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+The Project Gutenberg EBook of Wood and Forest, by William Noyes
+
+This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with
+almost no restrictions whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or
+re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included
+with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org
+
+
+Title: Wood and Forest
+
+Author: William Noyes
+
+Release Date: February 27, 2011 [EBook #35419]
+
+Language: English
+
+Character set encoding: ISO-8859-1
+
+*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK WOOD AND FOREST ***
+
+
+
+
+Produced by Lesley Halamek, Peter Vachuska, Chris Curnow and the
+Online Distributed Proofreading Team at https://www.pgdp.net
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+ WOOD AND FOREST
+
+ _By_ WILLIAM NOYES, M.A.
+
+ Formerly Assistant Professor of Industrial Arts
+ Teachers College, Columbia University
+
+ NEW YORK CITY
+
+ [Illustration]
+
+ THE MANUAL ARTS PRESS
+
+ PEORIA, ILLINOIS
+
+
+ COPYRIGHT
+
+ WILLIAM NOYES
+
+ 1912
+
+ _FIFTH EDITION, 1921_
+
+ _Printed in United States of America_
+
+
+
+
+FOREWORD
+
+
+This book has been prepared as a companion volume to the author's
+_Handwork in Wood_.[1] It is an attempt to collect and arrange in
+available form useful information, now widely scattered, about our
+common woods, their sources, growth, properties and uses.
+
+As in the other volume, the credit for the successful completion of
+the book is to be given to my wife, Anna Gausmann Noyes, who has made
+the drawings and maps, corrected the text, read the proof, and carried
+the work thru to its final completion.
+
+Acknowledgments are hereby thankfully made for corrections and
+suggestions in the text to the following persons:
+
+Mr. A. D. Hopkins, of the United States Department of Agriculture,
+Bureau of Entomology, for revision of the text relating to Insect
+Enemies of the Forest, in Chapter VI.
+
+Mr. George G. Hedgcock, of the United States Bureau of Agriculture,
+Bureau of Plant Industry, for revision of the text relating to the
+fungal enemies of the forest, in Chapter VI.
+
+Mr. S. T. Dana and Mr. Burnett Barrows, of the United States
+Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, for revision of Chapters
+IV, V, VI, VII, and VIII.
+
+Professor Charles R. Richards, formerly Head of the Manual Training
+Department of Teachers College, my predecessor as lecturer of the
+course out of which this book has grown.
+
+Professor M. A. Bigelow, Head of the Department of Botany of Teachers
+College, for revision of Chapter I, on the Structure of Wood.
+
+Mr. Romeyn B. Hough, of Lowville, N. Y., author of _American Woods_
+and _Handbook of the Trees of the Northern States and Canada_, for
+suggestions in preparing the maps in Chapter III.
+
+The Forest Service, Washington, D. C., for photographs and maps
+credited to it, and for permission to reprint the key to the
+identification of woods which appears in Forest Service Bulletin No.
+10, _Timber_, by Filibert Roth.
+
+The Division of Publications, U. S. Department of Agriculture, for
+permission to copy illustrations in bulletins.
+
+The Macmillan Company, New York, for permission to reproduce Fig.
+86, Portion of the Mycelium of Dry Rot, from _Timber and Some of its
+Diseases_, by H. M. Ward.
+
+Mrs. Katharine Golden Bitting, of Lafayette, Indiana, for the
+photograph of the cross-section of a bud, Figure 5.
+
+Finally and not least I hereby acknowledge my obligations to the
+various writers and publishers whose books and articles I have freely
+used. As far as possible, appropriate credit is given in the paged
+references at the end of each chapter.
+
+ [Footnote 1: William Noyes, _Handwork in Wood_, Peoria, Ill.
+ The Manual Arts Press, 231 pp., $2.]
+
+
+
+
+CONTENTS.
+
+ CHAPTER PAGE
+
+ General Bibliography 4
+
+ I The Structure of Wood 9
+
+ II Properties of Wood 41
+
+ III The Principal Species of American Woods 57
+
+ IV The Distribution and Composition of the
+ North American Forests 197
+
+ V The Forest Organism 211
+
+ VI Natural Enemies of the Forest 229
+
+ VII The Exhaustion of the Forest 251
+
+ VIII The Use of the Forest 271
+
+ Appendix 289
+
+ Index 304
+
+
+
+
+GENERAL BIBLIOGRAPHY
+
+
+Apgar, A. G., _Trees of the Northern United States_. N. Y.:
+ American Book Co., 224 pp. A small book dealing with the botany
+ of trees, giving descriptions of their essential organs, and
+ particularly valuable for the leaf key to the trees. It should
+ be supplemented by Keeler or Hough's Handbook.
+
+Baterden, J. R., _Timber_. N. Y.: D. Van Nostrand Co., 1908,
+ 351 pp. A description of the timbers of various countries,
+ discussion of timber defects, timber tests, etc.
+
+Bitting, K. G., _The Structure of Wood_. _Wood Craft_, 5: 76,
+ 106, 144, 172, June-Sept., '06. A very scholarly and valuable
+ series of articles on wood structure and growth. Excellent
+ microphotographs.
+
+Britton, Nathaniel Lord, _North American Trees_. N. Y.: Henry
+ Holt & Co., 1908, 894 pp. A description of all the kinds of trees
+ growing independently of cultivation in North America, north of
+ Mexico, and the West Indies. The standard Botany of trees.
+
+Boulger, G. S., _Wood_. London: Edward Arnold, 369 pp. A thoro
+ discussion of wood structure, with chapters on the recognition
+ and classification of woods, defects, preservation, uses, tests,
+ supplies, and sources of wood. Good illustrations.
+
+Bruce, E. S., _Frost Checks and Wind Shakes_. _Forestry and
+ Irrigation_, 8: 159, April, '02. An original study of the
+ splitting of trees by sudden frost and thaw.
+
+Bruncken, Ernest, _North American Forests and Forestry_. N. Y.:
+ G. P. Putnam's Sons. 265 pp. A comprehensive survey of American
+ Forestry conditions including the forest industries, fires,
+ taxation, and management. No illustrations.
+
+Busbridge, Harold, _The Shrinkage and Warping of Timber_.
+ _Sci. Amer. Suppl._, No. 1500, Oct. 1, 1904. Good photographic
+ illustrations.
+
+Comstock, J. H. and A. B., _A Manual for the Study of Insects_.
+ Ithaca, N. Y.: Comstock Publishing Co., 701 pp.
+ Valuable for reference in classifying insects injurious to wood.
+
+Curtis, Carleton C., _Nature and Development of Plants_. N. Y.:
+ Henry Holt & Co., 1907, 471 pp. Chapter III is a very clear and
+ excellent discussion of the structure of the stem of plants
+ (including wood).
+
+Encyclopedia Brittannica, Eleventh Edition, Cambridge: At the
+ University Press. Article: _Forests and Forestry_, Vol. 10, p.
+ 645. Article: _Plants_, Anatomy of, Vol. 21, p. 741. Article:
+ _Timber_ Vol. 26, p. 978.
+
+Felt, E. P., _The Gypsy and Brown Tail Moths_. N. Y. State Museum:
+ Bulletin 103, Entomology, 25. Valuable for colored illustrations
+ as well as for detailed descriptions.
+
+Fernow, B. E., _Economics of Forestry_. N. Y.: T. Y. Crowell
+ & Co. 1902, quarto 520 pp. A treatment of forests and forestry
+ from the standpoint of economics, including a comprehensive
+ exposition of the forester's art, with chapters on forest
+ conditions, silviculture, forest policies, and methods of
+ business conduct, with a bibliography.
+
+Fernow, B. E., _Report upon the Forestry Investigation of the U. S.
+ Department of Agriculture_, 1887-1898. Fifty-fifth Congress,
+ House of Representatives, Document No. 181. Quarto, 401 pp.
+ A review of forests and forestry in the U. S., of forest policies
+ of European nations, particularly of Germany, of the principles
+ of silviculture, of a discussion of forest influences, and a
+ section on timber physics.
+
+Harwood, W. S., _The New Earth_. N. Y.: The Macmillan Co., 1906.
+ 378 pp. A recital of the triumphs of modern agriculture.
+ Chap. X on modern forestry, describes what has been done in
+ different states in conservative lumbering.
+
+Hough, Romeyn B., _American Woods_. Lowville, N. Y.: The
+ author. An invaluable collection in eleven volumes (boxes)
+ of sections of 275 species of American woods. There are three
+ sections of each species, cross, radial, and tangential,
+ mounted in cardboard panels. Accompanied by a list of
+ descriptions and analytical keys.
+
+Hough, Romeyn B., _Handbook of the Trees of the Northern
+ States and Canada_. Lowville, N. Y.: The author. 470 pp.
+ A unique, elegant, and sumptuously illustrated book, with
+ photographs of tree, trunk, leaf, fruit, bud, and sometimes
+ wood, a map of the habitat of each species, and a full and
+ careful description of tree and wood. Intended for botanists,
+ foresters and lumbermen.
+
+Johnson, J. B., _The Materials of Construction_. N. Y.: John
+ Wiley & Sons. 1898. 775 pp. Chapter XIII is identical with
+ Forestry Bulletin X, Roth's _Timber_.
+
+Keeler, Harriet, _Our Native Trees_. N. Y.: Scribner's. 1900.
+ 533 pp. A very attractive and popular book showing great
+ familiarity with the common trees and love of them. Numerous
+ photographs and drawings.
+
+Lounsberry, Alice, _A Guide to the Trees_. N. Y.: Frederick
+ A. Stokes Co. 313 pp. A popular description of some 200 common
+ trees, with plentiful illustrations.
+
+Pinchot, Gifford, _A Primer of Forestry_. Parts I and II, U.
+ S. Dept. of Agric. For. Serv. Bull. No. 24. 88 pp. and 88
+ pp. A concise, clear, and fully illustrated little manual of
+ forestry conditions, forest enemies, forestry principles and
+ practice abroad and in the U. S.
+
+Pinchot, Gifford. _The Adirondack Spruce._ N. Y.: G. P. Putnam's
+ Sons. A technical account of the author's investigations on a
+ forest estate in Northern New York.
+
+Price, O. W., _Saving the Southern Forests_. _World's Work_,
+ 5: 3207, March, '03. A plea for conservative lumbering;
+ excellent illustrations.
+
+Record, Samuel J., _Characterization of the Grain and Texture
+ of Wood_. Woodcraft, 15: 3, June, 1911.
+
+Roth, Filibert, _A First Book of Forestry_. Boston: Ginn & Co.
+ 291 pp. A book for young people, giving in an interesting form
+ many valuable facts about American forests and their care and
+ use. It includes a leaf key to the trees.
+
+Sargent, Charles Sprague, _Forest Trees of North America_. U.
+ S. 10th Census, Vol. 9. Quarto, 612 pp. Part I deals with
+ the distribution of the forests, and gives a catalog and
+ description of the forest trees of North America, exclusive of
+ Mexico. Part II. Tables of properties of the woods of the U.
+ S. Part III. The economic aspects of the forests of the U. S.
+ considered geographically, and maps showing distributions and
+ densities. Exceedingly valuable.
+
+Sargent, Charles Sprague, _Jesup Collection, The Woods of
+ the U. S._ N. Y.: D. Appleton & Co., 203 pp. A detailed
+ description of the Jesup Collection of North American Woods
+ in the American Museum of Natural History, N. Y. City, with
+ valuable tables as to strength, elasticity, hardness, weight,
+ etc. Condensed from Vol. IX of 10th U. S. Census.
+
+Sargent, Charles Sprague, _Manual of the Trees of North
+ America_. Boston: Houghton, Mifflin & Co. 826 pp. A compact
+ mine of information, with some errors, about the known trees
+ of North America and their woods, summarized from Sargent's
+ larger work, "The Silva of North America." (See below.)
+
+Sargent, Charles Sprague, _The Silva of North America_.
+ Boston: Houghton, Mifflin Co. A monumental and sumptuous work
+ of 14 quarto volumes, describing in great detail all the known
+ trees of North America and their woods, with beautiful line
+ drawings of leaves and fruits.
+
+Shaler, Nathaniel S., _The United States of America_. Vol. 1,
+ pp. 485-517. N. Y.: D. Appleton & Co. Chapter IX is a popular
+ description of American forests and the Lumber Industry.
+
+Snow, Chas. Henry, _The Principal Species of Wood_. N. Y.:
+ John Wiley & Sons. 203 pp. Descriptions and data regarding
+ the economically important varieties of wood, with excellent
+ photographs of trees and woods.
+
+Strasburger, Noll, Schenck, and Schimper. _A Text Book of
+ Botany._ N. Y.: Macmillan & Co. 746 pp. Valuable for minute
+ information about the morphology of wood.
+
+U. S. Tenth Census, Vol. IX. See Sargent.
+
+U. S. Department of Agriculture, _Forest Service Bulletins_.
+ The character of these government pamphlets is well indicated
+ by their titles. No. 10 is an exceedingly valuable summary of
+ the facts about the structure and properties of wood, contains
+ the best available key to identification of common American
+ woods (not trees) and a concise description of each. It is
+ incorporated, as Chap. XIII, in Johnson's, "_The Materials for
+ Construction_." N. Y.: John Wiley & Sons. Nos. 13 and 22 are
+ large monographs containing much valuable information.
+
+ No. 10. Filibert Roth, _Timber_.
+
+ No. 13. Charles Mohr, _The Timber Pines of the Southern United
+ States_.
+
+ No. 15. Frederick V. Coville, _Forest Growth and Sheep Grazing
+ in the Cascade Mountains of Oregon_.
+
+ No. 16. Filibert Roth, _Forestry Conditions in Wisconsin_.
+
+ No. 17. George B. Sudworth, _Check List of the Forest Trees of
+ the United States_, 1898.
+
+ No. 18. Charles A. Keffer, _Experimental Tree Planting on the
+ Plains_.
+
+ No. 22. V. M. Spalding and F. H. Chittenden, _The White Pine_.
+
+ No. 24. Gifford Pinchot, _A Primer of Forestry_.
+
+ No. 26. Henry S. Graves, _Practical Forestry in the
+ Adirondacks_.
+
+ No. 41. Herman von Schrenck, _Seasoning of Timber_.
+
+ No. 45. Harold B. Kempton, _The Planting of White Pine in New
+ England_.
+
+ No. 52. Royal S. Kellogg, _Forest Planting in Western Kansas_.
+
+ No. 61. _Terms Used in Forestry and Logging_.
+
+ No. 65. George L. Clothier, _Advice for Forest Planters in
+ Oklahoma and Adjacent Regions_.
+
+ No. 74. R. S. Kellogg and H. M. Hale, _Forest Products of the
+ U. S._, 1905.
+
+U. S. Department of Agriculture, _Forest Service Circulars_.
+
+ No. 3. George William Hill, _Publications for Sale_.
+
+ No. 25. Gifford Pinchot, _The Lumberman and the Forester_.
+
+ No. 26. H. M. Suter, _Forest Fires in the Adirondacks in
+ 1903_.
+
+ No. 36. The Forest Service: _What it is, and how it deals with
+ Forest Problems_. Also _Classified List of Publications and
+ Guide to Their Contents_.
+
+ No. 37. _Forest Planting in the Sand Hill Region of Nebraska_.
+
+ No. 40. H. B. Holroyd, _The Utilization of Tupelo_.
+
+ No. 41. S. N. Spring, _Forest Planting on Coal Lands in
+ Western Pennsylvania_.
+
+ No. 45. Frank G. Miller, _Forest Planting in Eastern
+ Nebraska_.
+
+ No. 81. R. S. Kellogg, _Forest Planting in Illinois_.
+
+ No. 97. R. S. Kellogg, _Timber Supply of the United States_.
+
+ No. 153. A. H. Pierson, _Exports and Imports of Forest
+ Products, 1907_.
+
+U. S. Department of Agriculture Year Books for:
+
+ 1896. Filibert Roth, _The Uses of Wood_.
+
+ 1898, p. 181. Gifford Pinchot, _Notes on some Forest
+ Problems_.
+
+ 1899, p. 415. Henry S. Graves, _The Practice of Forestry by
+ Private Owners_.
+
+ 1900, p. 199. Hermann von Schrenck, _Fungous Diseases of
+ Forest Trees_.
+
+ 1902, p. 145. William L. Hall, _Forest Extension in the Middle
+ West_.
+
+ 1902, p. 265. A. D. Hopkins, _Some of the Principal Insect
+ Enemies of Coniferous Forests in the United States_.
+
+ 1902, p. 309. Overton, W. Price, _Influence of Forestry on the
+ Lumber Supply_.
+
+ 1903, p. 279. James W. Toumey, _The Relation of Forests to
+ Stream Flow_.
+
+ 1903, p. 313. A. D. Hopkins, _Insect Injuries to Hardwood
+ Forest Trees_.
+
+ 1904, p. 133. E. A. Sterling, _The Attitude of Lumbermen
+ toward Forest Fires_.
+
+ 1904, p. 381. A. D. Hopkins, _Insect Injuries to Forest Products_.
+
+ 1905, p. 455. Henry Grinell, _Prolonging the Life of Telephone
+ Poles_.
+
+ 1905, p. 483. J. Grivin Peters, _Waste in Logging Southern
+ Yellow Pine_.
+
+ 1905, p. 636. Quincy R. Craft, _Progress of Forestry in 1905_.
+
+ 1907, p 277. Raphael Zon and E. H. Clapp, _Cutting Timber in
+ the National Forests_.
+
+U. S. Department of Agriculture, Division of Entomology
+ Bulletins:
+
+ No. 11. n. s. L. O. Howard, _The Gypsy Moth in America_.
+
+ No. 28. A. D. Hopkins, _Insect Enemies of the Spruce in the
+ Northeast_.
+
+ No. 32. n. s. A. D. Hopkins, _Insect Enemies of the Pine in
+ the Black Hills Forest Reserve_.
+
+ No. 48. A. D. Hopkins, _Catalog of Exhibits of Insect Enemies
+ of Forest and Forest Products at the Louisiana Purchase
+ Exposition, St. Louis, Mo._, 1904.
+
+ No. 56. A. D. Hopkins, _The Black Hills Beetle_.
+
+ No. 58. Part 1, A. D. Hopkins, _The Locust Borer_.
+
+ No. 58. Part II, J. L. Webb, _The Western Pine Destroying Bark
+ Beetle_.
+
+U. S. Department of Agriculture, Bureau of Plant Industry,
+ Bulletins:
+
+ No. 32. Herman von Schrenck, _A Disease of the White Ash
+ Caused by Polyporus Fraxinophilus_, 1903.
+
+ No. 36. Hermann von Schrenck, _The "Bluing" and "Red Rot" of
+ the Western Yellow Pine_, 1903.
+
+_Report of the Commissioner of Corporations on the Lumber
+ Industry_, Part I, _Standing Timber_, February, 1911. The
+ latest and most reliable investigation into the amount and
+ ownership of the forests of the United States.
+
+Ward, H. Marshall, _Timber and some of its Diseases_.
+ London: Macmillan & Co., 295 pp. An English book that needs
+ supplementing by information on American wood diseases, such
+ as is included in the list of government publications given
+ herewith. The book includes a description of the character,
+ structure, properties, varieties, and classification of
+ timbers.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER I.
+
+THE STRUCTURE OF WOOD.
+
+
+When it is remembered that the suitability of wood for a particular
+purpose depends most of all upon its internal structure, it is plain
+that the woodworker should know the essential characteristics of that
+structure. While his main interest in wood is as lumber, dead material
+to be used in woodworking, he can properly understand its structure
+only by knowing something of it as a live, growing organism. To
+facilitate this, a knowledge of its position in the plant world is
+helpful.
+
+All the useful woods are to be found in the highest sub-kingdom of
+the plant world, the flowering plants or Phanerogamia of the botanist.
+These flowering plants are to be classified as follows:
+
+ { I. Gymnosperms. (Naked seeds.)
+ { 1. Cycadaceae. (Palms, ferns, etc.)
+ { 2. Gnetaceae. (Joint firs.)
+ { 3. Conifers. Pines, firs, etc.
+Phanerogamia, { II. Angiosperms. (Fruits.)
+(Flowering plants) { 1. Monocotyledons. (One seed-leaf.)
+ { (Palms, bamboos, grasses, etc.)
+ { 2. Dicotyledons. (Two seed-leaves.)
+ { a. Herbs.
+ { b. Broad-leaved trees.
+
+Under the division of naked-seeded plants (gymnosperms), practically
+the only valuable timber-bearing plants are the needle-leaved trees
+or the conifers, including such trees as the pines, cedars, spruces,
+firs, etc. Their wood grows rapidly in concentric annual rings, like
+that of the broad-leaved trees; is easily worked, and is more widely
+used than the wood of any other class of trees.
+
+Of fruit-bearing trees (angiosperms), there are two classes, those
+that have one seed-leaf as they germinate, and those that have two
+seed-leaves.
+
+The one seed-leaf plants (monocotyledons) include the grasses, lilies,
+bananas, palms, etc. Of these there are only a few that reach
+the dimensions of trees. They are strikingly distinguished by the
+structure of their stems. They have no cambium layer and no distinct
+bark and pith; they have unbranched stems, which as a rule do not
+increase in diameter after the first stages of growth, but grow only
+terminally. Instead of having concentric annual rings and thus growing
+larger year by year, the woody tissue grows here and there thru the
+stem, but mostly crowded together toward the outer surfaces. Even
+where there is radial growth, as in yucca, the structure is not
+in annual rings, but irregular. These one seed-leaf trees
+(monocotyledons) are not of much economic value as lumber, being used
+chiefly "in the round," and to some extent for veneers and inlays;
+_e.g._, cocoanut-palm and porcupine wood are so used.
+
+The most useful of the monocotyledons, or endogens, ("inside growers,"
+as they are sometimes called,) are the bamboos, which are giant
+members of the group of grasses, Fig. 1. They grow in dense forests,
+some varieties often 70 feet high and 6 inches in diameter, shooting
+up their entire height in a single season. Bamboo is very highly
+valued in the Orient, where it is used for masts, for house rafters,
+and other building purposes, for gutters and water-pipes and in
+countless other ways. It is twice as strong as any of our woods.
+
+Under the fruit-bearing trees (angiosperms), timber trees are chiefly
+found among those that have two seed-leaves (the dicotyledons) and
+include the great mass of broad-leaved or deciduous trees such as
+chestnut, oak, ash and maple. It is to these and to the conifers that
+our principal attention will be given, since they constitute the bulk
+of the wood in common use.
+
+The timber-bearing trees, then, are the:
+
+(1) Conifers, the needle-leaved, naked-seeded trees, such as pine,
+cedar, etc. Fig. 45, p. 199.
+
+(2) Endogens, which have one seed-leaf, such as bamboos, Fig. 1.
+
+(3) Broad-leaved trees, having two seed-leaves, such as oak, beech,
+and elm. Fig. 48, p. 202.
+
+The common classifications of trees are quite inaccurate. Many of
+the so-called deciduous (Latin, _deciduus_, falling off) trees are
+evergreen, such as holly, and, in the south, live oak, magnolia and
+cherry. So, too, some of the alleged "evergreens," like bald cypress
+and tamarack, shed their leaves annually.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 1. A Bamboo Grove, Kioto, Japan.]
+
+Not all of the "conifers" bear cones. For example, the juniper bears
+a berry. The ginko, Fig. 2, tho classed among the "conifers," the
+"evergreens," and the "needle-leaf" trees, bears no cones, has broad
+leaves and is deciduous. It has an especial interest as being the sole
+survivor of many species which grew abundantly in the carboniferous
+age.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 2. Ginko Leaf.]
+
+Also, the terms used by lumbermen, "hard woods" for broad-leaved trees
+and "soft woods" for conifers, are still less exact, for the wood of
+some broad-leaved trees, as bass and poplar, is much softer than that
+of some conifers, as Georgia pine and lignum vitae.
+
+Another classification commonly made is that of "endogens" (inside
+growers) including bamboos, palms, etc., and exogens (outside growers)
+which would include both conifers and broad-leaved trees.
+
+One reason why so many classifications have come into use is that none
+of them is quite accurate. A better one will be explained later. See
+p. 23.
+
+As in the study of all woods three sections are made, it is well at
+the outset to understand clearly what these are.
+
+The sections of a tree made for its study are (Fig. 3):
+
+(1) Transverse, a plane at right angles to the organic axis.
+
+(2) Radial, a longitudinal plane, including the organic axis.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 3.
+
+A.
+
+ A, B, C, D, Transverse Section.
+ B, D, E, F, Radial Section.
+ G, H, I, J, Tangential Section.
+
+B.
+
+ A, B, C, Transverse Section.
+ A, B, D, E, Radial Section.
+ B, C, E, F, Tangential Section.
+]
+
+(3) Tangential, a longitudinal plane not including the organic axis.
+
+If a transverse section of the trunk of a conifer or of a broad-leaved
+tree is made, it is to be noted that it consists of several distinct
+parts. See Fig. 4. These, beginning at the outside, are:
+
+(1) Rind or bark
+ (a) Cortex
+ (b) Bast
+
+(2) Cambium
+
+(3) Wood
+ (a) Sap-wood
+ (b) Heart-wood
+
+(4) Pith.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 4. Diagram of Cross-section of Three Year Old Stem
+of Basswood.]
+
+(1) The rind or _bark_ is made up of two layers, the outer of which,
+the "cortex," is corky and usually scales or pulls off easily; while
+the inner one is a fibrous coat called "bast" or "phloem." Together
+they form a cone, widest, thickest, and roughest at the base and
+becoming narrower toward the top of the tree. The cortex or outer bark
+serves to protect the stem of the tree from extremes of heat and cold,
+from atmospheric changes, and from the browsing of animals. It is made
+up of a tough water-proof layer of cork which has taken the place of
+the tender skin or "epidermis" of the twig. Because it is water-proof
+the outside tissue is cut off from the water supply of the tree, and
+so dries up and peels off, a mass of dead matter. The cork and the
+dead stuff together are called the bark. As we shall see later, the
+cork grows from the inside, being formed in the inner layers of the
+cortex, the outer layers of dry bark being thus successively cut off.
+
+The characteristics of the tree bark are due to the positions and
+kinds of tissue of these new layers of cork. Each tree has its own
+kind of bark, and the bark of some is so characteristic as to make the
+tree easily recognizable.
+
+Bark may be classified according to formation and method of
+separation, as scale bark, which detaches from the tree in plates,
+as in the willows; membraneous bark, which comes off in ribbons and
+films, as in the birches; fibrous bark, which is in the form of stiff
+threads, as in the grape vine; and fissured bark, which breaks up
+in longitudinal fissures, showing ridges, grooves and broad, angular
+patches, as in oak, chestnut and locust. The last is the commonest
+form of bark.
+
+The bark of certain kinds of trees, as cherry and birch, has peculiar
+markings which consist of oblong raised spots or marks, especially
+on the young branches. These are called lenticels (Latin _lenticula_,
+freckle), and have two purposes: they admit air to the internal
+tissues, as it were for breathing, and they also emit water vapor.
+These lenticels are to be found on all trees, even where the bark is
+very thick, as old oaks and chestnuts, but in these the lenticels are
+in the bottoms of the deep cracks. There is a great difference in
+the inflammability of bark, some, like that of the big trees of
+California, Fig. 54, p. 209, which is often two feet thick, being
+practically incombustible, and hence serving to protect the tree;
+while some bark, as canoe birch, is laden with an oil which burns
+furiously. It therefore makes admirable kindling for camp fires, even
+in wet weather.
+
+Inside the cork is the "phloem" or "bast," which, by the way, gives
+its name to the bass tree, the inner bark of which is very tough and
+fibrous and therefore used for mat and rope making. In a living tree,
+the bast fibers serve to conduct the nourishment which has been made
+in the leaves down thru the stem to the growing parts.
+
+(2) The _cambium_. Inside of the rind and between it and the wood,
+there is, on living trees, a slimy coat called cambium (Med. Latin,
+exchange). This is the living, growing part of the stem, familiar to
+all who have peeled it as the sticky, slimy coat between the bark
+and the wood of a twig. This is what constitutes the fragrant,
+mucilaginous inner part of the bark of slippery elm. Cambium is a
+tissue of young and growing cells, in which the new cells are formed,
+the inner ones forming the wood and the outer ones the bark.
+
+In order to understand the cambium and its function, consider its
+appearance in a bud, Fig. 5. A cross-section of the bud of a growing
+stem examined under the microscope, looks like a delicate mesh of thin
+membrane, filled in with a viscid semi-fluid substance which is called
+"protoplasm" (Greek, _protos_, first; _plasma_, form). These meshes
+were first called "cells" by Robert Hooke, in 1667, because of their
+resemblance to the chambers of a honeycomb. The walls of these
+"cells" are their most prominent feature and, when first studied,
+were supposed to be the essential part; but later the slimy, colorless
+substance which filled the cells was found to be the essential part.
+This slimy substance, called protoplasm, constitutes the primal stuff
+of all living things. The cell walls themselves are formed from it.
+These young cells, at the apex of a stem, are all alike, very small,
+filled with protoplasm, and as yet, unaltered. They form embryonic
+tissue, _i.e._ one which will change. One change to which an cell
+filled with protoplasm is liable is division into two, a new partition
+wall forming within it. This is the way plant cells increase.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 5. Young Stem, Magnified 18-1/2 Diameters, Showing
+Primary and Secondary Bundles. _By Courtesy of Mrs. Katharine Golden
+Bitting._
+
+E, epidermis, the single outside layer of cells.
+
+C, cortex, the region outside of the bundles.
+
+HB, hard bast, the black, irregular ring protecting the soft bast.
+
+SB, soft bast, the light, crescent-shaped parts.
+
+Ca, cambium, the line between the soft bast and the wood.
+
+W, wood, segments showing pores.
+
+MR, medullary rays, lines between the bundles connecting the pith and
+the cortex.
+
+MS, medullary sheath, the dark, irregular ring just inside the
+bundles.
+
+P, pith, the central mass of cells.]
+
+In young plant cells, the whole cavity of the chamber is filled with
+protoplasm, but as the cells grow older and larger, the protoplasm
+develops into different parts, one part forming the cell wall and in
+many cases leaving cavities within the cell, which become filled with
+sap. The substance of the cell wall is called cellulose (cotton and
+flax fibers consist of almost pure cellulose). At first it has no
+definite structure, but as growth goes on, it may become thickened
+in layers, or gummy, or hardened into lignin (wood), according to the
+function to be performed. Where there are a group of similar cells
+performing the same functions, the group is called a tissue or, if
+large enough, a tissue system.
+
+When cells are changed into new forms, or "differentiated," as it is
+called, they become permanent tissues. These permanent tissues of the
+tree trunk constitute the various parts which we have noticed, viz.,
+the rind, the pith and the wood.
+
+The essentially living part of the tree, it should be remembered, is
+the protoplasm: where there is protoplasm, there is life and growth.
+In the stems of the conifers and broad-leaved trees--sometimes
+together called exogens--this protoplasm is to be found in the buds
+and in the cambium sheath, and these are the growing parts of the
+tree. If we followed up the sheath of cambium which envelopes a stem,
+into a terminal bud, we should find that it passed without break into
+the protoplasm of the bud.
+
+In the cross-section of a young shoot, we might see around the central
+pith or medulla, a ring of wedge-shaped patches. These are really
+bundles of cells running longitudinally from the rudiments of leaves
+thru the stem to the roots. They are made of protoplasm and are called
+the "procambium strands," Fig. 6.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 6. Three Stages in the Development of an Exogenous
+Stem. P, pith; PB, primary bast; SB, secondary bast; C, cambium;
+PR, pith ray; PW, primary wood; SW, secondary wood; PS, procambium
+strands. _After Boulger._]
+
+In the monocotyledons (endogens) these procambium strands change
+completely into wood and bast, and so losing all their protoplasmic
+cambium, become incapable of further growth. This is why palms can
+grow only lengthwise, or else by forming new fibers more densely in
+the central mass. But in the conifers and broad-leaved trees, the
+inner part of each strand becomes wood and the outer part bast (bark).
+Between these bundles, connecting the pith in the center with the
+cortex on the outside of the ring of bundles, are parts of the
+original pith tissue of the stem. They are the primary pith or
+medullary rays (Latin, _medulla_, pith). The number of medullary rays
+depends upon the number of the bundles; and their form, on the width
+of the bundles, so that they are often large and conspicuous, as in
+oak, or small and indeed invisible, as in some of the conifers. But
+they are present in all exogenous woods, and can readily be seen with
+the microscope. Stretching across these pith rays from the cambium
+layer in one procambium strand to that in the others, the cambium
+formation extends, making a complete cylindrical sheath from the bud
+downward over the whole stem. This is the cambium sheath and is the
+living, growing part of the stem from which is formed the wood on the
+inside and the rind (bark) on the outside.
+
+In the first year the wood and the bast are formed directly by the
+growth and change of the inner and outer cells respectively of the
+procambium strand, and all such material is called "primary;" but
+in subsequent years all wood, pith rays, and bast, originate in the
+cambium, and these growths are called "secondary."
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 7. Sap-wood and Heart-wood, Lignum Vitae.]
+
+(3) The _wood_ of most exogens is made up of two parts, a lighter
+part called the sap-wood or splint-wood or alburnum, and a darker part
+called the heart-wood or duramen, Fig. 7. Sap-wood is really immature
+heartwood. The difference in color between them is very marked in some
+woods, as in lignum vitae and black walnut, and very slight in
+others, as spruce and bass. Indeed, some species never form a distinct
+heart-wood, birch (_Betula alba_) being an example.
+
+In a living tree, sap-wood and heart-wood perform primarily quite
+different functions. The sap-wood carries the water from the roots to
+the leaves, stores away starch at least in winter, and in other ways
+assists the life of the tree. The proportional amount of sapwood
+varies greatly, often, as in long-leaf pine, constituting 40 per cent.
+of the stem.
+
+As the sap-wood grows older, its cells become choked so that the sap
+can no longer flow thru them. It loses its protoplasm and starch and
+becomes heartwood, in which all cells are dead and serve only the
+mechanical function of holding up the great weight of the tree and
+in resisting wind pressures. This is the reason why a tree may become
+decayed and hollow and yet be alive and bear fruit. In a tree that is
+actually dead the sap-wood rots first.
+
+Chemical substances infiltrate into the cell walls of heart-wood and
+hence it has a darker color than the sap-wood. Persimmon turns black,
+walnut purplish brown, sumac yellow, oak light brown, tulip and poplar
+yellowish, redwood and cedar brownish red. Many woods, as mahogany and
+oak, darken under exposure, which shows that the substances producing
+the color are oxidizable and unstable. Wood dyes are obtained by
+boiling and distilling such woods as sumach, logwood, red sanders,
+and fustic. Many woods also acquire distinct odors, as camphor,
+sandalwood, cedar, cypress, pine and mahogany, indicating the presence
+of oil.
+
+As a rule heart-wood is more valuable for timber, being harder,
+heavier, and drier than sap-wood. In woods like hickory and ash,
+however, which are used for purposes that require pliability, as in
+baskets, or elasticity as in handles of rakes and hoes, sap-wood is
+more valuable than heart-wood.
+
+In a transverse section of a conifer, for example Douglas spruce, Fig.
+8, the wood is seen to lie in concentric rings, the outer part of the
+ring being darker in color than the inner part. In reality each
+of these rings is a section of an irregular hollow cone, each cone
+enveloping its inner neighbor. Each cone ordinarily constitutes a
+year's growth, and therefore there is a greater number of them at
+the base of a tree than higher up. These cones vary greatly in
+_thickness_, or, looking at a cross-section, the rings vary in
+_width_; in general, those at the center being thicker than those
+toward the bark. Variations from year to year may also be noticed,
+showing that the tree was well nourished one year and poorly nourished
+another year. Rings, however, do not always indicate a year's growth.
+"False rings" are sometimes formed by a cessation in the growth due
+to drouth, fire or other accident, followed by renewed growth the same
+season.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 8. Section of Douglas Fir, Showing Annual Rings
+and Knots at Center of Trunk. _American Museum of Natural History, N.
+Y._]
+
+In a radial section of a log, Fig. 8, these "rings" appear as a series
+of parallel lines and if one could examine a long enough log these
+lines would converge, as would the cut edges in a nest of cones, if
+they were cut up thru the center, as in Fig. 9.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 9. Diagram of Radial Section of Log (exaggerated)
+Showing Annual Cones of Growth.]
+
+In a tangential section, the lines appear as broad bands, and since
+almost no tree grows perfectly straight, these lines are wavy, and
+give the characteristic pleasing "grain" of wood. Fig. 27, p. 35. The
+annual rings can sometimes be discerned in the bark as well as in the
+wood, as in corks, which are made of the outer bark of the cork oak, a
+product of southern Europe and northern Africa. Fig. 10.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 10. Annual Rings in Bark (cork).]
+
+The growth of the wood of exogenous trees takes place thru the
+ability, already noted, of protoplasmic cells to divide. The cambium
+cells, which have very thin walls, are rectangular in shape, broader
+tangentially than radially, and tapering above and below to a chisel
+edge, Fig. 11. After they have grown somewhat radially, partition
+walls form across them in the longitudinal, tangential direction,
+so that in place of one initial cell, there are two daughter cells
+radially disposed. Each of these small cells grows and re-divides, as
+in Fig. 12. Finally the innermost cell ceases to divide, and uses its
+protoplasm to become thick and hard wood. In like manner the outermost
+cambium cell becomes bast, while the cells between them continue to
+grow and divide, and so the process goes on. In nearly all stems,
+there is much more abundant formation of wood than of bast cells. In
+other words, more cambium cells turn to wood than to bast.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 11. Diagram Showing Grain of Spruce Highly
+Magnified. PR, pith rays; BP, bordered pits; Sp W, spring wood; SW,
+summer wood; CC, overlapping of chisel shaped ends.]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 12. Diagram Showing the Mode of Division of the
+Cambium Cells. The cambium cell is shaded to distinguish it from the
+cells derived from it. Note in the last division at the right that
+the inner daughter cell becomes the cambium cell while the outer cell
+develops into a bast cell. _From Curtis: Nature and Development of
+Plants._]
+
+In the spring when there is comparatively little light and heat, when
+the roots and leaves are inactive and feeble, and when the bark, split
+by winter, does not bind very tightly, the inner cambium cells produce
+radially wide wood cells with relatively thin walls. These constitute
+the spring wood. But in summer the jacket of bark binds tightly, there
+is plenty of heat and light, and the leaves and roots are very active,
+so that the cambium cells produce thicker walled cells, called summer
+wood. During the winter the trees rest, and no development takes
+place until spring, when the large thin-walled cells are formed again,
+making a sharp contrast with those formed at the end of the previous
+season.
+
+It is only at the tips of the branches that the cambium cells grow
+much in length; so that if a nail were driven into a tree twenty years
+old at, say, four feet from the ground, it would still be four feet
+from the ground one hundred years later.
+
+Looking once more at the cross-section, say, of spruce, the inner
+portion of each ring is lighter in color and softer in texture than
+the outer portion. On a radial or tangential section, one's finger
+nail can easily indent the inner portion of the ring, tho the outer
+dark part of the ring may be very hard. The inner, light, soft portion
+of the ring is the part that grows in the spring and early summer,
+and is called the "spring wood" while the part that grows later in the
+season is called "summer wood." As the summer wood is hard and heavy,
+it largely determines the strength and weight of the wood, so that as
+a rule, the greater the proportion of the summer growth, the better
+the wood. This can be controlled to some extent by proper forestry
+methods, as is done in European larch forests, by "underplanting" them
+with beech.
+
+In a normal tree, the summer growth forms a greater proportion of the
+wood formed during the period of thriftiest growth, so that in neither
+youth nor old age, is there so great a proportion of summer wood as in
+middle age.
+
+It will help to make clear the general structure of wood if one
+imagines the trunk of a tree to consist of a bundle of rubber tubes
+crushed together, so that they assume angular shapes and have no
+spaces between them. If the tubes are laid in concentric layers, first
+a layer which has thin walls, then successive layers having thicker
+and thicker walls, then suddenly a layer of thin-walled tubes and
+increasing again to thick-walled ones and so on, such an arrangement
+would represent the successive annual "rings" of conifers.
+
+_The medullary rays._ While most of the elements in wood run
+longitudinally in the log, it is also to be noted that running at
+right angles to these and radially to the log, are other groups of
+cells called pith rays or medullary rays (Latin, _medulla_, which
+means pith). These are the large "silver flakes" to be seen in
+quartered oak, which give it its beautiful and distinctive grain, Fig.
+32, p. 38. They appear as long, grayish lines on a cross-section, as
+broad, shining bands on the radial section, and as short, thick lines
+tapering at each end on the tangential section. In other words, they
+are like flat, rectangular plates standing on edge and radiating
+lengthwise from the center of the tree. They vary greatly in size in
+different woods. In sycamore they are very prominent, Fig. 13. In oak
+they are often several hundred cells wide (_i.e._, up and down in the
+tree). This may amount to an inch or two. They are often twenty cells
+thick, tapering to one cell at the edge. In oak very many are also
+small, even microscopic. But in the conifers and also in some of the
+broad-leaved trees, altho they can be discerned with the naked eye on
+a split radial surface, still they are all very small. In pine there
+are some 15,000 of them to a square inch of a tangential section. They
+are to be found in all exogens. In a cross-section, say of oak, Fig.
+14, it can readily be seen that some pith rays begin at the center
+of the tree and some farther out. Those that start from the pith are
+formed the first year and are called primary pith rays, while those
+that begin in a subsequent year, starting at the cambium of that year,
+are called secondary rays.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 13. Tangential Section of Sycamore, Magnified 37
+Diameters. Note the large size of the pith rays, A, A (end view).]
+
+The function of the pith rays is twofold. (1) They transfer formative
+material from one part of a stem to another, communicating with both
+wood and bark by means of the simple and bordered pits in them, and
+(2) they bind the trunk together from pith to bark. On the other hand
+their presence makes it easier for the wood to split radially.
+
+The substance of which they are composed is "parenchyma" (Greek,
+_beside_, to _pour_), which also constitutes the pith, the rays
+forming a sort of connecting link between the first and last growth of
+the tree, as the cambium cells form new wood each year.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 14 Cross-section of White Oak. The Radiating White
+Lines are the Pith Rays.]
+
+If a cambium cell is opposite to a pith ray, it divides crosswise
+(transversely) into eight or ten cells one above another, which
+stretch out radially, retaining their protoplasm, and so continue the
+pith ray. As the tree grows larger, new, or secondary medullary rays
+start from the cambium then active, so that every year new rays are
+formed both thinner and shorter than the primary rays, Fig. 14.
+
+Now suppose that laid among the ordinary thin-walled tubes were quite
+large tubes, so that one could tell the "ring" not only by the thin
+walls but by the presence of large tubes. That would represent the
+ring-porous woods, and the large tubes would be called vessels, or
+_tracheæ_. Suppose again that these large tubes were scattered
+in disorder thru the layers. This arrangement would represent the
+diffuse-porous woods.
+
+By holding up to the light, thin cross-sections of spruce or pine,
+Fig. 15, oak or ash, Fig. 16, and bass or maple, Fig. 17, these three
+quite distinct arrangements in the structure may be distinguished.
+This fact has led to the classification of woods according to the
+presence and distribution of "pores," or as they are technically
+called, "vessels" or "tracheae." By this classification we have:
+
+(1) _Non-porous_ woods, which comprise the conifers, as pine and
+spruce.
+
+(2) _Ring-porous_ woods, in which the pores appear (in a
+cross-section) in concentric rings, as in chestnut, ash and elm.
+
+(3) _Diffuse-porous_ woods, in which (in a cross-section) the rings
+are scattered irregularly thru the wood, as in bass, maple and yellow
+poplar.
+
+In order to fully understand the structure of wood, it is necessary to
+examine it still more closely thru the microscope, and since the three
+classes of wood, non-porous, ring-porous and diffuse-porous, differ
+considerably in their minute structure, it is well to consider them
+separately, taking the simplest first.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 15. Cross-section of Non-porous Wood, White Pine,
+Full Size (top toward pith).]
+
+_Non-porous woods._ In examining thru the microscope a transverse
+section of white pine, Fig. 18:
+
+(1) The most noticeable characteristic is the regularity of
+arrangement of the cells. They are roughly rectangular and arranged in
+ranks and files.
+
+(2) Another noticeable feature is that they are arranged in belts, the
+thickness of their walls gradually increasing as the size of the cells
+diminishes. Then the large thin-walled cells suddenly begin again,
+and so on. The width of one of these belts is the amount of a single
+year's growth, the thin-walled cells being those that formed in
+spring, and the thick-walled ones those that formed in summer, the
+darker color of the summer wood as well as its greater strength being
+caused by there being more material in the same volume.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 16. Cross-section of Ring-porous Wood, White Ash,
+Full Size (top toward pith).]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 17. Cross-section of Diffuse-porous Wood, Hard
+Maple, full size (top toward pith).]
+
+(3) Running radially (up and down in the picture) directly thru the
+annual belts or rings are to be seen what looks like fibers. These are
+the pith or medullary rays. They serve to transfer formative material
+from one part of the stem to another and to bind the tree together
+from pith to bark.
+
+(4) Scattered here and there among the regular cells, are to be seen
+irregular gray or yellow dots which disturb the regularity of the
+arrangement. These are _resin ducts_. (See cross-section of white
+pine, Fig. 18.) They are not cells, but openings between cells, in
+which the resin, an excretion of the tree, accumulates, oozing out
+when the tree is injured. At least one function of resin is to protect
+the tree from attacks of fungi.
+
+Looking now at the radial section, Fig. 18:
+
+(5) The first thing to notice is the straightness of the long cells
+and their overlapping where they meet endwise, like the ends of two
+chisels laid together, Fig. 11.
+
+(6) On the walls of the cells can be seen round spots called "pits."
+These are due to the fact that as the cell grows, the cell walls
+thicken, except in these small spots, where the walls remain thin and
+delicate. The pit in a cell wall always coincides with the pit in
+an adjoining cell, there being only a thin membrane between, so that
+there is practically free communication of fluids between the two
+cells. In a cross-section the pit appears as a canal, the length of
+which depends upon the thickness of the walls. In some cells, the
+thickening around the pits becomes elevated, forming a border,
+perforated in the center. Such pits are called bordered pits. These
+pits, both simple and bordered, are waterways between the different
+cells. They are helps in carrying the sap up the tree.
+
+(7) The pith rays are also to be seen running across and interwoven
+in the other cells. It is to be noticed that they consist of several
+cells, one above another.
+
+In the tangential section, Fig. 18:
+
+(8) The straightness and overlapping of the cells is to be seen again,
+and
+
+(9) The numerous ends of the pith rays appear.
+
+In a word, the structure of coniferous wood is very regular and
+simple, consisting mainly of cells of one sort, the pith rays being
+comparatively unnoticeable. This uniformity is what makes the wood of
+conifers technically valuable.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 18.]
+
+The cells of conifers are called tracheids, meaning "like _tracheæ_."
+They are cells in which the end walls persist, that is, are not
+absorbed and broken down when they meet end to end. In other words,
+conifers do not have continuous pores or vessels or "_tracheæ_," and
+hence are called "non-porous" woods.
+
+But in other woods, the ends of some cells which meet endwise
+are absorbed, thus forming a continuous series of elements which
+constitute an open tube. Such tubes are known as pores, or vessels,
+or "tracheæ," and sometimes extend thru the whole stem. Besides this
+marked difference between the porous and non-porous woods, the porous
+woods are also distinguished by the fact that instead of being made
+up, like the conifers of cells of practically only one kind, namely
+tracheids, they are composed of several varieties of cells. Besides
+the tracheae and tracheids already noted are such cells as "wood
+fiber," "fibrous cells," and "parenchyma." Fig. 19. Wood fiber proper
+has much thickened lignified walls and no pits, and its main function
+is mechanical support. Fibrous cells are like the wood fibers except
+that they retain their protoplasm. Parenchyma is composed of vertical
+groups of short cells, the end ones of each group tapering to a point,
+and each group originates from the transverse division of one
+cambium cell. They are commonly grouped around the vessels (tracheæ).
+Parenchyma constitutes the pith rays and other similar fibers, retains
+its protoplasm, and becomes filled with starch in autumn.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 19. Isolated Fibers and Cells. _a_, four cells of
+wood parenchyma; _b_, two cells from a pith ray; _c_, a single cell
+or joint of a vessel, the openings, x, x, leading into its upper and
+lower neighbors; _d_, tracheid; _e_, wood fiber proper. _After Roth._]
+
+The most common type of structure among the broad-leaved trees
+contains tracheæ, trachæids, woody fiber, fibrous cells and
+parenchyma. Examples are poplars, birch, walnut, linden and locust. In
+some, as ash, the tracheids are wanting; apple and maple have no woody
+fiber, and oak and plum no fibrous cells.
+
+This recital is enough to show that the wood of the broad-leaved trees
+is much more complex in structure than that of the conifers. It is by
+means of the number and distribution of these elements that particular
+woods are identified microscopically. See p. 289.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 20.]
+
+_Ring-porous woods._ Looking thru the microscope at a cross-section of
+ash, a ring-porous wood, Fig. 20:
+
+(1) The large round or oval pores or vessels grouped mostly in the
+spring wood first attract attention. Smaller ones, but still quite
+distinct, are to be seen scattered all thru the wood. It is by the
+number and distribution of these pores that the different oak woods
+are distinguished, those in white oak being smaller and more numerous,
+while in red oak they are fewer and larger. It is evident that the
+greater their share in the volume, the lighter in weight and the
+weaker will be the wood. In a magnified cross-section of some woods,
+as black locust, white elm and chestnut, see Chap. III, beautiful
+patterns are to be seen composed of these pores. It is because of the
+size of these pores and their great number that chestnut is so weak.
+
+(2) The summer wood is also distinguishable by the fact that, as with
+the conifers, its cells are smaller and its cell walls thicker than
+those of the spring wood. The summer wood appears only as a narrow,
+dark line along the largest pores in each ring.
+
+(3) The lines of the pith rays are very plain in some woods, as in
+oak. No. 47, Chap. III.
+
+(4) The irregular arrangement and
+
+(5) Complex structure are evident, and these are due to the fact that
+the wood substance consists of a number of different elements and not
+one (tracheids) as in the conifers.
+
+Looking at the radial section, Fig. 20:
+
+(6) If the piece is oak, the great size of the medullary rays is most
+noticeable. Fig. 32, p. 38. They are often an inch or more wide; that
+is, high, as they grow in the tree. In ash they are plain, seen thru
+the microscope, but are not prominent.
+
+(7) The interweaving of the different fibers and the variety of their
+forms show the structure as being very complex.
+
+In the tangential section, Fig. 20:
+
+(8) The pattern of the grain is seen to be marked not so much by
+the denseness of the summer wood as by the presence of the vessels
+(pores).
+
+(9) The ends of the pith rays are also clear.
+
+In _diffuse porous woods_, the main features to be noticed are: In the
+transverse section, Fig. 21:
+
+(1) The irregularity with which the pores are scattered,
+
+(2) The fine line of dense cells which mark the end of the year's
+growth,
+
+(3) The radiating pith rays,
+
+(4) The irregular arrangement and,
+
+(5) The complex structure.
+
+In the radial section, Fig. 21:
+
+(6) The pith rays are evident. In sycamore, No. 53, Chap. III, they
+are quite large.
+
+(7) The interweaving of the fibers is to be noted and also their
+variety.
+
+In the tangential section, Fig. 21:
+
+(8) The grain is to be traced only dimly, but the fibers are seen to
+run in waves around the pith rays.
+
+(9) The pith rays, the ends of which are plainly visible.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 21.]
+
+
+THE GRAIN OF WOOD.
+
+The term "grain" is used in a variety of meanings which is likely to
+cause confusion. This confusion may be avoided, at least in part,
+by distinguishing between grain and texture, using the word grain to
+refer to the arrangement or direction of the wood elements, and the
+word texture to refer to their size or quality, so far as these affect
+the structural character of the wood. Hence such qualifying adjectives
+as coarse and fine, even and uneven, straight and cross, including
+spiral, twisted, wavy, curly, mottled, bird's-eye, gnarly, etc., may
+all be applied to grain to give it definite meaning, while to texture
+the proper modifying adjectives are coarse and fine, even and uneven.
+
+Usually the word grain means the pattern or "figure" formed by the
+distinction between the spring wood and the summer wood. If the annual
+rings are wide, the wood is, in common usage, called "coarse grained,"
+if narrow, "fine grained," so that of two trees of the same species,
+one may be coarse grained and the other fine grained, depending solely
+on the accident of fast or slow growth.
+
+The terms coarse grain and fine grain are also frequently used to
+distinguish such ring-porous woods as have large prominent pores, like
+chestnut and ash, from those having small or no pores, as cherry and
+lignum vitae. A better expression in this case would be coarse and
+fine textured. When such coarse textured woods are stained, the large
+pores in the spring wood absorb more stain than the smaller elements
+in the summer wood, and hence the former part appears darker. In the
+"fine grained" (or better, fine textured,) woods the pores are absent
+or are small and scattered, and the wood is hard, so that they are
+capable of taking a high polish. This indicates the meaning of the
+words coarse and fine in the mind of the cabinet-maker, the reference
+being primarily to texture.
+
+If the elements of which a wood are composed are of approximately
+uniform size, it would be said to have a uniform texture, as in
+white pine, while uniform grain would mean, that the elements, tho
+of varying sizes, were evenly distributed, as in the diffuse-porous
+woods.
+
+The term "grain" also refers to the regularity of the wood structure.
+An ideal tree would be composed of a succession of regular cones, but
+few trees are truly circular in cross-section and even in those that
+are circular, the pith is rarely in the center, showing that one side
+of the tree, usually the south side, is better nourished than the
+other, Fig. 14, p. 23.
+
+The normal direction of the fibers of wood is parallel to the axis of
+the stem in which they grow. Such wood is called "straight-grained,"
+Fig. 22, but there are many deviations from this rule. Whenever the
+grain of the wood in a board is, in whole or in part, oblique to the
+sides of the board, it is called "cross-grained." An illustration of
+this is a bend in the fibers, due to a bend in the whole tree or to
+the presence of a neighboring knot. This bend makes the board more
+difficult to plane. In many cases, probably in more cases than not,
+the wood fibers twist around the tree. (See some of the logs in Fig.
+107, p. 254.) This produces "spiral" or "twisted" grain.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 22. Straight Grained Long-leaf Pine (full size).]
+
+Often, as in mahogany and sweet gum, the fibers of several layers
+twist first in one direction and then those of the next few layers
+twist the other way, Fig. 24. Such wood is peculiarly cross-grained,
+and is of course hard to plane smooth. But when a piece is smoothly
+finished the changing reflection of light from the surface gives a
+beautiful appearance, which can be enhanced by staining and polishing.
+It constitutes the characteristic "grain" of striped mahogany, Fig.
+23. It is rarely found in the inner part of the tree.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 23. Mahogany, Showing Alternately Twisted Grain
+(full size).]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 24. Spiral Grain in Cypress.
+_After Roth._]
+
+Sometimes the grain of wood is "cross," because it is "wavy" either in
+a radial or a tangential section, as in maple, Fig. 25, and Fig. 26.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 25. Planed Surface of Wavy-Grained Maple (full
+size).]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 26. Split Surface of Wavy-Grained Maple (full
+size).]
+
+"Curly grain" refers to the figure of circlets and islets and
+contours, often of great beauty, caused by cutting a flat surface in
+crooked-grained wood. See Fig. 27, curly long-leaf pine, and Fig.
+28, yellow poplar. When such crookedness is fine and the fibers are
+contorted and, as it were, crowded out of place, as is common in and
+near the roots of trees, the effect is called "burl," Fig. 29. The
+term burl is also used to designate knots and knobs on tree trunks,
+Fig. 31. Burl is used chiefly in veneers.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 27. Curly Grained Long-leaf Pine (full size).]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 28. Curly Yellow Poplar (full size).]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 29. Redwood Burl (full size).]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 30. Bird's-eye Maple (full size.)]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 31. Burl on White Oak.]
+
+Irregularity of grain is often caused by the presence of adventitious
+and dormant buds, which may be plainly seen as little knobs on
+the surface of some trees under the bark. In most trees, these
+irregularities are soon buried and smoothed over by the successive
+annual layers of wood, but in some woods there is a tendency to
+preserve the irregularities. On slash (tangent) boards of such wood,
+a great number of little circlets appear, giving a beautiful grain,
+as in "Bird's-eye maple," Fig. 30. These markings are found to
+predominate in the inner part of the tree. This is not at all a
+distinct variety of maple, as is sometimes supposed, but the common
+variety, in which the phenomenon frequently appears. Logs of great
+value, having bird's-eyes, have often unsuspectingly been chopped up
+for fire wood.
+
+The term "grain" may also mean the "figure" formed by the presence of
+pith rays, as in oak, Fig. 32, or beech, or the word "grain" may refer
+simply to the uneven deposit of coloring matter as is common in sweet
+gum, Fig. 33, black ash, or Circassian walnut.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 32. Figure Formed by Pith Rays in Oak (full
+size).]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 33. Sweet Gum, Showing Uneven Deposit of Coloring
+Matter (full size.)]
+
+The presence of a limb constitutes a knot and makes great irregularity
+in the grain of wood, Fig. 34. In the first place, the fibers on the
+upper and lower sides of the limb behave differently, those on the
+lower side running uninterruptedly from the stem into the limb,
+while on the upper side the fibers bend aside making an imperfect
+connection. Consequently to split a knot it is always necessary to
+start the split from the lower side. On the other hand it is easier to
+split around a knot than thru it. The texture as well as the grain of
+wood is modified by the presence of a branch. The wood in and around a
+knot is much harder than the main body of the trunk on account of the
+crowding together of the elements. Knots are the remnants of branches
+left in the trunk. These once had all the parts of the trunk itself,
+namely bark, cambium, wood, and pith. Normally, branches grow from the
+pith, tho some trees, as Jack pine and redwood, among the conifers,
+and most of the broad-leaf trees have the power of putting out at any
+time adventitious buds which may develop into branches. When a branch
+dies, the annual layer of wood no longer grows upon it, but the
+successive layers of wood on the trunk itself close tighter and
+tighter around it, until it is broken off. Then, unless it has begun
+to decay, it is successively overgrown by annual layers, so that
+no sign of it appears until the trunk is cut open. A large trunk
+perfectly clean of branches on the outside may have many knots around
+its center, remnants of branches which grew there in its youth, as in
+Fig. 34, and Fig. 8, p. 18. The general effect of the presence of a
+knot is, that the fibers that grow around and over it are bent, and
+this, of course, produces crooked grain.
+
+Following are the designations given to different knots by lumbermen:
+A _sound_ knot is one which is solid across its face and is as hard as
+the wood surrounding it and fixed in position. A _pin_ knot is sound,
+but not over 1/4" in diameter. A _standard_ knot is sound, but not
+over 1-1/2" in diameter. A _large_ knot is sound, and over 1-1/2"
+in diameter. A _spike_ knot is one sawn in a lengthwise position. A
+_dead_, or, _loose_ knot is one not firmly held in place by growth or
+position.
+
+(4) _Pith._ At the center or axis of the tree is the pith or
+_medulla_, Fig. 34. In every bud, that is, at the apex of every stem
+and branch, the pith is the growing part; but as the stem lengthens
+and becomes overgrown by successive layers of wood the pith loses its
+vital function. It does not grow with the plant except at the buds.
+It varies in thickness, being very small,--hardly more than 1/16", in
+cedar and larch,--and so small in oak as to be hardly discernible;
+and what there is of it turns hard and dark. In herbs and shoots it is
+relatively large, Fig. 5, p. 15, in a three-year old shoot of elder,
+for example, being as wide as the wood. In elder, moreover, it dies
+early and pulverizes, leaving the stem hollow. Its function is one of
+only temporary value to the plant.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 34. Section Thru the Trunk of a Seven Year Old
+Tree, Showing Relation of Branches to Main Stem. A, B, two branches
+which were killed after a few years' growth by shading, and which have
+been overgrown by the annual rings of wood; C, a limb which lived four
+years, then died and broke off near the stem, leaving the part to the
+left of XY a "sound" knot, and the part to the right a "dead" knot,
+which unless rotting sets in, would in time be entirely covered by the
+growing trunk; D, a branch that has remained alive and has increased
+in size like the main stem; P, P, pith of both stem and limb.]
+
+
+THE STRUCTURE OF WOOD.
+
+REFERENCES:[A]
+
+Roth, _Forest Bull._ No. 10, pp. 11-23.
+Boulger, pp. 1-39.
+Sickles, pp. 11-20.
+Pinchot, _Forest Bull._ No. 24, I, pp. 11-24.
+Keeler, pp. 514-517.
+Curtis, pp. 62-85.
+Woodcraft, 15: 3, p. 90.
+Bitting, _Wood Craft_, 5: 76, 106, 144, 172, (June-Sept. 1906).
+Ward, pp. 1-38.
+_Encyc. Brit._, 11th Ed., "Plants," p. 741.
+Strasburger, pp. 120-144 and Part II, Sec. II.
+Snow, pp. 7-9, 183.
+
+ [Footnote A: For general bibliography, see p. 4.]
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER II.
+
+PROPERTIES OF WOOD.
+
+
+There are many properties of wood,--some predominant in one species,
+some in another,--that make it suitable for a great variety of uses.
+Sometimes it is a combination of properties that gives value to a
+wood. Among these properties are hygroscopicity, shrinkage, weight,
+strength, cleavability, elasticity, hardness, and toughness.
+
+
+THE HYGROSCOPICITY[1] OF WOOD.
+
+It is evident that water plays a large part in the economy of the
+tree. It occurs in wood in three different ways: In the sap which
+fills or partly fills the cavities of the wood cells, in the cell
+walls which it saturates, and in the live protoplasm, of which it
+constitutes 90 per cent. The younger the wood, the more water it
+contains, hence the sap-wood contains much more than the heart-wood,
+at times even twice as much.
+
+In fresh sap-wood, 60 per cent. of the water is in the cell
+cavities, 35 per cent. in the cell walls, and only 5 per cent. in the
+protoplasm. There is so much water in green wood that a sappy pole
+will soon sink when set afloat. The reason why there is much less
+water in heart-wood is because its cells are dead and inactive, and
+hence without sap and without protoplasm. There is only what saturates
+the cell walls. Even so, there is considerable water in heart-wood.[2]
+
+The lighter kinds have the most water in the sap-wood, thus sycamore
+has more than hickory.
+
+Curiously enough, a tree contains about as much water in winter as
+in summer. The water is held there, it is supposed, by capillary
+attraction, since the cells are inactive, so that at all times the
+water in wood keeps the cell walls distended.
+
+
+THE SHRINKAGE OF WOOD.
+
+When a tree is cut down, its water at once begins to evaporate. This
+process is called "seasoning."[A] In drying, the free water within the
+cells keeps the cell walls saturated; but when all the free water has
+been removed, the cell walls begin to yield up their moisture. Water
+will not flow out of wood unless it is forced out by heat, as when
+green wood is put on a fire. Ordinarily it evaporates slowly.
+
+ [Footnote A: See _Handwork in Wood_, Chapter III.]
+
+The water evaporates faster from some kinds of wood than from other
+kinds, _e.g._, from white pine than from oak, from small pieces than
+from large, and from end grain than from a longitudinal section; and
+it also evaporates faster in high than in low temperatures.
+
+Evaporation affects wood in three respects, weight, strength, and
+size. The weight is reduced, the strength is increased, and shrinkage
+takes place. The reduction in weight and increase in strength,
+important as they are, are of less importance than the shrinkage,
+which often involves warping and other distortions. The water in wood
+affects its size by keeping the cell walls distended.
+
+If all the cells of a piece of wood were the same size, and had
+walls the same thickness, and all ran in the same direction, then the
+shrinkage would be uniform. But, as we have seen, the structure of
+wood is not homogeneous. Some cellular elements are large, some small,
+some have thick walls, some thin walls, some run longitudinally and
+some (the pith rays) run radially. The effects will be various in
+differently shaped pieces of wood but they can easily be accounted for
+if one bears in mind these three facts: (1) that the shrinkage is in
+the cell wall, and therefore (2) that the thick-walled cells shrink
+more than thin-walled cells and (3) that the cells do not shrink much,
+if any, lengthwise.
+
+(1) The shrinkage of wood takes place in the walls of the cells that
+compose it, that is, the cell walls become thinner, as indicated by
+the dotted lines in Fig. 35, which is a cross-section of a single
+cell. The diameter of the whole cell becomes less, and the opening, or
+lumen, of the cell becomes larger.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 35. How Cell Walls Shrink.]
+
+(2) Thick-walled cells shrink more than thin-walled cells, that is,
+summer cells more than spring cells. This is due to the fact that they
+contain more shrinkable substance. The thicker the wall, the more the
+shrinkage.
+
+Consider the effects of these changes; ordinarily a log when drying
+begins to "check" at the end. This is to be explained thus:
+Inasmuch as evaporation takes place faster from a cross than from a
+longitudinal section, because at the cross-section all the cells are
+cut open, it is to be expected that the end of a piece of timber, Fig.
+36, A, will shrink first. This would tend to make the end fibers bend
+toward the center of the piece as in B, Fig. 36. But the fibers are
+stiff and resist this bending with the result that the end splits or
+"checks" as in C, Fig. 36. But later, as the rest of the timber dries
+out and shrinks, it becomes of equal thickness again and the "checks"
+tend to close.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 36. The Shrinkage and Checking at the End of a
+Beam.]
+
+(3) For some reason, which has not been discovered, the cells or
+fibers of wood do not shrink in length to any appreciable extent. This
+is as true of the cells of pith rays, which run radially in the log,
+as of the ordinary cells, which run longitudinally in it.
+
+In addition to "checking" at the end, logs ordinarily show the effect
+of shrinkage by splitting open radially, as in Fig. 37. This is to
+be explained by two factors, (1) the disposition of the pith (or
+medullary) rays, and (2) the arrangement of the wood in annual rings.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 37. The Shrinkage and Splitting of a Log.]
+
+(1) The cells of the pith rays, as we have seen in Chapter I, run at
+right angles to the direction of the mass of wood fibers, and since
+they shrink according to the same laws that other cells do, viz., by
+the cell wall becoming thinner but not shorter, the strain of their
+shrinkage is contrary to that of the main cells. The pith rays, which
+consist of a number of cells one above the other, tend to shrink
+parallel to the length of the wood, and whatever little longitudinal
+shrinkage there is in a board is probably due mostly to the
+shrinkage of the pith rays. But because the cells of pith rays do not
+appreciably shrink in their length, this fact tends to prevent the
+main body of wood from shrinking radially, and the result is that wood
+shrinks less radially than tangentially. Tangentially is the only way
+left for it to shrink. The pith rays may be compared to the ribs of
+a folding fan, which keep the radius of unaltered length while
+permitting comparative freedom for circumferential contraction.
+
+(2) It is evident that since summer wood shrinks more than spring
+wood, this fact will interfere with the even shrinkage of the log.
+Consider first the tangential shrinkage. If a section of a single
+annual ring of green wood of the shape A B C D, in Fig. 38, is dried
+and the mass shrinks according to the thickness of the cell walls,
+it will assume the shape A' B' C' D'. When a number of rings together
+shrink, the tangential shrinkage of the summer wood tends to contract
+the adjoining rings of spring wood more than they would naturally
+shrink of themselves. Since there is more of the summer-wood
+substance, the spring-wood must yield, and the log shrinks
+circumferentially. The radial shrinkage of the summer-wood, however,
+is constantly interrupted by the alternate rows of spring-wood, so
+that there would not be so much radial as circumferential shrinkage.
+As a matter of fact, the tangential or circumferential shrinkage is
+twice as great as the radial shrinkage.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 38. Diagram to Show the Greater Shrinkage of
+Summer Cells, A, B, than of Spring Cells, C, D.]
+
+Putting these two factors together, namely, the lengthwise resistance
+of the pith rays to the radial shrinkage of the mass of other fibers,
+and second, the continuous bands of summer wood, comparatively free to
+shrink circumferentially, and the inevitable happens; the log splits.
+If the bark is left on and evaporation hindered, the splits will not
+open so wide.
+
+There is still another effect of shrinkage. If, immediately after
+felling, a log is sawn in two lengthwise, the radial splitting may be
+largely avoided, but the flat sides will tend to become convex, as in
+Fig. 39. This is explained by the fact that circumferential shrinkage
+is greater than radial shrinkage.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 39. Shrinkage of a Halved Log.]
+
+If a log is "quartered,"[A] the quarters split still less, as the
+inevitable shrinkage takes place more easily. The quarters then
+tend to assume the shape shown in Fig. 40, C. If a log is sawed into
+timber, it checks from the center of the faces toward the pith, Fig.
+40, D. Sometimes the whole amount of shrinkage may be collected in one
+large split. When a log is slash-sawed, Fig. 40, I, each board tends
+to warp so that the concave side is away from the center of the tree.
+If one plank includes the pith, Fig. 40, E and H, that board will
+become thinner at its edges than at its center, _i.e._, convex on
+both faces. Other forms assumed by wood in shrinking are shown in Fig.
+40. In the cases A-F the explanation is the same; the circumferential
+shrinkage is more than the radial. In J and K the shapes are accounted
+for by the fact that wood shrinks very little longitudinally.
+
+ [Footnote A: See _Handwork in Wood_, p. 42.]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 40. Shapes Assumed by Wood in Shrinking.]
+
+Warping is uneven shrinkage, one side of the board contracting
+more than the other. Whenever a slash board warps under ordinary
+conditions, the convex side is the one which was toward the center of
+the tree. However, a board may be made to warp artificially the other
+way by applying heat to the side of the board toward the center of the
+tree, and by keeping the other side moist. The board will warp only
+sidewise; lengthwise it remains straight unless the treatment is very
+severe. This shows again that water distends the cells laterally but
+not longitudinally.
+
+The thinning of the cell walls due to evaporation, is thus seen
+to have three results, all included in the term "working," viz.:
+_shrinkage_, a diminution in size, _splitting_, due to the inability
+of parts to cohere under the strains to which they are subjected, and
+_warping_, or uneven shrinkage.
+
+In order to neutralize warping as much as possible in broad board
+structures, it is common to joint the board with the annual rings
+of each alternate board curving in opposite directions, as shown in
+_Handwork in Wood_, Fig. 280, _a_, p. 188.
+
+Under warping is included bowing. Bowing, that is, bending in the form
+of a bow, is, so to speak, longitudinal warping. It is largely due to
+crookedness or irregularity of grain, and is likely to occur in boards
+with large pith rays, as oak and sycamore. But even a straight-grained
+piece of wood, left standing on end or subjected to heat on one side
+and dampness on the other, will bow, as, for instance a board lying on
+the damp ground and in the sun.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 41. _a_, Star Shakes; _b_, Heart Shakes; _c_, Cup
+Shakes or Ring Shakes; _d_, Honeycombing.]
+
+Splitting takes various names, according to its form in the tree.
+"Check" is a term used for all sorts of cracks, and more particularly
+for a longitudinal crack in timber. "Shakes" are splits of various
+forms as: _star shakes_, Fig. 41, _a_, splits which radiate from the
+pith along the pith rays and widen outward; _heart shakes_, Fig. 41,
+_b_, splits crossing the central rings and widening toward the center;
+and _cup_ or _ring shakes_, Fig. 41, _c_, splits between the annual
+rings. _Honeycombing_, Fig. 41, _d_, is splitting along the pith rays
+and is due largely to case hardening.
+
+These are not all due to shrinkage in drying, but may occur in the
+growing tree from various harmful causes. See p. 232.
+
+Wood that has once been dried may again be swelled to nearly if not
+fully its original size, by being soaked in water or subjected to wet
+steam. This fact is taken advantage of in wetting wooden wedges
+to split some kinds of soft stone. The processes of shrinking and
+swelling can be repeated indefinitely, and no temperature short of
+burning, completely prevents wood from shrinking and swelling.
+
+Rapid drying of wood tends to "case harden" it, _i.e._, to dry and
+shrink the outer part before the inside has had a chance to do the
+same. This results in checking separately both the outside and the
+inside, hence special precautions need to be taken in the seasoning of
+wood to prevent this. When wood is once thoroly bent out of shape in
+shrinking, it is very difficult to straighten it again.
+
+Woods vary considerably in the amounts of their shrinkage. The
+conifers with their regular structure shrink less and shrink more
+evenly than the broad-leaved woods.[3] Wood, even after it has been
+well seasoned, is subject to frequent changes in volume due to the
+varying amount of moisture in the atmosphere. This involves constant
+care in handling it and wisdom in its use. These matters are
+considered in _Handwork in Wood_, Chapter III, on the Seasoning of
+Wood.
+
+
+THE WEIGHT OF WOOD.
+
+Wood substance itself is heavier than water, as can readily be proved
+by immersing a very thin cross-section of pine in water. Since the
+cells are cut across, the water readily enters the cavities, and
+the wood being heavier than the water, sinks. In fact, it is the air
+enclosed in the cell cavities that ordinarily keeps wood afloat, just
+as it does a corked empty bottle, altho glass is heavier than water.
+A longitudinal shaving of pine will float longer than a cross shaving
+for the simple reason that it takes longer for the water to penetrate
+the cells, and a good sized white pine log would be years in getting
+water-soaked enough to sink. As long as a majority of the cells are
+filled with air it would float.
+
+In any given piece of wood, then, the weight is determined by
+two factors, the amount of wood substance and the amount of water
+contained therein. The amount of wood substance is constant, but the
+amount of water contained is variable, and hence the weight varies
+accordingly. Moreover, considering the wood substance alone, the
+weight of wood substance of different kinds of wood is about the same;
+namely, 1.6 times as heavy as water, whether it is oak or pine, ebony
+or poplar. The reason why a given bulk of some woods is lighter than
+an equal bulk of others, is because there are more thin-walled and
+air-filled cells in the light woods. Many hard woods, as lignum vitae,
+are so heavy that they will not float at all. This is because the wall
+of the wood cells is very thick, and the lumina are small.
+
+In order, then, to find out the comparative weights of different
+woods, that is, to see how much wood substance there is in a given
+volume of any wood, it is necessary to test absolutely dry specimens.
+
+The weight of wood is indicated either as the weight per cubic foot or
+as specific gravity.
+
+It is an interesting fact that different parts of the same tree have
+different weights, the wood at the base of the tree weighing more than
+that higher up, and the wood midway between the pith and bark weighing
+more than either the center or the outside.[4]
+
+The weight of wood has a very important bearing upon its use. A
+mallet-head, for example, needs weight in a small volume, but it
+must also be tough to resist shocks, and elastic so as to impart its
+momentum gradually and not all at once, as an iron head does.
+
+Weight is important, too, in objects of wood that are movable. The
+lighter the wood the better, if it is strong enough. That is why
+spruce is valuable for ladders; it is both light and strong. Chestnut
+would be a valuable wood for furniture if it were not weak, especially
+in the spring wood.
+
+The weight of wood is one measure of its strength. Heavy wood is
+stronger than light wood of the same kind, for the simple reason that
+weight and strength are dependent upon the number and compactness of
+the fibers.[5]
+
+
+THE STRENGTH OF WOOD.
+
+Strength is a factor of prime importance in wood. By strength is meant
+the ability to resist stresses, either of tension (pulling), or
+of compression (pushing), or both together, cross stresses. When a
+horizontal timber is subjected to a downward cross stress, the lower
+half is under tension, the upper half is under compression and the
+line between is called the neutral axis, Fig. 42.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 42. A Timber Under Cross Stress, Showing Neutral
+Axis, and the Lines of Tension and Compression. A knot occurring in
+such a timber should be in the upper half, as at A.]
+
+Wood is much stronger than is commonly supposed. A hickory bar will
+stand more strain under tension than a wrought iron bar of the same
+length and weight, and a block of long-leaf pine a greater compression
+endwise than a block of wrought iron of the same height and weight. It
+approaches the strength of cast iron under the same conditions.
+
+Strength depends on two factors: the strength of the individual
+fibers, and the adhesive power of the fibers to each other. So, when
+a piece of wood is pulled apart, some of the fibers break and some are
+pulled out from among their neighbors. Under compression, however,
+the fibers seem to act quite independently of each other, each bending
+over like the strands of a rope when the ends are pushed together. As
+a consequence, we find that wood is far stronger under tension than
+under compression, varying from two to four times.
+
+Woods do not vary nearly so much under compression as under tension,
+the straight-grained conifers, like larch and longleaf pine, being
+nearly as strong under compression as the hard woods, like hickory and
+elm, which have entangled fibers, whereas the hard woods are nearly
+twice as strong as the conifers under tension.
+
+Moisture has more effect on the strength of wood than any other
+extrinsic condition. In sound wood under ordinary conditions, it
+outweighs all other causes which affect strength. When thoroly
+seasoned, wood is two or three times stronger, both under compression
+and in bending, than when green or water soaked.[6]
+
+The tension or pulling strength of wood is much affected by the
+direction of the grain, a cross-grained piece being only 1/10th to
+1/20th as strong as a straight-grained piece. But under compression
+there is not much difference; so that if a timber is to be subjected
+to cross strain, that is the lower half under tension and the upper
+half under compression, a knot or other cross-grained portion should
+be in the upper half.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 43. Shearing Strength is Measured by the Adhesion
+of the Portion A, B, C, D or to the Wood on both sides of it.]
+
+Strength also includes the ability to resist shear. This is called
+"_shearing strength_." It is a measure of the adhesion of one part of
+the wood to an adjoining part. Shearing is what takes place when the
+portion of wood beyond a mortise near the end of a timber, A B C D,
+Fig. 43, is forced out by the tenon. In this case it would be shearing
+along the grain, sometimes called detrusion. The resistance of the
+portion A B C D, _i.e._, its power of adhesion to the wood adjacent
+to it on both sides, is its shearing strength. If the mortised piece
+were forced downward until it broke off the tenon at the shoulder,
+that would be shearing across the grain. The shearing resistance
+either with or across the grain is small compared with tension and
+compression. Green wood shears much more easily than dry, because
+moisture softens the wood and this reduces the adhesion of the fibers
+to each other.[7]
+
+
+CLEAVABILITY OF WOOD.
+
+Closely connected with shearing strength is cohesion, a property
+usually considered under the name of its opposite, cleavability,
+_i.e._, the ease of splitting.
+
+When an ax is stuck into the end of a piece of wood, the wood splits
+in advance of the ax edge. See _Handwork in Wood_, Fig. 59, p. 52. The
+wood is not cut but pulled across the grain just as truly as if one
+edge were held and a weight were attached to the other edge and it
+were torn apart by tension. The length of the cleft ahead of the blade
+is determined by the elasticity of the wood. The longer the cleft, the
+easier to split. Elasticity helps splitting, and shearing strength and
+hardness hinder it.
+
+A normal piece of wood splits easily along two surfaces, (1) along any
+radial plane, principally because of the presence of the pith rays,
+and, in regular grained wood like pine, because the cells are radially
+regular; and (2) along the annual rings, because the spring-wood
+separates easily from the next ring of summer-wood. Of the two, radial
+cleavage is 50 to 100 per cent. easier. Straight-grained wood is
+much easier to split than cross-grained wood in which the fibers are
+interlaced, and soft wood, provided it is elastic, splits easier than
+hard. Woods with sharp contrast between spring and summer wood, like
+yellow pine and chestnut, split very easily tangentially.
+
+All these facts are important in relation to the use of nails. For
+instance, the reason why yellow pine is hard to nail and bass easy is
+because of their difference in cleavability.
+
+
+ELASTICITY OF WOOD.
+
+Elasticity is the ability of a substance when forced out of
+shape,--bent, twisted, compressed or stretched, to regain its former
+shape. When the elasticity of wood is spoken of, its ability to spring
+back from bending is usually meant. The opposite of elasticity is
+brittleness. Hickory is elastic, white pine is brittle.
+
+Stiffness is the ability to resist bending, and hence is the opposite
+of pliability or flexibility. A wood may be both stiff and elastic; it
+may be even stiff and pliable, as ash, which may be made into splints
+for baskets and may also be used for oars. Willow sprouts are flexible
+when green, but quite brittle when dry.
+
+Elasticity is of great importance in some uses of wood, as in long
+tool handles used in agricultural implements, such as rakes, hoes,
+scythes, and in axes, in archery bows, in golf sticks, etc., in all of
+which, hickory, our most elastic wood, is used.[8]
+
+
+HARDNESS OF WOOD.
+
+Hardness is the ability of wood to resist indentations, and depends
+primarily upon the thickness of the cell walls and the smallness
+of the cell cavities, or, in general, upon the density of the wood
+structure. Summer wood, as we have seen, is much harder than spring
+wood, hence it is important in using such wood as yellow pine on
+floors to use comb-grain boards, so as to present the softer spring
+wood in as narrow surfaces as possible. See _Handwork in Wood_, p. 41,
+and Fig. 55. In slash-grain boards, broad surfaces of both spring
+and summer wood appear. Maple which is uniformly hard makes the best
+floors, even better than oak, parts of which are comparatively soft.
+
+The hardness of wood is of much consequence in gluing pieces together.
+Soft woods, like pine, can be glued easily, because the fibers can
+be forced close together. As a matter of fact, the joint when dry is
+stronger than the rest of the board. In gluing hard woods, however, it
+is necessary to scratch the surfaces to be glued in order to insure a
+strong joint. It is for the same reason that a joint made with liquid
+glue is safe on soft wood when it would be weak on hard wood.[9]
+
+
+TOUGHNESS OF WOOD.
+
+Toughness may be defined as the ability to resist sudden shocks and
+blows. This requires a combination of various qualities, strength,
+hardness, elasticity and pliability. The tough woods, _par
+excellence_, are hickory, rock elm and ash. They can be pounded,
+pulled, compressed and sheared. It is because of this quality that
+hickory is used for wheel spokes and for handles, elm for hubs, etc.
+
+In the selection of wood for particular purposes, it is sometimes one,
+sometimes another, and more often still, a combination of qualities
+that makes it fit for use.[10]
+
+It will be remembered that it was knowledge of the special values
+of different woods that made "the one horse shay," "The Deacon's
+Masterpiece."
+
+ "So the Deacon inquired of the village folk
+ Where he could find the strongest oak,
+ That couldn't be split nor bent nor broke,--
+ That was for spokes and floor and sills;
+ He sent for lancewood to make the thills;
+ The cross bars were ash, from the straightest trees,
+ The panels of whitewood, that cuts like cheese,
+ But lasts like iron for things like these.
+ The hubs of logs from the "Settler's Ellum,"--
+ Last of its timber,--they couldn't sell 'em.
+ Never an ax had seen their chips,
+ And the wedges flew from between their lips,
+ Their blunt ends frizzled like celery tips;
+ Step and prop-iron, bolt and screw,
+ Spring, tire, axle and linch pin too,
+ Steel of the finest, bright and blue;
+ Thorough brace, bison skin, thick and wide;
+ Boot, top dasher from tough old hide,
+ Found in the pit when the tanner died.
+ That was the way to "put her through."
+ 'There!' said the Deacon, 'naow she'll dew!'"
+
+ [Footnote 1: Hygroscopicity, "the property possessed by
+ vegetable tissues of absorbing or discharging moisture and
+ expanding or shrinking accordingly."--_Century Dictionary._]
+
+ [Footnote 2: This is shown by the following table, from
+ Forestry Bulletin No. 10, p. 31, _Timber_, by Filibert Roth:
+
+ POUNDS OF WATER LOST IN DRYING 100 POUNDS OF GREEN WOOD IN THE KILN.
+
+ Sap-wood or Heart-wood
+ outer part. or interior.
+
+ 1. Pines, cedars, spruces, and firs 45-65 16-25
+ 2. Cypress, extremely variable 50-65 18-60
+ 3. Poplar, cottonwood, basswood 60-65 40-60
+ 4. Oak, beech, ash, elm, maple, birch, hickory,
+ chestnut, walnut, and sycamore 40-50 30-40
+ ]
+
+ [Footnote 3: The following table from Roth, p. 37, gives the
+ approximate shrinkage of a board, or set of boards, 100 inches
+ wide, drying in the open air:
+
+ Shrinkage
+ Inches.
+ 1. All light conifers (soft pine, spruce, cedar, cypress) 3
+
+ 2. Heavy conifers (hard pine, tamarack, yew, honey locust,
+ box elder, wood of old oaks) 4
+
+ 3. Ash, elm, walnut, poplar, maple, beech, sycamore,
+ cherry, black locust 5
+
+ 4. Basswood, birch, chestnut, horse chestnut, blue beech,
+ young locust 6
+
+ 5. Hickory, young oak, especially red oak Up to 10
+
+ The figures are the average of radial and tangential
+ shrinkages.]
+
+ [Footnote 4: How much different woods vary may be seen by the
+ following table, taken from Filibert Roth, _Timber_, Forest
+ Service Bulletin No. 10, p. 28:
+
+ WEIGHT OF KILN-DRIED WOOD OF DIFFERENT SPECIES.
+
+------------------------------------+---------------------------------
+ | Approximate.
+ +-----------+---------------------
+ | | Weight of
+ | +---------+-----------
+ | Specific | 1 cubic | 1,000 feet
+ | weight. | foot. | of lumber.
+------------------------------------+-----------+---------+-----------
+ | | Pounds | Pounds
+(a) Very heavy woods: | | |
+ Hickory, oak, persimmon, | | |
+ osage, orange, black | | |
+ locust, hackberry, blue | | |
+ beech, best of elm, and ash | 0.70-0.80 | 42-48 | 3,700
+(b) Heavy woods: | | |
+ Ash, elm, cherry, birch, | | |
+ maple, beech, walnut, sour | | |
+ gum, coffee tree, honey | | |
+ locust, best of southern | | |
+ pine, and tamarack | .60-.70 | 36-42 | 3,200
+(c) Woods of medium weight: | | |
+ Southern pine, pitch pine, | | |
+ tamarack, Douglas spruce, | | |
+ western hemlock, sweet gum, | | |
+ soft maple, sycamore, light | | |
+ sassafras, mulberry, | | |
+ grades of birch and cherry | .50-.60 | 30-36 | 2,700
+(d) Light woods: | | |
+ Norway and bull pine, red | | |
+ cedar, cypress, hemlock, | | |
+ the heavier spruce and fir, | | |
+ redwood, basswood, chestnut, | | |
+ butternut, tulip, catalpa, | | |
+ buckeye, heavier grades of | | |
+ poplar | .40-.50 | 24-30 | 2,200
+(e) Very light woods: | | |
+ White pine, spruce, fir, white | | |
+ cedar, poplar | .30-.40 | 18-24 | 1,800
+------------------------------------+-----------+---------+-----------
+
+ ]
+
+ [Footnote 5: For table of weights of different woods see
+ Sargent, _Jesup Collection,_ pp. 153-157.]
+
+ [Footnote 6: See Forestry Bulletin No. 70, pp. 11, 12, and
+ Forestry Circular No. 108.]
+
+ [Footnote 7: For table of strengths of different woods, see
+ Sargent, _Jesup Collection_, pp. 166 ff.]
+
+ [Footnote 8: For table of elasticity of different woods, see
+ Sargent, _Jesup Collection_, pp. 163 ff.]
+
+ [Footnote 9: For table of hardnesses of different woods, see
+ Sargent, _Jesup Collection_, pp. 173 ff.]
+
+ [Footnote 10: For detailed characteristics of different woods
+ see Chapter III.]
+
+
+THE PROPERTIES OF WOOD.
+
+REFERENCES[A]
+
+Moisture and Shrinkage.
+
+ Roth, _For. Bull._, No. 10, pp. 25-37.
+ Busbridge, _Sci. Am. Sup._ No. 1500. Oct. 1, '04.
+
+Weight, Strength, Cleavability, Elasticity and Toughness.
+
+ Roth, _For. Bull._, 10, p. 37-50.
+ Boulger, pp. 89-108, 129-140.
+ Roth, _First Book_, pp. 229-233.
+ Sargent, _Jesup Collection_, pp. 153-176.
+
+Forest Circulars Nos. 108 and 139.
+
+ [Footnote A: For general bibliography, see p. 4.]
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER III.
+
+THE PRINCIPAL SPECIES OF AMERICAN WOODS.
+
+NOTES.
+
+
+The photographs of tangential and radial sections are life size.
+The microphotographs are of cross-sections and are enlarged 37-1/2
+diameters.
+
+Following the precedent of U. S. Forest Bulletin No. 17, Sudworth's
+_Check List of the Forest Trees of the United States_, the complicated
+rules for the capitalization of the names of species are abandoned and
+they are uniformly not capitalized.
+
+On pages 192-195 will be found lists of the woods described, arranged
+in the order of their comparative weight, strength, elasticity, and
+hardness. These lists are based upon the figures in Sargent's _The
+Jesup Collection_.
+
+In the appendix, p. 289, will be found a key for distinguishing the
+various kinds of wood.
+
+Information as to current wholesale prices in the principal markets of
+the country can be had from the U. S. Dept. of Agriculture, The Forest
+Service, Washington, D. C., _Record of Wholesale Prices of Lumber,
+List A._ These lists are published periodically. No attempt is made in
+this book to give prices because: (1) only lists of wholesale prices
+are available; (2) the cuts and grades differ considerably, especially
+in soft woods (conifers); (3) prices are constantly varying; (4) the
+prices differ much in different localities.
+
+
+1
+
+WHITE PINE, WEYMOUTH PINE.
+
+ Named for Lord Weymouth, who cultivated it in England.
+
+_Pinus strobus_ Linnaeus.
+
+ _Pinus_, the classical Latin name; _strobus_ refers to the
+ cone, or strobile, from a Greek word, _strobus_, meaning
+ twist.
+
+
+[Illustration: Habitat.]
+
+HABITAT: (See map); now best in Michigan, Wisconsin and Minnesota.
+
+CHARACTERISTICS OF THE TREE: Height, 100'-120', even 200'; diameter,
+2'-4'; branches in whorls, cleans poorly; bark, dark gray, divided by
+deep longitudinal fissures into broad ridges; leaves in clusters of 5,
+3"-5" long; cone drooping, 4"-10" long.
+
+APPEARANCE OF WOOD: Color, heart-wood, very light brown, almost cream
+color, sap-wood, nearly white; non-porous; rings, fine but distinct;
+grain, straight; pith rays, very faint; resin ducts, small,
+inconspicuous.
+
+[Illustration: Leaf.]
+
+PHYSICAL QUALITIES: Weight, very light (59th in this list); 27 lbs.
+per cu. ft.; sp. gr. 0.3854; strength, medium (55th in this list);
+elasticity, medium (47th in this list); soft (57th in this list);
+shrinkage 3 per cent.; warps very little; durability, moderate; works
+easily in every way; splits easily but nails well.
+
+COMMON USES: Doors, window sashes and other carpentry, pattern-making,
+cabinet-work, matches.
+
+REMARKS: This best of American woods is now rapidly becoming scarce
+and higher in price. Its uses are due to its uniform grain, on account
+of which it is easily worked and stands well. Known in the English
+market as yellow pine.
+
+[Illustration: Radial Section, life size.]
+
+[Illustration: Cross-section, magnified 37-1/2 diameters.]
+
+[Illustration: Tangential Section, life size.]
+
+
+2
+
+WESTERN WHITE PINE.
+
+_Pinus monticola_ Douglas.
+
+ _Pinus_, the classical Latin name; _monticola_ means
+ mountain-dweller.
+
+[Illustration: Habitat.]
+
+HABITAT: (See map); grows at great elevations, 7,000'-10,000'. Best in
+northern Idaho.
+
+[Illustration: Leaf.]
+
+CHARACTERISTICS OF THE TREE: Height, 100'-160'; diameter, 4' to even
+8'; branches, slender, spreading; bark, gray and brown, divided into
+squarish plates by deep longitudinal and cross fissures; leaves, 5 in
+sheath; cones, 12"×18" long.
+
+APPEARANCE OF WOOD: Color, light brown or red, sap-wood nearly white;
+non-porous; rings, summer wood, thin and not conspicuous; grain,
+straight; rays, numerous, obscure; resin ducts, numerous and
+conspicuous tho not large.
+
+PHYSICAL QUALITIES: Weight, very light (58th in this list); 24 lbs.
+per cu. ft.; sp. gr. 0.3908; strength, medium (56th in this list);
+elastic (35th in this list); soft (63d in this list); shrinkage, 3 per
+cent.; warps little; moderately durable; easy to work; splits readily
+but nails well.
+
+COMMON USES: Lumber for construction and interior finish.
+
+REMARKS: Closely resembles _Pinus Strobus_ in appearance and quality
+of wood.
+
+[Illustration: Radial Section, life size.]
+
+[Illustration: Cross-section, magnified 37-1/2 diameters.]
+
+[Illustration: Tangential Section, life size.]
+
+
+3
+
+SUGAR PINE.
+
+ Sugar refers to sweetish exudation.
+
+_Pinus lambertiana_ Douglas.
+
+ _Pinus_, the classical Latin name; _lambertiana_, from the
+ botanist, A. B. Lambert, whose chief work was on Pines.
+
+[Illustration: Habitat.]
+
+HABITAT: (See map); grows on high elevations (5,000'), best in
+northern California.
+
+[Illustration: Leaf.]
+
+CHARACTERISTICS OF THE TREE: Height, 100'-300'; diameter, 15"-20";
+branches, in remote regular whorls; bark, rich purple or brown, thick,
+deep irregular fissures making long, flaky ridges; leaves, stout,
+rigid, in bundles of five; cones, 10"-18" long.
+
+APPEARANCE OF WOOD: Color, pinkish brown, sap-wood, cream white;
+non-porous; rings, distinct; grain, straight; rays, numerous, obscure;
+resin ducts, numerous, large and conspicuous.
+
+PHYSICAL QUALITIES: Weight, very light (61st in this list); 22 lbs.
+per cu. ft.; sp. gr. 0.3684; strength, weak (59th in this list);
+elasticity, medium (56th in this list); soft (53d in this list);
+shrinkage, 3 per cent.; warps little; durable; easily worked; splits
+little, nails well.
+
+COMMON USES: Carpentry, interior finish, doors, blinds, shingles,
+barrels, etc.
+
+REMARKS: Exudes a sweet substance from heart-wood. A magnificent and
+important lumber tree on Pacific coast.
+
+[Illustration: Radial Section, life size.]
+
+[Illustration: Cross-section, magnified 37-1/2 diameters.]
+
+[Illustration: Tangential Section, life size.]
+
+
+4
+
+NORWAY PINE. RED PINE.
+
+ Red refers to color of bark.
+
+_Pinus resinosa_ Solander.
+
+ _Pinus_, the classical Latin name; _resinosa_ refers to very
+ resinous wood.
+
+[Illustration: Habitat.]
+
+HABITAT: (See map); grows best in northern Michigan, Wisconsin, and
+Minnesota.
+
+[Illustration: Leaf.]
+
+CHARACTERISTICS OF THE TREE: Height, 70'-90'; diameter, 2'-3'; tall,
+straight; branches in whorls, low; bark, thin, scaly, purplish and
+reddish-brown; longitudinal furrows, broad flat ridges; leaves, in
+twos in long sheaths; cones, 2".
+
+APPEARANCE OF WOOD: Color of wood, pale red, sap-wood, wide, whitish;
+non-porous; rings summer wood broad, dark; grain, straight; rays,
+numerous, pronounced, thin; very resinous, but ducts small and few.
+
+PHYSICAL QUALITIES: Weight, light, (43d in this list); 31 lbs. per cu.
+ft.; sp. gr. 0.4854; strong (39th in this list); elastic (16th in
+this list); soft (48th in this list); shrinkage, 3 per cent.; warps
+moderately; not durable; easy to work; splits readily, nails well.
+
+COMMON USES: Piles, electric wire poles, masts, flooring.
+
+REMARKS: Often sold with and as white pine. Resembles Scotch pine
+(_Pinus sylvestris_). Bark used to some extent for tanning. Grows in
+open groves.
+
+[Illustration: Radial Section, life size.]
+
+[Illustration: Cross-section, magnified 37-1/2 diameters.]
+
+[Illustration: Tangential Section, life size.]
+
+
+5
+
+WESTERN YELLOW PINE. BULL PINE.
+
+ Bull refers to great size of trunk.
+
+_Pinus ponderosa_ Lawson.
+
+ _Pinus_, the classical Latin name; _ponderosa_ refers to great
+ size of trunk.
+
+[Illustration: Habitat.]
+
+HABITAT: (See map); best in Rocky Mountains.
+
+[Illustration: Leaf.]
+
+CHARACTERISTICS OF THE TREE: Height, 100' to 300'; diameter, 6' to
+even 12'; branches, low, short trunk; bark, thick, dark brown, deep,
+meandering furrows, large, irregular plates, scaly; leaves, in twos or
+threes, 5" to 11" long; cones 3" to 6" long.
+
+APPEARANCE OF WOOD: Color, light red, sap-wood, thick, nearly white,
+and very distinct; non-porous; rings, conspicuous; grain, straight;
+rays, numerous, obscure; very resinous but ducts small.
+
+PHYSICAL QUALITIES: Weight, light (44th in this list); 25-30 lbs.
+per cu. ft.; sp. gr. 0.4715; strength, medium (45th in this list);
+elasticity, medium (41st in this list); hardness, medium (42nd in this
+list); shrinkage, 4 per cent.; warps ...........; not durable; hard to
+work, brittle; splits easily in nailing.
+
+COMMON USES: Lumber, railway ties, mine timbers.
+
+REMARKS: Forms extensive open forests.
+
+[Illustration: Radial Section, life size.]
+
+[Illustration: Cross-section, magnified 37-1/2 diameters.]
+
+[Illustration: Tangential Section, life size.]
+
+
+6
+
+LONG-LEAF PINE. GEORGIA PINE.
+
+_Pinus palustris_ Miller.
+
+ _Pinus_, the classical Latin name; _palustris_ means swampy,
+ inappropriate here.
+
+[Illustration: Habitat.]
+
+HABITAT: (See map); best in Louisiana and East Texas.
+
+[Illustration: Leaf.]
+
+CHARACTERISTICS OF THE TREE: Height, 80'-100'; diameter, 2'-3';
+trunk, straight, clean, branches high; bark, light brown, large, thin,
+irregular papery scales; leaves 8"-12" long, 3 in a sheath; cones
+6"-10" long.
+
+APPEARANCE OF WOOD: Heart-wood, spring wood light yellow, summer
+wood, red brown; sap wood, lighter; non-porous; rings, very plain and
+strongly marked; grain, straight; rays, numerous, conspicuous; very
+resinous, but resin ducts few and not large.
+
+PHYSICAL QUALITIES: Heavy (18th in this list); 38 lbs. per cu. ft.;
+sp. gr. 0.6999; very strong (7th in this list); very elastic (4th
+in this list); hardness, medium (33d in this list); shrinkage, 4 per
+cent.; warps very little; quite durable; works hard, tough; splits
+badly in nailing.
+
+COMMON USES: Joists, beams, bridge and building trusses, interior
+finish, ship building, and general construction work.
+
+REMARKS: Almost exclusively the source of turpentine, tar, pitch and
+resin in the United States. Known in the English market as pitch pine.
+
+[Illustration: Radial Section, life size.]
+
+[Illustration: Cross-section, magnified 37-1/2 diameters.]
+
+[Illustration: Tangential Section, life size.]
+
+
+7
+
+SHORT-LEAF PINE. YELLOW PINE.
+
+_Pinus echinata_ Miller.
+
+ _Pinus_, the classical Latin name; _echinata_ refers to spiny
+ cones.
+
+[Illustration: Habitat.]
+
+HABITAT: (See map); best in lower Mississippi basin.
+
+[Illustration: Leaf.]
+
+CHARACTERISTICS OF THE TREE: Straight, tall trunk, sometimes 100'
+high; branches high; diameter 2'-4'; bark, pale grayish red-brown,
+fissures, running helter-skelter, making large irregular plates,
+covered with small scales; leaves in twos, 3" long; cones small.
+
+APPEARANCE OF WOOD: Color, heartwood, summer wood, red, spring-wood,
+yellow; sap-wood, lighter; non-porous; annual rings very plain, sharp
+contrast between spring and summer wood; grain, straight, coarse;
+rays, numerous, conspicuous; very resinous, ducts large and many.
+
+PHYSICAL QUALITIES: Weight, medium (32nd in this list); 32 lbs.
+per cu. ft.; sp. gr., 0.6104; very strong (18th in this list); very
+elastic (8th in this list); soft (38th in this list); shrinkage, 4
+per cent.; warps little; durable; troublesome to work; likely to split
+along annual rings in nailing.
+
+COMMON USES: Heavy construction, railroad ties, house trim, ship
+building, cars, docks, bridges.
+
+REMARKS: Wood hardly distinguishable from long-leaf pine. Often forms
+pure forests. The most desirable yellow pine, much less resinous and
+more easily worked than others.
+
+[Illustration: Radial Section, life size.]
+
+[Illustration: Cross-section, magnified 37-1/2 diameters.]
+
+[Illustration: Tangential Section, life size.]
+
+
+8
+
+LOBLOLLY PINE. OLD FIELD PINE.
+
+ _Loblolly_ may refer to the inferiority of the wood; old field
+ refers to habit of spontaneous growth on old fields.
+
+_Pinus taeda_ Linnaeus.
+
+ _Pinus_, the classical Latin name; _taeda_, the classical
+ Latin name for pitch-pine, which was used for torches.
+
+[Illustration: Habitat.]
+
+HABITAT: (See map); grows best in eastern Virginia, and eastern North
+Carolina.
+
+[Illustration: Leaf.]
+
+CHARACTERISTICS OF THE TREE: Height, 100'-150'; diameter, often 4'-5';
+branches high; bark, purplish brown, shallow, meandering fissures,
+broad, flat, scaly ridges; leaves, 3 in sheath, 4"-7" long; cones
+3"-5" long.
+
+APPEARANCE OF WOOD: Color, heart-wood orange, sap-wood lighter;
+non-porous; rings very plain, sharp contrast between spring wood and
+summer wood; grain, straight, coarse; rays conspicuous; very resinous,
+but ducts few and small.
+
+PHYSICAL QUALITIES: Weight, medium (39th in this list); 33 lbs. per
+cu. ft.; sp. gr. 0.5441; strong (26th in this list); elastic (17th
+in this list); medium hard (43d in this list); shrinkage, 4 per cent.;
+warps little; not durable; difficult to work, brittle; splits along
+rings in nailing.
+
+COMMON USES: Heavy construction, beams, ship building, docks, bridges,
+flooring, house trim.
+
+REMARKS: Resembles Long-leaf Pine, and often sold as such. Rarely
+makes pure forests.
+
+[Illustration: Radial Section, life size.]
+
+[Illustration: Cross-section, magnified 37-1/2 diameters.]
+
+[Illustration: Tangential Section, life size.]
+
+
+9
+
+SLASH PINE. CUBAN PINE.
+
+_Pinus caribaea_ Morelet. _Pinus heterophylla_ (Ell.) Sudworth.
+
+ _Pinus_, the classical Latin name; _caribaea_ refers to the
+ Caribbean Islands; _heterophylla_ refers to two kinds of
+ leaves.
+
+[Illustration: Habitat.]
+
+HABITAT: (See map); grows best in Alabama, Mississippi, and Louisiana.
+
+[Illustration: Leaf.]
+
+CHARACTERISTICS OF THE TREE: Height, sometimes 110', straight, tall,
+branching high; diameter 1'-3'; bark, dark red and brown, shallow
+irregular fissures; leaves, 2 or 3 in a sheath, 8"-12" long; cones,
+4"-5" long.
+
+APPEARANCE OF WOOD: Color, dark orange, sapwood lighter; non-porous;
+annual rings, plain, sharp contrast between spring wood and summer
+wood; grain, straight; rays numerous, rather prominent; very resinous,
+but ducts few.
+
+PHYSICAL QUALITIES: Heavy (7th in this list); 39 lbs. per cu. ft.; sp.
+gr. 0.7504; very strong (6th in this list); very elastic (3d in this
+list); hard (24th in this list); shrinkage, 4 per cent.; warps little;
+quite durable; troublesome to work; splits along annual rings in
+nailing.
+
+COMMON USES: Heavy construction, ship building, railroad ties, docks,
+bridges, house trim.
+
+REMARKS: Similar to and often sold as Long-leaf Pine.
+
+[Illustration: Radial Section, life size.]
+
+[Illustration: Cross-section, magnified 37-1/2 diameters.]
+
+[Illustration: Tangential Section, life size.]
+
+
+10
+
+TAMARACK. LARCH. HACKMATACK.
+
+_Larix laricina_ (Du Roi) Koch. _Larix americana_ Michaux.
+
+ _Larix_, the classical Latin name.
+
+[Illustration: Habitat.]
+
+HABITAT: (See map); prefers swamps, "Tamarack swamps."
+
+[Illustration: Leaf.]
+
+CHARACTERISTICS OF THE TREE: Height, 50'-60' and even 90', diameter
+1'-3'; intolerant; tall, slender trunk; bark, cinnamon brown, no
+ridges, breaking into flakes; leaves, deciduous, pea-green, in tufts;
+cone, 1/2"-3/4", bright brown.
+
+APPEARANCE OF WOOD: Color, light brown, sapwood hardly
+distinguishable; non-porous; rings, summer wood, thin but distinct,
+dark colored; grain, straight, coarse; rays, numerous, hardly
+distinguishable; very resinous, but ducts few and small.
+
+PHYSICAL QUALITIES: Weight, medium (29th in this list); 39 lbs. per
+cu. ft.; sp. gr. 0.6236; strong (24th in this list); elastic (11th in
+this list); medium hard (40th in this list); shrinkage, 3 per cent.;
+warps .........; very durable; easy to work; splits easily.
+
+COMMON USES: Ship building, electric wire poles, and railroad ties;
+used for boat ribs because of its naturally crooked knees; slenderness
+prevents common use as lumber.
+
+REMARKS: Tree desolate looking in winter.
+
+[Illustration: Radial Section, life size.]
+
+[Illustration: Cross-section, magnified 37-1/2 diameters.]
+
+[Illustration: Tangential Section, life size.]
+
+
+11
+
+WESTERN LARCH. TAMARACK.
+
+_Larix occidentalis_ Nuttall.
+
+ _Larix_, the classical Latin name; _occidentalis_ means
+ western.
+
+[Illustration: Habitat.]
+
+HABITAT: (See map); best in northern Montana and Idaho, on high
+elevations.
+
+[Illustration: Leaf.]
+
+CHARACTERISTICS OF THE TREE: Height, 90'-130', even 250'; diameter
+6'-8'; tall, slender, naked trunk, with branches high; bark, cinnamon
+red or purplish, often 12" thick, breaking into irregular plates,
+often 2' long; leaves, in tufts; deciduous; cones small.
+
+APPEARANCE OF WOOD: Color, light red, thin, whitish, sap-wood;
+non-porous; grain, straight, fine; rays numerous, thin; very resinous,
+but ducts small and obscure.
+
+PHYSICAL QUALITIES: Weight, heavy (11th in this list); 46 lbs. per cu.
+ft.; sp. gr. 0.7407; very strong (3d in this list); very elastic (1st
+in this list); medium hard (35th in this list); shrinkage, 4 per
+cent.; warps ..........; very durable; rather hard to work, takes fine
+polish; splits with difficulty.
+
+COMMON USES: Posts, railroad ties, fencing, cabinet material and fuel.
+
+REMARKS: A valuable tree in the Northwest.
+
+[Illustration: Radial Section, life size.]
+
+[Illustration: Cross-section, magnified 37-1/2 diameters.]
+
+[Illustration: Tangential Section, life size.]
+
+
+12
+
+WHITE SPRUCE.
+
+_Picea canadensis_ (Miller) B. S. P. _Picea alba_ Link.
+
+ _Picea_, the classical Latin name; white and _alba_ refers to
+ the pale color of the leaves, especially when young, and to
+ the whitish bark.
+
+[Illustration: Habitat.]
+
+HABITAT: (See map).
+
+[Illustration: Leaf.]
+
+CHARACTERISTICS OF THE TREE: Height, 60'-100' and even 150'; diameter,
+1'-2' and even 4'; long, thick branches; bark, light grayish brown,
+separating into thin plate-like scales, rather smooth appearance,
+resin from cuts forms white gum; leaves, set thickly on all sides
+of branch, finer than red spruce, odor disagreeable; cones, 2" long,
+cylindrical, slender, fall during second summer.
+
+APPEARANCE OF WOOD: Color, light yellow, sap-wood, hardly
+distinguishable; non-porous; rings, wide, summer wood thin, not
+conspicuous; grain, straight; rays, numerous, prominent; resin ducts,
+few and minute.
+
+PHYSICAL QUALITIES: Weight, light (51st in this list); 25 lbs. per cu.
+ft.; sp. gr., 0.4051; medium strong (42d in this list); elastic
+(29th in this list); soft (58th in this list); shrinks 3 per cent.;
+warps ........; fairly durable; easy to work, satiny surface; splits
+readily.
+
+COMMON USES: Lumber and paper pulp; (not distinguished from Red and
+Black Spruce in market).
+
+REMARKS: Wood very resonant, hence used for sounding boards. The most
+important lumber tree of the sub-arctic forest of British Columbia.
+
+[Illustration: Radial Section, life size.]
+
+[Illustration: Cross-section, magnified 37-1/2 diameters.]
+
+[Illustration: Tangential Section, life size.]
+
+
+13
+
+RED SPRUCE.[A]
+
+_Picea rubens_ Sargent.
+
+ _Picea_, the classical Latin name for the pitch pine; _rubens_
+ refers to reddish bark, and perhaps to the reddish streaks in
+ the wood.
+
+[Illustration: Habitat.]
+
+HABITAT: (See map); stunted in north.
+
+[Illustration: Leaf.]
+
+CHARACTERISTICS OF THE TREE: Height, 70'-80', even 100'; diameter,
+2'-3', grows slowly; trunk, straight, columnar, branches in whorls,
+cleans well in forest; bark, reddish brown with thin irregular
+scales; leaves, needle-shaped, four-sided, pointing everywhere; cones,
+1-1/4"-2" long, pendent, fall during the first winter.
+
+APPEARANCE OF WOOD: Color, dull white with occasional reddish streaks;
+sap-wood not distinct; non-porous; rings, summer rings thin, but
+clearly defined; grain, straight; rays, faintly discernible; resin
+ducts, few and small.
+
+PHYSICAL QUALITIES: Weight, light (47th in this list); 28 lbs. per cu.
+ft.; sp. gr., 0.4584; medium strong (41st in this list); elastic (21st
+in this list); soft (54th in this list); shrinkage, 3 per cent.; warps
+little; not durable; easy to plane, tolerably easy to saw, hard to
+chisel neatly; splits easily in nailing.
+
+COMMON USES: Sounding boards, construction, paper pulp, ladders.
+
+REMARKS: The exudations from this species are used as chewing gum.
+Bark of twigs is used in the domestic manufacture of beer. The use of
+the wood for sounding boards is due to its resonance, and for ladders
+to its strength and lightness.
+
+[Illustration: Radial Section, life size.]
+
+[Illustration: Cross-section, magnified 37-1/2 diameters.]
+
+[Illustration: Tangential Section, life size.]
+
+ [Footnote A: Not distinguished in the Jesup collection from
+ _Picea nigra_.]
+
+
+14
+
+BLACK SPRUCE.[A]
+
+_Picea mariana_ (Miller) B. S. P. _Picea nigra_ Link.
+
+ _Picea_, the classical Latin name for the pitch pine;
+ _mariana_ named for Queen Mary; black and _nigra_ refer to
+ dark foliage.
+
+[Illustration: Habitat.]
+
+HABITAT: (See map); best in Canada.
+
+[Illustration: Leaf.]
+
+CHARACTERISTICS OF THE TREE: Height, 50'-80' and even 100'; diameter,
+6"-1' even 2'; branches, whorled, pendulous with upward curve; bark,
+gray, loosely attached flakes; leaves, pale blue-green, spirally set,
+pointing in all directions; cones, small, ovate-oblong, persistent for
+many years.
+
+APPEARANCE OF WOOD: Color, pale, reddish, sap-wood, thin, white,
+not very distinct; non-porous; rings, summer wood, small thin cells;
+grain, straight; rays, few, conspicuous; resin ducts, few and minute.
+
+PHYSICAL QUALITIES: Weight, light (47th in this list); 33 lbs. per cu.
+ft.; sp. gr., 0.4584; medium strong (41st in this list); elastic (21st
+in this list); soft (54th in this list); shrinkage, 3 per cent.; warps
+little; not durable; easy to work; splits easily in nailing.
+
+COMMON USES: Sounding boards, lumber in Manitoba.
+
+REMARKS: Not distinguished from Red Spruce commercially.
+
+[Illustration: Radial Section, life size.]
+
+[Illustration: Cross-section, magnified 37-1/2 diameters.]
+
+[Illustration: Tangential Section, life size.]
+
+ [Footnote A: Not distinguished in Jesup Collection from _Picea
+ rubens_.]
+
+
+15
+
+WHITE SPRUCE. ENGELMANN'S SPRUCE.
+
+_Picea engelmanni_ (Parry) Engelmann.
+
+ Named for George Engelmann, an American botanist.
+
+[Illustration: Habitat.]
+
+HABITAT: (See map); grows at very high elevations, forming forest at
+8,000'-10,000'; best in British Columbia.
+
+[Illustration: Leaf.]
+
+CHARACTERISTICS OF THE TREE: Height, 75'-100', even 150'; diameter,
+2'-3', even 5'; branches whorled, spreading; bark, deeply furrowed,
+red-brown to purplish brown, thin, large, loose scales; leaves,
+blue-green, point in all directions; cones, 2" long, oblong,
+cylindrical.
+
+APPEARANCE OF WOOD: Color, pale yellow or reddish, sap-wood hardly
+distinguishable; non-porous; rings, very fine, summer wood, narrow,
+not conspicuous; grain, straight, close; rays, numerous, conspicuous;
+resin ducts, small and few.
+
+PHYSICAL QUALITIES: Weight, very light (57th in this list); 22 lbs.
+per cu. ft.; sp. gr. 0.3449; weak (61st in this list); elasticity
+medium (55th in this list); soft (56th in this list); shrinkage, 3 per
+cent.; warps .........; durable; easy to work; splits easily.
+
+COMMON USES: Lumber.
+
+REMARKS: A valuable lumber tree in the Rocky Mountains and the
+Cascades. Bark used for tanning.
+
+[Illustration: Radial Section, life size.]
+
+[Illustration: Cross-section, magnified 37-1/2 diameters].
+
+[Illustration: Tangential Section, life size.]
+
+
+16
+
+TIDELAND SPRUCE. SITKA SPRUCE.
+
+_Picea sitchensis_ (Bongard) Carrière.
+
+ _Picea_, the classical Latin name for the pitch pine.
+ Tideland refers to its habit of growth along the sea coast;
+ _sitchensis_, named for Sitka.
+
+[Illustration: Habitat.]
+
+HABITAT: (See map); best on Pacific slope of British Columbia and
+northwestern United States.
+
+[Illustration: Leaf.]
+
+CHARACTERISTICS OF THE TREE: Height, 100'-150' and even 200' high;
+diameter 3'-4' and even 15'; trunk base enlarged; bark, thick,
+red-brown, scaly; leaves, standing out in all directions; cones,
+2-1/2"-4" long, pendent, cylindrical, oval.
+
+APPEARANCE OF WOOD: Color, light brown, sap-wood whitish; non-porous;
+rings, wide, summer wood, thin but very distinct, spring wood, not
+plain; grain, straight, coarse; rays, numerous, rather prominent;
+resin ducts, few and small.
+
+PHYSICAL QUALITIES: Weight, light (52d in this list); 27 lbs. per cu.
+ft.; sp. gr. 0.4287; medium strong (53d in this list); elastic (31st
+in this list); soft (59th in this list); shrinkage, 3 per cent.;
+warps ...........; durable; easy to work; splits easily.
+
+COMMON USES: Interior finish, boat building and cooperage.
+
+REMARKS: Largest of the spruces. Common in the coast belt forest.
+
+[Illustration: Radial Section, life size.]
+
+[Illustration: Cross-section, magnified 37-1/2 diameters.]
+
+[Illustration: Tangential Section, life size.]
+
+
+17
+
+HEMLOCK.
+
+_Tsuga canadensis_ (Linnaeus) Carrière.
+
+ _Tsuga_, the Japanese name latinized; _canadensis_ named for
+ Canada.
+
+[Illustration: Habitat.]
+
+HABITAT: (See map); best in North Carolina and Tennessee.
+
+[Illustration: Leaf.]
+
+CHARACTERISTICS OF THE TREE: Height, 60'-70', sometimes 100';
+diameter, 2'-3'; branches, persistent, making trunk not very clean;
+bark, red-gray, narrow, rounded ridges, deeply and irregularly
+fissured; leaves, spirally arranged, but appear two-ranked; cones,
+3/4" long, graceful.
+
+APPEARANCE OF WOOD: Color, reddish brown, sap-wood just
+distinguishable; non-porous; rings, rather broad, conspicuous; grain,
+crooked; rays, numerous, thin; non-resinous.
+
+PHYSICAL QUALITIES: Weight, light (53d in this list); 26 lbs. per cu.
+ft.; sp. gr. 0.4239; medium strong (44th in this list); elasticity,
+medium (40th in this list); soft (51st in this list); shrinkage, 3
+per cent.; warps and checks badly; not durable; difficult to work,
+splintery, brittle; splits easily, holds nails well.
+
+COMMON USES: Coarse, cheap lumber, as joists, rafters, plank walks and
+laths.
+
+REMARKS: The poorest lumber. Bark chief source of tanning material.
+
+[Illustration: Radial Section, life size.]
+
+[Illustration: Cross-section, magnified 37-1/2 diameters.]
+
+[Illustration: Tangential Section, life size.]
+
+
+18
+
+WESTERN HEMLOCK. BLACK HEMLOCK.
+
+_Tsuga heterophylla_ (Rafinesque) Sargent.
+
+ _Tsuga_, the Japanese name latinized; _heterophylla_ refers to
+ two kinds of leaves.
+
+[Illustration: Habitat.]
+
+HABITAT: (See map); best on coast of Washington and Oregon.
+
+[Illustration: Leaf.]
+
+CHARACTERISTICS OF THE TREE: Height, 150'-200'; diameter, 6'-10';
+branches, pendent, slender; bark, reddish gray, deep, longitudinal
+fissures between, broad, oblique, flat ridges; leaves, dark green,
+two-ranked; cones, small, like Eastern Hemlock.
+
+APPEARANCE OF WOOD: Color, pale brown, sap-wood thin, whitish;
+non-porous; rings, narrow, summer wood thin but distinct; grain,
+straight, close; rays, numerous, prominent; non-resinous.
+
+PHYSICAL QUALITIES: Light in weight, strong, elastic, hard;[A]
+shrinkage, 3 per cent.; warps ..........; durable, more so than other
+American hemlocks; easier to work than eastern variety; splits badly.
+
+COMMON USES: Lumber for construction.
+
+REMARKS: Coming to be recognized as a valuable lumber tree.
+
+[Illustration: Radial Section, life size.]
+
+[Illustration: Cross-section, magnified 37-1/2 diameters.]
+
+[Illustration: Tangential Section, life size.]
+
+ [Footnote A: Not in Jesup Collection.]
+
+
+19
+
+DOUGLAS SPRUCE. OREGON PINE. RED FIR. DOUGLAS FIR.
+
+_Pseudotsuga mucronata_ (Rafinesque) Sudworth.
+
+_Pseudotsuga taxifolia_ (Lambert) Britton.
+
+ _Pseudotsuga_ means false hemlock; _mucronata_ refers to
+ abrupt short point of leaf; _taxifolia_ means yew leaf.
+
+[Illustration: Habitat.]
+
+HABITAT: (See map); best in Puget Sound region.
+
+[Illustration: Leaf.]
+
+CHARACTERISTICS OF THE TREE: Height, 175'-300'; diameter, 3'-5',
+sometimes 10'; branches high, leaving clean trunk; bark, rough, gray,
+great broad-rounded ridges, often appears braided; leaves, radiating
+from stem; cones, 2"-4" long.
+
+APPEARANCE OF WOOD: Color, light red to yellow, sap-wood white;
+non-porous; rings, dark colored, conspicuous, very pronounced summer
+wood; grain, straight, coarse; rays, numerous, obscure; resinous.
+
+PHYSICAL QUALITIES: Weight, medium (41st in this list); 32 lbs. per
+cu. ft, sp. gr. 0.5157; strong (21st in this list); very elastic (10th
+in this list); medium hard (45th in this list); shrinkage, 3 per cent.
+or 4 per cent.;, warps ...............; durable; difficult to work,
+flinty, splits readily.
+
+COMMON USES: Heavy construction, masts, flag poles, piles, railway
+ties.
+
+REMARKS: One of the greatest and the most valuable of the western
+timber trees. Forms extensive forests.
+
+[Illustration: Radial Section, life size.]
+
+[Illustration: Cross-section, magnified 37-1/2 diameters.]
+
+[Illustration: Tangential Section, life size.]
+
+
+20
+
+GRAND FIR. WHITE FIR. LOWLAND FIR. SILVER FIR.
+
+_Abies grandis_ Lindley.
+
+ _Abies_, the classical Latin name.
+
+[Illustration: Habitat.]
+
+HABITAT: (See map); best in Puget Sound region.
+
+[Illustration: Leaf.]
+
+CHARACTERISTICS OF THE TREE: Height, in interior 100'; diameter, 2';
+on coast, 250'-300' high; diameter, 2'-5'; long pendulous branches;
+bark, quite gray or gray brown, shallow fissures, flat ridges; leaves,
+shiny green above, silvery below, 1-1/2"-2" long, roughly two-ranked;
+cones, cylindrical, 2"-4" long.
+
+APPEARANCE OF WOOD: Color, light brown, sap-wood lighter; non-porous;
+rings, summer cells broader than in other American species, dark
+colored, conspicuous; grain straight, coarse; rays, numerous, obscure;
+resinous.
+
+PHYSICAL QUALITIES: Very light (62d in this list); 22 lbs. per cu.
+ft.; sp. gr., 0.3545; weak (62d in this list); elastic (34th in this
+list); soft (65th in this list); shrinkage, 3 per cent.; warps little;
+not durable; works easily; splits readily.
+
+COMMON USES: Lumber and packing cases.
+
+REMARKS: No resin ducts. Not a very valuable wood.
+
+[Illustration: Radial Section, life size.]
+
+[Illustration: Cross-section, magnified 37-1/2 diameters.]
+
+[Illustration: Tangential Section, life size.]
+
+
+21
+
+BIG TREE. SEQUOIA. GIANT SEQUOIA.
+
+_Sequoia washingtoniana_ (Winslow) Sudworth. _Sequoia gigantea_,
+Decaisne.
+
+ _Sequoia_ latinized from Sequoiah, a Cherokee Indian;
+ _washingtoniana_, in honor of George Washington.
+
+[Illustration: Habitat.]
+
+HABITAT: (See map); in ten groves in southern California, at high
+elevation.
+
+[Illustration: Leaf.]
+
+CHARACTERISTICS OF THE TREE: Height, 275', sometimes 320'; diameter,
+20', sometimes 35'; trunk, swollen and often buttressed at base,
+ridged, often clear for 150'; thick horizontal branches; bark, 1'-2'
+thick, in great ridges, separates into loose, fibrous, cinnamon red
+scales, almost non-combustible; leaves, very small, growing close to
+stem; cones, 2"-3" long.
+
+APPEARANCE OF WOOD: Color, red, turning dark on exposure, sap-wood
+thin, whitish; non-porous; rings, very plain; grain straight, coarse;
+rays, numerous, thin; non-resinous.
+
+PHYSICAL QUALITIES: Light (65th in this list); 18 lbs. per cu. ft.;
+sp. gr., 0.2882; weak (63d in this list); brittle (62d in this
+list); very soft (61st in this list); shrinks little; warps little;
+remarkably durable; easy to work, splits readily, takes nails well.
+
+COMMON USES: Construction, lumber, coffins, shingles.
+
+REMARKS: Dimensions and age are unequalled; Big Tree and Redwood
+survivors of a prehistoric genus, once widely distributed. Some
+specimens 3600 years old.
+
+[Illustration: Radial Section, life size.]
+
+[Illustration: Cross-section, magnified 37-1/2 diameters.]
+
+[Illustration: Tangential Section, life size.]
+
+
+22
+
+REDWOOD. COAST REDWOOD. SEQUOIA.
+
+_Sequoia sempervirens_ (Lambert) Endlicher.
+
+ _Sequoia_, latinized from Sequoiah, a Cherokee Indian;
+ _sempervirens_ means ever living.
+
+[Illustration: Habitat.]
+
+HABITAT: (See map); best in southern Oregon and northern California,
+near coast.
+
+[Illustration: Leaf.]
+
+CHARACTERISTICS OF THE TREE: Height, 200'-340'; diameter, 10'-15',
+rarely 25'; clean trunk, much buttressed and swollen at base, somewhat
+fluted, branches very high; bark, very thick, 6"-12", rounded ridges,
+dark scales falling reveal inner red bark; leaves, small, two-ranked;
+cones, small, 1" long.
+
+APPEARANCE OF WOOD: Color, red, turning to brown on seasoning,
+sap-wood whitish; non-porous; rings, distinct; grain, straight; rays,
+numerous, very obscure; non-resinous.
+
+PHYSICAL QUALITIES: Light in weight (55th in this list); 26 lbs. per
+cu. ft.; sp. gr. 0.4208; weak (58th in this list); brittle (60th in
+this list); soft (55th in this list); shrinks little; warps little;
+very durable; easily worked; splits readily; takes nails well.
+
+COMMON USES: Shingles, construction, timber, fence posts, coffins,
+railway ties, water pipes, curly specimens used in cabinet work.
+
+REMARKS: Low branches rare. Burns with difficulty. Chief construction
+wood of Pacific Coast. Use determined largely by durability.
+
+[Illustration: Radial Section, life size.]
+
+[Illustration: Cross-section, magnified 37-1/2 diameters.]
+
+[Illustration: Tangential Section, life size.]
+
+
+23
+
+BALD CYPRESS.
+
+ Bald refers to leaflessness of tree in winter.
+
+_Taxodium distichum_ (Linnaeus) L. C. Richard.
+
+ _Taxodium_ means yew-like; _distichum_ refers to the
+ two-ranked leaves.
+
+[Illustration: Habitat.]
+
+HABITAT: (See map); best in South Atlantic and Gulf States.
+
+[Illustration: Leaf.]
+
+CHARACTERISTICS OF THE TREE: Height, 75', occasionally 150'; diameter,
+4'-5'; roots project upward into peculiar knees; trunk strongly
+buttressed at base, straight, majestic and tapering; bark, light red,
+shallow fissures, flat plates, peeling into fibrous strips; leaves,
+long, thin, two-ranked, deciduous; cones, nearly globular, 1" in
+diameter.
+
+APPEARANCE OF WOOD: Color, heart-wood, reddish brown, sap-wood,
+nearly white; non-porous; rings, fine and well marked; grain,
+nearly straight, burl is beautifully figured; rays, very obscure;
+non-resinous.
+
+PHYSICAL QUALITIES: Light in weight (48th in this list); 29 lbs. per
+cu. ft.; sp. gr. 0.4543; medium strong (48th in this list); elastic
+(28th in this list); soft (52d in this list); shrinkage, 3 per cent.;
+warps but little, likely to check; very durable; easy to work, in
+splitting, crumbles or breaks; nails well.
+
+COMMON USES: Shingles, posts, interior finish, cooperage, railroad
+ties, boats, and various construction work, especially conservatories.
+
+REMARKS: Forms forests in swamps; subject to a fungous disease, making
+wood "peggy" or "pecky"; use largely determined by its durability. In
+New Orleans 90,000 fresh water cisterns are said to be made of it.
+
+[Illustration: Radial Section, life size.]
+
+[Illustration: Cross-section, magnified 37-1/2 diameters.]
+
+[Illustration: Tangential Section, life size.]
+
+
+24
+
+WESTERN RED CEDAR. CANOE CEDAR. GIANT ARBORVITAE.
+
+_Thuja plicata_ D. Don. _Thuya gigantea_ Nuttall.
+
+ _Thuya_ or _Thuja_, the classical Greek name; _plicata_ refers
+ to the folded leaves; _gigantea_ refers to the gigantic size
+ of the tree.
+
+[Illustration: Habitat.]
+
+HABITAT: (See map); best in Puget Sound region.
+
+[Illustration: Leaf.]
+
+CHARACTERISTICS OF THE TREE: Height, 100'-200'; diameter, 2'-10', even
+15'; trunk has immense buttresses, often 16' in diameter, then tapers;
+branches, horizontal, short, making a dense conical tree; bark, bright
+cinnamon red, shallow fissures, broad ridges, peeling into long,
+narrow, stringy scales; leaves, very small, overlapping in 4 ranks,
+on older twigs, sharper and more remote; cones, _1/2"_ long, small,
+erect.
+
+APPEARANCE OF WOOD: Color, dull brown or red, thin sap-wood nearly
+white; non-porous; rings, summer bands thin, dark colored, distinct;
+grain, straight, rather coarse; rays, numerous, obscure; non-resinous.
+
+PHYSICAL QUALITIES: Very light in weight (60th in this list); medium
+strong (40th in this list); elastic (26th in this list); soft (60th
+in this list); shrinkage, 3 per cent.; warps and checks little; very
+durable; easy to work; splits easily.
+
+COMMON USES: Interior finish, cabinet making, cooperage, shingles,
+electric wire poles.
+
+REMARKS: Wood used by Indians for war canoes, totems and planks for
+lodges; inner bark used for ropes and textiles.
+
+[Illustration: Radial Section, life size.]
+
+[Illustration: Cross-section, magnified 37-1/2 diameters.]
+
+[Illustration: Tangential Section, life size.]
+
+
+25
+
+WHITE CEDAR.
+
+_Chamaecyparis thyoides_ (Linnaeus) B. S. P.
+
+ _Chamaecyparis_ means low cypress; _thyoides_ means like
+ _thuya_ (_Aborvitae_).
+
+[Illustration: Habitat.]
+
+HABITAT: (See map); best in Virginia and North Carolina.
+
+[Illustration: Leaf.]
+
+CHARACTERISTICS OF THE TREE: Height, 60'-80'; diameter, 2'-4';
+branches, low, often forming impenetrable thickets; bark, light
+reddish brown, many fine longitudinal fissures, often spirally twisted
+around stem; leaves, scale-like, four-ranked; cones, globular, 1/4"
+diameter.
+
+APPEARANCE OF WOOD: Color, pink to brown, sap-wood lighter;
+non-porous; rings, sharp and distinct; grain, straight; rays,
+numerous, obscure; non-resinous.
+
+PHYSICAL QUALITIES: Very light in weight (64th in this list); 23 lbs.
+per cu. ft.; sp. gr. 0.3322); weak (64th in this list); brittle (63d
+in this list; soft (62d in this list); shrinkage 3 per cent.; warps
+little; extremely durable; easily worked; splits easily; nails well.
+
+COMMON USES: Boats, shingles, posts, railway ties, cooperage.
+
+REMARKS: Grows chiefly in swamps, often in dense pure forests. Uses
+determined largely by its durability.
+
+[Illustration: Radial Section, life size.]
+
+[Illustration: Cross-section, magnified 37-1/2 diameters.]
+
+[Illustration: Tangential Section, life size.]
+
+
+26
+
+LAWSON CYPRESS. PORT ORFORD CEDAR. OREGON CEDAR. WHITE CEDAR.
+
+_Chamaecyparis lawsoniana_ (A. Murray) Parlatore.
+
+ _Chamaecyparis_ means low cypress.
+
+[Illustration: Habitat.]
+
+[Illustration: Leaf.]
+
+HABITAT: (See map); best on coast of Oregon.
+
+CHARACTERISTICS OF THE TREE: Height, 100'-200'; diameter, 4'-8', even
+12'; base of trunk abruptly enlarged; bark, very thick, even 10" at
+base of trunk, inner and outer layers distinct, very deep fissures,
+rounded ridges; leaves, very small, 1/16" long, four-ranked,
+overlapped, flat sprays; cones, small, 1/4", globular.
+
+APPEARANCE OF WOOD: Color, pinkish brown, sap-wood hardly
+distinguishable; non-porous; rings, summer wood thin, not conspicuous;
+grain, straight, close; rays, numerous, very obscure; non-resinous.
+
+PHYSICAL QUALITIES: Light in weight (46th in this list); 28 lbs. per
+cu. ft.; sp. gr. 0.4621; strong (25th in this list); elastic (12th
+in this list); soft (50th in this list); shrinkage 3 or 4 per cent.;
+warps little; durable; easily worked; splits easily.
+
+COMMON USES: Matches (almost exclusively on the Pacific Coast),
+interior finish, ship and boat building.
+
+REMARKS: Resin, a powerful diuretic and insecticide.
+
+[Illustration: Radial Section, life size.]
+
+[Illustration: Cross-section, magnified 37-1/2 diameters.]
+
+[Illustration: Tangential Section, life size.]
+
+
+27
+
+RED CEDAR.
+
+_Juniperus virginiana_ Linnaeus.
+
+ _Juniperus_, the classical Latin name; _virginiana_, in honor
+ of the State of Virginia.
+
+[Illustration: Habitat.]
+
+HABITAT: (See map); best in Gulf States in swamps, especially on the
+west coast of Florida.
+
+[Illustration: Leaf.]
+
+CHARACTERISTICS OF THE TREE: Height, 40'-50', even 80'; diameter,
+1'-2'; trunk, ridged, sometimes expanded; branches, low; bark, light
+brown, loose, ragged, separating into long, narrow, persistent,
+stringy scales; leaves, opposite, of two kinds, awl-shaped, and
+scale-shaped; fruit, dark blue berry.
+
+APPEARANCE OF WOOD: Color, dull red, sap-wood white; non-porous;
+rings, easily distinguished; grain, straight; rays, numerous, very
+obscure; non-resinous.
+
+PHYSICAL QUALITIES: Very light in weight (42d in this list); 30 lbs.
+per cu. ft.; sp. gr. 0.4826; medium strong (43d in this list); brittle
+(61st in this list); medium hard (34th in this list); shrinkage, 3 per
+cent.; warps little; very durable; easy to work; splits readily, takes
+nails well.
+
+COMMON USES: Pencils, chests, cigar boxes, pails, interior finish.
+
+REMARKS: Fragrant. Pencils are made almost exclusively of this wood,
+because it is light, strong, stiff, straight and fine-grained and
+easily whittled; supply being rapidly depleted.
+
+[Illustration: Radial Section, life size.]
+
+[Illustration: Cross-section, magnified 37-1/2 diameters.]
+
+[Illustration: Tangential Section, life size.]
+
+
+28
+
+BLACK WILLOW.
+
+_Salix nigra_ Marshall.
+
+ _Salix_, from two Celtic words meaning near-water; _nigra_
+ refers to the dark bark.
+
+[Illustration: Habitat.]
+
+HABITAT: (See map); grows largest in southern Illinois, Indiana and
+Texas, on moist banks.
+
+[Illustration: Leaf.]
+
+CHARACTERISTICS OF THE TREE: Height, 30'-40', sometimes 120';
+diameter, 1'-2', rarely 3'-4'; stout, upright, spreading branches,
+from common base; bark, rough and dark brown or black, often tinged
+with yellow or brown; leaves, lanceolate, often scythe-shaped, serrate
+edges; fruit, a capsule containing small, hairy seeds.
+
+APPEARANCE OF WOOD: Color, light reddish brown, sap-wood, thin,
+whitish; diffuse-porous; rings, obscure; grain, close and weak; rays,
+obscure.
+
+PHYSICAL QUALITIES: Light in weight (51st in this list); 27.77 lbs.
+per cu. ft.; sp. gr. 0.4456; weak (65th in this list); very brittle
+(64th in this list); soft (46th in this list); shrinks considerably;
+warps and checks badly; soft, weak, indents without breaking; splits
+easily.
+
+COMMON USES: Lap-boards, baskets, water wheels, fuel and charcoal for
+gunpowder.
+
+REMARKS: Its characteristic of indenting without breaking has given it
+use as lining for carts and as cricket bats. Of the many willows, the
+most tree like in proportion in eastern North America. Bark contains
+salycylic acid.
+
+[Illustration: Radial Section, life size.]
+
+[Illustration: Cross-section, magnified 37-1/2 diameters.]
+
+[Illustration: Tangential Section, life size.]
+
+
+29
+
+BUTTERNUT. WHITE WALNUT.
+
+ Butternut, because the nuts are rich in oil.
+
+_Juglans cinerea_ Linnaeus.
+
+ _Juglans_ means Jove's nut; _cinerea_ refers to ash-colored
+ bark.
+
+[Illustration: Habitat.]
+
+HABITAT:: (See map); best in Ohio basin.
+
+[Illustration: Leaf.]
+
+CHARACTERISTICS OF THE TREE: Height, 75'-100'; diameter, 2'-4';
+branches low, broad spreading deep roots; bark, grayish brown,
+deep fissures broad ridges; leaves 15"-30" long, compound 11 to 17
+leaflets, hairy and rough; fruit, oblong, pointed, edible, oily nut.
+
+APPEARANCE OF WOOD: Color, light brown, darkening with exposure,
+sap-wood whitish; diffuse, porous; rings, not prominent; grain, fairly
+straight, coarse, takes high polish; rays, distinct, thin, obscure.
+
+PHYSICAL QUALITIES: Light in weight (56th in this list); 25 lbs. per
+cu. ft.; sp. gr. 0.4086; weak (57th in this list); elasticity, medium
+(52d in this list); soft (47th in this list); shrinkage ....... per
+cent.; warps little; durable; easy to work; splits easily.
+
+COMMON USES: Cabinet work, inside trim.
+
+REMARKS: Green husks of fruit give yellow dye. Sugar made from sap.
+
+[Illustration: Radial Section, life size.]
+
+[Illustration: Cross-section, magnified 37-1/2 diameters.]
+
+[Illustration: Tangential Section, life size.]
+
+
+30
+
+BLACK WALNUT.
+
+_Juglans nigra_ Linnaeus.
+
+ _Juglans_ means Jove's nut; _nigra_ refers to the dark wood.
+
+[Illustration: Habitat.]
+
+HABITAT: (See map); best in western North Carolina and Tennessee.
+
+[Illustration: Leaf.]
+
+CHARACTERISTICS OF THE TREE: Height, 90'-120', even 150'; diameter, 3'
+to even 8'; clean of branches for 50' to 60'; bark, brownish, almost
+black, deep fissures, and broad, rounded ridges; leaves, 1'-2' long,
+compound pinnate, 15 to 23 leaflets, fall early; fruit, nut, with
+adherent husk, and edible kernel.
+
+APPEARANCE OF WOOD: Color, chocolate brown, sap-wood much lighter;
+diffuse-porous; rings, marked by slightly larger pores; grain,
+straight; rays, numerous, thin, not conspicuous.
+
+PHYSICAL QUALITIES: Weight, medium (31st in this list); 38 lbs. per
+cu. ft.; sp. gr. 0.6115; strong (32d in this list); elastic (23d in
+this list); hard (21st in this list); shrinkage, 5 per cent.; warps
+little; very durable; easy to work; splits with some difficulty, takes
+and holds nails well.
+
+COMMON USES: Gun stocks (since 17th century), veneers, cabinet making.
+
+REMARKS: Formerly much used for furniture, now scarce. Plentiful
+in California. Most valuable wood of North American forests. Wood
+superior to European variety.
+
+[Illustration: Radial Section, life size.]
+
+[Illustration: Cross-section, magnified 37-1/2 diameters.]
+
+[Illustration: Tangential Section, life size.]
+
+
+31
+
+MOCKERNUT. BLACK HICKORY. BULL-NUT. BIG-BUD HICKORY. WHITE-HEART
+HICKORY. KING NUT.
+
+ Mockernut refers to disappointing character of nuts.
+
+_Hicoria alba_ (Linnaeus) Britton. _Carya tomentosa_ Nuttall.
+
+ _Hicoria_, shortened and latinized from _Pawcohicora_, the
+ Indian name for the liquor obtained from the kernels; _alba_
+ refers to the white wood, _carya_, the Greek name for walnut;
+ _tomentosa_ refers to hairy under surface of leaf.
+
+[Illustration: Habitat.]
+
+HABITAT: (See map); best in lower Ohio valley, Missouri and Arkansas.
+
+[Illustration: Leaf.]
+
+CHARACTERISTICS OF THE TREE: Height, 75', rarely 100'; diameter,
+2'-3'; rises high in forest; bark, dark gray, shallow, irregular
+interrupted fissures, rough but not shaggy in old trees; leaves,
+8"-12" long, compound, 7-9 leaflets, fragrant when crushed; fruit,
+spherical nut, thick shell, edible kernel.
+
+APPEARANCE OF WOOD: Color, dark brown, sap-wood nearly white;
+ring-porous; rings, marked by few large regularly distributed open
+ducts; grain, usually straight, close; rays, numerous, thin, obscure.
+
+PHYSICAL QUALITIES: Very heavy (3d in this list); 53 lbs. per cu. ft.;
+sp. gr., 0.8218; very strong (11th in this list); very elastic (14th
+in this list); very hard (3d in this list); shrinkage, 10 per cent.;
+warps ..........; not durable; very hard to work; splits with great
+difficulty, almost impossible to nail.
+
+COMMON USES: Wheels, runners, tool and axe handles, agricultural
+implements.
+
+REMARKS: Confounded commercially with shellbark hickory.
+
+[Illustration: Radial Section, life size.]
+
+[Illustration: Cross-section, magnified 37-1/2 diameters.]
+
+[Illustration: Tangential Section, life size.]
+
+
+32
+
+SHELLBARK HICKORY. SHAGBARK HICKORY.
+
+_Hicoria ovata_ (Millar) Britton. _Carya alba_ Nuttall.
+
+ _Hickory_ is shortened and latinized from _Pawcohicora_, the
+ Indian name for the liquor obtained from the kernels; _ovata_
+ refers to oval nut; _carya_, the Greek name for walnut.
+
+[Illustration: Habitat.]
+
+HABITAT: (See map); best in lower Ohio valley.
+
+[Illustration: Leaf.]
+
+CHARACTERISTICS OF THE TREE: Height, 70'-90' and even 120'; diameter,
+2'-3', even 4'; straight, columnar trunk; bark, dark gray, separates
+into long, hard, plate-like strips, which cling to tree by middle, on
+young trees very smooth and close; leaves, 8"-20" long, compound 5
+or (7) leaflets; nuts, globular, husk, four-valved, split easily,
+thin-shelled, edible.
+
+APPEARANCE OF WOOD: Color, reddish brown, sap-wood whitish;
+ring-porous; rings, clearly marked; grain, straight; rays, numerous,
+thin.
+
+PHYSICAL QUALITIES: Very Heavy (1st in this list); 51 lbs. per cu.
+ft.; sp. gr., 0.8372; very strong (5th in this list); very elastic
+(7th in this list); very hard (5th in this list); shrinkage, 10 per
+cent.; warps badly; not very durable under exposure; hard to work,
+very tough; hard to split, very difficult to nail.
+
+COMMON USES: Agricultural implements, handles, wheel spokes.
+
+REMARKS: American hickory is famous both for buggies and ax handles,
+because it is flexible and very tough in resistance to blows.
+
+
+[Illustration: Radial Section, life size.]
+
+[Illustration: Cross-section, magnified 37-1/2 diameters.]
+
+[Illustration: Tangential Section, life size.]
+
+
+33
+
+PIGNUT.
+
+Nuts eaten by swine.
+
+_Hicoria glabra_ (Miller) Britton. _Carya porcina._
+
+ _Hicoria_ is shortened and latinized from _Pawcohicora_, the
+ Indian name for the liquor obtained from the kernel; _glabra_
+ refers to smooth bark; _Carya_ the Greek name for walnut;
+ _porcina_ means pertaining to hogs.
+
+[Illustration: Habitat.]
+
+HABITAT: (See map); best in lower Ohio valley.
+
+[Illustration: Leaf.]
+
+CHARACTERISTICS OF THE TREE: Height, 80'-100'; diameter 2'-4'; trunk
+often forked; bark, light gray, shallow fissures, rather smooth,
+rarely exfoliates; leaves, 8"-12" long, compound 7 leaflets, sharply
+serrate; fruit, a thick-shelled nut, bitter kernel.
+
+APPEARANCE OF WOOD: Color, light or dark brown, the thick sap-wood
+lighter, often nearly white; ring-porous; rings marked by many large
+open ducts; grain, straight; rays, small and insignificant.
+
+PHYSICAL QUALITIES: Very heavy (4th in this list); 56 lbs. per cu.
+ft.; sp. gr., 0.8217; very strong (15th in this list); elastic (27th
+in this list); very hard (2d in this list); shrinkage, 10 per cent.;
+warps ..........; hard to work; splits with difficulty, hard to drive
+nails into.
+
+COMMON USES: Agricultural implements, wheels, runners, tool handles.
+
+REMARKS: Wood not distinguished from shellbark hickory in commerce.
+
+[Illustration: Radial Section, life size.]
+
+[Illustration: Cross-section, magnified 37-1/2 diameters.]
+
+[Illustration: Tangential Section, life size.]
+
+
+34
+
+BLUE BEECH. HORNBEAM. WATER BEECH. IRON-WOOD.
+
+Blue refers to color of bark; the trunk resembles beech; horn refers
+to horny texture of wood.
+
+_Carpinus caroliniana_ Walter.
+
+ _Carpinus_, classical Latin name; _caroliniana_, named from
+ the state.
+
+[Illustration: Habitat.]
+
+HABITAT: (See map); best on western slopes of Southern Allegheny
+Mountains and in southern Arkansas and Texas.
+
+[Illustration: Leaf.]
+
+CHARACTERISTICS OF THE TREE: Height, a small tree, 30'-50' high;
+diameter, 6"-2'; short, fluted, sinewy trunk; bark, smooth, bluish
+gray; leaves, falcate, doubly serrate; fruit, small oval nut, enclosed
+in leaf-like bract.
+
+APPEARANCE OF WOOD: Color, light brown, sap-wood thick, whitish;
+diffuse-porous; rings, obscure; grain, close; rays, numerous, broad.
+
+PHYSICAL QUALITIES: Heavy (13th in this list); 45 lbs. per cu. ft.;
+sp. gr. 0.7286; very strong (9th in this list); very stiff (15th in
+this list); hard (14th in this list); shrinkage, 6 per cent.; warps
+and checks badly; not durable; hard to work; splits with great
+difficulty.
+
+COMMON USES: Levers, tool handles.
+
+REMARKS: No other wood so good for levers, because of stiffness.
+
+[Illustration: Radial Section, life size.]
+
+[Illustration: Cross-section, magnified 37-1/2 diameters.]
+
+[Illustration: Tangential Section, life size.]
+
+
+35
+
+CANOE BIRCH. WHITE BIRCH. PAPER BIRCH.
+
+ All names refer to bark.
+
+_Betula papyrifera_ Marshall.
+
+ _Betula_, the classical Latin name; _papyrifera_ refers to
+ paper bearing bark.
+
+[Illustration: Habitat.]
+
+HABITAT: (See map); best west of Rocky Mountains.
+
+[Illustration: Leaf.]
+
+CHARACTERISTICS OF THE TREE: Height, 60'-80'; diameter, 2'-3'; stem
+rarely quite straight; bark, smooth, white, exterior marked with
+lenticels, peeling freely horizontally into thin papery layers,
+showing brown or orange beneath, contains oil which burns hotly,
+formerly used by Indians for canoes, very remarkable (see Keeler,
+page 304); leaves, heart-shaped, irregularly serrate; fruit, pendulous
+strobiles.
+
+APPEARANCE OF WOOD: Color, brown or reddish, sap-wood white;
+diffuse-porous; rings, obscure; grain, fairly straight; rays,
+numerous, obscure.
+
+PHYSICAL QUALITIES: Weight, medium (33d in this list); 37 lbs. per cu.
+ft.; sp. gr. 0.5955; very strong (14th in this list); very elastic
+(2d in this list); medium hard (39th in this list); shrinkage, 6
+per cent.; warps, .........; not durable, except bark; easy to work;
+splits with difficulty, nails well, tough.
+
+COMMON USES: Spools, shoe lasts and pegs, turnery, bark for canoes.
+
+REMARKS: Forms forests. Sap yields syrup. Bark yields starch. Valuable
+to woodsmen in many ways.
+
+[Illustration: Radial Section, life size.]
+
+[Illustration: Cross-section, magnified 37-1/2 diameters.]
+
+[Illustration: Tangential Section, life size.]
+
+
+36
+
+RED BIRCH. RIVER BIRCH.
+
+ Red refers to color of bark; river, prefers river bottoms.
+
+_Betula nigra_ Linnaeus.
+
+ _Betula_, the classical Latin name.
+
+[Illustration: Habitat.]
+
+HABITAT: (See map); best in Florida, Louisiana and Texas.
+
+[Illustration: Leaf.]
+
+CHARACTERISTICS OF THE TREE: Height, 30'-80', and even higher;
+diameter, 1', even 5'; trunk, often divided low; bark, dark brown,
+marked by horizontal lenticels, peels into paper plates, curling back;
+leaves, doubly serrate, often almost lobed; fruit, pubescent, erect,
+strobiles.
+
+APPEARANCE OF WOOD: Color, light brown, thick sap-wood, whitish;
+diffuse-porous; rings, not plain; grain, close, rather crooked; rays,
+numerous, obscure.
+
+PHYSICAL QUALITIES: Weight, medium (36th in this list); 35 lbs. per
+cu. ft.; sp. gr. 0.5762; strong (22d in this list); very elastic
+(19th in this list); medium hard (37th in this list); shrinkage, 6 per
+cent.; warps, .......; not durable when exposed; hard to work, tough;
+splits with difficulty, nails well.
+
+COMMON USES: Shoe lasts, yokes, furniture.
+
+REMARKS: Prefers moist land.
+
+[Illustration: Radial Section, life size.]
+
+[Illustration: Cross-section, magnified 37-1/2 diameters.]
+
+[Illustration: Tangential Section, life size.]
+
+
+37
+
+CHERRY BIRCH. SWEET BIRCH. BLACK BIRCH. MAHOGANY BIRCH.
+
+ Cherry, because bark resembles that of cherry tree; sweet,
+ refers to the taste of the spicy bark.
+
+_Betula lenta_ Linnaeus.
+
+ _Betula_, the classical Latin name; _lenta_, meaning
+ tenacious, sticky, may refer to the gum which exudes from the
+ trunk.
+
+[Illustration: Habitat.]
+
+HABITAT: (See map); best in Tennessee Mountains.
+
+[Illustration: Leaf.]
+
+CHARACTERISTICS OF THE TREE: Height, 50'-80'; diameter, 2'-5'; trunk,
+rarely straight; bark, dark reddish brown, on old trunks deeply
+furrowed and broken into thick, irregular plates, marked with
+horizontal lenticels; resembles cherry; spicy, aromatic; leaves,
+ovate, oblong, 2"-6" long, irregularly serrate; fruit, erect
+strobiles.
+
+APPEARANCE OF WOOD: Color, dark, reddish brown; diffuse-porous; rings,
+obscure; grain, close, satiny, polishes well, often stained to imitate
+mahogany; rays, numerous, obscure.
+
+PHYSICAL QUALITIES: Heavy (6th in this list); 47 lbs. per cu. ft.; sp.
+gr., 0.7617; very strong (4th in this list); very elastic (6th in
+this list); hard (11th in this list); shrinkage, 6 per cent.; warps,
+little; not durable if exposed; rather hard to work; splits hard,
+tough.
+
+COMMON USES: Dowel pins, wooden ware, boats and ships.
+
+REMARKS: The birches are not usually distinguished from one another in
+the market.
+
+[Illustration: Radial Section, life size.]
+
+[Illustration: Cross-section, magnified 37-1/2 diameters.]
+
+[Illustration: Tangential Section, life size.]
+
+
+38
+
+YELLOW BIRCH. GRAY BIRCH.
+
+Yellow and gray, both refer to the color of the bark.
+
+_Betula lutea_ F. A. Michaux.
+
+ _Betula_, the classical Latin name; _lutea_ refers to the
+ yellow color of the bark.
+
+[Illustration: Habitat.]
+
+HABITAT: (See map); best in northern New York and New England.
+
+[Illustration: Leaf.]
+
+CHARACTERISTICS OF THE TREE: Height, 60'-100'; diameter, 3'-4';
+branches, low; bark, silvery, yellow, gray, peeling horizontally into
+thin, papery, persistent layers, but on very old trunks, there are
+rough, irregular, plate-like scales; leaves, ovate, sharply, doubly
+serrate; fruit, erect, 1" strobiles.
+
+APPEARANCE OF WOOD: Color, light reddish brown, sap-wood white;
+diffuse-porous; rings, obscure; grain, close, fairly straight; rays,
+numerous, obscure.
+
+PHYSICAL QUALITIES: Heavy (21st in this list); 40 lbs. per cu. ft.;
+sp. gr., 0.6553; very strong (2nd in this list); very elastic (2d in
+this list); medium hard (22d in this list); shrinkage, 6 per cent.;
+warps .........; not durable; rather hard to work, polishes well;
+splits with difficulty, holds nails well.
+
+COMMON USES: Furniture, spools, button molds, shoe lasts, shoe pegs,
+pill boxes, yokes.
+
+REMARKS: The birches are not usually distinguished from one another in
+the market.
+
+[Illustration: Radial Section, life size.]
+
+[Illustration: Cross-section, magnified 37-1/2 diameters.]
+
+[Illustration: Tangential Section, life size.]
+
+
+39
+
+BEECH.
+
+_Fagus grandifolia_ Ehrhart. _Fagus americana_ Sweet. _Fagus
+ferruginea_ Aiton. _Fagus atropunicea_ (Marshall) Sudworth.
+
+ _Fagus_ (Greek _phago_ means to eat), refers to edible nut;
+ _ferruginea_, refers to the iron rust color of the leaves in
+ the fall; _atropunicea_, meaning dark red or purple, may refer
+ to the color of the leaves of the copper beech.
+
+[Illustration: Habitat.]
+
+HABITAT: (See map); best in southern Alleghany Mountains and lower
+Ohio valley.
+
+[Illustration: Leaf.]
+
+CHARACTERISTICS OF THE TREE: Height, 70'-80' and even 120'; diameter,
+3'-4'; in forest, trunk tall, slender, sinewy; bark, smooth, ashy
+gray; leaves, feather-veined, wedge-shaped, serrate; leaf buds, long,
+pointed; fruit, 2 small triangular nuts, enclosed in burr, seeds about
+once in 3 years.
+
+APPEARANCE OF WOOD: Color, reddish, variable, sap-wood white;
+diffuse-porous; rings, obscure; grain, straight; rays, broad, very
+conspicuous.
+
+PHYSICAL QUALITIES: Heavy (20th in this list); 42 lbs. per cu. ft.;
+sp. gr., 0.6883; very strong (10th in this list); elastic (13th in
+this list); hard (22d in this list); shrinkage, 5 per cent.; warps and
+checks during seasoning; not durable; hard to work, takes fine polish;
+splits with difficulty, hard to nail.
+
+COMMON USES: Plane stocks, shoe lasts, tool handles, chairs.
+
+REMARKS: Often forms pure forests. Uses due to its hardness.
+
+[Illustration: Radial Section, life size.]
+
+[Illustration: Cross-section, magnified 37-1/2 diameters].
+
+[Illustration: Tangential Section, life size.]
+
+
+40
+
+CHESTNUT.
+
+_Castanea dentata_ (Marshall) Borkhausen.
+
+ _Castanea_, the classical Greek and Latin name; _dentata_,
+ refers to toothed leaf.
+
+[Illustration: Habitat.]
+
+HABITAT: (See map); best in western North Carolina, and eastern
+Tennessee.
+
+[Illustration: Leaf.]
+
+CHARACTERISTICS OF THE TREE: Height, 75'-100'; diameter, 3'-4', and
+even 12'; branches, low; bark, thick, shallow, irregular, fissures,
+broad, grayish brown ridges; leaves, lanceolate, coarsely serrate,
+midribs and veins prominent; fruit, nuts, thin-shelled, sweet,
+enclosed in prickly burrs.
+
+APPEARANCE OF WOOD: Color, reddish brown, sap-wood lighter;
+ring-porous; rings, plain, pores large; grain, straight; rays,
+numerous, obscure.
+
+PHYSICAL QUALITIES: Weight, light (50th in this list); 28 lbs. per cu.
+ft.; sp. gr., 0.4504; medium strong (46th in this list); elasticity,
+medium (46th in this list); medium hard (44th in this list);
+shrinkage, 6 per cent.; warps badly; very durable, especially in
+contact with soil, fairly easy to plane, chisel and saw; splits
+easily.
+
+COMMON USES: Railway ties, fence posts, interior finish.
+
+REMARKS: Grows rapidly, and lives to great age. Wood contains much
+tannic acid. Uses depend largely upon its durability. Lately whole
+regions depleted by fungous pest.
+
+[Illustration: Radial Section, life size.]
+
+[Illustration: Cross-section, magnified 37-1/2 diameters.]
+
+[Illustration: Tangential Section, life size.]
+
+
+41
+
+RED OAK.
+
+_Quercus rubra_ Linnaeus.
+
+ _Quercus_, the classical Latin name; _rubra_, refers to red
+ color of wood.
+
+[Illustration: Habitat.]
+
+HABITAT: (See map); best in Massachusetts and north of the Ohio river.
+
+[Illustration: Leaf.]
+
+CHARACTERISTICS OF THE TREE: Height, 70'-100', even 150'; diameter,
+3'-6'; a tall, handsome tree, branches rather low; bark, brownish
+gray, broad, thin, rounded ridges, rather smooth; leaves, 7 to
+9 triangular pointed lobes, with rounded sinuses; acorns,
+characteristically large, in flat shallow cups.
+
+APPEARANCE OF WOOD: Color, reddish brown, sap-wood darker;
+ring-porous; rings, marked by several rows of very large open ducts;
+grain, crooked, coarse; rays, few, but broad, conspicuous.
+
+PHYSICAL QUALITIES: Heavy (23d in this list); 45 lbs. per cu. ft.; sp.
+gr., 0.6540; strong (21st in this list); elastic (18th in this list);
+hard (26th in this list); shrinkage 6 to 10 per cent.; warps and
+checks badly; moderately durable; easier to work than white oak;
+splits readily, nails badly.
+
+COMMON USES: Cooperage, interior finish, furniture.
+
+REMARKS: Grows rapidly. An inferior substitute for white oak. Bark
+used in tanning.
+
+[Illustration: Radial Section, life size.]
+
+[Illustration: Cross-section, magnified 37-1/2 diameters.]
+
+[Illustration: Tangential Section, life size.]
+
+
+42
+
+BLACK OAK. YELLOW BARK OAK.
+
+ Black refers to color of outer bark; yellow bark, refers to
+ the inner bark, which is orange yellow.
+
+_Quercus velutina_ Lamarck. _Quercus tinctoria_ Michaux.
+
+ _Quercus_, the classical Latin name; _velutina_, refers to the
+ velvety surface of the young leaf; _tinctoria_, refers to dye
+ obtained from inner bark.
+
+[Illustration: Habitat.]
+
+HABITAT: (See map); best in lower Ohio valley.
+
+[Illustration: Leaf.]
+
+CHARACTERISTICS OF THE TREE: Height, 70'-80', even 150'; diameter
+3'-4'; branches, low; bark, dark gray to black, deep fissures, broad,
+rounded, firm ridges, inner bark, yellow, yielding dye; leaves, large,
+lustrous, leathery, of varied forms; acorns, small; kernel, yellow,
+bitter.
+
+APPEARANCE OF WOOD: Color, reddish brown, sap-wood lighter;
+ring-porous; rings, marked by several rows of very large open ducts;
+grain, crooked; rays, thin.
+
+PHYSICAL QUALITIES: Heavy (17th in this list); 45 lbs. per cu. ft.;
+sp. gr., 0.7045; very strong (17th in this list); elastic (25th in
+this list); hard (18th in this list); shrinkage, 4 per cent. or more;
+warps and checks in drying; durable; rather hard to work; splits
+readily, nails badly.
+
+COMMON USES: Furniture, interior trim, cooperage, construction.
+
+REMARKS: Foliage handsome in fall; persists thru winter.
+
+[Illustration: Radial Section, life size.]
+
+[Illustration: Cross-section, magnified 37-1/2 diameters.]
+
+[Illustration: Tangential Section, life size.]
+
+
+43
+
+BASKET OAK. COW OAK.
+
+ Cow refers to the fact that its acorns are eaten by cattle.
+
+_Quercus michauxii_ Nuttall.
+
+ _Quercus_, the classical Latin name; _michauxii_, named for
+ the botanist Michaux.
+
+[Illustration: Habitat.]
+
+HABITAT: (See map); best in Arkansas and Louisiana, especially in
+river bottoms.
+
+[Illustration: Leaf.]
+
+CHARACTERISTICS OF THE TREE: Height, 80'-100'; diameter 3', even 7';
+trunk, often clean and straight for 40' or 50'; bark, conspicuous,
+light gray, rough with loose ashy gray, scaly ridges; leaves, obovate,
+regularly scalloped; acorns, edible for cattle.
+
+APPEARANCE OF WOOD: Color, light brown, sap-wood light buff;
+ring-porous; rings, marked by few rather large, open ducts; grain,
+likely to be crooked; rays, broad, conspicuous.
+
+PHYSICAL QUALITIES: Very heavy (5th in this list); 46 lbs. per cu.
+ft.; sp. gr., 0.8039; very strong (12th in this list); elastic (33d in
+this list); hard (10th in this list); shrinkage, 4 per cent. or more;
+warps unless carefully seasoned; durable; hard and tough to work;
+splits easily, bad to nail.
+
+COMMON USES: Construction, agricultural implements, wheel stock,
+baskets.
+
+REMARKS: The best white oak of the south. Not distinguished from white
+oak in the market.
+
+[Illustration: Radial Section, life size.]
+
+[Illustration: Cross-section, magnified 37-1/2 diameters.]
+
+[Illustration: Tangential Section, life size.]
+
+
+44
+
+BUR OAK. MOSSY-CUP OAK. OVER-CUP OAK.
+
+_Quercus macrocarpa_ Michaux.
+
+ _Quercus_, the classical Latin name; _macrocarpa_, refers to
+ the large acorn.
+
+[Illustration: Habitat.]
+
+HABITAT: (See map); best in southern Indiana, Illinois and Kansas.
+
+[Illustration: Leaf.]
+
+CHARACTERISTICS OF THE TREE: Height, 70'-130', even 170'; diameter,
+5'-7'; branches, high; corky wings on young branches; bark, gray
+brown, deeply furrowed; deep opposite sinuses on large leaves; acorns,
+half enclosed in mossy-fringed cup.
+
+APPEARANCE OF WOOD: Color, rich brown, sap-wood, thin, lighter;
+ring-porous; rings, marked by 1 to 3 rows of small open ducts; grain,
+crooked; rays, broad, and conspicuous.
+
+PHYSICAL QUALITIES: Heavy (9th in this list); 46 lbs. per cu. ft.; sp.
+gr., 0.7453; very strong (16th in this list); elastic (37th in this
+list); hard (9th in this list); shrinkage, 4 per cent. or more;
+warps, ..........; hard, and tough to work; splits easily, resists
+nailing.
+
+COMMON USES: Ship building, cabinet work, railway ties, cooperage.
+
+REMARKS: Good for prairie planting. One of the most valuable woods of
+North America. Not distinguished from White Oak in commerce.
+
+[Illustration: Radial Section, life size.]
+
+[Illustration: Cross-section, magnified 37-1/2 diameters.]
+
+[Illustration: Tangential Section, life size.]
+
+
+45
+
+WHITE OAK (Western).
+
+_Quercus garryana_ Douglas.
+
+ _Quercus_, the classical Latin name; _garryana_, named for
+ Garry.
+
+[Illustration: Habitat.]
+
+HABITAT: (See map); best in western Washington and Oregon.
+
+[Illustration: Leaf.]
+
+CHARACTERISTICS OF THE TREE: Height, 60'-70', even 100'; diameter,
+2'-3'; branches, spreading; bark, light brown, shallow fissures, broad
+ridges; leaves, coarsely pinnatified, lobed; fruit, large acorns.
+
+APPEARANCE OF WOOD: Color, light brown, sap-wood whitish; ring-porous;
+rings, marked by 1 to 3 rows of open ducts; grain, close, crooked;
+rays, varying greatly in width, often conspicuous.
+
+PHYSICAL QUALITIES: Heavy (10th in this list); 46 lbs. per cu. ft.;
+sp. gr., 0.7449; strong (28th in this list); elasticity medium (54th
+in this list); hard (8th in this list); shrinkage, 5 or 6 per cent.;
+warps, unless carefully seasoned; durable; hard to work, very tough;
+splits badly in nailing.
+
+COMMON USES: Ship building, vehicles, furniture, interior finish.
+
+REMARKS: Best of Pacific oaks. Shrubby at high elevations.
+
+[Illustration: Radial Section, life size.]
+
+[Illustration: Cross-section, magnified 37-1/2 diameters.]
+
+[Illustration: Tangential Section, life size.]
+
+
+46
+
+POST OAK.
+
+_Quercus stellata_ Wangenheim. _Quercus minor_ (Marsh) Sargent.
+_Quercus obtusiloba_ Michaux.
+
+ _Quercus_, the classical Latin name; _stellata_, refers to the
+ stellate hairs on upper side of leaf; _minor_, refers to size
+ of tree, which is often shrubby; _obtusiloba_, refers to the
+ blunt lobes of leaves.
+
+[Illustration: Habitat.]
+
+HABITAT: (See map); best in Mississippi basin.
+
+[Illustration: Leaf.]
+
+CHARACTERISTICS OF THE TREE: Height, 50'-75', even 100'; but often a
+shrub; diameter, 2'-3'; branches, spreading into dense round-topped
+head; bark, red or brown, deep, vertical, almost continuous, fissures
+and broad ridges, looks corrugated; leaves, in large tufts at ends of
+branchlets; acorns, small, sessile.
+
+APPEARANCE OF WOOD: Color, brown, thick, sap-wood, lighter;
+ring-porous; rings, 1 to 3 rows of not large open ducts; grain,
+crooked; rays, numerous, conspicuous.
+
+PHYSICAL QUALITIES: Very heavy (2d in this list); 50 lbs. per cu. ft.;
+sp. gr., 0.8367; strong (29th in this list); medium elastic (50th in
+this list); very hard (4th in this list); shrinkage, 4 per cent. or
+more; warps and checks badly in seasoning; durable; hard to work;
+splits readily, bad to nail.
+
+COMMON USES: Cooperage, railway ties, fencing, construction.
+
+REMARKS: Wood often undistinguished from white oak.
+
+[Illustration: Radial Section, life size.]
+
+[Illustration: Cross-section, magnified 37-1/2 diameters.]
+
+[Illustration: Tangential Section, life size.]
+
+
+47
+
+WHITE OAK. STAVE OAK.
+
+_Quercus alba_ Linnaeus.
+
+ _Quercus_, the classical Latin name; white and _alba_, refer
+ to white bark.
+
+[Illustration: Habitat.]
+
+HABITAT: (See map); best on western slopes of Southern Alleghany
+Mountains, and in lower Ohio river valley.
+
+[Illustration: Leaf.]
+
+CHARACTERISTICS OF THE TREE: Height, 80'-100'; diameter, 3'-5'; trunk,
+in forest, tall, in open, short; bark, easily distinguished, light
+gray with shallow fissures, scaly; leaves, rounded lobes, and sinuses;
+acorns, 3/4" to 1" long, ripen first year.
+
+APPEARANCE OF WOOD: Color, light brown, sap-wood paler; ring-porous;
+rings, plainly defined by pores; grain crooked; rays, broad, very
+conspicuous and irregular.
+
+PHYSICAL QUALITIES: Heavy (8th in this list); 50 lbs. per cu. ft.; sp.
+gr., 0.7470; strong (23d in this list); elastic (32d in this list);
+hard (13th in this list); shrinkage, from 4 to 10 per cent.; warps and
+checks considerably, unless carefully seasoned; very durable, hard to
+work; splits somewhat hard, very difficult to nail.
+
+COMMON USES: Interior finish, furniture, construction, ship building,
+farm implements, cabinet making.
+
+REMARKS: The most important of American oaks.
+
+[Illustration: Radial Section, life size.]
+
+[Illustration: Cross-section, magnified 37-1/2 diameters.]
+
+[Illustration: Tangential Section, life size.]
+
+
+48
+
+CORK ELM. ROCK ELM. HICKORY ELM. WHITE ELM. CLIFF ELM.
+
+ Cork refers to corky ridges on branches.
+
+_Ulmus thomasi_ Sargent. _Ulmus racemosa_ Thomas.
+
+ _Ulmus_, the classical Latin name; _racemosa_, refers to
+ racemes of flowers.
+
+[Illustration: Habitat.]
+
+HABITAT: (See map); best in Ontario and southern Michigan.
+
+[Illustration: Leaf.]
+
+CHARACTERISTICS OF THE TREE: Height, 80'-100'; diameter, 2'-3', trunk
+often clear for 60'; bark, gray tinged with red, corky, irregular
+projections, give shaggy appearance; leaves, obovate, doubly serrate,
+3"-4" long; fruit, pubescent, samaras.
+
+APPEARANCE OF WOOD: Color, light brown or red; sap-wood yellowish;
+ring-porous; rings, marked with one or two rows of small open ducts;
+grain, interlaced; rays, numerous, obscure.
+
+PHYSICAL QUALITIES: Heavy (15th in this list); 45 lbs. per cu. ft.;
+sp. gr., 0.7263; very strong (13th in this list); elastic (22d in
+this list); hard (15th in this list); shrinkage, 5 per cent.;
+warps, ........; very durable; hard to work; splits and nails with
+difficulty.
+
+COMMON USES: Hubs, agricultural implements, sills, bridge timbers.
+
+REMARKS: The best of the elm woods.
+
+[Illustration: Radial Section, life size.]
+
+[Illustration: Cross-section, magnified 37-1/2 diameters.]
+
+[Illustration: Tangential Section, life size.]
+
+
+49
+
+WHITE ELM. AMERICAN ELM. WATER ELM.
+
+ Water, because it flourishes on river banks.
+
+_Ulmus americana_ Linnaeus.
+
+ _Ulmus_, the classical Latin name.
+
+[Illustration: Habitat.]
+
+HABITAT: (See map); best northward on river bottoms.
+
+[Illustration: Leaf.]
+
+CHARACTERISTICS OF THE TREE: Height, 90', even 120'; diameter, 3'-8';
+trunk, usually divides at 30'-40' from ground into upright branches,
+making triangular outline; bark, ashy gray, deep longitudinal
+fissures, broad ridges; leaves, 4"-6" long, oblique obovate, doubly
+serrate, smooth one way; fruit, small, roundish, flat, smooth,
+samaras.
+
+APPEARANCE OF WOOD: Color, light brown, sap-wood yellowish;
+ring-porous; rings, marked by several rows of large open ducts; grain,
+interlaced; rays, numerous, thin.
+
+PHYSICAL QUALITIES: Heavy (24th in this list); 34 lbs. per cu. ft.; sp.
+gr., 0.6506; strong (33d in this list); elasticity, medium (59th in
+this list); medium hard (28th in this list); shrinkage, 5 per cent.;
+warps .........; not durable; hard to work, tough, will not polish;
+splits with difficulty.
+
+COMMON USES: Cooperage, wheel stock, flooring.
+
+REMARKS: Favorite ornamental tree, but shade light, and leaves fall
+early.
+
+[Illustration: Radial Section, life size.]
+
+[Illustration: Cross-section, magnified 37-1/2 diameters.]
+
+[Illustration: Tangential Section, life size.]
+
+
+50
+
+CUCUMBER TREE. MOUNTAIN MAGNOLIA.
+
+ Cucumber, refers to the shape of the fruit.
+
+_Magnolia acuminata_ Linnaeus.
+
+ _Magnolia_, named for Pierre Magnol, a French botanist;
+ _acuminata_, refers to pointed fruit.
+
+[Illustration: Habitat.]
+
+HABITAT: (See map); best at the base of mountains in North Carolina
+and South Carolina and Tennessee.
+
+[Illustration: Leaf.]
+
+CHARACTERISTICS OF THE TREE: Height, 60'-90'; diameter, 3'-4'; in
+forest, clear trunk for 2/3 of height (40' or 50'); bark, dark brown,
+thick, furrowed; leaves, large, smooth; flowers, large greenish
+yellow; fruit, dark red "cones" formed of two seeded follicles.
+
+APPEARANCE OF WOOD: Color, yellow brown, thick sapwood, lighter;
+diffuse-porous; rings, obscure; grain, very straight, close, satiny;
+rays, numerous thin.
+
+PHYSICAL QUALITIES: Light (45th in this list); .... lbs. per cu. ft.;
+sp. gr., 0.4690; medium strong (49th in this list); elastic (38th in
+this list); medium hard (41st in this list); shrinkage, 5 per cent.;
+warps .........; very durable; easy to work; splits easily, takes
+nails well.
+
+COMMON USES: Pump logs, cheap furniture, shelving.
+
+REMARKS: Wood similar to yellow poplar, and often sold with it.
+
+[Illustration: Radial Section, life size.]
+
+[Illustration: Cross-section, magnified 37-1/2 diameters.]
+
+[Illustration: Tangential Section, life size.]
+
+
+51
+
+YELLOW POPLAR. WHITEWOOD. TULIP TREE.
+
+ Poplar, inappropriate, inasmuch as the tree does not belong to
+ poplar family. White, refers inappropriately to the color of
+ the wood, which is greenish yellow.
+
+_Liriodendron tulipifera_ Linnaeus.
+
+ _Liriodendron_, means lily-tree; _tulipifera_ means
+ tulip-bearing.
+
+[Illustration: Habitat.]
+
+HABITAT: (See map); best in lower Ohio valley and southern Appalachian
+mountains.
+
+[Illustration: Leaf.]
+
+CHARACTERISTICS OF THE TREE: Height, 70'-90'; even 200'; diameter,
+6'-8', even 12'; tall, magnificent trunk, unsurpassed in grandeur by
+any eastern American tree; bark, brown, aromatic, evenly furrowed
+so as to make clean, neat-looking trunk; leaves, 4 lobed, apex,
+peculiarly truncated, clean cut; flowers, tulip-like; fruit, cone,
+consisting of many scales.
+
+APPEARANCE OF WOOD: Color, light greenish or yellow brown, sap-wood,
+creamy white; diffuse-porous; rings, close but distinct; grain,
+straight; rays, numerous and plain.
+
+PHYSICAL QUALITIES: Light (54th in this list); 26 lbs. per cu. ft.;
+sp. gr., 0.4230; medium strong (51st in this list); elastic (39th in
+this list); soft (49th in this list); shrinkage, 5 per cent.; warps
+little; durable; easy to work; brittle and does not split readily,
+nails very well.
+
+COMMON USES: Construction work, furniture, interiors, boats, carriage
+bodies, wooden pumps.
+
+REMARKS: Being substituted largely for white pine.
+
+[Illustration: Radial Section, life size.]
+
+[Illustration: Cross-section, magnified 37-1/2 diameters.]
+
+[Illustration: Tangential Section, life size.]
+
+
+52
+
+ SWEET GUM. Gum, refers to exudations.
+
+_Liquidambar styraciflua_ Linnaeus.
+
+ _Liquidambar_, means liquid gum; _styraciflua_, means fluid
+ resin (storax).
+
+[Illustration: Habitat.]
+
+HABITAT: (See map); best in the lower Mississippi valley.
+
+[Illustration: Leaf.]
+
+CHARACTERISTICS OF THE TREE: Height, 80'-140'; diameter, 3'-5'; trunk,
+tall, straight; bark, light brown tinged with red, deeply fissured;
+branchlets often having corky wings; leaves, star-shaped, five
+pointed; conspicuously purple and crimson in autumn; fruit,
+multi-capsular, spherical, persistent heads.
+
+APPEARANCE OF WOOD: Color, light red brown, sap-wood almost white;
+diffuse-porous; rings, fine and difficult to distinguish; grain,
+straight, close, polishes well; rays, numerous, very obscure.
+
+PHYSICAL QUALITIES: Weight, medium (34th in this list); 37 lbs. per
+cu. ft.; sp. gr., 0.5909; medium strong (52d in this list); elasticity
+medium (44th in this list); medium hard (36th in this list);
+shrinkage, 6 per cent.; warps and twists badly in seasoning; not
+durable when exposed; easy to work; crumbles in splitting; nails
+badly.
+
+COMMON USES: Building construction, cabinet-work, veneering, street
+pavement, barrel staves and heads.
+
+REMARKS: Largely used in veneers, because when solid it warps and
+twists badly. Exudations used in medicine to some extent.
+
+[Illustration: Radial Section, life size.]
+
+[Illustration: Cross-section, magnified 37-1/2 diameters.]
+
+[Illustration: Tangential Section, life size.]
+
+
+53
+
+SYCAMORE. BUTTONWOOD. BUTTON BALL. WATER BEECH.
+
+ Sycamore, from two Greek words meaning fig and mulberry;
+ buttonwood and button-ball, refer to fruit balls.
+
+_Platanus occidentalis_ Linnaeus.
+
+ _Platanus_, refers to the broad leaves; _occidentalis_,
+ western, to distinguish it from European species.
+
+[Illustration: Habitat.]
+
+HABITAT: (See map); best in valley of lower Ohio and Mississippi.
+
+[Illustration: Leaf.]
+
+CHARACTERISTICS OF THE TREE: Height, 70'-100', and even 170';
+diameter, 6'-12'; trunk, commonly divides into 2 or 3 large branches,
+limbs spreading, often dividing angularly; bark, flakes off in great
+irregular masses, leaving mottled surface, greenish gray and brown,
+this peculiarity due to its rigid texture; leaves, palmately 3 to
+5 lobed, 4"-9" long, petiole enlarged, enclosing buds; fruit, large
+rough balls, persistent through winter.
+
+APPEARANCE OF WOOD: Color, reddish brown, sap-wood lighter;
+diffuse-porous; rings, marked by broad bands of small ducts; grain,
+cross, close; rays, numerous, large, conspicuous.
+
+PHYSICAL QUALITIES: Weight, medium (38th in this list); 35 lbs.
+per cu. ft.; sp. gr., 0.5678; medium strong (54th in this list);
+elasticity, medium (43d in this list); medium hard (30th in this list);
+shrinkage, 5 per cent.; warps little; very durable, once used for
+mummy coffins; hard to work; splits very hard.
+
+COMMON USES: Tobacco boxes, yokes, furniture, butcher blocks.
+
+REMARKS: Trunks often very large and hollow.
+
+[Illustration: Radial Section, life size.]
+
+[Illustration: Cross-section, magnified 37-1/2 diameters.]
+
+[Illustration: Tangential Section, life size.]
+
+
+54
+
+WILD BLACK CHERRY.
+
+_Padus serotina_ (Ehrhart) Agardh. _Prunus serotina_ Ehrhart.
+
+ _Padus_, the old Greek name; _prunus_, the classical Latin
+ name; _serotina_, because it blossoms late (June).
+
+[Illustration: Habitat.]
+
+HABITAT: (See map); best on southern Allegheny mountains.
+
+[Illustration: Leaf.]
+
+CHARACTERISTICS OF THE TREE: Height, 40'-50', even 100'; diameter,
+2'-4'; straight, columnar trunk, often free from branches for 70';
+bark, blackish and rough, fissured in all directions, broken into
+small, irregular, scaly plates, with raised edges; leaves, oblong to
+lanceolate, deep, shiny green; fruit, black drupe, 1/2".
+
+APPEARANCE OF WOOD: Color, light brown or red, sap-wood yellow;
+diffuse-porous; rings, obscure; grain, straight, close, fine, takes
+fine polish; rays, numerous.
+
+PHYSICAL QUALITIES: Weight, medium (35th in this list); 36 lbs. per
+cu. ft.; sp. gr., 0.5822; strong (35th in this list); elasticity
+medium (45th in this list); hard (16th in this list); shrinkage, 5
+per cent.; warps, little; durability .........; easily worked; splits
+easily, must be nailed with care.
+
+COMMON USES: Cabinet-work, costly interior trim.
+
+REMARKS: Grows rapidly.
+
+[Illustration: Radial Section, life size.]
+
+[Illustration: Cross-section, magnified 37-1/2 diameters.]
+
+[Illustration: Tangential Section, life size.]
+
+
+55
+
+BLACK LOCUST. LOCUST. YELLOW LOCUST.
+
+ Yellow, from color of sap-wood.
+
+_Robinia pseudacacia_ Linnaeus.
+
+ _Robinia_, in honor of Jean Robin, of France; _pseudacacia_,
+ means false acacia.
+
+[Illustration: Habitat.]
+
+HABITAT: (See map); best on western Allegheny mountains in West
+Virginia.
+
+[Illustration: Leaf.]
+
+CHARACTERISTICS OF THE TREE: Height, 50'-80'; diameter, 3'-4'; bark,
+strikingly deeply furrowed, dark brown; prickles on small branches,
+grows fast, forms thickets, on account of underground shoots; leaves,
+8"-14" long, pinnately compound; 7 to 9 leaflets, close at night and
+in rainy weather; fruit, pod 3"-4" long.
+
+APPEARANCE OF WOOD: Color, brown, sap-wood thin, yellowish;
+ring-porous; rings, clearly marked by 2 or 3 rows of large open ducts;
+grain, crooked, compact.
+
+PHYSICAL QUALITIES: Heavy (12th in this list); 45 lbs. per cu. ft.;
+sp. gr., 0.7333; very strong (1st in this list); elastic (9th in this
+list); very hard (6th in this list); shrinkage, 5 per cent.; warps
+badly, very durable; hard to work, tough; splits in nailing.
+
+COMMON USES: Shipbuilding, construction, "tree-nails" or pins, wagon
+hubs.
+
+REMARKS: Widely planted and cultivated east and west. Likely to be
+infested with borers.
+
+[Illustration: Radial Section, life size.]
+
+[Illustration: Cross-section, magnified 37-1/2 diameters.]
+
+[Illustration: Tangential Section, life size.]
+
+
+56
+
+MAHOGANY.
+
+_Swietenia mahagoni_ Jacquin.
+
+ _Swietenia_, in honor of Dr. Gerard Van Swieten of Austria;
+ _mahagoni_, a South American word.
+
+[Illustration: Habitat.]
+
+HABITAT: (See map); only on Florida Keys in the United States.
+
+[Illustration: Leaf.]
+
+CHARACTERISTICS OF THE TREE: Height, 40'-50'; diameter, 2' or more,
+foreign trees larger; immense buttresses at base of trunk; bark,
+thick, dark red-brown, having surface of broad, thick scales;
+leaves, 4"-6" long, compound, 4 pairs of leaflets; fruit, 4"-5" long,
+containing seeds.
+
+APPEARANCE OF WOOD: Color, red-brown, sap-wood, thin, yellow;
+diffuse-porous; rings, inconspicuous; grain, crooked; rays, fine and
+scattered, but plain.
+
+PHYSICAL QUALITIES: Heavy (14th in this list); 45 lbs. per cu. ft.;
+sp. gr., 0.7282; very strong (20th in this list); elastic (24th in
+this list); very hard (1st in this list); shrinkage, 5 per cent.;
+warps very little; very durable; genuine mahogany, hard to work;
+especially if grain is cross; somewhat brittle, and comparatively easy
+to split, nails with difficulty; polishes and takes glue well.
+
+COMMON USES: Chiefly for cabinet-making, furniture, interior finishes
+and veneers.
+
+REMARKS: Mahogany, now in great demand in the American market for
+fine furniture and interior trim comes from the West Indies, Central
+America and West Africa. The so-called Spanish mahogany, the most
+highly prized variety, came originally from the south of Hayti. The
+Honduras Mahogany was often called baywood. Botanically the varieties
+are not carefully distinguished; in the lumber yard the lumber is
+known by its sources. The Cuba wood can be partly distinguished by the
+white chalk-like specks in the pores and is cold to the touch, while
+the Honduras wood can be recognized by the black specks or lines in
+the grain. Both the Honduras and West India woods have a softer feel
+than the African wood, when rubbed with the thumb. The Cuba and St.
+Domingo wood are preferred to the Honduras, and still more to the
+African, but even experts have difficulty in distinguishing the
+varieties.
+
+Spanish cedar, or furniture cedar (_Cedrela odorata_) belongs to
+the same family as mahogany and is often sold for it. It is softer,
+lighter, and easier to work.
+
+[Illustration: Radial Section, life size.]
+
+[Illustration: Tangential Section, life size.]
+
+
+57
+
+OREGON MAPLE. WHITE MAPLE. LARGE LEAVED MAPLE.
+
+_Acer macrophyllum_ Pursh.
+
+ _Acer_, the classical Latin name; _macrophyllum_, refers to
+ the large leaves.
+
+[Illustration: Habitat.]
+
+HABITAT: (See map); best in southern Oregon.
+
+[Illustration: Leaf.]
+
+CHARACTERISTICS OF THE TREE: Height, 70'-100'; diameter, 3'-5'; stout,
+often pendulous branches, making a handsome tree; bark, reddish brown,
+deeply furrowed, square scales; leaves, very large, 8"-12" and long
+petioles, deep, narrow sinuses; fruit, hairy samaras.
+
+APPEARANCE OF WOOD: Color, rich brown and red, sap-wood thick,
+nearly white; diffuse-porous; rings, obscure; grain, close, fibres
+interlaced, sometimes figured, polishes well; rays, numerous and thin.
+
+PHYSICAL QUALITIES: Light in weight (26th in this list); 30 lbs. per
+cu. ft.; sp. gr. 0.4909; medium strong (47th in this list); elasticity
+medium (57th in this list); medium hard (31st in this list);
+shrinkage, 4 per cent.; warps ..........; not durable; rather hard to
+work; splits with difficulty.
+
+COMMON USES: Tool and ax handles, furniture, interior finish.
+
+REMARKS: A valuable wood on the Pacific coast.
+
+[Illustration: Radial Section, life size.]
+
+[Illustration: Cross-section, magnified 37-1/2 diameters.]
+
+[Illustration: Tangential Section, life size.]
+
+
+58
+
+SOFT MAPLE. WHITE MAPLE. SILVER MAPLE.
+
+ Silver, refers to white color of underside of leaf.
+
+_Acer saccharinum_ Linnaeus. _Acer dasycarpum_ Ehrhart.
+
+ _Acer_, the classical Latin name; _saccharinum_, refers to
+ sweetish juice; _dasycarpum_, refers to the wooliness of the
+ fruit when young.
+
+[Illustration: Habitat.]
+
+HABITAT: (See map); best in lower Ohio valley.
+
+[Illustration: Leaf.]
+
+CHARACTERISTICS OF THE TREE: Height, 50'-90', even 120'; diameter,
+3'-5'; form suggests elm; bark, reddish brown, furrowed, surface
+separating into large, loose scales; leaves, palmately 5 lobed, with
+narrow, acute sinuses, silvery white beneath, turn only yellow in
+autumn; fruit, divergent, winged samaras.
+
+APPEARANCE OF WOOD: Color, brown and reddish, sap-wood, cream;
+diffuse-porous; rings, obscure; grain, twisted, wavy, fine, polishes
+well; rays, thin, numerous.
+
+PHYSICAL QUALITIES: Weight, medium (40th in this list); 32 lbs.
+per cu. ft.; sp. gr., 0.5269; very strong (19th in this list); very
+elastic (20th in this list); hard (25th in this list); shrinkage, 5
+per cent.; warps, ............; not durable under exposure; easily
+worked; splits in nailing.
+
+COMMON USES: Flooring, furniture, turnery, wooden ware.
+
+REMARKS: Grows rapidly. Curly varieties found. Sap produces some
+sugar.
+
+[Illustration: Radial Section, life size.]
+
+[Illustration: Cross-section, magnified 37-1/2 diameters.]
+
+[Illustration: Tangential Section, life size.]
+
+
+59
+
+RED MAPLE.
+
+_Acer rubrum_ Linnaeus.
+
+ _Acer_, the classical Latin name; _rubrum_, refers to red
+ flowers and autumn leaves.
+
+[Illustration: Habitat.]
+
+HABITAT: (See map); best in lower Ohio valley.
+
+[Illustration: Leaf.]
+
+CHARACTERISTICS OF THE TREE: Height, 80'-120'; diameter, 2'-4';
+branches, low; bark, dark gray, shaggy, divided by long ridges;
+leaves, palmately 5 lobed, acute sinuses; fruit, double samaras,
+forming characteristic maple key.
+
+APPEARANCE OF WOOD: Color, light reddish brown, sap-wood, lighter;
+diffuse-porous; rings, obscure; grain, crooked; rays, numerous,
+obscure.
+
+PHYSICAL QUALITIES: Weight, medium (30th in this list); 38 lbs. per
+cu. ft.; sp. gr., 0.6178; strong (36th in this list); elastic (36th
+in this list); hard (27th in this list); shrinkage, 5 per cent.;
+warps .......; not durable; fairly hard to work; splits with
+difficulty, splits badly in nailing.
+
+COMMON USES: Flooring, turning, wooden ware.
+
+REMARKS: Grows rapidly. Has red flowers, red keys, red leaf stems, and
+leaves scarlet or crimson in autumn.
+
+[Illustration: Radial Section, life size.]
+
+[Illustration: Cross-section, magnified 37-1/2 diameters.]
+
+[Illustration: Tangential Section, life size.]
+
+
+60
+
+HARD MAPLE. SUGAR MAPLE. ROCK MAPLE.
+
+_Acer saccharum_ Marshall.
+
+ _Acer_, the classical Latin name; _saccharum_, refers to sweet
+ sap.
+
+[Illustration: Habitat.]
+
+HABITAT: (See map); best in regions of Great Lakes.
+
+[Illustration: Leaf.]
+
+CHARACTERISTICS OF THE TREE: Height, 100'-120'; diameter, 1-1/2'-3',
+even 4'; often trees in forest are without branches for 60'-70' from
+ground, in the open, large impressive tree; bark, gray brown, thick,
+deep, longitudinal fissures, hard and rough; leaves, opposite, 3 to 5
+lobed, scarlet and yellow in autumn; fruit, double, slightly divergent
+samaras.
+
+APPEARANCE OF WOOD: Color, light brown tinged with red; diffuse-porous
+rings, close but distinct; grain, crooked, fine, close, polishes well;
+rays, fine but conspicuous.
+
+PHYSICAL QUALITIES: Heavy (19th in this list); 43 lbs. per cu. ft.;
+sp. gr., 0.6912; very strong (8th in this list); very elastic (5th
+in this list); very hard (7th in this list); shrinkage, 5 per cent.;
+warps badly; not durable when exposed; hard to work; splits badly in
+nailing.
+
+COMMON USES: School and other furniture, car construction, carving,
+wooden type, tool handles, shoe lasts, piano actions, ships' keels.
+
+REMARKS: Tree very tolerant. The uses of this wood are chiefly due
+to its hardness. Bird's-Eye Maple and Curly Maple are accidental
+varieties. Pure maple sugar is made chiefly from this species. Its
+ashes yield large quantities of potash.
+
+[Illustration: Radial Section, life size.]
+
+[Illustration: Cross-section, magnified 37-1/2 diameters.]
+
+[Illustration: Tangential Section, life size.]
+
+
+61
+
+BASSWOOD. LINDEN.
+
+ Bass, refers to bast or inner bark.
+
+_Tilia americana_ Linnaeus.
+
+ _Tilia_, the classical Latin name.
+
+[Illustration: Habitat.]
+
+HABITAT: (See map); best in bottom lands of lower Ohio River.
+
+[Illustration: Leaf.]
+
+CHARACTERISTICS OF THE TREE: Height, 60'-70', even 130'; diameter,
+2'-4'; trunk, erect, pillar-like, branches spreading, making round
+heads; bark, light brown, furrowed, scaly surface, inner bark fibrous
+and tough, used for matting; leaves, oblique, heart-shaped, side
+nearest branch larger; fruit clustered on long pendulous stem,
+attached to vein of narrow bract.
+
+APPEARANCE OF WOOD: Color, very light brown, approaching cream color,
+sap-wood, hardly distinguishable; diffuse-porous; rings, fine and
+close but clear; grain, straight; rays, numerous, obscure.
+
+PHYSICAL QUALITIES: Light in weight (49th in this list); 28 lbs. per
+cu. ft.; sp. gr., 0.4525; weak (60th in this list); elasticity, medium
+(49th in this list); soft (64th in this list); shrinkage, 6 per
+cent.; warps comparatively little; quite durable; very easily worked;
+somewhat tough to split, nails well.
+
+COMMON USES: Woodenware, carriage bodies, etc., picture molding, paper
+pulp, etc.
+
+REMARKS: May be propagated by grafting as well as by seed. Is subject
+to attack by many insects. Wood used for carriage bodies because
+flexible and easily nailed.
+
+[Illustration: Radial Section, life size.]
+
+[Illustration: Cross-section, magnified 37-1/2 diameters.]
+
+[Illustration: Tangential Section, life size.]
+
+
+62
+
+SOUR GUM. TUPELO. PEPPERIDGE. BLACK GUM.
+
+ Tupelo, the Indian name.
+
+_Nyssa sylvatica_ Marshal.
+
+ _Nyssa_, from Nysa, the realm of moist vegetation and the home
+ of _Dio-nysus_ (Bacchus) (the tree grows in low wet lands);
+ _sylvatica_, refers to its habit of forest growth.
+
+[Illustration: Habitat.]
+
+HABITAT: (See map); best in Southern Appalachian mountains.
+
+[Illustration: Leaf.]
+
+CHARACTERISTICS OF THE TREE: Height, 40'-50', even 100'; diameter,
+1'6"-3'6", even 5'; variable in form; bark, brown, deeply fissured
+and scaly; leaves, in sprays, short, petioled, brilliant scarlet in
+autumn; fruit, bluish black, sour, fleshy drupe.
+
+APPEARANCE OF WOOD: Color, pale yellow, sap-wood, white, hardly
+distinguishable; diffuse-porous; rings, not plain; grain fine, twisted
+and interwoven; rays, numerous, thin.
+
+PHYSICAL QUALITIES: Medium heavy (25th in this list); 39 lbs. per cu.
+ft.; sp. gr., 0.6356; strong (34th in this list); elasticity, medium
+(51st in this list); hard (20th in this list); shrinkage, 5 or 6 per
+cent.; warps and checks badly; not durable if exposed; hard to work;
+splits hard, tough.
+
+COMMON USES: Wagon hubs, handles, yokes, wooden shoe soles, docks and
+wharves, rollers in glass factories.
+
+REMARKS: The best grades closely resemble yellow poplar.
+
+[Illustration: Radial Section, life size.]
+
+[Illustration: Cross-section, magnified 37-1/2 diameters.]
+
+[Illustration: Tangential Section, life size.]
+
+
+63
+
+BLACK ASH. HOOP ASH.
+
+ Hoop, refers to its use for barrel hoops.
+
+_Fraxinus nigra_ Marshall. _Fraxinus sambucifolia._
+
+ _Fraxinus_, from a Greek word (_phraxis_) meaning split,
+ refers to the cleavability of the wood; _sambucifolia_, refers
+ to the fact that the leaves are in odor like those of Elder
+ (Sambucus).
+
+[Illustration: Habitat.]
+
+HABITAT: (See map); best in moist places.
+
+[Illustration: Leaf.]
+
+CHARACTERISTICS OF THE TREE: Height, 80'-90'; diameter, 1'-1-1/2';
+slenderest of the forest trees, upright branches; bark, gray tinged
+with red, irregular plates, with thin scales; leaves, 10"-16" long,
+compound, 7 to 11 leaflets, in autumn rusty brown; fruit, single
+samaras in panicles.
+
+APPEARANCE OF WOOD: Color, dark brown, sap-wood light; ring-porous;
+rings, well defined; grain, straight, burls often form highly prized
+veneers; rays, numerous and thin.
+
+PHYSICAL QUALITIES: Medium heavy (27th in this list); 39 lbs. per cu.
+ft.; sp. gr., 0.6318; strong (38th in this list); elasticity, medium
+(12th in this list); hard (23d in this list); shrinkage, 5 per cent.;
+warps, but not very much; not durable when exposed; hard to work;
+separates easily in layers, hence used for splints.
+
+COMMON USES: Interior finish, cabinet work, fencing, barrel hoops.
+
+REMARKS: The flexibility of the wood largely determines its uses.
+
+[Illustration: Radial Section, life size.]
+
+[Illustration: Cross-section, magnified 37-1/2 diameters.]
+
+[Illustration: Tangential Section, life size.]
+
+
+64
+
+OREGON ASH.
+
+_Fraxinus oregona_ Nuttall.
+
+ _Fraxinus_, from a Greek word (_phraxis_) meaning split,
+ refers to the cleavability of the wood; _oregona_, named for
+ the State of Oregon.
+
+[Illustration: Habitat.]
+
+HABITAT: (See map); best in southern Oregon.
+
+[Illustration: Leaf.]
+
+CHARACTERISTICS OF THE TREE: Height, 50'-80'; diameter, 1'-1-1/2',
+even 4'; branches, stout, erect; bark, grayish brown, deep interrupted
+fissures, broad, flat ridges, exfoliates; leaves, 5"-14" long;
+pinnately compound, 5 to 7 leaflets; fruit, single samaras in
+clusters.
+
+APPEARANCE OF WOOD: Color, brown, sap-wood thick, lighter;
+ring-porous; rings, plainly marked by large, open, scattered pores;
+grain, coarse, straight; rays, numerous, thin.
+
+PHYSICAL QUALITIES: Weight, medium (37th in this list); 35 lbs.
+per cu. ft.; sp. gr., 0.5731; medium strong (50th in this list);
+elasticity, medium (48th in this list); medium hard (29th in this
+list); shrinkage, 5 per cent.; warps,............; not durable; hard
+to work, tough; splits with difficulty.
+
+COMMON USES: Furniture, vehicles, cooperage.
+
+REMARKS: A valuable timber tree of the Pacific coast.
+
+[Illustration: Radial Section, life size.]
+
+[Illustration: Cross-section, magnified 37-1/2 diameters.]
+
+[Illustration: Tangential Section, life size.]
+
+
+65
+
+BLUE ASH.
+
+ Blue, refers to blue dye obtained from inner bark.
+
+_Fraxinus quadrangulata_ Michaux.
+
+ _Fraxinus_, from a Greek word (_phraxis_) meaning split,
+ refers to the cleavability of the wood; _quadrangulata_,
+ refers to four-angled branchlets.
+
+[Illustration: Habitat.]
+
+HABITAT: (See map); best in lower Wabash valley.
+
+[Illustration: Leaf.]
+
+CHARACTERISTICS OF THE TREE: Height, 60'-70', even 120'; diameter,
+1'-2'; tall, slender, four-angled, branchlets; bark, light gray,
+irregularly divided into large plate-like scales, inside bark, bluish,
+yielding dye; leaves, 8"-12" long, compound pinnate, 5 to 9 leaflets;
+fruit, winged samaras in panicles.
+
+APPEARANCE OF WOOD: Color, light yellow, streaked with brown, sap-wood
+lighter; ring-porous; rings, clearly marked by 1 to 3 rows of large,
+open ducts; grain, straight; rays, numerous, obscure.
+
+PHYSICAL QUALITIES: Heavy (16th in this list); 44 lbs. per cu. ft.;
+sp. gr., 0.7184; strong (37th in this list); elasticity, medium (58th
+in this list); hard (12th in this list); shrinkage, 5 per cent.;
+warps, ............; most durable of the ashes; hard to work; splits
+readily, bad for nailing.
+
+COMMON USES: Carriage building, tool handles.
+
+REMARKS: Blue ash pitchfork handles are famous.
+
+[Illustration: Radial Section, life size.]
+
+[Illustration: Tangential Section, life size.]
+
+
+66
+
+RED ASH.
+
+ Red, from color of inner bark.
+
+_Fraxinus pennsylvanica_ Marshall. _Fraxinus pubescens_ Lambert.
+
+ _Fraxinus_, from a Greek word (_phraxis_) meaning split,
+ refers to the cleavability of the wood; _pennsylvanica_, in
+ honor of the State of Pennsylvania; _pubescens_, refers to
+ down on new leaves and twigs.
+
+[Illustration: Habitat.]
+
+HABITAT: (See map); best east of Alleghany mountains.
+
+[Illustration: Leaf.]
+
+CHARACTERISTICS OF THE TREE: Height, 40'-60'; diameter, 12"-18";
+small, slim, upright branches; bark, brown or ashy, great, shallow,
+longitudinal furrows; leaves, 10"-12" long, pinnately compound, 7 to 9
+leaflets, covered with down; fruit, single samara.
+
+APPEARANCE OF WOOD: Color, light brown, sap-wood lighter and
+yellowish; ring porous; rings, marked by pores; grain, straight,
+coarse; rays, numerous, thin.
+
+PHYSICAL QUALITIES: Weight, medium (28th in this list); 39 lbs. per
+cu. ft.; sp. gr., 0.6251; strong (30th in this list); elasticity,
+medium (53d in this list); hard (17th in this list); shrinkage, 5 per
+cent.; warps little; not durable; hard to work; splits in nailing.
+
+COMMON USES: Agricultural implements, oars, handles, boats.
+
+REMARKS: Often sold with and as the superior white ash.
+
+[Illustration: Radial Section, life size.]
+
+[Illustration: Cross-section, magnified 37-1/2 diameters.]
+
+[Illustration: Tangential Section, life size.]
+
+
+67
+
+WHITE ASH.
+
+ White, refers to whitish color of wood.
+
+_Fraxinus americana_ Linnaeus.
+
+ _Fraxinus_, from a Greek word (_phraxis_) meaning split,
+ refers to the cleavability of the wood.
+
+[Illustration: Habitat.]
+
+HABITAT: (See map); best in the bottom lands of lower Ohio valley.
+
+[Illustration: Leaf.]
+
+CHARACTERISTICS OF THE TREE: Height, 70'-80', even 120'; diameter,
+3'-6'; branches rather high, tree singularly graceful; bark, gray,
+narrow furrows, clean, neat trunk; leaves, 8"-15" long, compound,
+tufted, smooth, turns in autumn to beautiful purples, browns and
+yellows; fruit, panicles of samaras, persistent till midwinter.
+
+APPEARANCE OF WOOD: Color, light reddish brown, sap-wood whitish;
+ring-porous, rings clearly marked by pores; straight-grained; pith
+rays obscure.
+
+PHYSICAL QUALITIES: Heavy (22d in this list); 39 lbs. per cu. ft.; sp.
+gr., 0.6543; strong (31st in this list); elastic (30th in this list);
+hard (17th in this list); shrinkage, 5 per cent.; warps little; not
+durable in contact with soil; hard and tough; splits readily, nails
+badly.
+
+COMMON USES: Inside finish, farm implements, barrels, baskets, oars,
+carriages.
+
+REMARKS: Forms no forests, occurs scattered. Its uses for handles and
+oars determined by combination of strength, lightness and elasticity.
+
+[Illustration: Radial Section, life size.]
+
+[Illustration: Cross-section, magnified 37-1/2 diameters.]
+
+[Illustration: Tangential Section, life size.]
+
+
+LIST OF 66 COMMON WOODS ARRANGED IN THE ORDER OF THEIR WEIGHT.
+
+ 1. Shellbark hickory.
+ 2. Post oak.
+ 3. Mockernut.
+ 4. Pignut.
+ 5. Basket oak.
+ 6. Cherry birch.
+ 7. Slash pine.
+ 8. White oak.
+ 9. Bur oak.
+ 10. Western white oak.
+ 11. Western larch.
+ 12. Black locust.
+ 13. Blue beech.
+ 14. Mahogany.
+ 15. Cork elm.
+ 16. Blue ash.
+ 17. Black oak.
+ 18. Longleaf pine.
+ 19. Hard maple.
+ 20. Beech.
+ 21. Yellow birch.
+ 22. White ash.
+ 23. Red oak.
+ 24. White elm.
+ 25. Sour gum.
+ 26. Oregon maple.
+ 27. Black ash.
+ 28. Red ash.
+ 29. Tamarack.
+ 30. Red maple.
+ 31. Black walnut.
+ 32. Shortleaf pine.
+ 33. Canoe birch.
+ 34. Sweet gum.
+ 35. Wild black cherry.
+ 36. Red birch.
+ 37. Oregon ash.
+ 38. Sycamore.
+ 39. Loblolly pine.
+ 40. Soft maple.
+ 41. Douglas spruce.
+ 42. Red cedar.
+ 43. Norway pine.
+ 44. Western yellow pine.
+ 45. Cucumber tree.
+ 46. Lawson cypress.
+ 47. Black spruce and Red spruce.
+ 48. Bald cypress.
+ 49. Basswood.
+ 50. Chestnut.
+ 51. Black willow.
+ 52. Tideland spruce.
+ 53. Hemlock.
+ 54. Yellow poplar.
+ 55. Redwood.
+ 56. Butternut.
+ 57. White spruce.
+ 58. Western white pine.
+ 59. White pine.
+ 60. Western red cedar.
+ 61. Sugar pine.
+ 62. Grand fir.
+ 63. Engelmann's spruce.
+ 64. White cedar.
+ 65. Big tree.
+
+
+LIST OF 66 COMMON WOODS ARRANGED IN THE ORDER OF THEIR STRENGTH.
+
+ 1. Black locust.
+ 2. Yellow birch.
+ 3. Western larch.
+ 4. Cherry birch.
+ 5. Shellbark hickory.
+ 6. Slash pine.
+ 7. Longleaf pine.
+ 8. Hard maple.
+ 9. Blue beech.
+ 10. Beech.
+ 11. Mockernut.
+ 12. Basket Oak.
+ 13. Cork elm.
+ 14. Canoe birch.
+ 15. Pignut hickory.
+ 16. Bur oak.
+ 17. Black oak.
+ 18. Shortleaf pine.
+ 19. Soft maple.
+ 20. Mahogany.
+ 21. Red oak.
+ 22. Red birch.
+ 23. White oak.
+ 24. Tamarack.
+ 25. Lawson cypress.
+ 26. Loblolly pine.
+ 27. Douglas spruce.
+ 28. Western white oak.
+ 29. Post oak.
+ 30. Red ash.
+ 31. White ash.
+ 32. Black walnut.
+ 33. White elm.
+ 34. Sour gum.
+ 35. Wild black cherry.
+ 36. Red maple.
+ 37. Blue ash.
+ 38. Black ash.
+ 39. Norway pine.
+ 40. Western red cedar.
+ 41. Black spruce and Red spruce.
+ 42. White spruce.
+ 43. Red cedar.
+ 44. Hemlock.
+ 45. Western yellow pine.
+ 46. Chestnut.
+ 47. Oregon maple.
+ 48. Bald cypress.
+ 49. Cucumber tree.
+ 50. Oregon ash.
+ 51. Yellow poplar.
+ 52. Sweet gum.
+ 53. Tideland spruce.
+ 54. Sycamore.
+ 55. White pine.
+ 56. Western white pine.
+ 57. Butternut.
+ 58. Redwood.
+ 59. Sugar pine.
+ 60. Basswood.
+ 61. Engelmann's spruce.
+ 62. Grand fir.
+ 63. Big tree.
+ 64. White cedar.
+ 65. Black willow.
+
+
+LIST OF 66 COMMON WOODS ARRANGED IN THE ORDER OF THEIR ELASTICITY.
+
+ 1. Western larch.
+ 2. Canoe birch and Yellow birch.
+ 3. Slash pine.
+ 4. Longleaf pine.
+ 5. Hard maple.
+ 6. Cherry birch.
+ 7. Shortleaf pine.
+ 8. Shellbark hickory.
+ 9. Black locust.
+ 10. Douglas spruce.
+ 11. Tamarack.
+ 12. Lawson cypress.
+ 13. Beech.
+ 14. Mockernut.
+ 15. Blue beech.
+ 16. Norway pine.
+ 17. Loblolly pine.
+ 18. Red oak.
+ 19. Red birch.
+ 20. Soft maple.
+ 21. Red spruce and Black spruce.
+ 22. Cork elm.
+ 23. Black walnut.
+ 24. Mahogany.
+ 25. Black oak.
+ 26. Western red cedar.
+ 27. Pignut hickory.
+ 28. Bald cypress.
+ 29. White spruce.
+ 30. White ash.
+ 31. Tideland spruce.
+ 32. White oak.
+ 33. Basket oak.
+ 34. Grand fir.
+ 35. Western white pine.
+ 36. Red maple.
+ 37. Bur oak.
+ 38. Cucumber tree.
+ 39. Yellow poplar.
+ 40. Hemlock.
+ 41. Western yellow pine.
+ 42. Black ash.
+ 43. Sycamore.
+ 44. Sweet gum.
+ 45. Wild black cherry.
+ 46. Chestnut.
+ 47. White pine.
+ 48. Oregon ash.
+ 49. Bass.
+ 50. Post oak.
+ 51. Sour gum.
+ 52. Butternut.
+ 53. Red ash.
+ 54. Western white oak.
+ 55. Engelmann's spruce.
+ 56. Sugar pine.
+ 57. Oregon maple.
+ 58. Blue ash.
+ 59. White elm.
+ 60. Redwood.
+ 61. Red cedar.
+ 62. Big tree.
+ 63. White cedar.
+ 64. Black willow.
+
+
+LIST OF 66 COMMON WOODS ARRANGED IN THE ORDER OF THEIR HARDNESS.
+
+ 1. Mahogany.
+ 2. Pignut.
+ 3. Mockernut.
+ 4. Post oak.
+ 5. Shellbark hickory.
+ 6. Black locust.
+ 7. Hard maple.
+ 8. Western white oak.
+ 9. Bur oak.
+ 10. Basket oak.
+ 11. Cherry birch.
+ 12. Blue ash.
+ 13. White oak.
+ 14. Blue beech.
+ 15. Cork elm.
+ 16. Wild black cherry.
+ 17. Red ash.
+ 18. Black oak.
+ 19. White ash.
+ 20. Sour gum.
+ 21. Black walnut.
+ 22. Beech.
+ 23. Black ash.
+ 24. Slash pine.
+ 25. Soft maple.
+ 26. Red oak.
+ 27. Red maple.
+ 28. White elm.
+ 29. Oregon ash.
+ 30. Sycamore.
+ 31. Oregon maple.
+ 32. Yellow birch.
+ 33. Long leaf pine.
+ 34. Red cedar.
+ 35. Western larch.
+ 36. Sweet gum.
+ 37. Red birch.
+ 38. Short leaf pine.
+ 39. Canoe birch.
+ 40. Tamarack.
+ 41. Cucumber tree.
+ 42. Western yellow pine.
+ 43. Loblolly pine.
+ 44. Chestnut.
+ 45. Douglas spruce.
+ 46. Black willow.
+ 47. Butternut.
+ 48. Norway pine.
+ 49. Yellow poplar.
+ 50. Lawson cypress.
+ 51. Hemlock.
+ 52. Bald cypress.
+ 53. Sugar pine.
+ 54. Red spruce and Black spruce.
+ 55. Redwood.
+ 56. Engelmann's spruce.
+ 57. White pine.
+ 58. White spruce.
+ 59. Tideland spruce.
+ 60. Western white cedar.
+ 61. Big tree.
+ 62. White cedar.
+ 63. Western white pine.
+ 64. Basswood.
+ 65. Grand fir.
+
+
+THE PRINCIPAL SPECIES OF WOODS.
+
+REFERENCES:[A]
+
+Sargent, _Jesup Collection_.
+Sargent, _Manual_.
+Britton.
+Roth, _Timber_.
+Hough, _Handbook_.
+Keeler.
+Apgar.
+Mohr. _For. Bull._, No. 22.
+Fernow, _Forestry Investigations_.
+Lumber Trade Journals.
+Baterden.
+Sargent, _Silva_.
+Sargent, _Forest Trees_, 10th Census, Vol. IX.
+Boulger.
+Hough, _American Woods_.
+Snow.
+Lounsberry.
+Spaulding. _For. Bull._, No. 13.
+Sudworth. _For. Bull._, No. 17.
+Forest Service _Records of Wholesale Prices of Lumber_, List. A.
+
+For particular trees consult For. Serv., Bulletins and Circulars. See
+For. Service _Classified List of Publications_.
+
+ [Footnote A: For general bibliography, see p. 4.]
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER IV.
+
+THE DISTRIBUTION AND COMPOSITION OF THE NORTH AMERICAN FORESTS.
+
+
+The forests of the United States, Map, Fig. 44, may be conveniently
+divided into two great regions, the Eastern or Atlantic Forest,
+and the Western or Pacific Forest. These are separated by the great
+treeless plains which are west of the Mississippi River, and east of
+the Rocky Mountains, and which extend from North Dakota to western
+Texas.[1]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 44. Forest Regions of the United States. _U. S.
+Forest Service._]
+
+The Eastern Forest once consisted of an almost unbroken mass, lying in
+three quite distinct regions, (1) the northern belt of conifers, (2)
+the southern belt of conifers, and (3) the great deciduous (hardwood)
+forest lying between these two.
+
+(1) The northern belt of conifers or "North Woods" extended
+thru northern New England and New York and ran south along the
+Appalachians. It reappeared again in northern Michigan, Wisconsin and
+Minnesota. White pine, Fig. 45, was the characteristic tree in the
+eastern part of this belt, tho spruce was common, Fig. 56, p. 213,
+and white and Norway pine and hemlock distinguished it in the western
+part. Altho the more valuable timber, especially the pine, has been
+cut out, it still remains a largely unbroken forest mainly of spruce,
+second growth pine, hemlock and some hardwood.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 45. Interior of Dense White Pine Forest, Cass
+Lake, Minn. _U. S. Forest Service._]
+
+(2) The southern pine forest formerly extended from the Potomac River
+in a belt from one to two hundred miles wide along the Atlantic coast,
+across the Florida peninsula, and along the gulf of Mexico, skipping
+the Mississippi River and reappearing in a great forest in Louisiana
+and Eastern Texas. It was composed of almost pure stands of pine, the
+long-leaf, Fig. 46, the short-leaf, and the loblolly, with cypress
+in the swamps and bottom lands. In southern Florida the forest is
+tropical, Fig. 47, like that of the West Indies, and in southern Texas
+it partakes of the character of the Mexican forest.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 46. Long-leaf Pine Forest. Oscilla, Georgia. _U.
+S. Forest Service._]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 47. Semi-tropical Forest, Florida. Live Oak,
+Surrounded by Cabbage Palmetto, and Hung With Spanish Moss. _U. S.
+Forest Service._]
+
+(3) Between these north and south coniferous belts, lay the great
+broad-leaf or hardwood forest, Fig. 48, which constituted the greater
+part of the Eastern Forest and characterized it. It was divided into
+two parts by an irregular northeast and southwest line, running from
+southern New England to Missouri. The southeast portion consisted
+of hardwoods intermixed with conifers. The higher ridges of the
+Appalachian Range, really a leg of the northern forest, were occupied
+by conifers, mainly spruce, white pine, and hemlock. The northwest
+portion of the region, particularly Ohio, Indiana, and Illinois, was
+without the conifers. It was essentially a mixed forest, largely oak,
+with a variable mixture of maples, beech, chestnut, yellow poplar,
+hickory, sycamore, elm, and ash, with birch appearing toward the north
+and pine toward the south.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 48. Broad-leaf Forest, Protected from Cattle and
+Fire. Hancock Co., Indiana. _U. S. Forest Service._]
+
+Taking the Eastern Forest as a whole, its most distinguishing feature
+was the prevalence of broad-leaved trees, so that it might properly be
+called a deciduous forest. The greatest diversity of trees was to be
+found in Kentucky, Tennessee and North Carolina, and this region is
+still the source of the best hardwood lumber.
+
+This great eastern forest, which once extended uninterruptedly from
+the Atlantic to the Mississippi and beyond, has now been largely
+lumbered off, particularly thru the middle or hardwood portion, making
+way for farms and towns. The north and south coniferous belts are
+still mainly unbroken, and are sparsely settled, but the big timber
+is cut out, giving place to poorer trees. This is particularly true of
+the white pine, "the king of American trees," only a little of which,
+in valuable sizes, is left in Michigan, Wisconsin and Minnesota. In
+the same way in the south, the long-leaf pine, once the characteristic
+tree, is fast being lumbered out.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 49. Irrigated Ranch on Treeless Alkali Plain. Rio
+Blanco Co., Colorada. _U. S. Forest Service._]
+
+The Western or Pacific forest extends two great legs, one down the
+Rocky Mountain Range, and the other along the Pacific coast. Between
+them lies the great treeless alkali plain centering around Nevada,
+Fig. 49. In these two regions coniferous trees have almost a monopoly.
+Broad-leaved trees are to be found there, along the river beds and in
+ravines, but they are of comparatively little importance. The forest
+is essentially an evergreen forest. Another marked feature of this
+western forest, except in the Puget Sound region, is that the trees,
+in many cases, stand far apart, their crowns not even touching, so
+that the sun beats down and dries up the forest floor, Fig. 50.
+There is no dense "forest cover" or canopy as in the Eastern Forest.
+Moreover these western forests are largely broken up, covering but a
+part of the mountains, many of which are snow-clad, and interrupted
+by bare plains. Along the creeks there grow a variety of hardwoods. It
+was never a continuous forest as was the Eastern Forest. The openness
+of this forest on the Rockies and on the eastern slopes of the Sierra
+Nevadas is in marked contrast to the western slopes of the Sierras,
+where there are to be seen the densest and most remarkable woods of
+the world, Fig. 51. This is due to the peculiar distribution of the
+rainfall of the region. The precipitation of the moisture upon the
+northwest coast where the trees are dripping with fog a large part of
+the time, is unequaled by that of any other locality on the continent.
+But the interior of this region, which is shut off by the high
+Sierra Nevadas from the western winds, has a very light and irregular
+rainfall. Where the rainfall is heavy, the forests are dense; and
+where the rainfall is light, the trees are sparse.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 50. Open Western Forest, Bull Pine. Flagstaff,
+Arizona. _U. S. Forest Service._]
+
+Along the Rockies the characteristic trees are Engelmann's spruce,
+bull pine, Douglas fir, and lodgepole pine. As one goes west, the
+variety of trees increases and becomes, so far as conifers are
+concerned, far greater than in the east. Of 109 conifers in the United
+States, 80 belong to the western forests and 28 to the eastern. The
+Pacific forest is rich in the possession of half a dozen leading
+species--Douglas fir, western hemlock, sugar pine, bull pine, cedar
+and redwood.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 51. Dense Forest of Puget Sound Region, Red Fir
+and Red Cedar. Pierce Co., Washington. _U. S. Forest Service._]
+
+But the far western conifers are remarkable, not only for their
+variety, but still more for the density of their growth, already
+mentioned, and for their great size, Fig. 52. The pines, spruces and
+hemlocks of the Puget Sound region make eastern trees look small, and
+both the red fir and the redwood often grow to be over 250 feet high,
+and yield 100,000 feet, B.M., to the acre as against 10,000 feet,
+B.M., of good spruce in Maine. The redwood, Fig. 53, occupies a belt
+some twenty miles wide along the coast from southern Oregon to a point
+not far north of San Francisco and grows even taller than the famous
+big trees. The big trees are the largest known trees in diameter,
+occasionally reaching in that measurement 35 feet.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 52. Virgin Forest of Red Fir, Red Cedar, Western
+Hemlock, and Oregon Maple. Ashford, Washington. _U. S. Forest
+Service._]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 53. Redwood Forest. Santa Cruz Co., Calif. _U. S.
+Forest Service._]
+
+The big tree, Fig. 54, occurs exclusively in groves, which, however,
+are not pure, but are scattered among a much larger number of trees of
+other kinds.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 54. Big Tree Forest. Sierra National Forest,
+California. _U. S. Forest Service._]
+
+The great and unsurpassed Puget Sound forest is destined to be before
+long the center of the lumber trade of this country.
+
+These two great forests of the east and the west both run northward
+into British America, and are there united in a broad belt of
+subarctic forest which extends across the continent. At the far north
+it is characterized by the white spruce and aspen. The forest is open,
+stunted, and of no economic value.
+
+Taking all the genera and species together, there is a far greater
+variety in the eastern than in the western forests. A considerable
+number of genera, perhaps a third of the total, grow within both
+regions, but the species having continental range are few. They
+are the following: Larch (_Larix laricina_), white spruce (_Picea
+canadensis_), dwarf juniper (_Juniperus communis_), black willow
+(_Salix nigra_), almond leaf willow (_Salix amygdaloides_), long leaf
+willow (_Salix fluviatilis_), aspen (_Populus tremuloides_), balm of
+Gilead (_Populus balsamifera_), and hackberry (_Celtis occidentalis_).
+
+ [Footnote 1: ORIGINAL FOREST REGIONS OF THE UNITED STATES.
+
+ Area Area
+ Thousand acres Per cent.
+ Northern forest 158,938 8.4
+ Hardwood forest 328,183 17.3
+ Southern forest 249,669 13.1
+ Rocky Mountains forest 155,014 8.1
+ Pacific forest 121,356 6.4
+ Treeless area 887,787 46.7
+ --------- -----
+ Total land area 1,900,947 100.0
+ ]
+
+
+THE DISTRIBUTION AND COMPOSITION OF NORTH AMERICAN FORESTS.
+
+REFERENCES:[A]
+
+Sargent, _Forest Trees_, Intro., pp. 3-10.
+Bruncken, pp. 5-16.
+Roth, _First Book_, pp. 209-212.
+Shaler, I, pp. 489-498.
+Fernow, _For. Inves._, pp. 45-51.
+Fernow, _Economics_, pp. 331-368.
+
+ [Footnote A: For general bibliography, see p. 4.]
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER V.
+
+THE FOREST ORGANISM.
+
+
+The forest is much more than an assemblage of different trees, it is
+an organism; that is, the trees that compose it have a vital relation
+to each other. It may almost be said to have a life of its own, since
+it has a soil and a climate, largely of its own making.
+
+Without these conditions, and without the help and hindrance which
+forest trees give to each other, these trees would not have their
+present characteristics, either in shape, habits of growth or nature
+of wood grain. Indeed, some of them could not live at all.
+
+Since by far the greater number of timber trees grow in the forest, in
+order to understand the facts about trees and woods, it is necessary
+to know something about the conditions of forest life.
+
+A tree is made up of three distinct parts: (1) the roots which anchor
+it in the ground, and draw its nourishment from the moist soil; (2)
+the trunk, or bole, or stem, which carries the weight of the branches
+and leaves, and conveys the nourishment to and from the leaves; (3)
+the crown, composed of the leaves, the branches on which they hang,
+and the buds at the ends of the branches. As trees stand together in
+the forest, their united crowns make a sort of canopy or cover, Fig.
+55, which, more than anything, determines the factors affecting
+forest life, viz., the soil, the temperature, the moisture, and most
+important of all, the light.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 55. The Forest Cover. Spruce Forest, Bavaria,
+Germany. _U. S. Forest Service._]
+
+On the other hand, every species of tree has its own requirements
+in respect to these very factors of temperature,--moisture, soil and
+light. These are called its _silvical characteristics_.
+
+
+SOIL.
+
+Some trees, as black walnut, flourish on good soil, supplanting others
+because they are better able to make use of the richness of the soil;
+while some trees occupy poor soil because they alone are able to live
+there at all. Spruce, Fig. 56, will grow in the north woods on such
+poor soil that it has no competitors, and birches, too, will grow
+anywhere in the north woods. In general, it is true that mixed
+forests, Fig. 57, _i.e._, those having a variety of species, grow on
+good loamy soil. The great central, deciduous Atlantic Forest grew on
+such soil until it was removed to make room for farms. On the other
+hand, pure stands--_i.e._, forests made up of single varieties--of
+pine occupy poor sandy soil. Within a distance of a few yards in the
+midst of a pure stand of pine in the south, a change in the soil will
+produce a dense mixed growth of broad-leaves and conifers.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 56. Virgin Stand of Red Spruce. White Mountains,
+New Hampshire. _U. S. Forest Service._]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 57. Typical Mixed Forest,--Red Spruce, Hemlock,
+White Ash, Yellow Birch, Balsam Fir, and Red Maple. Raquette Lake, New
+York. _U. S. Forest Service._]
+
+The soil in the forest is largely determined by the forest itself. In
+addition to the earth, it is composed of the fallen and decayed leaves
+and twigs and tree trunks, altogether called the _forest floor_. It is
+spongy and hence has the ability to retain moisture, a fact of great
+importance to the forest.
+
+
+MOISTURE.
+
+Some trees, as black ash and cypress, Fig. 58, and cotton gum, Fig.
+59, grow naturally only in moist places; some, as the piñon and
+mesquite, a kind of locust, grow only in dry places; while others,
+as the juniper and Douglas fir, adapt themselves to either. Both
+excessively wet and dry soils tend to diminish the number of kinds
+of trees. In many instances the demand for water controls the
+distribution altogether. In the Puget Sound region, where there is a
+heavy rain-fall, the densest forests in the world are found, whereas
+on the eastern slopes of the same mountains, altho the soil is not
+essentially different, there are very few trees, because of the
+constant drouth.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 58. Cypress and Cypress "Knees." Jasper Co.,
+Texas. _U. S. Forest Service._]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 59. Cotton Gums, Showing Buttresses. St. Francis
+River, Arkansas. _U. S. Forest Service._]
+
+
+TEMPERATURE.
+
+The fact that some trees, as paper birch and white spruce, grow only
+in cold regions, and some, as rubber trees and cypress, only in the
+tropics, is commonplace; but a fact not so well known is that it is
+not the average temperature, but the extremes which largely determine
+the habitat of trees of different kinds. Trees which would not live
+at all where there is frost, might flourish well in a region where
+the average temperature was considerably lower. On the other hand,
+provided the growing season is long enough for the species, there is
+no place on earth too cold for trees to live. Fig. 60.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 60. Northern Forest,--Young Spruce Growing Under
+Yellow Birch. Santa Clara, New York. _U. S. Forest Service._]
+
+In general, cold affects the forest just as poor soil and drought do,
+simplifying its composition and stunting its growth. In Canada there
+are only a few kinds of trees, of which the hardwoods are stunted;
+south of the Great Lakes, there is a great variety of large trees;
+farther south in the southern Appalachian region, there is a still
+greater variety, and the trees are just as large; and still farther
+south in tropical Florida, there is the greatest variety of all. The
+slopes of a high mountain furnish an illustration of the effect of
+temperature. In ascending it, one may pass from a tropical forest at
+the base, thru a belt of evergreen, broad-leaved trees, then thru a
+belt of deciduous broad-leaved trees, then thru a belt of conifers and
+up to the timber line where tree life ceases. Figs. 61, and 62.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 61. Mixed Hardwoods on Lower Levels. Spruce
+and Balsam Dominate on Higher Elevations. Mt. McIntyre, Adirondack
+Mountains, New York. _U. S. Forest Service._]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 62. Scrub Growth on Mountain Top. Mt. Webster, New
+Hampshire. _U. S. Forest Service._]
+
+
+LIGHT.
+
+More than by any other factor, the growth of trees in a forest is
+determined by the effect of light. All trees need light sooner or
+later, but some trees have much more ability than others to grow
+in the shade when young. Such trees, of which maple and spruce are
+examples, are called _tolerant_, while others, for instance, larch,
+which will endure only a comparatively thin cover or none at all, are
+called _intolerant_. The leaves of tolerant trees endure shade well,
+so that their inner and lower leaves flourish under the shadow of
+their upper and outer leaves, with the result that the whole tree,
+as beech and maple, makes a dense shadow; whereas the leaves of
+intolerant trees are either sparse, as in the larch, or are so hung
+that the light sifts thru them, as in poplar and oak. The spruces and
+balsam fir have the remarkable power of growing slowly under heavy
+shade for many years, and then of growing vigorously when the light is
+let in by the fall of their overshadowing neighbors. This can plainly
+be seen in the cross-section of balsam fir, Fig. 63, where the narrow
+annual rings of the early growth, are followed by the wider ones of
+later growth. A common sight in the dense woods is the maple sending
+up a long, spindly stem thru the trees about it and having at its top
+a little tuft of leaves, Fig. 64. By so doing it survives. The fact
+that a tree can grow without shade often determines its possession
+of a burnt-over tract. The order in the North Woods after a fire
+is commonly, first, a growth of fire weed, then raspberries or
+blackberries, then aspen, a very intolerant tree whose light shade
+in turn permits under it the growth of the spruce, to which it is a
+"nurse," Fig. 65. In general it may be said that all seedling conifers
+require some shade the first two years, while hardwoods in temperate
+climates, as a rule, do not.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 63. Cross section of Balsam Fir, Showing Fast
+Growth After Years of Suppression. Notice the width of the annual
+rings in later age compared with early. _U. S. Forest Service._]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 64. Tolerant Maple. The trees are too slender to
+stand alone. _U. S. Forest Service._]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 65. Intolerant Aspen, a "nurse" of Tolerant
+Spruce._ U. S. Forest Service._]
+
+This matter of tolerance has also much to do with the branching of
+trees. The leaves on the lower branches of an intolerant tree will not
+thrive, with the result that those branches die and later drop off.
+This is called "cleaning," or natural pruning. Intolerant trees, like
+aspen and tulip, Fig. 66, clean themselves well and hence grow with
+long, straight boles, while tolerant trees, like spruce and fir,
+retain their branches longer.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 66. Intolerant Tulip. Notice the long, straight
+boles. _U. S. Forest Service._]
+
+The distribution of a species may also be determined by geographical
+barriers, like mountain ranges and oceans. This is why the western
+forests differ radically from the eastern forests and why the forest
+of Australasia is sharply distinct from any other forest in the world.
+
+Any one or several of these factors, soil, moisture, heat, and light,
+may be the determining factor in the make-up of a forest, or it may
+be that a particular tree may survive, because of a faster rate of
+growth, thus enabling it to overtop its fellows and cut off their
+light. The struggle for survival is constant, and that tree survives
+which can take the best advantage of the existent conditions.
+
+Besides these topographical and climatic factors which help determine
+the distribution of trees, a very important factor is the historical
+one. For example, the only reason by which the location of the few
+isolated groves of big trees in California can be accounted for is the
+rise and fall of glacial sheets, which left them, as it were, islands
+stranded in a sea of ice. As the glaciers retreated, the region
+gradually became re-forested, those trees coming up first which were
+best able to take advantage of the conditions, whether due to the
+character of their seeds, their tolerance, their endurance of moisture
+or whatever. This process is still going on and hardwoods are probably
+gaining ground.
+
+Besides these external factors which determine the composition and
+organic life of the forest, the trees themselves furnish an important
+factor in their methods of reproduction. These, in general, are two,
+(1) by sprouts, and (2) by seeds.
+
+(1) Most conifers have no power of sprouting. The chief exceptions
+are pitch pine and, to a remarkable degree, the redwood, Fig. 67. This
+power, however, is common in broad-leaved trees, as may be seen after
+a fire has swept thru second growth, hardwood timber. Altho all the
+young trees are killed down to the ground, the young sprouts spring
+up from the still living roots. This may happen repeatedly. Coppice
+woods, as of chestnut and oak, which sprout with great freedom, are
+the result of this ability. The wood is poor so that it is chiefly
+used for fuel.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 67. Sprouting Redwood Stumps. Glen Blair, Calif.
+_U. S. Forest Service._]
+
+(2) Most trees, however, are reproduced by seeds. Trees yield these
+in great abundance, to provide for waste,--nature's method. Many seeds
+never ripen, many perish, many are eaten by animals, many fall on
+barren ground or rocks, and many sprout, only to die. The weight of
+seeds has much to do with their distribution. Heavy seeds like acorns,
+chestnuts, hickory and other nuts, grow where they fall, unless
+carried down hill by gravity or by water, or scattered by birds and
+squirrels.
+
+Trees with winged seeds, however, Fig. 68, as bass, maple and pine,
+or with light seeds, as poplar, often have their seeds carried by the
+wind to great distances.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 68. Winged Seeds. 1, Basswood; 2, Box-elder; 3,
+Elm; 4, Fir; 5, 6, 7, 8, Pines. _U. S. Forest Service._]
+
+Again some trees, as spruce, are very fertile, while others, like
+beech, have only occasional seed-bearing seasons, once in three or
+four years. Willow seeds lose their power of germination in a few
+days, and hence, unless they soon reach ground where there is plenty
+of moisture, they die. This is why they grow mostly along water
+courses. On the other hand, black locust pods and the cones of some
+pines keep their seeds perfect for many years, often until a
+fire bursts them open, and so they live at the expense of their
+competitors.
+
+It is such facts as these that help to account for some of the acts of
+forest composition,--why in one place at one time there is a growth of
+aspens, at another time pines, at still another oaks; and why beeches
+spring up one year and not another. That red cedars grow in avenues
+along fences, is explained by the fact that the seeds are dropped
+there by birds, Fig. 69.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 69. Red Cedar Avenue. Seeds dropped by birds which
+perched on the fences. Indiana. _U. S. Forest Service._]
+
+The fact that conifers, as the longleaf pine, Fig. 46, p. 200, and
+spruce, Fig. 55, p. 212, are more apt to grow in pure stands than
+broad-leaved trees, is largely accounted for by their winged seeds;
+whereas the broad-leaved trees grow mostly in mixed stands because
+their heavy seeds are not plentifully and widely scattered. This is
+a rule not without exceptions, for beech sometimes covers a whole
+mountain side, as Slide Mountain in the Catskills, and aspens come in
+over a wide area after a fire; but later other trees creep in until at
+length it becomes a mixed forest.
+
+The essential facts of the relation of trees to each other in the
+forest has been clearly stated by Gifford Pinchot thus:[1]
+
+ The history of the life of a forest is a story of the help and
+ harm which trees receive from one another. On one side every
+ tree is engaged in a relentless struggle against its neighbors
+ for light, water and food, the three things trees need most.
+ On the other side each tree is constantly working with all its
+ neighbors, even those which stand at some distance, to bring
+ about the best condition of the soil and air for the growth
+ and fighting power of every other tree.
+
+The trees in a forest help each other by enriching the soil in which
+they stand with their fallen leaves and twigs, which are not quickly
+blown or washed away as are those under a tree in the open. This
+collection of "duff" or "the forest floor" retains the moisture about
+their roots, and this moist mass tends to keep the temperature of the
+forest warmer in winter and cooler in summer. The forest cover, Fig.
+55, p. 212, consisting largely of foliage, has the same effect, and in
+addition protects the bark, the roots, and the seedlings of the trees
+from the direct and continuous hot rays of the sun. Without the shade
+of the leaves, many trees, as white pine, would quickly die, as
+may readily be seen by transplanting them to the open. The mass of
+standing trees tempers the force of the wind, which might overthrow
+some of them, and hinders the drying up of the duff.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 70. Shallow Roots of Hemlock. Bronx Park, New
+York, N. Y.]
+
+But trees hinder as well as help each other. There is a constant
+struggle between them for nourishment and light. To get food and
+water, some trees, as spruces and hemlocks, Fig. 70, spread their
+roots out flat; others, as oak and pine, send down a deep tap root.
+Those succeed in any environment that find the nourishment they need.
+Still more evident is the struggle for light and air. However well a
+tree is nourished thru its roots, unless its leaves have an abundance
+of light and air it will not thrive and make wood.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 71. Long-bodied White Oak of the Forest. _U. S.
+Forest Service._]
+
+Even the trees most tolerant of shade in youth, like spruce, must have
+light later or perish, and hence in a forest there is the constant
+upward reach. This produces the characteristic "long-bodied" trunk of
+the forest tree, Fig. 71, in contrast to the "short-bodied" tree of
+the open, where the branches reach out in all directions, Fig. 72.
+In this constant struggle for existence is involved the persistent
+attempt of scattered seeds to sprout whenever there is an opening. The
+result is that a typical forest is one in which all sizes and ages
+of trees grow together. Scattered among these are bushes and scrubby
+trees, called "forest weeds," such as mountain maple and dogwood, Fig.
+80, p. 234, which do not produce timber.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 72. Short-bodied White Oak of the Open. Fort Lee,
+N. J.]
+
+By foresters the trees themselves are classified according to their
+size into:
+
+Seedlings, less than 3' high,
+Saplings,
+ Small, 3'-10' high.
+ Large, 4" in diameter, at breast height (4' 6").
+Poles,
+ Small, 4"-8" in diameter, at breast height.
+ Large, 8"-12" in diameter, at breast height.
+ Standards, 1'-2' in diameter, at breast height.
+ Veterans, over 2' in diameter, at breast height.
+
+Every age has its own dangers. Many seeds never germinate, many
+seedlings perish because they do not reach soil, or are killed by
+too much or too little moisture, or by heat or cold, or shade. At the
+sapling age, the side branches begin to interfere with those of other
+saplings. Buds are bruised and lower branches broken by thrashing in
+the wind, and their leaves have less light. Only the upper branches
+have room and light, and they flourish at the expense of lower ones,
+which gradually die and are thus pruned off. Some trees naturally
+grow faster than others, and they attain additional light and room
+to spread laterally, thus overtopping others which are suppressed and
+finally killed, beaten in the race for life.
+
+If the growth should remain about even so that the trees grew densely
+packed together, the whole group would be likely to be of a poorer
+quality, but ordinarily the few outgrow the many and they are called
+dominant trees. Even then, they still have to struggle against their
+neighbors, and at this, the large sapling stage, many perish, and of
+those that survive there are great differences in size. Trees make
+their most rapid growth in height, and lay on the widest yearly
+"rings," at the large sapling and small pole age, Fig. 114, p. 263. It
+is at this stage, too, if the growth is at all dense, that the young
+trees (poles) clean themselves most thoroly of their branches. The
+growth in diameter continues to the end of the tree's life, long after
+the height growth has ceased.
+
+When trees become "standards," and reach the limit of height growth,
+thru their inability to raise water to their tops, their branches
+must perforce grow sidewise, or not at all. The struggle for life thus
+takes a new form.
+
+How trees are able to raise water as high as they do is still
+unexplained, but we know that the chief reason why some trees grow
+taller than others, is due to their ability to raise water. The most
+remarkable in this respect are the California redwoods, the big trees,
+and certain eucalypts in Australia. This inability of trees to grow
+above a certain height results in a flattening of the crown, Fig. 73,
+and at this stage, the trees struggle against each other by crowding
+at the side.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 73. Flattened Crown of Red Pine. _U.S. Forest
+Service._]
+
+Inasmuch as trees grow more sensitive to shade with advancing age, the
+taller trees have the advantage. Each survivor is one of a thousand,
+and has outlived the others because it is best fitted for the place.
+
+This fact has its effect upon the next generation, because it is these
+dominant surviving trees which bear seed most abundantly. After the
+tree has finished growing in height and diameter most vigorously--the
+pole stage--and proved to be fitted for the place, its energy is
+largely spent in raising seed. As this process goes on generation
+after generation, only the best coming to maturity in each, the poorer
+sorts are sifted out, and each region and continent has those species
+best fitted to meet the conditions of life there.
+
+This is the reason why exotics are very likely to be sensitive and
+perhaps succumb to influences to which native trees are immune.
+
+Standards and veterans are the survivors of all the lower stages,
+each of which has had its especial dangers. If left alone, the tree
+gradually dies and at last falls and decays, adding somewhat to the
+fertility of the forest soil. From the point of view of human use, it
+would far better have been cut when ripe and turned into lumber. It
+is a mistake to suppose that the natural virgin forest is the best
+possible forest, and that it should therefore be left alone. In the
+National Forests the ripe lumber is sold and a considerable revenue
+is thus available. But nature's way with the dead tree is to use it
+to produce more life. How she does so will be explained in the next
+chapter, on the enemies of the forest.
+
+ [Footnote 1: Gifford Pinchot, _Primer of Forestry_, p. 44.]
+
+
+THE FOREST ORGANISM.
+
+REFERENCES:[A]
+
+Pinchot, _For. Bull._ No. 24, I, pp. 25-66.
+Bruncken, pp. 13-31.
+_For. Circ._ No. 36, p. 8.
+Fernow, _Economics_, pp. 140-164.
+
+ [Footnote A: For general bibliography, see p. 4]
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER VI.
+
+NATURAL ENEMIES OF THE FOREST.
+
+
+The natural enemies of the forest--as distinct from its human
+enemies--fall into three groups: (1) Meteorological, (2) Vegetable,
+(3) Animal.
+
+
+METEOROLOGICAL FORCES.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 74. Effect of Wind, July, 1902, Cass County,
+Minnesota. _U. S. Forest Service._]
+
+_Wind._ "Windfalls" are not an uncommon sight in any forest.
+Frequently only small areas are blown down, one large tree upsetting a
+few others, or again a vast region is destroyed by great storms, Fig.
+74. An area of many square miles in Florida covered with long-leaf
+pine was thus destroyed several years ago. The "slash" thus formed,
+when well dried, is particularly liable to catch fire and burn
+furiously. Windfalls are especially common among shallow-rooted trees,
+as hemlock, basswood and spruce, on sandy soil and on shallow soil
+underlaid with solid stone, especially where open spaces give the wind
+free sweep. It follows that an unbroken forest is a great protection
+to itself. The only precautions against wind therefore, that can be
+taken by the forester, are to keep the forest unbroken by selecting
+only the larger trees for felling or to cut down a given tract by
+beginning at the side opposite the direction of prevailing storms and
+working toward them.
+
+In sandy regions, the wind does immense harm by blowing the sand to
+and fro in constantly shifting dunes, Figs. 75 and 76. These dunes
+occupy long stretches of the Atlantic coast and the shore of Lake
+Michigan. Such dunes have been estimated to cover 20,000 square miles
+of Europe. Along the Bay of Biscay in France, the sand dunes formerly
+drifted in ridges along the shore, damming up the streams and
+converting what was once a forest into a pestilential marsh. This
+region has been reclaimed at great expense by building fences along
+the shore to break the wind and thus keep the moving sand within
+limits. In this way a million acres of productive forest have been
+obtained.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 75. Sand-dunes, Cape May, New Jersey. _U.S. Forest
+Service._]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 76. Sand-dune. Oregon. _U.S. Forest Service._]
+
+On the other hand winds are beneficial to the forest in scattering
+seeds, weeding out weak trees, and developing strength in tree trunks.
+
+_Drouth_ both injures the foliage of trees and causes defects in the
+grain of wood, the latter appearing as "false rings." These arise
+from the effort of the tree to resume growth when the water supply is
+restored. See p. 19.
+
+_Water._ Certain trees have become accustomed to living in much water,
+as cedar and cypress have in swamps, and certain trees have become
+accustomed to periodical floods, but other trees are killed by much
+water. So when lumbermen make a pond which overflows forest land, the
+trees soon die, Fig. 77.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 77. Effect of Flooding. First Connecticut Lake,
+New Hampshire. _U. S. Forest Service._]
+
+_Lightning_ frequently blasts single trees, and in dry seasons may set
+fire to forests. This is a much more important factor in the west than
+in the east,--in the Rockies, for instance, where there are electrical
+storms without rain.
+
+_Fires_ will be considered later under man's relation to the forest.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 78. Slim Trees Bent Over by Snow; Stouter Trees
+Unharmed. Zurich, Switzerland. _U. S. Forest Service._]
+
+_Snow and ice_ often bring serious harm to saplings by permanently
+bending them over, Fig. 78, or by breaking off tops and branches.
+
+_Frost_ kills young plants; and sudden changes in temperature
+seriously affect grown timber, producing "frost checks" and "wind
+shakes." When there is a sudden fall in temperature, the outside
+layers of the tree, which are full of sap, contract more rapidly than
+the inner portions, with the result that the tree splits with a sudden
+pistol-like report, the check running radially up and down the tree.
+This is called a "frost check" or "star shake," Fig. 41._a_, p. 47,
+and such wounds rarely heal, Fig. 79.
+
+On the other hand when the temperature rapidly rises, the outside
+layers of the tree expand so much more rapidly than the inside, that
+they separate with a dull muffled chug, the check extending in a
+circular direction following the annual rings. Such checks are often
+called "wind shakes" and "cup shakes," Fig. 41._c_, p. 47. These
+injuries are found in regions where sudden changes of temperature
+occur, rather than in the tropics or in very cold climates.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 79. Contraction Frost Check. _U. S. Forest
+Service._]
+
+
+VEGETABLE ENEMIES.
+
+Under this head may be classed, in addition to fungi, a number of
+unrelated plants, including such as: moosewood and dogwood, Fig. 80,
+which crowd out young trees; vines, like bitter-sweet, which wind
+about trees and often choke them by pressure, cutting thru the bark
+and cambium; saprophytes, which smother the foliage of trees, of
+which Spanish moss, Fig. 47, p. 201, is an example; and finally such
+parasites as the mistletoes, which weaken and deform the trees.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 80. A "Forest Weed," Flowering Dogwood. North
+Carolina. _U.S. Forest Service._]
+
+The most important of the vegetable enemies of trees are fungi. It
+should be remembered, however, that, without the decay produced by
+them, the fallen trees would soon cover the ground, and prevent any
+new growth, thus destroying the natural forest.
+
+Every tree, as has been noted (p. 17), is composed of two parts, one
+part, including leaves, young branches, roots and sap-wood, living,
+and the other part, namely, the heart-wood, practically dead.
+
+Fungi that attack the live parts of a tree are called parasites,
+while those that live on dead trunks and branches are designated as
+saprophytes. The line, however, between these two classes of fungi is
+not well defined, since some parasites live on both living and dead
+wood. The parasites are of first importance, for, since they kill many
+trees, they control to a large extent the supply of living timber.
+
+Nearly all parasitic fungi have two portions, an external fruiting
+portion which bears the spores--which correspond to the seeds of
+flowering plants--and an internal portion consisting of a tangle of
+threads or filaments, which ramify the tissues of the tree and whose
+function is to absorb nutriment for the fungus. Fungi are classified
+botanically according to the spore-bearing bodies, their form, color,
+etc.
+
+The parasitic fungi which are especially destructive to wood are
+those that have naked spores growing on exposed fruiting surfaces (the
+_Hymenomycetes_). In toadstools (the _agarics_) these exposed surfaces
+are thin, flat plates called gills. In the polypores, which include
+the shelf fungi, the spore surfaces are tubes whose openings
+constitute the pores. In the dry-rot, or tear fungus (_Merulius
+lacrymans_), the spore surfaces are shallow cavities.
+
+Some varieties, called _true_ parasites, develop in uninjured trees,
+while others, called _wound_ parasites, can penetrate the tissues of
+trees, only where a cut or injury makes a suitable lodgment for the
+spores. Some fungi attack only a single species of trees, others whole
+genera; some attack only conifers, others deciduous trees, while a few
+attack trees of nearly all kinds alike.
+
+Fungal spores when brought in contact with a wound on a tree or other
+suitable place, and provided with suitable conditions of growth,
+germinate, penetrate the tissues and grow very rapidly. These spores
+send out long threads or filaments which run thru the cells lengthwise
+and also pierce them in all directions, soon forming a network in the
+wood called the mycelium.
+
+Rotting, in a large number of cases, is due to the ravages of fungi.
+This sometimes shows in the color, as the "red rot" of pine or the
+"bluing" of ash. Sometimes as in "pecky" or "peggy" cypress, the
+decayed tracts are tubular. More commonly the decayed parts are of
+irregular shape.
+
+The decay of wood is due to the ravages of low forms of plant life,
+both bacteria and fungi.
+
+A few of the more destructive forms may be noted.
+
+ _Trametes pini_ (Brot.) Fr. Foremost among the timber
+ destroying fungi is the large brown "punk" or "conch" found in
+ its typical development on the long-leaf and short-leaf pines,
+ _Pinus palustris_ and _Pinus echinata_, Fig. 81. The
+ fruiting bodies form large masses which grow out from a knot,
+ oftentimes as large as a child's head. They are cinnamon brown
+ on the lower surface, and much fissured and broken, on the
+ black charcoal-like upper surface. This fungus probably causes
+ four-fifths of the destruction brought about by the timber
+ destroying fungi. It occurs on most of the conifers in the
+ United States which have any value as lumber trees, and brings
+ about a characteristic white spotting of the wood, Fig. 82,
+ which varies with the kind of tree attacked. (Von Schrenk,
+ _Agric. Yr. Bk._, 1900, p. 206.)
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 81. A "Conch," the fruiting body of _Trametes
+pini_, on Sugar Pine. [_Agric. Year Book, 1900_, Pl. XXII, Fig. 2.]]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 82. Effect of Fungus. (_Trametes pini._) _U. S.
+Dept. Agric._]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 83. "Shelf" Fungus on Pine. _a._ Sound wood; _b._
+Resinous "light" wood; _c._ Partly decayed wood or punk; _d._ Layer of
+living spore tubes; _e._ Old filled-up spore tubes; _f._ Fluted upper
+surface of the fruiting body of the fungus, which gets its food thru
+a great number of fine threads (the mycelium), its vegetative tissue
+penetrating the wood and causing its decay. [_After Hartig._]]
+
+Of the shelf fungi, which project like brackets from the stems of
+trees, and have their pores on their under surfaces, one of the
+commonest in many localities is the yellow cheese-like _Polyporus
+sulphureus_, Fig. 83. This is found on oak, poplar, willow, larch, and
+other standing timber.
+
+ Its spawnlike threads spread from any exposed portion of
+ cambium into the pith-rays and between the annual rings,
+ forming thick layers of yellowish-white felt, and penetrating
+ the vessels of the wood, which thereupon becomes a deep brown
+ color and decays.
+
+Of the umbrella-shaped gill-bearing fungi, a yellow toadstool, called
+the honey mushroom (_Agaricus melleus_), is a good example, Fig. 84.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 84. Honey Mushroom. _Agaricus melleus._ 1. Cluster
+of small sporophores. 2. Larger sporophore with root-like organ of
+attachment. _Forestry Bulletin 22._ Plate XII, Figs. 1 and 2.]
+
+ This fungus, of common occurrence in the United States as well
+ as in Europe, is exceedingly destructive to coniferous trees,
+ the white pine in particular suffering greatly from its
+ attacks. It also fastens upon various deciduous species as a
+ parasite, attacking living trees of all ages, but living as
+ well upon dead roots and stumps and on wood that has been cut
+ and worked up, occurring frequently on bridges, railroad
+ ties, and the like, and causing prompt decay wherever it has
+ effected an entrance. The most conspicuous part of the fungus
+ is found frequently in the summer and fall on the diseased
+ parts of the tree or timber infested by it. It is one of the
+ common toadstools, this particular species being recognized by
+ its yellowish color, gills extending downward upon the stem,
+ which is encircled a little lower down by a ring, and by its
+ habit of growing in tufts or little clumps of several or many
+ individuals together. It is also particularly distinguished by
+ the formation of slender, dark-colored strings, consisting of
+ compact mycelium, from which the fruiting parts just described
+ arise. These hard root-like strings (called rhizomorphs)
+ extend along just beneath the surface of the ground, often
+ a distance of several feet, and penetrate the roots of sound
+ trees. By carefully removing the bark from a root thus invaded
+ the fungus is seen in the form of a dense, nearly white,
+ mass of mycelium, which, as the parts around decay, gradually
+ produces again the rhizomorphs already described. These
+ rhizomorphs are a characteristic part of the fungus. Occurring
+ both in the decayed wood from which they spread to the
+ adjacent parts, and extending in the soil from root to root,
+ they constitute a most effective agency in the extension of
+ the disease. * * *
+
+ External symptoms, to be observed especially in young
+ specimens recently attacked, consist in a change of the leaves
+ to a pale sickly color and often the production of short
+ stunted shoots. A still more marked symptom is the formation
+ of great quantities of resin, which flow downward thru the
+ injured parts and out into the ground. (_Forestry Bulletin_
+ No. 22, p. 51.)
+
+Of the irregular shaped fungi, one of the most destructive is a
+true parasite, _i.e._, one that finds lodgment without help, called
+_Polyporus annosus_ and also _Trametes radiciperda_, Fig. 85. It is
+peculiar in developing its fructifications on the exterior of
+roots, beneath the soil. Its pores appear on the upper side of the
+fructifications. It attacks only conifers.
+
+ Its spores, which can be readily conveyed in the fur of mice
+ or other burrowing animals, germinate in the moisture around
+ the roots: the fine threads of "spawn" penetrate the cortex,
+ and spread thru and destroy the cambium, extending in thin,
+ flat, fan-like, white, silky bands, and, here and there,
+ bursting thru the cortex in white, oval cushions, on which the
+ subterranean fructifications are produced. Each of these is
+ a yellowish-white, felt-like mass, with its outer surface
+ covered with crowded minute tubes or "pores" in which the
+ spores are produced. The wood attacked by this fungus first
+ becomes rosy or purple, then turns yellowish, and then
+ exhibits minute black dots, which surround themselves with
+ extending soft white patches. (Boulger, p. 73.)
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 85. 1. Stump of Norway Spruce, with a sporophore
+of _polyporus annosus_ several years old; the inner portions of the
+stump wholly decayed.
+
+2. Roots of a diseased spruce tree, with numerous small sporophores
+of _polyporus annosus_ attached. _Forestry Bulletin 22_, Plate XIII,
+Figs. 1 and 2.]
+
+Of the fungi which attack converted timber, the most important is "dry
+rot" or "tear fungus" (_Merulius lachrymans_), Fig. 86. It flourishes
+on damp wood in still air, especially around stables and ill
+ventilated cellars. It gets its name lachrymans (weeping) from its
+habit of dripping moisture.
+
+ The fungus destroys the substance of the timber, lessening its
+ weight and causing it to warp and crack; until at length it
+ crumbles up when dry into a fine brown powder, or, readily
+ absorbing any moisture in its neighborhood, becomes a soft,
+ cheese-like mass. * * * Imperfectly seasoned timber is most
+ susceptible to dry rot: the fungus can be spread either by its
+ spawn or by spores, and these latter can be carried even by
+ the clothes or saws of workmen, and are, of course, only too
+ likely to reach sound wood if diseased timber is left about
+ near it; but on the other hand dry timber kept dry is proof
+ against dry rot, and exposure to really dry air is fatal to
+ the fungus. (Boulger, p. 75.)
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 86. Portion of the mycelium of dry rot or tear
+fungus, _Merulius lachrymans_. This cakelike mass spreads over the
+surface of the timber. In a moist environment pellucid drops or
+"tears" distil from its lower surface: Hence its name. [Ward:
+_Timber_; Fig. 21.]]
+
+About all that can be done to protect the forest against fungi is to
+keep it clean, that is, to clear out fallen timber and slash, and in
+some cases to dig trenches around affected trees to prevent spreading
+or to cut them out and destroy them. Such methods have heretofore been
+too expensive to employ in any ordinary American forest, but the time
+is at hand when such action will prove profitable in many localities.
+
+For the preservation of cut timber from decay, several methods are
+used. Fungi need heat, air, moisture and food. If any one of these is
+lacking the fungus cannot grow. Air and heat are hard to exclude from
+wood, but moisture and food can be kept from fungi. The removal of
+moisture is called seasoning, and the poisoning of the food of fungi
+is a process of impregnating wood with certain chemicals. Both these
+processes are described in _Handwork in Wood_, Chapter III.
+
+
+ANIMAL ENEMIES.
+
+The larger animals working damage to our forests are chiefly rodents
+and grazing animals. Beavers gnaw the bark, while mice and squirrels
+rob the forest of seed and consequently of new trees. The acorns of
+white oak are particularly liable to be devoured because of their
+sweetness, while those of red and black oak, which afford timber of
+comparatively little value, are allowed to sprout, and thus come to
+possess the land. Hogs annually consume enormous quantities of "mast,"
+_i.e._, acorns or other nuts, by pasturing in oak and other forests.
+They, together with goats and sheep, Figs. 87 and 88, deer and cattle,
+work harm by trampling and browsing. Browsing destroys the tender
+shoots, especially of deciduous trees, but trampling entirely kills
+out the seedlings. The cutting up of the soil by the sharp cleft hoofs
+injures the forest floor, by pulverizing it and allowing it to be
+readily washed away by storms until deforestation may result, as was
+the case in France after the Revolution. It has cost the French people
+from thirty to forty million dollars to repair the damage begun by the
+sheep. In this country, this matter has become a very serious one
+on the Pacific Coast, where there are enormous flocks of sheep, and
+therefore the government is trying to regulate the grazing on public
+lands there, especially on steep slopes, where erosion takes place
+rapidly.[1]
+
+ [Footnote 1: The evils of grazing are increased by the fact
+ that fires are sometimes started intentionally in order to
+ increase the area of grazing land.]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 87. Goats Eating Foliage, New Mexico. _U.S. Forest
+Service._]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 88. Sheep Grazing in Forest, Idaho. _U.S. Forest
+Service._]
+
+The most destructive animal enemies of the forest are the insects.
+The average annual loss of trees in the United States from this cause
+alone has been estimated to be one hundred million dollars.
+
+Insects have two objects in their attack on trees, one is to obtain
+food, as when they are in the larval stage, and the other is to
+provide for offspring, as do certain beetles.
+
+The number of insect enemies of the forest is enormous. At the St.
+Louis Exposition, there were on exhibit nearly three hundred such
+insects. These belong to some twenty orders, of which the beetles
+(_Coleoptera_), which have horny wings and biting mouth parts, and
+the moths and butterflies (_Lepidoptera_), with membraneous wings and
+sucking mouth parts, are the most destructive. Insects attack every
+part of the tree, the seed, the shoot, the flower, the root, the leaf,
+the bark and the wood, both standing and cut.
+
+Of the fruit and seed pests, the most destructive are weevils, worms
+and gall insects.
+
+Of the twig and shoot pests, beetles, weevils and caterpillars are the
+worst.
+
+Among insects that attack roots, the periodical cicada (17 year old
+locust) may be noted.
+
+The leaf pests are far more serious. They include the true and false
+caterpillars, moths, gall insects and plant lice.
+
+Of the bark pests, the bark beetles are the most destructive. These
+are also called Engraver Beetles from the smoothly cut figures which
+are their burrows under the bark, Figs. 89, 90, 91.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 89. Work of the Spruce Destroying Beetle: _a._
+Primary gallery; _b._ Borings packed in side; _c._ Entrance and
+central burrow thru the packed borings; _d._ Larval mines. Note how
+the eggs are grouped on the sides. [_Agric. Year Book_, 1902, Fig. 24,
+p. 268.]]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 90. Complete brood Galleries of the Hickory Bark
+Beetle in Surface of Wood. [_Agric. Year Book_, 1903, Fig. 28, p.
+316.]]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 91. Brood Galleries of the Oak Bark Beetle,
+showing Character of Primary Gallery at _b_; Larval or Brood Mines at
+_a._ [_Agric. Year Book_, 1903, Fig. 30, page 318.]]
+
+ Many pairs of beetles make a simultaneous attack on the lower
+ half of the main trunk of medium-sized to large trees. They
+ bore thru the outer bark to the inner living portion, and thru
+ the inner layers of the latter; they excavate long, irregular,
+ longitudinal galleries, and along the sides of these at
+ irregular intervals, numerous eggs are closely placed. The
+ eggs soon hatch and the larvae at once commence to feed on the
+ inner bark, and as they increase in size, extend and enlarge
+ their food burrows in a general transverse but irregular
+ course, away from the mother galleries (see illustration).
+ When these young and larval forms are full grown, each
+ excavates a cavity or cell at the end of its burrow and next
+ to the outer corky bark. (Hopkins, _Agric. Yr. Bk._, 1902.)
+
+Some of the species attack living trees, causing their rapid death,
+and are among the most destructive enemies of American forests.
+
+All of the above indirectly affect both the quantity and quality
+of the wood supply. They can be studied more in detail in the
+publications of the U.S. Bureau of Entomology.
+
+Of the insects directly attacking wood, the most important are the
+ambrosia or timber beetles, the borers, the ants, and the carpenter
+bees. The most remarkable feature of the beetle is the manner of its
+boring into the harder parts of the wood. Its jaws are particularly
+constructed for this work, being heavy and strong. The boring is
+done something after the manner of countersinking, and the jaws are
+believed to be self-sharpening, by reason of the peculiar right to
+left and left to right motion.
+
+ _Ambrosia_ or _timber beetles_, Fig. 92. This class of insects
+ attacks living, dead, and felled trees, sawlogs, green lumber,
+ and stave-bolts, often causing serious injury and loss from
+ the pin-hole and stained-wood defects caused by their brood
+ galleries. The galleries are excavated by the parent beetles
+ in the sound sap-wood sometimes extending into the heart-wood,
+ and the young stages feed on a fungus growth which grows on
+ the walls of galleries. (Hopkins, Entom. Bulletin No. 48, p.
+ 10.) The growth of this ambrosia-like fungus is induced or
+ controlled by the parent beetles and the young are dependent
+ on it for food. (Hopkins, _Agric. Yr. Bk._, 1904.)
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 92. Work of Ambrosia Beetle, _Xyloborus celsus_,
+in Hickory Wood: _a_, Larva; _b_, Pupa; _c_, Adult beetle; _d_,
+Character of work in lumber cut from injured log; _e_, Bark; _f_, Sap
+wood; _g_, Heartwood. [_Agric. Year Book_, 1904, Fig. 44, p. 384.]]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 93. Work of Ambrosia Beetles in Oak: _a_,
+_Monarthum mali_, and work; _b_, _Platypus compositus_, and work; _c_,
+Bark; _d_, Sap-wood; _e_, Heart-wood; _f_, Character of work in lumber
+from injured log. [_Agric. Year Book_, 1904, Fig. 45, p. 384.]]
+
+ There are two general types or classes of these galleries, one
+ in which the broods develop together in the main burrows, the
+ other, in which the individuals develop in short separate side
+ chambers extending at right angles from the primary gallery,
+ Fig. 93. The galleries of the latter type are usually
+ accompanied by a distinct staining of the wood, while those of
+ the former are not. (Hopkins, _Agric. Yr. Bk._, 1904, p. 383.)
+
+ _Bark_ and _wood borers_, Fig. 94. This class of enemies
+ differs from the preceding in the fact that the parent beetles
+ do not burrow into the wood or bark, but deposit their eggs
+ on the surface. The elongate, whitish, round-headed
+ (_Cerambycid_), flat-headed (_Buprestid_), or short, stout
+ (_Curculionid_) grubs hatching from these eggs cause injury
+ by burrowing beneath the bark, or deep into the sap-wood and
+ heart-wood of living, injured and dead trees, sawlogs, etc.
+ Some of the species infest living trees, Fig. 95, causing
+ serious injury or death. Others attack only dead or dying bark
+ and wood, but this injury often results in great loss from the
+ so-called wormhole defects. (A. D. Hopkins, _Entom. Bull._, No.
+ 48, p. 10.)
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 94. Work of Round-Headed and Flat-Headed Borers
+in Pine: _a_, Work of round-headed borers, "sawyer," _Monohamnus_
+sp.; _b_, _Ergates spiculatus_; _c_, Work of flat-headed borer,
+_Buprestis_, larva and adult. [_Agric. Year Book_, 1904, Fig. 46, p.
+385.]]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 95. Hemlock Killed by Buprestid Worms. Hoquiam,
+Washington. _U.S. Forest Service._]
+
+ The pine sawyers are among the most troublesome pests in the
+ mill yard, and their large, white larvae often do much damage
+ to logs by eating great holes thru their solid interior. While
+ burrowing in the wood the larvae make a peculiar grating sound
+ that may be heard on quiet nights at a considerable distance.
+ This is a familiar sound in the lumber camps of the North,
+ and has probably given rise to the name of the pine sawyers by
+ which these insects are known. (_Forestry Bulletin_, No. 22,
+ p. 58.)
+
+ _Powder-post beetles_, Fig. 96. This is a class of insects
+ representing two or three families of beetles, the larvae of
+ which infest and convert into fine powder many different kinds
+ of dry and seasoned wood products, such as hickory and ash
+ handles, wagon spokes, lumber, etc., when wholly or in part
+ from the sap-wood of trees. Oak and hemlock tan-bark is
+ sometimes injured to a great extent, and the structural
+ timbers of old houses, barns, etc., are often seriously
+ injured, while hop poles and like products are attacked by one
+ set of these insects, the adults of which burrow into the wood
+ for the purpose of depositing their eggs. (Hopkins, _Forestry
+ Bulletin_ No. 48, p. 11.)
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 96. Work of Powder Post Beetle, _Sinoxylon
+basilare_, in hickory pole: _a_, Character of work by larvae; _b_,
+Exit holes made by emerging broods. [_Agric. Year Book_, 1904, Fig.
+49.]]
+
+ _Timber worms_, Fig. 97. This class of true wood-boring
+ "worms," or grubs, are the larvae of beetles. They enter the
+ wood from eggs deposited in wounds in living trees, from
+ which they burrow deep into the heart-wood. Generation after
+ generation may develop in the wood of a tree without affecting
+ its life but the wood is rendered worthless for most purposes
+ by the so-called wormhole and pinhole defects resulting from
+ their burrows. The same species also breed in the wood of
+ dying and dead standing trees, and in the stumps and logs of
+ felled ones, often for many years after the trees are felled.
+ One species sometimes attacks freshly sawed oak lumber, new
+ stave bolts, etc. They are among the most destructive enemies
+ of hardwood forest trees, especially in reducing the value of
+ the wood of the best part of the trunks. (Hopkins, _Forestry
+ Bulletin_ No. 48, p. 10.)
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 97. Work of Timber Worms in Oak: _a_, Work of oak
+timber worm, _Eupsalis minuta_; _b._ Barked surface; _c._ Bark;
+_d._ Sap-wood timber worm, _Hylocaetus lugubris_, and its work; _e._
+Sap-wood. [_Agric. Year Book_, 1904, Fig. 47, p. 386.]]
+
+ The _carpenter worms_, Fig. 98. These are large pinkish
+ caterpillars which are the larvae of stout-bodied moths. They
+ enter the bark and wood of living oak, locust, poplar and
+ other trees, from eggs deposited by the moths in the crevices
+ of uninjured bark, or in the edges of wounds. They burrow deep
+ into the solid wood, where they live for two or three years
+ before transforming to the adult. The wood is seriously
+ injured by the very large wormhole defects, and while the
+ life of the tree is but slightly, if at all, affected by the
+ earlier attacks, the continued operations of this class of
+ borers year after year, finally results in the decay of
+ the heart-wood, or a hollow trunk and a dead top. (Hopkins,
+ _Forestry Bulletin_, No. 48, p. 11.)
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 98. Worm Holes in Red Oak, Work of the Oak
+Carpenter Worm. [_Agric. Year Book_, 1903, Fig. 37, p. 324.]]
+
+ _Columbian Timber-beetle_ One of the commonest wormhole defects
+ in white oak, rock oak, beech, and tulip ("whitewood" or
+ "yellow poplar") is one known to the lumber trade as grease
+ spots, patch-worm, or black holes, Fig. 99, steam boats, Fig.
+ 100, etc., caused by the Columbian timber beetle (_Corthylus
+ columbianus Hopk_.) The characteristic feature of this
+ wormhole defect, which will enable it to be readily recognized
+ in oak and beech, is transverse series of two or more black
+ holes about the size of the lead in an ordinary lead pencil,
+ with a streak of stained wood extending with the grain two
+ or three or more inches each side, as in Fig. 99. In
+ quarter-sawed oak or split or sawed staves, a short
+ longitudinal section of one of these black holes is seen
+ attended by the stained streak on one side of a thick or curly
+ growth or grain, Fig. 100. It is this form which is called
+ "steamboats." In whitewood (yellow poplar) the black holes
+ are attended by very long black, greenish, or bluish streaks,
+ sometimes five or six feet long. When this is common in the
+ lumber it is called "calico poplar." Fig. 101 represents the
+ characteristic appearance of this defect greatly reduced.
+ (Hopkins, _Agric. Yr. Bk._, 1903, p. 327.)
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 99. Work of the Columbian Timber Beetle: Black
+holes and "grease spots" in white oak. [_Agric. Year Book_, 1903, Fig.
+38, p. 325.]]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 100. Work of the Columbian Timber Beetle:
+"Steamboats" in quartered or Split white oak. [_Agric. Year Book_,
+1903, Fig. 39, p. 326.]]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 101. Work of the Columbian Timber Beetle in Tulip
+Wood, "Calico Poplar," [_Agric. Year Book_ 1903, Fig. 40, p. 326.]]
+
+ _Carpenter bees._ The work of this class of woodboring bees
+ is shown in Fig. 102. The injury consists of large augerlike
+ tunnels in exposed, solid dry wood of buildings and other
+ structures. It is most common in soft woods, such as pine,
+ poplar, redwood and the like. (Hopkins, _Agric. Yr. Bk._,
+ 1904, p. 390.)
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 102. Work of the Carpenter Bee, _Xylocopa
+orpifex_, in Redwood Lumber: _a_, entrance; _b_, galleries; _c_,
+cells; _d_, larva; _e_, adult. [_Agric. Year Book_, 1904, Fig. 53, p.
+390.]]
+
+ _Horn tails._ This is a class of borers which are the larvae
+ of the so-called wood wasps. They may enter the exposed dead
+ wood of wounds of living trees, but more commonly attack the
+ wood of dead standing conifers and hard woods, in the sap-wood
+ of which they excavate irregular burrows, which are packed
+ with their borings. When the adults emerge they leave the
+ surface perforated with numerous round holes. Water and fungi
+ entering these holes cause a very rapid decay of the wood.
+ (Hopkins, _Entom. Bull._ No. 48, p. 11.)
+
+The tunnels of these various wood pests are most frequently to be seen
+in chestnut, ash, hickory, oak, tulip, and cypress.
+
+One would think that with such an array of enemies, the forest would
+hardly survive, but on the other hand there are many enemies of these
+pests. The most destructive are the predaceous and parasitic insects.
+Many insects are simply predaceous, pouncing upon and destroying such
+other insects as they can overcome. Still others are parasites, some
+external, but most of them living within the bodies of their victims
+where they pass their entire larval life. The eggs are laid on or
+in the body of the victim, so that as soon as one hatches, it has
+suitable food. The ichneumon fly, Fig. 103, is such a parasite;
+it destroys millions of insect pests. It has a long and peculiar
+ovipositor with which it drills a hole into the tree and deposits the
+egg in a burrow of the Pigeon Horntail, a wood wasp that burrows into
+deciduous trees. The larva soon finds its victim, the grub of the
+Pigeon Horntail, and lives on it to its destruction.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 103. Ichneumon Fly whose Larva Feeds on the Larva
+of the Pigeon Horn-tail.]
+
+It would seem that it is a hopeless task to control the insect enemies
+of forest trees and forest products or to prevent losses from their
+ravages, but the writer is informed by Dr. A. D. Hopkins, the expert
+in the Bureau of Entomology in charge of forest insect investigations,
+that the results of their investigations show conclusively that there
+are many practical and inexpensive methods of control now available
+thru the suggestions and recommendations in recent Department
+publications on forest insects, as well as thru direct correspondence
+with the Department. These methods are based on the principle of
+prevention and not on that of extermination. It has been shown that
+thru proper adjustment of the details in management of forests and of
+the business of manufacturing, storing, transporting, and utilizing
+the products a large percentage of the losses can be prevented at
+small additional expense, and that even when considerable cost is
+involved the amount saved will often represent a handsome profit.
+
+
+THE NATURAL ENEMIES OF THE FOREST.
+
+REFERENCES:[A]
+
+(1) Meterological.
+
+ Pinchot, _Primer_ I, pp. 75-76.
+ Roth, _First Book_, _pp._ 198-202.
+ Bruncken, pp. 27-29.
+
+ Water.
+ Roth, _First Book_, p. 27.
+
+ Snow, ice and frost.
+ Pinchot, _Primer_, I, p. 76.
+ Bruce, _For. and Irr._, 8: 159, Ap. '02.
+
+
+(2) Vegetable.
+
+ Roth, _First Book_, p. 4.
+ Boulger, pp. 70-75.
+ Spaulding, _For. Bull._, No. 22.
+ Ward, Chaps. V, VI, VII.
+ Sickles, pp. 41-45.
+ von Schrenck, _For. Bull._, No. 41, Pl. III.
+ Sherfesee. _For. Circ._ No. 139.
+ von Schrenck, _Bur. Plant Ind. Bull._ No. 36.
+ von Schrenck, _Bur. Plant Ind. Bull._ No. 32.
+ von Schrenck, _Agric. Yr. Bk._, 1900, p. 199.
+
+
+(3) Animal.
+
+ Grazing.
+ Pinchot, _Primer I_, pp. 69-73, II, p. 73.
+ Pinchot, _Agric. Yr. Bk._, 1898, p. 187
+ Coville, _For. Bull._ No. 15, pp. 28-31.
+ Roth, _First Bk._, p. 130, 178.
+
+ Insects.
+ Comstock, passim.
+ Hopkins, _Agric. Yr. Bk._, 1902, pp. 265-282.
+ Roth, _First Book_, pp. 115-130.
+ Howard, _Entom. Bull._, No. 11, n. s.
+ Hopkins, Spaulding, _Entom. Bull._, No. 28.
+ Hopkins, _Entom. Bull._, No. 48.
+ Hopkins, _Agric. Yr. Bk._, 1903, pp. 313-329.
+ Hopkins, _Agric. Yr. Bk._, 1904, pp. 382-389, Figs. 43-56.
+ Pinchot, _Primer_, I, p. 73.
+ Felt, N. Y. _State Museum Bull._, 103, Ent. 25.
+ Hopkins, _Entom. Bull._ No. 32.
+ Hopkins, _Entom. Bull._ No. 56.
+ Hopkins, _Entom. Bull._ No. 58.
+ Spaulding and Chittenden, _For. Bull._ No. 22, pp. 55-61.
+
+ [Footnote A: For general bibliography, see p. 4.]
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER VII.
+
+THE EXHAUSTION OF THE FOREST.
+
+
+The exhaustion of the forest in the United States is due to two main
+causes: (1) Fire, and (2) Destructive Lumbering.
+
+
+FIRE.
+
+It is not commonly realized that forest fires are almost entirely the
+result of human agency. When cruisers first began to locate claims in
+this country, practically no regions had been devastated by fire. Now
+such regions are to be seen everywhere. Altho lightning occasionally
+sets fire to forests, especially in the Rocky Mountains, the losses
+from this cause are trifling compared with the total loss.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 104. Slash, Left in the Woods, and Ready to Catch
+Fire. _U. S. Forest Service._]
+
+_Opportunities for fire._ There are a number of facts that make the
+forest peculiarly liable to fire. Especially in the fall there are
+great quantities of inflammable material, such as dry leaves, twigs,
+and duff lying loose ready for ignition. The bark of some trees,
+as "paper birch," and the leaves of others, as conifers, are very
+inflammable. It follows that fires are more common in coniferous than
+in deciduous forests. After lumbering or windfalls, the accumulated
+"slash" burns easily and furiously, Fig. 104. Moreover a region once
+burned over, is particularly liable to burn again, on account of the
+accumulation of dry trunks and branches. See Fig. 107.
+
+Long dry seasons and high wind furnish particularly favorable
+conditions for fire. On the other hand, the wind by changing in
+direction may extinguish the fire by turning it back upon its track.
+Indeed the destructive power of fires depends largely upon the wind.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 105. Forest Fire. _U. S. Forest Service._]
+
+_Causes of fire._ Forest fires are due to all sorts of causes,
+accidental and intentional. Dropped matches, smouldering tobacco,
+neglected camp fires and brush fires, locomotive sparks, may all be
+accidental causes that under favorable conditions entail tremendous
+loss. There is good reason to believe that many forest fires are set
+intentionally. The fact that grass and berry bushes will soon spring
+up after a fire, leads sheep men, cattle and pig owners, and berry
+pickers to set fires. Vast areas are annually burned over in the
+United States for these reasons. Most fires run only along the surface
+of the ground, doing little harm to the big timber, and if left alone
+will even go out of themselves; but if the duff is dry, the fire may
+smoulder in it a long time, ready to break out into flame when it
+reaches good fuel or when it is fanned by the wind, Fig. 105. Even
+these ground fires do incalculable damage to seeds and seedlings, and
+the safest plan is to put out every fire no matter how small.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 106. Burned Forest of Engelmann Spruce.
+Foreground, Lodgepole Pine Coming in. _U. S. Forest Service._]
+
+Altho it is true that the loss of a forest is not irremediable because
+vegetation usually begins again at once, Fig. 106, yet the actual
+damage is almost incalculable. The tract may lie year after year,
+covered with only worthless weeds and bushes, and if hilly, the region
+at once begins to be eroded by the rains.
+
+After the fire, may come high winds that blow down the trunks of the
+trees, preparing material for another fire, Fig. 107.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 107. Effect of Fire and Wind. Colorado. _U. S.
+Forest Service._]
+
+The statistics of the actual annual money loss of the timber burned
+in the United States are not gathered. In 1880 Professor Sargent
+collected much information, and in the census of that year (10th
+Census, Vol. IX) reported 10,000,000 acres burned that year at a value
+of $25,000,000.
+
+In 1891, the Division of Forestry collected authentic records of
+12,000,000 acres burned over in a single year, at an estimated value
+of $50,000,000.
+
+In the Adironacks in the spring of 1903, an unprecedentedly dry
+season, fire after fire caused a direct loss of about $3,500,000.
+
+In 1902, a fire on the dividing line between Washington and Oregon
+destroyed property amounting to $12,000,000. Within comparatively
+recent years, the Pacific Coast states have lost over $100,000,000
+worth of timber by fire alone.
+
+During September, 1908, forest fires raged in Minnesota, Michigan,
+Wisconsin, Maine, New York and Pennsylvania. The estimates of loss
+for northern Michigan alone amounted to $40,000,000. For two weeks
+the loss was set at $1,000,000 a day. The two towns of Hibbing and
+Chisholm were practically wiped out of existence, and 296 lives were
+lost.
+
+Certain forest fires have been so gigantic and terrible as to become
+historic.
+
+ One of these is the Miramichi fire of 1825. It began its
+ greatest destruction about one o'clock in the afternoon of
+ October 7th of that year, at a place about sixty miles
+ above the town of Newcastle, on the Miramichi River, in New
+ Brunswick. Before ten o'clock at night it was twenty miles
+ below New Castle. In nine hours it had destroyed a belt of
+ forest eighty miles long and twenty-five miles wide. Over more
+ than two and a half million acres almost every living thing
+ was killed. Even the fish were afterwards found dead in heaps
+ on the river banks. Many buildings and towns were destroyed,
+ one hundred and sixty persons perished, and nearly a thousand
+ head of stock. The loss from the Miramichi fire is estimated
+ at $300,000, not including the value of the timber. (Pinchot,
+ Part 1. p. 79-80.)
+
+ Of such calamities, one of the worst that is on record is that
+ known as the Peshtigo fire, which, in 1871, during the same
+ month, October, when Chicago was laid in ashes, devastated the
+ country about the shores of Green Bay in Wisconsin. More than
+ $3,000,000 worth of property was burnt, at least two thousand
+ families of settlers were made homeless, villages were
+ destroyed and over a thousand lives lost. (Bruncken, p. 110.)
+
+ The most destructive fire of more recent years was that which
+ started near Hinckley, Minn., September 1, 1894. While the
+ area burned over was less than in some other great fires, the
+ loss of life and property was very heavy. Hinckley and six
+ other towns were destroyed, about 500 lives were lost, more
+ than 2,000 persons were left destitute, and the estimated loss
+ in property of various kinds was $25,000,000. Except for the
+ heroic conduct of locomotive engineers and other railroad men,
+ the loss of life would have been far greater.
+
+ This fire was all the more deplorable, because it was wholly
+ unnecessary. For many days before the high wind came and drove
+ it into uncontrollable fury, it was burning slowly close to
+ the town of Hinckley and could have been put out. (Pinchot,
+ Part I, 82-83.)
+
+One of the most remarkable features of these "crown fires," is the
+rapidity with which they travel. The Miramichi fire traveled nine
+miles an hour.
+
+To get an idea of the fury of a forest fire, read this description
+from Bruncken. After describing the steady, slow progress of a duff
+fire, he proceeds:
+
+ But there comes an evening when nobody thinks of going to bed.
+ All day the smoke has become denser and denser, until it is no
+ longer a haze, but a thick yellowish mass of vapor, carrying
+ large particles of sooty cinders, filling one's eyes and
+ nostrils with biting dust, making breathing oppressive. There
+ is no escape from it. Closing windows and doors does not bar
+ it out of the houses; it seems as if it could penetrate solid
+ walls. Everything it touches feels rough, as if covered with
+ fine ashes. The heat is horrible altho no ray of sunshine
+ penetrates the heavy pall of smoke.
+
+ In the distance a rumbling, rushing sound is heard. It is the
+ fire roaring in the tree tops on the hill sides, several miles
+ from town. This is no longer a number of small fires, slowly
+ smouldering away to eat up a fallen log; nor little dancing
+ flames running along the dry litter on the ground, trying to
+ creep up the bark of a tree, where the lichens are thick and
+ dry, but presently falling back exhausted. The wind has risen,
+ fanning the flames on all sides, till they leap higher and
+ higher, reaching the lower branches of the standing timber,
+ enveloping the mighty boles of cork pine in a sheet of flame,
+ seizing the tall poles of young trees and converting them
+ into blazing beacons that herald the approach of destruction.
+ Fiercer and fiercer blows the wind, generated by the fire
+ itself as it sends currents of heated air rushing upward into
+ infinity. Louder and louder the cracking of the branches as
+ the flames seize one after the other, leaping from crown to
+ crown, rising high above the tree tops in whirling wreaths
+ of fire, and belching forth clouds of smoke hundreds of feet
+ still higher. As the heated air rises more and more, rushing
+ along with a sound like that of a thousand foaming mountain
+ torrents, burning brands are carried along, whirling on across
+ the firmament like evil spirits of destruction, bearing the
+ fire miles away from its origin, then falling among the dry
+ brush heaps of windfall or slashing, and starting another fire
+ to burn as fiercely as the first. * * *
+
+ There is something horrible in the slow, steady approach of
+ a top fire. It comes on with the pitiless determination of
+ unavoidable destiny, not faster than a man can walk. But there
+ is no stopping it. You cannot fight a fire that seizes tree
+ top after tree top, far above your reach, and showers down
+ upon the pigmy mortals that attempt to oppose it an avalanch
+ of burning branches, driving them away to escape the torture
+ and death that threatens them. (Bruncken, _American Forests
+ and Forestry_, 106-109.)
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 108. Fighting Forest Fire. _U. S. Forest
+Service._]
+
+Real forest fires are not usually put out; men only try to limit them.
+A common method of limitation is to cut trenches thru the duff so that
+the fire cannot pass across, Fig. 108. In serious cases back fires are
+built on the side of the paths or roads or trenches toward the fire,
+in the expectation that the two fires will meet. In such cases great
+care has to be taken that the back fire itself does not escape. Small
+fires, however, can sometimes be beaten out or smothered with dirt and
+sand, since water is usually unavailable.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 109. Fire Lane. Worcester Co., Mass. _U. S. Forest
+Service._]
+
+But "an ounce of prevention is worth a pound of cure." One of the best
+of these preventions is a system of fire lanes. Even narrow paths of
+dirt will stop an ordinary fire. Roads, of course, are still better.
+Systems of fire lanes, Fig. 109, are made great use of in Europe
+and British India. Belts of hardwood trees are also cultivated along
+railways, and to break up large bodies of conifers.
+
+If in lumbering, the slash were destroyed or even cut up so as to lie
+near the ground and rot quickly, many fires would be prevented.
+
+Some states, as New York, have a fairly well organized system of fire
+wardens, who have the authority to draft as much male help as
+they need at $2.00 a day to fight forest fires. Unfortunately
+"ne'er-do-wells" sometimes set fire to the woods, in order to "make
+work" for themselves. Much preventive work is also done by educating
+the public in schools and by the posting of the fire notices,[1] Fig.
+110.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 110. Look out for Fire. Rules and Laws.]
+
+
+DESTRUCTIVE LUMBERING.
+
+How the reckless and destructive methods of lumbering common in
+America came into vogue, is worth noting.[2]
+
+The great historical fact of the first half century of our country
+was the conquest of the wilderness. That wilderness was largely an
+unbroken forest. To the early settler, this forest was the greatest
+of barriers to agriculture. The crash of a felled tree was to him a
+symbol of advancing civilization. The woods were something to be got
+rid of to make room for farms, Fig. 111. In Virginia, for example,
+where the soil was soon exhausted by tobacco culture and modern
+fertilizers were unknown, there was a continual advance into the woods
+to plant on new and richer land. The forest was also full of enemies
+to the settler, both animals and Indians, and was a dreaded field for
+fire. So there grew up a feeling of hate and fear for the forest.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 111. Forest Giving Place to Farm Land. North
+Carolina. _U. S. Forest Service._]
+
+More than that the forest seemed exhaustless. The clearings were at
+first only specks in the woods, and even when they were pushed farther
+and farther back from the seacoast, there was plenty of timber beyond.
+
+ The idea that the area of this forest could ever be diminished
+ by human hands to any appreciable extent so that people would
+ become afraid of not having woodland enough to supply them
+ with the needed lumber, would have seemed an utter absurdity
+ to the backwoodsman. * * * Thus the legend arose of the
+ inexhaustible supply of lumber in American forests, a legend
+ which only within the last twenty years has given place to
+ juster notions. (Bruncken, p. 57.)
+
+This tradition of abundant supply and the feeling of hostility to the
+forest lasted long after the reasons for them had disappeared. When
+we remember that every farm in the eastern United States, is made from
+reclaimed forest land and that for decades lumber was always within
+reach up the rivers, down which it was floated, it is not strange that
+reckless and extravagant methods of cutting and using it prevailed.
+
+Following the settler came the lumberman, who continued the same
+method of laying waste the forest land. The lumber market grew slowly
+at first, but later developed by leaps and bounds, until now the
+output is enormous.
+
+Lumbering in America has come to be synonymous with the clearing off
+of all the marketable timber, regardless of the future. It treats the
+forest as tho it were a mine, not a crop, Fig. 112. Since 1880 the
+total cut has been over 700,000,000 feet, enough to make a one inch
+floor over Vermont, Massachusetts, Connecticut, Rhode Island and
+Delaware, or one-half of the State of New York, an area of 25,000
+square miles.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 112. Redwood Forest Turned Into Pasture.
+California. _U. S. Forest Service._]
+
+Other countries, too, have devastated their forests. Portugal has
+a forest area of only 5 per cent. of the total land area, Spain and
+Greece, each 13 per cent., Italy 14 per cent. and Turkey 20 per cent.
+Whether the destruction of the American forests shall go as far
+as this is now a live question which has only just begun to be
+appreciated.
+
+Another reason for the reckless American attitude toward the forest is
+the frequency and severity of forest fires. This has led to the fear
+on the part of lumbermen of losing what stumpage they had, and so they
+have cleared their holdings quickly and sold the timber. Their motto
+was "cut or lose."
+
+A third incentive to devastative methods was the levy of what were
+considered unjust taxes.
+
+ Hundreds of thousands of acres in the white pine region,
+ notably in Michigan, Wisconsin, and Minnesota, have been cut
+ over, abandoned, sold for taxes, and finally reduced by fire
+ to a useless wilderness because of the shortsighted policy of
+ heavy taxation. To lay heavy taxes on timber land is to set
+ a premium on forest destruction, a premium that is doing
+ more than any other single factor to hinder the spread of
+ conservative lumbering among the owners of large bodies
+ of timber land. * * * Heavy taxes are responsible for the
+ barrenness of thousands of square miles which should never
+ have ceased to be productive, and which must now lie fallow
+ for many decades before they can be counted again among the
+ wealth-making assets of the nation. (Pinchot, _Agric. Yr.
+ Bk._, 1898, pp. 184-185.)
+
+ On the treatment of the questions of fire and taxes depends
+ the future of American forest industries. (Bruncken, p. 226.)
+
+Undoubtedly much waste has been caused by sheer ignorance of forest
+conditions and methods, which, if followed, would secure successive
+crops instead of one, but it is safe to say that the desire for
+immediate profits has been the dominant cause of reckless lumbering.
+So short-sighted has the policy of private owners proved itself, that
+it is a question whether any large extent of forest land can safely
+be left in private hands. No individual lives long enough to reap more
+than one forest crop. Only corporations and States can be expected
+to have an interest long enough continued to justify the methods of
+conservative lumbering.
+
+As a matter of fact, nearly one-half of the privately owned timber
+of the United States is held by 195 great holders, the principal ones
+being the Southern Pacific Company, the Weyerhauser Timber Company,
+and the Northern Pacific Railway Company, which together own nearly 11
+per cent. of the privately owned forests of the country. These large
+holders are cutting little of their timber, their object, however,
+being not so much to conserve the forests as to reserve to themselves
+the incalculable private profits which are expected to come with the
+future enormous increase in the value of timber.
+
+Over against this policy, stands that of the United States Forest
+Service of increasing the area of the National Forests in order to
+conserve them for the public welfare. The pity is that the government
+ever let the forests pass out of its hands. Only forty years ago
+seventy-five per cent. of the timber now standing was publicly owned.
+Now about eighty per cent. of it is privately owned. In the meanwhile
+its value has increased anywhere from ten to fifty fold, according to
+locality.[3] Some large corporations, however, like the Pennsylvania
+Railroad, the Kirby Lumber Company, of Texas, and the International
+Paper Company, have entered upon a policy of conservative lumbering.
+
+Of the actual practices which distinguish destructive lumbering, a few
+may be cited. Stumps are cut too high and tops too low. Good lumber is
+wasted on lumber roads and bridges, Fig. 113. Saplings are torn down
+in dragging out logs. Slash is left in condition to foster fires and
+left with no shade protection. Seedlings are smothered with slash.
+Seed trees are all cut out leaving no chance for reproduction. Only
+poorer sorts of trees are left standing, thus insuring deterioration.
+Paper pulp cutting goes even farther than lumbering, and ordinarily
+leaves nothing behind but a howling wilderness.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 113. Red Spruce Used in Building Skidway, and Left
+in the Woods. Hamilton Co., New York.]
+
+The production of turpentine from the long-leaf pine, Fig. 114, at
+the annual rate of 40,000 barrels has meant the devastation of 70,000
+acres of virgin forest.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 114. Turpentine Boxing, Cup System. Georgia. _U.
+S. Forest Service._]
+
+In view of this wholesale destruction it becomes of interest to know
+how much still remains of the timber supply of the United States.
+The latest and most authoritative estimate of standing timber
+in continental United States, excluding Alaska, gives a total of
+2,800,000,000 M feet B.M.,[4] of which 2,200,000,000 M feet are
+privately owned, about 539,000,000 M feet are in the National Forests
+(Fig. 119, p. 271,) and 90,000,000 M feet are on the unreserved public
+lands, National parks, State lands and Indian reservations.
+
+Earlier estimates were hardly more than guesses. For example the
+census of 1880 estimated the stumpage of the U. S. at 856,290,100 M
+feet, while the census of 1900 gives a total of 1,390,000,000 M feet.
+The discrepancy appears still greater when it is remembered that in
+the meantime 700,000,000 M feet were cut. Of this amount 500,000,000 M
+feet were of conifers or 80,000,000 M feet more than were included in
+the estimate of 1880. The simple fact is of course that the earlier
+estimates were gross underestimates, due to the fact that they were
+based on entirely inadequate data, and therefore can not be used to
+obscure the now unquestionable fact that the timber supply of this
+country is surely and rapidly melting away.
+
+The Forest Service estimates that the present annual cut of saw timber
+is about 50,000,000 M feet. At this rate the present stand would last
+about 55 years and the privately owned timber only 44 years. This
+estimate does not allow for growth and decay.
+
+While the population of the United States increased 52 per cent. from
+1880 to 1900, during the same period the lumber-cut increased 94 per
+cent. In other words the yearly increase in use is 20 to 25 per
+cent. per capita, that is, fast as the population grows, the lumber
+consumption increases nearly twice as fast. This increase in the
+lumber-cut far overbalances the growth of trees.
+
+It is also to be remembered that this increase in the use of lumber is
+in spite of the enormous increase of substitutes for lumber, such as
+brick, cement and steel for building, and steel for bridges, vehicles,
+fences, machinery, tools, and implements of all kinds.
+
+How lavishly we use lumber may further be appreciated from the fact
+that we consume 260 cubic feet[5] per capita, while the average for
+13 European countries is but 49 cubic feet per capita. In other words
+every person in the U. S. is using five times as much wood as he would
+use if he lived in Europe. It is estimated that on an average each
+person in this country uses annually the product of 25 acres of
+forest. _The country as a whole, cuts every year, between three and
+four times more wood than all the forests grow in the meantime._
+By contrast, the principal countries of Europe, cut just the annual
+growth, while Russia, Sweden and Japan, cut less than the growth. In
+other words, the 2,800,000,000,000 feet B.M. of the stumpage of the
+United States is a capital which is constantly drawn upon, whereas,
+the 944,700,000,000 board feet of the forest of the German Empire is
+a capital which is untouched but produces annually 300 board feet per
+acre.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 115. (Lumber Production by Regions, 1907).
+
+Southern States include: Virginia, North Carolina, South Carolina,
+Georgia, Florida, Alabama, Mississippi, Louisiana, Arkansas, Texas and
+Oklahoma.
+
+Pacific States include: Washington, Oregon and California.
+
+North Atlantic States include: New England, New York, Pennsylvania,
+New Jersey, Delaware, and Maryland.
+
+Lake States include: Michigan, Wisconsin, and Minnesota.
+
+Central States include: Ohio, West Virginia, Kentucky, Tennessee,
+Indiana, Illinois, and Missouri.
+
+Rocky Mountain States include: Montana, Idaho, Wyoming, Nevada, Utah,
+Colorado, Arizona, and New Mexico.]
+
+One striking evidence of the decrease of the timber supply is the
+shifting of its sources. Once the northeastern States produced over
+half of the lumber product. They reached their relative maximum in
+1870 when they produced 36 per cent. At that time the Lake States
+produced about 24 per cent. By 1890 the Lake States came to their
+maximum of 36 per cent. Today the southern States are near their
+maximum with 41 per cent., but the center will soon shift to the
+Pacific States. Their product rose from less than 10 per cent. of the
+whole in 1900 to 17 per cent. in 1908, Figs. 115 and 116. When
+that virgin forest has been cut off, there will be no new region
+to exploit; whereas, heretofore, when a region was exhausted, the
+lumbermen have always had a new one to which to move. At the
+annual meeting of the Northern Pine Manufacturers' Association in
+Minneapolis, Minn., January 22, 1907, Secretary J. E. Rhodes made this
+striking statement:
+
+ Since 1895, 248 firms, representing an annual aggregate
+ output of pine lumber of 4-1/4 billion feet, have retired from
+ business, due to the exhaustion of their timber supply. Plants
+ representing approximately 500 million feet capacity, which
+ sawed in 1906, will not be operated in 1907.
+
+ The shifting of the chief sources of supply has, of course,
+ been accompanied by a change in the kinds of lumber produced.
+ There was a time when white pine alone constituted one-half
+ of the total quantity. In 1900 this species furnished but 21.5
+ per cent., in 1904 only 15 per cent., of the lumber cut.[6] We
+ do not use less pine because we have found something better,
+ but because we have to put up with something worse.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 116. (Lumber Production by States).]
+
+The present annual cut of southern yellow pine is about 13-1/4 million
+M feet, or a little less than one-third of the total cut of all the
+species. At the present rate of consumption, it is evident that within
+ten or fifteen years, there will be a most serious shortage of it.
+Meanwhile the cut of Douglas fir on the Pacific coast has increased
+from 5 per cent. of the total lumber cut in 1900 to 12 per cent. in
+1905. This increase is in spite of the fact, already noted (p. 262)
+that the great timber owning companies of the northwest are holding
+their stumpage for an expected great increase in value.
+
+Another evidence of shortage is the almost total disappearance of
+certain valuable species. Hickory, which once made American buggies
+famous, is getting very scarce, and black walnut once commonly used
+for furniture, is available now for only fine cabinet work, veneers,
+gun stocks, etc. Hardwoods that are fit for the saw are rapidly
+decreasing. The hardwood cut of 1900 of 8,634,000 M feet diminished in
+1904 to 6,781,000 M feet.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 117. (Lumber Production by Species).]
+
+A still further evidence of the decreasing supply, is the rising scale
+of prices. White pine, which sold for $45.00 per M during 1887-1892,
+sold for $100.00 f.o.b. N. Y., Jan. 1, 1911. Yellow poplar went up in
+the same period, 1887-1911, from $29.00 to $63.00. Yellow pine rose
+from $18.00 in 1896 to $47.00 in 1911, and hemlock, the meanest of all
+woods, from $11.50 in 1889 to $21.00 in 1911, Fig. 118.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 118. Wholesale lumber prices, 1887-1911.
+
+The qualities of lumber shown in the above chart are as follows:
+
+White Ash, 1st and 2d, 1" and 1-1/2" x 8" and up by 12'-16'.
+
+Basswood, 1st and 2d, 1" x 8" and up by x 00".
+
+White Oak, quarter-sawed, 1st and 2d, all figured, 1" x 6" and up x
+10'-16'.
+
+Yellow poplar, 1st and 2d, 1" x 7"-17" x 12'-16'.
+
+Hemlock, boards
+
+Spruce, No. 1 and clear, 1" and 1-1/4" x 4" x 13'.
+
+White pine, rough uppers, 1" x 8" and up x 00'.
+
+Yellow pine, edge grain flooring. The curve is approximately correct,
+for the standard of quality has been changed several times.]
+
+It is to be remembered, moreover, that as the timber in any region
+becomes scarcer, the minimum cutting limit is constantly lowered, and
+the standard of quality constantly depreciated. Poorer species
+and qualities and smaller sizes, which were once rejected, are now
+accepted in the market. For example, 6 inches is now a common cutting
+diameter for pine and spruce, whereas 12 inches was the minimum limit,
+and on the Pacific coast there is still nothing cut below 18 inches.
+This cutting of smaller sizes is largely due to the capacious maw of
+the pulp mill, which swallows even the poorest stuff. Altho the amount
+of wood used for paper pulp is small in comparison with the total
+lumber production, being about 5.4 per cent., yet this cutting
+of young growth keeps the forest land devastated. In 1906 nearly
+9,000,000 tons of wood were used for paper pulp in the United States.
+
+ No one who is at all familiar with the situation doubts for an
+ instant that we are rapidly using up our _forest capital_. In
+ fact it is unquestionably safe to say that our present annual
+ consumption of wood in all forms is _from three to four times
+ as great as the annual increment of our forests_. Even
+ by accepting the highest estimate of the amount of timber
+ standing we postpone for only a few years the time when there
+ must be a great curtailment in the use of wood, if the present
+ methods of forest exploitation are continued. Every indication
+ points to the fact that under present conditions the maximum
+ annual yield of forest products for the country as a whole has
+ been reached, and that in a comparatively short time, there
+ will be a marked decrease in the total output, as there is now
+ in several items. (Kellogg, _Forestry Circular_, No. 97, p.
+ 12.)
+
+On the other hand, it is to be remembered that there are influences
+which tend to save and extend the forest area. These will be
+considered in the next chapter, on the Use of the Forest.
+
+ [Footnote 1:
+
+ LOOK OUT FOR FIRE!
+
+ RULES AND LAWS.
+
+ Fires for clearing land near a forest must not be started
+ until the trees are in full leaf. Before lighting such fires
+ three days' notice, at least, must be given to the Firewarden
+ and occupants of adjoining lands. After such fires are
+ lighted, competent persons must remain to guard them until the
+ fire is completely extinguished, and the persons starting such
+ fires will be held responsible for all damages notwithstanding
+ notice had been given to the Firewarden.
+
+ Fires will be permitted for the purposes of cooking, warmth
+ and insect smudges, but before such fires are kindled,
+ sufficient space around the spot where the fire is to be
+ lighted must be cleared from all combustible material; and
+ before the place is abandoned, fires so lighted must be
+ thoroly quenched.
+
+ All fires other than those hereinbefore mentioned are
+ absolutely prohibited.
+
+ Hunters and smokers are cautioned against allowing fires to
+ originate from the use of firearms, cigars and pipes.
+
+ Especial care should be taken that lighted matches are
+ extinguished before throwing them down.
+
+ All persons are warned that they will be held responsible for
+ any damage or injury to the forest which may result from their
+ carelessness or neglect.
+
+ Girdling and peeling bark from standing trees on state land is
+ prohibited. Fallen timber only may be used for firewood.
+
+ All citizens are requested to report immediately any cases
+ which may come to their knowledge of injury to woodlands
+ arising from a violation of these rules.
+
+ Then follow quotations from the laws of the state of New York.
+ ]
+
+ [Footnote 2: For the common methods of logging see _Handwork
+ in Wood_, Chapter I.]
+
+ [Footnote 3: See Summary of Report of the Commissioner of
+ Corporations on the Lumber Industry. February 13, 1911.
+ Washington, D. C.]
+
+ [Footnote 4: A board foot is one foot square and one inch
+ thick.]
+
+ [Footnote 5: 167 cubic feet equal about 1000 board feet.]
+
+ [Footnote 6: _Forestry Circular_, No. 97.]
+
+
+THE EXHAUSTION OF THE FOREST
+
+REFERENCES:[A]
+
+(1) Fires.
+
+ Bruncken, pp. 183-207.
+ Pinchot, _Agric. Yr. Bk._, p. 189.
+ Suter, _For. Circ._ No. 36.
+ U. S. Tenth Census, Vol. IX, p. 491 ff.
+ Pinchot, _Primer_, pp. 77-88.
+ Roth, _First Book_, pp. 104-112.
+ Sterling, _Agric. Yr. Bk._, 1904, p. 133.
+
+(2) Destructive Lumbering.
+
+ The Settler's Tradition.
+ Bruncken, pp. 40-59, 94.
+ Roth, _First Book_, pp. 41-45.
+ Pinchot, _Primer_, II, p. 82.
+
+ Taxation.
+ _For. and Irr._, April, '06.
+ Pinchot, _Agric. Yr. Bk._, 1898, p. 184.
+
+ Reckless Practices.
+ Pinchot, _Primer_ II, 42-47.
+ Pinchot, _Agric. Yr. Bk._, 1898, p. 184.
+ Pinchot, _For. Circ._, No. 25, p. 11.
+ Price, _Agric. Yr. Bk._, 1902, p. 310.
+ Fox, _For. Bull._, No. 34, p. 40.
+ Peters, _Agric. Yr. Bk._, 1905, pp. 483-494.
+ Graves, _Agric. Yr. Bk._, 1899, p. 415.
+ Suter, _For. Bull._, 26, pp. 58, 69, 76.
+ Mohr, _For. Bull._ No. 13, p. 61.
+ Bruncken, pp. 90-98.
+
+ The Timber Supply.
+ Kellogg, _For. Circ._, No. 97 ...
+ Zon, _For. Bull._, No. 83.
+ Fernow, _Economics_, pp. 35-45.
+ Report of the Commissioner of Corporations on the Lumber Industry.
+ Part I, Feb. 13, 1911.
+
+ [Footnote A: For general bibliography, see p. 4.]
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER VIII.
+
+THE USE OF THE FOREST.
+
+
+Man's relation to the forest has not been entirely destructive and
+injurious. He has exerted and is more and more exerting influences
+which while still enabling him to use the forest, also preserve
+and improve it. These activities may all be included under the term
+Forestry.
+
+The objects of modern forestry then are threefold: 1. The
+_utilization_ of the forest and its products, the main object; 2. The
+_preservation_ of the forest, _i.e._, its continued reproduction; 3.
+The _improvement_ of the forest.
+
+
+UTILIZATION.
+
+The uses of the forest are threefold: (1) Protective, (2) Productive,
+and (3) Esthetic.
+
+(1) _Protective._ The forest may be used as a protection against
+floods, wind, shifting sand, heat, drought, etc. The National Forests
+of the United States, Fig. 119, with the state forests, which include
+one-fifth of the total forest area, are largely treated as "protection
+forests" to maintain the head waters of streams, Fig. 120, used for
+irrigation, for power or for commerce. The attempt now being made to
+reserve large areas in the White Mountains and southern Appalachians
+is chiefly for this purpose of protection.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 119. National Forests in the United States.]
+
+A comparison of Figs. 120 and 121 shows clearly the difference between
+a region protected by forest and one unprotected.[1]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 120. A Protection Forest, Maintaining the
+Headwaters of Streams. North Carolina. _U. S. Forest Service._]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 121. Hillside Erosion. North Carolina. _U. S.
+Forest Service_]
+
+(2) _Productive._ All practical foresters have as their first aim
+the _yield_ of the forest. This distinguishes forestry from landscape
+architecture, the object of which may equally be the preservation and
+improvement of a given tract. The crop to be produced is as truly the
+prime concern of the forester as the raising of agricultural crops is
+the prime concern of the farmer. It is for this reason that forestry
+is said to be the same thing as conservative lumbering, Fig. 122.
+The prejudice of lumbermen against forestry has arisen from a
+misunderstanding of its aim. Its aim is not to prevent the cutting
+down of trees, but to direct their cutting in such ways that in the
+future there will still be trees to cut. "Thru use to a greater use,"
+is the motto of the Forest Service. The difference between destructive
+lumbering and conservative lumbering is that the former cuts one crop
+regardless of the future; while the latter plans to cut crop after
+crop indefinitely. In other words, in conservative lumbering, the
+trees to be cut are not selected solely with reference to their
+immediate market value. Not one crop, but many, is the forester's
+motto.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 122. Conservative Lumbering. Black Hills National
+Forest, South Dakota. Note the brush, cord-wood, and logs piled
+separately,--a fine clean-up. Nothing cut below 12" diameter. _U. S.
+Forest Service._]
+
+So long as the supply seemed exhaustless, forests might be and were
+treated as mines are, _i.e._, exploited for the sake of immediate
+profit; but now that lumbermen begin to realize that the end of the
+supply is in sight, more conservative methods are being adopted. We
+cannot afford to kill the goose that lays the golden eggs. In order
+then to obtain as rich harvests as possible, the modern forester makes
+use of various methods, some negative, some positive.
+
+Waste is avoided in all possible ways, stumps are cut low and tops
+high on the trunk, first class trees are not used for skids, bridges,
+roads, etc., care is taken in "falling" trees and in dragging out
+logs, that they will not injure other trees. Just as economical
+disposal of the log has already been carried to a high degree of
+perfection in the saw-mill, (see _Handwork in Wood_, Chapter II,) so
+one object of forestry is to carry this economy back into the woods.
+
+One of the underlying ideas in conservative lumbering is that the
+"yield," _i.e._, the amount of wood taken out of a healthy forest
+in a given time, shall be equal to the amount grown during the same
+period. If less is taken out than grows, some trees will overmature
+and decay; if more is taken out than grows, the forest will ultimately
+be exhausted.
+
+This principle may be carried out in a number of ways; but in any case
+it is necessary to know how fast the forest is reproducing itself, and
+this is one of the functions of the forester. The United States
+Forest Service makes a definite offer of cooperation with farmers and
+lumbermen and owners of forests to provide them with skilled foresters
+for direction in this matter.
+
+In the United States, the most practicable way of determining the
+yield is by area, _i.e._, a certain fraction of a forest is to be
+cut over once in a given length of time, a year or longer. The time
+between two successive cuttings on the same area must be long enough
+to allow the young trees left standing to ripen.
+
+In a word, conservative lumbering involves (1) the treatment of the
+forest as a source of crops, (2) systematic gathering, and (3) young
+growth so left as to replace the outgo.
+
+The important place that forests fill in the national economy may
+be realized partly by the citation of a few facts as to the forest
+products. The lumber industry is the fourth in value of products
+among the great manufacturing industries of the United States,
+being exceeded only by the iron and steel, the textile, and the meat
+industries. It turns out a finished product worth $567,000,000.00. And
+yet lumber constitutes only about one-half of the value of the total
+output of forest products. Its annual value is three-fourths of a
+billion dollars, ($666,641,367 in 1907,) while the annual value of
+wood fuel, is $350,000,000. More than two-thirds of the people burn
+wood for fuel. The next largest single item in the list is shingles
+and laths, $32,000,000. (See _Forestry Bulletin_ No. 74, p. 7.)
+
+ Outside of food products, no material is so universally
+ used and so indispensable in human economy as wood. (Fernow,
+ _Econ._, p. 21.)
+
+The importance of forest products may also be learned from a mere list
+of the varied uses to which they are put. Such a list would include:
+fuel, wood and charcoal; houses (over half the population of the
+United States live in wooden houses); the wooden parts of masonry and
+steel buildings; scaffolding; barns, sheds and outhouses; ships, with
+all their parts, and the masts and trim of steel ships, boats
+and canoes; oars and paddles; railway ties (annual expenditure
+$50,000,000), railway cars, a million in number; trestles and bridges
+(more than 2,000 miles in length); posts and fencing; cooperage
+stock (low estimate, $25,000,000 annually); packing crates, including
+coffins; baskets; electric wire poles (annual cost about $10,000,000);
+piles and submerged structures, like canal locks and water-wheels;
+windmills; mining timbers (yearly cost, $7,500,000), indispensable
+in all mining operations (for every 100 tons of coal mined, 2 tons of
+mining timber are needed); street paving; veneers ($5,000,000.00 worth
+made annually); vehicles, including carriages, wagons, automobiles
+and sleighs; furniture; machines and their parts; patterns for metal
+molding; tools and tool handles; musical instruments; cigar boxes;
+matches; toothpicks; pencils; (315 million a year in the U. S.,
+requiring over 7 million cubic feet of wood); engraving blocks;
+shoe lasts, shoe trees and parts of shoes; hat blocks; agricultural
+implements; hop and bean poles; playthings and toys, for both children
+and adults; Christmas trees and decorations; pipes; walking sticks;
+umbrella handles; crutches and artificial limbs; household utensils;
+excelsior.
+
+Products other than wood: Turpentine and resin (worth $20,000,000 a
+year); tar; oils; tan-bark, 1-1/2 million cords (worth $13,000,000
+a year); wood alcohol; wood pulp (worth $15,000,000 a year); nuts;
+cellulose for collars, combs and car wheels; balsam, medicines;
+lampblack; dyes; paper fiber (xylolin) for textiles; shellac and
+varnish ($8,500,000 worth imported in 1907); vinegar and acetic acid;
+confections (including maple sugar and syrup at $2,500,000 a year).
+
+(3) The _Esthetic_ and sentimental uses of the forest, tho not to
+be estimated in dollars and cents, are nevertheless of incalculable
+benefit to the community. They would include the use of the forest
+as pleasure grounds, for hunting, fishing, camping, photography, and
+general sightseeing. Notable instances of the growing appreciation of
+these uses of the forest are the reservation of the Yellowstone and
+Yosemite Parks as pleasure grounds.
+
+
+PRESERVATION.
+
+The second object of forestry is the preservation of the forest, or
+continued reproduction.
+
+In addition to obtaining crops of trees, the forester plans to keep
+the forest in such condition that it will constantly reproduce itself
+and never become exhausted.
+
+This does not mean that no forests are to be cut down, or that a given
+area, once a forest, is to be always a forest. Just as the individual
+farmer needs some land for fields, some for pasture, and some for
+woodlots, so the nation needs some for cities, some for farms, some
+for pleasure grounds, and some for forests. But it does mean that
+fruitful forests shall not be turned into wildernesses as thousands of
+square miles now are, by the methods of destructive lumbering.
+
+In general, better land is necessary for agriculture than for
+forestry, and it is therefore only the part of wisdom to use the
+better land for fields and reserve the poorer land for forests. There
+are in the United States enormous regions that are fit for nothing but
+forests, but many of these, as in Wisconsin, Minnesota, and Michigan,
+have simply been denuded of their trees and no provision has been made
+for their reproduction. This then is the second aim of forestry,--to
+treat the forest so that it will continue to reproduce itself.
+
+In order to obtain this result, certain forest conditions have to be
+preserved. What these conditions are, we have already noticed (see
+Chap. V, The Forest Organism). They are partly topographical and
+climatic and partly historical. They include such factors as, soil,
+moisture, temperature, and light, the forest cover, the forest floor,
+the density and mixture of growth, all conditions of forest growth.
+It is only as the forester preserves these conditions, or to put it
+otherwise, it is only as he obeys the laws of the forest organism that
+he can preserve the forest. For a long period of our national history,
+we Americans were compelled to conform our life and institutions to
+the presence of the primeval forest, but by long observation of what
+happens naturally in the forest, there have been developed in Europe
+and in America certain ways of handling it so as to make it our
+servant and not our master.
+
+These ways are called silvicultural systems. They are all based on the
+nature of the forest itself, and they succeed only because they are
+modifications of what takes place naturally in the woods.
+
+As we have seen above (p. 220) trees reproduce themselves either by
+sprouts or by seeds. This fact gives rise to two general methods of
+reproduction, called the coppice systems and the seed systems.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 123. Chestnut Coppice. _U. S. Forest Service._]
+
+_Coppice_, Fig. 123. In the simpler form of this system, the forest
+is divided into a certain number of parts, say thirty, and one part is
+cut down each year. New sprouts at once start up, which will mature
+a year later than those in the part cut the previous year. Where the
+trees of each part are thirty years old at cutting, thirty years is
+called the "rotation period." The coppice is said to be managed on
+a thirty-year rotation. The system is widely used in eastern United
+States, for fuel, posts, charcoal, railway ties, and other small
+stuff, as well as for tan-bark. This system is modified by maintaining
+an overwood composed of seedling trees or selected sprouts above a
+stand of sprouts. This is called the Reserve Sprout method and is used
+with admirable results by the French.
+
+_Seed Forests._ In contrast with coppice forests, those raised from
+seeds produce the best class of timber, such as is used for saw logs.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 124. Seeding from the Side. White Pine. New
+Hampshire. _U. S. Forest Service._]
+
+_Seeding from the side_, Fig. 124. Many forests naturally spread at
+their borders from the scattering of their seeds. "Old field pine" is
+so called from its tendency to spread in this way on old fields. This
+natural "Seeding from the Side" has given rise to the "Group System,"
+in which an area of ripe trees is cut off and the trees alongside are
+depended upon to reproduce new ones on the cut-over area. The openings
+are gradually enlarged until all the old timber is cut out, and the
+young growth has taken its place. In its best form there is a definite
+"rotation period," say eighty years. This system is simple, safe, and
+very useful, especially for small openings in woodlots. A modification
+of this is the "Strip System," in which long narrow openings, say
+seventy-five yards wide, are cut out and gradually widened. The strips
+are cut in the proper direction so that the prevailing winds will
+cross them, both for the sake of avoiding windfalls and to help
+scatter the seed. Where the soil is very dry, the strips may run east
+and west to protect the seedlings from the sun.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 125. Virgin Forest, Trees of All Ages. Jackson
+Co., North Carolina. _U.S. Forest Service._]
+
+_Selection Forests._ The typical virgin forest, Fig. 125, is one in
+which trees of all ages are closely intermingled, and it may be either
+"mixed" or "pure." If a farmer had a woodlot of this character and
+every year went over it with the ax, cutting out such trees as he
+needed for his purpose, and also trees whose removal would improve the
+woods, but taking care not to cut out each year more than the amount
+of the average growth, he would be using the "Selection System." This
+system is the best way of keeping a forest dense and of preserving
+one which is difficult to start afresh, as on a mountain slope; it is
+practicable where the woods are small or under a high state of care,
+as in Europe, where this system has been in use for seven centuries.
+But the cost of road maintenance and of logging is high and it is
+therefore impracticable in most lumber regions in the United States,
+except for woods of especial value, like black walnut.
+
+_Localized Selection._ If instead of the whole forest being treated in
+this way every year, it were divided up into perhaps twenty parts, and
+from each part there were taken out each year as much lumber as would
+equal the annual growth of the whole forest, such a system would be
+called "Localized Selection." The cost of logging would be greatly
+reduced and if care were taken to leave standing some seed trees and
+to cut no trees below a determined size, as twelve inches, the forest
+would maintain itself in good condition. This system has been applied
+with great success in certain private forests in the Adirondacks.
+
+_Regular Seed Forest or High Forest._ In the system already mentioned
+above of seeding from the side, the trees near the cut areas are
+depended upon to seed these areas. Moreover, no especial pains are
+taken to preserve the forest floor and the forest cover. But all trees
+do not bear seeds annually, nor do their seedlings thrive under such
+conditions. In other words, in some forests especial pains must
+be taken to secure reproduction, and the forest conditions must
+be maintained with special reference to the growing crop. For this
+purpose, the cuttings take place thru a series of years, sometimes
+lasting even twenty years. These reproduction cuttings have reference,
+now to a stimulus to the seed trees, now to the preparation of the
+seed bed, now to the encouragement of the seedlings. Then later,
+the old crop is gradually cut away. Later still, in twenty or thirty
+years, the new forest is thinned, and when it reaches maturity,
+perhaps in one hundred or two hundred years, the process is repeated.
+This is called the "Regular Seed Forest." It produces very valuable
+timber, and has been used for a long time in Switzerland, especially
+for beech and balsam.
+
+The system is complicated and therefore unsafe in ignorant hands, and
+the logging is expensive.
+
+_Two-storied Seed Forest._ A modification of the system of Regular
+Seed Forest is the planting of another and a tolerant species of tree
+under older intolerant trees to make a cover for the soil, to prevent
+the growth of grass and weeds, and to improve the quality of the upper
+growth.[2]
+
+An illustration of a natural two-storied seed forest is shown in Fig.
+126.
+
+[Illustration: No. 126. Two-storied Seed Forest. Fir under Beech,
+Germany. _U. S. Forest Service._]
+
+_Planting._ The planting of forest trees is a comparatively
+unimportant part of modern forestry. It is a mistaken idea, not
+uncommon, that the usual way of reproducing forests is to plant trees.
+It is true that in the pineries of North Germany and in the spruce
+forests of Saxony, it is common to cut clean and then replant, but it
+is absurd to conclude, as some have done, that forestry consists of
+planting a tree every time one is cut. Even if planting were the best
+method, many more than one tree would have to be planted for each one
+cut, in order to maintain the forest. So far as America is concerned,
+not for a long time will planting be much used for reproduction.
+
+ The greater portion of American woodlands is in the
+ condition of culled forests, that is, forests from which
+ the merchantable trees have been cut, leaving the younger
+ individuals, as well as all trees belonging to unmarketable
+ species. Even on the areas where the lumbermen have made a
+ clean cut of the original timber, new trees will come up of
+ themselves from seeds blown from the surrounding forests or
+ falling from occasional individuals left standing. (Bruncken,
+ p. 133.)
+
+The usefulness of planting in America is mainly for reclaiming
+treeless regions, as in the west, and where timber is high priced.
+The area of planted timber in the Middle West aggregates many hundred
+thousand acres, once waste land, now converted into useful woods.[3]
+
+Planting has been made possible in the far west by extensive
+irrigation systems, and farther east by the lessening of prairie
+fires, which once set the limit to tree growth in the prairie states.
+In many parts of Illinois, southern Wisconsin and other prairie
+States, there is much more forest land than there was twenty-five
+years ago.
+
+What planting can do, may be seen on some worn out pastures in New
+England, Fig. 127. With the western movement of agriculture,
+the abandoned farms of New England are to some extent becoming
+re-forested, both naturally and by planting, as with white pine, which
+grows even on sandy soil. Between 1820 and 1880, there was a period of
+enthusiastic white-pine planting in New England, and tho the interest
+died on account of the cheap transportation of western lumber, those
+early plantations prove that white pine can be planted at a profit
+even on sand barrens. Once worn out and useless pastures are now worth
+$150 an acre and produce yearly a net income of $3 or more an acre.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 127. Planted White Pine, Fifty Years Old,
+Bridgewater, Mass. _U. S. Forest Service._]
+
+
+IMPROVEMENT.
+
+Besides utilization and preservation, the third main object of
+forestry is the improvement of the forest. It is not an uncommon
+mistake to suppose that the virgin forest is the best forest for human
+purposes. It is a comparatively new idea, especially in America, that
+a forest can be improved; that is, that better trees can be raised
+than those which grow naturally. Lumbermen commonly say, "You never
+can raise a second growth of white pine as good as the first growth."
+As if this "first growth" were not itself the successsor of thousands
+of other generations! There is even a legend that white pine will not
+grow in its old habitat. Says Bruncken,
+
+ Many people probably imagine that a primeval wood, "by
+ nature's own hand planted," cannot be surpassed in the number
+ and size of its trees, and consequently in the amount of wood
+ to be derived from it. But the very opposite is true. No wild
+ forest can ever equal a cultivated one in productiveness. To
+ hope that it will, is very much as if a farmer were to expect
+ a full harvest from the grain that may spring up spontaneously
+ in his fields without his sowing. A tract of wild forest in
+ the first place does not contain so many trees as might grow
+ thereon, but only so many as may have survived the struggle
+ for life with their own and other species of plants occupying
+ the locality. Many of the trees so surviving never attain
+ their best development, being suppressed, overshadowed, and
+ hindered by stronger neighbors. Finally much of the space that
+ might be occupied by valuable timber may be given up to trees
+ having little or no market value. The rule is universal that
+ the amount and value of material that can be taken from an
+ area of wild forest remains far behind what the same land
+ may bear if properly treated by the forester. It is certain,
+ therefore, that in the future, when most American forests
+ shall be in a high state of cultivation, the annual output of
+ forests will, from a much restricted area, exceed everything
+ known at the present day. (Bruncken, _North American Forests
+ and Forestry_, pp. 134-135.)
+
+ It is probable that the virgin forest produces but a tithe of
+ the useful material which it is capable of producing. (Fernow,
+ p. 98.)
+
+ Mr. Burbank has demonstrated that trees can be bred for any
+ particular quality,--for largeness, strength, shape, amount of
+ pitch, tannin, sugar and the like, and for rapidity of
+ growth; in fact that any desirable attribute of a tree may
+ be developed simply by breeding and selecting. He has created
+ walnut trees, by crossing common varieties, that have grown
+ six times as much in thirteen years as their ancestors did in
+ twenty-eight years, preserving at the same time, the strength,
+ hardness and texture of their forebears. The grain of the wood
+ has been made more beautiful at the same time. The trees are
+ fine for fuel and splendidly adapted to furniture manufacture.
+ (Harwood, _The New Earth_, p. 179.)
+
+Nature provides in the forest merely those varieties that will
+survive. Man, by interfering in Nature's processes but obeying her
+laws, raises what he wants. Nature says: those trees that survive
+are fit and does not care whether the trees be straight or crooked,
+branched or clear. Man says: those trees shall survive which are fit
+for human uses. Man raises better grains and fruits and vegetables
+than Nature, unaided, can, and, in Europe, better trees for lumber. In
+America there has been such an abundance of trees good enough for our
+purposes that we have simply gone out and gathered them, just as a
+savage goes out to gather berries and nuts. Some day our descendants
+will smile at our treatment of forests much as we smile at
+root-digging savages, unless, indeed, we so far destroy the forests
+that they will be more angered than amused. In Europe and Japan, the
+original supply of trees having been exhausted, forests have been
+cultivated for centuries with the purpose of raising crops larger in
+quantity and better in quality.
+
+There are various methods used in forest improvement. Improvement
+cuttings, as the name implies, are cuttings made to improve the
+quality of the forest, whether by thinning out poor species of trees,
+unsound trees, trees crowding more valuable ones, or trees called
+"wolves"; that is, trees unduly overshadowing others. Improvement
+cuttings are often necessary as a preliminary step before any
+silvicultural system can be applied. Indeed, many of the silvicultural
+systems involve steady improvement of the forest.
+
+The pruning of branches is a method of improvement, carrying on the
+natural method by which trees in a forest clean themselves of their
+branches.
+
+Seeds of valuable species are often sowed, when the conditions are
+proper, in order to introduce a valuable species, just as brooks
+and ponds are stocked with fine fish. In general it may be said that
+improvement methods are only in their infancy, especially in America.
+
+ [Footnote 1: A concise and interesting statement of the
+ relation of the forest to rain and floods is to be found in
+ Pinchot: _Primer of Forestry_, Bulletin No. 24, Part II, Chap.
+ III.]
+
+ [Footnote 2: For an interesting account of an application of
+ this method, see Ward, p. 35.]
+
+ [Footnote 3: To encourage such forest extension, the Forest
+ Service is doing much by the publication of bulletins
+ recommending methods and trees suited to special regions, as,
+ e.g., on Forest Planting in Illinois, in the Sand Hill Region
+ of Nebraska, on Coal Lands in Western Pennsylvania, in Western
+ Kansas, in Oklahoma and adjacent regions, etc.]
+
+
+THE USE OF THE FOREST.
+
+REFERENCES:[A]
+
+
+ I Utilization.
+
+ Pinchot, _Primer_, II, pp. 14-18, 38-48.
+ Bruncken, pp. 121-131, _For. Bull._ No. 61.
+
+ (1) Protective.
+
+ Pinchot, _Primer_, II, pp. 66-73.
+ Craft, _Agric. Yr. Bk._, 1905, pp. 636-641, (Map. p. 639.)
+ Toumey, _Agric. Yr. Bk._, 1903, p. 279.
+ Bruncken, pp. 166-173.
+ _For. and Irrig._, passim.
+ Shaler, I, pp. 485-489.
+
+ (2) Productive.
+
+ Kellogg, _For. Bull._, No. 74,
+ Fernow, _For. Invest._, p. 9.
+ Roth, _First Book_, p. 133.
+ Zon & Clark, _Agric. Yr. Bk._, 1907, p. 277.
+ Boulger, pp. 60-76.
+ Roth, _Agric. Yr. Bk._, 1896, p. 391.
+ Fernow, _Economics_, pp. 23-33.
+
+ (3) Esthetic.
+
+ Roth, _First Book_, p. 180.
+
+ II Preservation.
+
+ Pinchot, _Primer_, II, pp. 18-36.
+ Bruncken, pp. 95, 190.
+ Graves, _For. Bull._, No. 26, pp. 67-70.
+ Roth, _First Book_, pp. 41-76, 193-194.
+ Roth, _For. Bull._, No. 16, pp. 8, 9.
+ Fernow, _Economics_, 165-196.
+
+ Planting.
+
+ Roth, _First Book_, pp. 76-94, 195-198.
+ Hall, _Agric. Yr. Bk._, 1902, pp. 145-156.
+ _For. Circs._, Nos. 37, 41, 45, 81.
+ Bruncken, pp. 92, 133.
+ _Forestry Bulletins_ Nos. 18, 45, 52, 65.
+
+III Improvement.
+
+ Bruncken, pp. 134-135, 152-160.
+ Graves, _For. Bull._, No. 26, p. 39.
+ Pinchot, _Adirondack Spruce_, p. 4.
+ Harwood, pp. 143-181.
+
+ [Footnote A: For general bibliography, see p. 4.]
+
+
+
+
+APPENDIX.
+
+HOW TO DISTINGUISH THE DIFFERENT KINDS OF WOOD.[A]
+
+BY B. E. FERNOW AND FILIBERT ROTH.
+
+
+The carpenter or other artisan who handles different woods, becomes
+familiar with those he employs frequently, and learns to distinguish
+them thru this familiarity, without usually being able to state the
+points of distinction. If a wood comes before him with which he is not
+familiar, he has, of course, no means of determining what it is, and
+it is possible to select pieces even of those with which he is well
+acquainted, different in appearance from the general run, that will
+make him doubtful as to their identification. Furthermore, he may
+distinguish between hard and soft pines, between oak and ash, or
+between maple and birch, which are characteristically different; but
+when it comes to distinguishing between the several species of pine or
+oak or ash or birch, the absence of readily recognizable characters is
+such that but few practitioners can be relied upon to do it. Hence, in
+the market we find many species mixed and sold indiscriminately.
+
+To identify the different woods it is necessary to have a knowledge of
+the definite, invariable differences in their structure, besides
+that of the often variable differences in their appearance. These
+structural differences may either be readily visible to the naked eye
+or with a magnifier, or they may require a microscopical examination.
+In some cases such an examination can not be dispensed with, if we
+would make absolutely sure. There are instances, as in the pines,
+where even our knowledge of the minute anatomical structure is not yet
+sufficient to make a sure identification.
+
+In the following key an attempt has been made--the first, so far as
+we know, in English literature--to give a synoptical view of the
+distinctive features of the commoner woods of the United States, which
+are found in the markets or are used in the arts. It will be observed
+that the distinction has been carried in most instances no further
+than to genera or classes of woods, since the distinction of species
+can hardly be accomplished without elaborate microscopic study, and
+also that, as far as possible, reliance has been placed only on such
+characteristics as can be distinguished with the naked eye or a simple
+magnifying glass, in order to make the key useful to the largest
+number. Recourse has also been taken for the same reason to the less
+reliable and more variable general external appearance, color, taste,
+smell, weight, etc.
+
+The user of the key must, however, realize that external appearance,
+such, for example, as color, is not only very variable but also very
+difficult to describe, individual observers differing especially in
+seeing and describing shades of color. The same is true of statements
+of size, when relative, and not accurately measured, while weight and
+hardness can perhaps be more readily approximated. Whether any feature
+is distinctly or only indistinctly seen will also depend somewhat
+on individual eyesight, opinion, or practice. In some cases the
+resemblance of different species is so close that only one other
+expedient will make distinction possible, namely, a knowledge of the
+region from which the wood has come. We know, for instance, that no
+longleaf pine grows in Arkansas and that no white pine can come from
+Alabama, and we can separate the white cedar, giant arbor vitæ of the
+West and the arbor vitæ of the Northeast, only by the difference of
+the locality from which the specimen comes. With all these limitations
+properly appreciated, the key will be found helpful toward greater
+familiarity with the woods which are more commonly met with.
+
+The features which have been utilized in the key and with which--their
+names as well as their appearance--therefore, the reader must
+familiarize himself before attempting to use the key, are mostly
+described as they appear in cross-section. They are:
+
+(1) Sap-wood and heart-wood (see p. 17), the former being the wood
+from the outer and the latter from the inner part of the tree. In some
+cases they differ only in shade, and in others in kind of color, the
+heart-wood exhibiting either a darker shade or a pronounced color.
+Since one can not always have the two together, or be certain whether
+he has sap-wood or heart-wood, reliance upon this feature is, to
+be sure, unsatisfactory, yet sometimes it is the only general
+characteristic that can be relied upon. If further assurance is
+desired, microscopic structure must be examined; in such cases
+reference has been made to the presence or absence of tracheids in
+pith rays and the structure of their walls, especially projections and
+spirals.
+
+(2) Annual rings, their formation having been described on page 19.
+(See also Figs. 128-130.) They are more or less distinctly marked,
+and by such marking a classification of three great groups of wood is
+possible.
+
+(3) Spring wood and summer wood, the former being the interior (first
+formed wood of the year), the latter the exterior (last formed) part
+of the ring. The proportion of each and the manner in which the one
+merges into the other are sometimes used, but more frequently the
+manner in which the pores appear distributed in either.
+
+(4) Pores, which are vessels cut thru, appearing as holes in
+cross-section, in longitudinal section as channels, scratches, or
+identifications. (See p. 23 and Figs. 129 and 130.) They appear
+only in the broad-leaved, so called, hard woods; their relative size
+(large, medium, small, minute, and indistinct when they cease to be
+visible individually by the naked eye) and manner of distribution in
+the ring being of much importance, and especially in the summer
+wood, where they appear singly, in groups, or short broken lines, in
+continuous concentric, often wavy lines, or in radial branching lines.
+
+(5) Resin ducts (see p. 26 and Fig. 128) which appear very much like
+pores in cross-section, namely, as holes or lighter or darker colored
+dots, but much more scattered. They occur only in coniferous woods,
+and their presence or absence, size, number, and distribution are an
+important distinction in these woods.
+
+(6) Pith rays (see p. 21 and Figs. 129 and 130), which in
+cross-section appear as radial lines, and in radial section as
+interrupted bands of varying breadth, impart a peculiar luster to that
+section in some woods. They are most readily visible with the naked
+eye or with a magnifier in the broad-leaved woods. In coniferous
+woods they are usually so fine and closely packed that to the casual
+observer they do not appear. Their breadth and their greater or less
+distinctness are used as distinguishing marks, being styled fine,
+broad, distinct, very distinct, conspicuous, and indistinct when no
+longer visible by the naked (strong) eye.
+
+(7) Concentric lines, appearing in the summer wood of certain species
+more or less distinct, resembling distantly the lines of pores but
+much finer and not consisting of pores. (See Fig. 129.)
+
+Of microscopic features, the following only have been referred to:
+
+(8) Tracheids, a description of which is to be found on page 28.
+
+(9) Pits, simple and bordered, especially the number of simple pits
+in the cells of the pith rays, which lead into each of the adjoining
+tracheids.
+
+For standards of weight, consult table on pages 50 and 192; for
+standards of hardness, table on page 195.
+
+Unless otherwise stated the color refers always to the fresh
+cross-section of a piece of dry wood; sometimes distinct kinds of
+color, sometimes only shades, and often only general color effects
+appear.
+
+ [Footnote A: From Forestry Bulletin No. 10, _U. S. Department
+ of Agriculture_.]
+
+
+HOW TO USE THE KEY.
+
+Nobody need expect to be able to use successfully any key for the
+distinction of woods or of any other class of natural objects without
+some practice. This is especially true with regard to woods, which
+are apt to vary much, and when the key is based on such meager general
+data as the present. The best course to adopt is to supply one's self
+with a small sample collection of woods, accurately named. Small,
+polished tablets are of little use for this purpose. The pieces
+should be large enough, if possible, to include pith and bark, and of
+sufficient width to permit ready inspection of the cross-section.
+By examining these with the aid of the key, beginning with the
+better-known woods, one will soon learn to see the features described
+and to form an idea of the relative standards which the maker of the
+key had in mind. To aid in this, the accompanying illustrations will
+be of advantage. When the reader becomes familiar with the key, the
+work of identifying any given piece will be comparatively easy. The
+material to be examined must, of course, be suitably prepared. It
+should be moistened; all cuts should be made with a very sharp knife
+or razor and be clean and smooth, for a bruised surface reveals but
+little structure. The most useful cut may be made along one of the
+edges. Instructive, thin, small sections may be made with a sharp
+penknife or razor, and when placed on a piece of thin glass, moistened
+and covered with another piece of glass, they may be examined by
+holding them toward the light.
+
+Finding, on examination with the magnifier, that it contains pores, we
+know it is not coniferous or non-porous. Finding no pores collected
+in the spring-wood portion of the annual ring, but all scattered
+(diffused) thru the ring, we turn at once to the class of
+"Diffuse-porous woods." We now note the size and manner in which
+the pores are distributed thru the ring. Finding them very small and
+neither conspicuously grouped, nor larger nor more abundant in the
+spring-wood, we turn to the third group of this class. We now note
+the pith rays, and finding them neither broad nor conspicuous, but
+difficult to distinguish, even with the magnifier, we at once exclude
+the wood from the first two sections of this group and place it in the
+third, which is represented by only one kind, cottonwood. Finding the
+wood very soft, white, and on the longitudinal section with a silky
+luster, we are further assured that our determination is correct.
+We may now turn to the list of woods and obtain further information
+regarding the occurrence, qualities, and uses of the wood.
+
+Sometimes our progress is not so easy; we may waver in what group or
+section to place the wood before us. In such cases we may try each
+of the doubtful roads until we reach a point where we find ourselves
+entirely wrong and then return and take up another line; or we may
+anticipate some of the later mentioned features and finding them apply
+to our specimen, gain additional assurance of the direction we ought
+to travel. Color will often help us to arrive at a speedy decision.
+In many cases, especially with conifers, which are rather difficult to
+distinguish, a knowledge of the locality from which the specimen comes
+is at once decisive. Thus, northern white cedar, and bald cypress, and
+the cedar of the Pacific will be identified, even without the somewhat
+indefinite criteria given in the key.
+
+
+KEY TO THE MORE IMPORTANT WOODS OF NORTH AMERICA.
+
+I. NON-POROUS WOODS--Pores not visible or conspicuous on
+cross-section, even with magnifier. Annual rings distinct by denser
+(dark colored) bands of summer wood (Fig. 128).
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 128. "Non-porous" Woods. _A_, fir; _B_, "hard"
+pine; _C_, soft pine; _ar_, annual ring; _o.e._, outer edge of ring;
+_i.e._, inner edge of ring; _s.w._, summer wood; _sp.w._, spring wood;
+_rd._, resin ducts.]
+
+II. RING-POROUS WOODS--Pores numerous, usually visible on
+cross-section without magnifier. Annual rings distinct by a zone of
+large pores collected in the spring wood, alternating with the denser
+summer wood (Fig. 129).
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 129. "Ring-porous" Woods White Oak and Hickory.
+_a. r._, annual ring; _su. w._, summer wood; _sp. w._, spring wood;
+_v_, vessels or pores; _c. l._, "concentric" lines; _rt_, darker
+tracts of hard fibers forming the firm part of oak wood; _pr_, pith
+rays.]
+
+III. DIFFUSE-POROUS WOODS--Pores numerous, usually not plainly visible
+on cross-section without magnifier. Annual rings distinct by a fine
+line of denser summer wood cells, often quite indistinct; pores
+scattered thru annual ring, no zone of collected pores in spring wood
+(Fig. 130).
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 130. "Diffuse-porous" Woods. _ar_, annual ring;
+_pr_, pith rays which are "broad" at _a_, "fine" at _b_, "indistinct"
+at _d_.]
+
+NOTE.--The above described three groups are exogenous, i.e., they
+grow by adding annually wood on their circumference. A fourth group
+is formed by the endogenous woods, like yuccas and palms, which do not
+grow by such additions.
+
+
+I.--NON-POROUS WOODS.
+
+(Includes all coniferous woods.)
+
+A. Resin ducts wanting.[1]
+
+ 1. No distinct heart-wood.
+
+ _a._ Color effect yellowish white; summer wood darker yellowish
+ (under microscope pith ray without tracheids)..........FIRS.
+
+ _b._ Color effect reddish (roseate) (under microscope pith
+ ray with tracheids) ................................HEMLOCK.
+
+ 2. Heart-wood present, color decidedly different in kind from
+ sap-wood.
+
+ _a._ Heart-wood light orange red; sap-wood, pale lemon; wood,
+ heavy and hard .........................................YEW.
+
+ _b._ Heartwood purplish to brownish red; sap-wood yellowish
+ white; wood soft to medium hard, light, usually with
+ aromatic odor, ...................................RED CEDAR.
+
+ _c._ Heart-wood maroon to terra cotta or deep brownish red;
+ sap-wood light orange to dark amber, very soft and light,
+ no odor; pith rays very distinct, specially pronounced
+ on radial section ..................................REDWOOD.
+
+ 3. Heart-wood present, color only different in shade from sap-wood,
+ dingy-yellowish brown.
+
+ _a._ Odorless and tasteless ........................BALD CYPRESS.
+
+ _b._ Wood with mild resinous odor, but tasteless ....WHITE CEDAR.
+
+ _c._ Wood with strong resinous odor and peppery taste when
+ freshly cut, ................................INCENSE CEDAR.
+
+B. Resin ducts present.
+ 1. No distinct heartwood; color white, resin ducts very small,
+ not numerous ............................................SPRUCE.
+
+ 2. Distinct heart-wood present.
+
+ _a._ Resin ducts numerous, evenly scattered thru the ring.
+
+ _a.'_ Transition from spring wood to summer wood gradual;
+ annual ring distinguished by a fine line of dense
+ summer-wood cells; color, white to yellowish red;
+ wood soft and light .......................SOFT PINES.[2]
+
+ _b.'_ Transition from spring wood to summer wood more or
+ less abrupt; broad bands of dark-colored summer
+ wood; color from light to deep orange; wood medium
+ hard and heavy ............................HARD PINES.[2]
+
+ _b._ Resin ducts not numerous nor evenly distributed.
+
+ _a'._ Color of heart-wood orange-reddish, sap-wood yellowish
+ (same as hard pine); resin ducts frequently combined in
+ groups of 8 to 30, forming lines on the cross-section
+ (tracheids with spirals), ..............DOUGLAS SPRUCE.
+
+ _b'._ Color of heart-wood light russet brown; of sap-wood
+ yellowish brown; resin ducts very few, irregularly
+ scattered (tracheids without spirals) ........TAMARACK.
+
+
+ [Footnote 1: Soft and hard pines are arbitrary distinctions
+ and the two not distinguishable at the limit.]
+
+ [Footnote 2: To discover the resin ducts a very smooth surface
+ is necessary, since resin ducts are frequently seen only with
+ difficulty, appearing on the cross-section as fine whiter
+ or darker spots normally scattered singly, rarely in groups,
+ usually in the summer wood of the annual ring. They are
+ often much more easily seen on radial, and still more so on
+ tangential sections, appearing there as fine lines or dots of
+ open structure of different color or as indentations or pin
+ scratches in a longitudinal direction.]
+
+====
+
+
+ADDITIONAL NOTES FOR DISTINCTIONS IN THE GROUP.
+
+Spruce is hardly distinguishable from fir, except by the existence of
+the resin ducts, and microscopically by the presence of tracheids
+in the medullary rays. Spruce may also be confounded with soft pine,
+except for the heart-wood color of the latter and the larger, more
+frequent, and more readily visible resin ducts.
+
+In the lumber yard, hemlock is usually recognized by color and the
+silvery character of its surface. Western hemlocks partake of this
+last character to a less degree.
+
+Microscopically the white pine can be distinguished by having usually
+only one large pit, while spruce shows three to five very small
+pits in the parenchyma cells of the pith ray communicating with the
+tracheid.
+
+The distinction of the pines is possible only by microscopic
+examination. The following distinctive features may assist in
+recognizing, when in the log or lumber pile, those usually found in
+the market:
+
+The light, straw color, combined with great lightness and softness,
+distinguishes the white pines (white pine and sugar pine) from the
+hard pines (all others in the market), which may also be recognized
+by the gradual change of spring wood into summer wood. This change
+in hard pines is abrupt, making the summer wood appear as a sharply
+defined and more or less broad band.
+
+The Norway pine, which may be confounded with the shortleaf pine, can
+be distinguished by being much lighter and softer. It may also,
+but more rarely, be confounded with heavier white pine, but for the
+sharper definition of the annual ring, weight, and hardness.
+
+The longleaf pine is strikingly heavy, hard, and resinous, and usually
+very regular and narrow ringed, showing little sap-wood, and differing
+in this respect from the shortleaf pine and loblolly pine, which
+usually have wider rings and more sap-wood, the latter excelling in
+that respect.
+
+
+The following convenient and useful classification of pines into four
+groups, proposed by Dr. H. Mayr, is based on the appearance of the
+pith ray as seen in a radial section of the spring wood of any ring:
+
+Section I. Walls of the tracheids of the pith ray with dentate
+ projections.
+
+ _a._ One to two large, simple pits to each tracheid on the radial
+ walls of the cells of the pith ray.--Group 1. Represented in
+ this country only by _P. resinosa_.
+
+ _b._ Three to six simple pits to each tracheid, on the walls of
+ the cells of the pith ray.--Group 2. _P. taeda_, _palustris_,
+ etc., including most of our "hard" and "yellow" pines.
+
+Section II. Walls of tracheids of pith ray smooth, without dentate
+ projections.
+
+ _a._ One or two large pits to each tracheid on the radial walls of
+ each cell of the pith ray.--Group 3. _P. strobus, lambertiana_,
+ and other true white pines.
+
+ _b._ Three to six small pits on the radial walls of each cell of
+ the pith ray. Group 4. _P. parryana_, and other nut pines,
+ including also _P. balfouriana_.
+
+====
+
+
+II.--RING-POROUS WOODS.
+
+(Some of Group D and cedar elm imperfectly ring-porous.)
+
+A. Pores in the summer wood minute, scattered singly or in groups, or in
+ short broken lines, the course of which is never radial.
+
+ 1. Pith rays minute, scarcely distinct.
+
+ _a._ Wood heavy and hard; pores in the summer wood not in clusters.
+
+ _a.'_ Color of radial section not yellow.................ASH.
+
+ _b.'_ Color of radial section light yellow; by which,
+ together with its hardness and weight, this
+ species is easily recognized, ............OSAGE ORANGE.
+
+ _b._ Wood light and soft; pores in the summer wood in clusters
+ of 10 to 30 .......................................CATALPA.
+
+ 2. Pith rays very fine, yet distinct; pores in summer wood
+ usually single or in short lines; color of heart-wood
+ reddish brown; of sap-wood yellowish white; peculiar odor
+ on fresh section .....................................SASSAFRAS.
+
+ 3. Pith rays fine, but distinct.
+
+ _a._ Very heavy and hard; heart-wood yellowish brown.
+ BLACK LOCUST.
+
+ _b._ Heavy; medium hard to hard.
+
+ _a.'_ Pores in summer wood very minute, usually in small
+ clusters of 3 to 8; heart-wood light orange brown.
+ RED MULBERRY.
+
+ _b.'_ Pores in summer wood small to minute, usually
+ isolated; heart-wood cherry red ..........COFFEE TREE.
+
+
+ 4. Pith rays fine but very conspicuous, even without magnifier.
+ Color of heart-wood red; of sap-wood pale lemon ...HONEY LOCUST.
+
+B. Pores of summer wood minute or small, in concentric wavy and
+ sometimes branching lines, appearing as finely-feathered hatchings
+ on tangential section.
+
+ 1. Pith rays fine, but very distinct; color greenish white.
+ Heart-wood absent or imperfectly developed ...........HACKBERRY.
+
+ 2. Pith rays indistinct; color of heart-wood reddish brown;
+ sap-wood grayish to reddish white .........................ELMS.
+
+C. Pores of summer wood arranged in radial branching lines (when very
+ crowded radial arrangement somewhat obscured).
+
+ 1. Pith rays very minute, hardly visible .................CHESTNUT.
+
+ 2. Pith rays very broad and conspicuous .......................OAK.
+
+D. Pores of summer wood mostly but little smaller than those of the
+ spring wood, isolated and scattered; very heavy and hard woods.
+ The pores of the spring wood sometimes form but an imperfect zone.
+ (Some diffuse-porous woods of groups A and B may seem to belong
+ here.)
+
+ 1. Fine concentric lines (not of pores) as distinct, or nearly so,
+ as the very fine pith rays; outer summer wood with a tinge of
+ red; heart-wood light reddish brown ....................HICKORY.
+
+ 2. Fine concentric lines, much finer than the pith rays; no
+ reddish tinge in summer wood; sap-wood white; heart-wood
+ blackish .............................................PERSIMMON.
+
+====
+
+
+ADDITIONAL NOTES FOR DISTINCTIONS IN THE GROUP.
+
+Sassafras and mulberry may be confounded but for the greater weight
+and hardness and the absence of odor in the mulberry; the radial
+section of mulberry also shows the pith rays conspicuously.
+
+Honey locust, coffee tree, and black locust are also very similar in
+appearance. The honey locust stands out by the conspicuousness of the
+pith rays, especially on radial sections, on account of their height,
+while the black locust is distinguished by the extremely great weight
+and hardness, together with its darker brown color.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 131. Wood of Coffee Tree.]
+
+The ashes, elms, hickories, and oaks may, on casual observation,
+appear to resemble one another on account of the pronounced zone of
+porous spring wood. (Figs. 129, 132, 135.) The sharply defined large
+pith rays of the oak exclude these at once; the wavy lines of pores in
+the summer wood, appearing as conspicuous finely-feathered hatchings
+on tangential section, distinguish the elms; while the ashes differ
+from the hickory by the very conspicuously defined zone of spring wood
+pores, which in hickory appear more or less interrupted. The reddish
+hue of the hickory and the more or less brown hue of the ash may also
+aid in ready recognition. The smooth, radial surface of split hickory
+will readily separate it from the rest.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 132. _A_, black ash; _B_, white ash; _C_, green
+ash.]
+
+The different species of ash may be identified as follows (Fig. 132):
+
+ 1. Pores in the summer wood more or less united into lines.
+
+ _a._ The lines short and broken, occurring mostly near the limit
+ of the ring .......................................WHITE ASH.
+
+ _b._ The lines quite long and conspicuous in most parts of the
+ summer wood .......................................GREEN ASH.
+
+ 2. Pores in the summer wood not united into lines, or rarely so.
+
+ _a._ Heart-wood reddish brown and very firm ..............RED ASH.
+
+ _b._ Heart-wood grayish brown, and much more porous ....BLACK ASH.
+
+In the oaks, two groups can be readily distinguished by the manner in
+which the pores are distributed in the summer wood. (Fig. 133.) In
+the white oaks the pores are very fine and numerous and crowded in
+the outer part of the summer wood, while in the black or red oaks the
+pores are larger, few in number, and mostly isolated. The live oaks,
+as far as structure is concerned, belong to the black oaks, but are
+much less porous, and are exceedingly heavy and hard.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 133. Wood of Red Oak. (For white oak see fig. 129,
+p. 291.)]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 134. Wood of Chestnut.]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 135. Wood of Hickory.]
+
+====
+
+
+III.--DIFFUSE-POROUS WOODS.
+
+(A few indistinctly ring-porous woods of Group II, D, and cedar elm
+may seem to belong here.)
+
+A. Pores varying in size from large to minute; largest in spring wood,
+ thereby giving sometimes the appearance of a ring-porous arrangement.
+
+ 1. Heavy and hard; color of heart-wood (especially on longitudinal
+ section) chocolate brown ..........................BLACK WALNUT.
+
+ 2. Light and soft; color of heart-wood light reddish brown
+ BUTTERNUT.
+
+B. Pores all minute and indistinct; most numerous in spring wood,
+ giving rise to a lighter colored zone or line (especially on
+ longitudinal section), thereby appearing sometimes ring-porous;
+ wood hard, heart-wood vinous reddish; pith rays very fine, but very
+ distinct. (See also the sometimes indistinct ring-porous cedar elm,
+ and occasionally winged elm, which are readily distinguished by the
+ concentric wavy lines of pores in the summer wood) .........CHERRY.
+
+C. Pores minute or indistinct, neither conspicuously larger nor more
+ numerous in the spring wood and evenly distributed.
+
+ 1. Broad pith rays present.
+
+ _a._ All or most pith rays broad, numerous, and crowded,
+ especially on tangential sections, medium heavy and hard,
+ difficult to split. ................................SYCAMORE.
+
+ _b._ Only part of the pith rays broad.
+
+ _a.'_ Broad pith rays well defined, quite numerous;
+ wood reddish white to reddish ....................BEECH.
+
+ _b.'_ Broad pith rays not sharply defined, made up of many
+ small rays, not numerous. Stem furrowed, and therefore
+ the periphery of section, and with it the annual rings
+ sinuous, bending in and out, and the large pith rays
+ generally limited to the furrows or concave portions.
+ Wood white, not reddish .....................BLUE BEECH.
+
+ 2. No broad pith rays present.
+
+ _a._ Pith rays small to very small, but quite distinct.
+
+ _a.'_ Wood hard.
+
+ _a."_ Color reddish white, with dark reddish tinge in
+ outer summer wood ...........................MAPLE.
+
+ _b."_ Color white, without reddish tinge ...........HOLLY.
+
+ _b.'_ Wood soft to very soft.
+
+ _a."_ Pores crowded, occupying nearly all the space between
+ pith rays.
+
+ _a.'"_ Color yellowish white, often with a greenish tinge
+ in heart-wood ........................TULIP POPLAR.
+ CUCUMBER TREE.
+
+ _b.'"_ Color of sap-wood grayish, of heart-wood light to
+ dark reddish brown ......................SWEET GUM.
+
+ _b."_ Pores not crowded, occupying not over one-third the
+ space between pith rays; heart-wood brownish white
+ to very light brown .........................BASSWOOD.
+
+ _b._ Pith rays scarcely distinct, yet if viewed with ordinary
+ magnifier, plainly visible.
+
+ _a.'_ Pores indistinct to the naked eye.
+
+ _a."_ Color uniform pale yellow; pith rays not
+ conspicuous even on the radial section .....BUCKEYE.
+
+ _b."_ Sap-wood yellowish gray, heart-wood grayish brown;
+ pith rays conspicuous on the radial section.
+ SOUR GUM.
+
+ _b.'_ Pores scarcely distinct, but mostly visible as grayish
+ specks on the cross-section; sap-wood whitish,
+ heart-wood reddish ..............................BIRCH.
+
+D. Pith rays not visible or else indistinct, even if viewed with
+ magnifier.
+
+ 1. Wood very soft, white, or in shades of brown, usually with a
+ silky luster .................................COTTONWOOD (POPLAR).
+
+====
+
+
+ADDITIONAL NOTES FOR DISTINCTIONS IN THE GROUP.
+
+Cherry and birch are sometimes confounded, the high pith rays on the
+cherry on radial sections readily distinguishes it; distinct pores
+on birch and spring wood zone in cherry as well as the darker
+vinous-brown color of the latter will prove helpful.
+
+Two groups of birches can be readily distinguished, tho specific
+distinction is not always possible.
+
+ 1. Pith rays fairly distinct, the pores rather few and not more
+ abundant in the spring wood: wood heavy, usually darker,
+ CHERRY BIRCH and YELLOW BIRCH.
+
+ 2. Pith rays barely distinct, pores more numerous and commonly
+ forming a more porous spring wood zone; wood of medium weight,
+ CANOE OR PAPER BIRCH.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 136. Wood of Beech, Sycamore and Birch.]
+
+The species of maple may be distinguished as follows:
+
+ 1. Most of the pith rays broader than the pores and very
+ conspicuous ........................................SUGAR MAPLE.
+
+ 2. Pith rays not or rarely broader than the pores, fine but
+ conspicuous.
+
+ _a._ Wood heavy and hard, usually of darker reddish color and
+ commonly spotted on cross-section ...............RED MAPLE.
+
+ _b._ Wood of medium weight and hardness, usually light colored.
+ SILVER MAPLE.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 137. Wood of Maple.]
+
+Red maple is not always safely distinguished from soft maple. In box
+elder the pores are finer and more numerous than in soft maple. The
+various species of elm may be distinguished as follows:
+
+ 1. Pores of spring wood form a broad band of several rows; easy
+ splitting, dark brown heart ............................RED ELM.
+
+ 2. Pores of spring wood usually in a single row, or nearly so.
+
+ _a._ Pores of spring wood large, conspicuously so
+ WHITE ELM.
+
+ _b._ Pores of spring wood small to minute.
+
+ _a.'_ Lines of pores in summer wood fine, not as wide as the
+ intermediate spaces, giving rise to very compact grain
+ ROCK ELM.
+
+ _b.'_ Lines of pores broad, commonly as wide as the
+ intermediate spaces .........................WINGED ELM.
+
+ _c._ Pores in spring wood indistinct, and therefore hardly a
+ ring-porous wood .................................CEDAR ELM.
+
+[Illustration:
+
+Fig. 138. Wood of Elm.
+_a_ red elm; _b_, white elm; _c_, winged elm.]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 139. Walnut. _p.r._, pith rays; _c.l._, concentric
+lines; _v_, vessels or pores; _su. w._, summer wood; _sp. w._, spring
+wood.]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 140. Wood of Cherry.]
+
+
+
+
+INDEX.
+
+
+_Abies grandis_, 96.
+
+_Acer dasycarpum_, 172.
+
+_Acer macrophyllum_, 170.
+
+_Acer rubrum_, 174.
+
+_Acer saccharinum_, 172.
+
+_Acer saccharum_, 176.
+
+_Agaricus melleus_, 236.
+
+_Agarics_, 234, 236.
+
+Alburnum, 17.
+
+Ambrosia beetles, 242.
+
+Angiosperms, 9.
+
+Animal enemies, 239.
+
+Arborvitae, Giant, 104.
+
+Ash, 182-191, 296.
+
+Ash, Black, 182, 298.
+
+Ash, Blue, 186.
+
+Ash, Hoop, 182.
+
+Ash, Oregon, 184.
+
+Ash, Red, 188, 298.
+
+Ash, White, 25, 190, 298.
+
+
+Bamboo, 10, 11.
+
+Bark, 10, 13, 14.
+
+Bark borers, 243.
+
+Basswood, 14, 178, 301.
+
+Bast, 13, 15, 16, 20.
+
+Beech, 134, 300.
+
+Beech, Blue, 124, 300.
+
+Beech, Water, 124.
+
+Beech, Water, 162.
+
+Bees, carpenter, 246.
+
+Beetles, 241-246.
+
+_Betula lenta_, 130.
+
+_Betula lutea_, 132.
+
+_Betula nigra_, 128.
+
+_Betula papyrifera_, 126.
+
+Big Tree, 98, 208, 209, 220.
+
+Birch, Black, 130.
+
+Birch, Canoe, 126.
+
+Birch, Cherry, 130.
+
+Birch, Gray, 132.
+
+Birch, Mahogany, 130.
+
+Birch, Paper, 126.
+
+Birch, Red, 128.
+
+Birch, River, 128.
+
+Birch, Sweet, 130.
+
+Birch, White, 126.
+
+Birch, Yellow, 132.
+
+Bird's eye maple, 36.
+
+Bluing, 234.
+
+Bole, 211, 218.
+
+Borers, 243-246.
+
+Bowing, 47.
+
+Branches, 37, 218, 226, 286.
+
+Brittleness, 53.
+
+Broad-leaved trees.
+ See Trees, Broad-leaved.
+
+Browsing, 240.
+
+Buckeye, 301.
+
+Bud, 14, 16, 36.
+
+Buds, Adventitious, 36, 37.
+
+Bullnut, 118.
+
+_Buprestid_, 243.
+
+Burl, 35.
+
+Butternut, 144, 300.
+
+Button Ball, 162.
+
+Buttonwood, 162.
+
+
+Calico poplar, 246.
+
+Cambium, 10, 13, 14, 15, 16, 22, 237.
+
+Canopy, 204, 211, 212.
+
+Carpenter worms, 245.
+
+Carpenter bees, 246.
+
+_Carpinus caroliniana_, 124.
+
+Catalpa, 296.
+
+_Castanea dentata_, 136.
+
+Case-hardening, 48.
+
+_Carya tomentosa_, 118.
+
+_Carya porcina_, 122.
+
+_Carya alba_, 120.
+
+Cedar, Canoe, 104.
+
+Cedar Incense, 295.
+
+Cedar, Oregon, 108.
+
+Cedar, Port Orford, 108.
+
+Cedar, Red, 110, 223, 295.
+
+Cedar, Western Red, 104, 206, 207.
+
+Cedar, White, 106, 295.
+
+Cedar, White, 108.
+
+Cells, Wood, 15, 19, 20, 21, 24, 26, 41, 42.
+
+Cells, Fibrous, 28.
+
+Cellulose, 15.
+
+_Cerambycid_, 243.
+
+_Chamaecyparis lawsoniana_, 108.
+
+_Chamaecyparis thyordes_, 106.
+
+Checks, 43, 47, 232.
+
+Cherry, Wild Black, 164, 300.
+
+Chestnut, 136, 298.
+
+Cleaning, 218, 286.
+
+Cleavability of wood, 41, 53.
+
+Coffee Tree, 297.
+
+Color of wood, 18.
+
+Cold, 214, 216.
+
+_Coleoptera_, 241.
+
+Colors of woods, 17, 18, 290.
+
+Columbian timber beetle, 245.
+
+Comb-grain, 54.
+
+Composition of forest, 197-210, 223.
+
+Compression, 51, 52.
+
+Conch, 235.
+
+Cones, Annual, 19.
+
+Conifers, 9, 10, 12, 24-26, 29, 30, 48, 58-111, 205, 220, 237, 251.
+
+Conservation of forests, 262.
+
+Coppice, 220, 278, 279.
+
+Cork, 13, 19.
+
+Cortex, 13, 15.
+
+_Corthylus columbianus_, 245.
+
+Cottonwood, 301.
+
+Cover, 211.
+
+Crop, The Forest, 274.
+
+Crown, 211, 227.
+
+Cucumber Tree, 156, 301.
+
+_Curculionid_, 243.
+
+Cypress, Bald, 102, 215, 295.
+
+Cypress, Lawson, 108.
+
+
+Decay, 235.
+
+Deciduous trees, 10.
+
+Dicotoledons, 9, 10.
+
+Differentiation of cells, 16.
+
+Diffuse-porous. See wood, diffuse-porous.
+
+Distribution of species, 218.
+
+Distribution of forests, 197-210.
+
+Drouth, 213, 231.
+
+Dry-rot, 234, 238.
+
+Duff, 224, 251.
+
+Duramen, 17.
+
+
+Elasticity of wood, 41, 53.
+
+Elm, 152-155, 298.
+
+Elm, American, 154.
+
+Elm, Cedar, 303.
+
+Elm, Cliff, 152.
+
+Elm, Cork, 152.
+
+Elm, Hickory, 152.
+
+Elm, Red, 302.
+
+Elm, Rock, 152, 303.
+
+Elm, Slippery, 14.
+
+Elm, Water, 154.
+
+Elm, White, 152.
+
+Elm, White, 154, 302.
+
+Elm, Winged, 303.
+
+Endogens, 10, 17.
+ See Monocotoledons.
+
+Enemies of the Forest, 229-249.
+
+Engraver beetles, 241.
+
+Entomology, Bureau of, 247.
+
+Epidermis, 13, 15.
+
+Erosion, 273.
+
+Evaporation, 42, 47.
+
+Evergreens, 10.
+
+Exotics, 227.
+
+Exogens, 12, 16.
+
+
+_Fagus americana_, 134.
+
+_Fagus atropunicea_, 134.
+
+_Fagus ferruginea_, 134.
+
+_Fagus grandifolia_, 134.
+
+Figure, 37.
+
+Fir, 96, 294.
+
+Fir, Douglas, 94.
+
+Fir, Grand, 96.
+
+Fir, Lowland, 96.
+
+Fir, Red, 94, 206, 207.
+
+Fir, Silver, 96.
+
+Fir, White, 96.
+
+Fire, 232, 251-258.
+
+Fire lanes, 257.
+
+Fire losses, 253.
+
+Fire notice, 258.
+
+Fire trenches, 256.
+
+Fire Wardens, 257.
+
+Fires, Causes of, 252.
+
+Fires, Control of, 256-258.
+
+Fires, Crown, 255.
+
+Fires, Description of, 254-256.
+
+Fires, Fear of, 261.
+
+Fires, Opportunities for, 251.
+
+Fires, Statistics of, 253.
+
+Fires, Surface, 252.
+
+Floor, Forest, 213, 224.
+
+Forest, Abundance of, 260.
+
+Forest, Appalachian, 204.
+
+Forest, Atlantic, 197.
+
+Forest, Broadleaf, 202.
+
+Forest, Eastern, 197-204.
+
+Forest, Enemies of, 229-249.
+
+Forest, Exhaustion of, 241-270.
+
+Forest, Esthetic use of, 277.
+
+Forest, Fear of, 260.
+
+Forest, Hardwood, 197.
+
+Forest, High, 281.
+
+Forest, Hostility toward, 260.
+
+Forest, Mixed, 204, 213, 214.
+
+Forest, Northern, 197, 216.
+
+Forest, Pacific, 197, 204-208.
+
+Forest, Productive, 274-277.
+
+Forest, Protective, 271-274.
+
+Forest, Puget Sound, 206.
+
+Forest, Regular Seed, 281.
+
+Forest, Rocky Mountain, 197, 204, 205.
+
+Forest, Seed, 297-282.
+
+Forest, Selection, 280-281.
+
+Forest, Southern, 197.
+
+Forest, Subarctic, 209.
+
+Forest, Two-storied Seed, 282.
+
+Forest, Use of, 271-287.
+
+Forest, Utilization of, 271-277.
+
+Forest, Virgin, 280.
+
+Forest, Western, 197.
+
+Forestry, 271-287.
+
+Forests, Composition of North American, 197.
+
+Forests, National, 228.
+
+Forests and agriculture, 258, 277.
+
+Forest conditions, 211-228, 278.
+
+Forest conservation, 262.
+
+Forest cover, 204, 211, 212, 224.
+
+Forest crop, 274, 276.
+
+Forest devastation, 261.
+
+Forest fires, 251-258, 261.
+
+Forest floor, 213, 224.
+
+Forest improvement, 284-286.
+
+Forest map, 198.
+
+Forest organism, The, Chapter V., pp. 211-228.
+
+Forest ownership, 262.
+
+Forest planting, 282-284.
+
+Forest preservation, 277-284.
+
+Forest products, 276.
+
+Forest Service, U. S., 262, 264, 275.
+
+_Fraxinus americana_, 190.
+
+_Fraxinus nigra_, 182.
+
+_Fraxinus oregona_, 184.
+
+_Fraxinus pennsylvanica_, 188.
+
+_Fraxinus quadrangulata_, 186.
+
+Frost, 232.
+
+Frost-check, 232.
+
+Fungi, 20, 233-239.
+
+
+Ginko, 12.
+
+Gluing, 54.
+
+Goats, 240.
+
+Grain of wood, 19, 30, 31, 32-37, 53.
+
+Grain, Bird's eye.
+
+Grain, coarse, 32.
+
+Grain, cross, 33, 53.
+
+Grain, curly, 35.
+
+Grain, fine, 32.
+
+Grain, spiral, 33.
+
+Grain, straight, 33, 53.
+
+Grain, twisted, 33.
+
+Grain, wavy, 34.
+
+Grazing, 239.
+
+Group system, 279.
+
+Grubs, 243, 244.
+
+Gum, Black, 180.
+
+Gum, Sour, 180, 301.
+
+Gum, Sweet, 160, 301.
+
+Gymnosperms, 9.
+
+
+Hackberry, 297.
+
+Hackmatack, 76.
+
+Hardness of wood, 41, 54.
+
+Hardwoods, 12.
+
+Heart-wood, 13, 17, 18, 19, 290.
+
+Hemlock, 90, 295.
+
+Hemlock, Black, 92.
+
+Hemlock, Western, 92, 206.
+
+_Hicoria alba_, 118.
+
+_Hicoria glabra_, 122.
+
+_Hicoria ovata_, 120.
+
+Hickory, 118-123, 298.
+
+Hickory, Big-bud, 118.
+
+Hickory, Black, 118.
+
+Hickory, Shagbark, 120.
+
+Hickory, Shellbark, 120.
+
+Hickory, White-heart, 118.
+
+High Forest, 281.
+
+Holly, 301.
+
+Honeycombing, 48.
+
+Hornbeam, 124.
+
+Horn-tails, 246.
+
+Hygroscopicity of wood, 41.
+
+_Hymenomycetes_, 234.
+
+
+Ice, 232.
+
+Ichneumon fly, 247.
+
+Identification of woods, 289-303.
+
+Improvement of forests, 284-286.
+
+Inflammability of bark, 14, 251.
+
+Insects, 240-248.
+
+Insects, parasitic, 247.
+
+Insects, predaceous, 247.
+
+Intolerance, 216, 219, 221.
+
+Iron-wood, 124.
+
+
+_Juglans cinerea_, 114.
+
+_Juglans nigra_, 116.
+
+_Juniperus virginiana_, 110.
+
+
+Key for the distinction of woods, 292-303.
+
+King-nut, 118.
+
+Knot, 35, 37, 38.
+
+
+Larch, 76.
+
+Larch, Western, 78.
+
+_Larix americana_, 76.
+
+_Larix laricina_, 76.
+
+_Larix occidentales_, 78.
+
+Leaves, 14, 216.
+
+Lenticels, 14.
+
+_Lepidoptera_, 241.
+
+Light, 216-218.
+
+Lightning, 231, 251.
+
+Lignin, 16.
+
+Linden, 178.
+
+_Liquidambar styraciflua_, 160.
+
+_Liriodendron tulipifera_, 158.
+
+Localized Selection system, 281.
+
+Locust, 166.
+
+Locust, Black, 166, 296.
+
+Locust, Honey, 166, 297.
+
+Locust, Yellow, 166.
+
+Long-bodied trunk, 225.
+
+Lumber consumption, 264.
+
+Lumber, 9, 10.
+
+Lumber prices, 267, 268.
+
+Lumber production, 265-267.
+
+Lumber, substitutes for, 264.
+
+Lumbering, conservative, 274, 276.
+
+Lumbering, destructive, 251, 258-263.
+
+Lumberman, 260.
+
+
+_Magnolia acuminata_, 156.
+
+Magnolia, Mountain, 156.
+
+Mahogany, 168.
+
+Maple, 170-177, 301.
+
+Maple, Hard, 25, 176.
+
+Maple, Large Leaved, 170.
+
+Maple, Oregon, 170, 207.
+
+Maple, Red, 174, 302.
+
+Maple, Rock, 25, 176.
+
+Maple, Silver, 172, 302.
+
+Maple, Soft, 172.
+
+Maple, Sugar, 176.
+
+Maple, White, 170.
+
+Maple, White, 172.
+
+Medullary rays. See Rays.
+
+Medullary Sheath. See Sheath.
+
+_Merulius lachrymans_, 234, 238.
+
+Meteorological enemies, 229-233.
+
+Mice, 237.
+
+Microscope, 14, 24-31, 290.
+
+Mine, Forest treated as, 261, 274.
+
+Mockernut, 118.
+
+Moisture, 213.
+
+Moisture in wood, 41, 52.
+
+Monocotoledons, 9, 10, 17.
+ See also Endogens.
+
+Mountain, 216.
+
+Mulberry, Red, 297.
+
+Mushroom, 236.
+
+Mutual aid, 224.
+
+
+Nailing, 53.
+
+Needle-leaf trees, 12.
+
+Non-porous. See Wood, non-porous.
+
+North Woods, 197, 218.
+
+Nurse, 218, 219.
+
+_Nyssa sylvatica_, 180.
+
+
+Oak, 138-151, 298.
+
+Oak, Basket, 142.
+
+Oak, Black, 140.
+
+Oak, Bur, 144.
+
+Oak, Cow, 142.
+
+Oak, Live, 201.
+
+Oak, Mossy-cup, 144.
+
+Oak, Over-cup, 144.
+
+Oak, Post, 148.
+
+Oak, Red, 138.
+
+Oak, Stave, 150.
+
+Oak, White, 150.
+
+Oak, White (Western), 146.
+
+Oak, Yellow bark, 140.
+
+Odors of wood, 18.
+
+Osage Orange, 296.
+
+Organism, Forest, 211.
+
+
+_Padus serotina_, 164.
+
+Palm, 9, 17.
+
+Paper pulp, 263.
+
+Parasites, 233.
+
+Parenchyma, 23, 28.
+
+Pecky cypress, 234.
+
+Peggy cypress, 234.
+
+Pepperidge, 180.
+
+Persimmon, 298.
+
+Phanerogamia, 9.
+
+Phloem, 13.
+
+_Picea alba_, 80.
+
+_Picea canadensis_, 80.
+
+_Picea engelmanni_, 86.
+
+_Picea mariana_, 84.
+
+_Picea nigra_, 84.
+
+_Picea rubens_, 82.
+
+_Picea sitchensis_, 88.
+
+Pigeon Horn-tail, 247.
+
+Pignut, 122.
+
+Pines, 58-75, 295.
+
+Pine, Bull, 66, 205, 282.
+
+Pine, Cuban, 74.
+
+Pine, Georgia, 68.
+
+Pine, Loblolly, 72.
+
+Pine, Long-leaf, 68, 200.
+
+Pine, Norway, 64.
+
+Pine, Old Field, 72.
+
+Pine, Oregon, 94.
+
+Pine, Red, 64.
+
+Pine, Short-leaf, 70.
+
+Pine, Slash, 74.
+
+Pine, Sugar, 62.
+
+Pine, Western White, 60.
+
+Pine, Western Yellow, 66.
+
+Pine, Weymouth, 58.
+
+Pine, White, 24, 58, 199.
+
+Pine, Yellow, 70.
+
+Pine sawyers, 244.
+
+_Pinus caribaea_, 74.
+
+_Pinus echinata_, 70.
+
+_Pinus heterophylla_, 74.
+
+_Pinus lambertiana_, 62.
+
+_Pinus monticola_, 60.
+
+_Pinus palustris_, 68.
+
+_Pinus ponderosa_, 66.
+
+_Pinus resinosa_, 64.
+
+_Pinus strobus_, 58.
+
+_Pinus taeda_, 72.
+
+Pith, 10, 13, 15, 16, 23, 32, 39.
+
+Pith ray. See Ray, medullary.
+
+Pits, 26, 292.
+
+Planting, 282-284.
+
+_Platanus occidentalis_, 162.
+
+Poles, 225.
+
+Polypores, 234
+
+_Polyporus annosus_, 237.
+
+_Polyporus sulphureus_, 236.
+
+Poplar, yellow, 158, 221, 245, 246, 301.
+
+Pores, 23, 28, 29, 291.
+
+Powder-post beetles, 244.
+
+Preservation of forests, 277-284.
+
+Prices of lumber, 267, 268.
+
+Primary growth, 17, 22.
+
+Procambium strands, 16.
+
+Protection against fungi, 239.
+
+Protection against insects, 247.
+
+Properties of wood, Chap II., p. 41.
+
+Protoplasm, 14, 16, 23, 41.
+
+Pruning of branches, 286.
+
+_Prunus serotina_, 164.
+
+_Pseudotsuga mucronata_, 94.
+
+_Pseudotsuga taxifolia_, 94.
+
+
+Quartering a log, 45.
+
+Quartered oak, 22.
+
+_Quercus alba_, 150.
+
+_Quercus garryana_, 146.
+
+_Quercus macrocarpa_, 144.
+
+_Quercus michauxii_, 142.
+
+_Quercus minor_, 148.
+
+_Quercus obtusiloba_, 148.
+
+_Quercus rubra_, 138.
+
+_Quercus stellata_, 148.
+
+_Quercus tinctoria_, 140.
+
+_Quercus velutina_, 140.
+
+
+Rainfall, effect on forest, 205, 213.
+
+Rays, medullary, 15, 16, 17, 21, 22, 23, 26, 30, 31, 37, 44, 53, 291.
+
+Red rot, 234.
+
+Redwood, 100, 207, 208, 222, 295.
+
+Regularity of cells, 24.
+
+Reproduction, 220.
+
+Reserve sprout method, 279.
+
+Resin ducts, 26, 291.
+
+Rhizomorphs, 236.
+
+Rind, 13.
+
+Ring-porous. See Wood, ring-porous.
+
+Rings, Annual, 9, 18, 19, 21, 23, 44, 226, 290.
+
+Rings, False, 19, 231.
+
+_Robinia pseudacacia_, 166.
+
+Rodents, 239.
+
+Roots, 211, 224.
+
+Rotation period, 279.
+
+Rotting, 234.
+
+
+_Salix nigra_, 112.
+
+Sand dunes, 230, 231.
+
+Saplings, 225, 226.
+
+Saprophytes, 233.
+
+Sap-wood, 13, 17, 18, 41, 42, 290.
+
+Sassafras, 296.
+
+Sawyers, Pine, 244.
+
+Secondary growth, 17.
+
+Section, cross, 21, 22, 29.
+ See also Section, transverse.
+
+Section, radial, 19, 22, 26, 30, 31.
+
+Section, tangential, 19, 22, 26, 30, 31.
+
+Section, transverse, 19, 24, 29, 30.
+
+Seasoning, 42.
+
+Sections, transverse, radial and tangential, 12.
+
+Seed forests, 279-282.
+
+Seeding from the side, 279.
+
+Seedlings, 225, 226.
+
+Seeds, 220-223, 226.
+
+Sequoia, 98.
+
+Sequoia, 100.
+
+Sequoia, Giant, 98.
+
+_Sequoia gigantea_, 98.
+
+_Sequoia sempervirens_, 100.
+
+_Sequoia washingtoniana_, 98.
+
+Settler, 258.
+
+Shake, 47, 232, 233.
+
+Shearing strength, 52.
+
+Sheep, 240.
+
+Shelf fungus, 234, 236.
+
+Short-bodied trunk, 225, 226.
+
+Shrinkage of wood, 41, 42-47.
+
+Silver flakes, 22.
+ See Rays, Medullary.
+
+Silvical characteristics, 211.
+
+Silvicultural systems, 278-284.
+
+Slash, 229, 251, 257.
+
+Slash-grain, 54.
+
+Snow, 232.
+
+Slash-sawing, 45, 47.
+
+Softwoods, 12.
+
+Soil, 211, 213.
+
+Specific gravity. See Weight.
+
+Splint-wood, 17.
+
+Splitting. See Cleavability.
+
+Spores, 234.
+
+Spring-wood, 20, 21, 24, 30, 32, 44, 53, 54, 291.
+
+Sprouts, 220, 222.
+
+Spruce, 80-89, 295.
+
+Spruce, Black, 84.
+
+Spruce, Douglas, 94, 296.
+
+Spruce, Engelmann's, 86.
+
+Spruce, Red, 82, 213.
+
+Spruce, Sitka, 88.
+
+Spruce, Tideland, 88.
+
+Spruce, Western White, 86.
+
+Spruce, White, 80.
+
+Stand, mixed, 213, 223.
+
+Stand, pure, 213, 223.
+
+Standards, 225, 226.
+
+Steamboats, 246.
+
+Stem, diagram of cross section, Fig. 4, p. 13, fig. 5, p. 15, 211.
+
+Strength of wood, 41, 51-53.
+
+Strip system, 279.
+
+Structure of wood, 9-40, 29, 30, 32.
+
+Struggle for existence, 224, 226, 227.
+
+Summer-wood, 20, 21, 24, 30, 32, 44, 53, 54, 291.
+
+_Swietenia mahagoni_, 168.
+
+Sycamore, 22, 162, 300.
+
+
+Tamarack, 76, 296.
+
+Tamarack, Western, 78.
+
+Taxes on forests, 261.
+
+_Taxodium distichum_, 102.
+
+Tear fungus, 234, 238.
+
+Temperature, 214.
+
+Tension, 51, 52.
+
+Texture of wood, 32.
+
+_Thuja gigantea_, 104.
+
+_Thuja plicata_, 104.
+
+_Tilia americana_, 178.
+
+Timber beetles, 242, 245.
+
+Timber supply of U. S., 264-269.
+
+Timber trees, 10.
+
+Timber worms, 244.
+
+Tissue, 16.
+
+Toadstools, 234.
+
+Tolerance, 216, 219.
+
+Toughness of wood, 41, 54.
+
+Tracheae, 23, 28.
+
+Tracheid, 28, 30, 290, 292.
+
+_Trametes pini_, 235.
+
+_Trametes radiciperda_, 237.
+
+Tree, parts of, 211.
+
+Treeless area, 197, 203.
+
+Trees, Broad-leaved, 9, 10, 28, 29.
+
+Trees, deciduous, 10.
+
+Trunk, 13, 211.
+ Long-bodied, 225.
+ Short-bodied, 225.
+
+_Tsuga canadensis_, 90.
+
+_Tsuga heterophylla_, 92.
+
+Tulip Tree, 158.
+ See Poplar Yellow
+
+Tupelo, 180.
+
+Turpentine, 263.
+
+Two-storied Seed Forest, 282.
+
+
+_Ulmus americana_, 154.
+
+_Ulmus racemosa_, 152.
+
+_Ulmus thomasi_, 152.
+
+Utilization of forests, 271-277.
+
+
+Vegetable enemies, 233-239.
+
+Veneer, 10, 35.
+
+Vessels, 23, 28, 29.
+
+Veterans, 225.
+
+
+Walnut, Black, 116, 300.
+
+Walnut, White, 114.
+
+Warping, 45-47.
+
+Waste, Avoidance of, 274.
+
+Waste in lumbering, 263.
+
+Water, 41, 42, 226, 231.
+
+Weeds, Forest, 225.
+
+Weight of wood, 41, 49-51.
+
+Whitewood, 158.
+
+Wilderness, Conquest of, 258.
+
+Willow, Black, 112.
+
+Wind, 229, 252, 253.
+
+Windfalls, 229.
+
+Wood, Diffuse-porous, 23, 30, 300-303.
+
+Wood, Non-porous, 24-26, 58-111, 294-296.
+
+Wood, Primary, 17.
+
+Wood, Properties of, Chap. II., 41-56.
+
+Wood, Ring-porous, 23, 29, 296-299.
+
+Wood, Spring, 20, 21, 24, 30, 32, 44, 53, 54, 291.
+
+Wood, Structure of, 9-40.
+
+Wood, secondary, 17.
+
+Wood, summer, 20, 21, 24, 30, 32, 44, 53, 54, 291.
+
+Wood borers, 243.
+
+Wood cells. See Cells.
+
+Wood. See Sap-wood, Heart wood.
+
+Wood dyes, 18.
+
+Wood fiber, 28.
+
+Woods, Color of, 17, 18, 290.
+
+Woods, The distinguishing of, 289-303.
+
+Working, 47.
+
+Worm-holes, 243.
+
+Worms, carpenter, 245.
+
+Worms, Timber, 244.
+
+Wound parasites, 234.
+
+
+Yew, 295.
+
+Yield, 275.
+
+Yucca, 10.
+
+
+
+
+Books on the Manual Arts
+
+
+DESIGN AND CONSTRUCTION IN WOOD. By William Noyes.
+
+ A book full of charm and distinction and the first to give
+ due consideration to the esthetic side of wood-working. It
+ is intended to give to beginners practice in designing simple
+ projects in wood and an opportunity to acquire skill in
+ handling tools. The book illustrates a series of projects and
+ gives suggestions for other similar projects together with
+ information regarding tools and processes for making. A
+ pleasing volume abundantly and beautifully illustrated.
+
+HANDWORK IN WOOD. By William Noyes.
+
+ A handbook for teachers and a textbook for normal school and
+ college students. A comprehensive and scholarly treatise,
+ covering logging, saw-milling, seasoning and measuring, hand
+ tools, wood fastenings, equipment and care of the shop,
+ the common joints, types of wood structures, principles of
+ joinery, and wood finishing. 304 illustrations--excellent pen
+ drawings and many photographs.
+
+WOOD AND FOREST. By William Noyes.
+
+ A companion volume to "Handwork in Wood," by the same author.
+ Especially adapted as a reference book for teachers of
+ woodworking. Not too difficult for use as a textbook
+ for normal school and college students. Treats of wood,
+ distribution of American forests, life of the forest, enemies
+ of the forest, destruction, conservation and uses of the
+ forest, with a key to the common woods by Filibert Roth.
+ Describes 67 principal species of wood with maps of
+ the habitat, leaf drawings, life size photographs and
+ microphotographs of sections. Contains a general bibliography
+ of books and articles on wood and forest. Profusely
+ illustrated with photographs from the United States forest
+ service and with pen and ink drawings by Anna Gausmann Noyes
+ and photographs by the author. 309 pages.
+
+WOODWORK FOR BEGINNERS. By Ira S. Griffith.
+
+ A remarkably simple treatment of elementary woodworking for
+ students in the seventh and eighth grades. It deals with
+ tools, processes and materials and includes only such subject
+ matter as should be taught to grammar grade students. It meets
+ the requirements of students working in large classes and
+ devoting the minimum of time to manual training. A practical
+ and unusually attractive textbook and one that can be used
+ with any course of models and in any order.
+
+BEGINNING WOODWORK, At Home and in School.
+By Clinton S. VanDeusen.
+
+ A full and clear description in detail of the fundamental
+ processes of elementary benchwork in wood. This description
+ is given thru directions for making a few simple, useful
+ articles, suitable either for school or home problems. The
+ book contains more than one hundred original sketches and ten
+ working drawings.
+
+PROBLEMS IN FARM WOODWORK. By Samuel A. Blackburn.
+
+ A book of working drawings of 100 practical problems relating
+ to agriculture and farm life. Especially valuable to the
+ student or teacher of agriculture or manual arts in rural
+ schools and in high schools in agricultural communities,
+ and to the boy on the farm. There are 60 full-page plates of
+ working drawings, each accompanied by a page or more of text
+ treating of "Purpose," "Material," "Bill of Stock," "Tools,"
+ "Directions," and "Assembly." A wonderfully practical book.
+
+PROBLEMS IN FURNITURE MAKING. By Fred D. Crawshaw.
+
+ This book, revised and enlarged, consists of 43 plates of
+ working drawings suitable for use in grammar and high
+ schools, and 36 pages of text, including chapters on design,
+ construction and finishes, and notes on the problems.
+
+FURNITURE DESIGN FOR SCHOOLS AND SHOPS.
+By Fred D. Crawshaw.
+
+ A manual on furniture design. A book that will stimulate and
+ encourage designing and initiation on the part of the student.
+ It contains a collection of plates showing perspective
+ drawings of typical designs, representing particular types of
+ furniture. Each perspective is accompanied by suggestions for
+ rearrangement and the modeling of parts. The text discusses
+ and illustrates principles of design as applied to furniture.
+ A practical and helpful book that should be in the hands of
+ every teacher of cabinet making and designing.
+
+PROBLEMS IN WOODWORKING. By M. W. Murray.
+
+ A convenient collection of good problems consisting of forty
+ plates of working drawings, of problems in benchwork that have
+ been successfully worked out by boys in grades seven to nine
+ inclusive.
+
+SHOP PROBLEMS. (On Tracing Paper). By Albert F. Siepert.
+
+ A collection of working drawings of a large variety of
+ projects printed on tracing paper and ready for blue printing.
+ The projects have all been worked out in manual arts classes
+ and have proved their value from the standpoint of design,
+ construction, use, human interest, etc. They are of convenient
+ size, 6x9-inch, and are enclosed in a portfolio. To the
+ teacher, in search of additional projects to supplement and
+ enrich his course these tracings are worth far more than the
+ price asked. Published in series. Nos. 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, and
+ 7.
+
+WORKSHOP NOTE-BOOK--WOODWORKING.
+By George G. Greene.
+
+ A small-size textbook and notebook combined. It furnishes a
+ few general and extremely important directions about tools and
+ processes; and provides space for additional notes and working
+ drawings of exercises and articles which the pupil is to
+ construct. It is essentially a collection of helps, ideas,
+ hints, suggestions, questions, facts, illustrations, etc.,
+ which have been prepared by a practical teacher to meet a real
+ need in his own shop. The notebook is full of suggestions;
+ shows a keen insight into subject matter and teaching methods
+ and is an effective teaching tool.
+
+PROBLEMS IN WOOD-TURNING. By Fred D. Crawshaw.
+
+ In the first place this is a book of problems--25 plates
+ covering spindle, face-plate, and chuck turning. In the second
+ place it is a textbook on the science and art of wood-turning
+ illustrated by fifty pen sketches. It gives the mathematical
+ basis for the cuts used in turning. In the third place it is
+ a helpful discussion of the principles of design as applied
+ to objects turned in wood. It is a clear, practical and
+ suggestive book on wood-turning.
+
+WOOD PATTERN-MAKING. By Horace T. Purfield.
+
+ This book was written expressly for use as a textbook for
+ high school, trade school, technical school, and engineering
+ college students. It is a revised, enlarged, and newly
+ illustrated edition.
+
+CORRELATED COURSES IN WOODWORK AND MECHANICAL
+DRAWING. By Ira S. Griffith.
+
+ This book is designed to meet the every-day need of the
+ teacher of woodworking and mechanical drawing for reliable
+ information concerning organization of courses, subject
+ matter and methods of teaching. It covers classification and
+ arrangement of tool operations for grades, 7, 8, 9, and 10,
+ shop organization, allotment of time design, shop excursions,
+ stock bills, cost of material, records, shop conduct, the
+ lesson, maintenance, equipment, and lesson outlines for
+ grammar and high schools. It is based on sound pedagogy, thoro
+ technical knowledge and successful teaching experience. It is
+ practical.
+
+ESSENTIALS OF WOODWORKING. By Ira S. Griffith.
+
+ A textbook written especially for the use of grammar and
+ high school students. A clear and comprehensive treatment of
+ woodworking tools, materials, and processes, to supplement,
+ but not to take the place of the instruction given by the
+ teacher. The book does not contain a course of models; it may
+ be used with any course. It is illustrated with photographs
+ and numerous pen drawings.
+
+PROJECTS FOR BEGINNING WOODWORK AND MECHANICAL
+DRAWING. By Ira S. Griffith.
+
+ A work book for the use of students in grammar grade classes.
+ It consists of working drawings and working directions. The
+ projects are such as have proven of exceptional service where
+ woodworking and mechanical drawing are taught in a thoro,
+ systematic manner in the seventh and eighth grades. The aim
+ has been to provide successful rather than unique problems.
+ The 50 projects in the book were selected and organized with
+ the constant aim of securing the highest educational results.
+ The book is especially suited for use in connection with
+ "Essentials of Woodworking," by the same author.
+
+FURNITURE MAKING. (Advanced Projects in Woodwork.)
+By Ira S. Griffith.
+
+ This book is similar to "Projects for Beginning Woodwork and
+ Mechanical Drawing," but is suited to high school needs. It
+ consists of fifty plates of problems and accompanying notes.
+ It is essentially a collection of problems in furniture making
+ selected or designed with reference to school use. On the
+ plate with each working drawing is a good perspective sketch
+ of the completed object. In draftsmanship and refinement of
+ design these problems are of superior quality. It is in every
+ respect an excellent collection.
+
+PROBLEMS IN MECHANICAL DRAWING. By Charles A. Bennett.
+
+ This book consists of 80 plates and a few explanatory notes.
+ Its purpose is to furnish teachers of classes beginning
+ mechanical drawing with a large number of simple, practical
+ problems. These have been selected with reference to the
+ formation of good habits in technique, the interest of the
+ pupils, and the subjects generally included in a grammar and
+ first-year high school course. Each problem given is unsolved
+ and therefore in proper form to hand to the pupil for
+ solution.
+
+MECHANICAL DRAWING PROBLEMS.
+By Edward Berg and Emil F. Kronquist.
+
+ A direct and concise text adapted for high school students
+ beginning mechanical drawing. It covers two year's work
+ and contains 128 full-page plates--excellent examples of
+ draftsmanship. Text accompanies each plate, giving necessary
+ facts and helpful hints wherever needed. The underlying
+ principles of drafting are thoroly covered and the practical
+ applications, which are abundant, have been most skilfully
+ chosen and admirably presented. The plates tell what to do,
+ almost at a glance, yet prevent mere copy work. Each problem
+ tests the ability of the student to think and execute
+ graphically and unconsciously develops an excellent technique.
+
+MECHANICAL DRAFTING. By W. H. Miller.
+
+ (Revised edition). A textbook for advanced high school
+ students which presents drafting room practice in practical
+ textbook form. It is so written that it may be used with
+ any course of exercises or problems and supplements the
+ instruction of the teacher in such a way as to reduce lecture
+ work to a minimum. It is a direct and simple treatment of
+ mechanical drafting, giving due consideration to the needs of
+ the student, the beginning draftsman and the requirements of
+ the best teaching methods. It is complete, yet condensed and
+ is well adapted for handbook use by the student and draftsman.
+ It is well illustrated and is bound in flexible binding,
+ pocket size. A thoroughly practical, modern textbook.
+
+GRAMMAR GRADE PROBLEMS IN MECHANICAL DRAWING.
+By Charles A. Bennett.
+
+ A remarkably simple and carefully graded treatment of the
+ fundamentals of mechanical drawing for the use of students in
+ the 7th and 8th grades. It combines an abundance of text and
+ simple problems, accompanied by notes and directions. Its use
+ insures the early formation of correct habits of technique and
+ makes possible the development of a standard in grammar grade
+ mechanical drawing parallel with woodworking. Abundantly and
+ well illustrated.
+
+MECHANICAL DRAWING FOR BEGINNERS.
+By Charles H. Bailey.
+
+ A textbook suitable wherever this subject is taught to
+ beginners, in Junior High Schools, High and Continuation
+ Schools. It successfully combines instructions which are
+ minute and complete, with problems, gradually leading the
+ student to learn with little or no other help, the essentials
+ and technique of the work. The matter is condensed but leaves
+ no important points not covered.
+
+PROGRESSIVE STEPS IN ARCHITECTURAL DRAWING.
+By George W. Seaman.
+
+ A textbook and practical handbook, describing and illustrating
+ every successive step in drawing of floor plans, elevations
+ and various details for successful dwellings. Numerous plates
+ illustrate details of doors, windows, mouldings, cornices,
+ porches, etc. Architectural orders shown in practical working
+ forms. "Single line sketches" illustrate method of practical
+ designer in planning a house.
+
+ARCHITECTURAL DRAWING PLATES. By Franklin G. Elwood.
+
+ A collection of 15 plates showing the various details included
+ in the plans for frame houses. Names and typical sizes
+ are given and much information helpful to the student or
+ draftsman. One plate shows eleven "Plan Studies," another
+ "How Elevations are Worked Up from Plans and Sections." A
+ wonderfully convenient help in architectural drawing.
+
+SIMPLIFIED MECHANICAL PERSPECTIVE. By Frank Forrest Frederick.
+
+ A book of simple problems covering the essentials of
+ mechanical perspective. It is planned for pupils of high
+ school age who have already received some elementary training
+ in mechanical drawing. It is simple, direct and practical.
+
+WOODWORK FOR SECONDARY SCHOOLS. By Ira S. Griffith.
+
+ The most complete and comprehensive textbook on secondary
+ school woodworking ever published. Treats of Common
+ Woods, Tools and Processes, Woodworking Machines, Joinery,
+ Wood-Turning, Inlaying and Wood Carving, Wood Finishing,
+ Furniture Construction, Pattern-Making. Although written for
+ the student, every teacher of high school or normal school
+ woodwork will find this text a valuable and necessary volume
+ for reference use. It contains 370 pages and 580 special
+ illustrations.
+
+CARPENTRY. By Ira S. Griffith.
+
+ A well illustrated textbook for use in vocational schools,
+ trade schools, technical schools, and by apprentices to the
+ trade, presenting the principles of house construction in
+ a clear and fundamental way. It treats of the "everyday"
+ practical problems of the carpenter and house builder from
+ the "laying of foundations" to the completion of the "interior
+ finish." It meets every requirement as a textbook and is also
+ well adapted for reference use. It is well illustrated by
+ photographs taken "on the job."
+
+BOY ACTIVITY PROJECTS. By Samuel A. Blackburn.
+
+ A book of full-page plates and accompanying text giving
+ complete directions for making 86 projects of interest to the
+ energetic American boy. The projects are for the school, the
+ home, the playground, the camp, the out-of-doors, and include
+ a complete wireless telegraph apparatus. The plates give every
+ required dimension, and show each project complete and in
+ detail. The text is in reality working directions telling just
+ "how to make," including bills of material, lists of tools
+ required, etc. A thoroly practical and suggestive book
+ for school use and rich in inspiration for the boy in his own
+ home shop.
+
+SEAT WEAVING. By L. Day Perry.
+
+ A handbook for teacher or student. Tells how to cane chairs,
+ how to use cane webbing, how to do rush seating, how to
+ do reed and splint weaving, how to make seats of reeds and
+ splints, how to prepare raw materials, how to stain, finish
+ and refinish, etc. Also treats of the use of cane and other
+ seating materials as a decorative element in furniture
+ construction. Well illustrated, practical and authoritative.
+
+FURNITURE UPHOLSTERY FOR SCHOOLS. By Emil A. Johnson.
+
+ The only text and reference book on upholstery written for
+ school use. Contains detailed, practical instructions
+ telling how to upholster a variety of articles, also how
+ to re-upholster old furniture and how to do spring-edge
+ upholstery work. Describes necessary tools and materials.
+ Abundantly and beautifully illustrated.
+
+PRACTICAL TYPOGRAPHY. By George E. McClellan.
+
+ A remarkable textbook for students of printing. It contains a
+ course of exercises ready to place in the hands of pupils,
+ and explains and illustrates the most approved methods used
+ in correct composition. A valuable feature of the book lies in
+ the fact that in the early stages of the course the pupil sets
+ up in type a description of what he is doing with his hands.
+ It contains 63 exercises, treating of composition from
+ "Correct Spacing" to the "Making up of a Book," and the
+ "Composition of Tables."
+
+ART METALWORK. By Arthur F. Payne.
+
+ A textbook written by an expert craftsman and experienced
+ teacher. It treats of the various materials and their
+ production, ores, alloys, commercial forms, etc.; of tools and
+ equipments suitable for the work, the inexpensive equipment
+ of the practical craftsman; and of the correlation of art
+ metalwork with design and other school subjects. It describes
+ in detail all the processes involved in making articles
+ ranging from a watch fob to a silver loving-cup. It gives new
+ methods of construction, new finishes, new problems. It is
+ abundantly and beautifully illustrated, showing work done by
+ students under ordinary school conditions in a manual training
+ shop. The standard book on the subject.
+
+TEACHING THE MANUAL AND INDUSTRIAL ARTS.
+By Ira S. Griffith.
+
+ A text for normal schools or colleges and a reference for
+ manual and vocational teachers. Presents the philosophy
+ of teaching manual and vocational education in terms of
+ psychology, social science, and economics. It gives the
+ conclusions of Thorndike, Judd, Bagley, Dewey and others,
+ and illustrates them so they serve the teacher as a basis for
+ evaluating the manual and industrial arts. A book of value
+ to the beginning teacher, the experienced supervisor or the
+ educational expert; an exceptional source of information on
+ the theory and practice of its subject.
+
+THE MANUAL ARTS. By Charles A. Bennett.
+
+ A treatise on the selection and organization of subject matter
+ in the manual arts and on the methods of teaching. It states
+ what manual arts should be taught in the schools, their place
+ as concerns general and vocational education, principles
+ underlying the making of courses of instruction and methods
+ of teaching, and shows the place of the factory system in
+ industrial schools, etc. Heretofore no book has dealt with
+ the pedagogy of the manual arts in so definite and clear cut
+ a manner. The author has brought together, with ripened
+ judgment, the result of years of experience.
+
+ It is especially adapted for normal class and reading circle
+ use and should be read and studied by every teacher or
+ prospective teacher of the manual arts.
+
+EDUCATIONAL TOYS. By Louis C. Petersen.
+
+ A comprehensive book on toy-making for the school or home.
+ Shows 57 toys including animals, wheeled toys, stationary
+ toys, moving toys, puzzles, etc., made chiefly from thin wood,
+ with the coping saw and easily constructed in the ordinary
+ school room or in the home. Tells how to make each toy, how
+ to finish and color, about the few simple tools and materials
+ required. Well illustrated with photographs and full-size
+ pattern drawings.
+
+TOY PATTERNS. By Michael C. Dank.
+
+ A portfolio of toy patterns. Among them are Animals, Animal
+ Rocking Toys, Wheeled Platform Toys, String Toys, Lever Toys,
+ Freak Toys and Novelties. Each toy is shown complete and each
+ part is also shown full-size. They are designed to be made
+ with the coping saw out of thin wood. Twelve sheets, size
+ 10-1/2" x 14", enclosed in a portfolio with an attractive
+ color design.
+
+BIRD HOUSES BOYS CAN BUILD. By Albert F. Siepert.
+
+ A book of rare interest to boys. It is written in the boy
+ spirit and combines the charm of nature with the allurements
+ of continuation work in wood. It illustrates hundreds of bird
+ houses and shows working drawings of various designs, also
+ feeders, shelters, sparrow traps, and other bird accessories.
+ The common house nesting birds are pictured and described with
+ information regarding houses, foods, etc., suitable for each.
+ A pleasing and practical book for wide-awake boys.
+
+MANUAL TRAINING TOYS. FOR THE BOYS' WORKSHOP.
+By Harris W. Moore.
+
+ A popular boys' book that is truly educational. It is a
+ collection of forty-two projects overflowing with "boy"
+ interest and new in the manual training shop. Full-page
+ working drawings show each project in detail and the text
+ gives instructions for making, together with information on
+ tools and tool processes.
+
+KITECRAFT AND KITE TOURNAMENTS. By Charles M. Miller.
+
+ An authoritative and comprehensive treatment of kitecraft. The
+ book deals with the construction and flying of all kinds of
+ kites, and the making and using of kite accessories. Also
+ aeroplanes, gliders, propellers, motors, etc. Four chapters
+ are devoted to presenting a detailed description of kite
+ flying tournaments. Abundantly illustrated and attractively
+ bound.
+
+THE CONSTRUCTION AND FLYING OF KITES.
+By Charles M. Miller.
+
+ This contains seven full-page plates of drawings of kites,
+ and fifteen figures--over forty kites shown. Details of
+ construction given; a kite tournament is described. Full of
+ interesting suggestions.
+
+COPING SAW WORK. By Ben W. Johnson.
+
+ Contains working drawings and suggestions for teaching a
+ course of work in thin wood that is full of fun for the
+ children, and affords ample means for training in form study,
+ construction, invention and careful work. Has been called
+ "applied mechanics for the fourth grade."
+
+SELECTED SHOP PROBLEMS. By George A. Seaton.
+
+ A collection of sixteen problems in woodworking made to meet
+ the needs of busy teachers of manual training. Each problem
+ has been put to the test and has proven satisfactory to the
+ teacher who designed it and to the pupil who made it.
+
+MANUAL TRAINING MAGAZINE.
+
+ A magazine of "quality." The professional journal of the
+ teachers of manual, vocational and industrial education. It
+ publishes practical articles on the ways and means of "doing
+ things." It discusses vital problems in teaching the manual
+ arts and presents the best current thought on the development
+ of manual training and vocational education. To the
+ inexperienced teacher, it is valuable in solving numerous
+ problems, and to the experienced teacher, it is a means of
+ keeping abreast of the times. It is ably edited, attractively
+ printed, and well illustrated with photographs and drawings
+ made especially for its pages. Published monthly. $1.50 a
+ year; Canada, $1.80; Foreign, $2.00.
+
+ * * * * *
+
+_Published by_
+
+Manual Arts Press :: Peoria, Illinois
+
+We can supply you with any book on the Manual Arts
+
+ * * * * *
+
+Transcriber's Note:
+
+Transcriber's Note: 'M', in the context of lumber measurement, means
+'1000 feet'. From 'Handwork in Wood', Chapter III, page 48. Also
+(ibid): "There are several methods of measuring lumber. The general
+rule is to multiply the length in feet by the width and thickness in
+inches and divide by 12, thus: 1" × 6" × 15' ÷ 12 = 7½ feet."
+
+In the interests of clarity, some Illustrations have been moved closer
+to their descriptive text.
+
+Hyphenation and spelling are not uniform throughout this book, e.g.,
+'sapwood' and 'sap-wood' both occur; '_Columbian Timber-beetle_' and
+'Columbian timber beetle' occur in the same paragraph.
+
+Chapter II has three types of footnotes, with different notations.
+References to the author's previous book, being short, are placed at
+the end of the paragraph; numbered technical or tabular footnotes, or
+footnotes referencing other publications are collected at the end of
+the Chapter, before the Chapter Bibliography; and Chapter Bibliography
+footnotes are placed at the end of the Chapter Bibliography. In later
+Chapters, numbered footnotes are placed either at the end of the
+Chapter (before the Bibliography) or at the end of a relevant section
+of a Chapter.
+
+Chapter III lists 67 trees; The (following) Lists from the Jesup
+Collection list 66 trees, including the 'tied place' trees. The tree
+missing from the Jesup Collection is No. 18: Western Hemlock, or Black
+Hemlock.
+
+Damaged or missing punctuation has been repaired.
+
+Page 18: 'sumac' and 'sumach'. Both spellings correct. Also 'sumak',
+shoomak. From Arabic 'summ[=a]q'.
+
+Page 19: 'charactistic' corrected to 'characteristic' ... "and give
+the characteristic pleasing "grain" of wood."
+
+Page 23: inconsistent spelling--_tracheæ_, tracheae. The two
+spellings occur in the book; also trachæids, tracheids. All have been
+retained. The author's bibliography is extensive.
+
+Page 124 etc.: The Allegheny Mountain Range (also spelled Alleghany
+and Allegany, ~Wikipedia).
+
+Page 143: 'distinguised' corrected to 'distinguished' ... "Not
+distinguished from white oak in the market."
+
+Page 180: diameter, '1"-6", even 5';' corrected to 'diameter,
+1'6"-3'6", even 5';' (Wikipedia)
+
+Page 182: 'scambucifolia' corrected to 'sambucifolia' ... "_Fraxinus
+nigra_ Marshall. _Fraxinus sambucifolia._"
+
+Page 186: 'cleavabilty' corrected to 'cleavability' ... "refers to the
+cleavability of the wood;"
+
+Page 268: Fig. 118 text: Basswood, 1st and 2d, 1" x 8" and up by x 00".
+and: White pine, rough uppers, 1" x 8" and up x 00'.
+This is as printed; the transcriber has no idea what was meant by '00"'
+and '00'', or what it should have been.
+
+Page 292: 'miscroscopic' corrected to 'microscopic' ... "Of microscopic
+features, the following only have been referred to:"
+
+Page 304: 'Agaricus mellens' corrected to 'Agaricus melleus'.
+
+The (archaic) U.S. American spellings, 'drouth' (='drought'), 'thoroly',
+'tho', 'altho', 'tire' (='tyre'), etc., are correct.
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of Wood and Forest, by William Noyes
+
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