous; rings, summer wood, small thin cells;
+grain, straight; rays, few, conspicuous; resin ducts, few and minute.
+
+PHYSICAL QUALITIES: Weight, light (47th in this list); 33 lbs. per cu.
+ft.; sp. gr., 0.4584; medium strong (41st in this list); elastic (21st
+in this list); soft (54th in this list); shrinkage, 3 per cent.; warps
+little; not durable; easy to work; splits easily in nailing.
+
+COMMON USES: Sounding boards, lumber in Manitoba.
+
+REMARKS: Not distinguished from Red Spruce commercially.
+
+[Illustration: Radial Section, life size.]
+
+[Illustration: Cross-section, magnified 37-1/2 diameters.]
+
+[Illustration: Tangential Section, life size.]
+
+    [Footnote A: Not distinguished in Jesup Collection from _Picea
+    rubens_.]
+
+
+15
+
+WHITE SPRUCE. ENGELMANN'S SPRUCE.
+
+_Picea engelmanni_ (Parry) Engelmann.
+
+    Named for George Engelmann, an American botanist.
+
+[Illustration: Habitat.]
+
+HABITAT: (See map); grows at very high elevations, forming forest at
+8,000'-10,000'; best in British Columbia.
+
+[Illustration: Leaf.]
+
+CHARACTERISTICS OF THE TREE: Height, 75'-100', even 150'; diameter,
+2'-3', even 5'; branches whorled, spreading; bark, deeply furrowed,
+red-brown to purplish brown, thin, large, loose scales; leaves,
+blue-green, point in all directions; cones, 2" long, oblong,
+cylindrical.
+
+APPEARANCE OF WOOD: Color, pale yellow or reddish, sap-wood hardly
+distinguishable; non-porous; rings, very fine, summer wood, narrow,
+not conspicuous; grain, straight, close; rays, numerous, conspicuous;
+resin ducts, small and few.
+
+PHYSICAL QUALITIES: Weight, very light (57th in this list); 22 lbs.
+per cu. ft.; sp. gr. 0.3449; weak (61st in this list); elasticity
+medium (55th in this list); soft (56th in this list); shrinkage, 3 per
+cent.; warps .........; durable; easy to work; splits easily.
+
+COMMON USES: Lumber.
+
+REMARKS: A valuable lumber tree in the Rocky Mountains and the
+Cascades. Bark used for tanning.
+
+[Illustration: Radial Section, life size.]
+
+[Illustration: Cross-section, magnified 37-1/2 diameters].
+
+[Illustration: Tangential Section, life size.]
+
+
+16
+
+TIDELAND SPRUCE. SITKA SPRUCE.
+
+_Picea sitchensis_ (Bongard) Carriere.
+
+    _Picea_, the classical Latin name for the pitch pine.
+    Tideland refers to its habit of growth along the sea coast;
+    _sitchensis_, named for Sitka.
+
+[Illustration: Habitat.]
+
+HABITAT: (See map); best on Pacific slope of British Columbia and
+northwestern United States.
+
+[Illustration: Leaf.]
+
+CHARACTERISTICS OF THE TREE: Height, 100'-150' and even 200' high;
+diameter 3'-4' and even 15'; trunk base enlarged; bark, thick,
+red-brown, scaly; leaves, standing out in all directions; cones,
+2-1/2"-4" long, pendent, cylindrical, oval.
+
+APPEARANCE OF WOOD: Color, light brown, sap-wood whitish; non-porous;
+rings, wide, summer wood, thin but very distinct, spring wood, not
+plain; grain, straight, coarse; rays, numerous, rather prominent;
+resin ducts, few and small.
+
+PHYSICAL QUALITIES: Weight, light (52d in this list); 27 lbs. per cu.
+ft.; sp. gr. 0.4287; medium strong (53d in this list); elastic (31st
+in this list); soft (59th in this list); shrinkage, 3 per cent.;
+warps ...........; durable; easy to work; splits easily.
+
+COMMON USES: Interior finish, boat building and cooperage.
+
+REMARKS: Largest of the spruces. Common in the coast belt forest.
+
+[Illustration: Radial Section, life size.]
+
+[Illustration: Cross-section, magnified 37-1/2 diameters.]
+
+[Illustration: Tangential Section, life size.]
+
+
+17
+
+HEMLOCK.
+
+_Tsuga canadensis_ (Linnaeus) Carriere.
+
+    _Tsuga_, the Japanese name latinized; _canadensis_ named for
+    Canada.
+
+[Illustration: Habitat.]
+
+HABITAT: (See map); best in North Carolina and Tennessee.
+
+[Illustration: Leaf.]
+
+CHARACTERISTICS OF THE TREE: Height, 60'-70', sometimes 100';
+diameter, 2'-3'; branches, persistent, making trunk not very clean;
+bark, red-gray, narrow, rounded ridges, deeply and irregularly
+fissured; leaves, spirally arranged, but appear two-ranked; cones,
+3/4" long, graceful.
+
+APPEARANCE OF WOOD: Color, reddish brown, sap-wood just
+distinguishable; non-porous; rings, rather broad, conspicuous; grain,
+crooked; rays, numerous, thin; non-resinous.
+
+PHYSICAL QUALITIES: Weight, light (53d in this list); 26 lbs. per cu.
+ft.; sp. gr. 0.4239; medium strong (44th in this list); elasticity,
+medium (40th in this list); soft (51st in this list); shrinkage, 3
+per cent.; warps and checks badly; not durable; difficult to work,
+splintery, brittle; splits easily, holds nails well.
+
+COMMON USES: Coarse, cheap lumber, as joists, rafters, plank walks and
+laths.
+
+REMARKS: The poorest lumber. Bark chief source of tanning material.
+
+[Illustration: Radial Section, life size.]
+
+[Illustration: Cross-section, magnified 37-1/2 diameters.]
+
+[Illustration: Tangential Section, life size.]
+
+
+18
+
+WESTERN HEMLOCK. BLACK HEMLOCK.
+
+_Tsuga heterophylla_ (Rafinesque) Sargent.
+
+    _Tsuga_, the Japanese name latinized; _heterophylla_ refers to
+    two kinds of leaves.
+
+[Illustration: Habitat.]
+
+HABITAT: (See map); best on coast of Washington and Oregon.
+
+[Illustration: Leaf.]
+
+CHARACTERISTICS OF THE TREE: Height, 150'-200'; diameter, 6'-10';
+branches, pendent, slender; bark, reddish gray, deep, longitudinal
+fissures between, broad, oblique, flat ridges; leaves, dark green,
+two-ranked; cones, small, like Eastern Hemlock.
+
+APPEARANCE OF WOOD: Color, pale brown, sap-wood thin, whitish;
+non-porous; rings, narrow, summer wood thin but distinct; grain,
+straight, close; rays, numerous, prominent; non-resinous.
+
+PHYSICAL QUALITIES: Light in weight, strong, elastic, hard;[A]
+shrinkage, 3 per cent.; warps ..........; durable, more so than other
+American hemlocks; easier to work than eastern variety; splits badly.
+
+COMMON USES: Lumber for construction.
+
+REMARKS: Coming to be recognized as a valuable lumber tree.
+
+[Illustration: Radial Section, life size.]
+
+[Illustration: Cross-section, magnified 37-1/2 diameters.]
+
+[Illustration: Tangential Section, life size.]
+
+    [Footnote A: Not in Jesup Collection.]
+
+
+19
+
+DOUGLAS SPRUCE. OREGON PINE. RED FIR. DOUGLAS FIR.
+
+_Pseudotsuga mucronata_ (Rafinesque) Sudworth.
+
+_Pseudotsuga taxifolia_ (Lambert) Britton.
+
+    _Pseudotsuga_ means false hemlock; _mucronata_ refers to
+    abrupt short point of leaf; _taxifolia_ means yew leaf.
+
+[Illustration: Habitat.]
+
+HABITAT: (See map); best in Puget Sound region.
+
+[Illustration: Leaf.]
+
+CHARACTERISTICS OF THE TREE: Height, 175'-300'; diameter, 3'-5',
+sometimes 10'; branches high, leaving clean trunk; bark, rough, gray,
+great broad-rounded ridges, often appears braided; leaves, radiating
+from stem; cones, 2"-4" long.
+
+APPEARANCE OF WOOD: Color, light red to yellow, sap-wood white;
+non-porous; rings, dark colored, conspicuous, very pronounced summer
+wood; grain, straight, coarse; rays, numerous, obscure; resinous.
+
+PHYSICAL QUALITIES: Weight, medium (41st in this list); 32 lbs. per
+cu. ft, sp. gr. 0.5157; strong (21st in this list); very elastic (10th
+in this list); medium hard (45th in this list); shrinkage, 3 per cent.
+or 4 per cent.;, warps ...............; durable; difficult to work,
+flinty, splits readily.
+
+COMMON USES: Heavy construction, masts, flag poles, piles, railway
+ties.
+
+REMARKS: One of the greatest and the most valuable of the western
+timber trees. Forms extensive forests.
+
+[Illustration: Radial Section, life size.]
+
+[Illustration: Cross-section, magnified 37-1/2 diameters.]
+
+[Illustration: Tangential Section, life size.]
+
+
+20
+
+GRAND FIR. WHITE FIR. LOWLAND FIR. SILVER FIR.
+
+_Abies grandis_ Lindley.
+
+    _Abies_, the classical Latin name.
+
+[Illustration: Habitat.]
+
+HABITAT: (See map); best in Puget Sound region.
+
+[Illustration: Leaf.]
+
+CHARACTERISTICS OF THE TREE: Height, in interior 100'; diameter, 2';
+on coast, 250'-300' high; diameter, 2'-5'; long pendulous branches;
+bark, quite gray or gray brown, shallow fissures, flat ridges; leaves,
+shiny green above, silvery below, 1-1/2"-2" long, roughly two-ranked;
+cones, cylindrical, 2"-4" long.
+
+APPEARANCE OF WOOD: Color, light brown, sap-wood lighter; non-porous;
+rings, summer cells broader than in other American species, dark
+colored, conspicuous; grain straight, coarse; rays, numerous, obscure;
+resinous.
+
+PHYSICAL QUALITIES: Very light (62d in this list); 22 lbs. per cu.
+ft.; sp. gr., 0.3545; weak (62d in this list); elastic (34th in this
+list); soft (65th in this list); shrinkage, 3 per cent.; warps little;
+not durable; works easily; splits readily.
+
+COMMON USES: Lumber and packing cases.
+
+REMARKS: No resin ducts. Not a very valuable wood.
+
+[Illustration: Radial Section, life size.]
+
+[Illustration: Cross-section, magnified 37-1/2 diameters.]
+
+[Illustration: Tangential Section, life size.]
+
+
+21
+
+BIG TREE. SEQUOIA. GIANT SEQUOIA.
+
+_Sequoia washingtoniana_ (Winslow) Sudworth. _Sequoia gigantea_,
+Decaisne.
+
+    _Sequoia_ latinized from Sequoiah, a Cherokee Indian;
+    _washingtoniana_, in honor of George Washington.
+
+[Illustration: Habitat.]
+
+HABITAT: (See map); in ten groves in southern California, at high
+elevation.
+
+[Illustration: Leaf.]
+
+CHARACTERISTICS OF THE TREE: Height, 275', sometimes 320'; diameter,
+20', sometimes 35'; trunk, swollen and often buttressed at base,
+ridged, often clear for 150'; thick horizontal branches; bark, 1'-2'
+thick, in great ridges, separates into loose, fibrous, cinnamon red
+scales, almost non-combustible; leaves, very small, growing close to
+stem; cones, 2"-3" long.
+
+APPEARANCE OF WOOD: Color, red, turning dark on exposure, sap-wood
+thin, whitish; non-porous; rings, very plain; grain straight, coarse;
+rays, numerous, thin; non-resinous.
+
+PHYSICAL QUALITIES: Light (65th in this list); 18 lbs. per cu. ft.;
+sp. gr., 0.2882; weak (63d in this list); brittle (62d in this
+list); very soft (61st in this list); shrinks little; warps little;
+remarkably durable; easy to work, splits readily, takes nails well.
+
+COMMON USES: Construction, lumber, coffins, shingles.
+
+REMARKS: Dimensions and age are unequalled; Big Tree and Redwood
+survivors of a prehistoric genus, once widely distributed. Some
+specimens 3600 years old.
+
+[Illustration: Radial Section, life size.]
+
+[Illustration: Cross-section, magnified 37-1/2 diameters.]
+
+[Illustration: Tangential Section, life size.]
+
+
+22
+
+REDWOOD. COAST REDWOOD. SEQUOIA.
+
+_Sequoia sempervirens_ (Lambert) Endlicher.
+
+    _Sequoia_, latinized from Sequoiah, a Cherokee Indian;
+    _sempervirens_ means ever living.
+
+[Illustration: Habitat.]
+
+HABITAT: (See map); best in southern Oregon and northern California,
+near coast.
+
+[Illustration: Leaf.]
+
+CHARACTERISTICS OF THE TREE: Height, 200'-340'; diameter, 10'-15',
+rarely 25'; clean trunk, much buttressed and swollen at base, somewhat
+fluted, branches very high; bark, very thick, 6"-12", rounded ridges,
+dark scales falling reveal inner red bark; leaves, small, two-ranked;
+cones, small, 1" long.
+
+APPEARANCE OF WOOD: Color, red, turning to brown on seasoning,
+sap-wood whitish; non-porous; rings, distinct; grain, straight; rays,
+numerous, very obscure; non-resinous.
+
+PHYSICAL QUALITIES: Light in weight (55th in this list); 26 lbs. per
+cu. ft.; sp. gr. 0.4208; weak (58th in this list); brittle (60th in
+this list); soft (55th in this list); shrinks little; warps little;
+very durable; easily worked; splits readily; takes nails well.
+
+COMMON USES: Shingles, construction, timber, fence posts, coffins,
+railway ties, water pipes, curly specimens used in cabinet work.
+
+REMARKS: Low branches rare. Burns with difficulty. Chief construction
+wood of Pacific Coast. Use determined largely by durability.
+
+[Illustration: Radial Section, life size.]
+
+[Illustration: Cross-section, magnified 37-1/2 diameters.]
+
+[Illustration: Tangential Section, life size.]
+
+
+23
+
+BALD CYPRESS.
+
+    Bald refers to leaflessness of tree in winter.
+
+_Taxodium distichum_ (Linnaeus) L. C. Richard.
+
+    _Taxodium_ means yew-like; _distichum_ refers to the
+    two-ranked leaves.
+
+[Illustration: Habitat.]
+
+HABITAT: (See map); best in South Atlantic and Gulf States.
+
+[Illustration: Leaf.]
+
+CHARACTERISTICS OF THE TREE: Height, 75', occasionally 150'; diameter,
+4'-5'; roots project upward into peculiar knees; trunk strongly
+buttressed at base, straight, majestic and tapering; bark, light red,
+shallow fissures, flat plates, peeling into fibrous strips; leaves,
+long, thin, two-ranked, deciduous; cones, nearly globular, 1" in
+diameter.
+
+APPEARANCE OF WOOD: Color, heart-wood, reddish brown, sap-wood,
+nearly white; non-porous; rings, fine and well marked; grain,
+nearly straight, burl is beautifully figured; rays, very obscure;
+non-resinous.
+
+PHYSICAL QUALITIES: Light in weight (48th in this list); 29 lbs. per
+cu. ft.; sp. gr. 0.4543; medium strong (48th in this list); elastic
+(28th in this list); soft (52d in this list); shrinkage, 3 per cent.;
+warps but little, likely to check; very durable; easy to work, in
+splitting, crumbles or breaks; nails well.
+
+COMMON USES: Shingles, posts, interior finish, cooperage, railroad
+ties, boats, and various construction work, especially conservatories.
+
+REMARKS: Forms forests in swamps; subject to a fungous disease, making
+wood "peggy" or "pecky"; use largely determined by its durability. In
+New Orleans 90,000 fresh water cisterns are said to be made of it.
+
+[Illustration: Radial Section, life size.]
+
+[Illustration: Cross-section, magnified 37-1/2 diameters.]
+
+[Illustration: Tangential Section, life size.]
+
+
+24
+
+WESTERN RED CEDAR. CANOE CEDAR. GIANT ARBORVITAE.
+
+_Thuja plicata_ D. Don. _Thuya gigantea_ Nuttall.
+
+    _Thuya_ or _Thuja_, the classical Greek name; _plicata_ refers
+    to the folded leaves; _gigantea_ refers to the gigantic size
+    of the tree.
+
+[Illustration: Habitat.]
+
+HABITAT: (See map); best in Puget Sound region.
+
+[Illustration: Leaf.]
+
+CHARACTERISTICS OF THE TREE: Height, 100'-200'; diameter, 2'-10', even
+15'; trunk has immense buttresses, often 16' in diameter, then tapers;
+branches, horizontal, short, making a dense conical tree; bark, bright
+cinnamon red, shallow fissures, broad ridges, peeling into long,
+narrow, stringy scales; leaves, very small, overlapping in 4 ranks,
+on older twigs, sharper and more remote; cones, _1/2"_ long, small,
+erect.
+
+APPEARANCE OF WOOD: Color, dull brown or red, thin sap-wood nearly
+white; non-porous; rings, summer bands thin, dark colored, distinct;
+grain, straight, rather coarse; rays, numerous, obscure; non-resinous.
+
+PHYSICAL QUALITIES: Very light in weight (60th in this list); medium
+strong (40th in this list); elastic (26th in this list); soft (60th
+in this list); shrinkage, 3 per cent.; warps and checks little; very
+durable; easy to work; splits easily.
+
+COMMON USES: Interior finish, cabinet making, cooperage, shingles,
+electric wire poles.
+
+REMARKS: Wood used by Indians for war canoes, totems and planks for
+lodges; inner bark used for ropes and textiles.
+
+[Illustration: Radial Section, life size.]
+
+[Illustration: Cross-section, magnified 37-1/2 diameters.]
+
+[Illustration: Tangential Section, life size.]
+
+
+25
+
+WHITE CEDAR.
+
+_Chamaecyparis thyoides_ (Linnaeus) B. S. P.
+
+    _Chamaecyparis_ means low cypress; _thyoides_ means like
+    _thuya_ (_Aborvitae_).
+
+[Illustration: Habitat.]
+
+HABITAT: (See map); best in Virginia and North Carolina.
+
+[Illustration: Leaf.]
+
+CHARACTERISTICS OF THE TREE: Height, 60'-80'; diameter, 2'-4';
+branches, low, often forming impenetrable thickets; bark, light
+reddish brown, many fine longitudinal fissures, often spirally twisted
+around stem; leaves, scale-like, four-ranked; cones, globular, 1/4"
+diameter.
+
+APPEARANCE OF WOOD: Color, pink to brown, sap-wood lighter;
+non-porous; rings, sharp and distinct; grain, straight; rays,
+numerous, obscure; non-resinous.
+
+PHYSICAL QUALITIES: Very light in weight (64th in this list); 23 lbs.
+per cu. ft.; sp. gr. 0.3322); weak (64th in this list); brittle (63d
+in this list; soft (62d in this list); shrinkage 3 per cent.; warps
+little; extremely durable; easily worked; splits easily; nails well.
+
+COMMON USES: Boats, shingles, posts, railway ties, cooperage.
+
+REMARKS: Grows chiefly in swamps, often in dense pure forests. Uses
+determined largely by its durability.
+
+[Illustration: Radial Section, life size.]
+
+[Illustration: Cross-section, magnified 37-1/2 diameters.]
+
+[Illustration: Tangential Section, life size.]
+
+
+26
+
+LAWSON CYPRESS. PORT ORFORD CEDAR. OREGON CEDAR. WHITE CEDAR.
+
+_Chamaecyparis lawsoniana_ (A. Murray) Parlatore.
+
+    _Chamaecyparis_ means low cypress.
+
+[Illustration: Habitat.]
+
+[Illustration: Leaf.]
+
+HABITAT: (See map); best on coast of Oregon.
+
+CHARACTERISTICS OF THE TREE: Height, 100'-200'; diameter, 4'-8', even
+12'; base of trunk abruptly enlarged; bark, very thick, even 10" at
+base of trunk, inner and outer layers distinct, very deep fissures,
+rounded ridges; leaves, very small, 1/16" long, four-ranked,
+overlapped, flat sprays; cones, small, 1/4", globular.
+
+APPEARANCE OF WOOD: Color, pinkish brown, sap-wood hardly
+distinguishable; non-porous; rings, summer wood thin, not conspicuous;
+grain, straight, close; rays, numerous, very obscure; non-resinous.
+
+PHYSICAL QUALITIES: Light in weight (46th in this list); 28 lbs. per
+cu. ft.; sp. gr. 0.4621; strong (25th in this list); elastic (12th
+in this list); soft (50th in this list); shrinkage 3 or 4 per cent.;
+warps little; durable; easily worked; splits easily.
+
+COMMON USES: Matches (almost exclusively on the Pacific Coast),
+interior finish, ship and boat building.
+
+REMARKS: Resin, a powerful diuretic and insecticide.
+
+[Illustration: Radial Section, life size.]
+
+[Illustration: Cross-section, magnified 37-1/2 diameters.]
+
+[Illustration: Tangential Section, life size.]
+
+
+27
+
+RED CEDAR.
+
+_Juniperus virginiana_ Linnaeus.
+
+    _Juniperus_, the classical Latin name; _virginiana_, in honor
+    of the State of Virginia.
+
+[Illustration: Habitat.]
+
+HABITAT: (See map); best in Gulf States in swamps, especially on the
+west coast of Florida.
+
+[Illustration: Leaf.]
+
+CHARACTERISTICS OF THE TREE: Height, 40'-50', even 80'; diameter,
+1'-2'; trunk, ridged, sometimes expanded; branches, low; bark, light
+brown, loose, ragged, separating into long, narrow, persistent,
+stringy scales; leaves, opposite, of two kinds, awl-shaped, and
+scale-shaped; fruit, dark blue berry.
+
+APPEARANCE OF WOOD: Color, dull red, sap-wood white; non-porous;
+rings, easily distinguished; grain, straight; rays, numerous, very
+obscure; non-resinous.
+
+PHYSICAL QUALITIES: Very light in weight (42d in this list); 30 lbs.
+per cu. ft.; sp. gr. 0.4826; medium strong (43d in this list); brittle
+(61st in this list); medium hard (34th in this list); shrinkage, 3 per
+cent.; warps little; very durable; easy to work; splits readily, takes
+nails well.
+
+COMMON USES: Pencils, chests, cigar boxes, pails, interior finish.
+
+REMARKS: Fragrant. Pencils are made almost exclusively of this wood,
+because it is light, strong, stiff, straight and fine-grained and
+easily whittled; supply being rapidly depleted.
+
+[Illustration: Radial Section, life size.]
+
+[Illustration: Cross-section, magnified 37-1/2 diameters.]
+
+[Illustration: Tangential Section, life size.]
+
+
+28
+
+BLACK WILLOW.
+
+_Salix nigra_ Marshall.
+
+    _Salix_, from two Celtic words meaning near-water; _nigra_
+    refers to the dark bark.
+
+[Illustration: Habitat.]
+
+HABITAT: (See map); grows largest in southern Illinois, Indiana and
+Texas, on moist banks.
+
+[Illustration: Leaf.]
+
+CHARACTERISTICS OF THE TREE: Height, 30'-40', sometimes 120';
+diameter, 1'-2', rarely 3'-4'; stout, upright, spreading branches,
+from common base; bark, rough and dark brown or black, often tinged
+with yellow or brown; leaves, lanceolate, often scythe-shaped, serrate
+edges; fruit, a capsule containing small, hairy seeds.
+
+APPEARANCE OF WOOD: Color, light reddish brown, sap-wood, thin,
+whitish; diffuse-porous; rings, obscure; grain, close and weak; rays,
+obscure.
+
+PHYSICAL QUALITIES: Light in weight (51st in this list); 27.77 lbs.
+per cu. ft.; sp. gr. 0.4456; weak (65th in this list); very brittle
+(64th in this list); soft (46th in this list); shrinks considerably;
+warps and checks badly; soft, weak, indents without breaking; splits
+easily.
+
+COMMON USES: Lap-boards, baskets, water wheels, fuel and charcoal for
+gunpowder.
+
+REMARKS: Its characteristic of indenting without breaking has given it
+use as lining for carts and as cricket bats. Of the many willows, the
+most tree like in proportion in eastern North America. Bark contains
+salycylic acid.
+
+[Illustration: Radial Section, life size.]
+
+[Illustration: Cross-section, magnified 37-1/2 diameters.]
+
+[Illustration: Tangential Section, life size.]
+
+
+29
+
+BUTTERNUT. WHITE WALNUT.
+
+    Butternut, because the nuts are rich in oil.
+
+_Juglans cinerea_ Linnaeus.
+
+    _Juglans_ means Jove's nut; _cinerea_ refers to ash-colored
+    bark.
+
+[Illustration: Habitat.]
+
+HABITAT:: (See map); best in Ohio basin.
+
+[Illustration: Leaf.]
+
+CHARACTERISTICS OF THE TREE: Height, 75'-100'; diameter, 2'-4';
+branches low, broad spreading deep roots; bark, grayish brown,
+deep fissures broad ridges; leaves 15"-30" long, compound 11 to 17
+leaflets, hairy and rough; fruit, oblong, pointed, edible, oily nut.
+
+APPEARANCE OF WOOD: Color, light brown, darkening with exposure,
+sap-wood whitish; diffuse, porous; rings, not prominent; grain, fairly
+straight, coarse, takes high polish; rays, distinct, thin, obscure.
+
+PHYSICAL QUALITIES: Light in weight (56th in this list); 25 lbs. per
+cu. ft.; sp. gr. 0.4086; weak (57th in this list); elasticity, medium
+(52d in this list); soft (47th in this list); shrinkage ....... per
+cent.; warps little; durable; easy to work; splits easily.
+
+COMMON USES: Cabinet work, inside trim.
+
+REMARKS: Green husks of fruit give yellow dye. Sugar made from sap.
+
+[Illustration: Radial Section, life size.]
+
+[Illustration: Cross-section, magnified 37-1/2 diameters.]
+
+[Illustration: Tangential Section, life size.]
+
+
+30
+
+BLACK WALNUT.
+
+_Juglans nigra_ Linnaeus.
+
+    _Juglans_ means Jove's nut; _nigra_ refers to the dark wood.
+
+[Illustration: Habitat.]
+
+HABITAT: (See map); best in western North Carolina and Tennessee.
+
+[Illustration: Leaf.]
+
+CHARACTERISTICS OF THE TREE: Height, 90'-120', even 150'; diameter, 3'
+to even 8'; clean of branches for 50' to 60'; bark, brownish, almost
+black, deep fissures, and broad, rounded ridges; leaves, 1'-2' long,
+compound pinnate, 15 to 23 leaflets, fall early; fruit, nut, with
+adherent husk, and edible kernel.
+
+APPEARANCE OF WOOD: Color, chocolate brown, sap-wood much lighter;
+diffuse-porous; rings, marked by slightly larger pores; grain,
+straight; rays, numerous, thin, not conspicuous.
+
+PHYSICAL QUALITIES: Weight, medium (31st in this list); 38 lbs. per
+cu. ft.; sp. gr. 0.6115; strong (32d in this list); elastic (23d in
+this list); hard (21st in this list); shrinkage, 5 per cent.; warps
+little; very durable; easy to work; splits with some difficulty, takes
+and holds nails well.
+
+COMMON USES: Gun stocks (since 17th century), veneers, cabinet making.
+
+REMARKS: Formerly much used for furniture, now scarce. Plentiful
+in California. Most valuable wood of North American forests. Wood
+superior to European variety.
+
+[Illustration: Radial Section, life size.]
+
+[Illustration: Cross-section, magnified 37-1/2 diameters.]
+
+[Illustration: Tangential Section, life size.]
+
+
+31
+
+MOCKERNUT. BLACK HICKORY. BULL-NUT. BIG-BUD HICKORY. WHITE-HEART
+HICKORY. KING NUT.
+
+    Mockernut refers to disappointing character of nuts.
+
+_Hicoria alba_ (Linnaeus) Britton. _Carya tomentosa_ Nuttall.
+
+    _Hicoria_, shortened and latinized from _Pawcohicora_, the
+    Indian name for the liquor obtained from the kernels; _alba_
+    refers to the white wood, _carya_, the Greek name for walnut;
+    _tomentosa_ refers to hairy under surface of leaf.
+
+[Illustration: Habitat.]
+
+HABITAT: (See map); best in lower Ohio valley, Missouri and Arkansas.
+
+[Illustration: Leaf.]
+
+CHARACTERISTICS OF THE TREE: Height, 75', rarely 100'; diameter,
+2'-3'; rises high in forest; bark, dark gray, shallow, irregular
+interrupted fissures, rough but not shaggy in old trees; leaves,
+8"-12" long, compound, 7-9 leaflets, fragrant when crushed; fruit,
+spherical nut, thick shell, edible kernel.
+
+APPEARANCE OF WOOD: Color, dark brown, sap-wood nearly white;
+ring-porous; rings, marked by few large regularly distributed open
+ducts; grain, usually straight, close; rays, numerous, thin, obscure.
+
+PHYSICAL QUALITIES: Very heavy (3d in this list); 53 lbs. per cu. ft.;
+sp. gr., 0.8218; very strong (11th in this list); very elastic (14th
+in this list); very hard (3d in this list); shrinkage, 10 per cent.;
+warps ..........; not durable; very hard to work; splits with great
+difficulty, almost impossible to nail.
+
+COMMON USES: Wheels, runners, tool and axe handles, agricultural
+implements.
+
+REMARKS: Confounded commercially with shellbark hickory.
+
+[Illustration: Radial Section, life size.]
+
+[Illustration: Cross-section, magnified 37-1/2 diameters.]
+
+[Illustration: Tangential Section, life size.]
+
+
+32
+
+SHELLBARK HICKORY. SHAGBARK HICKORY.
+
+_Hicoria ovata_ (Millar) Britton. _Carya alba_ Nuttall.
+
+    _Hickory_ is shortened and latinized from _Pawcohicora_, the
+    Indian name for the liquor obtained from the kernels; _ovata_
+    refers to oval nut; _carya_, the Greek name for walnut.
+
+[Illustration: Habitat.]
+
+HABITAT: (See map); best in lower Ohio valley.
+
+[Illustration: Leaf.]
+
+CHARACTERISTICS OF THE TREE: Height, 70'-90' and even 120'; diameter,
+2'-3', even 4'; straight, columnar trunk; bark, dark gray, separates
+into long, hard, plate-like strips, which cling to tree by middle, on
+young trees very smooth and close; leaves, 8"-20" long, compound 5
+or (7) leaflets; nuts, globular, husk, four-valved, split easily,
+thin-shelled, edible.
+
+APPEARANCE OF WOOD: Color, reddish brown, sap-wood whitish;
+ring-porous; rings, clearly marked; grain, straight; rays, numerous,
+thin.
+
+PHYSICAL QUALITIES: Very Heavy (1st in this list); 51 lbs. per cu.
+ft.; sp. gr., 0.8372; very strong (5th in this list); very elastic
+(7th in this list); very hard (5th in this list); shrinkage, 10 per
+cent.; warps badly; not very durable under exposure; hard to work,
+very tough; hard to split, very difficult to nail.
+
+COMMON USES: Agricultural implements, handles, wheel spokes.
+
+REMARKS: American hickory is famous both for buggies and ax handles,
+because it is flexible and very tough in resistance to blows.
+
+
+[Illustration: Radial Section, life size.]
+
+[Illustration: Cross-section, magnified 37-1/2 diameters.]
+
+[Illustration: Tangential Section, life size.]
+
+
+33
+
+PIGNUT.
+
+Nuts eaten by swine.
+
+_Hicoria glabra_ (Miller) Britton. _Carya porcina._
+
+    _Hicoria_ is shortened and latinized from _Pawcohicora_, the
+    Indian name for the liquor obtained from the kernel; _glabra_
+    refers to smooth bark; _Carya_ the Greek name for walnut;
+    _porcina_ means pertaining to hogs.
+
+[Illustration: Habitat.]
+
+HABITAT: (See map); best in lower Ohio valley.
+
+[Illustration: Leaf.]
+
+CHARACTERISTICS OF THE TREE: Height, 80'-100'; diameter 2'-4'; trunk
+often forked; bark, light gray, shallow fissures, rather smooth,
+rarely exfoliates; leaves, 8"-12" long, compound 7 leaflets, sharply
+serrate; fruit, a thick-shelled nut, bitter kernel.
+
+APPEARANCE OF WOOD: Color, light or dark brown, the thick sap-wood
+lighter, often nearly white; ring-porous; rings marked by many large
+open ducts; grain, straight; rays, small and insignificant.
+
+PHYSICAL QUALITIES: Very heavy (4th in this list); 56 lbs. per cu.
+ft.; sp. gr., 0.8217; very strong (15th in this list); elastic (27th
+in this list); very hard (2d in this list); shrinkage, 10 per cent.;
+warps ..........; hard to work; splits with difficulty, hard to drive
+nails into.
+
+COMMON USES: Agricultural implements, wheels, runners, tool handles.
+
+REMARKS: Wood not distinguished from shellbark hickory in commerce.
+
+[Illustration: Radial Section, life size.]
+
+[Illustration: Cross-section, magnified 37-1/2 diameters.]
+
+[Illustration: Tangential Section, life size.]
+
+
+34
+
+BLUE BEECH. HORNBEAM. WATER BEECH. IRON-WOOD.
+
+Blue refers to color of bark; the trunk resembles beech; horn refers
+to horny texture of wood.
+
+_Carpinus caroliniana_ Walter.
+
+    _Carpinus_, classical Latin name; _caroliniana_, named from
+    the state.
+
+[Illustration: Habitat.]
+
+HABITAT: (See map); best on western slopes of Southern Allegheny
+Mountains and in southern Arkansas and Texas.
+
+[Illustration: Leaf.]
+
+CHARACTERISTICS OF THE TREE: Height, a small tree, 30'-50' high;
+diameter, 6"-2'; short, fluted, sinewy trunk; bark, smooth, bluish
+gray; leaves, falcate, doubly serrate; fruit, small oval nut, enclosed
+in leaf-like bract.
+
+APPEARANCE OF WOOD: Color, light brown, sap-wood thick, whitish;
+diffuse-porous; rings, obscure; grain, close; rays, numerous, broad.
+
+PHYSICAL QUALITIES: Heavy (13th in this list); 45 lbs. per cu. ft.;
+sp. gr. 0.7286; very strong (9th in this list); very stiff (15th in
+this list); hard (14th in this list); shrinkage, 6 per cent.; warps
+and checks badly; not durable; hard to work; splits with great
+difficulty.
+
+COMMON USES: Levers, tool handles.
+
+REMARKS: No other wood so good for levers, because of stiffness.
+
+[Illustration: Radial Section, life size.]
+
+[Illustration: Cross-section, magnified 37-1/2 diameters.]
+
+[Illustration: Tangential Section, life size.]
+
+
+35
+
+CANOE BIRCH. WHITE BIRCH. PAPER BIRCH.
+
+    All names refer to bark.
+
+_Betula papyrifera_ Marshall.
+
+    _Betula_, the classical Latin name; _papyrifera_ refers to
+    paper bearing bark.
+
+[Illustration: Habitat.]
+
+HABITAT: (See map); best west of Rocky Mountains.
+
+[Illustration: Leaf.]
+
+CHARACTERISTICS OF THE TREE: Height, 60'-80'; diameter, 2'-3'; stem
+rarely quite straight; bark, smooth, white, exterior marked with
+lenticels, peeling freely horizontally into thin papery layers,
+showing brown or orange beneath, contains oil which burns hotly,
+formerly used by Indians for canoes, very remarkable (see Keeler,
+page 304); leaves, heart-shaped, irregularly serrate; fruit, pendulous
+strobiles.
+
+APPEARANCE OF WOOD: Color, brown or reddish, sap-wood white;
+diffuse-porous; rings, obscure; grain, fairly straight; rays,
+numerous, obscure.
+
+PHYSICAL QUALITIES: Weight, medium (33d in this list); 37 lbs. per cu.
+ft.; sp. gr. 0.5955; very strong (14th in this list); very elastic
+(2d in this list); medium hard (39th in this list); shrinkage, 6
+per cent.; warps, .........; not durable, except bark; easy to work;
+splits with difficulty, nails well, tough.
+
+COMMON USES: Spools, shoe lasts and pegs, turnery, bark for canoes.
+
+REMARKS: Forms forests. Sap yields syrup. Bark yields starch. Valuable
+to woodsmen in many ways.
+
+[Illustration: Radial Section, life size.]
+
+[Illustration: Cross-section, magnified 37-1/2 diameters.]
+
+[Illustration: Tangential Section, life size.]
+
+
+36
+
+RED BIRCH. RIVER BIRCH.
+
+    Red refers to color of bark; river, prefers river bottoms.
+
+_Betula nigra_ Linnaeus.
+
+    _Betula_, the classical Latin name.
+
+[Illustration: Habitat.]
+
+HABITAT: (See map); best in Florida, Louisiana and Texas.
+
+[Illustration: Leaf.]
+
+CHARACTERISTICS OF THE TREE: Height, 30'-80', and even higher;
+diameter, 1', even 5'; trunk, often divided low; bark, dark brown,
+marked by horizontal lenticels, peels into paper plates, curling back;
+leaves, doubly serrate, often almost lobed; fruit, pubescent, erect,
+strobiles.
+
+APPEARANCE OF WOOD: Color, light brown, thick sap-wood, whitish;
+diffuse-porous; rings, not plain; grain, close, rather crooked; rays,
+numerous, obscure.
+
+PHYSICAL QUALITIES: Weight, medium (36th in this list); 35 lbs. per
+cu. ft.; sp. gr. 0.5762; strong (22d in this list); very elastic
+(19th in this list); medium hard (37th in this list); shrinkage, 6 per
+cent.; warps, .......; not durable when exposed; hard to work, tough;
+splits with difficulty, nails well.
+
+COMMON USES: Shoe lasts, yokes, furniture.
+
+REMARKS: Prefers moist land.
+
+[Illustration: Radial Section, life size.]
+
+[Illustration: Cross-section, magnified 37-1/2 diameters.]
+
+[Illustration: Tangential Section, life size.]
+
+
+37
+
+CHERRY BIRCH. SWEET BIRCH. BLACK BIRCH. MAHOGANY BIRCH.
+
+    Cherry, because bark resembles that of cherry tree; sweet,
+    refers to the taste of the spicy bark.
+
+_Betula lenta_ Linnaeus.
+
+    _Betula_, the classical Latin name; _lenta_, meaning
+    tenacious, sticky, may refer to the gum which exudes from the
+    trunk.
+
+[Illustration: Habitat.]
+
+HABITAT: (See map); best in Tennessee Mountains.
+
+[Illustration: Leaf.]
+
+CHARACTERISTICS OF THE TREE: Height, 50'-80'; diameter, 2'-5'; trunk,
+rarely straight; bark, dark reddish brown, on old trunks deeply
+furrowed and broken into thick, irregular plates, marked with
+horizontal lenticels; resembles cherry; spicy, aromatic; leaves,
+ovate, oblong, 2"-6" long, irregularly serrate; fruit, erect
+strobiles.
+
+APPEARANCE OF WOOD: Color, dark, reddish brown; diffuse-porous; rings,
+obscure; grain, close, satiny, polishes well, often stained to imitate
+mahogany; rays, numerous, obscure.
+
+PHYSICAL QUALITIES: Heavy (6th in this list); 47 lbs. per cu. ft.; sp.
+gr., 0.7617; very strong (4th in this list); very elastic (6th in
+this list); hard (11th in this list); shrinkage, 6 per cent.; warps,
+little; not durable if exposed; rather hard to work; splits hard,
+tough.
+
+COMMON USES: Dowel pins, wooden ware, boats and ships.
+
+REMARKS: The birches are not usually distinguished from one another in
+the market.
+
+[Illustration: Radial Section, life size.]
+
+[Illustration: Cross-section, magnified 37-1/2 diameters.]
+
+[Illustration: Tangential Section, life size.]
+
+
+38
+
+YELLOW BIRCH. GRAY BIRCH.
+
+Yellow and gray, both refer to the color of the bark.
+
+_Betula lutea_ F. A. Michaux.
+
+    _Betula_, the classical Latin name; _lutea_ refers to the
+    yellow color of the bark.
+
+[Illustration: Habitat.]
+
+HABITAT: (See map); best in northern New York and New England.
+
+[Illustration: Leaf.]
+
+CHARACTERISTICS OF THE TREE: Height, 60'-100'; diameter, 3'-4';
+branches, low; bark, silvery, yellow, gray, peeling horizontally into
+thin, papery, persistent layers, but on very old trunks, there are
+rough, irregular, plate-like scales; leaves, ovate, sharply, doubly
+serrate; fruit, erect, 1" strobiles.
+
+APPEARANCE OF WOOD: Color, light reddish brown, sap-wood white;
+diffuse-porous; rings, obscure; grain, close, fairly straight; rays,
+numerous, obscure.
+
+PHYSICAL QUALITIES: Heavy (21st in this list); 40 lbs. per cu. ft.;
+sp. gr., 0.6553; very strong (2nd in this list); very elastic (2d in
+this list); medium hard (22d in this list); shrinkage, 6 per cent.;
+warps .........; not durable; rather hard to work, polishes well;
+splits with difficulty, holds nails well.
+
+COMMON USES: Furniture, spools, button molds, shoe lasts, shoe pegs,
+pill boxes, yokes.
+
+REMARKS: The birches are not usually distinguished from one another in
+the market.
+
+[Illustration: Radial Section, life size.]
+
+[Illustration: Cross-section, magnified 37-1/2 diameters.]
+
+[Illustration: Tangential Section, life size.]
+
+
+39
+
+BEECH.
+
+_Fagus grandifolia_ Ehrhart. _Fagus americana_ Sweet. _Fagus
+ferruginea_ Aiton. _Fagus atropunicea_ (Marshall) Sudworth.
+
+    _Fagus_ (Greek _phago_ means to eat), refers to edible nut;
+    _ferruginea_, refers to the iron rust color of the leaves in
+    the fall; _atropunicea_, meaning dark red or purple, may refer
+    to the color of the leaves of the copper beech.
+
+[Illustration: Habitat.]
+
+HABITAT: (See map); best in southern Alleghany Mountains and lower
+Ohio valley.
+
+[Illustration: Leaf.]
+
+CHARACTERISTICS OF THE TREE: Height, 70'-80' and even 120'; diameter,
+3'-4'; in forest, trunk tall, slender, sinewy; bark, smooth, ashy
+gray; leaves, feather-veined, wedge-shaped, serrate; leaf buds, long,
+pointed; fruit, 2 small triangular nuts, enclosed in burr, seeds about
+once in 3 years.
+
+APPEARANCE OF WOOD: Color, reddish, variable, sap-wood white;
+diffuse-porous; rings, obscure; grain, straight; rays, broad, very
+conspicuous.
+
+PHYSICAL QUALITIES: Heavy (20th in this list); 42 lbs. per cu. ft.;
+sp. gr., 0.6883; very strong (10th in this list); elastic (13th in
+this list); hard (22d in this list); shrinkage, 5 per cent.; warps and
+checks during seasoning; not durable; hard to work, takes fine polish;
+splits with difficulty, hard to nail.
+
+COMMON USES: Plane stocks, shoe lasts, tool handles, chairs.
+
+REMARKS: Often forms pure forests. Uses due to its hardness.
+
+[Illustration: Radial Section, life size.]
+
+[Illustration: Cross-section, magnified 37-1/2 diameters].
+
+[Illustration: Tangential Section, life size.]
+
+
+40
+
+CHESTNUT.
+
+_Castanea dentata_ (Marshall) Borkhausen.
+
+    _Castanea_, the classical Greek and Latin name; _dentata_,
+    refers to toothed leaf.
+
+[Illustration: Habitat.]
+
+HABITAT: (See map); best in western North Carolina, and eastern
+Tennessee.
+
+[Illustration: Leaf.]
+
+CHARACTERISTICS OF THE TREE: Height, 75'-100'; diameter, 3'-4', and
+even 12'; branches, low; bark, thick, shallow, irregular, fissures,
+broad, grayish brown ridges; leaves, lanceolate, coarsely serrate,
+midribs and veins prominent; fruit, nuts, thin-shelled, sweet,
+enclosed in prickly burrs.
+
+APPEARANCE OF WOOD: Color, reddish brown, sap-wood lighter;
+ring-porous; rings, plain, pores large; grain, straight; rays,
+numerous, obscure.
+
+PHYSICAL QUALITIES: Weight, light (50th in this list); 28 lbs. per cu.
+ft.; sp. gr., 0.4504; medium strong (46th in this list); elasticity,
+medium (46th in this list); medium hard (44th in this list);
+shrinkage, 6 per cent.; warps badly; very durable, especially in
+contact with soil, fairly easy to plane, chisel and saw; splits
+easily.
+
+COMMON USES: Railway ties, fence posts, interior finish.
+
+REMARKS: Grows rapidly, and lives to great age. Wood contains much
+tannic acid. Uses depend largely upon its durability. Lately whole
+regions depleted by fungous pest.
+
+[Illustration: Radial Section, life size.]
+
+[Illustration: Cross-section, magnified 37-1/2 diameters.]
+
+[Illustration: Tangential Section, life size.]
+
+
+41
+
+RED OAK.
+
+_Quercus rubra_ Linnaeus.
+
+    _Quercus_, the classical Latin name; _rubra_, refers to red
+    color of wood.
+
+[Illustration: Habitat.]
+
+HABITAT: (See map); best in Massachusetts and north of the Ohio river.
+
+[Illustration: Leaf.]
+
+CHARACTERISTICS OF THE TREE: Height, 70'-100', even 150'; diameter,
+3'-6'; a tall, handsome tree, branches rather low; bark, brownish
+gray, broad, thin, rounded ridges, rather smooth; leaves, 7 to
+9 triangular pointed lobes, with rounded sinuses; acorns,
+characteristically large, in flat shallow cups.
+
+APPEARANCE OF WOOD: Color, reddish brown, sap-wood darker;
+ring-porous; rings, marked by several rows of very large open ducts;
+grain, crooked, coarse; rays, few, but broad, conspicuous.
+
+PHYSICAL QUALITIES: Heavy (23d in this list); 45 lbs. per cu. ft.; sp.
+gr., 0.6540; strong (21st in this list); elastic (18th in this list);
+hard (26th in this list); shrinkage 6 to 10 per cent.; warps and
+checks badly; moderately durable; easier to work than white oak;
+splits readily, nails badly.
+
+COMMON USES: Cooperage, interior finish, furniture.
+
+REMARKS: Grows rapidly. An inferior substitute for white oak. Bark
+used in tanning.
+
+[Illustration: Radial Section, life size.]
+
+[Illustration: Cross-section, magnified 37-1/2 diameters.]
+
+[Illustration: Tangential Section, life size.]
+
+
+42
+
+BLACK OAK. YELLOW BARK OAK.
+
+    Black refers to color of outer bark; yellow bark, refers to
+    the inner bark, which is orange yellow.
+
+_Quercus velutina_ Lamarck. _Quercus tinctoria_ Michaux.
+
+    _Quercus_, the classical Latin name; _velutina_, refers to the
+    velvety surface of the young leaf; _tinctoria_, refers to dye
+    obtained from inner bark.
+
+[Illustration: Habitat.]
+
+HABITAT: (See map); best in lower Ohio valley.
+
+[Illustration: Leaf.]
+
+CHARACTERISTICS OF THE TREE: Height, 70'-80', even 150'; diameter
+3'-4'; branches, low; bark, dark gray to black, deep fissures, broad,
+rounded, firm ridges, inner bark, yellow, yielding dye; leaves, large,
+lustrous, leathery, of varied forms; acorns, small; kernel, yellow,
+bitter.
+
+APPEARANCE OF WOOD: Color, reddish brown, sap-wood lighter;
+ring-porous; rings, marked by several rows of very large open ducts;
+grain, crooked; rays, thin.
+
+PHYSICAL QUALITIES: Heavy (17th in this list); 45 lbs. per cu. ft.;
+sp. gr., 0.7045; very strong (17th in this list); elastic (25th in
+this list); hard (18th in this list); shrinkage, 4 per cent. or more;
+warps and checks in drying; durable; rather hard to work; splits
+readily, nails badly.
+
+COMMON USES: Furniture, interior trim, cooperage, construction.
+
+REMARKS: Foliage handsome in fall; persists thru winter.
+
+[Illustration: Radial Section, life size.]
+
+[Illustration: Cross-section, magnified 37-1/2 diameters.]
+
+[Illustration: Tangential Section, life size.]
+
+
+43
+
+BASKET OAK. COW OAK.
+
+    Cow refers to the fact that its acorns are eaten by cattle.
+
+_Quercus michauxii_ Nuttall.
+
+    _Quercus_, the classical Latin name; _michauxii_, named for
+    the botanist Michaux.
+
+[Illustration: Habitat.]
+
+HABITAT: (See map); best in Arkansas and Louisiana, especially in
+river bottoms.
+
+[Illustration: Leaf.]
+
+CHARACTERISTICS OF THE TREE: Height, 80'-100'; diameter 3', even 7';
+trunk, often clean and straight for 40' or 50'; bark, conspicuous,
+light gray, rough with loose ashy gray, scaly ridges; leaves, obovate,
+regularly scalloped; acorns, edible for cattle.
+
+APPEARANCE OF WOOD: Color, light brown, sap-wood light buff;
+ring-porous; rings, marked by few rather large, open ducts; grain,
+likely to be crooked; rays, broad, conspicuous.
+
+PHYSICAL QUALITIES: Very heavy (5th in this list); 46 lbs. per cu.
+ft.; sp. gr., 0.8039; very strong (12th in this list); elastic (33d in
+this list); hard (10th in this list); shrinkage, 4 per cent. or more;
+warps unless carefully seasoned; durable; hard and tough to work;
+splits easily, bad to nail.
+
+COMMON USES: Construction, agricultural implements, wheel stock,
+baskets.
+
+REMARKS: The best white oak of the south. Not distinguished from white
+oak in the market.
+
+[Illustration: Radial Section, life size.]
+
+[Illustration: Cross-section, magnified 37-1/2 diameters.]
+
+[Illustration: Tangential Section, life size.]
+
+
+44
+
+BUR OAK. MOSSY-CUP OAK. OVER-CUP OAK.
+
+_Quercus macrocarpa_ Michaux.
+
+    _Quercus_, the classical Latin name; _macrocarpa_, refers to
+    the large acorn.
+
+[Illustration: Habitat.]
+
+HABITAT: (See map); best in southern Indiana, Illinois and Kansas.
+
+[Illustration: Leaf.]
+
+CHARACTERISTICS OF THE TREE: Height, 70'-130', even 170'; diameter,
+5'-7'; branches, high; corky wings on young branches; bark, gray
+brown, deeply furrowed; deep opposite sinuses on large leaves; acorns,
+half enclosed in mossy-fringed cup.
+
+APPEARANCE OF WOOD: Color, rich brown, sap-wood, thin, lighter;
+ring-porous; rings, marked by 1 to 3 rows of small open ducts; grain,
+crooked; rays, broad, and conspicuous.
+
+PHYSICAL QUALITIES: Heavy (9th in this list); 46 lbs. per cu. ft.; sp.
+gr., 0.7453; very strong (16th in this list); elastic (37th in this
+list); hard (9th in this list); shrinkage, 4 per cent. or more;
+warps, ..........; hard, and tough to work; splits easily, resists
+nailing.
+
+COMMON USES: Ship building, cabinet work, railway ties, cooperage.
+
+REMARKS: Good for prairie planting. One of the most valuable woods of
+North America. Not distinguished from White Oak in commerce.
+
+[Illustration: Radial Section, life size.]
+
+[Illustration: Cross-section, magnified 37-1/2 diameters.]
+
+[Illustration: Tangential Section, life size.]
+
+
+45
+
+WHITE OAK (Western).
+
+_Quercus garryana_ Douglas.
+
+    _Quercus_, the classical Latin name; _garryana_, named for
+    Garry.
+
+[Illustration: Habitat.]
+
+HABITAT: (See map); best in western Washington and Oregon.
+
+[Illustration: Leaf.]
+
+CHARACTERISTICS OF THE TREE: Height, 60'-70', even 100'; diameter,
+2'-3'; branches, spreading; bark, light brown, shallow fissures, broad
+ridges; leaves, coarsely pinnatified, lobed; fruit, large acorns.
+
+APPEARANCE OF WOOD: Color, light brown, sap-wood whitish; ring-porous;
+rings, marked by 1 to 3 rows of open ducts; grain, close, crooked;
+rays, varying greatly in width, often conspicuous.
+
+PHYSICAL QUALITIES: Heavy (10th in this list); 46 lbs. per cu. ft.;
+sp. gr., 0.7449; strong (28th in this list); elasticity medium (54th
+in this list); hard (8th in this list); shrinkage, 5 or 6 per cent.;
+warps, unless carefully seasoned; durable; hard to work, very tough;
+splits badly in nailing.
+
+COMMON USES: Ship building, vehicles, furniture, interior finish.
+
+REMARKS: Best of Pacific oaks. Shrubby at high elevations.
+
+[Illustration: Radial Section, life size.]
+
+[Illustration: Cross-section, magnified 37-1/2 diameters.]
+
+[Illustration: Tangential Section, life size.]
+
+
+46
+
+POST OAK.
+
+_Quercus stellata_ Wangenheim. _Quercus minor_ (Marsh) Sargent.
+_Quercus obtusiloba_ Michaux.
+
+    _Quercus_, the classical Latin name; _stellata_, refers to the
+    stellate hairs on upper side of leaf; _minor_, refers to size
+    of tree, which is often shrubby; _obtusiloba_, refers to the
+    blunt lobes of leaves.
+
+[Illustration: Habitat.]
+
+HABITAT: (See map); best in Mississippi basin.
+
+[Illustration: Leaf.]
+
+CHARACTERISTICS OF THE TREE: Height, 50'-75', even 100'; but often a
+shrub; diameter, 2'-3'; branches, spreading into dense round-topped
+head; bark, red or brown, deep, vertical, almost continuous, fissures
+and broad ridges, looks corrugated; leaves, in large tufts at ends of
+branchlets; acorns, small, sessile.
+
+APPEARANCE OF WOOD: Color, brown, thick, sap-wood, lighter;
+ring-porous; rings, 1 to 3 rows of not large open ducts; grain,
+crooked; rays, numerous, conspicuous.
+
+PHYSICAL QUALITIES: Very heavy (2d in this list); 50 lbs. per cu. ft.;
+sp. gr., 0.8367; strong (29th in this list); medium elastic (50th in
+this list); very hard (4th in this list); shrinkage, 4 per cent. or
+more; warps and checks badly in seasoning; durable; hard to work;
+splits readily, bad to nail.
+
+COMMON USES: Cooperage, railway ties, fencing, construction.
+
+REMARKS: Wood often undistinguished from white oak.
+
+[Illustration: Radial Section, life size.]
+
+[Illustration: Cross-section, magnified 37-1/2 diameters.]
+
+[Illustration: Tangential Section, life size.]
+
+
+47
+
+WHITE OAK. STAVE OAK.
+
+_Quercus alba_ Linnaeus.
+
+    _Quercus_, the classical Latin name; white and _alba_, refer
+    to white bark.
+
+[Illustration: Habitat.]
+
+HABITAT: (See map); best on western slopes of Southern Alleghany
+Mountains, and in lower Ohio river valley.
+
+[Illustration: Leaf.]
+
+CHARACTERISTICS OF THE TREE: Height, 80'-100'; diameter, 3'-5'; trunk,
+in forest, tall, in open, short; bark, easily distinguished, light
+gray with shallow fissures, scaly; leaves, rounded lobes, and sinuses;
+acorns, 3/4" to 1" long, ripen first year.
+
+APPEARANCE OF WOOD: Color, light brown, sap-wood paler; ring-porous;
+rings, plainly defined by pores; grain crooked; rays, broad, very
+conspicuous and irregular.
+
+PHYSICAL QUALITIES: Heavy (8th in this list); 50 lbs. per cu. ft.; sp.
+gr., 0.7470; strong (23d in this list); elastic (32d in this list);
+hard (13th in this list); shrinkage, from 4 to 10 per cent.; warps and
+checks considerably, unless carefully seasoned; very durable, hard to
+work; splits somewhat hard, very difficult to nail.
+
+COMMON USES: Interior finish, furniture, construction, ship building,
+farm implements, cabinet making.
+
+REMARKS: The most important of American oaks.
+
+[Illustration: Radial Section, life size.]
+
+[Illustration: Cross-section, magnified 37-1/2 diameters.]
+
+[Illustration: Tangential Section, life size.]
+
+
+48
+
+CORK ELM. ROCK ELM. HICKORY ELM. WHITE ELM. CLIFF ELM.
+
+    Cork refers to corky ridges on branches.
+
+_Ulmus thomasi_ Sargent. _Ulmus racemosa_ Thomas.
+
+    _Ulmus_, the classical Latin name; _racemosa_, refers to
+    racemes of flowers.
+
+[Illustration: Habitat.]
+
+HABITAT: (See map); best in Ontario and southern Michigan.
+
+[Illustration: Leaf.]
+
+CHARACTERISTICS OF THE TREE: Height, 80'-100'; diameter, 2'-3', trunk
+often clear for 60'; bark, gray tinged with red, corky, irregular
+projections, give shaggy appearance; leaves, obovate, doubly serrate,
+3"-4" long; fruit, pubescent, samaras.
+
+APPEARANCE OF WOOD: Color, light brown or red; sap-wood yellowish;
+ring-porous; rings, marked with one or two rows of small open ducts;
+grain, interlaced; rays, numerous, obscure.
+
+PHYSICAL QUALITIES: Heavy (15th in this list); 45 lbs. per cu. ft.;
+sp. gr., 0.7263; very strong (13th in this list); elastic (22d in
+this list); hard (15th in this list); shrinkage, 5 per cent.;
+warps, ........; very durable; hard to work; splits and nails with
+difficulty.
+
+COMMON USES: Hubs, agricultural implements, sills, bridge timbers.
+
+REMARKS: The best of the elm woods.
+
+[Illustration: Radial Section, life size.]
+
+[Illustration: Cross-section, magnified 37-1/2 diameters.]
+
+[Illustration: Tangential Section, life size.]
+
+
+49
+
+WHITE ELM. AMERICAN ELM. WATER ELM.
+
+    Water, because it flourishes on river banks.
+
+_Ulmus americana_ Linnaeus.
+
+    _Ulmus_, the classical Latin name.
+
+[Illustration: Habitat.]
+
+HABITAT: (See map); best northward on river bottoms.
+
+[Illustration: Leaf.]
+
+CHARACTERISTICS OF THE TREE: Height, 90', even 120'; diameter, 3'-8';
+trunk, usually divides at 30'-40' from ground into upright branches,
+making triangular outline; bark, ashy gray, deep longitudinal
+fissures, broad ridges; leaves, 4"-6" long, oblique obovate, doubly
+serrate, smooth one way; fruit, small, roundish, flat, smooth,
+samaras.
+
+APPEARANCE OF WOOD: Color, light brown, sap-wood yellowish;
+ring-porous; rings, marked by several rows of large open ducts; grain,
+interlaced; rays, numerous, thin.
+
+PHYSICAL QUALITIES: Heavy (24th in this list); 34 lbs. per cu. ft.; sp.
+gr., 0.6506; strong (33d in this list); elasticity, medium (59th in
+this list); medium hard (28th in this list); shrinkage, 5 per cent.;
+warps .........; not durable; hard to work, tough, will not polish;
+splits with difficulty.
+
+COMMON USES: Cooperage, wheel stock, flooring.
+
+REMARKS: Favorite ornamental tree, but shade light, and leaves fall
+early.
+
+[Illustration: Radial Section, life size.]
+
+[Illustration: Cross-section, magnified 37-1/2 diameters.]
+
+[Illustration: Tangential Section, life size.]
+
+
+50
+
+CUCUMBER TREE. MOUNTAIN MAGNOLIA.
+
+    Cucumber, refers to the shape of the fruit.
+
+_Magnolia acuminata_ Linnaeus.
+
+    _Magnolia_, named for Pierre Magnol, a French botanist;
+    _acuminata_, refers to pointed fruit.
+
+[Illustration: Habitat.]
+
+HABITAT: (See map); best at the base of mountains in North Carolina
+and South Carolina and Tennessee.
+
+[Illustration: Leaf.]
+
+CHARACTERISTICS OF THE TREE: Height, 60'-90'; diameter, 3'-4'; in
+forest, clear trunk for 2/3 of height (40' or 50'); bark, dark brown,
+thick, furrowed; leaves, large, smooth; flowers, large greenish
+yellow; fruit, dark red "cones" formed of two seeded follicles.
+
+APPEARANCE OF WOOD: Color, yellow brown, thick sapwood, lighter;
+diffuse-porous; rings, obscure; grain, very straight, close, satiny;
+rays, numerous thin.
+
+PHYSICAL QUALITIES: Light (45th in this list); .... lbs. per cu. ft.;
+sp. gr., 0.4690; medium strong (49th in this list); elastic (38th in
+this list); medium hard (41st in this list); shrinkage, 5 per cent.;
+warps .........; very durable; easy to work; splits easily, takes
+nails well.
+
+COMMON USES: Pump logs, cheap furniture, shelving.
+
+REMARKS: Wood similar to yellow poplar, and often sold with it.
+
+[Illustration: Radial Section, life size.]
+
+[Illustration: Cross-section, magnified 37-1/2 diameters.]
+
+[Illustration: Tangential Section, life size.]
+
+
+51
+
+YELLOW POPLAR. WHITEWOOD. TULIP TREE.
+
+    Poplar, inappropriate, inasmuch as the tree does not belong to
+    poplar family. White, refers inappropriately to the color of
+    the wood, which is greenish yellow.
+
+_Liriodendron tulipifera_ Linnaeus.
+
+    _Liriodendron_, means lily-tree; _tulipifera_ means
+    tulip-bearing.
+
+[Illustration: Habitat.]
+
+HABITAT: (See map); best in lower Ohio valley and southern Appalachian
+mountains.
+
+[Illustration: Leaf.]
+
+CHARACTERISTICS OF THE TREE: Height, 70'-90'; even 200'; diameter,
+6'-8', even 12'; tall, magnificent trunk, unsurpassed in grandeur by
+any eastern American tree; bark, brown, aromatic, evenly furrowed
+so as to make clean, neat-looking trunk; leaves, 4 lobed, apex,
+peculiarly truncated, clean cut; flowers, tulip-like; fruit, cone,
+consisting of many scales.
+
+APPEARANCE OF WOOD: Color, light greenish or yellow brown, sap-wood,
+creamy white; diffuse-porous; rings, close but distinct; grain,
+straight; rays, numerous and plain.
+
+PHYSICAL QUALITIES: Light (54th in this list); 26 lbs. per cu. ft.;
+sp. gr., 0.4230; medium strong (51st in this list); elastic (39th in
+this list); soft (49th in this list); shrinkage, 5 per cent.; warps
+little; durable; easy to work; brittle and does not split readily,
+nails very well.
+
+COMMON USES: Construction work, furniture, interiors, boats, carriage
+bodies, wooden pumps.
+
+REMARKS: Being substituted largely for white pine.
+
+[Illustration: Radial Section, life size.]
+
+[Illustration: Cross-section, magnified 37-1/2 diameters.]
+
+[Illustration: Tangential Section, life size.]
+
+
+52
+
+    SWEET GUM. Gum, refers to exudations.
+
+_Liquidambar styraciflua_ Linnaeus.
+
+    _Liquidambar_, means liquid gum; _styraciflua_, means fluid
+    resin (storax).
+
+[Illustration: Habitat.]
+
+HABITAT: (See map); best in the lower Mississippi valley.
+
+[Illustration: Leaf.]
+
+CHARACTERISTICS OF THE TREE: Height, 80'-140'; diameter, 3'-5'; trunk,
+tall, straight; bark, light brown tinged with red, deeply fissured;
+branchlets often having corky wings; leaves, star-shaped, five
+pointed; conspicuously purple and crimson in autumn; fruit,
+multi-capsular, spherical, persistent heads.
+
+APPEARANCE OF WOOD: Color, light red brown, sap-wood almost white;
+diffuse-porous; rings, fine and difficult to distinguish; grain,
+straight, close, polishes well; rays, numerous, very obscure.
+
+PHYSICAL QUALITIES: Weight, medium (34th in this list); 37 lbs. per
+cu. ft.; sp. gr., 0.5909; medium strong (52d in this list); elasticity
+medium (44th in this list); medium hard (36th in this list);
+shrinkage, 6 per cent.; warps and twists badly in seasoning; not
+durable when exposed; easy to work; crumbles in splitting; nails
+badly.
+
+COMMON USES: Building construction, cabinet-work, veneering, street
+pavement, barrel staves and heads.
+
+REMARKS: Largely used in veneers, because when solid it warps and
+twists badly. Exudations used in medicine to some extent.
+
+[Illustration: Radial Section, life size.]
+
+[Illustration: Cross-section, magnified 37-1/2 diameters.]
+
+[Illustration: Tangential Section, life size.]
+
+
+53
+
+SYCAMORE. BUTTONWOOD. BUTTON BALL. WATER BEECH.
+
+    Sycamore, from two Greek words meaning fig and mulberry;
+    buttonwood and button-ball, refer to fruit balls.
+
+_Platanus occidentalis_ Linnaeus.
+
+    _Platanus_, refers to the broad leaves; _occidentalis_,
+    western, to distinguish it from European species.
+
+[Illustration: Habitat.]
+
+HABITAT: (See map); best in valley of lower Ohio and Mississippi.
+
+[Illustration: Leaf.]
+
+CHARACTERISTICS OF THE TREE: Height, 70'-100', and even 170';
+diameter, 6'-12'; trunk, commonly divides into 2 or 3 large branches,
+limbs spreading, often dividing angularly; bark, flakes off in great
+irregular masses, leaving mottled surface, greenish gray and brown,
+this peculiarity due to its rigid texture; leaves, palmately 3 to
+5 lobed, 4"-9" long, petiole enlarged, enclosing buds; fruit, large
+rough balls, persistent through winter.
+
+APPEARANCE OF WOOD: Color, reddish brown, sap-wood lighter;
+diffuse-porous; rings, marked by broad bands of small ducts; grain,
+cross, close; rays, numerous, large, conspicuous.
+
+PHYSICAL QUALITIES: Weight, medium (38th in this list); 35 lbs.
+per cu. ft.; sp. gr., 0.5678; medium strong (54th in this list);
+elasticity, medium (43d in this list); medium hard (30th in this list);
+shrinkage, 5 per cent.; warps little; very durable, once used for
+mummy coffins; hard to work; splits very hard.
+
+COMMON USES: Tobacco boxes, yokes, furniture, butcher blocks.
+
+REMARKS: Trunks often very large and hollow.
+
+[Illustration: Radial Section, life size.]
+
+[Illustration: Cross-section, magnified 37-1/2 diameters.]
+
+[Illustration: Tangential Section, life size.]
+
+
+54
+
+WILD BLACK CHERRY.
+
+_Padus serotina_ (Ehrhart) Agardh. _Prunus serotina_ Ehrhart.
+
+    _Padus_, the old Greek name; _prunus_, the classical Latin
+    name; _serotina_, because it blossoms late (June).
+
+[Illustration: Habitat.]
+
+HABITAT: (See map); best on southern Allegheny mountains.
+
+[Illustration: Leaf.]
+
+CHARACTERISTICS OF THE TREE: Height, 40'-50', even 100'; diameter,
+2'-4'; straight, columnar trunk, often free from branches for 70';
+bark, blackish and rough, fissured in all directions, broken into
+small, irregular, scaly plates, with raised edges; leaves, oblong to
+lanceolate, deep, shiny green; fruit, black drupe, 1/2".
+
+APPEARANCE OF WOOD: Color, light brown or red, sap-wood yellow;
+diffuse-porous; rings, obscure; grain, straight, close, fine, takes
+fine polish; rays, numerous.
+
+PHYSICAL QUALITIES: Weight, medium (35th in this list); 36 lbs. per
+cu. ft.; sp. gr., 0.5822; strong (35th in this list); elasticity
+medium (45th in this list); hard (16th in this list); shrinkage, 5
+per cent.; warps, little; durability .........; easily worked; splits
+easily, must be nailed with care.
+
+COMMON USES: Cabinet-work, costly interior trim.
+
+REMARKS: Grows rapidly.
+
+[Illustration: Radial Section, life size.]
+
+[Illustration: Cross-section, magnified 37-1/2 diameters.]
+
+[Illustration: Tangential Section, life size.]
+
+
+55
+
+BLACK LOCUST. LOCUST. YELLOW LOCUST.
+
+    Yellow, from color of sap-wood.
+
+_Robinia pseudacacia_ Linnaeus.
+
+    _Robinia_, in honor of Jean Robin, of France; _pseudacacia_,
+    means false acacia.
+
+[Illustration: Habitat.]
+
+HABITAT: (See map); best on western Allegheny mountains in West
+Virginia.
+
+[Illustration: Leaf.]
+
+CHARACTERISTICS OF THE TREE: Height, 50'-80'; diameter, 3'-4'; bark,
+strikingly deeply furrowed, dark brown; prickles on small branches,
+grows fast, forms thickets, on account of underground shoots; leaves,
+8"-14" long, pinnately compound; 7 to 9 leaflets, close at night and
+in rainy weather; fruit, pod 3"-4" long.
+
+APPEARANCE OF WOOD: Color, brown, sap-wood thin, yellowish;
+ring-porous; rings, clearly marked by 2 or 3 rows of large open ducts;
+grain, crooked, compact.
+
+PHYSICAL QUALITIES: Heavy (12th in this list); 45 lbs. per cu. ft.;
+sp. gr., 0.7333; very strong (1st in this list); elastic (9th in this
+list); very hard (6th in this list); shrinkage, 5 per cent.; warps
+badly, very durable; hard to work, tough; splits in nailing.
+
+COMMON USES: Shipbuilding, construction, "tree-nails" or pins, wagon
+hubs.
+
+REMARKS: Widely planted and cultivated east and west. Likely to be
+infested with borers.
+
+[Illustration: Radial Section, life size.]
+
+[Illustration: Cross-section, magnified 37-1/2 diameters.]
+
+[Illustration: Tangential Section, life size.]
+
+
+56
+
+MAHOGANY.
+
+_Swietenia mahagoni_ Jacquin.
+
+    _Swietenia_, in honor of Dr. Gerard Van Swieten of Austria;
+    _mahagoni_, a South American word.
+
+[Illustration: Habitat.]
+
+HABITAT: (See map); only on Florida Keys in the United States.
+
+[Illustration: Leaf.]
+
+CHARACTERISTICS OF THE TREE: Height, 40'-50'; diameter, 2' or more,
+foreign trees larger; immense buttresses at base of trunk; bark,
+thick, dark red-brown, having surface of broad, thick scales;
+leaves, 4"-6" long, compound, 4 pairs of leaflets; fruit, 4"-5" long,
+containing seeds.
+
+APPEARANCE OF WOOD: Color, red-brown, sap-wood, thin, yellow;
+diffuse-porous; rings, inconspicuous; grain, crooked; rays, fine and
+scattered, but plain.
+
+PHYSICAL QUALITIES: Heavy (14th in this list); 45 lbs. per cu. ft.;
+sp. gr., 0.7282; very strong (20th in this list); elastic (24th in
+this list); very hard (1st in this list); shrinkage, 5 per cent.;
+warps very little; very durable; genuine mahogany, hard to work;
+especially if grain is cross; somewhat brittle, and comparatively easy
+to split, nails with difficulty; polishes and takes glue well.
+
+COMMON USES: Chiefly for cabinet-making, furniture, interior finishes
+and veneers.
+
+REMARKS: Mahogany, now in great demand in the American market for
+fine furniture and interior trim comes from the West Indies, Central
+America and West Africa. The so-called Spanish mahogany, the most
+highly prized variety, came originally from the south of Hayti. The
+Honduras Mahogany was often called baywood. Botanically the varieties
+are not carefully distinguished; in the lumber yard the lumber is
+known by its sources. The Cuba wood can be partly distinguished by the
+white chalk-like specks in the pores and is cold to the touch, while
+the Honduras wood can be recognized by the black specks or lines in
+the grain. Both the Honduras and West India woods have a softer feel
+than the African wood, when rubbed with the thumb. The Cuba and St.
+Domingo wood are preferred to the Honduras, and still more to the
+African, but even experts have difficulty in distinguishing the
+varieties.
+
+Spanish cedar, or furniture cedar (_Cedrela odorata_) belongs to
+the same family as mahogany and is often sold for it. It is softer,
+lighter, and easier to work.
+
+[Illustration: Radial Section, life size.]
+
+[Illustration: Tangential Section, life size.]
+
+
+57
+
+OREGON MAPLE. WHITE MAPLE. LARGE LEAVED MAPLE.
+
+_Acer macrophyllum_ Pursh.
+
+    _Acer_, the classical Latin name; _macrophyllum_, refers to
+    the large leaves.
+
+[Illustration: Habitat.]
+
+HABITAT: (See map); best in southern Oregon.
+
+[Illustration: Leaf.]
+
+CHARACTERISTICS OF THE TREE: Height, 70'-100'; diameter, 3'-5'; stout,
+often pendulous branches, making a handsome tree; bark, reddish brown,
+deeply furrowed, square scales; leaves, very large, 8"-12" and long
+petioles, deep, narrow sinuses; fruit, hairy samaras.
+
+APPEARANCE OF WOOD: Color, rich brown and red, sap-wood thick,
+nearly white; diffuse-porous; rings, obscure; grain, close, fibres
+interlaced, sometimes figured, polishes well; rays, numerous and thin.
+
+PHYSICAL QUALITIES: Light in weight (26th in this list); 30 lbs. per
+cu. ft.; sp. gr. 0.4909; medium strong (47th in this list); elasticity
+medium (57th in this list); medium hard (31st in this list);
+shrinkage, 4 per cent.; warps ..........; not durable; rather hard to
+work; splits with difficulty.
+
+COMMON USES: Tool and ax handles, furniture, interior finish.
+
+REMARKS: A valuable wood on the Pacific coast.
+
+[Illustration: Radial Section, life size.]
+
+[Illustration: Cross-section, magnified 37-1/2 diameters.]
+
+[Illustration: Tangential Section, life size.]
+
+
+58
+
+SOFT MAPLE. WHITE MAPLE. SILVER MAPLE.
+
+    Silver, refers to white color of underside of leaf.
+
+_Acer saccharinum_ Linnaeus. _Acer dasycarpum_ Ehrhart.
+
+    _Acer_, the classical Latin name; _saccharinum_, refers to
+    sweetish juice; _dasycarpum_, refers to the wooliness of the
+    fruit when young.
+
+[Illustration: Habitat.]
+
+HABITAT: (See map); best in lower Ohio valley.
+
+[Illustration: Leaf.]
+
+CHARACTERISTICS OF THE TREE: Height, 50'-90', even 120'; diameter,
+3'-5'; form suggests elm; bark, reddish brown, furrowed, surface
+separating into large, loose scales; leaves, palmately 5 lobed, with
+narrow, acute sinuses, silvery white beneath, turn only yellow in
+autumn; fruit, divergent, winged samaras.
+
+APPEARANCE OF WOOD: Color, brown and reddish, sap-wood, cream;
+diffuse-porous; rings, obscure; grain, twisted, wavy, fine, polishes
+well; rays, thin, numerous.
+
+PHYSICAL QUALITIES: Weight, medium (40th in this list); 32 lbs.
+per cu. ft.; sp. gr., 0.5269; very strong (19th in this list); very
+elastic (20th in this list); hard (25th in this list); shrinkage, 5
+per cent.; warps, ............; not durable under exposure; easily
+worked; splits in nailing.
+
+COMMON USES: Flooring, furniture, turnery, wooden ware.
+
+REMARKS: Grows rapidly. Curly varieties found. Sap produces some
+sugar.
+
+[Illustration: Radial Section, life size.]
+
+[Illustration: Cross-section, magnified 37-1/2 diameters.]
+
+[Illustration: Tangential Section, life size.]
+
+
+59
+
+RED MAPLE.
+
+_Acer rubrum_ Linnaeus.
+
+    _Acer_, the classical Latin name; _rubrum_, refers to red
+    flowers and autumn leaves.
+
+[Illustration: Habitat.]
+
+HABITAT: (See map); best in lower Ohio valley.
+
+[Illustration: Leaf.]
+
+CHARACTERISTICS OF THE TREE: Height, 80'-120'; diameter, 2'-4';
+branches, low; bark, dark gray, shaggy, divided by long ridges;
+leaves, palmately 5 lobed, acute sinuses; fruit, double samaras,
+forming characteristic maple key.
+
+APPEARANCE OF WOOD: Color, light reddish brown, sap-wood, lighter;
+diffuse-porous; rings, obscure; grain, crooked; rays, numerous,
+obscure.
+
+PHYSICAL QUALITIES: Weight, medium (30th in this list); 38 lbs. per
+cu. ft.; sp. gr., 0.6178; strong (36th in this list); elastic (36th
+in this list); hard (27th in this list); shrinkage, 5 per cent.;
+warps .......; not durable; fairly hard to work; splits with
+difficulty, splits badly in nailing.
+
+COMMON USES: Flooring, turning, wooden ware.
+
+REMARKS: Grows rapidly. Has red flowers, red keys, red leaf stems, and
+leaves scarlet or crimson in autumn.
+
+[Illustration: Radial Section, life size.]
+
+[Illustration: Cross-section, magnified 37-1/2 diameters.]
+
+[Illustration: Tangential Section, life size.]
+
+
+60
+
+HARD MAPLE. SUGAR MAPLE. ROCK MAPLE.
+
+_Acer saccharum_ Marshall.
+
+    _Acer_, the classical Latin name; _saccharum_, refers to sweet
+    sap.
+
+[Illustration: Habitat.]
+
+HABITAT: (See map); best in regions of Great Lakes.
+
+[Illustration: Leaf.]
+
+CHARACTERISTICS OF THE TREE: Height, 100'-120'; diameter, 1-1/2'-3',
+even 4'; often trees in forest are without branches for 60'-70' from
+ground, in the open, large impressive tree; bark, gray brown, thick,
+deep, longitudinal fissures, hard and rough; leaves, opposite, 3 to 5
+lobed, scarlet and yellow in autumn; fruit, double, slightly divergent
+samaras.
+
+APPEARANCE OF WOOD: Color, light brown tinged with red; diffuse-porous
+rings, close but distinct; grain, crooked, fine, close, polishes well;
+rays, fine but conspicuous.
+
+PHYSICAL QUALITIES: Heavy (19th in this list); 43 lbs. per cu. ft.;
+sp. gr., 0.6912; very strong (8th in this list); very elastic (5th
+in this list); very hard (7th in this list); shrinkage, 5 per cent.;
+warps badly; not durable when exposed; hard to work; splits badly in
+nailing.
+
+COMMON USES: School and other furniture, car construction, carving,
+wooden type, tool handles, shoe lasts, piano actions, ships' keels.
+
+REMARKS: Tree very tolerant. The uses of this wood are chiefly due
+to its hardness. Bird's-Eye Maple and Curly Maple are accidental
+varieties. Pure maple sugar is made chiefly from this species. Its
+ashes yield large quantities of potash.
+
+[Illustration: Radial Section, life size.]
+
+[Illustration: Cross-section, magnified 37-1/2 diameters.]
+
+[Illustration: Tangential Section, life size.]
+
+
+61
+
+BASSWOOD. LINDEN.
+
+    Bass, refers to bast or inner bark.
+
+_Tilia americana_ Linnaeus.
+
+    _Tilia_, the classical Latin name.
+
+[Illustration: Habitat.]
+
+HABITAT: (See map); best in bottom lands of lower Ohio River.
+
+[Illustration: Leaf.]
+
+CHARACTERISTICS OF THE TREE: Height, 60'-70', even 130'; diameter,
+2'-4'; trunk, erect, pillar-like, branches spreading, making round
+heads; bark, light brown, furrowed, scaly surface, inner bark fibrous
+and tough, used for matting; leaves, oblique, heart-shaped, side
+nearest branch larger; fruit clustered on long pendulous stem,
+attached to vein of narrow bract.
+
+APPEARANCE OF WOOD: Color, very light brown, approaching cream color,
+sap-wood, hardly distinguishable; diffuse-porous; rings, fine and
+close but clear; grain, straight; rays, numerous, obscure.
+
+PHYSICAL QUALITIES: Light in weight (49th in this list); 28 lbs. per
+cu. ft.; sp. gr., 0.4525; weak (60th in this list); elasticity, medium
+(49th in this list); soft (64th in this list); shrinkage, 6 per
+cent.; warps comparatively little; quite durable; very easily worked;
+somewhat tough to split, nails well.
+
+COMMON USES: Woodenware, carriage bodies, etc., picture molding, paper
+pulp, etc.
+
+REMARKS: May be propagated by grafting as well as by seed. Is subject
+to attack by many insects. Wood used for carriage bodies because
+flexible and easily nailed.
+
+[Illustration: Radial Section, life size.]
+
+[Illustration: Cross-section, magnified 37-1/2 diameters.]
+
+[Illustration: Tangential Section, life size.]
+
+
+62
+
+SOUR GUM. TUPELO. PEPPERIDGE. BLACK GUM.
+
+    Tupelo, the Indian name.
+
+_Nyssa sylvatica_ Marshal.
+
+    _Nyssa_, from Nysa, the realm of moist vegetation and the home
+    of _Dio-nysus_ (Bacchus) (the tree grows in low wet lands);
+    _sylvatica_, refers to its habit of forest growth.
+
+[Illustration: Habitat.]
+
+HABITAT: (See map); best in Southern Appalachian mountains.
+
+[Illustration: Leaf.]
+
+CHARACTERISTICS OF THE TREE: Height, 40'-50', even 100'; diameter,
+1'6"-3'6", even 5'; variable in form; bark, brown, deeply fissured
+and scaly; leaves, in sprays, short, petioled, brilliant scarlet in
+autumn; fruit, bluish black, sour, fleshy drupe.
+
+APPEARANCE OF WOOD: Color, pale yellow, sap-wood, white, hardly
+distinguishable; diffuse-porous; rings, not plain; grain fine, twisted
+and interwoven; rays, numerous, thin.
+
+PHYSICAL QUALITIES: Medium heavy (25th in this list); 39 lbs. per cu.
+ft.; sp. gr., 0.6356; strong (34th in this list); elasticity, medium
+(51st in this list); hard (20th in this list); shrinkage, 5 or 6 per
+cent.; warps and checks badly; not durable if exposed; hard to work;
+splits hard, tough.
+
+COMMON USES: Wagon hubs, handles, yokes, wooden shoe soles, docks and
+wharves, rollers in glass factories.
+
+REMARKS: The best grades closely resemble yellow poplar.
+
+[Illustration: Radial Section, life size.]
+
+[Illustration: Cross-section, magnified 37-1/2 diameters.]
+
+[Illustration: Tangential Section, life size.]
+
+
+63
+
+BLACK ASH. HOOP ASH.
+
+    Hoop, refers to its use for barrel hoops.
+
+_Fraxinus nigra_ Marshall. _Fraxinus sambucifolia._
+
+    _Fraxinus_, from a Greek word (_phraxis_) meaning split,
+    refers to the cleavability of the wood; _sambucifolia_, refers
+    to the fact that the leaves are in odor like those of Elder
+    (Sambucus).
+
+[Illustration: Habitat.]
+
+HABITAT: (See map); best in moist places.
+
+[Illustration: Leaf.]
+
+CHARACTERISTICS OF THE TREE: Height, 80'-90'; diameter, 1'-1-1/2';
+slenderest of the forest trees, upright branches; bark, gray tinged
+with red, irregular plates, with thin scales; leaves, 10"-16" long,
+compound, 7 to 11 leaflets, in autumn rusty brown; fruit, single
+samaras in panicles.
+
+APPEARANCE OF WOOD: Color, dark brown, sap-wood light; ring-porous;
+rings, well defined; grain, straight, burls often form highly prized
+veneers; rays, numerous and thin.
+
+PHYSICAL QUALITIES: Medium heavy (27th in this list); 39 lbs. per cu.
+ft.; sp. gr., 0.6318; strong (38th in this list); elasticity, medium
+(12th in this list); hard (23d in this list); shrinkage, 5 per cent.;
+warps, but not very much; not durable when exposed; hard to work;
+separates easily in layers, hence used for splints.
+
+COMMON USES: Interior finish, cabinet work, fencing, barrel hoops.
+
+REMARKS: The flexibility of the wood largely determines its uses.
+
+[Illustration: Radial Section, life size.]
+
+[Illustration: Cross-section, magnified 37-1/2 diameters.]
+
+[Illustration: Tangential Section, life size.]
+
+
+64
+
+OREGON ASH.
+
+_Fraxinus oregona_ Nuttall.
+
+    _Fraxinus_, from a Greek word (_phraxis_) meaning split,
+    refers to the cleavability of the wood; _oregona_, named for
+    the State of Oregon.
+
+[Illustration: Habitat.]
+
+HABITAT: (See map); best in southern Oregon.
+
+[Illustration: Leaf.]
+
+CHARACTERISTICS OF THE TREE: Height, 50'-80'; diameter, 1'-1-1/2',
+even 4'; branches, stout, erect; bark, grayish brown, deep interrupted
+fissures, broad, flat ridges, exfoliates; leaves, 5"-14" long;
+pinnately compound, 5 to 7 leaflets; fruit, single samaras in
+clusters.
+
+APPEARANCE OF WOOD: Color, brown, sap-wood thick, lighter;
+ring-porous; rings, plainly marked by large, open, scattered pores;
+grain, coarse, straight; rays, numerous, thin.
+
+PHYSICAL QUALITIES: Weight, medium (37th in this list); 35 lbs.
+per cu. ft.; sp. gr., 0.5731; medium strong (50th in this list);
+elasticity, medium (48th in this list); medium hard (29th in this
+list); shrinkage, 5 per cent.; warps,............; not durable; hard
+to work, tough; splits with difficulty.
+
+COMMON USES: Furniture, vehicles, cooperage.
+
+REMARKS: A valuable timber tree of the Pacific coast.
+
+[Illustration: Radial Section, life size.]
+
+[Illustration: Cross-section, magnified 37-1/2 diameters.]
+
+[Illustration: Tangential Section, life size.]
+
+
+65
+
+BLUE ASH.
+
+    Blue, refers to blue dye obtained from inner bark.
+
+_Fraxinus quadrangulata_ Michaux.
+
+    _Fraxinus_, from a Greek word (_phraxis_) meaning split,
+    refers to the cleavability of the wood; _quadrangulata_,
+    refers to four-angled branchlets.
+
+[Illustration: Habitat.]
+
+HABITAT: (See map); best in lower Wabash valley.
+
+[Illustration: Leaf.]
+
+CHARACTERISTICS OF THE TREE: Height, 60'-70', even 120'; diameter,
+1'-2'; tall, slender, four-angled, branchlets; bark, light gray,
+irregularly divided into large plate-like scales, inside bark, bluish,
+yielding dye; leaves, 8"-12" long, compound pinnate, 5 to 9 leaflets;
+fruit, winged samaras in panicles.
+
+APPEARANCE OF WOOD: Color, light yellow, streaked with brown, sap-wood
+lighter; ring-porous; rings, clearly marked by 1 to 3 rows of large,
+open ducts; grain, straight; rays, numerous, obscure.
+
+PHYSICAL QUALITIES: Heavy (16th in this list); 44 lbs. per cu. ft.;
+sp. gr., 0.7184; strong (37th in this list); elasticity, medium (58th
+in this list); hard (12th in this list); shrinkage, 5 per cent.;
+warps, ............; most durable of the ashes; hard to work; splits
+readily, bad for nailing.
+
+COMMON USES: Carriage building, tool handles.
+
+REMARKS: Blue ash pitchfork handles are famous.
+
+[Illustration: Radial Section, life size.]
+
+[Illustration: Tangential Section, life size.]
+
+
+66
+
+RED ASH.
+
+    Red, from color of inner bark.
+
+_Fraxinus pennsylvanica_ Marshall. _Fraxinus pubescens_ Lambert.
+
+    _Fraxinus_, from a Greek word (_phraxis_) meaning split,
+    refers to the cleavability of the wood; _pennsylvanica_, in
+    honor of the State of Pennsylvania; _pubescens_, refers to
+    down on new leaves and twigs.
+
+[Illustration: Habitat.]
+
+HABITAT: (See map); best east of Alleghany mountains.
+
+[Illustration: Leaf.]
+
+CHARACTERISTICS OF THE TREE: Height, 40'-60'; diameter, 12"-18";
+small, slim, upright branches; bark, brown or ashy, great, shallow,
+longitudinal furrows; leaves, 10"-12" long, pinnately compound, 7 to 9
+leaflets, covered with down; fruit, single samara.
+
+APPEARANCE OF WOOD: Color, light brown, sap-wood lighter and
+yellowish; ring porous; rings, marked by pores; grain, straight,
+coarse; rays, numerous, thin.
+
+PHYSICAL QUALITIES: Weight, medium (28th in this list); 39 lbs. per
+cu. ft.; sp. gr., 0.6251; strong (30th in this list); elasticity,
+medium (53d in this list); hard (17th in this list); shrinkage, 5 per
+cent.; warps little; not durable; hard to work; splits in nailing.
+
+COMMON USES: Agricultural implements, oars, handles, boats.
+
+REMARKS: Often sold with and as the superior white ash.
+
+[Illustration: Radial Section, life size.]
+
+[Illustration: Cross-section, magnified 37-1/2 diameters.]
+
+[Illustration: Tangential Section, life size.]
+
+
+67
+
+WHITE ASH.
+
+    White, refers to whitish color of wood.
+
+_Fraxinus americana_ Linnaeus.
+
+    _Fraxinus_, from a Greek word (_phraxis_) meaning split,
+    refers to the cleavability of the wood.
+
+[Illustration: Habitat.]
+
+HABITAT: (See map); best in the bottom lands of lower Ohio valley.
+
+[Illustration: Leaf.]
+
+CHARACTERISTICS OF THE TREE: Height, 70'-80', even 120'; diameter,
+3'-6'; branches rather high, tree singularly graceful; bark, gray,
+narrow furrows, clean, neat trunk; leaves, 8"-15" long, compound,
+tufted, smooth, turns in autumn to beautiful purples, browns and
+yellows; fruit, panicles of samaras, persistent till midwinter.
+
+APPEARANCE OF WOOD: Color, light reddish brown, sap-wood whitish;
+ring-porous, rings clearly marked by pores; straight-grained; pith
+rays obscure.
+
+PHYSICAL QUALITIES: Heavy (22d in this list); 39 lbs. per cu. ft.; sp.
+gr., 0.6543; strong (31st in this list); elastic (30th in this list);
+hard (17th in this list); shrinkage, 5 per cent.; warps little; not
+durable in contact with soil; hard and tough; splits readily, nails
+badly.
+
+COMMON USES: Inside finish, farm implements, barrels, baskets, oars,
+carriages.
+
+REMARKS: Forms no forests, occurs scattered. Its uses for handles and
+oars determined by combination of strength, lightness and elasticity.
+
+[Illustration: Radial Section, life size.]
+
+[Illustration: Cross-section, magnified 37-1/2 diameters.]
+
+[Illustration: Tangential Section, life size.]
+
+
+LIST OF 66 COMMON WOODS ARRANGED IN THE ORDER OF THEIR WEIGHT.
+
+   1. Shellbark hickory.
+   2. Post oak.
+   3. Mockernut.
+   4. Pignut.
+   5. Basket oak.
+   6. Cherry birch.
+   7. Slash pine.
+   8. White oak.
+   9. Bur oak.
+  10. Western white oak.
+  11. Western larch.
+  12. Black locust.
+  13. Blue beech.
+  14. Mahogany.
+  15. Cork elm.
+  16. Blue ash.
+  17. Black oak.
+  18. Longleaf pine.
+  19. Hard maple.
+  20. Beech.
+  21. Yellow birch.
+  22. White ash.
+  23. Red oak.
+  24. White elm.
+  25. Sour gum.
+  26. Oregon maple.
+  27. Black ash.
+  28. Red ash.
+  29. Tamarack.
+  30. Red maple.
+  31. Black walnut.
+  32. Shortleaf pine.
+  33. Canoe birch.
+  34. Sweet gum.
+  35. Wild black cherry.
+  36. Red birch.
+  37. Oregon ash.
+  38. Sycamore.
+  39. Loblolly pine.
+  40. Soft maple.
+  41. Douglas spruce.
+  42. Red cedar.
+  43. Norway pine.
+  44. Western yellow pine.
+  45. Cucumber tree.
+  46. Lawson cypress.
+  47. Black spruce and Red spruce.
+  48. Bald cypress.
+  49. Basswood.
+  50. Chestnut.
+  51. Black willow.
+  52. Tideland spruce.
+  53. Hemlock.
+  54. Yellow poplar.
+  55. Redwood.
+  56. Butternut.
+  57. White spruce.
+  58. Western white pine.
+  59. White pine.
+  60. Western red cedar.
+  61. Sugar pine.
+  62. Grand fir.
+  63. Engelmann's spruce.
+  64. White cedar.
+  65. Big tree.
+
+
+LIST OF 66 COMMON WOODS ARRANGED IN THE ORDER OF THEIR STRENGTH.
+
+   1. Black locust.
+   2. Yellow birch.
+   3. Western larch.
+   4. Cherry birch.
+   5. Shellbark hickory.
+   6. Slash pine.
+   7. Longleaf pine.
+   8. Hard maple.
+   9. Blue beech.
+  10. Beech.
+  11. Mockernut.
+  12. Basket Oak.
+  13. Cork elm.
+  14. Canoe birch.
+  15. Pignut hickory.
+  16. Bur oak.
+  17. Black oak.
+  18. Shortleaf pine.
+  19. Soft maple.
+  20. Mahogany.
+  21. Red oak.
+  22. Red birch.
+  23. White oak.
+  24. Tamarack.
+  25. Lawson cypress.
+  26. Loblolly pine.
+  27. Douglas spruce.
+  28. Western white oak.
+  29. Post oak.
+  30. Red ash.
+  31. White ash.
+  32. Black walnut.
+  33. White elm.
+  34. Sour gum.
+  35. Wild black cherry.
+  36. Red maple.
+  37. Blue ash.
+  38. Black ash.
+  39. Norway pine.
+  40. Western red cedar.
+  41. Black spruce and Red spruce.
+  42. White spruce.
+  43. Red cedar.
+  44. Hemlock.
+  45. Western yellow pine.
+  46. Chestnut.
+  47. Oregon maple.
+  48. Bald cypress.
+  49. Cucumber tree.
+  50. Oregon ash.
+  51. Yellow poplar.
+  52. Sweet gum.
+  53. Tideland spruce.
+  54. Sycamore.
+  55. White pine.
+  56. Western white pine.
+  57. Butternut.
+  58. Redwood.
+  59. Sugar pine.
+  60. Basswood.
+  61. Engelmann's spruce.
+  62. Grand fir.
+  63. Big tree.
+  64. White cedar.
+  65. Black willow.
+
+
+LIST OF 66 COMMON WOODS ARRANGED IN THE ORDER OF THEIR ELASTICITY.
+
+   1. Western larch.
+   2. Canoe birch and Yellow birch.
+   3. Slash pine.
+   4. Longleaf pine.
+   5. Hard maple.
+   6. Cherry birch.
+   7. Shortleaf pine.
+   8. Shellbark hickory.
+   9. Black locust.
+  10. Douglas spruce.
+  11. Tamarack.
+  12. Lawson cypress.
+  13. Beech.
+  14. Mockernut.
+  15. Blue beech.
+  16. Norway pine.
+  17. Loblolly pine.
+  18. Red oak.
+  19. Red birch.
+  20. Soft maple.
+  21. Red spruce and Black spruce.
+  22. Cork elm.
+  23. Black walnut.
+  24. Mahogany.
+  25. Black oak.
+  26. Western red cedar.
+  27. Pignut hickory.
+  28. Bald cypress.
+  29. White spruce.
+  30. White ash.
+  31. Tideland spruce.
+  32. White oak.
+  33. Basket oak.
+  34. Grand fir.
+  35. Western white pine.
+  36. Red maple.
+  37. Bur oak.
+  38. Cucumber tree.
+  39. Yellow poplar.
+  40. Hemlock.
+  41. Western yellow pine.
+  42. Black ash.
+  43. Sycamore.
+  44. Sweet gum.
+  45. Wild black cherry.
+  46. Chestnut.
+  47. White pine.
+  48. Oregon ash.
+  49. Bass.
+  50. Post oak.
+  51. Sour gum.
+  52. Butternut.
+  53. Red ash.
+  54. Western white oak.
+  55. Engelmann's spruce.
+  56. Sugar pine.
+  57. Oregon maple.
+  58. Blue ash.
+  59. White elm.
+  60. Redwood.
+  61. Red cedar.
+  62. Big tree.
+  63. White cedar.
+  64. Black willow.
+
+
+LIST OF 66 COMMON WOODS ARRANGED IN THE ORDER OF THEIR HARDNESS.
+
+   1. Mahogany.
+   2. Pignut.
+   3. Mockernut.
+   4. Post oak.
+   5. Shellbark hickory.
+   6. Black locust.
+   7. Hard maple.
+   8. Western white oak.
+   9. Bur oak.
+  10. Basket oak.
+  11. Cherry birch.
+  12. Blue ash.
+  13. White oak.
+  14. Blue beech.
+  15. Cork elm.
+  16. Wild black cherry.
+  17. Red ash.
+  18. Black oak.
+  19. White ash.
+  20. Sour gum.
+  21. Black walnut.
+  22. Beech.
+  23. Black ash.
+  24. Slash pine.
+  25. Soft maple.
+  26. Red oak.
+  27. Red maple.
+  28. White elm.
+  29. Oregon ash.
+  30. Sycamore.
+  31. Oregon maple.
+  32. Yellow birch.
+  33. Long leaf pine.
+  34. Red cedar.
+  35. Western larch.
+  36. Sweet gum.
+  37. Red birch.
+  38. Short leaf pine.
+  39. Canoe birch.
+  40. Tamarack.
+  41. Cucumber tree.
+  42. Western yellow pine.
+  43. Loblolly pine.
+  44. Chestnut.
+  45. Douglas spruce.
+  46. Black willow.
+  47. Butternut.
+  48. Norway pine.
+  49. Yellow poplar.
+  50. Lawson cypress.
+  51. Hemlock.
+  52. Bald cypress.
+  53. Sugar pine.
+  54. Red spruce and Black spruce.
+  55. Redwood.
+  56. Engelmann's spruce.
+  57. White pine.
+  58. White spruce.
+  59. Tideland spruce.
+  60. Western white cedar.
+  61. Big tree.
+  62. White cedar.
+  63. Western white pine.
+  64. Basswood.
+  65. Grand fir.
+
+
+THE PRINCIPAL SPECIES OF WOODS.
+
+REFERENCES:[A]
+
+Sargent, _Jesup Collection_.
+Sargent, _Manual_.
+Britton.
+Roth, _Timber_.
+Hough, _Handbook_.
+Keeler.
+Apgar.
+Mohr. _For. Bull._, No. 22.
+Fernow, _Forestry Investigations_.
+Lumber Trade Journals.
+Baterden.
+Sargent, _Silva_.
+Sargent, _Forest Trees_, 10th Census, Vol. IX.
+Boulger.
+Hough, _American Woods_.
+Snow.
+Lounsberry.
+Spaulding. _For. Bull._, No. 13.
+Sudworth. _For. Bull._, No. 17.
+Forest Service _Records of Wholesale Prices of Lumber_, List. A.
+
+For particular trees consult For. Serv., Bulletins and Circulars. See
+For. Service _Classified List of Publications_.
+
+    [Footnote A: For general bibliography, see p. 4.]
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER IV.
+
+THE DISTRIBUTION AND COMPOSITION OF THE NORTH AMERICAN FORESTS.
+
+
+The forests of the United States, Map, Fig. 44, may be conveniently
+divided into two great regions, the Eastern or Atlantic Forest,
+and the Western or Pacific Forest. These are separated by the great
+treeless plains which are west of the Mississippi River, and east of
+the Rocky Mountains, and which extend from North Dakota to western
+Texas.[1]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 44. Forest Regions of the United States. _U. S.
+Forest Service._]
+
+The Eastern Forest once consisted of an almost unbroken mass, lying in
+three quite distinct regions, (1) the northern belt of conifers, (2)
+the southern belt of conifers, and (3) the great deciduous (hardwood)
+forest lying between these two.
+
+(1) The northern belt of conifers or "North Woods" extended
+thru northern New England and New York and ran south along the
+Appalachians. It reappeared again in northern Michigan, Wisconsin and
+Minnesota. White pine, Fig. 45, was the characteristic tree in the
+eastern part of this belt, tho spruce was common, Fig. 56, p. 213,
+and white and Norway pine and hemlock distinguished it in the western
+part. Altho the more valuable timber, especially the pine, has been
+cut out, it still remains a largely unbroken forest mainly of spruce,
+second growth pine, hemlock and some hardwood.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 45. Interior of Dense White Pine Forest, Cass
+Lake, Minn. _U. S. Forest Service._]
+
+(2) The southern pine forest formerly extended from the Potomac River
+in a belt from one to two hundred miles wide along the Atlantic coast,
+across the Florida peninsula, and along the gulf of Mexico, skipping
+the Mississippi River and reappearing in a great forest in Louisiana
+and Eastern Texas. It was composed of almost pure stands of pine, the
+long-leaf, Fig. 46, the short-leaf, and the loblolly, with cypress
+in the swamps and bottom lands. In southern Florida the forest is
+tropical, Fig. 47, like that of the West Indies, and in southern Texas
+it partakes of the character of the Mexican forest.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 46. Long-leaf Pine Forest. Oscilla, Georgia. _U.
+S. Forest Service._]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 47. Semi-tropical Forest, Florida. Live Oak,
+Surrounded by Cabbage Palmetto, and Hung With Spanish Moss. _U. S.
+Forest Service._]
+
+(3) Between these north and south coniferous belts, lay the great
+broad-leaf or hardwood forest, Fig. 48, which constituted the greater
+part of the Eastern Forest and characterized it. It was divided into
+two parts by an irregular northeast and southwest line, running from
+southern New England to Missouri. The southeast portion consisted
+of hardwoods intermixed with conifers. The higher ridges of the
+Appalachian Range, really a leg of the northern forest, were occupied
+by conifers, mainly spruce, white pine, and hemlock. The northwest
+portion of the region, particularly Ohio, Indiana, and Illinois, was
+without the conifers. It was essentially a mixed forest, largely oak,
+with a variable mixture of maples, beech, chestnut, yellow poplar,
+hickory, sycamore, elm, and ash, with birch appearing toward the north
+and pine toward the south.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 48. Broad-leaf Forest, Protected from Cattle and
+Fire. Hancock Co., Indiana. _U. S. Forest Service._]
+
+Taking the Eastern Forest as a whole, its most distinguishing feature
+was the prevalence of broad-leaved trees, so that it might properly be
+called a deciduous forest. The greatest diversity of trees was to be
+found in Kentucky, Tennessee and North Carolina, and this region is
+still the source of the best hardwood lumber.
+
+This great eastern forest, which once extended uninterruptedly from
+the Atlantic to the Mississippi and beyond, has now been largely
+lumbered off, particularly thru the middle or hardwood portion, making
+way for farms and towns. The north and south coniferous belts are
+still mainly unbroken, and are sparsely settled, but the big timber
+is cut out, giving place to poorer trees. This is particularly true of
+the white pine, "the king of American trees," only a little of which,
+in valuable sizes, is left in Michigan, Wisconsin and Minnesota. In
+the same way in the south, the long-leaf pine, once the characteristic
+tree, is fast being lumbered out.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 49. Irrigated Ranch on Treeless Alkali Plain. Rio
+Blanco Co., Colorada. _U. S. Forest Service._]
+
+The Western or Pacific forest extends two great legs, one down the
+Rocky Mountain Range, and the other along the Pacific coast. Between
+them lies the great treeless alkali plain centering around Nevada,
+Fig. 49. In these two regions coniferous trees have almost a monopoly.
+Broad-leaved trees are to be found there, along the river beds and in
+ravines, but they are of comparatively little importance. The forest
+is essentially an evergreen forest. Another marked feature of this
+western forest, except in the Puget Sound region, is that the trees,
+in many cases, stand far apart, their crowns not even touching, so
+that the sun beats down and dries up the forest floor, Fig. 50.
+There is no dense "forest cover" or canopy as in the Eastern Forest.
+Moreover these western forests are largely broken up, covering but a
+part of the mountains, many of which are snow-clad, and interrupted
+by bare plains. Along the creeks there grow a variety of hardwoods. It
+was never a continuous forest as was the Eastern Forest. The openness
+of this forest on the Rockies and on the eastern slopes of the Sierra
+Nevadas is in marked contrast to the western slopes of the Sierras,
+where there are to be seen the densest and most remarkable woods of
+the world, Fig. 51. This is due to the peculiar distribution of the
+rainfall of the region. The precipitation of the moisture upon the
+northwest coast where the trees are dripping with fog a large part of
+the time, is unequaled by that of any other locality on the continent.
+But the interior of this region, which is shut off by the high
+Sierra Nevadas from the western winds, has a very light and irregular
+rainfall. Where the rainfall is heavy, the forests are dense; and
+where the rainfall is light, the trees are sparse.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 50. Open Western Forest, Bull Pine. Flagstaff,
+Arizona. _U. S. Forest Service._]
+
+Along the Rockies the characteristic trees are Engelmann's spruce,
+bull pine, Douglas fir, and lodgepole pine. As one goes west, the
+variety of trees increases and becomes, so far as conifers are
+concerned, far greater than in the east. Of 109 conifers in the United
+States, 80 belong to the western forests and 28 to the eastern. The
+Pacific forest is rich in the possession of half a dozen leading
+species--Douglas fir, western hemlock, sugar pine, bull pine, cedar
+and redwood.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 51. Dense Forest of Puget Sound Region, Red Fir
+and Red Cedar. Pierce Co., Washington. _U. S. Forest Service._]
+
+But the far western conifers are remarkable, not only for their
+variety, but still more for the density of their growth, already
+mentioned, and for their great size, Fig. 52. The pines, spruces and
+hemlocks of the Puget Sound region make eastern trees look small, and
+both the red fir and the redwood often grow to be over 250 feet high,
+and yield 100,000 feet, B.M., to the acre as against 10,000 feet,
+B.M., of good spruce in Maine. The redwood, Fig. 53, occupies a belt
+some twenty miles wide along the coast from southern Oregon to a point
+not far north of San Francisco and grows even taller than the famous
+big trees. The big trees are the largest known trees in diameter,
+occasionally reaching in that measurement 35 feet.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 52. Virgin Forest of Red Fir, Red Cedar, Western
+Hemlock, and Oregon Maple. Ashford, Washington. _U. S. Forest
+Service._]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 53. Redwood Forest. Santa Cruz Co., Calif. _U. S.
+Forest Service._]
+
+The big tree, Fig. 54, occurs exclusively in groves, which, however,
+are not pure, but are scattered among a much larger number of trees of
+other kinds.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 54. Big Tree Forest. Sierra National Forest,
+California. _U. S. Forest Service._]
+
+The great and unsurpassed Puget Sound forest is destined to be before
+long the center of the lumber trade of this country.
+
+These two great forests of the east and the west both run northward
+into British America, and are there united in a broad belt of
+subarctic forest which extends across the continent. At the far north
+it is characterized by the white spruce and aspen. The forest is open,
+stunted, and of no economic value.
+
+Taking all the genera and species together, there is a far greater
+variety in the eastern than in the western forests. A considerable
+number of genera, perhaps a third of the total, grow within both
+regions, but the species having continental range are few. They
+are the following: Larch (_Larix laricina_), white spruce (_Picea
+canadensis_), dwarf juniper (_Juniperus communis_), black willow
+(_Salix nigra_), almond leaf willow (_Salix amygdaloides_), long leaf
+willow (_Salix fluviatilis_), aspen (_Populus tremuloides_), balm of
+Gilead (_Populus balsamifera_), and hackberry (_Celtis occidentalis_).
+
+    [Footnote 1: ORIGINAL FOREST REGIONS OF THE UNITED STATES.
+
+                                        Area        Area
+                                  Thousand acres  Per cent.
+    Northern forest                   158,938        8.4
+    Hardwood forest                   328,183       17.3
+    Southern forest                   249,669       13.1
+    Rocky Mountains forest            155,014        8.1
+    Pacific forest                    121,356        6.4
+    Treeless area                     887,787       46.7
+                                    ---------      -----
+    Total land area                 1,900,947      100.0
+    ]
+
+
+THE DISTRIBUTION AND COMPOSITION OF NORTH AMERICAN FORESTS.
+
+REFERENCES:[A]
+
+Sargent, _Forest Trees_, Intro., pp. 3-10.
+Bruncken, pp. 5-16.
+Roth, _First Book_, pp. 209-212.
+Shaler, I, pp. 489-498.
+Fernow, _For. Inves._, pp. 45-51.
+Fernow, _Economics_, pp. 331-368.
+
+    [Footnote A: For general bibliography, see p. 4.]
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER V.
+
+THE FOREST ORGANISM.
+
+
+The forest is much more than an assemblage of different trees, it is
+an organism; that is, the trees that compose it have a vital relation
+to each other. It may almost be said to have a life of its own, since
+it has a soil and a climate, largely of its own making.
+
+Without these conditions, and without the help and hindrance which
+forest trees give to each other, these trees would not have their
+present characteristics, either in shape, habits of growth or nature
+of wood grain. Indeed, some of them could not live at all.
+
+Since by far the greater number of timber trees grow in the forest, in
+order to understand the facts about trees and woods, it is necessary
+to know something about the conditions of forest life.
+
+A tree is made up of three distinct parts: (1) the roots which anchor
+it in the ground, and draw its nourishment from the moist soil; (2)
+the trunk, or bole, or stem, which carries the weight of the branches
+and leaves, and conveys the nourishment to and from the leaves; (3)
+the crown, composed of the leaves, the branches on which they hang,
+and the buds at the ends of the branches. As trees stand together in
+the forest, their united crowns make a sort of canopy or cover, Fig.
+55, which, more than anything, determines the factors affecting
+forest life, viz., the soil, the temperature, the moisture, and most
+important of all, the light.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 55. The Forest Cover. Spruce Forest, Bavaria,
+Germany. _U. S. Forest Service._]
+
+On the other hand, every species of tree has its own requirements
+in respect to these very factors of temperature,--moisture, soil and
+light. These are called its _silvical characteristics_.
+
+
+SOIL.
+
+Some trees, as black walnut, flourish on good soil, supplanting others
+because they are better able to make use of the richness of the soil;
+while some trees occupy poor soil because they alone are able to live
+there at all. Spruce, Fig. 56, will grow in the north woods on such
+poor soil that it has no competitors, and birches, too, will grow
+anywhere in the north woods. In general, it is true that mixed
+forests, Fig. 57, _i.e._, those having a variety of species, grow on
+good loamy soil. The great central, deciduous Atlantic Forest grew on
+such soil until it was removed to make room for farms. On the other
+hand, pure stands--_i.e._, forests made up of single varieties--of
+pine occupy poor sandy soil. Within a distance of a few yards in the
+midst of a pure stand of pine in the south, a change in the soil will
+produce a dense mixed growth of broad-leaves and conifers.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 56. Virgin Stand of Red Spruce. White Mountains,
+New Hampshire. _U. S. Forest Service._]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 57. Typical Mixed Forest,--Red Spruce, Hemlock,
+White Ash, Yellow Birch, Balsam Fir, and Red Maple. Raquette Lake, New
+York. _U. S. Forest Service._]
+
+The soil in the forest is largely determined by the forest itself. In
+addition to the earth, it is composed of the fallen and decayed leaves
+and twigs and tree trunks, altogether called the _forest floor_. It is
+spongy and hence has the ability to retain moisture, a fact of great
+importance to the forest.
+
+
+MOISTURE.
+
+Some trees, as black ash and cypress, Fig. 58, and cotton gum, Fig.
+59, grow naturally only in moist places; some, as the pinon and
+mesquite, a kind of locust, grow only in dry places; while others,
+as the juniper and Douglas fir, adapt themselves to either. Both
+excessively wet and dry soils tend to diminish the number of kinds
+of trees. In many instances the demand for water controls the
+distribution altogether. In the Puget Sound region, where there is a
+heavy rain-fall, the densest forests in the world are found, whereas
+on the eastern slopes of the same mountains, altho the soil is not
+essentially different, there are very few trees, because of the
+constant drouth.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 58. Cypress and Cypress "Knees." Jasper Co.,
+Texas. _U. S. Forest Service._]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 59. Cotton Gums, Showing Buttresses. St. Francis
+River, Arkansas. _U. S. Forest Service._]
+
+
+TEMPERATURE.
+
+The fact that some trees, as paper birch and white spruce, grow only
+in cold regions, and some, as rubber trees and cypress, only in the
+tropics, is commonplace; but a fact not so well known is that it is
+not the average temperature, but the extremes which largely determine
+the habitat of trees of different kinds. Trees which would not live
+at all where there is frost, might flourish well in a region where
+the average temperature was considerably lower. On the other hand,
+provided the growing season is long enough for the species, there is
+no place on earth too cold for trees to live. Fig. 60.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 60. Northern Forest,--Young Spruce Growing Under
+Yellow Birch. Santa Clara, New York. _U. S. Forest Service._]
+
+In general, cold affects the forest just as poor soil and drought do,
+simplifying its composition and stunting its growth. In Canada there
+are only a few kinds of trees, of which the hardwoods are stunted;
+south of the Great Lakes, there is a great variety of large trees;
+farther south in the southern Appalachian region, there is a still
+greater variety, and the trees are just as large; and still farther
+south in tropical Florida, there is the greatest variety of all. The
+slopes of a high mountain furnish an illustration of the effect of
+temperature. In ascending it, one may pass from a tropical forest at
+the base, thru a belt of evergreen, broad-leaved trees, then thru a
+belt of deciduous broad-leaved trees, then thru a belt of conifers and
+up to the timber line where tree life ceases. Figs. 61, and 62.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 61. Mixed Hardwoods on Lower Levels. Spruce
+and Balsam Dominate on Higher Elevations. Mt. McIntyre, Adirondack
+Mountains, New York. _U. S. Forest Service._]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 62. Scrub Growth on Mountain Top. Mt. Webster, New
+Hampshire. _U. S. Forest Service._]
+
+
+LIGHT.
+
+More than by any other factor, the growth of trees in a forest is
+determined by the effect of light. All trees need light sooner or
+later, but some trees have much more ability than others to grow
+in the shade when young. Such trees, of which maple and spruce are
+examples, are called _tolerant_, while others, for instance, larch,
+which will endure only a comparatively thin cover or none at all, are
+called _intolerant_. The leaves of tolerant trees endure shade well,
+so that their inner and lower leaves flourish under the shadow of
+their upper and outer leaves, with the result that the whole tree,
+as beech and maple, makes a dense shadow; whereas the leaves of
+intolerant trees are either sparse, as in the larch, or are so hung
+that the light sifts thru them, as in poplar and oak. The spruces and
+balsam fir have the remarkable power of growing slowly under heavy
+shade for many years, and then of growing vigorously when the light is
+let in by the fall of their overshadowing neighbors. This can plainly
+be seen in the cross-section of balsam fir, Fig. 63, where the narrow
+annual rings of the early growth, are followed by the wider ones of
+later growth. A common sight in the dense woods is the maple sending
+up a long, spindly stem thru the trees about it and having at its top
+a little tuft of leaves, Fig. 64. By so doing it survives. The fact
+that a tree can grow without shade often determines its possession
+of a burnt-over tract. The order in the North Woods after a fire
+is commonly, first, a growth of fire weed, then raspberries or
+blackberries, then aspen, a very intolerant tree whose light shade
+in turn permits under it the growth of the spruce, to which it is a
+"nurse," Fig. 65. In general it may be said that all seedling conifers
+require some shade the first two years, while hardwoods in temperate
+climates, as a rule, do not.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 63. Cross section of Balsam Fir, Showing Fast
+Growth After Years of Suppression. Notice the width of the annual
+rings in later age compared with early. _U. S. Forest Service._]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 64. Tolerant Maple. The trees are too slender to
+stand alone. _U. S. Forest Service._]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 65. Intolerant Aspen, a "nurse" of Tolerant
+Spruce._ U. S. Forest Service._]
+
+This matter of tolerance has also much to do with the branching of
+trees. The leaves on the lower branches of an intolerant tree will not
+thrive, with the result that those branches die and later drop off.
+This is called "cleaning," or natural pruning. Intolerant trees, like
+aspen and tulip, Fig. 66, clean themselves well and hence grow with
+long, straight boles, while tolerant trees, like spruce and fir,
+retain their branches longer.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 66. Intolerant Tulip. Notice the long, straight
+boles. _U. S. Forest Service._]
+
+The distribution of a species may also be determined by geographical
+barriers, like mountain ranges and oceans. This is why the western
+forests differ radically from the eastern forests and why the forest
+of Australasia is sharply distinct from any other forest in the world.
+
+Any one or several of these factors, soil, moisture, heat, and light,
+may be the determining factor in the make-up of a forest, or it may
+be that a particular tree may survive, because of a faster rate of
+growth, thus enabling it to overtop its fellows and cut off their
+light. The struggle for survival is constant, and that tree survives
+which can take the best advantage of the existent conditions.
+
+Besides these topographical and climatic factors which help determine
+the distribution of trees, a very important factor is the historical
+one. For example, the only reason by which the location of the few
+isolated groves of big trees in California can be accounted for is the
+rise and fall of glacial sheets, which left them, as it were, islands
+stranded in a sea of ice. As the glaciers retreated, the region
+gradually became re-forested, those trees coming up first which were
+best able to take advantage of the conditions, whether due to the
+character of their seeds, their tolerance, their endurance of moisture
+or whatever. This process is still going on and hardwoods are probably
+gaining ground.
+
+Besides these external factors which determine the composition and
+organic life of the forest, the trees themselves furnish an important
+factor in their methods of reproduction. These, in general, are two,
+(1) by sprouts, and (2) by seeds.
+
+(1) Most conifers have no power of sprouting. The chief exceptions
+are pitch pine and, to a remarkable degree, the redwood, Fig. 67. This
+power, however, is common in broad-leaved trees, as may be seen after
+a fire has swept thru second growth, hardwood timber. Altho all the
+young trees are killed down to the ground, the young sprouts spring
+up from the still living roots. This may happen repeatedly. Coppice
+woods, as of chestnut and oak, which sprout with great freedom, are
+the result of this ability. The wood is poor so that it is chiefly
+used for fuel.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 67. Sprouting Redwood Stumps. Glen Blair, Calif.
+_U. S. Forest Service._]
+
+(2) Most trees, however, are reproduced by seeds. Trees yield these
+in great abundance, to provide for waste,--nature's method. Many seeds
+never ripen, many perish, many are eaten by animals, many fall on
+barren ground or rocks, and many sprout, only to die. The weight of
+seeds has much to do with their distribution. Heavy seeds like acorns,
+chestnuts, hickory and other nuts, grow where they fall, unless
+carried down hill by gravity or by water, or scattered by birds and
+squirrels.
+
+Trees with winged seeds, however, Fig. 68, as bass, maple and pine,
+or with light seeds, as poplar, often have their seeds carried by the
+wind to great distances.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 68. Winged Seeds. 1, Basswood; 2, Box-elder; 3,
+Elm; 4, Fir; 5, 6, 7, 8, Pines. _U. S. Forest Service._]
+
+Again some trees, as spruce, are very fertile, while others, like
+beech, have only occasional seed-bearing seasons, once in three or
+four years. Willow seeds lose their power of germination in a few
+days, and hence, unless they soon reach ground where there is plenty
+of moisture, they die. This is why they grow mostly along water
+courses. On the other hand, black locust pods and the cones of some
+pines keep their seeds perfect for many years, often until a
+fire bursts them open, and so they live at the expense of their
+competitors.
+
+It is such facts as these that help to account for some of the acts of
+forest composition,--why in one place at one time there is a growth of
+aspens, at another time pines, at still another oaks; and why beeches
+spring up one year and not another. That red cedars grow in avenues
+along fences, is explained by the fact that the seeds are dropped
+there by birds, Fig. 69.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 69. Red Cedar Avenue. Seeds dropped by birds which
+perched on the fences. Indiana. _U. S. Forest Service._]
+
+The fact that conifers, as the longleaf pine, Fig. 46, p. 200, and
+spruce, Fig. 55, p. 212, are more apt to grow in pure stands than
+broad-leaved trees, is largely accounted for by their winged seeds;
+whereas the broad-leaved trees grow mostly in mixed stands because
+their heavy seeds are not plentifully and widely scattered. This is
+a rule not without exceptions, for beech sometimes covers a whole
+mountain side, as Slide Mountain in the Catskills, and aspens come in
+over a wide area after a fire; but later other trees creep in until at
+length it becomes a mixed forest.
+
+The essential facts of the relation of trees to each other in the
+forest has been clearly stated by Gifford Pinchot thus:[1]
+
+    The history of the life of a forest is a story of the help and
+    harm which trees receive from one another. On one side every
+    tree is engaged in a relentless struggle against its neighbors
+    for light, water and food, the three things trees need most.
+    On the other side each tree is constantly working with all its
+    neighbors, even those which stand at some distance, to bring
+    about the best condition of the soil and air for the growth
+    and fighting power of every other tree.
+
+The trees in a forest help each other by enriching the soil in which
+they stand with their fallen leaves and twigs, which are not quickly
+blown or washed away as are those under a tree in the open. This
+collection of "duff" or "the forest floor" retains the moisture about
+their roots, and this moist mass tends to keep the temperature of the
+forest warmer in winter and cooler in summer. The forest cover, Fig.
+55, p. 212, consisting largely of foliage, has the same effect, and in
+addition protects the bark, the roots, and the seedlings of the trees
+from the direct and continuous hot rays of the sun. Without the shade
+of the leaves, many trees, as white pine, would quickly die, as
+may readily be seen by transplanting them to the open. The mass of
+standing trees tempers the force of the wind, which might overthrow
+some of them, and hinders the drying up of the duff.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 70. Shallow Roots of Hemlock. Bronx Park, New
+York, N. Y.]
+
+But trees hinder as well as help each other. There is a constant
+struggle between them for nourishment and light. To get food and
+water, some trees, as spruces and hemlocks, Fig. 70, spread their
+roots out flat; others, as oak and pine, send down a deep tap root.
+Those succeed in any environment that find the nourishment they need.
+Still more evident is the struggle for light and air. However well a
+tree is nourished thru its roots, unless its leaves have an abundance
+of light and air it will not thrive and make wood.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 71. Long-bodied White Oak of the Forest. _U. S.
+Forest Service._]
+
+Even the trees most tolerant of shade in youth, like spruce, must have
+light later or perish, and hence in a forest there is the constant
+upward reach. This produces the characteristic "long-bodied" trunk of
+the forest tree, Fig. 71, in contrast to the "short-bodied" tree of
+the open, where the branches reach out in all directions, Fig. 72.
+In this constant struggle for existence is involved the persistent
+attempt of scattered seeds to sprout whenever there is an opening. The
+result is that a typical forest is one in which all sizes and ages
+of trees grow together. Scattered among these are bushes and scrubby
+trees, called "forest weeds," such as mountain maple and dogwood, Fig.
+80, p. 234, which do not produce timber.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 72. Short-bodied White Oak of the Open. Fort Lee,
+N. J.]
+
+By foresters the trees themselves are classified according to their
+size into:
+
+Seedlings, less than 3' high,
+Saplings,
+  Small, 3'-10' high.
+  Large, 4" in diameter, at breast height (4' 6").
+Poles,
+  Small, 4"-8" in diameter, at breast height.
+  Large, 8"-12" in diameter, at breast height.
+  Standards, 1'-2' in diameter, at breast height.
+  Veterans, over 2' in diameter, at breast height.
+
+Every age has its own dangers. Many seeds never germinate, many
+seedlings perish because they do not reach soil, or are killed by
+too much or too little moisture, or by heat or cold, or shade. At the
+sapling age, the side branches begin to interfere with those of other
+saplings. Buds are bruised and lower branches broken by thrashing in
+the wind, and their leaves have less light. Only the upper branches
+have room and light, and they flourish at the expense of lower ones,
+which gradually die and are thus pruned off. Some trees naturally
+grow faster than others, and they attain additional light and room
+to spread laterally, thus overtopping others which are suppressed and
+finally killed, beaten in the race for life.
+
+If the growth should remain about even so that the trees grew densely
+packed together, the whole group would be likely to be of a poorer
+quality, but ordinarily the few outgrow the many and they are called
+dominant trees. Even then, they still have to struggle against their
+neighbors, and at this, the large sapling stage, many perish, and of
+those that survive there are great differences in size. Trees make
+their most rapid growth in height, and lay on the widest yearly
+"rings," at the large sapling and small pole age, Fig. 114, p. 263. It
+is at this stage, too, if the growth is at all dense, that the young
+trees (poles) clean themselves most thoroly of their branches. The
+growth in diameter continues to the end of the tree's life, long after
+the height growth has ceased.
+
+When trees become "standards," and reach the limit of height growth,
+thru their inability to raise water to their tops, their branches
+must perforce grow sidewise, or not at all. The struggle for life thus
+takes a new form.
+
+How trees are able to raise water as high as they do is still
+unexplained, but we know that the chief reason why some trees grow
+taller than others, is due to their ability to raise water. The most
+remarkable in this respect are the California redwoods, the big trees,
+and certain eucalypts in Australia. This inability of trees to grow
+above a certain height results in a flattening of the crown, Fig. 73,
+and at this stage, the trees struggle against each other by crowding
+at the side.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 73. Flattened Crown of Red Pine. _U.S. Forest
+Service._]
+
+Inasmuch as trees grow more sensitive to shade with advancing age, the
+taller trees have the advantage. Each survivor is one of a thousand,
+and has outlived the others because it is best fitted for the place.
+
+This fact has its effect upon the next generation, because it is these
+dominant surviving trees which bear seed most abundantly. After the
+tree has finished growing in height and diameter most vigorously--the
+pole stage--and proved to be fitted for the place, its energy is
+largely spent in raising seed. As this process goes on generation
+after generation, only the best coming to maturity in each, the poorer
+sorts are sifted out, and each region and continent has those species
+best fitted to meet the conditions of life there.
+
+This is the reason why exotics are very likely to be sensitive and
+perhaps succumb to influences to which native trees are immune.
+
+Standards and veterans are the survivors of all the lower stages,
+each of which has had its especial dangers. If left alone, the tree
+gradually dies and at last falls and decays, adding somewhat to the
+fertility of the forest soil. From the point of view of human use, it
+would far better have been cut when ripe and turned into lumber. It
+is a mistake to suppose that the natural virgin forest is the best
+possible forest, and that it should therefore be left alone. In the
+National Forests the ripe lumber is sold and a considerable revenue
+is thus available. But nature's way with the dead tree is to use it
+to produce more life. How she does so will be explained in the next
+chapter, on the enemies of the forest.
+
+    [Footnote 1: Gifford Pinchot, _Primer of Forestry_, p. 44.]
+
+
+THE FOREST ORGANISM.
+
+REFERENCES:[A]
+
+Pinchot, _For. Bull._ No. 24, I, pp. 25-66.
+Bruncken, pp. 13-31.
+_For. Circ._ No. 36, p. 8.
+Fernow, _Economics_, pp. 140-164.
+
+    [Footnote A: For general bibliography, see p. 4]
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER VI.
+
+NATURAL ENEMIES OF THE FOREST.
+
+
+The natural enemies of the forest--as distinct from its human
+enemies--fall into three groups: (1) Meteorological, (2) Vegetable,
+(3) Animal.
+
+
+METEOROLOGICAL FORCES.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 74. Effect of Wind, July, 1902, Cass County,
+Minnesota. _U. S. Forest Service._]
+
+_Wind._ "Windfalls" are not an uncommon sight in any forest.
+Frequently only small areas are blown down, one large tree upsetting a
+few others, or again a vast region is destroyed by great storms, Fig.
+74. An area of many square miles in Florida covered with long-leaf
+pine was thus destroyed several years ago. The "slash" thus formed,
+when well dried, is particularly liable to catch fire and burn
+furiously. Windfalls are especially common among shallow-rooted trees,
+as hemlock, basswood and spruce, on sandy soil and on shallow soil
+underlaid with solid stone, especially where open spaces give the wind
+free sweep. It follows that an unbroken forest is a great protection
+to itself. The only precautions against wind therefore, that can be
+taken by the forester, are to keep the forest unbroken by selecting
+only the larger trees for felling or to cut down a given tract by
+beginning at the side opposite the direction of prevailing storms and
+working toward them.
+
+In sandy regions, the wind does immense harm by blowing the sand to
+and fro in constantly shifting dunes, Figs. 75 and 76. These dunes
+occupy long stretches of the Atlantic coast and the shore of Lake
+Michigan. Such dunes have been estimated to cover 20,000 square miles
+of Europe. Along the Bay of Biscay in France, the sand dunes formerly
+drifted in ridges along the shore, damming up the streams and
+converting what was once a forest into a pestilential marsh. This
+region has been reclaimed at great expense by building fences along
+the shore to break the wind and thus keep the moving sand within
+limits. In this way a million acres of productive forest have been
+obtained.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 75. Sand-dunes, Cape May, New Jersey. _U.S. Forest
+Service._]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 76. Sand-dune. Oregon. _U.S. Forest Service._]
+
+On the other hand winds are beneficial to the forest in scattering
+seeds, weeding out weak trees, and developing strength in tree trunks.
+
+_Drouth_ both injures the foliage of trees and causes defects in the
+grain of wood, the latter appearing as "false rings." These arise
+from the effort of the tree to resume growth when the water supply is
+restored. See p. 19.
+
+_Water._ Certain trees have become accustomed to living in much water,
+as cedar and cypress have in swamps, and certain trees have become
+accustomed to periodical floods, but other trees are killed by much
+water. So when lumbermen make a pond which overflows forest land, the
+trees soon die, Fig. 77.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 77. Effect of Flooding. First Connecticut Lake,
+New Hampshire. _U. S. Forest Service._]
+
+_Lightning_ frequently blasts single trees, and in dry seasons may set
+fire to forests. This is a much more important factor in the west than
+in the east,--in the Rockies, for instance, where there are electrical
+storms without rain.
+
+_Fires_ will be considered later under man's relation to the forest.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 78. Slim Trees Bent Over by Snow; Stouter Trees
+Unharmed. Zurich, Switzerland. _U. S. Forest Service._]
+
+_Snow and ice_ often bring serious harm to saplings by permanently
+bending them over, Fig. 78, or by breaking off tops and branches.
+
+_Frost_ kills young plants; and sudden changes in temperature
+seriously affect grown timber, producing "frost checks" and "wind
+shakes." When there is a sudden fall in temperature, the outside
+layers of the tree, which are full of sap, contract more rapidly than
+the inner portions, with the result that the tree splits with a sudden
+pistol-like report, the check running radially up and down the tree.
+This is called a "frost check" or "star shake," Fig. 41._a_, p. 47,
+and such wounds rarely heal, Fig. 79.
+
+On the other hand when the temperature rapidly rises, the outside
+layers of the tree expand so much more rapidly than the inside, that
+they separate with a dull muffled chug, the check extending in a
+circular direction following the annual rings. Such checks are often
+called "wind shakes" and "cup shakes," Fig. 41._c_, p. 47. These
+injuries are found in regions where sudden changes of temperature
+occur, rather than in the tropics or in very cold climates.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 79. Contraction Frost Check. _U. S. Forest
+Service._]
+
+
+VEGETABLE ENEMIES.
+
+Under this head may be classed, in addition to fungi, a number of
+unrelated plants, including such as: moosewood and dogwood, Fig. 80,
+which crowd out young trees; vines, like bitter-sweet, which wind
+about trees and often choke them by pressure, cutting thru the bark
+and cambium; saprophytes, which smother the foliage of trees, of
+which Spanish moss, Fig. 47, p. 201, is an example; and finally such
+parasites as the mistletoes, which weaken and deform the trees.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 80. A "Forest Weed," Flowering Dogwood. North
+Carolina. _U.S. Forest Service._]
+
+The most important of the vegetable enemies of trees are fungi. It
+should be remembered, however, that, without the decay produced by
+them, the fallen trees would soon cover the ground, and prevent any
+new growth, thus destroying the natural forest.
+
+Every tree, as has been noted (p. 17), is composed of two parts, one
+part, including leaves, young branches, roots and sap-wood, living,
+and the other part, namely, the heart-wood, practically dead.
+
+Fungi that attack the live parts of a tree are called parasites,
+while those that live on dead trunks and branches are designated as
+saprophytes. The line, however, between these two classes of fungi is
+not well defined, since some parasites live on both living and dead
+wood. The parasites are of first importance, for, since they kill many
+trees, they control to a large extent the supply of living timber.
+
+Nearly all parasitic fungi have two portions, an external fruiting
+portion which bears the spores--which correspond to the seeds of
+flowering plants--and an internal portion consisting of a tangle of
+threads or filaments, which ramify the tissues of the tree and whose
+function is to absorb nutriment for the fungus. Fungi are classified
+botanically according to the spore-bearing bodies, their form, color,
+etc.
+
+The parasitic fungi which are especially destructive to wood are
+those that have naked spores growing on exposed fruiting surfaces (the
+_Hymenomycetes_). In toadstools (the _agarics_) these exposed surfaces
+are thin, flat plates called gills. In the polypores, which include
+the shelf fungi, the spore surfaces are tubes whose openings
+constitute the pores. In the dry-rot, or tear fungus (_Merulius
+lacrymans_), the spore surfaces are shallow cavities.
+
+Some varieties, called _true_ parasites, develop in uninjured trees,
+while others, called _wound_ parasites, can penetrate the tissues of
+trees, only where a cut or injury makes a suitable lodgment for the
+spores. Some fungi attack only a single species of trees, others whole
+genera; some attack only conifers, others deciduous trees, while a few
+attack trees of nearly all kinds alike.
+
+Fungal spores when brought in contact with a wound on a tree or other
+suitable place, and provided with suitable conditions of growth,
+germinate, penetrate the tissues and grow very rapidly. These spores
+send out long threads or filaments which run thru the cells lengthwise
+and also pierce them in all directions, soon forming a network in the
+wood called the mycelium.
+
+Rotting, in a large number of cases, is due to the ravages of fungi.
+This sometimes shows in the color, as the "red rot" of pine or the
+"bluing" of ash. Sometimes as in "pecky" or "peggy" cypress, the
+decayed tracts are tubular. More commonly the decayed parts are of
+irregular shape.
+
+The decay of wood is due to the ravages of low forms of plant life,
+both bacteria and fungi.
+
+A few of the more destructive forms may be noted.
+
+    _Trametes pini_ (Brot.) Fr. Foremost among the timber
+    destroying fungi is the large brown "punk" or "conch" found in
+    its typical development on the long-leaf and short-leaf pines,
+    _Pinus palustris_ and _Pinus echinata_, Fig. 81. The
+    fruiting bodies form large masses which grow out from a knot,
+    oftentimes as large as a child's head. They are cinnamon brown
+    on the lower surface, and much fissured and broken, on the
+    black charcoal-like upper surface. This fungus probably causes
+    four-fifths of the destruction brought about by the timber
+    destroying fungi. It occurs on most of the conifers in the
+    United States which have any value as lumber trees, and brings
+    about a characteristic white spotting of the wood, Fig. 82,
+    which varies with the kind of tree attacked. (Von Schrenk,
+    _Agric. Yr. Bk._, 1900, p. 206.)
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 81. A "Conch," the fruiting body of _Trametes
+pini_, on Sugar Pine. [_Agric. Year Book, 1900_, Pl. XXII, Fig. 2.]]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 82. Effect of Fungus. (_Trametes pini._) _U. S.
+Dept. Agric._]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 83. "Shelf" Fungus on Pine. _a._ Sound wood; _b._
+Resinous "light" wood; _c._ Partly decayed wood or punk; _d._ Layer of
+living spore tubes; _e._ Old filled-up spore tubes; _f._ Fluted upper
+surface of the fruiting body of the fungus, which gets its food thru
+a great number of fine threads (the mycelium), its vegetative tissue
+penetrating the wood and causing its decay. [_After Hartig._]]
+
+Of the shelf fungi, which project like brackets from the stems of
+trees, and have their pores on their under surfaces, one of the
+commonest in many localities is the yellow cheese-like _Polyporus
+sulphureus_, Fig. 83. This is found on oak, poplar, willow, larch, and
+other standing timber.
+
+    Its spawnlike threads spread from any exposed portion of
+    cambium into the pith-rays and between the annual rings,
+    forming thick layers of yellowish-white felt, and penetrating
+    the vessels of the wood, which thereupon becomes a deep brown
+    color and decays.
+
+Of the umbrella-shaped gill-bearing fungi, a yellow toadstool, called
+the honey mushroom (_Agaricus melleus_), is a good example, Fig. 84.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 84. Honey Mushroom. _Agaricus melleus._ 1. Cluster
+of small sporophores. 2. Larger sporophore with root-like organ of
+attachment. _Forestry Bulletin 22._ Plate XII, Figs. 1 and 2.]
+
+    This fungus, of common occurrence in the United States as well
+    as in Europe, is exceedingly destructive to coniferous trees,
+    the white pine in particular suffering greatly from its
+    attacks. It also fastens upon various deciduous species as a
+    parasite, attacking living trees of all ages, but living as
+    well upon dead roots and stumps and on wood that has been cut
+    and worked up, occurring frequently on bridges, railroad
+    ties, and the like, and causing prompt decay wherever it has
+    effected an entrance. The most conspicuous part of the fungus
+    is found frequently in the summer and fall on the diseased
+    parts of the tree or timber infested by it. It is one of the
+    common toadstools, this particular species being recognized by
+    its yellowish color, gills extending downward upon the stem,
+    which is encircled a little lower down by a ring, and by its
+    habit of growing in tufts or little clumps of several or many
+    individuals together. It is also particularly distinguished by
+    the formation of slender, dark-colored strings, consisting of
+    compact mycelium, from which the fruiting parts just described
+    arise. These hard root-like strings (called rhizomorphs)
+    extend along just beneath the surface of the ground, often
+    a distance of several feet, and penetrate the roots of sound
+    trees. By carefully removing the bark from a root thus invaded
+    the fungus is seen in the form of a dense, nearly white,
+    mass of mycelium, which, as the parts around decay, gradually
+    produces again the rhizomorphs already described. These
+    rhizomorphs are a characteristic part of the fungus. Occurring
+    both in the decayed wood from which they spread to the
+    adjacent parts, and extending in the soil from root to root,
+    they constitute a most effective agency in the extension of
+    the disease. * * *
+
+    External symptoms, to be observed especially in young
+    specimens recently attacked, consist in a change of the leaves
+    to a pale sickly color and often the production of short
+    stunted shoots. A still more marked symptom is the formation
+    of great quantities of resin, which flow downward thru the
+    injured parts and out into the ground. (_Forestry Bulletin_
+    No. 22, p. 51.)
+
+Of the irregular shaped fungi, one of the most destructive is a
+true parasite, _i.e._, one that finds lodgment without help, called
+_Polyporus annosus_ and also _Trametes radiciperda_, Fig. 85. It is
+peculiar in developing its fructifications on the exterior of
+roots, beneath the soil. Its pores appear on the upper side of the
+fructifications. It attacks only conifers.
+
+    Its spores, which can be readily conveyed in the fur of mice
+    or other burrowing animals, germinate in the moisture around
+    the roots: the fine threads of "spawn" penetrate the cortex,
+    and spread thru and destroy the cambium, extending in thin,
+    flat, fan-like, white, silky bands, and, here and there,
+    bursting thru the cortex in white, oval cushions, on which the
+    subterranean fructifications are produced. Each of these is
+    a yellowish-white, felt-like mass, with its outer surface
+    covered with crowded minute tubes or "pores" in which the
+    spores are produced. The wood attacked by this fungus first
+    becomes rosy or purple, then turns yellowish, and then
+    exhibits minute black dots, which surround themselves with
+    extending soft white patches. (Boulger, p. 73.)
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 85. 1. Stump of Norway Spruce, with a sporophore
+of _polyporus annosus_ several years old; the inner portions of the
+stump wholly decayed.
+
+2. Roots of a diseased spruce tree, with numerous small sporophores
+of _polyporus annosus_ attached. _Forestry Bulletin 22_, Plate XIII,
+Figs. 1 and 2.]
+
+Of the fungi which attack converted timber, the most important is "dry
+rot" or "tear fungus" (_Merulius lachrymans_), Fig. 86. It flourishes
+on damp wood in still air, especially around stables and ill
+ventilated cellars. It gets its name lachrymans (weeping) from its
+habit of dripping moisture.
+
+    The fungus destroys the substance of the timber, lessening its
+    weight and causing it to warp and crack; until at length it
+    crumbles up when dry into a fine brown powder, or, readily
+    absorbing any moisture in its neighborhood, becomes a soft,
+    cheese-like mass. * * * Imperfectly seasoned timber is most
+    susceptible to dry rot: the fungus can be spread either by its
+    spawn or by spores, and these latter can be carried even by
+    the clothes or saws of workmen, and are, of course, only too
+    likely to reach sound wood if diseased timber is left about
+    near it; but on the other hand dry timber kept dry is proof
+    against dry rot, and exposure to really dry air is fatal to
+    the fungus. (Boulger, p. 75.)
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 86. Portion of the mycelium of dry rot or tear
+fungus, _Merulius lachrymans_. This cakelike mass spreads over the
+surface of the timber. In a moist environment pellucid drops or
+"tears" distil from its lower surface: Hence its name. [Ward:
+_Timber_; Fig. 21.]]
+
+About all that can be done to protect the forest against fungi is to
+keep it clean, that is, to clear out fallen timber and slash, and in
+some cases to dig trenches around affected trees to prevent spreading
+or to cut them out and destroy them. Such methods have heretofore been
+too expensive to employ in any ordinary American forest, but the time
+is at hand when such action will prove profitable in many localities.
+
+For the preservation of cut timber from decay, several methods are
+used. Fungi need heat, air, moisture and food. If any one of these is
+lacking the fungus cannot grow. Air and heat are hard to exclude from
+wood, but moisture and food can be kept from fungi. The removal of
+moisture is called seasoning, and the poisoning of the food of fungi
+is a process of impregnating wood with certain chemicals. Both these
+processes are described in _Handwork in Wood_, Chapter III.
+
+
+ANIMAL ENEMIES.
+
+The larger animals working damage to our forests are chiefly rodents
+and grazing animals. Beavers gnaw the bark, while mice and squirrels
+rob the forest of seed and consequently of new trees. The acorns of
+white oak are particularly liable to be devoured because of their
+sweetness, while those of red and black oak, which afford timber of
+comparatively little value, are allowed to sprout, and thus come to
+possess the land. Hogs annually consume enormous quantities of "mast,"
+_i.e._, acorns or other nuts, by pasturing in oak and other forests.
+They, together with goats and sheep, Figs. 87 and 88, deer and cattle,
+work harm by trampling and browsing. Browsing destroys the tender
+shoots, especially of deciduous trees, but trampling entirely kills
+out the seedlings. The cutting up of the soil by the sharp cleft hoofs
+injures the forest floor, by pulverizing it and allowing it to be
+readily washed away by storms until deforestation may result, as was
+the case in France after the Revolution. It has cost the French people
+from thirty to forty million dollars to repair the damage begun by the
+sheep. In this country, this matter has become a very serious one
+on the Pacific Coast, where there are enormous flocks of sheep, and
+therefore the government is trying to regulate the grazing on public
+lands there, especially on steep slopes, where erosion takes place
+rapidly.[1]
+
+    [Footnote 1: The evils of grazing are increased by the fact
+    that fires are sometimes started intentionally in order to
+    increase the area of grazing land.]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 87. Goats Eating Foliage, New Mexico. _U.S. Forest
+Service._]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 88. Sheep Grazing in Forest, Idaho. _U.S. Forest
+Service._]
+
+The most destructive animal enemies of the forest are the insects.
+The average annual loss of trees in the United States from this cause
+alone has been estimated to be one hundred million dollars.
+
+Insects have two objects in their attack on trees, one is to obtain
+food, as when they are in the larval stage, and the other is to
+provide for offspring, as do certain beetles.
+
+The number of insect enemies of the forest is enormous. At the St.
+Louis Exposition, there were on exhibit nearly three hundred such
+insects. These belong to some twenty orders, of which the beetles
+(_Coleoptera_), which have horny wings and biting mouth parts, and
+the moths and butterflies (_Lepidoptera_), with membraneous wings and
+sucking mouth parts, are the most destructive. Insects attack every
+part of the tree, the seed, the shoot, the flower, the root, the leaf,
+the bark and the wood, both standing and cut.
+
+Of the fruit and seed pests, the most destructive are weevils, worms
+and gall insects.
+
+Of the twig and shoot pests, beetles, weevils and caterpillars are the
+worst.
+
+Among insects that attack roots, the periodical cicada (17 year old
+locust) may be noted.
+
+The leaf pests are far more serious. They include the true and false
+caterpillars, moths, gall insects and plant lice.
+
+Of the bark pests, the bark beetles are the most destructive. These
+are also called Engraver Beetles from the smoothly cut figures which
+are their burrows under the bark, Figs. 89, 90, 91.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 89. Work of the Spruce Destroying Beetle: _a._
+Primary gallery; _b._ Borings packed in side; _c._ Entrance and
+central burrow thru the packed borings; _d._ Larval mines. Note how
+the eggs are grouped on the sides. [_Agric. Year Book_, 1902, Fig. 24,
+p. 268.]]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 90. Complete brood Galleries of the Hickory Bark
+Beetle in Surface of Wood. [_Agric. Year Book_, 1903, Fig. 28, p.
+316.]]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 91. Brood Galleries of the Oak Bark Beetle,
+showing Character of Primary Gallery at _b_; Larval or Brood Mines at
+_a._ [_Agric. Year Book_, 1903, Fig. 30, page 318.]]
+
+    Many pairs of beetles make a simultaneous attack on the lower
+    half of the main trunk of medium-sized to large trees. They
+    bore thru the outer bark to the inner living portion, and thru
+    the inner layers of the latter; they excavate long, irregular,
+    longitudinal galleries, and along the sides of these at
+    irregular intervals, numerous eggs are closely placed. The
+    eggs soon hatch and the larvae at once commence to feed on the
+    inner bark, and as they increase in size, extend and enlarge
+    their food burrows in a general transverse but irregular
+    course, away from the mother galleries (see illustration).
+    When these young and larval forms are full grown, each
+    excavates a cavity or cell at the end of its burrow and next
+    to the outer corky bark. (Hopkins, _Agric. Yr. Bk._, 1902.)
+
+Some of the species attack living trees, causing their rapid death,
+and are among the most destructive enemies of American forests.
+
+All of the above indirectly affect both the quantity and quality
+of the wood supply. They can be studied more in detail in the
+publications of the U.S. Bureau of Entomology.
+
+Of the insects directly attacking wood, the most important are the
+ambrosia or timber beetles, the borers, the ants, and the carpenter
+bees. The most remarkable feature of the beetle is the manner of its
+boring into the harder parts of the wood. Its jaws are particularly
+constructed for this work, being heavy and strong. The boring is
+done something after the manner of countersinking, and the jaws are
+believed to be self-sharpening, by reason of the peculiar right to
+left and left to right motion.
+
+    _Ambrosia_ or _timber beetles_, Fig. 92. This class of insects
+    attacks living, dead, and felled trees, sawlogs, green lumber,
+    and stave-bolts, often causing serious injury and loss from
+    the pin-hole and stained-wood defects caused by their brood
+    galleries. The galleries are excavated by the parent beetles
+    in the sound sap-wood sometimes extending into the heart-wood,
+    and the young stages feed on a fungus growth which grows on
+    the walls of galleries. (Hopkins, Entom. Bulletin No. 48, p.
+    10.) The growth of this ambrosia-like fungus is induced or
+    controlled by the parent beetles and the young are dependent
+    on it for food. (Hopkins, _Agric. Yr. Bk._, 1904.)
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 92. Work of Ambrosia Beetle, _Xyloborus celsus_,
+in Hickory Wood: _a_, Larva; _b_, Pupa; _c_, Adult beetle; _d_,
+Character of work in lumber cut from injured log; _e_, Bark; _f_, Sap
+wood; _g_, Heartwood. [_Agric. Year Book_, 1904, Fig. 44, p. 384.]]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 93. Work of Ambrosia Beetles in Oak: _a_,
+_Monarthum mali_, and work; _b_, _Platypus compositus_, and work; _c_,
+Bark; _d_, Sap-wood; _e_, Heart-wood; _f_, Character of work in lumber
+from injured log. [_Agric. Year Book_, 1904, Fig. 45, p. 384.]]
+
+    There are two general types or classes of these galleries, one
+    in which the broods develop together in the main burrows, the
+    other, in which the individuals develop in short separate side
+    chambers extending at right angles from the primary gallery,
+    Fig. 93. The galleries of the latter type are usually
+    accompanied by a distinct staining of the wood, while those of
+    the former are not. (Hopkins, _Agric. Yr. Bk._, 1904, p. 383.)
+
+    _Bark_ and _wood borers_, Fig. 94. This class of enemies
+    differs from the preceding in the fact that the parent beetles
+    do not burrow into the wood or bark, but deposit their eggs
+    on the surface. The elongate, whitish, round-headed
+    (_Cerambycid_), flat-headed (_Buprestid_), or short, stout
+    (_Curculionid_) grubs hatching from these eggs cause injury
+    by burrowing beneath the bark, or deep into the sap-wood and
+    heart-wood of living, injured and dead trees, sawlogs, etc.
+    Some of the species infest living trees, Fig. 95, causing
+    serious injury or death. Others attack only dead or dying bark
+    and wood, but this injury often results in great loss from the
+    so-called wormhole defects. (A. D. Hopkins, _Entom. Bull._, No.
+    48, p. 10.)
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 94. Work of Round-Headed and Flat-Headed Borers
+in Pine: _a_, Work of round-headed borers, "sawyer," _Monohamnus_
+sp.; _b_, _Ergates spiculatus_; _c_, Work of flat-headed borer,
+_Buprestis_, larva and adult. [_Agric. Year Book_, 1904, Fig. 46, p.
+385.]]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 95. Hemlock Killed by Buprestid Worms. Hoquiam,
+Washington. _U.S. Forest Service._]
+
+    The pine sawyers are among the most troublesome pests in the
+    mill yard, and their large, white larvae often do much damage
+    to logs by eating great holes thru their solid interior. While
+    burrowing in the wood the larvae make a peculiar grating sound
+    that may be heard on quiet nights at a considerable distance.
+    This is a familiar sound in the lumber camps of the North,
+    and has probably given rise to the name of the pine sawyers by
+    which these insects are known. (_Forestry Bulletin_, No. 22,
+    p. 58.)
+
+    _Powder-post beetles_, Fig. 96. This is a class of insects
+    representing two or three families of beetles, the larvae of
+    which infest and convert into fine powder many different kinds
+    of dry and seasoned wood products, such as hickory and ash
+    handles, wagon spokes, lumber, etc., when wholly or in part
+    from the sap-wood of trees. Oak and hemlock tan-bark is
+    sometimes injured to a great extent, and the structural
+    timbers of old houses, barns, etc., are often seriously
+    injured, while hop poles and like products are attacked by one
+    set of these insects, the adults of which burrow into the wood
+    for the purpose of depositing their eggs. (Hopkins, _Forestry
+    Bulletin_ No. 48, p. 11.)
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 96. Work of Powder Post Beetle, _Sinoxylon
+basilare_, in hickory pole: _a_, Character of work by larvae; _b_,
+Exit holes made by emerging broods. [_Agric. Year Book_, 1904, Fig.
+49.]]
+
+    _Timber worms_, Fig. 97. This class of true wood-boring
+    "worms," or grubs, are the larvae of beetles. They enter the
+    wood from eggs deposited in wounds in living trees, from
+    which they burrow deep into the heart-wood. Generation after
+    generation may develop in the wood of a tree without affecting
+    its life but the wood is rendered worthless for most purposes
+    by the so-called wormhole and pinhole defects resulting from
+    their burrows. The same species also breed in the wood of
+    dying and dead standing trees, and in the stumps and logs of
+    felled ones, often for many years after the trees are felled.
+    One species sometimes attacks freshly sawed oak lumber, new
+    stave bolts, etc. They are among the most destructive enemies
+    of hardwood forest trees, especially in reducing the value of
+    the wood of the best part of the trunks. (Hopkins, _Forestry
+    Bulletin_ No. 48, p. 10.)
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 97. Work of Timber Worms in Oak: _a_, Work of oak
+timber worm, _Eupsalis minuta_; _b._ Barked surface; _c._ Bark;
+_d._ Sap-wood timber worm, _Hylocaetus lugubris_, and its work; _e._
+Sap-wood. [_Agric. Year Book_, 1904, Fig. 47, p. 386.]]
+
+    The _carpenter worms_, Fig. 98. These are large pinkish
+    caterpillars which are the larvae of stout-bodied moths. They
+    enter the bark and wood of living oak, locust, poplar and
+    other trees, from eggs deposited by the moths in the crevices
+    of uninjured bark, or in the edges of wounds. They burrow deep
+    into the solid wood, where they live for two or three years
+    before transforming to the adult. The wood is seriously
+    injured by the very large wormhole defects, and while the
+    life of the tree is but slightly, if at all, affected by the
+    earlier attacks, the continued operations of this class of
+    borers year after year, finally results in the decay of
+    the heart-wood, or a hollow trunk and a dead top. (Hopkins,
+    _Forestry Bulletin_, No. 48, p. 11.)
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 98. Worm Holes in Red Oak, Work of the Oak
+Carpenter Worm. [_Agric. Year Book_, 1903, Fig. 37, p. 324.]]
+
+    _Columbian Timber-beetle_ One of the commonest wormhole defects
+    in white oak, rock oak, beech, and tulip ("whitewood" or
+    "yellow poplar") is one known to the lumber trade as grease
+    spots, patch-worm, or black holes, Fig. 99, steam boats, Fig.
+    100, etc., caused by the Columbian timber beetle (_Corthylus
+    columbianus Hopk_.) The characteristic feature of this
+    wormhole defect, which will enable it to be readily recognized
+    in oak and beech, is transverse series of two or more black
+    holes about the size of the lead in an ordinary lead pencil,
+    with a streak of stained wood extending with the grain two
+    or three or more inches each side, as in Fig. 99. In
+    quarter-sawed oak or split or sawed staves, a short
+    longitudinal section of one of these black holes is seen
+    attended by the stained streak on one side of a thick or curly
+    growth or grain, Fig. 100. It is this form which is called
+    "steamboats." In whitewood (yellow poplar) the black holes
+    are attended by very long black, greenish, or bluish streaks,
+    sometimes five or six feet long. When this is common in the
+    lumber it is called "calico poplar." Fig. 101 represents the
+    characteristic appearance of this defect greatly reduced.
+    (Hopkins, _Agric. Yr. Bk._, 1903, p. 327.)
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 99. Work of the Columbian Timber Beetle: Black
+holes and "grease spots" in white oak. [_Agric. Year Book_, 1903, Fig.
+38, p. 325.]]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 100. Work of the Columbian Timber Beetle:
+"Steamboats" in quartered or Split white oak. [_Agric. Year Book_,
+1903, Fig. 39, p. 326.]]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 101. Work of the Columbian Timber Beetle in Tulip
+Wood, "Calico Poplar," [_Agric. Year Book_ 1903, Fig. 40, p. 326.]]
+
+    _Carpenter bees._ The work of this class of woodboring bees
+    is shown in Fig. 102. The injury consists of large augerlike
+    tunnels in exposed, solid dry wood of buildings and other
+    structures. It is most common in soft woods, such as pine,
+    poplar, redwood and the like. (Hopkins, _Agric. Yr. Bk._,
+    1904, p. 390.)
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 102. Work of the Carpenter Bee, _Xylocopa
+orpifex_, in Redwood Lumber: _a_, entrance; _b_, galleries; _c_,
+cells; _d_, larva; _e_, adult. [_Agric. Year Book_, 1904, Fig. 53, p.
+390.]]
+
+    _Horn tails._ This is a class of borers which are the larvae
+    of the so-called wood wasps. They may enter the exposed dead
+    wood of wounds of living trees, but more commonly attack the
+    wood of dead standing conifers and hard woods, in the sap-wood
+    of which they excavate irregular burrows, which are packed
+    with their borings. When the adults emerge they leave the
+    surface perforated with numerous round holes. Water and fungi
+    entering these holes cause a very rapid decay of the wood.
+    (Hopkins, _Entom. Bull._ No. 48, p. 11.)
+
+The tunnels of these various wood pests are most frequently to be seen
+in chestnut, ash, hickory, oak, tulip, and cypress.
+
+One would think that with such an array of enemies, the forest would
+hardly survive, but on the other hand there are many enemies of these
+pests. The most destructive are the predaceous and parasitic insects.
+Many insects are simply predaceous, pouncing upon and destroying such
+other insects as they can overcome. Still others are parasites, some
+external, but most of them living within the bodies of their victims
+where they pass their entire larval life. The eggs are laid on or
+in the body of the victim, so that as soon as one hatches, it has
+suitable food. The ichneumon fly, Fig. 103, is such a parasite;
+it destroys millions of insect pests. It has a long and peculiar
+ovipositor with which it drills a hole into the tree and deposits the
+egg in a burrow of the Pigeon Horntail, a wood wasp that burrows into
+deciduous trees. The larva soon finds its victim, the grub of the
+Pigeon Horntail, and lives on it to its destruction.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 103. Ichneumon Fly whose Larva Feeds on the Larva
+of the Pigeon Horn-tail.]
+
+It would seem that it is a hopeless task to control the insect enemies
+of forest trees and forest products or to prevent losses from their
+ravages, but the writer is informed by Dr. A. D. Hopkins, the expert
+in the Bureau of Entomology in charge of forest insect investigations,
+that the results of their investigations show conclusively that there
+are many practical and inexpensive methods of control now available
+thru the suggestions and recommendations in recent Department
+publications on forest insects, as well as thru direct correspondence
+with the Department. These methods are based on the principle of
+prevention and not on that of extermination. It has been shown that
+thru proper adjustment of the details in management of forests and of
+the business of manufacturing, storing, transporting, and utilizing
+the products a large percentage of the losses can be prevented at
+small additional expense, and that even when considerable cost is
+involved the amount saved will often represent a handsome profit.
+
+
+THE NATURAL ENEMIES OF THE FOREST.
+
+REFERENCES:[A]
+
+(1) Meterological.
+
+      Pinchot, _Primer_ I, pp. 75-76.
+      Roth, _First Book_, _pp._ 198-202.
+      Bruncken, pp. 27-29.
+
+    Water.
+      Roth, _First Book_, p. 27.
+
+    Snow, ice and frost.
+      Pinchot, _Primer_, I, p. 76.
+      Bruce, _For. and Irr._, 8: 159, Ap. '02.
+
+
+(2) Vegetable.
+
+      Roth, _First Book_, p. 4.
+      Boulger, pp. 70-75.
+      Spaulding, _For. Bull._, No. 22.
+      Ward, Chaps. V, VI, VII.
+      Sickles, pp. 41-45.
+      von Schrenck, _For. Bull._, No. 41, Pl. III.
+      Sherfesee. _For. Circ._ No. 139.
+      von Schrenck, _Bur. Plant Ind. Bull._ No. 36.
+      von Schrenck, _Bur. Plant Ind. Bull._ No. 32.
+      von Schrenck, _Agric. Yr. Bk._, 1900, p. 199.
+
+
+(3) Animal.
+
+    Grazing.
+      Pinchot, _Primer I_, pp. 69-73, II, p. 73.
+      Pinchot, _Agric. Yr. Bk._, 1898, p. 187
+      Coville, _For. Bull._ No. 15, pp. 28-31.
+      Roth, _First Bk._, p. 130, 178.
+
+    Insects.
+      Comstock, passim.
+      Hopkins, _Agric. Yr. Bk._, 1902, pp. 265-282.
+      Roth, _First Book_, pp. 115-130.
+      Howard, _Entom. Bull._, No. 11, n. s.
+      Hopkins, Spaulding, _Entom. Bull._, No. 28.
+      Hopkins, _Entom. Bull._, No. 48.
+      Hopkins, _Agric. Yr. Bk._, 1903, pp. 313-329.
+      Hopkins, _Agric. Yr. Bk._, 1904, pp. 382-389, Figs. 43-56.
+      Pinchot, _Primer_, I, p. 73.
+      Felt, N. Y. _State Museum Bull._, 103, Ent. 25.
+      Hopkins, _Entom. Bull._ No. 32.
+      Hopkins, _Entom. Bull._ No. 56.
+      Hopkins, _Entom. Bull._ No. 58.
+      Spaulding and Chittenden, _For. Bull._ No. 22, pp. 55-61.
+
+    [Footnote A: For general bibliography, see p. 4.]
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER VII.
+
+THE EXHAUSTION OF THE FOREST.
+
+
+The exhaustion of the forest in the United States is due to two main
+causes: (1) Fire, and (2) Destructive Lumbering.
+
+
+FIRE.
+
+It is not commonly realized that forest fires are almost entirely the
+result of human agency. When cruisers first began to locate claims in
+this country, practically no regions had been devastated by fire. Now
+such regions are to be seen everywhere. Altho lightning occasionally
+sets fire to forests, especially in the Rocky Mountains, the losses
+from this cause are trifling compared with the total loss.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 104. Slash, Left in the Woods, and Ready to Catch
+Fire. _U. S. Forest Service._]
+
+_Opportunities for fire._ There are a number of facts that make the
+forest peculiarly liable to fire. Especially in the fall there are
+great quantities of inflammable material, such as dry leaves, twigs,
+and duff lying loose ready for ignition. The bark of some trees,
+as "paper birch," and the leaves of others, as conifers, are very
+inflammable. It follows that fires are more common in coniferous than
+in deciduous forests. After lumbering or windfalls, the accumulated
+"slash" burns easily and furiously, Fig. 104. Moreover a region once
+burned over, is particularly liable to burn again, on account of the
+accumulation of dry trunks and branches. See Fig. 107.
+
+Long dry seasons and high wind furnish particularly favorable
+conditions for fire. On the other hand, the wind by changing in
+direction may extinguish the fire by turning it back upon its track.
+Indeed the destructive power of fires depends largely upon the wind.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 105. Forest Fire. _U. S. Forest Service._]
+
+_Causes of fire._ Forest fires are due to all sorts of causes,
+accidental and intentional. Dropped matches, smouldering tobacco,
+neglected camp fires and brush fires, locomotive sparks, may all be
+accidental causes that under favorable conditions entail tremendous
+loss. There is good reason to believe that many forest fires are set
+intentionally. The fact that grass and berry bushes will soon spring
+up after a fire, leads sheep men, cattle and pig owners, and berry
+pickers to set fires. Vast areas are annually burned over in the
+United States for these reasons. Most fires run only along the surface
+of the ground, doing little harm to the big timber, and if left alone
+will even go out of themselves; but if the duff is dry, the fire may
+smoulder in it a long time, ready to break out into flame when it
+reaches good fuel or when it is fanned by the wind, Fig. 105. Even
+these ground fires do incalculable damage to seeds and seedlings, and
+the safest plan is to put out every fire no matter how small.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 106. Burned Forest of Engelmann Spruce.
+Foreground, Lodgepole Pine Coming in. _U. S. Forest Service._]
+
+Altho it is true that the loss of a forest is not irremediable because
+vegetation usually begins again at once, Fig. 106, yet the actual
+damage is almost incalculable. The tract may lie year after year,
+covered with only worthless weeds and bushes, and if hilly, the region
+at once begins to be eroded by the rains.
+
+After the fire, may come high winds that blow down the trunks of the
+trees, preparing material for another fire, Fig. 107.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 107. Effect of Fire and Wind. Colorado. _U. S.
+Forest Service._]
+
+The statistics of the actual annual money loss of the timber burned
+in the United States are not gathered. In 1880 Professor Sargent
+collected much information, and in the census of that year (10th
+Census, Vol. IX) reported 10,000,000 acres burned that year at a value
+of $25,000,000.
+
+In 1891, the Division of Forestry collected authentic records of
+12,000,000 acres burned over in a single year, at an estimated value
+of $50,000,000.
+
+In the Adironacks in the spring of 1903, an unprecedentedly dry
+season, fire after fire caused a direct loss of about $3,500,000.
+
+In 1902, a fire on the dividing line between Washington and Oregon
+destroyed property amounting to $12,000,000. Within comparatively
+recent years, the Pacific Coast states have lost over $100,000,000
+worth of timber by fire alone.
+
+During September, 1908, forest fires raged in Minnesota, Michigan,
+Wisconsin, Maine, New York and Pennsylvania. The estimates of loss
+for northern Michigan alone amounted to $40,000,000. For two weeks
+the loss was set at $1,000,000 a day. The two towns of Hibbing and
+Chisholm were practically wiped out of existence, and 296 lives were
+lost.
+
+Certain forest fires have been so gigantic and terrible as to become
+historic.
+
+    One of these is the Miramichi fire of 1825. It began its
+    greatest destruction about one o'clock in the afternoon of
+    October 7th of that year, at a place about sixty miles
+    above the town of Newcastle, on the Miramichi River, in New
+    Brunswick. Before ten o'clock at night it was twenty miles
+    below New Castle. In nine hours it had destroyed a belt of
+    forest eighty miles long and twenty-five miles wide. Over more
+    than two and a half million acres almost every living thing
+    was killed. Even the fish were afterwards found dead in heaps
+    on the river banks. Many buildings and towns were destroyed,
+    one hundred and sixty persons perished, and nearly a thousand
+    head of stock. The loss from the Miramichi fire is estimated
+    at $300,000, not including the value of the timber. (Pinchot,
+    Part 1. p. 79-80.)
+
+    Of such calamities, one of the worst that is on record is that
+    known as the Peshtigo fire, which, in 1871, during the same
+    month, October, when Chicago was laid in ashes, devastated the
+    country about the shores of Green Bay in Wisconsin. More than
+    $3,000,000 worth of property was burnt, at least two thousand
+    families of settlers were made homeless, villages were
+    destroyed and over a thousand lives lost. (Bruncken, p. 110.)
+
+    The most destructive fire of more recent years was that which
+    started near Hinckley, Minn., September 1, 1894. While the
+    area burned over was less than in some other great fires, the
+    loss of life and property was very heavy. Hinckley and six
+    other towns were destroyed, about 500 lives were lost, more
+    than 2,000 persons were left destitute, and the estimated loss
+    in property of various kinds was $25,000,000. Except for the
+    heroic conduct of locomotive engineers and other railroad men,
+    the loss of life would have been far greater.
+
+    This fire was all the more deplorable, because it was wholly
+    unnecessary. For many days before the high wind came and drove
+    it into uncontrollable fury, it was burning slowly close to
+    the town of Hinckley and could have been put out. (Pinchot,
+    Part I, 82-83.)
+
+One of the most remarkable features of these "crown fires," is the
+rapidity with which they travel. The Miramichi fire traveled nine
+miles an hour.
+
+To get an idea of the fury of a forest fire, read this description
+from Bruncken. After describing the steady, slow progress of a duff
+fire, he proceeds:
+
+    But there comes an evening when nobody thinks of going to bed.
+    All day the smoke has become denser and denser, until it is no
+    longer a haze, but a thick yellowish mass of vapor, carrying
+    large particles of sooty cinders, filling one's eyes and
+    nostrils with biting dust, making breathing oppressive. There
+    is no escape from it. Closing windows and doors does not bar
+    it out of the houses; it seems as if it could penetrate solid
+    walls. Everything it touches feels rough, as if covered with
+    fine ashes. The heat is horrible altho no ray of sunshine
+    penetrates the heavy pall of smoke.
+
+    In the distance a rumbling, rushing sound is heard. It is the
+    fire roaring in the tree tops on the hill sides, several miles
+    from town. This is no longer a number of small fires, slowly
+    smouldering away to eat up a fallen log; nor little dancing
+    flames running along the dry litter on the ground, trying to
+    creep up the bark of a tree, where the lichens are thick and
+    dry, but presently falling back exhausted. The wind has risen,
+    fanning the flames on all sides, till they leap higher and
+    higher, reaching the lower branches of the standing timber,
+    enveloping the mighty boles of cork pine in a sheet of flame,
+    seizing the tall poles of young trees and converting them
+    into blazing beacons that herald the approach of destruction.
+    Fiercer and fiercer blows the wind, generated by the fire
+    itself as it sends currents of heated air rushing upward into
+    infinity. Louder and louder the cracking of the branches as
+    the flames seize one after the other, leaping from crown to
+    crown, rising high above the tree tops in whirling wreaths
+    of fire, and belching forth clouds of smoke hundreds of feet
+    still higher. As the heated air rises more and more, rushing
+    along with a sound like that of a thousand foaming mountain
+    torrents, burning brands are carried along, whirling on across
+    the firmament like evil spirits of destruction, bearing the
+    fire miles away from its origin, then falling among the dry
+    brush heaps of windfall or slashing, and starting another fire
+    to burn as fiercely as the first. * * *
+
+    There is something horrible in the slow, steady approach of
+    a top fire. It comes on with the pitiless determination of
+    unavoidable destiny, not faster than a man can walk. But there
+    is no stopping it. You cannot fight a fire that seizes tree
+    top after tree top, far above your reach, and showers down
+    upon the pigmy mortals that attempt to oppose it an avalanch
+    of burning branches, driving them away to escape the torture
+    and death that threatens them. (Bruncken, _American Forests
+    and Forestry_, 106-109.)
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 108. Fighting Forest Fire. _U. S. Forest
+Service._]
+
+Real forest fires are not usually put out; men only try to limit them.
+A common method of limitation is to cut trenches thru the duff so that
+the fire cannot pass across, Fig. 108. In serious cases back fires are
+built on the side of the paths or roads or trenches toward the fire,
+in the expectation that the two fires will meet. In such cases great
+care has to be taken that the back fire itself does not escape. Small
+fires, however, can sometimes be beaten out or smothered with dirt and
+sand, since water is usually unavailable.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 109. Fire Lane. Worcester Co., Mass. _U. S. Forest
+Service._]
+
+But "an ounce of prevention is worth a pound of cure." One of the best
+of these preventions is a system of fire lanes. Even narrow paths of
+dirt will stop an ordinary fire. Roads, of course, are still better.
+Systems of fire lanes, Fig. 109, are made great use of in Europe
+and British India. Belts of hardwood trees are also cultivated along
+railways, and to break up large bodies of conifers.
+
+If in lumbering, the slash were destroyed or even cut up so as to lie
+near the ground and rot quickly, many fires would be prevented.
+
+Some states, as New York, have a fairly well organized system of fire
+wardens, who have the authority to draft as much male help as
+they need at $2.00 a day to fight forest fires. Unfortunately
+"ne'er-do-wells" sometimes set fire to the woods, in order to "make
+work" for themselves. Much preventive work is also done by educating
+the public in schools and by the posting of the fire notices,[1] Fig.
+110.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 110. Look out for Fire. Rules and Laws.]
+
+
+DESTRUCTIVE LUMBERING.
+
+How the reckless and destructive methods of lumbering common in
+America came into vogue, is worth noting.[2]
+
+The great historical fact of the first half century of our country
+was the conquest of the wilderness. That wilderness was largely an
+unbroken forest. To the early settler, this forest was the greatest
+of barriers to agriculture. The crash of a felled tree was to him a
+symbol of advancing civilization. The woods were something to be got
+rid of to make room for farms, Fig. 111. In Virginia, for example,
+where the soil was soon exhausted by tobacco culture and modern
+fertilizers were unknown, there was a continual advance into the woods
+to plant on new and richer land. The forest was also full of enemies
+to the settler, both animals and Indians, and was a dreaded field for
+fire. So there grew up a feeling of hate and fear for the forest.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 111. Forest Giving Place to Farm Land. North
+Carolina. _U. S. Forest Service._]
+
+More than that the forest seemed exhaustless. The clearings were at
+first only specks in the woods, and even when they were pushed farther
+and farther back from the seacoast, there was plenty of timber beyond.
+
+    The idea that the area of this forest could ever be diminished
+    by human hands to any appreciable extent so that people would
+    become afraid of not having woodland enough to supply them
+    with the needed lumber, would have seemed an utter absurdity
+    to the backwoodsman. * * * Thus the legend arose of the
+    inexhaustible supply of lumber in American forests, a legend
+    which only within the last twenty years has given place to
+    juster notions. (Bruncken, p. 57.)
+
+This tradition of abundant supply and the feeling of hostility to the
+forest lasted long after the reasons for them had disappeared. When
+we remember that every farm in the eastern United States, is made from
+reclaimed forest land and that for decades lumber was always within
+reach up the rivers, down which it was floated, it is not strange that
+reckless and extravagant methods of cutting and using it prevailed.
+
+Following the settler came the lumberman, who continued the same
+method of laying waste the forest land. The lumber market grew slowly
+at first, but later developed by leaps and bounds, until now the
+output is enormous.
+
+Lumbering in America has come to be synonymous with the clearing off
+of all the marketable timber, regardless of the future. It treats the
+forest as tho it were a mine, not a crop, Fig. 112. Since 1880 the
+total cut has been over 700,000,000 feet, enough to make a one inch
+floor over Vermont, Massachusetts, Connecticut, Rhode Island and
+Delaware, or one-half of the State of New York, an area of 25,000
+square miles.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 112. Redwood Forest Turned Into Pasture.
+California. _U. S. Forest Service._]
+
+Other countries, too, have devastated their forests. Portugal has
+a forest area of only 5 per cent. of the total land area, Spain and
+Greece, each 13 per cent., Italy 14 per cent. and Turkey 20 per cent.
+Whether the destruction of the American forests shall go as far
+as this is now a live question which has only just begun to be
+appreciated.
+
+Another reason for the reckless American attitude toward the forest is
+the frequency and severity of forest fires. This has led to the fear
+on the part of lumbermen of losing what stumpage they had, and so they
+have cleared their holdings quickly and sold the timber. Their motto
+was "cut or lose."
+
+A third incentive to devastative methods was the levy of what were
+considered unjust taxes.
+
+    Hundreds of thousands of acres in the white pine region,
+    notably in Michigan, Wisconsin, and Minnesota, have been cut
+    over, abandoned, sold for taxes, and finally reduced by fire
+    to a useless wilderness because of the shortsighted policy of
+    heavy taxation. To lay heavy taxes on timber land is to set
+    a premium on forest destruction, a premium that is doing
+    more than any other single factor to hinder the spread of
+    conservative lumbering among the owners of large bodies
+    of timber land. * * * Heavy taxes are responsible for the
+    barrenness of thousands of square miles which should never
+    have ceased to be productive, and which must now lie fallow
+    for many decades before they can be counted again among the
+    wealth-making assets of the nation. (Pinchot, _Agric. Yr.
+    Bk._, 1898, pp. 184-185.)
+
+    On the treatment of the questions of fire and taxes depends
+    the future of American forest industries. (Bruncken, p. 226.)
+
+Undoubtedly much waste has been caused by sheer ignorance of forest
+conditions and methods, which, if followed, would secure successive
+crops instead of one, but it is safe to say that the desire for
+immediate profits has been the dominant cause of reckless lumbering.
+So short-sighted has the policy of private owners proved itself, that
+it is a question whether any large extent of forest land can safely
+be left in private hands. No individual lives long enough to reap more
+than one forest crop. Only corporations and States can be expected
+to have an interest long enough continued to justify the methods of
+conservative lumbering.
+
+As a matter of fact, nearly one-half of the privately owned timber
+of the United States is held by 195 great holders, the principal ones
+being the Southern Pacific Company, the Weyerhauser Timber Company,
+and the Northern Pacific Railway Company, which together own nearly 11
+per cent. of the privately owned forests of the country. These large
+holders are cutting little of their timber, their object, however,
+being not so much to conserve the forests as to reserve to themselves
+the incalculable private profits which are expected to come with the
+future enormous increase in the value of timber.
+
+Over against this policy, stands that of the United States Forest
+Service of increasing the area of the National Forests in order to
+conserve them for the public welfare. The pity is that the government
+ever let the forests pass out of its hands. Only forty years ago
+seventy-five per cent. of the timber now standing was publicly owned.
+Now about eighty per cent. of it is privately owned. In the meanwhile
+its value has increased anywhere from ten to fifty fold, according to
+locality.[3] Some large corporations, however, like the Pennsylvania
+Railroad, the Kirby Lumber Company, of Texas, and the International
+Paper Company, have entered upon a policy of conservative lumbering.
+
+Of the actual practices which distinguish destructive lumbering, a few
+may be cited. Stumps are cut too high and tops too low. Good lumber is
+wasted on lumber roads and bridges, Fig. 113. Saplings are torn down
+in dragging out logs. Slash is left in condition to foster fires and
+left with no shade protection. Seedlings are smothered with slash.
+Seed trees are all cut out leaving no chance for reproduction. Only
+poorer sorts of trees are left standing, thus insuring deterioration.
+Paper pulp cutting goes even farther than lumbering, and ordinarily
+leaves nothing behind but a howling wilderness.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 113. Red Spruce Used in Building Skidway, and Left
+in the Woods. Hamilton Co., New York.]
+
+The production of turpentine from the long-leaf pine, Fig. 114, at
+the annual rate of 40,000 barrels has meant the devastation of 70,000
+acres of virgin forest.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 114. Turpentine Boxing, Cup System. Georgia. _U.
+S. Forest Service._]
+
+In view of this wholesale destruction it becomes of interest to know
+how much still remains of the timber supply of the United States.
+The latest and most authoritative estimate of standing timber
+in continental United States, excluding Alaska, gives a total of
+2,800,000,000 M feet B.M.,[4] of which 2,200,000,000 M feet are
+privately owned, about 539,000,000 M feet are in the National Forests
+(Fig. 119, p. 271,) and 90,000,000 M feet are on the unreserved public
+lands, National parks, State lands and Indian reservations.
+
+Earlier estimates were hardly more than guesses. For example the
+census of 1880 estimated the stumpage of the U. S. at 856,290,100 M
+feet, while the census of 1900 gives a total of 1,390,000,000 M feet.
+The discrepancy appears still greater when it is remembered that in
+the meantime 700,000,000 M feet were cut. Of this amount 500,000,000 M
+feet were of conifers or 80,000,000 M feet more than were included in
+the estimate of 1880. The simple fact is of course that the earlier
+estimates were gross underestimates, due to the fact that they were
+based on entirely inadequate data, and therefore can not be used to
+obscure the now unquestionable fact that the timber supply of this
+country is surely and rapidly melting away.
+
+The Forest Service estimates that the present annual cut of saw timber
+is about 50,000,000 M feet. At this rate the present stand would last
+about 55 years and the privately owned timber only 44 years. This
+estimate does not allow for growth and decay.
+
+While the population of the United States increased 52 per cent. from
+1880 to 1900, during the same period the lumber-cut increased 94 per
+cent. In other words the yearly increase in use is 20 to 25 per
+cent. per capita, that is, fast as the population grows, the lumber
+consumption increases nearly twice as fast. This increase in the
+lumber-cut far overbalances the growth of trees.
+
+It is also to be remembered that this increase in the use of lumber is
+in spite of the enormous increase of substitutes for lumber, such as
+brick, cement and steel for building, and steel for bridges, vehicles,
+fences, machinery, tools, and implements of all kinds.
+
+How lavishly we use lumber may further be appreciated from the fact
+that we consume 260 cubic feet[5] per capita, while the average for
+13 European countries is but 49 cubic feet per capita. In other words
+every person in the U. S. is using five times as much wood as he would
+use if he lived in Europe. It is estimated that on an average each
+person in this country uses annually the product of 25 acres of
+forest. _The country as a whole, cuts every year, between three and
+four times more wood than all the forests grow in the meantime._
+By contrast, the principal countries of Europe, cut just the annual
+growth, while Russia, Sweden and Japan, cut less than the growth. In
+other words, the 2,800,000,000,000 feet B.M. of the stumpage of the
+United States is a capital which is constantly drawn upon, whereas,
+the 944,700,000,000 board feet of the forest of the German Empire is
+a capital which is untouched but produces annually 300 board feet per
+acre.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 115. (Lumber Production by Regions, 1907).
+
+Southern States include: Virginia, North Carolina, South Carolina,
+Georgia, Florida, Alabama, Mississippi, Louisiana, Arkansas, Texas and
+Oklahoma.
+
+Pacific States include: Washington, Oregon and California.
+
+North Atlantic States include: New England, New York, Pennsylvania,
+New Jersey, Delaware, and Maryland.
+
+Lake States include: Michigan, Wisconsin, and Minnesota.
+
+Central States include: Ohio, West Virginia, Kentucky, Tennessee,
+Indiana, Illinois, and Missouri.
+
+Rocky Mountain States include: Montana, Idaho, Wyoming, Nevada, Utah,
+Colorado, Arizona, and New Mexico.]
+
+One striking evidence of the decrease of the timber supply is the
+shifting of its sources. Once the northeastern States produced over
+half of the lumber product. They reached their relative maximum in
+1870 when they produced 36 per cent. At that time the Lake States
+produced about 24 per cent. By 1890 the Lake States came to their
+maximum of 36 per cent. Today the southern States are near their
+maximum with 41 per cent., but the center will soon shift to the
+Pacific States. Their product rose from less than 10 per cent. of the
+whole in 1900 to 17 per cent. in 1908, Figs. 115 and 116. When
+that virgin forest has been cut off, there will be no new region
+to exploit; whereas, heretofore, when a region was exhausted, the
+lumbermen have always had a new one to which to move. At the
+annual meeting of the Northern Pine Manufacturers' Association in
+Minneapolis, Minn., January 22, 1907, Secretary J. E. Rhodes made this
+striking statement:
+
+    Since 1895, 248 firms, representing an annual aggregate
+    output of pine lumber of 4-1/4 billion feet, have retired from
+    business, due to the exhaustion of their timber supply. Plants
+    representing approximately 500 million feet capacity, which
+    sawed in 1906, will not be operated in 1907.
+
+    The shifting of the chief sources of supply has, of course,
+    been accompanied by a change in the kinds of lumber produced.
+    There was a time when white pine alone constituted one-half
+    of the total quantity. In 1900 this species furnished but 21.5
+    per cent., in 1904 only 15 per cent., of the lumber cut.[6] We
+    do not use less pine because we have found something better,
+    but because we have to put up with something worse.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 116. (Lumber Production by States).]
+
+The present annual cut of southern yellow pine is about 13-1/4 million
+M feet, or a little less than one-third of the total cut of all the
+species. At the present rate of consumption, it is evident that within
+ten or fifteen years, there will be a most serious shortage of it.
+Meanwhile the cut of Douglas fir on the Pacific coast has increased
+from 5 per cent. of the total lumber cut in 1900 to 12 per cent. in
+1905. This increase is in spite of the fact, already noted (p. 262)
+that the great timber owning companies of the northwest are holding
+their stumpage for an expected great increase in value.
+
+Another evidence of shortage is the almost total disappearance of
+certain valuable species. Hickory, which once made American buggies
+famous, is getting very scarce, and black walnut once commonly used
+for furniture, is available now for only fine cabinet work, veneers,
+gun stocks, etc. Hardwoods that are fit for the saw are rapidly
+decreasing. The hardwood cut of 1900 of 8,634,000 M feet diminished in
+1904 to 6,781,000 M feet.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 117. (Lumber Production by Species).]
+
+A still further evidence of the decreasing supply, is the rising scale
+of prices. White pine, which sold for $45.00 per M during 1887-1892,
+sold for $100.00 f.o.b. N. Y., Jan. 1, 1911. Yellow poplar went up in
+the same period, 1887-1911, from $29.00 to $63.00. Yellow pine rose
+from $18.00 in 1896 to $47.00 in 1911, and hemlock, the meanest of all
+woods, from $11.50 in 1889 to $21.00 in 1911, Fig. 118.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 118. Wholesale lumber prices, 1887-1911.
+
+The qualities of lumber shown in the above chart are as follows:
+
+White Ash, 1st and 2d, 1" and 1-1/2" x 8" and up by 12'-16'.
+
+Basswood, 1st and 2d, 1" x 8" and up by x 00".
+
+White Oak, quarter-sawed, 1st and 2d, all figured, 1" x 6" and up x
+10'-16'.
+
+Yellow poplar, 1st and 2d, 1" x 7"-17" x 12'-16'.
+
+Hemlock, boards
+
+Spruce, No. 1 and clear, 1" and 1-1/4" x 4" x 13'.
+
+White pine, rough uppers, 1" x 8" and up x 00'.
+
+Yellow pine, edge grain flooring. The curve is approximately correct,
+for the standard of quality has been changed several times.]
+
+It is to be remembered, moreover, that as the timber in any region
+becomes scarcer, the minimum cutting limit is constantly lowered, and
+the standard of quality constantly depreciated. Poorer species
+and qualities and smaller sizes, which were once rejected, are now
+accepted in the market. For example, 6 inches is now a common cutting
+diameter for pine and spruce, whereas 12 inches was the minimum limit,
+and on the Pacific coast there is still nothing cut below 18 inches.
+This cutting of smaller sizes is largely due to the capacious maw of
+the pulp mill, which swallows even the poorest stuff. Altho the amount
+of wood used for paper pulp is small in comparison with the total
+lumber production, being about 5.4 per cent., yet this cutting
+of young growth keeps the forest land devastated. In 1906 nearly
+9,000,000 tons of wood were used for paper pulp in the United States.
+
+    No one who is at all familiar with the situation doubts for an
+    instant that we are rapidly using up our _forest capital_. In
+    fact it is unquestionably safe to say that our present annual
+    consumption of wood in all forms is _from three to four times
+    as great as the annual increment of our forests_. Even
+    by accepting the highest estimate of the amount of timber
+    standing we postpone for only a few years the time when there
+    must be a great curtailment in the use of wood, if the present
+    methods of forest exploitation are continued. Every indication
+    points to the fact that under present conditions the maximum
+    annual yield of forest products for the country as a whole has
+    been reached, and that in a comparatively short time, there
+    will be a marked decrease in the total output, as there is now
+    in several items. (Kellogg, _Forestry Circular_, No. 97, p.
+    12.)
+
+On the other hand, it is to be remembered that there are influences
+which tend to save and extend the forest area. These will be
+considered in the next chapter, on the Use of the Forest.
+
+    [Footnote 1:
+
+    LOOK OUT FOR FIRE!
+
+    RULES AND LAWS.
+
+    Fires for clearing land near a forest must not be started
+    until the trees are in full leaf. Before lighting such fires
+    three days' notice, at least, must be given to the Firewarden
+    and occupants of adjoining lands. After such fires are
+    lighted, competent persons must remain to guard them until the
+    fire is completely extinguished, and the persons starting such
+    fires will be held responsible for all damages notwithstanding
+    notice had been given to the Firewarden.
+
+    Fires will be permitted for the purposes of cooking, warmth
+    and insect smudges, but before such fires are kindled,
+    sufficient space around the spot where the fire is to be
+    lighted must be cleared from all combustible material; and
+    before the place is abandoned, fires so lighted must be
+    thoroly quenched.
+
+    All fires other than those hereinbefore mentioned are
+    absolutely prohibited.
+
+    Hunters and smokers are cautioned against allowing fires to
+    originate from the use of firearms, cigars and pipes.
+
+    Especial care should be taken that lighted matches are
+    extinguished before throwing them down.
+
+    All persons are warned that they will be held responsible for
+    any damage or injury to the forest which may result from their
+    carelessness or neglect.
+
+    Girdling and peeling bark from standing trees on state land is
+    prohibited. Fallen timber only may be used for firewood.
+
+    All citizens are requested to report immediately any cases
+    which may come to their knowledge of injury to woodlands
+    arising from a violation of these rules.
+
+    Then follow quotations from the laws of the state of New York.
+    ]
+
+    [Footnote 2: For the common methods of logging see _Handwork
+    in Wood_, Chapter I.]
+
+    [Footnote 3: See Summary of Report of the Commissioner of
+    Corporations on the Lumber Industry. February 13, 1911.
+    Washington, D. C.]
+
+    [Footnote 4: A board foot is one foot square and one inch
+    thick.]
+
+    [Footnote 5: 167 cubic feet equal about 1000 board feet.]
+
+    [Footnote 6: _Forestry Circular_, No. 97.]
+
+
+THE EXHAUSTION OF THE FOREST
+
+REFERENCES:[A]
+
+(1) Fires.
+
+      Bruncken, pp. 183-207.
+      Pinchot, _Agric. Yr. Bk._, p. 189.
+      Suter, _For. Circ._ No. 36.
+      U. S. Tenth Census, Vol. IX, p. 491 ff.
+      Pinchot, _Primer_, pp. 77-88.
+      Roth, _First Book_, pp. 104-112.
+      Sterling, _Agric. Yr. Bk._, 1904, p. 133.
+
+(2) Destructive Lumbering.
+
+    The Settler's Tradition.
+      Bruncken, pp. 40-59, 94.
+      Roth, _First Book_, pp. 41-45.
+      Pinchot, _Primer_, II, p. 82.
+
+    Taxation.
+      _For. and Irr._, April, '06.
+      Pinchot, _Agric. Yr. Bk._, 1898, p. 184.
+
+    Reckless Practices.
+      Pinchot, _Primer_ II, 42-47.
+      Pinchot, _Agric. Yr. Bk._, 1898, p. 184.
+      Pinchot, _For. Circ._, No. 25, p. 11.
+      Price, _Agric. Yr. Bk._, 1902, p. 310.
+      Fox, _For. Bull._, No. 34, p. 40.
+      Peters, _Agric. Yr. Bk._, 1905, pp. 483-494.
+      Graves, _Agric. Yr. Bk._, 1899, p. 415.
+      Suter, _For. Bull._, 26, pp. 58, 69, 76.
+      Mohr, _For. Bull._ No. 13, p. 61.
+      Bruncken, pp. 90-98.
+
+    The Timber Supply.
+      Kellogg, _For. Circ._, No. 97 ...
+      Zon, _For. Bull._, No. 83.
+      Fernow, _Economics_, pp. 35-45.
+      Report of the Commissioner of Corporations on the Lumber Industry.
+        Part I, Feb. 13, 1911.
+
+    [Footnote A: For general bibliography, see p. 4.]
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER VIII.
+
+THE USE OF THE FOREST.
+
+
+Man's relation to the forest has not been entirely destructive and
+injurious. He has exerted and is more and more exerting influences
+which while still enabling him to use the forest, also preserve
+and improve it. These activities may all be included under the term
+Forestry.
+
+The objects of modern forestry then are threefold: 1. The
+_utilization_ of the forest and its products, the main object; 2. The
+_preservation_ of the forest, _i.e._, its continued reproduction; 3.
+The _improvement_ of the forest.
+
+
+UTILIZATION.
+
+The uses of the forest are threefold: (1) Protective, (2) Productive,
+and (3) Esthetic.
+
+(1) _Protective._ The forest may be used as a protection against
+floods, wind, shifting sand, heat, drought, etc. The National Forests
+of the United States, Fig. 119, with the state forests, which include
+one-fifth of the total forest area, are largely treated as "protection
+forests" to maintain the head waters of streams, Fig. 120, used for
+irrigation, for power or for commerce. The attempt now being made to
+reserve large areas in the White Mountains and southern Appalachians
+is chiefly for this purpose of protection.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 119. National Forests in the United States.]
+
+A comparison of Figs. 120 and 121 shows clearly the difference between
+a region protected by forest and one unprotected.[1]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 120. A Protection Forest, Maintaining the
+Headwaters of Streams. North Carolina. _U. S. Forest Service._]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 121. Hillside Erosion. North Carolina. _U. S.
+Forest Service_]
+
+(2) _Productive._ All practical foresters have as their first aim
+the _yield_ of the forest. This distinguishes forestry from landscape
+architecture, the object of which may equally be the preservation and
+improvement of a given tract. The crop to be produced is as truly the
+prime concern of the forester as the raising of agricultural crops is
+the prime concern of the farmer. It is for this reason that forestry
+is said to be the same thing as conservative lumbering, Fig. 122.
+The prejudice of lumbermen against forestry has arisen from a
+misunderstanding of its aim. Its aim is not to prevent the cutting
+down of trees, but to direct their cutting in such ways that in the
+future there will still be trees to cut. "Thru use to a greater use,"
+is the motto of the Forest Service. The difference between destructive
+lumbering and conservative lumbering is that the former cuts one crop
+regardless of the future; while the latter plans to cut crop after
+crop indefinitely. In other words, in conservative lumbering, the
+trees to be cut are not selected solely with reference to their
+immediate market value. Not one crop, but many, is the forester's
+motto.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 122. Conservative Lumbering. Black Hills National
+Forest, South Dakota. Note the brush, cord-wood, and logs piled
+separately,--a fine clean-up. Nothing cut below 12" diameter. _U. S.
+Forest Service._]
+
+So long as the supply seemed exhaustless, forests might be and were
+treated as mines are, _i.e._, exploited for the sake of immediate
+profit; but now that lumbermen begin to realize that the end of the
+supply is in sight, more conservative methods are being adopted. We
+cannot afford to kill the goose that lays the golden eggs. In order
+then to obtain as rich harvests as possible, the modern forester makes
+use of various methods, some negative, some positive.
+
+Waste is avoided in all possible ways, stumps are cut low and tops
+high on the trunk, first class trees are not used for skids, bridges,
+roads, etc., care is taken in "falling" trees and in dragging out
+logs, that they will not injure other trees. Just as economical
+disposal of the log has already been carried to a high degree of
+perfection in the saw-mill, (see _Handwork in Wood_, Chapter II,) so
+one object of forestry is to carry this economy back into the woods.
+
+One of the underlying ideas in conservative lumbering is that the
+"yield," _i.e._, the amount of wood taken out of a healthy forest
+in a given time, shall be equal to the amount grown during the same
+period. If less is taken out than grows, some trees will overmature
+and decay; if more is taken out than grows, the forest will ultimately
+be exhausted.
+
+This principle may be carried out in a number of ways; but in any case
+it is necessary to know how fast the forest is reproducing itself, and
+this is one of the functions of the forester. The United States
+Forest Service makes a definite offer of cooperation with farmers and
+lumbermen and owners of forests to provide them with skilled foresters
+for direction in this matter.
+
+In the United States, the most practicable way of determining the
+yield is by area, _i.e._, a certain fraction of a forest is to be
+cut over once in a given length of time, a year or longer. The time
+between two successive cuttings on the same area must be long enough
+to allow the young trees left standing to ripen.
+
+In a word, conservative lumbering involves (1) the treatment of the
+forest as a source of crops, (2) systematic gathering, and (3) young
+growth so left as to replace the outgo.
+
+The important place that forests fill in the national economy may
+be realized partly by the citation of a few facts as to the forest
+products. The lumber industry is the fourth in value of products
+among the great manufacturing industries of the United States,
+being exceeded only by the iron and steel, the textile, and the meat
+industries. It turns out a finished product worth $567,000,000.00. And
+yet lumber constitutes only about one-half of the value of the total
+output of forest products. Its annual value is three-fourths of a
+billion dollars, ($666,641,367 in 1907,) while the annual value of
+wood fuel, is $350,000,000. More than two-thirds of the people burn
+wood for fuel. The next largest single item in the list is shingles
+and laths, $32,000,000. (See _Forestry Bulletin_ No. 74, p. 7.)
+
+    Outside of food products, no material is so universally
+    used and so indispensable in human economy as wood. (Fernow,
+    _Econ._, p. 21.)
+
+The importance of forest products may also be learned from a mere list
+of the varied uses to which they are put. Such a list would include:
+fuel, wood and charcoal; houses (over half the population of the
+United States live in wooden houses); the wooden parts of masonry and
+steel buildings; scaffolding; barns, sheds and outhouses; ships, with
+all their parts, and the masts and trim of steel ships, boats
+and canoes; oars and paddles; railway ties (annual expenditure
+$50,000,000), railway cars, a million in number; trestles and bridges
+(more than 2,000 miles in length); posts and fencing; cooperage
+stock (low estimate, $25,000,000 annually); packing crates, including
+coffins; baskets; electric wire poles (annual cost about $10,000,000);
+piles and submerged structures, like canal locks and water-wheels;
+windmills; mining timbers (yearly cost, $7,500,000), indispensable
+in all mining operations (for every 100 tons of coal mined, 2 tons of
+mining timber are needed); street paving; veneers ($5,000,000.00 worth
+made annually); vehicles, including carriages, wagons, automobiles
+and sleighs; furniture; machines and their parts; patterns for metal
+molding; tools and tool handles; musical instruments; cigar boxes;
+matches; toothpicks; pencils; (315 million a year in the U. S.,
+requiring over 7 million cubic feet of wood); engraving blocks;
+shoe lasts, shoe trees and parts of shoes; hat blocks; agricultural
+implements; hop and bean poles; playthings and toys, for both children
+and adults; Christmas trees and decorations; pipes; walking sticks;
+umbrella handles; crutches and artificial limbs; household utensils;
+excelsior.
+
+Products other than wood: Turpentine and resin (worth $20,000,000 a
+year); tar; oils; tan-bark, 1-1/2 million cords (worth $13,000,000
+a year); wood alcohol; wood pulp (worth $15,000,000 a year); nuts;
+cellulose for collars, combs and car wheels; balsam, medicines;
+lampblack; dyes; paper fiber (xylolin) for textiles; shellac and
+varnish ($8,500,000 worth imported in 1907); vinegar and acetic acid;
+confections (including maple sugar and syrup at $2,500,000 a year).
+
+(3) The _Esthetic_ and sentimental uses of the forest, tho not to
+be estimated in dollars and cents, are nevertheless of incalculable
+benefit to the community. They would include the use of the forest
+as pleasure grounds, for hunting, fishing, camping, photography, and
+general sightseeing. Notable instances of the growing appreciation of
+these uses of the forest are the reservation of the Yellowstone and
+Yosemite Parks as pleasure grounds.
+
+
+PRESERVATION.
+
+The second object of forestry is the preservation of the forest, or
+continued reproduction.
+
+In addition to obtaining crops of trees, the forester plans to keep
+the forest in such condition that it will constantly reproduce itself
+and never become exhausted.
+
+This does not mean that no forests are to be cut down, or that a given
+area, once a forest, is to be always a forest. Just as the individual
+farmer needs some land for fields, some for pasture, and some for
+woodlots, so the nation needs some for cities, some for farms, some
+for pleasure grounds, and some for forests. But it does mean that
+fruitful forests shall not be turned into wildernesses as thousands of
+square miles now are, by the methods of destructive lumbering.
+
+In general, better land is necessary for agriculture than for
+forestry, and it is therefore only the part of wisdom to use the
+better land for fields and reserve the poorer land for forests. There
+are in the United States enormous regions that are fit for nothing but
+forests, but many of these, as in Wisconsin, Minnesota, and Michigan,
+have simply been denuded of their trees and no provision has been made
+for their reproduction. This then is the second aim of forestry,--to
+treat the forest so that it will continue to reproduce itself.
+
+In order to obtain this result, certain forest conditions have to be
+preserved. What these conditions are, we have already noticed (see
+Chap. V, The Forest Organism). They are partly topographical and
+climatic and partly historical. They include such factors as, soil,
+moisture, temperature, and light, the forest cover, the forest floor,
+the density and mixture of growth, all conditions of forest growth.
+It is only as the forester preserves these conditions, or to put it
+otherwise, it is only as he obeys the laws of the forest organism that
+he can preserve the forest. For a long period of our national history,
+we Americans were compelled to conform our life and institutions to
+the presence of the primeval forest, but by long observation of what
+happens naturally in the forest, there have been developed in Europe
+and in America certain ways of handling it so as to make it our
+servant and not our master.
+
+These ways are called silvicultural systems. They are all based on the
+nature of the forest itself, and they succeed only because they are
+modifications of what takes place naturally in the woods.
+
+As we have seen above (p. 220) trees reproduce themselves either by
+sprouts or by seeds. This fact gives rise to two general methods of
+reproduction, called the coppice systems and the seed systems.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 123. Chestnut Coppice. _U. S. Forest Service._]
+
+_Coppice_, Fig. 123. In the simpler form of this system, the forest
+is divided into a certain number of parts, say thirty, and one part is
+cut down each year. New sprouts at once start up, which will mature
+a year later than those in the part cut the previous year. Where the
+trees of each part are thirty years old at cutting, thirty years is
+called the "rotation period." The coppice is said to be managed on
+a thirty-year rotation. The system is widely used in eastern United
+States, for fuel, posts, charcoal, railway ties, and other small
+stuff, as well as for tan-bark. This system is modified by maintaining
+an overwood composed of seedling trees or selected sprouts above a
+stand of sprouts. This is called the Reserve Sprout method and is used
+with admirable results by the French.
+
+_Seed Forests._ In contrast with coppice forests, those raised from
+seeds produce the best class of timber, such as is used for saw logs.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 124. Seeding from the Side. White Pine. New
+Hampshire. _U. S. Forest Service._]
+
+_Seeding from the side_, Fig. 124. Many forests naturally spread at
+their borders from the scattering of their seeds. "Old field pine" is
+so called from its tendency to spread in this way on old fields. This
+natural "Seeding from the Side" has given rise to the "Group System,"
+in which an area of ripe trees is cut off and the trees alongside are
+depended upon to reproduce new ones on the cut-over area. The openings
+are gradually enlarged until all the old timber is cut out, and the
+young growth has taken its place. In its best form there is a definite
+"rotation period," say eighty years. This system is simple, safe, and
+very useful, especially for small openings in woodlots. A modification
+of this is the "Strip System," in which long narrow openings, say
+seventy-five yards wide, are cut out and gradually widened. The strips
+are cut in the proper direction so that the prevailing winds will
+cross them, both for the sake of avoiding windfalls and to help
+scatter the seed. Where the soil is very dry, the strips may run east
+and west to protect the seedlings from the sun.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 125. Virgin Forest, Trees of All Ages. Jackson
+Co., North Carolina. _U.S. Forest Service._]
+
+_Selection Forests._ The typical virgin forest, Fig. 125, is one in
+which trees of all ages are closely intermingled, and it may be either
+"mixed" or "pure." If a farmer had a woodlot of this character and
+every year went over it with the ax, cutting out such trees as he
+needed for his purpose, and also trees whose removal would improve the
+woods, but taking care not to cut out each year more than the amount
+of the average growth, he would be using the "Selection System." This
+system is the best way of keeping a forest dense and of preserving
+one which is difficult to start afresh, as on a mountain slope; it is
+practicable where the woods are small or under a high state of care,
+as in Europe, where this system has been in use for seven centuries.
+But the cost of road maintenance and of logging is high and it is
+therefore impracticable in most lumber regions in the United States,
+except for woods of especial value, like black walnut.
+
+_Localized Selection._ If instead of the whole forest being treated in
+this way every year, it were divided up into perhaps twenty parts, and
+from each part there were taken out each year as much lumber as would
+equal the annual growth of the whole forest, such a system would be
+called "Localized Selection." The cost of logging would be greatly
+reduced and if care were taken to leave standing some seed trees and
+to cut no trees below a determined size, as twelve inches, the forest
+would maintain itself in good condition. This system has been applied
+with great success in certain private forests in the Adirondacks.
+
+_Regular Seed Forest or High Forest._ In the system already mentioned
+above of seeding from the side, the trees near the cut areas are
+depended upon to seed these areas. Moreover, no especial pains are
+taken to preserve the forest floor and the forest cover. But all trees
+do not bear seeds annually, nor do their seedlings thrive under such
+conditions. In other words, in some forests especial pains must
+be taken to secure reproduction, and the forest conditions must
+be maintained with special reference to the growing crop. For this
+purpose, the cuttings take place thru a series of years, sometimes
+lasting even twenty years. These reproduction cuttings have reference,
+now to a stimulus to the seed trees, now to the preparation of the
+seed bed, now to the encouragement of the seedlings. Then later,
+the old crop is gradually cut away. Later still, in twenty or thirty
+years, the new forest is thinned, and when it reaches maturity,
+perhaps in one hundred or two hundred years, the process is repeated.
+This is called the "Regular Seed Forest." It produces very valuable
+timber, and has been used for a long time in Switzerland, especially
+for beech and balsam.
+
+The system is complicated and therefore unsafe in ignorant hands, and
+the logging is expensive.
+
+_Two-storied Seed Forest._ A modification of the system of Regular
+Seed Forest is the planting of another and a tolerant species of tree
+under older intolerant trees to make a cover for the soil, to prevent
+the growth of grass and weeds, and to improve the quality of the upper
+growth.[2]
+
+An illustration of a natural two-storied seed forest is shown in Fig.
+126.
+
+[Illustration: No. 126. Two-storied Seed Forest. Fir under Beech,
+Germany. _U. S. Forest Service._]
+
+_Planting._ The planting of forest trees is a comparatively
+unimportant part of modern forestry. It is a mistaken idea, not
+uncommon, that the usual way of reproducing forests is to plant trees.
+It is true that in the pineries of North Germany and in the spruce
+forests of Saxony, it is common to cut clean and then replant, but it
+is absurd to conclude, as some have done, that forestry consists of
+planting a tree every time one is cut. Even if planting were the best
+method, many more than one tree would have to be planted for each one
+cut, in order to maintain the forest. So far as America is concerned,
+not for a long time will planting be much used for reproduction.
+
+    The greater portion of American woodlands is in the
+    condition of culled forests, that is, forests from which
+    the merchantable trees have been cut, leaving the younger
+    individuals, as well as all trees belonging to unmarketable
+    species. Even on the areas where the lumbermen have made a
+    clean cut of the original timber, new trees will come up of
+    themselves from seeds blown from the surrounding forests or
+    falling from occasional individuals left standing. (Bruncken,
+    p. 133.)
+
+The usefulness of planting in America is mainly for reclaiming
+treeless regions, as in the west, and where timber is high priced.
+The area of planted timber in the Middle West aggregates many hundred
+thousand acres, once waste land, now converted into useful woods.[3]
+
+Planting has been made possible in the far west by extensive
+irrigation systems, and farther east by the lessening of prairie
+fires, which once set the limit to tree growth in the prairie states.
+In many parts of Illinois, southern Wisconsin and other prairie
+States, there is much more forest land than there was twenty-five
+years ago.
+
+What planting can do, may be seen on some worn out pastures in New
+England, Fig. 127. With the western movement of agriculture,
+the abandoned farms of New England are to some extent becoming
+re-forested, both naturally and by planting, as with white pine, which
+grows even on sandy soil. Between 1820 and 1880, there was a period of
+enthusiastic white-pine planting in New England, and tho the interest
+died on account of the cheap transportation of western lumber, those
+early plantations prove that white pine can be planted at a profit
+even on sand barrens. Once worn out and useless pastures are now worth
+$150 an acre and produce yearly a net income of $3 or more an acre.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 127. Planted White Pine, Fifty Years Old,
+Bridgewater, Mass. _U. S. Forest Service._]
+
+
+IMPROVEMENT.
+
+Besides utilization and preservation, the third main object of
+forestry is the improvement of the forest. It is not an uncommon
+mistake to suppose that the virgin forest is the best forest for human
+purposes. It is a comparatively new idea, especially in America, that
+a forest can be improved; that is, that better trees can be raised
+than those which grow naturally. Lumbermen commonly say, "You never
+can raise a second growth of white pine as good as the first growth."
+As if this "first growth" were not itself the successsor of thousands
+of other generations! There is even a legend that white pine will not
+grow in its old habitat. Says Bruncken,
+
+    Many people probably imagine that a primeval wood, "by
+    nature's own hand planted," cannot be surpassed in the number
+    and size of its trees, and consequently in the amount of wood
+    to be derived from it. But the very opposite is true. No wild
+    forest can ever equal a cultivated one in productiveness. To
+    hope that it will, is very much as if a farmer were to expect
+    a full harvest from the grain that may spring up spontaneously
+    in his fields without his sowing. A tract of wild forest in
+    the first place does not contain so many trees as might grow
+    thereon, but only so many as may have survived the struggle
+    for life with their own and other species of plants occupying
+    the locality. Many of the trees so surviving never attain
+    their best development, being suppressed, overshadowed, and
+    hindered by stronger neighbors. Finally much of the space that
+    might be occupied by valuable timber may be given up to trees
+    having little or no market value. The rule is universal that
+    the amount and value of material that can be taken from an
+    area of wild forest remains far behind what the same land
+    may bear if properly treated by the forester. It is certain,
+    therefore, that in the future, when most American forests
+    shall be in a high state of cultivation, the annual output of
+    forests will, from a much restricted area, exceed everything
+    known at the present day. (Bruncken, _North American Forests
+    and Forestry_, pp. 134-135.)
+
+    It is probable that the virgin forest produces but a tithe of
+    the useful material which it is capable of producing. (Fernow,
+    p. 98.)
+
+    Mr. Burbank has demonstrated that trees can be bred for any
+    particular quality,--for largeness, strength, shape, amount of
+    pitch, tannin, sugar and the like, and for rapidity of
+    growth; in fact that any desirable attribute of a tree may
+    be developed simply by breeding and selecting. He has created
+    walnut trees, by crossing common varieties, that have grown
+    six times as much in thirteen years as their ancestors did in
+    twenty-eight years, preserving at the same time, the strength,
+    hardness and texture of their forebears. The grain of the wood
+    has been made more beautiful at the same time. The trees are
+    fine for fuel and splendidly adapted to furniture manufacture.
+    (Harwood, _The New Earth_, p. 179.)
+
+Nature provides in the forest merely those varieties that will
+survive. Man, by interfering in Nature's processes but obeying her
+laws, raises what he wants. Nature says: those trees that survive
+are fit and does not care whether the trees be straight or crooked,
+branched or clear. Man says: those trees shall survive which are fit
+for human uses. Man raises better grains and fruits and vegetables
+than Nature, unaided, can, and, in Europe, better trees for lumber. In
+America there has been such an abundance of trees good enough for our
+purposes that we have simply gone out and gathered them, just as a
+savage goes out to gather berries and nuts. Some day our descendants
+will smile at our treatment of forests much as we smile at
+root-digging savages, unless, indeed, we so far destroy the forests
+that they will be more angered than amused. In Europe and Japan, the
+original supply of trees having been exhausted, forests have been
+cultivated for centuries with the purpose of raising crops larger in
+quantity and better in quality.
+
+There are various methods used in forest improvement. Improvement
+cuttings, as the name implies, are cuttings made to improve the
+quality of the forest, whether by thinning out poor species of trees,
+unsound trees, trees crowding more valuable ones, or trees called
+"wolves"; that is, trees unduly overshadowing others. Improvement
+cuttings are often necessary as a preliminary step before any
+silvicultural system can be applied. Indeed, many of the silvicultural
+systems involve steady improvement of the forest.
+
+The pruning of branches is a method of improvement, carrying on the
+natural method by which trees in a forest clean themselves of their
+branches.
+
+Seeds of valuable species are often sowed, when the conditions are
+proper, in order to introduce a valuable species, just as brooks
+and ponds are stocked with fine fish. In general it may be said that
+improvement methods are only in their infancy, especially in America.
+
+    [Footnote 1: A concise and interesting statement of the
+    relation of the forest to rain and floods is to be found in
+    Pinchot: _Primer of Forestry_, Bulletin No. 24, Part II, Chap.
+    III.]
+
+    [Footnote 2: For an interesting account of an application of
+    this method, see Ward, p. 35.]
+
+    [Footnote 3: To encourage such forest extension, the Forest
+    Service is doing much by the publication of bulletins
+    recommending methods and trees suited to special regions, as,
+    e.g., on Forest Planting in Illinois, in the Sand Hill Region
+    of Nebraska, on Coal Lands in Western Pennsylvania, in Western
+    Kansas, in Oklahoma and adjacent regions, etc.]
+
+
+THE USE OF THE FOREST.
+
+REFERENCES:[A]
+
+
+  I Utilization.
+
+      Pinchot, _Primer_, II, pp. 14-18, 38-48.
+      Bruncken, pp. 121-131, _For. Bull._ No. 61.
+
+  (1) Protective.
+
+        Pinchot, _Primer_, II, pp. 66-73.
+        Craft, _Agric. Yr. Bk._, 1905, pp.  636-641, (Map. p. 639.)
+        Toumey, _Agric. Yr. Bk._, 1903, p. 279.
+        Bruncken, pp. 166-173.
+        _For. and Irrig._, passim.
+        Shaler, I, pp. 485-489.
+
+  (2) Productive.
+
+        Kellogg, _For. Bull._, No. 74,
+        Fernow, _For. Invest._, p. 9.
+        Roth, _First Book_, p. 133.
+        Zon & Clark, _Agric. Yr. Bk._, 1907, p. 277.
+        Boulger, pp. 60-76.
+        Roth, _Agric. Yr. Bk._, 1896, p. 391.
+        Fernow, _Economics_, pp. 23-33.
+
+  (3) Esthetic.
+
+        Roth, _First Book_, p. 180.
+
+ II Preservation.
+
+      Pinchot, _Primer_, II, pp. 18-36.
+      Bruncken, pp. 95, 190.
+      Graves, _For. Bull._, No. 26, pp. 67-70.
+      Roth, _First Book_, pp. 41-76, 193-194.
+      Roth, _For. Bull._, No. 16, pp. 8, 9.
+      Fernow, _Economics_, 165-196.
+
+     Planting.
+
+        Roth, _First Book_, pp. 76-94, 195-198.
+        Hall, _Agric. Yr. Bk._, 1902, pp. 145-156.
+        _For. Circs._, Nos. 37, 41, 45, 81.
+        Bruncken, pp. 92, 133.
+        _Forestry Bulletins_ Nos. 18, 45, 52, 65.
+
+III Improvement.
+
+        Bruncken, pp. 134-135, 152-160.
+        Graves, _For. Bull._, No. 26, p. 39.
+        Pinchot, _Adirondack Spruce_, p. 4.
+        Harwood, pp. 143-181.
+
+    [Footnote A: For general bibliography, see p. 4.]
+
+
+
+
+APPENDIX.
+
+HOW TO DISTINGUISH THE DIFFERENT KINDS OF WOOD.[A]
+
+BY B. E. FERNOW AND FILIBERT ROTH.
+
+
+The carpenter or other artisan who handles different woods, becomes
+familiar with those he employs frequently, and learns to distinguish
+them thru this familiarity, without usually being able to state the
+points of distinction. If a wood comes before him with which he is not
+familiar, he has, of course, no means of determining what it is, and
+it is possible to select pieces even of those with which he is well
+acquainted, different in appearance from the general run, that will
+make him doubtful as to their identification. Furthermore, he may
+distinguish between hard and soft pines, between oak and ash, or
+between maple and birch, which are characteristically different; but
+when it comes to distinguishing between the several species of pine or
+oak or ash or birch, the absence of readily recognizable characters is
+such that but few practitioners can be relied upon to do it. Hence, in
+the market we find many species mixed and sold indiscriminately.
+
+To identify the different woods it is necessary to have a knowledge of
+the definite, invariable differences in their structure, besides
+that of the often variable differences in their appearance. These
+structural differences may either be readily visible to the naked eye
+or with a magnifier, or they may require a microscopical examination.
+In some cases such an examination can not be dispensed with, if we
+would make absolutely sure. There are instances, as in the pines,
+where even our knowledge of the minute anatomical structure is not yet
+sufficient to make a sure identification.
+
+In the following key an attempt has been made--the first, so far as
+we know, in English literature--to give a synoptical view of the
+distinctive features of the commoner woods of the United States, which
+are found in the markets or are used in the arts. It will be observed
+that the distinction has been carried in most instances no further
+than to genera or classes of woods, since the distinction of species
+can hardly be accomplished without elaborate microscopic study, and
+also that, as far as possible, reliance has been placed only on such
+characteristics as can be distinguished with the naked eye or a simple
+magnifying glass, in order to make the key useful to the largest
+number. Recourse has also been taken for the same reason to the less
+reliable and more variable general external appearance, color, taste,
+smell, weight, etc.
+
+The user of the key must, however, realize that external appearance,
+such, for example, as color, is not only very variable but also very
+difficult to describe, individual observers differing especially in
+seeing and describing shades of color. The same is true of statements
+of size, when relative, and not accurately measured, while weight and
+hardness can perhaps be more readily approximated. Whether any feature
+is distinctly or only indistinctly seen will also depend somewhat
+on individual eyesight, opinion, or practice. In some cases the
+resemblance of different species is so close that only one other
+expedient will make distinction possible, namely, a knowledge of the
+region from which the wood has come. We know, for instance, that no
+longleaf pine grows in Arkansas and that no white pine can come from
+Alabama, and we can separate the white cedar, giant arbor vitae of the
+West and the arbor vitae of the Northeast, only by the difference of
+the locality from which the specimen comes. With all these limitations
+properly appreciated, the key will be found helpful toward greater
+familiarity with the woods which are more commonly met with.
+
+The features which have been utilized in the key and with which--their
+names as well as their appearance--therefore, the reader must
+familiarize himself before attempting to use the key, are mostly
+described as they appear in cross-section. They are:
+
+(1) Sap-wood and heart-wood (see p. 17), the former being the wood
+from the outer and the latter from the inner part of the tree. In some
+cases they differ only in shade, and in others in kind of color, the
+heart-wood exhibiting either a darker shade or a pronounced color.
+Since one can not always have the two together, or be certain whether
+he has sap-wood or heart-wood, reliance upon this feature is, to
+be sure, unsatisfactory, yet sometimes it is the only general
+characteristic that can be relied upon. If further assurance is
+desired, microscopic structure must be examined; in such cases
+reference has been made to the presence or absence of tracheids in
+pith rays and the structure of their walls, especially projections and
+spirals.
+
+(2) Annual rings, their formation having been described on page 19.
+(See also Figs. 128-130.) They are more or less distinctly marked,
+and by such marking a classification of three great groups of wood is
+possible.
+
+(3) Spring wood and summer wood, the former being the interior (first
+formed wood of the year), the latter the exterior (last formed) part
+of the ring. The proportion of each and the manner in which the one
+merges into the other are sometimes used, but more frequently the
+manner in which the pores appear distributed in either.
+
+(4) Pores, which are vessels cut thru, appearing as holes in
+cross-section, in longitudinal section as channels, scratches, or
+identifications. (See p. 23 and Figs. 129 and 130.) They appear
+only in the broad-leaved, so called, hard woods; their relative size
+(large, medium, small, minute, and indistinct when they cease to be
+visible individually by the naked eye) and manner of distribution in
+the ring being of much importance, and especially in the summer
+wood, where they appear singly, in groups, or short broken lines, in
+continuous concentric, often wavy lines, or in radial branching lines.
+
+(5) Resin ducts (see p. 26 and Fig. 128) which appear very much like
+pores in cross-section, namely, as holes or lighter or darker colored
+dots, but much more scattered. They occur only in coniferous woods,
+and their presence or absence, size, number, and distribution are an
+important distinction in these woods.
+
+(6) Pith rays (see p. 21 and Figs. 129 and 130), which in
+cross-section appear as radial lines, and in radial section as
+interrupted bands of varying breadth, impart a peculiar luster to that
+section in some woods. They are most readily visible with the naked
+eye or with a magnifier in the broad-leaved woods. In coniferous
+woods they are usually so fine and closely packed that to the casual
+observer they do not appear. Their breadth and their greater or less
+distinctness are used as distinguishing marks, being styled fine,
+broad, distinct, very distinct, conspicuous, and indistinct when no
+longer visible by the naked (strong) eye.
+
+(7) Concentric lines, appearing in the summer wood of certain species
+more or less distinct, resembling distantly the lines of pores but
+much finer and not consisting of pores. (See Fig. 129.)
+
+Of microscopic features, the following only have been referred to:
+
+(8) Tracheids, a description of which is to be found on page 28.
+
+(9) Pits, simple and bordered, especially the number of simple pits
+in the cells of the pith rays, which lead into each of the adjoining
+tracheids.
+
+For standards of weight, consult table on pages 50 and 192; for
+standards of hardness, table on page 195.
+
+Unless otherwise stated the color refers always to the fresh
+cross-section of a piece of dry wood; sometimes distinct kinds of
+color, sometimes only shades, and often only general color effects
+appear.
+
+    [Footnote A: From Forestry Bulletin No. 10, _U. S. Department
+    of Agriculture_.]
+
+
+HOW TO USE THE KEY.
+
+Nobody need expect to be able to use successfully any key for the
+distinction of woods or of any other class of natural objects without
+some practice. This is especially true with regard to woods, which
+are apt to vary much, and when the key is based on such meager general
+data as the present. The best course to adopt is to supply one's self
+with a small sample collection of woods, accurately named. Small,
+polished tablets are of little use for this purpose. The pieces
+should be large enough, if possible, to include pith and bark, and of
+sufficient width to permit ready inspection of the cross-section.
+By examining these with the aid of the key, beginning with the
+better-known woods, one will soon learn to see the features described
+and to form an idea of the relative standards which the maker of the
+key had in mind. To aid in this, the accompanying illustrations will
+be of advantage. When the reader becomes familiar with the key, the
+work of identifying any given piece will be comparatively easy. The
+material to be examined must, of course, be suitably prepared. It
+should be moistened; all cuts should be made with a very sharp knife
+or razor and be clean and smooth, for a bruised surface reveals but
+little structure. The most useful cut may be made along one of the
+edges. Instructive, thin, small sections may be made with a sharp
+penknife or razor, and when placed on a piece of thin glass, moistened
+and covered with another piece of glass, they may be examined by
+holding them toward the light.
+
+Finding, on examination with the magnifier, that it contains pores, we
+know it is not coniferous or non-porous. Finding no pores collected
+in the spring-wood portion of the annual ring, but all scattered
+(diffused) thru the ring, we turn at once to the class of
+"Diffuse-porous woods." We now note the size and manner in which
+the pores are distributed thru the ring. Finding them very small and
+neither conspicuously grouped, nor larger nor more abundant in the
+spring-wood, we turn to the third group of this class. We now note
+the pith rays, and finding them neither broad nor conspicuous, but
+difficult to distinguish, even with the magnifier, we at once exclude
+the wood from the first two sections of this group and place it in the
+third, which is represented by only one kind, cottonwood. Finding the
+wood very soft, white, and on the longitudinal section with a silky
+luster, we are further assured that our determination is correct.
+We may now turn to the list of woods and obtain further information
+regarding the occurrence, qualities, and uses of the wood.
+
+Sometimes our progress is not so easy; we may waver in what group or
+section to place the wood before us. In such cases we may try each
+of the doubtful roads until we reach a point where we find ourselves
+entirely wrong and then return and take up another line; or we may
+anticipate some of the later mentioned features and finding them apply
+to our specimen, gain additional assurance of the direction we ought
+to travel. Color will often help us to arrive at a speedy decision.
+In many cases, especially with conifers, which are rather difficult to
+distinguish, a knowledge of the locality from which the specimen comes
+is at once decisive. Thus, northern white cedar, and bald cypress, and
+the cedar of the Pacific will be identified, even without the somewhat
+indefinite criteria given in the key.
+
+
+KEY TO THE MORE IMPORTANT WOODS OF NORTH AMERICA.
+
+I. NON-POROUS WOODS--Pores not visible or conspicuous on
+cross-section, even with magnifier. Annual rings distinct by denser
+(dark colored) bands of summer wood (Fig. 128).
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 128. "Non-porous" Woods. _A_, fir; _B_, "hard"
+pine; _C_, soft pine; _ar_, annual ring; _o.e._, outer edge of ring;
+_i.e._, inner edge of ring; _s.w._, summer wood; _sp.w._, spring wood;
+_rd._, resin ducts.]
+
+II. RING-POROUS WOODS--Pores numerous, usually visible on
+cross-section without magnifier. Annual rings distinct by a zone of
+large pores collected in the spring wood, alternating with the denser
+summer wood (Fig. 129).
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 129. "Ring-porous" Woods White Oak and Hickory.
+_a. r._, annual ring; _su. w._, summer wood; _sp. w._, spring wood;
+_v_, vessels or pores; _c. l._, "concentric" lines; _rt_, darker
+tracts of hard fibers forming the firm part of oak wood; _pr_, pith
+rays.]
+
+III. DIFFUSE-POROUS WOODS--Pores numerous, usually not plainly visible
+on cross-section without magnifier. Annual rings distinct by a fine
+line of denser summer wood cells, often quite indistinct; pores
+scattered thru annual ring, no zone of collected pores in spring wood
+(Fig. 130).
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 130. "Diffuse-porous" Woods. _ar_, annual ring;
+_pr_, pith rays which are "broad" at _a_, "fine" at _b_, "indistinct"
+at _d_.]
+
+NOTE.--The above described three groups are exogenous, i.e., they
+grow by adding annually wood on their circumference. A fourth group
+is formed by the endogenous woods, like yuccas and palms, which do not
+grow by such additions.
+
+
+I.--NON-POROUS WOODS.
+
+(Includes all coniferous woods.)
+
+A. Resin ducts wanting.[1]
+
+   1. No distinct heart-wood.
+
+     _a._ Color effect yellowish white; summer wood darker yellowish
+          (under microscope pith ray without tracheids)..........FIRS.
+
+     _b._ Color effect reddish (roseate) (under microscope pith
+          ray with tracheids) ................................HEMLOCK.
+
+   2. Heart-wood present, color decidedly different in kind from
+      sap-wood.
+
+     _a._ Heart-wood light orange red; sap-wood, pale lemon; wood,
+          heavy and hard .........................................YEW.
+
+     _b._ Heartwood purplish to brownish red; sap-wood yellowish
+          white; wood soft to medium hard, light, usually with
+          aromatic odor, ...................................RED CEDAR.
+
+     _c._ Heart-wood maroon to terra cotta or deep brownish red;
+          sap-wood light orange to dark amber, very soft and light,
+          no odor; pith rays  very distinct, specially pronounced
+          on radial section ..................................REDWOOD.
+
+   3. Heart-wood present, color only different in shade from sap-wood,
+      dingy-yellowish brown.
+
+     _a._ Odorless and tasteless ........................BALD CYPRESS.
+
+     _b._ Wood with mild resinous odor, but tasteless ....WHITE CEDAR.
+
+     _c._ Wood with strong resinous odor and peppery taste when
+           freshly cut, ................................INCENSE CEDAR.
+
+B. Resin ducts present.
+   1. No distinct heartwood; color white, resin ducts very small,
+      not numerous ............................................SPRUCE.
+
+   2. Distinct heart-wood present.
+
+     _a._ Resin ducts numerous, evenly scattered thru the ring.
+
+         _a.'_ Transition from spring wood to summer wood gradual;
+               annual ring distinguished by a fine line of dense
+               summer-wood cells; color, white to yellowish red;
+               wood soft and light .......................SOFT PINES.[2]
+
+         _b.'_ Transition from spring wood to summer wood more or
+               less abrupt; broad bands of dark-colored summer
+               wood; color from light to deep orange; wood medium
+               hard and heavy ............................HARD PINES.[2]
+
+     _b._ Resin ducts not numerous nor evenly distributed.
+
+         _a'._ Color of heart-wood orange-reddish, sap-wood yellowish
+               (same as hard pine); resin ducts frequently combined in
+               groups of 8 to 30, forming lines on the cross-section
+               (tracheids with spirals), ..............DOUGLAS SPRUCE.
+
+         _b'._ Color of heart-wood light russet brown; of sap-wood
+               yellowish brown; resin ducts very few, irregularly
+               scattered (tracheids without spirals) ........TAMARACK.
+
+
+    [Footnote 1: Soft and hard pines are arbitrary distinctions
+    and the two not distinguishable at the limit.]
+
+    [Footnote 2: To discover the resin ducts a very smooth surface
+    is necessary, since resin ducts are frequently seen only with
+    difficulty, appearing on the cross-section as fine whiter
+    or darker spots normally scattered singly, rarely in groups,
+    usually in the summer wood of the annual ring. They are
+    often much more easily seen on radial, and still more so on
+    tangential sections, appearing there as fine lines or dots of
+    open structure of different color or as indentations or pin
+    scratches in a longitudinal direction.]
+
+====
+
+
+ADDITIONAL NOTES FOR DISTINCTIONS IN THE GROUP.
+
+Spruce is hardly distinguishable from fir, except by the existence of
+the resin ducts, and microscopically by the presence of tracheids
+in the medullary rays. Spruce may also be confounded with soft pine,
+except for the heart-wood color of the latter and the larger, more
+frequent, and more readily visible resin ducts.
+
+In the lumber yard, hemlock is usually recognized by color and the
+silvery character of its surface. Western hemlocks partake of this
+last character to a less degree.
+
+Microscopically the white pine can be distinguished by having usually
+only one large pit, while spruce shows three to five very small
+pits in the parenchyma cells of the pith ray communicating with the
+tracheid.
+
+The distinction of the pines is possible only by microscopic
+examination. The following distinctive features may assist in
+recognizing, when in the log or lumber pile, those usually found in
+the market:
+
+The light, straw color, combined with great lightness and softness,
+distinguishes the white pines (white pine and sugar pine) from the
+hard pines (all others in the market), which may also be recognized
+by the gradual change of spring wood into summer wood. This change
+in hard pines is abrupt, making the summer wood appear as a sharply
+defined and more or less broad band.
+
+The Norway pine, which may be confounded with the shortleaf pine, can
+be distinguished by being much lighter and softer. It may also,
+but more rarely, be confounded with heavier white pine, but for the
+sharper definition of the annual ring, weight, and hardness.
+
+The longleaf pine is strikingly heavy, hard, and resinous, and usually
+very regular and narrow ringed, showing little sap-wood, and differing
+in this respect from the shortleaf pine and loblolly pine, which
+usually have wider rings and more sap-wood, the latter excelling in
+that respect.
+
+
+The following convenient and useful classification of pines into four
+groups, proposed by Dr. H. Mayr, is based on the appearance of the
+pith ray as seen in a radial section of the spring wood of any ring:
+
+Section I. Walls of the tracheids of the pith ray with dentate
+           projections.
+
+   _a._ One to two large, simple pits to each tracheid on the radial
+        walls of the cells of the pith ray.--Group 1. Represented in
+        this country only by _P. resinosa_.
+
+   _b._ Three to six simple pits to each tracheid, on the walls of
+        the cells of the pith ray.--Group 2. _P. taeda_, _palustris_,
+        etc., including most of our "hard" and "yellow" pines.
+
+Section II. Walls of tracheids of pith ray smooth, without dentate
+            projections.
+
+   _a._ One or two large pits to each tracheid on the radial walls of
+        each cell of the pith ray.--Group 3. _P. strobus, lambertiana_,
+        and other true white pines.
+
+   _b._ Three to six small pits on the radial walls of each cell of
+        the pith ray. Group 4. _P. parryana_, and other nut pines,
+        including also _P. balfouriana_.
+
+====
+
+
+II.--RING-POROUS WOODS.
+
+(Some of Group D and cedar elm imperfectly ring-porous.)
+
+A. Pores in the summer wood minute, scattered singly or in groups, or in
+   short broken lines, the course of which is never radial.
+
+   1. Pith rays minute, scarcely distinct.
+
+      _a._ Wood heavy and hard; pores in the summer wood not in clusters.
+
+         _a.'_ Color of radial section not yellow.................ASH.
+
+         _b.'_ Color of radial section light yellow; by which,
+               together with its hardness and weight, this
+               species is easily recognized, ............OSAGE ORANGE.
+
+      _b._ Wood light and soft; pores in the summer wood in clusters
+           of 10 to 30 .......................................CATALPA.
+
+   2. Pith rays very fine, yet distinct; pores in summer wood
+      usually single or in short lines; color of heart-wood
+      reddish brown; of sap-wood yellowish white; peculiar odor
+      on fresh section .....................................SASSAFRAS.
+
+   3. Pith rays fine, but distinct.
+
+       _a._ Very heavy and hard; heart-wood yellowish brown.
+                                                         BLACK LOCUST.
+
+       _b._ Heavy; medium hard to hard.
+
+          _a.'_ Pores in summer wood very minute, usually in small
+                clusters of 3 to 8; heart-wood light orange brown.
+                                                         RED MULBERRY.
+
+          _b.'_ Pores in summer wood small to minute, usually
+                isolated; heart-wood cherry red ..........COFFEE TREE.
+
+
+   4. Pith rays fine but very conspicuous, even without magnifier.
+      Color of heart-wood red; of sap-wood pale lemon ...HONEY LOCUST.
+
+B. Pores of summer wood minute or small, in concentric wavy and
+   sometimes branching lines, appearing as finely-feathered hatchings
+   on tangential section.
+
+   1. Pith rays fine, but very distinct; color greenish white.
+      Heart-wood absent or imperfectly developed ...........HACKBERRY.
+
+   2. Pith rays indistinct; color of heart-wood reddish brown;
+      sap-wood grayish to reddish white .........................ELMS.
+
+C. Pores of summer wood arranged in radial branching lines (when very
+   crowded radial arrangement somewhat obscured).
+
+   1. Pith rays very minute, hardly visible .................CHESTNUT.
+
+   2. Pith rays very broad and conspicuous .......................OAK.
+
+D. Pores of summer wood mostly but little smaller than those of the
+   spring wood, isolated and scattered; very heavy and hard woods.
+   The pores of the spring wood sometimes form but an imperfect zone.
+   (Some diffuse-porous woods of groups A and B may seem to belong
+   here.)
+
+   1. Fine concentric lines (not of pores) as distinct, or nearly so,
+      as the very fine pith rays; outer summer wood with a tinge of
+      red; heart-wood light reddish brown ....................HICKORY.
+
+   2. Fine concentric lines, much finer than the pith rays; no
+      reddish tinge in summer wood; sap-wood white; heart-wood
+      blackish .............................................PERSIMMON.
+
+====
+
+
+ADDITIONAL NOTES FOR DISTINCTIONS IN THE GROUP.
+
+Sassafras and mulberry may be confounded but for the greater weight
+and hardness and the absence of odor in the mulberry; the radial
+section of mulberry also shows the pith rays conspicuously.
+
+Honey locust, coffee tree, and black locust are also very similar in
+appearance. The honey locust stands out by the conspicuousness of the
+pith rays, especially on radial sections, on account of their height,
+while the black locust is distinguished by the extremely great weight
+and hardness, together with its darker brown color.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 131. Wood of Coffee Tree.]
+
+The ashes, elms, hickories, and oaks may, on casual observation,
+appear to resemble one another on account of the pronounced zone of
+porous spring wood. (Figs. 129, 132, 135.) The sharply defined large
+pith rays of the oak exclude these at once; the wavy lines of pores in
+the summer wood, appearing as conspicuous finely-feathered hatchings
+on tangential section, distinguish the elms; while the ashes differ
+from the hickory by the very conspicuously defined zone of spring wood
+pores, which in hickory appear more or less interrupted. The reddish
+hue of the hickory and the more or less brown hue of the ash may also
+aid in ready recognition. The smooth, radial surface of split hickory
+will readily separate it from the rest.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 132. _A_, black ash; _B_, white ash; _C_, green
+ash.]
+
+The different species of ash may be identified as follows (Fig. 132):
+
+  1. Pores in the summer wood more or less united into lines.
+
+    _a._ The lines short and broken, occurring mostly near the limit
+         of the ring .......................................WHITE ASH.
+
+    _b._ The lines quite long and conspicuous in most parts of the
+         summer wood .......................................GREEN ASH.
+
+  2. Pores in the summer wood not united into lines, or rarely so.
+
+    _a._ Heart-wood reddish brown and very firm ..............RED ASH.
+
+    _b._ Heart-wood grayish brown, and much more porous ....BLACK ASH.
+
+In the oaks, two groups can be readily distinguished by the manner in
+which the pores are distributed in the summer wood. (Fig. 133.) In
+the white oaks the pores are very fine and numerous and crowded in
+the outer part of the summer wood, while in the black or red oaks the
+pores are larger, few in number, and mostly isolated. The live oaks,
+as far as structure is concerned, belong to the black oaks, but are
+much less porous, and are exceedingly heavy and hard.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 133. Wood of Red Oak. (For white oak see fig. 129,
+p. 291.)]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 134. Wood of Chestnut.]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 135. Wood of Hickory.]
+
+====
+
+
+III.--DIFFUSE-POROUS WOODS.
+
+(A few indistinctly ring-porous woods of Group II, D, and cedar elm
+may seem to belong here.)
+
+A. Pores varying in size from large to minute; largest in spring wood,
+   thereby giving sometimes the appearance of a ring-porous arrangement.
+
+   1. Heavy and hard; color of heart-wood (especially on longitudinal
+      section) chocolate brown ..........................BLACK WALNUT.
+
+   2. Light and soft; color of heart-wood light reddish brown
+                                                            BUTTERNUT.
+
+B. Pores all minute and indistinct; most numerous in spring wood,
+   giving rise to a lighter colored zone or line (especially on
+   longitudinal section), thereby appearing sometimes ring-porous;
+   wood hard, heart-wood vinous reddish; pith rays very fine, but very
+   distinct. (See also the sometimes indistinct ring-porous cedar elm,
+   and occasionally winged elm, which are readily distinguished by the
+   concentric wavy lines of pores in the summer wood) .........CHERRY.
+
+C. Pores minute or indistinct, neither conspicuously larger nor more
+   numerous in the spring wood and evenly distributed.
+
+   1. Broad pith rays present.
+
+     _a._ All or most pith rays broad, numerous, and crowded,
+         especially on tangential sections, medium heavy and hard,
+         difficult to split. ................................SYCAMORE.
+
+     _b._ Only part of the pith rays broad.
+
+        _a.'_ Broad pith rays well defined, quite numerous;
+              wood reddish white to reddish ....................BEECH.
+
+        _b.'_ Broad pith rays not sharply defined, made up of many
+              small rays, not numerous. Stem furrowed, and therefore
+              the periphery of section, and with it the annual rings
+              sinuous, bending in and out, and the large pith rays
+              generally limited to the furrows or concave portions.
+              Wood white, not reddish .....................BLUE BEECH.
+
+   2. No broad pith rays present.
+
+      _a._ Pith rays small to very small, but quite distinct.
+
+         _a.'_ Wood hard.
+
+            _a."_ Color reddish white, with dark reddish tinge in
+                   outer summer wood ...........................MAPLE.
+
+            _b."_ Color white, without reddish tinge ...........HOLLY.
+
+        _b.'_ Wood soft to very soft.
+
+          _a."_ Pores crowded, occupying nearly all the space between
+                pith rays.
+
+            _a.'"_ Color yellowish white, often with a greenish tinge
+                   in heart-wood ........................TULIP POPLAR.
+                                                        CUCUMBER TREE.
+
+            _b.'"_ Color of sap-wood grayish, of heart-wood light to
+                   dark reddish brown ......................SWEET GUM.
+
+          _b."_ Pores not crowded, occupying not over one-third the
+                space between pith rays; heart-wood brownish white
+                to very light brown .........................BASSWOOD.
+
+      _b._ Pith rays scarcely distinct, yet if viewed with ordinary
+           magnifier, plainly visible.
+
+         _a.'_ Pores indistinct to the naked eye.
+
+            _a."_ Color uniform pale yellow; pith rays not
+                  conspicuous even on the radial section .....BUCKEYE.
+
+            _b."_ Sap-wood yellowish gray, heart-wood grayish brown;
+                  pith rays conspicuous on the radial section.
+                                                             SOUR GUM.
+
+         _b.'_ Pores scarcely distinct, but mostly visible as grayish
+               specks on the cross-section; sap-wood whitish,
+               heart-wood reddish ..............................BIRCH.
+
+D. Pith rays not visible or else indistinct, even if viewed with
+   magnifier.
+
+   1. Wood very soft, white, or in shades of brown, usually with a
+    silky luster .................................COTTONWOOD (POPLAR).
+
+====
+
+
+ADDITIONAL NOTES FOR DISTINCTIONS IN THE GROUP.
+
+Cherry and birch are sometimes confounded, the high pith rays on the
+cherry on radial sections readily distinguishes it; distinct pores
+on birch and spring wood zone in cherry as well as the darker
+vinous-brown color of the latter will prove helpful.
+
+Two groups of birches can be readily distinguished, tho specific
+distinction is not always possible.
+
+  1. Pith rays fairly distinct, the pores rather few and not more
+     abundant in the spring wood: wood heavy, usually darker,
+                                        CHERRY BIRCH and YELLOW BIRCH.
+
+  2. Pith rays barely distinct, pores more numerous and commonly
+     forming a more porous spring wood zone; wood of medium weight,
+                                                 CANOE OR PAPER BIRCH.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 136. Wood of Beech, Sycamore and Birch.]
+
+The species of maple may be distinguished as follows:
+
+   1. Most of the pith rays broader than the pores and very
+      conspicuous ........................................SUGAR MAPLE.
+
+   2. Pith rays not or rarely broader than the pores, fine but
+      conspicuous.
+
+     _a._ Wood heavy and hard, usually of darker reddish color and
+           commonly spotted on cross-section ...............RED MAPLE.
+
+     _b._ Wood of medium weight and hardness, usually light colored.
+                                                         SILVER MAPLE.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 137. Wood of Maple.]
+
+Red maple is not always safely distinguished from soft maple. In box
+elder the pores are finer and more numerous than in soft maple. The
+various species of elm may be distinguished as follows:
+
+   1. Pores of spring wood form a broad band of several rows; easy
+      splitting, dark brown heart ............................RED ELM.
+
+   2. Pores of spring wood usually in a single row, or nearly so.
+
+     _a._ Pores of spring wood large, conspicuously so
+                                                            WHITE ELM.
+
+     _b._ Pores of spring wood small to minute.
+
+        _a.'_ Lines of pores in summer wood fine, not as wide as the
+              intermediate spaces, giving rise to very compact grain
+                                                             ROCK ELM.
+
+        _b.'_ Lines of pores broad, commonly as wide as the
+              intermediate spaces .........................WINGED ELM.
+
+     _c._ Pores in spring wood indistinct, and therefore hardly a
+          ring-porous wood .................................CEDAR ELM.
+
+[Illustration:
+
+Fig. 138. Wood of Elm.
+_a_ red elm; _b_, white elm; _c_, winged elm.]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 139. Walnut. _p.r._, pith rays; _c.l._, concentric
+lines; _v_, vessels or pores; _su. w._, summer wood; _sp. w._, spring
+wood.]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 140. Wood of Cherry.]
+
+
+
+
+INDEX.
+
+
+_Abies grandis_, 96.
+
+_Acer dasycarpum_, 172.
+
+_Acer macrophyllum_, 170.
+
+_Acer rubrum_, 174.
+
+_Acer saccharinum_, 172.
+
+_Acer saccharum_, 176.
+
+_Agaricus melleus_, 236.
+
+_Agarics_, 234, 236.
+
+Alburnum, 17.
+
+Ambrosia beetles, 242.
+
+Angiosperms, 9.
+
+Animal enemies, 239.
+
+Arborvitae, Giant, 104.
+
+Ash, 182-191, 296.
+
+Ash, Black, 182, 298.
+
+Ash, Blue, 186.
+
+Ash, Hoop, 182.
+
+Ash, Oregon, 184.
+
+Ash, Red, 188, 298.
+
+Ash, White, 25, 190, 298.
+
+
+Bamboo, 10, 11.
+
+Bark, 10, 13, 14.
+
+Bark borers, 243.
+
+Basswood, 14, 178, 301.
+
+Bast, 13, 15, 16, 20.
+
+Beech, 134, 300.
+
+Beech, Blue, 124, 300.
+
+Beech, Water, 124.
+
+Beech, Water, 162.
+
+Bees, carpenter, 246.
+
+Beetles, 241-246.
+
+_Betula lenta_, 130.
+
+_Betula lutea_, 132.
+
+_Betula nigra_, 128.
+
+_Betula papyrifera_, 126.
+
+Big Tree, 98, 208, 209, 220.
+
+Birch, Black, 130.
+
+Birch, Canoe, 126.
+
+Birch, Cherry, 130.
+
+Birch, Gray, 132.
+
+Birch, Mahogany, 130.
+
+Birch, Paper, 126.
+
+Birch, Red, 128.
+
+Birch, River, 128.
+
+Birch, Sweet, 130.
+
+Birch, White, 126.
+
+Birch, Yellow, 132.
+
+Bird's eye maple, 36.
+
+Bluing, 234.
+
+Bole, 211, 218.
+
+Borers, 243-246.
+
+Bowing, 47.
+
+Branches, 37, 218, 226, 286.
+
+Brittleness, 53.
+
+Broad-leaved trees.
+  See Trees, Broad-leaved.
+
+Browsing, 240.
+
+Buckeye, 301.
+
+Bud, 14, 16, 36.
+
+Buds, Adventitious, 36, 37.
+
+Bullnut, 118.
+
+_Buprestid_, 243.
+
+Burl, 35.
+
+Butternut, 144, 300.
+
+Button Ball, 162.
+
+Buttonwood, 162.
+
+
+Calico poplar, 246.
+
+Cambium, 10, 13, 14, 15, 16, 22, 237.
+
+Canopy, 204, 211, 212.
+
+Carpenter worms, 245.
+
+Carpenter bees, 246.
+
+_Carpinus caroliniana_, 124.
+
+Catalpa, 296.
+
+_Castanea dentata_, 136.
+
+Case-hardening, 48.
+
+_Carya tomentosa_, 118.
+
+_Carya porcina_, 122.
+
+_Carya alba_, 120.
+
+Cedar, Canoe, 104.
+
+Cedar Incense, 295.
+
+Cedar, Oregon, 108.
+
+Cedar, Port Orford, 108.
+
+Cedar, Red, 110, 223, 295.
+
+Cedar, Western Red, 104, 206, 207.
+
+Cedar, White, 106, 295.
+
+Cedar, White, 108.
+
+Cells, Wood, 15, 19, 20, 21, 24, 26, 41, 42.
+
+Cells, Fibrous, 28.
+
+Cellulose, 15.
+
+_Cerambycid_, 243.
+
+_Chamaecyparis lawsoniana_, 108.
+
+_Chamaecyparis thyordes_, 106.
+
+Checks, 43, 47, 232.
+
+Cherry, Wild Black, 164, 300.
+
+Chestnut, 136, 298.
+
+Cleaning, 218, 286.
+
+Cleavability of wood, 41, 53.
+
+Coffee Tree, 297.
+
+Color of wood, 18.
+
+Cold, 214, 216.
+
+_Coleoptera_, 241.
+
+Colors of woods, 17, 18, 290.
+
+Columbian timber beetle, 245.
+
+Comb-grain, 54.
+
+Composition of forest, 197-210, 223.
+
+Compression, 51, 52.
+
+Conch, 235.
+
+Cones, Annual, 19.
+
+Conifers, 9, 10, 12, 24-26, 29, 30, 48, 58-111, 205, 220, 237, 251.
+
+Conservation of forests, 262.
+
+Coppice, 220, 278, 279.
+
+Cork, 13, 19.
+
+Cortex, 13, 15.
+
+_Corthylus columbianus_, 245.
+
+Cottonwood, 301.
+
+Cover, 211.
+
+Crop, The Forest, 274.
+
+Crown, 211, 227.
+
+Cucumber Tree, 156, 301.
+
+_Curculionid_, 243.
+
+Cypress, Bald, 102, 215, 295.
+
+Cypress, Lawson, 108.
+
+
+Decay, 235.
+
+Deciduous trees, 10.
+
+Dicotoledons, 9, 10.
+
+Differentiation of cells, 16.
+
+Diffuse-porous. See wood, diffuse-porous.
+
+Distribution of species, 218.
+
+Distribution of forests, 197-210.
+
+Drouth, 213, 231.
+
+Dry-rot, 234, 238.
+
+Duff, 224, 251.
+
+Duramen, 17.
+
+
+Elasticity of wood, 41, 53.
+
+Elm, 152-155, 298.
+
+Elm, American, 154.
+
+Elm, Cedar, 303.
+
+Elm, Cliff, 152.
+
+Elm, Cork, 152.
+
+Elm, Hickory, 152.
+
+Elm, Red, 302.
+
+Elm, Rock, 152, 303.
+
+Elm, Slippery, 14.
+
+Elm, Water, 154.
+
+Elm, White, 152.
+
+Elm, White, 154, 302.
+
+Elm, Winged, 303.
+
+Endogens, 10, 17.
+  See Monocotoledons.
+
+Enemies of the Forest, 229-249.
+
+Engraver beetles, 241.
+
+Entomology, Bureau of, 247.
+
+Epidermis, 13, 15.
+
+Erosion, 273.
+
+Evaporation, 42, 47.
+
+Evergreens, 10.
+
+Exotics, 227.
+
+Exogens, 12, 16.
+
+
+_Fagus americana_, 134.
+
+_Fagus atropunicea_, 134.
+
+_Fagus ferruginea_, 134.
+
+_Fagus grandifolia_, 134.
+
+Figure, 37.
+
+Fir, 96, 294.
+
+Fir, Douglas, 94.
+
+Fir, Grand, 96.
+
+Fir, Lowland, 96.
+
+Fir, Red, 94, 206, 207.
+
+Fir, Silver, 96.
+
+Fir, White, 96.
+
+Fire, 232, 251-258.
+
+Fire lanes, 257.
+
+Fire losses, 253.
+
+Fire notice, 258.
+
+Fire trenches, 256.
+
+Fire Wardens, 257.
+
+Fires, Causes of, 252.
+
+Fires, Control of, 256-258.
+
+Fires, Crown, 255.
+
+Fires, Description of, 254-256.
+
+Fires, Fear of, 261.
+
+Fires, Opportunities for, 251.
+
+Fires, Statistics of, 253.
+
+Fires, Surface, 252.
+
+Floor, Forest, 213, 224.
+
+Forest, Abundance of, 260.
+
+Forest, Appalachian, 204.
+
+Forest, Atlantic, 197.
+
+Forest, Broadleaf, 202.
+
+Forest, Eastern, 197-204.
+
+Forest, Enemies of, 229-249.
+
+Forest, Exhaustion of, 241-270.
+
+Forest, Esthetic use of, 277.
+
+Forest, Fear of, 260.
+
+Forest, Hardwood, 197.
+
+Forest, High, 281.
+
+Forest, Hostility toward, 260.
+
+Forest, Mixed, 204, 213, 214.
+
+Forest, Northern, 197, 216.
+
+Forest, Pacific, 197, 204-208.
+
+Forest, Productive, 274-277.
+
+Forest, Protective, 271-274.
+
+Forest, Puget Sound, 206.
+
+Forest, Regular Seed, 281.
+
+Forest, Rocky Mountain, 197, 204, 205.
+
+Forest, Seed, 297-282.
+
+Forest, Selection, 280-281.
+
+Forest, Southern, 197.
+
+Forest, Subarctic, 209.
+
+Forest, Two-storied Seed, 282.
+
+Forest, Use of, 271-287.
+
+Forest, Utilization of, 271-277.
+
+Forest, Virgin, 280.
+
+Forest, Western, 197.
+
+Forestry, 271-287.
+
+Forests, Composition of North American, 197.
+
+Forests, National, 228.
+
+Forests and agriculture, 258, 277.
+
+Forest conditions, 211-228, 278.
+
+Forest conservation, 262.
+
+Forest cover, 204, 211, 212, 224.
+
+Forest crop, 274, 276.
+
+Forest devastation, 261.
+
+Forest fires, 251-258, 261.
+
+Forest floor, 213, 224.
+
+Forest improvement, 284-286.
+
+Forest map, 198.
+
+Forest organism, The, Chapter V., pp. 211-228.
+
+Forest ownership, 262.
+
+Forest planting, 282-284.
+
+Forest preservation, 277-284.
+
+Forest products, 276.
+
+Forest Service, U. S., 262, 264, 275.
+
+_Fraxinus americana_, 190.
+
+_Fraxinus nigra_, 182.
+
+_Fraxinus oregona_, 184.
+
+_Fraxinus pennsylvanica_, 188.
+
+_Fraxinus quadrangulata_, 186.
+
+Frost, 232.
+
+Frost-check, 232.
+
+Fungi, 20, 233-239.
+
+
+Ginko, 12.
+
+Gluing, 54.
+
+Goats, 240.
+
+Grain of wood, 19, 30, 31, 32-37, 53.
+
+Grain, Bird's eye.
+
+Grain, coarse, 32.
+
+Grain, cross, 33, 53.
+
+Grain, curly, 35.
+
+Grain, fine, 32.
+
+Grain, spiral, 33.
+
+Grain, straight, 33, 53.
+
+Grain, twisted, 33.
+
+Grain, wavy, 34.
+
+Grazing, 239.
+
+Group system, 279.
+
+Grubs, 243, 244.
+
+Gum, Black, 180.
+
+Gum, Sour, 180, 301.
+
+Gum, Sweet, 160, 301.
+
+Gymnosperms, 9.
+
+
+Hackberry, 297.
+
+Hackmatack, 76.
+
+Hardness of wood, 41, 54.
+
+Hardwoods, 12.
+
+Heart-wood, 13, 17, 18, 19, 290.
+
+Hemlock, 90, 295.
+
+Hemlock, Black, 92.
+
+Hemlock, Western, 92, 206.
+
+_Hicoria alba_, 118.
+
+_Hicoria glabra_, 122.
+
+_Hicoria ovata_, 120.
+
+Hickory, 118-123, 298.
+
+Hickory, Big-bud, 118.
+
+Hickory, Black, 118.
+
+Hickory, Shagbark, 120.
+
+Hickory, Shellbark, 120.
+
+Hickory, White-heart, 118.
+
+High Forest, 281.
+
+Holly, 301.
+
+Honeycombing, 48.
+
+Hornbeam, 124.
+
+Horn-tails, 246.
+
+Hygroscopicity of wood, 41.
+
+_Hymenomycetes_, 234.
+
+
+Ice, 232.
+
+Ichneumon fly, 247.
+
+Identification of woods, 289-303.
+
+Improvement of forests, 284-286.
+
+Inflammability of bark, 14, 251.
+
+Insects, 240-248.
+
+Insects, parasitic, 247.
+
+Insects, predaceous, 247.
+
+Intolerance, 216, 219, 221.
+
+Iron-wood, 124.
+
+
+_Juglans cinerea_, 114.
+
+_Juglans nigra_, 116.
+
+_Juniperus virginiana_, 110.
+
+
+Key for the distinction of woods, 292-303.
+
+King-nut, 118.
+
+Knot, 35, 37, 38.
+
+
+Larch, 76.
+
+Larch, Western, 78.
+
+_Larix americana_, 76.
+
+_Larix laricina_, 76.
+
+_Larix occidentales_, 78.
+
+Leaves, 14, 216.
+
+Lenticels, 14.
+
+_Lepidoptera_, 241.
+
+Light, 216-218.
+
+Lightning, 231, 251.
+
+Lignin, 16.
+
+Linden, 178.
+
+_Liquidambar styraciflua_, 160.
+
+_Liriodendron tulipifera_, 158.
+
+Localized Selection system, 281.
+
+Locust, 166.
+
+Locust, Black, 166, 296.
+
+Locust, Honey, 166, 297.
+
+Locust, Yellow, 166.
+
+Long-bodied trunk, 225.
+
+Lumber consumption, 264.
+
+Lumber, 9, 10.
+
+Lumber prices, 267, 268.
+
+Lumber production, 265-267.
+
+Lumber, substitutes for, 264.
+
+Lumbering, conservative, 274, 276.
+
+Lumbering, destructive, 251, 258-263.
+
+Lumberman, 260.
+
+
+_Magnolia acuminata_, 156.
+
+Magnolia, Mountain, 156.
+
+Mahogany, 168.
+
+Maple, 170-177, 301.
+
+Maple, Hard, 25, 176.
+
+Maple, Large Leaved, 170.
+
+Maple, Oregon, 170, 207.
+
+Maple, Red, 174, 302.
+
+Maple, Rock, 25, 176.
+
+Maple, Silver, 172, 302.
+
+Maple, Soft, 172.
+
+Maple, Sugar, 176.
+
+Maple, White, 170.
+
+Maple, White, 172.
+
+Medullary rays. See Rays.
+
+Medullary Sheath. See Sheath.
+
+_Merulius lachrymans_, 234, 238.
+
+Meteorological enemies, 229-233.
+
+Mice, 237.
+
+Microscope, 14, 24-31, 290.
+
+Mine, Forest treated as, 261, 274.
+
+Mockernut, 118.
+
+Moisture, 213.
+
+Moisture in wood, 41, 52.
+
+Monocotoledons, 9, 10, 17.
+  See also Endogens.
+
+Mountain, 216.
+
+Mulberry, Red, 297.
+
+Mushroom, 236.
+
+Mutual aid, 224.
+
+
+Nailing, 53.
+
+Needle-leaf trees, 12.
+
+Non-porous. See Wood, non-porous.
+
+North Woods, 197, 218.
+
+Nurse, 218, 219.
+
+_Nyssa sylvatica_, 180.
+
+
+Oak, 138-151, 298.
+
+Oak, Basket, 142.
+
+Oak, Black, 140.
+
+Oak, Bur, 144.
+
+Oak, Cow, 142.
+
+Oak, Live, 201.
+
+Oak, Mossy-cup, 144.
+
+Oak, Over-cup, 144.
+
+Oak, Post, 148.
+
+Oak, Red, 138.
+
+Oak, Stave, 150.
+
+Oak, White, 150.
+
+Oak, White (Western), 146.
+
+Oak, Yellow bark, 140.
+
+Odors of wood, 18.
+
+Osage Orange, 296.
+
+Organism, Forest, 211.
+
+
+_Padus serotina_, 164.
+
+Palm, 9, 17.
+
+Paper pulp, 263.
+
+Parasites, 233.
+
+Parenchyma, 23, 28.
+
+Pecky cypress, 234.
+
+Peggy cypress, 234.
+
+Pepperidge, 180.
+
+Persimmon, 298.
+
+Phanerogamia, 9.
+
+Phloem, 13.
+
+_Picea alba_, 80.
+
+_Picea canadensis_, 80.
+
+_Picea engelmanni_, 86.
+
+_Picea mariana_, 84.
+
+_Picea nigra_, 84.
+
+_Picea rubens_, 82.
+
+_Picea sitchensis_, 88.
+
+Pigeon Horn-tail, 247.
+
+Pignut, 122.
+
+Pines, 58-75, 295.
+
+Pine, Bull, 66, 205, 282.
+
+Pine, Cuban, 74.
+
+Pine, Georgia, 68.
+
+Pine, Loblolly, 72.
+
+Pine, Long-leaf, 68, 200.
+
+Pine, Norway, 64.
+
+Pine, Old Field, 72.
+
+Pine, Oregon, 94.
+
+Pine, Red, 64.
+
+Pine, Short-leaf, 70.
+
+Pine, Slash, 74.
+
+Pine, Sugar, 62.
+
+Pine, Western White, 60.
+
+Pine, Western Yellow, 66.
+
+Pine, Weymouth, 58.
+
+Pine, White, 24, 58, 199.
+
+Pine, Yellow, 70.
+
+Pine sawyers, 244.
+
+_Pinus caribaea_, 74.
+
+_Pinus echinata_, 70.
+
+_Pinus heterophylla_, 74.
+
+_Pinus lambertiana_, 62.
+
+_Pinus monticola_, 60.
+
+_Pinus palustris_, 68.
+
+_Pinus ponderosa_, 66.
+
+_Pinus resinosa_, 64.
+
+_Pinus strobus_, 58.
+
+_Pinus taeda_, 72.
+
+Pith, 10, 13, 15, 16, 23, 32, 39.
+
+Pith ray. See Ray, medullary.
+
+Pits, 26, 292.
+
+Planting, 282-284.
+
+_Platanus occidentalis_, 162.
+
+Poles, 225.
+
+Polypores, 234
+
+_Polyporus annosus_, 237.
+
+_Polyporus sulphureus_, 236.
+
+Poplar, yellow, 158, 221, 245, 246, 301.
+
+Pores, 23, 28, 29, 291.
+
+Powder-post beetles, 244.
+
+Preservation of forests, 277-284.
+
+Prices of lumber, 267, 268.
+
+Primary growth, 17, 22.
+
+Procambium strands, 16.
+
+Protection against fungi, 239.
+
+Protection against insects, 247.
+
+Properties of wood, Chap II., p. 41.
+
+Protoplasm, 14, 16, 23, 41.
+
+Pruning of branches, 286.
+
+_Prunus serotina_, 164.
+
+_Pseudotsuga mucronata_, 94.
+
+_Pseudotsuga taxifolia_, 94.
+
+
+Quartering a log, 45.
+
+Quartered oak, 22.
+
+_Quercus alba_, 150.
+
+_Quercus garryana_, 146.
+
+_Quercus macrocarpa_, 144.
+
+_Quercus michauxii_, 142.
+
+_Quercus minor_, 148.
+
+_Quercus obtusiloba_, 148.
+
+_Quercus rubra_, 138.
+
+_Quercus stellata_, 148.
+
+_Quercus tinctoria_, 140.
+
+_Quercus velutina_, 140.
+
+
+Rainfall, effect on forest, 205, 213.
+
+Rays, medullary, 15, 16, 17, 21, 22, 23, 26, 30, 31, 37, 44, 53, 291.
+
+Red rot, 234.
+
+Redwood, 100, 207, 208, 222, 295.
+
+Regularity of cells, 24.
+
+Reproduction, 220.
+
+Reserve sprout method, 279.
+
+Resin ducts, 26, 291.
+
+Rhizomorphs, 236.
+
+Rind, 13.
+
+Ring-porous. See Wood, ring-porous.
+
+Rings, Annual, 9, 18, 19, 21, 23, 44, 226, 290.
+
+Rings, False, 19, 231.
+
+_Robinia pseudacacia_, 166.
+
+Rodents, 239.
+
+Roots, 211, 224.
+
+Rotation period, 279.
+
+Rotting, 234.
+
+
+_Salix nigra_, 112.
+
+Sand dunes, 230, 231.
+
+Saplings, 225, 226.
+
+Saprophytes, 233.
+
+Sap-wood, 13, 17, 18, 41, 42, 290.
+
+Sassafras, 296.
+
+Sawyers, Pine, 244.
+
+Secondary growth, 17.
+
+Section, cross, 21, 22, 29.
+  See also Section, transverse.
+
+Section, radial, 19, 22, 26, 30, 31.
+
+Section, tangential, 19, 22, 26, 30, 31.
+
+Section, transverse, 19, 24, 29, 30.
+
+Seasoning, 42.
+
+Sections, transverse, radial and tangential, 12.
+
+Seed forests, 279-282.
+
+Seeding from the side, 279.
+
+Seedlings, 225, 226.
+
+Seeds, 220-223, 226.
+
+Sequoia, 98.
+
+Sequoia, 100.
+
+Sequoia, Giant, 98.
+
+_Sequoia gigantea_, 98.
+
+_Sequoia sempervirens_, 100.
+
+_Sequoia washingtoniana_, 98.
+
+Settler, 258.
+
+Shake, 47, 232, 233.
+
+Shearing strength, 52.
+
+Sheep, 240.
+
+Shelf fungus, 234, 236.
+
+Short-bodied trunk, 225, 226.
+
+Shrinkage of wood, 41, 42-47.
+
+Silver flakes, 22.
+  See Rays, Medullary.
+
+Silvical characteristics, 211.
+
+Silvicultural systems, 278-284.
+
+Slash, 229, 251, 257.
+
+Slash-grain, 54.
+
+Snow, 232.
+
+Slash-sawing, 45, 47.
+
+Softwoods, 12.
+
+Soil, 211, 213.
+
+Specific gravity. See Weight.
+
+Splint-wood, 17.
+
+Splitting. See Cleavability.
+
+Spores, 234.
+
+Spring-wood, 20, 21, 24, 30, 32, 44, 53, 54, 291.
+
+Sprouts, 220, 222.
+
+Spruce, 80-89, 295.
+
+Spruce, Black, 84.
+
+Spruce, Douglas, 94, 296.
+
+Spruce, Engelmann's, 86.
+
+Spruce, Red, 82, 213.
+
+Spruce, Sitka, 88.
+
+Spruce, Tideland, 88.
+
+Spruce, Western White, 86.
+
+Spruce, White, 80.
+
+Stand, mixed, 213, 223.
+
+Stand, pure, 213, 223.
+
+Standards, 225, 226.
+
+Steamboats, 246.
+
+Stem, diagram of cross section, Fig. 4, p. 13, fig. 5, p. 15, 211.
+
+Strength of wood, 41, 51-53.
+
+Strip system, 279.
+
+Structure of wood, 9-40, 29, 30, 32.
+
+Struggle for existence, 224, 226, 227.
+
+Summer-wood, 20, 21, 24, 30, 32, 44, 53, 54, 291.
+
+_Swietenia mahagoni_, 168.
+
+Sycamore, 22, 162, 300.
+
+
+Tamarack, 76, 296.
+
+Tamarack, Western, 78.
+
+Taxes on forests, 261.
+
+_Taxodium distichum_, 102.
+
+Tear fungus, 234, 238.
+
+Temperature, 214.
+
+Tension, 51, 52.
+
+Texture of wood, 32.
+
+_Thuja gigantea_, 104.
+
+_Thuja plicata_, 104.
+
+_Tilia americana_, 178.
+
+Timber beetles, 242, 245.
+
+Timber supply of U. S., 264-269.
+
+Timber trees, 10.
+
+Timber worms, 244.
+
+Tissue, 16.
+
+Toadstools, 234.
+
+Tolerance, 216, 219.
+
+Toughness of wood, 41, 54.
+
+Tracheae, 23, 28.
+
+Tracheid, 28, 30, 290, 292.
+
+_Trametes pini_, 235.
+
+_Trametes radiciperda_, 237.
+
+Tree, parts of, 211.
+
+Treeless area, 197, 203.
+
+Trees, Broad-leaved, 9, 10, 28, 29.
+
+Trees, deciduous, 10.
+
+Trunk, 13, 211.
+  Long-bodied, 225.
+  Short-bodied, 225.
+
+_Tsuga canadensis_, 90.
+
+_Tsuga heterophylla_, 92.
+
+Tulip Tree, 158.
+  See Poplar Yellow
+
+Tupelo, 180.
+
+Turpentine, 263.
+
+Two-storied Seed Forest, 282.
+
+
+_Ulmus americana_, 154.
+
+_Ulmus racemosa_, 152.
+
+_Ulmus thomasi_, 152.
+
+Utilization of forests, 271-277.
+
+
+Vegetable enemies, 233-239.
+
+Veneer, 10, 35.
+
+Vessels, 23, 28, 29.
+
+Veterans, 225.
+
+
+Walnut, Black, 116, 300.
+
+Walnut, White, 114.
+
+Warping, 45-47.
+
+Waste, Avoidance of, 274.
+
+Waste in lumbering, 263.
+
+Water, 41, 42, 226, 231.
+
+Weeds, Forest, 225.
+
+Weight of wood, 41, 49-51.
+
+Whitewood, 158.
+
+Wilderness, Conquest of, 258.
+
+Willow, Black, 112.
+
+Wind, 229, 252, 253.
+
+Windfalls, 229.
+
+Wood, Diffuse-porous, 23, 30, 300-303.
+
+Wood, Non-porous, 24-26, 58-111, 294-296.
+
+Wood, Primary, 17.
+
+Wood, Properties of, Chap. II., 41-56.
+
+Wood, Ring-porous, 23, 29, 296-299.
+
+Wood, Spring, 20, 21, 24, 30, 32, 44, 53, 54, 291.
+
+Wood, Structure of, 9-40.
+
+Wood, secondary, 17.
+
+Wood, summer, 20, 21, 24, 30, 32, 44, 53, 54, 291.
+
+Wood borers, 243.
+
+Wood cells. See Cells.
+
+Wood. See Sap-wood, Heart wood.
+
+Wood dyes, 18.
+
+Wood fiber, 28.
+
+Woods, Color of, 17, 18, 290.
+
+Woods, The distinguishing of, 289-303.
+
+Working, 47.
+
+Worm-holes, 243.
+
+Worms, carpenter, 245.
+
+Worms, Timber, 244.
+
+Wound parasites, 234.
+
+
+Yew, 295.
+
+Yield, 275.
+
+Yucca, 10.
+
+
+
+
+Books on the Manual Arts
+
+
+DESIGN AND CONSTRUCTION IN WOOD. By William Noyes.
+
+    A book full of charm and distinction and the first to give
+    due consideration to the esthetic side of wood-working. It
+    is intended to give to beginners practice in designing simple
+    projects in wood and an opportunity to acquire skill in
+    handling tools. The book illustrates a series of projects and
+    gives suggestions for other similar projects together with
+    information regarding tools and processes for making. A
+    pleasing volume abundantly and beautifully illustrated.
+
+HANDWORK IN WOOD. By William Noyes.
+
+    A handbook for teachers and a textbook for normal school and
+    college students. A comprehensive and scholarly treatise,
+    covering logging, saw-milling, seasoning and measuring, hand
+    tools, wood fastenings, equipment and care of the shop,
+    the common joints, types of wood structures, principles of
+    joinery, and wood finishing. 304 illustrations--excellent pen
+    drawings and many photographs.
+
+WOOD AND FOREST. By William Noyes.
+
+    A companion volume to "Handwork in Wood," by the same author.
+    Especially adapted as a reference book for teachers of
+    woodworking. Not too difficult for use as a textbook
+    for normal school and college students. Treats of wood,
+    distribution of American forests, life of the forest, enemies
+    of the forest, destruction, conservation and uses of the
+    forest, with a key to the common woods by Filibert Roth.
+    Describes 67 principal species of wood with maps of
+    the habitat, leaf drawings, life size photographs and
+    microphotographs of sections. Contains a general bibliography
+    of books and articles on wood and forest. Profusely
+    illustrated with photographs from the United States forest
+    service and with pen and ink drawings by Anna Gausmann Noyes
+    and photographs by the author. 309 pages.
+
+WOODWORK FOR BEGINNERS. By Ira S. Griffith.
+
+    A remarkably simple treatment of elementary woodworking for
+    students in the seventh and eighth grades. It deals with
+    tools, processes and materials and includes only such subject
+    matter as should be taught to grammar grade students. It meets
+    the requirements of students working in large classes and
+    devoting the minimum of time to manual training. A practical
+    and unusually attractive textbook and one that can be used
+    with any course of models and in any order.
+
+BEGINNING WOODWORK, At Home and in School.
+By Clinton S. VanDeusen.
+
+    A full and clear description in detail of the fundamental
+    processes of elementary benchwork in wood. This description
+    is given thru directions for making a few simple, useful
+    articles, suitable either for school or home problems. The
+    book contains more than one hundred original sketches and ten
+    working drawings.
+
+PROBLEMS IN FARM WOODWORK. By Samuel A. Blackburn.
+
+    A book of working drawings of 100 practical problems relating
+    to agriculture and farm life. Especially valuable to the
+    student or teacher of agriculture or manual arts in rural
+    schools and in high schools in agricultural communities,
+    and to the boy on the farm. There are 60 full-page plates of
+    working drawings, each accompanied by a page or more of text
+    treating of "Purpose," "Material," "Bill of Stock," "Tools,"
+    "Directions," and "Assembly." A wonderfully practical book.
+
+PROBLEMS IN FURNITURE MAKING. By Fred D. Crawshaw.
+
+    This book, revised and enlarged, consists of 43 plates of
+    working drawings suitable for use in grammar and high
+    schools, and 36 pages of text, including chapters on design,
+    construction and finishes, and notes on the problems.
+
+FURNITURE DESIGN FOR SCHOOLS AND SHOPS.
+By Fred D. Crawshaw.
+
+    A manual on furniture design. A book that will stimulate and
+    encourage designing and initiation on the part of the student.
+    It contains a collection of plates showing perspective
+    drawings of typical designs, representing particular types of
+    furniture. Each perspective is accompanied by suggestions for
+    rearrangement and the modeling of parts. The text discusses
+    and illustrates principles of design as applied to furniture.
+    A practical and helpful book that should be in the hands of
+    every teacher of cabinet making and designing.
+
+PROBLEMS IN WOODWORKING. By M. W. Murray.
+
+    A convenient collection of good problems consisting of forty
+    plates of working drawings, of problems in benchwork that have
+    been successfully worked out by boys in grades seven to nine
+    inclusive.
+
+SHOP PROBLEMS. (On Tracing Paper). By Albert F. Siepert.
+
+    A collection of working drawings of a large variety of
+    projects printed on tracing paper and ready for blue printing.
+    The projects have all been worked out in manual arts classes
+    and have proved their value from the standpoint of design,
+    construction, use, human interest, etc. They are of convenient
+    size, 6x9-inch, and are enclosed in a portfolio. To the
+    teacher, in search of additional projects to supplement and
+    enrich his course these tracings are worth far more than the
+    price asked. Published in series. Nos. 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, and
+    7.
+
+WORKSHOP NOTE-BOOK--WOODWORKING.
+By George G. Greene.
+
+    A small-size textbook and notebook combined. It furnishes a
+    few general and extremely important directions about tools and
+    processes; and provides space for additional notes and working
+    drawings of exercises and articles which the pupil is to
+    construct. It is essentially a collection of helps, ideas,
+    hints, suggestions, questions, facts, illustrations, etc.,
+    which have been prepared by a practical teacher to meet a real
+    need in his own shop. The notebook is full of suggestions;
+    shows a keen insight into subject matter and teaching methods
+    and is an effective teaching tool.
+
+PROBLEMS IN WOOD-TURNING. By Fred D. Crawshaw.
+
+    In the first place this is a book of problems--25 plates
+    covering spindle, face-plate, and chuck turning. In the second
+    place it is a textbook on the science and art of wood-turning
+    illustrated by fifty pen sketches. It gives the mathematical
+    basis for the cuts used in turning. In the third place it is
+    a helpful discussion of the principles of design as applied
+    to objects turned in wood. It is a clear, practical and
+    suggestive book on wood-turning.
+
+WOOD PATTERN-MAKING. By Horace T. Purfield.
+
+    This book was written expressly for use as a textbook for
+    high school, trade school, technical school, and engineering
+    college students. It is a revised, enlarged, and newly
+    illustrated edition.
+
+CORRELATED COURSES IN WOODWORK AND MECHANICAL
+DRAWING. By Ira S. Griffith.
+
+    This book is designed to meet the every-day need of the
+    teacher of woodworking and mechanical drawing for reliable
+    information concerning organization of courses, subject
+    matter and methods of teaching. It covers classification and
+    arrangement of tool operations for grades, 7, 8, 9, and 10,
+    shop organization, allotment of time design, shop excursions,
+    stock bills, cost of material, records, shop conduct, the
+    lesson, maintenance, equipment, and lesson outlines for
+    grammar and high schools. It is based on sound pedagogy, thoro
+    technical knowledge and successful teaching experience. It is
+    practical.
+
+ESSENTIALS OF WOODWORKING. By Ira S. Griffith.
+
+    A textbook written especially for the use of grammar and
+    high school students. A clear and comprehensive treatment of
+    woodworking tools, materials, and processes, to supplement,
+    but not to take the place of the instruction given by the
+    teacher. The book does not contain a course of models; it may
+    be used with any course. It is illustrated with photographs
+    and numerous pen drawings.
+
+PROJECTS FOR BEGINNING WOODWORK AND MECHANICAL
+DRAWING. By Ira S. Griffith.
+
+    A work book for the use of students in grammar grade classes.
+    It consists of working drawings and working directions. The
+    projects are such as have proven of exceptional service where
+    woodworking and mechanical drawing are taught in a thoro,
+    systematic manner in the seventh and eighth grades. The aim
+    has been to provide successful rather than unique problems.
+    The 50 projects in the book were selected and organized with
+    the constant aim of securing the highest educational results.
+    The book is especially suited for use in connection with
+    "Essentials of Woodworking," by the same author.
+
+FURNITURE MAKING. (Advanced Projects in Woodwork.)
+By Ira S. Griffith.
+
+    This book is similar to "Projects for Beginning Woodwork and
+    Mechanical Drawing," but is suited to high school needs. It
+    consists of fifty plates of problems and accompanying notes.
+    It is essentially a collection of problems in furniture making
+    selected or designed with reference to school use. On the
+    plate with each working drawing is a good perspective sketch
+    of the completed object. In draftsmanship and refinement of
+    design these problems are of superior quality. It is in every
+    respect an excellent collection.
+
+PROBLEMS IN MECHANICAL DRAWING. By Charles A. Bennett.
+
+    This book consists of 80 plates and a few explanatory notes.
+    Its purpose is to furnish teachers of classes beginning
+    mechanical drawing with a large number of simple, practical
+    problems. These have been selected with reference to the
+    formation of good habits in technique, the interest of the
+    pupils, and the subjects generally included in a grammar and
+    first-year high school course. Each problem given is unsolved
+    and therefore in proper form to hand to the pupil for
+    solution.
+
+MECHANICAL DRAWING PROBLEMS.
+By Edward Berg and Emil F. Kronquist.
+
+    A direct and concise text adapted for high school students
+    beginning mechanical drawing. It covers two year's work
+    and contains 128 full-page plates--excellent examples of
+    draftsmanship. Text accompanies each plate, giving necessary
+    facts and helpful hints wherever needed. The underlying
+    principles of drafting are thoroly covered and the practical
+    applications, which are abundant, have been most skilfully
+    chosen and admirably presented. The plates tell what to do,
+    almost at a glance, yet prevent mere copy work. Each problem
+    tests the ability of the student to think and execute
+    graphically and unconsciously develops an excellent technique.
+
+MECHANICAL DRAFTING. By W. H. Miller.
+
+    (Revised edition). A textbook for advanced high school
+    students which presents drafting room practice in practical
+    textbook form. It is so written that it may be used with
+    any course of exercises or problems and supplements the
+    instruction of the teacher in such a way as to reduce lecture
+    work to a minimum. It is a direct and simple treatment of
+    mechanical drafting, giving due consideration to the needs of
+    the student, the beginning draftsman and the requirements of
+    the best teaching methods. It is complete, yet condensed and
+    is well adapted for handbook use by the student and draftsman.
+    It is well illustrated and is bound in flexible binding,
+    pocket size. A thoroughly practical, modern textbook.
+
+GRAMMAR GRADE PROBLEMS IN MECHANICAL DRAWING.
+By Charles A. Bennett.
+
+    A remarkably simple and carefully graded treatment of the
+    fundamentals of mechanical drawing for the use of students in
+    the 7th and 8th grades. It combines an abundance of text and
+    simple problems, accompanied by notes and directions. Its use
+    insures the early formation of correct habits of technique and
+    makes possible the development of a standard in grammar grade
+    mechanical drawing parallel with woodworking. Abundantly and
+    well illustrated.
+
+MECHANICAL DRAWING FOR BEGINNERS.
+By Charles H. Bailey.
+
+    A textbook suitable wherever this subject is taught to
+    beginners, in Junior High Schools, High and Continuation
+    Schools. It successfully combines instructions which are
+    minute and complete, with problems, gradually leading the
+    student to learn with little or no other help, the essentials
+    and technique of the work. The matter is condensed but leaves
+    no important points not covered.
+
+PROGRESSIVE STEPS IN ARCHITECTURAL DRAWING.
+By George W. Seaman.
+
+    A textbook and practical handbook, describing and illustrating
+    every successive step in drawing of floor plans, elevations
+    and various details for successful dwellings. Numerous plates
+    illustrate details of doors, windows, mouldings, cornices,
+    porches, etc. Architectural orders shown in practical working
+    forms. "Single line sketches" illustrate method of practical
+    designer in planning a house.
+
+ARCHITECTURAL DRAWING PLATES. By Franklin G. Elwood.
+
+    A collection of 15 plates showing the various details included
+    in the plans for frame houses. Names and typical sizes
+    are given and much information helpful to the student or
+    draftsman. One plate shows eleven "Plan Studies," another
+    "How Elevations are Worked Up from Plans and Sections." A
+    wonderfully convenient help in architectural drawing.
+
+SIMPLIFIED MECHANICAL PERSPECTIVE. By Frank Forrest Frederick.
+
+    A book of simple problems covering the essentials of
+    mechanical perspective. It is planned for pupils of high
+    school age who have already received some elementary training
+    in mechanical drawing. It is simple, direct and practical.
+
+WOODWORK FOR SECONDARY SCHOOLS. By Ira S. Griffith.
+
+    The most complete and comprehensive textbook on secondary
+    school woodworking ever published. Treats of Common
+    Woods, Tools and Processes, Woodworking Machines, Joinery,
+    Wood-Turning, Inlaying and Wood Carving, Wood Finishing,
+    Furniture Construction, Pattern-Making. Although written for
+    the student, every teacher of high school or normal school
+    woodwork will find this text a valuable and necessary volume
+    for reference use. It contains 370 pages and 580 special
+    illustrations.
+
+CARPENTRY. By Ira S. Griffith.
+
+    A well illustrated textbook for use in vocational schools,
+    trade schools, technical schools, and by apprentices to the
+    trade, presenting the principles of house construction in
+    a clear and fundamental way. It treats of the "everyday"
+    practical problems of the carpenter and house builder from
+    the "laying of foundations" to the completion of the "interior
+    finish." It meets every requirement as a textbook and is also
+    well adapted for reference use. It is well illustrated by
+    photographs taken "on the job."
+
+BOY ACTIVITY PROJECTS. By Samuel A. Blackburn.
+
+    A book of full-page plates and accompanying text giving
+    complete directions for making 86 projects of interest to the
+    energetic American boy. The projects are for the school, the
+    home, the playground, the camp, the out-of-doors, and include
+    a complete wireless telegraph apparatus. The plates give every
+    required dimension, and show each project complete and in
+    detail. The text is in reality working directions telling just
+    "how to make," including bills of material, lists of tools
+    required, etc. A thoroly practical and suggestive book
+    for school use and rich in inspiration for the boy in his own
+    home shop.
+
+SEAT WEAVING. By L. Day Perry.
+
+    A handbook for teacher or student. Tells how to cane chairs,
+    how to use cane webbing, how to do rush seating, how to
+    do reed and splint weaving, how to make seats of reeds and
+    splints, how to prepare raw materials, how to stain, finish
+    and refinish, etc. Also treats of the use of cane and other
+    seating materials as a decorative element in furniture
+    construction. Well illustrated, practical and authoritative.
+
+FURNITURE UPHOLSTERY FOR SCHOOLS. By Emil A. Johnson.
+
+    The only text and reference book on upholstery written for
+    school use. Contains detailed, practical instructions
+    telling how to upholster a variety of articles, also how
+    to re-upholster old furniture and how to do spring-edge
+    upholstery work. Describes necessary tools and materials.
+    Abundantly and beautifully illustrated.
+
+PRACTICAL TYPOGRAPHY. By George E. McClellan.
+
+    A remarkable textbook for students of printing. It contains a
+    course of exercises ready to place in the hands of pupils,
+    and explains and illustrates the most approved methods used
+    in correct composition. A valuable feature of the book lies in
+    the fact that in the early stages of the course the pupil sets
+    up in type a description of what he is doing with his hands.
+    It contains 63 exercises, treating of composition from
+    "Correct Spacing" to the "Making up of a Book," and the
+    "Composition of Tables."
+
+ART METALWORK. By Arthur F. Payne.
+
+    A textbook written by an expert craftsman and experienced
+    teacher. It treats of the various materials and their
+    production, ores, alloys, commercial forms, etc.; of tools and
+    equipments suitable for the work, the inexpensive equipment
+    of the practical craftsman; and of the correlation of art
+    metalwork with design and other school subjects. It describes
+    in detail all the processes involved in making articles
+    ranging from a watch fob to a silver loving-cup. It gives new
+    methods of construction, new finishes, new problems. It is
+    abundantly and beautifully illustrated, showing work done by
+    students under ordinary school conditions in a manual training
+    shop. The standard book on the subject.
+
+TEACHING THE MANUAL AND INDUSTRIAL ARTS.
+By Ira S. Griffith.
+
+    A text for normal schools or colleges and a reference for
+    manual and vocational teachers. Presents the philosophy
+    of teaching manual and vocational education in terms of
+    psychology, social science, and economics. It gives the
+    conclusions of Thorndike, Judd, Bagley, Dewey and others,
+    and illustrates them so they serve the teacher as a basis for
+    evaluating the manual and industrial arts. A book of value
+    to the beginning teacher, the experienced supervisor or the
+    educational expert; an exceptional source of information on
+    the theory and practice of its subject.
+
+THE MANUAL ARTS. By Charles A. Bennett.
+
+    A treatise on the selection and organization of subject matter
+    in the manual arts and on the methods of teaching. It states
+    what manual arts should be taught in the schools, their place
+    as concerns general and vocational education, principles
+    underlying the making of courses of instruction and methods
+    of teaching, and shows the place of the factory system in
+    industrial schools, etc. Heretofore no book has dealt with
+    the pedagogy of the manual arts in so definite and clear cut
+    a manner. The author has brought together, with ripened
+    judgment, the result of years of experience.
+
+    It is especially adapted for normal class and reading circle
+    use and should be read and studied by every teacher or
+    prospective teacher of the manual arts.
+
+EDUCATIONAL TOYS. By Louis C. Petersen.
+
+    A comprehensive book on toy-making for the school or home.
+    Shows 57 toys including animals, wheeled toys, stationary
+    toys, moving toys, puzzles, etc., made chiefly from thin wood,
+    with the coping saw and easily constructed in the ordinary
+    school room or in the home. Tells how to make each toy, how
+    to finish and color, about the few simple tools and materials
+    required. Well illustrated with photographs and full-size
+    pattern drawings.
+
+TOY PATTERNS. By Michael C. Dank.
+
+    A portfolio of toy patterns. Among them are Animals, Animal
+    Rocking Toys, Wheeled Platform Toys, String Toys, Lever Toys,
+    Freak Toys and Novelties. Each toy is shown complete and each
+    part is also shown full-size. They are designed to be made
+    with the coping saw out of thin wood. Twelve sheets, size
+    10-1/2" x 14", enclosed in a portfolio with an attractive
+    color design.
+
+BIRD HOUSES BOYS CAN BUILD. By Albert F. Siepert.
+
+    A book of rare interest to boys. It is written in the boy
+    spirit and combines the charm of nature with the allurements
+    of continuation work in wood. It illustrates hundreds of bird
+    houses and shows working drawings of various designs, also
+    feeders, shelters, sparrow traps, and other bird accessories.
+    The common house nesting birds are pictured and described with
+    information regarding houses, foods, etc., suitable for each.
+    A pleasing and practical book for wide-awake boys.
+
+MANUAL TRAINING TOYS. FOR THE BOYS' WORKSHOP.
+By Harris W. Moore.
+
+    A popular boys' book that is truly educational. It is a
+    collection of forty-two projects overflowing with "boy"
+    interest and new in the manual training shop. Full-page
+    working drawings show each project in detail and the text
+    gives instructions for making, together with information on
+    tools and tool processes.
+
+KITECRAFT AND KITE TOURNAMENTS. By Charles M. Miller.
+
+    An authoritative and comprehensive treatment of kitecraft. The
+    book deals with the construction and flying of all kinds of
+    kites, and the making and using of kite accessories. Also
+    aeroplanes, gliders, propellers, motors, etc. Four chapters
+    are devoted to presenting a detailed description of kite
+    flying tournaments. Abundantly illustrated and attractively
+    bound.
+
+THE CONSTRUCTION AND FLYING OF KITES.
+By Charles M. Miller.
+
+    This contains seven full-page plates of drawings of kites,
+    and fifteen figures--over forty kites shown. Details of
+    construction given; a kite tournament is described. Full of
+    interesting suggestions.
+
+COPING SAW WORK. By Ben W. Johnson.
+
+    Contains working drawings and suggestions for teaching a
+    course of work in thin wood that is full of fun for the
+    children, and affords ample means for training in form study,
+    construction, invention and careful work. Has been called
+    "applied mechanics for the fourth grade."
+
+SELECTED SHOP PROBLEMS. By George A. Seaton.
+
+    A collection of sixteen problems in woodworking made to meet
+    the needs of busy teachers of manual training. Each problem
+    has been put to the test and has proven satisfactory to the
+    teacher who designed it and to the pupil who made it.
+
+MANUAL TRAINING MAGAZINE.
+
+    A magazine of "quality." The professional journal of the
+    teachers of manual, vocational and industrial education. It
+    publishes practical articles on the ways and means of "doing
+    things." It discusses vital problems in teaching the manual
+    arts and presents the best current thought on the development
+    of manual training and vocational education. To the
+    inexperienced teacher, it is valuable in solving numerous
+    problems, and to the experienced teacher, it is a means of
+    keeping abreast of the times. It is ably edited, attractively
+    printed, and well illustrated with photographs and drawings
+    made especially for its pages. Published monthly. $1.50 a
+    year; Canada, $1.80; Foreign, $2.00.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+_Published by_
+
+Manual Arts Press :: Peoria, Illinois
+
+We can supply you with any book on the Manual Arts
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+Transcriber's Note:
+
+Transcriber's Note: 'M', in the context of lumber measurement, means
+'1000 feet'. From 'Handwork in Wood', Chapter III, page 48. Also
+(ibid): "There are several methods of measuring lumber. The general
+rule is to multiply the length in feet by the width and thickness in
+inches and divide by 12, thus: 1" x 6" x 15' / 12 = 71/2 feet."
+
+In the interests of clarity, some Illustrations have been moved closer
+to their descriptive text.
+
+Hyphenation and spelling are not uniform throughout this book, e.g.,
+'sapwood' and 'sap-wood' both occur; '_Columbian Timber-beetle_' and
+'Columbian timber beetle' occur in the same paragraph.
+
+Chapter II has three types of footnotes, with different notations.
+References to the author's previous book, being short, are placed at
+the end of the paragraph; numbered technical or tabular footnotes, or
+footnotes referencing other publications are collected at the end of
+the Chapter, before the Chapter Bibliography; and Chapter Bibliography
+footnotes are placed at the end of the Chapter Bibliography. In later
+Chapters, numbered footnotes are placed either at the end of the
+Chapter (before the Bibliography) or at the end of a relevant section
+of a Chapter.
+
+Chapter III lists 67 trees; The (following) Lists from the Jesup
+Collection list 66 trees, including the 'tied place' trees. The tree
+missing from the Jesup Collection is No. 18: Western Hemlock, or Black
+Hemlock.
+
+Damaged or missing punctuation has been repaired.
+
+Page 18: 'sumac' and 'sumach'. Both spellings correct. Also 'sumak',
+shoomak. From Arabic 'summ[=a]q'.
+
+Page 19: 'charactistic' corrected to 'characteristic' ... "and give
+the characteristic pleasing "grain" of wood."
+
+Page 23: inconsistent spelling--_tracheae_, tracheae. The two
+spellings occur in the book; also trachaeids, tracheids. All have been
+retained. The author's bibliography is extensive.
+
+Page 124 etc.: The Allegheny Mountain Range (also spelled Alleghany
+and Allegany, ~Wikipedia).
+
+Page 143: 'distinguised' corrected to 'distinguished' ... "Not
+distinguished from white oak in the market."
+
+Page 180: diameter, '1"-6", even 5';' corrected to 'diameter,
+1'6"-3'6", even 5';' (Wikipedia)
+
+Page 182: 'scambucifolia' corrected to 'sambucifolia' ... "_Fraxinus
+nigra_ Marshall. _Fraxinus sambucifolia._"
+
+Page 186: 'cleavabilty' corrected to 'cleavability' ... "refers to the
+cleavability of the wood;"
+
+Page 268: Fig. 118 text: Basswood, 1st and 2d, 1" x 8" and up by x 00".
+and: White pine, rough uppers, 1" x 8" and up x 00'.
+This is as printed; the transcriber has no idea what was meant by '00"'
+and '00'', or what it should have been.
+
+Page 292: 'miscroscopic' corrected to 'microscopic' ... "Of microscopic
+features, the following only have been referred to:"
+
+Page 304: 'Agaricus mellens' corrected to 'Agaricus melleus'.
+
+The (archaic) U.S. American spellings, 'drouth' (='drought'), 'thoroly',
+'tho', 'altho', 'tire' (='tyre'), etc., are correct.
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of Wood and Forest, by William Noyes
+
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