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diff --git a/35461-h/35461-h.htm b/35461-h/35461-h.htm new file mode 100644 index 0000000..f46e0e5 --- /dev/null +++ b/35461-h/35461-h.htm @@ -0,0 +1,29906 @@ +<!DOCTYPE html PUBLIC "-//W3C//DTD XHTML 1.0 Strict//EN" +"http://www.w3.org/TR/xhtml1/DTD/xhtml1-strict.dtd"> +<html xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1999/xhtml" xml:lang="en" lang="en"> +<head> +<meta http-equiv="content-type" content="text/html; charset=utf-8" /> +<meta http-equiv="Content-Style-Type" content="text/css" /> +<title>The Project Gutenberg eBook of A Short History of the World, by H. G. Wells</title> +<link rel="coverpage" href="images/cover.jpg" /> +<style type="text/css"> + +body { margin-left: 20%; + margin-right: 20%; + text-align: justify; } + +h1, h2, h3, h4, h5 {text-align: center; font-style: normal; font-weight: +normal; line-height: 1.5; margin-top: .5em; margin-bottom: .5em;} + +h1 {font-size: 300%; + margin-top: 0.6em; + margin-bottom: 0.6em; + letter-spacing: 0.12em; + word-spacing: 0.2em; + text-indent: 0em;} +h2 {font-size: 150%; margin-top: 2em; margin-bottom: 1em;} +h3 {font-size: 130%; margin-top: 1em;} +h4 {font-size: 120%;} +h5 {font-size: 110%;} + +div.chapter {page-break-before: always; margin-top: 4em;} + +p {text-indent: 1em; + margin-top: 0.25em; + margin-bottom: 0.25em; } + +P.footnote {font-size: 80%; + text-indent: 0% ; + margin-left: 10% ; + margin-right: 10% } + +P.index {font-size: small ; + text-indent: -5% ; + margin-left: 5% ; + margin-top: 0% ; + margin-bottom: 0% ; + margin-right: 0% } + +.pagenum { position: absolute; + left: 1%; + font-size: 95%; + text-align: left; + text-indent: 0; + font-style: normal; + font-weight: normal; + font-variant: normal; } + +div.fig { display:block; + margin:0 auto; + text-align:center; + margin-top: 1em; + margin-bottom: 1em;} + +p.caption {font-weight: bold; + text-align: center; } + +a:link {color:blue; text-decoration:none} +a:visited {color:blue; text-decoration:none} +a:hover {color:red} + +</style> +</head> +<body> + +<div style='text-align:center; font-size:1.2em; font-weight:bold'>The Project Gutenberg eBook of A Short History of the World, by H. G. Wells</div> +<div style='display:block; margin:1em 0'> +This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere in the United States and +most other parts of the world at no cost and with almost no restrictions +whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or re-use it under the terms +of the Project Gutenberg License included with this eBook or online +at <a href="https://www.gutenberg.org">www.gutenberg.org</a>. If you +are not located in the United States, you will have to check the laws of the +country where you are located before using this eBook. +</div> +<div style='display:block; margin-top:1em; margin-bottom:1em; margin-left:2em; text-indent:-2em'>Title: A Short History of the World</div> +<div style='display:block; margin-top:1em; margin-bottom:1em; margin-left:2em; text-indent:-2em'>Author: H. G. Wells</div> +<div style='display:block; margin:1em 0'>Release Date: March 2, 2011 [eBook #35461]<br /> +[Most recently updated: October 27, 2021]</div> +<div style='display:block; margin:1em 0'>Language: English</div> +<div style='display:block; margin:1em 0'>Character set encoding: UTF-8</div> +<div style='display:block; margin-left:2em; text-indent:-2em'>Produced by: Donald F. Behan</div> +<div style='margin-top:2em; margin-bottom:4em'>*** START OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK A SHORT HISTORY OF THE WORLD ***</div> + +<h1>A SHORT<br /> +HISTORY OF THE WORLD</h1> + +<h2>By H. G. WELLS</h2> + +<h3>New York<br /> +THE MACMILLAN & COMPANY<br /> +1922</h3> + +<h5> +<i>Copyright 1922<br /></i> +</h5> + +<p> +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Pv"></a></span> +</p> + +<div class="chapter"> + +<h2> +CONTENTS +</h2> + +<table width="70%"> + +<tbody><tr> +<td valign="top" align="right">CHAPTER </td> +<td valign="top" align="left"> </td> +<td valign="top" align="right">Page</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td valign="top" align="right"> </td> +<td valign="top" align="left"> +<a href="#chap0">A SHORT HISTORY OF THE WORLD</a> +</td> +<td valign="top" align="right"></td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td valign="top" align="right">I. </td> +<td valign="top" align="left"> +<a href="#chapI">THE WORLD IN SPACE</a> +</td> +<td valign="top" align="right"> + 1</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td valign="top" align="right">II. </td> +<td valign="top" align="left"> +<a href="#chapII">THE WORLD IN TIME</a> +</td> +<td valign="top" align="right"> + 5</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td valign="top" align="right">III. </td> +<td valign="top" align="left"> +<a href="#chapIII">THE BEGINNINGS OF LIFE</a> +</td> +<td valign="top" align="right"> + 11</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td valign="top" align="right">IV. </td> +<td valign="top" align="left"> +<a href="#chapIV">THE AGE OF FISHES</a> +</td> +<td valign="top" align="right"> + 16</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td valign="top" align="right">V. </td> +<td valign="top" align="left"> +<a href="#chapV">THE AGE OF THE COAL SWAMPS</a> +</td> +<td valign="top" align="right"> + 21</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td valign="top" align="right">VI. </td> +<td valign="top" align="left"> +<a href="#chapVI">THE AGE OF REPTILES</a> +</td> +<td valign="top" align="right"> + 26</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td valign="top" align="right">VII. </td> +<td valign="top" align="left"> +<a href="#chapVII">THE FIRST BIRDS AND THE FIRST MAMMALS</a> +</td> +<td valign="top" align="right"> + 31</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td valign="top" align="right">VIII. </td> +<td valign="top" align="left"> +<a href="#chapVIII">THE AGE OF MAMMALS</a> +</td> +<td valign="top" align="right"> + 37</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td valign="top" align="right">IX. </td> +<td valign="top" align="left"> +<a href="#chapIX">MONKEYS, APES AND SUB-MEN</a> +</td> +<td valign="top" align="right"> + 43</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td valign="top" align="right">X. </td> +<td valign="top" align="left"> +<a href="#chapX">THE NEANDERTHALER AND THE RHODESIAN MAN</a> +</td> +<td valign="top" align="right"> + 48</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td valign="top" align="right">XI. </td> +<td valign="top" align="left"> +<a href="#chapXI">THE FIRST TRUE MEN</a> +</td> +<td valign="top" align="right"> + 53</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td valign="top" align="right">XII. </td> +<td valign="top" align="left"> +<a href="#chapXII">PRIMITIVE THOUGHT</a> +</td> +<td valign="top" align="right"> + 60</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td valign="top" align="right">XIII. </td> +<td valign="top" align="left"> +<a href="#chapXIII">THE BEGINNINGS OF CULTIVATION</a> +</td> +<td valign="top" align="right"> + 65</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td valign="top" align="right">XIV. </td> +<td valign="top" align="left"> +<a href="#chapXIV">PRIMITIVE NEOLITHIC CIVILIZATIONS</a> +</td> +<td valign="top" align="right"> + 71</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td valign="top" align="right">XV. </td> +<td valign="top" align="left"> +<a href="#chapXV">SUMERIA, EARLY EGYPT AND WRITING</a> +</td> +<td valign="top" align="right"> + 77</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td valign="top" align="right">XVI. </td> +<td valign="top" align="left"> +<a href="#chapXVI">PRIMITIVE NOMADIC PEOPLES</a> +</td> +<td valign="top" align="right"> + 84</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td valign="top" align="right">XVII. </td> +<td valign="top" align="left"> +<a href="#chapXVII">THE FIRST SEA-GOING PEOPLES</a> +</td> +<td valign="top" align="right"> + 91</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td valign="top" align="right">XVIII. </td> +<td valign="top" align="left"> +<a href="#chapXVIII">EGYPT, BABYLON AND ASSYRIA</a> +</td> +<td valign="top" align="right"> + 96</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td valign="top" align="right">XIX. </td> +<td valign="top" align="left"> +<a href="#chapXIX">THE PRIMITIVE ARYANS</a> +</td> +<td valign="top" align="right"> +104</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td valign="top" align="right">XX. </td> +<td valign="top" align="left"> +<a href="#chapXX">THE LAST BABYLONIAN EMPIRE AND THE EMPIRE OF + DARIUS I</a> +</td> +<td valign="top" align="right"> +109</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td valign="top" align="right">XXI. </td> +<td valign="top" align="left"> +<a href="#chapXXI">THE EARLY HISTORY OF THE JEWS</a> +</td> +<td valign="top" align="right"> +115</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td valign="top" align="right">XXII. </td> +<td valign="top" align="left"> +<a href="#chapXXII">PRIESTS AND PROPHETS IN JUDEA</a> +</td> +<td valign="top" align="right"> +122</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td valign="top" align="right">XXIII. </td> +<td valign="top" align="left"> +<a href="#chapXXIII">THE GREEKS</a> +</td> +<td valign="top" align="right"> +127</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td valign="top" align="right">XXIV. </td> +<td valign="top" align="left"> +<a href="#chapXXIV">THE WARS OF THE GREEKS AND PERSIANS</a> +</td> +<td valign="top" align="right"> +134</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td valign="top" align="right">XXV. </td> +<td valign="top" align="left"> +<a href="#chapXXV">THE SPLENDOUR OF GREECE</a> +</td> +<td valign="top" align="right"> +139</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td valign="top" align="right">XXVI. </td> +<td valign="top" align="left"> +<a href="#chapXXVI">THE EMPIRE OF ALEXANDER THE GREAT</a> +</td> +<td valign="top" align="right"> +145</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td valign="top" align="right">XXVII. </td> +<td valign="top" align="left"> +<a href="#chapXXVII">THE MUSEUM AND LIBRARY AT ALEXANDRIA</a> +</td> +<td valign="top" align="right"> +150</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td valign="top" align="right">XXVIII. </td> +<td valign="top" align="left"> +<a href="#chapXXVIII">THE LIFE OF GAUTAMA BUDDHA</a> +</td> +<td valign="top" align="right"> +156</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td valign="top" align="right">XXIX. </td> +<td valign="top" align="left"> +<a href="#chapXXIX">KING ASOKA</a> +</td> +<td valign="top" align="right"> +163</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td valign="top" align="right">XXX. </td> +<td valign="top" align="left"> +<a href="#chapXXX">CONFUCIUS AND LAO TSE</a> +</td> +<td valign="top" align="right"> +167</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td valign="top" align="right">XXXI. </td> +<td valign="top" align="left"> +<a href="#chapXXXI">ROME COMES INTO HISTORY</a> +</td> +<td valign="top" align="right"> +174</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td valign="top" align="right">XXXII. </td> +<td valign="top" align="left"> +<a href="#chapXXXII">ROME AND CARTHAGE</a> +</td> +<td valign="top" align="right"> +180</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td valign="top" align="right">XXXIII. </td> +<td valign="top" align="left"> +<a href="#chapXXXIII">THE GROWTH OF THE ROMAN EMPIRE</a> +</td> +<td valign="top" align="right"> +185</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td valign="top" align="right">XXXIV. </td> +<td valign="top" align="left"> +<a href="#chapXXXIV">BETWEEN ROME AND CHINA</a> +</td> +<td valign="top" align="right"> +196</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td valign="top" align="right">XXXV. </td> +<td valign="top" align="left"> +<a href="#chapXXXV">THE COMMON MAN’S LIFE UNDER THE EARLY + ROMAN EMPIRE</a> +</td> +<td valign="top" align="right"> +201</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td valign="top" align="right">XXXVI. </td> +<td valign="top" align="left"> +<a href="#chapXXXVI">RELIGIOUS DEVELOPMENTS UNDER THE ROMAN + EMPIRE</a> +</td> +<td valign="top" align="right"> +208</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td valign="top" align="right">XXXVII. </td> +<td valign="top" align="left"> +<a href="#chapXXXVII">THE TEACHING OF JESUS</a> +</td> +<td valign="top" align="right"> +214</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td valign="top" align="right">XXXVIII. </td> +<td valign="top" align="left"> +<a href="#chapXXXVIII">THE DEVELOPMENT OF DOCTRINAL CHRISTIANITY</a> +</td> +<td valign="top" align="right"> +222</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td valign="top" align="right">XXXIX. </td> +<td valign="top" align="left"> +<a href="#chapXXXIX">THE BARBARIANS BREAK THE EMPIRE INTO EAST AND + WEST</a> +</td> +<td valign="top" align="right"> +227</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td valign="top" align="right">XL. </td> +<td valign="top" align="left"> +<a href="#chapXL">THE HUNS AND THE END OF THE WESTERN EMPIRE</a> +</td> +<td valign="top" align="right"> +233</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td valign="top" align="right">XLI. </td> +<td valign="top" align="left"> +<a href="#chapXLI">THE BYZANTINE AND SASSANID EMPIRES</a> +</td> +<td valign="top" align="right"> +238</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td valign="top" align="right">XLII. </td> +<td valign="top" align="left"> +<a href="#chapXLII">THE DYNASTIES OF SUY AND TANG IN CHINA</a> +</td> +<td valign="top" align="right"> +245</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td valign="top" align="right">XLIII. </td> +<td valign="top" align="left"> +<a href="#chapXLIII">MUHAMMAD AND ISLAM</a> +</td> +<td valign="top" align="right"> +248</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td valign="top" align="right">XLIV. </td> +<td valign="top" align="left"> +<a href="#chapXLIV">THE GREAT DAYS OF THE ARABS</a> +</td> +<td valign="top" align="right"> +253</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td valign="top" align="right">XLV. </td> +<td valign="top" align="left"> +<a href="#chapXV">THE DEVELOPMENT OF LATIN CHRISTENDOM</a> +</td> +<td valign="top" align="right"> +258</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td valign="top" align="right">XLVI. </td> +<td valign="top" align="left"> +<a href="#chapXLVI">THE CRUSADES AND THE AGE OF PAPAL DOMINION</a> +</td> +<td valign="top" align="right"> +267</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td valign="top" align="right">XLVII. </td> +<td valign="top" align="left"> +<a href="#chapXLVII">RECALCITRANT PRINCES AND THE GREAT SCHISM</a> +</td> +<td valign="top" align="right"> +277</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td valign="top" align="right">XLVIII. </td> +<td valign="top" align="left"> +<a href="#chapXLVIII">THE MONGOL CONQUESTS</a> +</td> +<td valign="top" align="right"> +287</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td valign="top" align="right">XLIX. </td> +<td valign="top" align="left"> +<a href="#chapXLIX">THE INTELLECTUAL REVIVAL OF THE EUROPEANS</a> +</td> +<td valign="top" align="right"> +294</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td valign="top" align="right">L. </td> +<td valign="top" align="left"> +<a href="#chapL">THE REFORMATION OF THE LATIN CHURCH</a> +</td> +<td valign="top" align="right"> +304</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td valign="top" align="right">LI. </td> +<td valign="top" align="left"> +<a href="#chapLI">THE EMPEROR CHARLES V</a> +</td> +<td valign="top" align="right"> +309</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td valign="top" align="right">LII. </td> +<td valign="top" align="left"> +<a href="#chapLII">THE AGE OF POLITICAL EXPERIMENTS; OF GRAND + MONARCHY AND PARLIAMENTS AND REPUBLICANISM IN EUROPE</a> +</td> +<td valign="top" align="right"> +318</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td valign="top" align="right">LIII. </td> +<td valign="top" align="left"> +<a href="#chapLIII">THE NEW EMPIRES OF THE EUROPEANS IN ASIA AND + OVERSEAS</a> +</td> +<td valign="top" align="right"> +329</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td valign="top" align="right">LIV. </td> +<td valign="top" align="left"> +<a href="#chapLIV">THE AMERICAN WAR OF INDEPENDENCE</a> +</td> +<td valign="top" align="right"> +335</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td valign="top" align="right">LV. </td> +<td valign="top" align="left"> +<a href="#chapLV">THE FRENCH REVOLUTION AND THE RESTORATION OF + MONARCHY IN FRANCE</a> +</td> +<td valign="top" align="right"> +341</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td valign="top" align="right">LVI. </td> +<td valign="top" align="left"> +<a href="#chapLVI">THE UNEASY PEACE IN EUROPE THAT FOLLOWED THE FALL + OF NAPOLEON</a> +</td> +<td valign="top" align="right"> +349</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td valign="top" align="right">LVII. </td> +<td valign="top" align="left"> +<a href="#chapLVII">THE DEVELOPMENT OF MATERIAL KNOWLEDGE</a> +</td> +<td valign="top" align="right"> +355</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td valign="top" align="right">LVIII. </td> +<td valign="top" align="left"> +<a href="#chapLVIII">THE INDUSTRIAL REVOLUTION</a> +</td> +<td valign="top" align="right"> +365</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td valign="top" align="right">LIX. </td> +<td valign="top" align="left"> +<a href="#chapLIX">THE DEVELOPMENT OF MODERN POLITICAL AND SOCIAL + IDEAS</a> +</td> +<td valign="top" align="right"> +370</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td valign="top" align="right">LX. </td> +<td valign="top" align="left"> +<a href="#chapLX">THE EXPANSION OF THE UNITED STATES</a> +</td> +<td valign="top" align="right"> +382</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td valign="top" align="right">LXI. </td> +<td valign="top" align="left"> +<a href="#chapLXI">THE RISE OF GERMANY TO PREDOMINANCE IN EUROPE</a> +</td> +<td valign="top" align="right"> +390</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td valign="top" align="right">LXII. </td> +<td valign="top" align="left"> +<a href="#chapLXII">THE NEW OVERSEAS EMPIRES OF THE STEAMSHIP AND + RAILWAY</a> +</td> +<td valign="top" align="right"> +393</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td valign="top" align="right">LXIII. </td> +<td valign="top" align="left"> +<a href="#chapLXIII">EUROPEAN AGGRESSION IN ASIA, AND THE RISE OF + JAPAN</a> +</td> +<td valign="top" align="right"> +399</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td valign="top" align="right">LXIV. </td> +<td valign="top" align="left"> +<a href="#chapLXIV">THE BRITISH EMPIRE IN 1914</a> +</td> +<td valign="top" align="right"> +405</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td valign="top" align="right">LXV. </td> +<td valign="top" align="left"> +<a href="#chapLXV">THE AGE OF ARMAMENT IN EUROPE, AND THE GREAT WAR + OF 1914-18</a> +</td> +<td valign="top" align="right"> +409</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td valign="top" align="right">LXVI. </td> +<td valign="top" align="left"> +<a href="#chapLXVI">THE REVOLUTION AND FAMINE IN RUSSIA</a> +</td> +<td valign="top" align="right"> +415</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td valign="top" align="right">LXVII. </td> +<td valign="top" align="left"> +<a href="#chapLXVII">THE POLITICAL AND SOCIAL RECONSTRUCTION OF THE + WORLD</a> +</td> +<td valign="top" align="right"> +421</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td valign="top" align="right"> </td> +<td valign="top" align="left"> +<a href="#CHRON">CHRONOLOGICAL TABLE</a> +</td> +<td valign="top" align="right"> +429</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td valign="top" align="right"> </td> +<td valign="top" align="left"> +<a href="#INDEX">INDEX</a> +</td> +<td valign="top" align="right"> +439</td> +</tr> + +</tbody></table> + +</div><!--end chapter--> + +<div class="chapter"> + +<p> +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Pxi"></a></span> +</p> + +<h2> +LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS +</h2> + +<table width="70%"> + +<tbody><tr> +<td valign="top" align="left"> </td> +<td valign="top" align="right">Page</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td valign="top" align="left"> +<a href="#img-2">Luminous Spiral Clouds of Matter</a> <br /> +</td> +<td valign="top" align="right">2</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td valign="top" align="left"> +<a href="#img-3">Nebula seen Edge-on</a> <br /> +</td> +<td valign="top" align="right">3</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td valign="top" align="left"> +<a href="#img-6">The Great Spiral Nebula</a> <br /> +</td> +<td valign="top" align="right">6</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td valign="top" align="left"> +<a href="#img-7">A Dark Nebula</a> <br /> +</td> +<td valign="top" align="right">7</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td valign="top" align="left"> +<a href="#img-8">Another Spiral Nebula</a> <br /> +</td> +<td valign="top" align="right">8</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td valign="top" align="left"> +<a href="#img-9">Landscape before Life</a> <br /> +</td> +<td valign="top" align="right">9</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td valign="top" align="left"> +<a href="#img-12">Marine Life in the Cambrian Period</a> <br /> +</td> +<td valign="top" align="right">12</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td valign="top" align="left"> +<a href="#img-13">Fossil Trilobite</a> <br /> +</td> +<td valign="top" align="right">13</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td valign="top" align="left"> +<a href="#img-14">Early Palæozoic Fossils of various Species of + Lingula</a> <br /> +</td> +<td valign="top" align="right">14</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td valign="top" align="left"> +<a href="#img-15">Fossilized Footprints of a Labyrinthodont, + Cheirotherium</a> <br /> +</td> +<td valign="top" align="right">15</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td valign="top" align="left"> +<a href="#img-17">Pterichthys Milleri</a> <br /> +</td> +<td valign="top" align="right">17</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td valign="top" align="left"> +<a href="#img-18">Fossil of Cladoselache</a> <br /> +</td> +<td valign="top" align="right">18</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td valign="top" align="left"> +<a href="#img-19">Sharks and Ganoids of the Devonian Period</a> <br /> +</td> +<td valign="top" align="right">19</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td valign="top" align="left"> +<a href="#img-22">A Carboniferous Swamp</a> <br /> +</td> +<td valign="top" align="right">22</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td valign="top" align="left"> +<a href="#img-23">Skull of a Labyrinthodont, Capitosaurus</a> <br /> +</td> +<td valign="top" align="right">23</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td valign="top" align="left"> +<a href="#img-24">Skeleton of a Labyrinthodont: The Eryops</a> <br /> +</td> +<td valign="top" align="right">24</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td valign="top" align="left"> +<a href="#img-27">A Fossil Ichthyosaurus</a> <br /> +</td> +<td valign="top" align="right">27</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td valign="top" align="left"> +<a href="#img-28">A Pterodactyl</a> <br /> +</td> +<td valign="top" align="right">28</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td valign="top" align="left"> +<a href="#img-29">The Diplodocus</a> <br /> +</td> +<td valign="top" align="right">29</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td valign="top" align="left"> +<a href="#img-32">Fossil of Archeopteryx</a> <br /> +</td> +<td valign="top" align="right">32</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td valign="top" align="left"> +<a href="#img-33">Hesperornis in its Native Seas</a> <br /> +</td> +<td valign="top" align="right">33</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td valign="top" align="left"> +<a href="#img-34">The Ki-wi</a> <br /> +</td> +<td valign="top" align="right">34</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td valign="top" align="left"> +<a href="#img-35">Slab of Marl Rich in Cainozoic Fossils</a> <br /> +</td> +<td valign="top" align="right">35</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td valign="top" align="left"> +<a href="#img-38">Titanotherium Robustum</a> <br /> +</td> +<td valign="top" align="right">38</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td valign="top" align="left"> +<a href="#img-4001">Skeleton of Giraffe-camel</a> <br /> +</td> +<td valign="top" align="right">40</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td valign="top" align="left"> +<a href="#img-4002">Skeleton of Early Horse</a> <br /> +</td> +<td valign="top" align="right">40</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td valign="top" align="left"> +<a href="#img-41">Comparative Sizes of Brains of Rhinoceros and + Dinoceras</a> <br /> +</td> +<td valign="top" align="right">41</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td valign="top" align="left"> +<a href="#img-44">A Mammoth</a> <br /> +</td> +<td valign="top" align="right">44</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td valign="top" align="left"> +<a href="#img-45">Flint Implements from Piltdown Region</a> <br /> +</td> +<td valign="top" align="right">45</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td valign="top" align="left"> +<a href="#img-461">A Pithecanthropean Man</a> <br /> +</td> +<td valign="top" align="right">46</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td valign="top" align="left"> +<a href="#img-462">The Heidelberg Man</a> <br /> +</td> +<td valign="top" align="right">46</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td valign="top" align="left"> +<a href="#img-47">The Piltdown Skull</a> <br /> +</td> +<td valign="top" align="right">47</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td valign="top" align="left"> +<a href="#img-49">A Neanderthaler</a> <br /> +</td> +<td valign="top" align="right">49</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td valign="top" align="left"> +<a href="#img-50">Europe and Western Asia 50,000 years ago</a><br /> +</td> +<td valign="top" align="right"><i>Map</i> 50</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td valign="top" align="left"> +<a href="#img-51">Comparison of Modern Skull and Rhodesian + Skull</a> <br /> +</td> +<td valign="top" align="right">51</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td valign="top" align="left"> +<a href="#img-54">Altamira Cave Paintings</a> <br /> +</td> +<td valign="top" align="right">54</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td valign="top" align="left"> +<a href="#img-55">Later Palæolithic Carvings</a> <br /> +</td> +<td valign="top" align="right">55</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td valign="top" align="left"> +<a href="#img-57">Bust of Cro-magnon Man</a> <br /> +</td> +<td valign="top" align="right">57</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td valign="top" align="left"> +<a href="#img-58">Later Palæolithic Art</a> <br /> +</td> +<td valign="top" align="right">58</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td valign="top" align="left"> +<a href="#img-62">Relics of the Stone Age</a> <br /> +</td> +<td valign="top" align="right">62</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td valign="top" align="left"> +<a href="#img-63">Gray’s Inn Lane Flint Implement</a> <br /> +</td> +<td valign="top" align="right">63</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td valign="top" align="left"> +<a href="#img-63">Somaliland Flint Implement</a> <br /> +</td> +<td valign="top" align="right">63</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td valign="top" align="left"> +<a href="#img-67">Neolithic Flint Implement</a> <br /> +</td> +<td valign="top" align="right">67</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td valign="top" align="left"> +<a href="#img-68">Australian Spearheads</a> <br /> +</td> +<td valign="top" align="right">68</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td valign="top" align="left"> +<a href="#img-69">Neolithic Pottery</a> <br /> +</td> +<td valign="top" align="right">69</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td valign="top" align="left"> +<a href="#img-72">Relationship of Human Races</a> <br /> +</td> +<td valign="top" align="right"><i>Map</i> 72</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td valign="top" align="left"> +<a href="#img-73">A Maya Stele</a> <br /> +</td> +<td valign="top" align="right">73</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td valign="top" align="left"> +<a href="#img-75">European Neolithic Warrior</a> <br /> +</td> +<td valign="top" align="right">75</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td valign="top" align="left"> +<a href="#img-78">Babylonian Brick</a> <br /> +</td> +<td valign="top" align="right">78</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td valign="top" align="left"> +<a href="#img-79">Egyptian Cylinder Seals of First Dynasty</a> <br /> +</td> +<td valign="top" align="right">79</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td valign="top" align="left"> +<a href="#img-80">The Sakhara Pyramids</a> <br /> +</td> +<td valign="top" align="right">80</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td valign="top" align="left"> +<a href="#img-81">The Pyramid of Cheops: Scene from Summit</a> <br /> +</td> +<td valign="top" align="right">81</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td valign="top" align="left"> +<a href="#img-82">The Temple of Hathor</a> <br /> +</td> +<td valign="top" align="right">82</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td valign="top" align="left"> +<a href="#img-85">Pottery and Implements of the Lake + Dwellers</a> <br /> +</td> +<td valign="top" align="right">85</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td valign="top" align="left"> +<a href="#img-861">A Lake Village</a> <br /> +</td> +<td valign="top" align="right">86</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td valign="top" align="left"> +<a href="#img-872">Flint Knives of 4500 <small>B.C.</small> + </a> <br /> +</td> +<td valign="top" align="right">87</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td valign="top" align="left"> +<a href="#img-862">Egyptian Wall Paintings of Nomads</a> <br /> +</td> +<td valign="top" align="right">87</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td valign="top" align="left"> +<a href="#img-88">Egyptian Peasants Going to Work</a> <br /> +</td> +<td valign="top" align="right">88</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td valign="top" align="left"> +<a href="#img-89">Stele of Naram Sin</a> <br /> +</td> +<td valign="top" align="right">89</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td valign="top" align="left"> +<a href="#img-93">The Treasure House at Mycenæ</a> <br /> +</td> +<td valign="top" align="right">93</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td valign="top" align="left"> +<a href="#img-95">The Palace at Cnossos</a> <br /> +</td> +<td valign="top" align="right">95</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td valign="top" align="left"> +<a href="#img-97">Temple at Abu Simbel</a> <br /> +</td> +<td valign="top" align="right">97</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td valign="top" align="left"> +<a href="#img-98">Avenue of Sphinxes at Karnak</a> <br /> +</td> +<td valign="top" align="right">98</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td valign="top" align="left"> +<a href="#img-99">The Hypostyle Hall at Karnak</a> <br /> +</td> +<td valign="top" align="right">99</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td valign="top" align="left"> +<a href="#img-101">Frieze of Slaves</a> <br /> +</td> +<td valign="top" align="right">101</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td valign="top" align="left"> +<a href="#img-103">The Temple of Horus, Edfu</a> <br /> +</td> +<td valign="top" align="right">103</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td valign="top" align="left"> +<a href="#img-105">Archaic Amphora</a> <br /> +</td> +<td valign="top" align="right">105</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td valign="top" align="left"> +<a href="#img-107">The Mound of Nippur</a> <br /> +</td> +<td valign="top" align="right">107</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td valign="top" align="left"> +<a href="#img-110">Median and Chaldean Empires</a> <br /> +</td> +<td valign="top" align="right"><i>Map</i> 110</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td valign="top" align="left"> +<a href="#img-111">The Empire of Darius</a> <br /> +</td> +<td valign="top" align="right"><i>Map</i> 111</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td valign="top" align="left"> +<a href="#img-112">A Persian Monarch</a> <br /> +</td> +<td valign="top" align="right">112</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td valign="top" align="left"> +<a href="#img-1131">The Ruins of Persepolis</a> <br /> +</td> +<td valign="top" align="right">113</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td valign="top" align="left"> +<a href="#img-1132">The Great Porch of Xerxes</a> <br /> +</td> +<td valign="top" align="right">113</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td valign="top" align="left"> +<a href="#img-117">The Land of the Hebrews</a> <br /> +</td> +<td valign="top" align="right"><i>Map</i> 117</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td valign="top" align="left"> +<a href="#img-118">Nebuchadnezzar’s Mound at Babylon</a> <br /> +</td> +<td valign="top" align="right">118</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td valign="top" align="left"> +<a href="#img-120">The Ishtar Gateway, Babylon</a> <br /> +</td> +<td valign="top" align="right">120</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td valign="top" align="left"> +<a href="#img-124">Black Obelisk of Shalmaneser II</a> <br /> +</td> +<td valign="top" align="right">124</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td valign="top" align="left"> +<a href="#img-125">Captive Princes making Obeisance</a> <br /> +</td> +<td valign="top" align="right">125</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td valign="top" align="left"> +<a href="#img-128">Statue of Meleager</a> <br /> +</td> +<td valign="top" align="right">128</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td valign="top" align="left"> +<a href="#img-130">Ruins of Temple of Zeus</a> <br /> +</td> +<td valign="top" align="right">130</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td valign="top" align="left"> +<a href="#img-132">The Temple of Neptune, Pæstum</a> <br /> +</td> +<td valign="top" align="right">132</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td valign="top" align="left"> +<a href="#img-135">Greek Ships on Ancient Pottery</a> <br /> +</td> +<td valign="top" align="right">135</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td valign="top" align="left"> +<a href="#img-137">The Temple of Corinth</a> <br /> +</td> +<td valign="top" align="right">137</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td valign="top" align="left"> +<a href="#img-138">The Temple of Neptune at Cape Sunium</a> <br /> +</td> +<td valign="top" align="right">138</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td valign="top" align="left"> +<a href="#img-140">Frieze of the Parthenon, Athens</a> <br /> +</td> +<td valign="top" align="right">140</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td valign="top" align="left"> +<a href="#img-1411">The Acropolis, Athens</a> <br /> +</td> +<td valign="top" align="right">141</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td valign="top" align="left"> +<a href="#img-1412">Theatre at Epidauros, Greece</a> <br /> +</td> +<td valign="top" align="right">141</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td valign="top" align="left"> +<a href="#img-142">The Caryatides of the Erechtheum</a> <br /> +</td> +<td valign="top" align="right">142</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td valign="top" align="left"> +<a href="#img-143">Athene of the Parthenon</a> <br /> +</td> +<td valign="top" align="right">143</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td valign="top" align="left"> +<a href="#img-146">Alexander the Great</a> <br /> +</td> +<td valign="top" align="right">146</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td valign="top" align="left"> +<a href="#img-147">Alexander’s Victory at Issus</a> <br /> +</td> +<td valign="top" align="right">147</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td valign="top" align="left"> +<a href="#img-148">The Apollo Belvedere</a> <br /> +</td> +<td valign="top" align="right">148</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td valign="top" align="left"> +<a href="#img-152">Aristotle</a> <br /> +</td> +<td valign="top" align="right">152</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td valign="top" align="left"> +<a href="#img-153">Statuette of Maitreya</a> <br /> +</td> +<td valign="top" align="right">153</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td valign="top" align="left"> +<a href="#img-154">The Death of Buddha</a> <br /> +</td> +<td valign="top" align="right">154</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td valign="top" align="left"> +<a href="#img-158">Tibetan Buddha</a> <br /> +</td> +<td valign="top" align="right">158</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td valign="top" align="left"> +<a href="#img-159">A Burmese Buddha</a> <br /> +</td> +<td valign="top" align="right">159</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td valign="top" align="left"> +<a href="#img-160">The Dhamêkh Tower, Sarnath</a> <br /> +</td> +<td valign="top" align="right">160</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td valign="top" align="left"> +<a href="#img-164">A Chinese Buddhist Apostle</a> <br /> +</td> +<td valign="top" align="right">164</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td valign="top" align="left"> +<a href="#img-1651">The Court of Asoka</a> <br /> +</td> +<td valign="top" align="right">165</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td valign="top" align="left"> +<a href="#img-1652">Asoka Panel from Bharhut</a> <br /> +</td> +<td valign="top" align="right">165</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td valign="top" align="left"> +<a href="#img-166">The Pillar of Lions (Asokan) </a> <br /> +</td> +<td valign="top" align="right">166</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td valign="top" align="left"> +<a href="#img-169">Confucius</a> <br /> +</td> +<td valign="top" align="right">169</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td valign="top" align="left"> +<a href="#img-171">The Great Wall of China</a> <br /> +</td> +<td valign="top" align="right">171</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td valign="top" align="left"> +<a href="#img-172">Early Chinese Bronze Bell</a> <br /> +</td> +<td valign="top" align="right">172</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td valign="top" align="left"> +<a href="#img-175">The Dying Gaul</a> <br /> +</td> +<td valign="top" align="right">175</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td valign="top" align="left"> +<a href="#img-177">Ancient Roman Cisterns at Carthage</a> <br /> +</td> +<td valign="top" align="right">177</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td valign="top" align="left"> +<a href="#img-181">Hannibal</a> <br /> +</td> +<td valign="top" align="right">181</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td valign="top" align="left"> +<a href="#img-183">Roman Empire and its Alliances, 150 + <small>B.C.</small></a> <br /> +</td> +<td valign="top" align="right"><i>Map</i> 183</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td valign="top" align="left"> +<a href="#img-188">The Forum, Rome</a> <br /> +</td> +<td valign="top" align="right">188</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td valign="top" align="left"> +<a href="#img-189">Ruined Coliseum in Tunis</a> <br /> +</td> +<td valign="top" align="right">189</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td valign="top" align="left"> +<a href="#img-190">Roman Arch at Ctesiphon</a> <br /> +</td> +<td valign="top" align="right">190</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td valign="top" align="left"> +<a href="#img-193">The Column of Trajan, Rome</a> <br /> +</td> +<td valign="top" align="right">193</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td valign="top" align="left"> +<a href="#img-197">Glazed Jar of Han Dynasty</a> <br /> +</td> +<td valign="top" align="right">197</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td valign="top" align="left"> +<a href="#img-198">Vase of Han Dynasty</a> <br /> +</td> +<td valign="top" align="right">198</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td valign="top" align="left"> +<a href="#img-199">Chinese Vessel in Bronze</a> <br /> +</td> +<td valign="top" align="right">199</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td valign="top" align="left"> +<a href="#img-202">A Gladiator (contemporary representation)</a><br /> +</td> +<td valign="top" align="right">202</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td valign="top" align="left"> +<a href="#img-204">A Street in Pompeii</a> <br /> +</td> +<td valign="top" align="right">204</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td valign="top" align="left"> +<a href="#img-2061">The Coliseum, Rome</a> <br /> +</td> +<td valign="top" align="right">206</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td valign="top" align="left"> +<a href="#img-2062">Interior of Coliseum</a> <br /> +</td> +<td valign="top" align="right">206</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td valign="top" align="left"> +<a href="#img-210">Mithras Sacrificing a Bull</a> <br /> +</td> +<td valign="top" align="right">210</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td valign="top" align="left"> +<a href="#img-211">Isis and Horus</a> <br /> +</td> +<td valign="top" align="right">211</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td valign="top" align="left"> +<a href="#img-212">Bust of Emperor Commodus</a> <br /> +</td> +<td valign="top" align="right">212</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td valign="top" align="left"> +<a href="#img-216">Early Portrait of Jesus Christ</a> <br /> +</td> +<td valign="top" align="right">216</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td valign="top" align="left"> +<a href="#img-217">Road from Nazareth to Tiberias</a> <br /> +</td> +<td valign="top" align="right">217</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td valign="top" align="left"> +<a href="#img-218">David’s Tower and Wall of Jerusalem</a> +<br /> +</td> +<td valign="top" align="right">218</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td valign="top" align="left"> +<a href="#img-219">A Street in Jerusalem</a> <br /> +</td> +<td valign="top" align="right">219</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td valign="top" align="left"> +<a href="#img-223">The Peter and Paul Mosaic at Rome</a> <br /> +</td> +<td valign="top" align="right">223</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td valign="top" align="left"> +<a href="#img-225">Baptism of Christ (Ivory Panel) </a> <br /> +</td> +<td valign="top" align="right">225</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td valign="top" align="left"> +<a href="#img-228">Roman Empire and the Barbarians</a> <br /> +</td> +<td valign="top" align="right"><i>Map</i> 228</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td valign="top" align="left"> +<a href="#img-229">Constantine’s Pillar, + Constantinople</a> <br /> +</td> +<td valign="top" align="right">229</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td valign="top" align="left"> +<a href="#img-231">The Obelisk of Theodosius, Constantinople</a><br /> +</td> +<td valign="top" align="right">231</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td valign="top" align="left"> +<a href="#img-235">Head of Barbarian Chief</a> <br /> +</td> +<td valign="top" align="right">235</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td valign="top" align="left"> +<a href="#img-239">The Church of S. Sophia, Constantinople</a> <br /> +</td> +<td valign="top" align="right">239</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td valign="top" align="left"> +<a href="#img-240">Roof-work in S. Sophia</a> <br /> +</td> +<td valign="top" align="right">240</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td valign="top" align="left"> +<a href="#img-241">Justinian and his Court</a> <br /> +</td> +<td valign="top" align="right">241</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td valign="top" align="left"> +<a href="#img-242">The Rock-hewn Temple at Petra</a> <br /> +</td> +<td valign="top" align="right">242</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td valign="top" align="left"> +<a href="#img-246">Chinese Earthenware of Tang Dynasty</a> <br /> +</td> +<td valign="top" align="right">246</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td valign="top" align="left"> +<a href="#img-250">At Prayer in the Desert</a> <br /> +</td> +<td valign="top" align="right"> 250</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td valign="top" align="left"> +<a href="#img-251">Looking Across the Sea of Sand</a> <br /> +</td> +<td valign="top" align="right">251</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td valign="top" align="left"> +<a href="#img-2541">Growth of Moslem Power</a> <br /> +</td> +<td valign="top" align="right"><i>Map</i> 254</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td valign="top" align="left"> +<a href="#img-2542">The Moslem Empire</a> <br /> +</td> +<td valign="top" align="right"><i>Map</i> 254</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td valign="top" align="left"> +<a href="#img-255">The Mosque of Omar, Jerusalem</a> <br /> +</td> +<td valign="top" align="right">255</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td valign="top" align="left"> +<a href="#img-256">Cairo Mosques</a> <br /> +</td> +<td valign="top" align="right">256</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td valign="top" align="left"> +<a href="#img-260">Frankish Dominions of Martel</a> <br /> +</td> +<td valign="top" align="right"><i>Map</i> 260</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td valign="top" align="left"> +<a href="#img-262">Statue of Charlemagne</a> <br /> +</td> +<td valign="top" align="right">262</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td valign="top" align="left"> +<a href="#img-264">Europe at Death of Charlemagne</a> <br /> +</td> +<td valign="top" align="right"><i>Map</i> 264</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td valign="top" align="left"> +<a href="#img-268">Crusader Tombs, Exeter Cathedral</a> <br /> +</td> +<td valign="top" align="right">268</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td valign="top" align="left"> +<a href="#img-269">View of Cairo</a> <br /> +</td> +<td valign="top" align="right">269</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td valign="top" align="left"> +<a href="#img-271">The Horses of S. Mark, Venice</a> <br /> +</td> +<td valign="top" align="right">271</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td valign="top" align="left"> +<a href="#img-273">Courtyard in the Alhambra</a> <br /> +</td> +<td valign="top" align="right">273</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td valign="top" align="left"> +<a href="#img-278">Milan Cathedral (showing spires) </a> <br /> +</td> +<td valign="top" align="right">278</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td valign="top" align="left"> +<a href="#img-280">A Typical Crusader</a> <br /> +</td> +<td valign="top" align="right">280</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td valign="top" align="left"> +<a href="#img-283">Burgundian Nobility (Statuettes) </a> <br /> +</td> +<td valign="top" align="right">283</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td valign="top" align="left"> +<a href="#img-284">Burgundian Nobility (Statuettes) </a> <br /> +</td> +<td valign="top" align="right">284</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td valign="top" align="left"> +<a href="#img-288">The Empire of Jengis Khan</a> <br /> +</td> +<td valign="top" align="right"><i>Map</i> 288</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td valign="top" align="left"> +<a href="#img-289">Ottoman Empire before 1453</a> <br /> +</td> +<td valign="top" align="right"><i>Map</i> 289</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td valign="top" align="left"> +<a href="#img-291">Tartar Horsemen</a> <br /> +</td> +<td valign="top" align="right">291</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td valign="top" align="left"> +<a href="#img-292">Ottoman Empire, 1566</a> <br /> +</td> +<td valign="top" align="right"><i>Map</i> 292</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td valign="top" align="left"> +<a href="#img-296">An Early Printing Press</a> <br /> +</td> +<td valign="top" align="right">296</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td valign="top" align="left"> +<a href="#img-299">Ancient Bronze from Benin</a> <br /> +</td> +<td valign="top" align="right">299</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td valign="top" align="left"> +<a href="#img-300">Negro Bronze-work</a> <br /> +</td> +<td valign="top" align="right">300</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td valign="top" align="left"> +<a href="#img-301">Early Sailing Ship (Italian Engraving) </a> <br /> +</td> +<td valign="top" align="right">301</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td valign="top" align="left"> +<a href="#img-305">Portrait of Martin Luther</a> <br /> +</td> +<td valign="top" align="right">305</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td valign="top" align="left"> +<a href="#img-307">The Church Triumphant (Italian Majolica work, + 1543) +</a> <br /> +</td> +<td valign="top" align="right">307</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td valign="top" align="left"> +<a href="#img-311">Charles V (the Titian Portrait) </a> <br /> +</td> +<td valign="top" align="right">311</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td valign="top" align="left"> +<a href="#img-315">S. Peter’s, Rome: the High Altar</a> <br /> +</td> +<td valign="top" align="right">315</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td valign="top" align="left"> +<a href="#img-321">Cromwell Dissolves the Long Parliament</a> <br /> +</td> +<td valign="top" align="right">321</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td valign="top" align="left"> +<a href="#img-323">The Court at Versailles</a> <br /> +</td> +<td valign="top" align="right">323</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td valign="top" align="left"> +<a href="#img-325">Sack of a Village, French Revolution</a> <br /> +</td> +<td valign="top" align="right">325</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td valign="top" align="left"> +<a href="#img-326">Central Europe after Peace of Westphalia, + 1648</a> <br /> +</td> +<td valign="top" align="right"><i>Map</i> 326</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td valign="top" align="left"> +<a href="#img-330">European Territory in America, 1750</a> <br /> +</td> +<td valign="top" align="right"><i>Map</i> 330</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td valign="top" align="left"> +<a href="#img-331">Europeans Tiger Hunting in India</a> <br /> +</td> +<td valign="top" align="right">331</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td valign="top" align="left"> +<a href="#img-332">Fall of Tippoo Sultan</a> <br /> +</td> +<td valign="top" align="right">332</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td valign="top" align="left"> +<a href="#img-337">George Washington</a> <br /> +</td> +<td valign="top" align="right">337</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td valign="top" align="left"> +<a href="#img-338">The Battle of Bunker Hill</a> <br /> +</td> +<td valign="top" align="right">338</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td valign="top" align="left"> +<a href="#img-339">The U.S.A., 1790</a> <br /> +</td> +<td valign="top" align="right">339</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td valign="top" align="left"> +<a href="#img-344">The Trial of Louis XVI</a> <br /> +</td> +<td valign="top" align="right">344</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td valign="top" align="left"> +<a href="#img-346">Execution of Marie Antoinette</a> <br /> +</td> +<td valign="top" align="right">346</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td valign="top" align="left"> +<a href="#img-352">Portrait of Napoleon</a> <br /> +</td> +<td valign="top" align="right">352</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td valign="top" align="left"> +<a href="#img-353">Europe after the Congress of Vienna</a> <br /> +</td> +<td valign="top" align="right"><i>Map</i> 353</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td valign="top" align="left"> +<a href="#img-3561">Early Rolling Stock, Liverpool and Manchester + Railway</a> <br /> +</td> +<td valign="top" align="right">356</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td valign="top" align="left"> +<a href="#img-3562">Passenger Train in 1833</a> <br /> +</td> +<td valign="top" align="right">356</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td valign="top" align="left"> +<a href="#img-357">The Steamboat <i>Clermont</i></a> <br /> +</td> +<td valign="top" align="right">357</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td valign="top" align="left"> +<a href="#img-3611">Eighteenth Century Spinning Wheel</a> <br /> +</td> +<td valign="top" align="right">361</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td valign="top" align="left"> +<a href="#img-3612">Arkwright’s Spinning Jenny</a> <br /> +</td> +<td valign="top" align="right">361</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td valign="top" align="left"> +<a href="#img-363">An Early Weaving Machine</a> <br /> +</td> +<td valign="top" align="right">363</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td valign="top" align="left"> +<a href="#img-367">An Incident of the Slave Trade</a> <br /> +</td> +<td valign="top" align="right">367</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td valign="top" align="left"> +<a href="#img-368">Early Factory, in Colebrookdale</a> <br /> +</td> +<td valign="top" align="right">368</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td valign="top" align="left"> +<a href="#img-372">Carl Marx</a> <br /> +</td> +<td valign="top" align="right">372</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td valign="top" align="left"> +<a href="#img-376">Electric Conveyor, in Coal Mine</a> <br /> +</td> +<td valign="top" align="right">376</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td valign="top" align="left"> +<a href="#img-378">Constructional Detail, Forth Bridge</a> <br /> +</td> +<td valign="top" align="right">378</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td valign="top" align="left"> +<a href="#img-385">American River Steamer</a> <br /> +</td> +<td valign="top" align="right">385</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td valign="top" align="left"> +<a href="#img-387">Abraham Lincoln</a> <br /> +</td> +<td valign="top" align="right">387</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td valign="top" align="left"> +<a href="#img-391">Europe, 1848-71</a> <br /> +</td> +<td valign="top" align="right"><i>Map</i> 391</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td valign="top" align="left"> +<a href="#img-395">Victoria Falls, Zambesi</a> <br /> +</td> +<td valign="top" align="right">395</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td valign="top" align="left"> +<a href="#img-397">The British Empire, 1815</a> <br /> +</td> +<td valign="top" align="right"><i>Map</i> 397</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td valign="top" align="left"> +<a href="#img-401">Japanese Soldier, Eighteenth Century</a> <br /> +</td> +<td valign="top" align="right">401</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td valign="top" align="left"> +<a href="#img-403">A Street in Tokio</a> <br /> +</td> +<td valign="top" align="right">403</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td valign="top" align="left"> +<a href="#img-406">Overseas Empires of Europe, 1914</a> <br /> +</td> +<td valign="top" align="right"><i>Map</i> 406</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td valign="top" align="left"> +<a href="#img-407">Gibraltar</a> <br /> +</td> +<td valign="top" align="right">407</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td valign="top" align="left"> +<a href="#img-408">Street in Hong Kong</a> <br /> +</td> +<td valign="top" align="right">408</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td valign="top" align="left"> +<a href="#img-410">British Tank in Battle</a> <br /> +</td> +<td valign="top" align="right">410</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td valign="top" align="left"> +<a href="#img-411">The Ruins of Ypres</a> <br /> +</td> +<td valign="top" align="right">411</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td valign="top" align="left"> +<a href="#img-412">Modern War: War Entanglements</a> <br /> +</td> +<td valign="top" align="right">412</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td valign="top" align="left"> +<a href="#img-418">A View in Petersburg under Bolshevik Rule</a><br /> +</td> +<td valign="top" align="right">418</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td valign="top" align="left"> +<a href="#img-423">Passenger Aeroplane in Flight</a> <br /> +</td> +<td valign="top" align="right">423</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td valign="top" align="left"> +<a href="#img-426">A Peaceful Garden in England</a> <br /> +</td> +<td valign="top" align="right">426</td> +</tr> + +</tbody></table> + +<p> +<span class="pagenum"><a name="P1"></a></span> +</p> + +</div><!--end chapter--> + +<div class="chapter"> + +<h2><a name="chap0"></a>A SHORT HISTORY OF THE WORLD</h2> + +</div><!--end chapter--> + +<div class="chapter"> + +<h2><a name="chapI"></a>I<br /> +THE WORLD IN SPACE</h2> + +<p> +The story of our world is a story that is still very imperfectly known. A +couple of hundred years ago men possessed the history of little more than the +last three thousand years. What happened before that time was a matter of +legend and speculation. Over a large part of the civilized world it was +believed and taught that the world had been created suddenly in 4004 +<small>B.C.</small>, though authorities differed as to whether this had +occurred in the spring or autumn of that year. This fantastically precise +misconception was based upon a too literal interpretation of the Hebrew Bible, +and upon rather arbitrary theological assumptions connected therewith. Such +ideas have long since been abandoned by religious teachers, and it is +universally recognized that the universe in which we live has to all +appearances existed for an enormous period of time and possibly for endless +time. Of course there may be deception in these appearances, as a room may be +made to seem endless by putting mirrors facing each other at either end. But +that the universe in which we live has existed only for six or seven thousand +years may be regarded as an altogether exploded idea. +</p> + +<p> +The earth, as everybody knows nowadays, is a spheroid, a sphere +slightly compressed, orange fashion, with a diameter of nearly 8,000 +miles. Its spherical shape has been known at least to a limited +number of intelligent people for nearly 2,500 years, but before that +time it was supposed to be flat, and various ideas which now seem +fantastic were entertained about its relations to the sky and the +stars and planets. We know now that it rotates upon its <span class +="pagenum"><a name="P2"></a></span>axis (which is about 24 miles +shorter than its equatorial diameter) every twenty-four hours, and +that this is the cause of the alternations of day and night, that it +circles about the sun in a slightly distorted and slowly variable +oval path in a year. Its distance from the sun varies between +ninety-one and a half millions at its nearest and ninety-four and a +half million miles. +</p> + +<div class="fig" style=""> +<a name="img-2"></a> +<img src="images/img-2.jpg" +alt="LUMINOUS SPIRAL CLOUDS OF MATTER" width="498" +height="731" /> +<p class="caption"> +“LUMINOUS SPIRAL CLOUDS OF MATTER” +<br /> +<small>(Nebula photographed 1910) +<br /> +<i>Photo: G. W. Ritchey</i></small> +</p> +</div> + +<p> +About the earth circles a smaller sphere, the moon, at an average + distance of 239,000 miles. Earth and moon are not the only bodies + to travel round the sun. There are also the planets, Mercury and + Venus, at distances of thirty-six and sixty-seven millions of + miles; and beyond the circle of the earth and disregarding a belt + of numerous smaller bodies, the planetoids, there are Mars, + Jupiter, Saturn, Uranus and Neptune at mean distances of + 141, 483, 886, 1,782, and 1,793 millions of miles respectively. + These figures in <span class="pagenum"><a name="P3"></a></span> +millions of miles are very difficult for the mind to grasp. It may + help the reader’s imagination if we reduce the sun and + planets to a smaller, more conceivable scale. +</p> + +<div class="fig" style=""> +<a name="img-3"></a> +<img src="images/img-3.jpg" alt="THE + NEBULA SEEN EDGE ON" width="486" height="803" /> +<p class="caption"> +THE NEBULA SEEN EDGE-ON +<br /> +Note the central core which, through millions of years, is cooling to +solidity +<br /> +<small><i>Photo: G. W. Ritchey</i></small> +</p> +</div> + +<p> +If, then, we represent our earth as a little ball of one inch + diameter, the sun would be a big globe nine feet across and 323 + yards away, that is about a fifth of a mile, four or five + minutes’ walking. The moon would be a small pea two feet + and a half from the world. Between earth and sun there would be + the two inner planets, Mercury and Venus, at distances of one + hundred and twenty-five and two hundred and fifty yards from the + sun. All round and about these bodies there would be emptiness + until you came to Mars, a hundred and seventy-five feet beyond the + earth; Jupiter <span class="pagenum"><a name="P4"></a></span> +nearly a mile away, a foot in diameter; Saturn, a little smaller, + two miles off; Uranus four miles off and Neptune six miles off. + Then nothingness and nothingness except for small particles and + drifting scraps of attenuated vapour for thousands of miles. The + nearest star to earth on this scale would be 40,000 miles away. +</p> + +<p> +These figures will serve perhaps to give one some conception of the + immense emptiness of space in which the drama of life goes on. +</p> + +<p> +For in all this enormous vacancy of space we know certainly of life + only upon the surface of our earth. It does not penetrate much + more than three miles down into the 4,000 miles that separate us + from the centre of our globe, and it does not reach more than five + miles above its surface. Apparently all the limitlessness of space + is otherwise empty and dead. +</p> + +<p> +The deepest ocean dredgings go down to five miles. The highest + recorded flight of an aeroplane is little more than four miles. + Men have reached to seven miles up in balloons, but at a cost of + great suffering. No bird can fly so high as five miles, and small + birds and insects which have been carried up by aeroplanes drop off + insensible far below that level. +</p> + +</div><!--end chapter--> + +<div class="chapter"> + +<h2><span class="pagenum"><a name="P5"></a></span><a name="chapII"></a>II<br /> +THE WORLD IN TIME</h2> + +<p> +In the last fifty years there has been much very fine and interesting +speculation on the part of scientific men upon the age and origin of our earth. +Here we cannot pretend to give even a summary of such speculations because they +involve the most subtle mathematical and physical considerations. The truth is +that the physical and astronomical sciences are still too undeveloped as yet to +make anything of the sort more than an illustrative guesswork. The general +tendency has been to make the estimated age of our globe longer and longer. It +now seems probable that the earth has had an independent existence as a +spinning planet flying round and round the sun for a longer period than +2,000,000,000 years. It may have been much longer than that. This is a length +of time that absolutely overpowers the imagination. +</p> + +<p> +Before that vast period of separate existence, the sun and earth and +the other planets that circulate round the sun may have been a great +swirl of diffused matter in space. The telescope reveals to us in +various parts of the heavens luminous spiral clouds of matter, the +spiral nebulæ, which appear to be in rotation about a centre. + It is supposed by many astronomers that the sun and its planets + were once such a spiral, and that their matter has undergone + concentration into its present form. Through majestic æons + that concentration went on until in that vast remoteness of the + past for which we have given figures, the world and its moon were + distinguishable. They were spinning then much faster than they are + spinning now; they were at a lesser distance from the sun; they + travelled round it very much faster, and they were probably + incandescent or molten at the surface. The sun itself was a much + greater blaze in the heavens. +</p> + +<p> +<span class="pagenum"><a name="P6"></a></span> +</p> + +<div class="fig" style=""> +<a name="img-6"></a> +<img src="images/img-6.jpg" alt="THE + GREAT SPIRAL NEBULA" width="466" height="596" /> +<p class="caption"> +THE GREAT SPIRAL NEBULA +<br /> +<small><i>Photo: G. W. Ritchey</i></small> +</p> +</div> + +<p> +If we could go back through that infinitude of time and see the + earth in this earlier stage of its history, we should behold a + scene more like the interior of a blast furnace or the surface of a + lava flow before it cools and cakes over than any other + contemporary scene. No water would be visible because all the + water there was would still be superheated steam in a stormy + atmosphere of sulphurous and metallic vapours. Beneath this + would swirl and boil an ocean of molten rock substance. Across a + sky of fiery clouds the glare of the hurrying sun +and moon would sweep swiftly like hot breaths of flame. +</p> + +<p> +<span class="pagenum"><a name="P7"></a></span> +</p> + +<div class="fig" style=""> +<a name="img-7"></a> +<img src="images/img-7.jpg" alt="A + DARK NEBULA" width="502" height="681" /> +<p class="caption"> +A DARK NEBULA<br /> +<i>Taken in 1920 with the aid of the largest telescope in the world. +One of the first photographs taken by the Mount Wilson telescope.</i> +<br /> +There are dark nebulæ and bright nebulæ. Prof. Henry + Norris Russell, against the British theory, holds that the dark + nebulæ preceded the bright nebulæ. +<br /> +<small><i>Photo: Prof. Hale</i></small> +</p> +</div> + +<p> +Slowly by degrees as one million of years followed another, +<span class="pagenum"><a name="P8"></a></span> this fiery scene +would lose its eruptive incandescence. The vapours in the sky would +rain down and become less dense overhead; great slaggy cakes of +solidifying rock would appear upon the surface of the molten sea, +and sink under it, to be replaced by other floating masses. The +sun and moon growing now each more distant and each smaller, would +rush with diminishing swiftness across the heavens. The moon now, +because of its smaller size, would be already cooled far below +incandescence, and would be alternately obstructing and reflecting +the sunlight in a series of eclipses and full moons. +</p> + +<div class="fig" style=""> +<a name="img-8"></a> +<img src="images/img-8.jpg" + alt="ANOTHER SPIRAL NEBULA" width="657" height="450" /> +<p class="caption"> +ANOTHER SPIRAL NEBULA +<br /> +<small><i>Photo: G. W. Ritchey</i></small> +</p> +</div> + +<p> +<span class="pagenum"><a name="P9"></a></span> +</p> + +<p> +And so with a tremendous slowness through the vastness of time, the +earth would grow more and more like the earth on which we live, until +at last an age would come when, in the cooling air, steam would begin +to condense into clouds, and the first rain would fall hissing upon +the first rocks below. For endless millenia the greater part of the +earth’s water would still be vaporized in the atmosphere, but +there would now be hot streams running over the crystallizing +rocks below and pools and lakes into which these streams would be +carrying detritus and depositing sediment. +</p> + +<div class="fig" style=""> +<a name="img-9"></a> +<img src="images/img-9.jpg" + alt="LANDSCAPE BEFORE LIFE" width="677" height="482" /> +<p class="caption"> +LANDSCAPE BEFORE LIFE<br /> +“Great lava-like masses of rock without traces of soil” +</p> +</div> + +<p> +At last a condition of things must have been attained in which a +man might have stood up on earth and looked about him and lived. +If we could have visited the earth at that time we should have +stood on great lava-like masses of rock without a trace of soil +or touch of living vegetation, under a storm-rent sky. Hot and +violent winds, exceeding the fiercest tornado that ever blows, +and downpours of rain such as our milder, slower earth to-day +knows nothing of, might have assailed us. The water of the +downpour would have rushed by us, muddy with the spoils of the +rocks, coming together into torrents, cutting deep gorges and +canyons as they hurried past to deposit their sediment in the +earliest seas. Through the clouds we should have glimpsed a great +sun moving visibly across the sky, and in its wake and in the wake +of the moon would have come a diurnal tide of earthquake and +upheaval. And + +<span class="pagenum"><a name="P10"></a></span> + +the moon, which nowadays keeps one constant face to earth, would +then have been rotating visibly and showing the side it now hides +so inexorably. +</p> + +<p> +The earth aged. One million years followed another, and the day +lengthened, the sun grew more distant and milder, the moon’s +pace in the sky slackened; the intensity of rain and storm +diminished and the water in the first seas increased and ran +together into the ocean garment our planet henceforth wore. +</p> + +<p> +But there was no life as yet upon the earth; the seas were lifeless, +and the rocks were barren. +</p> + +</div><!--end chapter--> + +<div class="chapter"> + +<h2><span class="pagenum"><a name="P11"></a></span><a name="chapIII"></a>III<br /> +THE BEGINNINGS OF LIFE</h2> + +<p> +As everybody knows nowadays, the knowledge we possess of life before +the beginnings of human memory and tradition is derived from the +markings and fossils of living things in the stratified rocks. We +find preserved in shale and slate, limestone, and sandstone, bones, +shells, fibres, stems, fruits, footmarks, scratchings and the like, +side by side with the ripple marks of the earliest tides and the +pittings of the earliest rain-falls. It is by the sedulous +examination of this Record of the Rocks that the past history of the +earth’s life has been pieced together. That much nearly +everybody knows to-day. The sedimentary rocks do not lie neatly +stratum above stratum; they have been crumpled, bent, thrust about, +distorted and mixed together like the leaves of a library that has +been repeatedly looted and burnt, and it is only as a result of many +devoted lifetimes of work that the record has been put into order +and read. The whole compass of time represented by the record of +the rocks is now estimated as 1,600,000,000 years. +</p> + +<p> +The earliest rocks in the record are called by geologists the Azoic + rocks, because they show no traces of life. Great areas of these + Azoic rocks lie uncovered in North America, and they are of such a + thickness that geologists consider that they represent a period of + at least half of the 1,600,000,000 which they assign to the whole + geological record. Let me repeat this profoundly significant fact. + Half the great interval of time since land and sea were first + distinguishable on earth has left us no traces of life. There are + ripplings and rain marks still to be found in these rocks, but no + marks nor vestiges of any living thing. +</p> + +<p> +<span class="pagenum"><a name="P12"></a></span> +</p> + +<div class="fig" style=""> +<a name="img-12"></a> +<img src="images/img-12.jpg" +alt="MARINE LIFE IN THE CAMBRIAN PERIOD" width="552" + height="705" /> +<p class="caption"> +MARINE LIFE IN THE CAMBRIAN PERIOD<br /> +1 and 8, Jellyfishes; 2, Hyolithes (swimming snail); 3, + Humenocaris; 4, Protospongia; 5, Lampshells (Obolella); 6, + Orthoceras; 7, Trilobite (Paradoxides) — see fossil on page 13; + 9, Coral (Archæocyathus); 10, Bryograptus; 11, Trilobite + (Olenellus); 12, Palesterina +</p> +</div> + +<p> +Then, as we come up the record, signs of past life appear and + increase. The age of the world’s history in which we find + these past <span class="pagenum"><a name="P13"></a></span> +traces is called by geologists the Lower Palæozoic age. + The first indications that life was astir are vestiges of + comparatively simple and lowly things: the shells of small + shellfish, the stems and flowerlike heads of zoophytes, seaweeds + and the tracks and remains of sea worms and crustacea. Very early + appear certain creatures rather like plant-lice, crawling creatures + which could roll themselves up into balls as the plant-lice do, the + trilobites. Later by a few million years or so come certain sea + scorpions, more mobile and powerful creatures than the world had + ever seen before. +</p> + +<div class="fig" style=""> +<a name="img-13"></a> +<img src="images/img-13.jpg" +alt="FOSSIL TRILOBITE (SLIGHTLY MAGNIFIED)" width="338" + height="457" /> +<p class="caption"> +FOSSIL TRILOBITE (SLIGHTLY MAGNIFIED) +<br /><small><i>Photo: John J. Ward, F.E.S.</i></small> +</p> +</div> + +<p> +None of these creatures were of very great size. Among the largest + were certain of the sea scorpions, which measured nine feet in + length. There are no signs whatever of land life of any sort, + plant or animal; there are no fishes nor any vertebrated creatures + in this part of the record. Essentially all the plants and + creatures which have left us their traces from this period of the + earth’s history are shallow-water and intertidal beings. If + we wished to parallel the flora and fauna of the Lower + Palæozoic rocks on the earth to-day, we should do it best, + except in the matter of size, by taking a drop of water from a rock + pool or scummy ditch and examining it under a microscope. The + little crustacea, the small shellfish, the zoophytes and algæ + we should find there would display a quite striking resemblance to + these clumsier, larger prototypes that once were the crown of life + upon our planet. +</p> + +<div class="fig" style=""> +<a name="img-14"></a> +<img src="images/img-14.jpg" +alt="EARLY PALÆOLITHIC FOSSILS OF VARIOUS SPECIES OF + LINGULA" width="625" + height="608" /> +<p class="caption"> +EARLY PALÆOLITHIC FOSSILS OF VARIOUS SPECIES OF + LINGULA +<br /> +Species of this most ancient genus of shellfish still live to-day +<br /> +<small><i>(In Natural History Museum, London)</i></small> +</p> +</div> + +<p> +It is well, however, to bear in mind that the Lower Palæozoic + rocks probably do not give us anything at all representative of the + first beginnings of life on our planet. Unless a creature has bones + <span class="pagenum"><a name="P14"></a></span>or other hard + parts, unless it wears a shell or is big enough and heavy enough to + make characteristic footprints and trails in mud, it is unlikely to + leave any fossilized traces of its existence behind. To-day there + are hundreds of thousands of species of small soft-bodied creatures + in our world which it is inconceivable can ever leave any mark for + future geologists to discover. In the world’s past, millions + of millions of species of such creatures may have lived and + multiplied and flourished and passed away without a trace + remaining. The waters of the warm and shallow lakes and seas of + the so-called Azoic period may have teemed with an infinite variety + <span class="pagenum"><a name="P15"></a></span>of lowly, + jelly-like, shell-less and boneless creatures, and a multitude of + green scummy plants may have spread over the sunlit intertidal + rocks and beaches. The Record of the Rocks is no more a complete + record of life in the past than the books of a bank are a record of + the existence of everybody in the neighbourhood. It is only when a + species begins to secrete a shell or a spicule or a carapace or a + lime-supported stem, and so put by something for the future, that + it goes upon the Record. But in rocks of an age prior to those + which bear any fossil traces, graphite, a form of uncombined + carbon, is sometimes found, and some authorities consider that it + may have been separated out from combination through the vital + activities of unknown living things. +</p> + +<div class="fig" style=""> +<a name="img-15"></a> +<img src="images/img-15.jpg" +alt=" FOSSILIZED FOOTPRINTS OF A LABYRINTHODONT CHEIROTHERIUM" width="670" + height="345" /> +<p class="caption"> +FOSSILIZED FOOTPRINTS OF A LABYRINTHODONT CHEIROTHERIUM +<br /> +<small><i>(In Natural History Museum, London)</i></small> +</p> +</div> + +</div><!--end chapter--> + +<div class="chapter"> + +<h2><span class="pagenum"><a name="P16"></a></span><a name="chapIV"></a>IV<br /> +THE AGE OF FISHES</h2> + +<p> +In the days when the world was supposed to have endured for only a + few thousand years, it was supposed that the different species of + plants and animals were fixed and final; they had all been created + exactly as they are to-day, each species by itself. But as men + began to discover and study the Record of the Rocks this belief + gave place to the suspicion that many species had changed and + developed slowly through the course of ages, and this again + expanded into a belief in what is called Organic Evolution, a + belief that all species of life upon earth, animal and vegetable + alike, are descended by slow continuous processes of change from + some very simple ancestral form of life, some almost structureless + living substance, far back in the so-called Azoic seas. +</p> + +<p> +This question of Organic Evolution, like the question of the age of + the earth, has in the past been the subject of much bitter + controversy. There was a time when a belief in organic evolution + was for rather obscure reasons supposed to be incompatible with + sound Christian, Jewish and Moslem doctrine. That time has passed, + and the men of the most orthodox Catholic, Protestant, Jewish and + Mohammedan belief are now free to accept this newer and broader + view of a common origin of all living things. No life seems to + have happened suddenly upon earth. Life grew and grows. Age by + age through gulfs of time at which imagination reels, life has been + growing from a mere stirring in the intertidal slime towards + freedom, power and consciousness. +</p> + +<p> +Life consists of individuals. These individuals are definite things, + they are not like the lumps and masses, nor even the limitless and + motionless crystals, of non-living matter, and they have two + characteristics no dead matter possesses. They can assimilate + other matter into themselves and make it part of themselves, and + <span class="pagenum"><a name="P17"></a></span>they can + reproduce themselves. They eat and they breed. They can give rise + to other individuals, for the most part like themselves, but always + also a little different from themselves. There is a specific and + family resemblance between an individual and its offspring, and + there is an individual difference between every parent and every + offspring it produces, and this is true in every species and at + every stage of life. +</p> + +<div class="fig" style=""> +<a name="img-17"></a> +<img src="images/img-17.jpg" +alt="SPECIMEN OF THE PTERICHTHYS MILLERI OR SEA SCORPION + SHOWING BODY ARMOUR" width="327" + height="758" /> +<p class="caption"> +SPECIMEN OF THE PTERICHTHYS MILLERI OR SEA SCORPION + SHOWING BODY ARMOUR +</p> +</div> + +<p> +Now scientific men are not able to explain to us either why + offspring should resemble nor why they should differ from their + parents. But seeing that offspring do at once resemble and differ, + it is a matter rather of common sense than of scientific knowledge + that, if the conditions under which a species live are changed, the + species should undergo some correlated changes. Because in any + generation of the species there must be a number of individuals + whose individual differences make them better adapted to the new + conditions under which the species has to live, and a number whose + individuals whose individual differences make it rather harder for + them to live. And on the whole the former sort will live longer, + bear more offspring, and reproduce themselves more abundantly than + the latter, and so generation by generation the average of the + species will change in the favourable direction. This process, + which is called Natural Selection, is not so much a scientific + theory as a necessary deduction + <span class="pagenum"><a name="P18"></a></span>from the facts + of reproduction and individual difference. There may be many + forces at work varying, destroying and preserving species, about + which science may still be unaware or undecided, but the man who + can deny the operation of this process of natural selection upon + life since its beginning must be either ignorant of the elementary + facts of life or incapable of ordinary thought. +</p> + +<p> +Many scientific men have speculated about the first beginning of + life and their speculations are often of great interest, but there + is absolutely no definite knowledge and no convincing guess yet of + the way in which life began. But nearly all authorities are agreed + that it probably began upon mud or sand in warm sunlit shallow + brackish water, and that it spread up the beaches to the intertidal + lines and out to the open waters. +</p> + +<div class="fig" style=""> +<a name="img-18"></a> +<img src="images/img-18.jpg" +alt="FOSSIL OF THE CLADOSELACHE, A DEVONIAN SHARK" width="316" + height="563" /> +<p class="caption"> +FOSSIL OF THE CLADOSELACHE, A DEVONIAN SHARK +<br /> +<small><i>Nat. Hist. Mus.</i></small> +</p> +</div> + +<p> +That early world was a world of strong tides and currents. An + incessant destruction of individuals must have been going on + through their being swept up the beaches and dried, or by their + being swept out to sea and sinking down out of reach of air and + sun. Early conditions favoured the development of every tendency + to root and hold on, every tendency to form an outer skin and + casing to protect the stranded individual from immediate + desiccation. From the very earliest any tendency to sensitiveness + to taste would turn the individual in the direction of food, and + any sensitiveness to light would assist it to struggle back out of + the darkness of the sea deeps and caverns or to wriggle back out of + the excessive glare of the dangerous shallows. +</p> + +<p> +Probably the first shells and body armour of living things were + protections against drying rather than against active enemies. + But tooth and claw come early into our earthly history. +</p> + +<p> +We have already noted the size of the earlier water scorpions. For + long ages such creatures were the supreme lords of life. Then <span + class="pagenum"><a name="P19"></a></span>in a division of these + Palæozoic rocks called the Silurian division, which many + geologists now suppose to be as old as five hundred million years, + there appears a new type of being, equipped with eyes and teeth and + swimming powers of an altogether more powerful kind. These were + the first known backboned animals, the earliest fishes, the first + known Vertebrata. +</p> + +<div class="fig" style=""> +<a name="img-19"></a> +<img src="images/img-19.jpg" +alt="SHARKS AND GANOIDS OF THE DEVONIAN PERIOD" width="459" + height="665" /> +<p class="caption"> +SHARKS AND GANOIDS OF THE DEVONIAN PERIOD +<br /> +<small><i>By Alice Woodward</i></small> +</p> +</div> + +<p> +These fishes increase greatly in the next division of rocks, the + rocks known as the Devonian system. They are so prevalent that + this period of the Record of the Rocks has been called the Age of + <span class="pagenum"><a name="P20"></a></span>Fishes. Fishes + of a pattern now gone from the earth, and fishes allied to the + sharks and sturgeons of to-day, rushed through the waters, leapt in + the air, browsed among the seaweeds, pursued and preyed upon one + another, and gave a new liveliness to the waters of the world. + None of these were excessively big by our present standards. Few + of them were more than two or three feet long, but there were + exceptional forms which were as long as twenty feet. +</p> + +<p> +We know nothing from geology of the ancestors of these fishes. They + do not appear to be related to any of the forms that preceded them. + Zoologists have the most interesting views of their ancestry, but + these they derive from the study of the development of the eggs of + their still living relations, and from other sources. Apparently + the ancestors of the vertebrata were soft-bodied and perhaps quite + small swimming creatures who began first to develop hard parts as + teeth round and about their mouths. The teeth of a skate or + dogfish cover the roof and floor of its mouth and pass at the lip + into the flattened toothlike scales that encase most of its body. + As the fishes develop these teeth scales in the geological record, + they swim out of the hidden darkness of the past into the light, + the first vertebrated animals visible in the record. +</p> + +</div><!--end chapter--> + +<div class="chapter"> + +<h2><span class="pagenum"><a name="P21"></a></span><a name="chapV"></a>V<br /> +THE AGE OF THE COAL SWAMPS</h2> + +<p> +The land during this Age of Fishes was apparently quite lifeless. Crags and +uplands of barren rock lay under the sun and rain. There was no real +soil—for as yet there were no earthworms which help to make a soil, and +no plants to break up the rock particles into mould; there was no trace of moss +or lichen. Life was still only in the sea. +</p> + +<p> +Over this world of barren rock played great changes of climate. + The causes of these changes of climate were very complex and they + have still to be properly estimated. The changing shape of the + earth’s orbit, the gradual shifting of the poles of rotation, + changes in the shapes of the continents, probably even fluctuations + in the warmth of the sun, now conspired to plunge great areas of + the earth’s surface into long periods of cold and ice and now + again for millions of years spread a warm or equable climate over + this planet. There seem to have been phases of great internal + activity in the world’s history, when in the course of a few + million years accumulated upthrusts would break out in lines of + volcanic eruption and upheaval and rearrange the mountain and + continental outlines of the globe, increasing the depth of the sea + and the height of the mountains and exaggerating the extremes of + climate. And these would be followed by vast ages of comparative + quiescence, when frost, rain and river would wear down the mountain + heights and carry great masses of silt to fill and raise the sea + bottoms and spread the seas, ever shallower and wider, over more + and more of the land. There have been “high and deep” + ages in the world’s history and “low and level” + ages. The reader must dismiss from his mind any idea that the + surface of the earth has been growing steadily cooler since its + crust grew solid. After that much cooling had been achieved, the + internal temperature ceased to affect surface + <span class="pagenum"><a name="P22"></a></span>conditions. + There are traces of periods of superabundant ice and snow, of + “Glacial Ages,” that is, even in the Azoic period. +</p> + +<p> +It was only towards the close of the Age of Fishes, in a period of + extensive shallow seas and lagoons, that life spread itself out in + any effectual way from the waters on to the land. No doubt the + earlier types of the forms that now begin to appear in great + abundance had already been developing in a rare and obscure manner + for many scores of millions of years. But now came their + opportunity. +</p> + +<div class="fig" style=""> +<a name="img-22"></a> +<img src="images/img-22.jpg" +alt="A CARBONIFEROUS SWAMP" width="450" + height="634" /> +<p class="caption"> +A CARBONIFEROUS SWAMP +<br /> +<small><i>A Coal Seam in the Making</i></small> +</p> +</div> + +<p> +Plants no doubt preceded animal forms in this invasion of the land, + but the animals probably followed up the plant emigration + <span class="pagenum"><a name="P23"></a></span>very closely. + The first problem that the plant had to solve was the problem of + some sustaining stiff support to hold up its fronds to the sunlight + when the buoyant water was withdrawn; the second was the problem of + getting water from the swampy ground below to the tissues of the + plant, now that it was no longer close at hand. The two problems + were solved by the development of woody tissue which both sustained + the plant and acted as water carrier to the leaves. The Record of + the Rocks is suddenly crowded by a vast variety of woody swamp + plants, many of them of great size, big tree mosses, tree ferns, + gigantic horsetails and the like. And with these, age by age, + there crawled out of the water a great variety of animal forms. + There were centipedes and millipedes; there were the first + primitive insects; there were creatures related to the ancient king + crabs and sea scorpions which became the earliest spiders and land + scorpions, and presently there were vertebrated animals. +</p> + +<div class="fig" style=""> +<a name="img-23"></a> +<img src="images/img-23.jpg" +alt="SKULL OF A LABYRINTHODONT, CAPITOSAURUS" width="383" + height="468" /> +<p class="caption"> +SKULL OF A LABYRINTHODONT, CAPITOSAURUS +<br /> +<small><i>Nat. Hist. Mus.</i></small> +</p> +</div> + +<p> +Some of the earlier insects were very large. There were dragon flies + in this period with wings that spread out to twenty-nine inches. +</p> + +<p> +In various ways these new orders and genera had adapted themselves + to breathing air. Hitherto all animals had breathed air dissolved + in water, and that indeed is what all animals still have to do. + But now in divers fashions the animal kingdom was acquiring the + power of supplying its own moisture where it was needed. A man + with a perfectly dry lung would suffocate to-day; + <span class="pagenum"><a name="P24"></a></span>his lung + surfaces must be moist in order that air may pass through them + into his blood. The adaptation to air breathing consists in all + cases either in the development of a cover to the old-fashioned + gills to stop evaporation, or in the development of tubes or other + new breathing organs lying deep inside the body and moistened by a + watery secretion. The old gills with which the ancestral fish of + the vertebrated line had breathed were inadaptable to breathing + upon land, and in the case of this division of the animal kingdom + it is the swimming bladder of the fish which becomes a new, + deep-seated breathing organ, the lung. The kind of animals known + as amphibia, the frogs and newts of to-day, begin their lives in + the water and breathe by gills; and subsequently the lung, + developing in the same way as the swimming bladder of many fishes + do, as a baglike outgrowth from the throat, takes over the business + of breathing, the animal comes out on land, and the gills dwindle + and the gill slits disappear. (All except an outgrowth of one gill + slit, which becomes the passage of the ear and ear-drum.) The + animal can now live only in the air, but it must return at least to + the edge of the water to lay its eggs and reproduce its kind. +</p> + +<div class="fig" style=""> +<a name="img-24"></a> +<img src="images/img-24.jpg" +alt="SKELETON OF A LABYRINTHODONT: THE ERYOPS" width="670" + height="243" /> +<p class="caption"> +SKELETON OF A LABYRINTHODONT: THE ERYOPS +<br /> +<small><i>Nat. Hist. Mus.</i></small> +</p> +</div> + +<p> +All the air-breathing vertebrata of this age of swamps and plants + belonged to the class amphibia. They were nearly all of them forms + related to the newts of to-day, and some of them attained a + considerable size. They were land animals, it is true, but they + were land animals needing to live in and near moist and swampy + places, and all the great trees of this period were equally + <span class="pagenum"><a name="P25"></a></span>amphibious in + their habits. None of them had yet developed fruits and seeds of a + kind that could fall on land and develop with the help only of such + moisture as dew and rain could bring. They all had to shed their + spores in water, it would seem, if they were to germinate. +</p> + +<p> +It is one of the most beautiful interests of that beautiful science, + comparative anatomy, to trace the complex and wonderful adaptations + of living things to the necessities of existence in air. All + living things, plants and animals alike, are primarily water + things. For example all the higher vertebrated animals above the + fishes, up to and including man, pass through a stage in their + development in the egg or before birth in which they have gill + slits which are obliterated before the young emerge. The bare, + water-washed eye of the fish is protected in the higher forms from + drying up by eyelids and glands which secrete moisture. The weaker + sound vibrations of air necessitate an ear-drum. In nearly every + organ of the body similar modifications and adaptations are to be + detected, similar patchings-up to meet aerial conditions. +</p> + +<p> +This Carboniferous age, this age of the amphibia, was an age of life + in the swamps and lagoons and on the low banks among these waters. + Thus far life had now extended. The hills and high lands were + still quite barren and lifeless. Life had learnt to breathe air + indeed, but it still had its roots in its native water; it still + had to return to the water to reproduce its kind. +</p> + +</div><!--end chapter--> + +<div class="chapter"> + +<h2><span class="pagenum"><a name="P26"></a></span><a name="chapVI"></a>VI<br /> +THE AGE OF REPTILES</h2> + +<p> +The abundant life of the Carboniferous period was succeeded by a vast cycle of +dry and bitter ages. They are represented in the Record of the Rocks by thick +deposits of sandstones and the like, in which fossils are comparatively few. +The temperature of the world fluctuated widely, and there were long periods of +glacial cold. Over great areas the former profusion of swamp vegetation ceased, +and, overlaid by these newer deposits, it began that process of compression and +mineralization that gave the world most of the coal deposits of to-day. +</p> + +<p> +But it is during periods of change that life undergoes its most +rapid modifications, and under hardship that it learns its hardest +lessons. As conditions revert towards warmth and moisture again we +find a new series of animal and plant forms established, We find in +the record the remains of vertebrated animals that laid eggs which, +instead of hatching out tadpoles which needed to live for a time in +water, carried on their development before hatching to a stage so +nearly like the adult form that the young could live in air from the +first moment of independent existence. Gills had been cut out +altogether, and the gill slits only appeared as an embryonic phase. +</p> + +<p> +These new creatures without a tadpole stage were the Reptiles. + Concurrently there had been a development of seed-bearing trees, +which could spread their seed, independently of swamp or lakes. + There were now palmlike cycads and many tropical conifers, though as +yet there were no flowering plants and no grasses. There was a +great number of ferns. And there was now also an increased variety +of insects. There were beetles, though bees and butterflies had yet +to come. But all the fundamental forms of a new real land fauna and +flora had been laid down during these vast ages of severity. <span +class="pagenum"><a name="P27"></a></span>This new land life +needed only the opportunity of favourable conditions to flourish and +prevail. +</p> + +<div class="fig" style=""> +<a name="img-27"></a> +<img src="images/img-27.jpg" +alt="A FOSSIL ICHTHYOSAURUS, A MESOZOIC FISH-LIZARD" width="674" + height="368" /> +<p class="caption"> +A FOSSIL ICHTHYOSAURUS, A MESOZOIC FISH-LIZARD +<br /> +<small>Found in the Lower Lias in Somersetshire +<br /> +<i>Nat. Hist. Mus.</i></small> +</p> +</div> + +<p> +Age by age and with abundant fluctuations that mitigation came. The +still incalculable movements of the earth’s crust, the changes +in its orbit, the increase and diminution of the mutual inclination +of orbit and pole, worked together to produce a great spell of +widely diffused warm conditions. The period lasted altogether, it +is now supposed, upwards of two hundred million years. It is called +the Mesozoic period, to distinguish it from the altogether vaster +Palæozoic and Azoic periods (together fourteen hundred +millions) that preceded it, and from the Cainozoic or new life +period that intervened between its close and the present time, and +it is also called the Age of Reptiles because of the astonishing +predominance and variety of this form of life. It came to an end +some eighty million years ago. +</p> + +<p> +In the world to-day the genera of Reptiles are comparatively few and +their distribution is very limited. They are more various, it is +true, than are the few surviving members of the order of the +amphibia which once in the Carboniferous period ruled the world. We +still have the snakes, the turtles and tortoises (the Chelonia), +<span class="pagenum"><a name="P28"></a></span>the alligators +and crocodiles, and the lizards. Without exception they are +creatures requiring warmth all the year round; they cannot stand +exposure to cold, and it is probable that all the reptilian beings +of the Mesozoic suffered under the same limitation. It was a +hothouse fauna, living amidst a hothouse flora. It endured no +frosts. But the world had at least attained a real dry land fauna +and flora as distinguished from the mud and swamp fauna and flora of +the previous heyday of life upon earth. +</p> + +<div class="fig" style=""> +<a name="img-28"></a> +<img src="images/img-28.jpg" +alt="A PTERODACTYL" width="661" + height="265" /> +<p class="caption"> +A PTERODACTYL +<br /> +<small><i>Nat. Hist. Mus.</i></small> +</p> +</div> + +<p> +All the sorts of reptile we know now were much more abundantly +represented then, great turtles and tortoises, big crocodiles and +many lizards and snakes, but in addition there was a number of +series of wonderful creatures that have now vanished altogether from +the earth. There was a vast variety of beings called the Dinosaurs. + Vegetation was now spreading over the lower levels of the world, +reeds, brakes of fern and the like; and browsing upon this abundance +came a multitude of herbivorous reptiles, which increased in size as +the Mesozoic period rose to its climax. Some of these beasts +exceeded in size any other land animals that have ever lived; they +were as large as whales. The <i>Diplodocus Carnegii</i> for example +measured eighty-four feet from snout to tail; the Gigantosaurus was +even greater; it measured a hundred feet. Living upon these +monsters was a swarm of carnivorous Dinosaurs of a corresponding +size. One of these, the Tyrannosaurus, is figured and described in +many books as the last word in reptilian frightfulness. +<span class="pagenum"><a name="P29"></a></span> +</p> + +<div class="fig" style=""> +<a name="img-29"></a> +<img src="images/img-29.jpg" +alt="A BIG SWAMP-INHABITING DINOSAUR, THE DIPLODOCUS, OVER EIGHTY + FEET FROM SNOUT TO TAIL-TIP" width="665" + height="445" /> +<p class="caption"> +A BIG SWAMP-INHABITING DINOSAUR, THE DIPLODOCUS, OVER EIGHTY FEET + FROM SNOUT TO TAIL-TIP +<br /> +<small><i>Nat. Hist. Mus.</i></small> +</p> +</div> + +<p> +While these great creatures pastured and pursued amidst the fronds +and evergreens of the Mesozoic jungles, another now vanished tribe +of reptiles, with a bat-like development of the fore limbs, pursued +insects and one another, first leapt and parachuted and presently +flew amidst the fronds and branches of the forest trees. These were +the Pterodactyls. These were the first flying creatures with +backbones; they mark a new achievement in the growing powers of +vertebrated life. +</p> + +<p> +Moreover some of the reptiles were returning to the sea waters. + Three groups of big swimming beings had invaded the sea from which +their ancestors had come: the Mososaurs, the Plesiosaurs, and +Ichthyosaurs. Some of these again approached the proportions of our +present whales. The Ichthyosaurs seem to have been quite seagoing +creatures, but the Plesiosaurs were a type of animal that has no +cognate form to-day. The body was stout and big with paddles, +adapted either for swimming or crawling through marshes, or along +the bottom of shallow waters. The comparatively small <span +class="pagenum"><a name="P30"></a></span>head was poised on a +vast snake of neck, altogether outdoing the neck of the swan. + Either the Plesiosaur swam and searched for food under the water and +fed as the swan will do, or it lurked under water and snatched at +passing fish or beast. +</p> + +<p> +Such was the predominant land life throughout the Mesozoic age. It +was by our human standards an advance upon anything that had +preceded it. It had produced land animals greater in size, range, +power and activity, more “vital” as people say, than +anything the world had seen before. In the seas there had been no +such advance but a great proliferation of new forms of life. An +enormous variety of squid-like creatures with chambered shells, for +the most part coiled, had appeared in the shallow seas, the +Ammonites. They had had predecessors in the Palæozoic seas, +but now was their age of glory. To-day they have left no survivors +at all; their nearest relation is the pearly Nautilus, an inhabitant +of tropical waters. And a new and more prolific type of fish with +lighter, finer scales than the plate-like and tooth-like coverings +that had hitherto prevailed, became and has since remained +predominant in the seas and rivers. +</p> + +</div><!--end chapter--> + +<div class="chapter"> + +<h2><span class="pagenum"><a name="P31"></a></span><a name="chapVII"></a>VII<br /> +THE FIRST BIRDS AND THE FIRST MAMMALS</h2> + +<p> +In a few paragraphs a picture of the lush vegetation and swarming reptiles of +that first great summer of life, the Mesozoic period, has been sketched. But +while the Dinosaurs lorded it over the hot selvas and marshy plains and the +Pterodactyls filled the forests with their flutterings and possibly with +shrieks and croakings as they pursued the humming insect life of the still +flowerless shrubs and trees, some less conspicuous and less abundant forms upon +the margins of this abounding life were acquiring certain powers and learning +certain lessons of endurance, that were to be of the utmost value to their race +when at last the smiling generosity of sun and earth began to fade. +</p> + +<p> +A group of tribes and genera of hopping reptiles, small creatures of + the dinosaur type, seem to have been pushed by competition and the + pursuit of their enemies towards the alternatives of extinction or + adaptation to colder conditions in the higher hills or by the sea. + Among these distressed tribes there was developed a new type of + scale—scales that were elongated into quill-like forms and + that presently branched into the crude beginnings of feathers. + These quill-like scales layover one another and formed a + heat-retaining covering more efficient than any reptilian covering + that had hitherto existed. So they permitted an invasion of colder + regions that were otherwise uninhabited. Perhaps simultaneously + with these changes there arose in these creatures a greater + solicitude for their eggs. Most reptiles are apparently quite + careless about their eggs, which are left for sun and season to + hatch. But some of the varieties upon this new branch of the tree + of life were acquiring a habit of guarding their eggs and keeping + them warm with the warmth of their bodies. +</p> + +<p> +With these adaptations to cold other internal modifications <span +class="pagenum"><a name="P32"></a></span>were going on that made +these creatures, the primitive birds, warm-blooded and independent +of basking. The very earliest birds seem to have been seabirds +living upon fish, and their fore limbs were not wings but paddles +rather after the penguin type. That peculiarly primitive bird, the +New Zealand Ki-Wi, has feathers of a very simple sort, and neither +flies nor appears to be descended from flying ancestors. In the +development of the birds, feathers came before wings. But once the +feather was developed the possibility of making a light spread of +feathers led inevitably to the wing. We know of the fossil remains +of one bird at least which had reptilian teeth in its jaw and a long +reptilian tail, but which also had a true bird’s wing and +which certainly flew and held its own among the pterodactyls of the +Mesozoic time. Nevertheless birds were neither varied nor abundant +in Mesozoic times. If a man could go back to typical Mesozoic +country, he might walk for days and never see or hear such a thing +as a bird, though he would see a great abundance of pterodactyls and +insects among the fronds and reeds. +</p> + +<div class="fig" style=""> +<a name="img-32"></a> +<img src="images/img-32.jpg" +alt="FOSSIL OF THE ARCHEOPTERYX; ONE OF THE EARLIEST BIRDS" + width="446" height="565" /> +<p class="caption"> +FOSSIL OF THE ARCHEOPTERYX; ONE OF THE EARLIEST BIRDS +<br /> +<small><i>Nat. Hist. Mus.</i></small> +</p> +</div> + +<p> +And another thing he would probably never see, and that would be any +sign of a mammal. Probably the first mammals were in <span +class="pagenum"><a name="P33"></a></span>existence millions of +years before the first thing one could call a bird, but they were +altogether too small and obscure and remote for attention. +</p> + +<div class="fig" style=""> +<a name="img-33"></a> +<img src="images/img-33.jpg" +alt="HESPERORNIS IN ITS NATIVE SEAS" +width="500" height="741" /> +<p class="caption"> +HESPERORNIS IN ITS NATIVE SEAS +</p> +</div> + +<p> +The earliest mammals, like the earliest birds, were creatures driven +by competition and pursuit into a life of hardship and adaptation to +cold. With them also the scale became quill-like, and was developed +into a heat-retaining covering; and they too underwent +modifications, similar in kind though different in detail, to become +warm-blooded and independent of basking. Instead of feathers they +developed hairs, and instead of guarding and incubating their eggs +they kept them warm and safe by retaining them inside their bodies +until they were almost mature. Most of them became altogether +vivaparous and brought their young into the world alive. And even +after their young were born they tended to maintain a protective and +nutritive association with them. Most <span class="pagenum"><a +name="P34"></a></span>but not all mammals to-day have mammæ +and suckle their young. Two mammals still live which lay eggs and +which have not proper mammæ, though they nourish their young by +a nutritive secretion of the under skin; these are the duck-billed +platypus and the echidna. The echidna lays leathery eggs and then +puts them into a pouch under its belly, and so carries them about +warm and safe until they hatch. +</p> + +<p> +But just as a visitor to the Mesozoic world might have searched for +days and weeks before finding a bird, so, unless he knew exactly +where to go and look, he might have searched in vain for any traces +of a mammal. Both birds and mammals would have seemed very +eccentric and secondary and unimportant creatures in Mesozoic times. +</p> + +<div class="fig" style=""> +<a name="img-34"></a> +<img src="images/img-34.jpg" +alt="THE KI-WI, APTERYX, STILL FOUND IN NEW ZEALAND" +width="506" height="595" /> +<p class="caption"> +THE KI-WI, APTERYX, STILL FOUND IN NEW ZEALAND<br /> +<small><i>Photo: Autotype Fine Art Co.</i></small> +</p> +</div> + +<p> +<span class="pagenum"><a name="P35"></a></span> +</p> + +<div class="fig" style=""> +<a name="img-35"></a> +<img src="images/img-35.jpg" +alt="SLAB OF LOWER PLIOCENE MARL" + width="600" height="784" /> +<p class="caption"> +SLAB OF LOWER PLIOCENE MARL<br /> +<small>Discovered in Greece; it is rich in fossilized bones of early +mammals</small> +</p> +</div> + +<p> +The Age of Reptiles lasted, it is now guessed, eighty million years. + Had any quasi-human intelligence been watching the world through +that inconceivable length of time, how safe and eternal the sunshine +and abundance must have seemed, how assured the wallowing prosperity +of the dinosaurs and the flapping abundance of the flying lizards! +And then the mysterious rhythms and accumulating forces of the +universe began to turn against that quasi-eternal stability. That +run of luck <span class="pagenum"><a name="P36"></a></span>for + life was running out. Age by age, myriad of years after myriad of + years, with halts no doubt and retrogressions, came a change + towards hardship and extreme conditions, came great alterations of + level and great redistributions of mountain and sea. We find one + thing in the Record of the Rocks during the decadence of the long + Mesozoic age of prosperity that is very significant of steadily + sustained changes of condition, and that is a violent fluctuation + of living forms and the appearance of new and strange species. + Under the gathering threat of extinction the older orders and + genera are displaying their utmost capacity for variation and + adaptation. The Ammonites for example in these last pages of the + Mesozoic chapter exhibit a multitude of fantastic forms. Under + settled conditions there is no encouragement for novelties; they do + not develop, they are suppressed; what is best adapted is already + there. Under novel conditions it is the ordinary type that + suffers, and the novelty that may have a better chance to survive + and establish itself.... +</p> + +<p> +There comes a break in the Record of the Rocks that may represent +several million years. There is a veil here still, over even the +outline of the history of life. When it lifts again, the Age of +Reptiles is at an end; the Dinosaurs, the Plesiosaurs and +Ichthyosaurs, the Pterodactyls, the innumerable genera and species +of Ammonite have all gone absolutely. In all their stupendous +variety they have died out and left no descendants. The cold has +killed them. All their final variations were insufficient; they had +never hit upon survival conditions. The world had passed through a +phase of extreme conditions beyond their powers of endurance, a slow +and complete massacre of Mesozoic life has occurred, and we find now +a new scene, a new and hardier flora, and a new and hardier fauna in +possession of the world. +</p> + +<p> +It is still a bleak and impoverished scene with which this new +volume of the book of life begins. The cycads and tropical conifers +have given place very largely to trees that shed their leaves to +avoid destruction by the snows of winter and to flowering plants and +shrubs, and where there was formerly a profusion of reptiles, an +increasing variety of birds and mammals is entering into their +inheritance. +</p> + +</div><!--end chapter--> + +<div class="chapter"> + +<h2><span class="pagenum"><a name="P37"></a></span><a name="chapVIII"></a>VIII<br /> +THE AGE OF MAMMALS</h2> + +<p> +The opening of the next great period in the life of the earth, the Cainozoic +period, was a period of upheaval and extreme volcanic activity. Now it was that +the vast masses of the Alps and Himalayas and the mountain backbone of the +Rockies and Andes were thrust up, and that the rude outlines of our present +oceans and continents appeared. The map of the world begins to display a first +dim resemblance to the map of to-day. It is estimated now that between forty +and eighty million years have elapsed from the beginnings of the Cainozoic +period to the present time. +</p> + +<p> +At the outset of the Cainozoic period the climate of the +world was austere. It grew generally warmer until a fresh +phase of great abundance was reached, after which conditions +grew hard again and the earth passed into a series of +extremely cold cycles, the Glacial Ages, from which +apparently it is now slowly emerging. +</p> + +<p> +But we do not know sufficient of the causes of climatic +change at present to forecast the possible fluctuations of +climatic conditions that lie before us. We may be moving +towards increasing sunshine or lapsing towards another +glacial age; volcanic activity and the upheaval of mountain +masses may be increasing or diminishing; we do not know; we +lack sufficient science. +</p> + +<p> +With the opening of this period the grasses appear; for the +first time there is pasture in the world; and with the full +development of the once obscure mammalian type, appear a +number of interesting grazing animals and of carnivorous +types which prey upon these. +</p> + +<p> +At first these early mammals seem to differ only in a few +characters from the great herbivorous and carnivorous +reptiles that ages before had flourished and then vanished +from the earth. A <span class="pagenum"><a +name="P38"></a></span>careless observer might suppose that +in this second long age of warmth and plenty that was now +beginning, nature was merely repeating the first, with +herbivorous and carnivorous mammals to parallel the +herbivorous and carnivorous dinosaurs, with birds replacing +pterodactyls and so on. But this would be an altogether +superficial comparison. The variety of the universe is +infinite and incessant; it progresses eternally; history +never repeats itself and no parallels are precisely true. + The differences between the life of the Cainozoic and +Mesozoic periods are far profounder than the resemblances. +</p> + +<div class="fig" style=""> +<a name="img-38"></a> +<img src="images/img-38.jpg" +alt="A MAMMAL OF THE EARLY CAINOZOIC PERIOD" width="600" + height="417" /> +<p class="caption"> +A MAMMAL OF THE EARLY CAINOZOIC PERIOD +<br /> +<small>The Titanotherum (Brontops) Robustum</small> +</p> +</div> + +<p> +The most fundamental of all these differences lies in the +mental life of the two periods. It arises essentially out of +the continuing contact of parent and offspring which +distinguishes mammalian and in a lesser degree bird life, +from the life of the reptile. With very few exceptions the +reptile abandons its egg to hatch alone. The young reptile +has no knowledge whatever of its parent; its mental life, +such as it is, begins and ends with its own experiences. + <span class="pagenum"><a name="P39"></a></span>It may +tolerate the existence of its fellows but it has no +communication with them; it never imitates, never learns from +them, is incapable of concerted action with them. Its life +is that of an isolated individual. But with the suckling and +cherishing of young which was distinctive of the new +mammalian and avian strains arose the possibility of learning +by imitation, of communication, by warning cries and other +concerted action, of mutual control and instruction. A +teachable type of life had come into the world. +</p> + +<p> +The earliest mammals of the Cainozoic period are but little +superior in brain size to the more active carnivorous +dinosaurs, but as we read on through the record towards +modern times we find, in every tribe and race of the +mammalian animals, a steady universal increase in brain +capacity. For instance we find at a comparatively early +stage that rhinoceros-like beasts appear. There is a +creature, the Titanotherium, which lived in the earliest +division of this period. It was probably very like a modern +rhinoceros in its habits and needs. But its brain capacity +was not one tenth that of its living successor. +</p> + +<p> +The earlier mammals probably parted from their offspring as +soon as suckling was over, but, once the capacity for mutual +understanding has arisen, the advantages of continuing the +association are very great; and we presently find a number of +mammalian species displaying the beginnings of a true social +life and keeping together in herds, packs and flocks, +watching each other, imitating each other, taking warning +from each other’s acts and cries. This is something +that the world had not seen before among vertebrated animals. + Reptiles and fish may no doubt be found in swarms and +shoals; they have been hatched in quantities and similar +conditions have kept them together, but in the case of the +social and gregarious mammals the association arises not +simply from a community of external forces, it is sustained +by an inner impulse. They are not merely like one another +and so found in the same places at the same times; they like +one another and so they keep together. +<span class="pagenum"><a name="P40"></a></span> +</p> + +<div class="fig" style=""> +<a name="img-4001"></a> +<img src="images/img-4001.jpg" +alt="STENOMYLUS HITCHCOCKI--A GIRAFFE-CAMEL" width="500" + height="443" /> +<p class="caption"> +STENOMYLUS HITCHCOCKI—A GIRAFFE-CAMEL +<br /> +<small><i>Nat. Hist. Mus.</i></small> +</p> +</div> + +<div class="fig" style=""> +<a name="img-4002"></a> +<img src="images/img-4002.jpg" +alt="SKELETON OF PROTOHIPPUS VENTICOLUS—EARLY HORSE" width="550" + height="307" /> +<p class="caption"> +SKELETON OF PROTOHIPPUS VENTICOLUS--EARLY HORSE +<br /> +<small><i>Nat. Hist. Mus.</i></small> +</p> +</div> + +<p> +This difference between the reptile world and the world of +our human minds is one our sympathies seem unable to pass. + We cannot conceive in ourselves the swift uncomplicated +urgency of a reptile’s instinctive motives, its +appetites, fears and hates. We <span class="pagenum"><a +name="P41"></a></span>cannot understand them in their +simplicity because all our motives are complicated; +our’s are balances and resultants and not simple +urgencies. But the mammals and birds have self-restraint and +consideration for other individuals, a social appeal, a self- +control that is, at its lower level, after our own fashion. + We can in consequence establish relations with almost all +sorts of them. When they suffer they utter cries and make +movements that rouse our feelings. We can make understanding +pets of them with a mutual recognition. They can be tamed to +self-restraint towards us, domesticated and taught. +</p> + +<div class="fig" style=""> +<a name="img-41"></a> +<img src="images/img-41.jpg" +alt="COMPARATIVE SIZES OF BRAINS OF RHINOCEROS AND DINOCERAS" +width="600" height="434" /> +<p class="caption"> +COMPARATIVE SIZES OF BRAINS OF RHINOCEROS AND DINOCERAS +<br /> +<small><i>Nat. Hist. Mus.</i></small> +</p> +</div> + +<p> +That unusual growth of brain which is the central fact of +Cainozoic times marks a new communication and interdependence +of individuals. It foreshadows the development of human +societies of which we shall soon be telling. +</p> + +<p> +As the Cainozoic period unrolled, the resemblance of its +flora and fauna to the plants and animals that inhabit the +world to-day <span class="pagenum"><a +name="P42"></a></span>increased. The big clumsy +Uintatheres and Titanotheres, the Entelodonts and Hyracodons, +big clumsy brutes like nothing living, disappeared. On the +other hand a series of forms led up by steady degrees from +grotesque and clumsy predecessors to the giraffes, camels, +horses, elephants, deer, dogs and lions and tigers of the +existing world. The evolution of the horse is particularly +legible upon the geological record. We have a fairly +complete series of forms from a small tapir-like ancestor in +the early Cainozoic. Another line of development that has +now been pieced together with some precision is that of the +llamas and camels. +</p> + +</div><!--end chapter--> + +<div class="chapter"> + +<h2><span class="pagenum"><a name="P43"></a></span><a name="chapIX"></a>IX<br /> +MONKEYS, APES AND SUB-MEN</h2> + +<p> +Naturalists divide the class <i>Mammalia</i> into a number of orders. At the +head of these is the order <i>Primates</i>, which includes the lemurs, the +monkeys, apes and man. Their classification was based originally upon +anatomical resemblances and took no account of any mental qualities. +</p> + +<p> +Now the past history of the Primates is one very difficult to +decipher in the geological record. They are for the most +part animals which live in forests like the lemurs and +monkeys or in bare rocky places like the baboons. They are +rarely drowned and covered up by sediment, nor are most of +them very numerous species, and so they do not figure so +largely among the fossils as the ancestors of the horses, +camels and so forth do. But we know that quite early in the +Cainozoic period, that is to say some forty million years ago +or so, primitive monkeys and lemuroid creatures had appeared, +poorer in brain and not so specialized as their later +successors. +</p> + +<p> +The great world summer of the middle Cainozoic period drew at +last to an end. It was to follow those other two great +summers in the history of life, the summer of the Coal Swamps +and the vast summer of the Age of Reptiles. Once more the +earth spun towards an ice age. The world chilled, grew +milder for a time and chilled again. In the warm past +hippopotami had wallowed through a lush sub-tropical +vegetation, and a tremendous tiger with fangs like sabres, +the sabre-toothed tiger, had hunted its prey where now the +journalists of Fleet Street go to and fro. Now came a +bleaker age and still bleaker ages. A great weeding and +extinction of species occurred. A woolly rhinoceros, adapted +to a cold climate, and the mammoth, a big woolly cousin of +the elephants, the Arctic musk ox and the reindeer passed +across the scene. Then century by century the Arctic ice +cap, the wintry death of the great Ice Age, crept <span +class="pagenum"><a name="P44"></a></span>southward. In +England it came almost down to the Thames, in America it +reached Ohio. There would be warmer spells of a few thousand +years and relapses towards a bitterer cold. +</p> + +<p> +Geologists talk of these wintry phases as the First, Second, +Third and Fourth Glacial Ages, and of the interludes as +Interglacial periods. We live to-day in a world that is +still impoverished and scarred by that terrible winter. The +First Glacial Age was coming on 600,000 years ago; the Fourth +Glacial Age reached its bitterest some fifty thousand years +ago. And it was amidst the snows of this long universal +winter that the first man-like beings lived upon our planet. +</p> + +<div class="fig" style=""> +<a name="img-44"></a> +<img src="images/img-44.jpg" +alt="A MAMMOTH" +width="600" height="429" /> +<p class="caption"> +A MAMMOTH +</p> +</div> + +<p> +By the middle Cainozoic period there have appeared various +apes with many quasi-human attributes of the jaws and leg +bones, but it is only as we approach these Glacial Ages that +we find traces of creatures that we can speak of as +“almost human.” These traces are not bones but +implements. In Europe, in deposits of this period, between +half a million and a million years old, we find flints <span +class="pagenum"><a name="P45"></a></span>and stones that +have evidently been chipped intentionally by some handy +creature desirous of hammering, scraping or fighting with the +sharpened edge. These things have been called +“Eoliths” (dawn stones). In Europe there are no +bones nor other remains of the creature which made these +objects, simply the objects themselves. For all the +certainty we have it may have been some entirely un-human but +intelligent monkey. But at Trinil in Java, in accumulations +of this age, a piece of a skull and various teeth and bones +have been found of a sort of ape man, with a brain case +bigger than that of any living apes, which seems to have +walked erect. This creature is now called <i>Pithecanthropus +erectus</i>, the walking ape man, and the little trayful of +its bones is the only help our imaginations have as yet in +figuring to, ourselves the makers of the Eoliths. +</p> + +<div class="fig" style=""> +<a name="img-45"></a> +<img src="images/img-45.jpg" +alt="FLINT IMPLEMENTS FOUND IN PILTDOWN REGION" width="250" + height="467" /> +<p class="caption"> +FLINT IMPLEMENTS FOUND IN PILTDOWN REGION +<br /> +<small><i>Nat. Hist. Mus.</i></small> +</p> +</div> + +<p> +It is not until we come to sands that are almost a quarter of +a million years old that we find any other particle of a sub- +human being. But there are plenty of implements, and they +are steadily improving in quality as we read on through the +record. They are no longer clumsy Eoliths; they are now +shapely instruments made with considerable skill. <i>And +they are much bigger than the similar implements afterwards +made by true man.</i> Then, in a sandpit at Heidelberg, +appears a single quasi-human jaw-bone, a clumsy jaw-bone, +absolutely chinless, far heavier than a true human jaw-bone +and narrower, so that it is improbable the creature’s +tongue could have moved about for articulate speech. On the +strength of this jaw-bone, scientific men suppose this +creature to have been a heavy, almost human monster, possibly +with huge limbs and hands, possibly with a thick felt of +hair, and they call it the Heidelberg Man. +<span class="pagenum"><a name="P46"></a></span> +</p> + +<div class="fig" style=""> +<a name="img-461"></a> +<img src="images/img-461.jpg" +alt="A THEORETICAL RESTORATION OF THE PITHECANTHROPUS ERECTUS BY + PROF. RUTOT" width="400" + height="425" /> +<p class="caption"> +A THEORETICAL RESTORATION OF THE PITHECANTHROPUS ERECTUS BY PROF. + RUTOT +</p> +</div> + +<p> +This jaw-bone is, I think, one of the most tormenting objects in the +world to our human curiosity. To see it is like looking +through a defective glass into the past and catching just one +blurred and tantalizing glimpse of this Thing, shambling +through the bleak wilderness, clambering to avoid the sabre- +toothed tiger, watching the woolly rhinoceros in the woods. + Then before we can scrutinize the monster, he vanishes. Yet +the soil is littered abundantly with the indestructible +implements he chipped out for his uses. +</p> + +<div class="fig" style=""> +<a name="img-462"></a> +<img src="images/img-462.jpg" +alt="THE HEIDELBERG MAN" width="400" + height="431" /> +<p class="caption"> +THE HEIDELBERG MAN +<br /> +<small>The Heidelberg Man, as modelled under the supervision of + Prof. Rutot</small> +</p> +</div> + +<p> +Still more fascinatingly enigmatical are the remains of a +creature found at Piltdown in Sussex in a deposit that may +indicate an age between a hundred and a hundred and fifty +thousand years ago, though some authorities would put these +particular remains back in time to before the Heidelberg jaw- +bone. Here there <span class="pagenum"><a +name="P47"></a></span>are the remains of a thick sub-human +skull much larger than any existing ape’s, and a +chimpanzee-like jaw-bone which may or may not belong to it, +and, in addition, a bat-shaped piece of elephant bone +evidently carefully manufactured, through which a hole had +apparently been bored. There is also the thigh-bone of a +deer with cuts upon it like a tally. That is all. +</p> + +<div class="fig" style=""> +<a name="img-47"></a> +<img src="images/img-47.jpg" +alt="THE PILTDOWN SKULL, AS RECONSTRUCTED FROM ORIGINAL FRAGMENT" + width="300" height="341" /> +<p class="caption"> +THE PILTDOWN SKULL, AS RECONSTRUCTED FROM ORIGINAL FRAGMENT +<br /> +<small><i>Nat. Hist. Mus.</i></small> +</p> +</div> + +<p> +What sort of beast was this creature which sat and bored +holes in bones? +</p> + +<p> +Scientific men have named him Eoanthropus, the Dawn Man. He +stands apart from his kindred; a very different being either +from the Heidelberg creature or from any living ape. No +other vestige like him is known. But the gravels and +deposits of from one hundred thousand years onward are +increasingly rich in implements of flint and similar stone. + And these implements are no longer rude +“Eoliths.” The archæologists are presently +able to distinguish scrapers, borers, knives, darts, throwing +stones and hand axes .... +</p> + +<p> +We are drawing very near to man. In our next section we +shall have to describe the strangest of all these precursors +of humanity, the Neanderthalers, the men who were almost, but +not quite, true men. +</p> + +<p> +But it may be well perhaps to state quite clearly here that +no scientific man supposes either of these creatures, the +Heidelberg Man or <i>Eoanthropus</i>, to be direct ancestors +of the men of to-day. These are, at the closest, related +forms. +</p> + +</div><!--end chapter--> + +<div class="chapter"> + +<h2><span class="pagenum"><a name="P48"></a></span><a name="chapX"></a>X<br /> +THE NEANDERTHALER AND THE RHODESIAN MAN</h2> + +<p> +About fifty or sixty thousand years ago, before the climax of the Fourth +Glacial Age, there lived a creature on earth so like a man that until a few +years ago its remains were considered to be altogether human. We have skulls +and bones of it and a great accumulation of the large implements it made and +used. It made fires. It sheltered in caves from the cold. It probably dressed +skins roughly and wore them. It was right-handed as men are. +</p> + +<p> +Yet now the ethnologists tell us these creatures were not +true men. They were of a different species of the same +genus. They had heavy protruding jaws and great brow ridges +above the eyes and very low foreheads. Their thumbs were not +opposable to the fingers as men’s are; their necks were +so poised that they could not turn back their heads and look +up to the sky. They probably slouched along, head down and +forward. Their chinless jaw-bones resemble the Heidelberg +jaw-bone and are markedly unlike human jaw-bones. And there +were great differences from the human pattern in their teeth. + Their cheek teeth were more complicated in structure than +ours, more complicated and not less so; they had not the long +fangs of our cheek teeth; and also these quasi-men had not +the marked canines (dog teeth) of an ordinary human being. + The capacity of their skulls was quite human, but the brain +was bigger behind and lower in front than the human brain. + Their intellectual faculties were differently arranged. They +were not ancestral to the human line. Mentally and physically +they were upon a different line from the human line. +</p> + +<p> +Skulls and bones of this extinct species of man were found at +Neanderthal among other places, and from that place these +strange proto-men have been christened Neanderthal Men, or +<span class="pagenum"><a +name="P49"></a></span>Neanderthalers. They must have +endured in Europe for many hundreds or even thousands of +years. +</p> + +<div class="fig" style=""> +<a name="img-49"></a> +<img src="images/img-49.jpg" +alt="THE NEANDERTHALER, ACCORDING TO PROF. RUTOT" + width="450" height="450" /> +<p class="caption"> +THE NEANDERTHALER, ACCORDING TO PROF. RUTOT +</p> +</div> + +<p> +At that time the climate and geography of our world was very +different from what they are at the present time. Europe for +example was covered with ice reaching as far south as the +Thames and into Central Germany and Russia; there was no +Channel separating Britain from France; the Mediterranean and +the Red Sea were great valleys, with perhaps a chain of lakes +in their deeper portions, and a great inland sea spread from +the present Black Sea across South Russia and far into +Central Asia. Spain and all of Europe not actually under ice +consisted of bleak uplands under a harder climate than that +of Labrador, and it was only when North Africa was reached +that one would have found a temperate climate. Across the +cold steppes of Southern Europe with its sparse arctic +vegetation, drifted such hardy creatures as the woolly +mammoth, and woolly rhinoceros, great oxen and reindeer, no +doubt following the vegetation northward in spring and +southward in autumn. +<span class="pagenum"><a name="P50"></a></span> +</p> + +<div class="fig" style=""> +<a name="img-50"></a> +<img src="images/img-50.jpg" +alt="Map: Possible Outline of Europe and Western Asia at the Maximum + of the Fourth Ice Age (about 50,000 years ago)" + width="600" height="434" /> +<p class="caption"> + +</p> +</div> + +<p> +Such was +the scene through which the Neanderthaler wandered, gathering +such subsistence as he could from small game or fruits and +berries and roots. Possibly he was mainly a vegetarian, +chewing twigs and roots. His level elaborate teeth suggest a +largely vegetarian dietary. But we also find the long marrow +bones of great animals in his caves, cracked to extract the +marrow. His weapons could not have been of much avail in +open conflict with great beasts, but it is supposed that he +attacked them with spears at difficult river crossings and +even constructed pitfalls for them. Possibly he followed the +herds and preyed upon any dead that were killed in fights, +and perhaps he played the part of jackal to the sabre-toothed +tiger which still survived in his day. Possibly in the +bitter hardships of the Glacial Ages this creature had taken +to attacking animals after long ages of vegetarian +adaptation. +</p> + +<p> +We cannot guess what this Neanderthal man looked like. He may +have been very hairy and very unhuman-looking indeed. It is +even doubtful if he went erect. He may have used his +knuckles as well as his feet to hold himself up. Probably he +went about <span class="pagenum"><a +name="P51"></a></span>alone or in small family groups. It +is inferred from the structure of his jaw that he was +incapable of speech as we understand it. +</p> + +<p> +For thousands of years these Neanderthalers were the highest +animals that the European area had ever seen; and then some +thirty or thirty-five thousand years ago as the climate grew +warmer a race of kindred beings, more intelligent, knowing +more, talking and co-operating together, came drifting into +the Neanderthaler’s world from the south. They ousted +the Neanderthalers from their caves and squatting places; +they hunted the same food; they probably made war upon their +grisly predecessors and killed them off. These newcomers +from the south or the east—for at present we do not +know their region of origin—who at last drove the +Neanderthalers out of existence altogether, were beings of +our own blood and kin, the first True Men. Their brain-cases +and thumbs and necks and teeth were anatomically the same as +our own. In a cave at Cro-Magnon and in another at Grimaldi, +a number of skeletons have been found, the earliest truly +human remains that are so far known. +</p> + +<p> +So it is our race comes into the Record of the Rocks, and the +story of mankind begins. +</p> + +<div class="fig" style=""> +<a name="img-51"></a> +<img src="images/img-51.jpg" +alt="COMPARISON OF (1) MODERN SKULL AND (2) RHODESIAN SKULL" + width="600" height="287" /> +<p class="caption"> +COMPARISON OF (1) MODERN SKULL AND (2) RHODESIAN SKULL +<br /> +<small><i>Nat. Hist. Mus.</i></small> +</p> +</div> + +<p> +The world was growing liker our own in those days though the +climate was still austere. The glaciers of the Ice Age were +receding in Europe; the reindeer of France and Spain +presently gave way to great herds of horses as grass +increased upon the steppes, and the <span class="pagenum"><a +name="P52"></a></span>mammoth became more and more rare in +southern Europe and finally receded northward altogether .... +</p> + +<p> +We do not know where the True Men first originated. But in +the summer of 1921, an extremely interesting skull was found +together with pieces of a skeleton at Broken Hill in South +Africa, which seems to be a relic of a third sort of man, +intermediate in its characteristics between the Neanderthaler +and the human being. The brain-case indicates a brain bigger +in front and smaller behind than the Neanderthaler’s, +and the skull was poised erect upon the backbone in a quite +human way. The teeth also and the bones are quite human. + But the face must have been ape-like with enormous brow +ridges and a ridge along the middle of the skull. The +creature was indeed a true man, so to speak, with an ape- +like, Neanderthaler face. This Rhodesian Man is evidently +still closer to real men than the Neanderthal Man. +</p> + +<p> +This Rhodesian skull is probably only the second of what in +the end may prove to be a long list of finds of sub-human +species which lived on the earth in the vast interval of time +between the beginnings of the Ice Age and the appearance of +their common heir, and perhaps their common exterminator, the +True Man. The Rhodesian skull itself may not be very +ancient. Up to the time of publishing this book there has +been no exact determination of its probable age. It may be +that this sub-human creature survived in South Africa until +quite recent times. +</p> + +</div><!--end chapter--> + +<div class="chapter"> + +<h2><span class="pagenum"><a name="P53"></a></span><a name="chapXI"></a>XI<br /> +THE FIRST TRUE MEN</h2> + +<p> +The earliest signs and traces at present known to science, of a humanity which +is indisputably kindred with ourselves, have been found in western Europe and +particularly in France and Spain. Bones, weapons, scratchings upon bone and +rock, carved fragments of bone, and paintings in caves and upon rock surfaces +dating. it is supposed. from 30,000 years ago or more, have been discovered in +both these countries. Spain is at present the richest country in the world in +these first relics of our real human ancestors. +</p> + +<p> +Of course our present collections of these things are the +merest beginnings of the accumulations we may hope for in the +future, when there are searchers enough to make a thorough +examination of all possible sources and when other countries +in the world, now inaccessible to archæologists, have +been explored in some detail. The greater part of Africa and +Asia has never even been traversed yet by a trained observer +interested in these matters and free to explore, and we must +be very careful therefore not to conclude that the early true +men were distinctively inhabitants of western Europe or that +they first appeared in that region. +</p> + +<p> +In Asia or Africa or submerged beneath the sea of to-day +there may be richer and much earlier deposits of real human +remains than anything that has yet come to light. I write in +Asia or Africa, and I do not mention America because so far +there have been no finds at all of any of the higher +Primates, either of great apes, sub-men, Neanderthalers nor +early true men. This development of life seems to have been +an exclusively old world development, and it was only +apparently at the end of the Old Stone Age that human beings +first made their way across the land connexion that is now +cut by Behring Straits, into the American continent. +<span class="pagenum"><a name="P54"></a></span> +</p> + +<div class="fig" style=""> +<a name="img-54"></a> +<img src="images/img-54.jpg" +alt="ONE OF THE MARVELLOUS CAVE PAINTINGS OF ALTAMIRA, NORTH SPAIN" + width="600" height="372" /> +<p class="caption"> +ONE OF THE MARVELLOUS CAVE PAINTINGS OF ALTAMIRA, NORTH SPAIN +<br /> +<small>The Walls of the Caves are covered in these representations + of Bulls, etc., painted in the soft tones of red shaded to black. + They may be fifteen or twenty thousand years old</small> +</p> +</div> + +<p> +These first real human beings we know of in Europe appear already +to have belonged to one or other of at least two very +distinct races. One of these races was of a very high type +indeed; it was tall and big brained. One of the +women’s skulls found exceeds in capacity that of the +average man of to-day. One of the men’s skeletons is +over six feet in height. The physical type resembled that of +the North American Indian. From the Cro-Magnon cave in which +the first skeletons were found these people have been called +Cro-Magnards. They were savages, but savages of a high +order. The second race, the race of the Grimaldi cave +remains, was distinctly negroid in its characters. Its +nearest living affinities are the Bushmen and Hottentots of +South Africa. It is interesting to find at the very outset +of the known human story, that mankind was already racially +divided into at least two main varieties; and one is tempted +to such unwarrantable guesses as that the former race was +probably brownish rather than black and that it came from the +East or North, and that the latter was blackish rather than +brown and came from the equatorial south. +<span class="pagenum"><a name="P55"></a></span> +</p> + +<div class="fig" style=""> +<a name="img-55"></a> +<img src="images/img-55.jpg" +alt="BONE CARVINGS OF THE PALÆOLITHIC PERIOD" + width="550" height="739" /> +<p class="caption"> +BONE CARVINGS OF THE PALÆOLITHIC PERIOD +<br /> +<small>(1 and 2) Mammoth tusk carved to shape of Reindeer, (3) + Dagger Handle representing Mammoth, and (4) Bone engraved with + Horses’ Heads +<br /> +<i>Brit. Mus.</i></small> +</p> +</div> + +<p> +<span class="pagenum"><a name="P56"></a></span> +And these +savages of perhaps forty thousand years ago were so human +that they pierced shells to make necklaces, painted +themselves, carved images of bone and stone, scratched +figures on rocks and bones, and painted rude but often very +able sketches of beasts and the like upon the smooth walls of +caves and upon inviting rock surfaces. They made a great +variety of implements, much smaller in scale and finer than +those of the Neanderthal men. We have now in our museums +great quantities of their implements, their statuettes, their +rock drawings and the like. +</p> + +<p> +The earliest of them were hunters. Their chief pursuit was +the wild horse, the little bearded pony of that time. They +followed it as it moved after pasture. And also they +followed the bison. They knew the mammoth, because they have +left us strikingly effective pictures of that creature. To +judge by one rather ambiguous drawing they trapped and killed +it. +</p> + +<p> +They hunted with spears and throwing stones. They do not +seem to have had the bow, and it is doubtful if they had yet +learnt to tame any animals. They had no dogs. There is one +carving of a horse’s head and one or two drawings that +suggest a bridled horse, with a twisted skin or tendon round +it. But the little horses of that age and region could not +have carried a man, and if the horse was domesticated it was +used as a led horse. It is doubtful and improbable that they +had yet learnt the rather unnatural use of animal’s +milk as food. +</p> + +<p> +They do not seem to have erected any buildings though they +may have had tents of skins, and though they made clay +figures they never rose to the making of pottery. Since they +had no cooking implements their cookery must have been +rudimentary or nonexistent. They knew nothing of cultivation +and nothing of any sort of basket work or woven cloth. Except +for their robes of skin or fur they were naked painted +savages. +</p> + +<p> +These earliest known men hunted the open steppes of Europe +for a hundred centuries perhaps, and then slowly drifted and +changed before a change of climate. Europe, century by +century, was growing milder and damper. Reindeer receded +northward and eastward, and bison and horse followed. The +steppes gave way to forests, and red deer took the place of +horse and bison. There is a <span class="pagenum"><a +name="P57"></a></span>change in the character of the +implements with this change in their application. River and +lake fishing becomes of great importance to men, and fine +implements of bone increased. “The bone needles of +this age,” says de Mortillet, “are much superior +to those of later, even historical times, down to the +Renaissance. The Romans, for example, never had needles +comparable to those of this epoch.” +</p> + +<div class="fig" style=""> +<a name="img-57"></a> +<img src="images/img-57.jpg" +alt="THE RUTOT BUST OF A CRO-MAGNON MAN" + width="400" height="487" /> +<p class="caption"> +THE RUTOT BUST OF A CRO-MAGNON MAN +</p> +</div> + +<p> +Almost fifteen or twelve thousand years ago a fresh people +drifted into the south of Spain, and left very remarkable +drawings of themselves upon exposed rock faces there. These +were the Azilians (named from the Mas d’Azil cave). + They had the bow; they seem to have worn feather headdresses; +they drew vividly; but also they had reduced their drawings +to a sort of symbolism—a man for instance would be +represented by a vertical dab with two or three horizontal +dabs—that suggest the dawn of the writing idea. + Against hunting sketches there are often marks like tallies. + One drawing shows two men smoking out a bees’ nest. +<span class="pagenum"><a name="P58"></a></span> +</p> + +<div class="fig" style=""> +<a name="img-58"></a> +<img src="images/img-58.jpg" +alt="FIGHT OF BOWMEN" + width="580" height="736" /> +<p class="caption"> +Among the most recent discoveries of Palæolithic Art are these + specimens found in 1920 in Spain. They are probably ten or twelve + thousand years old +</p> +</div> + +<p> +<span class="pagenum"><a name="P59"></a></span>These are the +latest of the men that we call Palæolithic (Old Stone +Age) because they had only chipped implements. By ten or +twelve thousand years a new sort of life has dawned in +Europe, men have learnt not only to chip but to polish and +grind stone implements, and they have begun cultivation. The +Neolithic Age (New Stone Age) was beginning. +</p> + +<p> +It is interesting to note that less than a century ago there +still survived in a remote part of the world, in Tasmania, a +race of human beings at a lower level of physical and +intellectual development than any of these earliest races of +mankind who have left traces in Europe. These people had +long ago been cut off by geographical changes from the rest +of the species, and from stimulation and improvement. They +seem to have degenerated rather than developed. They lived a +base life subsisting upon shellfish and small game. They had +no habitations but only squatting places. They were real men +of our species, but they had neither the manual dexterity nor +the artistic powers of the first true men. +</p> + +</div><!--end chapter--> + +<div class="chapter"> + +<h2><span class="pagenum"><a name="P60"></a></span><a name="chapXII"></a>XII<br /> +PRIMITIVE THOUGHT</h2> + +<p> +And now let us indulge in a very interesting speculation; how did it feel to be +a man in those early days of the human adventure? How did men think and what +did they think in those remote days of hunting and wandering four hundred +centuries ago before seed time and harvest began. Those were days long before +the written record of any human impressions, and we are left almost entirely to +inference and guesswork in our answers to these questions. +</p> + +<p> +The sources to which scientific men have gone in their +attempts to reconstruct that primitive mentality are very +various. Recently the science of psycho-analysis, which +analyzes the way in which the egotistic and passionate +impulses of the child are restrained, suppressed, modified or +overlaid, to adapt them to the needs of social life, seems to +have thrown a considerable amount of light upon the history +of primitive society; and another fruitful source of +suggestion has been the study of the ideas and customs of +such contemporary savages as still survive. Again there is a +sort of mental fossilization which we find in folk-lore and +the deep-lying irrational superstitions and prejudices that +still survive among modern civilized people. And finally we +have in the increasingly numerous pictures, statues, +carvings, symbols and the like, as we draw near to our own +time, clearer and clearer indications of what man found +interesting and worthy of record and representation. +</p> + +<p> +Primitive man probably thought very much as a child thinks, +that is to say in a series of imaginative pictures. He +conjured up images or images presented themselves to his +mind, and he acted in accordance with the emotions they +aroused. So a child or an uneducated person does to-day. + Systematic thinking is apparently a comparatively late +development in human experience; it has not <span +class="pagenum"><a name="P61"></a></span>played any great +part in human life until within the last three thousand +years. And even to-day those who really control and order +their thoughts are but a small minority of mankind. Most of +the world still lives by imagination and passion. +</p> + +<p> +Probably the earliest human societies, in the opening stages +of the true human story, were small family groups. Just as +the flocks and herds of the earlier mammals arose out of +families which remained together and multiplied, so probably +did the earliest tribes. But before this could happen a +certain restraint upon the primitive egotisms of the +individual had to be established. The fear of the father and +respect for the mother had to be extended into adult life, +and the natural jealousy of the old man of the group for the +younger males as they grew up had to be mitigated. The +mother on the other hand was the natural adviser and +protector of the young. Human social life grew up out of the +reaction between the crude instinct of the young to go off +and pair by themselves as they grew up, on the one hand, and +the dangers and disadvantages of separation on the other. An +anthropological writer of great genius, J. J. Atkinson, in +his <i>Primal Law</i>, has shown how much of the customary +law of savages, the <i>Tabus</i>, that are so remarkable a +fact in tribal life, can be ascribed to such a mental +adjustment of the needs of the primitive human animal to a +developing social life, and the later work of the psycho- +analysts has done much to confirm his interpretation of these +possibilities. +</p> + +<p> +Some speculative writers would have us believe that respect +and fear of the Old Man and the emotional reaction of the +primitive savage to older protective women, exaggerated in +dreams and enriched by fanciful mental play, played a large +part in the beginnings of primitive religion and in the +conception of gods and goddesses. Associated with this +respect for powerful or helpful personalities was a dread and +exaltation of such personages after their deaths, due to +their reappearance in dreams. It was easy to believe they +were not truly dead but only fantastically transferred to a +remoteness of greater power. +</p> + +<p> +The dreams, imaginations and fears of a child are far more +vivid and real than those of a modern adult, and primitive +man was always something of a child. He was nearer to the +animals <span class="pagenum"><a +name="P62"></a></span>also, and he could suppose them to +have motives and reactions like his own. He could imagine +animal helpers, animal enemies, animal gods. One needs to +have been an imaginative child oneself to realize again how +important, significant, portentous or friendly, strangely +shaped rocks, lumps of wood, exceptional trees or the like +may have appeared to the men of the Old Stone Age, and how +dream and fancy would create stories and legends about such +things that would become credible as they told them. Some of +these stories would be good enough to remember and tell +again. The women would tell them to the children and so +establish a tradition. To this day most imaginative children +invent long stories in which some favourite doll or animal or +some fantastic semi-human being figures as the hero, and +primitive man probably did the same—with a much +stronger disposition to believe his hero real. +</p> + +<div class="fig" style=""> +<a name="img-62"></a> +<img src="images/img-62.jpg" +alt="RELICS OF THE STONE AGE" + width="400" height="350" /> +<p class="caption"> +RELICS OF THE STONE AGE +<br /> +<small>Chert implements from Somaliland. In general form they are + similar to those found in Western and Northern Europe +<br /> +<i>Brit. Mus.</i></small> +</p> +</div> + +<p> +For the very earliest of the true men that we know of were +probably quite talkative beings. In that way they have +differed from the Neanderthalers and had an advantage over +them. The Neanderthaler may have been a dumb animal. Of +course the primitive <span class="pagenum"><a +name="P63"></a></span>human speech was probably a very +scanty collection of names, and may have been eked out with +gestures and signs. +</p> + +<p> +There is no sort of savage so low as not to have a kind of +science of cause and effect. But primitive man was not very +critical in his associations of cause with effect; he very +easily connected an effect with something quite wrong as its +cause. “You do so and so,” he said, “and so +and so happens.” You give a child a poisonous berry +and it dies. You eat the heart of a valiant enemy and you +become strong. There we have two bits of cause and effect +association, one true one false. We call the system of cause +and effect in the mind of a savage, Fetish; but Fetish is +simply savage science. It differs from modern science in +that it is totally unsystematic and uncritical and so more +frequently wrong. +</p> + +<div class="fig" style=""> +<a name="img-63"></a> +<img src="images/img-63.jpg" +alt="WIDESPREAD SIMILARITY OF MEN OF THE STONE AGE" + width="550" height="442" /> +<p class="caption"> +WIDESPREAD SIMILARITY OF MEN OF THE STONE AGE +<br /> +<small>On the left is a flint implement excavated in Gray’s + Inn Lane, London; on the right one of similar form chipped by + primitive men of Somaliland +<br /> +<i>Brit. Mus.</i></small> +</p> +</div> + +<p> +In many cases it is not difficult to link cause and effect, +in <span class="pagenum"><a name="P64"></a></span>many +others erroneous ideas were soon corrected by experience; but +there was a large series of issues of very great importance +to primitive man, where he sought persistently for causes and +found explanations that were wrong but not sufficiently wrong +nor so obviously wrong as to be detected. It was a matter of +great importance to him that game should be abundant or fish +plentiful and easily caught, and no doubt he tried and +believed in a thousand charms, incantations and omens to +determine these desirable results. Another great concern of +his was illness and death. Occasionally infections crept +through the land and men died of them. Occasionally men were +stricken by illness and died or were enfeebled without any +manifest cause. This too must have given the hasty, +emotional mind of primitive man much feverish exercise. + Dreams and fantastic guesses made him blame this, or appeal +for help to that man or beast or thing. He had the +child’s aptitude for fear and panic. +</p> + +<p> +Quite early in the little human tribe, older, steadier minds +sharing the fears, sharing the imaginations, but a little +more forceful than the others, must have asserted themselves, +to advise, to prescribe, to command. This they declared +unpropitious and that imperative, this an omen of good and +that an omen of evil. The expert in Fetish, the Medicine +Man, was the first priest. He exhorted, he interpreted +dreams, he warned, he performed the complicated hocus pocus +that brought luck or averted calamity. Primitive religion +was not so much what we now call religion as practice and +observance, and the early priest dictated what was indeed an +arbitrary primitive practical science. +</p> + +</div><!--end chapter--> + +<div class="chapter"> + +<h2><span class="pagenum"><a name="P65"></a></span><a name="chapXIII"></a>XIII<br /> +THE BEGINNINGS OF CULTIVATION</h2> + +<p> +We are still very ignorant about the beginnings of cultivation and settlement +in the world although a vast amount of research and speculation has been given +to these matters in the last fifty years. All that we can say with any +confidence at present is that somewhen about 15,000 and 12,000 +<small>B.C.</small> while the Azilian people were in the south of Spain and +while the remnants of the earlier hunters were drifting northward and eastward, +somewhere in North Africa or Western Asia or in that great Mediterranean valley +that is now submerged under the waters of the Mediterranean sea, there were +people who, age by age, were working out two vitally important things; they +were beginning cultivation and they were domesticating animals. They were also +beginning to make, in addition to the chipped implements of their hunter +forebears, implements of polished stone. They had discovered the possibility of +basketwork and roughly woven textiles of plant fibre, and they were beginning +to make a rudely modelled pottery. +</p> + +<p> +They were entering upon a new phase in human culture, the +Neolithic phase (New Stone Age) as distinguished from the +Palæolithic (Old Stone) phase of the Cro-Magnards, the +Grimaldi people, the Azilians and their like. [<a +name="chapXIIIfn1text"></a><a href="#chapXIIIfn1">1</a>] +Slowly these Neolithic people spread over the warmer parts of +the world; and the arts they had mastered, the plants and +animals they had learnt to use, spread by imitation and +acquisition even more widely than they did. By 10,000 + <small>B.C.</small>, most of mankind was at the Neolithic +level. +</p> + +<p> +<span class="pagenum"><a name="P66"></a></span>Now the +ploughing of land, the sowing of seed, the reaping of +harvest, threshing and grinding, may seem the most obviously +reasonable steps to a modern mind just as to a modern mind it +is a commonplace that the world is round. What else could +you do? people will ask. What else can it be? But to the +primitive man of twenty thousand years ago neither of the +systems of action and reasoning that seem so sure and +manifest to us to-day were at all obvious. He felt his way +to effectual practice through a multitude of trials and +misconceptions, with fantastic and unnecessary elaborations +and false interpretations at every turn. Somewhere in the +Mediterranean region, wheat grew wild; and man may have +learnt to pound and then grind up its seeds for food long +before he learnt to sow. He reaped before he sowed. +</p> + +<p> +And it is a very remarkable thing that throughout the world +wherever there is sowing and harvesting there is still +traceable the vestiges of a strong primitive association of +the idea of sowing with the idea of a blood sacrifice, and +primarily of the sacrifice of a human being. The study of +the original entanglement of these two things is a profoundly +attractive one to the curious mind; the interested reader +will find it very fully developed in that monumental work, +Sir J. G. Frazer’s <i>Golden Bough</i>. It was an +entanglement, we must remember, in the childish, dreaming, +myth-making primitive mind; no reasoned process will explain +it. But in that world of 12,000 to 20,000 years ago, it +would seem that whenever seed time came round to the +Neolithic peoples there was a human sacrifice. And it was +not the sacrifice of any mean or outcast person; it was the +sacrifice usually of a chosen youth or maiden, a youth more +often who was treated with profound deference and even +worship up to the moment of his immolation. He was a sort of +sacrificial god-king, and all the details of his killing had +become a ritual directed by the old, knowing men and +sanctioned by the accumulated usage of ages. +<span class="pagenum"><a name="P67"></a></span> +</p> + +<div class="fig" style=""> +<a name="img-67"></a> +<img src="images/img-67.jpg" +alt="NEOLITHIC FLINT IMPLEMENTS" + width="450" height="556" /> +<p class="caption"> +NEOLITHIC FLINT IMPLEMENTS +<br /> +<small><i>Brit. Mus.</i></small> +</p> +</div> + +<p> +At first primitive men, with only a very rough idea of the +seasons, must have found great difficulty in determining when +was the propitious moment for the seed-time sacrifice and the +sowing. There is some reason for supposing that there was an +early stage in human experience when men had no idea of a +year. The first <span class="pagenum"><a +name="P68"></a></span>chronology was in lunar months; it +is supposed that the years of the Biblical patriarchs are +really moons, and the Babylonian calendar shows distinct +traces of an attempt to reckon seed time by taking thirteen +lunar months to see it round. This lunar influence upon the +calendar reaches down to our own days. If usage did not dull +our sense of its strangeness we should think it a very +remarkable thing indeed that the Christian Church does not +commemorate the Crucifixion and Resurrection of Christ on the +proper anniversaries but on dates that vary year by year with +the phases of the moon. +</p> + +<p> +It may be doubted whether the first agriculturalists made any +observation of the stars. It is more likely that stars were +first observed by migratory herdsmen, who found them a +convenient mark of direction. But once their use in +determining seasons was realized, their importance to +agriculture became very great. The seed-time sacrifice was +linked up with the southing or northing of some prominent +star. A myth and worship of that star was for primitive man +an almost inevitable consequence. +</p> + +<div class="fig" style=""> +<a name="img-68"></a> +<img src="images/img-68.jpg" +alt="NEOLITHICISM OF TO-DAY" + width="150" height="624" /> +<p class="caption"> +NEOLITHICISM OF TO-DAY +<br /> +<small>Spearheads, exactly as in the true Neolithic days, but made + recently by Australian Natives, +<br /> +(1) Made from a telegraph insulator; +<br /> +(2) from a piece of broken bottle glass. +<br /> +<i>Brit. Mus.</i></small> +</p> +</div> + +<p> +It is easy to see how important the man of knowledge and +experience, the man who knew about the blood sacrifice and +the stars, became in this early Neolithic world. +</p> + +<p> +The fear of uncleanness and pollution, and the methods of +cleansing that were advisable, constituted another source of +power for the knowledgeable men and women. For there have +always been witches as well as wizards, and priestesses as +well as priests. The early priest was really not so much a +<span class="pagenum"><a name="P69"></a></span>religious +man as a man of applied science. His science was generally +empirical and often bad; he kept it secret from the +generality of men very jealously; but that does not alter the +fact that his primary function was knowledge and that his +primary use was a practical use. +</p> + +<div class="fig" style=""> +<a name="img-69"></a> +<img src="images/img-69.jpg" +alt="SPECIMEN OF NEOLITHIC POTTERY" + width="300" height="241" /> +<p class="caption"> +SPECIMEN OF NEOLITHIC POTTERY +<br /> +<small>Dug up at Mortlake from the Thames Bed +<br /> +<i>Brit. Mus.</i></small> +</p> +</div> + +<p> +Twelve or fifteen thousand years ago, in all the warm and +fairly well-watered parts of the Old World these Neolithic +human communities, with their class and tradition of priests +and priestesses and their cultivated fields and their +development of villages and little walled cities, were +spreading. Age by age a drift and exchange of ideas went on +between these communities. Eliot Smith and Rivers have used +the term “Heliolithic culture” for the culture of +these first agricultural peoples. “Heliolithic” +(Sun and Stone) is not perhaps the best possible word to use +for this, but until scientific men give us a better one we +shall have to use it. Originating somewhere in the +Mediterranean and western Asiatic area, it spread age by age +eastward and from island to island across the Pacific until +it may even have reached America and mingled with the more +primitive ways of living of the Mongoloid immigrants coming +down from the North. +</p> + +<p> +Wherever the brownish people with the Heliolithic culture +went they took with them all or most of a certain group of +curious ideas and practices. Some of them are such queer +ideas that they call for the explanation of the mental +expert. They made pyramids <span class="pagenum"><a +name="P70"></a></span>and great mounds, and set up great +circles of big stones, perhaps to facilitate the astronomical +observation of the priests; they made mummies of some or all +of their dead; they tattooed and circumcized; they had the +old custom, known as the <i>couvade</i>, of sending the +<i>father</i> to bed and rest when a child was born, and they +had as a luck symbol the well-known Swastika. +</p> + +<p> +If we were to make a map of the world with dots to show how +far these group practices have left their traces, we should +make a belt along the temperate and sub-tropical coasts of +the world from Stonehenge and Spain across the world to +Mexico and Peru. But Africa below the equator, north central +Europe, and north Asia would show none of these dottings; +there lived races who were developing along practically +independent lines. +</p> + +<p class="footnote"> +<a name="chapXIIIfn1"></a> +[<a href="#chapXIIIfn1text">1</a>] The term Palæolithic +we may note is also used to cover the Neanderthaler and even +the Eolithic implements. The pre-human age is called the +“Older Palæolithic;” the age of true men +using unpolished stones in the “Newer +Palæolithic.” +</p> + +</div><!--end chapter--> + +<div class="chapter"> + +<h2><span class="pagenum"><a name="P71"></a></span><a name="chapXIV"></a>XIV<br /> +PRIMITIVE NEOLITHIC CIVILIZATIONS</h2> + +<p> +About 10,000 <small>B.C.</small> the geography of the world was very similar in +its general outline to that of the world to-day. It is probable that by that +time the great barrier across the Straits of Gibraltar that had hitherto banked +back the ocean waters from the Mediterranean valley had been eaten through, and +that the Mediterranean was a sea following much the same coastlines as it does +now. The Caspian Sea was probably still far more extensive than it is at +present, and it may have been continuous with the Black Sea to the north of the +Caucasus Mountains. About this great Central Asian sea lands that are now +steppes and deserts were fertile and habitable. Generally it was a moister and +more fertile world. European Russia was much more a land of swamp and lake than +it is now, and there may still have been a land connexion between Asia and +America at Behring Straits. +</p> + +<p> +It would have been already possible at that time to have +distinguished the main racial divisions of mankind as we know +them to-day. Across the warm temperate regions of this +rather warmer and better-wooded world, and along the coasts, +stretched the brownish peoples of the Heliolithic culture, +the ancestors of the bulk of the living inhabitants of the +Mediterranean world, of the Berbers, the Egyptians and of +much of the population of South and Eastern Asia. This great +race had of course a number of varieties. The Iberian or +Mediterranean or “dark-white” race of the +Atlantic and Mediterranean coast, the “Hamitic” +peoples which include the Berbers and Egyptians, the +Dravidians; the darker people of India, a multitude of East +Indian people, many Polynesian races and the Maoris are all +divisions of various value of this great main mass of +humanity. Its western varieties are whiter than its eastern. +</p> + +<p> +In the forests of central and northern Europe a more blonde +variety <span class="pagenum"><a name="P72"></a></span>of +men with blue eyes was becoming distinguishable, branching +off from the main mass of brownish people, a variety which +many people now speak of as the Nordic race. In the more +open regions of northeastern Asia was another differentiation +of this brownish humanity in the direction of a type with +more oblique eyes, high cheek-bones, a yellowish skin, and +very straight black hair, the Mongolian peoples. In South +Africa, Australia, in many tropical islands in the south of +Asia were remains of the early negroid peoples. The central +parts of Africa were already a region of racial intermixture. + Nearly all the coloured races of Africa to-day seem to be +blends of the brownish peoples of the north with a negroid +substratum. +</p> + +<div class="fig" style=""> +<a name="img-72"></a> +<img src="images/img-72.jpg" +alt="A Diagrammatic Summary of Current Ideas of the Relationship of + Human Races" + width="600" height="421" /> +</div> + +<p> +We have to remember that human races can all interbreed +freely and that they separate, mingle and reunite as clouds +do. Human races do not branch out like trees with branches +that never come together again. It is a thing we need to +bear constantly in mind, this remingling of races at any +opportunity. It will save us from many cruel delusions and +prejudices if we do so. People will use such a word as race +in the loosest manner, and base the most preposterous +generalizations upon it. They will speak of a +“British” <span class="pagenum"><a +name="P73"></a></span>race or of a “European” +race. But nearly all the European nations are confused +mixtures of brownish, dark-white, white and Mongolian +elements. +</p> + +<div class="fig" style=""> +<a name="img-73"></a> +<img src="images/img-73.jpg" +alt="A MAYA STELE" + width="600" height="653" /> +<p class="caption"> +A MAYA STELE +<br /> +<small>Showing a worshipper and a Serpent God. Note the grotesque + faces in the writing +<br /> +<i>Brit. Mus.</i></small> +</p> +</div> + +<p> +It was at the Neolithic phase of human development that +peoples of the Mongolian breed first made their way into +America. Apparently they came by way of Behring Straits and +spread southward. They found caribou, the American reindeer, +in the north and great <span class="pagenum"><a +name="P74"></a></span>herds of bison in the south. When +they reached South America there were still living the +Glyptodon, a gigantic armadillo, and the Megatherium, a +monstrous clumsy sloth as high as an elephant. They probably +exterminated the latter beast, which was as helpless as it +was big. +</p> + +<p> +The greater portion of these American tribes never rose above +a hunting nomadic Neolithic life. They never discovered the +use of iron, and their chief metal possessions were native +gold and copper. But in Mexico, Yucatan and Peru conditions +existed favourable to settled cultivation, and here about +1000 <small>B.C.</small> or so arose very +interesting civilizations of a parallel but different type +from the old-world civilization. Like the much earlier +primitive civilizations of the old world these communities +displayed a great development of human sacrifice about the +processes of seed time and harvest; but while in the old +world, as we shall see, these primary ideas were ultimately +mitigated, complicated and overlaid by others, in America +they developed and were elaborated, to a very high degree of +intensity. These American civilized countries were +essentially priest-ruled countries; their war chiefs and +rulers were under a rigorous rule of law and omen. +</p> + +<p> +These priests carried astronomical science to a high level of +accuracy. They knew their year better than the Babylonians +of whom we shall presently tell. In Yucatan they had a kind +of writing, the Maya writing, of the most curious and +elaborate character. So far as we have been able to decipher +it, it was used mainly for keeping the exact and complicated +calendars upon which the priests expended their intelligence. + The art of the Maya civilization came to a climax about 700 +or 800 <small>A.D.</small> The sculptured work of +these people amazes the modern observer by its great plastic +power and its frequent beauty, and perplexes him by a +grotesqueness and by a sort of insane conventionality and +intricacy outside the circle of his ideas. There is nothing +quite like it in the old world. The nearest approach, and +that is a remote one, is found in archaic Indian carvings. + Everywhere there are woven feathers and serpents twine in and +out. Many Maya inscriptions resemble a certain sort of +elaborate drawing made by lunatics in European asylums, more +than any other old-world work. It is as if the Maya mind +<span class="pagenum"><a name="P75"></a></span>had +developed upon a different line from the old-world mind, had +a different twist to its ideas, was not, by old-world +standards, a rational mind at all. +</p> + +<p> +This linking of these aberrant American civilizations to the +idea of a general mental aberration finds support in their +extraordinary obsession by the shedding of human blood. The +Mexican civilization in particular ran blood; it offered +thousands of human victims yearly. The cutting open of +living victims, the tearing out of the still beating heart, +was an act that dominated the minds and lives of these +strange priesthoods. The public life, the national +festivities all turned on this fantastically horrible act. +</p> + +<div class="fig" style=""> +<a name="img-75"></a> +<img src="images/img-75.jpg" +alt="NEOLITHIC WARRIOR" + width="350" height="481" /> +<p class="caption"> +NEOLITHIC WARRIOR +<br /> +<small>Modelled from drawing by Prof. Rutot</small> +</p> +</div> + +<p> +The ordinary existence of the common people in these +communities was very like the ordinary existence of any other +barbaric peasantry. Their pottery, weaving and dyeing was +very good. The Maya writing was not only carven on stone but +written and painted upon skins and the like. The European +and American museums contain many enigmatical Maya +manuscripts of which at present little has been deciphered +except the dates. In Peru there were beginnings of a similar +writing but they were superseded by a method of keeping +records by knotting <span class="pagenum"><a +name="P76"></a></span>cords. A similar method of +mnemonics was in use in China thousands of years ago. +</p> + +<p> +In the old world before 4000 or 5000 + <small>B.C.</small>, that is to say three or four thousand years +earlier, there were primitive civilizations not unlike these +American civilizations; civilizations based upon a temple, +having a vast quantity of blood sacrifices and with an +intensely astronomical priesthood. But in the old world the +primitive civilizations reacted upon one another and +developed towards the conditions of our own world. In +America these primitive civilizations never progressed beyond +this primitive stage. Each of them was in a little world of +its own. Mexico it seems knew little or nothing of Peru, +until the Europeans came to America. The potato, which was +the principal food stuff in Peru, was unknown in Mexico. +</p> + +<p> +Age by age these peoples lived and marvelled at their gods +and made their sacrifices and died. Maya art rose to high +levels of decorative beauty. Men made love and tribes made +war. Drought and plenty, pestilence and health, followed one +another. The priests elaborated their calendar and their +sacrificial ritual through long centuries, but made little +progress in other directions. +</p> + +</div><!--end chapter--> + +<div class="chapter"> + +<h2><span class="pagenum"><a name="P77"></a></span><a name="chapXV"></a>XV<br /> +SUMERIA, EARLY EGYPT AND WRITING</h2> + +<p> +The old world is a wider, more varied stage than the new. By 6000 or 7000 +<small>B.C.</small> there were already quasi-civilized communities almost at +the Peruvian level, appearing in various fertile regions of Asia and in the +Nile valley. At that time north Persia and western Turkestan and south Arabia +were all more fertile than they are now, and there are traces of very early +communities in these regions. It is in lower Mesopotamia however and in Egypt +that there first appear cities, temples, systematic irrigation, and evidences +of a social organization rising above the level of a mere barbaric +village-town. In those days the Euphrates and Tigris flowed by separate mouths +into the Persian Gulf, and it was in the country between them that the +Sumerians built their first cities. About the same time, for chronology is +still vague, the great history of Egypt was beginning. +</p> + +<p> +These Sumerians appear to have been a brownish people with +prominent noses. They employed a sort of writing that has +been deciphered, and their language is now known. They had +discovered the use of bronze and they built great tower-like +temples of sun-dried brick. The clay of this country is very +fine; they used it to write upon, and so it is that their +inscriptions have been preserved to us. They had cattle, +sheep, goats and asses, but no horses. They fought on foot, +in close formation, carrying spears and shields of skin. + Their clothing was of wool and they shaved their heads. +</p> + +<p> +Each of the Sumerian cities seems generally to have been an +independent state with a god of its own and priests of its +own. But sometimes one city would establish an ascendancy +over others and exact tribute from their population. A very +ancient inscription <span class="pagenum"><a +name="P78"></a></span>at Nippur records the +“empire,” the first recorded empire, of the +Sumerian city of Erech. Its god and its priest-king claimed +an authority from the Persian Gulf to the Red Sea. +</p> + +<div class="fig" style=""> +<a name="img-78"></a> +<img src="images/img-78.jpg" +alt="BRICK OF HAMMURABI, KING OF BABYLON ABOUT 2200 + B.C." + width="480" height="456" /> +<p class="caption"> +BRICK OF HAMMURABI, KING OF BABYLON ABOUT 2200 <small>B.C.</small> +<br /> +<small>Note the cuneiform characters of the inscription, which + records the building of a temple to a Sun God</small> +</p> +</div> + +<p> +At first writing was merely an abbreviated method of +pictorial record. Even before Neolithic times men were +beginning to write. The Azilian rock pictures to which we +have already referred show the beginning of the process. + Many of them record hunts and expeditions, and in most of +these the human figures are plainly drawn. But in some the +painter would not bother with head and limbs; he just +indicated men by a vertical and one or two transverse +strokes. From this to a conventional condensed picture +writing was an easy transition. In Sumeria, where the +writing was done on clay with a stick, the dabs of the +characters soon became unrecognizably unlike the things they +stood for, but in Egypt where men painted on walls and on +strips of the papyrus reed (the first paper) the likeness to +the thing imitated remained. From the fact that the wooden +styles used in Sumeria made wedge-shaped marks, the Sumerian +writing is called cuneiform (= wedge-shaped). +<span class="pagenum"><a name="P79"></a></span> +</p> + +<div class="fig" style=""> +<a name="img-79"></a> +<img src="images/img-79.jpg" +alt="EBONY CYLINDER SEALS OF FIRST EGYPTIAN DYNASTY" + width="400" height="535" /> +<p class="caption"> +EBONY CYLINDER SEALS OF FIRST EGYPTIAN DYNASTY +<br /> +<small>Recovered from the Tombs at Abydos in 1921 by the British + School of Archæology. They give evidence of early form of + block printing</small> +</p> +</div> + +<p> +An important step towards writing was made when pictures were +used to indicate not the thing represented but some similar +thing. In the rebus dear to children of a suitable age, this +is still done to-day. We draw a camp with tents and a bell, +and the child is delighted to guess that this is the Scotch +name Campbell. The Sumerian language was a language made up +of accumulated syllables rather like some contemporary +Amerindian languages, and it lent itself very readily to this +syllabic method of writing words expressing ideas that could +not be conveyed by pictures directly. Egyptian writing +underwent parallel developments. Later on, when foreign +peoples with less distinctly syllabled methods of speech were +to learn and use these picture scripts they were to make +those further modifications and simplifications that +developed at last into alphabetical writing. All the true +alphabets of the later world derived from a mixture of the +Sumerian cuneiform and the Egyptian hieroglyphic (priest +writing). Later in China there was to develop a +conventionalized picture writing, but in China it never got +to the alphabetical stage. +</p> + +<p> +<span class="pagenum"><a name="P80"></a></span>The +invention of writing was of very great importance in the +development of human societies. It put agreements, laws, +commandments on record. It made the growth of states larger +than the old city states possible. It made a continuous +historical consciousness possible. The command of the priest +or king and his seal could go far beyond his sight and voice +and could survive his death. It is interesting to note that +in ancient Sumeria seals were greatly used. A king or a +nobleman or a merchant would have his seal often very +artistically carved, and would impress it on any clay +document he wished to authorize. So close had civilization +got to printing six thousand years ago. Then the clay was +dried hard and became permanent. For the reader must +remember that in the land of Mesopotamia for countless years, +letters, records and accounts were all written on +comparatively indestructible tiles. To that fact we owe a +great wealth of recovered knowledge. +</p> + +<div class="fig" style=""> +<a name="img-80"></a> +<img src="images/img-80.jpg" +alt="THE SAKHARA PYRAMIDS" + width="600" height="363" /> +<p class="caption"> +THE SAKHARA PYRAMIDS +<br /> +<small>The Pyramid to the right, the step Pyramid, is the oldest + stone building in the world +<br /> +<i>Photo: F. Boyer</i></small> +</p> +</div> + +<p> +Bronze, copper, gold, silver and, as a precious rarity, +meteoric iron were known in both Sumeria and Egypt at a very +early stage. +<span class="pagenum"><a name="P81"></a></span> +</p> + +<div class="fig" style=""> +<a name="img-81"></a> +<img src="images/img-81.jpg" +alt="VIEW FROM THE SUMMIT OF THE GREAT PYRAMID OF CHEOPS" + width="600" height="795" /> +<p class="caption"> +VIEW FROM THE SUMMIT OF THE GREAT PYRAMID OF CHEOPS +<br /> +<small>Showing how these great monuments dominate the plain +<br /> +<i>Photo: D. McLeish</i></small> +</p> +</div> + +<p> +<span class="pagenum"><a name="P82"></a></span> +</p> + +<div class="fig" style=""> +<a name="img-82"></a> +<img src="images/img-82.jpg" +alt="THE TEMPLE OF HATHOR AT DENDEREH" + width="600" height="796" /> +<p class="caption"> +THE TEMPLE OF HATHOR AT DENDEREH +<br /> +<small><i>Photo: D. McLeish</i></small> +</p> +</div> + +<p> +Daily life in those first city lands of the old world must +have been <span class="pagenum"><a +name="P83"></a></span>very similar in both Egypt and +Sumeria. And except for the asses and cattle in the streets +it must have been not unlike the life in the Maya cities of +America three or four thousand years later. Most of the +people in peace time were busy with irrigation and +cultivation—except on days of religious festivity. + They had no money and no need for it. They managed their +small occasional trades by barter. The princes and rulers +who alone had more than a few possessions used gold and +silver bars and precious stones for any incidental act of +trade. The temple dominated life; in Sumeria it was a great +towering temple that went up to a roof from which the stars +were observed; in Egypt it was a massive building with only a +ground floor. In Sumeria the priest ruler was the greatest, +most splendid of beings. In Egypt however there was one who +was raised above the priests; he was the living incarnation +of the chief god of the land, the Pharaoh, the god king. +</p> + +<p> +There were few changes in the world in those days; +men’s days were sunny, toilsome and conventional. Few +strangers came into the land and such as did fared +uncomfortably. The priest directed life according to +immemorial rules and watched the stars for seed time and +marked the omens of the sacrifices and interpreted the +warnings of dreams. Men worked and loved and died, not +unhappily, forgetful of the savage past of their race and +heedless of its future. Sometimes the ruler was benign. + Such was Pepi II, who reigned in Egypt for ninety years. + Sometimes he was ambitious and took men’s sons to be +soldiers and sent them against neighbouring city states to +war and plunder, or he made them toil to build great +buildings. Such were Cheops and Chephren and Mycerinus, who +built those vast sepulchral piles, the pyramids at Gizeh. + The largest of these is 450 feet high and the weight of stone +in it is 4,883,000 tons. All this was brought down the Nile +in boats and lugged into place chiefly by human muscle. Its +erection must have exhausted Egypt more than a great war +would have done. +</p> + +</div><!--end chapter--> + +<div class="chapter"> + +<h2><span class="pagenum"><a name="P84"></a></span><a name="chapXVI"></a>XVI<br /> +PRIMITIVE NOMADIC PEOPLES</h2> + +<p> +It was not only in Mesopotamia and the Nile Valley that men were settling down +to agriculture and the formation of city states in the centuries between 6000 +and 8000 <small>B.C.</small> Wherever there were possibilities of irrigation +and a steady all-the-year-round food supply men were exchanging the +uncertainties and hardships of hunting and wandering for the routines of +settlement. On the upper Tigris a people called the Assyrians were founding +cities; in the valleys of Asia Minor and on the Mediterranean shores and +islands, there were small communities growing up to civilization. Possibly +parallel developments of human life were already going on in favourable regions +of India, and China. In many parts of Europe where there were lakes well +stocked with fish, little communities of men had long settled in dwellings +built on piles over the water, and were eking out agriculture by fishing and +hunting. But over much larger areas of the old world no such settlement was +possible. The land was too harsh, too thickly wooded or too arid, or the +seasons too uncertain for mankind, with only the implements and science of that +age to take root. +</p> + +<p> +For settlement under the conditions of the primitive +civilizations men needed a constant water supply and warmth +and sunshine. Where these needs were not satisfied, man +could live as a transient, as a hunter following his game, as +a herdsman following the seasonal grass, but he could not +settle. The transition from the hunting to the herding life +may have been very gradual. From following herds of wild +cattle or (in Asia) wild horses, men may have come to an idea +of property in them, have learnt to pen them into valleys, +have fought for them against wolves, wild dogs and other +predatory beasts. +<span class="pagenum"><a name="P85"></a></span> +</p> + +<div class="fig" style=""> +<a name="img-85"></a> +<img src="images/img-85.jpg" +alt="POTTERY AND IMPLEMENTS OF THE LAKE DWELLERS" + width="540" height="724" /> +<p class="caption"> +POTTERY AND IMPLEMENTS OF THE LAKE DWELLERS +<br /> +<small><i>Brit. Mus.</i></small> +</p> +</div> + +<p> +<span class="pagenum"><a name="P86"></a></span> +</p> + +<div class="fig" style=""> +<a name="img-861"></a> +<img src="images/img-861.jpg" +alt="A CONTEMPORARY LAKE VILLAGE" + width="600" height="344" /> +<p class="caption"> +A CONTEMPORARY LAKE VILLAGE +<br /> +<small>These Borneo dwellings are practically counterparts of the + homes of European neolithic communities 6000 <small>B.C.</small> +</small> +</p> +</div> + +<p> +So while the +primitive civilizations of the cultivators were growing up +chiefly in the great river valleys, a different way of +living, the nomadic life, a life in constant movement to and +fro from winter pasture to summer pasture, was also growing +up. The nomadic peoples were on the whole hardier than the +agriculturalists; they were less prolific and numerous, they +had no permanent temples and no highly organized priesthood; +they had less gear; but the reader must not suppose that +theirs was necessarily a less highly developed way of living +on that account. In many ways this free life was a fuller +life than that of the tillers of the soil. The individual +was more self-reliant; less of a unit in a crowd. The leader +was more important; the medicine man perhaps less so. +</p> + +<div class="fig" style=""> +<a name="img-862"></a> +<img src="images/img-862.jpg" +alt="NOMADS IN EGYPT" + width="600" height="161" /> +</div> + +<p> +<span class="pagenum"><a name="P87"></a></span> +</p> + +<div class="fig" style=""> +<a name="img-871"></a> +<img src="images/img-871.jpg" +alt="NOMADS IN EGYPT" + width="452" height="161" /> +<p class="caption"> +NOMADS IN EGYPT +<br /> +<small>Egyptian wall painting in a tomb near ancient Beni Hassan, + middle Egypt. It depicts the arrival of a tribe of Semitic Nomads + in Egypt about the year of 1895 <small>B.C.</small></small> +</p> +</div> + +<p> +Moving over large stretches of country the nomad took a wider view +of life. He touched on the confines of this settled land and +that. He was used to the sight of strange faces. He had to +scheme and treat for pasture with competing tribes. He knew +more of minerals than the folk upon the plough lands because +he went over mountain passes and into rocky places. He may +have been a better metallurgist. Possibly bronze and much +more probably iron smelting were nomadic discoveries. Some +of the earliest implements of iron reduced from its ores have +been found in Central Europe far away from the early +civilizations. +</p> + +<div class="fig" style=""> +<a name="img-872"></a> +<img src="images/img-872.jpg" +alt="FLINT KNIVES OF 4500 B.C." + width="350" height="523" /> +<p class="caption"> +FLINT KNIVES OF 4500 <small>B.C.</small> +<br /> +<small>Excavated 1922 by the British School of Archæology in + Egypt from First Dynasty Tombs</small> +</p> +</div> + +<p> +On the other hand the settled folk had their textiles and +their pottery and made many desirable things. It was +inevitable that as the two sorts of life, the agricultural +and the nomadic differentiated, a certain amount of looting +and trading should develop between the two. In Sumeria +particularly which had deserts and seasonal <span +class="pagenum"><a name="P88"></a></span>country on +either hand it must have been usual to have the nomads +camping close to the cultivated fields, trading and stealing +and perhaps tinkering, as gipsies do to this day. (But hens +they would not steal, because the domestic fowl—an +Indian jungle fowl originally was not domesticated by man +until about 1000 <small>B.C.</small>) They would +bring precious stones and things of metal and leather. If +they were hunters they would bring skins. They would get in +exchange pottery and beads and glass, garments and suchlike +manufactured things. +</p> + +<div class="fig" style=""> +<a name="img-88"></a> +<img src="images/img-88.jpg" +alt="EGYPT PEASANTS GOING TO WORK" + width="400" height="239" /> +<p class="caption"> +EGYPT PEASANTS GOING TO WORK +<br /> +<small>From an ancient and curiously painted model in the British + Museum</small> +</p> +</div> + +<p> +Three main regions and three main kinds of wandering and +imperfectly settled people there were in those remote days of +the first civilizations in Sumeria and early Egypt. Away in +the forests of Europe were the blonde Nordic peoples, hunters +and herdsmen, a lowly race. The primitive civilizations saw +very little of this race before 1500 + <small>B.C.</small> Away on the steppes of eastern Asia various +Mongolian tribes, the Hunnish peoples, were domesticating the +horse and developing a very wide sweeping habit of seasonal +movement between their summer and winter camping places. + Possibly the Nordic and Hunnish peoples were still separated +from one another by the swamps of Russia and the greater +Caspian Sea of that time. For very much of Russia there was +swamp and lake. In the deserts, which were growing more arid +now, of Syria and Arabia, tribes of a dark white or brownish +people, the Semitic tribes, were driving flocks of sheep and +goats and asses from pasture to pasture. It was these +Semitic shepherds and certain more negroid people from +southern Persia, the Elamites, who were the first nomads to +come into close contact with the early civilizations. They +came <span class="pagenum"><a name="P90"></a></span>as + traders and as raiders. Finally there arose leaders among them + with bolder imaginations, and they became conquerors. +<span class="pagenum"><a name="P89"></a></span> +</p> + +<div class="fig" style=""> +<a name="img-89"></a> +<img src="images/img-89.jpg" +alt="STELE GLORIFYING KING NARAM SIN, OF AKKAD" + width="502" height="691" /> +<p class="caption"> +STELE GLORIFYING KING NARAM SIN, OF AKKAD +<br /> +<small>This monarch, son of Sargon I, was a great architecht as well + as a famous conqueror. Discovered in 1898 among the ruins of Susa, + Persia</small> +</p> +</div> + +<p> +About 2750 <small>B.C.</small> a great Semitic +leader, Sargon, had conquered the whole Sumerian land and was +master of all the world from the Persian Gulf to the +Mediterranean Sea. He was an illiterate barbarian and his +people, the Akkadians, learnt the Sumerian writing and +adopted the Sumerian language as the speech of the officials +and the learned. The empire he founded decayed after two +centuries, and after one inundation of Elamites a fresh +Semitic people, the Amorites, by degrees established their +rule over Sumeria. They made their capital in what had +hitherto been a small up-river town, Babylon, and their +empire is called the first Babylonian Empire. It was +consolidated by a great king called Hammurabi (circa 2100 +<small>B.C.</small>) who made the earliest code of +laws yet known to history. +</p> + +<p> +The narrow valley of the Nile lies less open to nomadic +invasion than Mesopotamia, but about the time of Hammurabi +occurred a successful Semitic invasion of Egypt and a line of +Pharaohs was set up, the Hyksos or “shepherd +kings,” which lasted for several centuries. These +Semitic conquerors never assimilated themselves with the +Egyptians; they were always regarded with hostility as +foreigners and barbarians; and they were at last expelled by +a popular uprising about 1600 <small>B.C.</small> +</p> + +<p> +But the Semites had come into Sumeria for good and all, the +two races assimilated and the Babylonian Empire became +Semitic in its language and character. +</p> + +</div><!--end chapter--> + +<div class="chapter"> + +<h2><span class="pagenum"><a name="P91"></a></span><a name="chapXVII"></a>XVII<br /> +THE FIRST SEAGOING PEOPLES</h2> + +<p> +The earliest boats and ships must have come into use some twenty-five or thirty +thousand years ago. Man was probably paddling about on the water with a log of +wood or an inflated skin to assist him, at latest in the beginnings of the +Neolithic period. A basketwork boat covered with skin and caulked was used in +Egypt and Sumeria from the beginnings of our knowledge. Such boats are still +used there. They are used to this day in Ireland and Wales and in Alaska; +sealskin boats still make the crossing of Behring Straits. The hollow log +followed as tools improved. The building of boats and then ships came in a +natural succession. +</p> + +<p> +Perhaps the legend of Noah’s Ark preserves the memory +of some early exploit in shipbuilding, just as the story of +the Flood, so widely distributed among the peoples of the +world, may be the tradition of the flooding of the +Mediterranean basin. +</p> + +<p> +There were ships upon the Red Sea long before the pyramids +were built, and there were ships on the Mediterranean and +Persian Gulf by 7000 <small>B.C.</small> Mostly +these were the ships of fishermen, but some were already +trading and pirate ships—for knowing what we do of +mankind we may guess pretty safely that the first sailors +plundered where they could and traded where they had to do +so. +</p> + +<p> +The seas on which these first ships adventured were inland +seas on which the wind blew fitfully and which were often at +a dead calm for days together, so that sailing did not +develop beyond an accessory use. It is only in the last four +hundred years that the well-rigged, ocean-going, sailing ship +has developed. The ships of the ancient world were +essentially rowing ships which hugged the shore and went into +harbour at the first sign of rough weather. As ships grew +into big galleys they caused a demand for war captives as +galley slaves. +</p> + +<p> +We have already noted the appearance of the Semitic people as +wanderers and nomads in the region of Syria and Arabia, and +how they conquered Sumeria and set up first the Akkadian and +then the first Babylonian Empire. In the west these same +Semitic peoples <span class="pagenum"><a +name="P92"></a></span>were taking to the sea. They set up +a string of harbour towns along the Eastern coast of the +Mediterranean, of which Tyre and Sidon were the chief; and by +the time of Hammurabi in Babylon, they had spread as traders, +wanderers and colonizers over the whole Mediterranean basin. + These sea Semites were called the PhÅ“nicians, They +settled largely in Spain, pushing back the old Iberian Basque +population and sending coasting expeditions through the +straits of Gibraltar; and they set up colonies upon the north +coast of Africa. Of Carthage, one of these PhÅ“nician +cities, we shall have much more to tell later. +</p> + +<p> +But the PhÅ“nicians were not the first people to have +galleys in the Mediterranean waters. There was already a +series of towns and cities among the islands and coasts of +that sea belonging to a race or races apparently connected by +blood and language with the Basques to the west and the +Berbers and Egyptians to the south, the Ægean peoples. +These peoples must not be confused with the Greeks, who come +much later into our story; they were pre-Greek, but they had +cities in Greece and Asia Minor; Mycenæ and Troy for +example, and they had a great and prosperous establishment at +Cnossos in Crete. +</p> + +<p> +It is only in the last half century that the industry of +excavating archæologists has brought the extent and +civilization of the Ægean peoples to our knowledge. + Cnossos has been most thoroughly explored; it was happily not +succeeded by any city big enough to destroy its ruins, and so +it is our chief source of information about this once almost +forgotten civilization. +</p> + +<p> +The history of Cnossos goes back as far as the history of +Egypt; the two countries were trading actively across the sea +by 4000 <small>B.C.</small> By 2500 <small>B.C.</small>, + that is between the time of Sargon I and +Hammurabi, Cretan civilization was at its zenith. +</p> + +<p> +Cnossos was not so much a town as a great palace for the +Cretan monarch and his people. It was not even fortified. + It was only fortified later as the PhÅ“nicians grew +strong, and as a new and more terrible breed of pirates, the +Greeks, came upon the sea from the north. +</p> + +<div class="fig" style=""> +<a name="img-93"></a> +<img src="images/img-93.jpg" +alt="THE TREASURE HOUSE AT MYCENÆ" + width="500" height="698" /> +<p class="caption"> +THE TREASURE HOUSE AT MYCENÆ +<br /> +<small><i>Photo: Fred Boissonnas</i></small> +</p> +</div> + +<p> +The monarch was called Minos, as the Egyptian monarch was +called Pharaoh; and he kept his state in a palace fitted with +running water, with bathrooms and the like conveniences such +as we know of in no other ancient remains. There he held +great festivals and shows. There was bull-fighting, +singularly like the bull-fighting that <span +class="pagenum"><a name="P93"></a></span>still survives +in Spain; there was resemblance even in the costumes of the +bull-fighters; and there were gymnastic displays. The +women’s clothes were remarkably modern in spirit; they +wore corsets and flounced dresses. The pottery, the textile +manufactures, the sculpture, painting, jewellery, ivory, +metal and inlay work of these <span class="pagenum"><a +name="P94"></a></span>Cretans was often astonishingly +beautiful. And they had a system of writing, but that still +remains to be deciphered. +</p> + +<p> +This happy and sunny and civilized life lasted for some score +of centuries. About 2000 <small>B.C.</small> +Cnossos and Babylon abounded in comfortable and cultivated +people who probably led very pleasant lives. They had shows +and they had religious festivals, they had domestic slaves to +look after them and industrial slaves to make a profit for +them. Life must have seemed very secure in Cnossos for such +people, sunlit and girdled by the blue sea. Egypt of course +must have appeared rather a declining country in those days +under the rule of her half-barbaric shepherd kings, and if +one took an interest in politics one must have noticed how +the Semitic people seemed to be getting everywhere, ruling +Egypt, ruling distant Babylon, building Nineveh on the upper +Tigris, sailing west to the Pillars of Hercules (the straits +of Gibraltar) and setting up their colonies on those distant +coasts. +</p> + +<p> +There were some active arid curious minds in Cnossos, because +later on the Greeks told legends of a certain skilful Cretan +artificer, Dædalus, who attempted to make some sort of +flying machine, perhaps a glider, which collapsed and fell +into the sea. +</p> + +<p> +It is interesting to note some of the differences as well as +the resemblances between the life of Cnossos and our own. To +a Cretan gentleman of 2500 <small>B.C.</small> iron +was a rare metal which fell out of the sky and was curious +rather than useful—for as yet only meteoric iron was +known, iron had not been obtained from its ores. Compare +that with our modern state of affairs pervaded by iron +everywhere. The horse again would be a quite legendary +creature to our Cretan, a sort of super-ass which lived in +the bleak northern lands far away beyond the Black Sea. + Civilization for him dwelt chiefly in Ægean Greece and +Asia Minor, where Lydians and Carians and Trojans lived a +life and probably spoke languages like his own. There were +PhÅ“nicians and Ægeans settled in Spain and North +Africa, but those were very remote regions to his +imagination. Italy was still a desolate land covered with +dense forests; the brown-skinned Etruscans had not yet gone +there from Asia Minor. And one day perhaps this Cretan +gentleman went down to the harbour and saw a captive who +attracted his attention because he was very fair-complexioned +<span class="pagenum"><a name="P95"></a></span>and had +blue eyes. Perhaps our Cretan tried to talk to him and was +answered in an unintelligible gibberish. This creature came +from somewhere beyond the Black Sea and seemed to be an +altogether benighted savage. But indeed he was an Aryan +tribesman, of a race and culture of which we shall soon have +much to tell, and the strange gibberish he spoke was to +differentiate some day into Sanskrit, Persian, Greek, Latin, +German, English and most of the chief languages of the world. +</p> + +<div class="fig" style=""> +<a name="img-95"></a> +<img src="images/img-95.jpg" +alt="THE PALACE AT CNOSSOS" + width="600" height="429" /> +<p class="caption"> +THE PALACE AT CNOSSOS +<br /> +<small>The painted walls of the Throne Room +<br /> +<i>Photo: Fred Boissonnas</i></small> +</p> +</div> + +<p> +Such was Cnossos at its zenith, intelligent, enterprising, +bright and happy. But about 1400 <small>B.C.</small> + disaster came perhaps very suddenly upon its +prosperity. The palace of Minos was destroyed, and its ruins +have never been rebuilt or inhabited from that day to this. + We do not know how this disaster occurred. The excavators +note what appears to be scattered plunder and the marks of +the fire. But the traces of a very destructive earthquake +have also been found. Nature alone may have destroyed +Cnossos, or the Greeks may have finished what the earthquake +began. +</p> + +</div><!--end chapter--> + +<div class="chapter"> + +<h2><span class="pagenum"><a name="P96"></a></span><a name="chapXVIII"></a>XVIII<br /> +EGYPT, BABYLON AND ASSYRIA</h2> + +<p> +The Egyptians had never submitted very willingly to the rule of their Semitic +shepherd kings and about 1600 <small>A.D.</small> a vigorous patriotic movement +expelled these foreigners. Followed a new phase or revival for Egypt, a period +known to Egyptologists as the New Empire. Egypt, which had not been closely +consolidated before the Hyksos invasion, was now a united country; and the +phase of subjugation and insurrection left her full of military spirit. The +Pharaohs became aggressive conquerors. They had now acquired the war horse and +the war chariot, which the Hyksos had brought to them. Under Thothmes III and +Amenophis III Egypt had extended her rule into Asia as far as the Euphrates. +</p> + +<p> +We are entering now upon a thousand years of warfare between +the once quite separated civilizations of Mesopotamia and the +Nile. At first Egypt was ascendant. The great dynasties, +the Seventeenth Dynasty, which included Thothmes III and +Amenophis III and IV and a great queen Hatasu, and the +Nineteenth, when Rameses II, supposed by some to have been +the Pharaoh of Moses, reigned for sixty-seven years, raised +Egypt to high levels of prosperity. In between there were +phases of depression for Egypt, conquest by the Syrians and +later conquest by the Ethiopians from the South. In +Mesopotamia Babylon ruled, then the Hittites and the Syrians +of Damascus rose to a transitory predominance; at one time +the Syrians conquered Egypt; the fortunes of the Assyrians of +Nineveh ebbed and flowed; sometimes the city was a conquered +city; sometimes the Assyrians ruled in Babylon and assailed +Egypt. Our space is too limited here to tell of the comings +and goings of the armies of the Egyptians and of the various +Semitic powers of Asia Minor, Syria and Mesopotamia. They +were armies now provided with vast droves of war chariots, +for the horse—still used only for <span +class="pagenum"><a name="P97"></a></span>war and +glory—had spread by this time into the old +civilizations from Central Asia. +</p> + +<div class="fig" style=""> +<a name="img-97"></a> +<img src="images/img-97.jpg" +alt="TEMPLE AT ABU SIMBEL" + width="600" height="428" /> +<p class="caption"> +TEMPLE AT ABU SIMBEL +<br /> +<small>Showing the statues of Rameses II at entrance</small> +</p> +</div> + +<p> +Great conquerors appear in the dim light of that distant time +and pass, Tushratta, King of Mitanni, who captured Nineveh, +Tiglath Pileser I of Assyria who conquered Babylon. At last +the Assyrians became the greatest military power of the time. + Tiglath Pileser III conquered Babylon in 745 + <small>B.C.</small> and founded what historians call the New +Assyrian Empire. Iron had also come now into civilization +out of the north; the Hittites, the precursors of the +Armenians, had it first and communicated its use to the +Assyrians, and an Assyrian usurper, Sargon II, armed his +troops with it. Assyria became the first power to expound +the doctrine of blood and iron. Sargon’s son +Sennacherib led an army to the borders of Egypt, and was +defeated not by military strength but by the plague. + Sennacherib’s grandson Assurbanipal (who is also known +in history <span class="pagenum"><a +name="P98"></a></span>by his Greek name of Sardanapalus) +did actually conquer Egypt in 670 + <small>B.C.</small> But Egypt was already a conquered country +then under an Ethiopian dynasty. Sardanapalus simply +replaced one conqueror by another. +</p> + +<div class="fig" style=""> +<a name="img-98"></a> +<img src="images/img-98.jpg" +alt="AVENUE OF SPHINXES" + width="550" height="435" /> +<p class="caption"> +AVENUE OF SPHINXES +<br /> +<small>Leading from the Nile to the great Temple of Karnak +<br /> +<i>Photo: D. McLeish</i></small> +</p> +</div> + +<p> +If one had a series of political maps of this long period of +history, this interval of ten centuries, we should have Egypt +expanding and contracting like an amÅ“ba under a +microscope, and we should see these various Semitic states of +the Babylonians, the Assyrians, the Hittites and the Syrians +coming and going, eating each other up and disgorging each +other again. To the west of Asia Minor there would be little +Ægean states like Lydia, whose capital was Sardis, and +Caria. But after about 1200 <small>B.C.</small> and +perhaps earlier, a new set of names would come into the map +of the ancient world from <span class="pagenum"><a +name="P100"></a></span>the north-east and from the north- +west. These would be the names of certain barbaric tribes, +armed with iron weapons and using horse-chariots, who were +becoming a great affliction to the Ægean and Semitic +civilizations on the northern borders. They all spoke +variants of what once must have been the same language, +Aryan. +<span class="pagenum"><a name="P99"></a></span> +</p> + +<div class="fig" style=""> +<a name="img-99"></a> +<img src="images/img-99.jpg" +alt="THE GREAT HYPOSTYLE HALL AT KARNAK" + width="600" height="827" /> +<p class="caption"> +THE GREAT HYPOSTYLE HALL AT KARNAK +<br /> +<small><i>Photo: D. McLeish</i></small> +</p> +</div> + +<p> +Round the north-east of the Black and Caspian Seas were +coming the Medes and Persians. Confused with these in the +records of the time were Scythians and Samatians. From +north-east or north-west came the Armenians, from the north- +west of the sea-barrier through the Balkan peninsula came +Cimmerians, Phrygians and the Hellenic tribes whom now we +call the Greeks. They were raiders and robbers and +plunderers of cities, these Ayrans, east and west alike. + They were all kindred and similar peoples, hardy herdsmen who +had taken to plunder. In the east they were still only +borderers and raiders, but in the west they were taking +cities and driving out the civilized Ægean populations. + The Ægean peoples were so pressed that they were seeking +new homes in lands beyond the Aryan range. Some were seeking +a settlement in the delta of the Nile and being repulsed by +the Egyptians; some, the Etruscans, seem to have sailed from +Asia Minor to found a state in the forest wildernesses of +middle Italy; some built themselves cities upon the south- +east coasts of the Mediterranean and became later that people +known in history as the Philistines. +</p> + +<p> +Of these Aryans who came thus rudely upon the scene of the +ancient civilizations we will tell more fully in a later +section. Here we note simply all this stir and emigration +amidst the area of the ancient civilizations, that was set up +by the swirl of the gradual and continuous advance of these +Aryan barbarians out of the northern forests and wildernesses +between 1600 and 600 <small>B.C.</small> +</p> + +<p> +And in a section to follow we must tell also of a little +Semitic people, the Hebrews, in the hills behind the +PhÅ“nician and Philistine coasts, who began to be of +significance in the world towards the end of this period. + They produced a literature of very great importance in +subsequent history, a collection of books, histories, poems, +books of wisdom and prophetic works, the Hebrew Bible. +</p> + +<p> +In Mesopotamia and Egypt the coming of the Aryans did not +cause fundamental changes until after 600 + <small>B.C.</small> The flight of the <span class="pagenum"><a +name="P101"></a></span>Ægeans before the Greeks and +even the destruction of Cnossos must have seemed a very +remote disturbance to both the citizens of Egypt and of +Babylon. Dynasties came and went in these cradle states of +civilization, but the main tenor of human life went on, with +a slow increase in refinement and complexity age by age. In +Egypt the accumulated monuments of more ancient +times—the pyramids were already in their third thousand +of years and a show for visitors just as they are to- +day—were supplemented by fresh and splendid buildings, +more particularly in the time of the seventeenth and +nineteenth dynasties. The great temples at Karnak and Luxor +date from this time. All the chief monuments of Nineveh, the +great temples, the winged bulls with human heads, the reliefs +of kings and chariots and lion hunts, were done in these +centuries between 1600 and 600 <small>B.C.</small>, +and this period also covers most of the splendours of +Babylon. +</p> + +<div class="fig" style=""> +<a name="img-101"></a> +<img src="images/img-101.jpg" +alt="FRIEZE SHOWING EGYPTIAN FEMALE SLAVES CARRYING LUXURIOUS FOODS" + width="600" height="203" /> +<p class="caption"> +FRIEZE SHOWING EGYPTIAN FEMALE SLAVES CARRYING LUXURIOUS FOODS +<br /> +<small><i>Photo: Jacques Boyer</i></small> +</p> +</div> + +<p> +Both from Mesopotamia and Egypt we now have abundant public +records, business accounts, stories, poetry and private +correspondence. We know that life, for prosperous and +influential people in such cities as Babylon and the Egyptian +Thebes, was already almost as refined and as luxurious as +that of comfortable and prosperous people to-day. Such +people lived an orderly and ceremonious life in beautiful and +beautifully furnished and decorated houses, wore richly +decorated clothing and lovely jewels; they had feasts and +festivals, entertained one another with music and dancing, +were waited upon by highly trained servants, were cared for +by doctors and dentists. They did not travel very much or +very far, but boating <span class="pagenum"><a +name="P102"></a></span>excursions were a common summer +pleasure both on the Nile and on the Euphrates. The beast of +burthen was the ass; the horse was still used only in +chariots for war and upon occasions of state. The mule was +still novel and the camel, though it was known in +Mesopotamia, had not been brought into Egypt. And there were +few utensils of iron; copper and bronze remained the +prevailing metals. Fine linen and cotton fabrics were known +as well as wool. But there was no silk yet. Glass was known +and beautifully coloured, but glass things were usually +small. There was no clear glass and no optical use of glass. + People had gold stoppings in their teeth but no spectacles on +their noses. +</p> + +<p> +One odd contrast between the life of old Thebes or Babylon +and modern life was the absence of coined money. Most trade +was still done by barter. Babylon was financially far ahead +of Egypt. Gold and silver were used for exchange and kept in +ingots; and there were bankers, before coinage, who stamped +their names and the weight on these lumps of precious metal. + A merchant or traveller would carry precious stones to sell +to pay for his necessities. Most servants and workers were +slaves who were paid not money but in kind. As money came in +slavery declined. +</p> + +<p> +A modern visitor to these crowning cities of the ancient +world would have missed two very important articles of diet; +there were no hens and no eggs. A French cook would have +found small joy in Babylon. These things came from the East +somewhere about the time of the last Assyrian empire. +</p> + +<p> +Religion like everything else had undergone great refinement. +Human sacrifice for instance had long since disappeared; +animals or bread dummies had been substituted for the victim. + (But the PhÅ“nicians and especially the citizens of +Carthage, their greatest settlement in Africa, were accused, +later of immolating human beings.) When a great chief had +died in the ancient days it had been customary to sacrifice +his wives and slaves and break spear and bow at his tomb so +that he should not go unattended and unarmed in the spirit +world. In Egypt there survived of this dark tradition the +pleasant custom of burying small models of house and shop and +servants and cattle with the dead, models that give us to-day +the liveliest realization of the safe and cultivated life of +these ancient people, three thousand years and more ago. +<span class="pagenum"><a name="P103"></a></span> +</p> + +<div class="fig" style=""> +<a name="img-103"></a> +<img src="images/img-103.jpg" +alt="THE TEMPLE OF HORUS AT EDFU" + width="600" height="421" /> +<p class="caption"> +THE TEMPLE OF HORUS AT EDFU +</p> +</div> + +<p> +Such was the ancient world before the coming of the Aryans out of + the northern forests and plains. In India and China there were +parallel developments. In the great valleys of both these +regions agricultural city states of brownish peoples were +growing up, but in India they do not seem to have advanced or +coalesced so rapidly as the city states of Mesopotamia or +Egypt. They were nearer the level of the ancient Sumerians +or of the Maya civilization of America. Chinese history has +still to be modernized by Chinese scholars and cleared of +much legendary matter. Probably China at this time was in +advance of India. Contemporary with the seventeenth dynasty +in Egypt, there was a dynasty of emperors in China, the Shang +dynasty, priest emperors over a loose-knit empire of +subordinate kings. The chief duty of these early emperors +was to perform the seasonal sacrifices. Beautiful bronze +vessels from the time of the Shang dynasty still exist, and +their beauty and workmanship compel us to recognize that many +centuries of civilization must have preceded their +manufacture. +</p> + +</div><!--end chapter--> + +<div class="chapter"> + +<h2><span class="pagenum"><a name="P104"></a></span><a name="chapXIX"></a>XIX<br /> +THE PRIMITIVE ARYANS</h2> + +<p> +Four thousand years ago, that is to say about 2000 <small>B.C.</small>, central +and south-eastern Europe and central Asia were probably warmer, moister and +better wooded than they are now. In these regions of the earth wandered a group +of tribes mainly of the fair and blue-eyed Nordic race, sufficiently in touch +with one another to speak merely variations of one common language from the +Rhine to the Caspian Sea. At that time they may not have been a very numerous +people, and their existence was unsuspected by the Babylonians to whom +Hammurabi was giving laws, or by the already ancient and cultivated land of +Egypt which was tasting in those days for the first time the bitterness of +foreign conquest. +</p> + +<p> +These Nordic people were destined to play a very important +part indeed in the world’s history. They were a people +of the parklands and the forest clearings; they had no horses +at first but they had cattle; when they wandered they put +their tents and other gear on rough ox waggons; when they +settled for a time they may have made huts of wattle and mud. + They burnt their important dead; they did not bury them +ceremoniously as the brunette peoples did. They put the +ashes of their greater leaders in urns and then made a great +circular mound about them. These mounds are the “round +barrows” that occur all over north Europe. The +brunette people, their predecessors, did not burn their dead +but buried them in a sitting position in elongated mounds; +the “long barrows.” +</p> + +<p> +The Aryans raised crops of wheat, ploughing with oxen, but +they did not settle down by their crops; they would reap and +move on. They had bronze, and somewhen about 1500 + <small>B.C.</small> they acquired iron. They may have been the +discoverers of iron smelting. And somewhen vaguely about +that time they also got the horse—which to begin with +they used only for draught purposes. Their social life did +not centre upon a temple like that of the more settled people +round the Mediterranean, and their chief men were leaders +rather than priests. They had an aristocratic social order +rather than a <span class="pagenum"><a +name="P106"></a></span>divine and regal order; from a +very early stage they distinguished certain families as +leaderly and noble. +<span class="pagenum"><a name="P105"></a></span> +</p> + +<div class="fig" style=""> +<a name="img-105"></a> +<img src="images/img-105.jpg" +alt="A BEAUTIFUL ARCHAIC AMPHORA" + width="360" height="687" /> +<p class="caption"> +A BEAUTIFUL ARCHAIC AMPHORA +<br /> +<small>Compare the horses and other animals with the Altamira + drawing on p. 54, and also with the Greek frieze, p. 140</small> +</p> +</div> + +<p> +They were a very vocal people. They enlivened their +wanderings by feasts, at which there was much drunkenness and +at which a special sort of man, the bards, would sing and +recite. They had no writing until they had come into contact +with civilization, and the memories of these bards were their +living literature. This use of recited language as an +entertainment did much to make it a fine and beautiful +instrument of expression, and to that no doubt the subsequent +predominance of the languages derived from Aryan is, in part, +to be ascribed. Every Aryan people had its legendary history +crystallized in bardic recitations, epics, sagas and vedas, +as they were variously called. +</p> + +<p> +The social life of these people centred about the households +of their leading men. The hall of the chief where they +settled for a time was often a very capacious timber +building. There were no doubt huts for herds and outlying +farm buildings; but with most of the Aryan peoples this hall +was the general centre, everyone went there to feast and hear +the bards and take part in games and discussions. Cowsheds +and stabling surrounded it. The chief and his wife and so +forth would sleep on a dais or in an upper gallery; the +commoner sort slept about anywhere, as people still do in +Indian households. Except for weapons, ornaments, tools and +suchlike personal possessions there was a sort of patriarchal +communism in the tribe. The chief owned the cattle and +grazing lands in the common interest; forest and rivers were +the wild. +</p> + +<p> +This was the fashion of the people who were increasing and +multiplying over the great spaces of central Europe and west +central Asia during the growth of the great civilization of +Mesopotamia and the Nile, and whom we find pressing upon the +heliolithic peoples everywhere in the second millennium +before Christ. They were coming into France and Britain and +into Spain. They pushed westward in two waves. The first of +these people who reached Britain and Ireland were armed with +bronze weapons. They exterminated or subjugated the people +who had made the great stone monuments of Carnac in Brittany +and Stonehenge and Avebury in England. They reached Ireland. + They are called the Goidelic Celts. The <span +class="pagenum"><a name="P107"></a></span>second wave of +a closely kindred people, perhaps intermixed with other +racial elements, brought iron with it into Great Britain, and +is known as the wave of Brythonic Celts. From them the Welsh +derive their language. +</p> + +<div class="fig" style=""> +<a name="img-107"></a> +<img src="images/img-107.jpg" +alt="THE MOUND OF NIPPUR" + width="450" height="633" /> +<p class="caption"> +THE MOUND OF NIPPUR +<br /> +<small>The site of a city which recent excavations have proved to + date from at least as early as 5000 <small>B.C.</small>, and + probably 1000 years earlier +<br /> +<i>Photo: Underwood & Underwood</i></small> +</p> +</div> + +<p> +Kindred Celtic peoples were pressing southward into Spain and +coming into contact not only with the heliolithic Basque +people who still occupied the country but with the Semitic +PhÅ“nician colonies of the sea coast. A closely allied +series of tribes, the Italians, were making their way down +the still wild and wooded Italian peninsula. They did not +always conquer. In the eighth century + <small>B.C.</small> Rome appears in history, a trading town on +the Tiber, inhabited by Aryan Latins but under the rule of +Etruscan nobles and kings. +</p> + +<p> +At the other extremity of the Aryan range there was a similar +progress southward of similar tribes. Aryan peoples, +speaking Sanskrit, had come down through the western passes +into North <span class="pagenum"><a +name="P108"></a></span>India long before 1000 + <small>B.C.</small> There they came into contact with a +primordial brunette civilization, the Dravidian civilization, +and learnt much from it. Other Aryan tribes seem to have +spread over the mountain masses of Central Asia far to the +east of the present range of such peoples. In Eastern +Turkestan there are still fair, blue-eyed Nordic tribes, but +now they speak Mongolian tongues. +</p> + +<p> +Between the Black and Caspian Seas the ancient Hittites had +been submerged and “Aryanized” by the Armenians +before 1000 <small>B.C.</small>, and the Assyrians +and Babylonians were already aware of a new and formidable +fighting barbarism on the north-eastern frontiers, a group of +tribes amidst which the Scythians, the Medes and the Persians +remain as outstanding names. +</p> + +<p> +But it was through the Balkan peninsula that Aryan tribes +made their first heavy thrust into the heart of the old-world +civilization. They were already coming southward and +crossing into Asia Minor many centuries before 1000 + <small>B.C.</small> First came a group of tribes of whom +the Phrygians were the most conspicuous, and then in +succession the Æolic, the Ionic and the Dorian Greeks. + By 1000 <small>B.C.</small> they had wiped out the +ancient Ægean civilization both in the mainland of +Greece and in most of the Greek islands; the cities of +Mycenæ and Tiryns were obliterated and Cnossos was +nearly forgotten. The Greeks had taken to the sea before +1000 <small>A.D.</small>, they had settled in Crete +and Rhodes, and they were founding colonies in Sicily and the +south of Italy after the fashion of the PhÅ“nician +trading cities that were dotted along the Mediterranean +coasts. +</p> + +<p> +So it was, while Tiglath Pileser III and Sargon II and +Sardanapalus were ruling in Assyria and fighting with +Babylonia and Syria and Egypt, the Aryan peoples were +learning the methods of civilization and making it over for +their own purposes in Italy and Greece and north Persia. The +theme of history from the ninth century <small>B.C.</small> +<small>A.D.</small> onward for six centuries is the story of how +these Aryan peoples grew to power and enterprise and how at +last they subjugated the whole Ancient World, Semitic, +Ægean and Egyptian alike. In form the Aryan peoples +were altogether victorious; but the struggle of Aryan, +Semitic and Egyptian ideas and methods was continued long +after the sceptre was in Aryan hands. It is indeed a +struggle that goes on through all the rest of history and +still in a manner continues to this day. +</p> + +</div><!--end chapter--> + +<div class="chapter"> + +<h2><span class="pagenum"><a name="P109"></a></span><a name="chapXX"></a>XX<br /> +THE LAST BABYLONIAN EMPIRE AND THE EMPIRE OF DARIUS I</h2> + +<p> +We have already mentioned how Assyria became a great military power under +Tiglath Pileser III and under the usurper Sargon II. Sargon was not this +man’s original name; he adopted it to flatter the conquered Babylonians +by reminding them of that ancient founder of the Akkadian Empire, Sargon I, two +thousand years before his time. Babylon, for all that it was a conquered city, +was of greater population and importance than Nineveh, and its great god Bel +Marduk and its traders and priests had to be treated politely. In Mesopotamia +in the eighth century <small>B.C.</small> <small>A.D.</small> we are already +far beyond the barbaric days when the capture of a town meant loot and +massacre. Conquerors sought to propitiate and win the conquered. For a century +and a half after Sargon the new Assyrian empire endured and, as we have noted, +Assurbanipal (Sardanapalus) held at least lower Egypt. +</p> + +<p> +But the power and solidarity of Assyria waned rapidly. Egypt +by an effort threw off the foreigner under a Pharoah +Psammetichus I, and under Necho II attempted a war of +conquest in Syria. By that time Assyria was grappling with +foes nearer at hand, and could make but a poor resistance. A +Semitic people from south-east Mesopotamia, the Chaldeans, +combined with Aryan Medes and Persians from the north-east +against Nineveh, and in 606 <small>B.C.</small>—for now we + are coming down to exact chronology—took that city. +</p> + +<p> +There was a division of the spoils of Assyria. A Median +Empire was set up in the north under Cyaxares. It included +Nineveh, and its capital was Ecbatana. Eastward it reached +to the borders of India. To the south of this in a great +crescent was a new Chaldean Empire, the Second Babylonian +Empire, which rose to a very great degree of wealth and power +under the rule of Nebuchadnezzar the Great (the +Nebuchadnezzar of the Bible). The last great days, the <span +class="pagenum"><a name="P110"></a></span>greatest days +of all, for Babylon began. For a time the two Empires +remained at peace, and the daughter of Nebuchadnezzar was +married to Cyaxares. +</p> + +<p> +Meanwhile Necho II was pursuing his easy conquests in Syria. + He had defeated and slain King Josiah of Judah, a small +country of which there is more to tell presently, at the +battle of Megiddo in 608 <small>B.C.</small>, and he +pushed on to the Euphrates to encounter not a decadent +Assyria but a renascent Babylonia. The Chaldeans dealt very +vigorously with the Egyptians. Necho was routed and driven +back to Egypt, and the Babylonian frontier pushed down to the +ancient Egyptian boundaries. +</p> + +<div class="fig" style=""> +<a name="img-110"></a> +<img src="images/img-110.jpg" +alt="Map showing the relation of the Median and Second Babylonian +(Chaldæan) Empires in the reign of Nebuchadnezzar the Great" + width="575" height="469" /> +</div> + +<p> +From 606 until 589 <small>B.C.</small> the Second +Babylonian Empire flourished insecurely. It flourished so +long as it kept the peace with the stronger, hardier Median +Empire to the north. And during these sixty-seven years not +only life but learning flourished in the ancient city. +</p> + +<div class="fig" style=""> +<a name="img-111"></a> +<img src="images/img-111.jpg" +alt="Map: The Empire of Darius (tribute-paying countries) at its +greatest extent" + width="600" height="435" /> +</div> + +<p> +Even under the Assyrian monarchs and especially under +Sardanapalus, Babylon had been a scene of great intellectual +activity. <span class="pagenum"><a +name="P111"></a></span>Sardanapalus, though an Assyrian, +had been quite Babylon-ized. He made a library, a library +not of paper but of the clay tablets that were used for +writing in Mesopotamia since early Sumerian days. His +collection has been unearthed and is perhaps the most +precious store of historical material in the world. The last +of the Chaldean line of Babylonian monarchs, Nabonidus, had +even keener literary tastes. He patronized antiquarian +researches, and when a date was worked out by his +investigators for the accession of Sargon I he commemorated +the fact by inscriptions. But there were many signs of +disunion in his empire, and he sought to centralize it by +bringing a number of the various local gods to Babylon and +setting up temples to them there. This device was to be +practised quite successfully by the Romans in later times, +but in Babylon it roused the jealousy of the powerful +priesthood of Bel Marduk, the dominant god of the +Babylonians. They cast about for a possible alternative to +Nabonidus and found it in Cyrus the Persian, the ruler of the +adjacent Median Empire. Cyrus had already distinguished +himself by conquering Croesus, the rich king of Lydia in +Eastern Asia Minor. <span class="pagenum"><a +name="P112"></a></span>He came up against Babylon, there +was a battle outside the walls, and the gates of the city +were opened to him (538 <small>B.C.</small>). His +soldiers entered the city without fighting. The crown prince +Belshazzar, the son of Nabonidus, was feasting, the Bible +relates, when a hand appeared and wrote in letters of fire +upon the wall these mystical words: <i>“Mene, Mene, +Tekel, Upharsin,”</i> which was interpreted by the +prophet Daniel, whom he summoned to read the riddle, as +“God has numbered thy kingdom and finished it; thou art +weighed in the balance and found wanting and thy kingdom is +given to the Medes and Persians.” Possibly the priests +of Bel Marduk knew something about that writing on the wall. + Belshazzar was killed that night, says the Bible. Nabonidus +was taken prisoner, and the occupation of the city was so +peaceful that the services of Bel Marduk continued without +intermission. +</p> + +<div class="fig" style=""> +<a name="img-112"></a> +<img src="images/img-112.jpg" +alt="PERSIAN MONARCH" + width="180" height="349" /> +<p class="caption"> +PERSIAN MONARCH +<br /> +<small>From the ruins of Persepolis +<br /> +<i>Photo: Miss F. Biggs</i></small> +</p> +</div> + +<p> +Thus it was the Babylonian and Median empires were united. + Cambyses, the son of Cyrus, subjugated Egypt. Cambyses went +mad and was accidentally killed, and was presently succeeded +by Darius the Mede, Darius I, the son of Hystaspes, one of +the chief councillors of Cyrus. +<span class="pagenum"><a name="P113"></a></span> +</p> + +<div class="fig" style=""> +<a name="img-1131"></a> +<img src="images/img-1131.jpg" +alt="THE RUINS OF PERSEPOLIS" + width="600" height="440" /> +<p class="caption"> +THE RUINS OF PERSEPOLIS +<br /> +<small>The capital city of the Persian Empire; burnt by Alexander + the Great +<br /> +<i>Photo: Major W. F. P. Rodd</i></small> +</p> +</div> + +<div class="fig" style=""> +<a name="img-1132"></a> +<img src="images/img-1132.jpg" +alt="THE GREAT PORCH OF XERXES, AT PERSEPOLIS" + width="600" height="459" /> +<p class="caption"> +THE GREAT PORCH OF XERXES, AT PERSEPOLIS +<br /> +<small> +<i>Photo: Major W. F. P. Rodd</i></small> +</p> +</div> + +<p> +The Persian Empire of Darius I, the first of the new Aryan +empires in the seat of the old civilizations, was the +greatest empire the world had hitherto seen. It included all +Asia Minor and Syria, all the old Assyrian and Babylonian +empires, Egypt, the Caucasus and Caspian regions, Media, +Persia, and it extended into India as far as the Indus. Such +an empire was possible because the horse and rider and the +chariot and the made-road had now been brought into the +world. Hitherto the ass and ox and the camel for desert use +had afforded the swiftest method of <span class="pagenum"><a +name="P114"></a></span>transport. Great arterial roads +were made by the Persian rulers to hold their new empire, and +post horses were always in waiting for the imperial messenger +or the traveller with an official permit. Moreover the world +was now beginning to use coined money, which greatly +facilitated trade and intercourse. But the capital of this +vast empire was no longer Babylon. In the long run the +priesthood of Bel Marduk gained nothing by their treason. +Babylon though still important was now a declining city, and +the great cities of the new empire were Persepolis and Susa +and Ecbatana. The capital was Susa. Nineveh was already +abandoned and sinking into ruins. +</p> + +</div><!--end chapter--> + +<div class="chapter"> + +<h2><span class="pagenum"><a name="P115"></a></span><a name="chapXXI"></a>XXI<br /> +THE EARLY HISTORY OF THE JEWS</h2> + +<p> +And now we can tell of the Hebrews, a Semitic people, not so important in their +own time as in their influence upon the later history of the world. They were +settled in Judea long before 1000 <small>B.C.</small>, and their capital city +after that time was Jerusalem. Their story is interwoven with that of the great +empires on either side of them, Egypt to the south and the changing empires of +Syria, Assyria and Babylon to the north. Their country was an inevitable high +road between these latter powers and Egypt. +</p> + +<p> +Their importance in the world is due to the fact that they +produced a written literature, a world history, a collection +of laws, chronicles, psalms, books of wisdom, poetry and +fiction and political utterances which became at last what +Christians know as the Old Testament, the Hebrew Bible. This +literature appears in history in the fourth or fifth century +<small>B.C.</small> +</p> + +<p> +Probably this literature was first put together in Babylon. + We have already told how the Pharaoh, Necho II, invaded the +Assyrian Empire while Assyria was fighting for life against +Medes, Persians and Chaldeans. Josiah King of Judah opposed +him, and was defeated and slain at Megiddo (608 + <small>B.C.</small>). Judah became a tributary to Egypt, and +when Nebuchadnezzar the Great, the new Chaldean king in +Babylon, rolled back Necho into Egypt, he attempted to manage +Judah by setting up puppet kings in Jerusalem. The +experiment failed, the people massacred his Babylonian +officials, and he then determined to break up this little +state altogether, which had long been playing off Egypt +against the northern empire. Jerusalem was sacked and burnt, +and the remnant of the people was carried off captive to +Babylon. +</p> + +<p> +<span class="pagenum"><a name="P116"></a></span>There +they remained until Cyrus took Babylon (538 + <small>B.C.</small>). He then collected them together and sent +them back to resettle their country and rebuild the walls and +temple of Jerusalem. +</p> + +<p> +Before that time the Jews do not seem to have been a very +civilized or united people. Probably only a very few of them +could read or write. In their own history one never hears of +the early books of the Bible being read; the first mention of +a book is in the time of Josiah. The Babylonian captivity +civilized them and consolidated them. They returned aware of +their own literature, an acutely self-conscious and political +people. +</p> + +<p> +Their Bible at that time seems to have consisted only of the +Pentateuch, that is to say the first five books of the Old +Testament as we know it. In addition, as separate books they +already had many of the other books that have since been +incorporated with the Pentateuch into the present Hebrew +Bible, Chronicles, the Psalms and Proverbs for example. +</p> + +<p> +The accounts of the Creation of the World, of Adam and Eve +and of the Flood, with which the Bible begins, run closely +parallel with similar Babylonian legends; they seem to have +been part of the common beliefs of all the Semitic peoples. + So too the stories of Moses and of Samson have Sumerian and +Babylonian parallels. But with the story of Abraham and +onward begins something more special to the Jewish race. +</p> + +<p> +Abraham may have lived as early as the days of Hammurabi in +Babylon. He was a patriarchal Semitic nomad. To the book of +Genesis the reader must go for the story of his wanderings +and for the stories of his sons and grandchildren and how +they became captive in the Land of Egypt. He travelled +through Canaan, and the God of Abraham, says the Bible story, +promised this smiling land of prosperous cities to him and to +his children. +</p> + +<p> +And after a long sojourn in Egypt and after fifty years of +wandering in the wilderness under the leadership of Moses, +the children of Abraham, grown now to a host of twelve +tribes, invaded the land of Canaan from the Arabian deserts +to the East. They may have done this somewhen between 1600 +<small>B.C.</small> and 1300 <small>B.C.</small>; + there are no Egyptian records of Moses nor +of Canaan at this time to help out the story. But at any +rate they did not succeed in conquering any <span +class="pagenum"><a name="P117"></a></span>more than the +hilly backgrounds of the promised land. The coast was now in +the hands, not of the Canaanites but of newcomers, those +Ægean peoples, the Philistines; and their cities, Gaza, +Gath, Ashdod, Ascalon and Joppa successfully withstood the +Hebrew attack. For many generations the children of Abraham +remained an obscure people of the hilly back country engaged +in incessant bickerings with the Philistines and with the +kindred tribes about them, the Moabites, the Midianites and +so forth. The reader will find in the book of Judges a +record of their struggles and disasters during this period. + For very largely it is a record of disasters and failures +frankly told. +</p> + +<div class="fig" style=""> +<a name="img-117"></a> +<img src="images/img-117.jpg" +alt="Map: The Land of the Hebrews" + width="500" height="813" /> +</div> + +<p> +<span class="pagenum"><a name="P118"></a></span>For most +of this period the Hebrews were ruled, so far as there was +any rule among them, by priestly judges selected by the +elders of the people, but at last somewhen towards 1000 +<small>B.C.</small> they chose themselves a king, Saul, to +lead them in battle. But Saul’s leading was no great +improvement upon the leading of the Judges; he perished under +the hail of Philistine arrows at the battle of Mount Gilboa, +his armour went into the temple of the Philistine Venus, and +his body was nailed to the walls of Beth-shan. +</p> + +<div class="fig" style=""> +<a name="img-118"></a> +<img src="images/img-118.jpg" +alt="MOUND AT BABYLON" + width="450" height="626" /> +<p class="caption"> +THE MOUND AT BABYLON +<br /> +<small>Beneath which are the remains of a great palace of + Nebuchadnezzar +<br /> +<i>Photo: Underwood & Underwood</i></small> +</p> +</div> + +<p> +His successor David was more successful and more politic. + With David dawned the only period of prosperity the Hebrew +peoples were ever to know. It was based on a close alliance +with the PhÅ“nician city of Tyre, whose King Hiram seems +to have been a man of very great intelligence and enterprise. + He wished to secure a trade route to the Red Sea through the +Hebrew hill country. Normally PhÅ“nician trade went to +the Red Sea by Egypt, but Egypt was in a state of profound +disorder at this <span class="pagenum"><a +name="P119"></a></span>time; there may have been other +obstructions to PhÅ“nician trade along this line, and at +any rate Hiram established the very closest relations both +with David and with his son and successor Solomon. Under +Hiram’s auspices the walls, palace and temple of +Jerusalem arose, and in return Hiram built and launched his +ships on the Red Sea. A very considerable trade passed +northward and southward through Jerusalem. And Solomon +achieved a prosperity and magnificence unprecedented in the +experience of his people. He was even given a daughter of +Pharaoh in marriage. +</p> + +<p> +But it is well to keep the proportion of things in mind. At +the climax of his glories Solomon was only a little +subordinate king in a little city. His power was so +transitory that within a few years of his death, Shishak the +first Pharaoh of the twenty-second dynasty, had taken +Jerusalem and looted most of its splendours. The account of +Solomon’s magnificence given in the books of Kings and +Chronicles is questioned by many critics. They say that it +was added to and exaggerated by the patriotic pride of later +writers. But the Bible account read carefully is not so +overwhelming as it appears at the first reading. + Solomon’s temple, if one works out the measurements, +would go inside a small suburban church, and his fourteen +hundred chariots cease to impress us when we learn from an +Assyrian monument that his successor Ahab sent a contingent +of two thousand to the Assyrian army. It is also plainly +manifest from the Bible narrative that Solomon spent himself +in display and overtaxed and overworked his people. At his +death the northern part of his kingdom broke off from +Jerusalem and became the independent kingdom of Israel. + Jerusalem remained the capital city of Judah. +<span class="pagenum"><a name="P120"></a></span> +</p> + +<div class="fig" style=""> +<a name="img-120"></a> +<img src="images/img-120.jpg" +alt="THE ISHTAR GATEWAY, BABYLON" + width="600" height="824" /> +<p class="caption"> +THE ISHTAR GATEWAY, BABYLON +<br /> +<small>The bulls are in richly coloured enamel on baked brick +<br /> +<i>Photo: Underwood & Underwood</i></small> +</p> +</div> + +<p> +The prosperity of the Hebrew people was short-lived. Hiram +died, and the help of Tyre ceased to strengthen Jerusalem. + Egypt grew strong again. The history of the kings of Israel +and the kings of Judah becomes a history of two little states +ground between, first, Syria, then Assyria and then Babylon +to the north and Egypt to the south. It is a tale of +disasters and of deliverances that only delayed disaster. It +is a tale of barbaric kings ruling a barbaric people. In 721 +<small>B.C.</small> the kingdom of Israel was swept +away into captivity by the Assyrians and its people utterly +lost to history. Judah struggled <span class="pagenum"><a +name="P121"></a></span>on until in 604 <small>B.C.</small>, + as we have told, it shared the fate of +Israel. There may be details open to criticism in the Bible +story of Hebrew history from the days of the Judges onward, +but on the whole it is evidently a true story which squares +with all that has been learnt in the excavation of Egypt and +Assyria and Babylon during the past century. +</p> + +<p> +It was in Babylon that the Hebrew people got their history +together and evolved their tradition. The people who came +back to Jerusalem at the command of Cyrus were a very +different people in spirit and knowledge from those who had +gone into captivity. They had learnt civilization. In the +development of their peculiar character a very great part was +played by certain men, a new sort of men, the Prophets, to +whom we must now direct our attention. These Prophets mark +the appearance of new and remarkable forces in the steady +development of human society. +</p> + +</div><!--end chapter--> + +<div class="chapter"> + +<h2><span class="pagenum"><a name="P122"></a></span><a name="chapXXII"></a>XXII<br /> +PRIESTS AND PROPHETS IN JUDEA</h2> + +<p> +The fall of Assyria and Babylon were only the first of a series of disasters +that were to happen to the Semitic peoples. In the seventh century +<small>B.C.</small> it would have seemed as though the whole civilized world +was to be dominated by Semitic rulers. They ruled the great Assyrian empire and +they had conquered Egypt; Assyria, Babylon, Syria were all Semitic, speaking +languages that were mutually intelligible. The trade of the world was in +Semitic hands. Tyre, Sidon, the great mother cities of the PhÅ“nician coast, had +thrown out colonies that grew at last to even greater proportion in Spain, +Sicily and Africa. Carthage, founded before 800 <small>B.C.</small>, had risen +to a population of more than a million. It was for a time the greatest city on +earth. Its ships went to Britain and out into the Atlantic. They may have +reached Madeira. We have already noted how Hiram co-operated with Solomon to +build ships on the Red Sea for the Arabian and perhaps for the Indian trade. In +the time of the Pharaoh Necho, a PhÅ“nician expedition sailed completely round +Africa. +</p> + +<p> +At that time the Aryan peoples were still barbarians. Only +the Greeks were reconstructing a new civilization of the +ruins of the one they had destroyed, and the Medes were +becoming “formidable,” as an Assyrian inscription +calls them, in central Asia. In 800 + <small>B.C.</small> no one could have prophesied that before the +third century <small>B.C.</small> every trace of +Semitic dominion would be wiped out by Aryan-speaking +conquerors, and that everywhere the Semitic peoples would be +subjects or tributaries or scattered altogether. Everywhere +except in the northern deserts of Arabia, where the Bedouin +adhered steadily to the nomadic way of life, the ancient way +of life of the Semites before Sargon I and his Akkadians went +down to conquer Sumeria. But the Arab Bedouin were never +conquered by Aryan masters. +</p> + +<p> +<span class="pagenum"><a name="P123"></a></span>Now of +all these civilized Semites who were beaten and overrun in +these five eventful centuries one people only held together +and clung to its ancient traditions and that was this little +people, the Jews, who were sent back to build their city of +Jerusalem by Cyrus the Persian. And they were able to do +this, because they had got together this literature of +theirs, their Bible, in Babylon. It is not so much the Jews +who made the Bible as the Bible which made the Jews. Running +through this Bible were certain ideas, different from the +ideas of the people about them, very stimulating and +sustaining ideas, to which they were destined to cling +through five and twenty centuries of hardship, adventure and +oppression. +</p> + +<p> +Foremost of these Jewish ideas was this, that their God was +invisible and remote, an invisible God in a temple not made +with hands, a Lord of Righteousness throughout the earth. + All other peoples had national gods embodied in images that +lived in temples. If the image was smashed and the temple +razed, presently that god died out. But this was a new idea, +this God of the Jews, in the heavens, high above priests and +sacrifices. And this God of Abraham, the Jews believed, had +chosen them to be his peculiar people, to restore Jerusalem +and make it the capital of Righteousness in the World. They +were a people exalted by their sense of a common destiny. + This belief saturated them all when they returned to +Jerusalem after the captivity in Babylon. +</p> + +<p> +Is it any miracle that in their days of overthrow and +subjugation many Babylonians and Syrians and so forth and +later on many PhÅ“nicians, speaking practically the same +language and having endless customs, habits, tastes and +traditions in common, should be attracted by this inspiring +cult and should seek to share in its fellowship and its +promise? After the fall of Tyre, Sidon, Carthage and the +Spanish PhÅ“nician cities, the PhÅ“nicians suddenly +vanish from history; and as suddenly we find, not simply in +Jerusalem but in Spain, Africa, Egypt, Arabia, the East, +wherever the PhÅ“nicians had set their feet, communities +of Jews. And they were all held together by the Bible and by +the reading of the Bible. Jerusalem was from the first only +their nominal capital; their real city was this book of +books. This is a new sort of thing in history. It is +something of which the seeds were sown long before, when the +Sumerians <span class="pagenum"><a +name="P124"></a></span>and Egyptians began to turn their +hieroglyphics into writing. The Jews were a new thing, a +people without a king and presently without a temple (for as +we shall tell Jerusalem itself was broken up in 70 + <small>A.D.</small>), held together and consolidated out of +heterogeneous elements by nothing but the power of the +written word. +</p> + +<p> +And this mental welding of the Jews was neither planned nor +foreseen nor done by either priests or statesmen. Not only a +new kind of community but a new kind of man comes into +history with the development of the Jews. In the days of +Solomon the Hebrews looked like becoming a little people just +like any other little people of that time clustering around +court and temple, ruled by the wisdom of the priest and led +by the ambition of the king. But already, the reader may +learn from the Bible, this new sort of man of which we speak, +the Prophet, was in evidence. +</p> + +<p> +As troubles thicken round the divided Hebrews the importance +of these Prophets increases. +</p> + +<div class="fig" style=""> +<a name="img-124"></a> +<img src="images/img-124.jpg" +alt="THE BLACK OBELISK OF SHALMANESER II" + width="600" height="305" /> +<p class="caption"> +THE BLACK OBELISK OF SHALMANESER II +<br /> +<small>This obelisk (in the British Museum) of the King of Assyria + mentions, in cuneiform, “Jehu the son of Omri.” Panel + showing Jewish captives bringing tribute +</small> +</p> +</div> + +<p> +What were these Prophets? They were men of the most diverse +origins. The Prophet Ezekiel was of the priestly caste and +the Prophet Amos wore the goatskin mantle of a shepherd, but +all had this in common, that they gave allegiance to no one +but to the God of Righteousness and that they spoke directly +to the people. They <span class="pagenum"><a +name="P125"></a></span>came without licence or +consecration. “Now the word of the Lord came unto +me;” that was the formula. They were intensely +political. They exhorted the people against Egypt, +“that broken reed,” or against Assyria or +Babylon; they denounced the indolence of the priestly order +or the flagrant sins of the King. Some of them turned their +attention to what we should now call “social +reform.” The rich were “grinding the faces of +the poor,” the luxurious were consuming the +children’s bread; wealthy people made friends with and +imitated the splendours and vices of foreigners; and this was +hateful to Jehovah, the God of Abraham, who would certainly +punish this land. +</p> + +<div class="fig" style=""> +<a name="img-125"></a> +<img src="images/img-125.jpg" +alt="ANOTHER PANEL OF THE BLACK OBELISK" + width="600" height="260" /> +<p class="caption"> +ANOTHER PANEL OF THE BLACK OBELISK +<br /> +<small>Captive Princes making obeisance to Shalmaneser II +</small> +</p> +</div> + +<p> +These fulminations were written down and preserved and +studied. They went wherever the Jews went, and wherever they +went they spread a new religious spirit. They carried the +common man past priest and temple, past court and king and +brought him face to face with the Rule of Righteousness. + That is their supreme importance in the history of mankind. + In the great utterances of Isaiah the prophetic voice rises +to a pitch of splendid anticipation and foreshadows the whole +earth united and at peace under one God. Therein the Jewish +prophecies culminate. +</p> + +<p> +All the Prophets did not speak in this fashion, and the +intelligent reader of the prophetic books will find much hate +in them, much prejudice, and much that will remind him of the +propaganda pamphlets <span class="pagenum"><a +name="P126"></a></span>of the present time. Nevertheless +it is the Hebrew Prophets of the period round and about the +Babylonian captivity who mark the appearance of a new power +in the world, the power of individual moral appeal, of an +appeal to the free conscience of mankind against the fetish +sacrifices and slavish loyalties that had hitherto bridled +and harnessed our race. +</p> + +</div><!--end chapter--> + +<div class="chapter"> + +<h2><span class="pagenum"><a name="P127"></a></span><a name="chapXXIII"></a>XXIII<br /> +THE GREEKS</h2> + +<p> +Now while after Solomon (whose reign was probably about 960 +<small>B.C.</small>) the divided kingdoms of Israel and Judah were suffering +destruction and deportation, and while the Jewish people were developing their +tradition in captivity in Babylon, another great power over the human mind, the +Greek tradition, was also arising. While the Hebrew prophets were working out a +new sense of direct moral responsibility between the people and an eternal and +universal God of Right, the Greek philosophers were training the human mind in +a new method and spirit of intellectual adventure. +</p> + +<p> +The Greek tribes as we have told were a branch of the Aryan- +speaking stem. They had come down among the Ægean cities +and islands some centuries before 1000 + <small>B.C.</small> They were probably already in southward +movement before the Pharaoh Thothmes hunted his first +elephants beyond the conquered Euphrates. For in those days +there were elephants in Mesopotamia and lions in Greece. +</p> + +<p> +It is possible that it was a Greek raid that burnt Cnossos, +but there are no Greek legends of such a victory though there +are stories of Minos and his palace (the Labyrinth) and of +the skill of the Cretan artificers. +<span class="pagenum"><a name="P128"></a></span> +</p> + +<div class="fig" style=""> +<a name="img-128"></a> +<img src="images/img-128.jpg" +alt="STATUE OF MELEAGER" + width="460" height="743" /> +<p class="caption"> +STATUE OF MELEAGER +<br /> +<small>Note the progress in plastic power from the earlier wooden + statue on left +<br /> +<i>Photo: Sebah & Foaillier</i></small> +</p> +</div> + +<p> +Like most of the Aryans these Greeks had singers and reciters +whose performances were an important social link, and these +handed down from the barbaric beginnings of their people two +great epics, the <i>Iliad</i>, telling how a league of Greek +tribes besieged and took and sacked the town of Troy in Asia +Minor, and the <i>Odyssey</i>, being a long adventure story +of the return of the sage captain, Odysseus, from Troy to his +own island. These epics were written down somewhen in the +eighth or seventh century <small>B.C.</small>, when +the Greeks had acquired the use of an alphabet from their +more civilized neighbours, but they <span class="pagenum"><a +name="P129"></a></span>are supposed to have been in +existence very much earlier. Formerly they were ascribed to +a particular blind bard, Homer, who was supposed to have sat +down and composed them as Milton composed Paradise Lost. + Whether there really was such a poet, whether he composed or +only wrote down and polished these epics and so forth, is a +favourite quarrelling ground for the erudite. We need not +concern ourselves with such bickerings here. The thing that +matters from our point of view is that the Greeks were in +possession of their epics in the eighth century + <small>B.C.</small>, and that they were a common possession and a +link between their various tribes, giving them a sense of +fellowship as against the outer barbarians. They were a +group of kindred peoples linked by the spoken and afterwards +by the written word, and sharing common ideals of courage and +behaviour. +</p> + +<p> +The epics showed the Greeks a barbaric people without iron, +without writing, and still not living in cities. They seem +to have lived at first in open villages of huts around the +halls of their chiefs outside the ruins of the Ægean +cities they had destroyed. Then they began to wall their +cities and to adopt the idea of temples from the people they +had conquered. It has been said that the cities of the +primitive civilizations grew up about the altar of some +tribal god, and that the wall was added; in the cities of the +Greeks the wall preceded the temple. They began to trade and +send out colonies. By the seventh century + <small>B.C.</small> a new series of cities had grown up in the +valleys and islands of Greece, forgetful of the Ægean +cities and civilization that had preceded them; Athens, +Sparta, Corinth, Thebes, Samos, Miletus among the chief. + There were already Greek settlements along the coast of the +Black Sea and in Italy and Sicily. The heel and toe of Italy +was called Magna Græcia. Marseilles was a Greek town +established on the site of an earlier PhÅ“nician colony. +</p> + +<p> +Now countries which are great plains or which have as a chief +means of transport some great river like the Euphrates or +Nile tend to become united under some common rule. The +cities of Egypt and the cities of Sumeria, for example, ran +together under one system of government. But the Greek +peoples were cut up among islands and mountain valleys; both +Greece and Magna Græcia are very mountainous; and the +tendency was all the other way. When the <span +class="pagenum"><a name="P130"></a></span>Greeks come +into history they are divided up into a number of little +states which showed no signs of coalescence. They are +different even in race. Some consist chiefly of citizens of +this or that Greek tribe, Ionic, Æolian or Doric; some +have a mingled population of Greeks and descendants of the +pre-Greek “Mediterranean” folk; some have an +unmixed free citizenship of Greeks lording it over an +enslaved conquered population like the “Helots” +in Sparta. In some the old leaderly Aryan families have +become a close aristocracy; in some there is a democracy of +all the Aryan citizens; in some there are elected or even +hereditary kings, in some usurpers or tyrants. +</p> + +<div class="fig" style=""> +<a name="img-130"></a> +<img src="images/img-130.jpg" +alt="RUINS OF THE GREAT TEMPLE OF ZEUS AT OLYMPIA" + width="600" height="421" /> +<p class="caption"> +RUINS OF THE GREAT TEMPLE OF ZEUS AT OLYMPIA +<br /> +<small><i>Photo: Fred Boissonnas</i></small> +</p> +</div> + +<p> +And the same geographical conditions that kept the Greek +states divided and various, kept them small. The largest +states were smaller than many English counties, and it is +doubtful if the population of any of their cities ever +exceeded a third of a million. Few came up even to 50,000. + There were unions of interest and sympathy but no +coalescences. Cities made leagues and alliances as <span +class="pagenum"><a name="P131"></a></span>trade +increased, and small cities put themselves under the +protection of great ones. Yet all Greece was held together +in a certain community of feeling by two things, by the epics +and by the custom of taking part every fourth year in the +athletic contests at Olympia. This did not prevent wars and +feuds, but it mitigated something of the savagery of war +between them, and a truce protected all travellers to and +from the games. As time went on the sentiment of a common +heritage grew and the number of states participating in the +Olympic games increased until at last not only Greeks but +competitors from the closely kindred countries of Epirus and +Macedonia to the north were admitted. +</p> + +<p> +The Greek cities grew in trade and importance, and the +quality of their civilization rose steadily in the seventh +and sixth centuries <small>B.C.</small> Their +social life differed in many interesting points from the +social life of the Ægean and river valley civilizations. + They had splendid temples but the priesthood was not the +great traditional body it was in the cities of the older +world, the-repository of all knowledge, the storehouse of +ideas. They had leaders and noble families, but no quasi- +divine monarch surrounded by an elaborately organized court. + Rather their organization was aristocratic, with leading +families which kept each other in order. Even their so- +called “democracies” were aristocratic; every +citizen had a share in public affairs and came to the +assembly in a democracy, <i>but everybody was not a +citizen</i>. The Greek democracies were not like our modern +“democracies” in which everyone has a vote. Many +of the Greek democracies had a few hundred or a few thousand +citizens and then many thousands of slaves, freedmen and so +forth, with no share in public affairs. Generally in Greece +affairs were in the hands of a community of substantial men. + Their kings and their tyrants alike were just men set in +front of other men or usurping a leadership; they were not +quasi-divine overmen like Pharaoh or Minos or the monarchs of +Mesopotamia. Both thought and government therefore had a +freedom under Greek conditions such as they had known in none +of the older civilizations. The Greeks had brought down into +cities the individualism, the personal initiative of the +wandering life of the northern parklands. They were the +first republicans of importance in history. +<span class="pagenum"><a name="P132"></a></span> +</p> + +<div class="fig" style=""> +<a name="img-132"></a> +<img src="images/img-132.jpg" +alt="THE TEMPLE OF NEPTUNE (POSEIDON), PÆSTUM, SICILY" + width="600" height="453" /> +<p class="caption"> +THE TEMPLE OF NEPTUNE (POSEIDON), PÆSTUM, SICILY +<br /> +<small><i>Photo: Alinari</i></small> +</p> +</div> + +<p> +And we find that as they emerge from a condition of barbaric warfare +a new thing becomes apparent in their intellectual life. We +find men who are not priests seeking and recording knowledge +and enquiring into the mysteries of life and being, in a way +that has hitherto been the sublime privilege of priesthood or +the presumptuous amusement of kings. We find already in the +sixth century <small>B.C.</small>—perhaps +while Isaiah was still prophesying in Babylon—such men +as Thales and Anaximander of Miletus and Heraclitus of +Ephesus, who were what we should now call independent +gentlemen, giving their minds to shrewd questionings of the +world in which we live, asking what its real nature was, +whence it came and what its destiny might be, and refusing +all ready-made or evasive answers. Of these questionings of +the universe by the Greek mind, we shall have more to say a +little later in this history. These Greek enquirers +<span class="pagenum"><a name="P133"></a></span> who +begin to be remarkable in the sixth century + <small>B.C.</small> are the first philosophers, the first +“wisdom-lovers,” in the world. +</p> + +<p> +And it may be noted here how important a century this sixth +century <small>B.C.</small> was in the history of +humanity. For not only were these Greek philosophers +beginning the research for clear ideas about this universe +and man’s place in it and Isaiah carrying Jewish +prophecy to its sublimest levels, but as we shall tell later +Gautama Buddha was then teaching in India and Confucius and +Lao Tse in China. From Athens to the Pacific the human mind +was astir. +</p> + +</div><!--end chapter--> + +<div class="chapter"> + +<h2><span class="pagenum"><a name="P134"></a></span><a name="chapXXIV"></a>XXIV<br /> +THE WARS OF THE GREEKS AND PERSIANS</h2> + +<p> +While the Greeks in the cities in Greece, South Italy and Asia Minor were +embarking upon free intellectual enquiry and while in Babylon and Jerusalem the +last of the Hebrew prophets were creating a free conscience for mankind, two +adventurous Aryan peoples, the Medes and the Persians, were in possession of +the civilization of the ancient world and were making a great empire, the +Persian empire, which was far larger in extent than any empire the world had +seen hitherto. Under Cyrus, Babylon and the rich and ancient civilization of +Lydia had been added to the Persian rule; the PhÅ“nician cities of the Levant +and all the Greek cities in Asia Minor had been made tributary, Cambyses had +subjected Egypt, and Darius I, the Mede, the third of the Persian rulers (521 +<small>B.C.</small>), found himself monarch as it seemed of all the world. His +couriers rode with his decrees from the Dardanelles to the Indus and from Upper +Egypt to Central Asia. +</p> + +<p> +The Greeks in Europe, it is true, Italy, Carthage, Sicily and +the Spanish PhÅ“nician settlements, were not under the +Persian Peace; but they treated it with respect and the only +people who gave any serious trouble were the old parent +hordes of Nordic people in South Russia and Central Asia, the +Scythians, who raided the northern and north-eastern borders. +</p> + +<p> +Of course the population of this great Persian empire was not +a population of Persians, The Persians were only the small +conquering minority of this enormous realm. The rest of the +population was what it had been before the Persians came from +time immemorial, only that Persian was the administrative +language. Trade and finance were still largely Semitic, Tyre +and Sidon as of old were the great Mediterranean ports and +Semitic shipping plied upon the seas. But many of these +Semitic merchants and business people as <span +class="pagenum"><a name="P135"></a></span>they went from +place to place already found a sympathetic and convenient +common history in the Hebrew tradition and the Hebrew +scriptures. A new element which was increasing rapidly in +this empire was the Greek element. The Greeks were becoming +serious rivals to the Semites upon the sea, and their +detached and vigorous intelligence made them useful and, +unprejudiced officials. +</p> + +<div class="fig" style=""> +<a name="img-135"></a> +<img src="images/img-135.jpg" +alt="FINE PIECE OF ATHENIAN POTTERY" + width="600" height="226" /> +<p class="caption"> +FINE PIECE OF ATHENIAN POTTERY +<br /> +<small>Showing Greek merchant vesselswith sails and oars + statue on left +<br /> +<i>Brit. Mus.</i></small> +</p> +</div> + +<p> +It was on account of the Scythians that Darius I invaded +Europe. He wanted to reach South Russia, the homeland of the +Scythian horsemen. He crossed the Bosphorus with a great +army and marched through Bulgaria to the Danube, crossed this +by a bridge of boats and pushed far northward. His army +suffered terribly. It was largely an infantry force and the +mounted Scythians rode all round it, cut off its supplies, +destroyed any stragglers and never came to a pitched battle. + Darius was forced into an inglorious retreat. +</p> + +<p> +He returned himself to Susa but he left an army in Thrace and +Macedonia, and Macedonia submitted to Darius. Insurrections +of the Greek cities in Asia followed this failure, and the +European Greeks were drawn into the contest. Darius resolved +upon the subjugation of the Greeks in Europe. With the +PhÅ“nician fleet at his disposal he was able to subdue +one island after another, and finally in 490 + <small>B.C.</small> he made his main attack upon Athens. A +considerable Armada sailed from the ports of Asia Minor and +the eastern Mediterranean, and the expedition landed its +troops at Marathon to the north of Athens. There they were +met and signally defeated by the Athenians. +</p> + +<p> +<span class="pagenum"><a name="P136"></a></span>An +extraordinary thing happened at this time. The bitterest +rival of Athens in Greece was Sparta, but now Athens appealed +to Sparta, sending a herald, a swift runner, imploring the +Spartans not to let Greeks become slaves to barbarians. This +runner (the prototype of all “Marathon” runners) +did over a hundred miles of broken country in less than two +days. The Spartans responded promptly and generously; but +when, in three days, the Spartan force reached Athens, there +was nothing for it to do but to view the battlefield and the +bodies of the defeated Persian soldiers. The Persian fleet +had returned to Asia. So ended the first Persian attack on +Greece. +</p> + +<p> +The next was much more impressive. Darius died soon after +the news of his defeat at Marathon reached him, and for four +years his son and successor, Xerxes, prepared a host to crush +the Greeks. For a time terror united all the Greeks. The +army of Xerxes was certainly the greatest that had hitherto +been assembled in the world. It was a huge assembly of +discordant elements. It crossed the Dardanelles, 480 + <small>B.C.</small>, by a bridge of boats; and along the +coast as it advanced moved an equally miscellaneous fleet +carrying supplies. At the narrow pass of Thermopylæ a +small force of 1400 men under the Spartan Leonidas resisted +this multitude, and after a fight of unsurpassed heroism was +completely destroyed. Every man was killed. But the losses +they inflicted upon the Persians were enormous, and the army +of Xerxes pushed on to Thebes and Athens in a chastened mood. + Thebes surrendered and made terms. The Athenians abandoned +their city and it was burnt. +</p> + +<p> +Greece seemed in the hands of the conqueror, but again came +victory against the odds and all expectations. The Greek +fleet, though not a third the size of the Persian, assailed +it in the bay of Salamis and destroyed it. Xerxes found +himself and his immense army cut off from supplies and his +heart failed him. He retreated to Asia with one half of his +army, leaving the rest to be defeated at Platea (479 + <small>B.C.</small>) what time the remnants of the Persian +fleet were hunted down by the Greeks and destroyed at +Mycalæ in Asia Minor. +<span class="pagenum"><a name="P137"></a></span> +</p> + +<div class="fig" style=""> +<a name="img-137"></a> +<img src="images/img-137.jpg" +alt="ALL THAT REMAINS OF THE GREAT TEMPLE OF CORINTH" + width="500" height="712" /> +<p class="caption"> +ALL THAT REMAINS OF THE GREAT TEMPLE OF CORINTH +<br /> +<small><i>Photo: Fred Boissonnas</i></small> +</p> +</div> + +<p> +The Persian danger was at an end. Most of the Greek cities +in Asia became free. All this is told in great detail and +with much picturesqueness in the first of written histories, +the <i>History</i> of <span class="pagenum"><a +name="P138"></a></span>Herodotus. This Herodotus was +born about 484 <small>B.C.</small> in the Ionian +city of Halicarnassus in Asia Minor, and he visited Babylon +and Egypt in his search for exact particulars. From +Mycalæ onward Persia sank into a confusion of dynastic +troubles. Xerxes was murdered in 465 <small>B.C.</small> + and rebellions in Egypt, Syria and Media +broke up the brief order of that mighty realm. The history +of Herodotus lays stress on the weakness of Persia. This +history is indeed what we should now call +propaganda—propaganda for Greece to unite and conquer +Persia. Herodotus makes one character, Aristagoras, go to +the Spartans with a map of the known world and say to them: +“These Barbarians are not valiant in fight. You on the +other hand have now attained the utmost skill in war .... No +other nations in the world have what they possess: gold, +silver, bronze, embroidered garments, beasts and slaves. +<i>All this you might have for yourselves, if you so +desired</i>.” +</p> + +<div class="fig" style=""> +<a name="img-138"></a> +<img src="images/img-138.jpg" +alt="THE TEMPLE OF NEPTUNE (POSEIDON) AT CAPE SUNIUM" + width="600" height="440" /> +<p class="caption"> +THE TEMPLE OF NEPTUNE (POSEIDON) AT CAPE SUNIUM +<br /> +<small><i>Photo: Fred Boissonnas</i></small> +</p> +</div> + +</div><!--end chapter--> + +<div class="chapter"> + +<h2><span class="pagenum"><a name="P139"></a></span><a name="chapXXV"></a>XXV<br /> +THE SPLENDOUR OF GREECE</h2> + +<p> +The century and a half that followed the defeat of Persia was one of very great +splendour for the Greek civilization. True that Greece was torn by a desperate +struggle for ascendancy between Athens, Sparta and other states (the +Peloponnesian War 431 to 404 <small>B.C.</small>) and that in 338 +<small>B.C.</small> the Macedonians became virtually masters of Greece; +nevertheless during this period the thought and the creative and artistic +impulse of the Greeks rose to levels that made their achievement a lamp to +mankind for all the rest of history. +</p> + +<p> +The head and centre of this mental activity was Athens. For +over thirty years (466 to 428 <small>B.C.</small>) +Athens was dominated by a man of great vigour and liberality +of mind, Pericles, who set himself to rebuild the city from +the ashes to which the Persians had reduced it. The beautiful +ruins that still glorify Athens to-day are chiefly the +remains of this great effort. And he did not simply rebuild +a material Athens. He rebuilt Athens intellectually. He +gathered about him not only architects and sculptors but +poets, dramatists, philosophers and teachers. Herodotus came +to Athens to recite his history (438 <small>B.C.</small>). + Anaxagoras came with the beginnings of a +scientific description of the sun and stars. Æschylus, +Sophocles and Euripides one after the other carried the Greek +drama to its highest levels or beauty and nobility. +</p> + +<p> +The impetus Pericles gave to the intellectual life of Athens +lived on after his death, and in spite of the fact that the +peace of Greece was now broken by the Peloponnesian War and a +long and wasteful struggle for “ascendancy” was +beginning. Indeed the darkling of the political horizon +seems for a time to have quickened rather than discouraged +men’s minds. +</p> + +<p> +Already long before the time of Pericles the peculiar freedom +of Greek institutions had given great importance to skill in +discussion. <span class="pagenum"><a +name="P140"></a></span>Decision rested neither with king +nor with priest but in the assemblies of the people or of +leading men. Eloquence and able argument became very +desirable accomplishments therefore, and a class of teachers +arose, the Sophists, who undertook to strengthen young men in +these arts. But one cannot reason without matter, and +knowledge followed in the wake of speech. The activities and +rivalries of these Sophists led very naturally to an acute +examination of style, of methods of thought and of the +validity of arguments. When Pericles died a certain Socrates +was becoming prominent as an able and destructive critic of +bad argument—and much of the teaching of the Sophists +was bad argument. A group of brilliant young men gathered +about Socrates. In the end Socrates was executed for +disturbing people’s minds (399 <small>B.C.</small>), + he was condemned after the dignified +fashion of the Athens of those days to drink in his own house +and among his own friends a poisonous draught made from +hemlock, but the disturbance of people’s minds went on +in spite of his condemnation. His young men carried on his +teaching. +</p> + +<div class="fig" style=""> +<a name="img-140"></a> +<img src="images/img-140.jpg" +alt="PART OF THE FAMOUS FRIEZE OF THE PARTHENON, ATHENS" + width="450" height="335" /> +<p class="caption"> +PART OF THE FAMOUS FRIEZE OF THE PARTHENON, ATHENS +<br /> +<small>A specimen of Grecian sculpture in its finest expression. + Compare the advance of art with that seen in the animals shown on + p. 105 +<br /> +<i>Photo: Fred Boissonnas</i></small> +</p> +</div> + +<p> +<span class="pagenum"><a name="P141"></a></span> +</p> + +<div class="fig" style=""> +<a name="img-1411"></a> +<img src="images/img-1411.jpg" +alt="THE ACROPOLIS, ATHENS" + width="600" height="424" /> +<p class="caption"> +THE ACROPOLIS, ATHENS +<br /> +<small>The marvellous group of Temples and monuments built under the + inspriration of Pericles +<br /> +<i>Photo: Fred Boissonnas</i></small> +</p> +</div> + +<div class="fig" style=""> +<a name="img-1412"></a> +<img src="images/img-1412.jpg" +alt="THE THEATRE AT EPIDAUROS, GREECE" + width="600" height="405" /> +<p class="caption"> +THE THEATRE AT EPIDAUROS, GREECE +<br /> +<small>A wonderfully preserved specimen showing the vast auditorium +<br /> +<i>Photo: Fred Boissonnas</i></small> +</p> +</div> + +<p> +Chief among these young men was Plato (427 to 347 + <small>B.C.</small>) who presently began to teach philosophy in +the grove of the Academy. His teaching fell into two main +divisions, an examination of the foundations and methods of +human thinking and an examination of political institutions. + He was the first man to write a Utopia, that is to say the +plan of a community different from and better than any <span +class="pagenum"><a name="P142"></a></span>existing +community. This shows an altogether unprecedented boldness +in the human mind which had hitherto accepted social +traditions and usages with scarcely a question. Plato said +plainly to mankind: “Most of the social and political +ills from which you suffer are under your control, given only +the will and courage to change them. You can live in another +and a wiser fashion if you choose to think it out and work it +out. You are not awake to your own power.” That is a +high adventurous teaching that has still to soak in to the +common intelligence of our race. One of his earliest works +was the Republic, a dream of a communist aristocracy; his +last unfinished work was the Laws, a scheme of regulation for +another such Utopian state. +</p> + +<div class="fig" style=""> +<a name="img-142"></a> +<img src="images/img-142.jpg" +alt="THE CARYATIDES OF THE ERECHTHEUM" + width="600" height="418" /> +<p class="caption"> +THE CARYATIDES OF THE ERECHTHEUM +<br /> +<small>The ancient sanctuary on the Acropolis at Athens +<br /> +<i>Photo: Fred Boissonnas</i></small> +</p> +</div> + +<p> +<span class="pagenum"><a name="P143"></a></span> +</p> + +<div class="fig" style=""> +<a name="img-143"></a> +<img src="images/img-143.jpg" +alt="ATHENE OF THE PARTHENON" + width="450" height="698" /> +<p class="caption"> +ATHENE OF THE PARTHENON +<br /><small><i>Photo: Alinart</i></small> +</p> +</div> + +<p> +The criticism of methods of thinking and methods of +government was carried on after Plato’s death by +Aristotle, who had been his pupil and who taught in the +Lyceum. Aristotle came from the city of Stagira in +Macedonia, and his father was court physician to the +Macedonian king. For a time Aristotle was tutor to +Alexander, <span class="pagenum"><a +name="P144"></a></span>the king’s son, who was +destined to achieve very great things of which we shall soon +be telling. Aristotle’s work upon methods of thinking +carried the science of Logic to a level at which it remained +for fifteen hundred years or more, until the mediæval +schoolmen took up the ancient questions again. He made no +Utopias. Before man could really control his destiny as +Plato taught, Aristotle perceived that he needed far more +knowledge and far more accurate knowledge than he possessed. + And so Aristotle began that systematic collection of +knowledge which nowadays we call Science. He sent out +explorers to collect <i>facts</i>. He was the father of +natural history. He was the founder of political science. + His students at the Lyceum examined and compared the +constitutions of 158 different states .... +</p> + +<p> +Here in the fourth century <small>B.C.</small> we +find men who are practically “modern thinkers.” +The child-like, dream-like methods of primitive thought had +given way to a disciplined and critical attack upon the +problems of life. The weird and monstrous symbolism and +imagery of the gods and god monsters, and all the taboos and +awes and restraints that have hitherto encumbered thinking +are here completely set aside. Free, exact and systematic +thinking has begun. The fresh and unencumbered mind of these +newcomers out of the northern forests has thrust itself into +the mysteries of the temple and let the daylight in. +</p> + +</div><!--end chapter--> + +<div class="chapter"> + +<h2><span class="pagenum"><a name="P145"></a></span><a name="chapXXVI"></a>XXVI<br /> +THE EMPIRE OF ALEXANDER THE GREAT</h2> + +<p> +From 431 to 404 <small>B.C.</small> the Peloponnesian War wasted Greece. +Meanwhile to the north of Greece, the kindred country of Macedonia was rising +slowly to power and civilization. The Macedonians spoke a language closely akin +to Greek, and on several occasions Macedonian competitors had taken part in the +Olympic games. In 359 <small>B.C.</small> a man of very great abilities and +ambition became king of this little country—Philip. Philip had previously +been a hostage in Greece; he had had a thoroughly Greek education and he was +probably aware of the ideas of Herodotus—which had also been developed by +the philosopher Isocrates—of a possible conquest of Asia by a +consolidated Greece. +</p> + +<p> +He set himself first to extend and organize his own realm and +to remodel his army. For a thousand years now the charging +horse-chariot had been the decisive factor in battles, that +and the close-fighting infantry. Mounted horsemen had also +fought, but as a cloud of skirmishers, individually and +without discipline. Philip made his infantry fight in a +closely packed mass, the Macedonian phalanx, and he trained +his mounted gentlemen, the knights or companions, to fight in +formation and so invented cavalry. The master move in most +of his battles and in the battles of his son Alexander was a +cavalry charge. The phalanx <i>held</i> the enemy infantry +in front while the cavalry swept away the enemy horse on his +wings and poured in on the flank and rear of his infantry. + Chariots were disabled by bowmen, who shot the horses. +</p> + +<p> +With this new army Philip extended his frontiers through +Thessaly to Greece; and the battle of Chæronia (338 +<small>B.C.</small>), fought against Athens and her +allies, put all Greece at his feet. At last the dream of +Herodotus was bearing fruit. A congress of all the Greek +states appointed Philip captain-general of the Græco- +Macedonian confederacy <span class="pagenum"><a +name="P146"></a></span>against Persia, and in 336 + <small>B.C.</small> his advanced guard crossed into Asia +upon this long premeditated adventure. But he never followed +it. He was assassinated; it is believed at the instigation +of his queen Olympias, Alexander’s mother. She was +jealous because Philip had married a second wife. +</p> + +<div class="fig" style=""> +<a name="img-146"></a> +<img src="images/img-146.jpg" +alt="BUST OF ALEXANDER THE GREAT" + width="350" height="524" /> +<p class="caption"> +BUST OF ALEXANDER THE GREAT +<br /><small><i>(As in the British Museum)</i></small> +</p> +</div> + +<p> +But Philip had taken unusual pains with his son’s +education. He had not only secured Aristotle, the greatest +philosopher in the world, as this boy’s tutor, but he +had shared his ideas with him and thrust military experience +upon him. At Chæronia Alexander, who was then only +eighteen years old, had been in command of the cavalry. And +so it was possible for this young man, who was still only +twenty years old at the time of his accession, to take up his +father’s task at once and to proceed successfully with +the Persian adventure. +</p> + +<p> +In 334 <small>B.C.</small>—for two years were +needed to establish and confirm his position in Macedonia and +Greece—he crossed into Asia, defeated a not very much +bigger Persian army at the battle of the Granicus and +captured a number of cities in Asia Minor. He kept along the +sea-coast. It was necessary for him to reduce and garrison +all the coast towns as he advanced because the Persians had +control of the fleets of Tyre and Sidon and so had command of +the sea. <span class="pagenum"><a +name="P147"></a></span>Had he left a hostile port in his +rear the Persians might have landed forces to raid his +communications and cut him off. At Issus (333 <small>B.C.</small>) + he met and smashed a vast conglomerate host +under Darius III. Like the host of Xerxes that had crossed +the Dardanelles a century and a half before, it was an +incoherent accumulation of contingents and it was encumbered +with a multitude of court officials, the harem of Darius and +many camp followers. Sidon surrendered to Alexander but Tyre +resisted obstinately. Finally that great city was stormed +and plundered and destroyed. Gaza also was stormed, and +towards the end of 332 <small>B.C.</small> the +conqueror entered Egypt and took over its rule from the +Persians. +</p> + +<div class="fig" style=""> +<a name="img-147"></a> +<img src="images/img-147.jpg" +alt="ALEXANDER’S VICTORY OVER THE PERSIANS AT ISSUS" + width="600" height="288" /> +<p class="caption"> +ALEXANDER’S VICTORY OVER THE PERSIANS AT ISSUS +<br /><small><i>(From the Pompeian Mosaic)</i> +<br /> +Alexander charges in on the left, Darius is in the chariot to the + right</small> +</p> +</div> + +<p> +At Alexandretta and at Alexandria in Egypt he built great +cities, accessible from the land and so incapable of revolt. + To these the trade of the PhÅ“nician cities was diverted. + The PhÅ“nicians of the western Mediterranean suddenly +disappear from history—and as immediately the Jews of +Alexandria and the other new trading cities created by +Alexander appear. +</p> + +<p> +In 331 <small>B.C.</small> Alexander marched out of +Egypt upon Babylon as Thothmes and Rameses and Necho had done +before him. But he marched by way of Tyre. At Arbela near +the ruins of Nineveh, <span class="pagenum"><a +name="P148"></a></span>which was already a forgotten +city, he met Darius and fought the decisive battle of the +war. The Persian chariot charge failed, a Macedonian cavalry +charge broke up the great composite host and the phalanx +completed the victory. Darius led the retreat. He made no +further attempt to resist the invader but fled northward into +the country of the Medes. Alexander marched on to Babylon, +still prosperous and important, and then to Susa and +Persepolis. There after a drunken festival he burnt down the +palace of Darius, the king of kings. +</p> + +<div class="fig" style=""> +<a name="img-148"></a> +<img src="images/img-148.jpg" +alt="THE APOLLO BELVEDERE" + width="450" height="582" /> +<p class="caption"> +THE APOLLO BELVEDERE +<br /> +<small><i>(In the Vatican Museum)</i> +</small> +</p> +</div> + +<p> +Thence Alexander presently made a military parade of central +Asia, going to the utmost bounds of the Persian empire. At +first he turned northward. Darius was pursued; and he was +overtaken at dawn dying in his chariot, having been murdered +by his own people. He was still living when the foremost +Greeks reached him. Alexander came up to find him dead. + Alexander skirted the Caspian Sea, he went up into the +mountains of western Turkestan, he came down by Herat (which +he founded) and Cabul and the Khyber Pass into <span +class="pagenum"><a name="P149"></a></span>India. He +fought a great battle on the Indus with an Indian king, +Porus, and here the Macedonian troops met elephants for the +first time and defeated them. Finally he built himself +ships, sailed down to the mouth of the Indus, and marched +back by the coast of Beluchistan, reaching Susa again in 324 +<small>B.C.</small> after an absence of six years. + He then prepared to consolidate and organize this vast empire +he had won. He sought to win over his new subjects. He +assumed the robes and tiara of a Persian monarch, and this +roused the jealousy of his Macedonian commanders. He had +much trouble with them. He arranged a number of marriages +between these Macedonian officers and Persian and Babylonian +women: the “Marriage of the East and West.” He +never lived to effect the consolidation he had planned. A +fever seized him after a drinking bout in Babylon and he died +in 323 <small>B.C.</small> +</p> + +<p> +Immediately this vast dominion fell to pieces. One of his +generals, Seleucus, retained most of the old Persian empire +from the Indus to Ephesus; another, Ptolemy, seized Egypt, +and Antigonus secured Macedonia. The rest of the empire +remained unstable, passing under the control of a succession +of local adventurers. Barbarian raids began from the north +and grew in scope and intensity. Until at last, as we shall +tell, a new power, the power of the Roman republic, came out +of the west to subjugate one fragment after another and weld +them together into a new and more enduring empire. +</p> + +</div><!--end chapter--> + +<div class="chapter"> + +<h2><span class="pagenum"><a name="P150"></a></span><a name="chapXXVII"></a>XXVII<br /> +THE MUSEUM AND LIBRARY AT ALEXANDRIA</h2> + +<p> +Before the time of Alexander Greeks had already been spreading as merchants, +artists, officials, mercenary soldiers, over most of the Persian dominions. In +the dynastic disputes that followed the death of Xerxes, a band of ten thousand +Greek mercenaries played a part under the leadership of Xenophon. Their return +to Asiatic Greece from Babylon is described in his <i>Retreat of the Ten +Thousand</i>, one of the first war stories that was ever written by a general +in command. But the conquests of Alexander and the division of his brief empire +among his subordinate generals, greatly stimulated this permeation of the +ancient world by the Greeks and their language and fashions and culture. Traces +of this Greek dissemination are to be found far away in central Asia and in +north-west India. Their influence upon the development of Indian art was +profound. +</p> + +<p> +For many centuries Athens retained her prestige as a centre +of art and culture; her schools went on indeed to 529 + <small>A.D.</small>, that is to say for nearly a thousand +years; but the leadership in the intellectual activity of the +world passed presently across the Mediterranean to +Alexandria, the new trading city that Alexander had founded. + Here the Macedonian general Ptolemy had become Pharaoh, with +a court that spoke Greek. He had become an intimate of +Alexander before he became king, and he was deeply saturated +with the ideas of Aristotle. He set himself, with great +energy and capacity, to organize knowledge and investigation. + He also wrote a history of Alexander’s campaigns which, +unhappily, is lost to the world. +</p> + +<p> +Alexander had already devoted considerable sums to finance +the enquiries of Aristotle, but Ptolemy I was the first +person to make a permanent endowment of science. He set up a +foundation in Alexandria which was formerly dedicated to the +Muses, the Museum <span class="pagenum"><a +name="P151"></a></span>of Alexandria. For two or three +generations the scientific work done at Alexandria was +extraordinarily good. Euclid, Eratosthenes who measured the +size of the earth and came within fifty miles of its true +diameter, Apollonius who wrote on conic sections, Hipparchus +who made the first star map and catalogue, and Hero who +devised the first steam engine are among the greater stars of +an extraordinary constellation of scientific pioneers. + Archimedes came from Syracuse to Alexandria to study, and was +a frequent correspondent of the Museum. Herophilus was one +of the greatest of Greek anatomists, and is said to have +practised vivisection. +</p> + +<p> +For a generation or so during the reigns of Ptolemy I and +Ptolemy II there was such a blaze of knowledge and discovery +at Alexandria as the world was not to see again until the +sixteenth century <small>A.D.</small> But it did +not continue. There may have been several causes of this +decline. Chief among them, the late Professor Mahaffy +suggested, was the fact that the Museum was a +“royal” college and all its professors and +fellows were appointed and paid by Pharaoh. This was all +very well when Pharaoh was Ptolemy I, the pupil and friend of +Aristotle. But as the dynasty of the Ptolemies went on they +became Egyptianized, they fell under the sway of Egyptian +priests and Egyptian religious developments, they ceased to +follow the work that was done, and their control stifled the +spirit of enquiry altogether. The Museum produced little +good work after its first century of activity. +</p> + +<p> +Ptolemy I not only sought in the most modern spirit to +organize the finding of fresh knowledge. He tried also to +set up an encyclopædic storehouse of wisdom in the +Library of Alexandria. It was not simply a storehouse, it +was also a book-copying and book-selling organization. A +great army of copyists was set to work perpetually +multiplying copies of books. +</p> + +<p> +Here then we have the definite first opening up of the +intellectual process in which we live to-day; here we have +the systematic gathering and distribution of knowledge. The +foundation of this Museum and Library marks one of the great +epochs in the history of mankind. It is the true beginning +of Modern History. +</p> + +<div class="fig" style=""> +<a name="img-152"></a> +<img src="images/img-152.jpg" +alt="ARISTOTLE" + width="400" height="533" /> +<p class="caption"> +ARISTOTLE +<br /><small>From Herculaneum, probably Fourth Century <small>B.C. +</small> +<br /> +<i>Photo: Dr. Singer</i></small> +</p> +</div> + +<p> +Both the work of research and the work of dissemination went +on under serious handicaps. One of these was the great +social gap that <span class="pagenum"><a +name="P152"></a></span>separated the philosopher, who was +a gentleman, from the trader and the artisan. There were +glass workers and metal workers in abundance in those days, +but they were not in mental contact with the thinkers. The +glass worker was making the most beautifully coloured beads +and phials and so forth, but he never made a Florentine flask +or a lens. Clear glass does not seem to have interested him. + The metal worker made weapons and jewellery but he never made +a chemical balance. The philosopher speculated loftily about +atoms and the nature of things, but he had no practical +experience of enamels and pigments and philters and so forth. + He was not interested in substances. So Alexandria in its +brief day of opportunity produced no microscopes and no +chemistry. And though Hero invented a steam engine it was +never set either to pump or drive a boat or do any useful +thing. There were few practical applications of science +except in the realm of medicine, and the progress of science +was not stimulated and sustained by the interest and +excitement of practical applications. There was nothing to +keep the work going therefore when the intellectual curiosity +of Ptolemy I and Ptolemy <span class="pagenum"><a +name="P153"></a></span>II was withdrawn. The discoveries +of the Museum went on record in obscure manuscripts and +never, until the revival of scientific curiosity at the +Renascence, reached out to the mass of mankind. +</p> + +<p> +Nor did the Library produce any improvements in book making. + That ancient world had no paper made in definite sizes from +rag pulp. Paper was a Chinese invention and it did not reach +the western world until the ninth century + <small>A.D.</small> The only book materials were parchment and +strips of the papyrus reed joined edge to edge. These strips +were kept on rolls which were very unwieldy to wind to and +fro and read, and very inconvenient for reference. It was +these things that prevented the development of paged and +printed books. Printing itself was known in the world it +would seem as early as the Old Stone Age; there were seals in +ancient Sumeria; but without abundant paper there was little +advantage in printing books, an improvement that may further +have been resisted by trades unionism on the part of the +copyists employed. Alexandria produced abundant books but +not cheap books, and it never spread knowledge into the +population of the ancient world below the level of a wealthy +and influential class. +</p> + +<div class="fig" style=""> +<a name="img-153"></a> +<img src="images/img-153.jpg" +alt="STATUETTE OF MAITREYA: THE BUDDHA TO COME" + width="150" height="421" /> +<p class="caption"> +STATUETTE OF MAITREYA: THE BUDDHA TO COME +<br /><small>A Græco-Buddhist sculpture of the Third Century + <small>A.D.</small> +<br /> +<i>(From Malakand, N. W. Province, now in the India Museum)</i> +</small> +</p> +</div> + +<p> +So it was that this blaze of intellectual enterprise never +reached beyond a small circle of people in touch with the +group of philosophers collected by the first two Ptolemies. + It was like the light in a dark lantern which is shut off +from the world at large. Within the blaze may be blindingly +bright, but nevertheless it is unseen. The rest of the world +went on its old ways unaware that the seed of scientific +knowledge that was one day to revolutionize it altogether had +been sown. Presently a darkness of bigotry fell even upon +<span class="pagenum"><a +name="P154"></a></span>Alexandria. Thereafter for a +thousand years of darkness the seed that Aristotle had sown +lay hidden. Then it stirred and began to germinate. In a +few centuries it had become that widespread growth of +knowledge and clear ideas that is now changing the whole of +human life. +</p> + +<div class="fig" style=""> +<a name="img-154"></a> +<img src="images/img-154.jpg" +alt="THE DEATH OF BUDDHA" + width="450" height="308" /> +<p class="caption"> +THE DEATH OF BUDDHA +<br /><small>Græco-Buddhist carving from Sivat Valley, N. W. + Province, probably <small>A.D.</small> 350 +<br /> +<i>India Mus.</i> +</small> +</p> +</div> + +<p> +Alexandria was not the only centre of Greek intellectual +activity in the third century <small>B.C.</small> +There were many other cities that displayed a brilliant +intellectual life amidst the disintegrating fragments of the +brief empire of Alexander. There was, for example, the Greek +city of Syracuse in Sicily, where thought and science +flourished for two centuries; there was Pergamum in Asia +Minor, which also had a great library. But this brilliant +Hellenic world was now stricken by invasion from the north. + New Nordic barbarians, the Gauls, were striking down along +the tracks that had once been followed by the ancestors of +the Greeks and Phrygians and Macedonians. They raided, +shattered and destroyed. And in the wake of the Gauls came a +new conquering people out of Italy, the Romans, who gradually +subjugated all the western half of the vast realm of Darius +and Alexander. They were an able but unimaginative people, +preferring law and profit to either science or art. <span +class="pagenum"><a name="P155"></a></span>New invaders +were also coming down out of central Asia to shatter and +subdue the Seleucid empire and to cut off the western world +again from India. These were the Parthians, hosts of mounted +bowmen, who treated the Græco-Persian empire of +Persepolis and Susa in the third century + <small>B.C.</small> in much the same fashion that the Medes and +Persians had treated it in the seventh and sixth. And there +were now other nomadic peoples also coming out of the +northeast, peoples who were not fair and Nordic and Aryan- +speaking but yellow-skinned and black-haired and with a +Mongolian speech. But of these latter people we shall tell +more in a subsequent chapter. +</p> + +</div><!--end chapter--> + +<div class="chapter"> + +<h2><span class="pagenum"><a name="P156"></a></span><a name="chapXXVIII"></a>XXVIII<br /> +THE LIFE OF GAUTAMA BUDDHA</h2> + +<p> +But now we must go back three centuries in our story to tell of a great teacher +who came near to revolutionizing the religious thought and feeling of all Asia. +This was Gautama Buddha, who taught his disciples at Benares in India about the +same time that Isaiah was prophesying among the Jews in Babylon and Heraclitus +was carrying on his speculative enquiries into the nature of things at Ephesus. +All these men were in the world at the same time, in the sixth century +<small>B.C.</small>—unaware of one another. +</p> + +<p> +This sixth century <small>B.C.</small> was indeed +one of the most remarkable in all history. +Everywhere—for as we shall tell it was also the case in +China—men’s minds were displaying a new boldness. +Everywhere they were waking up out of the traditions of +kingships and priests and blood sacrifices and asking the +most penetrating questions. It is as if the race had reached +a stage of adolescence—after a childhood of twenty +thousand years. +</p> + +<p> +The early history of India is still very obscure. Somewhen +perhaps about 2000 <small>B.C.</small>, an Aryan- +speaking people came down from the north-west into India +either in one invasion or in a series of invasions; and was +able to spread its language and traditions over most of north +India. Its peculiar variety of Aryan speech was the +Sanskrit. They found a brunette people with a more elaborate +civilization and less vigour of will, in possession of the +country of the Indus and Ganges. But they do not seem to +have mingled with their predecessors as freely as did the +Greeks and Persians. They remained aloof. When the past of +India becomes dimly visible to the historian, Indian society +is already stratified into several layers, with a variable +number of sub-divisions, which do not eat together nor +intermarry nor associate freely. And throughout history this +<span class="pagenum"><a +name="P157"></a></span>stratification into castes +continues. This makes the Indian population something +different from the simple, freely inter-breeding European or +Mongolian communities. It is really a community of +communities. +</p> + +<p> +Siddhattha Gautama was the son of an aristocratic family +which ruled a small district on the Himalayan slopes. He was +married at nineteen to a beautiful cousin. He hunted and +played and went about in his sunny world of gardens and +groves and irrigated rice-fields. And it was amidst this +life that a great discontent fell upon him. It was the +unhappiness of a fine brain that seeks employment. He felt +that the existence he was leading was not the reality of +life, but a holiday—a holiday that had gone on too +long. +</p> + +<p> +The sense of disease and mortality, the insecurity and the +un-satisfactoriness of all happiness, descended upon the mind +of Gautama. While he was in this mood he met one of those +wandering ascetics who already existed in great numbers in +India. These men lived under severe rules, spending much +time in meditation and in religious discussion. They were +supposed to be seeking some deeper reality in life, and a +passionate desire to do likewise took possession of Gautama. +</p> + +<p> +He was meditating upon this project, says the story, when the +news was brought to him that his wife had been delivered of +his first-born son. “This is another tie to +break,” said Gautama. +</p> + +<p> +He returned to the village amidst the rejoicings of his +fellow clansmen. There was a great feast and a Nautch dance +to celebrate the birth of this new tie, and in the night +Gautama awoke in a great agony of spirit, “like a man +who is told that his house is on fire.” He resolved to +leave his happy aimless life forthwith. He went softly to +the threshold of his wife’s chamber, and saw her by the +light of a little oil lamp, sleeping sweetly, surrounded by +flowers, with his infant son in her arms. He felt a great +craving to take up the child in one first and last embrace +before he departed, but the fear of waking his wife prevented +him, and at last he turned away and went out into the bright +Indian moonshine and mounted his horse and rode off into the +world. +<span class="pagenum"><a name="P158"></a></span> +</p> + +<div class="fig" style=""> +<a name="img-158"></a> +<img src="images/img-158.jpg" +alt="TIBETAN BUDDHA" + width="600" height="771" /> +<p class="caption"> +TIBETAN BUDDHA +<br /><small>Gilt Brass Casting in India Museum, showing Gautama + Buddha in the “earth witness” attitude +<br /> +<i>India Mus.</i> +</small> +</p> +</div> + +<p> +Very far he rode that night, and in the morning he stopped +outside <span class="pagenum"><a +name="P159"></a></span>the lands of his clan, and +dismounted beside a sandy river. There he cut off his +flowing locks with his sword, removed all his ornaments and +sent them and his horse and sword back to his house. Going +on he presently met a ragged man and exchanged clothes with +him, and so having divested himself of all worldly +entanglements he was free to pursue his search after wisdom. + He made his way southward to a resort of hermits and teachers +in a hilly spur of the Vindhya Mountains. There lived a +number of wise men in a warren of caves, going into the town +for their simple supplies and imparting their knowledge by +word of mouth to such as cared to come to them. Gautama +became versed in all the metaphysics of his age. But his +acute intelligence was dissatisfied with the solutions +offered him. +</p> + +<div class="fig" style=""> +<a name="img-159"></a> +<img src="images/img-159.jpg" +alt="A BURMESE BUDDHA" + width="430" height="535" /> +<p class="caption"> +A BURMESE BUDDHA +<br /><small>Marble Figure from Mandalay, eighteenth century work, now + in the India Museum +</small> +</p> +</div> + +<p> +The Indian mind has always been disposed to believe that +power and knowledge may be obtained by extreme asceticism, by +fasting, sleeplessness, and self-torment, and these ideas +Gautama now put to the test. He betook himself with five +disciple companions to the jungle and there he gave himself +up to fasting and terrible penances. His fame spread, +“like the sound of a great <span class="pagenum"><a +name="P160"></a></span>bell hung in the canopy of the +skies.” But it brought him no sense of truth achieved. + One day he was walking up and down, trying to think in spite +of his enfeebled state. Suddenly he fell unconscious. When +he recovered, the preposterousness of these semi-magical ways +to wisdom was plain to him. +</p> + +<div class="fig" style=""> +<a name="img-160"></a> +<img src="images/img-160.jpg" +alt="THE DHAMÊKH TOWER" + width="350" height="459" /> +<p class="caption"> +THE DHAMÊKH TOWER +<br /><small>In the Deer Park at Sarnath. Sixth Century + <small>A.D.</small> +<br /> +<i>(From a Painting in the India Museum)</i> +</small> +</p> +</div> + +<p> +He horrified his companions by demanding ordinary food and +refusing to continue his mortifications. He had realized +that whatever truth a man may reach is reached best by a +nourished brain in a healthy body. Such a conception was +absolutely foreign to the ideas of the land and age. His +disciples deserted him, and went off in a melancholy state to +Benares. Gautama wandered alone. +</p> + +<p> +When the mind grapples with a great and intricate problem, it +makes its advances step by step, with but little realization +of the gains it has made, until suddenly, with an effect of +abrupt illumination, it realizes its victory. So it happened +to Gautama. He had seated himself under a great tree by the +side of a river to eat, when this sense of clear vision came +to him. It seemed to him that he saw life plain. He is said +to have sat all day and all night in profound thought, and +then he rose up to impart his vision to the world. +</p> + +<p> +He went on to Benares and there he sought out and won back +his lost disciples to his new teaching. In the King’s +Deer Park at Benares they built themselves huts and set up a +sort of school to which came many who were seeking after +wisdom. +</p> + +<p> +The starting point of his teaching was his own question as a +fortunate <span class="pagenum"><a +name="P161"></a></span>young man, “Why am I not +completely happy?” It was an introspective question. + It was a question very different in quality from the frank +and self-forgetful <i>externalized</i> curiosity with which +Thales and Heraclitus were attacking the problems of the +universe, or the equally self-forgetful burthen of moral +obligation that the culminating prophets were imposing upon +the Hebrew mind. The Indian teacher did not forget self, he +concentrated upon self and sought to destroy it. All +suffering, he taught, was due to the greedy desires of the +individual. Until man has conquered his personal cravings +his life is trouble and his end sorrow. There were three +principal forms that the craving for life took and they were +all evil. The first was the desire of the appetites, greed +and all forms of sensuousness, the second was the desire for +a personal and egotistic immortality, the third was the +craving for personal success, worldliness, avarice and the +like. All these forms of desire had to be overcome to escape +from the distresses and chagrins of life. When they were +overcome, when self had vanished altogether, then serenity of +soul, Nirvana, the highest good was attained. +</p> + +<p> +This was the gist of his teaching, a very subtle and +metaphysical teaching indeed, not nearly so easy to +understand as the Greek injunction to see and know fearlessly +and rightly and the Hebrew command to fear God and accomplish +righteousness. It was a teaching much beyond the +understanding of even Gautama’s immediate disciples, +and it is no wonder that so soon as his personal influence +was withdrawn it became corrupted and coarsened. There was a +widespread belief in India at that time that at long +intervals Wisdom came to earth and was incarnate in some +chosen person who was known as the Buddha. Gautama’s +disciples declared that he was a Buddha, the latest of the +Buddhas, though there is no evidence that he himself ever +accepted the title. Before he was well dead, a cycle of +fantastic legends began to be woven about him. The human +heart has always preferred a wonder story to a moral effort, +and Gautama Buddha became very wonderful. +</p> + +<p> +Yet there remained a substantial gain in the world. If +Nirvana was too high and subtle for most men’s +imaginations, if the myth-making impulse in the race was too +strong for the simple facts of Gautama’s life, they +could at least grasp something of the intention <span +class="pagenum"><a name="P162"></a></span>of what +Gautama called the Eight-fold way, the Aryan or Noble Path in +life. In this there was an insistence upon mental +uprightness, upon right aims and speech, right conduct and +honest livelihood. There was a quickening of the conscience +and an appeal to generous and self-forgetful ends. +</p> + +</div><!--end chapter--> + +<div class="chapter"> + +<h2><span class="pagenum"><a name="P163"></a></span><a name="chapXXIX"></a>XXIX<br /> +KING ASOKA</h2> + +<p> +For some generations after the death of Gautama, these high and noble Buddhist +teachings, this first plain teaching that the highest good for man is the +subjugation of self, made comparatively little headway in the world. Then they +conquered the imagination of one of the greatest monarchs the world has ever +seen. +</p> + +<p> +We have already mentioned how Alexander the Great came down +into India and fought with Porus upon the Indus. It is +related by the Greek historians that a certain Chandragupta +Maurya came into Alexander’s camp and tried to persuade +him to go on to the Ganges and conquer all India. Alexander +could not do this because of the refusal of his Macedonians +to go further into what was for them an unknown world, and +later on (303 <small>B.C.</small>) Chandragupta was +able to secure the help or various hill tribes and realize +his dream without Greek help. He built up an empire in North +India and was presently (303 <small>B.C.</small>) +able to attack Seleucus I in the Punjab and drive the last +vestige of Greek power out of India. His son extended this +new empire. His grandson, Asoka, the monarch of whom we now +have to tell, found himself in 264 <small>B.C.</small> + ruling from Afghanistan to Madras. +</p> + +<p> +Asoka was at first disposed to follow the example of his +father and grandfather and complete the conquest of the +Indian peninsula. He invaded Kalinga (255 <small>B.C.</small>), a + country on the east coast of Madras, he +was successful in his military operations and—alone +among conquerors—he was so disgusted by the cruelty and +horror of war that he renounced it. He would have no more of +it. He adopted the peaceful doctrines of Buddhism and +declared that henceforth his conquests should be the +conquests of religion. +</p> + +<div class="fig" style=""> +<a name="img-164"></a> +<img src="images/img-164.jpg" +alt="A LOHAN OR BUDDHIST APOSTLE (Tang Dynasty)" + width="500" height="604" /> +<p class="caption"> +A LOHAN OR BUDDHIST APOSTLE (Tang Dynasty) +<br /> +<small><i>(From the statue in the British Museum)</i> +</small> +</p> +</div> + +<p> +His reign for eight-and-twenty years was one of the brightest +interludes in the troubled history of mankind. He organized +a <span class="pagenum"><a name="P164"></a></span>great +digging of wells in India and the planting of trees for +shade. He founded hospitals and public gardens and gardens +for the growing of medicinal herbs. He created a ministry +for the care of the aborigines and subject races of India. + He made provision for the education of women. He made vast +benefactions to the Buddhist teaching orders, and tried to +stimulate them to a better and more energetic criticism of +their own accumulated literature. For corruptions and +superstitious accretions had accumulated very <span +class="pagenum"><a name="P165"></a></span>speedily upon +the pure and simple teaching of the great Indian master. + Missionaries went from Asoka to Kashmir, to Persia, to Ceylon +and Alexandria. +</p> + +<div class="fig" style=""> +<a name="img-1651"></a> +<img src="images/img-1651.jpg" +alt="TRANSOME SHOWING THE COURT OF ASOKA" + width="600" height="204" /> +<p class="caption"> +TRANSOME SHOWING THE COURT OF ASOKA +<br /> +<small><i>India Mus.</i> +</small> +</p> +</div> + +<div class="fig" style=""> +<a name="img-1652"></a> +<img src="images/img-1652.jpg" +alt="ASOKA PANEL FROM BHARHUT" + width="600" height="291" /> +<p class="caption"> +ASOKA PANEL FROM BHARHUT +<br /> +<small><i>India Mus.</i> +</small> +</p> +</div> + +<p> +Such was Asoka, greatest of kings. He was far in advance of +his age. He left no prince and no organization of men to +carry on his work, and within a century of his death the +great days of his reign had become a glorious memory in a +shattered and decaying India. The priestly caste of the +Brahmins, the highest and most privileged caste in the Indian +social body, has always been opposed to the frank and open +teaching of Buddha. Gradually they undermined the Buddhist +influence in the land. The old monstrous gods, the +innumerable cults of Hinduism, resumed their sway. Caste +became <span class="pagenum"><a +name="P166"></a></span>more rigorous and complicated. + For long centuries Buddhism and Brahminism flourished side by +side, and then slowly Buddhism decayed and Brahminism in a +multitude of forms replaced it. But beyond the confines of +India and the realms of caste Buddhism spread—until it +had won China and Siam and Burma and Japan, countries in +which it is predominant to this day. +</p> + +<div class="fig" style=""> +<a name="img-166"></a> +<img src="images/img-166.jpg" +alt="THE PILLAR OF LIONS" + width="400" height="572" /> +<p class="caption"> +THE PILLAR OF LIONS +<br /><small>Capital of the Pillar (column lying on side) erected in + Deer Park in the time of Asoka, where Buddha preached his first + sermon +<br /> +<i>(From a print in the India Museum)</i> +</small> +</p> +</div> + +</div><!--end chapter--> + +<div class="chapter"> + +<h2><span class="pagenum"><a name="P167"></a></span><a name="chapXXX"></a>XXX<br /> +CONFUCIUS AND LAO TSE</h2> + +<p> +We have still to tell of two other great men, Confucius and Lao Tse, who lived +in that wonderful century which began the adolescence of mankind, the sixth +century <small>B.C.</small> In this history thus far we have told very little +of the early story of China. At present that early history is still very +obscure, and we look to Chinese explorers and archæolologists in the new China +that is now arising to work out their past as thoroughly as the European past +has been worked out during the last century. Very long ago the first primitive +Chinese civilizations arose in the great river valleys out of the primordial +heliolithic culture. They had, like Egypt and Sumeria, the general +characteristics of that culture, and they centred upon temples in which priests +and priest kings offered the seasonal blood sacrifices. The life in those +cities must have been very like the Egyptian and Sumerian life of six or seven +thousand years ago and very like the Maya life of Central America a thousand +years ago. +</p> + +<p> +If there were human sacrifices they had long given way to +animal sacrifices before the dawn of history. And a form of +picture writing was growing up long before a thousand years +<small>B.C.</small> +</p> + +<p> +And just as the primitive civilizations of Europe and western +Asia were in conflict with the nomads of the desert and the +nomads of the north, so the primitive Chinese civilizations +had a great cloud of nomadic peoples on their northern +borders. There was a number of tribes akin in language and +ways of living, who are spoken of in history in succession as +the Huns, the Mongols, the Turks and Tartars. They changed +and divided and combined and re-combined, just as the Nordic +peoples in north Europe and central Asia changed and varied +in name rather than in nature. These Mongolian nomads had +horses earlier than the Nordic peoples, and it may <span +class="pagenum"><a name="P168"></a></span>be that in the +region of the Altai Mountains they made an independent +discovery of iron somewhen after 1000 <small>B.C.</small> + And just as in the western case so ever and +again these eastern nomads would achieve a sort of political +unity, and become the conquerors and masters and revivers of +this or that settled and civilized region. +</p> + +<p> +It is quite possible that the earliest civilization of China +was not Mongolian at all any more than the earliest +civilization of Europe and western Asia was Nordic or +Semitic. It is quite possible that the earliest civilization +of China was a brunette civilization and of a piece with the +earliest Egyptian, Sumerian and Dravidian civilizations, and +that when the first recorded history of China began there had +already been conquests and intermixture. At any rate we find +that by 1750 <small>B.C.</small> China was already a +vast system of little kingdoms and city states, all +acknowledging a loose allegiance and paying more or less +regularly, more or less definite feudal dues to one great +priest emperor, the “Son of Heaven.” The +“Shang” dynasty came to an end in 1125 + <small>B.C.</small> A “Chow” dynasty succeeded +“Shang,” and maintained China in a relaxing unity +until the days of Asoka in India and of the Ptolemies in +Egypt. Gradually China went to pieces during that long +“Chow” period. Hunnish peoples came down and set +up principalities; local rulers discontinued their tribute +and became independent. There was in the sixth century +<small>B.C.</small>, says one Chinese authority, five or +six thousand practically independent states in China. It was +what the Chinese call in their records an “Age of +Confusion.” +</p> + +<p> +But this Age of Confusion was compatible with much +intellectual activity and with the existence of many local +centres of art and civilized living. When we know more of +Chinese history we shall find that China also had her Miletus +and her Athens, her Pergamum and her Macedonia. At present +we must be vague and brief about this period of Chinese +division simply because our knowledge is not sufficient for +us to frame a coherent and consecutive story. +<span class="pagenum"><a name="P169"></a></span> +</p> + +<div class="fig" style=""> +<a name="img-169"></a> +<img src="images/img-169.jpg" +alt="CONFUCIUS" + width="450" height="725" /> +<p class="caption"> +CONFUCIUS +<br /><small>Copy of stone carving in the Temple of Confucius at + K’iu Fu +<br /> +<i>(From the records of the Archæological Mission to North + China (Chavannes))</i> +</small> +</p> +</div> + +<p> +And just as in divided Greece there were philosophers and in +shattered and captive Jewry prophets, so in disordered China +there were philosophers and teachers at this time. In all +these cases <span class="pagenum"><a +name="P170"></a></span>insecurity and uncertainty seemed +to have quickened the better sort of mind. Confucius was a +man of aristocratic origin and some official importance in a +small state called Lu. Here in a very parallel mood to the +Greek impulse he set up a sort of Academy for discovering and +teaching Wisdom. The lawlessness and disorder of China +distressed him profoundly. He conceived an ideal of a better +government and a better life, and travelled from state to +state seeking a prince who would carry out his legislative +and educational ideas. He never found his prince; he found a +prince, but court intrigues undermined the influence of the +teacher and finally defeated his reforming proposals. It is +interesting to note that a century and a half later the Greek +philosopher Plato also sought a prince, and was for a time +adviser to the tyrant Dionysius who ruled Syracuse in Sicily. +</p> + +<p> +Confucius died a disappointed man. “No intelligent +ruler arises to take me as his master,” he said, +“and my time has come to die.” But his teaching +had more vitality than he imagined in his declining and +hopeless years, and it became a great formative influence +with the Chinese people. It became one of what the Chinese +call the Three Teachings, the other two being those of Buddha +and of Lao Tse. +</p> + +<p> +The gist of the teaching of Confucius was the way of the +noble or aristocratic man. He was concerned with personal +conduct as much as Gautama was concerned with the peace of +self-forgetfulness and the Greek with external knowledge and +the Jew with righteousness. He was the most public-minded of +all great teachers. He was supremely concerned by the +confusion and miseries of the world, and he wanted to make +men noble in order to bring about a noble world. He sought +to regulate conduct to an extraordinary extent; to provide +sound rules for every occasion in life. A polite, public- +spirited gentleman, rather sternly self-disciplined, was the +ideal he found already developing in the northern Chinese +world and one to which he gave a permanent form. +<span class="pagenum"><a name="P171"></a></span> +</p> + +<div class="fig" style=""> +<a name="img-171"></a> +<img src="images/img-171.jpg" +alt="THE GREAT WALL OF CHINA" + width="600" height="806" /> +<p class="caption"> +THE GREAT WALL OF CHINA +<br /><small>As it crosses the mountains in Manchuria +<br /> +<i>Photo: Underwood & Underwood</i> +</small> +</p> +</div> + +<p> +The teaching of Lao Tse, who was for a long time in charge of +the imperial library of the Chow dynasty, was much more +mystical and vague and elusive than that of Confucius. He +seems to have preached a stoical indifference to the +pleasures and powers of the <span class="pagenum"><a +name="P172"></a></span>world and a return to an imaginary +simple life of the past. He left writings very contracted in +style and very obscure. He wrote in riddles. After his +death his teachings, like the teachings of Gautama Buddha, +were corrupted and overlaid by legends and had the most +complex and extraordinary observances and superstitious ideas +grafted upon them. In China just as in India primordial +ideas of magic and monstrous legends out of the childish past +of our race struggled against the new thinking in the world +and succeeded in plastering it over with grotesque, +irrational and antiquated observances. Both Buddhism and +Taoism (which ascribes itself largely to Lao Tse) as one +finds them in China now, are religions of monk, temple, +priest and offering of a type as ancient in form, if not in +thought, as the sacrificial religions of ancient Sumeria and +Egypt. But the teaching <span class="pagenum"><a +name="P173"></a></span>of Confucius was not so overlaid +because it was limited and plain and straightforward and lent +itself to no such distortions. +</p> + +<div class="fig" style=""> +<a name="img-172"></a> +<img src="images/img-172.jpg" +alt="EARLY CHINESE BRONZE BELL" + width="400" height="707" /> +<p class="caption"> +EARLY CHINESE BRONZE BELL +<br /><small>Inscribed in archaic characters: “made for use by + the elder of Hing village in Ting district;” latter half of + the Chou Dynasty, Sixth Century <small>B.C.</small> +<br /> +<i>(In the Victoria and Albert Museum)</i> +</small> +</p> +</div> + +<p> +North China, the China of the Hwang-ho River, became +Confucian in thought and spirit; south China, Yang-tse-Kiang +China, became Taoist. Since those days a conflict has always +been traceable in Chinese affairs between these two spirits, +the spirit of the north and the spirit of the south, between +(in latter times) Pekin and Nankin, between the official- +minded, upright and conservative north, and the sceptical, +artistic, lax and experimental south. +</p> + +<p> +The divisions of China of the Age of Confusion reached their +worst stage in the sixth century <small>B.C.</small> +The Chow dynasty was so enfeebled and so discredited that Lao +Tse left the unhappy court and retired into private life. +</p> + +<p> +Three nominally subordinate powers dominated the situation in +those days, Ts’i and Ts’in, both northern powers, +and Ch’u, which was an aggressive military power in the +Yangtse valley. At last Ts’i and Ts’in formed an +alliance, subdued Ch’u and imposed a general treaty of +disarmament and peace in China. The power of Ts’in +became predominant. Finally about the time of Asoka in India +the Ts’in monarch seized upon the sacrificial vessels +of the Chow emperor and took over his sacrificial duties. + His son, Shi-Hwang-ti (king in 246 + <small>B.C.</small>, emperor in 220 + <small>B.C.</small>), is called in the Chinese Chronicles +“the First Universal Emperor.” +</p> + +<p> +More fortunate than Alexander, Shi-Hwang-ti reigned for +thirty-six years as king and emperor. His energetic reign +marks the beginning of a new era of unity and prosperity for +the Chinese people. He fought vigorously against the Hunnish +invaders from the northern deserts, and he began that immense +work, the Great Wall of China, to set a limit to their +incursions. +</p> + +</div><!--end chapter--> + +<div class="chapter"> + +<h2><span class="pagenum"><a name="P174"></a></span><a name="chapXXXI"></a>XXXI<br /> +ROME COMES INTO HISTORY</h2> + +<p> +The reader will note a general similarity in the history of all these +civilizations in spite of the effectual separation caused by the great barriers +of the Indian north-west frontier and of the mountain masses of Central Asia +and further India. First for thousands of years the heliolithic culture spread +over all the warm and fertile river valleys of the old world and developed a +temple system and priest rulers about its sacrificial traditions. Apparently +its first makers were always those brunette peoples we have spoken of as the +central race of mankind. Then the nomads came in from the regions of seasonal +grass and seasonal migrations and superposed their own characteristics and +often their own language on the primitive civilization. They subjugated and +stimulated it, and were stimulated to fresh developments and made it here one +thing and here another. In Mesopotamia it was the Elamite and then the Semite, +and at last the Nordic Medes and Persians and the Greeks who supplied the +ferment; over the region of the Ægean peoples it was the Greeks; in India it +was the Aryan-speakers; in Egypt there was a thinner infusion of conquerors +into a more intensely saturated priestly civilization; in China, the Hun +conquered and was absorbed and was followed by fresh Huns. China was Mongolized +just as Greece and North India were Aryanized and Mesopotamia Semitized and +Aryanized. Everywhere the nomads destroyed much, but everywhere they brought in +a new spirit of free enquiry and moral innovation. They questioned the beliefs +of immemorial ages. They let daylight into the temples. They set up kings who +were neither priests nor gods but mere leaders among their captains and +companions. +</p> + +<div class="fig" style=""> +<a name="img-175"></a> +<img src="images/img-175.jpg" +alt="THE DYING GAUL" + width="600" height="777" /> +<p class="caption"> +THE DYING GAUL +<br /><small>The statue in the National Museum, Rome, depicting a Gaul +stabbing himself, after killing his wife, in the presence of his +enemies +<br /> +<i>Photo: Anderson</i> +</small> +</p> +</div> + +<p> +<span class="pagenum"><a name="P175"></a></span> +In the centuries following the sixth century <small>B.C.</small> + we find everywhere a great breaking down of +ancient traditions and a new spirit <span class="pagenum"><a +name="P176"></a></span>of moral and intellectual enquiry +awake, a spirit never more to be altogether stilled in the +great progressive movement of mankind. We find reading and +writing becoming common and accessible accomplishments among +the ruling and prosperous minority; they were no longer the +jealously guarded secret of the priests. Travel is +increasing and transport growing easier by reason of horses +and roads. A new and easy device to facilitate trade has +been found in coined money. +</p> + +<p> +Let us now transfer our attention back from China in the +extreme east of the old world to the western half of the +Mediterranean. Here we have to note the appearance of a city +which was destined to play at last a very great part indeed +in human affairs, Rome. +</p> + +<p> +Hitherto we have told very little about Italy in our story. + It was before 1000 <small>B.C.</small> a land of +mountain and forest and thinly populated. Aryan-speaking +tribes had pressed down this peninsula and formed little +towns and cities, and the southern extremity was studded with +Greek settlements. The noble ruins of Pæstum preserve +for us to this day something of the dignity and splendour of +these early Greek establishments. A non-Aryan people, +probably akin to the Ægean peoples, the Etruscans, had +established themselves in the central part of the peninsula. + They had reversed the usual process by subjugating various +Aryan tribes. Rome, when it comes into the light of history, +is a little trading city at a ford on the Tiber, with a +Latin-speaking population ruled over by Etruscan kings. The +old chronologies gave 753 <small>B.C.</small> as the +date of the founding of Rome, half a century later than the +founding of the great PhÅ“nician city of Carthage and +twenty-three years after the first Olympiad. Etruscan tombs +of a much earlier date than 753 <small>B.C.</small> +have, however, been excavated in the Roman Forum. +</p> + +<p> +In that red-letter century, the sixth century + <small>B.C.</small>, the Etruscan kings were expelled (510 + <small>B.C.</small>) and Rome became an aristocratic +republic with a lordly class of “patrician” +families dominating a commonalty of “plebeians.” +Except that it spoke Latin it was not unlike many +aristocratic Greek republics. +</p> + +<p> +For some centuries the internal history of Rome was the story +of a long and obstinate struggle for freedom and a share in +the government on the part of the plebeians. It would not be +difficult to find <span class="pagenum"><a +name="P177"></a></span>Greek parallels to this conflict, +which the Greeks would have called a conflict of aristocracy +with democracy. In the end the plebeians broke down most of +the exclusive barriers of the old families and established a +working equality with them. They destroyed the old +exclusiveness, and made it possible and acceptable for Rome +to extend her citizenship by the inclusion of more and more +“outsiders.” For while she still struggled at +home, she was extending her power abroad. +</p> + +<div class="fig" style=""> +<a name="img-177"></a> +<img src="images/img-177.jpg" +alt="REMAINS OF THE ANCIENT ROMAN CISTERNS AT CARTHAGE" + width="600" height="480" /> +<p class="caption"> +REMAINS OF THE ANCIENT ROMAN CISTERNS AT CARTHAGE +<br /><small> +<i>Photo: Underwood & Underwood</i> +</small> +</p> +</div> + +<p> +The extension of Roman power began in the fifth century + <small>B.C.</small> Until that time they had waged war, +and generally unsuccessful war, with the Etruscans. There +was an Etruscan fort, Veii, only a few miles from Rome which +the Romans had never been able to capture. In 474 + <small>B.C.</small>, however, a great misfortune came to the +Etruscans. Their fleet was destroyed by the Greeks of +Syracuse in Sicily. <span class="pagenum"><a +name="P178"></a></span>At the same time a wave of Nordic +invaders came down upon them from the north, the Gauls. + Caught between Roman and Gaul, the Etruscans fell—and +disappear from history. Veii was captured by the Romans, The +Gauls came through to Rome and sacked the city (390 + <small>B.C.</small><small>A.D.</small>) but could not capture the + Capitol. + An attempted night surprise was betrayed by the cackling of +some geese, and finally the invaders were bought off and +retired to the north of Italy again. +</p> + +<p> +The Gaulish raid seems to have invigorated rather than +weakened Rome. The Romans conquered and assimilated the +Etruscans, and extended their power over all central Italy +from the Arno to Naples. To this they had reached within a +few years of 300 <small>B.C.</small> Their +conquests in Italy were going on simultaneously with the +growth of Philip’s power in Macedonia and Greece, and +the tremendous raid of Alexander to Egypt and the Indus. The +Romans had become notable people in the civilized world to +the east of them by the break-up of Alexander’s empire. +</p> + +<p> +To the north of the Roman power were the Gauls; to the south +of them were the Greek settlements of Magna Græcia, that +is to say of Sicily and of the toe and heel of Italy. The +Gauls were a hardy, warlike people and the Romans held that +boundary by a line of forts and fortified settlements. The +Greek cities in the south headed by Tarentum (now Taranto) +and by Syracuse in Sicily, did not so much threaten as fear +the Romans. They looked about for some help against these +new conquerors. +</p> + +<p> +We have already told how the empire of Alexander fell to +pieces and was divided among his generals and companions. + Among these adventurers was a kinsman of Alexander’s +named Pyrrhus, who established himself in Epirus, which is +across the Adriatic Sea over against the heel of Italy. It +was his ambition to play the part of Philip of Macedonia to +Magna Græcia, and to become protector and master-general +of Tarentum, Syracuse and the rest of that part of the world. + He had what was then it very efficient modern army; he had an +infantry phalanx, cavalry from Thessaly—which was now +quite as good as the original Macedonian cavalry—and +twenty fighting elephants; he invaded Italy and routed the +Romans in two considerable battles, Heraclea (280 + <small>B.C.</small>) and Ausculum (279 + <small>B.C.</small>), and <span class="pagenum"><a +name="P179"></a></span>having driven them north, he +turned his attention to the subjugation of Sicily. +</p> + +<p> +But this brought against him a more formidable enemy than +were the Romans at that time, the PhÅ“nician trading city +of Carthage, which was probably then the greatest city in the +world. Sicily was too near Carthage for a new Alexander to +be welcome there, and Carthage was mindful of the fate that +had befallen her mother city Tyre half a century before. So +she sent a fleet to encourage or compel Rome to continue the +struggle, and she cut the overseas communications of Pyrrhus. + Pyrrhus found himself freshly assailed by the Romans, and +suffered a disastrous repulse in an attack he had made upon +their camp at Beneventum between Naples and Rome. +</p> + +<p> +And suddenly came news that recalled him to Epirus. The +Gauls were raiding south. But this time they were not +raiding down into Italy; the Roman frontier, fortified and +guarded, had become too formidable for them. They were +raiding down through Illyria (which is now Serbia and +Albania) to Macedonia and Epirus. Repulsed by the Romans, +endangered at sea by the Carthaginians, and threatened at +home by the Gauls, Pyrrhus abandoned his dream of conquest +and went home (275 <small>B.C.</small>), and the +power of Rome was extended to the Straits of Messina. +</p> + +<p> +On the Sicilian side of the Straits was the Greek city of +Messina, and this presently fell into the hands of a gang of +pirates. The Carthaginians, who were already practically +overlords of Sicily and allies of Syracuse, suppressed these +pirates (270 <small>B.C.</small>) and put in a +Carthaginian garrison there. The pirates appealed to Rome +and Rome listened to their complaint. And so across the +Straits of Messina the great trading power of Carthage and +this new conquering people, the Romans, found themselves in +antagonism, face to face. +</p> + +</div><!--end chapter--> + +<div class="chapter"> + +<h2><span class="pagenum"><a name="P180"></a></span><a name="chapXXXII"></a>XXXII<br /> +ROME AND CARTHAGE</h2> + +<p> +It was in 264 <small>B.C.</small> that the great struggle between Rome and +Carthage, the Punic Wars, began. In that year Asoka was beginning his reign in +Behar and Shi- Hwang-ti was a little child, the Museum in Alexandria was still +doing good scientific work, and the barbaric Gauls were now in Asia Minor and +exacting a tribute from Pergamum. The different regions of the world were still +separated by insurmountable distances, and probably the rest of mankind heard +only vague and remote rumours of the mortal fight that went on for a century +and a half in Spain, Italy, North Africa and the western Mediterranean, between +the last stronghold of Semitic power and Rome, this newcomer among +Aryan-speaking peoples. +</p> + +<p> +That war has left its traces upon issues that still stir the +world. Rome triumphed over Carthage, but the rivalry of +Aryan and Semite was to merge itself later on in the conflict +of Gentile and Jew. Our history now is coming to events +whose consequences and distorted traditions still maintain a +lingering and expiring vitality in, and exercise a +complicating and confusing influence upon, the conflicts and +controversies of to-day. +</p> + +<p> +The First Punic War began in 264 <small>B.C.</small> +about the pirates of Messina. It developed into a struggle +for the possession of all Sicily except the dominions of the +Greek king of Syracuse. The advantage of the sea was at +first with the Carthaginians. They had great fighting ships +of what was hitherto an unheard-of size, quinqueremes, +galleys with five banks of oars and a huge ram. At the +battle of Salamis, two centuries before, the leading +battleships had only been triremes with three banks. But the +Romans, with extraordinary energy and in spite of the fact +that they had little naval experience, set themselves to +outbuild the Carthaginians. They manned the new navy they +created chiefly with Greek seamen, and they invented <span +class="pagenum"><a name="P181"></a></span>grappling and +boarding to make up for the superior seamanship of the enemy. + When the Carthaginian came up to ram or shear the oars of the +Roman, huge grappling irons seized him and the Roman soldiers +swarmed aboard him. At Mylæ (260 + <small>B.C.</small>) and at Ecnomus (256 + <small>B.C.</small>) the Carthaginians were disastrously beaten. + They repulsed a Roman landing near Carthage but were badly +beaten at Palermo, losing one hundred and four elephants +there—to grace such a triumphal procession through the +Forum as Rome had never seen before. But after that came two +Roman defeats and then a Roman recovery. The last naval +forces of Carthage were defeated <span class="pagenum"><a +name="P182"></a></span>by it last Roman effort at the +battle of the Ægatian Isles (241 + <small>B.C.</small>) and Carthage sued for peace. All Sicily +except the dominions of Hiero, king of Syracuse, was ceded to +the Romans. +</p> + +<div class="fig" style=""> +<a name="img-181"></a> +<img src="images/img-181.jpg" +alt="HANNIBAL" + width="450" height="602" /> +<p class="caption"> +HANNIBAL +<br /><small> +Bust in the National Museum at Naples +<br /> +<i>Photo: Mansell</i> +</small> +</p> +</div> + +<p> +For twenty-two years Rome and Carthage kept the peace. Both +had trouble enough at home. In Italy the Gauls came south +again, threatened Rome—<i>which in a state of panic +offered human sacrifices to the Gods!</i>—and were +routed at Telamon. Rome pushed forward to the Alps, and even +extended her dominions down the Adriatic coast to Illyria. + Carthage suffered from domestic insurrections and from +revolts in Corsica and Sardinia, and displayed far less +recuperative power. Finally, an act of intolerable +aggression, Rome seized and annexed the two revolting +islands. +</p> + +<p> +Spain at that time was Carthaginian as far north as the river +Ebro. To that boundary the Romans restricted them. Any +crossing of the Ebro by the Carthaginians was to be +considered an act of war against the Romans. At last in 218 +<small>B.C.</small> the Carthaginians, provoked by +new Roman aggressions, did cross this river under a young +general named Hannibal, one of the most brilliant commanders +in the whole of history. He marched his army from Spain over +the Alps into Italy, raised the Gauls against the Romans, and +carried on the Second Punic War in Italy itself for fifteen +years. He inflicted tremendous defeats upon the Romans at +Lake Trasimere and at Cannæ, and throughout all his +Italian campaigns no Roman army stood against him and escaped +disaster. But a Roman army had landed at Marseilles and cut +his communications with Spain; he had no siege train, and he +could never capture Rome. Finally the Carthaginians, +threatened by the revolt of the Numidians at home, were +forced back upon the defence of their own city in Africa, a +Roman army crossed into Africa, and Hannibal experienced his +first defeat under its walls at the battle of Zama (202 + <small>B.C.</small> at the hands of Scipio Africanus the +Elder. The battle of Zama ended this Second Punic War. + Carthage capitulated; she surrendered Spain and her war +fleet; she paid an enormous indemnity and agreed to give up +Hannibal to the vengeance of the Romans. But Hannibal +escaped and fled to Asia where later, being in danger of +falling into the hands of his relentless enemies, he took +poison and died. +</p> + +<p> +<span class="pagenum"><a name="P183"></a></span>For +fifty-six years Rome and the shorn city of Carthage were at +peace. And meanwhile Rome spread her empire over confused +and divided Greece, invaded Asia Minor, and defeated +Antiochus III, the Seleucid monarch, at Magnesia in Lydia. + She made Egypt, still under the Ptolemies, and Pergamum and +most of the small states of Asia Minor into +“Allies,” or, as we should call them now, +“protected states.” +</p> + +<p> +Meanwhile Carthage, subjugated and enfeebled, had been slowly +regaining something of her former prosperity. Her recovery +revived the hate and suspicion of the Romans. She was +attacked upon the most shallow and artificial of quarrels +(149 <small>B.C.</small>), she made an obstinate and +bitter resistance, stood a long siege and was stormed (146 +<small>B.C.</small>). The street fighting, or +massacre, lasted six days; it was extraordinarily bloody, and +when the citadel capitulated only about fifty thousand of the +Carthaginian population remained alive out of a quarter of a +million. They were sold into slavery, and the city was burnt +and elaborately destroyed. The blackened ruins were ploughed +and sown as a sort of ceremonial effacement. +</p> + +<div class="fig" style=""> +<a name="img-183"></a> +<img src="images/img-183.jpg" +alt="Map: The Extent of the Roman Power & its Alliances about + 150 B.C." + width="600" height="345" /> +</div> + +<p> +So ended the Third Punic War. Of all the Semitic states and +cities that had flourished in the world five centuries before +only one little country remained free under native rulers. + This was Judea, which had liberated itself from the Seleucids +and was under the rule <span class="pagenum"><a +name="P184"></a></span>of the native Maccabean princes. + By this time it had its Bible almost complete, and was +developing the distinctive traditions of the Jewish world as +we know it now. It was natural that the Carthaginians, +Phoenicians and kindred peoples dispersed about the world +should find a common link in their practically identical +language and in this literature of hope and courage. To a +large extent they were still the traders and bankers of the +world. The Semitic world had been submerged rather than +replaced. +</p> + +<p> +Jerusalem, which has always been rather the symbol than the +centre of Judaism, was taken by the Romans in 65 + <small>B.C.</small>; and after various vicissitudes of quasi- +independence and revolt was besieged by them in 70 + <small>A.D.</small> and captured after a stubborn struggle. + The Temple was destroyed. A later rebellion in 132 + <small>A.D.</small> completed its destruction, and the +Jerusalem we know to-day was rebuilt later under Roman +auspices. A temple to the Roman god, Jupiter Capitolinus, +stood in the place of the Temple, and Jews were forbidden to +inhabit the city. +</p> + +</div><!--end chapter--> + +<div class="chapter"> + +<h2><span class="pagenum"><a name="P185"></a></span><a name="chapXXXIII"></a>XXXIII<br /> +THE GROWTH OF THE ROMAN EMPIRE</h2> + +<p> +Now this new Roman power which arose to dominate the western world in the +second and first centuries <small>B.C.</small> was in several respects a +different thing from any of the great empires that had hitherto prevailed in +the civilized world. It was not at first a monarchy, and it was not the +creation of any one great conqueror. It was not indeed the first of republican +empires; Athens had dominated a group of Allies and dependents in the time of +Pericles, and Carthage when she entered upon her fatal struggle with Rome was +mistress of Sardinia and Corsica, Morocco, Algiers, Tunis, and most of Spain +and Sicily. But it was the first republican empire that escaped extinction and +went on to fresh developments. +</p> + +<p> +The centre of this new system lay far to the west of the more +ancient centres of empire, which had hitherto been the river +valleys of Mesopotamia and Egypt. This westward position +enabled Rome to bring in to civilization quite fresh regions +and peoples. The Roman power extended to Morocco and Spain, +and was presently able to thrust north-westward over what is +now France and Belgium to Britain and north-eastward into +Hungary and South Russia. But on the other hand it was never +able to maintain itself in Central Asia or Persia because +they were too far from its administrative centres. It +included therefore great masses of fresh Nordic Aryan- +speaking peoples, it presently incorporated nearly all the +Greek people in the world, and its population was less +strongly Hamitic and Semitic than that of any preceding +empire. +</p> + +<p> +For some centuries this Roman Empire did not fall into the +grooves of precedent that had so speedily swallowed up +Persian and Greek, and all that time it developed. The +rulers of the Medes and Persians became entirely Babylonized +in a generation or so; they <span class="pagenum"><a +name="P186"></a></span>took over the tiara of the king of +kings and the temples and priesthoods of his gods; Alexander +and his successors followed in the same easy path of +assimilation; the Seleucid monarchs had much the same court +and administrative methods as Nebuchadnezzar; the Ptolemies +became Pharaohs and altogether Egyptian. They were +assimilated just as before them the Semitic conquerors of the +Sumerians had been assimilated. But the Romans ruled in +their own city, and for some centuries kept to the laws of +their own nature. The only people who exercised any great +mental influence upon them before the second or third century +<small>A.D.</small> were the kindred and similar +Greeks. So that the Roman Empire was essentially a first +attempt to rule a great dominion upon mainly Aryan lines. It +was so far a new pattern in history, it was an expanded Aryan +republic. The old pattern of a personal conqueror ruling +over a capital city that had grown up round the temple of a +harvest god did not apply to it. The Romans had gods and +temples, but like the gods of the Greeks their gods were +quasi-human immortals, divine patricians. The Romans also +had blood sacrifices and even made human ones in times of +stress, things they may have learnt to do from their dusky +Etruscan teachers; but until Rome was long past its zenith +neither priest nor temple played a large part in Roman +history. +</p> + +<p> +The Roman Empire was a growth, an unplanned novel growth; the +Roman people found themselves engaged almost unawares in a +vast administrative experiment. It cannot be called a +successful experiment. In the end their empire collapsed +altogether. And it changed enormously in form and method +from century to century. It changed more in a hundred years +than Bengal or Mesopotamia or Egypt changed in a thousand. + It was always changing. It never attained to any fixity. +</p> + +<p> +In a sense the experiment failed. In a sense the experiment +remains unfinished, and Europe and America to-day are still +working out the riddles of world-wide statescraft first +confronted by the Roman people. +</p> + +<p> +It is well for the student of history to bear in mind the +very great changes not only in political but in social and +moral matters that went on throughout the period of Roman +dominion. There is much too strong a tendency in +people’s minds to think of the Roman <span +class="pagenum"><a name="P187"></a></span>rule as +something finished and stable, firm, rounded, noble and +decisive. Macaulay’s <i>Lays of Ancient Rome</i>, +S.P.Q.R. the elder Cato, the Scipios, Julius Cæsar, +Diocletian, Constantine the Great, triumphs, orations, +gladiatorial combats and Christian martyrs are all mixed up +together in a picture of something high and cruel and +dignified. The items of that picture have to be +disentangled. They are collected at different points from a +process of change profounder than that which separates the +London of William the Conqueror from the London of to-day. +</p> + +<p> +We may very conveniently divide the expansion of Rome into +four stages. The first stage began after the sack of Rome by +the Goths in 390 <small>B.C.</small> and went on +until the end of the First Punic War (240 B.C,). We may call +this stage the stage of the Assimilative Republic. It was +perhaps the finest, most characteristic stage in Roman +history. The age-long dissensions of patrician and plebeian +were drawing to it close, the Etruscan threat had come to an +end, no one was very rich yet nor very poor, and most men +were public-spirited. It was a republic like the republic of +the South African Boers before 1900 or like the northern +states of the American union between 1800 and 1850; a free- +farmers republic. At the outset of this stage Rome was a +little state scarcely twenty miles square. She fought the +sturdy but kindred states about her, and sought not their +destruction but coalescence. Her centuries of civil +dissension had trained her people in compromise and +concessions. Some of the defeated cities became altogether +Roman with a voting share in the government, some became +self-governing with the right to trade and marry in Rome; +garrisons full of citizens were set up at strategic points +and colonies of varied privileges founded among the freshly +conquered people. Great roads were made. The rapid +Latinization of all Italy was the inevitable consequence of +such a policy. In 89 <small>B.C.</small> all the +free inhabitants of Italy became citizens of the city of +Rome. Formally the whole Roman Empire became at last an +extended city. In 212 <small>A.D.</small> every +free man in the entire extent of the empire was given +citizenship; the right, if he could get there, to vote in the +town meeting in Rome. +</p> + +<p> +This extension of citizenship to tractable cities and to +whole countries was the distinctive device of Roman +expansion. It <span class="pagenum"><a +name="P188"></a></span>reversed the old process of +conquest and assimilation altogether. By the Roman method +the conquerors assimilated the conquered. +</p> + +<div class="fig" style=""> +<a name="img-188"></a> +<img src="images/img-188.jpg" +alt="THE FORUM AT ROME AS IT IS TO-DAY" + width="600" height="448" /> +<p class="caption"> +THE FORUM AT ROME AS IT IS TO-DAY +</p> +</div> + +<p> +But after the First Punic War and the annexation of Sicily, +though the old process of assimilation still went on, another +process arose by its side. Sicily for instance was treated +as a conquered prey. It was declared an “estate” +of the Roman people. Its rich soil and industrious +population was exploited to make Rome rich. The patricians +and the more influential among the plebeians secured the +major share of that wealth. And the war also brought in a +large supply of slaves. Before the First Punic War the +population of the republic had been largely a population of +citizen farmers. Military service was their privilege and +liability. While they were on active service their farms +fell into debt and a new large-scale slave agriculture grew +up; when they returned they found their produce in +competition with slave-grown produce from Sicily and from the +new estates at home. Times had changed. The republic had +<span class="pagenum"><a name="P189"></a></span>altered +its character. Not only was Sicily in the hands of Rome, the +common man was in the hands of the rich creditor and the rich +competitor. Rome had entered upon its second stage, the +Republic of Adventurous Rich Men. +</p> + +<p> +For two hundred years the Roman soldier farmers had struggled +for freedom and a share in the government of their state; for +a hundred years they had enjoyed their privileges. The First +Punic War wasted them and robbed them of all they had won. +</p> + +<div class="fig" style=""> +<a name="img-189"></a> +<img src="images/img-189.jpg" +alt="RELICS OF ROMAN RULE" + width="600" height="443" /> +<p class="caption"> +RELICS OF ROMAN RULE +<br /><small> +Ruins of Coliseum in Tunis +<br /> +<i>Photo: Jacques Boyer</i> +</small> +</p> +</div> + +<p> +The value of their electoral privileges had also evaporated. + The governing bodies of the Roman republic were two in +number. The first and more important was the Senate. This +was a body originally of patricians and then of prominent men +of all sorts, who were summoned to it first by certain +powerful officials, the consuls and censors. Like the +British House of Lords it became a gathering of great +landowners, prominent politicians, big business men and the +<span class="pagenum"><a name="P190"></a></span>like. + It was much more like the British House of Lords than it was +like the American Senate. For three centuries, from the +Punic Wars onward, it was the centre of Roman political +thought and purpose. The second body was the Popular +Assembly. This was supposed to be an assembly of <i>all</i> +the citizens of Rome. When Rome was a little state twenty +miles square this was a possible gathering. When the +citizenship of Rome had spread beyond the confines in Italy, +it was an altogether impossible one. Its meetings, +proclaimed by horn-blowing from the Capitol and the city +walls, became more and more a gathering of political hacks +and city riff-raff. In the fourth century + <small>B.C.</small> the Popular Assembly was a considerable check +upon the Senate, a competent representation of the claims and +rights of the common man. By the end of the Punic Wars it +was an impotent relic of a vanquished popular control. No +effectual legal check remained upon the big men. +</p> + +<div class="fig" style=""> +<a name="img-190"></a> +<img src="images/img-190.jpg" +alt="THE GREAT ROMAN ARCH AT CTESIPHON NEAR BAGDAD" + width="600" height="383" /> +<p class="caption"> +THE GREAT ROMAN ARCH AT CTESIPHON NEAR BAGDAD +</p> +</div> + +<p> +Nothing of the nature of representative government was ever +introduced into the Roman republic. No one thought of +electing delegates to represent the will of the citizens. + This is a very important point for the student to grasp. The +Popular Assembly <span class="pagenum"><a +name="P191"></a></span>never became the equivalent of the +American House of Representatives or the British House of +Commons. In theory it was all the citizens; in practice it +ceased to be anything at all worth consideration. +</p> + +<p> +The common citizen of the Roman Empire was therefore in a +very poor case after the Second Punic War; he was +impoverished, he had often lost his farm, he was ousted from +profitable production by slaves, and he had no political +power left to him to remedy these things. The only methods +of popular expression left to a people without any form of +political expression are the strike and the revolt. The +story of the second and first centuries + <small>B.C.</small>, so far as internal politics go, is a story +of futile revolutionary upheaval. The scale of this history +will not permit us to tell of the intricate struggles of that +time, of the attempts to break up estates and restore the +land to the free farmer, of proposals to abolish debts in +whole or in part. There was revolt and civil war. In 73 +<small>B.C.</small>, the distresses of Italy were +enhanced by a great insurrection, of the slaves under +Spartacus. The slaves of Italy revolted with some effect, +for among them were the trained fighters of the gladiatorial +shows. For two years Spartacus held out in the crater of +Vesuvius, which seemed at that time to be an extinct volcano. + This insurrection was defeated at last and suppressed with +frantic cruelty. Six thousand captured Spartacists were +crucified along the Appian Way, the great highway that runs +southward out of Rome (71 <small>B.C.</small>). +</p> + +<p> +The common man never made head against the forces that were +subjugating and degrading him. But the big rich men who were +overcoming him were even in his defeat preparing a new power +in the Roman world over themselves and him, the power of the +army. +</p> + +<p> +Before the Second Punic War the army of Rome was a levy of +free farmers, who, according to their quality, rode or +marched afoot to battle. This was a very good force for wars +close at hand, but not the sort of army that will go abroad +and bear long campaigns with patience. And moreover as the +slaves multiplied and the estates grew, the supply of free- +spirited fighting farmers declined. It was a popular leader +named Marius who introduced a new factor. North Africa after +the overthrow of the Carthaginian civilization had become a +semi-barbaric kingdom, the kingdom of Numidia. <span +class="pagenum"><a name="P192"></a></span>The Roman +power fell into conflict with Jugurtha, king of this state, +and experienced enormous difficulties in subduing him. + Marius was made consul, in a phase of public indignation, to +end this discreditable war. This he did by raising <i>paid +troops</i> and drilling them hard. Jugurtha was brought in +chains to Rome (106 <small>B.C.</small>) and Marius, +when his time of office had expired, held on to his +consulship illegally with his newly created legions. There +was no power in Rome to restrain him. +</p> + +<p> +With Marius began the third phase in the development of the +Roman power, the Republic of the Military Commanders. For +now began a period in which the leaders of the paid legions +fought for the mastery of the Roman world. Against Marius +was pitted the aristocratic Sulla who had served under him in +Africa. Each in turn made a great massacre of his political +opponents. Men were proscribed and executed by the thousand, +and their estates were sold. After the bloody rivalry of +these two and the horror of the revolt of Spartacus, came a +phase in which Lucullus and Pompey the Great and Crassus and +Julius Cæsar were the masters of armies and dominated +affairs. It was Crassus who defeated Spartacus. Lucullus +conquered Asia Minor and penetrated to Armenia, and retired +with great wealth into private life. Crassus thrusting +further invaded Persia and was defeated and slain by the +Parthians. After a long rivalry Pompey was defeated by +Julius Cæsar (48 <small>B.C.</small>) and +murdered in Egypt, leaving Julius Cæsar sole master of +the Roman world. +</p> + +<p> +The figure of Julius Cæsar is one that has stirred the +human imagination out of all proportion to its merit or true +importance. He has become a legend and a symbol. For us he +is chiefly important as marking the transition from the phase +of military adventurers to the beginning of the fourth stage +in Roman expansion, the Early Empire. For in spite of the +profoundest economic and political convulsions, in spite of +civil war and social degeneration, throughout all this time +the boundaries of the Roman state crept outward and continued +to creep outward to their maximum about 100 + <small>A.D.</small> There had been something like an ebb during +the doubtful phases of the Second Punic War, and again a +manifest loss of vigour before the reconstruction of the army +by Marius. The revolt of Spartacus <span class="pagenum"><a +name="P193"></a></span>marked a third phase. Julius +Cæsar made his reputation as a military leader in Gaul, +which is now France and Belgium. (The chief tribes +inhabiting this country belonged to the same Celtic people as +the Gauls who had occupied north Italy for a time, and who +had afterwards raided into Asia Minor and settled down as the +Galatians.) Cæsar drove back a German invasion of Gaul +and added all that country to the empire, and he twice +crossed the Straits of Dover into Britain (55 and 54 + <small>B.C.</small>), where however he made no permanent +conquest. Meanwhile Pompey the Great was consolidating Roman +conquests that reached in the east to the Caspian Sea. +</p> + +<div class="fig" style=""> +<a name="img-193"></a> +<img src="images/img-193.jpg" +alt="THE COLUMN OF TRAJAN AT ROME" + width="600" height="460" /> +<p class="caption"> +THE COLUMN OF TRAJAN AT ROME +<br /><small> +Representing his conquests at Dacia and elsewhere +</small> +</p> +</div> + +<p> +At this time, the middle of the first century + <small>B.C.</small>, the Roman Senate was still the nominal +centre of the Roman government, appointing consuls and other +officials, granting powers and the like; and a number of +politicians, among whom Cicero was an outstanding <span +class="pagenum"><a name="P194"></a></span>figure, were +struggling to preserve the great traditions of republican +Rome and to maintain respect for its laws. But the spirit of +citizenship had gone from Italy with the wasting away of the +free farmers; it was a land now of slaves and impoverished +men with neither the understanding nor the desire for +freedom. There was nothing whatever behind these republican +leaders in the Senate, while behind the great adventurers +they feared and desired to control were the legions. Over +the heads of the Senate Crassus and Pompey and Cæsar +divided the rule of the Empire between them (The First +Triumvirate). When presently Crassus was killed at distant +Carrhæ by the Parthians, Pompey and Cæsar fell out. + Pompey took up the republican side, and laws were passed to +bring Cæsar to trial for his breaches of law and his +disobedience to the decrees of the Senate. +</p> + +<p> +It was illegal for a general to bring his troops out of the +boundary of his command, and the boundary between +Cæsar’s command and Italy was the Rubicon. In 49 +<small>B.C.</small> he crossed the Rubicon, saying +“The die is cast” and marched upon Pompey and +Rome. +</p> + +<p> +It had been the custom in Rome in the past, in periods of +military extremity, to elect a “dictator” with +practically unlimited powers to rule through the crisis. + After his overthrow of Pompey, Cæsar was made dictator +first for ten years and then (in 45 + <small>B.C.</small>) for life. In effect he was made monarch of +the empire for life. There was talk of a king, a word +abhorrent to Rome since the expulsion of the Etruscans five +centuries before. Cæsar refused to be king, but adopted +throne and sceptre. After his defeat of Pompey, Cæsar +had gone on into Egypt and had made love to Cleopatra, the +last of the Ptolemies, the goddess queen of Egypt. She seems +to have turned his head very completely. He had brought back +to Rome the Egyptian idea of a god-king. His statue was set +up in a temple with an inscription “To the +Unconquerable God.” The expiring republicanism of Rome +flared up in a last protest, and Cæsar was stabbed to +death in the Senate at the foot of the statue of his murdered +rival, Pompey the Great. +</p> + +<p> +Thirteen years more of this conflict of ambitious +personalities followed. There was a second Triumvirate of +Lepidus, Mark Antony and Octavian Cæsar, the latter the +nephew of Julius Cæsar. Octavian like his uncle took +the poorer, hardier western provinces <span +class="pagenum"><a name="P195"></a></span>where the best +legions were recruited. In 31 <small>B.C.</small>, +he defeated Mark Antony, his only serious rival, at the naval +battle of Actium, and made himself sole master of the Roman +world. But Octavian was a man of different quality +altogether from Julius Cæsar. He had no foolish craving +to be God or King. He had no queen-lover that he wished to +dazzle. He restored freedom to the Senate and people of +Rome. He declined to be dictator. The grateful Senate in +return gave him the reality instead of the forms of power. + He was to be called not King indeed, but +“Princeps” and “Augustus.” He became +Augustus Cæsar, the first of the Roman emperors (27 +<small>B.C.</small> to 14 <small>A.D.</small>). +</p> + +<p> +He was followed by Tiberius Cæsar (14 to 37 +<small>A.D.</small>) and he by others, Caligula, Claudius, Nero +and so on up to Trajan (98 <small>A.D.</small>), +Hadrian (117 <small>A.D.</small>), Antonius Pius +(138 <small>A.D.</small>) and Marcus Aurelius (161- +180 <small>A.D.</small>). All these emperors were +emperors of the legions. The soldiers made them, and some +the soldiers destroyed. Gradually the Senate fades out of +Roman-history, and the emperor and his administrative +officials replace it. The boundaries of the empire crept +forward now to their utmost limits. Most of Britain was +added to the empire, Transylvania was brought in as a new +province, Dacia; Trajan crossed the Euphrates. Hadrian had +an idea that reminds us at once of what had happened at the +other end of the old world. Like Shi-Hwang-ti he built walls +against the northern barbarians; one across Britain and a +palisade between the Rhine and the Danube. He abandoned some +of the acquisitions of Trajan. +</p> + +<p> +The expansion of the Roman Empire was at an end. +</p> + +</div><!--end chapter--> + +<div class="chapter"> + +<h2><span class="pagenum"><a name="P196"></a></span><a name="chapXXXIV"></a>XXXIV<br /> +BETWEEN ROME AND CHINA</h2> + +<p> +The second and first centuries <small>B.C.</small> mark a new phase in the +history of mankind. Mesopotamia and the eastern Mediterranean are no longer the +centre of interest. Both Mesopotamia and Egypt were still fertile, populous and +fairly prosperous, but they were no longer the dominant regions of the world. +Power had drifted to the west and to the east. Two great empires now dominated +the world, this new Roman Empire and the renascent Empire of China. Rome +extended its power to the Euphrates, but it was never able to get beyond that +boundary. It was too remote. Beyond the Euphrates the former Persian and Indian +dominions of the Seleucids fell under a number of new masters. China, now under +the Han dynasty, which had replaced the Ts’in dynasty at the death of +Shi-Hwang-ti, had extended its power across Tibet and over the high mountain +passes of the Pamirs into western Turkestan. But there, too, it reached its +extremes. Beyond was too far. +</p> + +<p> +China at this time was the greatest, best organized and most +civilized political system in the world. It was superior in +area and population to the Roman Empire at its zenith. It +was possible then for these two vast systems to flourish in +the same world at the same time in almost complete ignorance +of each other. The means of communication both by sea and +land was not yet sufficiently developed and organized for +them to come to a direct clash. +</p> + +<p> +Yet they reacted upon each other in a very remarkable way, +and their influence upon the fate of the regions that lay +between them, upon central Asia and India, was profound. A +certain amount of trade trickled through, by camel caravans +across Persia, for example, and by coasting ships by way of +India and the Red Sea. In 66 <small>B.C.</small> +Roman troops under Pompey followed in the footsteps of +Alexander the Great, and marched up the eastern shores of the +<span class="pagenum"><a name="P197"></a></span>Caspian +Sea. In 102 <small>A.D.</small> a Chinese +expeditionary force under Pan Chau reached the Caspian, and +sent emissaries to report upon the power of Rome. But many +centuries were still to pass before definite knowledge and +direct intercourse were to link the great parallel worlds of +Europe and Eastern Asia. +</p> + +<p> +To the north of both these great empires were barbaric +wildernesses. What is now Germany was largely forest lands; +the forests extended far into Russia and made a home for the +gigantic aurochs, a bull of almost elephantine size. Then to +the north of the great mountain masses of Asia stretched a +band of deserts, steppes and then forests and frozen lands. + In the eastward lap of the elevated part of Asia was the +great triangle of Manchuria. Large parts of these regions, +stretching between South Russia and Turkestan into Manchuria, +were and are regions of exceptional climatic insecurity. + Their rainfall has varied greatly in the course of a few +centuries They are lands treacherous to man. For years they +will carry pasture and sustain cultivation, and then will +come an age of decline in humidity and a cycle of killing +droughts. +</p> + +<div class="fig" style=""> +<a name="img-197"></a> +<img src="images/img-197.jpg" +alt="A CHINESE COVERED JAR OF GREEN-GLAZED EARTHENWARE" + width="250" height="270" /> +<p class="caption"> +A CHINESE COVERED JAR OF GREEN-GLAZED EARTHENWARE +<br /><small> +Han Dynasty (contemporary with the late Roman republic and early + Empire) +<br /> +<i>(In the Victoria and Albert Museum)</i> +</small> +</p> +</div> + +<p> +The western part of this barbaric north from the German +forests to South Russia and Turkestan and from Gothland to +the Alps was the region of origin of the Nordic peoples and +of the Aryan speech. The eastern steppes and deserts of +Mongolia was the region of origin of the Hunnish or Mongolian +or Tartar or Turkish peoples—for all these several +peoples were akin in language, race, and way of life. And as +the Nordic peoples seem to have been continually overflowing +their own borders and pressing south upon the developing +civilizations of Mesopotamia and the Mediterranean coast, so +the Hunnish <span class="pagenum"><a +name="P198"></a></span>tribes sent their surplus as +wanderers, raiders and conquerors into the settled regions of +China. Periods of plenty in the north would mean an increase +in population there; a shortage of grass, a spell of cattle +disease, would drive the hungry warlike tribesmen south. +</p> + +<p> +For a time there were simultaneously two fairly effective +Empires in the world capable of holding back the barbarians +and even forcing forward the frontiers of the imperial peace. + The thrust of the Han empire from north China into Mongolia +was strong and continuous. The Chinese population welled up +over the barrier of the Great Wall. Behind the imperial +frontier guards came the Chinese farmer with horse and +plough, ploughing up the grass lands and enclosing the winter +pasture. The Hunnish peoples raided and murdered the +settlers, but the Chinese punitive expeditions were too much +for them. The nomads were faced with the choice of settling +down to the plough and becoming Chinese tax-payers or +shifting in search of fresh summer pastures. Some took the +former course and were absorbed. Some drifted north-eastward +and eastward over the mountain passes down into western +Turkestan. +</p> + +<div class="fig" style=""> +<a name="img-198"></a> +<img src="images/img-198.jpg" +alt="VASE OF BRONZE FORM, UNGLAZED STONEWARE" + width="250" height="424" /> +<p class="caption"> +VASE OF BRONZE FORM, UNGLAZED STONEWARE +<br /><small> +Han Dynasty (<small>B.C.</small> 206 - <small>A.D.</small> 220) +<br /> +<i>(In the Victoria and Albert Museum)</i> +</small> +</p> +</div> + +<p> +This westward drive of the Mongolian horsemen was going on +from 200 <small>B.C.</small> onward. It was +producing a westward pressure upon the Aryan tribes, and +these again were pressing upon the Roman frontiers ready to +break through directly there was any weakness apparent. The +Parthians, who were apparently a Scythian people with some +Mongolian admixture, came down to the Euphrates by the first +century <small>B.C.</small> They fought against +Pompey the Great in <span class="pagenum"><a +name="P199"></a></span>his eastern raid. They defeated +and killed Crassus. They replaced the Seleucid monarchy in +Persia by a dynasty of Parthian kings, the Arsacid dynasty. +</p> + +<div class="fig" style=""> +<a name="img-199"></a> +<img src="images/img-199.jpg" +alt="CHINESE VESSEL IN BRONZE, IN FORM OF A GOOSE" + width="600" height="343" /> +<p class="caption"> +CHINESE VESSEL IN BRONZE, IN FORM OF A GOOSE +<br /><small> +Dating from before the time of Shi-Hwang-ti. Such a piece of work + indicates a high level of comfort and humour +<br /> +<i>(In the Victoria and Albert Museum)</i> +</small> +</p> +</div> + +<p> +But for a time the line of least resistance for hungry nomads +lay neither to the west nor the east but through central Asia +and then south-eastward through the Khyber Pass into India. + It was India which received the Mongolian drive in these +centuries of Roman and Chinese strength. A series of raiding +conquerors poured down through the Punjab into the great +plains to loot and destroy. The empire of Asoka was broken +up, and for a time the history of India passes into darkness. + A certain Kushan dynasty founded by the “Indo- +Scythians”—one of the raiding peoples—ruled +for a time over North India and maintained a certain order. + These invasions went on for several centuries. For a large +part of the fifth century <small>A.D.</small> India +was afflicted by the Ephthalites or White Huns, who levied +tribute on the small Indian princes and held India in terror. + Every summer these Ephthalites pastured in western Turkestan, +every autumn they came down through the passes to terrorize +India. +</p> + +<p> +<span class="pagenum"><a name="P200"></a></span>In the +second century <small>A.D.</small> a great +misfortune came upon the Roman and Chinese empires that +probably weakened the resistance of both to barbarian +pressure. This was a pestilence of unexampled virulence. It +raged for eleven years in China and disorganized the social +framework profoundly. The Han dynasty fell, and a new age of +division and confusion began from which China did not fairly +recover until the seventh century + <small>A.D.</small> with the coming of the great Tang dynasty. +</p> + +<p> +The infection spread through Asia to Europe. It raged +throughout the Roman Empire from 164 to 180 + <small>A.D.</small> It evidently weakened the Roman imperial +fabric very seriously. We begin to hear of depopulation in +the Roman provinces after this, and there was a marked +deterioration in the vigour and efficiency of government. At +any rate we presently find the frontier no longer +invulnerable, but giving way first in this place and then in +that. A new Nordic people, the Goths, coming originally from +Gothland in Sweden, had migrated across Russia to the Volga +region and the shores of the Black Sea and taken to the sea +and piracy. By the end of the second century they may have +begun to feel the westward thrust of the Huns. In 247 they +crossed the Danube in a great land raid, and defeated and +killed the Emperor Decius in a battle in what is now Serbia. + In 236 another Germanic people, the Franks, had broken bounds +upon the lower Rhine, and the Alemanni had poured into +Alsace. The legions in Gaul beat back their invaders, but +the Goths in the Balkan peninsula raided again and again. + The province of Dacia vanished from Roman history. +</p> + +<p> +A chill had come to the pride and confidence of Rome. In +270-275 Rome, which had been an open and secure city for +three centuries, was fortified by the Emperor Aurelian. +</p> + +</div><!--end chapter--> + +<div class="chapter"> + +<h2><span class="pagenum"><a name="P201"></a></span><a name="chapXXXV"></a>XXXV<br /> +THE COMMON MAN’S LIFE UNDER THE EARLY ROMAN EMPIRE</h2> + +<p> +Before we tell of how this Roman empire which was built up in the two centuries +<small>B.C.</small>, and which flourished in peace and security from the days +of Augustus Cæsar onward for two centuries, fell into disorder and was broken +up, it may be as well to devote some attention to the life of the ordinary +people throughout this great realm. Our history has come down now to within +2000 years of our own time; and the life of the civilized people, both under +the Peace of Rome and the Peace of the Han dynasty, was beginning to resemble +more and more clearly the life of their civilized successors to-day. +</p> + +<p> +In the western world coined money was now in common use; +outside the priestly world there were many people of +independent means who were neither officials of the +government nor priests; people travelled about more freely +than they had ever done before, and there were high roads and +inns for them. Compared with the past, with the time before +500 <small>B.C.</small>, life had become much more +loose. Before that date civilized men had been bound to a +district or country, had been bound to a tradition and lived +within a very limited horizon; only the nomads traded and +travelled. +</p> + +<p> +But neither the Roman Peace nor the Peace of the Han dynasty +meant a uniform civilization over the large areas they +controlled. There were very great local differences and +great contrasts and inequalities of culture between one +district and another, just as there are to-day under the +British Peace in India. The Roman garrisons and colonies +were dotted here and there over this great space, worshipping +Roman gods and speaking the Latin language; but where there +had been towns and cities before the coming of the Romans, +they went on, subordinated indeed but managing their own +affairs, and, for a time at least, worshipping their own gods +in their own fashion. Over Greece, Asia Minor, Egypt and the +Hellenized East <span class="pagenum"><a +name="P202"></a></span>generally, the Latin language +never prevailed. Greek ruled there invincibly. Saul of +Tarsus, who became the apostle Paul, was a Jew and a Roman +citizen; but he spoke and wrote Greek and not Hebrew. Even +at the court of the Parthian dynasty, which had overthrown +the Greek Seleucids in Persia, and was quite outside the +Roman imperial boundaries, Greek was the fashionable +language. In some parts of Spain and in North Africa, the +Carthaginian language also held on for a long time in spite +of the destruction of Carthage. Such a town as Seville, +which had been a prosperous city long before the Roman name +had been heard of, kept its Semitic goddess and preserved its +Semitic speech for generations, in spite of a colony of Roman +veterans at Italica a few miles away. Septimius Severus, who +was emperor from 193 to 211 <small>A.D.</small>, +spoke Carthaginian as his mother speech. He learnt Latin +later as a foreign tongue; <span class="pagenum"><a +name="P203"></a></span>and it is recorded that his sister +never learnt Latin and conducted her Roman household in the +Punic language. +</p> + +<div class="fig" style=""> +<a name="img-202"></a> +<img src="images/img-202.jpg" +alt="A Gladiator (contemporary representation)" + width="420" height="479" /> +</div> + +<p> +In such countries as Gaul and Britain and in provinces like +Dacia (now roughly Roumania) and Pannonia (Hungary south of +the Danube), where there were no pre-existing great cities +and temples and cultures, the Roman empire did however +“Latinize.” It civilized these countries for the +first time. It created cities and towns where Latin was from +the first the dominant speech, and where Roman gods were +served and Roman customs and fashions followed. The +Roumanian, Italian, French and Spanish languages, all +variations and modifications of Latin, remain to remind us of +this extension of Latin speech and customs. North-west +Africa also became at last largely Latin-speaking. Egypt, +Greece and the rest of the empire to the east were never +Latinized. They remained Egyptian and Greek in culture and +spirit. And even in Rome, among educated men, Greek was +learnt as the language of a gentleman and Greek literature +and learning were very, properly preferred to Latin. +</p> + +<p> +In this miscellaneous empire the ways of doing work and +business were naturally also very miscellaneous. The chief +industry of the settled world was still largely agriculture. + We have told how in Italy the sturdy free farmers who were +the backbone of the early Roman republic were replaced by +estates worked by slave labour after the Punic wars. The +Greek world had had very various methods of cultivation, from +the Arcadian plan, wherein every free citizen toiled with his +own hands, to Sparta, wherein it was a dishonour to work and +where agricultural work was done by a special slave class, +the Helots. But that was ancient history now, and over most +of the Hellenized world the estate system and slave-gangs had +spread. The agricultural slaves were captives who spoke many +different languages so that they could not understand each +other, or they were born slaves; they had no solidarity to +resist oppression, no tradition of rights, no knowledge, for +they could not read nor write. Although they came to form a +majority of the country population they never made a +successful insurrection. The insurrection of Spartacus in +the first century <small>B.C.</small> was an +insurrection of the special slaves who were trained for the +gladiatorial combats. The agricultural workers in Italy in +the latter days of <span class="pagenum"><a +name="P204"></a></span>the Republic and the early Empire +suffered frightful indignities; they would be chained at +night to prevent escape or have half the head shaved to make +it difficult. They had no wives of their own; they could be +outraged, mutilated and killed by their masters. A master +could sell his slave to fight beasts in the arena. If a +slave slew his master, all the slaves in his household and +not merely the murderer were crucified. In some parts of +Greece, in Athens notably, the lot of the slave was never +quite so frightful as this, but it was still detestable. To +such a population the barbarian invaders who presently broke +through the defensive line of the legions, came not as +enemies but as liberators. +</p> + +<div class="fig" style=""> +<a name="img-204"></a> +<img src="images/img-204.jpg" +alt="POMPEII" + width="420" height="581" /> +<p class="caption"> +POMPEII +<br /><small> +“Note the ruts in roadway worn by chariot wheels.” +</small> +</p> +</div> + +<p> +The slave system had spread to most industries and to every +sort of work that could be done by gangs. Mines and +metallurgical operations, the rowing of galleys, road-making +and big building operations were all largely slave +occupations. And almost all domestic service was performed +by slaves. There were poor free-men <span +class="pagenum"><a name="P205"></a></span>and there were +freed-men in the cities and upon the country side, working +for themselves or even working for wages. They were +artizans, supervisors and so forth, workers of a new money- +paid class working in competition with slave workers; but we +do not know what proportion they made of the general +population. It probably varied widely in different places +and at different periods. And there were also many +modifications of slavery, from the slavery that was chained +at night and driven with whips to the farm or quarry, to the +slave whose master found it advantageous to leave him to +cultivate his patch or work his craft and own his wife like a +free-man, provided he paid in a satisfactory quittance to his +owner. +</p> + +<p> +There were armed slaves. At the opening of the period of the +Punic wars, in 264 <small>B.C.</small>, the Etruscan +sport of setting slaves to fight for their lives was revived +in Rome. It grew rapidly fashionable; and soon every great +Roman rich man kept a retinue of gladiators, who sometimes +fought in the arena but whose real business it was to act as +his bodyguard of bullies. And also there were learned +slaves. The conquests of the later Republic were among the +highly civilized cities of Greece, North Africa and Asia +Minor; and they brought in many highly educated captives. + The tutor of a young Roman of good family was usually a +slave. A rich man would have a Greek slave as librarian, and +slave secretaries and learned men. He would keep his poet as +he would keep a performing dog. In this atmosphere of +slavery the traditions of modern literary criticism were +evolved. The slaves still boast and quarrel in our reviews. + There were enterprising people who bought intelligent boy +slaves and had them educated for sale. Slaves were trained +as book copyists, as jewellers, and for endless skilled +callings. +<span class="pagenum"><a name="P206"></a></span> +</p> + +<div class="fig" style=""> +<a name="img-2061"></a> +<img src="images/img-2061.jpg" +alt="THE COLISEUM, ROME" + width="600" height="366" /> +<p class="caption"> +THE COLISEUM, ROME +<br /><small> +<i>Photo: Underwood & Underwood</i> +</small> +</p> +</div> + +<div class="fig" style=""> +<a name="img-2062"></a> +<img src="images/img-2062.jpg" +alt="INTERIOR OF THE COLISEUM AT IT APPEARS TO-DAY" + width="600" height="439" /> +<p class="caption"> +INTERIOR OF THE COLISEUM AT IT APPEARS TO-DAY +</p> +</div> + +<p> +But there were very considerable changes in the position of a +slave during the four hundred years between the opening days +of conquest under the republic of rich men and the days of +disintegration that followed the great pestilence. In the +second century <small>B.C.</small> war-captives were +abundant, manners gross and brutal; the slave had no rights +and there was scarcely an outrage the reader can imagine that +was not practised upon slaves in those days. But already in +the first century <small>A.D.</small> there was a +perceptible improvement in the attitude of the Roman +civilization towards slavery. Captives <span +class="pagenum"><a name="P207"></a></span>were not so +abundant for one thing, and slaves were dearer. And slave- +owners began to realize that the profit and comfort they got +from their slaves increased with the self-respect of these +unfortunates. But also the moral tone of the community was +rising, and a sense of justice was becoming effective. The +higher mentality of Greece was qualifying the old Roman +harshness. Restrictions upon cruelty were made, a master +might no longer sell his slave to fight beasts, a slave was +given property rights in what was called his <i>peculium</i>, +slaves were paid wages as an encouragement and stimulus, a +form of slave marriage was recognized. Very many forms of +agriculture do not lend themselves to gang working, or +require gang workers only at certain seasons. In regions +where such conditions prevailed the slave presently became a +serf, paying his owner part of his produce or working for him +at certain seasons. +</p> + +<p> +When we begin to realize how essentially this great Latin and +Greek-speaking Roman Empire of the first two centuries + <small>A.D.</small> was a slave state and how small was +the minority who had any pride or freedom in their lives, we +lay our hands on the clues to its decay and collapse. There +was little of what we should call family life, few homes of +temperate living and active thought and study; schools and +colleges were few and far between. The free will and the +free mind were nowhere to be found. The great roads, the +ruins of splendid buildings, the tradition of law and power +it left for the astonishment of succeeding generations must +not conceal from us that all its outer splendour was built +upon thwarted wills, stifled intelligence, and crippled and +perverted desires. And even the minority who lorded it over +that wide realm of subjugation and of restraint and forced +labour were uneasy and unhappy in their souls; art and +literature, science and philosophy, which are the fruits of +free and happy minds, waned in that atmosphere. There was +much copying and imitation, an abundance of artistic +artificers, much slavish pedantry among the servile men of +learning, but the whole Roman empire in four centuries +produced nothing to set beside the bold and noble +intellectual activities of the comparatively little city of +Athens during its one century of greatness. Athens decayed +under the Roman sceptre. The science of Alexandria decayed. +The spirit of man, it seemed, was decaying in those days. +</p> + +</div><!--end chapter--> + +<div class="chapter"> + +<h2><span class="pagenum"><a name="P208"></a></span><a name="chapXXXVI"></a>XXXVI<br /> +RELIGIOUS DEVELOPMENTS UNDER THE ROMAN EMPIRE</h2> + +<p> +The soul of man under that Latin and Greek empire of the first two centuries of +the Christian era was a worried and frustrated soul. Compulsion and cruelty +reigned; there were pride and display but little honour; little serenity or +steadfast happiness. The unfortunate were despised and wretched; the fortunate +were insecure and feverishly eager for gratifications. In a great number of +cities life centred on the red excitement of the arena, where men and beasts +fought and were tormented and slain. Amphitheatres are the most characteristic +of Roman ruins. Life went on in that key. The uneasiness of men’s hearts +manifested itself in profound religious unrest. +</p> + +<p> +From the days when the Aryan hordes first broke in upon the +ancient civilizations, it was inevitable that the old gods of +the temples and priesthoods should suffer great adaptations +or disappear. In the course of hundreds of generations the +agricultural peoples of the brunette civilizations had shaped +their lives and thoughts to the temple-centred life. + Observances and the fear of disturbed routines, sacrifices +and mysteries, dominated their minds. Their gods seem +monstrous and illogical to our modern minds because we belong +to an Aryanized world, but to these older peoples these +deities had the immediate conviction and vividness of things +seen in an intense dream. The conquest of one city state by +another in Sumeria or early Egypt meant a change or a +renaming of gods or goddesses, but left the shape and spirit +of the worship intact. There was no change in its general +character. The figures in the dream changed, but the dream +went on and it was the same sort of dream. And the early +Semitic conquerors were sufficiently akin in spirit to the +Sumerians to take over the religion of the Mesopotamian +civilization they subjugated without any profound alteration. + Egypt was never <span class="pagenum"><a +name="P209"></a></span>indeed subjugated to the extent of +a religious revolution. Under the Ptolemies and under the +Cæsars, her temples and altars and priesthoods remained +essentially Egyptian. +</p> + +<p> +So long as conquests went on between people of similar social +and religious habits it was possible to get over the clash +between the god of this temple and region and the god of that +by a process of grouping or assimilation. If the two gods +were alike in character they were identified. It was really +the same god under another name, said the priests and the +people. This fusion of gods is called theocrasia; and the +age of the great conquests of the thousand years + <small>B.C.</small> was an age of theocrasia. Over wide areas +the local gods were displaced by, or rather they were +swallowed up in, a general god. So that when at last Hebrew +prophets in Babylon proclaimed one God of Righteousness in +all the earth men’s minds were fully prepared for that +idea. +</p> + +<p> +But often the gods were too dissimilar for such an +assimilation, and then they were grouped together in some +plausible relationship. A female god - and the Ægean +world before the coming of the Greek was much addicted to +Mother Gods—would be married to a male god, and an +animal god or a star god would be humanized and the animal or +astronomical aspect, the serpent or the sun or the star, made +into an ornament or a symbol. Or the god of a defeated +people would become a malignant antagonist to the brighter +gods. The history of theology is full of such adaptations, +compromises and rationalizations of once local gods. +</p> + +<p> +As Egypt developed from city states into one united kingdom +there was much of this theocrasia. The chief god so to speak +was Osiris, a sacrificial harvest god of whom Pharaoh was +supposed to be the earthly incarnation. Osiris was +represented as repeatedly dying and rising again; he was not +only the seed and the harvest but also by a natural extension +of thought the means of human immortality. Among his symbols +was the wide-winged scarabeus beetle which buries its eggs to +rise again, and also the effulgent sun which sets to rise. + Later on he was to be identified with Apis, the sacred bull. + Associated with him was the goddess Isis. Isis was also +Hathor, a cow-goddess, and the crescent moon and the Star of +the sea. Osiris dies and she bears a child, Horus, who is +also a <span class="pagenum"><a +name="P210"></a></span>hawk-god and the dawn, and who +grows to become Osiris again. The effigies of Isis represent +her as bearing the infant Horus in her arms and standing on +the crescent moon. These are not logical relationships, but +they were devised by the human mind before the development of +hard and systematic thinking and they have a dream-like +coherence. Beneath this triple group there are other and +darker Egyptian gods, bad gods, the dog-headed Anubis, black +night and the like, devourers, tempters, enemies of god and +man. +</p> + +<div class="fig" style=""> +<a name="img-210"></a> +<img src="images/img-210.jpg" +alt="MITHRAS SACRIFICING A BULL, ROMAN" + width="600" height="480" /> +<p class="caption"> +MITHRAS SACRIFICING A BULL, ROMAN +<br /> +<small><i>(In the British Museum)</i> +</small> +</p> +</div> + +<p> +Every religious system does in the course of time fit itself +to the shape of the human soul, and there can be no doubt +that out of these illogical and even uncouth symbols, +Egyptian people were able to fashion for themselves ways of +genuine devotion and consolation. The desire for immortality +was very strong in the Egyptian mind, and the religious life +of Egypt turned on that desire. The Egyptian <span +class="pagenum"><a name="P211"></a></span>religion was +an immortality religion as no other religion had ever been. + As Egypt went down under foreign conquerors and the Egyptian +gods ceased to have any satisfactory political significance, +this craving for a life of compensations here-after, +intensified. +</p> + +<div class="fig" style=""> +<a name="img-211"></a> +<img src="images/img-211.jpg" +alt="ISIS AND HORUS" + width="160" height="232" /> +<p class="caption"> +ISIS AND HORUS +</p> +</div> + +<p> +After the Greek conquest, the new city of Alexandria became +the centre of Egyptian religious life, and indeed of the +religious life of the whole Hellenic world. A great temple, +the Serapeum, was set up by Ptolemy I at which a sort of +trinity of gods was worshipped. These were Serapis (who was +Osiris-Apis rechristened), Isis and Horus. These were not +regarded as separate gods but as three aspects of one god, +and Serapis was identified with the Greek Zeus, the Roman +Jupiter and the Persian sun-god. This worship spread +wherever the Hellenic influence extended, even into North +India and Western China. The idea of immortality, an +immortality of compensations and consolation, was eagerly +received by a world in which the common life was hopelessly +wretched. Serapis was called “the saviour of +souls.” “After death,” said the hymns of +that time, “we are still in the care of his +providence.” Isis attracted many devotees. Her images +stood in her temples, as Queen of Heaven, bearing the infant +Horus in her arms. Candles were burnt before her, votive +offerings were made to her, shaven priests consecrated to +celibacy waited on her altar. +</p> + +<p> +The rise of the Roman empire opened the western European +world to this growing cult. The temples of Serapis-Isis, the +chanting of the priests and the hope of immortal life, +followed the Roman standards to Scotland and Holland. But +there were many rivals to the Serapis-Isis religion. + Prominent among these was Mithraism. This was a religion of +Persian origin, and it centred upon some now forgotten +mysteries about Mithras sacrificing a sacred and benevolent +bull. Here we seem to have something more primordial <span +class="pagenum"><a name="P212"></a></span>than the +complicated and sophisticated Serapis-Isis beliefs. We are +carried back directly to the blood sacrifices of the +heliolithic stage in human culture. The bull upon the +Mithraic monuments always bleeds copiously from a wound in +its side, and from this blood springs new life. The votary +to Mithraism actually bathed in the blood of the sacrificial +bull. At his initiation he went beneath a scaffolding upon +which a bull was killed so that the blood could actually run +down on him. +</p> + +<p> +Both these religions, and the same is true of many other of +the numerous parallel cults that sought the allegiance of the +slaves and citizens under the earlier Roman emperors, are +personal religions. They aim at personal salvation and +personal immortality. The older religions were not personal +like that; they were social. The older fashion of divinity +was god or goddess of the city first or of the state, and +only secondarily of the individual. The sacrifices were a +public and not a private function. They concerned collective +practical needs in this world in which we live. But the +Greeks first and now the Romans had pushed religion out of +politics. Guided by the Egyptian tradition religion had +retreated to the other world. +</p> + +<div class="fig" style=""> +<a name="img-212"></a> +<img src="images/img-212.jpg" +alt="BUST OF THE EMPEROR COMMODUS, A.D. 180-192" + width="160" height="225" /> +<p class="caption"> +BUST OF THE EMPEROR COMMODUS, <small>A.D.</small> 180-192 +<br /> +<small>Represented as the God Mithras, Roman, Circa <small>A.D. +</small> 190 +<br /> +<i>(In the British Museum)</i> +</small> +</p> +</div> + +<p> +These new private immortality religions took all the heart +and emotion out of the old state religions, but they did not +actually replace them. A typical city under the earlier +Roman emperors would have a number of temples to all sorts of +gods. There might be a temple to Jupiter of the Capitol, the +great god of Rome, and there would probably be one to the +reigning Cæsar. For the Cæsars had learnt from the +Pharaohs the possibility of being gods. In such temples a +cold and stately political worship went on; one would go and +make an offering and burn a pinch of incense to show +one’s loyalty. But it would be to the temple of Isis, +the dear Queen of Heaven, one would go with the burthen <span +class="pagenum"><a name="P213"></a></span>of one’s +private troubles for advice and relief. There might be local +and eccentric gods. Seville, for example, long affected the +worship of the old Carthaginian Venus. In a cave or an +underground temple there would certainly be an altar to +Mithras, attended by legionaries and slaves. And probably +also there would be a synagogue where the Jews gathered to +read their Bible and uphold their faith in the unseen God of +all the Earth. +</p> + +<p> +Sometimes there would be trouble with the Jews about the +political side of the state religion. They held that their +God was a jealous God intolerant of idolatry, and they would +refuse to take part in the public sacrifices to Cæsar. + They would not even salute the Roman standards for fear of +idolatry. +</p> + +<p> +In the East long before the time of Buddha there had been +ascetics, men and women who gave up most of the delights of +life, who repudiated marriage and property and sought +spiritual powers and an escape from the stresses and +mortifications of the world in abstinence, pain and solitude. + Buddha himself set his face against ascetic extravagances, +but many of his disciples followed a monkish life of great +severity. Obscure Greek cults practised similar disciplines +even to the extent of self-mutilation. Asceticism appeared +in the Jewish communities of Judea and Alexandria also in the +first century <small>B.C.</small> Communities of +men abandoned the world and gave themselves to austerities +and mystical contemplation. Such was the sect of the +Essenes. Throughout the first and second centuries + <small>A.D.</small> there was an almost world-wide resort +to such repudiations of life, a universal search for +“salvation” from the distresses of the time. The +old sense of an established order, the old confidence in +priest and temple and law and custom, had gone. Amidst the +prevailing slavery, cruelty, fear, anxiety, waste, display +and hectic self-indulgence, went this epidemic of self- +disgust and mental insecurity, this agonized search for peace +even at the price of renunciation and voluntary suffering. +This it was that filled the Serapeum with weeping penitents +and brought the converts into the gloom and gore of the +Mithraic cave. +</p> + +</div><!--end chapter--> + +<div class="chapter"> + +<h2><span class="pagenum"><a name="P214"></a></span><a name="chapXXXVII"></a>XXXVII<br /> +THE TEACHING OF JESUS</h2> + +<p> +It was while Augustus Cæsar, the first of the Emperors, was reigning in Rome +that Jesus who is the Christ of Christianity was born in Judea. In his name a +religion was to arise which was destined to become the official religion of the +entire Roman Empire. +</p> + +<p> +Now it is on the whole more convenient to keep history and +theology apart. A large proportion of the Christian world +believes that Jesus was an incarnation of that God of all the +Earth whom the Jews first recognized. The historian, if he +is to remain historian, can neither accept nor deny that +interpretation. Materially Jesus appeared in the likeness of +a man, and it is as a man that the historian must deal with +him. +</p> + +<p> +He appeared in Judea in the reign of Tiberius Cæsar. He +was a prophet. He preached after the fashion of the +preceding Jewish prophets. He was a man of about thirty, and +we are in the profoundest ignorance of his manner of life +before his preaching began. +</p> + +<p> +Our only direct sources of information about the life and +teaching of Jesus are the four Gospels. All four agree in +giving us a picture of a very definite personality. One is +obliged to say, “Here was a man. This could not have +been invented.” +</p> + +<p> +But just as the personality of Gautama Buddha has been +distorted and obscured by the stiff squatting figure, the +gilded idol of later Buddhism, so one feels that the lean and +strenuous personality of Jesus is much wronged by the +unreality and conventionality that a mistaken reverence has +imposed upon his figure in modern Christian art. Jesus was a +penniless teacher, who wandered about the dusty sun-bit +country of Judea, living upon casual gifts of food; yet he is +always represented clean, combed and sleek, in spotless +raiment, erect and with something motionless about him as +though <span class="pagenum"><a +name="P215"></a></span>he was gliding through the air. + This alone has made him unreal and incredible to many people +who cannot distinguish the core of the story from the +ornamental and unwise additions of the unintelligently +devout. +</p> + +<p> +We are left, if we do strip this record of these difficult +accessories, with the figure of a being, very human, very +earnest and passionate, capable of swift anger, and teaching +a new and simple and profound doctrine—namely, the +universal loving Fatherhood of God and the coming of the +Kingdom of Heaven. He was clearly a person—to use a +common phrase—of intense personal magnetism. He +attracted followers and filled them with love and courage. + Weak and ailing people were heartened and healed by his +presence. Yet he was probably of a delicate physique, +because of the swiftness with which he died under the pains +of crucifixion. There is a tradition that he fainted when, +according to the custom, he was made to bear his cross to the +place of execution. He went about the country for three +years spreading his doctrine and then he came to Jerusalem +and was accused of trying to set up a strange kingdom in +Judea; he was tried upon this charge, and crucified together +with two thieves. Long before these two were dead his +sufferings were over. +</p> + +<p> +The doctrine of the Kingdom of Heaven, which was the main +teaching of Jesus, is certainly one of the most revolutionary +doctrines that ever stirred and changed human thought. It is +small wonder if the world of that time failed to grasp its +full significance, and recoiled in dismay from even a half +apprehension of its tremendous challenges to the established +habits and institutions of mankind. For the doctrine of the +Kingdom of Heaven, as Jesus seems to have preached it, was no +less than a bold and uncompromising demand for a complete +change and cleansing of the life of our struggling race, an +utter cleansing, without and within. To the gospels the +reader must go for all that is preserved of this tremendous +teaching; here we are only concerned with the jar of its +impact upon established ideas. +</p> + +<p> +The Jews were persuaded that God, the one God of the whole +world, was a righteous god, but they also thought of him as a +trading god who had made a bargain with their Father Abraham +<span class="pagenum"><a name="P216"></a></span>about +them, a very good bargain indeed for them, to bring them at +last to predominance in the earth. With dismay and anger they +heard Jesus sweeping away their dear securities. God, he +taught, was no bargainer; there were no chosen people and no +favourites in the Kingdom of Heaven. God was the loving +father of all life, as incapable of showing favour as the +universal sun. And all men were brothers—sinners alike +and beloved sons alike—of this divine father. In the +parable of the Good Samaritan Jesus cast scorn upon that +natural tendency we all obey, to glorify our own people and +to minimize the righteousness of other creeds and other +races. In the parable of the labourers he thrust aside the +obstinate claim of the Jews to have a special claim upon God. + All whom God takes into the kingdom, he taught, God serves +alike; there is no distinction in his treatment, because +there is no measure to his bounty. From all moreover, as the +parable of the buried talent witnesses, and as the incident +of the widow’s mite enforces, he demands the utmost. + There are no privileges, no rebates and no excuses in the +Kingdom of Heaven. +</p> + +<div class="fig" style=""> +<a name="img-216"></a> +<img src="images/img-216.jpg" +alt="EARLY IDEAL PORTRAIT, IN GILDED GLASS, OF JESUS CHRIST IN + WHICH THE TRADITIONAL BEARD IS NOT SHOWN" + width="550" height="428" /> +<p class="caption"> +EARLY IDEAL PORTRAIT, IN GILDED GLASS, OF JESUS CHRIST IN WHICH + THE TRADITIONAL BEARD IS NOT SHOWN +</p> +</div> + +<p> +<span class="pagenum"><a name="P217"></a></span>But it +is not only the intense tribal patriotism of the Jews that +Jesus outraged. They were a people of intense family +loyalty, and he would have swept away all the narrow and +restrictive family affections in the great flood of the love +of God. The whole kingdom of Heaven was to be the family of +his followers. We are told that, “While he yet talked +to the people, behold, his mother and his brethren stood +without, desiring to speak with him. Then one said unto him, +Behold, thy mother and thy brethren stand without, desiring +to speak with thee. But he answered and said unto him that +told him, Who is my mother? and who are my brethren? And he +stretched forth his hands towards his disciples, and said, +Behold my mother and my brethren! For whosoever shall do the +will of my Father which is in heaven, the same is my brother, +and sister, and mother.? [<a name="chapXXXVIIfn1text"></a><a +href="#chapXXXVIIfn1">1</a>] +</p> + +<div class="fig" style=""> +<a name="img-217"></a> +<img src="images/img-217.jpg" +alt="THE ROAD FROM NAZARETH TO TIBERIAS" + width="600" height="383" /> +<p class="caption"> +THE ROAD FROM NAZARETH TO TIBERIAS +<br /> +<small> +<i>Photo: Fannaway</i> +</small> +</p> +</div> + +<p> +And not only did Jesus strike at patriotism and the bonds of +family loyalty in the name of God’s universal +fatherhood and brotherhood of all mankind, but it is clear +that his teaching condemned all the gradations of the +economic system, all private wealth, and <span +class="pagenum"><a name="P218"></a></span>personal +advantages. All men belonged to the kingdom; all their +possessions belonged to the kingdom; the righteous life for +all men, the only righteous life, was the service of +God’s will with all that we had, with all that we were. + Again and again he denounced private riches and the +reservation of any private life. +</p> + +<div class="fig" style=""> +<a name="img-218"></a> +<img src="images/img-218.jpg" +alt="DAVID’S TOWER AND WALL OF JERUSALEM" + width="300" height="404" /> +<p class="caption"> +DAVID’S TOWER AND WALL OF JERUSALEM +<br /> +<small> +<i>Photo: Fannaway</i> +</small> +</p> +</div> + +<p> +“And when he was gone forth into the way, there came +one running, and kneeled to him, and asked him, Good Master, +what shall I do that I may inherit eternal life? And Jesus +said to him, Why callest thou me good? there is none good but +one, that is God. Thou knowest the commandments, Do not +commit adultery, Do not kill, Do not steal, Do not bear false +witness, Defraud not, Honour thy father and mother. And he +answered and said unto him, Master, all these things have I +observed from my youth. Then Jesus beholding him loved him, +and said unto him, One thing thou lackest; go thy way, sell +whatsoever thou hast, and give to the poor, and thou shalt +have treasure in heaven; and come, take up the cross, and +follow me. And he was sad at that saying, and went away +grieved; for he had great possessions. +<span class="pagenum"><a name="P219"></a></span> +</p> + +<div class="fig" style=""> +<a name="img-219"></a> +<img src="images/img-219.jpg" +alt="A STREET IN JERUSALEM" + width="600" height="806" /> +<p class="caption"> +A STREET IN JERUSALEM +<br /> +<small>Along such a thoroughfare Christ carried his cross to the + place of execution +<br /> +<i>Photo: Fannaway</i> +</small> +</p> +</div> + +<p> +“And Jesus looked round about, and saith unto his +disciples, How hardly shall they that have riches enter into +the Kingdom of God! And the disciples were astonished at his +words. But Jesus answered again, and saith unto them, +Children, how hard is it for them that trust in riches to +enter into the Kingdom of God! It is <span +class="pagenum"><a name="P220"></a></span>easier for a +camel to go through the eye of a needle, than for a rich man +to enter into the Kingdom of God.” [<a +name="chapXXXVIIfn2text"></a><a href="#chapXXXVIIfn2">2</a>] +</p> + +<p> +Moreover, in his tremendous prophecy of this kingdom which +was to make all men one together in God, Jesus had small +patience for the bargaining righteousness of formal religion. + Another large part of his recorded utterances is aimed +against the meticulous observance of the rules of the pious +career. “Then the Pharisees and scribes asked him, Why +walk not thy disciples according to the tradition of the +elders, but eat bread with unwashen hands? He answered and +said unto them, Well hath Isaiah prophesied of you +hypocrites, as it is written, +</p> + +<p> +“This people honoureth me with their lips, +</p> + +<p> +“But their heart is far from me. +</p> + +<p> +“Howbeit in vain do they worship me, +</p> + +<p> +“Teaching for doctrines the commandments of men. +</p> + +<p> +“For laying aside the commandment of God, ye hold the +tradition of men, as the washing of pots and cups: and many +other such things ye do. And he said unto them, Full well ye +reject the commandment of God, that ye may keep your own +tradition.” [<a name="chapXXXVIIfn3text"></a><a +href="#chapXXXVIIfn3">3</a>] +</p> + +<p> +It was not merely a moral and a social revolution that Jesus +proclaimed; it is clear from a score of indications that his +teaching had a political bent of the plainest sort. It is +true that he said his kingdom was not of this world, that it +was in the hearts of men and not upon a throne; but it is +equally clear that wherever and in what measure his kingdom +was set up in the hearts of men, the outer world would be in +that measure revolutionized and made new. +</p> + +<p> +Whatever else the deafness and blindness of his hearers may +have missed in his utterances, it is plain they did not miss +his resolve to revolutionize the world. The whole tenor of +the opposition to him and the circumstances of his trial and +execution show clearly that to his contemporaries he seemed +to propose plainly, and did propose plainly, to change and +fuse and enlarge all human life. +</p> + +<p> +In view of what he plainly said, is it any wonder that all +who were rich and prosperous felt a horror of strange things, +a swimming of their world at his teaching? He was dragging +out all the little private reservations they had made from +social service into the light <span class="pagenum"><a +name="P221"></a></span>of a universal religious life. He +was like some terrible moral huntsman digging mankind out of +the snug burrows in which they had lived hitherto. In the +white blaze of this kingdom of his there was to be no +property, no privilege, no pride and precedence; no motive +indeed and no reward but love. Is it any wonder that men +were dazzled and blinded and cried out against him? Even his +disciples cried out when he would not spare them the light. + Is it any wonder that the priests realized that between this +man and themselves there was no choice but that he or +priestcraft should perish? Is it any wonder that the Roman +soldiers, confronted and amazed by something soaring over +their comprehension and threatening all their disciplines, +should take refuge in wild laughter, and crown him with +thorns and robe him in purple and make a mock Cæsar of +him? For to take him seriously was to enter upon a strange +and alarming life, to abandon habits, to control instincts +and impulses, to essay an incredible happiness. . . . +</p> + +<p class="footnote"> +<a name="chapXXXVIIfn1"></a> +[<a href="#chapXXXVIIfn1text">1</a>] Matt. xii, 46-50. +</p> + +<p class="footnote"> +<a name="chapXXXVIIfn2"></a> +[<a href="#chapXXXVIIfn2text">2</a>] Mark x, 17-25. +</p> + +<p class="footnote"> +<a name="chapXXXVIIfn3"></a> +[<a href="#chapXXXVIIfn3text">3</a>] Mark vii, 1-9. +</p> + +</div><!--end chapter--> + +<div class="chapter"> + +<h2><span class="pagenum"><a name="P222"></a></span><a name="chapXXXVIII"></a>XXXVIII<br /> +THE DEVELOPMENT OF DOCTRINAL CHRISTIANITY</h2> + +<p> +In the four gospels we find the personality and teachings of Jesus but very +little of the dogmas of the Christian church. It is in the epistles, a series +of writings by the immediate followers of Jesus, that the broad lines of +Christian belief are laid down. +</p> + +<p> +Chief among the makers of Christian doctrine was St. Paul. + He had never seen Jesus nor heard him preach. Paul’s +name was originally Saul, and he was conspicuous at first as +an active persecutor of the little band of disciples after +the crucifixion. Then he was suddenly converted to +Christianity, and he changed his name to Paul. He was a man +of great intellectual vigour and deeply and passionately +interested in the religious movements of the time. He was +well versed in Judaism and in the Mithraism and Alexandrian +religion of the day. He carried over many of their ideas and +terms of expression into Christianity. He did very little to +enlarge or develop the original teaching of Jesus, the +teaching of the Kingdom of Heaven. But he taught that Jesus +was not only the promised Christ, the promised leader of the +Jews, but also that his death was a sacrifice, like the +deaths of the ancient sacrificial victims of the primordial +civilizations, for the redemption of mankind. +</p> + +<p> +When religions flourish side by side they tend to pick up +each other’s ceremonial and other outward +peculiarities. Buddhism, for example, in China has now +almost the same sort of temples and priests and uses as +Taoism, which follows in the teachings of Lao Tse. Yet the +original teachings of Buddhism and Taoism were almost flatly +opposed. And it reflects no doubt or discredit upon the +essentials of Christian teaching that it took over not merely +such formal things as the shaven priest, the votive offering, +the altars, candles, chanting and images of the Alexandrian +and Mithraic faiths, but adopted even their devotional +phrases and their theological <span class="pagenum"><a +name="P223"></a></span>ideas. All these religions were +flourishing side by side with many less prominent cults. + Each was seeking adherents, and there must have been a +constant going and coming of converts between them. + Sometimes one or other would be in favour with the +government. But Christianity was regarded with more +suspicion than its rivals because, like the Jews, its +adherents would not perform acts of worship to the God +Cæsar. This made it a seditious religion, quite apart +from the revolutionary spirit of the teachings of Jesus +himself. +</p> + +<div class="fig" style=""> +<a name="img-223"></a> +<img src="images/img-223.jpg" +alt="MOSAIC OF SS. PETER AND PAUL POINTING TO A THRONE, ON GOLD + BACKGROUND" + width="600" height="562" /> +<p class="caption"> +MOSAIC OF SS. PETER AND PAUL POINTING TO A THRONE, ON GOLD + BACKGROUND +<br /> +<small>From the Ninth Century original, in the Church of Sta. + Prassede, Rome +<br /> +<i>(In the Victoria and Albert Museum)</i> +</small> +</p> +</div> + +<p> +St. Paul familiarized his disciples with the idea that Jesus, +like <span class="pagenum"><a +name="P224"></a></span>Osiris, was a god who died to rise +again and give men immortality. And presently the spreading +Christian community was greatly torn by complicated +theological disputes about the relationship of this God Jesus +to God the Father of Mankind. The Arians taught that Jesus +was divine, but distant from and inferior to the Father. The +Sabellians taught that Jesus was merely an aspect of the +Father, and that God was Jesus and Father at the same time +just as a man may be a father and an artificer at the same +time; and the Trinitarians taught a more subtle doctrine that +God was both one and three, Father, Son and Holy Spirit. For +a time it seemed that Arianism would prevail over its rivals, +and then after disputes, violence and wars, the Trinitarian +formula became the accepted formula of all Christendom. It +may be found in its completest expression in the Athanasian +Creed. +</p> + +<p> +We offer no comment on these controversies here. They do not +sway history as the personal teaching of Jesus sways history. + The personal teaching of Jesus does seem to mark a new phase +in the moral and spiritual life of our race. Its insistence +upon the universal Fatherhood of God and the implicit +brotherhood of all men, its insistence upon the sacredness of +every human personality as a living temple of God, was to +have the profoundest effect upon all the subsequent social +and political life of mankind. With Christianity, with the +spreading teachings of Jesus, a new respect appears in the +world for man as man. It may be true, as hostile critics of +Christianity have urged, that St.. Paul preached obedience to +slaves, but it is equally true that the whole spirit of the +teachings of Jesus preserved in the gospels was against the +subjugation of man by man. And still more distinctly was +Christianity opposed to such outrages upon human dignity as +the gladiatorial combats in the arena. +</p> + +<div class="fig" style=""> +<a name="img-225"></a> +<img src="images/img-225.jpg" +alt="THE BAPTISM OF CHRIST" + width="300" height="592" /> +<p class="caption"> +THE BAPTISM OF CHRIST +<br /> +<small><i>(Sixth Century Ivory Panel in the British Museum)</i> +</small> +</p> +</div> + +<p> +Throughout the first two centuries after Christ, the +Christian religion spread throughout the Roman Empire, +weaving together an ever-growing multitude of converts into a +new community of ideas and will. The attitude of the +emperors varied between hostility and toleration. There were +attempts to suppress this new faith in both the second and +third centuries; and finally in 303 and the following years a +great persecution under the Emperor Diocletian. The +considerable accumulations of Church property were <span +class="pagenum"><a name="P225"></a></span>seized, all +bibles and religious writings were confiscated and destroyed, +Christians were put out of the protection of the law and many +executed. The destruction of the books is particularly +notable. It shows how the power of the written word in +holding together <span class="pagenum"><a +name="P226"></a></span>the new faith was appreciated by +the authorities. These “book religions,” +Christianity and Judaism, were religions that educated. + Their continued existence depended very largely on people +being able to read and understand their doctrinal ideas. The +older religions had made no such appeal to the personal +intelligence. In the ages of barbaric confusion that were +now at hand in western Europe it was the Christian church +that was mainly instrumental in preserving the tradition of +learning. +</p> + +<p> +The persecution of Diocletian failed completely to suppress +the growing Christian community. In many provinces it was +ineffective because the bulk of the population and many of +the officials were Christian. In 317 an edict of toleration +was issued by the associated Emperor Galerius, and in 324 +Constantine the Great, a friend and on his deathbed a +baptized convert to Christianity, became sole ruler of the +Roman world. He abandoned all divine pretensions and put +Christian symbols on the shields and banners of his troops. +</p> + +<p> +In a few years Christianity was securely established as the +official religion of the empire. The competing religions +disappeared or were absorbed with extraordinary celerity, and +in 300 Theodosius the Great caused the great statue of +Jupiter Serapis at Alexandria to be destroyed. From the +outset of the fifth century onward the only priests or +temples in the Roman Empire were Christian priests and +temples. +</p> + +</div><!--end chapter--> + +<div class="chapter"> + +<h2><span class="pagenum"><a name="P227"></a></span><a name="chapXXXIX"></a>XXXIX<br /> +THE BARBARIANS BREAK THE EMPIRE INTO EAST AND WEST</h2> + +<p> +Throughout the third century the Roman Empire, decaying socially and +disintegrating morally, faced the barbarians. The emperors of this period were +fighting military autocrats, and the capital of the empire shifted with the +necessities of their military policy. Now the imperial headquarters would be at +Milan in north Italy, now in what is now Serbia at Sirmium or Nish, now in +Nicomedia in Asia Minor. Rome halfway down Italy was too far from the centre of +interest to be a convenient imperial seat. It was a declining city. Over most +of the empire peace still prevailed and men went about without arms. The armies +continued to be the sole repositories of power; the emperors, dependent on +their legions, became more and more autocratic to the rest of the empire and +their state more and more like that of the Persian and other oriental monarchs. +Diocletian assumed a royal diadem and oriental robes. +</p> + +<p> +All along the imperial frontier, which ran roughly along the +Rhine and Danube, enemies were now pressing. The Franks and +other German tribes had come up to the Rhine. In north +Hungary were the Vandals; in what was once Dacia and is now +Roumania, the Visigoths or West Goths. Behind these in south +Russia were the East Goths or Ostrogoths, and beyond these +again in the Volga region the Alans. But now Mongolian +peoples were forcing their way towards Europe. The Huns were +already exacting tribute from the Alans and Ostrogoths and +pushing them to the west. +</p> + +<p> +In Asia the Roman frontiers were crumpling back under the +push of a renascent Persia. This new Persia, the Persia of +the Sassenid kings, was to be a vigorous and on the whole a +successful rival of the Roman Empire in Asia for the next +three centuries. +</p> + +<p> +A glance at the map of Europe will show the reader the +peculiar weakness of the empire. The river Danube comes down +to within <span class="pagenum"><a +name="P228"></a></span>a couple of hundred miles of the +Adriatic Sea in the region of what is now Bosnia and Serbia. + It makes a square re-entrant angle there. The Romans never +kept their sea communications in good order, and this two +hundred mile strip of land was their line of communication +between the western Latin-speaking part of the empire and the +eastern Greek-speaking portion. Against this square angle of +the Danube the barbarian pressure was greatest. When they +broke through there it was inevitable that the empire should +fall into two parts. +</p> + +<div class="fig" style=""> +<a name="img-228"></a> +<img src="images/img-228.jpg" +alt="Map: The Empire and the Barbarians" + width="600" height="344" /> +</div> + +<p> +A more vigorous empire might have thrust forward and +reconquered Dacia, but the Roman Empire lacked any such +vigour. Constantine the Great was certainly a monarch of +great devotion and intelligence. He beat back a raid of the +Goths from just these vital Balkan regions, but he had no +force to carry the frontier across the Danube. He was too +pre-occupied with the internal weaknesses of the empire. He +brought the solidarity and moral force of Christianity to +revive the spirit of the declining empire, and he decided to +create a new permanent capital at Byzantium upon the +Hellespont. This new-made Byzantium, which was re-christened +Constantinople in his honour, was still building when he +died. Towards the end of his reign occurred a remarkable +transaction. The <span class="pagenum"><a +name="P229"></a></span>Vandals, being pressed by the +Goths, asked to be received into the Roman Empire. They were +assigned lands in Pannonia, which is now that part of Hungary +west of the Danube, and their fighting men became nominally +legionaries. But these new legionaries remained under their +own chiefs. Rome failed to digest them. +</p> + +<p> +Constantine died working to reorganize his great realm, and +soon the frontiers were ruptured again and the Visigoths came +almost to Constantinople. They defeated the Emperor Valens at +Adrianople and made a settlement in what is now Bulgaria, +similar to the settlement of the Vandals in Pannonia. + Nominally they were subjects of the emperor, practically they +were conquerors. +</p> + +<div class="fig" style=""> +<a name="img-229"></a> +<img src="images/img-229.jpg" +alt="CONSTANTINE’S PILLAR, CONSTANTINOPLE" + width="280" height="667" /> +<p class="caption"> +CONSTANTINE’S PILLAR, CONSTANTINOPLE +<br /> +<small><i>Photo: Sebah & Foaillier</i> +</small> +</p> +</div> + +<p> +From 379 to 395 <small>A.D.</small> reigned the +Emperor Theodosius the Great, and while he reigned the empire +was still formally intact. Over the armies of Italy and +Pannonia presided Stilicho, a Vandal, over the armies in the +Balkan peninsula, Alaric, a Goth. When Theodosius died at +the close of the fourth century he left <span +class="pagenum"><a name="P230"></a></span>two sons. + Alaric supported one of these, Arcadius, in Constantinople, +and Stilicho the other, Honorius, in Italy. In other words +Alaric and Stilicho fought for the empire with the princes as +puppets. In the course of their struggle Alaric marched into +Italy and after a short siege took Rome (410 + <small>A.D.</small>). +</p> + +<p> +The opening half of the fifth century saw the whole of the +Roman Empire in Europe the prey of robber armies of +barbarians. It is difficult to visualize the state of +affairs in the world at that time. Over France, Spain, Italy +and the Balkan peninsula, the great cities that had +flourished under the early empire still stood, impoverished, +partly depopulated and falling into decay. Life in them must +have been shallow, mean and full of uncertainty. Local +officials asserted their authority and went on with their +work with such conscience as they had, no doubt in the name +of a now remote and inaccessible emperor. The churches went +on, but usually with illiterate priests. There was little +reading and much superstition and fear. But everywhere +except where looters had destroyed them, books and pictures +and statuary and such-like works of art were still to be +found. +</p> + +<p> +The life of the countryside had also degenerated. Everywhere +this Roman world was much more weedy and untidy than it had +been. In some regions war and pestilence had brought the +land down to the level of a waste. Roads and forests were +infested with robbers. Into such regions the barbarians +marched, with little or no opposition, and set up their +chiefs as rulers, often with Roman official titles. If they +were half civilized barbarians they would give the conquered +districts tolerable terms, they would take possession of the +towns, associate and intermarry, and acquire (with an accent) +the Latin speech; but the Jutes, the Angles and Saxons who +submerged the Roman province of Britain were agriculturalists +and had no use for towns, they seem to have swept south +Britain clear of the Romanized population and they replaced +the language by their own Teutonic dialects, which became at +last English. +<span class="pagenum"><a name="P231"></a></span> +</p> + +<div class="fig" style=""> +<a name="img-231"></a> +<img src="images/img-231.jpg" +alt="BASE OF THE “OBELISK OF THEODOSIUS,” + CONSTANTINOPLE" + width="600" height="752" /> +<p class="caption"> +BASE OF THE “OBELISK OF THEODOSIUS,” CONSTANTINOPLE +<br /> +<small>The obelisk of Thothmes, taken from Egypt to Constantinople + by Theodosius and placed upon the pedestal her shown; an + interesting example of early Byzantine art. The complete obelisk + is seen on page 239. +<br /> +<i>Photo: Sebah & Foaillier</i> +</small> +</p> +</div> + +<p> +It is impossible in the space at our disposal to trace the +movements of all the various German and Slavonic tribes as +they went to and fro in the disorganized empire in search of +plunder and a pleasant home. But let the Vandals serve as an +example. They came into <span class="pagenum"><a +name="P232"></a></span>history in east Germany. They +settled as we have told in Pannonia. Thence they moved +somewhen about 425 <small>A.D.</small> through the +intervening provinces to Spain. There they found Visigoths +from South Russia and other German tribes setting up dukes +and kings. From Spain the Vandals under Genseric sailed for +North Africa (429), captured Carthage (439), and built a +fleet. They secured the mastery of the sea and captured and +pillaged Rome (455), which had recovered very imperfectly +from her capture and looting by Alaric half a century +earlier. Then the Vandals made themselves masters of Sicily, +Corsica, Sardinia and most of the other islands of the +western Mediterranean. They made, in fact, a sea empire very +similar in its extent to the sea empire of Carthage seven +hundred odd years before. They were at the climax of their +power about 477. They were a mere handful of conquerors +holding all this country. In the next century almost all +their territory had been reconquered for the empire of +Constantinople during a transitory blaze of energy under +Justinian I. +</p> + +<p> +The story of the Vandals is but one sample of a host of +similar adventures. But now there was coming into the +European world the least kindred and most redoubtable of all +these devastators, the Mongolian Huns or Tartars, a yellow +people active and able, such as the western world had never +before encountered. +</p> + +</div><!--end chapter--> + +<div class="chapter"> + +<h2><span class="pagenum"><a name="P233"></a></span><a name="chapXL"></a>XL<br /> +THE HUNS AND THE END OF THE WESTERN EMPIRE</h2> + +<p> +This appearance of a conquering Mongolian people in Europe may be taken to mark +a new stage in human history. Until the last century or so before the Christian +era, the Mongol and the Nordic peoples had not been in close touch. Far away in +the frozen lands beyond the northern forests the Lapps, a Mongolian people, had +drifted westward as far as Lapland, but they played no part in the main current +of history. For thousands of years the western world carried on the dramatic +interplay of the Aryan, Semitic and fundamental brunette peoples with very +little interference (except for an Ethiopian invasion of Egypt or so) either +from the black peoples to the south or from the Mongolian world in the far +East. +</p> + +<p> +It is probable that there were two chief causes for the new +westward drift of the nomadic Mongolians. One was the +consolidation of the great empire of China, its extension +northward and the increase of its population during the +prosperous period of the Han dynasty. The other was some +process of climatic change; a lesser rainfall that abolished +swamps and forests perhaps, or a greater rainfall that +extended grazing over desert steppes, or even perhaps both +these processes going on in different regions but which +anyhow facilitated a westward migration. A third +contributary cause was the economic wretchedness, internal +decay and falling population of the Roman Empire. The rich +men of the later Roman Republic, and then the tax-gatherers +of the military emperors had utterly consumed its vitality. + So we have the factors of thrust, means and opportunity. + There was pressure from the east, rot in the west and an open +road. +</p> + +<p> +The Hun had reached the eastern boundaries of European Russia +by the first century <small>A.D.</small>, but it was +not until the fourth and <span class="pagenum"><a +name="P234"></a></span>fifth centuries + <small>A.D.</small> that these horsemen rose to predominance upon +the steppes. The fifth century was the Hun’s century. + The first Huns to come into Italy were mercenary bands in the +pay of Stilicho the Vandal, the master of Honorius. + Presently they were in possession of Pannonia, the empty nest +of the Vandals. +</p> + +<p> +By the second quarter of the fifth century a great war chief +had arisen among the Huns, Attila. We have only vague and +tantalizing glimpses of his power. He ruled not only over +the Huns but over a conglomerate of tributary Germanic +tribes; his empire extended from the Rhine cross the plains +into Central Asia. He exchanged ambassadors with China. His +head camp was in the plain of Hungary east of the Danube. + There he was visited by an envoy from Constantinople, +Priscus, who has left us an account of his state. The way of +living of these Mongols was very like the way of living of +the primitive Aryans they had replaced. The common folk were +in huts and tents; the chiefs lived in great stockaded timber +halls. There were feasts and drinking and singing by the +bards. The Homeric heroes and even the Macedonian companions +of Alexander would probably have felt more at home in the +camp-capital of Attila than they would have done in the +cultivated and decadent court of Theodosius II, the son of +Arcadius, who was then reigning in Constantinople. +</p> + +<p> +For a time it seemed as though the nomads under the +leadership of the Huns and Attila would play the same part +towards the Græco-Roman civilization of the +Mediterranean countries that the barbaric Greeks had played +long ago to the Ægean civilization. It looked like +history repeating itself upon a larger stage. But the Huns +were much more wedded to the nomadic life than the early +Greeks, who were rather migratory cattle farmers than true +nomads. The Huns raided and plundered but did not settle. +</p> + +<p> +For some years Attila bullied Theodosius as he chose. His +armies devastated and looted right down to the walls of +Constantinople, Gibbon says that he totally destroyed no less +than seventy cities in the Balkan peninsula, and Theodosius +bought him off by payments of tribute and tried to get rid of +him for good by sending secret agents to assassinate him. In +451 Attila turned his attention to the remains of the Latin- +speaking half of the empire and invaded <span +class="pagenum"><a name="P235"></a></span>Gaul. Nearly +every town in northern Gaul was sacked. Franks, Visigoths +and the imperial forces united against him and he was +defeated at Troyes in a vast dispersed battle in which a +multitude of men, variously estimated as between 150,000 and +300,000, were killed. This checked him in Gaul, but it did +not exhaust his enormous military resources. Next year he +came into Italy by way of Venetia, burnt Aquileia and Padua +and looted Milan. +</p> + +<div class="fig" style=""> +<a name="img-235"></a> +<img src="images/img-235.jpg" +alt="HEAD OF BARBARIAN CHIEF" + width="450" height="600" /> +<p class="caption"> +HEAD OF BARBARIAN CHIEF +<br /> +<small><i>(In the British Museum)</i> +</small> +</p> +</div> + +<p> +Numbers of fugitives from these north Italian towns and +particularly from Padua fled to islands in the lagoons at the +head of the Adriatic and laid there the foundations of the +city state of Venice, which was to become one of the greatest +or the trading centres in the middle ages. +</p> + +<p> +In 453 Attila died suddenly after a great feast to celebrate +his marriage to a young woman, and at his death this plunder +confederation of his fell to pieces. The actual Huns +disappear from history, mixed into the surrounding more +numerous Aryan-speaking populations. <span +class="pagenum"><a name="P236"></a></span>But these +great Hun raids practically consummated the end of the Latin +Roman Empire. After his death ten different emperors ruled +in Rome in twenty years, set up by Vandal and other mercenary +troops. The Vandals from Carthage took and sacked Rome in +455. Finally in 476 Odoacer, the chief of the barbarian +troops, suppressed a Pannonian who was figuring as emperor +under the impressive name of Romulus Augustulus, and informed +the Court of Constantinople that there was no longer an +emperor in the west. So ingloriously the Latin Roman Empire +came to an end. In 493 Theodoric the Goth became King of +Rome. +</p> + +<p> +All over western and central Europe now barbarian chiefs were +reigning as kings, dukes and the like, practically +independent but for the most part professing some sort of +shadowy allegiance to the emperor. There were hundreds and +perhaps thousands of such practically independent brigand +rulers. In Gaul, Spain and Italy and in Dacia the Latin +speech still prevailed in locally distorted forms, but in +Britain and east of the Rhine languages of the German group +(or in Bohemia a Slavonic language, Czech) were the common +speech. The superior clergy and a small remnant of other +educated men read and wrote Latin. Everywhere life was +insecure and property was held by the strong arm. Castles +multiplied and roads fell into decay. The dawn of the sixth +century was an age of division and of intellectual darkness +throughout the western world. Had it not been for the monks +and Christian missionaries Latin learning might have perished +altogether. +</p> + +<p> +Why had the Roman Empire grown and why had it so completely +decayed? It grew because at first the idea of citizenship +held it together. Throughout the days of the expanding +republic, and even into the days of the early empire there +remained a great number of men conscious of Roman +citizenship, feeling it a privilege and an obligation to be a +Roman citizen, confident of their rights under the Roman law +and willing to make sacrifices in the name of Rome. The +prestige of Rome as of something just and great and law- +upholding spread far beyond the Roman boundaries. But even +as early as the Punic wars the sense of citizenship was being +undermined by the growth of wealth and slavery. Citizenship +spread indeed but not the idea of citizenship. +</p> + +<p> +<span class="pagenum"><a name="P237"></a></span>The +Roman Empire was after all a very primitive organization; it +did not educate, did not explain itself to its increasing +multitudes of citizens, did not invite their co-operation in +its decisions. There was no network of schools to ensure a +common understanding, no distribution of news to sustain +collective activity. The adventurers who struggled for power +from the days of Marius and Sulla onward had no idea of +creating and calling in public opinion upon the imperial +affairs. The spirit of citizenship died of starvation and no +one observed it die. All empires, all states, all +organizations of human society are, in the ultimate, things +of understanding and will. There remained no will for the +Roman Empire in the World and so it came to an end. +</p> + +<p> +But though the Latin-speaking Roman Empire died in the fifth +century, something else had been born within it that was to +avail itself enormously of its prestige and tradition, and +that was the Latin-speaking half of the Catholic Church. + This lived while the empire died because it appealed to the +minds and wills of men, because it had books and a great +system of teachers and missionaries to hold it together, +things stronger than any law or legions. Throughout the +fourth and fifth centuries <small>A.D.</small> while +the empire was decaying, Christianity was spreading to a +universal dominion in Europe. It conquered its conquerors, +the barbarians. When Attila seemed disposed to march on +Rome, the patriarch of Rome intercepted him and did what no +armies could do, turning him back by sheer moral force. +</p> + +<p> +The Patriarch or Pope of Rome claimed to be the head of the +entire Christian church. Now that there were no more +emperors, he began to annex imperial titles and claims. He +took the title of <i>pontifex maximus</i>, head sacrificial +priest of the Roman dominion, the most ancient of all the +titles that the emperors had enjoyed. +</p> + +</div><!--end chapter--> + +<div class="chapter"> + +<h2><span class="pagenum"><a name="P238"></a></span><a name="chapXLI"></a>XLI<br /> +THE BYZANTINE AND SASSANID EMPIRES</h2> + +<p> +The Greek-speaking eastern half of the Roman Empire showed much more political +tenacity than the western half. It weathered the disasters of the fifth century +<small>A.D.</small>, which saw a complete and final breaking up of the original +Latin Roman power. Attila bullied the Emperor Theodosius II and sacked and +raided almost to the walls of Constantinople, but that city remained intact. +The Nubians came down the Nile and looted Upper Egypt, but Lower Egypt and +Alexandria were left still fairly prosperous. Most of Asia Minor was held +against the Sassanid Persians. +</p> + +<p> +The sixth century, which was an age of complete darkness for +the West, saw indeed a considerable revival of the Greek +power. Justinian I (527-565) was a ruler of very great +ambition and energy, and he was married to the Empress +Theodora, a woman of quite equal capacity who had begun life +as an actress. Justinian reconquered North Africa from the +Vandals and most of Italy from the Goths. He even regained +the south of Spain. He did not limit his energies to naval +and military enterprises. He founded a university, built the +great church of Sta. Sophia in Constantinople and codified +the Roman law. But in order to destroy a rival to his +university foundation he closed the schools of philosophy in +Athens, which had been going on in unbroken continuity from +the days of Plato, that is to say for nearly a thousand +years. +</p> + +<p> +From the third century onwards the Persian Empire had been +the steadfast rival of the Byzantine. The two empires kept +Asia Minor, Syria and Egypt in a state of perpetual unrest +and waste. In the first century + <small>A.D.</small>, these lands were still at a high level of +civilization, wealthy and with an abundant population, but +the continual coming and going of armies, massacres, looting +and war taxation wore them down steadily until only shattered +and ruinous <span class="pagenum"><a +name="P239"></a></span>cities remained upon a countryside +of scattered peasants. In this melancholy process of +impoverishment and disorder lower Egypt fared perhaps less +badly than the rest of the world. Alexandria, like +Constantinople, continued a dwindling trade between the east +and the west. +</p> + +<div class="fig" style=""> +<a name="img-239"></a> +<img src="images/img-239.jpg" +alt="THE CHURCH (NOW A MOSQUE) OF S. SOPHIA, CONSTANTINOPLE" + width="600" height="393" /> +<p class="caption"> +THE CHURCH (NOW A MOSQUE) OF S. SOPHIA, CONSTANTINOPLE +<br /> +<small>The obelisk of Theodosius in in the foreground + statue on left +<br /> +<i>Photo: Sebah & Foaillier</i></small> +</p> +</div> + +<p> +Science and political philosophy seemed dead now in both +these warring and decaying empires. The last philosophers of +Athens, until their suppression, preserved the texts of the +great literature of the past with an infinite reverence and +want of understanding. But there remained no class of men in +the world, no free gentlemen with bold and independent habits +of thought, to carry on the tradition of frank statement and +enquiry embodied in these writings. The social and political +chaos accounts largely for the disappearance of this class, +but there was also another reason why the human intelligence +was sterile and feverish during this age. In both Persia and +Byzantium it was all age of intolerance. Both empires were +religious empires in a new way, in a way that greatly +hampered the free activities of the human mind. +</p> + +<div class="fig" style=""> +<a name="img-240"></a> +<img src="images/img-240.jpg" +alt="THE MAGNIFICENT ROOF-WORK IN S. SOPHIA" + width="480" height="616" /> +<p class="caption"> +THE MAGNIFICENT ROOF-WORK IN S. SOPHIA +<br /> +<small> +<i>Photo: Sebah & Foaillier</i></small> +</p> +</div> + +<p> +<span class="pagenum"><a name="P240"></a></span>Of +course the oldest empires in the world were religious +empires, centring upon the worship of a god or of a god-king. + Alexander was treated as a divinity and the Cæsars were +gods in so much as they had altars and temples devoted to +them and the offering of incense was made a test of loyalty +to the Roman state. But these older religions were +essentially religions of act and fact. They did not invade +the mind. If a man offered his sacrifice and bowed to the +god, he was left not only to think but to say practically +whatever he liked about the affair. But the new sort of +religions that had come into the world, and particularly +Christianity, turned inward. These new faiths demanded not +simply conformity but understanding belief. Naturally fierce +controversy ensued upon the exact meaning of the things +believed. These new religions were creed religions. The +world was confronted with a new word, Orthodoxy, and with a +stern resolve to keep not only acts but speech <span +class="pagenum"><a name="P241"></a></span>and private +thought within the limits of a set teaching. For to hold a +wrong opinion, much more to convey it to other people, was no +longer regarded as an intellectual defect but a moral fault +that might condemn a soul to everlasting destruction. +</p> + +<div class="fig" style=""> +<a name="img-241"></a> +<img src="images/img-241.jpg" +alt="THE RAVENNA PANEL, DEPICTING JUSTINIAN AND HIS COURT" + width="600" height="457" /> +<p class="caption"> +THE RAVENNA PANEL, DEPICTING JUSTINIAN AND HIS COURT +<br /> +<small><i>Photo: Alinari</i></small> +</p> +</div> + +<p> +<span class="pagenum"><a name="P242"></a></span> +</p> + +<div class="fig" style=""> +<a name="img-242"></a> +<img src="images/img-242.jpg" +alt="THE ROCK HEWN TEMPLE AT PETRA" + width="600" height="770" /> +<p class="caption"> +THE ROCK HEWN TEMPLE AT PETRA +<br /> +<small> +<i>Photo: Underwood & Underwood</i></small> +</p> +</div> + +<p> +Both Ardashir I who founded the Sassanid dynasty in the third +century <small>A.D.</small>, and Constantine the +Great who reconstructed the Roman Empire in the fourth, +turned to religious organizations for help, because in these +organizations they saw a new means of using and controlling +the wills of men. And already before the end of the fourth +century both empires were persecuting free talk and religious +innovation. In Persia Ardashir found the ancient Persian +religion of Zoroaster (or Zarathushtra) with its priests and +temples and a sacred fire that burnt upon its altars, ready +for his purpose as a state religion. Before the end of the +third century Zoroastrianism was persecuting Christianity, +and in 277 <small>A.D.</small> Mani, the founder of +<span +class="pagenum"><a name="P243"></a></span>a new faith, +the Manichæans, was crucified and his body flayed. + Constantinople, on its side, was busy hunting out Christian +heresies. Manichæan ideas infected Christianity and had +to be fought with the fiercest methods; in return ideas from +Christianity affected the purity of the Zoroastrian doctrine. + All ideas became suspect. Science, which demands before all +things the free action of an untroubled mind, suffered a +complete eclipse throughout this phase of intolerance. +</p> + +<p> +War, the bitterest theology, and the usual vices of mankind +constituted Byzantine life of those days. It was +picturesque, it was romantic; it had little sweetness or +light. When Byzantium and Persia were not fighting the +barbarians from the north, they wasted Asia Minor and Syria +in dreary and destructive hostilities. Even in close +alliance these two empires would have found it a hard task to +turn back the barbarians and recover their prosperity. The +Turks or Tartars first come into history as the allies first +of one power and then of another. In the sixth century the +two chief antagonists were Justinian and Chosroes I; in the +opening of the seventh the Emperor Heraclius was pitted +against Chosroes II (580). +</p> + +<p> +At first and until after Heraclius had become Emperor (610) +Chosroes II carried all before him. He took Antioch, +Damascus and Jerusalem and his armies reached Chalcedon, +which is in Asia Minor over against Constantinople. In 619 +he conquered Egypt. Then Heraclius pressed a counter attack +home and routed a Persian army at Nineveh (627), although at +that time there were still Persian troops at Chalcedon. In +628 Chosroes II was deposed and murdered by his son, Kavadh, +and an inconclusive peace was made between the two exhausted +empires. +</p> + +<p> +Byzantium and Persia had fought their last war. But few +people as yet dreamt of the storm that was even then +gathering in the deserts to put an end for ever to this +aimless, chronic struggle. +</p> + +<p> +While Heraclius was restoring order in Syria a message +reached him. It had been brought in to the imperial outpost +at Bostra south of Damascus; it was in Arabic, an obscure +Semitic desert language, and it was read to the Emperor, if +it reached him at all, by an interpreter. It was from +someone who called himself “Muhammad the Prophet of +God.” It called upon the Emperor to <span +class="pagenum"><a name="P244"></a></span>acknowledge +the One True God and to serve him. What the Emperor said is +not recorded. +</p> + +<p> +A similar message came to Kavadh at Ctesiphon. He was +annoyed, tore up the letter, and bade the messenger begone. +</p> + +<p> +This Muhammad, it appeared, was a Bedouin leader whose +headquarters were in the mean little desert town of Medina. + He was preaching a new religion of faith in the One True God. +</p> + +<p> +“Even so, O Lord!” he said; “rend thou his +Kingdom from Kavadh.” +</p> + +</div><!--end chapter--> + +<div class="chapter"> + +<h2><span class="pagenum"><a name="P245"></a></span><a name="chapXLII"></a>XLII<br /> +THE DYNASTIES OF SUY AND TANG IN CHINA</h2> + +<p> +Throughout the fifth, sixth, seventh and eighth centuries, there was a steady +drift of Mongolian peoples westward. The Huns of Attila were merely precursors +of this advance, which led at last to the establishment of Mongolian peoples in +Finland, Esthonia, Hungary and Bulgaria, where their descendants, speaking +languages akin to Turkish, survive to this day. The Mongolian nomads were, in +fact, playing a role towards the Aryanized civilizations of Europe and Persia +and India that the Aryans had played to the Ægean and Semitic civilizations ten +or fifteen centuries before. +</p> + +<p> +In Central Asia the Turkish peoples had taken root in what is +now Western Turkestan, and Persia already employed many +Turkish officials and Turkish mercenaries. The Parthians had +gone out of history, absorbed into the general population of +Persia. There were no more Aryan nomads in the history of +Central Asia; Mongolian people had replaced them. The Turks +became masters of Asia from China to the Caspian. +</p> + +<p> +The same great pestilence at the end of the second century +<small>A.D.</small> that had shattered the Roman +Empire had overthrown the Han dynasty in China. Then came a +period of division and of Hunnish conquests from which China +arose refreshed, more rapidly and more completely than Europe +was destined to do. Before the end of the sixth century +China was reunited under the Suy dynasty, and this by the +time of Heraclius gave place to the Tang dynasty, whose reign +marks another great period of prosperity for China. +<span class="pagenum"><a name="P246"></a></span> +</p> + +<div class="fig" style=""> +<a name="img-246"></a> +<img src="images/img-246.jpg" +alt="CHINESE EARTHENWARE ART OF THE TANG DYNASTY, 616-906" + width="600" height="787" /> +<p class="caption"> +CHINESE EARTHENWARE ART OF THE TANG DYNASTY, 616-906 +<br /> +<small>Specimens in glazed earthenware, in brown, green and buff, + discovered in tombs in China +<br /> +<i>(In the Victoria and Albert Museum)</i></small> +</p> +</div> + +<p> +Throughout the seventh, eighth and ninth centuries China was +the most secure and civilized country in the world. The Han +dynasty had extended her boundaries in the north; the Suy and +Tang dynasties now spread her civilization to the south, and +China <span class="pagenum"><a name="P247"></a></span>began to + assume the proportions she has to-day. In Central Asia indeed she + reached much further, extending at last, through tributary Turkish + tribes, to Persia and the Caspian Sea. +</p> + +<p> +The new China that had arisen was a very different land from +the old China of the Hans. A new and more vigorous literary +school appeared, there was a great poetic revival; Buddhism +had revolutionized philosophical and religious thought. + There were great advances in artistic work, in technical +skill and in all the amenities of life. Tea was first used, +paper manufactured and wood-block printing began. Millions +of people indeed were leading orderly, graceful and kindly +lives in China during these centuries when the attenuated +populations of Europe and Western Asia were living either in +hovels, small walled cities or grim robber fortresses. While +the mind of the west was black with theological obsessions, +the mind of China was open and tolerant and enquiring. +</p> + +<p> +One of the earliest monarchs of the Tang dynasty was Tai- +tsung, who began to reign in 627, the year of the victory of +Heraclius at Nineveh. He received an embassy from Heraclius, +who was probably seeking an ally in the rear of Persia. From +Persia itself came a party of Christian missionaries (635). + They were allowed to explain their creed to Tai-tsung and he +examined a Chinese translation of their Scriptures. He +pronounced this strange religion acceptable, and gave +permission for the foundation of a church and monastery. +</p> + +<p> +To this monarch also (in 628) came messengers from Muhammad. + They came to Canton on a trading ship. They had sailed the +whole way from Arabia along the Indian coasts. Unlike +Heraclius and Kavadh, Tai-Tsung gave these envoys a courteous +hearing. He expressed his interest in their theological +ideas and assisted them to build a mosque in Canton, a mosque +which survives, it is said, to this day, the oldest mosque in +the world. +</p> + +</div><!--end chapter--> + +<div class="chapter"> + +<h2><span class="pagenum"><a name="P248"></a></span><a name="chapXLIII"></a>XLIII<br /> +MUHAMMAD AND ISLAM</h2> + +<p> +A prophetic amateur of history surveying the world in the opening of the +seventh century might have concluded very reasonably that it was only a +question of a few centuries before the whole of Europe and Asia fell under +Mongolian domination. There were no signs of order or union in Western Europe, +and the Byzantine and Persian Empires were manifestly bent upon a mutual +destruction. India also was divided and wasted. On the other hand China was a +steadily expanding empire which probably at that time exceeded all Europe in +population, and the Turkish people who were growing to power in Central Asia +were disposed to work in accord with China. And such a prophecy would not have +been an altogether vain one. A time was to come in the thirteenth century when +a Mongolian overlord would rule from the Danube to the Pacific, and Turkish +dynasties were destined to reign over the entire Byzantine and Persian Empires, +over Egypt and most of India. +</p> + +<p> +Where our prophet would have been most likely to have erred +would have been in under-estimating the recuperative power of +the Latin end of Europe and in ignoring the latent forces of +the Arabian desert. Arabia would have seemed what it had +been for times immemorial, the refuge of small and bickering +nomadic tribes. No Semitic people had founded an empire now +for more than a thousand years. +</p> + +<p> +Then suddenly the Bedouin flared out for a brief century of +splendour. They spread their rule and language from Spain to +the boundaries of China. They gave the world a new culture. + They created a religion that is still to this day one of the +most vital forces in the world. +</p> + +<p> +<span class="pagenum"><a name="P249"></a></span>The man +who fired this Arab flame appears first in history as the +young husband of the widow of a rich merchant of the town of +Mecca, named Muhammad. Until he was forty he did very little +to distinguish himself in the world. He seems to have taken +considerable interest in religious discussion. Mecca was a +pagan city at that time worshipping in particular a black +stone, the Kaaba, of great repute throughout all Arabia and a +centre of pilgrimages; but there were great numbers of Jews +in the country—indeed all the southern portion of +Arabia professed the Jewish faith—and there were +Christian churches in Syria. +</p> + +<p> +About forty Muhammad began to develop prophetic +characteristics like those of the Hebrew prophets twelve +hundred years before him. He talked first to his wife of the +One True God, and of the rewards and punishments of virtue +and wickedness. There can be no doubt that his thoughts were +very strongly influenced by Jewish and Christian ideas. He +gathered about him a small circle of believers and presently +began to preach in the town against the prevalent idolatry. + This made him extremely unpopular with his fellow townsmen +because the pilgrimages to the Kaaba were the chief source of +such prosperity as Mecca enjoyed. He became bolder and more +definite in his teaching, declaring himself to be the last +chosen prophet of God entrusted with a mission to perfect +religion. Abraham, he declared, and Jesus Christ were his +forerunners. He had been chosen to complete and perfect the +revelation of God’s will. +</p> + +<p> +He produced verses which he said had been communicated to him +by an angel, and he had a strange vision in which he was +taken up through the Heavens to God and instructed in his +mission. +<span class="pagenum"><a name="P250"></a></span> +</p> + +<div class="fig" style=""> +<a name="img-250"></a> +<img src="images/img-250.jpg" +alt="AT PRAYER IN THE DESERT" + width="315" height="650" /> +<p class="caption"> +AT PRAYER IN THE DESERT +<br /><small> +<i>Photo: Lehnert & Landrock</i></small> +</p> +</div> + +<p> +As his teaching increased in force the hostility of his +fellow townsmen increased also. At last a plot was made to +kill him; but he escaped with his faithful friend and +disciple, Abu Bekr, to the friendly town of Medina which +adopted his doctrine. Hostilities followed between Mecca and +Medina which ended at last in a treaty. Mecca was to adopt +the worship of the One True God and accept Muhammad as his +prophet, <i>but the adherents of the new faith were still to +make the pilgrimage to Mecca</i> just as they had done when +they were pagans. So Muhammad established the One True God +in <span +class="pagenum"><a name="P251"></a></span>Mecca without +injuring its pilgrim traffic. In 629 Muhammad returned to +Mecca as its master, a year after he had sent out these +envoys of his to Heraclius, Tai-tsung, Kavadh and all the +rulers of the earth. +</p> + +<div class="fig" style=""> +<a name="img-251"></a> +<img src="images/img-251.jpg" +alt="LOOKING ACROSS THE SEA OF SAND" + width="600" height="301" /> +<p class="caption"> +LOOKING ACROSS THE SEA OF SAND +<br /><small> +<i>Photo: Lehnert & Landrock</i></small> +</p> +</div> + +<p> +Then for four years more until his death in 632, Muhammad +spread his power over the rest of Arabia. He married a +number of wives in his declining years, and his life on the +whole was by modern standards unedifying. He seems to have +been a man compounded of very considerable vanity, greed, +cunning, self-deception and quite sincere religious passion. + He dictated a book of injunctions and expositions, the Koran, +which he declared was communicated to him from God. Regarded +as literature or philosophy the Koran is certainly unworthy +of its alleged Divine authorship. +</p> + +<p> +Yet when the manifest defects of Muhammad’s life and +writings have been allowed for, there remains in Islam, this +faith he imposed upon the Arabs, much power and inspiration. + One is its uncompromising monotheism; its simple enthusiastic +faith in the rule and fatherhood of God and its freedom from +theological complications. Another is its complete +detachment from the sacrificial priest and the temple. It is +an entirely prophetic religion, proof against any possibility +of relapse towards blood sacrifices. In the Koran the +limited <span class="pagenum"><a +name="P252"></a></span>and ceremonial nature of the +pilgrimage to Mecca is stated beyond the possibility of +dispute, and every precaution was taken by Muhammad to +prevent the deification of himself after his death. And a +third element of strength lay in the insistence of Islam upon +the perfect brotherhood and equality before God of all +believers, whatever their colour, origin or status. +</p> + +<p> +These are the things that made Islam a power in human +affairs. It has been said that the true founder of the +Empire of Islam was not so much Muhammad as his friend and +helper, Abu Bekr. If Muhammad, with his shifty character, +was the mind and imagination of primitive Islam, Abu Bekr was +its conscience and its will. Whenever Muhammad wavered Abu +Bekr sustained him. And when Muhammad died, Abu Bekr became +Caliph (= successor), and with that faith that moves +mountains, he set himself simply and sanely to organize the +subjugation of the whole world to Allah—with little +armies of 3,000 or 4,000 Arabs—according to those +letters the prophet had written from Medina in 628 to all the +monarchs of the world. +</p> + +</div><!--end chapter--> + +<div class="chapter"> + +<h2><span class="pagenum"><a name="P253"></a></span><a name="chapXLIV"></a>XLIV<br /> +THE GREAT DAYS OF THE ARABS</h2> + +<p> +There follows the most amazing story of conquest in the whole history of our +race. The Byzantine army was smashed at the battle of the Yarmuk (a tributary +of the Jordan) in 634; and the Emperor Heraclius, his energy sapped by dropsy +and his resources exhausted by the Persian war, saw his new conquests in Syria, +Damascus, Palmyra, Antioch, Jerusalem and the rest fall almost without +resistance to the Moslim. Large elements in the population went over to Islam. +Then the Moslim turned east. The Persians had found an able general in Rustam; +they had a great host with a force of elephants; and for three days they fought +the Arabs at Kadessia (637) and broke at last in headlong rout. +</p> + +<p> +The conquest of all Persia followed, and the Moslem Empire +pushed far into Western Turkestan and eastward until it met +the Chinese. Egypt fell almost without resistance to the new +conquerors, who full of a fanatical belief in the sufficiency +of the Koran, wiped out the vestiges of the book-copying +industry of the Alexandria Library. The tide of conquest +poured along the north coast of Africa to the Straits of +Gibraltar and Spain. Spain was invaded in 710 and the +Pyrenees Mountains were reached in 720. In 732 the Arab +advance had reached the centre of France, but here it was +stopped for good at the battle of Poitiers and thrust back as +far as the Pyrenees again. The conquest of Egypt had given +the Moslim a fleet, and for a time it looked as though they +would take Constantinople. They made repeated sea attacks +between 672 and 718 but the great city held out against them. +</p> + +<div class="fig" style=""> +<a name="img-2541"></a> +<img src="images/img-2541.jpg" +alt="Map: The Growth of the Moslem Power in 25 Years" + width="600" height="333" /> +</div> + +<div class="fig" style=""> +<a name="img-2542"></a> +<img src="images/img-2542.jpg" +alt="Map: The Moslem Empire, 750 A.D." + width="600" height="331" /> +</div> + +<p> +The Arabs had little political aptitude and no political +experience, and this great empire with its capital now at +Damascus, which stretched from Spain to China, was destined +to break up very speedily. From the very beginning doctrinal +differences undermined <span class="pagenum"><a +name="P254"></a></span>its unity. But our interest here +lies not with the story of its political disintegration but +with its effect upon the human mind and upon the general +destinies of our race. The Arab intelligence had been flung +across the world even more swiftly and dramatically than had +the Greek a thousand years before. The intellectual +stimulation of the whole world west of China, the break-up of +old ideas and development of new ones, was enormous. +</p> + +<p> +<span class="pagenum"><a name="P255"></a></span>In +Persia this fresh excited Arabic mind came into contact not +only with Manichæan, Zoroastrian and Christian doctrine, +but with the scientific Greek literature, preserved not only +in Greek but in Syrian translations. It found Greek learning +in Egypt also. Every-where, and particularly in Spain, it +discovered an active Jewish tradition of speculation and +discussion. In Central Asia it met Buddhism and the material +achievements of Chinese civilization. It learnt the +manufacture of paper—which made printed books +possible—from the Chinese. And finally it came into +touch with Indian mathematics and philosophy. +</p> + +<div class="fig" style=""> +<a name="img-255"></a> +<img src="images/img-255.jpg" +alt="JERUSALEM, SHOWING THE MOSQUE OF OMAR" + width="600" height="484" /> +<p class="caption"> +JERUSALEM, SHOWING THE MOSQUE OF OMAR +<br /><small> +<i>Photo: Lehnert & Landrock</i></small> +</p> +</div> + +<p> +Very speedily the intolerant self-sufficiency of the early +days of faith, which made the Koran seem the only possible +book, was dropped. Learning sprang up everywhere in the +footsteps of the Arab conquerors. By the eighth century +there was an educational <span class="pagenum"><a +name="P256"></a></span>organization throughout the whole +“Arabized” world. In the ninth learned men in +the schools of Cordoba in Spain were corresponding with +learned men in Cairo, Bagdad, Bokhara and Samarkand. The +Jewish mind assimilated very readily with the Arab, and for a +time the two Semitic races worked together through the medium +of Arabic. Long after the political break-up and +enfeeblement of the Arabs, this intellectual community of the +Arab-speaking world endured. It was still producing very +considerable results in the thirteenth century. +</p> + +<div class="fig" style=""> +<a name="img-256"></a> +<img src="images/img-256.jpg" +alt="VIEW OF CAIRO MOSQUES" + width="600" height="477" /> +<p class="caption"> +VIEW OF CAIRO MOSQUES +<br /><small> +<i>Photo: Lehnert & Landrock</i></small> +</p> +</div> + +<p> +So it was that the systematic accumulation and criticism of +facts which was first begun by the Greeks was resumed in this +astonishing renascence of the Semitic world. The seed of +Aristotle and the museum of Alexandria that had lain so long +inactive and neglected now germinated and began to grow +towards fruition. Very great advances were made in +mathematical, medical and physical science. <span +class="pagenum"><a name="P257"></a></span>The clumsy +Roman numerals were ousted by the Arabic figures we use to +this day and the zero sign was first employed. The very name +algebra is Arabic. So is the word chemistry. The names of +such stars as Algol, Aldebaran and Boötes preserve the +traces of Arab conquests in the sky. Their philosophy was +destined to reanimate the medieval philosophy of France and +Italy and the whole Christian world. +</p> + +<p> +The Arab experimental chemists were called alchemists, and +they were still sufficiently barbaric in spirit to keep their +methods and results secret as far as possible. They realized +from the very beginning what enormous advantages their +possible discoveries might give them, and what far-reaching +consequences they might have on human life. They came upon +many metallurgical and technical devices of the utmost value, +alloys and dyes, distilling, tinctures and essences, optical +glass; but the two chief ends they sought, they sought in +vain. One was “the philosopher’s +stone”—a means of changing the metallic elements +one into another and so getting a control of artificial gold, +and the other was the <i>elixir vitÅ“</i>, a stimulant +that would revivify age and prolong life indefinitely. The +crabbed patient experimenting of these Arab alchemists spread +into the Christian world. The fascination of their enquiries +spread. Very gradually the activities of these alchemists +became more social and co-operative. They found it +profitable to exchange and compare ideas. By insensible +gradations the last of the alchemists became the first of the +experimental philosophers. +</p> + +<p> +The old alchemists sought the philosopher’s stone which +was to transmute base metals to gold, and an elixir of +immortality; they found the methods of modern experimental +science which promise in the end to give man illimitable +power over the world and over his own destiny. +</p> + +</div><!--end chapter--> + +<div class="chapter"> + +<h2><span class="pagenum"><a name="P258"></a></span><a name="chapXLV"></a>XLV<br /> +THE DEVELOPMENT OF LATIN CHRISTENDOM</h2> + +<p> +It is worth while to note the extremely shrunken dimensions of the share of the +world remaining under Aryan control in the seventh and eighth centuries. A +thousand years before, the Aryan-speaking races were triumphant over all the +civilized world west of China. Now the Mongol had thrust as far as Hungary, +nothing of Asia remained under Aryan rule except the Byzantine dominions in +Asia Minor, and all Africa was lost and nearly all Spain. The great Hellenic +world had shrunken to a few possessions round the nucleus of the trading city +of Constantinople, and the memory of the Roman world was kept alive by the +Latin of the western Christian priests. In vivid contrast to this tale of +retrogression, the Semitic tradition had risen again from subjugation and +obscurity after a thousand years of darkness. +</p> + +<p> +Yet the vitality of the Nordic peoples was not exhausted. + Confined now to Central and North-Western Europe and terribly +muddled in their social and political ideas, they were +nevertheless building up gradually and steadily a new social +order and preparing unconsciously for the recovery of a power +even more extensive than that they had previously enjoyed. +</p> + +<p> +We have told how at the beginning of the sixth century there +remained no central government in Western Europe at all. + That world was divided up among numbers of local rulers +holding their own as they could. This was too insecure a +state of affairs to last; a system of co-operation and +association grew up in this disorder, the feudal system, +which has left its traces upon European life up to the +present time. This feudal system was a sort of +crystallization of society about power. Everywhere the lone +man felt insecure and was prepared to barter a certain amount +of his liberty for help and protection. He sought a stronger +man as his lord and protector; <span class="pagenum"><a +name="P259"></a></span>he gave him military services and +paid him dues, and in return he was confirmed in his +possession of what was his. His lord again found safety in +vassalage to a still greater lord. Cities also found it +convenient to have feudal protectors, and monasteries and +church estates bound themselves by similar ties. No doubt in +many cases allegiance was claimed before it was offered; the +system grew downward as well as upward. So a sort of +pyramidal system grew up, varying widely in different +localities, permitting at first a considerable play of +violence and private warfare but making steadily for order +and a new reign of law. The pyramids grew up until some +became recognizable as kingdoms. Already by the early sixth +century a Frankish kingdom existed under its founder Clovis +in what is now France and the Netherlands, and presently +Visigothic and Lombard and Gothic kingdoms were in existence. +</p> + +<p> +The Moslim when they crossed the Pyrenees in 720 found this +Frankish kingdom under the practical rule of Charles Martel, +the Mayor of the Palace of a degenerate descendant of Clovis, +and experienced the decisive defeat of Poitiers (732) at his +hands. This Charles Martel was practically overlord of +Europe north of the Alps from the Pyrenees to Hungary. He +ruled over a multitude of subordinate lords speaking French- +Latin, and High and Low German languages. His son Pepin +extinguished the last descendants of Clovis and took the +kingly state and title. His grandson Charlemagne, who began +to reign in 768, found himself lord of a realm so large that +he could think of reviving the title of Latin Emperor. He +conquered North Italy and made himself master of Rome. +</p> + +<div class="fig" style=""> +<a name="img-260"></a> +<img src="images/img-260.jpg" +alt="Map: Area more or less under Frankish dominion in the time of + Charles Martel" + width="550" height="507" /> +</div> + +<p> +Approaching the story of Europe as we do from the wider +horizons of a world history we can see much more distinctly +than the mere nationalist historian how cramping and +disastrous this tradition of the Latin Roman Empire was. A +narrow intense struggle for this phantom predominance was to +consume European energy for more than a thousand years. + Through all that period it is possible to trace certain +unquenchable antagonisms; they run through the wits of Europe +like the obsessions of a demented mind. One driving force +was this ambition of successful rulers, which Charlemagne +(Charles the Great) embodied, to become Cæsar. The +realm of Charlemagne consisted of a complex of feudal German +states at <span class="pagenum"><a +name="P260"></a></span>various stages of barbarism. West +of the Rhine, most of these German peoples had learnt to +speak various Latinized dialects which fused at last to form +French. East of the Rhine, the racially similar German +peoples did not lose their German speech. On account of +this, communication was difficult between these two groups of +barbarian conquerors and a split easily brought about. The +split was made the more easy by the fact that the Frankish +usage made it seem natural to divide the empire of +Charlemagne among his sons at his death. So one aspect of +the history of Europe from the days of Charlemagne onwards is +a history of first this monarch and his family and then that, +struggling to a precarious headship of the kings, princes, +dukes, bishops and cities of Europe, while a steadily +deepening antagonism between the French and German speaking +elements develops in the medley. There was a formality of +election for each emperor; and the climax of his ambition was +to struggle to the possession of that worn-out, misplaced +capital Rome and to a coronation there. +</p> + +<p> +<span class="pagenum"><a name="P261"></a></span>The next +factor in the European political disorder was the resolve of +the Church at Rome to make no temporal prince but the Pope of +Rome himself emperor in effect. He was already pontifex +maximus; for all practical purposes he held the decaying +city; if he had no armies he had at least a vast propaganda +organization in his priests throughout the whole Latin world; +if he had little power over men’s bodies he held the +keys of heaven and hell in their imaginations and could +exercise much influence upon their souls. So throughout the +middle ages while one prince manÅ“uvred against another +first for equality, then for ascendancy, and at last for the +supreme prize, the Pope of Rome, sometimes boldly, sometimes +craftily, sometimes feebly—for the Popes were a +succession of oldish men and the average reign of a Pope was +not more than two years—manÅ“uvred for the +submission of all the princes to himself as the ultimate +overlord of Christendom. +</p> + +<p> +But these antagonisms of prince against prince and of Emperor +against Pope do not by any means exhaust the factors of the +European confusion. There was still an Emperor in +Constantinople speaking Greek and claiming the allegiance of +all Europe. When Charlemagne sought to revive the empire, it +was merely the Latin end of the empire he revived. It was +natural that a sense of rivalry between Latin Empire and +Greek Empire should develop very readily. And still more +readily did the rivalry of Greek-speaking Christianity and +the newer Latin-speaking version develop. The Pope of Rome +claimed to be the successor of St. Peter, the chief of the +apostles of Christ, and the head of the Christian community +everywhere. Neither the emperor nor the patriarch in +Constantinople were disposed to acknowledge this claim. A +dispute about a fine point in the doctrine of the Holy +Trinity consummated a long series of dissensions in a final +rupture in 1054. The Latin Church and the Greek Church +became and remained thereafter distinct and frankly +antagonistic. This antagonism must be added to the others in +our estimate of the conflicts that wasted Latin Christendom +in the middle ages. +<span class="pagenum"><a name="P262"></a></span> +</p> + +<div class="fig" style=""> +<a name="img-262"></a> +<img src="images/img-262.jpg" +alt="STATUE OF CHARLEMAGNE IN FRONT OF NOTRE DAME, PARIS" + width="600" height="824" /> +<p class="caption"> +STATUE OF CHARLEMAGNE IN FRONT OF NOTRE DAME, PARIS +<br /><small>The figure is entirely imaginary and romantic. There is + no contemporary portrait of Charlemagne +<br /> +<i>Photo: Rischgitz</i></small> +</p> +</div> + +<p> +Upon this divided world of Christendom rained the blows of +three sets of antagonists. About the Baltic and North Seas +remained a series of Nordic tribes who were only very slowly +and reluctantly <span class="pagenum"><a +name="P263"></a></span>Christianized; these were the +Northmen. They had taken to the sea and piracy, and were +raiding all the Christian coasts down to Spain. They had +pushed up the Russian rivers to the desolate central lands +and brought their shipping over into the south-flowing +rivers. They had come out upon the Caspian and Black Seas as +pirates also. They set up principalities in Russia; they +were the first people to be called Russians. These Northmen +Russians came near to taking Constantinople. England in the +early ninth century was a Christianized Low German country +under a king, Egbert, a protégé and pupil of +Charlemagne. The Northmen wrested half the kingdom from his +successor Alfred the Great (886), and finally under Canute +(1016) made themselves masters of the whole land. Under +Rolph the Ganger (912) another band of Northmen conquered the +north of France, which became Normandy. +</p> + +<p> +Canute ruled not only over England but over Norway and +Denmark, but his brief empire fell to pieces at his death +through that political weakness of the barbaric +peoples—division among a ruler’s sons. It is +interesting to speculate what might have happened if this +temporary union of the Northmen had endured. They were a +race of astonishing boldness and energy. They sailed in +their galleys even to Iceland and Greenland. They were the +first Europeans to land on American soil. Later on Norman +adventurers were to recover Sicily from the Saracens and sack +Rome. It is a fascinating thing to imagine what a great +northern sea-faring power might have grown out of +Canute’s kingdom, reaching from America to Russia. +</p> + +<p> +To the east of the Germans and Latinized Europeans was a +medley of Slav tribes and Turkish peoples. Prominent among +these were the Magyars or Hungarians who were coming westward +throughout the eighth and ninth centuries. Charlemagne held +them for a time, but after his death they established +themselves in what is now Hungary; and after the fashion of +their kindred predecessors, the Huns, raided every summer +into the settled parts of Europe. In 938 they went through +Germany into France, crossed the Alps into North Italy, and +so came home, burning, robbing and destroying. +</p> + +<p> +Finally pounding away from the south at the vestiges of the +<span class="pagenum"><a name="P264"></a></span>Roman +Empire were the Saracens. They had made themselves largely +masters of the sea; their only formidable adversaries upon +the water were the Northmen, the Russian Northmen out of the +Black Sea and the Northmen of the west. +</p> + +<div class="fig" style=""> +<a name="img-264"></a> +<img src="images/img-264.jpg" +alt="Map: Europe at the death of Charlemagne—814" + width="600" height="474" /> +</div> + +<p> +Hemmed in by these more vigorous and aggressive peoples, +amidst forces they did not understand and dangers they could +not estimate, Charlemagne and after him a series of other +ambitious spirits took up the futile drama of restoring the +Western Empire under the name of the Holy Roman Empire. From +the time of Charlemagne onward this idea obsessed the +political life of Western Europe, while in the East the Greek +half of the Roman power decayed and dwindled until at last +nothing remained of it at all but the corrupt trading city of +Constantinople and a few miles of territory about it. + Politically the continent of Europe remained traditional and +uncreative from the time of Charlemagne onward for a thousand +years. +</p> + +<p> +<span class="pagenum"><a name="P265"></a></span>The name +of Charlemagne looms large in European history but his +personality is but indistinctly seen. He could not read nor +write, but he had a considerable respect for learning; he +liked to be read aloud to at meals and he had a weakness for +theological discussion. At his winter quarters at Aix-la- +Chapelle or Mayence he gathered about him a number of learned +men and picked up much from their conversation. In the +summer he made war, against the Spanish Saracens, against the +Slavs and Magyars, against the Saxons, and other still +heathen German tribes. It is doubtful whether the idea of +becoming Cæsar in succession to Romulus Augustulus +occurred to him before his acquisition of North Italy, or +whether it was suggested to him by Pope Leo III, who was +anxious to make the Latin Church independent of +Constantinople. +</p> + +<p> +There were the most extraordinary manÅ“uvres at Rome +between the Pope and the prospective emperor in order to make +it appear or not appear as if the Pope gave him the imperial +crown. The Pope succeeded in crowning his visitor and +conqueror by surprise in St. Peter’s on Christmas Day +800 <small>A.D.</small> He produced a crown, put it +on the head of Charlemagne and hailed him Cæsar and +Augustus. There was great applause among the people. + Charlemagne was by no means pleased at the way in which the +thing was done, it rankled in his mind as a defeat; and he +left the most careful instructions to his son that he was not +to let the Pope crown him emperor; he was to seize the crown +into his own hands and put it on his own head himself. So at +the very outset of this imperial revival we see beginning the +age-long dispute of Pope and Emperor for priority. But Louis +the Pious, the son of Charlemagne, disregarded his +father’s instructions and was entirely submissive to +the Pope. +</p> + +<p> +The empire of Charlemagne fell apart at the death of Louis +the Pious and the split between the French-speaking Franks +and the German-speaking Franks widened. The next emperor to +arise was Otto, the son of a certain Henry the Fowler, a +Saxon, who had been elected King of Germany by an assembly of +German princes and prelates in 919. Otto descended upon Rome +and was crowned emperor there in 962. This Saxon line came +to an end early in the eleventh century and gave place to +other German rulers. The feudal princes and nobles to the +west who spoke various French dialects <span +class="pagenum"><a name="P266"></a></span>did not fall +under the sway of these German emperors after the +Carlovingian line, the line that is descended from +Charlemagne, had come to an end, and no part of Britain ever +came into the Holy Roman Empire. The Duke of Normandy, the +King of France and a number of lesser feudal rulers remained +outside. In 987 the Kingdom of France passed out of the +possession of the Carlovingian line into the hands of Hugh +Capet, whose descendants were still reigning in the +eighteenth century. At the time of Hugh Capet the King of +France ruled only a comparatively small territory round +Paris. +</p> + +<p> +In 1066 England was attacked almost simultaneously by an +invasion of the Norwegian Northmen under King Harold Hardrada +and by the Latinized Northmen under the Duke of Normandy. +Harold King of England defeated the former at the battle of +Stamford Bridge, and was defeated by the latter at Hastings. +England was conquered by the Normans, and so cut off from +Scandinavian, Teutonic and Russian affairs, and brought into +the most intimate relations and conflicts with the French. +For the next four centuries the English were entangled in the +conflicts of the French feudal princes and wasted upon the +fields of France. +</p> + +</div><!--end chapter--> + +<div class="chapter"> + +<h2><span class="pagenum"><a name="P267"></a></span><a name="chapXLVI"></a>XLVI<br /> +THE CRUSADES AND THE AGE OF PAPAL DOMINION</h2> + +<p> +It is interesting to note that Charlemagne corresponded with the Caliph +Haroun-al-Raschid, the Haroun-al-Raschid of the <i>Arabian Nights</i>. It is +recorded that Haroun-al-Raschid sent ambassadors from Bagdad—which had +now replaced Damascus as the Moslem capital—with a splendid tent, a water +clock, an elephant and the keys of the Holy Sepulchre. This latter present was +admirably calculated to set the Byzantine Empire and this new Holy Roman Empire +by the ears as to which was the proper protector of the Christians in +Jerusalem. +</p> + +<p> +These presents remind us that while Europe in the ninth +century was still a weltering disorder of war and pillage, +there flourished a great Arab Empire in Egypt and +Mesopotamia, far more civilized than anything Europe could +show. Here literature and science still lived; the arts +flourished, and the mind of man could move without fear or +superstition. And even in Spain and North Africa where the +Saracenic dominions were falling into political confusion +there was a vigorous intellectual life. Aristotle was read +and discussed by these Jews and Arabs during these centuries +of European darkness. They guarded the neglected seeds of +science and philosophy. +</p> + +<p> +North-east of the Caliph’s dominions was a number of +Turkish tribes. They had been converted to Islam, and they +held the faith much more simply and fiercely than the +actively intellectual Arabs and Persians to the south. In +the tenth century the Turks were growing strong and vigorous +while the Arab power was divided and decaying. The relations +of the Turks to the Empire of the Caliphate became very +similar to the relations of the Medes to the last Babylonian +Empire fourteen centuries before. In the eleventh century a +group of Turkish tribes, the Seljuk Turks, came down into +Mesopotamia and made the Caliph their nominal ruler but +really their <span class="pagenum"><a +name="P268"></a></span>captive and tool. They conquered +Armenia. Then they struck at the remnants of the Byzantine +power in Asia Minor. In 1071 the Byzantine army was utterly +smashed at the battle of Melasgird, and the Turks swept +forward until not a trace of Byzantine rule remained in Asia. + They took the fortress of Nicæa over against +Constantinople, and prepared to attempt that city. +</p> + +<p> +The Byzantine emperor, Michael VII, was overcome with terror. + He was already heavily engaged in warfare with a band of +Norman adventurers who had seized Durazzo, and with a fierce +Turkish people, the Petschenegs, who were raiding over the +Danube. In his extremity he sought help where he could, and +it is notable that he did not appeal to the western emperor +but to the Pope of Rome as the head of Latin Christendom. He +wrote to Pope Gregory VII, and his successor Alexius Comnenus +wrote still more urgently to Urban II. +</p> + +<div class="fig" style=""> +<a name="img-268"></a> +<img src="images/img-268.jpg" +alt="CRUSADER TOMBS IN EXETER CATHEDRAL" + width="600" height="204" /> +<p class="caption"> +CRUSADER TOMBS IN EXETER CATHEDRAL +<br /><small> +<i>Photo: Mansell</i></small> +</p> +</div> + +<p> +This was not a quarter of a century from the rupture of the +Latin and Greek churches. That controversy was still vividly +alive in men’s minds, and this disaster to Byzantium +must have presented itself to the Pope as a supreme +opportunity for reasserting the supremacy of the Latin Church +over the dissentient Greeks. Moreover this occasion gave the +Pope a chance to deal with two other matters that troubled +western Christendom very greatly. One was the custom of +“private war” which disordered social life, and +the other was the superabundant fighting energy of the Low +Germans and Christianized Northmen and particularly of the +Franks and Normans. A religious war, the Crusade, the War of +the Cross, was <span class="pagenum"><a +name="P269"></a></span>preached against the Turkish +captors of Jerusalem, and a truce to all warfare amongst +Christians (1095). The declared object of this war was the +recovery of the Holy Sepulchre from the unbelievers. A man +called Peter the Hermit carried on a popular propaganda +throughout France and Germany on broadly democratic lines. + He went clad in a coarse garment, barefooted on an ass, he +carried a huge cross and harangued the crowd in street or +market-place or church. He denounced the cruelties practised +upon the Christian pilgrims by the Turks, and the shame of +the Holy Sepulchre being in any but Christian hands. The +fruits of centuries of Christian teaching became apparent in +the response. A great wave of enthusiasm swept the western +world, and popular Christendom discovered itself. +</p> + +<div class="fig" style=""> +<a name="img-269"></a> +<img src="images/img-269.jpg" +alt="VIEW OF CAIRO" + width="500" height="618" /> +<p class="caption"> +VIEW OF CAIRO +<br /><small> +<i>Photo: Lehnert & Landrock</i></small> +</p> +</div> + +<p> +Such a widespread uprising of the common people in relation +to a single idea as now occurred was a new thing in the +history of our race. There is nothing to parallel it in the +previous history of the <span class="pagenum"><a +name="P270"></a></span>Roman Empire or of India or China. + On a smaller scale, however, there had been similar movements +among the Jewish people after their liberation from the +Babylonian captivity, and later on Islam was to display a +parallel susceptibility to collective feeling. Such +movements were certainly connected with the new spirit that +had come into life with the development of the missionary- +teaching religions. The Hebrew prophets, Jesus and his +disciples, Mani, Muhammad, were all exhorters of men’s +individual souls. They brought the personal conscience face +to face with God. Before that time religion had been much +more a business of fetish, of pseudoscience, than of +conscience. The old kind of religion turned upon temple, +initiated priest and mystical sacrifice, and ruled the common +man like a slave by fear. The new kind of religion made a +man of him. +</p> + +<p> +The preaching of the First Crusade was the first stirring of +the common people in European history. It may be too much to +call it the birth of modern democracy, but certainly at that +time modern democracy stirred. Before very long we shall +find it stirring again, and raising the most disturbing +social and religious questions. +</p> + +<p> +Certainly this first stirring of democracy ended very +pitifully and lamentably. Considerable bodies of common +people, crowds rather than armies, set out eastward from +France and the Rhineland and Central Europe without waiting +for leaders or proper equipment to rescue the Holy Sepulchre. + This was the “people’s crusade.” Two great +mobs blundered into Hungary, mistook the recently converted +Magyars for pagans, committed atrocities and were massacred. + A third multitude with a similarly confused mind, after a +great pogrom of the Jews in the Rhineland, marched eastward, +and was also destroyed in Hungary. Two other huge crowds, +under the leadership of Peter the Hermit himself, reached +Constantinople, crossed the Bosphorus, and were massacred +rather than defeated by the Seljuk Turks. So began and ended +this first movement of the European people, as people. +</p> + +<p> +Next year (1097) the real fighting forces crossed the +Bosphorus. Essentially they were Norman in leadership and +spirit. They stormed Nicæa, marched by much the same +route as Alexander had followed fourteen centuries before, to +Antioch. The siege of Antioch <span class="pagenum"><a +name="P271"></a></span>kept them a year, and in June 1099 +they invested Jerusalem. It was stormed after a +month’s siege. The slaughter was terrible. Men riding +on horseback were splashed by the blood in the streets. At +nightfall on July 15th the Crusaders had fought their way +into the Church of the Holy Sepulchre and overcome all +opposition there: blood-stained, weary and “sobbing +from excess of joy” they knelt down in prayer. +</p> + +<div class="fig" style=""> +<a name="img-271"></a> +<img src="images/img-271.jpg" +alt="THE HORSES OF S. MARK, VENICE" + width="350" height="439" /> +<p class="caption"> +THE HORSES OF S. MARK, VENICE +<br /><small>Originally on the arch of Trajan at Constantinople, the + Doge Dandalo V took them after the Fourth Crusade, to Venice, + whence Napoleon I removed them to Paris, but in 1815 they were + returned to Venice. During the Great War of 1914-18 they were + hidden away for fear of air raids. +<br /> +<i>Photo: D. McLeish</i></small> +</p> +</div> + +<p> +Immediately the hostility of Latin and Greek broke out again. + The Crusaders were the servants of the Latin Church, and the +Greek patriarch of Jerusalem found himself in a far worse +case under the triumphant Latins than under the Turks. The +Crusaders discovered themselves between Byzantine and Turk +and fighting both. Much of Asia Minor was recovered by the +Byzantine Empire, and the Latin princes were left, a buffer +between Turk and Greek, with Jerusalem and a few small +principalities, of which Edessa was one of the chief, in +Syria. Their grip even on these possessions was precarious, +and in 1144 Edessa fell to the Moslim, leading to an +ineffective Second Crusade, which failed to recover Edessa +but saved Antioch from a similar fate. +</p> + +<p> +<span class="pagenum"><a name="P272"></a></span>In 1169 +the forces of Islam were rallied under a Kurdish adventurer +named Saladin who had made himself master of Egypt. He +preached a Holy War against the Christians, recaptured +Jerusalem in 1187, and so provoked the Third Crusade. This +failed to recover Jerusalem. In the Fourth Crusade (1202-4) +the Latin Church turned frankly upon the Greek Empire, and +there was not even a pretence of fighting the Turks. It +started from Venice and in 1204 it stormed Constantinople. + The great rising trading city of Venice was the leader in +this adventure, and most of the coasts and islands of the +Byzantine Empire were annexed by the Venetians. A +“Latin” emperor (Baldwin of Flanders) was set up +in Constantinople and the Latin and Greek Church were +declared to be reunited. The Latin emperors ruled in +Constantinople from 1204 to 1261 when the Greek world shook +itself free again from Roman predominance. +</p> + +<p> +The twelfth century then and the opening of the thirteenth +was the age of papal ascendancy just as the eleventh was the +age of the ascendancy of the Seljuk Turks and the tenth the +age of the Northmen. A united Christendom under the rule of +the Pope came nearer to being a working reality than it ever +was before or after that time. +<span class="pagenum"><a name="P273"></a></span> +</p> + +<div class="fig" style=""> +<a name="img-273"></a> +<img src="images/img-273.jpg" +alt="A COURTYARD IN THE ALHAMBRA" + width="600" height="747" /> +<p class="caption"> +A COURTYARD IN THE ALHAMBRA +<br /><small> +<i>Photo: Lehnert & Landrock</i></small> +</p> +</div> + +<p> +In those centuries a simple Christian faith was real and +widespread over great areas of Europe. Rome itself had +passed through some dark and discreditable phases; few +writers can be found to excuse the lives of Popes John XI and +John XII in the tenth century; they were abominable +creatures; but the heart and body of Latin Christendom had +remained earnest and simple; the generality of the common +priests and monks and nuns had lived exemplary and faithful +lives. Upon the wealth of confidence such lives created +rested the power of the church. Among the great Popes of the +past had been Gregory the Great, Gregory I (590-604) and Leo +III (795-816) who invited Charlemagne to be Cæsar and +crowned him in spite of himself. Towards the close of the +eleventh century there arose a great clerical statesman, +Hildebrand, who ended his life as Pope Gregory VII (1073- +1085). Next but one after him came Urban II (1087-1099), the +Pope of the First Crusade. These two were the founders of +this period of papal greatness during which the Popes lorded +it over the Emperors. From Bulgaria to Ireland and <span +class="pagenum"><a name="P274"></a></span>from Norway to +Sicily and Jerusalem the Pope was supreme. Gregory VII +obliged the Emperor Henry IV to come in penitence to him at +Canossa and to await forgiveness for three days and nights in +the courtyard of the castle, clad in sackcloth and barefooted +to the snow. In 1176 at Venice the Emperor Frederick +(Frederick Barbarossa), knelt to Pope Alexander III and swore +fealty to him. +</p> + +<p> +The great power of the church in the beginning of the +eleventh century lay in the wills and consciences of men. It +failed to retain the moral prestige on which its power was +based. In the opening decades of the fourteenth century it +was discovered that the power of the Pope had evaporated. + What was it that destroyed the naive confidence of the common +people of Christendom in the church so that they would no +longer rally to its appeal and serve its purposes? +</p> + +<p> +The first trouble was certainly the accumulation of wealth by +the church. The church never died, and there was a frequent +disposition on the part of dying childless people to leave +lands to the church. Penitent sinners were exhorted to do +so. Accordingly in many European countries as much as a +fourth of the land became church property. The appetite for +property grows with what it feeds upon. Already in the +thirteenth century it was being said everywhere that the +priests were not good men, that they were always hunting for +money and legacies. +</p> + +<p> +The kings and princes disliked this alienation of property +very greatly. In the place of feudal lords capable of +military support, they found their land supporting abbeys and +monks and nuns. And these lands were really under foreign +dominion. Even before the time of Pope Gregory VII there had +been a struggle between the princes and the papacy over the +question of “investitures,” the question that is +of who should appoint the bishops. If that power rested with +the Pope and not the King, then the latter lost control not +only of the consciences of his subjects but of a considerable +part of his dominions. For also the clergy claimed exemption +from taxation. They paid their taxes to Rome. And not only +that, but the church also claimed the right to levy a tax of +one-tenth upon the property of the layman in addition to the +taxes he paid his prince. +</p> + +<p> +<span class="pagenum"><a name="P275"></a></span>The +history of nearly every country in Latin Christendom tells of +the same phase in the eleventh century, a phase of struggle +between monarch and Pope on the issue of investitures and +generally it tells of a victory for the Pope. He claimed to +be able to excommunicate the prince, to absolve his subjects +from their allegiance to him, to recognize a successor. He +claimed to be able to put a nation under an interdict, and +then nearly all priestly functions ceased except the +sacraments of baptism, confirmation and penance; the priests +could neither hold the ordinary services, marry people, nor +bury the dead. With these two weapons it was possible for +the twelfth century Popes to curb the most recalcitrant +princes and overawe the most restive peoples. These were +enormous powers, and enormous powers are only to be used on +extraordinary occasions. The Popes used them at last with a +frequency that staled their effect. Within thirty years at +the end of the twelfth century we find Scotland, France and +England in turn under an interdict. And also the Popes could +not resist the temptation to preach crusades against +offending princes—until the crusading spirit was +extinct. +</p> + +<p> +It is possible that if the Church of Rome had struggled +simply against the princes and had had a care to keep its +hold upon the general mind, it might have achieved a +permanent dominion over all Christendom. But the high claims +of the Pope were reflected as arrogance in the conduct of the +clergy. Before the eleventh century the Roman priests could +marry; they had close ties with the people among whom they +lived; they were indeed a part of the people. Gregory VII +made them celibates; he cut the priests off from too great an +intimacy with the laymen in order to bind them more closely +to Rome, but indeed he opened a fissure between the church +and the commonalty. The church had its own law courts. + Cases involving not merely priests but monks, students, +crusaders, widows, orphans and the helpless were reserved for +the clerical courts, and so were all matters relating to +wills, marriages and oaths and all cases of sorcery, heresy +and blasphemy. Whenever the layman found himself in conflict +with the priest he had to go to a clerical court. The +obligations of peace and war fell upon his shoulders alone +and left the priest free. It is no great wonder that +jealousy and hatred of the priests grew up in the Christian +world. +</p> + +<p> +<span class="pagenum"><a name="P276"></a></span>Never +did Rome seem to realize that its power was in the +consciences of common men. It fought against religious +enthusiasm, which should have been its ally, and it forced +doctrinal orthodoxy upon honest doubt and aberrant opinion. + When the church interfered in matters of morality it had the +common man with it, but not when it interfered in matters of +doctrine. When in the south of France Waldo taught a return +to the simplicity of Jesus in faith and life, Innocent III +preached a crusade against the Waldenses, Waldo’s +followers, and permitted them to be suppressed with fire, +sword, rape and the most abominable cruelties. When again +St. Francis of Assisi (1181-1226) taught the imitation of +Christ and a life of poverty and service, his followers, the +Franciscans, were persecuted, scourged, imprisoned and +dispersed. In 1318 four of them were burnt alive at +Marseilles. On the other hand the fiercely orthodox order of +the Dominicans, founded by St. Dominic (1170-1221) was +strongly supported by Innocent III, who with its assistance +set up an organization, the Inquisition, for the hunting of +heresy and the affliction of free thought. +</p> + +<p> +So it was that the church by excessive claims, by unrighteous +privileges, and by an irrational intolerance destroyed that +free faith of the common man which was the final source of +all its power. The story of its decline tells of no adequate +foemen from without but continually of decay from within. +</p> + +</div><!--end chapter--> + +<div class="chapter"> + +<h2><span class="pagenum"><a name="P277"></a></span><a name="chapXLVII"></a>XLVII<br /> +RECALCITRANT PRINCES AND THE GREAT SCHISM</h2> + +<p> +One very great weakness of the Roman Church in its struggle to secure the +headship of all Christendom was the manner in which the Pope was chosen. +</p> + +<p> +If indeed the papacy was to achieve its manifest ambition and +establish one rule and one peace throughout Christendom, then +it was vitally necessary that it should have a strong, steady +and continuous direction. In those great days of its +opportunity it needed before all things that the Popes when +they took office should be able men in the prime of life, +that each should have his successor-designate with whom he +could discuss the policy of the church, and that the forms +and processes of election should be clear, definite, +unalterable and unassailable. Unhappily none of these things +obtained. It was not even clear who could vote in the +election of a Pope, nor whether the Byzantine or Holy Roman +Emperor had a voice in the matter. That very great papal +statesman Hildebrand (Pope Gregory VII, 1073-1085) did much +to regularize the election. He confined the votes to the +Roman cardinals and he reduced the Emperor’s share to a +formula of assent conceded to him by the church, but he made +no provision for a successor-designate and he left it +possible for the disputes of the cardinals to keep the See +vacant, as in some cases it was kept vacant, for a year or +more. +<span class="pagenum"><a name="P278"></a></span> +</p> + +<div class="fig" style=""> +<a name="img-278"></a> +<img src="images/img-278.jpg" +alt="MILAN CATHEDRALA COURTYARD IN THE ALHAMBRA" + width="600" height="785" /> +<p class="caption"> +MILAN CATHEDRALA COURTYARD IN THE ALHAMBRA +<br /><small>View showing the exquisite carvings characteristic of the + 98 spires of the edifice +</small> +</p> +</div> + +<p> +The consequences of this want of firm definition are to be +seen in the whole history of the papacy up to the sixteenth +century. From quite early times onward there were disputed +elections and two or more men each claiming to be Pope. The +church would then be subjected to the indignity of going to +the Emperor or some other outside arbiter to settle the +dispute. And the career of everyone of the great Popes ended +in a note of interrogation. At his death the church might be +left headless and as ineffective as a decapitated <span +class="pagenum"><a name="P279"></a></span>body. Or he +might be replaced by some old rival eager only to discredit +and undo his work. Or some enfeebled old man tottering on +the brink of the grave might succeed him. +</p> + +<p> +It was inevitable that this peculiar weakness of the papal +organization should attract the interference of the various +German princes, the French King, and the Norman and French +Kings who ruled in England; that they should all try to +influence the elections, and have a Pope in their own +interest established in the Lateran Palace at Rome. And the +more powerful and important the Pope became in European +affairs, the more urgent did these interventions become. + Under the circumstances it is no great wonder that many of +the Popes were weak and futile. The astonishing thing is +that many of them were able and courageous men. +</p> + +<p> +One of the most vigorous and interesting of the Popes of this +great period was Innocent III (1198-1216) who was so +fortunate as to become Pope before he was thirty-eight. He +and his successors were pitted against an even more +interesting personality, the Emperor Frederick II; <i>Stupor +mundi</i> he was called, the Wonder of the world. The +struggle of this monarch against Rome is a turning place in +history. In the end Rome defeated him and destroyed his +dynasty, but he left the prestige of the church and Pope so +badly wounded that its wounds festered and led to its decay. +</p> + +<p> +Frederick was the son of the Emperor Henry VI and his mother +was the daughter of Roger I, the Norman King of Sicily. He +inherited this kingdom in 1198 when he was a child of four +years. Innocent III had been made his guardian. Sicily in +those days had been but recently conquered by the Normans; +the Court was half oriental and full of highly educated +Arabs; and some of these were associated in the education of +the young king. No doubt they were at some pains to make +their point of view clear to him. He got a Moslem view of +Christianity as well as a Christian view of Islam, and the +unhappy result of this double system of instruction was a +view, exceptional in that age of faith, that all religions +were impostures. He talked freely on the subject; his +heresies and blasphemies are on record. +</p> + +<p> +As the young man grew up he found himself in conflict with +his guardian. Innocent III wanted altogether too much from +his ward. <span class="pagenum"><a +name="P280"></a></span>When the opportunity came for +Frederick to succeed as Emperor, the Pope intervened with +conditions. Frederick must promise to put down heresy in +Germany with a strong hand. Moreover he must relinquish his +crown in Sicily and South Italy, because otherwise he would +be too strong for the Pope. And the German clergy were to be +freed from all taxation. Frederick agreed but with no +intention of keeping his word. The Pope had already induced +the French King to make war upon his own subjects in France, +the cruel and bloody crusade against the Waldenses; he wanted +Frederick to do the same thing in Germany. But Frederick +being far more of a heretic than any of the simple pietists +who had incurred the Pope’s animosity, lacked the +crusading impulse. And when Innocent urged him to crusade +against the Moslim and recover Jerusalem he was equally ready +to promise and equally slack in his performance. +</p> + +<div class="fig" style=""> +<a name="img-280"></a> +<img src="images/img-280.jpg" +alt="A TYPICAL CRUSADER: DON RODRIGO DE CARDENAS" + width="250" height="748" /> +<p class="caption"> +A TYPICAL CRUSADER: DON RODRIGO DE CARDENAS +<br /><small>From the Church of S. Pedro at Ocana, Spain +<br /> +<i>(In the Victoria and Albert Museum)</i></small> +</p> +</div> + +<p> +Having secured the imperial crown Frederick II stayed in +Sicily, which he greatly preferred to Germany as a residence, +and did nothing to redeem any of his promises to Innocent +III, who died baffled in 1216. +</p> + +<p> +<span class="pagenum"><a name="P281"></a></span>Honorius +III, who succeeded Innocent, could do no better with +Frederick, and Gregory IX (1227) came to the papal throne +evidently resolved to settle accounts with this young man at +any cost. He excommunicated him. Frederick II was denied +all the comforts of religion. In the half-Arab Court of +Sicily this produced singularly little discomfort. And also +the Pope addressed a public letter to the Emperor reciting +his vices (which were indisputable), his heresies, and his +general misconduct. To this Frederick replied in a document +of diabolical ability. It was addressed to all the princes +of Europe, and it made the first clear statement of the issue +between the Pope and the princes. He made a shattering +attack upon the manifest ambition of the Pope to become the +absolute ruler of all Europe. He suggested a union of +princes against this usurpation. He directed the attention +of the princes specifically to the wealth of the church. +</p> + +<p> +Having fired off this deadly missile Frederick resolved to +perform his twelve-year-old promise and go upon a crusade. + This was the Sixth Crusade (1228). It was as a crusade, +farcical. Frederick II went to Egypt and met and discussed +affairs with the Sultan. These two gentlemen, both of +sceptical opinions, exchanged congenial views, made a +commercial convention to their mutual advantage, and agreed +to transfer Jerusalem to Frederick. This indeed was a new +sort of crusade, a crusade by private treaty. Here was no +blood splashing the conqueror, no “weeping with excess +of joy.” As this astonishing crusader was an +excommunicated man, he had to be content with a purely +secular coronation as King of Jerusalem, taking the crown +from the altar with his own hand—for all the clergy +were bound to shun him. He then returned to Italy, chased +the papal armies which had invaded his dominions back to +their own territories, and obliged the Pope to grant him +absolution from his excommunication. So a prince might treat +the Pope in the thirteenth century, and there was now no +storm of popular indignation to avenge him. Those days were +past. +</p> + +<p> +In 1239 Gregory IX resumed his struggle with Frederick, +excommunicated him for a second time, and renewed that +warfare of public abuse in which the papacy had already +suffered severely. The controversy was revived after Gregory +IX was dead, when Innocent IV <span class="pagenum"><a +name="P282"></a></span>was Pope; and again a devastating +letter, which men were bound to remember, was written by +Frederick against the church. He denounced the pride and +irreligion of the clergy, and ascribed all the corruptions of +the time to their pride and wealth. He proposed to his +fellow princes a general confiscation of church +property—for the good of the church. It was a +suggestion that never afterwards left the imagination of the +European princes. +</p> + +<p> +We will not go on to tell of his last years. The particular +events of his life are far less significant than its general +atmosphere. It is possible to piece together something of +his court life in Sicily. He was luxurious in his way of +living, and fond of beautiful things. He is described as +licentious. But it is clear that he was a man of very +effectual curiosity and inquiry. He gathered Jewish and +Moslem as well as Christian philosophers at his court, and he +did much to irrigate the Italian mind with Saracenic +influences. Through him the Arabic numerals and algebra were +introduced to Christian students, and among other +philosophers at his court was Michael Scott, who translated +portions of Aristotle and the commentaries thereon of the +great Arab philosopher Averroes (of Cordoba). In 1224 +Frederick founded the University of Naples, and he enlarged +and enriched the great medical school at Salerno University. + He also founded a zoological garden. He left a book on +hawking, which shows him to have been an acute observer of +the habits of birds, and he was one of the first Italians to +write Italian verse. Italian poetry was indeed born at his +court. He has been called by an able writer, “the +first of the moderns,” and the phrase expresses aptly +the unprejudiced detachment of his intellectual side. +</p> + +<p> +A still more striking intimation of the decay of the living +and sustaining forces of the papacy appeared when presently +the Popes came into conflict with the growing power of the +French King. During the lifetime of the Emperor Frederick +II, Germany fell into disunion, and the French King began to +play the rôle of guard, supporter and rival to the Pope +that had hitherto fallen to the Hohenstaufen Emperors. A +series of Popes pursued the policy of supporting the French +monarchs. French princes were established in the kingdom of +Sicily and Naples, with the support and approval of Rome, and +the French Kings saw before them the possibility <span +class="pagenum"><a name="P283"></a></span>of restoring +and ruling the Empire of Charlemagne. When, however, the +German interregnum after the death of Frederick II, the last +of the Hohenstaufens, came to all end and Rudolf of Habsburg +was elected first Habsburg Emperor (1273), the policy of Rome +began to fluctuate between France and Germany, veering about +with the sympathies of each successive Pope. In the East in +1261 the Greeks recaptured Constantinople from the Latin +emperors, and the founder of the new Greek dynasty, Michael +Palæologus, Michael VIII, after some unreal tentatives +of reconciliation with the Pope, broke away from the Roman +communion altogether, and with that, and the fall of the +Latin kingdoms in Asia, the eastward ascendancy of the Popes +came to an end. +</p> + +<div class="fig" style=""> +<a name="img-283"></a> +<img src="images/img-283.jpg" +alt="COSTUMES OF THE BURGUNDIAN NOBILITY: FLEMISH WORK OF THE + FIFTEENTH CENTURY" + width="600" height="420" /> +<p class="caption"> +COSTUMES OF THE BURGUNDIAN NOBILITY: FLEMISH WORK OF THE FIFTEENTH + CENTURY +</p> +</div> + +<p> +In 1294 Boniface VIII became Pope. He was an Italian, +hostile to the French, and full of a sense of the great +traditions and mission of Rome. For a time he carried things +with a high hand. In 1300 he held a jubilee, and a vast +multitude of pilgrims assembled in Rome. “So great was +the influx of money into the papal treasury, that two +assistants were kept busy with the rakes collecting the <span +class="pagenum"><a name="P284"></a></span>offerings that +were deposited at the tomb of St. Peter.” [<a +name="chapXLVIIfn1text"></a><a href="#chapXLVIIfn1">1</a>] +But this festival was a delusive triumph. Boniface came into +conflict with the French King in 1302, and in 1303, as he was +about to pronounce sentence of excommunication against that +monarch, he was surprised and arrested in his own ancestral +palace at Anagni, by Guillaume de Nogaret. This agent from +the French King forced an entrance into the palace, made his +way into the bedroom of the frightened Pope—he was +lying in bed with a cross in his hands—and heaped +threats and insults upon him. The Pope was liberated a day +or so later by the townspeople, and returned to Rome; but +there he was seized upon and again made prisoner by the +Orsini family, and in a few weeks’ time the shocked and +disillusioned old man died a prisoner in their hands. +</p> + +<div class="fig" style=""> +<a name="img-284"></a> +<img src="images/img-284.jpg" +alt="COSTUMES OF THE BURGUNDIAN NOBILITY: FLEMISH WORK OF THE + FIFTEENTH CENTURY" + width="600" height="433" /> +<p class="caption"> +COSTUMES OF THE BURGUNDIAN NOBILITY: FLEMISH WORK OF THE FIFTEENTH + CENTURY +<br /><small>This series is from casts in the Victoria and Albert + Museum of the original brass statuettes in the Rijks Museum, + Amsterdam +</small> +</p> +</div> + +<p> +The people of Anagni did resent the first outrage, and rose +against Nogaret to liberate Boniface, but then Anagni was the +Pope’s native town. The important point to note is +that the French King <span class="pagenum"><a +name="P285"></a></span>in this rough treatment of the +head of Christendom was acting with the full approval of his +people; he had summoned a council of the Three Estates of +France (lords, church and commons) and gained their consent +before proceeding to extremities. Neither in Italy, Germany +nor England was there the slightest general manifestation of +disapproval at this free handling of the sovereign pontiff. + The idea of Christendom had decayed until its power over the +minds of men had gone. +</p> + +<p> +Throughout the fourteenth century the papacy did nothing to +recover its moral sway. The next Pope elected, Clement V, +was a Frenchman, the choice of King Philip of France. He +never came to Rome. He set up his court in the town of +Avignon, which then belonged not to France but to the papal +See, though embedded in French territory, and there his +successors remained until 1377, when Pope Gregory XI returned +to the Vatican palace in Rome. But Gregory XI did not take +the sympathies of the whole church with him. Many of the +cardinals were of French origin and their habits and +associations were rooted deep at Avignon. When in 1378 +Gregory XI died, and an Italian, Urban VI, was elected, these +dissentient cardinals declared the election invalid, and +elected another Pope, the anti-Pope, Clement VII. This split +is called the Great Schism. The Popes remained in Rome, and +all the anti-French powers, the Emperor, the King of England, +Hungary, Poland and the North of Europe were loyal to them. + The anti-Popes, on the other hand, continued in Avignon, and +were supported by the King of France, his ally the King of +Scotland, Spain, Portugal and various German princes. Each +Pope excommunicated and cursed the adherents of his rival +(1378-1417). +</p> + +<p> +Is it any wonder that presently all over Europe people began +to think for themselves in matters of religion? +</p> + +<p> +The beginnings of the Franciscans and the Dominicans, which +we have noted in the preceding chapters, were but two among +many of the new forces that were arising in Christendom, +either to hold or shatter the church as its own wisdom might +decide. + Those two orders the church did assimilate and use, though +with a little violence in the case of the former. But other +forces were more frankly disobedient and critical. A century +and a half later <span class="pagenum"><a +name="P286"></a></span>came Wycliffe (1320-1384). He was +a learned Doctor at Oxford. Quite late in his life he began +a series of outspoken criticisms of the corruption of the +clergy and the unwisdom of the church. He organized a number +of poor priests, the Wycliffites, to spread his ideas +throughout England; and in order that people should judge +between the church and himself, he translated the Bible into +English. He was a more learned and far abler man than either +St. Francis or St. Dominic. He had supporters in high places +and a great following among the people; and though Rome raged +against him, and ordered his imprisonment, he died a free +man. But the black and ancient spirit that was leading the +Catholic Church to its destruction would not let his bones +rest in the grave. By a decree of the Council of Constance +in 1415, his remains were ordered to be dug up and burnt, an +order which was carried out at the command of Pope Martin V +by Bishop Fleming in 1428. This desecration was not the act +of some isolated fanatic; it was the official act of the +church. +</p> + +<p class="footnote"> +<a name="chapXLVIIfn1"></a> +[<a href="#chapXLVIIfn1text">1</a>] J. H. Robinson. +</p> + +</div><!--end chapter--> + +<div class="chapter"> + +<h2><span class="pagenum"><a name="P287"></a></span><a name="chapXLVIII"></a>XLVIII<br /> +THE MONGOL CONQUESTS</h2> + +<p> +But in the thirteenth century, while this strange and finally ineffectual +struggle to unify Christendom under the rule of the Pope was going on in +Europe, far more momentous events were afoot upon the larger stage of Asia. A +Turkish people from the country to the north of China rose suddenly to +prominence in the world’s affairs, and achieved such a series of +conquests as has no parallel in history. These were the Mongols. At the opening +of the thirteenth century they were a horde of nomadic horsemen, living very +much as their predecessors, the Huns, had done, subsisting chiefly upon meat +and mare’s milk and living in tents of skin. They had shaken themselves +free from Chinese dominion, and brought a number of other Turkish tribes into a +military confederacy. Their central camp was at Karakorum in Mongolia. +</p> + +<p> +At this time China was in a state of division. The great +dynasty of Tang had passed into decay by the tenth century, +and after a phase of division into warring states, three main +empires, that of Kin in the north with Pekin as its capital +and that of Sung in the south with a capital at Nankin, and +Hsia in the centre, remain. In 1214 Jengis Khan, the leader +of the Mongol confederates, made war on the Kin Empire and +captured Pekin (1214). He then turned westward and conquered +Western Turkestan, Persia, Armenia, India down to Lahore, and +South Russia as far as Kieff. He died master of a vast +empire that reached from the Pacific to the Dnieper. +</p> + +<p> +His successor, Ogdai Khan, continued this astonishing career +of conquest. His armies were organized to a very high level +of efficiency; and they had with them a new Chinese +invention, gunpowder, which they used in small field guns. + He completed the conquest of the Kin Empire and then swept +his hosts right across Asia to Russia (1235), an altogether +amazing march. Kieff was <span class="pagenum"><a +name="P288"></a></span>destroyed in 1240, and nearly all +Russia became tributary to the Mongols. Poland was ravaged, +and a mixed army of Poles and Germans was annihilated at the +battle of Liegnitz in Lower Silesia in 1241. The Emperor +Frederick II does not seem to have made any great efforts to +stay the advancing tide. +</p> + +<div class="fig" style=""> +<a name="img-288"></a> +<img src="images/img-288.jpg" +alt="Map: The Ottoman Empire before 1453" + width="600" height="393" /> +</div> + +<p> +“It is only recently,” says Bury in his notes to +Gibbon’s <i>Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire</i>, +“that European history has begun to understand that the +successes of the Mongol army which overran Poland and +occupied Hungary in the spring of + <small>A.D.</small> 1241 were won by consummate strategy and were +not due to a mere overwhelming superiority of numbers. But +this fact has not yet become a matter of common knowledge; +the vulgar opinion which represents the Tartars as a wild +horde carrying all before them solely by their multitude, and +galloping through Eastern Europe without a strategic plan, +rushing at all obstacles and overcoming them by mere weight, +still prevails. . . . +</p> + +<p> +“It was wonderful how punctually and effectually the +arrangements were carried out in operations extending from +the Lower Vistula to Transylvania. Such a campaign was quite +beyond the <span class="pagenum"><a +name="P289"></a></span>power of any European army of the +time, and it was beyond the vision of any European commander. + There was no general in Europe, from Frederick II downward, +who was not a tyro in strategy compared to Subutai. It +should also be noticed that the Mongols embarked upon the +enterprise with full knowledge of the political situation of +Hungary and the condition of Poland—they had taken care +to inform themselves by a well-organized system of spies; on +the other hand, the Hungarians and the Christian powers, like +childish barbarians, knew hardly anything about their +enemies.” +</p> + +<div class="fig" style=""> +<a name="img-289"></a> +<img src="images/img-289.jpg" +alt="Map: The Empire of Jengis Khan at his death (1227)" + width="600" height="463" /> +</div> + +<p> +But though the Mongols were victorious at Liegnitz, they did +not continue their drive westward. They were getting into +woodlands and hilly country, which did not suit their +tactics; and so they turned southward and prepared to settle +in Hungary, massacring or assimilating the kindred Magyar, +even as these had previously massacred and assimilated the +mixed Scythians and Avars and Huns before them. From the +Hungarian plain they would probably have made raids west and +south as the Hungarians had done in the ninth century, the +Avars in the seventh and eighth and the Huns in the fifth. + But Ogdai died suddenly, and in 1242 there was trouble <span +class="pagenum"><a name="P290"></a></span>about the +succession, and recalled by this, the undefeated hosts of +Mongols began to pour back across Hungary and Roumania +towards the east. +</p> + +<p> +Thereafter the Mongols concentrated their attention upon +their Asiatic conquests. By the middle of the thirteenth +century they had conquered the Sung Empire. Mangu Khan +succeeded Ogdai Khan as Great Khan in 1251, and made his +brother Kublai Khan governor of China. In 1280 Kublai Khan +had been formally recognized Emperor of China, and so founded +the Yuan dynasty which lasted until 1368. While the last +ruins of the Sung rule were going down in China, another +brother of Mangu, Hulagu, was conquering Persia and Syria. + The Mongols displayed a bitter animosity to Islam at this +time, and not only massacred the population of Bagdad when +they captured that city, but set to work to destroy the +immemorial irrigation system which had kept Mesopotamia +incessantly prosperous and populous from the early days of +Sumeria. From that time until our own Mesopotamia has been a +desert of ruins, sustaining only a scanty population. Into +Egypt the Mongols never penetrated; the Sultan of Egypt +completely defeated an army of Hulagu’s in Palestine in +1260. +</p> + +<p> +After that disaster the tide of Mongol victory ebbed. The +dominions of the Great Khan fell into a number of separate +states. The eastern Mongols became Buddhists, like the +Chinese; the western became Moslim. The Chinese threw off +the rule of the Yuan dynasty in 1368, and set up the native +Ming dynasty which flourished from 1368 to 1644. The +Russians remained tributary to the Tartar hordes upon the +south-east steppes until 1480, when the Grand Duke of Moscow +repudiated his allegiance and laid the foundation of modern +Russia. +<span class="pagenum"><a name="P291"></a></span> +</p> + +<div class="fig" style=""> +<a name="img-291"></a> +<img src="images/img-291.jpg" +alt="TARTAR HORSEMEN" + width="360" height="752" /> +<p class="caption"> +TARTAR HORSEMEN +<br /><small><i>(From a Chinese Print in the British Museum) +</i></small> +</p> +</div> + +<p> +In the fourteenth century there was a brief revival of Mongol +vigour under Timurlane, a descendant of Jengis Khan. He +established himself in Western Turkestan, assumed the title +of Grand Khan in 1369, and conquered from Syria to Delhi. He +was the most savage and destructive of all the Mongol +conquerors. He established an empire of desolation that did +not survive his death. In 1505, however, a descendant of +this Timur, an adventurer named Baber, got together an army +with guns and swept down upon the <span class="pagenum"><a +name="P292"></a></span>plains of India. His grandson +Akbar (1556-1605) completed his conquests, and this Mongol +(or “Mogul” as the Arabs called it) dynasty ruled +in Delhi over the greater part of India until the eighteenth +century. +</p> + +<div class="fig" style=""> +<a name="img-292"></a> +<img src="images/img-292.jpg" +alt="Map: The Ottoman Empire at the death of Suleiman the + Magnificent, 1566 A.D." + width="550" height="421" /> +</div> + +<p> +One of the consequences of the first great sweep of Mongol +conquest in the thirteenth century was to drive a certain +tribe of Turks, the Ottoman Turks, out of Turkestan into Asia +Minor. They extended and consolidated their power in Asia +Minor, crossed the Dardanelles and conquered Macedonia, +Serbia and Bulgaria, until at last Constantinople remained +like an island amongst the Ottoman dominions. In 1453 the +Ottoman Sultan, Muhammad II, took Constantinople, attacking +it from the European side with a great number of guns. This +event caused intense excitement in Europe and there was talk +of a crusade, but the day of the crusades was past. +</p> + +<p> +In the course of the sixteenth century the Ottoman Sultans +conquered Bagdad, Hungary, Egypt and most of North Africa, +and their fleet made them masters of the Mediterranean. They +very nearly took Vienna, and they exacted it tribute from the +Emperor. There were but two items to offset the general ebb +of Christian dominion <span class="pagenum"><a +name="P293"></a></span>in the fifteenth century. One was +the restoration of the independence of Moscow (1480); the +other was the gradual reconquest of Spain by the Christians. + In 1492, Granada, the last Moslem state in the peninsula, +fell to King Ferdinand of Aragon and his Queen Isabella of +Castile. +</p> + +<p> +But it was not until as late as 1571 that the naval battle of +Lepanto broke the prick of the Ottomans, and restored the +Mediterranean waters to Christian ascendancy. +</p> + +</div><!--end chapter--> + +<div class="chapter"> + +<h2><span class="pagenum"><a name="P294"></a></span><a name="chapXLIX"></a>XLIX<br /> +THE INTELLECTUAL REVIVAL OF THE EUROPEANS</h2> + +<p> +Throughout the twelfth century there were many signs that the European +intelligence was recovering courage and leisure, and preparing to take up again +the intellectual enterprises of the first Greek scientific enquiries and such +speculations as those of the Italian Lucretius. The causes of this revival were +many and complex. The suppression of private war, the higher standards of +comfort and security that followed the crusades, and the stimulation of +men’s minds by the experiences of these expeditions were no doubt +necessary preliminary conditions. Trade was reviving; cities were recovering +ease and safety; the standard of education was arising in the church and +spreading among laymen. The thirteenth and fourteenth centuries were a period +of growing, independent or quasi-independent cities; Venice, Florence, Genoa, +Lisbon, Paris, Bruges, London, Antwerp, Hamburg, Nuremberg, Novgorod, Wisby and +Bergen for example. They were all trading cities with many travellers, and +where men trade and travel they talk and think. The polemics of the Popes and +princes, the conspicuous savagery and wickedness of the persecution of +heretics, were exciting men to doubt the authority of the church and question +and discuss fundamental things. +</p> + +<p> +We have seen how the Arabs were the means of restoring +Aristotle to Europe, and how such a prince as Frederick II +acted as a channel through which Arabic philosophy and +science played upon the renascent European mind. Still more +influential in the stirring up of men’s ideas were the +Jews. Their very existence was a note of interrogation to +the claims of the church. And finally the secret, +fascinating enquiries of the alchemists were spreading far +and wide and setting men to the petty, furtive and yet +fruitful resumption of experimental science. +</p> + +<p> +<span class="pagenum"><a name="P295"></a></span>And the +stir in men’s minds was by no means confined now to the +independent and well educated. The mind of the common man +was awake in the world as it had never been before in all the +experience of mankind. In spite of priest and persecution, +Christianity does seem to have carried a mental ferment +wherever its teaching reached. It established a direct +relation between the conscience of the individual man and the +God of Righteousness, so that now if need arose he had the +courage to form his own judgment upon prince or prelate or +creed. +</p> + +<p> +As early as the eleventh century philosophical discussion had +begun again in Europe, and there were great and growing +universities at Paris, Oxford, Bologna and other centres. + There medieval “schoolmen” took up again and +thrashed out a series of questions upon the value and meaning +of words that were a necessary preliminary to clear thinking +in the scientific age that was to follow. And standing by +himself because of his distinctive genius was Roger Bacon +(circa 1210 to circa 1293), a Franciscan of Oxford, the +father of modern experimental science. His name deserves a +prominence in our history second only to that of Aristotle. +</p> + +<p> +His writings are one long tirade against ignorance. He told +his age it was ignorant, an incredibly bold thing to do. + Nowadays a man may tell the world it is as silly as it is +solemn, that all its methods are still infantile and clumsy +and its dogmas childish assumptions, without much physical +danger; but these peoples of the middle ages when they were +not actually being massacred or starving or dying of +pestilence, were passionately convinced of the wisdom, the +completeness and finality of their beliefs, and disposed to +resent any reflections upon them very bitterly. Roger +Bacon’s writings were like a flash of light in a +profound darkness. He combined his attack upon the ignorance +of his times with a wealth of suggestion for the increase of +knowledge. In his passionate insistence upon the need of +experiment and of collecting knowledge, the spirit of +Aristotle lives again in him. “Experiment, +experiment,” that is the burthen of Roger Bacon. +</p> + +<p> +Yet of Aristotle himself Roger Bacon fell foul. He fell foul +of him because men, instead of facing facts boldly, sat in +rooms and pored over the bad Latin translations which were +then all that was <span class="pagenum"><a +name="P296"></a></span>available of the master. + “If I had my way,” he wrote, in his intemperate +fashion, “I should burn all the books of Aristotle, for +the study of them can only lead to a loss of time, produce +error, and increase ignorance,” a sentiment that +Aristotle would probably have echoed could he have returned +to a world in which his works were not so much read as +worshipped—and that, as Roger Bacon showed, in these +most abominable translations. +</p> + +<div class="fig" style=""> +<a name="img-296"></a> +<img src="images/img-296.jpg" +alt="AN EARLY PRINTING PRESS" + width="550" height="720" /> +<p class="caption"> +AN EARLY PRINTING PRESS +<br /><small><i>(From an old print) +</i></small> +</p> +</div> + +<p> +<span class="pagenum"><a +name="P297"></a></span>Throughout his books, a little +disguised by the necessity of seeming to square it all with +orthodoxy for fear of the prison and worse, Roger Bacon +shouted to mankind, “Cease to be ruled by dogmas and +authorities; <i>look at the world!</i>” Four chief +sources of ignorance he denounced; respect for authority, +custom, the sense of the ignorant crowd, and the vain, proud +unteachableness of our dispositions. Overcome but these, and +a world of power would open to men: — +</p> + +<p> +“Machines for navigating are possible without rowers, +so that great ships suited to river or ocean, guided by one +man, may be borne with greater speed than if they were full +of men. Likewise cars may be made so that without a draught +animal they may be moved <i>cum impetu inÅ“stimable</i>, +as we deem the scythed chariots to have been from which +antiquity fought. And flying machines are possible, so that +a man may sit in the middle turning some device by which +artificial wings may beat the air in the manner of a flying +bird.” +</p> + +<p> +So Roger Bacon wrote, but three more centuries were to elapse +before men began any systematic attempts to explore the +hidden stores of power and interest he realized so clearly +existed beneath the dull surface of human affairs. +</p> + +<p> +But the Saracenic world not only gave Christendom the +stimulus of its philosophers and alchemists; it also gave it +paper. It is scarcely too much to say that paper made the +intellectual revival of Europe possible. Paper originated in +China, where its use probably goes back to the second century +<small>B.C.</small> In 751 the Chinese made an +attack upon the Arab Moslems in Samarkand; they were +repulsed, and among the prisoners taken from them were some +skilled papermakers, from whom the art was learnt. Arabic +paper manuscripts from the ninth century onward still exist. + The manufacture entered Christendom either through Greece or +by the capture of Moorish paper-mills during the Christian +reconquest of Spain. But under the Christian Spanish the +product deteriorated sadly. Good paper was not made in +Christian Europe until the end of the thirteenth century, and +then it was Italy which led the world. Only by the +fourteenth century did the manufacture reach Germany, and not +until the end of that century was it abundant and <span +class="pagenum"><a name="P298"></a></span>cheap enough +for the printing of books to be a practicable business +proposition. Thereupon printing followed naturally and +necessarily, for printing is the most obvious of inventions, +and the intellectual life of the world entered upon a new and +far more vigorous phase. It ceased to be a little trickle +from mind to mind; it became a broad flood, in which +thousands and presently scores and hundreds of thousands of +minds participated. +</p> + +<p> +One immediate result of this achievement of printing was the +appearance of an abundance of Bibles in the world. Another +was a cheapening of school-books. The knowledge of reading +spread swiftly. There was not only a great increase of books +in the world, but the books that were now made were plainer +to read and so easier to understand. Instead of toiling at a +crabbed text arid then thinking over its significance, +readers now could think unimpeded as they read. With this +increase in the facility of reading, the reading public grew. + The book ceased to be a highly decorated toy or a +scholar’s mystery. People began to write books to be +read as well as looked at by ordinary people. They wrote in +the ordinary language and not in Latin. With the fourteenth +century the real history of the European literature begins. +</p> + +<p> +So far we have been dealing only with the Saracenic share in +the European revival. Let us turn now to the influence of +the Mongol conquests. They stimulated the geographical +imagination of Europe enormously. For a time under the Great +Khan, all Asia and Western Europe enjoyed an open +intercourse; all the roads were temporarily open, and +representatives of every nation appeared at the court of +Karakorum. The barriers between Europe and Asia set up by +the religious feud of Christianity and Islam were lowered. + Great hopes were entertained by the papacy for the conversion +of the Mongols to Christianity. Their only religion so far +had been Shumanism, a primitive paganism. Envoys of the +Pope, Buddhist priests from India, Parisian and Italian and +Chinese artificers, Byzantine and Armenian merchants, mingled +with Arab officials and Persian and Indian astronomers and +mathematicians at the Mongol court. We hear too much in +history of the campaigns and massacres of the Mongols, and +not enough of their curiosity and desire for learning. Not +perhaps as an originative people, but as transmitters <span +class="pagenum"><a name="P299"></a></span>of knowledge +and method their influence upon the world’s history has +been very great. And everything one can learn of the vague +and romantic personalities of Jengis or Kublai tends to +confirm the impression that these men were at least as +understanding and creative monarchs as either that flamboyant +but egotistical figure Alexander the Great or that raiser of +political ghosts, that energetic but illiterate theologian +Charlemagne. +</p> + +<p> +One of the most interesting of these visitors to the Mongol +Court was a certain Venetian, Marco Polo, who afterwards set +down his story in a book. He went to China about 1272 with +his father and uncle, who had already once made the journey. + The Great Khan had been deeply impressed by the elder Polos; +they were the first men of the “Latin” peoples he +had seen; and he sent them back with enquiries for teachers +and learned men who could explain Christianity to him, and +for various other European things that had aroused his +curiosity. Their visit with Marco was their second visit. +</p> + +<div class="fig" style=""> +<a name="img-299"></a> +<img src="images/img-299.jpg" +alt="ANCIENT BRONZE FIGURE FROM BENIN, W. AFRICA" + width="180" height="397" /> +<p class="caption"> +ANCIENT BRONZE FIGURE FROM BENIN, W. AFRICA +<br /><small>Note evidence in attire of knowledge of early European + explorers +<br /> +<i>(In the British Museum) +</i></small> +</p> +</div> + +<p> +The three Polos started by way of Palestine and not by the +Crimea, as in their previous expedition. They had with them +a gold tablet and other indications from the Great Khan that +must have greatly facilitated their journey. The Great Khan +had asked for some oil from the lamp that burns in the Holy +Sepulchre at Jerusalem; and so thither they first went, and +then by way of Cilicia into Armenia. They went thus far +north because the Sultan of Egypt was raiding the Mongol +domains at this time. Thence they came by way of Mesopotamia +to Ormuz on the Persian Gulf, as if they contemplated a sea +voyage. At Ormuz they met merchants from India. For some +reason they did not take ship, but instead turned northward +through the Persian deserts, and so by way of Balkh over +<span class="pagenum"><a name="P300"></a></span>the +Pamir to Kashgar, and by way of Kotan and the Lob Nor into +the Hwang-ho valley and on to Pekin. At Pekin was the Great +Khan, and they were hospitably entertained. +</p> + +<div class="fig" style=""> +<a name="img-300"></a> +<img src="images/img-300.jpg" +alt="ANOTHER ANCIENT NEGRO BRONZE OF A EUROPEAN" + width="160" height="350" /> +<p class="caption"> +ANOTHER ANCIENT NEGRO BRONZE OF A EUROPEAN +<br /> +<small><i>(In the British Museum) +</i></small> +</p> +</div> + +<p> +Marco particularly pleased Kublai; he was young and clever, +and it is clear he had mastered the Tartar language very +thoroughly. He was given an official position and sent on +several missions, chiefly in south-west China. The tale he +had to tell of vast stretches of smiling and prosperous +country, “all the way excellent hostelries for +travellers,” and “fine vineyards, fields, and +gardens,” of “many abbeys” of Buddhist +monks, of manufactures of “cloth of silk and gold and +many fine taffetas,” a “constant succession of +cities and boroughs,” and so on, first roused the +incredulity and then fired the imagination of all Europe. He +told of Burmah, and of its great armies with hundreds of +elephants, and how these animals were defeated by the Mongol +bowmen, and also of the Mongol conquest of Pegu. He told of +Japan, and greatly exaggerated the amount of gold in that +country. For three years Marco ruled the city of Yang-chow +as governor, and he probably impressed the Chinese +inhabitants as being little more of a foreigner than any +Tartar would have been. He may also have been sent on a +mission to India. Chinese records mention a certain Polo +attached to the imperial council in 1277, a very valuable +confirmation of the general truth of the Polo story. +</p> + +<p> +The publication of Marco Polo’s travels produced a +profound effect upon the European imagination. The European +literature, and especially the European romance of the +fifteenth century, echoes with the names in Marco +Polo’s story, with Cathay (North China) and Cambulac +(Pekin) and the like. +</p> + +<div class="fig" style=""> +<a name="img-301"></a> +<img src="images/img-301.jpg" +alt="EARLY ITALIAN ENGRAVING OF A SAILING SHIP" + width="400" height="815" /> +<p class="caption"> +EARLY ITALIAN ENGRAVING OF A SAILING SHIP +<br /><small> +<i>(In the British Museum) +</i></small> +</p> +</div> + +<p> +Two centuries later, among the readers of the Travels of +Marco Polo was a certain Genoese mariner, Christopher +Columbus, who <span class="pagenum"><a +name="P301"></a></span>conceived the brilliant idea of +sailing westward round the world to China. In Seville there +is a copy of the Travels with marginal notes by Columbus. + There were many reasons why the thought of a Genoese should +be turned in this direction. Until its capture by the Turks +in 1453 Constantinople had been an impartial trading mart +between the Western world and the East, and the Genoese had +traded there freely. But the “Latin” Venetians, +the bitter rivals of the Genoese, had been the allies and +helpers of the Turks against the Greeks, and with the coming +of the Turks Constantinople turned an <span +class="pagenum"><a name="P302"></a></span>unfriendly +face upon Genoese trade. The long forgotten discovery that +the world was round had gradually resumed its sway over +men’s minds. The idea of going westward to China was +therefore a fairly obvious one. It was encouraged by two +things. The mariner’s compass had now been invented +and men were no longer left to the mercy of a fine night and +the stars to determine the direction in which they were +sailing, and the Normans, Catalonians and Genoese and +Portuguese had already pushed out into the Atlantic as far as +the Canary Isles, Madeira and the Azores. +</p> + +<p> +Yet Columbus found many difficulties before he could get +ships to put his idea to the test. He went from one European +Court to another. Finally at Granada, just won from the +Moors, he secured the patronage of Ferdinand and Isabella, +and was able to set out across the unknown ocean in three +small ships. After a voyage of two months and nine days he +came to a land which he believed to be India, but which was +really a new continent, whose distinct existence the old +world had never hitherto suspected. He returned to Spain +with gold, cotton, strange beasts and birds, and two wild- +eyed painted Indians to be baptized. They were called +Indians because, to the end of his days, he believed that +this land he had found was India. Only in the course of +several years did men begin to realize that the whole new +continent of America was added to the world’s +resources. +</p> + +<p> +The success of Columbus stimulated overseas enterprise +enormously. In 1497 the Portuguese sailed round Africa to +India, and in 1515 there were Portuguese ships in Java. In +1519 Magellan, a Portuguese sailor in Spanish employment, +sailed out of Seville westward with five ships, of which one, +the <i>Vittoria</i>, came back up the river to Seville in +1522, the first ship that had ever circumnavigated the world. + Thirty-one men were aboard her, survivors of two-hundred-and- +eighty who had started. Magellan himself had been killed in +the Philippine Isles. +</p> + +<p> +Printed paper books, a new realization of the round world as +a thing altogether attainable, a new vision of strange lands, +strange animals and plants, strange manners and customs, +discoveries overseas and in the skies and in the ways and +materials of life burst upon the European mind. The Greek +classics, buried and forgotten for so <span +class="pagenum"><a name="P303"></a></span>long, were +speedily being printed and studied, and were colouring +men’s thoughts with the dreams of Plato and the +traditions of an age of republican freedom and dignity. The +Roman dominion had first brought law and order to Western +Europe, and the Latin Church had restored it; but under both +Pagan and Catholic Rome curiosity and innovation were +subordinate to and restrained by organization. The reign of +the Latin mind was now drawing to an end. Between the +thirteenth and the sixteenth century the European Aryans, +thanks to the stimulating influence of Semite and Mongol and +the rediscovery of the Greek classics, broke away from the +Latin tradition and rose again to the intellectual and +material leadership of mankind. +</p> + +</div><!--end chapter--> + +<div class="chapter"> + +<h2><span class="pagenum"><a name="P304"></a></span><a name="chapL"></a>L<br /> +THE REFORMATION OF THE LATIN CHURCH</h2> + +<p> +The Latin Church itself was enormously affected by this mental rebirth. It was +dismembered; and even the portion that survived was extensively renewed. +</p> + +<p> +We have told how nearly the church came to the autocratic +leadership of all Christendom in the eleventh and twelfth +centuries, and how in the fourteenth and fifteenth its power +over men’s minds and affairs declined. We have +described how popular religious enthusiasm which had in +earlier ages been its support and power was turned against it +by its pride, persecutions and centralization, and how the +insidious scepticism of Frederick II bore fruit in a growing +insubordination of the princes. The Great Schism had reduced +its religious and political prestige to negligible +proportions. The forces of insurrection struck it now from +both sides. +</p> + +<p> +The teachings of the Englishman Wycliffe spread widely +throughout Europe. In 1398 a learned Czech, John Huss, +delivered a series of lectures upon Wycliffe’s +teachings in the university of Prague. This teaching spread +rapidly beyond the educated class and aroused great popular +enthusiasm. In 1414-18 a Council of the whole church was +held at Constance to settle the Great Schism. Huss was +invited to this Council under promise of a safe conduct from +the emperor, seized, put on trial for heresy and burnt alive +(1415). So far from tranquillizing the Bohemian people, this +led to an insurrection of the Hussites in that country, the +first of a series of religious wars that inaugurated the +break-up of Latin Christendom. Against this insurrection +Pope Martin V, the Pope specially elected at Constance as the +head of a reunited Christendom, preached a Crusade. +</p> + +<p> +Five Crusades in all were launched upon this sturdy little +people and all of them failed. All the unemployed ruffianism +of Europe was <span class="pagenum"><a +name="P305"></a></span>turned upon Bohemia in the +fifteenth century, just as in the thirteenth it had been +turned upon the Waldenses. But the Bohemian Czechs, unlike +the Waldenses, believed in armed resistance. The Bohemian +Crusade dissolved and streamed away from the battlefield at +the sound of the Hussites’ waggons and the distant +chanting of their troops; it did not even wait to fight +(battle of Domazlice, 1431). In 1436 an agreement was +patched up with the Hussites by a new Council of the church +at Basle in which many of the special objections to Latin +practice were conceded. +</p> + +<div class="fig" style=""> +<a name="img-305"></a> +<img src="images/img-305.jpg" +alt="PORTRAIT OF LUTHER" + width="400" height="597" /> +<p class="caption"> +PORTRAIT OF LUTHER +<br /> +<small> +<i>(From an early German engraving in the British Museum) +</i></small> +</p> +</div> + +<p> +In the fifteenth century a great pestilence had produced much +social disorganization throughout Europe. There had been +extreme misery and discontent among the common people, and +peasant risings against the landlords and the wealthy in +England and France. After the Hussite Wars these peasant +insurrections increased in gravity in Germany and took on a +religious character. Printing came in as an influence upon +this development. By the middle of the fifteenth century +there were printers at work with movable type <span +class="pagenum"><a name="P306"></a></span>in Holland and +the Rhineland. The art spread to Italy and England, where +Caxton was printing in Westminster in 1477. The immediate +consequence was a great increase and distribution of Bibles, +and greatly increased facilities for widespread popular +controversies. The European world became a world of readers, +to an extent that had never happened to any community in the +past. And this sudden irrigation of the general mind with +clearer ideas and more accessible information occurred just +at a time when the church was confused and divided and not in +a position to defend itself effectively, and when many +princes were looking for means to weaken its hold upon the +vast wealth it claimed in their dominions. +</p> + +<p> +In Germany the attack upon the church gathered round the +personality of an ex-monk, Martin Luther (1483-1546), who +appeared in Wittenberg in 1517 offering disputations against +various orthodox doctrines and practices. At first he +disputed in Latin in the fashion of the Schoolmen. Then he +took up the new weapon of the printed word and scattered his +views far and wide in German addressed to the ordinary +people. An attempt was made to suppress him as Huss had been +suppressed, but the printing press had changed conditions and +he had too many open and secret friends among the German +princes for this fate to overtake him. +</p> + +<p> +For now in this age of multiplying ideas and weakened faith +there were many rulers who saw their advantage in breaking +the religious ties between their people and Rome. They +sought to make themselves in person the heads of a more +nationalized religion. England, Scotland, Sweden, Norway, +Denmark, North Germany and Bohemia, one after another, +separated themselves from the Roman Communion. They have +remained separated ever since. +</p> + +<div class="fig" style=""> +<a name="img-307"></a> +<img src="images/img-307.jpg" +alt="A MAJOLICA DISH PAINTED IN COLOURS" + width="600" height="600" /> +<p class="caption"> +A MAJOLICA DISH PAINED IN COLOURS +<br /><small>An allegory of the Church triumphant over heretics + and infidels. Italian (Urbino), dated 1543 +<br /> +<i>(In the Victoria and Albert Museum)</i></small> +</p> +</div> + +<p> +The various princes concerned cared very little for the moral +and intellectual freedom of their subjects. They used the +religious doubts and insurgence of their peoples to +strengthen them against Rome, but they tried to keep a grip +upon the popular movement as soon as that rupture was +achieved and a national church set up under the control of +the crown. But there has always been a curious vitality in +the teaching of Jesus, a direct appeal to righteousness and a +man’s self-respect over every loyalty and every +subordination, lay or ecclesiastical. None of these princely +churches broke <span class="pagenum"><a +name="P307"></a></span>off without also breaking off a +number of fragmentary sects that would admit the intervention +of neither prince nor Pope between a man and his God. In +England and Scotland, for example, there was a number of +sects who now held firmly to the Bible as their one guide in +life and belief. They refused the disciplines of a state +church. In England these dissentients were the Non- +conformists, who played a very large part in the polities of +that country in the seventeenth <span class="pagenum"><a +name="P308"></a></span>and eighteenth centuries. In +England they carried their objection to a princely head to +the church so far as to decapitate King Charles I (1649), and +for eleven prosperous years England was a republic under Non- +conformist rule. +</p> + +<p> +The breaking away of this large section of Northern Europe +from Latin Christendom is what is generally spoken of as the +Reformation. But the shock and stress of these losses +produced changes perhaps as profound in the Roman Church +itself. The church was reorganized and a new spirit came +into its life. One of the dominant figures in this revival +was a young Spanish soldier, Inigo Lopez de Recalde, better +known to the world as St. Ignatius of Loyola. After some +romantic beginnings he became a priest (1538) and was +permitted to found the Society of Jesus, a direct attempt to +bring the generous and chivalrous traditions of military +discipline into the service of religion. This Society of +Jesus, the Jesuits, became one of the greatest teaching and +missionary societies the world has ever seen. It carried +Christianity to India, China and America. It arrested the +rapid disintegration of the Roman Church. It raised the +standard of education throughout the whole Catholic world; it +raised the level of Catholic intelligence and quickened the +Catholic conscience everywhere; it stimulated Protestant +Europe to competitive educational efforts. The vigorous and +aggressive Roman Catholic Church we know to-day is largely +the product of this Jesuit revival. +</p> + +</div><!--end chapter--> + +<div class="chapter"> + +<h2><span class="pagenum"><a name="P309"></a></span><a name="chapLI"></a>LI<br /> +THE EMPEROR CHARLES V</h2> + +<p> +The Holy Roman Empire came to a sort of climax in the reign of the Emperor +Charles V. He was one of the most extraordinary monarchs that Europe has ever +seen. For a time he had the air of being the greatest monarch since +Charlemagne. +</p> + +<p> +His greatness was not of his own making. It was largely the +creation of his grandfather, the Emperor Maximilian I (1459- +1519). Some families have fought, others have intrigued +their way to world power; the Habsburgs married their way. + Maximilian began his career with Austria, Styria, part of +Alsace and other districts, the original Habsburg patrimony; +he married—the lady’s name scarcely matters to +us—the Netherlands and Burgundy. Most of Burgundy +slipped from him after his first wife’s death, but the +Netherlands he held. Then he tried unsuccessfully to marry +Brittany. He became Emperor in succession to his father, +Frederick III, in 1493, and married the duchy of Milan. + Finally he married his son to the weak-minded daughter of +Ferdinand and Isabella, the Ferdinand and Isabella of +Columbus, who not only reigned over a freshly united Spain +and over Sardinia and the kingdom of the two Sicilies, but +over all America west of Brazil. So it was that this Charles +V, his grandson, inherited most of the American continent and +between a third and a half of what the Turks had left of +Europe. He succeeded to the Netherlands in 1506. When his +grandfather Ferdinand died in 1516, he became practically +king of the Spanish dominions, his mother being imbecile; and +his grandfather Maximilian dying in 1519, he was in 1520 +elected Emperor at the still comparatively tender age of +twenty. +</p> + +<p> +He was a fair young man with a not very intelligent face, a +thick upper lip and a long clumsy chin. He found himself in +a world of young and vigorous personalities. It was an age +of brilliant young <span class="pagenum"><a +name="P310"></a></span>monarchs. Francis I had succeeded +to the French throne in 1515 at the age of twenty-one, Henry +VIII had become King of England in 1509 at eighteen. It was +the age of Baber in India (1526-1530) and Suleiman the +Magnificent in Turkey (1520), both exceptionally capable +monarchs, and the Pope Leo X (1513) was also a very +distinguished Pope. The Pope and Francis I attempted to +prevent the election of Charles as Emperor because they +dreaded the concentration of so much power in the hands of +one man. Both Francis I and Henry VIII offered themselves to +the imperial electors. But there was now a long established +tradition of Habsburg Emperors (since 1273), and some +energetic bribery secured the election for Charles. +</p> + +<p> +At first the young man was very much a magnificent puppet in +the hands of his ministers. Then slowly he began to assert +himself and take control. He began to realize something of +the threatening complexities of his exalted position. It was +a position as unsound as it was splendid. +</p> + +<p> +From the very outset of his reign he was faced by the +situation created by Luther’s agitations in Germany. + The Emperor had one reason for siding with the reformers in +the opposition of the Pope to his election. But he had been +brought up in Spain, that most Catholic of countries, and he +decided against Luther. So he came into conflict with the +Protestant princes and particularly the Elector of Saxony. + He found himself in the presence of an opening rift that was +to split the outworn fabric of Christendom into two +contending camps. His attempts to close that rift were +strenuous and honest and ineffective. There was an extensive +peasant revolt in Germany which interwove with the general +political and religious disturbance. And these internal +troubles were complicated by attacks upon the Empire from +east and west alike. On the west of Charles was his spirited +rival, Francis I; to the east was the ever advancing Turk, +who was now in Hungary, in alliance with Francis and +clamouring for certain arrears of tribute from the Austrian +dominions. Charles had the money and army of Spain at his +disposal, but it was extremely difficult to get any effective +support in money from Germany. His social and political +troubles were complicated by financial distresses. He was +forced to ruinous borrowing. +<span class="pagenum"><a name="P311"></a></span> +</p> + +<div class="fig" style=""> +<a name="img-311"></a> +<img src="images/img-311.jpg" +alt="THE CHARLES V PORTRAIT BY TITIAN" + width="600" height="727" /> +<p class="caption"> +THE CHARLES V PORTRAIT BY TITIAN +<br /> +<small><i>(In the Gallery del Prado, Madrid) +<br /> +Photo: Anderson</i></small> +</p> +</div> + +<p> +<span +class="pagenum"><a name="P312"></a></span>On the whole, +Charles, in alliance with Henry VIII, was successful against +Francis I and the Turk. Their chief battlefield was North +Italy; the generalship was dull on both sides; their advances +and retreats depended mainly on the arrival of +reinforcements. The German army invaded France, failed to +take Marseilles, fell back into Italy, lost Milan, and was +besieged in Pavia. Francis I made a long and unsuccessful +siege of Pavia, was caught by fresh German forces, defeated, +wounded and taken prisoner. But thereupon the Pope and Henry +VIII, still haunted by the fear of his attaining excessive +power, turned against Charles. The German troops in Milan, +under the Constable of Bourbon, being unpaid, forced rather +than followed their commander into a raid upon Rome. They +stormed the city and pillaged it (1527). The Pope took +refuge in the Castle of St. Angelo while the looting and +slaughter went on. He bought off the German troops at last +by the payment of four hundred thousand ducats. Ten years of +such confused fighting impoverished all Europe. At last the +Emperor found himself triumphant in Italy. In 1530, he was +crowned by the Pope—he was the last German Emperor to +be so crowned—at Bologna. +</p> + +<p> +Meanwhile the Turks were making great headway in Hungary. + They had defeated and killed the king of Hungary in 1526, +they held Buda-Pesth, and in 1529 Suleiman the Magnificent +very nearly took Vienna. The Emperor was greatly concerned +by these advances, and did his utmost to drive back the +Turks, but he found the greatest difficulty in getting the +German princes to unite even with this formidable enemy upon +their very borders. Francis I remained implacable for a +time, and there was a new French war; but in 1538 Charles won +his rival over to a more friendly attitude after ravaging the +south of France. Francis and Charles then formed an alliance +against the Turk. But the Protestant princes, the German +princes who were resolved to break away from Rome, had formed +a league, the Schmalkaldic League, against the Emperor, and +in the place of a great campaign to recover Hungary for +Christendom Charles had to turn his mind to the gathering +internal struggle in Germany. Of that struggle he saw only +the opening war. It was a struggle, a sanguinary irrational +bickering of princes, for ascendancy, now <span +class="pagenum"><a name="P313"></a></span>flaming into +war and destruction, now sinking back to intrigues and +diplomacies; it was a snake’s sack of princely policies +that was to go on writhing incurably right into the +nineteenth century and to waste and desolate Central Europe +again and again. +</p> + +<p> +The Emperor never seems to have grasped the true forces at +work in these gathering troubles. He was for his time and +station an exceptionally worthy man, and he seems to have +taken the religious dissensions that were tearing Europe into +warring fragments as genuine theological differences. He +gathered diets and councils in futile attempts at +reconciliation. Formulæ and confessions were tried +over. The student of German history must struggle with the +details of the Religious Peace of Nuremberg, the settlement +at the Diet of Ratisbon, the Interim of Augsburg, and the +like. Here we do but mention them as details in the worried +life of this culminating Emperor. As a matter of fact, +hardly one of the multifarious princes and rulers in Europe +seems to have been acting in good faith. The widespread +religious trouble of the world, the desire of the common +people for truth and social righteousness, the spreading +knowledge of the time, all those things were merely counters +in the imaginations of princely diplomacy. Henry VIII of +England, who had begun his career with a book against heresy, +and who had been rewarded by the Pope with the title of +“Defender of the Faith,” being anxious to divorce +his first wife in favour of a young lady named Anne Boleyn, +and wishing also to loot the vast wealth of the church in +England, joined the company of Protestant princes in 1530. + Sweden, Denmark and Norway had already gone over to the +Protestant side. +</p> + +<p> +The German religious war began in 1546, a few months after +the death of Martin Luther. We need not trouble about the +incidents of the campaign. The Protestant Saxon army was +badly beaten at Lochau. By something very like a breach of +faith Philip of Hesse, the Emperor’s chief remaining +antagonist, was caught and imprisoned, and the Turks were +bought off by the promise of an annual tribute. In 1547, to +the great relief of the Emperor, Francis I died. So by 1547 +Charles got to a kind of settlement, and made his last +efforts to effect peace where there was no peace. In 1552 +all Germany was at war again, only a precipitate flight from +Innsbruck <span class="pagenum"><a +name="P314"></a></span>saved Charles from capture, and in +1552, with the treaty of Passau, came another unstable +equilibrium .... +</p> + +<p> +Such is the brief outline of the politics of the Empire for +thirty-two years. It is interesting to note how entirely the +European mind was concentrated upon the struggle for European +ascendancy. Neither Turks, French, English nor Germans had +yet discovered any political interest in the great continent +of America, nor any significance in the new sea routes to +Asia. Great things were happening in America; Cortez with a +mere handful of men had conquered the great Neolithic empire +of Mexico for Spain, Pizarro had crossed the Isthmus of +Panama (1530) and subjugated another wonder-land, Peru. But +as yet these events meant no more to Europe than a useful and +stimulating influx of silver to the Spanish treasury. +</p> + +<p> +It was after the treaty of Passau that Charles began to +display his distinctive originality of mind. He was now +entirely bored and disillusioned by his imperial greatness. + A sense of the intolerable futility of these European +rivalries came upon him. He had never been of a very sound +constitution, he was naturally indolent and he was suffering +greatly from gout. He abdicated. He made over all his +sovereign rights in Germany to his brother Ferdinand, and +Spain and the Netherlands he resigned to his son Philip. + Then in a sort of magnificent dudgeon he retired to a +monastery at Yuste, among the oak and chestnut forests in the +hills to the north of the Tagus valley. There he died in +1558. +</p> + +<p> +Much has been written in a sentimental vein of this +retirement, this renunciation of the world by this tired +majestic Titan, world-weary, seeking in an austere solitude +his peace with God. But his retreat was neither solitary nor +austere; he had with him nearly a hundred and fifty +attendants: his establishment had all the splendour and +indulgences without the fatigues or a court, and Philip II +was a dutiful son to whom his father’s advice was a +command. +</p> + +<div class="fig" style=""> +<a name="img-315"></a> +<img src="images/img-315.jpg" +alt="INTERIOR OF ST. PETER’S, ROME, SHOWING THE HIGH ALTAR" + width="550" height="705" /> +<p class="caption"> +INTERIOR OF ST. PETER’S, ROME, SHOWING THE HIGH ALTAR +<br /> +<small><i>Photo: Alinari</i></small> +</p> +</div> + +<p> +And if Charles had lost his living interest in the +administration of European affairs, there were other motives +of a more immediate sort to stir him. Says Prescott: +“In the almost daily correspondence between Quixada, or +Gaztelu, and the Secretary of State at Valladolid, there is +scarcely a letter that does not turn more or less on the +Emperor’s eating or his illness. The one seems +naturally to follow, <span class="pagenum"><a +name="P315"></a></span>like a running commentary, on the +other. It is rare that such topics have formed the burden of +communications with the department of state. It must have +been no easy matter for the secretary to preserve his gravity +in the perusal of despatches in which politics and gastronomy +were so strangely mixed together. The courier from +Valladolid to Lisbon was ordered to make a detour, so as to +take Jarandilla in his route, and bring supplies to the royal +table. On <span class="pagenum"><a +name="P316"></a></span>Thursdays he was to bring fish to +serve for the jour maigre that was to follow. The trout in +the neighbourhood Charles thought too small, so others of a +larger size were to be sent from Valladolid. Fish of every +kind was to his taste, as, indeed, was anything that in its +nature or habits at all approached to fish. Eels, frogs, +oysters, occupied an important place in the royal bill of +fare. Potted fish, especially anchovies, found great favour +with him; and he regretted that he had not brought a better +supply of these from the Low Countries. On an eel-pasty he +particularly doted.” ... [<a +name="chapLIfn1text"></a><a href="#chapLIfn1">1</a>] +</p> + +<p> +In 1554 Charles had obtained a bull from Pope Julius III +granting him a dispensation from fasting, and allowing him to +break his fast early in the morning even when he was to take +the sacrament. +</p> + +<p> +Eating and doctoring! it was a return to elemental things. + He had never acquired the habit of reading, but he would be +read aloud to at meals after the fashion of Charlemagne, and +would make what one narrator describes as a “sweet and +heavenly commentary.” He also amused himself with +mechanical toys, by listening to music or sermons, and by +attending to the imperial business that still came drifting +in to him. The death of the Empress, to whom he was greatly +attached, had turned his mind towards religion, which in his +case took a punctilious and ceremonial form; every Friday in +Lent he scourged himself with the rest of the monks with such +good will as to draw blood. These exercises and the gout +released a bigotry in Charles that had hitherto been +restrained by considerations of policy. The appearance of +Protestant teaching close at hand in Valladolid roused him to +fury. “Tell the grand inquisitor and his council from +me to be at their posts, and to lay the axe at the root of +the evil before it spreads further.” . .. He expressed +a doubt whether it would not be well, in so black an affair, +to dispense with the ordinary course of justice, and to show +no mercy; “lest the criminal, if pardoned, should have +the opportunity of repeating his crime.” He +recommended, as an example, his own mode or proceeding in the +Netherlands, “where all who remained obstinate in their +errors were burned alive, and those who were admitted to +penitence were beheaded.” +</p> + +<p> +And almost symbolical of his place and role in history was +his <span class="pagenum"><a +name="P317"></a></span>preoccupation with funerals. He +seems to have had an intuition that something great was dead +in Europe and sorely needed burial, that there was a need to +write Finis, overdue. He not only attended every actual +funeral that was celebrated at Yuste, but he had services +conducted for the absent dead, he held a funeral service in +memory of his wife on the anniversary of her death, and +finally he celebrated his own obsequies. +</p> + +<p> +“The chapel was hung with black, and the blaze of +hundreds of wax-lights was scarcely sufficient to dispel the +darkness. The brethren in their conventual dress, and all +the Emperor’s household clad in deep mourning, gathered +round a huge catafalque, shrouded also in black, which had +been raised in the centre of the chapel. The service for the +burial of the dead was then performed; and, amidst the dismal +wail of the monks, the prayers ascended for the departed +spirit, that it might be received into the mansions of the +blessed. The sorrowful attendants were melted to tears, as +the image of their master’s death was presented to +their minds—or they were touched, it may be, with +compassion by this pitiable display of weakness. Charles, +muffled in a dark mantle, and bearing a lighted candle in his +hand, mingled with his household, the spectator of his own +obsequies; and the doleful ceremony was concluded by his +placing the taper in the hands of the priest, in sign of his +surrendering up his soul to the Almighty.” +</p> + +<p> +Within two months of this masquerade he was dead. And the +brief greatness of the Holy Roman Empire died with him. His +realm was already divided between his brother and his son. + The Holy Roman Empire struggled on indeed to the days of +Napoleon I but as an invalid and dying thing. To this day +its unburied tradition still poisons the political air. +</p> + +<p class="footnote"> +<a name="chapLIfn1"></a> +[<a href="#chapLIfn1text">1</a>] Prescott’s Appendix to +Robertson’s <i>History of Charles V</i>. +</p> + +</div><!--end chapter--> + +<div class="chapter"> + +<h2><span class="pagenum"><a name="P318"></a></span><a name="chapLII"></a>LII<br /> +THE AGE OF POLITICAL EXPERIMENTS; OF GRAND MONARCHY AND PARLIAMENTS AND REPUBLICANISM IN EUROPE</h2> + +<p> +The Latin Church was broken, the Holy Roman Empire was in extreme decay; the +history of Europe from the opening of the sixteenth century onward is a story +of peoples feeling their way darkly to some new method of government, better +adapted to the new conditions that were arising. In the Ancient World, over +long periods of time, there had been changes of dynasty and even changes of +ruling race and language, but the form of government through monarch and temple +remained fairly stable, and still more stable was the ordinary way of living. +In this modern Europe since the sixteenth century the dynastic changes are +unimportant, and the interest of history lies in the wide and increasing +variety of experiments in political and social organization. +</p> + +<p> +The political history of the world from the sixteenth century +onward was, we have said, an effort, a largely unconscious +effort, of mankind to adapt its political and social methods +to certain new conditions that had now arisen. The effort to +adapt was complicated by the fad that the conditions +themselves were changing with a steadily increasing rapidity. + The adaptation, mainly unconscious and almost always +unwilling (for man in general hates voluntary change), has +lagged more and more behind the alterations in conditions. + From the sixteenth century onward the history of mankind is a +story of political and social institutions becoming more and +more plainly misfits, less comfortable and more vexatious, +and of the slow reluctant realization of the need for a +conscious and deliberate reconstruction of the whole scheme +of human societies in the face of needs and possibilities new +to all the former experiences of life. +</p> + +<p> +What are these changes in the conditions of human life that +have disorganized that balance of empire, priest, peasant and +trader, with <span class="pagenum"><a +name="P319"></a></span>periodic refreshment by barbaric +conquest, that has held human affairs in the Old World in a +sort of working rhythm for more than a hundred centuries? +</p> + +<p> +They are manifold and various, for human affairs are +multitudinously complex; but the main changes seem all to +turn upon one cause, namely the growth and extension of a +knowledge of the nature of things, beginning first of all in +small groups of intelligent people and spreading at first +slowly, and in the last five hundred years very rapidly, to +larger and larger proportions of the general population. +</p> + +<p> +But there has also been a great change in human conditions +due to a change in the spirit of human life. This change has +gone on side by side with the increase and extension of +knowledge, and is subtly connected with it. There has been +an increasing disposition to treat a life based on the common +and more elementary desires and gratifications as +unsatisfactory, and to seek relationship with and service and +participation in a larger life. This is the common +characteristic of all the great religions that have spread +throughout the world in the last twenty odd centuries, +Buddhism, Christianity and Islam alike. They have had to do +with the spirit of man in a way that the older religions did +not have to do. They are forces quite different in their +nature and effect from the old fetishistic blood-sacrifice +religions of priest and temple that they have in part +modified and in part replaced. They have gradually evolved a +self-respect in the individual and a sense of participation +and responsibility in the common concerns of mankind that did +not exist among the populations of the earlier civilizations. +</p> + +<p> +The first considerable change in the conditions of political +and social life was the simplification and extended use of +writing in the ancient civilizations which made larger +empires and wider political understandings practicable and +inevitable. The next movement forward came with the +introduction of the horse, and later on of the camel as a +means of transport, the use of wheeled vehicles, the +extension of roads and the increased military efficiency due +to the discovery of terrestrial iron. Then followed the +profound economic disturbances due to the device of coined +money and the change in the nature of debt, proprietorship +and trade due to this convenient but dangerous convention. + The empires grew in size and range, and <span +class="pagenum"><a name="P320"></a></span>men’s +ideas grew likewise to correspond with these things. Came +the disappearance of local gods, the age of theocrasia, and +the teaching of the great world religions. Came also the +beginnings of reasoned and recorded history and geography, +the first realization by man of his profound ignorance, and +the first systematic search for knowledge. +</p> + +<p> +For a time the scientific process which began so brilliantly +in Greece and Alexandria was interrupted. The raids of the +Teutonic barbarians, the westward drive of the Mongolian +peoples, convulsive religious reconstruction and great +pestilences put enormous strains upon political and social +order. When civilization emerged again from this phase of +conflict and confusion, slavery was no longer the basis of +economic life; and the first paper-mills were preparing a new +medium for collective information and co-operation in printed +matter. Gradually at this point and that, the search for +knowledge, the systematic scientific process, was resumed. +</p> + +<p> +And now from the sixteenth century onward, as an inevitable +by-product of systematic thought, appeared a steadily +increasing series of inventions and devices affecting the +intercommunication and interaction of men with one another. + They all tended towards wider range of action, greater mutual +benefits or injuries, and increased co-operation, and they +came faster and faster. Men’s minds had not been +prepared for anything of the sort, and until the great +catastrophes at the beginning of the twentieth century +quickened men’s minds, the historian has very little to +tell of any intelligently planned attempts to meet the new +conditions this increasing flow of inventions was creating. + The history of mankind for the last four centuries is rather +like that of an imprisoned sleeper, stirring clumsily and +uneasily while the prison that restrains and shelters him +catches fire, not waking but incorporating the crackling and +warmth of the fire with ancient and incongruous dreams, than +like that of a man consciously awake to danger and +opportunity. +</p> + +<p> +Since history is the story not of individual lives but of +communities, it is inevitable that the inventions that figure +most in the historical record are inventions affecting +communications. In the sixteenth century the chief new +things that we have to note are the appearance of printed +paper and the sea-worthy, ocean-going sailing ship using the +new device of the mariner’s compass. The former <span +class="pagenum"><a name="P321"></a></span>cheapened, +spread, and revolutionized teaching, public information and +discussion, and the fundamental operations of political +activity. The latter made the round world one. But almost +equally important was the increased utilization and +improvement of guns and gunpowder which the Mongols had first +brought westward in the thirteenth century. This destroyed +the practical immunity of barons in their castles and of +walled cities. Guns swept away feudalism. Constantinople +fell to guns. Mexico and Peru fell before the terror of the +Spanish guns. +</p> + +<div class="fig" style=""> +<a name="img-321"></a> +<img src="images/img-321.jpg" +alt="CROMWELL DISSOLVES THE LONG PARLIAMENT AND SO BECOMES AUTOCRAT + OF THE ENGLISH REPUBLIC" + width="600" height="472" /> +<p class="caption"> +CROMWELL DISSOLVES THE LONG PARLIAMENT AND SO BECOMES AUTOCRAT OF +THE ENGLISH REPUBLIC +<br /> +<small><i>(From a contemporary satirical print in the British + Museum)</i></small> +</p> +</div> + +<p> +The seventeenth century saw the development of systematic +scientific publication, a less conspicuous but ultimately far +more pregnant innovation. Conspicuous among the leaders in +this great forward step was Sir Francis Bacon (1561-1626) +afterwards Lord <span class="pagenum"><a +name="P322"></a></span>Verulam, Lord Chancellor of +England. He was the pupil and perhaps the mouthpiece of +another Englishman; Dr. Gilbert, the experimental philosopher +of Colchester (1540-1603). This second Bacon, like the +first, preached observation and experiment, and he used the +inspiring and fruitful form of a Utopian story, <i>The New +Atlantis</i>, to express his dream of a great service of +scientific research. +</p> + +<p> +Presently arose the Royal Society of London, the Florentine +Society, and later other national bodies for the +encouragement of research and the publication and exchange of +knowledge. These European scientific societies became +fountains not only of countless inventions but also of a +destructive criticism of the grotesque theological history of +the world that had dominated and crippled human thought for +many centuries. +</p> + +<p> +Neither the seventeenth nor the eighteenth century witnessed +any innovations so immediately revolutionary in human +conditions as printed paper and the ocean-going ship, but +there was a steady accumulation of knowledge and scientific +energy that was to bear its full fruits in the nineteenth +century. The exploration and mapping of the world went on. + Tasmania, Australia, New Zealand appeared on the map. In +Great Britain in the eighteenth century coal coke began to be +used for metallurgical purposes, leading to a considerable +cheapening of iron and to the possibility of casting and +using it in larger pieces than had been possible before, when +it had been smelted with wood charcoal. Modern machinery +dawned. +</p> + +<p> +Like the trees of the celestial city, science bears bud and +flower and fruit at the same time and continuously. With the +onset of the nineteenth century the real fruition of +science—which indeed henceforth may never +cease—began. First came steam and steel, the railway, +the great liner, vast bridges and buildings, machinery of +almost limitless power, the possibility of a bountiful +satisfaction of every material human need, and then, still +more wonderful, the hidden treasures of electrical science +were opened to men .... +</p> + +<p> +We have compared the political and social life of man from +the sixteenth century onward to that of a sleeping prisoner +who lies and dreams while his prison burns about him. In the +sixteenth century the European mind was still going on with +its Latin Imperial dream, <span class="pagenum"><a +name="P323"></a></span>its dream of a Holy Roman Empire, +united under a Catholic Church. But just as some +uncontrollable element in our composition will insist at +times upon introducing into our dreams the most absurd and +destructive comments, so thrust into this dream we find the +sleeping face and craving stomach of the Emperor Charles V, +while Henry VIII of England and Luther tear the unity of +Catholicism to shreds. +</p> + +<div class="fig" style=""> +<a name="img-323"></a> +<img src="images/img-323.jpg" +alt="THE COURT AT VERSAILLES" + width="600" height="419" /> +<p class="caption"> +THE COURT AT VERSAILLES +<br /> +<small><i>(From the print after Watteau in the British + Museum)</i></small> +</p> +</div> + +<p> +In the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries the dream turned +to personal monarchy. The history of nearly all Europe +during this period tells with variations the story of an +attempt to consolidate a monarchy, to make it absolute and to +extend its power over weaker adjacent regions, and of the +steady resistance, first of the landowners and then with the +increase of foreign trade and home industry, of the growing +trading and moneyed class, to the exaction and interference +of the crown. There is no universal victory of either side; +here it is the King who gets the upper hand while there it is +the <span class="pagenum"><a name="P324"></a></span>man +of private property who beats the King. In one case we find +a King becoming the sun and centre of his national world, +while just over his borders a sturdy mercantile class +maintains a republic. So wide a range of variation shows how +entirely experimental, what local accidents, were all the +various governments of this period. +</p> + +<p> +A very common figure in these national dramas is the +King’s minister, often in the still Catholic countries +a prelate, who stands behind the King, serves him and +dominates him by his indispensable services. +</p> + +<p> +Here in the limits set to us it is impossible to tell these +various national dramas in detail. The trading folk of +Holland went Protestant and republican, and cast off the rule +of Philip II of Spain, the son of the Emperor Charles V. In +England Henry VIII and his minister Wolsey, Queen Elizabeth +and her minister Burleigh, prepared the foundations of an +absolutism that was wrecked by the folly of James I and +Charles I. Charles I was beheaded for treason to his people +(1649), a new turn in the political thought of Europe. For a +dozen years (until 1660) Britain was a republic; and the +crown was an unstable power, much overshadowed by Parliament, +until George III (1760-1820) made a strenuous and partly +successful effort to restore its predominance. The King of +France, on the other hand, was the most successful of all the +European Kings in perfecting monarchy. Two great ministers, +Richelieu (1585-1642) and Mazarin (1602-1661), built up the +power of the crown in that country, and the process was aided +by the long reign and very considerable abilities of King +Louis XIV, “the Grand Monarque” (1643-1715). +</p> + +<p> +Louis XIV was indeed the pattern King of Europe. He was, +within his limitations, an exceptionally capable King; his +ambition was stronger than his baser passions, and he guided +his country towards bankruptcy through the complication of a +spirited foreign policy with an elaborate dignity that still +extorts our admiration. His immediate desire was to +consolidate and extend France to the Rhine and Pyrenees, and +to absorb the Spanish Netherlands; his remoter view saw the +French Kings as the possible successors of Charlemagne in a +recast Holy Roman Empire. He made bribery a state method +almost more important than warfare. Charles II of <span +class="pagenum"><a name="P325"></a></span>England was in +his pay, and so were most of the Polish nobility, presently +to be described. His money, or rather the money of the tax- +paying classes in France, went everywhere. But his +prevailing occupation was splendour. His great palace at +Versailles with its salons, its corridors, its mirrors, its +terraces and fountains and parks and prospects, was the envy +and admiration of the world. +</p> + +<div class="fig" style=""> +<a name="img-325"></a> +<img src="images/img-325.jpg" +alt="THE SACK OF A VILLAGE DURING THE FRENCH REVOLUTION" + width="600" height="235" /> +<p class="caption"> +THE SACK OF A VILLAGE DURING THE FRENCH REVOLUTION +<br /> +<small><i>(From Callot’s “Miseres de la Guerre”) +</i></small> +</p> +</div> + +<p> +He provoked a universal imitation. Every king and princelet +in Europe was building his own Versailles as much beyond his +means as his subjects and credits would permit. Everywhere +the nobility rebuilt or extended their chateaux to the new +pattern. A great industry of beautiful and elaborate fabrics +and furnishings developed. The luxurious arts flourished +everywhere; sculpture in alabaster, faience, gilt woodwork, +metal work, stamped leather, much music, magnificent +painting, beautiful printing and bindings, fine crockery, +fine vintages. Amidst the mirrors and fine furniture went a +strange race of “gentlemen” in tall powdered +wigs, silks and laces, poised upon high red heels, supported +by amazing canes; and still more wonderful +“ladies,” under towers of powdered hair and +wearing vast expansions of silk and satin sustained on wire. + Through it all postured the great Louis, the sun of his +world, unaware of the meagre and sulky and bitter faces that +watched him from those lower darknesses to which his sunshine +did not penetrate. +</p> + +<div class="fig" style=""> +<a name="img-326"></a> +<img src="images/img-326.jpg" +alt="Map: Central Europe after the Peace of Westphalia, 1648" + width="600" height="603" /> +</div> + +<p> +The German people remained politically divided throughout +this period of the monarchies and experimental governments, +and a considerable <span class="pagenum"><a +name="P326"></a></span>number of ducal and princely +courts aped the splendours of Versailles on varying scales. + The Thirty Years’ War (1618-48), a devastating scramble +among the Germans, Swedes and Bohemians for fluctuating +political advantages, sapped the energies of Germany for a +century. A map must show the crazy patchwork in which this +struggle ended, a map of Europe according to the peace of +Westphalia (1648). One sees a tangle of principalities, +dukedoms, free states and the like, some partly in and partly +out of the Empire. Sweden’s arm, the reader will note, +reached far into Germany; and except for a few islands of +territory within the imperial boundaries France was still far +from the Rhine. Amidst this patchwork the <span +class="pagenum"><a name="P327"></a></span>Kingdom of +Prussia—it became a Kingdom in 1701—rose steadily +to prominence and sustained a series of successful wars. + Frederick the Great of Prussia (1740-86) had his Versailles +at Potsdam, where his court spoke French, read French +literature and rivalled the culture of the French King. +</p> + +<p> +In 1714 the Elector of Hanover became King of England, adding +one more to the list of monarchies half in and half out of +the empire. +</p> + +<p> +The Austrian branch of the descendants of Charles V retained +the title of Emperor; the Spanish branch retained Spain. But +now there was also an Emperor of the East again. After the +fall of Constantinople (1453), the grand duke of Moscow, Ivan +the Great (1462-1505), claimed to be heir to the Byzantine +throne and adopted the Byzantine double-headed eagle upon his +arms. His grandson, Ivan IV, Ivan the Terrible (1533-1584), +assumed the imperial title of Cæsar (Tsar). But only in +the latter half of the seventeenth century did Russia cease +to seem remote and Asiatic to the European mind. The Tsar +Peter the Great (1682-1725) brought Russia into the arena of +Western affairs. He built a new capital for his empire, +Petersburg upon the Neva, that played the part of a window +between Russia and Europe, and he set up his Versailles at +Peterhof eighteen miles away, employing a French architect +who gave him a terrace, fountains, cascades, picture gallery, +park and all the recognized appointments of Grand Monarchy. + In Russia as in Prussia French became the language of the +court. +</p> + +<p> +Unhappily placed between Austria, Prussia and Russia was the +Polish kingdom, an ill-organized state of great landed +proprietors too jealous of their own individual grandeur to +permit more than a nominal kingship to the monarch they +elected. Her fate was division among these three neighbours, +in spite of the efforts of France to retain her as an +independent ally. Switzerland at this time was a group of +republican cantons; Venice was a republic; Italy like so much +of Germany was divided among minor dukes and princes. The +Pope ruled like a prince in the papal states, too fearful now +of losing the allegiance of the remaining Catholic princes to +interfere between them and their subjects or to remind the +world of the commonweal of Christendom. There remained indeed +no common <span class="pagenum"><a +name="P328"></a></span>political idea in Europe at all; +Europe was given over altogether to division and diversity. +</p> + +<p> +All these sovereign princes and republics carried on schemes +of aggrandizement against each other. Each one of them +pursued a “foreign policy” of aggression against +its neighbours and of aggressive alliances. We Europeans +still live to-day in the last phase of this age of the +multifarious sovereign states, and still suffer from the +hatreds, hostilities and suspicions it engendered. The +history of this time becomes more and more manifestly +“gossip,” more and more unmeaning and wearisome +to a modern intelligence. You are told of how this war was +caused by this King’s mistress, and how the jealousy of +one minister for another caused that. A tittle-tattle of +bribes and rivalries disgusts the intelligent student. The +more permanently significant fact is that in spite of the +obstruction of a score of frontiers, reading and thought +still spread and increased and inventions multiplied. The +eighteenth century saw the appearance of a literature +profoundly sceptical and critical of the courts and policies +of the time. In such a book as Voltaire’s +<i>Candide</i> we have the expression of an infinite +weariness with the planless confusion of the European world. +</p> + +</div><!--end chapter--> + +<div class="chapter"> + +<h2><span class="pagenum"><a name="P329"></a></span><a name="chapLIII"></a>LIII<br /> +THE NEW EMPIRES OF THE EUROPEANS IN ASIA AND OVERSEAS</h2> + +<p> +While Central Europe thus remained divided and confused, the Western Europeans +and particularly the Dutch, the Scandinavians, the Spanish, the Portuguese, the +French and the British were extending the area of their struggles across the +seas of all the world. The printing press had dissolved the political ideas of +Europe into a vast and at first indeterminate fermentation, but that other +great innovation, the ocean-going sailing ship, was inexorably extending the +range of European experience to the furthermost limits of salt water. +</p> + +<p> +The first overseas settlements of the Dutch and Northern +Atlantic Europeans were not for colonization but for trade +and mining. The Spaniards were first in the field; they +claimed dominion over the whole of this new world of America. +Very soon however the Portuguese asked for a share. The +Pope—it was one of the last acts of Rome as mistress of +the world—divided the new continent between these two +first-comers, giving Portugal Brazil and everything else east +of a line 370 leagues west of the Cape Verde islands, and all +the rest to Spain (1494). The Portuguese at this time were +also pushing overseas enterprise southward and eastward. In +1497 Vasco da Gama had sailed from Lisbon round the Cape to +Zanzibar and then to Calicut in India. In 1515 there were +Portuguese ships in Java and the Moluccas, and the Portuguese +were setting up and fortifying trading stations round and +about the coasts of the Indian Ocean. Mozambique, Goa, and +two smaller possessions in India, Macao in China and a part +of Timor are to this day Portuguese possessions. +</p> + +<p> +The nations excluded from America by the papal settlement +paid little heed to the rights of Spain and Portugal. The +English, the Danes and Swedes, and presently the Dutch, were +soon staking <span class="pagenum"><a +name="P330"></a></span>out claims in North America and +the West Indies, and his Most Catholic Majesty of France +heeded the papal settlement as little as any Protestant. The +wars of Europe extended themselves to these claims and +possessions. +</p> + +<div class="fig" style=""> +<a name="img-330"></a> +<img src="images/img-330.jpg" +alt="Map: Central Europe after the Peace of Westphalia, 1648" + width="550" height="808" /> +</div> + +<p> +In the long run the English were the most successful in this +scramble for overseas possessions. The Danes and Swedes were +too <span class="pagenum"><a +name="P331"></a></span>deeply entangled in the +complicated affairs of Germany to sustain effective +expeditions abroad. Sweden was wasted upon the German +battlefields by a picturesque king, Gustavus Adolphus, the +Protestant “Lion of the North.” The Dutch were +the heirs of such small settlements as Sweden made in +America, and the Dutch were too near French aggressions to +hold their own against the British. In the far East the +chief rivals for empire were the British, Dutch and French, +and in America the British, French and Spanish. The British +had the supreme advantage of a water frontier, the +“silver streak” of the English Channel, against +Europe. The tradition of the Latin Empire entangled them +least. +</p> + +<div class="fig" style=""> +<a name="img-331"></a> +<img src="images/img-331.jpg" +alt="EUROPEANS TIGER HUNTING IN INDIA" + width="600" height="433" /> +<p class="caption"> +EUROPEANS TIGER HUNTING IN INDIA +<br /> +<small><i>(From the engraving of the picture by Zoffany in the + British Museum)</i></small> +</p> +</div> + +<p> +France has always thought too much in terms of Europe. + Throughout the eighteenth century she was wasting her +opportunities of expansion in West and East alike in order to +dominate Spain, Italy and the German confusion. The +religious and political dissensions of Britain in the +seventeenth century had driven many <span class="pagenum"><a +name="P332"></a></span>of the English to seek a permanent +home in America. They struck root and increased and +multiplied, giving the British a great advantage in the +American struggle. In 1756 and 1760 the French lost Canada +to the British and their American colonists, and a few years +later the British trading company found itself completely +dominant over French, Dutch and Portuguese in the peninsula +of India. The great Mongol Empire of Baber, Akbar and their +successors had now far gone in decay, and the story of its +practical capture by a London trading company, the British +East India Company, is one of the most extraordinary episodes +in the whole history of conquest. +</p> + +<div class="fig" style=""> +<a name="img-332"></a> +<img src="images/img-332.jpg" +alt="THE LAST EFFORT AND FALL OF TIPPOO SULTAN" + width="600" height="422" /> +<p class="caption"> +THE LAST EFFORT AND FALL OF TIPPOO SULTAN +<br /> +<small><i>(From the engraving of the picture by Singleton in the + British Museum)</i></small> +</p> +</div> + +<p> +This East India Company had been originally at the time of +its incorporation under Queen Elizabeth no more than a +company of sea adventurers. Step by step they had been +forced to raise troops and arm their ships. And now this +trading company, with its tradition of gain, found itself +dealing not merely in spices and dyes and tea and jewels, but +in the revenues and territories of princes <span +class="pagenum"><a name="P333"></a></span>and the +destinies of India. It had come to buy and sell, and it +found itself achieving a tremendous piracy. There was no one +to challenge its proceedings. Is it any wonder that its +captains and commanders and officials, nay, even its clerks +and common soldiers, came back to England loaded with spoils? +</p> + +<p> +Men under such circumstances, with a great and wealthy land +at their mercy, could not determine what they might or might +not do. It was a strange land to them, with a strange +sunlight; its brown people seemed a different race, outside +their range of sympathy; its mysterious temples sustained +fantastic standards of behaviour. Englishmen at home were +perplexed when presently these generals and officials came +back to make dark accusations against each other of +extortions and cruelties. Upon Clive Parliament passed a +vote of censure. He committed suicide in 1774. In 1788 +Warren Hastings, a second great Indian administrator, was +impeached and acquitted (1792). It was a strange and +unprecedented situation in the world’s history. The +English Parliament found itself ruling over a London trading +company, which in its turn was dominating an empire far +greater and more populous than all the domains of the British +crown. To the bulk of the English people India was a remote, +fantastic, almost inaccessible land, to which adventurous +poor young men went out, to return after many years very rich +and very choleric old gentlemen. It was difficult for the +English to conceive what the life of these countless brown +millions in the eastern sunshine could be. Their +imaginations declined the task. India remained romantically +unreal. It was impossible for the English, therefore, to +exert any effective supervision and control over the +company’s proceedings. +</p> + +<p> +And while the Western European powers were thus fighting for +these fantastic overseas empires upon every ocean in the +world, two great land conquests were in progress in Asia. + China had thrown off the Mongol yoke in 1360, and flourished +under the great native dynasty of the Mings until 1644. Then +the Manchus, another Mongol people, reconquered China and +remained masters of China until 1912. Meanwhile Russia was +pushing East and growing to greatness in the world’s +affairs. The rise of this great central power of the old +world, which is neither altogether of the East nor <span +class="pagenum"><a name="P334"></a></span>altogether of +the West, is one of the utmost importance to our human +destiny. Its expansion is very largely due to the appearance +of a Christian steppe people, the Cossacks, who formed a +barrier between the feudal agriculture of Poland and Hungary +to the west and the Tartar to the east. The Cossacks were +the wild east of Europe, and in many ways not unlike the wild +west of the United States in the middle nineteenth century. + All who had made Russia too hot to hold them, criminals as +well as the persecuted innocent, rebellious serfs, religious +secretaries, thieves, vagabonds, murderers, sought asylum in +the southern steppes and there made a fresh start and fought +for life and freedom against Pole, Russian and Tartar alike. + Doubtless fugitives from the Tartars to the east also +contributed to the Cossack mixture. Slowly these border folk +were incorporated in the Russian imperial service, much as +the highland clans of Scotland were converted into regiments +by the British government. New lands were offered them in +Asia. They became a weapon against the dwindling power of +the Mongolian nomads, first in Turkestan and then across +Siberia as far as the Amur. +</p> + +<p> +The decay of Mongol energy in the seventeenth and eighteenth +centuries is very difficult to explain. Within two or three +centuries from the days of Jengis and Timurlane Central Asia +had relapsed from a period of world ascendancy to extreme +political impotence. Changes of climate, unrecorded +pestilences, infections of a malarial type, may have played +their part in this recession—which may be only a +temporary recession measured by the scale of universal +history—of the Central Asian peoples. Some authorities +think that the spread of Buddhist teaching from China also +had a pacifying influence upon them. At any rate, by the +sixteenth century the Mongol, Tartar and Turkish peoples were +no longer pressing outward, but were being invaded, +subjugated and pushed back both by Christian Russia in the +west and by China in the east. +</p> + +<p> +All through the seventeenth century the Cossacks were +spreading eastward from European Russia, and settling +wherever they found agricultural conditions. Cordons of +forts and stations formed a moving frontier to these +settlements to the south, where the Turkomans were still +strong and active; to the north-east, however, Russia had no +frontier until she reached right to the Pacific.... +</p> + +</div><!--end chapter--> + +<div class="chapter"> + +<h2><span class="pagenum"><a name="P335"></a></span><a name="chapLIV"></a>LIV<br /> +THE AMERICAN WAR OF INDEPENDENCE</h2> + +<p> +The third quarter of the eighteenth century thus saw the remarkable and +unstable spectacle of a Europe divided against itself, and no longer with any +unifying political or religious idea, yet through the immense stimulation of +men’s imaginations by the printed book, the printed map, and the +opportunity of the new ocean-going shipping, able in a disorganized and +contentious manner to dominate all the coasts of the world. It was a planless, +incoherent ebullition of enterprise due to temporary and almost accidental +advantages over the rest of mankind. By virtue of these advantages this new and +still largely empty continent of America was peopled mainly from Western +European sources, and South Africa and Australia and New Zealand marked down as +prospective homes for a European population. +</p> + +<p> +The motive that had sent Columbus to America and Vasco da +Gama to India was the perennial first motive of all sailors +since the beginning of things—trade. But while in the +already populous and productive East the trade motive +remained dominant, and the European settlements remained +trading settlements from which the European inhabitants hoped +to return home to spend their money, the Europeans in +America, dealing with communities at a very much lower level +of productive activity, found a new inducement for +persistence in the search for gold and silver. Particularly +did the mines of Spanish America yield silver. The Europeans +had to go to America not simply as armed merchants but as +prospectors, miners, searchers after natural products, and +presently as planters. In the north they sought furs. Mines +and plantations necessitated settlements. They obliged +people to set up permanent overseas homes. Finally in some +cases, as when the English Puritans went to New England in +the early seventeenth <span class="pagenum"><a name="P336"> +</a>336}</span>century to escape religious +persecution, when in the eighteenth Oglethorpe sent people +from the English debtors’ prisons to Georgia, and when +in the end of the eighteenth the Dutch sent orphans to the +Cape of Good Hope, the Europeans frankly crossed the seas to +find new homes for good. In the nineteenth century, and +especially after the coming of the steamship, the stream of +European emigration to the new empty lands of America and +Australia rose for some decades to the scale of a great +migration. +</p> + +<p> +So there grew up permanent overseas populations of Europeans, +and the European culture was transplanted to much larger +areas than those in which it had been developed. These new +communities bringing a ready-made civilization with them to +these new lands grew up, as it were, unplanned and +unperceived; the statecraft of Europe did not foresee them, +and was unprepared with any ideas about their treatment. The +politicians and ministers of Europe continued to regard them +as essentially expeditionary establishments, sources of +revenue, “possessions” and +“dependencies,” long after their peoples had +developed a keen sense of their separate social life. And +also they continued to treat them as helplessly subject to +the mother country long after the population had spread +inland out of reach of any effectual punitive operations from +the sea. +</p> + +<p> +Because until right into the nineteenth century, it must be +remembered, the link of all these overseas empires was the +oceangoing sailing ship. On land the swiftest thing was +still the horse, and the cohesion and unity of political +systems on land was still limited by the limitations of horse +communications. +</p> + +<p> +Now at the end of the third quarter of the eighteenth century +the northern two-thirds of North America was under the +British crown. France had abandoned America. Except for +Brazil, which was Portuguese, and one or two small islands +and areas in French, British, Danish and Dutch hands, +Florida, Louisiana, California and all America to the south +was Spanish. It was the British colonies south of Maine and +Lake Ontario that first demonstrated the inadequacy of the +sailing ship to hold overseas populations together in one +political system. +</p> + +<p> +These British colonies were very miscellaneous in their +origin and character. There were French, Swedish and Dutch +settlements <span class="pagenum"><a +name="P337"></a></span>as well as British; there were +British Catholics in Maryland and British ultra-Protestants +in New England, and while the New Englanders farmed their own +land and denounced slavery, the British in Virginia and the +south were planters employing a swelling multitude of +imported negro slaves. There was no natural common unity in +such states. To get from one to the other might mean a +coasting voyage hardly less tedious than the transatlantic +crossing. But the union that diverse origin and natural +conditions denied the British Americans was forced upon them +by the selfishness and stupidity of the British government in +London. They were taxed without any voice in the spending of +the taxes; their trade was sacrificed to British interests; +the highly profitable slave trade was maintained by the +British government in spite of the opposition of the +Virginians who—though quite willing to hold and use +slaves—feared to be swamped by an ever-growing barbaric +black population. +</p> + +<div class="fig" style=""> +<a name="img-337"></a> +<img src="images/img-337.jpg" +alt="GEORGE WASHINGTON" + width="350" height="530" /> +<p class="caption"> +GEORGE WASHINGTON +<br /> +<small><i>(From a painting by Gilbert Stuart)</i></small> +</p> +</div> + +<p> +Britain at that time was lapsing towards an intenser form of +monarchy, and the obstinate personality of George III (1760- +1820) did much to force on a struggle between the home and +the colonial governments. +</p> + +<p> +The conflict was precipitated by legislation which favoured +the London East India Company at the expense of the American +shipper. Three cargoes of tea which were imported under the +new conditions were thrown overboard in Boston harbour by a +band of men disguised as Indians (1773). <span +class="pagenum"><a name="P338"></a></span>Fighting only +began in 1775 when the British government attempted to arrest +two of the American leaders at Lexington near Boston. The +first shots were fired in Lexington by the British; the first +fighting occurred at Concord. +</p> + +<div class="fig" style=""> +<a name="img-338"></a> +<img src="images/img-338.jpg" +alt="THE BATTLE OF BUNKER HILL, NEAR BOSTON" + width="600" height="396" /> +<p class="caption"> +THE BATTLE OF BUNKER HILL, NEAR BOSTON +<br /> +<small><i>(From the engraving of the picture by John Trumbull in the + British Museum)</i></small> +</p> +</div> + +<p> +So the American War of Independence began, though for more +than a year the colonists showed themselves extremely +unwilling to sever their links with the mother land. It was +not until the middle of 1776 that the Congress of the +insurgent states issued “The Declaration of +Independence.” George Washington, who like many of the +leading colonists of the time had had a military training in +the wars against the French, was made commander-in-chief. In +1777 a British general, General Burgoyne, in an attempt to +reach New York from Canada, was defeated at Freemans Farm and +obliged to surrender at Saratoga. In the same year the +French and Spanish declared war upon Great Britain, greatly +hampering her sea communications. A second British army +under General Cornwallis was caught in the Yorktown peninsula +in Virginia and obliged to capitulate in 1781. In 1783 peace +<span class="pagenum"><a name="P339"></a></span>was made +in Paris, and the Thirteen Colonies from Maine to Georgia +became a union of independent sovereign States. So the +United States of America came into existence. Canada +remained loyal to the British flag. +</p> + +<div class="fig" style=""> +<a name="img-339"></a> +<img src="images/img-339.jpg" +alt="Map: The United States, showing extent of settlement in 1790" + width="550" height="656" /> +</div> + +<p> +For four years these States had only a very feeble central +government under certain Articles of Confederation, and they +seemed destined to break up into separate independent +communities. Their immediate separation was delayed by the +hostility of the British and a certain aggressiveness on the +part of the French which brought <span class="pagenum"><a +name="P340"></a></span>home to them the immediate dangers +of division. A Constitution was drawn up and ratified in +1788 establishing a more efficient Federal government with a +President holding very considerable powers, and the weak +sense of national unity was invigorated by a second war with +Britain in 1812. Nevertheless the area covered by the States +was so wide and their interests so diverse at that time, +that—given only the means of communication then +available—a disintegration of the Union into separate +states on the European scale of size was merely a question of +time. Attendance at Washington meant a long, tedious and +insecure journey for the senators and congressmen of the +remoter districts, and the mechanical impediments to the +diffusion of a common education and a common literature and +intelligence were practically insurmountable. Forces were at +work in the world however that were to arrest the process of +differentiation altogether. Presently came the river +steamboat and then the railway and the telegraph to save the +United States from fragmentation, and weave its dispersed +people together again into the first of great modern nations. +</p> + +<p> +Twenty-two years later the Spanish colonies in America were +to follow the example of the Thirteen and break their +connection with Europe. But being more dispersed over the +continent and separated by great mountainous chains and +deserts and forests and by the Portuguese Empire of Brazil, +they did not achieve a union among themselves. They became a +constellation of republican states, very prone at first to +wars among themselves and to revolutions. +</p> + +<p> +Brazil followed a rather different line towards the +inevitable separation. In 1807 the French armies under +Napoleon had occupied the mother country of Portugal, and the +monarchy had fled to Brazil. From that time on until they +separated, Portugal was rather a dependency of Brazil than +Brazil of Portugal. In 1822 Brazil declared itself a +separate Empire under Pedro I, a son of the Portuguese King. + But the new world has never been very favourable to monarchy. + In 1889 the Emperor of Brazil was shipped off quietly to +Europe, and the United States of Brazil fell into line with +the rest of republican America. +</p> + +</div><!--end chapter--> + +<div class="chapter"> + +<h2><span class="pagenum"><a name="P341"></a></span><a name="chapLV"></a>LV<br /> +THE FRENCH REVOLUTION AND THE RESTORATION OF MONARCHY IN FRANCE</h2> + +<p> +Britain had hardly lost the Thirteen Colonies in America before a profound +social and political convulsion at the very heart of Grand Monarchy was to +remind Europe still more vividly of the essentially temporary nature of the +political arrangements of the world. +</p> + +<p> +We have said that the French monarchy was the most successful +of the personal monarchies in Europe. It was the envy and +model of a multitude of competing and minor courts. But it +flourished on a basis of injustice that led to its dramatic +collapse. It was brilliant and aggressive, but it was +wasteful of the life and substance of its common people. The +clergy and nobility were protected from taxation by a system +of exemption that threw the whole burden of the state upon +the middle and lower classes. The peasants were ground down +by taxation; the middle classes were dominated and humiliated +by the nobility. +</p> + +<p> +In 1787 this French monarchy found itself bankrupt and +obliged to call representatives of the different classes of +the realm into consultation upon the perplexities of +defective income and excessive expenditure. In 1789 the +States General, a gathering of the nobles, clergy and +commons, roughly equivalent to the earlier form of the +British Parliament, was called together at Versailles. It +had not assembled since 1610. For all that time France had +been an absolute monarchy. Now the people found a means of +expressing their long fermenting discontent. Disputes +immediately broke out between the three estates, due to the +resolve of the Third Estate, the Commons, to control the +Assembly. The Commons got the better of these disputes and +the States General became a National Assembly, clearly +resolved to keep the crown in order, as the British +Parliament kept the British <span class="pagenum"><a +name="P342"></a></span>crown in order. The king (Louis +XVI) prepared for a struggle and brought up troops from the +provinces. Whereupon Paris and France revolted. +</p> + +<p> +The collapse of the absolute monarchy was very swift. The +grim-looking prison of the Bastille was stormed by the people +of Paris, and the insurrection spread rapidly throughout +France. In the east and north-west provinces many chateaux +belonging to the nobility were burnt by the peasants, their +title-deeds carefully destroyed, and the owners murdered or +driven away. In a month the ancient and decayed system of +the aristocratic order had collapsed. Many of the leading +princes and courtiers of the queen’s party fled abroad. + A provisional city government was set up in Paris and in most +of the other large cities, and a new armed force, the +National Guard, a force designed primarily and plainly to +resist the forces of the crown, was brought into existence by +these municipal bodies. The National Assembly found itself +called upon to create a new political and social system for a +new age. +</p> + +<p> +It was a task that tried the powers of that gathering to the +utmost. It made a great sweep of the chief injustices of the +absolutist regime; it abolished tax exemptions, serfdom, +aristocratic titles and privileges and sought to establish a +constitutional monarchy in Paris. The king abandoned +Versailles and its splendours and kept a diminished state in +the palace of the Tuileries in Paris. +</p> + +<p> +For two years it seemed that the National Assembly might +struggle through to an effective modernized government. Much +of its work was sound and still endures, if much was +experimental and had to be undone. Much was ineffective. + There was a clearing up of the penal code; torture, arbitrary +imprisonment and persecutions for heresy were abolished. The +ancient provinces of France, Normandy, Burgundy and the like +gave place to eighty departments. Promotion to the highest +ranks in the army was laid open to men of every class. An +excellent and simple system of law courts was set up, but its +value was much vitiated by having the judges appointed by +popular election for short periods of time. This made the +crowd a sort of final court of appeal, and the judges, like +the members of the Assembly, were forced to play to the +gallery. And the whole vast property of the church was +seized and administered <span class="pagenum"><a +name="P343"></a></span>by the state; religious +establishments not engaged in education or works of charity +were broken up, and the salaries of the clergy made a charge +upon the nation. This in itself was not a bad thing for the +lower clergy in France, who were often scandalously underpaid +in comparison with the richer dignitaries. But in addition +the choice of priests and bishops was made elective, which +struck at the very root idea of the Roman Church, which +centred everything upon the Pope, and in which all authority +is from above downward. Practically the National Assembly +wanted at one blow to make the church in France Protestant, +in organization if not in doctrine. Everywhere there were +disputes and conflicts between the state priests created by +the National Assembly and the recalcitrant (non-juring) +priests who were loyal to Rome. +</p> + +<p> +In 1791 the experiment of Constitutional monarchy in France +was brought to an abrupt end by the action of the king and +queen, working in concert with their aristocratic and +monarchist friends abroad. Foreign armies gathered on the +Eastern frontier and one night in June the king and queen and +their children slipped away from the Tuileries and fled to +join the foreigners and the aristocratic exiles. They were +caught at Varennes and brought back to Paris, and an France +flamed up into a passion of patriotic republicanism. A +Republic was proclaimed, open war with Austria and Prussia +ensued, and the king was tried and executed (January, 1793) +on the model already set by England, for treason to his +people. +</p> + +<p> +And now followed a strange phase in the history of the French +people. There arose a great flame of enthusiasm for France +and the Republic. There was to be an end to compromise at +home and abroad; at home royalists and every form of +disloyalty were to be stamped out; abroad France was to be +the protector and helper of all revolutionaries. All Europe, +all the world, was to become Republican. The youth of France +poured into the Republican armies; a new and wonderful song +spread through the land, a song that still warms the blood +like wine, the Marseillaise. Before that chant and the +leaping columns of French bayonets and their enthusiastically +served guns the foreign armies rolled back; before the end of +1792 the French armies had gone far beyond the utmost +achievements of Louis XIV; everywhere they stood on <span +class="pagenum"><a name="P344"></a></span>foreign soil. + They were in Brussels, they had overrun Savoy, they had +raided to Mayence; they had seized the Scheldt from Holland. + Then the French Government did an unwise thing. It had been +exasperated by the expulsion of its representative from +England upon the execution of Louis, and it declared war +against England. It was an unwise thing to do, because the +revolution which had given France a new enthusiastic infantry +and a brilliant artillery released from its aristocratic +officers and many cramping conditions had destroyed the +discipline of the navy, and the English were supreme upon the +sea. And this provocation united all England against France, +whereas there had been at first a very considerable liberal +movement in Great Britain in sympathy with the revolution. +</p> + +<div class="fig" style=""> +<a name="img-344"></a> +<img src="images/img-344.jpg" +alt="THE TRIAL OF LOUIS XVI" + width="600" height="433" /> +<p class="caption"> +THE TRIAL OF LOUIS XVI +<br /> +<small><i>(From a print in the British Museum)</i> +</small> +</p> +</div> + +<p> +Of the fight that France made in the next few years against a +European coalition we cannot tell in any detail. She drove +the Austrians for ever out of Belgium, and made Holland a +republic. The Dutch fleet, frozen in the Texel, surrendered +to a handful of <span class="pagenum"><a +name="P345"></a></span>cavalry without firing its guns. + For some time the French thrust towards Italy was hung up, +and it was only in 1796 that a new general, Napoleon +Bonaparte, led the ragged and hungry republican armies in +triumph across Piedmont to Mantua and Verona. Says C. F. + Atkinson, [<a name="chapLVfn1text"></a><a +href="#chapLVfn1">1</a>] “What astonished the Allies +most of all was the number and the velocity of the +Republicans. These improvised armies had in fact nothing to +delay them. Tents were unprocurable for want of money, +untransportable for want of the enormous number of wagons +that would have been required, and also unnecessary, for the +discomfort that would have caused wholesale desertion in +professional armies was cheerfully borne by the men of 1793- +94. Supplies for armies of then unheard-of size could not +be carried in convoys, and the French soon became familiar +with ‘living on the country.’ Thus 1793 saw the +birth of the modern system of war—rapidity of movement, +full development of national strength, bivouacs, requisitions +and force as against cautious manÅ“uvring, small +professional armies, tents and full rations, and chicane. + The first represented the decision-compelling spirit, the +second the spirit of risking little to gain a little ... + .” +</p> + +<p> +And while these ragged hosts of enthusiasts were chanting the +Marseillaise and fighting for <i>la France</i>, manifestly +never quite clear in their minds whether they were looting or +liberating the countries into which they poured, the +republican enthusiasm in Paris was spending itself in a far +less glorious fashion. The revolution was now under the sway +of a fanatical leader, Robespierre. This man is difficult to +judge; he was a man of poor physique, naturally timid, and a +prig. But he had that most necessary gift for power, faith. + He set himself to save the Republic as he conceived it, and +he imagined it could be saved by no other man than he. So +that to keep in power was to save the Republic. The living +spirit of the Republic, it seemed, had sprung from a +slaughter of royalists and the execution of the king. There +were insurrections; one in the west, in the district of La +Vendée, where the people rose against the conscription +and against the dispossession of the orthodox clergy, and +were led by noblemen and priests; one in the south, where +Lyons and Marseilles had risen and the royalists of +Toulon<span class="pagenum"><a name="P346"></a></span> +had admitted an English and Spanish garrison. To which there +seemed no more effectual reply than to go on killing +royalists. +</p> + +<p> +The Revolutionary Tribunal went to work, and a steady +slaughtering began. The invention of the guillotine was +opportune to this mood. The queen was guillotined, most of +Robespierre’s antagonists were guillotined, atheists +who argued that there was no Supreme Being were guillotined; +day by day, week by week, this infernal new machine chopped +off heads and more heads and more. The reign of Robespierre +lived, it seemed, on blood; and needed more and more, as an +opium-taker needs more and more opium. +</p> + +<div class="fig" style=""> +<a name="img-346"></a> +<img src="images/img-346.jpg" +alt="THE EXECUTION OF MARIE ANTOINETTE, QUEEN OF FRANCE, +OCTOBER 16, 1793" + width="600" height="432" /> +<p class="caption"> +THE EXECUTION OF MARIE ANTOINETTE, QUEEN OF FRANCE, +OCTOBER 16, 1793 +<br /> +<small><i>(From a print in the British Museum)</i> +</small> +</p> +</div> + +<p> +Finally in the summer of 1794 Robespierre himself was +overthrown and guillotined. He was succeeded by a Directory +of five men which carried on the war of defence abroad and +held France together at home for five years. Their reign +formed a curious interlude in this history of violent +changes. They took things <span class="pagenum"><a +name="P347"></a></span>as they found them. The +propagandist zeal of the revolution carried the French armies +into Holland, Belgium, Switzerland, south Germany and north +Italy. Everywhere kings were expelled and republics set up. + But such propagandist zeal as animated the Directorate did +not prevent the looting of the treasures of the liberated +peoples to relieve the financial embarrassment of the French +Government. Their wars became less and less the holy wars of +freedom, and more and more like the aggressive wars of the +ancient regime. The last feature of Grand Monarchy that +France was disposed to discard was her tradition of foreign +policy. One discovers it still as vigorous under the +Directorate as if there had been no revolution. +</p> + +<p> +Unhappily for France and the world a man arose who embodied +in its intensest form this national egotism of the French. + He gave that country ten years of glory and the humiliation +of a final defeat. This was that same Napoleon Bonaparte who +had led the armies of the Directory to victory in Italy. +</p> + +<p> +Throughout the five years of the Directorate he had been +scheming and working for self-advancement. Gradually he +clambered to supreme power. He was a man of severely limited +understanding but of ruthless directness and great energy. + He had begun life as an extremist of the school of +Robespierre; he owed his first promotion to that side; but he +had no real grasp of the new forces that were working in +Europe. His utmost political imagination carried him to a +belated and tawdry attempt to restore the Western Empire. He +tried to destroy the remains of the old Holy Roman Empire, +intending to replace it by a new one centring upon Paris. + The Emperor in Vienna ceased to be the Holy Roman Emperor and +became simply Emperor of Austria. Napoleon divorced his +French wife in order to marry an Austrian princess. +</p> + +<p> +He became practically monarch of France as First Consul in +1799, and he made himself Emperor of France in 1804 in direct +imitation of Charlemagne. He was crowned by the Pope in +Paris, taking the crown from the Pope and putting it upon his +own head himself as Charlemagne had directed. His son was +crowned King of Rome. +</p> + +<p> +For some years Napoleon’s reign was a career of +victory. He <span class="pagenum"><a +name="P348"></a></span>conquered most of Italy and Spain, +defeated Prussia and Austria, and dominated all Europe west +of Russia. But he never won the command of the sea from the +British and his fleets sustained a conclusive defeat +inflicted by the British Admiral Nelson at Trafalgar (1805). + Spain rose against him in 1808 and a British army under +Wellington thrust the French armies slowly northward out of +the peninsula. In 1811 Napoleon came into conflict with the +Tsar Alexander I, and in 1812 he invaded Russia with a great +conglomerate army of 600,000 men, that was defeated and +largely destroyed by the Russians and the Russian winter. + Germany rose against him, Sweden turned against him. The +French armies were beaten back and at Fontainebleau Napoleon +abdicated (1814). He was exiled to Elba, returned to France +for one last effort in 1815 and was defeated by the allied +British, Belgians and Prussians at Waterloo. He died a +British prisoner at St. Helena in 1821. +</p> + +<p> +The forces released by the French revolution were wasted and +finished. A great Congress of the victorious allies met at +Vienna to restore as far as possible the state of affairs +that the great storm had rent to pieces. For nearly forty +years a sort of peace, a peace of exhausted effort, was +maintained in Europe. +</p> + +<p class="footnote"> +<a name="chapLVfn1"></a> +[<a href="#chapLIfn1text">1</a>] In his article, +“French Revolutionary Wars,” in the +Encyclopædia Britannica. +</p> + +</div><!--end chapter--> + +<div class="chapter"> + +<h2><span class="pagenum"><a name="P349"></a></span><a name="chapLVI"></a>LVI<br /> +THE UNEASY PEACE IN EUROPE THAT FOLLOWED THE FALL OF NAPOLEON</h2> + +<p> +Two main causes prevented that period from being a complete social and +international peace, and prepared the way for the cycle of wars between 1854 +and 1871. The first of these was the tendency of the royal courts concerned, +towards the restoration of unfair privilege and interference with freedom of +thought and writing and teaching. The second was the impossible system of +boundaries drawn by the diplomatists of Vienna. +</p> + +<p> +The inherent disposition of monarchy to march back towards +past conditions was first and most particularly manifest in +Spain. Here even the Inquisition was restored. Across the +Atlantic the Spanish colonies had followed the example of the +United States and revolted against the European Great Power +System, when Napoleon set his brother Joseph on the Spanish +throne in 1810. The George Washington of South America was +General Bolivar. Spain was unable to suppress this revolt, +it dragged on much as the United States War of Independence +had dragged on, and at last the suggestion was made by +Austria, in accordance with the spirit of the Holy Alliance, +that the European monarch should assist Spain in this +struggle. This was opposed by Britain in Europe, but it was +the prompt action of President Monroe of the United States in +1823 which conclusively warned off this projected monarchist +restoration. He announced that the United States would +regard any extension of the European system in the Western +Hemisphere as a hostile act. Thus arose the Monroe Doctrine, +the doctrine that there must be no extension of extra- +American government in America, which has kept the Great +Power system out of America for nearly a hundred years and +permitted the new states of Spanish America to work out their +destinies along their own lines. +</p> + +<p> +<span class="pagenum"><a name="P350"></a></span>But if +Spanish monarchism lost its colonies, it could at least, +under the protection of the Concert of Europe, do what it +chose in Europe. A popular insurrection in Spain was crushed +by a French army in 1823, with a mandate from a European +congress, and simultaneously Austria suppressed a revolution +in Naples. +</p> + +<p> +In 1824 Louis XVIII died, and was succeeded by Charles X. + Charles set himself to destroy the liberty of the press and +universities, and to restore absolute government; the sum of +a billion francs was voted to compensate the nobles for the +chateau burnings and sequestrations of 1789. In 1830 Paris +rose against this embodiment of the ancient regime, and +replaced him by Louis Philippe, the son of that Philip, Duke +of Orleans, who was executed during the Terror. The other +continental monarchies, in face of the open approval of the +revolution by Great Britain and a strong liberal ferment in +Germany and Austria, did not interfere in this affair. After +all, France was still a monarchy. This man Louis Philippe +(1830-48) remained the constitutional King of France for +eighteen years. +</p> + +<p> +Such were the uneasy swayings of the peace of the Congress of +Vienna, which were provoked by the reactionary proceedings of +the monarchists. The stresses that arose from the +unscientific boundaries planned by the diplomatists at Vienna +gathered force more deliberately, but they were even more +dangerous to the peace of mankind. It is extraordinarily +inconvenient to administer together the affairs of peoples +speaking different languages and so reading different +literatures and having different general ideas, especially if +those differences are exacerbated by religious disputes. + Only some strong mutual interest, such as the common +defensive needs of the Swiss mountaineers, can justify a +close linking of peoples of dissimilar languages and faiths; +and even in Switzerland there is the utmost local autonomy. + When, as in Macedonia, populations are mixed in a patchwork +of villages and districts, the cantonal system is +imperatively needed. But if the reader will look at the map +of Europe as the Congress of Vienna drew it, he will see that +this gathering seems almost as if it had planned the maximum +of local exasperation. +</p> + +<p> +It destroyed the Dutch Republic, quite needlessly, it lumped +<span class="pagenum"><a name="P351"></a></span>together +the Protestant Dutch with the French-speaking Catholics of +the old Spanish (Austrian) Netherlands, and set up a kingdom +of the Netherlands. It handed over not merely the old +republic of Venice, but all of North Italy as far as Milan to +the German-speaking Austrians. French-speaking Savoy it +combined with pieces of Italy to restore the kingdom of +Sardinia. Austria and Hungary, already a sufficiently +explosive mixture of discordant nationalities, Germans, +Hungarians, Czecho-Slovaks, Jugo-Slavs, Roumanians, and now +Italians, was made still more impossible by confirming +Austria’s Polish acquisitions of 1772 and 1795. The +Catholic and republican-spirited Polish people were chiefly +given over to the less civilized rule of the Greek-orthodox +Tsar, but important districts went to Protestant Prussia. + The Tsar was also confirmed in his acquisition of the +entirely alien Finns. The very dissimilar Norwegian and +Swedish peoples were bound together under one king. Germany, +the reader will see, was left in a particularly dangerous +state of muddle. Prussia and Austria were both partly in and +partly out of a German confederation, which included a +multitude of minor states. The King of Denmark came into the +German confederation by virtue of certain German-speaking +possessions in Holstein. Luxembourg was included in the +German confederation, though its ruler was also King of the +Netherlands, and though many of its peoples talked French. +</p> + +<p> +Here was a complete disregard of the fact that the people who +talk German and base their ideas on German literature, the +people who talk Italian and base their ideas on Italian +literature, and the people who talk Polish and base their +ideas on Polish literature, will all be far better off and +most helpful and least obnoxious to the rest of mankind if +they conduct their own affairs in their own idiom within the +ring-fence of their own speech. Is it any wonder that one of +the most popular songs in Germany during this period declared +that wherever the German tongue was spoken, there was the +German Fatherland! +<span class="pagenum"><a name="P352"></a></span> +</p> + +<div class="fig" style=""> +<a name="img-352"></a> +<img src="images/img-352.jpg" +alt="PORTRAIT OF NAPOLEON (CORONATION)" + width="550" height="772" /> +<p class="caption"> +PORTRAIT OF NAPOLEON (CORONATION) +<br /> +<small><i>(From a print in the British Museum)</i> +</small> +</p> +</div> + +<p> +In 1830 French-speaking Belgium, stirred up by the current +revolution in France, revolted against its Dutch association +in the kingdom of the Netherlands. The powers, terrified at +the possibilities of a republic or of annexation to France, +hurried in to pacify <span class="pagenum"><a +name="P353"></a></span>this situation, and gave the +Belgians a monarch, Leopold I of Saxe-Coburg Gotha. There +were also ineffectual revolts in Italy and Germany in 1830, +and a much more serious one in Russian Poland. A republican +government held out in Warsaw for a year against Nicholas I +(who succeeded Alexander in 1825), and was then stamped out +of existence with great violence and cruelty. The Polish +language was banned, and the Greek Orthodox church was +substituted for the Roman Catholic as the state religion .... +</p> + +<div class="fig" style=""> +<a name="img-353"></a> +<img src="images/img-353.jpg" +alt="Map: Europe after the Congress of Vienna" + width="550" height="502" /> +</div> + +<p> +In 1821 there was an insurrection of the Greeks against the +Turks. For six years they fought a desperate war, while the +governments of Europe looked on. Liberal opinion protested +against this inactivity; volunteers from every European +country joined the insurgents, and at last Britain, France +and Russia took joint action. The Turkish fleet was +destroyed by the French and English at the battle of Navarino +(1827), and the Tsar invaded Turkey. By the treaty of +Adrianople (1829) Greece was declared free, but <span +class="pagenum"><a name="P354"></a></span>she was not +permitted to resume her ancient republican traditions. A +German king was found for Greece, one Prince Otto of Bavaria, +and Christian governors were set up in the Danubian provinces +(which are now Roumania) and Serbia (a part of the Jugo-Slav +region). Much blood had still to run however before the Turk +was altogether expelled from these lands. +</p> + +</div><!--end chapter--> + +<div class="chapter"> + +<h2><span class="pagenum"><a name="P355"></a></span><a name="chapLVII"></a>LVII<br /> +THE DEVELOPMENT OF MATERIAL KNOWLEDGE</h2> + +<p> +Throughout the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries and the opening years of +the nineteenth century, while these conflicts of the powers and princes were +going on in Europe, and the patchwork of the treaty of Westphalia (1648) was +changing kaleidoscopically into the patchwork of the treaty of Vienna (1815), +and while the sailing ship was spreading European influence throughout the +world, a steady growth of knowledge and a general clearing up of men’s +ideas about the world in which they lived was in progress in the European and +Europeanized world. +</p> + +<p> +It went on disconnected from political life, and producing +throughout the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries no +striking immediate results in political life. Nor was it +affecting popular thought very profoundly during this period. + These reactions were to come later, and only in their full +force in the latter half of the nineteenth century. It was a +process that went on chiefly in a small world of prosperous +and independent-spirited people. Without what the English +call the “private gentleman,” the scientific +process could not have begun in Greece, and could not have +been renewed in Europe. The universities played a part but +not a leading part in the philosophical and scientific +thought of this period. Endowed learning is apt to be timid +and conservative learning, lacking in initiative and +resistent to innovation, unless it has the spur of contact +with independent minds. +</p> + +<p> +We have already noted the formation of the Royal Society in +1662 and its work in realizing the dream of Bacon’s +<i>New Atlantis</i>. Throughout the eighteenth century there +was much clearing up of general ideas about matter and +motion, much mathematical advance, a systematic development +of the use of optical glass in microscope and telescope, a +renewed energy in classificatory natural <span +class="pagenum"><a name="P356"></a></span>history, a +great revival of anatomical science. The science of +geology—foreshadowed by Aristotle and anticipated by +Leonardo da Vinci (1452-1519)—began its great task of +interpreting the Record of the Rocks. +</p> + +<div class="fig" style=""> +<a name="img-3561"></a> +<img src="images/img-3561.jpg" +alt="EARLY ROLLING STOCK ON THE LIVERPOOL AND MANCHESTER RAILWAY IN + THE FIRST DAYS OF THE RAILWAY" + width="550" height="134" /> +<p class="caption"> +EARLY ROLLING STOCK ON THE LIVERPOOL AND MANCHESTER RAILWAY IN THE + FIRST DAYS OF THE RAILWAY +</p> +</div> + +<p> +The progress of physical science reacted upon metallurgy. + Improved metallurgy, affording the possibility of a larger +and bolder handling of masses of metal and other materials, +reacted upon practical inventions. Machinery on a new scale +and in a new abundance appeared to revolutionize industry. +</p> + +<p> +In 1804 Trevithick adapted the Watt engine to transport and +made the first locomotive. In 1825 the first railway, +between Stockton and Darlington, was opened, and +Stephenson’s “Rocket,” with a thirteen-ton +train, got up to a speed of forty-four miles per hour. From +1830 onward railways multiplied. By the middle of the +century a network of railways had spread all over Europe. +</p> + +<div class="fig" style=""> +<a name="img-3562"></a> +<img src="images/img-3562.jpg" +alt="EARLY TRAVELLING ON THE LIVERPOOL AND MANCHESTER RAILWAY, 1833" + width="550" height="134" /> +<p class="caption"> +EARLY TRAVELLING ON THE LIVERPOOL AND MANCHESTER RAILWAY, 1833 +</p> +</div> + +<p> +Here was a sudden change in what had long been a fixed +condition of human life, the maximum rate of land transport. + After the Russian disaster, Napoleon travelled from near +Vilna to Paris in 312 hours. This was a journey of about +1,400 miles. He was travelling with every conceivable +advantage, and he averaged <span class="pagenum"><a +name="P357"></a></span>under 5 miles an hour. An +ordinary traveller could not have done this distance in twice +the time. These were about the same maximum rates of travel +as held good between Rome and Gaul in the first century + <small>A.D.</small> Then suddenly came this tremendous +change. The railways reduced this journey for any ordinary +traveller to less than forty-eight hours. That is to say, +they reduced the chief European distances to about a tenth of +what they had been. They made it possible to carry out +administrative work in areas ten times as great as any that +had hitherto been workable under one administration. The +full significance of that possibility in Europe still remains +to be realized. Europe is still netted in boundaries drawn +in the horse and road era. In America the effects were +immediate. To the United States of America, sprawling +westward, it meant the possibility of a continuous access to +Washington, however far the frontier travelled across the +continent. It meant unity, sustained on a scale that would +otherwise have been impossible. +</p> + +<div class="fig" style=""> +<a name="img-357"></a> +<img src="images/img-357.jpg" +alt="THE STEAMBOAT: CLERMONT, 1807, U.S.A." + width="550" height="369" /> +<p class="caption"> +THE STEAMBOAT: <i>CLERMONT</i>, 1807, U.S.A. +</p> +</div> + +<p> +The steamboat was, if anything, a little ahead of the steam +engine in its earlier phases. There was a steamboat, the +<i>Charlotte Dundas</i>, on the Firth of Clyde Canal in 1802, +and in 1807 an American <span class="pagenum"><a +name="P358"></a></span>named Fulton had a steamer, the +Clermont, with British-built engines, upon the Hudson River +above New York. The first steamship to put to sea was also +an American, the PhÅ“nix, which went from New York +(Hoboken) to Philadelphia. So, too, was the first ship using +steam (she also had sails) to cross the Atlantic, the +Savannah (1819). All these were paddle-wheel boats and +paddle-wheel boats are not adapted to work in heavy seas. + The paddles smash too easily, and the boat is then disabled. + The screw steamship followed rather slowly. Many +difficulties had to be surmounted before the screw was a +practicable thing. Not until the middle of the century did +the tonnage of steamships upon the sea begin to overhaul that +of sailing ships. After that the evolution in sea transport +was rapid. For the first time men began to cross the seas +and oceans with some certainty as to the date of their +arrival. The transatlantic crossing, which had been an +uncertain adventure of several weeks—which might +stretch to months—was accelerated, until in 1910 it was +brought down, in the case of the fastest boats, to under five +days, with a practically notifiable hour of arrival. +</p> + +<p> +Concurrently with the development of steam transport upon +land and sea a new and striking addition to the facilities of +human intercourse arose out of the investigations of Volta, +Galvani and Faraday into various electrical phenomena. The +electric telegraph came into existence in 1835. The first +underseas cable was laid in 1851 between France and England. + In a few years the telegraph system had spread over the +civilized world, and news which had hitherto travelled slowly +from point to point became practically simultaneous +throughout the earth. +</p> + +<p> +These things, the steam railway and the electric telegraph, +were to the popular imagination of the middle nineteenth +century the most striking and revolutionary of inventions, +but they were only the most conspicuous and clumsy first +fruits of a far more extensive process. Technical knowledge +and skill were developing with an extraordinary rapidity, and +to an extraordinary extent measured by the progress of any +previous age. Far less conspicuous at first in everyday +life, but finally far more important, was the extension of +man’s power over various structural materials. Before +the middle of the eighteenth century iron was reduced from +its ores by <span class="pagenum"><a +name="P359"></a></span>means of wood charcoal, was +handled in small pieces, and hammered and wrought into shape. + It was material for a craftsman. Quality and treatment were +enormously dependent upon the experience and sagacity of the +individual iron-worker. The largest masses of iron that +could be dealt with under those conditions amounted at most +(in the sixteenth century) to two or three tons. (There was +a very definite upward limit, therefore, to the size of +cannon.) The blast-furnace rose in the eighteenth century +and developed with the use of coke. Not before the +eighteenth century do we find rolled sheet iron (1728) and +rolled rods and bars (1783). Nasmyth’s steam hammer +came as late as 1838. +</p> + +<p> +The ancient world, because of its metallurgical inferiority, +could not use steam. The steam engine, even the primitive +pumping engine, could not develop before sheet iron was +available. The early engines seem to the modern eye very +pitiful and clumsy bits of ironmongery, but they were the +utmost that the metallurgical science of the time could do. +As late as 1856 came the Bessemer process, and presently +(1864) the open-hearth process, in which steel and every sort +of iron could be melted, purified and cast in a manner and +upon a scale hitherto unheard of. To-day in the electric +furnace one may see tons of incandescent steel swirling about +like boiling milk in a saucepan. Nothing in the previous +practical advances of mankind is comparable in its +consequences to the complete mastery over enormous masses of +steel and iron and over their texture and quality which man +has now achieved. The railways and early engines of all +sorts were the mere first triumphs of the new metallurgical +methods. Presently came ships of iron and steel, vast +bridges, and a new way of building with steel upon a gigantic +scale. Men realized too late that they had planned their +railways with far too timid a gauge, that they could have +organized their travelling with far more steadiness and +comfort upon a much bigger scale. +</p> + +<p> +Before the nineteenth century there were no ships in the +world much over 2,000 tons burthen; now there is nothing +wonderful about a 50,000-ton liner. There are people who +sneer at this kind of progress as being a progress in +“mere size,” but that sort of sneering merely +marks the intellectual limitations of those who indulge in +it. <span class="pagenum"><a name="P360"></a></span>The +great ship or the steel-frame building is not, as they +imagine, a magnified version of the small ship or building of +the past; it is a thing different in kind, more lightly and +strongly built, of finer and stronger materials; instead of +being a thing of precedent and rule-of-thumb, it is a thing +of subtle and intricate calculation. In the old house or +ship, matter was dominant—the material and its needs +had to be slavishly obeyed; in the new, matter had been +captured, changed, coerced. Think of the coal and iron and +sand dragged out of the banks and pits, wrenched, wrought, +molten and cast, to be flung at last, a slender glittering +pinnacle of steel and glass, six hundred feet above the +crowded city! +</p> + +<p> +We have given these particulars of the advance in man’s +knowledge of the metallurgy of steel and its results by way +of illustration. A parallel story could be told of the +metallurgy of copper and tin, and of a multitude of metals, +nickel and aluminium to name but two, unknown before the +nineteenth century dawned. It is in this great and growing +mastery over substances, over different sorts of glass, over +rocks and plasters and the like, over colours and textures, +that the main triumphs of the mechanical revolution have thus +far been achieved. Yet we are still in the stage of the +first fruits in the matter. We have the power, but we have +still to learn how to use our power. Many of the first +employments of these gifts of science have been vulgar, +tawdry, stupid or horrible. The artist and the adaptor have +still hardly begun to work with the endless variety of +substances now at their disposal. +</p> + +<p> +Parallel with this extension of mechanical possibilities the +new science of electricity grew up. It was only in the +eighties of the nineteenth century that this body of enquiry +began to yield results to impress the vulgar mind. Then +suddenly came electric light and electric traction, and the +transmutation of forces, the possibility of sending power, +that could be changed into mechanical motion or light or heat +as one chose, along a copper wire, as water is sent along a +pipe, began to come through to the ideas of ordinary +people.... +</p> + +<p> +The British and French were at first the leading peoples in +this great proliferation of knowledge; but presently the +Germans, who had learnt humility under Napoleon, showed such +zeal and pertinacity in scientific enquiry as to overhaul +these leaders. British <span class="pagenum"><a +name="P361"></a></span>science was largely the creation +of Englishmen and Scotchmen working outside the ordinary +centres of erudition. +</p> + +<div class="fig" style=""> +<a name="img-3611"></a> +<img src="images/img-3611.jpg" +alt="EIGHTEENTH CENTURY SPINNING WHEEL" + width="300" height="237" /> +<p class="caption"> +EIGHTEENTH CENTURY SPINNING WHEEL +<br /> +<small><i>In the Ipswich Museum</i> +</small> +</p> +</div> + +<div class="fig" style=""> +<a name="img-3612"></a> +<img src="images/img-3612.jpg" +alt="MODEL OF ARKWRIGHT’S SPINNING JENNY, 1769" + width="500" height="471" /> +<p class="caption"> +MODEL OF ARKWRIGHT’S SPINNING JENNY, 1769 +<br /> +<small><i>From the specifications in the Patent Office</i></small> +</p> +</div> + +<p> +The universities of Britain were at this time in a state of +educational retrogression, largely given over to a pedantic +conning of the Latin and Greek classics. French education, +too, was dominated by the classical tradition of the Jesuit +schools, and consequently it was not difficult for the +Germans to organize a body of investigators, small indeed in +relation to the possibilities of the case, but large in +proportion to the little band of British and French inventors +and experimentalists. And though this work of research and +experiment was making Britain and France the most rich and +powerful countries in the world, it was not making scientific +and inventive men rich and <span class="pagenum"><a +name="P362"></a></span>powerful. There is a necessary +unworldliness about a sincere scientific man; he is too +preoccupied with his research to plan and scheme how to make +money out of it. The economic exploitation of his +discoveries falls very easily and naturally, therefore, into +the hands of a more acquisitive type; and so we find that the +crops of rich men which every fresh phase of scientific and +technical progress has produced in Great Britain, though they +have not displayed quite the same passionate desire to insult +and kill the goose that laid the national golden eggs as the +scholastic and clerical professions, have been quite content +to let that profitable creature starve. Inventors and +discoverers came by nature, they thought, for cleverer people +to profit by. +</p> + +<p> +In this matter the Germans were a little wiser. The German +“learned” did not display the same vehement +hatred of the new learning. They permitted its development. + The German business man and manufacturer again had not quite +the same contempt for the man of science as had his British +competitor. Knowledge, these Germans believed, might be a +cultivated crop, responsive to fertilizers. They did +concede, therefore, a certain amount of opportunity to the +scientific mind; their public expenditure on scientific work +was relatively greater, and this expenditure was abundantly +rewarded. By the latter half of the nineteenth century the +German scientific worker had made German a necessary language +for every science student who wished to keep abreast with the +latest work in his department, and in certain branches, and +particularly in chemistry, Germany acquired a very great +superiority over her western neighbours. The scientific +effort of the sixties and seventies in Germany began to tell +after the eighties, and the German gained steadily upon +Britain and France in technical and industrial prosperity. +</p> + +<p> +A fresh phase in the history of invention opened when in the +eighties a new type of engine came into use, an engine in +which the expansive force of an explosive mixture replaced +the expansive force of steam. The light, highly efficient +engines that were thus made possible were applied to the +automobile, and developed at last to reach such a pitch of +lightness and efficiency as to render flight—<span +class="pagenum"><a name="P363"></a></span>long known to +be possible—a practical achievement. A successful +flying machine—but not a machine large enough to take +up a human body—was made by Professor Langley of the +Smithsonian Institute of Washington as early as 1897. By +1909 the aeroplane was available for human locomotion. There +had seemed to be a pause in the increase of human speed with +the perfection of railways and automobile road traction, but +with the flying machine came fresh reductions in the +effective distance between one point of the earth’s +surface and another. In the eighteenth century the distance +from London to Edinburgh was an eight days’ journey; in +1918 the British Civil Air Transport Commission reported that +the journey from London to Melbourne, halfway round the +earth, would probably in a few years’ time be +accomplished in that same period of eight days. +</p> + +<div class="fig" style=""> +<a name="img-363"></a> +<img src="images/img-363.jpg" +alt="AN EARLY WEAVING MACHINE" + width="600" height="281" /> +<p class="caption"> +AN EARLY WEAVING MACHINE +<br /> +<small><i>From an engraving by W. Hincks in the British Museum</i> +</small> +</p> +</div> + +<p> +Too much stress must not be laid upon these striking +reductions in the time distances of one place from another. + They are merely one aspect of a much profounder and more +momentous enlargement of human possibility. The science of +agriculture and agricultural chemistry, for instance, made +quite parallel advances during the nineteenth century. Men +learnt so to fertilize the soil as to produce quadruple and +quintuple the crops got from the same area in the seventeenth +century. There was a still more extraordinary advance in +medical science; the average duration of life rose, the daily +efficiency increased, the waste of life through ill-health +diminished. +</p> + +<p> +<span class="pagenum"><a name="P364"></a></span>Now here +altogether we have such a change in human life as to +constitute a fresh phase of history. In a little more than a +century this mechanical revolution has been brought about. + In that time man made a stride in the material conditions of +his life vaster than he had done during the whole long +interval between the palæolithic stage and the age of +cultivation, or between the days of Pepi in Egypt and those +of George III. A new gigantic material framework for human +affairs has come into existence. Clearly it demands great +readjustments of our social, economical and political +methods. But these readjustments have necessarily waited +upon the development of the mechanical revolution, and they +are still only in their opening stage to-day. +</p> + +</div><!--end chapter--> + +<div class="chapter"> + +<h2><span class="pagenum"><a name="P365"></a></span><a name="chapLVIII"></a>LVIII<br /> +THE INDUSTRIAL REVOLUTION</h2> + +<p> +There is a tendency in many histories to confuse together what we have here +called the mechanical revolution, which was an entirely new thing in human +experience arising out of the development of organized science, a new step like +the invention of agriculture or the discovery of metals, with something else, +quite different in its origins, something for which there was already an +historical precedent, the social and financial development which is called the +<i>industrial revolution</i>. The two processes were going on together, they +were constantly reacting upon each other, but they were in root and essence +different. There would have been an industrial revolution of sorts if there had +been no coal, no steam, no machinery; but in that case it would probably have +followed far more closely upon the lines of the social and financial +developments of the later years of the Roman Republic. It would have repeated +the story of dispossessed free cultivators, gang labour, great estates, great +financial fortunes, and a socially destructive financial process. Even the +factory method came before power and machinery. Factories were the product not +of machinery, but of the “division of labour.” Drilled and sweated +workers were making such things as millinery cardboard boxes and furniture, and +colouring maps and book illustrations and so forth, before even water-wheels +had been used for industrial purposes. There were factories in Rome in the days +of Augustus. New books, for instance, were dictated to rows of copyists in the +factories of the book-sellers. The attentive student of Defoe and of the +political pamphlets of Fielding will realize that the idea of herding poor +people into establishments to work collectively for their living was already +current in Britain before the close of the seventeenth century. There are +intimations of it even as early as More’s <i>Utopia</i> (1516). It was a +social and not a mechanical development. +</p> + +<p> +<span class="pagenum"><a name="P366"></a></span>Up to +past the middle of the eighteenth century the social and +economic history of western Europe was in fact retreading the +path along which the Roman state had gone in the last three +centuries <small>B.C.</small> But the political +disunions of Europe, the political convulsions against +monarchy, the recalcitrance of the common folk and perhaps +also the greater accessibility of the western European +intelligence to mechanical ideas and inventions, turned the +process into quite novel directions. Ideas of human +solidarity, thanks to Christianity, were far more widely +diffused in the newer European world, political power was not +so concentrated, and the man of energy anxious to get rich +turned his mind, therefore, very willingly from the ideas of +the slave and of gang labour to the idea of mechanical power +and the machine. +</p> + +<p> +The mechanical revolution, the process of mechanical +invention and discovery, was a new thing in human experience +and it went on regardless of the social, political, economic +and industrial consequences it might produce. The industrial +revolution, on the other hand, like most other human affairs, +was and is more and more profoundly changed and deflected by +the constant variation in human conditions caused by the +mechanical revolution. And the essential difference between +the amassing of riches, the extinction of small farmers and +small business men, and the phase of big finance in the +latter centuries of the Roman Republic on the one hand, and +the very similar concentration of capital in the eighteenth +and nineteenth centuries on the other, lies in the profound +difference in the character of labour that the mechanical +revolution was bringing about. The power of the old world +was human power; everything depended ultimately upon the +driving power of human muscle, the muscle of ignorant and +subjugated men. A little animal muscle, supplied by draft +oxen, horse traction and the like, contributed. Where a +weight had to be lifted, men lifted it; where a rock had to +be quarried, men chipped it out; where a field had to be +ploughed, men and oxen ploughed it; the Roman equivalent of +the steamship was the galley with its bank of sweating +rowers. A vast proportion of mankind in the early +civilizations were employed in purely mechanical drudgery. + At its onset, power-driven machinery did not seem to promise +any release from such unintelligent toil. Great gangs <span +class="pagenum"><a name="P367"></a></span>of men were +employed in excavating canals, in making railway cuttings and +embankments, and the like. The number of miners increased +enormously. But the extension of facilities and the output +of commodities increased much more. And as the nineteenth +century went on, the plain logic of the new situation +asserted itself more clearly. Human beings were no longer +wanted as a source of mere indiscriminated power. What could +be done mechanically by a human being could be done faster +and better by a machine. The human being was needed now only +where choice and intelligence had to be exercised. Human +beings were wanted only as human beings. The drudge, on whom +all the previous civilizations had rested, the creature of +mere obedience, the man whose brains were superfluous, had +become unnecessary to the welfare of mankind. +</p> + +<div class="fig" style=""> +<a name="img-367"></a> +<img src="images/img-367.jpg" +alt="INCIDENT IN THE DAYS OF THE SLAVE TRADE" + width="600" height="414" /> +<p class="caption"> +INCIDENT IN THE DAYS OF THE SLAVE TRADE +<br /> +<small><i>From a print after Morland in the British Museum</i> +</small> +</p> +</div> + +<p> +This was as true of such ancient industries as agriculture +and mining as it was of the newest metallurgical processes. + For ploughing, sowing and harvesting, swift machines came +forward to do the work of scores of men. The Roman +civilization was built upon <span class="pagenum"><a +name="P368"></a></span>cheap and degraded human beings; +modern civilization is being rebuilt upon cheap mechanical +power. For a hundred years power has been getting cheaper +and labour dearer. If for a generation or so machinery has +had to wait its turn in the mine, it is simply because for a +time men were cheaper than machinery. +</p> + +<div class="fig" style=""> +<a name="img-368"></a> +<img src="images/img-368.jpg" +alt="EARLY FACTORY, IN COLEBROOKDALE" + width="600" height="430" /> +<p class="caption"> +EARLY FACTORY, IN COLEBROOKDALE +<br /> +<small><i>From a print the British Museum</i> +</small> +</p> +</div> + +<p> +Now here was a change-over of quite primary importance in +human affairs. The chief solicitude of the rich and of the +ruler in the old civilization had been to keep up a supply of +drudges. As the nineteenth century went on, it became more +and more plain to the intelligent directive people that the +common man had now to be something better than a drudge. He +had to be educated—if only to secure “industrial +efficiency.” He had to understand what he was about. + From the days of the first Christian propaganda, popular +education had been smouldering in Europe, just as it had +smouldered in Asia wherever Islam has set its foot, because +of the necessity of making the believer understand a little +of the belief by which he is <span class="pagenum"><a +name="P369"></a></span>saved, and of enabling him to read +a little in the sacred books by which his belief is conveyed. + Christian controversies, with their competition for +adherents, ploughed the ground for the harvest of popular +education. In England, for instance, by the thirties and +forties of the nineteenth century, the disputes of the sects +and the necessity of catching adherents young had produced a +series of competing educational organizations for children, +the church “National” schools, the dissenting +“British” schools, and even Roman Catholic +elementary schools. The second half of the nineteenth +century was a period of rapid advance in popular education +throughout all the Westernized world. There was no parallel +advance in the education of the upper classes—some +advance, no doubt, but nothing to correspond—and so the +great gulf that had divided that world hitherto into the +readers and the non-reading mass became little more than a +slightly perceptible difference in educational level. At the +back of this process was the mechanical revolution, +apparently regardless of social conditions, but really +insisting inexorably upon the complete abolition of a totally +illiterate class throughout the world. +</p> + +<p> +The economic revolution of the Roman Republic had never been +clearly apprehended by the common people of Rome. The +ordinary Roman citizen never saw the changes through which he +lived, clearly and comprehensively as we see them. But the +industrial revolution, as it went on towards the end of the +nineteenth century, was more and more distinctly <i>seen</i> +as one whole process by the common people it was affecting, +because presently they could read and discuss and +communicate, and because they went about and saw things as no +commonalty had ever done before. +</p> + +</div><!--end chapter--> + +<div class="chapter"> + +<h2><span class="pagenum"><a name="P370"></a></span><a name="chapLIX"></a>LIX<br /> +THE DEVELOPMENT OF MODERN POLITICAL AND SOCIAL IDEAS</h2> + +<p> +The institutions and customs and political ideas of the ancient civilizations +grew up slowly, age by age, no man designing and no man foreseeing. It was only +in that great century of human adolescence, the sixth century +<small>B.C.</small>, that men began to think clearly about their relations to +one another, and first to question and first propose to alter and rearrange the +established beliefs and laws and methods of human government. +</p> + +<p> +We have told of the glorious intellectual dawn of Greece and +Alexandria, and how presently the collapse of the slave- +holding civilizations and the clouds of religious intolerance +and absolutist government darkened the promise of that +beginning. The light of fearless thinking did not break +through the European obscurity again effectually until the +fifteenth and sixteenth centuries. We have tried to show +something of the share of the great winds of Arab curiosity +and Mongol conquest in this gradual clearing of the mental +skies of Europe. And at first it was chiefly material +knowledge that increased. The first fruits of the recovered +manhood of the race were material achievements and material +power. The science of human relationship, of individual and +social psychology, of education and of economics, are not +only more subtle and intricate in themselves but also bound +up inextricably with much emotional matter. The advances +made in them have been slower and made against greater +opposition. Men will listen dispassionately to the most +diverse suggestions about stars or molecules, but ideas about +our ways of life touch and reflect upon everyone about us. +</p> + +<p> +And just as in Greece the bold speculations of Plato came +before Aristotle’s hard search for fact, so in Europe +the first political enquiries of the new phase were put in +the form of “Utopian” stories, directly imitated +from Plato’s <i>Republic</i> and his <i>Laws</i>. Sir +Thomas <span class="pagenum"><a +name="P371"></a></span>More’s <i>Utopia</i> is a +curious imitation of Plato that bore fruit in a new English +poor law. The Neapolitan Campanella’s <i>City of the +Sun</i> was more fantastic and less fruitful. +</p> + +<p> +By the end of the seventeenth century we find a considerable +and growing literature of political and social science was +being produced. Among the pioneers in this discussion was +John Locke, the son of an English republican, an Oxford +scholar who first directed his attention to chemistry and +medicine. His treatises on government, toleration and +education show a mind fully awake to the possibilities of +social reconstruction. Parallel with and a little later than +John Locke in England, Montesquieu (1689-1755) in France +subjected social, political and religious institutions to a +searching and fundamental analysis. He stripped the magical +prestige from the absolutist monarchy in France. He shares +with Locke the credit for clearing away many of the false +ideas that had hitherto prevented deliberate and conscious +attempts to reconstruct human society. +</p> + +<p> +The generation that followed him in the middle and later +decades of the eighteenth century was boldly speculative upon +the moral and intellectual clearings he had made. A group of +brilliant writers, the “Encyclopædists,” +mostly rebel spirits from the excellent schools of the +Jesuits, set themselves to scheme out a new world (1766). + Side by side with the Encyclopædists were the Economists +or Physiocrats, who were making bold and crude enquiries into +the production and distribution of food and goods. Morelly, +the author of the <i>Code de La Nature</i>, denounced the +institution of private property and proposed a communistic +organization of society. He was the precursor of that large +and various school of collectivist thinkers in the nineteenth +century who are lumped together as Socialists. +</p> + +<p> +What is Socialism? There are a hundred definitions of +Socialism and a thousand sects of Socialists. Essentially +Socialism is no more and no less than a criticism of the idea +of property in the light of the public good. We may review +the history of that idea through the ages very briefly. That +and the idea of internationalism are the two cardinal ideas +upon which most of our political life is turning. +<span class="pagenum"><a name="P372"></a></span> +</p> + +<div class="fig" style=""> +<a name="img-372"></a> +<img src="images/img-372.jpg" +alt="CARL MARX" + width="500" height="709" /> +<p class="caption"> +CARL MARX +<br /> +<small><i>Photo: Linde & Co.</i> +</small> +</p> +</div> + +<p> +The idea +of property arises out of the combative instincts of the +species. Long before men were men, the ancestral ape was a +proprietor. Primitive property is what a beast will fight +for. The dog and his bone, the tigress and her lair, the +roaring stag and his herd, these are proprietorship blazing. + No more nonsensical expression is conceivable in sociology +than the term “primitive communism.” The Old Man +of the family tribe of early palæolithic times insisted +<span class="pagenum"><a name="P373"></a></span>upon his +proprietorship in his wives and daughters, in his tools, in +his visible universe. If any other man wandered into his +visible universe he fought him, and if he could he slew him. + The tribe grew in the course of ages, as Atkinson showed +convincingly in his <i>Primal Law</i>, by the gradual +toleration by the Old Man of the existence of the younger +men, and of their proprietorship in the wives they captured +from outside the tribe, and in the tools and ornaments they +made and the game they slew. Human society grew by a +compromise between this one’s property and that. It +was a compromise with instinct which was forced upon men by +the necessity of driving some other tribe out of its visible +universe. If the hills and forests and streams were not +<i>your</i> land or <i>my</i> land, it was because they had +to be our land. Each of us would have preferred to have it +<i>my</i> land, but that would not work. In that case the +other fellows would have destroyed us. Society, therefore, +is from its beginning a <i>mitigation of ownership</i>. + Ownership in the beast and in the primitive savage was far +more intense a thing than it is in the civilized world to- +day. It is rooted more strongly in our instincts than in our +reason. +</p> + +<p> +In the natural savage and in the untutored man to-day there +is no limitation to the sphere of ownership. Whatever you +can fight for, you can own; women-folk, spared captive, +captured beast, forest glade, stone-pit or what not. As the +community grew, a sort of law came to restrain internecine +fighting, men developed rough-and-ready methods of settling +proprietorship. Men could own what they were the first to +make or capture or claim. It seemed natural that a debtor +who could not pay should become the property of his creditor. + Equally natural was it that after claiming a patch of land a +man should exact payments from anyone who wanted to use it. + It was only slowly, as the possibilities of organized life +dawned on men, that this unlimited property in anything +whatever began to be recognized as a nuisance. Men found +themselves born into a universe all owned and claimed, nay! +they found themselves born owned and claimed. The social +struggles of the earlier civilization are difficult to trace +now, but the history we have told of the Roman Republic shows +a community waking up to the idea that debts may become a +public inconvenience and should then be repudiated, and that +the unlimited ownership of land is also an inconvenience. We +<span class="pagenum"><a name="P374"></a></span>find +that later Babylonia severely limited the rights of property +in slaves. Finally, we find in the teaching of that great +revolutionist, Jesus of Nazareth, such an attack upon +property as had never been before. Easier it was, he said, +for a camel to go through the eye of a needle than for the +owner of great possessions to enter the kingdom of heaven. A +steady, continuous criticism of the permissible scope of +property seems to have been going on in the world for the +last twenty-five or thirty centuries. Nineteen hundred years +after Jesus of Nazareth we find all the world that has come +under the Christian teaching persuaded that there could be no +property in human beings. And also the idea that a man may +“do what he likes with his own” was very much +shaken in relation to other sorts of property. +</p> + +<p> +But this world of the closing eighteenth century was still +only in the interrogative stage in this matter. It had got +nothing clear enough, much less settled enough, to act upon. + One of its primary impulses was to protect property against +the greed and waste of kings and the exploitation of noble +adventurers. It was largely to protect private property from +taxation that the French Revolution began. But the +equalitarian formulæ of the Revolution carried it into a +criticism of the very property it had risen to protect. How +can men be free and equal when numbers of them have no ground +to stand upon and nothing to eat, and the owners will neither +feed nor lodge them unless they toil? Excessively—the +poor complained. +</p> + +<p> +To which riddle the reply of one important political group +was to set about “dividing up.” They wanted to +intensify and universalize property. Aiming at the same end +by another route, there were the primitive +socialists—or, to be more exact, communists—who +wanted to “abolish” private property altogether. + The state (a democratic state was of course understood) was +to own all property. +</p> + +<p> +It is paradoxical that different men seeking the same ends of +liberty and happiness should propose on the one hand to make +property as absolute as possible, and on the other to put an +end to it altogether. But so it was. And the clue to this +paradox is to be found in the fact that ownership is not one +thing but a multitude of different things. +</p> + +<p> +<span class="pagenum"><a name="P375"></a></span>It was +only as the nineteenth century developed that men began to +realize that property was not one simple thing, but a great +complex of ownerships of different values and consequences, +that many things (such as one’s body, the implements of +an artist, clothing, toothbrushes) are very profoundly and +incurably one’s personal property, and that there is a +very great range of things, railways, machinery of various +sorts, homes, cultivated gardens, pleasure boats, for +example, which need each to be considered very particularly +to determine how far and under what limitations it may come +under private ownership, and how far it falls into the public +domain and may be administered and let out by the state in +the collective interest. On the practical side these +questions pass into politics, and the problem of making and +sustaining efficient state administration. They open up +issues in social psychology, and interact with the enquiries +of educational science. The criticism of property is still a +vast and passionate ferment rather than a science. On the +one hand are the Individualists, who would protect and +enlarge our present freedoms with what we possess, and on the +other the Socialists who would in many directions pool our +ownerships and restrain our proprietory acts. In practice +one will find every gradation between the extreme +individualist, who will scarcely tolerate a tax of any sort +to support a government, and the communist who would deny any +possessions at all. The ordinary socialist of to-day is what +is called a collectivist; he would allow a considerable +amount of private property but put such affairs as education, +transport, mines, land-owning, most mass productions of +staple articles, and the like, into the hands of a highly +organized state. Nowadays there does seem to be a gradual +convergence of reasonable men towards a moderate socialism +scientifically studied and planned. It is realized more and +more clearly that the untutored man does not co-operate +easily and successfully in large undertakings, and that every +step towards a more complex state and every function that the +state takes over from private enterprise, necessitates a +corresponding educational advance and the organization of a +proper criticism and control. Both the press and the +political methods of the contemporary state are far too crude +for any large extension of collective activities. +</p> + +<p> +But for a time the stresses between employer and employed and +<span class="pagenum"><a +name="P376"></a></span>particularly between selfish +employers and reluctant workers, led to a world-wide +dissemination of the very harsh and elementary form of +communism which is associated with the name of Marx. Marx +based his theories on a belief that men’s minds are +limited by their economic necessities, and that there is a +necessary conflict of interests in our present civilization +between the prosperous and employing classes of people and +the employed mass. With the advance in education +necessitated by the mechanical revolution, this great +employed majority will become more and more class-conscious +and more and more solid in antagonism to the (class- +conscious) ruling minority. In some way the class-conscious +workers would seize power, he prophesied, and inaugurate a +new social state. The antagonism, the insurrection, the +possible revolution are understandable enough, but it does +not follow that a new social state or anything but a socially +destructive process will ensue. Put to the test in Russia, +Marxism, as we shall note later, has proved singularly +uncreative. +</p> + +<div class="fig" style=""> +<a name="img-376"></a> +<img src="images/img-376.jpg" +alt="SCIENCE IN THE COAL MINE" + width="600" height="405" /> +<p class="caption"> +SCIENCE IN THE COAL MINE +<br /> +<small>Portable Electric Loading Conveyor +<br /><i>Photo: Jeffrey Manufacturing Company, Columbus, Ohio</i> +</small> +</p> +</div> + +<p> +<span class="pagenum"><a name="P377"></a></span>Marx +sought to replace national antagonism by class antagonisms; +Marxism has produced in succession a First, a Second and a +Third Workers’ International. But from the starting +point of modern individualistic thought it is also possible +to reach international ideas. From the days of that great +English economist, Adam Smith, onward there has been an +increasing realization that for world-wide prosperity free +and unencumbered trade about the earth is needed. The +individualist with his hostility to the state is hostile also +to tariffs and boundaries and all the restraints upon free +act and movement that national boundaries seem to justify. + It is interesting to see two lines of thought, so diverse in +spirit, so different in substance as this class-war socialism +of the Marxists and the individualistic free-trading +philosophy of the British business men of the Victorian age +heading at last, in spite of these primary differences, +towards the same intimations of a new world-wide treatment of +human affairs outside the boundaries and limitations of any +existing state. The logic of reality triumphs over the logic +of theory. We begin to perceive that from widely divergent +starting points individualist theory and socialist theory are +part of a common search, a search for more spacious social +and political ideas and interpretations, upon which men may +contrive to work together, a search that began again in +Europe and has intensified as men’s confidence in the +ideas of the Holy Roman Empire and in Christendom decayed, +and as the age of discovery broadened their horizons from the +world of the Mediterranean to the whole wide world. +</p> + +<p> +To bring this description of the elaboration and development +of social, economic and political ideas right down to the +discussions of the present day, would be to introduce issues +altogether too controversial for the scope and intentions of +this book. But regarding these things, as we do here, from +the vast perspectives of the student of world history, we are +bound to recognize that this reconstruction of these +directive ideas in the human mind is still an unfinished +task—we cannot even estimate yet how unfinished the +task may be. Certain common beliefs do seem to be emerging, +and their influence is very perceptible upon the political +events and public acts of to-day; but at present they are not +clear enough nor convincing enough to compel men definitely +and systematically towards their realization. <span +class="pagenum"><a name="P378"></a></span>Men’s +acts waver between tradition and the new, and on the whole +they rather gravitate towards the traditional. Yet, compared +with the thought of even a brief lifetime ago, there does +seem to be an outline shaping itself of a new order in human +affairs. It is a sketchy outline, vanishing into vagueness +at this point and that, <span class="pagenum"><a +name="P379"></a></span>and fluctuating in detail and +formulæ, yet it grows steadfastly clearer, and its main +lines change less and less. +</p> + +<div class="fig" style=""> +<a name="img-378"></a> +<img src="images/img-378.jpg" +alt="CONSTRUCTIONAL DETAIL OF THE FORTH BRIDGE" + width="600" height="745" /> +<p class="caption"> +CONSTRUCTIONAL DETAIL OF THE FORTH BRIDGE +<br /> +<small><i>Photo: Baker & Hurtzig</i> +</small> +</p> +</div> + +<p> +It is becoming plainer and plainer each year that in many +respects and in an increasing range of affairs, mankind is +becoming one community, and that it is more and more +necessary that in such matters there should be a common +world-wide control. For example, it is steadily truer that +the whole planet is now one economic community, that the +proper exploitation of its natural resources demands one +comprehensive direction, and that the greater power and range +that discovery has given human effort makes the present +fragmentary and contentious administration of such affairs +more and more wasteful and dangerous. Financial and monetary +expedients also become world-wide interests to be dealt with +successfully only on world-wide lines. Infectious diseases +and the increase and migrations of population are also now +plainly seen to be world-wide concerns. The greater power +and range of human activities has also made war +disproportionately destructive and disorganizing, and, even +as a clumsy way of settling issues between government and +government and people and people, ineffective. All these +things clamour for controls and authorities of a greater +range and greater comprehensiveness than any government that +has hitherto existed. +</p> + +<p> +But it does not follow that the solution of these problems +lies in some super-government of all the world arising by +conquest or by the coalescence of existing governments. By +analogy with existing institutions men have thought of the +Parliament of Mankind, of a World Congress, of a President or +Emperor of the Earth. Our first natural reaction is towards +some such conclusion, but the discussion and experiences of +half a century of suggestions and attempts has on the whole +discouraged belief in that first obvious idea. Along that +line to world unity the resistances are too great. The drift +of thought seems now to be in the direction of a number of +special committees or organizations, with world-wide power +delegated to them by existing governments in this group of +matters or that, bodies concerned with the waste or +development of natural wealth, with the equalization of +labour conditions, with world peace, with currency, +population and health, and so forth. +</p> + +<p> +<span class="pagenum"><a name="P380"></a></span>The +world may discover that all its common interests are being +managed as one concern, while it still fails to realize that +a world government exists. But before even so much human +unity is attained, before such international arrangements can +be put above patriotic suspicions and jealousies, it is +necessary that the common mind of the race should be +possessed of that idea of human unity, and that the idea of +mankind as one family should be a matter of universal +instruction and understanding. +</p> + +<p> +For a score of centuries or more the spirit of the great +universal religions has been struggling to maintain and +extend that idea of a universal human brotherhood, but to +this day the spites, angers and distrusts of tribal, national +and racial friction obstruct, and successfully obstruct, the +broader views and more generous impulses which would make +every man the servant of all mankind. The idea of human +brotherhood struggles now to possess the human soul, just as +the idea of Christendom struggled to possess the soul of +Europe in the confusion and disorder of the sixth and seventh +centuries of the Christian era. The dissemination and +triumph of such ideas must be the work of a multitude of +devoted and undistinguished missionaries, and no contemporary +writer can presume to guess how far such work has gone or +what harvest it may be preparing. +</p> + +<p> +Social and economic questions seem to be inseparably mingled +with international ones. The solution in each case lies in +an appeal to that same spirit of service which can enter and +inspire the human heart. The distrust, intractability and +egotism of nations reflects and is reflected by the distrust, +intractability and egotism of the individual owner and worker +in the face of the common good. Exaggerations of +possessiveness in the individual are parallel and of a piece +with the clutching greed of nations and emperors. They are +products of the same instinctive tendencies, and the same +ignorances and traditions. Internationalism is the socialism +of nations. No one who has wrestled with these problems can +feel that there yet exists a sufficient depth and strength of +psychological science and a sufficiently planned-out +educational method and organization for any real and final +solution of these riddles of human intercourse and +cooperation. We are as incapable of planning a really +effective peace organization of the world to-day as were men +in 1820 to plan an <span class="pagenum"><a +name="P381"></a></span>electric railway system, but for +all we know the thing is equally practicable and may be as +nearly at hand. +</p> + +<p> +No man can go beyond his own knowledge, no thought can reach +beyond contemporary thought, and it is impossible for us to +guess or foretell how many generations of humanity may have +to live in war and waste and insecurity and misery before the +dawn of the great peace to which all history seems to be +pointing, peace in the heart and peace in the world, ends our +night of wasteful and aimless living. Our proposed solutions +are still vague and crude. Passion and suspicion surround +them. A great task of intellectual reconstruction is going +on, it is still incomplete, and our conceptions grow clearer +and more exact—slowly, rapidly, it is hard to tell +which. But as they grow clearer they will gather power over +the minds and imaginations of men. Their present lack of +grip is due to their lack of assurance and exact rightness. + They are misunderstood because they are variously and +confusingly presented. But with precision and certainty the +new vision of the world will gain compelling power. It may +presently gain power very rapidly. And a great work of +educational reconstruction will follow logically and +necessarily upon that clearer understanding. +</p> + +</div><!--end chapter--> + +<div class="chapter"> + +<h2><span class="pagenum"><a name="P382"></a></span><a name="chapLX"></a>LX<br /> +THE EXPANSION OF THE UNITED STATES</h2> + +<p> +The region of the world that displayed the most immediate and striking results +from the new inventions in transport was North America. Politically the United +States embodied, and its constitution crystallized, the liberal ideas of the +middle eighteenth century. It dispensed with state-church or crown, it would +have no titles, it protected property very jealously as a method of freedom, +and—the exact practice varied at first in the different states—it +gave nearly every adult male citizen a vote. Its method of voting was +barbarically crude, and as a consequence its political life fell very soon +under the control of highly organized party machines, but that did not prevent +the newly emancipated population developing an energy, enterprise and public +spirit far beyond that of any other contemporary population. +</p> + +<p> +Then came that acceleration of locomotion to which we have +already called attention. It is a curious thing that +America, which owes most to this acceleration in locomotion, +has felt it least. The United States have taken the railway, +the river steamboat, the telegraph and so forth as though +they were a natural part of their growth. They were not. + These things happened to come along just in time to save +American unity. The United States of to-day were made first +by the river steamboat, and then by the railway. Without +these things, the present United States, this vast +continental nation, would have been altogether impossible. + The westward flow of population would have been far more +sluggish. It might never have crossed the great central +plains. It took nearly two hundred years for effective +settlement to reach from the coast to Missouri, much less +than halfway across the continent. The first state +established beyond the river was the steamboat state of +Missouri in 1821. But the rest of the distance to the +Pacific was done in a few decades. +</p> + +<p> +<span class="pagenum"><a name="P383"></a></span>If we +had the resources of the cinema it would be interesting to +show a map of North America year by year from 1600 onward, +with little dots to represent hundreds of people, each dot a +hundred, and stars to represent cities of a hundred thousand +people. +</p> + +<p> +For two hundred years the reader would see that stippling +creeping slowly along the coastal districts and navigable +waters, spreading still more gradually into Indiana, Kentucky +and so forth. Then somewhere about 1810 would come a change. + Things would get more lively along the river courses. The +dots would be multiplying and spreading. That would be the +steamboat. The pioneer dots would be spreading soon over +Kansas and Nebraska from a number of jumping-off places along +the great rivers. +</p> + +<p> +Then from about 1850 onward would come the black lines of the +railways, and after that the little black dots would not +simply creep but run. They would appear now so rapidly, it +would be almost as though they were being put on by some sort +of spraying machine. And suddenly here and then there would +appear the first stars to indicate the first great cities of +a hundred thousand people. First one or two and then a +multitude of cities—each like a knot in the growing net +of the railways. +</p> + +<p> +The growth of the United States is a process that has no +precedent in the world’s history; it is a new kind of +occurrence. Such a community could not have come into +existence before, and if it had, without railways it would +certainly have dropped to pieces long before now. Without +railways or telegraph it would be far easier to administer +California from Pekin than from Washington. But this great +population of the United States of America has not only grown +outrageously; it has kept uniform. Nay, it has become more +uniform. The man of San Francisco is more like the man of +New York to-day than the man of Virginia was like the man of +New England a century ago. And the process of assimilation +goes on unimpeded. The United States is being woven by +railway, by telegraph, more and more into one vast unity, +speaking, thinking and acting harmoniously with itself. Soon +aviation will be helping in the work. +</p> + +<p> +This great community of the United States is an altogether +new thing in history. There have been great empires before +with populations exceeding 100 millions, but these were +associations of divergent <span class="pagenum"><a +name="P384"></a></span>peoples; there has never been one +single people on this scale before. We want a new term for +this new thing. We call the United States a country just as +we call France or Holland a country. But the two things are +as different as an automobile and a one-horse shay. They are +the creations of different periods and different conditions; +they are going to work at a different pace and in an entirely +different way. The United States in scale and possibility is +halfway between a European state and a United States of all +the world. +</p> + +<p> +But on the way to this present greatness and security the +American people passed through one phase of dire conflict. + The river steamboats, the railways, the telegraph, and their +associate facilities, did not come soon enough to avert a +deepening conflict of interests and ideas between the +southern and northern states of the Union. The former were +slave-holding states; the latter, states in which all men +were free. The railways and steamboats at first did but +bring into sharper conflict an already established difference +between the two sections of the United States. The +increasing unification due to the new means of transport made +the question whether the southern spirit or the northern +should prevail an ever more urgent one. There was little +possibility of compromise. The northern spirit was free and +individualistic; the southern made for great estates and a +conscious gentility ruling over a dusky subject multitude. +</p> + +<p> +Every new territory that was organized into a state as the +tide of population swept westward, every new incorporation +into the fast growing American system, became a field of +conflict between the two ideas, whether it should become a +state of free citizens, or whether the estate and slavery +system should prevail. From 1833 an American anti-slavery +society was not merely resisting the extension of the +institution but agitating the whole country for its complete +abolition. The issue flamed up into open conflict over the +admission of Texas to the Union. Texas had originally been a +part of the republic of Mexico, but it was largely colonized +by Americans from the slave-holding states, and it seceded +from Mexico, established its independence in 1835, and was +annexed to the United States in 1844. Under the Mexican law +slavery had been forbidden in Texas, but now the South +claimed Texas for slavery and got it. +</p> + +<p> +<span class="pagenum"><a +name="P385"></a></span>Meanwhile the development of ocean +navigation was bringing a growing swarm of immigrants from +Europe to swell the spreading population of the northern +states, and the raising of Iowa, Wisconsin, Minnesota and +Oregon, all northern farm lands, to state level, gave the +anti-slavery North the possibility of predominance both in +the Senate and the House of Representatives. The cotton- +growing South, irritated by the growing threat of the +Abolitionist movement, and fearing this predominance in +Congress, began to talk of secession from the Union. + Southerners began to dream of annexations to the south of +them in Mexico and the West Indies, and of great slave state, +detached from the North and reaching to Panama. +</p> + +<p> +The return of Abraham Lincoln as an anti-extension President +in 1860 decided the South to split the Union. South Carolina +passed an “ordinance of secession” and prepared +for war. Mississippi, Florida, Alabama, Georgia, Louisiana +and Texas joined her, and a convention met at Montgomery in +Alabama, elected Jefferson Davis president of the +“Confederated States” of America, and adopted a +constitution specifically upholding “the institution of +negro slavery.” +</p> + +<div class="fig" style=""> +<a name="img-385"></a> +<img src="images/img-385.jpg" +alt="ONE OF THE FIRST AMERICAN RIVER STEAMERS" + width="600" height="380" /> +<p class="caption"> +ONE OF THE FIRST AMERICAN RIVER STEAMERS +</p> +</div> + +<p> +<span class="pagenum"><a name="P386"></a></span>Abraham +Lincoln was, it chanced, a man entirely typical of the new +people that had grown up after the War of Independence. His +early years had been spent as a drifting particle in the +general westward flow of the population. He was born in +Kentucky (1809), was taken to Indiana as a boy and later on +to Illinois. Life was rough in the backwoods of Indiana in +those days; the house was a mere log cabin in the wilderness, +and his schooling was poor and casual. But his mother taught +him to read early, and he became a voracious reader. At +seventeen he was a big athletic youth, a great wrestler and +runner. He worked for a time as clerk in a store, went into +business as a storekeeper with a drunken partner, and +contracted debts that he did not fully pay off for fifteen +years. In 1834, when he was still only five and twenty, he +was elected member of the House of Representatives for the +State of Illinois. In Illinois particularly the question of +slavery flamed because the great leader of the party for the +extension of slavery in the national Congress was Senator +Douglas of Illinois. Douglas was a man of great ability and +prestige, and for some years Lincoln fought against him by +speech and pamphlet, rising steadily to the position of his +most formidable and finally victorious antagonist. Their +culminating struggle was the presidential campaign of 1860, +and on the fourth of March, 1861, Lincoln was inaugurated +President, with the southern states already in active +secession from the rule of the federal government at +Washington, and committing acts of war. +</p> + +<p> +This civil war in America was fought by improvised armies +that grew steadily from a few score thousands to hundreds of +thousands—until at last the Federal forces exceeded a +million men; it was fought over a vast area between New +Mexico and the eastern sea, Washington and Richmond were the +chief objectives. It is beyond our scope here to tell of the +mounting energy of that epic struggle that rolled to and fro +across the hills and woods of Tennessee and Virginia and down +the Mississippi. There was a terrible waste and killing of +men. Thrust was followed by counter thrust; hope gave way to +despondency, and returned and was again disappointed. + Sometimes Washington seemed within the Confederate grasp; +again the Federal armies were driving towards Richmond. The +Confederates, outnumbered and far poorer in resources, fought +under <span class="pagenum"><a name="P387"></a></span>a +general of supreme ability, General Lee. The generalship of +the Union was far inferior. Generals were dismissed, new +generals appointed; until at last, under Sherman and Grant, +came victory over the ragged and depleted South. In October, +1864, a Federal army under Sherman broke through the +Confederate left and marched down from Tennessee through +Georgia to the coast, right across the Confederate country, +and then turned up through the <span class="pagenum"><a +name="P388"></a></span>Carolinas, coming in upon the rear +of the Confederate armies. Meanwhile Grant held Lee before +Richmond until Sherman closed on him. On April 9th, 1865, +Lee and his army surrendered at Appomattox Court House, and +within a month all the remaining secessionist armies had laid +down their arms and the Confederacy was at an end. +</p> + +<div class="fig" style=""> +<a name="img-387"></a> +<img src="images/img-387.jpg" +alt="ABRAHAM LINCOLN" + width="500" height="722" /> +<p class="caption"> +ABRAHAM LINCOLN +</p> +</div> + +<p> +This four years’ struggle had meant an enormous +physical and moral strain for the people of the United +States. The principle of state autonomy was very dear to +many minds, and the North seemed in effect to be forcing +abolition upon the South. In the border states brothers and +cousins, even fathers and sons, would take opposite sides and +find themselves in antagonistic armies. The North felt its +cause a righteous one, but for great numbers of people it was +not a full-bodied and unchallenged righteousness. But for +Lincoln there was no doubt. He was a clear-minded man in the +midst of much confusion. He stood for union; he stood for +the wide peace of America. He was opposed to slavery, but +slavery he held to be a secondary issue; his primary purpose +was that the United States should not be torn into two +contrasted and jarring fragments. +</p> + +<p> +When in the opening stages of the war Congress and the +Federal generals embarked upon a precipitate emancipation, +Lincoln opposed and mitigated their enthusiasm. He was for +emancipation by stages and with compensation. It was only in +January, 1865, that the situation had ripened to a point when +Congress could propose to abolish slavery for ever by a +constitutional amendment, and the war was already over before +this amendment was ratified by the states. +</p> + +<p> +As the war dragged on through 1862 and 1863, the first +passions and enthusiasms waned, and America learnt all the +phases of war weariness and war disgust. The President found +himself with defeatists, traitors, dismissed generals, +tortuous party politicians, and a doubting and fatigued +people behind him and uninspired generals and depressed +troops before him; his chief consolation must have been that +Jefferson Davis at Richmond could be in little better case. + The English government misbehaved, and permitted the +Confederate agents in England to launch and man three swift +privateer ships—the <i>Alabama</i> is the best +remembered of them—which <span class="pagenum"><a +name="P389"></a></span>chased United States shipping from +the seas. The French army in Mexico was trampling the Monroe +Doctrine in the dirt. Came subtle proposals from Richmond to +drop the war, leave the issues of the war for subsequent +discussion, and turn, Federal and Confederate in alliance, +upon the French in Mexico. But Lincoln would not listen to +such proposals unless the supremacy of the Union was +maintained. The Americans might do such things as one people +but not as two. +</p> + +<p> +He held the United States together through long weary months +of reverses and ineffective effort, through black phases of +division and failing courage; and there is no record that he +ever faltered from his purpose. There were times when there +was nothing to be done, when he sat in the White House silent +and motionless, a grim monument of resolve; times when he +relaxed his mind by jesting and broad anecdotes. +</p> + +<p> +He saw the Union triumphant. He entered Richmond the day +after its surrender, and heard of Lee’s capitulation. + He returned to Washington, and on April 11th made his last +public address. His theme was reconciliation and the +reconstruction of loyal government in the defeated states. + On the evening of April 14th he went to Ford’s theatre +in Washington, and as he sat looking at the stage, he was +shot in the back of the head and killed by an actor named +Booth who had some sort of grievance against him, and who had +crept into the box unobserved. But Lincoln’s work was +done; the Union was saved. +</p> + +<p> +At the beginning of the war there was no railway to the +Pacific coast; after it the railways spread like a swiftly +growing plant until now they have clutched and held and woven +all the vast territory of the United States into one +indissoluble mental and material unity—the greatest +real community—until the common folk of China have +learnt to read—in the world. +</p> + +</div><!--end chapter--> + +<div class="chapter"> + +<h2><span class="pagenum"><a name="P390"></a></span><a name="chapLXI"></a>LXI<br /> +THE RISE OF GERMANY TO PREDOMINANCE IN EUROPE</h2> + +<p> +WE have told how after the convulsion of the French +Revolution and the Napoleonic adventure, Europe settled down +again for a time to an insecure peace and a sort of +modernized revival of the political conditions of fifty years +before. Until the middle of the century the new facilities +in the handling of steel and the railway and steamship +produced no marked political consequences. But the social +tension due to the development of urban industrialism grew. + France remained a conspicuously uneasy country. The +revolution of 1830 was followed by another in 1848. Then +Napoleon III, a nephew of Napoleon Bonaparte, became first +President, and then (in 1852) Emperor. +</p> + +<p> +He set about rebuilding Paris, and changed it from a +picturesque seventeenth century insanitary city into the +spacious Latinized city of marble it is to-day. He set about +rebuilding France, and made it into a brilliant-looking +modernized imperialism. He displayed a disposition to revive +that competitiveness of the Great Powers which had kept +Europe busy with futile wars during the seventeenth and +eighteenth centuries. The Tsar Nicholas I of Russia (1825- +1856) was also becoming aggressive and pressing southward +upon the Turkish Empire with his eyes on Constantinople. +</p> + +<p> +After the turn of the century Europe broke out into a fresh +cycle of wars. They were chiefly “balance-of- +power” and ascendancy wars. England, France and +Sardinia assailed Russia in the Crimean war in defence of +Turkey; Prussia (with Italy as an ally) and Austria fought +for the leadership of Germany, France liberated North Italy +from Austria at the price of Savoy, and Italy gradually +unified itself into one kingdom. Then Napoleon III was so +ill advised as to attempt adventures in Mexico, during the +American Civil War; he set up an Emperor Maximilian there and +abandoned him hastily to <span class="pagenum"><a +name="P391"></a></span>his fate—he was shot by the +Mexicans—when the victorious Federal Government showed +its teeth. +</p> + +<div class="fig" style=""> +<a name="img-391"></a> +<img src="images/img-391.jpg" +alt="Map of Europe, 1848-1871" + width="600" height="575" /> +</div> + +<p> +In 1870 came a long-pending struggle for predominance in +Europe between France and Prussia. Prussia had long foreseen +and prepared for this struggle, and France was rotten with +financial corruption. Her defeat was swift and dramatic. + The Germans invaded France in August, one great French army +under the Emperor capitulated at Sedan in September, another +surrendered in October at Metz, and in January 1871, Paris, +after a siege and bombardment, fell into German hands. Peace +was signed at Frankfort surrendering the provinces of Alsace +and Lorraine to the Germans. <span class="pagenum"><a +name="P392"></a></span>Germany, excluding Austria, was +unified as an empire, and the King of Prussia was added to +the galaxy of European Cæsars, as the German Emperor. +</p> + +<p> +For the next forty-three years Germany was the leading power +upon the European continent. There was a Russo-Turkish war +in 1877-8, but thereafter, except for certain readjustments +in the Balkans, European frontiers remained uneasily stable +for thirty years. +</p> + +</div><!--end chapter--> + +<div class="chapter"> + +<h2><span class="pagenum"><a name="P393"></a></span><a name="chapLXII"></a>LXII<br /> +THE NEW OVERSEAS EMPIRES OF STEAMSHIP AND RAILWAY</h2> + +<p> +The end of the eighteenth century was a period of disrupting empires and +disillusioned expansionists. The long and tedious journey between Britain and +Spain and their colonies in America prevented any really free coming and going +between the home land and the daughter lands, and so the colonies separated +into new and distinct communities, with distinctive ideas and interests and +even modes of speech. As they grew they strained more and more at the feeble +and uncertain link of shipping that had joined them. Weak trading-posts in the +wilderness, like those of France in Canada, or trading establishments in great +alien communities, like those of Britain in India, might well cling for bare +existence to the nation which gave them support and a reason for their +existence. That much and no more seemed to many thinkers in the early part of +the nineteenth century to be the limit set to overseas rule. In 1820 the +sketchy great European “empires” outside of Europe that had figured +so bravely in the maps of the middle eighteenth century, had shrunken to very +small dimensions. Only the Russian sprawled as large as ever across Asia. +</p> + +<p> +The British Empire in 1815 consisted of the thinly populated +coastal river and lake regions of Canada, and a great +hinterland of wilderness in which the only settlements as yet +were the fur-trading stations of the Hudson Bay Company, +about a third of the Indian peninsula, under the rule of the +East India Company, the coast districts of the Cape of Good +Hope inhabited by blacks and rebellious-spirited Dutch +settlers; a few trading stations on the coast of West Africa, +the rock of Gibraltar, the island of Malta, Jamaica, a few +minor slave-labour possessions in the West Indies, British +Guiana in South America, and, on the other side of the world, +two dumps for convicts at Botany Bay in Australia and in +Tasmania. Spain retained Cuba and a few settlements in the +Philippine Islands. <span class="pagenum"><a +name="P394"></a></span>Portugal had in Africa some +vestiges of her ancient claims. Holland had various islands +and possessions in the East Indies and Dutch Guiana, and +Denmark an island or so in the West Indies. France had one +or two West Indian islands and French Guiana. This seemed to +be as much as the European powers needed, or were likely to +acquire of the rest of the world. Only the East India +Company showed any spirit of expansion. +</p> + +<p> +While Europe was busy with the Napoleonic wars the East India +Company, under a succession of Governors-General, was playing +much the same role in India that had been played before by +Turkoman and such-like invaders from the north. And after +the peace of Vienna it went on, levying its revenues, making +wars, sending ambassadors to Asiatic powers, a quasi- +independent state, however, with a marked disposition to send +wealth westward. +</p> + +<p> +We cannot tell here in any detail how the British Company +made its way to supremacy sometimes as the ally of this +power, sometimes as that, and finally as the conqueror of +all. Its power spread to Assam, Sind, Oudh. The map of +India began to take on the outlines familiar to the English +schoolboy of to-day, a patchwork of native states embraced +and held together by the great provinces under direct British +rule. . . . +</p> + +<p> +In 1859, following upon a serious mutiny of the native troops +in India, this empire of the East India Company was annexed +to the British Crown. By an Act entitled <i>An Act for the +Better Government of India</i>, the Governor-General became a +Viceroy representing the Sovereign, and the place of the +Company was taken by a Secretary of State for India +responsible to the British Parliament. In 1877, Lord +Beaconsfield, to complete the work, caused Queen Victoria to +be proclaimed Empress of India. +</p> + +<p> +Upon these extraordinary lines India and Britain are linked +at the present time. India is still the empire of the Great +Mogul, but the Great Mogul has been replaced by the +“crowned republic” of Great Britain. India is an +autocracy without an autocrat. Its rule combines the +disadvantage of absolute monarchy with the impersonality and +irresponsibility of democratic officialdom. The Indian with +a complaint to make has no visible monarch to go to; his +Emperor is a golden symbol; he must circulate pamphlets in +England <span class="pagenum"><a +name="P395"></a></span>or inspire a question in the +British House of Commons. The more occupied Parliament is +with British affairs, the less attention India will receive, +and the more she will be at the mercy of her small group of +higher officials. +</p> + +<div class="fig" style=""> +<a name="img-395"></a> +<img src="images/img-395.jpg" +alt="RAILWAY BRIDGE OVER THE GORGE, VICTORIA FALLS, OF THE ZAMBESI, + SOUTHERN RHODESIA" + width="320" height="717" /> +<p class="caption"> +RAILWAY BRIDGE OVER THE GORGE, VICTORIA FALLS, OF THE ZAMBESI, + SOUTHERN RHODESIA +<br /> +<small><i>Photo: British South African Co.</i> +</small> +</p> +</div> + +<p> +Apart from India, there was no great expansion of any +European Empire until the railways and the steamships were in +effective action. A considerable school of political +thinkers in Britain was disposed to regard overseas +possessions as a source of weakness to the kingdom. The +Australian settlements developed slowly until in 1842 the +discovery of valuable copper mines, and in 1851 of gold, gave +them a new importance. Improvements in transport were also +making Australian wool an increasingly marketable commodity +in Europe. <span class="pagenum"><a +name="P396"></a></span>Canada, too, was not remarkably +progressive until 1849; it was troubled by dissensions +between its French and British inhabitants, there were +several serious revolts, and it was only in 1867 that a new +constitution creating a Federal Dominion of Canada relieved +its internal strains. It was the railway that altered the +Canadian outlook. It enabled Canada, just as it enabled the +United States, to expand westward, to market its corn and +other produce in Europe, and in spite of its swift and +extensive growth, to remain in language and sympathy and +interests one community. The railway, the steamship and the +telegraph cable were indeed changing all the conditions of +colonial development. +</p> + +<p> +Before 1840, English settlements had already begun in New +Zealand, and a New Zealand Land Company had been formed to +exploit the possibilities of the island. In 1840 New Zealand +also was added to the colonial possessions of the British +Crown. +</p> + +<p> +Canada, as we have noted, was the first of the British +possessions to respond richly to the new economic +possibilities that the new methods of transport were opening. + Presently the republics of South America, and particularly +the Argentine Republic, began to feel in their cattle trade +and coffee growing the increased nearness of the European +market. Hitherto the chief commodities that had attracted +the European powers into unsettled and barbaric regions had +been gold or other metals, spices, ivory, or slaves. But in +the latter quarter of the nineteenth century the increase of +the European populations was obliging their governments to +look abroad for staple foods; and the growth of scientific +industrialism was creating a demand for new raw materials, +fats and greases of every kind, rubber, and other hitherto +disregarded substances. It was plain that Great Britain and +Holland and Portugal were reaping a great and growing +commercial advantage from their very considerable control of +tropical and sub-tropical products. After 1871 Germany, and +presently France and later Italy, began to look for unannexed +raw-material areas, or for Oriental countries capable of +profitable modernization. +</p> + +<p> +So began a fresh scramble all over the world, except in the +American region where the Monroe Doctrine now barred such +adventures, for politically unprotected lands. +</p> + +<p> +<span class="pagenum"><a name="P397"></a></span>Close to +Europe was the continent of Africa, full of vaguely known +possibilities. In 1850 it was a continent of black mystery; +only Egypt and the coast were known. Here we have no space +to tell the amazing story of the explorers and adventurers +who first pierced the African darkness, and of the political +agents, administrators, traders, settlers and scientific men +who followed in their track. Wonderful races of men like the +pygmies, strange beasts like the okapi, marvellous fruits and +flowers and insects, terrible diseases, astounding scenery of +forest and mountain, enormous inland seas and gigantic rivers +and cascades were revealed; a whole new world. Even remains +(at Zimbabwe) of some unrecorded and vanished civilization, +the southward enterprise of an early people, were discovered. + Into this new world came the Europeans, and found the rifle +already there in the hands of the Arab slave-traders, and +negro life in disorder. +</p> + +<div class="fig" style=""> +<a name="img-397"></a> +<img src="images/img-397.jpg" +alt="Map: The British Empire in 1815" + width="600" height="328" /> +</div> + +<p> +By 1900, in half a century, all Africa was mapped, explored, +estimated and divided between the European powers. Little +heed was given to the welfare of the natives in this +scramble. The Arab slaver was indeed curbed rather than +expelled, but the greed for rubber, which was a wild product +collected under compulsion by the natives in the Belgian +Congo, a greed exacerbated by the clash of inexperienced +European administrators with the native <span +class="pagenum"><a name="P398"></a></span>population, +led to horrible atrocities. No European power has perfectly +clean hands in this matter. +</p> + +<p> +We cannot tell here in any detail how Great Britain got +possession of Egypt in 1883 and remained there in spite of +the fact that Egypt was technically a part of the Turkish +Empire, nor how nearly this scramble led to war between +France and Great Britain in 1898, when a certain Colonel +Marchand, crossing Central Africa from the west coast, tried +at Fashoda to seize the Upper Nile. +</p> + +<p> +Nor can we tell how the British Government first let the +Boers, or Dutch settlers, of the Orange River district and +the Transvaal set up independent republics in the inland +parts of South Africa, and then repented and annexed the +Transvaal Republic in 1877; nor how the Transvaal Boers +fought for freedom and won it after the battle of Majuba Hill +(1881). Majuba Hill was made to rankle in the memory of the +English people by a persistent press campaign. A war with +both republics broke out in 1899, a three years’ war +enormously costly to the British people, which ended at last +in the surrender of the two republics. +</p> + +<p> +Their period of subjugation was a brief one. In 1907, after +the downfall of the imperialist government which had +conquered them, the Liberals took the South African problem +in hand, and these former republics became free and fairly +willing associates with Cape Colony and Natal in a +Confederation of all the states of South Africa as one self- +governing republic under the British Crown. +</p> + +<p> +In a quarter of a century the partition of Africa was +completed. There remained unannexed three comparatively +small countries: Liberia, a settlement of liberated negro +slaves on the west coast; Morocco, under a Moslem Sultan; and +Abyssinia, a barbaric country, with an ancient and peculiar +form of Christianity, which had successfully maintained its +independence against Italy at the battle of Adowa in 1896. +</p> + +</div><!--end chapter--> + +<div class="chapter"> + +<h2><span class="pagenum"><a name="P399"></a></span><a name="chapLXIII"></a>LXIII<br /> +EUROPEAN AGGRESSION IN ASIA AND THE RISE OF JAPAN</h2> + +<p> +It is difficult to believe that any large number of people really accepted this +headlong painting of the map of Africa in European colours as a permanent new +settlement of the worlds affairs, but it is the duty of the historian to record +that it was so accepted. There was but a shallow historical background to the +European mind in the nineteenth century, and no habit of penetrating criticism. +The quite temporary advantages that the mechanical revolution in the west had +given the Europeans over the rest of the old world were regarded by people, +blankly ignorant of such events as the great Mongol conquests, as evidences of +a permanent and assured European leadership of mankind. They had no sense of +the transferability of science and its fruits. They did not realize that +Chinamen and Indians could carry on the work of research as ably as Frenchmen +or Englishmen. They believed that there was some innate intellectual drive in +the west, and some innate indolence and conservatism in the east, that assured +the Europeans a world predominance for ever. +</p> + +<p> +The consequence of this infatuation was that the various +European foreign offices set themselves not merely to +scramble with the British for the savage and undeveloped +regions of the world’s surface, but also to carve up +the populous and civilized countries of Asia as though these +people also were no more than raw material for exploitation. + The inwardly precarious but outwardly splendid imperialism of +the British ruling class in India, and the extensive and +profitable possessions of the Dutch in the East Indies, +filled the rival Great Powers with dreams of similar glories +in Persia, in the disintegrating Ottoman Empire, and in +Further India, China and Japan. +</p> + +<p> +<span class="pagenum"><a name="P400"></a></span>In 1898 +Germany seized Kiau Chau in China. Britain responded by +seizing Wei-hai-wei, and the next year the Russians took +possession of Port Arthur. A flame of hatred for the +Europeans swept through China. There were massacres of +Europeans and Christian converts, and in 1900 an attack upon +and siege of the European legations in Pekin. A combined +force of Europeans made a punitive expedition to Pekin, +rescued the legations, and stole an enormous amount of +valuable property. The Russians then seized Manchuria, and +in 1904, the British invaded Tibet.... +</p> + +<p> +But now a new Power appeared in the struggle of the Great +Powers, Japan. Hitherto Japan has played but a small part in +this history; her secluded civilization has not contributed +very largely to the general shaping of human destinies; she +has received much, but she has given little. The Japanese +proper are of the Mongolian race. Their civilization, their +writing and their literary and artistic traditions are +derived from the Chinese. Their history is an interesting +and romantic one; they developed a feudal system and a system +of chivalry in the earlier centuries of the Christian era; +their attacks upon Korea and China are an Eastern equivalent +of the English wars in France. Japan was first brought into +contact with Europe in the sixteenth century; in 1542 some +Portuguese reached it in a Chinese junk, and in 1549 a Jesuit +missionary, Francis Xavier, began his teaching there. For a +time Japan welcomed European intercourse, and the Christian +missionaries made a great number of converts. A certain +William Adams became the most trusted European adviser of the +Japanese, and showed them how to build big ships. There were +voyages in Japanese-built ships to India and Peru. Then +arose complicated quarrels between the Spanish Dominicans, +the Portuguese Jesuits, and the English and Dutch +Protestants, each warning the Japanese against the political +designs of the others. The Jesuits, in a phase of +ascendancy, persecuted and insulted the Buddhists with great +acrimony. In the end the Japanese came to the conclusion +that the Europeans were an intolerable nuisance, and that +Catholic Christianity in particular was a mere cloak for the +political dreams of the Pope and the Spanish +monarchy—already in possession of the Philippine +Islands; there was a great persecution of the Christians, and +in 1638 Japan was absolutely <span class="pagenum"><a +name="P401"></a></span>closed to Europeans, and remained +closed for over 200 years. During those two centuries the +Japanese were as completely cut off from the rest of the +world as though they lived upon another planet. It was +forbidden to build any ship larger than a mere coasting boat. + No Japanese could go abroad, and no European enter the +country. +</p> + +<div class="fig" style=""> +<a name="img-401"></a> +<img src="images/img-401.jpg" +alt="JAPANESE SOLDIER ON THE EIGHTEENTH CENTURY" + width="250" height="708" /> +<p class="caption"> +JAPANESE SOLDIER ON THE EIGHTEENTH CENTURY +<br /> +<small><i>(In the Victoria and Albert Museum)</i> +</small> +</p> +</div> + +<p> +For two centuries Japan remained outside the main current of +history. She lived on in a state of picturesque feudalism in +which about five per cent of the population, the +<i>samurai</i>, or fighting men, and the nobles and their +families, tyrannized without restraint over the rest of the +population. Meanwhile the great world outside went on to +wider visions and new powers. Strange shipping became more +frequent, passing the Japanese headlands; sometimes ships +were wrecked and sailors brought ashore. Through the Dutch +settlement in the island of Deshima, their one link with the +outer universe, came warnings that Japan was not keeping pace +with the power of the Western world. In 1837 a ship sailed +into Yedo Bay flying a strange flag of stripes and stars, and +carrying some Japanese sailors she had picked up far adrift +in the Pacific. She was driven off by cannon shot. This +flag presently reappeared on other ships. One in 1849 came +to demand the liberation <span class="pagenum"><a +name="P402"></a></span>of eighteen shipwrecked American +sailors. Then in 1853 came four American warships under +Commodore Perry, and refused to be driven away. He lay at +anchor in forbidden waters, and sent messages to the two +rulers who at that time shared the control of Japan. In 1854 +he returned with ten ships, amazing ships propelled by steam, +and equipped with big guns, and he made proposals for trade +and intercourse that the Japanese had no power to resist. He +landed with a guard of 500 men to sign the treaty. + Incredulous crowds watched this visitation from the outer +world, marching through the streets. +</p> + +<p> +Russia, Holland and Britain followed in the wake of America. + A great nobleman whose estates commanded the Straits of +Shimonoseki saw fit to fire on foreign vessels, and a +bombardment by a fleet of British, French, Dutch and American +warships destroyed his batteries and scattered his swordsmen. + Finally an allied squadron (1865), at anchor off Kioto, +imposed a ratification of the treaties which opened Japan to +the world. +</p> + +<p> +The humiliation of the Japanese by these events was intense. + With astonishing energy and intelligence they set themselves +to bring their culture and organization to the level of the +European Powers. Never in all the history of mankind did a +nation make such a stride as Japan then did. In 1866 she was +a medieval people, a fantastic caricature of the extremest +romantic feudalism; in 1899 hers was a completely Westernized +people, on a level with the most advanced European Powers. + She completely dispelled the persuasion that Asia was in some +irrevocable way hopelessly behind Europe. She made all +European progress seem sluggish by comparison. +</p> + +<p> +We cannot tell here in any detail of Japan’s war with +China in 1894-95. It demonstrated the extent of her +Westernization. She had an efficient Westernized army and a +small but sound fleet. But the significance of her +renascence, though it was appreciated by Britain and the +United States, who were already treating her as if she were a +European state, was not understood by the other Great Powers +engaged in the pursuit of new Indias in Asia. Russia was +pushing down through Manchuria to Korea. France was already +established far to the south in Tonkin and Annam, Germany was +<span class="pagenum"><a name="P403"></a></span>prowling +hungrily on the look-out for some settlement. The three +Powers combined to prevent Japan reaping any fruits from the +Chinese war. She was exhausted by the struggle, and they +threatened her with war. +</p> + +<div class="fig" style=""> +<a name="img-403"></a> +<img src="images/img-403.jpg" +alt="A STREET IN TOKIO" + width="550" height="429" /> +<p class="caption"> +A STREET IN TOKIO +</p> +</div> + +<p> +Japan submitted for a time and gathered her forces. Within +ten years she was ready for a struggle with Russia, which +marks an epoch in the history of Asia, the close of the +period of European arrogance. The Russian people were, of +course, innocent and ignorant of this trouble that was being +made for them halfway round the world, and the wiser Russian +statesmen were against these foolish thrusts; but a gang of +financial adventurers, including the Grand Dukes, his +cousins, surrounded the Tsar. They had gambled deeply in the +prospective looting of Manchuria and China, and they would +suffer no withdrawal. So there began a transportation of +great armies of Japanese soldiers across the sea to Port +Arthur and Korea, and the sending of endless trainloads of +Russian peasants along the Siberian railway to die in those +distant battlefields. +</p> + +<p> +<span class="pagenum"><a name="P404"></a></span>The +Russians, badly led and dishonestly provided, were beaten on +sea and land alike. The Russian Baltic Fleet sailed round +Africa to be utterly destroyed in the Straits of Tshushima. + A revolutionary movement among the common people of Russia, +infuriated by this remote and reasonless slaughter, obliged +the Tsar to end the war (1905); he returned the southern half +of Saghalien, which had been seized by Russia in 1875, +evacuated Manchuria, resigned Korea to Japan. The European +invasion of Asia was coming to an end and the retraction of +Europe’s tentacles was beginning. +</p> + +</div><!--end chapter--> + +<div class="chapter"> + +<h2><span class="pagenum"><a name="P405"></a></span><a name="chapLXIV"></a>LXIV<br /> +THE BRITISH EMPIRE IN 1914</h2> + +<p> +We may note here briefly the varied nature of the constituents of the British +Empire in 1914 which the steamship and railway had brought together. It was and +is a quite unique political combination; nothing of the sort has ever existed +before. +</p> + +<p> +First and central to the whole system was the “crowned +republic” of the United British Kingdom, including +(against the will of a considerable part of the Irish people) +Ireland. The majority of the British Parliament, made up of +the three united parliaments of England and Wales, Scotland +and Ireland, determines the headship, the quality and policy +of the ministry, and determines it largely on considerations +arising out of British domestic politics. It is this +ministry which is the effective supreme government, with +powers of peace and war, over all the rest of the empire. +</p> + +<p> +Next in order of political importance to the British States +were the “crowned republics” of Australia, +Canada, Newfoundland (the oldest British possession, 1583), +New Zealand and South Africa, all practically independent and +self-governing states in alliance with Great Britain, but +each with a representative of the Crown appointed by the +Government in office; +</p> + +<p> +Next the Indian Empire, an extension of the Empire of the +Great Mogul with its dependent and “protected” +states reaching now from Beluchistan to Burma, and including +Aden, in all of which empire the British Crown and the India +Office (under Parliamentary control) played the role of the +original Turkoman dynasty; +</p> + +<p> +Then the ambiguous possession of Egypt, still nominally a +part of the Turkish Empire and still retaining its own +monarch, the Khedive, but under almost despotic British +official rule; +<span class="pagenum"><a name="P406"></a></span> +</p> + +<div class="fig" style=""> +<a name="img-406"></a> +<img src="images/img-406.jpg" +alt="Map: OVERSEAS EMPIRES of EUROPEAN POWERS, January 1914" + width="800" height="497" /> +</div> + +<p> +Then the still more ambiguous “Anglo-Egyptian” +Sudan <span class="pagenum"><a +name="P407"></a></span>province, occupied and +administered jointly by the British and by the (British +controlled) Egyptian Government; +</p> + +<p> +Then a number of partially self-governing communities, some +British in origin and some not, with elected legislatures and +an appointed executive, such as Malta, Jamaica, the Bahamas +and Bermuda; +</p> + +<p> +Then the Crown colonies, in which the rule of the British +Home Government (through the Colonial Office) verged on +autocracy, as in Ceylon, Trinidad and Fiji (where there was +an appointed council), and Gibraltar and St. Helena (where +there was a governor); +</p> + +<div class="fig" style=""> +<a name="img-407"></a> +<img src="images/img-407.jpg" +alt="GIBRALTAR" + width="600" height="208" /> +<p class="caption"> +GIBRALTAR +<br /> +<small><i>Photo: C. Sinclair</i> +</small> +</p> +</div> + +<p> +Then great areas of (chiefly) tropical lands, raw-product +areas, with politically weak and under-civilized native +communities which were nominally protectorates, and +administered either by a High Commissioner set over native +chiefs (as in Basutoland) or over a chartered company (as in +Rhodesia). In some cases the Foreign Office, in some cases +the Colonial Office, and in some cases the India Office, has +been concerned in acquiring the possessions that fell into +this last and least definite class of all, but for the most +part the Colonial Office was now responsible for them. +</p> + +<p> +It will be manifest, therefore, that no single office and no +single brain had ever comprehended the British Empire as a +whole. It was a mixture of growths and accumulations +entirely different from anything that has ever been called an +empire before. It guaranteed a wide peace and security; that +is why it was endured and sustained by many men of the +“subject” races—in spite of official +tyrannies <span class="pagenum"><a +name="P408"></a></span>and insufficiencies, and of much +negligence on the part of the “home” public. + Like the Athenian Empire, it was an overseas empire; its ways +were sea ways, and its common link was the British Navy. + Like all empires, its cohesion was dependent physically upon +a method of communication; the development of seamanship, +ship-building and steamships between the sixteenth and +nineteenth centuries had made it a possible and convenient +Pax—the “Pax Britannica,” and fresh +developments of air or swift land transport might at any time +make it inconvenient. +</p> + +<div class="fig" style=""> +<a name="img-408"></a> +<img src="images/img-408.jpg" +alt="STREET IN HONG KONG" + width="550" height="611" /> +<p class="caption"> +STREET IN HONG KONG +<small><br /> +<i>Photo: Underwood & Underwood</i></small> +</p> +</div> + +</div><!--end chapter--> + +<div class="chapter"> + +<h2><span class="pagenum"><a name="P409"></a></span><a name="chapLXV"></a>LXV<br /> +THE AGE OF ARMAMENT IN EUROPE, AND THE GREAT WAR OF 1914-18</h2> + +<p> +The progress in material science that created this vast steamboat-and-railway +republic of America and spread this precarious British steamship empire over +the world, produced quite other effects upon the congested nations upon the +continent of Europe. They found themselves confined within boundaries fixed +during the horse-and-high-road period of human life, and their expansion +overseas had been very largely anticipated by Great Britain. Only Russia had +any freedom to expand eastward; and she drove a great railway across Siberia +until she entangled herself in a conflict with Japan, and pushed +south-eastwardly towards the borders of Persia and India to the annoyance of +Britain. The rest of the European Powers were in a state of intensifying +congestion. In order to realize the full possibilities of the new apparatus of +human life they had to rearrange their affairs upon a broader basis, either by +some sort of voluntary union or by a union imposed upon them by some +predominant power. The tendency of modern thought was in the direction of the +former alternative, but all the force of political tradition drove Europe +towards the latter. +</p> + +<p> +The downfall of the “empire” of Napoleon III, the +establishment of the new German Empire, pointed men’s +hopes and fears towards the idea of a Europe consolidated +under German auspices. For thirty-six years of uneasy peace +the polities of Europe centred upon that possibility. + France, the steadfast rival of Germany for European +ascendancy since the division of the empire of Charlemagne, +sought to correct her own weakness by a close alliance with +Russia, and Germany linked herself closely with the Austrian +Empire (it had ceased to be the Holy Roman Empire in the days +of Napoleon I) and less successfully with the new kingdom of +Italy. <span class="pagenum"><a +name="P410"></a></span>At first Great Britain stood as +usual half in and half out of continental affairs. But she +was gradually forced into a close association with the +Franco-Russian group by the aggressive development of a great +German navy. The grandiose imagination of the Emperor +William II (1888-1918) thrust Germany into premature overseas +enterprise that ultimately brought not only Great Britain but +Japan and the United States into the circle of her enemies. +</p> + +<div class="fig" style=""> +<a name="img-410"></a> +<img src="images/img-410.jpg" +alt="BRITISH TANK IN THE BATTLE OF THE MENIN ROAD" + width="600" height="581" /> +<p class="caption"> +BRITISH TANK IN THE BATTLE OF THE MENIN ROAD +<small><br />The crew came out for a breath of fresh air during a lull +<br /> +<i>Photo: British Official</i></small> +</p> +</div> + +<p> +All these nations armed. Year after year the proportion of +national production devoted to the making of guns, equipment, +battleships and the like, increased. Year after year the +balance <span class="pagenum"><a +name="P411"></a></span>of things seemed trembling towards +war, and then war would be averted. At last it came. + Germany and Austria struck at France and Russia and Serbia; +the German armies marching through Belgium, Britain +immediately came into the war on the side of Belgium, +bringing in Japan as her ally, and very soon Turkey followed +on the German side. Italy entered the war against Austria in +1915, and Bulgaria joined the Central Powers in the October +of that year. In 1916 Rumania, and in 1917 the United States +and China were forced into war against Germany. It is not +within the scope of this history to define the exact share of +blame for this vast catastrophe. The more interesting +question is not why the Great War was begun but why the Great +War was not anticipated and prevented. It is a far graver +thing for mankind that scores of millions of people were too +“patriotic,” stupid, or apathetic to prevent this +disaster by a movement towards European unity upon frank and +generous lines, than that a small number of people may have +been active in bringing it about. +</p> + +<div class="fig" style=""> +<a name="img-411"></a> +<img src="images/img-411.jpg" +alt="THE RUINS OF YPRES (ONCE A DELIGHTFUL OLD FLEMISH TOWN)" + width="600" height="329" /> +<p class="caption"> +THE RUINS OF YPRES (ONCE A DELIGHTFUL OLD FLEMISH TOWN) +<small><br />To show the complete destructiveness of modern war +<br /> +<i>Photo: Topical</i></small> +</p> +</div> + +<div class="fig" style=""> +<a name="img-412"></a> +<img src="images/img-412.jpg" +alt="THE DEVASTATION OF MODERN WAR" + width="600" height="327" /> +<p class="caption"> +THE DEVASTATION OF MODERN WAR +<small><br />Wire entanglements in the foreground +<br /> +<i>Photo: Photopress</i></small> +</p> +</div> + +<p> +It is impossible within the space at our command here to +trace the intricate details of the war. Within a few months +it became apparent that the progress of modern technical +science had changed <span class="pagenum"><a +name="P412"></a></span>the nature of warfare very +profoundly. Physical science gives power, power over steel, +over distance, over disease; whether that power is used well +or ill depends upon the moral and political intelligence of +the world. The governments of Europe, inspired by antiquated +policies of hate and suspicion, found themselves with +unexampled powers both of destruction and resistance in their +hands. The war became a consuming fire round and about the +world, causing losses both to victors and vanquished out of +all proportion to the issues involved. The first phase of +the war was a tremendous rush of the Germans upon Paris and +an invasion of East Prussia by the Russians. Both attacks +were held and turned. Then the power of the defensive +developed; there was a rapid elaboration of trench warfare +until for a time the opposing armies lay entrenched in long +lines right across Europe, unable to make any advance without +enormous losses. The armies were millions strong, and behind +them entire populations were organized for the supply of food +and munitions to the front. Then was a cessation of nearly +every sort of productive activity except such as contributed +to military operations. All the able-bodied manhood of +Europe was drawn into the armies or navies or into the +improvised <span class="pagenum"><a +name="P413"></a></span>factories that served them. There +was an enormous replacement of men by women in industry. + Probably more than half the people in the belligerent +countries of Europe changed their employment altogether +during this stupendous struggle. They were socially uprooted +and transplanted. Education and normal scientific work were +restricted or diverted to immediate military ends, and the +distribution of news was crippled and corrupted by military +control and “propaganda” activities. +</p> + +<p> +The phase of military deadlock passed slowly into one of +aggression upon the combatant populations behind the fronts +by the destruction of food supplies and by attacks through +the air. And also there was a steady improvement in the size +and range of the guns employed and of such ingenious devices +as poison-gas shells and the small mobile forts known as +tanks, to break down the resistance of troops in the +trenches. The air offensive was the most revolutionary of +all the new methods. It carried warfare from two dimensions +into three. Hitherto in the history of mankind war had gone +on only where the armies marched and met. Now it went on +everywhere. First the Zeppelin and then the bombing +aeroplane carried war over and past the front to an ever- +increasing area of civilian activities beyond. The old +distinction maintained in civilized warfare between the +civilian and combatant population disappeared. Everyone who +grew food, or who sewed a garment, everyone who felled a tree +or repaired a house, every railway station and every +warehouse was held to be fair game for destruction. The air +offensive increased in range and terror with every month in +the war. At last great areas of Europe were in a state of +siege and subject to nightly raids. Such exposed cities as +London and Paris passed sleepless night after sleepless night +while the bombs burst, the anti-aircraft guns maintained an +intolerable racket, and the fire engines and ambulances +rattled headlong through the darkened and deserted streets. + The effects upon the minds and health of old people and of +young children were particularly distressing and destructive. +</p> + +<p> +Pestilence, that old follower of warfare, did not arrive +until the very end of the fighting in 1918. For four years +medical science staved off any general epidemic; then came a +great outbreak of <span class="pagenum"><a +name="P414"></a></span>influenza about the world which +destroyed many millions of people. Famine also was staved +off for some time. By the beginning of 1918 however most of +Europe was in a state of mitigated and regulated famine. The +production of food throughout the world had fallen very +greatly through the calling off of peasant mankind to the +fronts, and the distribution of such food as was produced was +impeded by the havoc wrought by the submarine, by the rupture +of customary routes through the closing of frontiers, and by +the disorganization of the transport system of the world. + The various governments took possession of the dwindling food +supplies, and, with more or less success, rationed their +populations. By the fourth year the whole world was +suffering from shortages of clothing and housing and of most +of the normal gear of life as well as of food. Business and +economic life were profoundly disorganized. Every-one was +worried, and most people were leading lives of unwonted +discomfort. +</p> + +<p> +The actual warfare ceased in November, 1918. After a supreme +effort in the spring of 1918 that almost carried the Germans +to Paris, the Central Powers collapsed. They had come to an +end of their spirit and resources. +</p> + +</div><!--end chapter--> + +<div class="chapter"> + +<h2><span class="pagenum"><a name="P415"></a></span><a name="chapLXVI"></a>LXVI<br /> +THE REVOLUTION AND FAMINE IN RUSSIA</h2> + +<p> +But a good year and more before the collapse of the Central Powers the half +oriental monarchy of Russia, which had professed to be the continuation of the +Byzantine Empire, had collapsed. The Tsardom had been showing signs of profound +rottenness for some years before the war; the court was under the sway of a +fantastic religious impostor, Rasputin, and the public administration, civil +and military, was in a state of extreme inefficiency and corruption. At the +outset of the war there was a great flare of patriotic enthusiasm in Russia. A +vast conscript army was called up, for which there was neither adequate +military equipment nor a proper supply of competent officers, and this great +host, ill supplied and badly handled, was hurled against the German and +Austrian frontiers. +</p> + +<p> +There can be no doubt that the early appearance of Russian armies in + East Prussia in September, 1914, diverted the energies and + attention of the Germans from their first victorious drive upon + Paris. The sufferings and deaths of scores of thousands of + ill-led Russian peasants saved France from complete overthrow in + that momentous opening campaign, and made all western Europe the + debtors of that great and tragic people. But the strain of the war + upon this sprawling, ill-organized empire was too heavy for its + strength. The Russian common soldiers were sent into battle + without guns to support them, without even rifle ammunition; they + were wasted by their officers and generals in a delirium of + militarist enthusiasm. For a time they seemed to be suffering + mutely as the beasts suffer; but there is a limit to the endurance + even of the most ignorant. A profound disgust for Tsardom was + creeping through these armies of betrayed and wasted men. From the + close of 1915 onward Russia was a source of deepening anxiety to + her Western Allies. Throughout 1916 she remained largely on <span + class="pagenum"><a name="P416"></a></span>the defensive, and + there were rumours of a separate peace with Germany. +</p> + +<p> +On December 29th, 1916, the monk Rasputin was murdered at a dinner + party in Petrograd, and a belated attempt was made to put the + Tsardom in order. By March things were moving rapidly; food riots + in Petrograd developed into a revolutionary insurrection; there was + an attempted suppression of the Duma, the representative body, + there were attempted arrests of liberal leaders, the formation of a + provisional government under Prince Lvoff, and an abdication (March + 15th) by the Tsar. For a time it seemed that a moderate and + controlled revolution might be possible—perhaps under a new + Tsar. Then it became evident that the destruction of popular + confidence in Russia had gone too far for any such adjustments. + The Russian people were sick to death of the old order of things + in Europe, of Tsars and wars and of Great Powers; it wanted relief, + and that speedily, from unendurable miseries. The Allies had no + understanding of Russian realities; their diplomatists were + ignorant of Russian, genteel persons with their attention directed + to the Russian Court rather than to Russia, they blundered steadily + with the new situation. There was little goodwill among these + diplomatists for republicanism, and a manifest disposition to + embarrass the new government as much as possible. At the head of + the Russian republican government was an eloquent and picturesque + leader, Kerensky, who found himself assailed by the forces of a + profounder revolutionary movement, the “social + revolution,” at home and cold-shouldered by the Allied + governments abroad. His Allies would neither let him give the + Russian peasants the land for which they craved nor peace beyond + their frontiers. The French and the British press pestered their + exhausted ally for a fresh offensive, but when presently the + Germans made a strong attack by sea and land upon Riga, the + British Admiralty quailed before the prospect of a Baltic + expedition in relief. The new Russian Republic had to fight + unsupported. In spite of their naval predominance and the bitter + protests of the great English admiral, Lord Fisher (1841-1920), it + is to be noted that the British and their Allies, except for some + submarine attacks, left the Germans the complete mastery of the + Baltic throughout the war. +</p> + +<p> +<span class="pagenum"><a name="P417"></a></span>The Russian + masses, however, were resolute to end the war. At any cost. There + had come into existence in Petrograd a body representing the + workers and common soldiers, the Soviet, and this body clamoured + for an international conference of socialists at Stockholm. Food + riots were occurring in Berlin at this time, war weariness in + Austria and Germany was profound, and there can be little doubt, in + the light of subsequent events, that such a conference would have + precipitated a reasonable peace on democratic lines in 1917 and a + German revolution. Kerensky implored his Western allies to allow + this conference to take place, but, fearful of a worldwide outbreak + of socialism and republicanism, they refused, in spite of the + favourable response of a small majority of the British Labour + Party. Without either moral or physical help from the Allies, the + unhappy “moderate” Russian Republic still fought on and + made a last desperate offensive effort in July. It failed after + some preliminary successes, and there came another great + slaughtering of Russians. +</p> + +<p> +The limit of Russian endurance was reached. Mutinies broke out in + the Russian armies, and particularly upon the northern front, and + on November 7th, 1917, Kerensky’s government was overthrown + and power was seized by the Soviets, dominated by the Bolshevik + socialists under Lenin, and pledged to make peace regardless of the + Western powers. On March 2nd, 1918, a separate peace between + Russia and Germany was signed at Brest-Litovsk. + <span class="pagenum"><a name="P418"></a></span> +</p> + +<div class="fig" style=""> +<a name="img-418"></a> +<img src="images/img-418.jpg" +alt="A VIEW IN PETERSBURG UNDER BOLSHEVIK RULE" + width="450" height="695" /> +<p class="caption"> +A VIEW IN PETERSBURG UNDER BOLSHEVIK RULE +<small><br />A wooden house has been demolished for firewood +<br /> +<i>By courtesy of Messrs. Hodder & Stoughton</i></small> +</p> +</div> + +<p> +It speedily became evident that these Bolshevik socialists were men + of a very different quality from the rhetorical constitutionalists + and revolutionaries of the Kerensky phase. They were fanatical + Marxist communists. They believed that their accession to power in + Russia was only the opening of a world-wide social revolution, and + they set about changing the social and economic order with the + thoroughness of perfect faith and absolute inexperience. The + western European and the American governments were themselves much + too ill-informed and incapable to guide or help this extraordinary + experiment, and the press set itself to discredit and the ruling + classes to wreck these usurpers upon any terms and at any cost to + themselves or to Russia. A propaganda of abominable and disgusting + inventions went on unchecked in the press of the + <span class="pagenum"><a name="P419"></a></span>world; the + Bolshevik leaders were represented as incredible monsters glutted + with blood and plunder and living lives of sensuality before which + the realities of the Tsarist court during the Rasputin regime paled + to a white purity. Expeditions were launched at the exhausted + country, insurgents and raiders were encouraged, armed and + subsidized, and no method of attack was too mean or too monstrous + for the frightened enemies of the Bolshevik regime. In 1919, the + Russian Bolsheviks, ruling a country already exhausted and + disorganized by five years of intensive warfare, were fighting a + British Expedition at Archangel, Japanese invaders in Eastern + Siberia, Roumanians with French and Greek contingents in the south, + the Russian Admiral Koltchak in Siberia and General Deniken, + supported by the French fleet, in the Crimea. In July of that year + an Esthonian army, under General Yudenitch, almost got to + Petersburg. In 1920 the Poles, incited by the French, made a new + attack on Russia; and a new reactionary raider, General Wrangel, + took over the task of General Deniken in invading and devastating + his own country. In March, 1921, the sailors at Cronstadt + revolted. The Russian Government under its president, Lenin, + survived all these various attacks. It showed an amazing tenacity, + and the common people of Russia sustained it unswervingly under + conditions of extreme hardship. By the end of 1921 both Britain + and Italy had made a sort of recognition of the communist rule. +</p> + +<p> +But if the Bolshevik Government was successful in its struggle + against foreign intervention and internal revolt, it was far less + happy in its attempts to set up a new social order based upon + communist ideas in Russia. The Russian peasant is a small + land-hungry proprietor, as far from communism in his thoughts and + methods as a whale is from flying; the revolution gave him the land + of the great landowners but could not make him grow food for + anything but negotiable money, and the revolution, among other + things, had practically destroyed the value of money. + Agricultural production, already greatly disordered by the + collapse of the railways through war-strain, shrank to a mere + cultivation of food by the peasants for their own consumption. The + towns starved. Hasty and ill-planned attempts to make over + industrial production + <span class="pagenum"><a name="P420"></a></span>in accordance + with communist ideas were equally unsuccessful. By 1920 Russia + presented the unprecedented spectacle of a modern civilization + in complete collapse. Railways were rusting and passing out of + use, towns were falling into ruin, everywhere there was an + immense mortality. Yet the country still fought with its + enemies at its gates. In 1921 came a drought and a great famine + among the peasant cultivators in the war-devastated south-east + provinces. Millions of people starved. +</p> + +<p> +But the question of the distresses and the possible recuperation + of Russia brings us too close to current controversies to be + discussed here. +</p> + +</div><!--end chapter--> + +<div class="chapter"> + +<h2><span class="pagenum"><a name="P421"></a></span><a name="chapLXVII"></a>LXVII<br /> +THE POLITICAL AND SOCIAL RECONSTRUCTION OF THE WORLD</h2> + +<p> +The scheme and scale upon which this History is planned do not permit us to +enter into the complicated and acrimonious disputes that centre about the +treaties, and particularly of the treaty of Versailles, which concluded the +Great War. We are beginning to realize that that conflict, terrible and +enormous as it was, ended nothing, began nothing and settled nothing. It killed +millions of people; it wasted and impoverished the world. It smashed Russia +altogether. It was at best an acute and frightful reminder that we were living +foolishly and confusedly without much plan or foresight in a dangerous and +unsympathetic universe. The crudely organized egotisms and passions of national +and imperial greed that carried mankind into that tragedy, emerged from it +sufficiently unimpaired to make some other similar disaster highly probable so +soon as the world has a little recovered from its war exhaustion and fatigue. +Wars and revolutions make nothing; their utmost service to mankind is that, in +a very rough and painful way, they destroy superannuated and obstructive +things. The great war lifted the threat of German imperialism from Europe, and +shattered the imperialism of Russia. It cleared away a number of monarchies. +But a multitude of flags still waves in Europe, the frontiers still exasperate, +great armies accumulate fresh stores of equipment. +</p> + +<p> +The Peace Conference at Versailles was a gathering very ill adapted + to do more than carry out the conflicts and defeats of the war to + their logical conclusions. The Germans, Austrians, Turks and + Bulgarians were permitted no share in its deliberations; they were + only to accept the decisions it dictated to them. From the point + of view of human welfare the choice of the place of meeting was + particularly unfortunate. It was at Versailles in 1871 that, with + every circumstance of triumphant vulgarity, the new German + <span class="pagenum"><a name="P422"></a></span>Empire had + been proclaimed. The suggestion of a melodramatic reversal of that + scene, in the same Hall of Mirrors, was overpowering. +</p> + +<p> +Whatever generosities had appeared in the opening phases of the + Great War had long been exhausted. The populations of the + victorious countries were acutely aware of their own losses and + sufferings, and entirely regardless of the fact that the defeated + had paid in the like manner. The war had arisen as a natural and + inevitable consequence of the competitive nationalisms of Europe + and the absence of any Federal adjustment of these competitive + forces; war is the necessary logical consummation of independent + sovereign nationalities living in too small an area with too + powerful an armament; and if the great war had not come in the form + it did it would have come in some similar form—just as it + will certainly return upon a still more disastrous scale in twenty + or thirty years’ time if no political unification anticipates + and prevents it. States organized for war will make wars as surely + as hens will lay eggs, but the feeling of these distressed and + war-worn countries disregarded this fact, and the whole of the + defeated peoples were treated as morally and materially responsible + for all the damage, as they would no doubt have treated the victor + peoples had the issue of war been different. The French and + English thought the Germans were to blame, the Germans thought the + Russians, French and English were to blame, and only an intelligent + minority thought that there was anything to blame in the + fragmentary political constitution of Europe. The treaty of + Versailles was intended to be exemplary and vindictive; it provided + tremendous penalties for the vanquished; it sought to provide + compensations for the wounded and suffering victors by imposing + enormous debts upon nations already bankrupt, and its attempts to + reconstitute international relations by the establishment of a + League of Nations against war were manifestly insincere and + inadequate. +</p> + +<div class="fig" style=""> +<a name="img-423"></a> +<img src="images/img-423.jpg" +alt="PASSENGER AEROPLANE FLYING OVER NORTHOLT" + width="600" height="434" /> +<p class="caption"> +PASSENGER AEROPLANE FLYING OVER NORTHOLT +<small><br /> +<i>(Photo taken by another ’plane by the Central Aerophoto + Co.)</i></small> +</p> +</div> + +<p> +So far as Europe was concerned it is doubtful if there would have + been any attempt whatever to organize international relations for + a permanent peace. The proposal of the League of Nations was + brought into practical politics by the President of the United + States of America, President Wilson. Its chief support was in + America. So far the United States, this new modern state, had + <span class="pagenum"><a name="P423"></a></span>developed no + distinctive ideas of international relationship beyond the Monroe + Doctrine, which protected the new world from European interference. + Now suddenly it was called upon for its mental contribution to the + vast problem of the time. It had none. The natural disposition of + the American people was towards a permanent world peace. With this + however was linked a strong traditional distrust of old-world + polities and a habit of isolation from old-world entanglements. + The Americans had hardly begun to think out an American solution + of world problems when the submarine campaign of the Germans + dragged them into the war on the side of the anti-German allies. + President Wilson’s scheme of a League of Nations was an + attempt at short notice to create a distinctively American world + project. It was a sketchy, inadequate and dangerous scheme. In + Europe however it was taken as a matured American point of view. + The generality of mankind in 1918-19 was intensely weary of war + and anxious at almost any sacrifice to erect + <span class="pagenum"><a name="P424"></a></span>barriers + against its recurrence, but there was not a single government in + the old world willing to waive one iota of its sovereign + independence to attain any such end. The public utterances of + President Wilson leading up to the project of a World League of + Nations seemed for a time to appeal right over the heads of the + governments to the peoples of the world; they were taken as + expressing the ripe intentions of America, and the response was + enormous. Unhappily President Wilson had to deal with governments + and not with peoples; he was a man capable of tremendous flashes of + vision and yet when put to the test egotistical and limited, and + the great wave of enthusiasm he evoked passed and was wasted. +</p> + +<p> +Says Dr. Dillon in his book, <i>The Peace Conference:</i> + “Europe, when the President touched its shores, was as clay + ready for the creative potter. Never before were the nations so + eager to follow a Moses who would take them to the long-promised + land where wars are prohibited and blockades unknown. And to their + thinking he was just that great leader. In France men bowed down + before him with awe and affection. Labour leaders in Paris told + me that they shed tears of joy in his presence, and that their + comrades would go through fire and water to help him to realize his + noble schemes. To the working classes in Italy his name was a + heavenly clarion at the sound of which the earth would be renewed. + The Germans regarded him and his doctrine as their sheet-anchor of + safety. The fearless Herr Muehlon said: ‘If President Wilson + were to address the Germans and pronounce a severe sentence upon + them, they would accept it with resignation and without a murmur + and set to work at once.’ In German-Austria his fame was + that of a saviour, and the mere mention of his name brought balm to + the suffering and surcease of sorrow to the afflicted ... .” +</p> + +<p> +Such were the overpowering expectations that President Wilson raised. How +completely he disappointed them and how weak and futile was the League of +Nations he made is too long and too distressful a story to tell here. He +exaggerated in his person our common human tragedy, he was so very great in his +dreams and so incapable in his performance. America dissented from the acts of +its President and would not join the League Europe accepted from him. There was +a slow realization on the part of the American <span class="pagenum"><a +name="P425"></a></span>people that it had been rushed into something for which +it was totally unprepared. There was a corresponding realization on the part of +Europe that America had nothing ready to give to the old world in its +extremity. Born prematurely and crippled at its birth, that League has become +indeed, with its elaborate and unpractical constitution and its manifest +limitations of power, a serious obstacle in the way of any effective +reorganization of international relationships. The problem would be a clearer +one if the League did not yet exist. Yet that world-wide blaze of enthusiasm +that first welcomed the project, that readiness of men everywhere round and +about the earth, of men, that is, as distinguished from governments, for a +world control of war, is a thing to be recorded with emphasis in any history. +Behind the short-sighted governments that divide and mismanage human affairs, a +real force for world unity and world order exists and grows. +</p> + +<p> +From 1918 onward the world entered upon an age of conferences. Of + these the Conference at Washington called by President Harding + (1921) has been the most successful and suggestive. Notable, too, + is the Genoa Conference (1922) for the appearance of German and + Russian delegates at its deliberations. We will not discuss this + long procession of conferences and tentatives in any detail. It + becomes more and more clearly manifest that a huge work of + reconstruction has to be done by mankind if a crescendo of such + convulsions and world massacres as that of the great war is to be + averted. No such hasty improvisation as the League of Nations, no + patched-up system of Conferences between this group of states and + that, which change nothing with an air of settling everything, will + meet the complex political needs of the new age that lies before + us. A systematic development and a systematic application of the + sciences of human relationship, of personal and group psychology, + of financial and economic science and of education, sciences still + only in their infancy, is required. Narrow and obsolete, dead and + dying moral and political ideas have to be replaced by a clearer + and a simpler conception of the common origins and destinies of our + kind. +</p> + +<div class="fig" style=""> +<a name="img-426"></a> +<img src="images/img-426.jpg" +alt="A PEACEFUL GARDEN IN ENGLAND" + width="540" height="742" /> +<p class="caption"> +A PEACEFUL GARDEN IN ENGLAND +<small><br />Given wisdom, all mankind might live in such gardens +</small> +</p> +</div> + +<p> +But if the dangers, confusions and disasters that crowd upon man in + these days are enormous beyond any experience of the past, it is + because science has brought him such powers as he never had + <span class="pagenum"><a name="P426"></a></span>before. + And the scientific method of fearless thought, exhaustively lucid + statement, and exhaustively criticized planning, which has given + him these as yet uncontrollable powers, gives him also the hope of + controlling these powers. Man is still only adolescent. His + troubles are not the troubles of senility and exhaustion but of + increasing and still undisciplined strength. When we look at all + <span class="pagenum"><a name="P427"></a></span>history as one + process, as we have been doing in this book, when we see the + steadfast upward struggle of life towards vision and control, then + we see in their true proportions the hopes and dangers of the + present time. As yet we are hardly in the earliest dawn of human + greatness. But in the beauty of flower and sunset, in the happy + and perfect movement of young animals and in the delight of ten + thousand various landscapes, we have some intimations of what life + can do for us, and in some few works of plastic and pictorial art, + in some great music, in a few noble buildings and happy gardens, we + have an intimation of what the human will can do with material + possibilities. We have dreams; we have at present undisciplined + but ever increasing power. Can we doubt that presently our race + will more than realize our boldest imaginations, that it will + achieve unity and peace, that it will live, the children of our + blood and lives will live, in a world made more splendid and lovely + than any palace or garden that we know, going on from strength to + strength in an ever widening circle of adventure and achievement? + What man has done, the little triumphs of his present state, and + all this history we have told, form but the prelude to the things + that man has got to do. +</p> + +<h3><span class="pagenum"><a name="P429"></a></span><a name="CHRON"></a>CHRONOLOGICAL TABLE</h3> + +<p> +About the year 1000 <small>B.C.</small> the Aryan peoples were establishing +themselves in the peninsulas of Spain, Italy and the Balkans, and they were +established in North India; Cnossos was already destroyed and the spacious +times of Egypt, of Thothmes III, Amenophis III and Rameses II were three or +four centuries away. Weak monarchs of the XXIst Dynasty were ruling in the Nile +Valley. Israel was united under her early kings; Saul or David or possibly even +Solomon may have been reigning. Sargon I (2750 <small>B.C.</small>) of the +Akkadian Sumerian Empire was a remote memory in Babylonian history, more remote +than is Constantine the Great from the world of the present day. Hammurabi had +been dead a thousand years. The Assyrians were already dominating the less +military Babylonians. In 1100 <small>B.C.</small> Tiglath Pileser I had taken +Babylon. But there was no permanent conquest; Assyria and Babylonia were still +separate empires. In China the new Chow dynasty was flourishing. Stonehenge in +England was already some hundreds of years old. +</p> + +<p> +The next two centuries saw a renascence of Egypt under the XXIInd +Dynasty, the splitting up of the brief little Hebrew kingdom of +Solomon, the spreading of the Greeks in the Balkans, South Italy +and Asia Minor, and the days of Etruscan predominance in Central +Italy. We begin our list of ascertainable dates with +</p> + +<table width="70%"> +<tbody> + +<tr> +<td valign="top" align="right">B.C. </td> +<td valign="top" align="left"> </td> +<td valign="top" align="right"> </td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td valign="top" align="right"> 800. </td> +<td valign="top" align="left"> +The building of Carthage. +</td> +<td valign="top" align="right"> + </td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td valign="top" align="right"> 790. </td> +<td valign="top" align="left"> +The Ethiopian conquest of Egypt (founding the XXVth Dynasty). +</td> +<td valign="top" align="right"> + </td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td valign="top" align="right"> 776. </td> +<td valign="top" align="left"> +First Olympiad. +</td> +<td valign="top" align="right"> + </td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td valign="top" align="right"> 753. </td> +<td valign="top" align="left"> +Rome built. +</td> +<td valign="top" align="right"> + </td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td valign="top" align="right"> 745. </td> +<td valign="top" align="left"> +Tiglath Pileser III conquered Babylonia and founded the New + Assyrian Empire. +</td> +<td valign="top" align="right"> + </td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td valign="top" align="right"> 722. </td> +<td valign="top" align="left"> +Sargon II armed the Assyrians with iron weapons. +</td> +<td valign="top" align="right"> + </td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td valign="top" align="right"> 721. </td> +<td valign="top" align="left"> +He deported the Israelites. +</td> +<td valign="top" align="right"> + </td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td valign="top" align="right"> 680. </td> +<td valign="top" align="left"> +Esarhaddon took Thebes in Egypt (overthrowing the Ethiopian + XXVth Dynasty). +</td> +<td valign="top" align="right"> + </td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td valign="top" align="right"> 664. </td> +<td valign="top" align="left"> +Psammetichus I restored the freedom of Egypt and founded the + XXVIth Dynasty (to 610). +</td> +<td valign="top" align="right"> + </td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td valign="top" align="right"> 608. </td> +<td valign="top" align="left"> +Necho of Egypt defeated Josiah, king of Judah, at the battle + of Megiddo. +</td> +<td valign="top" align="right"> + </td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td valign="top" align="right"> 606. </td> +<td valign="top" align="left"> +Capture of Nineveh by the Chaldeans and Medes. +</td> +<td valign="top" align="right"> + </td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td valign="top" align="right"> </td> +<td valign="top" align="left"> +Foundation of the Chaldean Empire. +</td> +<td valign="top" align="right"> + </td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td valign="top" align="right"> 604. </td> +<td valign="top" align="left"> + Necho pushed to the Euphrates and was overthrown by + Nebuchadnezzar II. +</td> +<td valign="top" align="right"> + </td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td valign="top" align="right"> </td> +<td valign="top" align="left"> + (Nebuchadnezzar carried off the Jews to Babylon.) +</td> +<td valign="top" align="right"> + </td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td valign="top" align="right"> 550. </td> +<td valign="top" align="left"> +Cyrus the Persian succeeded Cyaxares the Mede. +</td> +<td valign="top" align="right"> + </td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td valign="top" align="right"> </td> +<td valign="top" align="left"> +Cyrus conquered CrÅ“sus. +</td> +<td valign="top" align="right"> + </td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td valign="top" align="right"> </td> +<td valign="top" align="left"> +Buddha lived about this time. +</td> +<td valign="top" align="right"> + </td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td valign="top" align="right"> </td> +<td valign="top" align="left"> + So also did Confucius and Lao Tse. +</td> +<td valign="top" align="right"> + </td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td valign="top" align="right"> 539. </td> +<td valign="top" align="left"> +Cyrus took Babylon and founded the Persian Empire. +</td> +<td valign="top" align="right"> + </td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td valign="top" align="right"> 521. </td> +<td valign="top" align="left"> +Darius I, the son of Hystaspes, ruled from the Hellespont + to the Indus. +</td> +<td valign="top" align="right"> + </td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td valign="top" align="right"> </td> +<td valign="top" align="left"> +His expedition to Scythia. +</td> +<td valign="top" align="right"> + </td> +</tr> + +</tbody></table> + +<p> +<span class="pagenum"><a name="P430"></a></span> +</p> + +<table width="70%"> +<tbody> + +<tr> +<td valign="top" align="right"> 490. </td> +<td valign="top" align="left"> +Battle of Marathon. +</td> +<td valign="top" align="right"> + </td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td valign="top" align="right"> 480. </td> +<td valign="top" align="left"> +Battles of Thermopylï and Salamis. +</td> +<td valign="top" align="right"> + </td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td valign="top" align="right"> 479. </td> +<td valign="top" align="left"> +The battles of Platea and Mycale completed the repulse of + Persia. +</td> +<td valign="top" align="right"> + </td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td valign="top" align="right"> 474. </td> +<td valign="top" align="left"> +Etruscan fleet destroyed by the Sicilian Greeks. +</td> +<td valign="top" align="right"> + </td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td valign="top" align="right"> 431. </td> +<td valign="top" align="left"> +Peloponnesian War began (to 404) +</td> +<td valign="top" align="right"> + </td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td valign="top" align="right"> 401. </td> +<td valign="top" align="left"> +Retreat of the Ten Thousand. +</td> +<td valign="top" align="right"> + </td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td valign="top" align="right"> 359. </td> +<td valign="top" align="left"> +Philip became king of Macedonia. +</td> +<td valign="top" align="right"> + </td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td valign="top" align="right"> 338. </td> +<td valign="top" align="left"> +Battle of Chïronia. +</td> +<td valign="top" align="right"> + </td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td valign="top" align="right"> 336. </td> +<td valign="top" align="left"> +Macedonian troops crossed into Asia. Philip murdered. +</td> +<td valign="top" align="right"> + </td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td valign="top" align="right"> 334. </td> +<td valign="top" align="left"> +Battle of the Granicus. +</td> +<td valign="top" align="right"> + </td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td valign="top" align="right"> 333. </td> +<td valign="top" align="left"> +Battle of Issus. +</td> +<td valign="top" align="right"> + </td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td valign="top" align="right"> 331. </td> +<td valign="top" align="left"> +Battle of Arbela. +</td> +<td valign="top" align="right"> + </td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td valign="top" align="right"> 330. </td> +<td valign="top" align="left"> +Darius III killed. +</td> +<td valign="top" align="right"> + </td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td valign="top" align="right"> 323. </td> +<td valign="top" align="left"> +Death of Alexander the Great. +</td> +<td valign="top" align="right"> + </td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td valign="top" align="right"> 321. </td> +<td valign="top" align="left"> +Rise of Chandragupta in the Punjab. +</td> +<td valign="top" align="right"> + </td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td valign="top" align="right"> </td> +<td valign="top" align="left"> +The Romans completely beaten by the Samnites at the battle of + the Caudine Forks. +</td> +<td valign="top" align="right"> + </td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td valign="top" align="right"> 281. </td> +<td valign="top" align="left"> +Pyrrhus invaded Italy. +</td> +<td valign="top" align="right"> + </td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td valign="top" align="right"> 280. </td> +<td valign="top" align="left"> +Battle of Heraclea. +</td> +<td valign="top" align="right"> + </td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td valign="top" align="right"> 279. </td> +<td valign="top" align="left"> +Battle of Ausculum. +</td> +<td valign="top" align="right"> + </td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td valign="top" align="right"> 278. </td> +<td valign="top" align="left"> +Gauls raided into Asia Minor and settled in Galatia. +</td> +<td valign="top" align="right"> + </td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td valign="top" align="right"> 275. </td> +<td valign="top" align="left"> +Pyrrhus left Italy. +</td> +<td valign="top" align="right"> + </td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td valign="top" align="right"> 264. </td> +<td valign="top" align="left"> +First Punic War. (Asoka began to reign in Behar—to 227.) +</td> +<td valign="top" align="right"> + </td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td valign="top" align="right"> 260. </td> +<td valign="top" align="left"> +Battle of Mylï. +</td> +<td valign="top" align="right"> + </td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td valign="top" align="right"> 256. </td> +<td valign="top" align="left"> +Battle of Ecnomus. +</td> +<td valign="top" align="right"> + </td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td valign="top" align="right"> 246. </td> +<td valign="top" align="left"> +Shi-Hwang-ti became King of Ts’in. +</td> +<td valign="top" align="right"> + </td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td valign="top" align="right"> 220. </td> +<td valign="top" align="left"> +Shi-Hwang-ti became Emperor of China. +</td> +<td valign="top" align="right"> + </td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td valign="top" align="right"> 214. </td> +<td valign="top" align="left"> +Great Wall of China begun. +</td> +<td valign="top" align="right"> + </td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td valign="top" align="right"> 210. </td> +<td valign="top" align="left"> +Death of Shi-Hwang-ti. +</td> +<td valign="top" align="right"> + </td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td valign="top" align="right"> 202. </td> +<td valign="top" align="left"> +Battle of Zama. +</td> +<td valign="top" align="right"> + </td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td valign="top" align="right"> 146. </td> +<td valign="top" align="left"> +Carthage destroyed. +</td> +<td valign="top" align="right"> + </td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td valign="top" align="right"> 133. </td> +<td valign="top" align="left"> +Attalus bequeathed Pergamum to Rome. +</td> +<td valign="top" align="right"> + </td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td valign="top" align="right"> 102. </td> +<td valign="top" align="left"> +Marius drove back Germans. +</td> +<td valign="top" align="right"> + </td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td valign="top" align="right"> 100. </td> +<td valign="top" align="left"> +Triumph of Marius. (Chinese conquering the Tarim valley.) +</td> +<td valign="top" align="right"> + </td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td valign="top" align="right"> 89. </td> +<td valign="top" align="left"> +All Italians became Roman citizens. +</td> +<td valign="top" align="right"> + </td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td valign="top" align="right"> 73. </td> +<td valign="top" align="left"> +The revolt of the slaves under Spartacus. +</td> +<td valign="top" align="right"> + </td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td valign="top" align="right"> 71. </td> +<td valign="top" align="left"> +Defeat and end of Spartacus. +</td> +<td valign="top" align="right"> + </td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td valign="top" align="right"> 66. </td> +<td valign="top" align="left"> +Pompey led Roman troops to the Caspian and Euphrates. He encountered the Alani. +</td> +<td valign="top" align="right"> + </td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td valign="top" align="right"> 48. </td> +<td valign="top" align="left"> +Julius Cïsar defeated Pompey at Pharsalos. +</td> +<td valign="top" align="right"> + </td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td valign="top" align="right"> 44. </td> +<td valign="top" align="left"> +Julius Cïsar assassinated. +</td> +<td valign="top" align="right"> + </td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td valign="top" align="right"> 27. </td> +<td valign="top" align="left"> +Augustus Cïsar princeps (until 14 <small>A.D.</small>). +</td> +<td valign="top" align="right"> + </td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td valign="top" align="right"> 4. </td> +<td valign="top" align="left"> +True date of birth of Jesus of Nazareth. +</td> +<td valign="top" align="right"> + </td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td valign="top" align="right"> A.D. </td> +<td valign="top" align="left"> +Christian Era began. +</td> +<td valign="top" align="right"> + </td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td valign="top" align="right"> 14. </td> +<td valign="top" align="left"> +Augustus died. Tiberius emperor. +</td> +<td valign="top" align="right"> + </td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td valign="top" align="right"> 30. </td> +<td valign="top" align="left"> +Jesus of Nazareth crucified. +</td> +<td valign="top" align="right"> + </td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td valign="top" align="right"> 41. </td> +<td valign="top" align="left"> +Claudius (the first emperor of the legions) made emperor by + pretorian guard after murder of Caligula. +</td> +<td valign="top" align="right"> + </td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td valign="top" align="right"> 68. </td> +<td valign="top" align="left"> +Suicide of Nero. (Galba, Otho, Vitellus, emperors in succession.) +</td> +<td valign="top" align="right"> + </td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td valign="top" align="right"> 69. </td> +<td valign="top" align="left"> +Vespasian. +</td> +<td valign="top" align="right"> + </td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td valign="top" align="right"> 102. </td> +<td valign="top" align="left"> +Pan Chau on the Caspian Sea. +</td> +<td valign="top" align="right"> + </td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td valign="top" align="right"> 117. </td> +<td valign="top" align="left"> +Hadrian succeeded Trajan. Roman Empire at its greatest extent. +</td> +<td valign="top" align="right"> + </td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td valign="top" align="right"> 138. </td> +<td valign="top" align="left"> +(The Indo-Scythians at this time were destroying the last traces of + Hellenic rule in India.) +</td> +<td valign="top" align="right"> + </td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td valign="top" align="right"> 161. </td> +<td valign="top" align="left"> +Marcus Aurelius succeeded Antoninus Pius. +</td> +<td valign="top" align="right"> + </td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td valign="top" align="right"> 164. </td> +<td valign="top" align="left"> +Great plague began, and lasted to the death of M. Aurelius (180). + This also devastated all Asia. +</td> +<td valign="top" align="right"> + </td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td valign="top" align="right"> </td> +<td valign="top" align="left"> +(Nearly a century of war and disorder began in the Roman Empire.) +</td> +<td valign="top" align="right"> + </td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td valign="top" align="right"> 220. </td> +<td valign="top" align="left"> +End of the Han dynasty. Beginning of four hundred years of division + in China. +</td> +<td valign="top" align="right"> + </td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td valign="top" align="right"> 227. </td> +<td valign="top" align="left"> +Ardashir I (first Sassanid shah) put an end to Arsacid line in + Persia. +</td> +<td valign="top" align="right"> + </td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td valign="top" align="right"> 242. </td> +<td valign="top" align="left"> +Mani began his teaching. +</td> +<td valign="top" align="right"> + </td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td valign="top" align="right"> 247. </td> +<td valign="top" align="left"> +Goths crossed Danube in a great raid. +</td> +<td valign="top" align="right"> + </td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td valign="top" align="right"> 251. </td> +<td valign="top" align="left"> +Great victory of Goths. Emperor Decius killed. +</td> +<td valign="top" align="right"> + </td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td valign="top" align="right"> 260. </td> +<td valign="top" align="left"> +Sapor I, the second Sassanid shah, took Antioch, captured the + Emperor Valerian, and was cut up on his return from Asia Minor by + Odenathus of Palmyra. +</td> +<td valign="top" align="right"> + </td> +</tr> + +</tbody></table> + +<p> +<span class="pagenum"><a name="P431"></a></span> +</p> + +<table width="70%"> +<tbody> + +<tr> +<td valign="top" align="right"> 277. </td> +<td valign="top" align="left"> +Mani crucified in Persia. +</td> +<td valign="top" align="right"> + </td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td valign="top" align="right"> 284. </td> +<td valign="top" align="left"> +Diocletian became emperor. +</td> +<td valign="top" align="right"> + </td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td valign="top" align="right"> 303. </td> +<td valign="top" align="left"> +Diocletian persecuted the Christians. +</td> +<td valign="top" align="right"> + </td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td valign="top" align="right"> 311. </td> +<td valign="top" align="left"> +Galerius abandoned the persecution of the Christians. +</td> +<td valign="top" align="right"> + </td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td valign="top" align="right"> 312. </td> +<td valign="top" align="left"> +Constantine the Great became emperor. +</td> +<td valign="top" align="right"> + </td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td valign="top" align="right"> 323. </td> +<td valign="top" align="left"> +Constantine presided over the Council of Nicïa. +</td> +<td valign="top" align="right"> + </td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td valign="top" align="right"> 337. </td> +<td valign="top" align="left"> +Constantine baptized on his deathbed. +</td> +<td valign="top" align="right"> + </td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td valign="top" align="right"> 361-3. </td> +<td valign="top" align="left"> +Julian the Apostate attempted to substitute Mithraism for + Christianity. +</td> +<td valign="top" align="right"> + </td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td valign="top" align="right"> 392. </td> +<td valign="top" align="left"> +Theodosius the Great emperor of east and west. +</td> +<td valign="top" align="right"> + </td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td valign="top" align="right"> 395. </td> +<td valign="top" align="left"> +Theodosius the Great died. Honorius and Arcadius redivided + the empire with Stilicho and Alaric as their masters and + protectors. +</td> +<td valign="top" align="right"> + </td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td valign="top" align="right"> 410. </td> +<td valign="top" align="left"> +The Visigoths under Alaric captured Rome. +</td> +<td valign="top" align="right"> + </td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td valign="top" align="right"> 425. </td> +<td valign="top" align="left"> +Vandals settling in south of Spain. Huns in Pannonia, Goths in + Dalmatia. Visigoths and Suevi in Portugal and North Spain. + English invading Britain. +</td> +<td valign="top" align="right"> + </td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td valign="top" align="right"> 439. </td> +<td valign="top" align="left"> +Vandals took Carthage. +</td> +<td valign="top" align="right"> + </td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td valign="top" align="right"> 451. </td> +<td valign="top" align="left"> +Attila raided Gaul and was defeated by Franks, Alemanni and + Romans at Troyes. +</td> +<td valign="top" align="right"> + </td> +</tr> + +<tr><td valign="top" align="right"> 453. </td> +<td valign="top" align="left"> +Death of Attila. +</td> +<td valign="top" align="right"> + </td> +</tr> + +<tr><td valign="top" align="right"> 455. </td> +<td valign="top" align="left"> +Vandals sacked Rome. +</td> +<td valign="top" align="right"> + </td> +</tr> + +<tr><td valign="top" align="right"> 470. </td> +<td valign="top" align="left"> +Odoacer, king of a medley of Teutonic tribes, informed + Constantinople that there was no emperor in the West. End of + the Western Empire. +</td> +<td valign="top" align="right"> + </td> +</tr> + +<tr><td valign="top" align="right"> 493. </td> +<td valign="top" align="left"> +Theodoric, the Ostrogoth, conquered Italy and became King of + Italy, but was nominally subject to Constantinople. (Gothic + kings in Italy. Goths settled on special confiscated lands as a + garrison.) +</td> +<td valign="top" align="right"> + </td> +</tr> + +<tr><td valign="top" align="right"> 527. </td> +<td valign="top" align="left"> +Justinian emperor. +</td> +<td valign="top" align="right"> + </td> +</tr> + +<tr><td valign="top" align="right"> 529. </td> +<td valign="top" align="left"> +Justinian closed the schools at Athens, which had flourished nearly + a thousand years. Belisarius (Justinian’s general) took + Naples. +</td> +<td valign="top" align="right"> + </td> +</tr> + +<tr><td valign="top" align="right"> 531. </td> +<td valign="top" align="left"> +Chosroes I began to reign. +</td> +<td valign="top" align="right"> + </td> +</tr> + +<tr><td valign="top" align="right"> 543. </td> +<td valign="top" align="left"> +Great plague in Constantinople. +</td> +<td valign="top" align="right"> + </td> +</tr> + +<tr><td valign="top" align="right"> 553. </td> +<td valign="top" align="left"> +Goths expelled from Italy by Justinian. Justinian died. The + Lombards conquered most of North Italy (leaving Ravenna and Rome + Byzantine). +</td> +<td valign="top" align="right"> + </td> +</tr> + +<tr><td valign="top" align="right"> 570. </td> +<td valign="top" align="left"> +Muhammad born. +</td> +<td valign="top" align="right"> + </td> +</tr> + +<tr><td valign="top" align="right"> 579. </td> +<td valign="top" align="left"> +Chosroes I died. +</td> +<td valign="top" align="right"> + </td> +</tr> + +<tr><td valign="top" align="right"> </td> +<td valign="top" align="left"> +(The Lombards dominant in Italy.) +</td> +<td valign="top" align="right"> + </td> +</tr> + +<tr><td valign="top" align="right"> 590. </td> +<td valign="top" align="left"> +Plague raged in Rome. Chosroes II began to reign. +</td> +<td valign="top" align="right"> + </td> +</tr> + +<tr><td valign="top" align="right"> 610. </td> +<td valign="top" align="left"> +Heraclius began to reign. +</td> +<td valign="top" align="right"> + </td> +</tr> + +<tr><td valign="top" align="right"> 619. </td> +<td valign="top" align="left"> +Chosroes II held Egypt, Jerusalem, Damascus, and armies on + Hellespont. Tang dynasty began in China. +</td> +<td valign="top" align="right"> + </td> +</tr> + +<tr><td valign="top" align="right"> 622. </td> +<td valign="top" align="left"> +The Hegira. +</td> +<td valign="top" align="right"> + </td> +</tr> + +<tr><td valign="top" align="right"> 627. </td> +<td valign="top" align="left"> +Great Persian defeat at Nineveh by Heraclius. Tai-tsung became + Emperor of China. +</td> +<td valign="top" align="right"> + </td> +</tr> + +<tr><td valign="top" align="right"> 628. </td> +<td valign="top" align="left"> +Kavadh II murdered and succeeded his father, Chosroes II. +</td> +<td valign="top" align="right"> + </td> +</tr> + +<tr><td valign="top" align="right"> </td> +<td valign="top" align="left"> +Muhammad wrote letters to all the rulers of the earth. +</td> +<td valign="top" align="right"> + </td> +</tr> + +<tr><td valign="top" align="right"> 629. </td> +<td valign="top" align="left"> +Muhammad returned to Mecca. +</td> +<td valign="top" align="right"> + </td> +</tr> + +<tr><td valign="top" align="right"> 632. </td> +<td valign="top" align="left"> +Muhammad died. Abu Bekr Caliph. +</td> +<td valign="top" align="right"> + </td> +</tr> + +<tr><td valign="top" align="right"> 634. </td> +<td valign="top" align="left"> +Battle of the Yarmuk. Moslems took Syria. Omar second Caliph. +</td> +<td valign="top" align="right"> + </td> +</tr> + +<tr><td valign="top" align="right"> 635. </td> +<td valign="top" align="left"> +Tai-tsung received Nestorian missionaries. +</td> +<td valign="top" align="right"> + </td> +</tr> + +<tr><td valign="top" align="right"> 637. </td> +<td valign="top" align="left"> +Battle of Kadessia. +</td> +<td valign="top" align="right"> + </td> +</tr> + +<tr><td valign="top" align="right"> 638. </td> +<td valign="top" align="left"> +Jerusalem surrendered to the Caliph Omar. +</td> +<td valign="top" align="right"> + </td> +</tr> + +<tr><td valign="top" align="right"> 642. </td> +<td valign="top" align="left"> +Heraclius died. +</td> +<td valign="top" align="right"> + </td> +</tr> + +<tr><td valign="top" align="right"> 643. </td> +<td valign="top" align="left"> +Othman third Caliph. +</td> +<td valign="top" align="right"> + </td> +</tr> + +<tr><td valign="top" align="right"> 655. </td> +<td valign="top" align="left"> +Defeat of the Byzantine fleet by the Moslems. +</td> +<td valign="top" align="right"> + </td> +</tr> + +<tr><td valign="top" align="right"> 668. </td> +<td valign="top" align="left"> +The Caliph Moawija attacked Constantinople by sea. +</td> +<td valign="top" align="right"> + </td> +</tr> + +<tr><td valign="top" align="right"> 687. </td> +<td valign="top" align="left"> +Pepin of Hersthal, mayor of the palace, reunited Austrasia and + Neustria. +</td> +<td valign="top" align="right"> + </td> +</tr> + +<tr><td valign="top" align="right"> 711. </td> +<td valign="top" align="left"> +Moslem army invaded Spain from Africa. +</td> +<td valign="top" align="right"> + </td> +</tr> + +</tbody></table> + +<p> +<span class="pagenum"><a name="P432"></a></span> +</p> + +<table width="70%"> +<tbody> + +<tr><td valign="top" align="right"> 715. </td> +<td valign="top" align="left"> +The domains of the Caliph Walid I extended from the Pyrenees to + China. +</td> +<td valign="top" align="right"> + </td> +</tr> + +<tr><td valign="top" align="right"> 717-18. </td> +<td valign="top" align="left"> +Suleiman, son and successor of Walid, failed to take Constantinople. +</td> +<td valign="top" align="right"> + </td> +</tr> + +<tr><td valign="top" align="right"> 732. </td> +<td valign="top" align="left"> +Charles Martel defeated the Moslems near Poitiers. +</td> +<td valign="top" align="right"> + </td> +</tr> + +<tr><td valign="top" align="right"> 751. </td> +<td valign="top" align="left"> +Pepin crowned King of the French. +</td> +<td valign="top" align="right"> + </td> +</tr> + +<tr><td valign="top" align="right"> 768. </td> +<td valign="top" align="left"> +Pepin died. +</td> +<td valign="top" align="right"> + </td> +</tr> + +<tr><td valign="top" align="right"> 771. </td> +<td valign="top" align="left"> +Charlemagne sole king. +</td> +<td valign="top" align="right"> + </td> +</tr> + +<tr><td valign="top" align="right"> 774. </td> +<td valign="top" align="left"> +Charlemagne conquered Lombardy. +</td> +<td valign="top" align="right"> + </td> +</tr> + +<tr><td valign="top" align="right"> 786. </td> +<td valign="top" align="left"> +Haroun-al-Raschid Abbasid Caliph in Bagdad (to 809). +</td> +<td valign="top" align="right"> + </td> +</tr> + +<tr><td valign="top" align="right"> 795. </td> +<td valign="top" align="left"> +Leo III became Pope (to 816). +</td> +<td valign="top" align="right"> + </td> +</tr> + +<tr><td valign="top" align="right"> 800. </td> +<td valign="top" align="left"> +Leo crowned Charlemagne Emperor of the West. +</td> +<td valign="top" align="right"> + </td> +</tr> + +<tr><td valign="top" align="right"> 802. </td> +<td valign="top" align="left"> +Egbert, formerly an English refugee at the court of Charlemagne, + established himself as King of Wessex. +</td> +<td valign="top" align="right"> + </td> +</tr> + +<tr><td valign="top" align="right"> 810. </td> +<td valign="top" align="left"> +Krum of Bulgaria defeated and killed the Emperor Nicephorus. +</td> +<td valign="top" align="right"> + </td> +</tr> + +<tr><td valign="top" align="right"> 814. </td> +<td valign="top" align="left"> +Charlemagne died. +</td> +<td valign="top" align="right"> + </td> +</tr> + +<tr><td valign="top" align="right"> 828. </td> +<td valign="top" align="left"> +Egbert became first King of England. +</td> +<td valign="top" align="right"> + </td> +</tr> + +<tr><td valign="top" align="right"> 843. </td> +<td valign="top" align="left"> +Louis the Pious died, and the Carlovingian Empire went to pieces. + Until 962 there was no regular succession of Holy Roman Emperors, + though the title appeared intermittently. +</td> +<td valign="top" align="right"> + </td> +</tr> + +<tr><td valign="top" align="right"> 850. </td> +<td valign="top" align="left"> +About this time Rurik (a Northman) became ruler of Novgorod + and Kieff. +</td> +<td valign="top" align="right"> + </td> +</tr> + +<tr><td valign="top" align="right"> 852. </td> +<td valign="top" align="left"> +Boris first Christian King of Bulgaria (to 884). +</td> +<td valign="top" align="right"> + </td> +</tr> + +<tr><td valign="top" align="right"> 865. </td> +<td valign="top" align="left"> +The fleet of the Russians (Northmen) threatened Constantinople. +</td> +<td valign="top" align="right"> + </td> +</tr> + +<tr><td valign="top" align="right"> 904. </td> +<td valign="top" align="left"> +Russian (Northmen) fleet off Constantinople. +</td> +<td valign="top" align="right"> + </td> +</tr> + +<tr><td valign="top" align="right"> 912. </td> +<td valign="top" align="left"> +Rolf the Ganger established himself in Normandy. +</td> +<td valign="top" align="right"> + </td> +</tr> + +<tr><td valign="top" align="right"> 919. </td> +<td valign="top" align="left"> +Henry the Fowler elected King of Germany. +</td> +<td valign="top" align="right"> + </td> +</tr> + +<tr><td valign="top" align="right"> 936. </td> +<td valign="top" align="left"> +Otto I became King of Germany in succession to his father, Henry the + Fowler. +</td> +<td valign="top" align="right"> + </td> +</tr> + +<tr><td valign="top" align="right"> 941. </td> +<td valign="top" align="left"> +Russian fleet again threatened Constantinople. +</td> +<td valign="top" align="right"> + </td> +</tr> + +<tr><td valign="top" align="right"> 962. </td> +<td valign="top" align="left"> +Otto I, King of Germany, crowned Emperor (first Saxon Emperor) by + John XII. +</td> +<td valign="top" align="right"> + </td> +</tr> + +<tr><td valign="top" align="right"> 987. </td> +<td valign="top" align="left"> +Hugh Capet became King of France. End of the Carlovingian line of + French kings. +</td> +<td valign="top" align="right"> + </td> +</tr> + +<tr><td valign="top" align="right"> 1016. </td> +<td valign="top" align="left"> +Canute became King of England, Denmark and Norway. +</td> +<td valign="top" align="right"> + </td> +</tr> + +<tr><td valign="top" align="right"> 1043. </td> +<td valign="top" align="left"> +Russian fleet threatened Constantinople. +</td> +<td valign="top" align="right"> + </td> +</tr> + +<tr><td valign="top" align="right"> 1066. </td> +<td valign="top" align="left"> +Conquest of England by William, Duke of Normandy. +</td> +<td valign="top" align="right"> + </td> +</tr> + +<tr><td valign="top" align="right"> 1071. </td> +<td valign="top" align="left"> +Revival of Islam under the Seljuk Turks. Battle of Melasgird. +</td> +<td valign="top" align="right"> + </td> +</tr> + +<tr><td valign="top" align="right"> 1073. </td> +<td valign="top" align="left"> +Hildebrand became Pope (Gregory VII) to 1085. +</td> +<td valign="top" align="right"> + </td> +</tr> + +<tr><td valign="top" align="right"> 1084. </td> +<td valign="top" align="left"> +Robert Guiscard, the Norman, sacked Rome. +</td> +<td valign="top" align="right"> + </td> +</tr> + +<tr><td valign="top" align="right"> 1087-99. </td> +<td valign="top" align="left"> +Urban II Pope. +</td> +<td valign="top" align="right"> + </td> +</tr> + +<tr><td valign="top" align="right"> 1095. </td> +<td valign="top" align="left"> +Urban II at Clermont summoned the First Crusade. +</td> +<td valign="top" align="right"> + </td> +</tr> + +<tr><td valign="top" align="right"> 1096. </td> +<td valign="top" align="left"> +Massacre of the People’s Crusade. +</td> +<td valign="top" align="right"> + </td> +</tr> + +<tr><td valign="top" align="right"> 1099. </td> +<td valign="top" align="left"> +Godfrey of Bouillon captured Jerusalem. +</td> +<td valign="top" align="right"> + </td> +</tr> + +<tr><td valign="top" align="right"> 1147. </td> +<td valign="top" align="left"> +The Second Crusade. +</td> +<td valign="top" align="right"> + </td> +</tr> + +<tr><td valign="top" align="right"> 1169. </td> +<td valign="top" align="left"> +Saladin Sultan of Egypt. +</td> +<td valign="top" align="right"> + </td> +</tr> + +<tr><td valign="top" align="right"> 1176. </td> +<td valign="top" align="left"> +Frederick Barbarossa acknowledged supremacy of the Pope (Alexander + III) at Venice. +</td> +<td valign="top" align="right"> + </td> +</tr> + +<tr><td valign="top" align="right"> 1187. </td> +<td valign="top" align="left"> +Saladin captured Jerusalem. +</td> +<td valign="top" align="right"> + </td> +</tr> + +<tr><td valign="top" align="right"> 1189. </td> +<td valign="top" align="left"> +The Third Crusade. +</td> +<td valign="top" align="right"> + </td> +</tr> + +<tr><td valign="top" align="right"> 1198. </td> +<td valign="top" align="left"> +Innocent III Pope (to 1216). Frederick II (aged four), King of + Sicily, became his ward. +</td> +<td valign="top" align="right"> + </td> +</tr> + +<tr><td valign="top" align="right"> 1202. </td> +<td valign="top" align="left"> +The Fourth Crusade attacked the Eastern Empire. +</td> +<td valign="top" align="right"> + </td> +</tr> + +<tr><td valign="top" align="right"> 1204. </td> +<td valign="top" align="left"> +Capture of Constantinople by the Latins. +</td> +<td valign="top" align="right"> + </td> +</tr> + +<tr><td valign="top" align="right"> 1214. </td> +<td valign="top" align="left"> +Jengis Khan took Pekin. +</td> +<td valign="top" align="right"> + </td> +</tr> + +<tr><td valign="top" align="right"> 1226. </td> +<td valign="top" align="left"> +St. Francis of Assisi died. (The Franciscans.) +</td> +<td valign="top" align="right"> + </td> +</tr> + +<tr><td valign="top" align="right"> 1227. </td> +<td valign="top" align="left"> +Jengis Khan died. Khan from the Caspian to the Pacific, and was + succeeded by Ogdai Khan. +</td> +<td valign="top" align="right"> + </td> +</tr> + +<tr><td valign="top" align="right"> 1228. </td> +<td valign="top" align="left"> +Frederick II embarked upon the Sixth Crusade, and acquired + Jerusalem. +</td> +<td valign="top" align="right"> + </td> +</tr> + +<tr><td valign="top" align="right"> 1240. </td> +<td valign="top" align="left"> +Mongols destroyed Kieff. Russia tributary to the Mongols. +</td> +<td valign="top" align="right"> + </td> +</tr> + +</tbody></table> + +<p> +<span class="pagenum"><a name="P433"></a></span> +</p> + +<table width="70%"> +<tbody> + +<tr><td valign="top" align="right"> 1241. </td> +<td valign="top" align="left"> +Mongol victory in Liegnitz in Silesia. +</td> +<td valign="top" align="right"> + </td> +</tr> + +<tr><td valign="top" align="right"> 1250. </td> +<td valign="top" align="left"> +Frederick II, the last Hohenstaufen Emperor, died. German + interregnum until 1273. +</td> +<td valign="top" align="right"> + </td> +</tr> + +<tr><td valign="top" align="right"> 1251. </td> +<td valign="top" align="left"> +Mangu Khan became Great Khan. Kublai Khan governor of China. +</td> +<td valign="top" align="right"> + </td> +</tr> + +<tr><td valign="top" align="right"> 1258. </td> +<td valign="top" align="left"> +Hulagu Khan took and destroyed Bagdad. +</td> +<td valign="top" align="right"> + </td> +</tr> + +<tr><td valign="top" align="right"> 1260. </td> +<td valign="top" align="left"> +Kublai Khan became Great Khan. +</td> +<td valign="top" align="right"> + </td> +</tr> + +<tr><td valign="top" align="right"> 1261. </td> +<td valign="top" align="left"> +The Greeks recaptured Constantinople from the Latins. +</td> +<td valign="top" align="right"> + </td> +</tr> + +<tr><td valign="top" align="right"> 1273. </td> +<td valign="top" align="left"> +Rudolf of Habsburg elected Emperor. The Swiss formed their + Everlasting League. +</td> +<td valign="top" align="right"> + </td> +</tr> + +<tr><td valign="top" align="right"> 1280. </td> +<td valign="top" align="left"> +Kublai Khan founded the Yuan dynasty in China. +</td> +<td valign="top" align="right"> + </td> +</tr> + +<tr><td valign="top" align="right"> 1292. </td> +<td valign="top" align="left"> +Death of Kublai Khan. +</td> +<td valign="top" align="right"> + </td> +</tr> + +<tr><td valign="top" align="right"> 1293. </td> +<td valign="top" align="left"> +Roger Bacon, the prophet of experimental science, died. +</td> +<td valign="top" align="right"> + </td> +</tr> + +<tr><td valign="top" align="right"> 1348. </td> +<td valign="top" align="left"> +The Great Plague, the Black Death. +</td> +<td valign="top" align="right"> + </td> +</tr> + +<tr><td valign="top" align="right"> 1360. </td> +<td valign="top" align="left"> +In China the Mongol (Yuan) dynasty fell, and was succeeded by the + Ming dynasty (to 1644). +</td> +<td valign="top" align="right"> + </td> +</tr> + +<tr><td valign="top" align="right"> 1377. </td> +<td valign="top" align="left"> +Pope Gregory XI returned to Rome. +</td> +<td valign="top" align="right"> + </td> +</tr> + +<tr><td valign="top" align="right"> 1378. </td> +<td valign="top" align="left"> +The Great Schism. Urban VI in Rome, Clement VII at Avignon. +</td> +<td valign="top" align="right"> + </td> +</tr> + +<tr><td valign="top" align="right"> 1398. </td> +<td valign="top" align="left"> +Huss preached Wycliffism at Prague. +</td> +<td valign="top" align="right"> + </td> +</tr> + +<tr><td valign="top" align="right"> 1414-18. </td> +<td valign="top" align="left"> +The Council of Constance. +</td> +<td valign="top" align="right"> + </td> +</tr> + +<tr><td valign="top" align="right"> </td> +<td valign="top" align="left"> +Huss burnt (1415). +</td> +<td valign="top" align="right"> + </td> +</tr> + +<tr><td valign="top" align="right"> 1417. </td> +<td valign="top" align="left"> +The Great Schism ended. +</td> +<td valign="top" align="right"> + </td> +</tr> + +<tr><td valign="top" align="right"> 1453. </td> +<td valign="top" align="left"> +Ottoman Turks under Muhammad II took Constantinople. +</td> +<td valign="top" align="right"> + </td> +</tr> + +<tr><td valign="top" align="right"> 1480. </td> +<td valign="top" align="left"> +Ivan III, Grand Duke of Moscow, threw off the Mongol allegiance. +</td> +<td valign="top" align="right"> + </td> +</tr> + +<tr><td valign="top" align="right"> 1481. </td> +<td valign="top" align="left"> +Death of the Sultan Muhammad II while preparing for the conquest of + Italy. +</td> +<td valign="top" align="right"> + </td> +</tr> + +<tr><td valign="top" align="right"> 1486. </td> +<td valign="top" align="left"> +Diaz rounded the Cape of Good Hope. +</td> +<td valign="top" align="right"> + </td> +</tr> + +<tr><td valign="top" align="right"> 1492. </td> +<td valign="top" align="left"> +Columbus crossed the Atlantic to America. +</td> +<td valign="top" align="right"> + </td> +</tr> + +<tr><td valign="top" align="right"> 1498. </td> +<td valign="top" align="left"> +Maximilian I became Emperor. +</td> +<td valign="top" align="right"> + </td> +</tr> + +<tr><td valign="top" align="right"> 1498. </td> +<td valign="top" align="left"> +Vasco da Gama sailed round the Cape to India. +</td> +<td valign="top" align="right"> + </td> +</tr> + +<tr><td valign="top" align="right"> 1499. </td> +<td valign="top" align="left"> +Switzerland became an independent republic. +</td> +<td valign="top" align="right"> + </td> +</tr> + +<tr><td valign="top" align="right"> 1500. </td> +<td valign="top" align="left"> +Charles V born. +</td> +<td valign="top" align="right"> + </td> +</tr> + +<tr><td valign="top" align="right"> 1509. </td> +<td valign="top" align="left"> +Henry VIII King of England. +</td> +<td valign="top" align="right"> + </td> +</tr> + +<tr><td valign="top" align="right"> 1513. </td> +<td valign="top" align="left"> +Leo X Pope. +</td> +<td valign="top" align="right"> + </td> +</tr> + +<tr><td valign="top" align="right"> 1515. </td> +<td valign="top" align="left"> +Francis I King of France. +</td> +<td valign="top" align="right"> + </td> +</tr> + +<tr><td valign="top" align="right"> 1520. </td> +<td valign="top" align="left"> +Suleiman the Magnificent, Sultan (to 1566), who ruled from Bagdad to + Hungary. Charles V Emperor. +</td> +<td valign="top" align="right"> + </td> +</tr> + +<tr><td valign="top" align="right"> 1525. </td> +<td valign="top" align="left"> +Baber won the battle of Panipat, captured Delhi, and founded the + Mogul Empire. +</td> +<td valign="top" align="right"> + </td> +</tr> + +<tr><td valign="top" align="right"> 1527. </td> +<td valign="top" align="left"> +The German troops in Italy, under the Constable of Bourbon, took and + pillaged Rome. +</td> +<td valign="top" align="right"> + </td> +</tr> + +<tr><td valign="top" align="right"> 1529. </td> +<td valign="top" align="left"> +Suleiman besieged Vienna. +</td> +<td valign="top" align="right"> + </td> +</tr> + +<tr><td valign="top" align="right"> 1530. </td> +<td valign="top" align="left"> +Charles V crowned by the Pope. +</td> +<td valign="top" align="right"> + </td> +</tr> + +<tr><td valign="top" align="right"> </td> +<td valign="top" align="left"> +Henry VIII began his quarrel with the Papacy. +</td> +<td valign="top" align="right"> + </td> +</tr> + +<tr><td valign="top" align="right"> 1539. </td> +<td valign="top" align="left"> +The Society of Jesus founded. +</td> +<td valign="top" align="right"> + </td> +</tr> + +<tr><td valign="top" align="right"> 1546. </td> +<td valign="top" align="left"> +Martin Luther died. +</td> +<td valign="top" align="right"> + </td> +</tr> + +<tr><td valign="top" align="right"> 1547. </td> +<td valign="top" align="left"> +Ivan IV (the Terrible) took the Title of Tsar of Russia. +</td> +<td valign="top" align="right"> + </td> +</tr> + +<tr><td valign="top" align="right"> 1556. </td> +<td valign="top" align="left"> +Charles V abdicated. Akbar, Great Mogul (to 1605). Ignatius of + Loyola died. +</td> +<td valign="top" align="right"> + </td> +</tr> + +<tr><td valign="top" align="right"> 1558. </td> +<td valign="top" align="left"> +Death of Charles V. +</td> +<td valign="top" align="right"> + </td> +</tr> + +<tr><td valign="top" align="right"> 1566. </td> +<td valign="top" align="left"> +Suleiman the Magnificent died. +</td> +<td valign="top" align="right"> + </td> +</tr> + +<tr><td valign="top" align="right"> 1603. </td> +<td valign="top" align="left"> +James I King of England and Scotland. +</td> +<td valign="top" align="right"> + </td> +</tr> + +<tr><td valign="top" align="right"> 1620. </td> +<td valign="top" align="left"> +<i>Mayflower</i> expedition founded New Plymouth. First negro + slaves landed at Jamestown (Va.). +</td> +<td valign="top" align="right"> + </td> +</tr> + +<tr><td valign="top" align="right"> 1625. </td> +<td valign="top" align="left"> +Charles I of England. +</td> +<td valign="top" align="right"> + </td> +</tr> + +<tr><td valign="top" align="right"> 1626. </td> +<td valign="top" align="left"> +Sir Francis Bacon (Lord Verulam) died. +</td> +<td valign="top" align="right"> + </td> +</tr> + +<tr><td valign="top" align="right"> 1643. </td> +<td valign="top" align="left"> +Louis XIV began his reign of seventy-two year’s. +</td> +<td valign="top" align="right"> + </td> +</tr> + +<tr><td valign="top" align="right"> 1644. </td> +<td valign="top" align="left"> +The Manchus ended the Ming dynasty. +</td> +<td valign="top" align="right"> + </td> +</tr> + +<tr><td valign="top" align="right"> 1648. </td> +<td valign="top" align="left"> +Treaty of Westphalia. There-by Holland and Switzerland were + recognized as free republics and Prussia became important. The + treaty gave a complete victory neither to the Imperial Crown nor to + the Princes. +</td> +<td valign="top" align="right"> + </td> +</tr> + +</tbody></table> + +<p> +<span class="pagenum"><a name="P434"></a></span> +</p> + +<table width="70%"> +<tbody> + +<tr><td valign="top" align="right"> </td> +<td valign="top" align="left"> +War of the Fronde; it ended in the complete victory of the French + crown. +</td> +<td valign="top" align="right"> + </td> +</tr> + +<tr><td valign="top" align="right"> 1649. </td> +<td valign="top" align="left"> +Execution of Charles I of England. +</td> +<td valign="top" align="right"> + </td> +</tr> + +<tr><td valign="top" align="right"> 1658. </td> +<td valign="top" align="left"> +Aurungzeb Great Mogul. Cromwell died. +</td> +<td valign="top" align="right"> + </td> +</tr> + +<tr><td valign="top" align="right"> 1660. </td> +<td valign="top" align="left"> +Charles II of England. +</td> +<td valign="top" align="right"> + </td> +</tr> + +<tr><td valign="top" align="right"> 1674. </td> +<td valign="top" align="left"> +Nieuw Amsterdam finally became British by treaty and was renamed New + York. +</td> +<td valign="top" align="right"> + </td> +</tr> + +<tr><td valign="top" align="right"> 1683. </td> +<td valign="top" align="left"> +The last Turkish attack on Vienna defeated by John III of Poland. +</td> +<td valign="top" align="right"> + </td> +</tr> + +<tr><td valign="top" align="right"> 1689. </td> +<td valign="top" align="left"> +Peter the Great of Russia. (To 1725.) +</td> +<td valign="top" align="right"> + </td> +</tr> + +<tr><td valign="top" align="right"> 1701. </td> +<td valign="top" align="left"> +Frederick I first King of Prussia. +</td> +<td valign="top" align="right"> + </td> +</tr> + +<tr><td valign="top" align="right"> 1707. </td> +<td valign="top" align="left"> +Death of Aurungzeb. The empire of the Great Mogul disintegrated. +</td> +<td valign="top" align="right"> + </td> +</tr> + +<tr><td valign="top" align="right"> 1713. </td> +<td valign="top" align="left"> +Frederick the Great of Prussia born. +</td> +<td valign="top" align="right"> + </td> +</tr> + +<tr><td valign="top" align="right"> 1715. </td> +<td valign="top" align="left"> +Louis XV of France. +</td> +<td valign="top" align="right"> + </td> +</tr> + +<tr><td valign="top" align="right"> 1755-63. </td> +<td valign="top" align="left"> +Britain and France struggled for America and India. France in + alliance with Austria and Russia against Prussia and Britain + (1756-63); the Seven Years’ War. +</td> +<td valign="top" align="right"> + </td> +</tr> + +<tr><td valign="top" align="right"> 1759. </td> +<td valign="top" align="left"> +The British general, Wolfe, took Quebec. +</td> +<td valign="top" align="right"> + </td> +</tr> + +<tr><td valign="top" align="right"> 1760. </td> +<td valign="top" align="left"> +George III of Britain. +</td> +<td valign="top" align="right"> + </td> +</tr> + +<tr><td valign="top" align="right"> 1763. </td> +<td valign="top" align="left"> +Peace of Paris; Canada ceded to Britain. British dominant in India. +</td> +<td valign="top" align="right"> + </td> +</tr> + +<tr><td valign="top" align="right"> 1769. </td> +<td valign="top" align="left"> +Napoleon Bonaparte born. +</td> +<td valign="top" align="right"> + </td> +</tr> + +<tr><td valign="top" align="right"> 1774. </td> +<td valign="top" align="left"> +Louis XVI began his reign. +</td> +<td valign="top" align="right"> + </td> +</tr> + +<tr><td valign="top" align="right"> 1776. </td> +<td valign="top" align="left"> +Declaration of Independence by the United States of America. +</td> +<td valign="top" align="right"> + </td> +</tr> + +<tr><td valign="top" align="right"> 1783. </td> +<td valign="top" align="left"> +Treaty of Peace between Britain and the new United States of + America. +</td> +<td valign="top" align="right"> + </td> +</tr> + +<tr><td valign="top" align="right"> 1787. </td> +<td valign="top" align="left"> +The Constitutional Convention of Philadelphia set up the Federal + Government of the United States. France discovered to be bankrupt. +</td> +<td valign="top" align="right"> + </td> +</tr> + +<tr><td valign="top" align="right"> 1788. </td> +<td valign="top" align="left"> +First Federal Congress of the United States at New York. +</td> +<td valign="top" align="right"> + </td> +</tr> + +<tr><td valign="top" align="right"> 1789. </td> +<td valign="top" align="left"> +The French States-General assembled. Storming of the Bastille. +</td> +<td valign="top" align="right"> + </td> +</tr> + +<tr><td valign="top" align="right"> 1791. </td> +<td valign="top" align="left"> +Flight to Varennes. +</td> +<td valign="top" align="right"> + </td> +</tr> + +<tr><td valign="top" align="right"> 1792. </td> +<td valign="top" align="left"> +France declared war on Austria. Prussia declared war on France. + Battle of Valmy. France became a republic. +</td> +<td valign="top" align="right"> + </td> +</tr> + +<tr><td valign="top" align="right"> 1793. </td> +<td valign="top" align="left"> +Louis XVI beheaded. +</td> +<td valign="top" align="right"> + </td> +</tr> + +<tr><td valign="top" align="right"> 1794. </td> +<td valign="top" align="left"> +Execution of Robespierre and end of the Jacobin republic. +</td> +<td valign="top" align="right"> + </td> +</tr> + +<tr><td valign="top" align="right"> 1795. </td> +<td valign="top" align="left"> +The Directory. Bonaparte suppressed a revolt and went to Italy as + commander-in-chief. +</td> +<td valign="top" align="right"> + </td> +</tr> + +<tr><td valign="top" align="right"> 1798. </td> +<td valign="top" align="left"> +Bonaparte went to Egypt. Battle of the Nile. +</td> +<td valign="top" align="right"> + </td> +</tr> + +<tr><td valign="top" align="right"> 1799. </td> +<td valign="top" align="left"> +Bonaparte returned to France. He became First Consul with enormous + powers. +</td> +<td valign="top" align="right"> + </td> +</tr> + +<tr><td valign="top" align="right"> 1804. </td> +<td valign="top" align="left"> +Bonaparte became Emperor. Francis II took the title of Emperor of +Austria in 1805, and in 1806 he dropped the title of Holy Roman + Emperor. So the “Holy Roman Empire” came to an end. +</td> +<td valign="top" align="right"> + </td> +</tr> + +<tr><td valign="top" align="right"> 1806. </td> +<td valign="top" align="left"> +Prussia overthrown at Jena. +</td> +<td valign="top" align="right"> + </td> +</tr> + +<tr><td valign="top" align="right"> 1808. </td> +<td valign="top" align="left"> +Napoleon made his brother Joseph King of Spain. +</td> +<td valign="top" align="right"> + </td> +</tr> + +<tr><td valign="top" align="right"> 1810. </td> +<td valign="top" align="left"> +Spanish America became republican. +</td> +<td valign="top" align="right"> + </td> +</tr> + +<tr><td valign="top" align="right"> 1812. </td> +<td valign="top" align="left"> +Napoleon’s retreat from Moscow. +</td> +<td valign="top" align="right"> + </td> +</tr> + +<tr><td valign="top" align="right"> 1814. </td> +<td valign="top" align="left"> +Abdication of Napoleon. Louis XVIII. +</td> +<td valign="top" align="right"> + </td> +</tr> + +<tr><td valign="top" align="right"> 1824. </td> +<td valign="top" align="left"> +Charles X of France. +</td> +<td valign="top" align="right"> + </td> +</tr> + +<tr><td valign="top" align="right"> 1825. </td> +<td valign="top" align="left"> +Nicholas I of Russia. First railway, Stockton to Darlington. +</td> +<td valign="top" align="right"> + </td> +</tr> + +<tr><td valign="top" align="right"> 1827. </td> +<td valign="top" align="left"> +Battle of Navarino. +</td> +<td valign="top" align="right"> + </td> +</tr> + +<tr><td valign="top" align="right"> 1829. </td> +<td valign="top" align="left"> +Greece independent. +</td> +<td valign="top" align="right"> + </td> +</tr> + +<tr><td valign="top" align="right"> 1830. </td> +<td valign="top" align="left"> +A year of disturbance. Louis Philippe ousted Charles X. Belgium + broke away from Holland. Leopold of Saxe-Coburg-Gotha became king + of this new country, Belgium. Russian Poland revolted + ineffectually. +</td> +<td valign="top" align="right"> + </td> +</tr> + +<tr><td valign="top" align="right"> 1835. </td> +<td valign="top" align="left"> +The word “socialism” first used. +</td> +<td valign="top" align="right"> + </td> +</tr> + +<tr><td valign="top" align="right"> 1837. </td> +<td valign="top" align="left"> +Queen Victoria. +</td> +<td valign="top" align="right"> + </td> +</tr> + +<tr><td valign="top" align="right"> 1840. </td> +<td valign="top" align="left"> +Queen Victoria married Prince Albert of Saxe-Coburg-Gotha. +</td> +<td valign="top" align="right"> + </td> +</tr> + +<tr><td valign="top" align="right"> 1852. </td> +<td valign="top" align="left"> +Napoleon III Emperor of the French. +</td> +<td valign="top" align="right"> + </td> +</tr> + +<tr><td valign="top" align="right">1854-56. </td> +<td valign="top" align="left"> +Crimean War. +</td> +<td valign="top" align="right"> + </td> +</tr> + +</tbody></table> + +<p> +<span class="pagenum"><a name="P435"></a></span> +</p> + +<table width="70%"> +<tbody> + +<tr><td valign="top" align="right"> 1856. </td> +<td valign="top" align="left"> +Alexander II of Russia. +</td> +<td valign="top" align="right"> + </td> +</tr> + +<tr><td valign="top" align="right"> 1861. </td> +<td valign="top" align="left"> +Victor Emmanuel First King of Italy. Abraham Lincoln became + President, U. S. A. The American Civil War began. +</td> +<td valign="top" align="right"> + </td> +</tr> + +<tr><td valign="top" align="right"> 1865. </td> +<td valign="top" align="left"> +Surrender of Appomattox Court House. Japan opened to the world. +</td> +<td valign="top" align="right"> + </td> +</tr> + +<tr><td valign="top" align="right"> 1870. </td> +<td valign="top" align="left"> +Napoleon III declared war against Prussia. +</td> +<td valign="top" align="right"> + </td> +</tr> + +<tr><td valign="top" align="right"> 1871. </td> +<td valign="top" align="left"> +Paris surrendered (January). The King of Prussia became + “German Emperor.” The Peace of Frankfort. +</td> +<td valign="top" align="right"> + </td> +</tr> + +<tr><td valign="top" align="right"> 1878. </td> +<td valign="top" align="left"> +The Treaty of Berlin. The Armed Peace of forty-six years began in + western Europe. +</td> +<td valign="top" align="right"> + </td> +</tr> + +<tr><td valign="top" align="right"> 1888. </td> +<td valign="top" align="left"> +Frederick II (March), William II (June), German Emperors. +</td> +<td valign="top" align="right"> + </td> +</tr> + +<tr><td valign="top" align="right"> 1912. </td> +<td valign="top" align="left"> +China became a republic. +</td> +<td valign="top" align="right"> + </td> +</tr> + +<tr><td valign="top" align="right"> 1914. </td> +<td valign="top" align="left"> +The Great War in Europe began. +</td> +<td valign="top" align="right"> + </td> +</tr> + +<tr><td valign="top" align="right"> 1917. </td> +<td valign="top" align="left"> +The two Russian revolutions. Establishment of the Bolshevik regime + in Russia. +</td> +<td valign="top" align="right"> + </td> +</tr> + +<tr><td valign="top" align="right"> 1918. </td> +<td valign="top" align="left"> +The Armistice. +</td> +<td valign="top" align="right"> + </td> +</tr> + +<tr><td valign="top" align="right"> 1920. </td> +<td valign="top" align="left"> +First meeting of the League of Nations, from which Germany, Austria, + Russia and Turkey were excluded and at which the United States was +not represented. +</td> +<td valign="top" align="right"> + </td> +</tr> + +<tr><td valign="top" align="right"> 1921. </td> +<td valign="top" align="left"> +The Greeks, in complete disregard of the League of Nations, make war + upon the Turks. +</td> +<td valign="top" align="right"> + </td> +</tr> + +<tr><td valign="top" align="right"> 1922. </td> +<td valign="top" align="left"> +Great defeat of the Greeks in Asia Minor by the Turks. +</td> +<td valign="top" align="right"> + </td> +</tr> + +</tbody></table> + +<h3><span class="pagenum"><a name="P439"></a></span><a name="INDEX"></a>INDEX</h3> + +<p> +A +</p> + +<p class="index"> +Abolitionist movement,<a href="#P384">384</a> +</p> + +<p class="index"> +Abraham the Patriarch, <a href="#P116">116</a> +</p> + +<p class="index"> +Abu Bekr", <a href="#P249">249</a>, <a href="#P252">252</a>, <a +href="#P431">431</a> +</p> + +<p class="index"> +Abyssinia, <a href="#P398">398</a> +</p> + +<p class="index"> +Actium, battle of, <a href="#P195">195</a> +</p> + +<p class="index"> +Adam and Eve, <a href="#P116">116</a> +</p> + +<p class="index"> +Adams, William, <a href="#P400">400</a> +</p> + +<p class="index"> +Aden, <a href="#P405">405</a> +</p> + +<p class="index"> +Adowa, battle of, <a href="#P398">398</a> +</p> + +<p class="index"> +Adrianople, <a href="#P229">229</a> +</p> + +<p class="index"> +Adrianople, Treaty of, <a href="#P353">353</a> +</p> + +<p class="index"> +Adriatic Sea, <a href="#P178">178</a>, <a href="#P228">228</a> +</p> + +<p class="index"> +Ægatian Isles, <a href="#P182">182</a> +</p> + +<p class="index"> +Ægean peoples, <a href="#P92">92</a>, <a href="#P94">94</a>, <a +href="#P100">100</a>, <a href="#P108">108</a>, <a +href="#P117">117</a>, <a href="#P174">174</a> +</p> + +<p class="index"> +Æolic Greeks, <a href="#P108">108</a>, <a href="#P130">130</a> +</p> + +<p class="index"> +Aeroplanes, <a href="#P4">4</a>, <a href="#P363">363</a>, <a +href="#P413">413</a> +</p> + +<p class="index"> +Æschylus, <a href="#P139">139</a> +</p> + +<p class="index"> +Afghanistan, <a href="#P163">163</a> +</p> + +<p class="index"> +Africa, <a href="#P72">72</a>, <a href="#P92">92</a>, <a +href="#P122">122</a>, <a href="#P123">123</a>, <a +href="#P182">182</a>, <a href="#P253">253</a>, <a +href="#P258">258</a>, <a href="#P302">302</a> +</p> + +<p class="index"> +Africa, Central, <a href="#P397">397</a> +</p> + +<p class="index"> +Africa, North, <a href="#P65">65</a>, <a href="#P94">94</a>, <a +href="#P180">180</a>, <a href="#P192">192</a>, <a +href="#P232">232</a>, <a href="#P292">292</a>, <a +href="#P394">394</a>, <a href="#P397">397</a>, <a +href="#P431">431</a> +</p> + +<p class="index"> +Africa, South, <a href="#P72">72</a>, <a href="#P335">335</a>, <a +href="#P398">398</a>, <a href="#P405">405</a> +</p> + +<p class="index"> +Africa, West, <a href="#P393">393</a> +</p> + +<p class="index"> +“Age of Confusion,” the, <a href="#P168">168</a>, +<a href="#P173">173</a> +</p> + +<p class="index"> +Agriculturalists, primitive, <a href="#P66">66</a>, <a +href="#P68">68</a> +</p> + +<p class="index"> +Agriculture, <a href="#P203">203</a>; slaves in, <a href="#P203">203</a> +</p> + +<p class="index"> +Ahab, <a href="#P119">119</a> +</p> + +<p class="index"> +Air-breathing vertebrata, <a href="#P23">23</a>, <a +href="#P24">24</a> +</p> + +<p class="index"> +Air-raids, <a href="#P413">413</a> +</p> + +<p class="index"> +Aix-la-Chapelle, <a href="#P265">265</a> +</p> + +<p class="index"> +Akbar, <a href="#P292">292</a>, <a href="#P332">332</a>, <a +href="#P433">433</a> +</p> + +<p class="index"> +Akkadian and Akkadians, <a href="#P90">90</a>, <a +href="#P122">122</a>, <a href="#P429">429</a> +</p> + +<p class="index"> +Alabama, <a href="#P385">385</a> +</p> + +<p class="index"> +<i>Alabama</i>, the, <a href="#P388">388</a> +</p> + +<p class="index"> +Alani, <a href="#P227">227</a>, <a href="#P430">430</a> +</p> + +<p class="index"> +Alaric, <a href="#P230">230</a>, <a href="#P232">232</a>, <a +href="#P431">431</a> +</p> + +<p class="index"> +Albania, <a href="#P179">179</a> +</p> + +<p class="index"> +Albert of Saxe-Coburg-Gotha (Prince Consort), <a href="#P434">434</a> +</p> + +<p class="index"> +Alchemists, <a href="#P257">257</a>, <a href="#P294">294</a> +</p> + +<p class="index"> +Aldebaran, <a href="#P257">257</a> +</p> + +<p class="index"> +Alemanni, <a href="#P200">200</a>, <a href="#P431">431</a> +</p> + +<p class="index"> +Alexander I. Tsar, <a href="#P348">348</a> +</p> + +<p class="index"> +Alexander II of Russia, <a href="#P435">435</a> +</p> + +<p class="index"> +Alexander III, Pope, <a href="#P274">274</a>, <a href="#P432">432</a> +</p> + +<p class="index"> +Alexander the Great, <a href="#P142">142</a>, <a href="#P146">146 +<i>et seq.</i></a>, <a href="#P163">163</a>, <a href="#P186">186</a>, +<a href="#P240">240</a>, <a href="#P299">299</a>, <a +href="#P430">430</a> +</p> + +<p class="index"> +Alexandretta, <a href="#P147">147</a> +</p> + +<p class="index"> +Alexandria, <a href="#P147">147</a>, <a href="#P151">151</a>, <a +href="#P209">209</a>, <a href="#P222">222</a>, <a +href="#P239">239</a> +</p> + +<p class="index"> +Alexandria, library at, <a href="#P151">151</a> +</p> + +<p class="index"> +Alexandria, museum of, <a href="#P150">150</a>, <a +href="#P180">180</a> +</p> + +<p class="index"> +Alexius Comnenus, <a href="#P268">268</a> +</p> + +<p class="index"> +Alfred the Great, <a href="#P26">26</a> +</p> + +<p class="index"> +Algæ, <a href="#P13">13</a> +</p> + +<p class="index"> +Algebra, <a href="#P257">257</a>, <a href="#P282">282</a> +</p> + +<p class="index"> +Algiers, <a href="#P185">185</a> +</p> + +<p class="index"> +Algol, <a href="#P257">257</a> +</p> + +<p class="index"> +Allah, <a href="#P252">252</a> +</p> + +<p class="index"> +Alligators, <a href="#P28">28</a> +</p> + +<p class="index"> +Alphabets, <a href="#P79">79</a>, <a href="#P127">127</a> +</p> + +<p class="index"> +Alps, the, <a href="#P37">37</a>, <a href="#P197">197</a> +</p> + +<p class="index"> +Alsace, <a href="#P200">200</a>, <a href="#P309">309</a>, <a +href="#P391">391</a> +</p> + +<p class="index"> +Aluminium, <a href="#P360">360</a> +</p> + +<p class="index"> +Amenophis III, <a href="#P96">96</a>, <a href="#P429">429</a> +</p> + +<p class="index"> +Amenophis IV, <a href="#P96">96</a> +</p> + +<p class="index"> +America, <a href="#P263">263</a>, <a href="#P302">302</a>, <a +href="#P309">309</a>, <a href="#P314">314</a>, <a +href="#P324">324</a>, <a href="#P335">335</a>, <a +href="#P336">336</a>, <a href="#P422">442-23</a>, <a +href="#P434">434</a> +</p> + +<p class="index"> +America, North, <a href="#P12">12</a>, <a href="#P330">330</a>, <a +href="#P336">336</a>, <a href="#P382">382</a> +</p> + +<p class="index"> +American Civil War, <a href="#P386">386</a>, <a href="#P435">435</a> +</p> + +<p class="index"> +American civilizations, primitive, <a href="#P73">73</a> <i>et +seq.</i> +</p> + +<p class="index"> +American warships in Japanese waters, <a href="#P402">402</a> +</p> + +<p class="index"> +Ammonites, <a href="#P30">30</a>, <a href="#P36">36</a> +</p> + +<p class="index"> +Amorites, <a href="#P90">90</a> +</p> + +<p class="index"> +Amos, the prophet, <a href="#P124">124</a> +</p> + +<p class="index"> +Amphibia, <a href="#P24">24</a> +</p> + +<p class="index"> +Amphitheatres, <a href="#P208">208</a> +</p> + +<p class="index"> +Amur, <a href="#P334">334</a> +</p> + +<p class="index"> +Anagni, <a href="#P284">284</a> +</p> + +<p class="index"> +Anatomy, <a href="#P24">24</a>, <a href="#P355">355</a> +</p> + +<p class="index"> +Anaxagoras, <a href="#P138">138</a> +</p> + +<p class="index"> +Anaximander of Miletus, <a href="#P132">132</a> +</p> + +<p class="index"> +Andes, <a href="#P37">37</a> +</p> + +<p class="index"> +Angles, <a href="#P230">230</a> +</p> + +<p class="index"> +Anglo-Egyptian Sudan, <a href="#P405">405</a> +</p> + +<p class="index"> +Animals, (<i>See</i> Mammalia) +</p> + +<p class="index"> +Annam, <a href="#P402">402</a> +</p> + +<p class="index"> +Anti-aircraft guns, <a href="#P413">413</a> +</p> + +<p class="index"> +Antigonus, <a href="#P149">149</a> +</p> + +<p class="index"> +Antioch, <a href="#P243">243</a>, <a href="#P271">271</a>, <a +href="#P431">431</a> +</p> + +<p class="index"> +Antiochus III, <a href="#P183">183</a> +</p> + +<p class="index"> +Anti-Slavery Society, <a href="#P384">384</a> +</p> + +<p class="index"> +Antoninus Pius, <a href="#P195">195</a>, <a href="#P430">430</a> +</p> + +<p class="index"> +Antony, Mark, <a href="#P194">194</a> +</p> + +<p class="index"> +Antwerp, <a href="#P294">294</a> +</p> + +<p class="index"> +Anubis, <a href="#P210">210</a> +</p> + +<p class="index"> +Apes, <a href="#P43">43</a>, <a href="#P44">44</a>; anthropoid, + <a href="#P45">45</a> +</p> + +<p class="index"> +Apis, <a href="#P209">209</a>, <a href="#P211">211</a> +</p> + +<p class="index"> +Apollonius, <a href="#P151">151</a> +</p> + +<p class="index"> +Appian Way, <a href="#P191">191</a> +</p> + +<p class="index"> +Appomattox Court House, <a href="#P388">338</a>, <a +href="#P435">435</a> +</p> + +<p class="index"> +Aquileia, <a href="#P235">235</a> +</p> + +<p class="index"> +Arabia, <a href="#P77">77</a>, <a href="#P88">88</a>, <a +href="#P91">91</a>, <a href="#P122">122</a>, <a href="#P123">123</a>, +<a href="#P248">248</a> +</p> + +<p class="index"> +Arabic figures, <a href="#P257">257</a> +</p> + +<p class="index"> +Arabic language, <a href="#P243">243</a> +</p> + +<p class="index"> +Arabs, <a href="#P253">253 <i>et seq.</i></a>, <a href="#P294">294; +culture of</a>, <a href="#P267">267</a> +</p> + +<p class="index"> +Arbela, battle of, <a href="#P147">147</a>, <a href="#P431">431</a> +</p> + +<p class="index"> +Arcadius, <a href="#P230">230</a>, <a href="#P431">431</a> +</p> + +<p class="index"> +Archangel, <a href="#P419">419</a> +</p> + +<p class="index"> +Archimedes, <a href="#P151">151</a> +</p> + +<p class="index"> +Ardashir I, <a href="#P241">241</a>, <a href="#P430">430</a> +</p> + +<p class="index"> +Argentine Republic, <a href="#P396">396</a> +</p> + +<p class="index"> +Arians, <a href="#P224">224</a> +</p> + +<p class="index"> +Aristocracy, <a href="#P130">130</a> +</p> + +<p class="index"> +Aristotle, <a href="#P142">142</a>, <a href="#P144">144</a>, <a +href="#P146">146</a>, <a href="#P256">256</a>, <a +href="#P282">282</a>, <a href="#P294">294</a>, <a +href="#P295">295</a>, <a href="#P356">356</a>, <a +href="#P370">370</a> +</p> + +<p class="index"> +Armadillo, <a href="#P74">74</a> +</p> + +<p class="index"> +Armenia, <a href="#P192">192</a>, <a href="#P268">268</a>, <a +href="#P287">287</a>, <a href="#P299">299</a> +</p> + +<p class="index"> +Armenians, <a href="#P100">100</a>, <a href="#P108">108</a> +</p> + +<p class="index"> +Armistice, the, <a href="#P435">435</a> +</p> + +<p class="index"> +Arno, the, <a href="#P178">178</a> +</p> + +<p class="index"> +Arsacid dynasty, <a href="#P199">199</a>, <a href="#P431">431</a> +</p> + +<p class="index"> +Artizans, <a href="#P152">152</a> +</p> + +<p class="index"> +Aryan language, <a href="#P95">95</a>, <a href="#P100">100</a>, <a +href="#P106">106</a> +</p> + +<p class="index"> +Aryans, <a href="#P95">95</a>, <a href="#P104">104 <i>et +seq.</i></a>, <a href="#P122">122</a>, <a href="#P128">128</a>, <a +href="#P151">151</a>, <a href="#P174">174</a>, <a +href="#P176">176</a>, <a href="#P185">185</a>, <a +href="#P197">197</a>, <a href="#P198">198</a>, <a +href="#P233">233</a>, <a href="#P303">303</a>, <a +href="#P429">429</a> +</p> + +<p class="index"> +Ascalon, <a href="#P117">117</a> +</p> + +<p class="index"> +Asceticism, <a href="#P158">158-60</a>, <a href="#P213">213</a> +</p> + +<p class="index"> +Ashdod, <a href="#P117">117</a> +</p> + +<p class="index"> +Asia, <a href="#P72">72</a>, <a href="#P197">197</a>, <a +href="#P227">227</a>, <a href="#P287">287</a>, <a +href="#P298">298</a>, <a href="#P329">329 <i>et seq.</i></a>, <a +href="#P333">333</a>, <a href="#P399">399 <i>et seq.</i></a>, <a +href="#P403">403 <i>et seq.</i></a>, <a href="#P430">430</a> +</p> + +<p class="index"> +Asia, Central, <a href="#P108">108</a>, <a href="#P122">122</a>, <a +href="#P134">134</a>, <a href="#P148">148</a>, <a +href="#P185">185</a>, <a href="#P245">245-47</a>, <a +href="#P255">255</a>, <a href="#P334">334</a> +</p> + +<p class="index"> +Asia Minor, <a href="#P92">92</a>, <a href="#P94">94</a>, <a +href="#P108">108</a>, <a href="#P127">127</a>, <a +href="#P134">134</a>, <a href="#P148">148</a>, <a +href="#P180">180</a>, <a href="#P192">192-93</a>, <a +href="#P238">238</a>, <a href="#P243">243</a>, <a +href="#P258">258</a>, <a href="#P271">271</a>, <a +href="#P292">292</a>, <a href="#P429">429</a>, <a +href="#P430">430</a>, <a href="#P431">431</a> +</p> + +<p class="index"> +Asia, Western, <a href="#P65">65</a> +</p> + +<p class="index"> +Asoka, King, <a href="#P163">163</a> <i>et seq.</i>, <a +href="#P180">180</a>, <a href="#P430">430</a> +</p> + +<p class="index"> +Assam, <a href="#P394">394</a> +</p> + +<p class="index"> +Asses, <a href="#P77">77</a>, <a href="#P83">83</a>, <a +href="#P102">102</a>, <a href="#P112">112</a> +</p> + +<p class="index"> +Assurbanipal (Sardanapalus), <a href="#P97">97</a>, <a +href="#P98">98</a>, <a href="#P109">109</a>, <a href="#P110">110</a> +</p> + +<p class="index"> +Assyria, <a href="#P109">109</a>, <a href="#P115">115</a>, <a +href="#P119">119</a>, <a href="#P121">121</a>, <a +href="#P122">122</a>, <a href="#P429">429</a> +</p> + +<p class="index"> +Assyrians, <a href="#P84">84</a>, <a href="#P96">96</a>, <a +href="#P97">97</a>, <a href="#P98">98</a>, <a href="#P108">108</a>, +<a href="#P429">429</a> +</p> + +<p class="index"> +Astronomy, early, <a href="#P70">70</a>, <a href="#P74">74</a> +</p> + +<p class="index"> +Athanasian Creed, <a href="#P224">224</a> +</p> + +<p class="index"> +Athenians, <a href="#P135">135</a> +</p> + +<p class="index"> +Athens, <a href="#P129">129</a>, <a href="#P135">135-36</a>, <a +href="#P139">139</a>, <a href="#P150">150</a>, <a +href="#P185">185</a>, <a href="#P204">204</a>, <a +href="#P431">431</a> +</p> + +<p class="index"> +Athens, schools of philosophy in, <a href="#P238">238</a> +</p> + +<p class="index"> +Atkinson, C. F., <a href="#P345">345</a> +</p> + +<p class="index"> +Atkinson, J. J., <a href="#P61">61</a>, <a href="#P373">373</a> +</p> + +<p class="index"> +Atlantic, <a href="#P122">122</a>, <a href="#P302">302</a> +</p> + +<p class="index"> +Attalus, <a href="#P430">430</a> +</p> + +<p class="index"> +Attila, <a href="#P234">234</a>, <a href="#P235">235</a>, <a +href="#P238">238</a>, <a href="#P431">431</a> +</p> + +<p class="index"> +Augsburg, Interim of, <a href="#P313">313</a> +</p> + +<p class="index"> +Augustus Cæsar, Roman Emperor, <a href="#P195">195</a>, <a +href="#P214">214</a> +</p> + +<p class="index"> +Aurelian, Emperor, <a href="#P200">200</a> +</p> + +<p class="index"> +Aurochs, <a href="#P197">197</a> +</p> + +<p class="index"> +Aurungzeb, <a href="#P434">434</a> +</p> + +<p class="index"> +Ausculum, battle of, <a href="#P178">178</a>, <a href="#P430">430</a> +</p> + +<p class="index"> +Australia, <a href="#P72">72</a>, <a href="#P322">322</a>, <a +href="#P336">336</a>, <a href="#P395">395</a>, <a +href="#P405">405</a> +</p> + +<p class="index"> +Austrasia, <a href="#P431">431</a> +</p> + +<p class="index"> +Austria, <a href="#P309">309</a>, <a href="#P327">327</a>, <a +href="#P347">347-48</a>, <a href="#P349">349-52</a>, <a +href="#P390">390</a>, <a href="#P411">411</a>, <a +href="#P434">434</a> +</p> + +<p class="index"> +Austrian Empire, <a href="#P409">409</a> +</p> + +<p class="index"> +Austrians, <a href="#P344">344</a>, <a href="#P351">351</a> +</p> + +<p class="index"> +Automobiles, <a href="#P362">362</a> +</p> + +<p class="index"> +Avars, <a href="#P289">289</a> +</p> + +<p class="index"> +Avebury, <a href="#P106">106</a> +</p> + +<p class="index"> +Averroes, <a href="#P282">282</a> +</p> + +<p class="index"> +Avignon, <a href="#P285">285</a>, <a href="#P433">433</a> +</p> + +<p class="index"> +Axis of earth, <a href="#P1">1</a>, <a href="#P2">2</a> +</p> + +<p class="index"> +Azilian age, <a href="#P57">57</a>, <a href="#P65">65</a> +</p> + +<p class="index"> +Azilian rock pictures, <a href="#P57">57</a>, <a href="#P78">78</a> +</p> + +<p class="index"> +Azoic rocks, <a href="#P11">11</a> +</p> + +<p class="index"> +Azores, <a href="#P302">302</a> +</p> + +<p> +B +</p> + +<p class="index"> +Baber, <a href="#P290">290</a>, <a href="#P310">310</a>, <a +href="#P332">332</a>, <a href="#P433">433</a> +</p> + +<p class="index"> +Baboons, <a href="#P43">43</a> +</p> + +<p class="index"> +Babylon, <a href="#P90">90</a>, <a href="#P94">94</a>, <a +href="#P96">96</a>, <a href="#P97">97</a>, <a href="#P101">101</a>, +<a href="#P102">102</a>, <a href="#P111">111</a>, <a +href="#P112">112</a>, <a href="#P114">114</a>, <a href="#P115">115- +16</a>, <a href="#P119">119</a>, <a href="#P121">121</a>, <a +href="#P122">122</a>, <a href="#P134">134</a>, <a +href="#P147">147</a>, <a href="#P148">148</a>, <a +href="#P373">373</a>, <a href="#P429">429</a> +</p> + +<p class="index"> +Babylonian calendar, <a href="#P68">68</a> +</p> + +<p class="index"> +Babylonian Empire, <a href="#P90">90</a>, <a href="#P91">91</a>, <a +href="#P109">109</a>, <a href="#P110">110</a> +</p> + +<p class="index"> +Babylonians, <a href="#P108">108</a> +</p> + +<p class="index"> +Bacon, Roger, <a href="#P293">293-97</a>, <a href="#P433">433</a> +</p> + +<p class="index"> +Bacon, Sir Francis, <a href="#P321">321</a>, <a href="#P355">355</a>, +<a href="#P433">433</a> +</p> + +<p class="index"> +Bagdad, <a href="#P256">256</a>, <a href="#P267">267</a>, <a +href="#P290">290</a>, <a href="#P292">292</a>, <a +href="#P432">432</a>, <a href="#P433">433</a> +</p> + +<p class="index"> +Bahamas, <a href="#P407">407</a> +</p> + +<p class="index"> +Baldwin of Flanders, <a href="#P272">272</a> +</p> + +<p class="index"> +Balkan peninsula, <a href="#P108">108</a>, <a href="#P200">200</a>, +<a href="#P230">230</a>, <a href="#P392">392</a>, <a +href="#P429">429</a> +</p> + +<p class="index"> +Balkh, <a href="#P299">299</a> +</p> + +<p class="index"> +Balloons, altitude attained by, <a href="#P4">4</a> +</p> + +<p class="index"> +Baltic, <a href="#P415">415</a> +</p> + +<p class="index"> +Baltic Fleet, Russian, <a href="#P404">404</a> +</p> + +<p class="index"> +Baluchistan, <a href="#P405">405</a> +</p> + +<p class="index"> +Barbarians, <a href="#P227">227 <i>et seq.</i></a>, <a +href="#P230">230</a>, <a href="#P320">320</a> +</p> + +<p class="index"> +Barbarossa. Frederick, (<i>See</i> Frederick I) +</p> + +<p class="index"> +Bards, <a href="#P106">106</a>, <a href="#P234">234</a> +</p> + +<p class="index"> +Barrows, <a href="#P104">104</a> +</p> + +<p class="index"> +Barter, <a href="#P83">83</a>, <a href="#P102">102</a> +</p> + +<p class="index"> +Basketwork, <a href="#P65">65</a> +</p> + +<p class="index"> +Basle, Council of, <a href="#P305">305</a> +</p> + +<p class="index"> +Basque race, <a href="#P92">92</a>, <a href="#P107">107</a> +</p> + +<p class="index"> +Bastille, <a href="#P342">342</a>, <a href="#P434">434</a> +</p> + +<p class="index"> +Basutoland, <a href="#P407">407</a> +</p> + +<p class="index"> +Beaconsfield, Lord, <a href="#P394">394</a> +</p> + +<p class="index"> +Bedouins, <a href="#P122">122</a>, <a href="#P248">248</a> +</p> + +<p class="index"> +Beetles, <a href="#P26">26</a> +</p> + +<p class="index"> +Behar, <a href="#P180">180</a>, <a href="#P430">430</a> +</p> + +<p class="index"> +Behring Straits, <a href="#P52">52</a>, <a href="#P71">71</a>, <a +href="#P73">73</a> +</p> + +<p class="index"> +Bel Marduk, <a href="#P109">109</a>, <a href="#P111">111</a>, <a +href="#P112">112</a>, <a href="#P114">114</a> +</p> + +<p class="index"> +Belgium, <a href="#P185">185</a>, <a href="#P344">344</a>, <a +href="#P347">347</a>, <a href="#P352">352</a>, <a +href="#P411">411</a>, <a href="#P434">434</a> +</p> + +<p class="index"> +Belisarius, <a href="#P431">421</a> +</p> + +<p class="index"> +Belshazzar, <a href="#P112">112</a> +</p> + +<p class="index"> +Beluchistan, <a href="#P149">149</a> +</p> + +<p class="index"> +Benares, <a href="#P156">156</a>, <a href="#P160">160</a> +</p> + +<p class="index"> +Beneventum, <a href="#P179">179</a> +</p> + +<p class="index"> +Berbers, <a href="#P71">71</a>, <a href="#P92">92</a> +</p> + +<p class="index"> +Bergen, <a href="#P294">294</a> +</p> + +<p class="index"> +Berlin, Treaty of, <a href="#P435">435</a> +</p> + +<p class="index"> +Bermuda, <a href="#P407">407</a> +</p> + +<p class="index"> +Bessemer process, <a href="#P359">359</a> +</p> + +<p class="index"> +Beth-shan, <a href="#P118">118</a> +</p> + +<p class="index"> +Bible, <a href="#P1">1</a>, <a href="#P68">68</a>, <a +href="#P100">100</a>, <a href="#P112">112</a>, <a +href="#P115">115</a>, <a href="#P116">116</a>, <a +href="#P119">119</a>, <a href="#P121">121</a>, <a +href="#P122">122</a>, <a href="#P184">184</a>, <a +href="#P286">286</a>, <a href="#P298">298</a>, <a href="#P306">306-07 +(<i>Cf.</i> Hebrew Bible)</a> +</p> + +<p class="index"> +Birds, flight of, <a href="#P4">4; the earliest </a>, <a +href="#P31">31; development of </a>, <a href="#P32">32</a> +</p> + +<p class="index"> +Bison, <a href="#P56">56</a> +</p> + +<p class="index"> +Black Death, the, <a href="#P433">433</a> +</p> + +<p class="index"> +Black Sea, <a href="#P71">71</a>, <a href="#P94">94-95</a>, <a +href="#P108">108</a>, <a href="#P129">129</a>, <a +href="#P200">200</a> +</p> + +<p class="index"> +Blood sacrifice, <a href="#P167">167</a>, <a href="#P186">186</a>, <a +href="#P212">212</a> (<i>See also</i> Sacrifice) +</p> + +<p class="index"> +Boats, <a href="#P91">91</a>, <a href="#P136">136</a> +</p> + +<p class="index"> +Boer republic, <a href="#P187">187</a> +</p> + +<p class="index"> +Boers, <a href="#P398">398</a> +</p> + +<p class="index"> +Bohemia, <a href="#P236">236</a>, <a href="#P306">306</a> +</p> + +<p class="index"> +Bohemians, <a href="#P304">304-05</a>, <a href="#P326">326</a> +</p> + +<p class="index"> +Bokhara, <a href="#P256">256</a> +</p> + +<p class="index"> +Boleyn, Anne, <a href="#P313">313</a> +</p> + +<p class="index"> +Bolivar, General, <a href="#P349">349</a> +</p> + +<p class="index"> +Bologna, <a href="#P295">295</a>, <a href="#P312">312</a> +</p> + +<p class="index"> +Bolsheviks (and Bolshevism), <a href="#P417">417-19</a>, <a +href="#P435">435</a> +</p> + +<p class="index"> +Bone carvings, <a href="#P53">53</a> +</p> + +<p class="index"> +Bone implements, <a href="#P45">45</a>, <a href="#P46">46</a> +</p> + +<p class="index"> +Boniface VIII, Pope, <a href="#P283">283-84</a> +</p> + +<p class="index"> +“Book religions,” <a href="#P226">226</a> +</p> + +<p class="index"> +Books, <a href="#P153">153</a>, <a href="#P298">298</a>, <a +href="#P302">302</a> +</p> + +<p class="index"> +Boötes, <a href="#P257">257</a> +</p> + +<p class="index"> +Boris, King of Bulgaria, <a href="#P432">432</a> +</p> + +<p class="index"> +Bosnia, <a href="#P228">228</a> +</p> + +<p class="index"> +Bosphorus, <a href="#P135">135</a> +</p> + +<p class="index"> +Boston, <a href="#P337">337-38</a> +</p> + +<p class="index"> +Bostra, <a href="#P243">243</a> +</p> + +<p class="index"> +Botany Bay, <a href="#P393">393</a> +</p> + +<p class="index"> +Bourbon, Constable of, <a href="#P312">312</a>, <a +href="#P433">433</a> +</p> + +<p class="index"> +Bowmen, <a href="#P145">145</a>, <a href="#P155">155</a>, <a +href="#P300">300</a> +</p> + +<p class="index"> +Brahmins and Brahminism, <a href="#P165">165</a>, <a +href="#P166">166</a> +</p> + +<p class="index"> +Brain, <a href="#P42">42</a> +</p> + +<p class="index"> +Brazil, <a href="#P329">329</a>, <a href="#P336">336</a>, <a +href="#P340">340</a> +</p> + +<p class="index"> +Breathing, <a href="#P24">24</a> +</p> + +<p class="index"> +Brest-Litovsk, <a href="#P417">417</a> +</p> + +<p class="index"> +Britain, <a href="#P106">106</a>, <a href="#P122">122</a>, <a +href="#P174">174</a>, <a href="#P185">185</a>, <a +href="#P203">203</a>, <a href="#P236">236</a>, <a +href="#P349">349</a>, <a href="#P353">353</a>, <a +href="#P402">402</a>, <a href="#P431">431</a>, <a +href="#P434">434</a>, (<i>See also</i> England, Great Britain) +</p> + +<p class="index"> +British, <a href="#P329">329</a>, <a href="#P331">331</a> +</p> + +<p class="index"> +British Civil Air Transport Commission, <a href="#P363">363</a> +</p> + +<p class="index"> +British East Indian Company, (<i>See</i> East India Company) +</p> + +<p class="index"> +British Empire, <a href="#P407">407</a>; (in 1815) + <a href="#P393">393</a>; (in 1914) <a href="#P405">405</a> +</p> + +<p class="index"> +British Guianu. <a href="#P393">393</a> +</p> + +<p class="index"> +British Navy, <a href="#P408">408</a> +</p> + +<p class="index"> +“British schools,” the, <a href="#P369">369</a> +</p> + +<p class="index"> +Brittany, <a href="#P309">309</a> +</p> + +<p class="index"> +Broken Hill, South Africa, <a href="#P52">52</a> +</p> + +<p class="index"> +Bronze, <a href="#P80">80</a>, <a href="#P87">87</a>, <a +href="#P102">102</a>, <a href="#P104">104</a> +</p> + +<p class="index"> +Bruges, <a href="#P294">294</a> +</p> + +<p class="index"> +Brussels, <a href="#P344">344</a> +</p> + +<p class="index"> +Brythonic Celts, <a href="#P107">107</a> +</p> + +<p class="index"> +Buda-Pesth, <a href="#P312">312</a> +</p> + +<p class="index"> +Buddha, <a href="#P133">133</a>, <a href="#P156">156</a>, <a +href="#P172">172</a>, <a href="#P213">213</a> <a +href="#P429">429</a>; life of <a href="#P158">158</a>; his teaching +<a href="#P161">161-62</a> +</p> + +<p class="index"> +Buddhism (and Buddhists), <a href="#P166">166</a>, <a +href="#P172">172</a>, <a href="#P222">222</a>, <a +href="#P255">255</a>, <a href="#P290">290</a>, <a +href="#P319">319</a>, <a href="#P334">334</a>, <a +href="#P400">400</a>, (<i>See also</i> Buddha) +</p> + +<p class="index"> +Bulgaria, <a href="#P135">135</a>, <a href="#P229">229</a>, <a +href="#P245">245</a>, <a href="#P292">292</a>, <a +href="#P411">411</a>, <a href="#P432">432</a> +</p> + +<p class="index"> +Bull fights, Cretan, <a href="#P93">93</a> +</p> + +<p class="index"> +Burgoyne, General, <a href="#P338">338</a> +</p> + +<p class="index"> +Burgundy, <a href="#P309">309</a>, <a href="#P342">342</a> +</p> + +<p class="index"> +Burial, early, <a href="#P102">102</a>, <a href="#P104">104</a> +</p> + +<p class="index"> +Burleigh. Lord, <a href="#P324">324</a> +</p> + +<p class="index"> +Burma, <a href="#P166">166</a>, <a href="#P300">300</a>, <a +href="#P405">405</a> +</p> + +<p class="index"> +Burning the dead, <a href="#P104">104</a> +</p> + +<p class="index"> +Bury, J. B., <a href="#P288">288</a> +</p> + +<p class="index"> +Bushmen, <a href="#P54">54</a> +</p> + +<p class="index"> +Byzantine Army, <a href="#P253">253</a> +</p> + +<p class="index"> +Byzantine Empire, <a href="#P238">238</a>, <a href="#P271">271-72</a> +</p> + +<p class="index"> +Byzantine fleet, <a href="#P431">431</a> +</p> + +<p class="index"> +Byzantium, <a href="#P228">228</a>, <a href="#P243">243</a>, <a +href="#P267">267</a>, <a href="#P268">268</a>, (<i>See also</i> +Constantinople) +</p> + +<p> +C +</p> + +<p class="index"> +Cabul, <a href="#P148">148</a> +</p> + +<p class="index"> +Cæsar, Augustus, <a href="#P430">430</a> +</p> + +<p class="index"> +Cæsar, Julius, <a href="#P187">187</a>, <a href="#P192">192</a>, +<a href="#P193">193</a>, <a href="#P194">194</a>, <a +href="#P195">195</a>, <a href="#P430">430</a> +</p> + +<p class="index"> +Cæsar, title, etc., <a href="#P212">212</a>, <a +href="#P223">223</a>, <a href="#P240">240</a>, <a +href="#P327">327</a> +</p> + +<p class="index"> +Cainozoic period, <a href="#P37">37</a> <i>et seq.</i> +</p> + +<p class="index"> +Cairo, <a href="#P256">256</a> +</p> + +<p class="index"> +Calendar, <a href="#P68">68</a> +</p> + +<p class="index"> +Calicut, <a href="#P329">329</a> +</p> + +<p class="index"> +California, <a href="#P336">336</a>, <a href="#P383">383</a> +</p> + +<p class="index"> +Caligula, <a href="#P195">195</a>, <a href="#P430">430</a> +</p> + +<p class="index"> +Caliphs, <a href="#P252">252</a> +</p> + +<p class="index"> +“Cambulac,” <a href="#P300">300</a> +</p> + +<p class="index"> +Cambyses, <a href="#P112">112</a>, <a href="#P134">134</a> +</p> + +<p class="index"> +Camels, <a href="#P42">42</a>, <a href="#P102">102</a>, <a +href="#P112">112</a>, <a href="#P196">196</a>, <a +href="#P319">319</a> +</p> + +<p class="index"> +Campanella, <a href="#P371">371</a> +</p> + +<p class="index"> +Canaan, <a href="#P116">116</a> +</p> + +<p class="index"> +Canada, <a href="#P332">332</a>, <a href="#P396">396</a>, <a +href="#P405">405</a>, <a href="#P434">434</a> +</p> + +<p class="index"> +Canary Islands, <a href="#P302">302</a> +</p> + +<p class="index"> +Cannæ, <a href="#P182">182</a> +</p> + +<p class="index"> +Canossa, <a href="#P274">274</a> +</p> + +<p class="index"> +Canton, <a href="#P247">247</a> +</p> + +<p class="index"> +Canute, <a href="#P263">263</a>, <a href="#P432">432</a> +</p> + +<p class="index"> +Cape Colony, <a href="#P398">398</a> +</p> + +<p class="index"> +Cape of Good Hope, <a href="#P336">336</a>, <a href="#P393">393</a>, +<a href="#P433">433</a> +</p> + +<p class="index"> +Capet, Hugh, <a href="#P266">266</a>, <a href="#P432">432</a> +</p> + +<p class="index"> +Carboniferous age. (<i>See</i> Coal swamps) +</p> + +<p class="index"> +Cardinals, <a href="#P277">277</a> <i>et seq.</i> +</p> + +<p class="index"> +Caria, <a href="#P98">98</a> +</p> + +<p class="index"> +Carians, <a href="#P94">94</a> +</p> + +<p class="index"> +Caribou, <a href="#P73">73</a> +</p> + +<p class="index"> +Carlovingian Empire, <a href="#P432">432</a> +</p> + +<p class="index"> +Carnac, <a href="#P106">106</a> +</p> + +<p class="index"> +Carolinas, <a href="#P388">388</a> +</p> + +<p class="index"> +Carrhæ, <a href="#P194">194</a> +</p> + +<p class="index"> +Carthage, <a href="#P92">92</a>, <a href="#P122">122</a>, <a +href="#P123">123</a>, <a href="#P134">134</a>, <a +href="#P176">176</a>, <a href="#P179">179</a>, <a +href="#P182">182</a>, <a href="#P183">183</a>, <a +href="#P185">185</a>, <a href="#P232">232</a>, <a href="#P429">429- +30</a>, <a href="#P431">431</a> +</p> + +<p class="index"> +Carthaginians, <a href="#P179">179</a>, <a href="#P182">182</a> +</p> + +<p class="index"> +Caspian Sea, <a href="#P71">71</a>, <a href="#P88">88</a>, <a +href="#P108">108</a>, <a href="#P148">148</a>, <a +href="#P193">193</a>, <a href="#P197">197</a>, <a +href="#P430">430</a> +</p> + +<p class="index"> +Caste, <a href="#P157">157</a>, <a href="#P165">165</a> +</p> + +<p class="index"> +Catalonians, <a href="#P302">302</a> +</p> + +<p class="index"> +“Cathay,” <a href="#P300">300</a> +</p> + +<p class="index"> +Catholicism, <a href="#P237">237</a>, <a href="#P337">337</a>, <a +href="#P351">351</a>. (<i>See also</i> Papacy, Roman Catholic) +</p> + +<p class="index"> +Cato, <a href="#P187">187</a> +</p> + +<p class="index"> +Cattle, <a href="#P77">77</a>, <a href="#P83">83</a> +</p> + +<p class="index"> +Caudine Forks, <a href="#P430">430</a> +</p> + +<p class="index"> +Cavalry, <a href="#P145">145</a>, <a href="#P148">148</a>, <a +href="#P178">178</a> +</p> + +<p class="index"> +Cave drawings, <a href="#P53">53</a>, <a href="#P56">56</a>, <a +href="#P57">57</a> +</p> + +<p class="index"> +Caxton, William, <a href="#P306">306</a> +</p> + +<p class="index"> +Celibacy, <a href="#P275">275</a> +</p> + +<p class="index"> +Celts, <a href="#P106">106</a>, <a href="#P107">107</a>, <a +href="#P193">193</a> +</p> + +<p class="index"> +Centipedes, <a href="#P23">23</a> +</p> + +<p class="index"> +Ceylon, <a href="#P165">165</a>, <a href="#P407">407</a> +</p> + +<p class="index"> +Chæronia, battle of, <a href="#P145">145</a>, <a +href="#P146">146</a>, <a href="#P430">430</a> +</p> + +<p class="index"> +Chalcedon, <a href="#P243">243</a> +</p> + +<p class="index"> +Chaldean Empire, <a href="#P109">109</a> +</p> + +<p class="index"> +Chaldeans, <a href="#P109">109</a>, <a href="#P110">110-11</a>, <a +href="#P115">115</a>, <a href="#P429">429</a> +</p> + +<p class="index"> +Chandragupta, <a href="#P163">163</a>, <a href="#P430">430</a> +</p> + +<p class="index"> +Chariots, <a href="#P96">96</a>, <a href="#P100">100</a>, <a +href="#P101">101-02</a>, <a href="#P112">112</a>, <a +href="#P119">119</a>, <a href="#P145">145</a>, <a +href="#P148">148</a> +</p> + +<p class="index"> +Charlemagne, <a href="#P259">259</a>, <a href="#P261">261</a>, <a +href="#P264">264-65</a>, <a href="#P272">272</a>, <a +href="#P309">309</a>, <a href="#P432">432</a> +</p> + +<p class="index"> +Charles I, King of England, <a href="#P308">308</a>, <a +href="#P314">314</a>, <a href="#P433">433</a> +</p> + +<p class="index"> +Charles II, King of England, <a href="#P324">324</a>, <a +href="#P434">434</a> +</p> + +<p class="index"> +Charles V, Emperor, <a href="#P309">309</a>, <a href="#P310">310</a>, +<a href="#P314">314</a>, <a href="#P316">316</a>, <a +href="#P433">433</a> +</p> + +<p class="index"> +Charles X, King of France, <a href="#P350">350</a>, <a +href="#P434">434</a> +</p> + +<p class="index"> +Charles the Great, (<i>See</i> Charlemagne) +</p> + +<p class="index"> +<i>Charlotte Dundas</i>, steamboat, <a href="#P357">357</a> +</p> + +<p class="index"> +Chelonia, <a href="#P27">27</a> +</p> + +<p class="index"> +Chemists, Arab, <a href="#P257">257</a>. (<i>Cf.</i> Alchemists) +</p> + +<p class="index"> +Cheops, <a href="#P83">83</a> +</p> + +<p class="index"> +Chephren, <a href="#P83">83</a> +</p> + +<p class="index"> +China, <a href="#P76">76</a>, <a href="#P84">84</a>, <a +href="#P103">103</a>, <a href="#P166">166</a>, <a +href="#P167">167</a> <i>et seq.</i>, <a href="#P173">173</a>, <a +href="#P174">174</a>, <a href="#P233">233</a>, <a +href="#P245">245</a> <i>et seq.</i>, <a href="#P248">248</a>, <a +href="#P287">287</a>, <a href="#P290">290</a>, <a +href="#P297">297</a>, <a href="#P333">333</a>, <a href="#P399">399- +400</a>, <a href="#P402">402-03</a>, <a href="#P411">411</a>, <a +href="#P429">429-31</a>, <a href="#P432">432</a>, <a +href="#P433">433</a>, <a href="#P435">435</a>. (<i>See also</i> +Chow, Han, Kin, Ming, Shang, Sung, Suy, Ts’in, and Yuan +dynasties) +</p> + +<p class="index"> +China, culture and civilization in, <a href="#P247">247</a> +</p> + +<p class="index"> +China, Empire of, <a href="#P196">196</a> <i>et seq.</i> +</p> + +<p class="index"> +China, Great Wall of, <a href="#P173">173</a>, <a +href="#P430">430</a> +</p> + +<p class="index"> +China, North, <a href="#P173">173</a> +</p> + +<p class="index"> +Chinese picture writing, <a href="#P79">79</a>, <a +href="#P167">167</a> +</p> + +<p class="index"> +Chosroes I, <a href="#P243">243</a>, <a href="#P431">431</a> +</p> + +<p class="index"> +Chosroes II, <a href="#P243">243</a>, <a href="#P431">431</a> +</p> + +<p class="index"> +Chow dynasty, <a href="#P168">168</a>, <a href="#P173">173</a>, <a +href="#P429">429</a> +</p> + +<p class="index"> +Christ. (<i>See</i> Jesus) +</p> + +<p class="index"> +Christian conception of Jesus, <a href="#P214">214</a> +</p> + +<p class="index"> +Christianity (and Christians), <a href="#P224">224</a>, <a +href="#P255">255</a>, <a href="#P272">272</a>, <a +href="#P295">295</a>, <a href="#P319">319</a>, <a +href="#P400">400</a>, <a href="#P431">431</a> +</p> + +<p class="index"> +Christianity, doctrinal, development of, <a href="#P222">222</a> +<i>et seq.</i> +</p> + +<p class="index"> +Christianity, spirit of, <a href="#P224">224</a> +</p> + +<p class="index"> +Chronicles, book of, <a href="#P116">116</a>, <a href="#P119">119</a> +</p> + +<p class="index"> +Chronology, primitive, <a href="#P68">68</a> +</p> + +<p class="index"> +Ch’u, <a href="#P173">173</a> +</p> + +<p class="index"> +Church, the, <a href="#P68">68</a> +</p> + +<p class="index"> +Cicero, <a href="#P193">193</a> +</p> + +<p class="index"> +Cilicia, <a href="#P299">299</a> +</p> + +<p class="index"> +Cimmerians, <a href="#P100">100</a> +</p> + +<p class="index"> +Circumcision, <a href="#P70">70</a> +</p> + +<p class="index"> +Circumnavigation, <a href="#P302">302</a> +</p> + +<p class="index"> +Cities, Sumerian, <a href="#P78">78</a> +</p> + +<p class="index"> +Citizenship, <a href="#P187">187</a> <i>et seq.</i>, <a +href="#P236">236</a>, <a href="#P237">237</a> +</p> + +<p class="index"> +City states, Greek, <a href="#P129">129</a> <i>et seq.</i>, Chinese, +<a href="#P168">168</a> +</p> + +<p class="index"> +Civilization, <a href="#P100">100</a> +</p> + +<p class="index"> +Civilization, Hellenic, <a href="#P139">139</a>, <a +href="#P150">150</a> <i>et seq.</i> +</p> + +<p class="index"> +Civilization, Japanese, <a href="#P400">400</a> +</p> + +<p class="index"> +Civilization, pre-historic, <a href="#P71">71</a> +</p> + +<p class="index"> +Civilization, primitive, <a href="#P76">76</a>, <a +href="#P167">167</a> +</p> + +<p class="index"> +Civilization, Roman, <a href="#P185">185</a> +</p> + +<p class="index"> +Claudius, Emperor, <a href="#P195">195</a>, <a href="#P430">430</a> +</p> + +<p class="index"> +Clay documents, <a href="#P77">77</a>, <a href="#P80">80</a>, <a +href="#P111">111</a> +</p> + +<p class="index"> +Clement V, Pope, <a href="#P285">285</a> +</p> + +<p class="index"> +Clement VII, Pope, <a href="#P285">285</a>, <a href="#P433">433</a> +</p> + +<p class="index"> +Cleopatra, <a href="#P194">194</a> +</p> + +<p class="index"> +Clermont, <a href="#P432">432</a> +</p> + +<p class="index"> +<i>Clermont</i>, steamboat, <a href="#P358">358</a> +</p> + +<p class="index"> +Climate, changes of, <a href="#P21">21</a>, <a href="#P37">37</a> +</p> + +<p class="index"> +Clive, <a href="#P333">333</a> +</p> + +<p class="index"> +Clothing, <a href="#P77">77</a> +</p> + +<p class="index"> +Clothing of Cretan women, <a href="#P93">93</a> +</p> + +<p class="index"> +Clouds, <a href="#P8">8</a> +</p> + +<p class="index"> +Clovis, <a href="#P259">259</a> +</p> + +<p class="index"> +Clyde, Firth of, <a href="#P357">357</a> +</p> + +<p class="index"> +Cnossos (Crete), <a href="#P92">92</a>, <a href="#P94">94</a>, <a +href="#P95">95</a>, <a href="#P101">101</a>, <a href="#P108">108</a>, +<a href="#P127">127</a>, <a href="#P429">429</a> +</p> + +<p class="index"> +Coal, <a href="#P26">26</a> +</p> + +<p class="index"> +Coal swamps, the age of, <a href="#P21">21</a> <i>et seq.</i> +</p> + +<p class="index"> +Coinage, <a href="#P114">114</a>, <a href="#P176">176</a>, <a +href="#P201">201</a>, <a href="#P319">319</a> +</p> + +<p class="index"> +Coke, <a href="#P322">322</a> +</p> + +<p class="index"> +Collectivists, <a href="#P375">375</a> +</p> + +<p class="index"> +Colonies, <a href="#P394">394</a> <i>et seq.</i>, <a +href="#P407">407</a> +</p> + +<p class="index"> +Columbus, Christopher, <a href="#P300">300-01</a> <i>et seq.</i>, <a +href="#P335">335</a>, <a href="#P433">433</a> +</p> + +<p class="index"> +Communism (and Communists), <a href="#P374">374-75</a>, <a +href="#P417">417</a> +</p> + +<p class="index"> +Comnenus, Alexius. (<i>See</i> Alexius) +</p> + +<p class="index"> +Comparative anatomy, science of, <a href="#P25">25</a>, (<i>Cf.</i> +Anatomy) +</p> + +<p class="index"> +Concord, Mass., <a href="#P338">338</a> +</p> + +<p class="index"> +Confederated States of America, <a href="#P385">385</a> +</p> + +<p class="index"> +Confucius, <a href="#P133">133</a>, <a href="#P168">168</a> <i>et +seq.</i>, <a href="#P173">173</a>, <a href="#P429">429</a> +</p> + +<p class="index"> +Congo, <a href="#P397">397</a> +</p> + +<p class="index"> +Conifers, <a href="#P26">26</a>, <a href="#P36">36</a> +</p> + +<p class="index"> +Constance, Council of, <a href="#P286">286</a>, <a +href="#P304">304</a>, <a href="#P433">433</a> +</p> + +<p class="index"> +Constantine the Great, <a href="#P187">187</a>, <a +href="#P226">226</a>, <a href="#P228">228</a>, <a +href="#P229">229</a>, <a href="#P241">241</a>, <a +href="#P429">429</a>, <a href="#P431">431</a> +</p> + +<p class="index"> +Constantinople, <a href="#P229">229</a>, <a href="#P238">238</a>, <a +href="#P239">239</a>, <a href="#P243">243</a>, <a +href="#P253">253</a>, <a href="#P258">258</a>, <a href="#P263">263- +64</a>, <a href="#P270">270</a> <i>et seq.</i>, <a +href="#P272">272</a>, <a href="#P283">283</a>, <a +href="#P292">292</a>, <a href="#P301">301</a>, <a +href="#P321">321</a>, <a href="#P327">327</a>, <a +href="#P431">431</a>, <a href="#P432">432</a>, <a +href="#P433">433</a>. (<i>See also</i> Byzantium) +</p> + +<p class="index"> +Consuls, Roman, <a href="#P193">193</a> +</p> + +<p class="index"> +Copper, <a href="#P74">74</a>, <a href="#P80">80</a>, <a +href="#P102">102</a>, <a href="#P360">360</a>, <a +href="#P395">395</a> +</p> + +<p class="index"> +Cordoba, <a href="#P256">256</a> +</p> + +<p class="index"> +Corinth, <a href="#P129">129</a> +</p> + +<p class="index"> +Cornwallis, General, <a href="#P338">338</a> +</p> + +<p class="index"> +Corsets, <a href="#P93">93</a> +</p> + +<p class="index"> +Corsica, <a href="#P182">182</a>, <a href="#P185">185</a>, <a +href="#P232">232</a> +</p> + +<p class="index"> +Cortez, <a href="#P314">314</a> +</p> + +<p class="index"> +Cossacks, <a href="#P334">334</a> +</p> + +<p class="index"> +Cotton fabrics, <a href="#P102">102</a> +</p> + +<p class="index"> +Couvade, the, <a href="#P70">70</a> +</p> + +<p class="index"> +Crabs, <a href="#P23">23</a> +</p> + +<p class="index"> +Crassus, <a href="#P192">192</a>, <a href="#P194">194</a>, <a +href="#P199">199</a> +</p> + +<p class="index"> +Creation of the world, story of, <a href="#P1">1</a>, <a +href="#P116">116</a> +</p> + +<p class="index"> +Creed religions, <a href="#P240">240</a> +</p> + +<p class="index"> +Cretan script, <a href="#P94">94</a> +</p> + +<p class="index"> +Crete, <a href="#P92">92</a>, <a href="#P108">108</a> +</p> + +<p class="index"> +Crimea, <a href="#P419">419</a> +</p> + +<p class="index"> +Crimean War, <a href="#P390">390</a>, <a href="#P434">434</a> +</p> + +<p class="index"> +Crocodiles, <a href="#P28">28</a> +</p> + +<p class="index"> +CrÅ“sus, <a href="#P111">111</a>, <a href="#P429">429</a> +</p> + +<p class="index"> +Cro-Magnon race, <a href="#P51">51</a>, <a href="#P54">54</a>, <a +href="#P65">65</a> +</p> + +<p class="index"> +Cromwell, Oliver, <a href="#P434">434</a> +</p> + +<p class="index"> +Cronstadt, <a href="#P419">419</a> +</p> + +<p class="index"> +Crucifixion, <a href="#P204">204</a> +</p> + +<p class="index"> +Crusades, <a href="#P267">267</a> <i>et seq.</i>, <a +href="#P281">281</a>, <a href="#P304">304-05</a>, <a +href="#P432">432</a> +</p> + +<p class="index"> +Crustacea, <a href="#P13">13</a> +</p> + +<p class="index"> +Ctesiphon, <a href="#P244">244</a> +</p> + +<p class="index"> +Cuba, <a href="#P393">393</a> +</p> + +<p class="index"> +Cultivation, the beginnings of, <a href="#P65">65</a> <i>et seq.</i> +</p> + +<p class="index"> +Culture, Heliolithic, <a href="#P69">69</a> +</p> + +<p class="index"> +Culture, Japanese, <a href="#P402">402</a> +</p> + +<p class="index"> +Cuneiform, <a href="#P78">78</a> +</p> + +<p class="index"> +Currents, <a href="#P18">18</a> +</p> + +<p class="index"> +Cyaxares, <a href="#P109">109-10</a>, <a href="#P429">429</a> +</p> + +<p class="index"> +Cycads, <a href="#P26">26</a>, <a href="#P36">36</a> +</p> + +<p class="index"> +Cyrus the Persian, <a href="#P111">111</a>, <a href="#P116">116</a>, +<a href="#P121">121</a>, <a href="#P123">123</a>, <a +href="#P134">134</a>, <a href="#P429">429</a> +</p> + +<p class="index"> +Czech language, <a href="#P236">236</a> +</p> + +<p class="index"> +Czecho-Slovaks, <a href="#P351">351</a> +</p> + +<p class="index"> +Czechs, <a href="#P304">304</a> +</p> + +<p> +D +</p> + +<p class="index"> +Dacia, <a href="#P195">195</a>, <a href="#P200">200</a>, <a +href="#P203">203</a>, <a href="#P227">227</a>, <a +href="#P236">236</a> +</p> + +<p class="index"> +Dædalus, <a href="#P94">94</a> +</p> + +<p class="index"> +Dalmatia, <a href="#P431">431</a> +</p> + +<p class="index">Damascus, <a href="#P243">243</a>, <a +href="#P253">253</a>, <a href="#P431">431</a> +</p> + +<p class="index">Danes, <a href="#P329">329</a>, <a +href="#P330">330</a> +</p> + +<p class="index"> +Danube, <a href="#P135">135</a>, <a href="#P200">200</a>, <a +href="#P227">227</a>, <a href="#P430">430</a> +</p> + +<p class="index"> +Dardanelles, <a href="#P136">136</a>, <a href="#P147">147</a>, <a +href="#P292">292</a> +</p> + +<p class="index"> +Darius I, <a href="#P112">112</a>, <a href="#P134">134</a>, <a +href="#P135">135</a>, <a href="#P136">136</a>, <a +href="#P429">429</a> +</p> + +<p class="index"> +Darius III, <a href="#P147">147</a>, <a href="#P148">148</a>, <a +href="#P430">430</a> +</p> + +<p class="index"> +Darlington, <a href="#P356">356</a>, <a href="#P434">434</a> +</p> + +<p class="index"> +David, King, <a href="#P118">118-19</a>, <a href="#P429">429</a> +</p> + +<p class="index"> +Da Vinci, Leonardo, <a href="#P356">356</a> +</p> + +<p class="index"> +Davis, Jefferson, <a href="#P385">385</a>, <a href="#P388">388</a> +</p> + +<p class="index"> +Dawn Man. (<i>See</i> Eoanthropus) +</p> + +<p class="index"> +Dead, burning the, <a href="#P104">104</a>; burial of (<i>See</i> +Burial) +</p> + +<p class="index"> +Debtors’ prisons, <a href="#P336">336</a> +</p> + +<p class="index"> +Deciduous trees, <a href="#P36">36</a> +</p> + +<p class="index"> +Decius, Emperor, <a href="#P200">200</a>, <a href="#P432">432</a> +</p> + +<p class="index"> +Declaration of Independence, <a href="#P334">334</a>, <a +href="#P434">434</a> +</p> + +<p class="index"> +<i>Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire</i> (Gibbon’s), <a +href="#P288">288-89</a> +</p> + +<p class="index"> +Deer, <a href="#P42">42</a>, <a href="#P56">56</a> +</p> + +<p class="index"> +Defender of the Faith, title of, <a href="#P313">313</a> +</p> + +<p class="index"> +Defoe, Daniel, <a href="#P365">365</a> +</p> + +<p class="index"> +Delhi, <a href="#P292">292</a>, <a href="#P433">433</a> +</p> + +<p class="index"> +Democracy, <a href="#P131">131</a>, <a href="#P132">132</a>, <a +href="#P270">270</a> +</p> + +<p class="index"> +Deniken, General, <a href="#P419">419</a> +</p> + +<p class="index"> +Denmark, <a href="#P306">306</a>, <a href="#P313">313</a>, <a +href="#P394">394</a>, <a href="#P432">432</a> +</p> + +<p class="index"> +Deshima, <a href="#P401">401</a> +</p> + +<p class="index"> +Devonian system, <a href="#P19">19</a> +</p> + +<p class="index"> +Diaz, <a href="#P433">433</a> +</p> + +<p class="index"> +Dictator, Roman, <a href="#P194">194</a> +</p> + +<p class="index"> +Dillon, Dr., <a href="#P424">424</a> +</p> + +<p class="index"> +Dinosaurs, <a href="#P28">28</a>, <a href="#P31">31</a>, <a +href="#P36">36</a> +</p> + +<p class="index"> +Diocletian, Emperor, <a href="#P224">224</a>, <a +href="#P226">226</a>, <a href="#P227">227</a> +</p> + +<p class="index"> +Dionysius, <a href="#P170">170</a> +</p> + +<p class="index"> +Diplodocus Carnegii, measurement of, <a href="#P28">28</a> +</p> + +<p class="index"> +Diseases, infectious, <a href="#P379">379</a> +</p> + +<p class="index"> +Ditchwater, animal and plant life in, <a href="#P13">13</a> +</p> + +<p class="index"> +Dogs, <a href="#P42">42</a> +</p> + +<p class="index"> +Domazlice, battle of, <a href="#P305">305</a> +</p> + +<p class="index"> +Dominic, St., <a href="#P276">276</a> +</p> + +<p class="index"> +Dominician Order, <a href="#P276">276</a>, <a href="#P285">285</a>, +<a href="#P400">400</a> +</p> + +<p class="index"> +Dorian Greeks, <a href="#P108">108</a>, <a href="#P130">130</a> +</p> + +<p class="index"> +Douglas, Senator, <a href="#P386">386</a> +</p> + +<p class="index"> +Dover, Straits of, <a href="#P193">193</a> +</p> + +<p class="index"> +Dragon flies, <a href="#P23">23</a> +</p> + +<p class="index"> +Drama, Greek, <a href="#P139">139</a> +</p> + +<p class="index"> +Dravidian civilization, <a href="#P108">108</a> +</p> + +<p class="index"> +Dravidians, <a href="#P71">71</a> +</p> + +<p class="index"> +Duck-billed platypus, <a href="#P34">34</a> +</p> + +<p class="index"> +Duma, the, <a href="#P416">416</a> +</p> + +<p class="index"> +Durazzo, <a href="#P268">268</a> +</p> + +<p class="index"> +Dutch, <a href="#P329">329</a>, <a href="#P331">331</a>, <a +href="#P332">332</a>, <a href="#P399">399</a> +</p> + +<p class="index"> +Dutch Guiana, <a href="#P394">394</a> +</p> + +<p class="index"> +Dutch Republic, <a href="#P350">350</a> +</p> + +<p class="index"> +Dyeing, <a href="#P75">75</a> +</p> + +<p> +E +</p> + +<p class="index"> +Earth, the, shape of, <a href="#P1">1</a>; rotation of, <a +href="#P1">1</a>; distance from the sun, <a href="#P2">2</a>; age and +origin of, <a href="#P5">5</a>; surface of, <a href="#P21">21</a> +</p> + +<p class="index"> +Earthquakes, <a href="#P95">95</a> +</p> + +<p class="index"> +East India Company, <a href="#P332">332</a>, <a href="#P337">337</a>, +<a href="#P393">393</a>, <a href="#P394">394</a> +</p> + +<p class="index"> +East Indies, <a href="#P394">394</a>, <a href="#P399">399</a> +</p> + +<p class="index"> +Ebro, <a href="#P182">182</a> +</p> + +<p class="index"> +Ecbatana, <a href="#P109">109</a>, <a href="#P114">114</a> +</p> + +<p class="index"> +Echidna, the, <a href="#P34">34</a> +</p> + +<p class="index"> +Eclipses, <a href="#P8">8</a> +</p> + +<p class="index"> +Ecnomus, battle of, <a href="#P181">181</a>, <a href="#P430">430</a> +</p> + +<p class="index"> +Economists, French, <a href="#P371">371</a> +</p> + +<p class="index"> +Edessa, <a href="#P271">271</a> +</p> + +<p class="index"> +Education, <a href="#P294">294</a>, <a href="#P361">361</a>, <a +href="#P368">368</a>, <a href="#P369">369</a> +</p> + +<p class="index"> +Egbert, King of Wessex, <a href="#P263">263</a>, <a +href="#P432">432</a> +</p> + +<p class="index"> +Egg-laying mammals, <a href="#P34">34</a> +</p> + +<p class="index"> +Eggs, <a href="#P24">24</a>, <a href="#P26">26</a>, <a +href="#P31">31</a>, <a href="#P102">102</a> +</p> + +<p class="index"> +Egypt (and Egyptians), <a href="#P71">71</a>, <a href="#P78">78</a>, +<a href="#P90">90</a>, <a href="#P91">91</a>, <a href="#P92">62</a>, +<a href="#P96">96</a>, <a href="#P98">98</a>, <a href="#P100">100- +101</a>, <a href="#P115">115</a>, <a href="#P119">119</a>, <a +href="#P121">121</a>, <a href="#P122">122</a>, <a +href="#P123">123</a>, <a href="#P124">124</a>, <a +href="#P134">134</a>, <a href="#P138">138</a>, <a +href="#P147">147</a>, <a href="#P174">174</a>, <a +href="#P208">208</a>, <a href="#P209">209</a>, <a +href="#P210">210</a>, <a href="#P238">238</a>, <a +href="#P253">253</a>, <a href="#P267">267</a>, <a +href="#P290">290</a>, <a href="#P292">292</a>, <a +href="#P396">396</a>, <a href="#P398">398</a>, <a +href="#P405">405</a>, <a href="#P429">429</a>, <a +href="#P431">431</a>, <a href="#P434">434</a> +</p> + +<p class="index"> +Egyptian script, <a href="#P78">78</a>, <a href="#P79">79</a> +</p> + +<p class="index"> +Elamites, <a href="#P88">88</a>, <a href="#P90">90</a>, <a +href="#P174">174</a> +</p> + +<p class="index"> +Elba, <a href="#P348">348</a> +</p> + +<p class="index"> +Electric light, <a href="#P360">360</a> +</p> + +<p class="index"> +Electric traction, <a href="#P360">360</a> +</p> + +<p class="index"> +Electricity, <a href="#P322">322</a>, <a href="#P358">358</a>, + <a href="#P360">360</a> +</p> + +<p class="index"> +Elephants, <a href="#P42">42</a>, <a href="#P127">127</a>, <a +href="#P149">149</a>, <a href="#P178">178</a>, <a +href="#P181">181</a>, <a href="#P253">253</a>, <a +href="#P300">300</a> +</p> + +<p class="index"> +Elixir of life, <a href="#P257">257</a> +</p> + +<p class="index"> +Elizabeth, Queen, <a href="#P324">324</a>, <a href="#P332">332</a> +</p> + +<p class="index"> +Emigration, <a href="#P336">336</a> +</p> + +<p class="index"> +Emperor, title of, <a href="#P327">327</a> +</p> + +<p class="index"> +Employer and employed, <a href="#P375">375</a> +</p> + +<p class="index"> +“Encyclopædists,” the, <a href="#P371">371</a> +</p> + +<p class="index"> +England (and English), <a href="#P306">306</a>, <a +href="#P390">390</a>, <a href="#P431">431</a> +</p> + +<p class="index"> +England, Norman Conquest of, <a href="#P266">266</a> +</p> + +<p class="index"> +England, overseas possessions, <a href="#P330">330</a> +</p> + +<p class="index"> +English Channel, <a href="#P331">331</a> +</p> + +<p class="index"> +English language, <a href="#P95">95</a> +</p> + +<p class="index"> +Entelodonts, <a href="#P42">42</a> +</p> + +<p class="index"> +Eoanthropus, <a href="#P47">47</a> +</p> + +<p class="index"> +Eoliths, <a href="#P45">45</a> +</p> + +<p class="index"> +Ephesus, <a href="#P149">149</a> +</p> + +<p class="index"> +Ephthalites, <a href="#P199">199</a> +</p> + +<p class="index"> +Epics, <a href="#P106">106</a>, <a href="#P127">127</a>, <a +href="#P129">129</a>, <a href="#P131">131</a> +</p> + +<p class="index"> +Epirus, <a href="#P131">131</a>, <a href="#P178">178</a>, <a +href="#P179">179</a> +</p> + +<p class="index"> +Epistles, the, <a href="#P222">222</a> +</p> + +<p class="index"> +Eratosthenes, <a href="#P151">151</a> +</p> + +<p class="index"> +Erech, Sumerian city of, <a href="#P78">78</a> +</p> + +<p class="index"> +Esarhaddon, <a href="#P429">429</a> +</p> + +<p class="index"> +Essenes, <a href="#P213">213</a> +</p> + +<p class="index"> +Esthonia, <a href="#P245">245</a> +</p> + +<p class="index"> +Esthonians, <a href="#P419">419</a> +</p> + +<p class="index"> +Ethiopian dynasty, <a href="#P429">429</a> +</p> + +<p class="index"> +Ethiopians, <a href="#P96">96</a>, <a href="#P233">233</a> +</p> + +<p class="index"> +Etruscans, <a href="#P94">94</a>, <a href="#P100">100</a>, <a +href="#P176">176</a>, <a href="#P430">430</a> +</p> + +<p class="index"> +Euclid, <a href="#P151">151</a> +</p> + +<p class="index"> +Euphrates, <a href="#P77">77</a>, <a href="#P110">110</a>, <a +href="#P127">127</a>, <a href="#P129">129</a>, <a +href="#P174">174</a>, <a href="#P196">196</a>, <a +href="#P429">429</a>, <a href="#P430">430</a> +</p> + +<p class="index"> +Euripides, <a href="#P139">139</a> +</p> + +<p class="index"> +Europe, <a href="#P200">200</a> +</p> + +<p class="index"> +Europe, Central, <a href="#P329">329</a> +</p> + +<p class="index"> +Europe, Concert of, <a href="#P350">350</a> +</p> + +<p class="index"> +Europe, Western, <a href="#P53">53</a>, <a href="#P298">298</a> +</p> + +<p class="index"> +European overseas populations, <a href="#P336">336</a> +</p> + +<p class="index"> +Europeans, intellectual revival of, <a href="#P294">294</a> <i>et +seq.</i> +</p> + +<p class="index"> +Europeans, North Atlantic, <a href="#P329">329</a> +</p> + +<p class="index"> +Europeans, Western, <a href="#P329">329</a> +</p> + +<p class="index"> +Everlasting League, <a href="#P433">433</a> +</p> + +<p class="index"> +Evolution, <a href="#P16">16</a>, <a href="#P42">42</a> +</p> + +<p class="index"> +Excommunication, <a href="#P275">275</a>, <a href="#P281">281</a>, <a +href="#P285">285</a> +</p> + +<p class="index"> +Execution. Greek method of, <a href="#P140">140</a> +</p> + +<p class="index"> +Ezekiel, <a href="#P124">124</a> +</p> + +<p> +F +</p> + +<p class="index"> +Factory system, <a href="#P365">365</a> +</p> + +<p class="index"> +Family groups, <a href="#P61">61</a> +</p> + +<p class="index"> +Famine, <a href="#P420">420</a> +</p> + +<p class="index"> +Faraday, <a href="#P358">358</a> +</p> + +<p class="index"> +Fashoda, <a href="#P398">398</a> +</p> + +<p class="index"> +Fatherhood of God, the, <a href="#P215">215</a>, <a +href="#P224">224</a>, <a href="#P251">251</a> +</p> + +<p class="index"> +Fear, <a href="#P61">61</a> +</p> + +<p class="index"> +Feathers, <a href="#P32">32</a> +</p> + +<p class="index"> +Ferdinand of Aragon, King, <a href="#P293">293</a>, <a +href="#P302">302</a>, <a href="#P309">309</a> +</p> + +<p class="index"> +Ferns, <a href="#P23">23</a>, <a href="#P26">26</a> +</p> + +<p class="index"> +Fertilizers, <a href="#P363">363</a> +</p> + +<p class="index"> +Fetishism, <a href="#P63">63</a>, <a href="#P64">64</a> +</p> + +<p class="index"> +Feudal system, <a href="#P258">258</a>, <a href="#P400">400</a>, <a +href="#P401">401</a>, <a href="#P402">402</a> +</p> + +<p class="index"> +Fielding, Henry, <a href="#P365">365</a> +</p> + +<p class="index"> +Fiji, <a href="#P407">407</a> +</p> + +<p class="index"> +Finance, <a href="#P134">134</a> +</p> + +<p class="index"> +Finland, <a href="#P245">245</a> +</p> + +<p class="index"> +Finns, <a href="#P351">351</a> +</p> + +<p class="index"> +Fish, the age of, <a href="#P16">16</a> <i>et seq.</i>; the first +known vertebrata, <a href="#P19">19</a>; evolution of, <a +href="#P30">30</a> +</p> + +<p class="index"> +Fisher, Lord, <a href="#P416">416</a> +</p> + +<p class="index"> +Fishing, <a href="#P57">57</a> +</p> + +<p class="index"> +Fleming, Bishop, <a href="#P286">286</a> +</p> + +<p class="index"> +Flint implements, <a href="#P44">44</a>, <a href="#P47">47</a> +</p> + +<p class="index"> +Flood, story of the, <a href="#P91">91</a>, <a href="#P116">116</a> +</p> + +<p class="index"> +Florence, <a href="#P294">294</a> +</p> + +<p class="index"> +Florentine Society, <a href="#P322">322</a> +</p> + +<p class="index"> +Florida, <a href="#P336">336</a>, <a href="#P385">385</a> +</p> + +<p class="index"> +Flying machines, <a href="#P94">94</a>, <a href="#P363">363</a> +</p> + +<p class="index"> +Fontainebleau, <a href="#P348">348</a> +</p> + +<p class="index"> +Food, rationing of, <a href="#P414">414</a> +</p> + +<p class="index"> +Food riots, <a href="#P417">417</a> +</p> + +<p class="index"> +Forests, <a href="#P56">56</a>, <a href="#P197">197</a> +</p> + +<p class="index"> +Fossils, <a href="#P13">13</a>, <a href="#P43">43</a>. (<i>Cf.</i> +Rocks) +</p> + +<p class="index"> +Fowl, the domestic, <a href="#P88">88</a>, <a href="#P102">102</a> +</p> + +<p class="index"> +France, <a href="#P106">106</a>, <a href="#P185">185</a>, <a +href="#P230">230</a>, <a href="#P259">259</a>, <a +href="#P263">263</a>, <a href="#P312">312</a>, <a +href="#P336">336</a>, <a href="#P342">342</a>, <a +href="#P353">353</a>, <a href="#P390">390</a>, <a +href="#P391">391</a>, <a href="#P394">394</a>, <a +href="#P396">396</a>, <a href="#P402">402</a>, <a +href="#P409">409</a>, <a href="#P411">411</a>, <a +href="#P434">434</a> +</p> + +<p class="index"> +Francis I, King of France, <a href="#P310">310</a>, <a +href="#P312">312</a>, <a href="#P313">313</a>, <a +href="#P433">433</a> +</p> + +<p class="index"> +Francis II, Emperor of Austria, <a href="#P434">434</a> +</p> + +<p class="index"> +Francis of Assisi, St., <a href="#P276">276</a>, <a +href="#P432">432</a> +</p> + +<p class="index"> +Franciscan Order, <a href="#P276">276</a>, <a href="#P285">285</a>, +<a href="#P432">432</a> +</p> + +<p class="index"> +Frankfort, Peace of, <a href="#P391">391</a>, <a href="#P435">435</a> +</p> + +<p class="index"> +Franks, <a href="#P200">200</a>, <a href="#P227">227</a>, <a +href="#P235">235</a>, <a href="#P259">259</a>, <a +href="#P265">265</a>, <a href="#P431">431</a> +</p> + +<p class="index"> +Frazer, Sir J. G., <a href="#P66">66</a> +</p> + +<p class="index"> +Frederick I (Barbarossa), <a href="#P274">274</a>, <a +href="#P432">432</a> +</p> + +<p class="index"> +Frederick I, King of Prussia, <a href="#P434">434</a> +</p> + +<p class="index"> +Frederick II, German Emperor, <a href="#P279">279</a>, <a +href="#P280">280</a>, <a href="#P288">288</a> <i>et seq.</i>, <a +href="#P289">289</a>, <a href="#P294">294</a>, <a +href="#P304">304</a>, <a href="#P435">435</a> +</p> + +<p class="index"> +Frederick II, King of Sicily, <a href="#P432">432</a> +</p> + +<p class="index"> +Frederick the Great of Prussia, <a href="#P327">437</a>, <a +href="#P434">434</a> +</p> + +<p class="index"> +Freeman’s Farm, <a href="#P338">338</a> +</p> + +<p class="index"> +French, <a href="#P329">329</a>, <a href="#P331">331</a>, <a +href="#P332">332</a>, <a href="#P419">419</a> +</p> + +<p class="index"> +French Guiana, <a href="#P394">394</a> +</p> + +<p class="index"> +French language, <a href="#P203">203</a>, <a href="#P327">327</a>, <a +href="#P328">328</a>, <a href="#P419">419</a> +</p> + +<p class="index"> +French Revolution, <a href="#P342">342</a> <i>et seq.</i>, <a +href="#P374">374</a> +</p> + +<p class="index"> +Frogs, <a href="#P24">24</a> +</p> + +<p class="index"> +Fronde, war of the, <a href="#P434">434</a> +</p> + +<p class="index"> +Fulton, Robert, <a href="#P358">358</a> +</p> + +<p class="index"> +Furnace, blast, <a href="#P359">359</a>; electric, <a +href="#P359">359</a> +</p> + +<p class="index"> +Furs, <a href="#P335">335</a> +</p> + +<p> +G +</p> + +<p class="index"> +Galatia, <a href="#P430">430</a> +</p> + +<p class="index"> +Galatians, <a href="#P193">193</a> +</p> + +<p class="index"> +Galba, <a href="#P430">430</a> +</p> + +<p class="index"> +Galerius, Emperor, <a href="#P226">226</a>, <a href="#P431">431</a> +</p> + +<p class="index"> +Galleys, <a href="#P91">91</a>, <a href="#P92">92</a>, <a +href="#P181">181</a>, <a href="#P263">263</a> +</p> + +<p class="index"> +Galvani, <a href="#P258">258</a> +</p> + +<p class="index"> +Gamma, Vasco da, <a href="#P329">329</a>, <a href="#P335">335</a>, <a +href="#P433">433</a> +</p> + +<p class="index"> +Ganges, <a href="#P156">156</a> +</p> + +<p class="index"> +Gath, <a href="#P117">117</a> +</p> + +<p class="index"> +Gaul, <a href="#P203">203</a>, <a href="#P235">235</a>, <a +href="#P236">236</a>, <a href="#P357">357</a>, <a +href="#P431">431</a> +</p> + +<p class="index"> +Gauls, <a href="#P154">154</a>, <a href="#P178">178</a>, <a +href="#P179">179</a>, <a href="#P180">180</a>, <a +href="#P182">182</a>, <a href="#P193">193</a>, <a +href="#P430">430</a> +</p> + +<p class="index"> +Gautama. (<i>See</i> Buddha) +</p> + +<p class="index"> +Gaza, <a href="#P117">117</a>, <a href="#P147">147</a> +</p> + +<p class="index"> +Gaztelu, <a href="#P314">314</a> +</p> + +<p class="index"> +Genoa (and Genoese), <a href="#P294">294</a>, <a +href="#P300">300</a>, <a href="#P301">301</a>, <a +href="#P302">302</a> +</p> + +<p class="index"> +Genoa Conference, <a href="#P425">425</a> +</p> + +<p class="index"> +Genseric, <a href="#P232">232</a> +</p> + +<p class="index"> +Geology, <a href="#P11">11</a> <i>et seq.</i>, <a +href="#P356">356</a> +</p> + +<p class="index"> +George III, King of England, <a href="#P324">324</a>, <a +href="#P337">337</a>, <a href="#P434">434</a> +</p> + +<p class="index"> +Georgia, <a href="#P336">336</a>, <a href="#P339">339</a>, <a +href="#P385">385</a>, <a href="#P387">387</a> +</p> + +<p class="index"> +German Empire, <a href="#P409">409</a> +</p> + +<p class="index"> +German language, <a href="#P95">95</a>, <a href="#P236">236</a>, <a +href="#P260">260</a> +</p> + +<p class="index"> +Germans, <a href="#P268">268</a>, <a href="#P288">288</a>, <a +href="#P310">310</a>, <a href="#P351">351</a>, <a href="#P360">360- +61</a>, <a href="#P362">362</a> +</p> + +<p class="index"> +Germany, <a href="#P197">197</a>, <a href="#P326">326</a>, <a +href="#P347">347</a>, <a href="#P348">348</a>, <a +href="#P362">362</a>, <a href="#P390">390</a>, <a +href="#P396">396</a>, <a href="#P402">402</a>, <a +href="#P409">409</a>, <a href="#P410">410</a>, <a +href="#P411">411</a> +</p> + +<p class="index"> +Germany, North, <a href="#P306">306</a> +</p> + +<p class="index"> +Gibbon, E., <a href="#P234">234</a>, <a href="#P288">288</a> +</p> + +<p class="index"> +Gibraltar, <a href="#P71">71</a>, <a href="#P92">92</a>, <a +href="#P94">94</a>, <a href="#P253">253</a>, <a href="#P393">393</a>, +<a href="#P407">407</a> +</p> + +<p class="index"> +Gigantosaurus, measurement of, <a href="#P28">28</a> +</p> + +<p class="index"> +Gilbert, Dr., <a href="#P322">322</a> +</p> + +<p class="index"> +Gilboa, Mount, <a href="#P118">118</a> +</p> + +<p class="index"> +Gills, <a href="#P24">24</a> +</p> + +<p class="index"> +Giraffes, <a href="#P42">42</a> +</p> + +<p class="index"> +Gizeh, pyramids at, <a href="#P83">83</a> +</p> + +<p class="index"> +Glacial Ages, <a href="#P22">22</a>, <a href="#P37">37</a>, <a +href="#P44">44</a> +</p> + +<p class="index"> +Gladiators, <a href="#P205">205</a> +</p> + +<p class="index"> +Glass, <a href="#P102">102</a> +</p> + +<p class="index"> +Glyptodon, <a href="#P74">74</a> +</p> + +<p class="index"> +Goa, <a href="#P329">329</a> +</p> + +<p class="index"> +Goats, <a href="#P77">77</a> +</p> + +<p class="index"> +God, idea of one true, <a href="#P249">249</a> +</p> + +<p class="index"> +God of Judaism, <a href="#P123">123</a>, <a href="#P209">209</a>, <a +href="#P213">213</a>, <a href="#P214">214</a>, <a +href="#P215">215</a> +</p> + +<p class="index"> +Godfrey of Bouillon, <a href="#P432">432</a> +</p> + +<p class="index"> +Gods, <a href="#P111">111</a>, <a href="#P123">123</a>, <a +href="#P129">129</a>, <a href="#P165">165</a>, <a +href="#P184">184</a>, <a href="#P186">186</a>, <a +href="#P201">201</a> <i>et seq.</i>, <a href="#P208">208</a> <i>et +seq.</i>, <a href="#P240">240</a> +</p> + +<p class="index"> +Goidelic Celts, <a href="#P106">106</a> +</p> + +<p class="index"> +Gold, <a href="#P74">74</a>, <a href="#P80">80</a>, <a +href="#P83">83</a>, <a href="#P102">102</a>, <a href="#P300">300</a>, +<a href="#P395">395</a> +</p> + +<p class="index"> +<i>Golden Bough</i>, Frazer’s, <a href="#P66">66</a> +</p> + +<p class="index"> +Good Hope, Cape of. (<i>See</i> Cape) +</p> + +<p class="index"> +Gospels, the, <a href="#P214">214</a> <i>et seq.</i>, <a +href="#P222">222</a> +</p> + +<p class="index"> +Gothic kingdom, <a href="#P259">259</a> +</p> + +<p class="index"> +Gothland, <a href="#P197">197</a>, <a href="#P200">200</a> +</p> + +<p class="index"> +Goths, <a href="#P181">181</a>, <a href="#P200">200</a>, <a +href="#P227">227</a>, <a href="#P228">228</a>, <a +href="#P430">430</a>, <a href="#P431">431</a> +</p> + +<p class="index"> +Granada, <a href="#P293">293</a>, <a href="#P301">301</a> +</p> + +<p class="index"> +Granicus, battle of the, <a href="#P146">146</a>, <a +href="#P430">430</a> +</p> + +<p class="index"> +Grant, General, <a href="#P387">387</a>, <a href="#P388">388</a> +</p> + +<p class="index"> +Graphite, <a href="#P15">15</a> +</p> + +<p class="index"> +Grass, <a href="#P37">37</a>, <a href="#P51">51</a> +</p> + +<p class="index"> +Great Britain, <a href="#P396">396</a>, <a href="#P410">410</a> +</p> + +<p class="index"> +Great Mogul, Empire of, <a href="#P394">394</a>, <a +href="#P434">434</a> +</p> + +<p class="index"> +Great Powers, <a href="#P399">399</a> <i>et seq.</i> +</p> + +<p class="index"> +Great Schism. (<i>See</i> Papal schism) +</p> + +<p class="index"> +Great War, the, <a href="#P411">411</a> <i>et seq. </i>, <a +href="#P421">421</a>, <a href="#P435">435</a> +</p> + +<p class="index"> +Greece, <a href="#P92">92</a>, <a href="#P94">94</a>, <a +href="#P108">108</a>, <a href="#P127">127</a>, <a +href="#P139">139</a> <i>et seq.</i>, <a href="#P145">145</a> <i>et +seq.</i>, <a href="#P434">434</a> +</p> + +<p class="index"> +Greece, war with Persia, <a href="#P134">134</a> <i>et seq.</i> +</p> + +<p class="index"> +Greek language, <a href="#P95">95</a>, <a href="#P202">202</a>, <a +href="#P203">203</a> +</p> + +<p class="index"> +Greeks, <a href="#P92">92</a>, <a href="#P100">100</a>, <a +href="#P101">101</a>, <a href="#P108">108</a>, <a +href="#P122">122</a> <i>et seq.</i>, <a href="#P135">135</a>, <a +href="#P150">150</a>, <a href="#P174">174</a>, <a +href="#P186">186</a>, <a href="#P271">271</a>, <a +href="#P272">272</a>, <a href="#P301">301</a>, <a +href="#P353">353</a>, <a href="#P419">419</a>, <a +href="#P429">429</a>, <a href="#P430">430</a>, <a +href="#P433">433</a> +</p> + +<p class="index"> +Greenland, <a href="#P263">263</a> +</p> + +<p class="index"> +Gregory I, Pope, <a href="#P263">263</a> +</p> + +<p class="index"> +Gregory VII, Pope (Hildebrand), <a href="#P268">268</a>, <a +href="#P272">272</a>, <a href="#P274">274</a>, <a +href="#P275">275</a>, <a href="#P278">278</a>, <a +href="#P432">432</a> +</p> + +<p class="index"> +Gregory IX, Pope, <a href="#P281">281</a> +</p> + +<p class="index"> +Gregory XI, Pope, <a href="#P285">285</a>, <a href="#P433">433</a> +</p> + +<p class="index"> +Gregory the Great, <a href="#P272">272</a> +</p> + +<p class="index"> +Grimaldi race, <a href="#P51">51</a>, <a href="#P54">54</a>, <a +href="#P65">65</a> +</p> + +<p class="index"> +Guillotine, the, <a href="#P346">346</a> +</p> + +<p class="index"> +Guiscard, Robert, <a href="#P432">432</a> +</p> + +<p class="index"> +Gunpowder, <a href="#P287">287</a>, <a href="#P321">321</a> +</p> + +<p class="index"> +Guns, <a href="#P321">321</a>, <a href="#P413">413</a> +</p> + +<p class="index"> +Gustavus Adolphus, <a href="#P331">331</a> +</p> + +<p class="index"> +Gymnastic displays, Cretan, <a href="#P93">93</a> +</p> + +<p> +H +</p> + +<p class="index"> +Habsburgs, <a href="#P283">283</a>, <a href="#P309">309</a>, <a +href="#P310">310</a> +</p> + +<p class="index"> +Hadrian, <a href="#P174">174</a>, <a href="#P430">430</a> +</p> + +<p class="index"> +Halicarnassus, <a href="#P138">138</a> +</p> + +<p class="index"> +Hamburg, <a href="#P294">294</a> +</p> + +<p class="index"> +Hamitic people, <a href="#P71">71</a> +</p> + +<p class="index"> +Hammurabi, <a href="#P90">90</a>, <a href="#P92">92</a>, <a +href="#P104">104</a>, <a href="#P429">429</a> +</p> + +<p class="index"> +Han dynasty, <a href="#P196">196</a>, <a href="#P200">200</a>, <a +href="#P245">245</a>, <a href="#P430">430</a> +</p> + +<p class="index"> +Hannibal, <a href="#P182">182</a> +</p> + +<p class="index"> +Hanover, Elector of, <a href="#P327">327</a> +</p> + +<p class="index"> +Harding, President, <a href="#P425">425</a> +</p> + +<p class="index"> +Harold Hardrada, <a href="#P266">266</a> +</p> + +<p class="index"> +Harold, King of England, <a href="#P266">266</a> +</p> + +<p class="index"> +Haroun-al-Raschid, <a href="#P267">267</a>, <a href="#P432">432</a> +</p> + +<p class="index"> +Hastings, battle of, <a href="#P266">266</a> +</p> + +<p class="index"> +Hastings, Warren, <a href="#P333">333</a> +</p> + +<p class="index"> +Hatasu, Queen of Egypt, <a href="#P96">96</a> +</p> + +<p class="index"> +Hathor, <a href="#P209">209</a> +</p> + +<p class="index"> +Heaven, Kingdom of, <a href="#P216">216</a>, <a href="#P217">217</a> +</p> + +<p class="index"> +Hebrew Bible, <a href="#P1">1</a>, <a href="#P115">115</a>, <a +href="#P116">116</a>. (<i>Cf.</i> Bible) +</p> + +<p class="index"> +Hebrew literature, <a href="#P100">100</a> +</p> + +<p class="index"> +Hebrews, <a href="#P100">100</a>, <a href="#P115">115</a>. (<i>See +also</i> Jews) +</p> + +<p class="index"> +Hegira, <a href="#P431">431</a> +</p> + +<p class="index"> +Heidelberg man, <a href="#P45">45</a> +</p> + +<p class="index"> +Heliolithic culture, <a href="#P69">69</a>, <a href="#P71">71</a>, <a +href="#P167">167</a>, <a href="#P174">174</a> +</p> + +<p class="index"> +Heliolithic peoples, <a href="#P107">107</a> +</p> + +<p class="index"> +Hellenic tribes, <a href="#P100">100</a>. (<i>See also</i> Greeks) +</p> + +<p class="index"> +Hellespont, <a href="#P430">430</a>, <a href="#P431">431</a> +</p> + +<p class="index"> +Helots, <a href="#P130">130</a>, <a href="#P203">203</a> +</p> + +<p class="index"> +Hen. (<i>See</i> Fowl) +</p> + +<p class="index"> +Henry IV, King, <a href="#P274">274</a> +</p> + +<p class="index"> +Henry VI, Emperor, <a href="#P279">279</a> +</p> + +<p class="index"> +Henry VIII, King of England, <a href="#P310">310</a>, <a +href="#P312">312</a>, <a href="#P313">313</a>, <a +href="#P324">324</a>, <a href="#P433">433</a> +</p> + +<p class="index"> +Henry the Fowler, <a href="#P265">265</a>, <a href="#P432">432</a> +</p> + +<p class="index"> +Heraclea, battle of, <a href="#P178">178</a>, <a href="#P430">430</a> +</p> + +<p class="index"> +Heraclitus of Ephesus, <a href="#P132">132</a>, <a +href="#P156">156</a>, <a href="#P161">161</a> +</p> + +<p class="index"> +Heraclius, Emperor, <a href="#P243">243</a>, <a href="#P247">247</a>, +<a href="#P253">253</a>, <a href="#P431">431</a> +</p> + +<p class="index"> +Herat, <a href="#P148">148</a> +</p> + +<p class="index"> +Herbivorous reptiles, <a href="#P28">28</a> +</p> + +<p class="index"> +Hercules, Pillars of, (<i>See</i> Gibraltar) +</p> + +<p class="index"> +Hero, <a href="#P151">151</a>, <a href="#P152">152</a> +</p> + +<p class="index"> +Herodotus, <a href="#P138">138</a>, <a href="#P139">139</a> +</p> + +<p class="index"> +Herophilus, <a href="#P151">151</a> +</p> + +<p class="index"> +Hiero, <a href="#P182">182</a> +</p> + +<p class="index"> +Hieroglyphics, <a href="#P79">79</a>, <a href="#P124">124</a> +</p> + +<p class="index"> +Hildebrand. (<i>See</i> Gregory VII) +</p> + +<p class="index"> +Himalayas, the, <a href="#P37">37</a> +</p> + +<p class="index"> +Hipparchus, <a href="#P151">151</a> +</p> + +<p class="index"> +Hippopotamus, <a href="#P43">43</a> +</p> + +<p class="index"> +Hiram, King of Sidon, <a href="#P118">118</a>, <a +href="#P119">119</a>, <a href="#P122">122</a> +</p> + +<p class="index"> +<i>History of Charles V</i>, <a href="#P316">316</a> +</p> + +<p class="index"> +Hittites, <a href="#P96">96</a>, <a href="#P97">97</a>, <a +href="#P98">98</a>, <a href="#P108">108</a> +</p> + +<p class="index"> +Hohenstaufens, <a href="#P283">283</a> +</p> + +<p class="index"> +Holland, <a href="#P306">306</a>, <a href="#P344">344</a>, <a +href="#P347">347</a>, <a href="#P394">394</a>, <a +href="#P396">396</a>, <a href="#P402">402</a>, <a +href="#P433">433</a>, <a href="#P434">434</a> +</p> + +<p class="index"> +Holstein, <a href="#P351">351</a> +</p> + +<p class="index"> +Holy Alliance, <a href="#P349">349</a> +</p> + +<p class="index"> +Holy Roman Empire, <a href="#P264">264</a>, <a href="#P309">309</a>, +<a href="#P317">317</a>, <a href="#P323">323</a>, <a +href="#P347">347</a>, <a href="#P377">377</a>, <a +href="#P409">409</a>, <a href="#P432">432</a>, <a +href="#P434">434</a> +</p> + +<p class="index"> +Homer, <a href="#P129">129</a> +</p> + +<p class="index"> +Honorius, <a href="#P230">230</a>, <a href="#P431">431</a> +</p> + +<p class="index"> +Honorius III, Pope, <a href="#P281">281</a> +</p> + +<p class="index"> +Horse, <a href="#P51">51</a>, <a href="#P56">56</a>, <a +href="#P94">94</a>, <a href="#P96">96</a>, <a href="#P97">97</a>, <a +href="#P112">112</a>, <a href="#P167">167</a>, <a +href="#P319">319</a>, <a href="#P336">336</a>; evolution of the, <a +href="#P42">42</a> +</p> + +<p class="index"> +Horsetails, <a href="#P23">23</a> +</p> + +<p class="index"> +Horus, <a href="#P209">209</a>, <a href="#P210">210</a>, <a +href="#P211">211</a> +</p> + +<p class="index"> +Hottentots, <a href="#P54">54</a> +</p> + +<p class="index"> +Hsia, <a href="#P287">287</a> +</p> + +<p class="index"> +Hudson Bay Company, <a href="#P393">393</a> +</p> + +<p class="index"> +Hudson River, <a href="#P358">358</a> +</p> + +<p class="index"> +Hulagu Khan, <a href="#P290">290</a>, <a href="#P433">433</a> +</p> + +<p class="index"> +Human sacrifice, <a href="#P182">182</a>, <a href="#P186">186</a>. +(<i>Cf.</i> Blood Sacrifice, Sacrifice) +</p> + +<p class="index"> +Hungarians, <a href="#P263">263</a>, <a href="#P289">289</a>, <a +href="#P351">351</a> +</p> + +<p class="index"> +Hungary, <a href="#P185">185</a>, <a href="#P203">203</a>, <a +href="#P227">227</a>, <a href="#P245">245</a>, <a +href="#P258">258</a>, <a href="#P263">263</a>, <a +href="#P289">289</a>, <a href="#P290">290</a>, <a +href="#P292">292</a>, <a href="#P310">310</a>, <a +href="#P312">312</a>, <a href="#P351">351</a> +</p> + +<p class="index"> +Hungary, plain of, <a href="#P234">234</a> +</p> + +<p class="index"> +Huns, <a href="#P88">88</a>, <a href="#P167">167</a>, <a +href="#P168">168</a>, <a href="#P174">174</a>, <a +href="#P197">197</a>, <a href="#P198">198</a>, <a +href="#P227">227</a>, <a href="#P232">232</a>, <a +href="#P233">233</a>, <a href="#P245">245</a>, <a +href="#P263">263</a>, <a href="#P289">289</a>, <a +href="#P431">431</a> +</p> + +<p class="index"> +Hunting, <a href="#P56">56</a> +</p> + +<p class="index"> +Huss, John, <a href="#P304">304</a>, <a href="#P433">433</a> +</p> + +<p class="index"> +Hussites, <a href="#P305">305</a> +</p> + +<p class="index"> +Hwang-ho river, <a href="#P173">173</a> +</p> + +<p class="index"> +Hwang-ho valley, <a href="#P300">300</a> +</p> + +<p class="index"> +Hyksos, <a href="#P90">90</a>, <a href="#P96">96</a> +</p> + +<p class="index"> +Hyracodons, <a href="#P42">42</a> +</p> + +<p class="index"> +Hystaspes, <a href="#P430">430</a> +</p> + +<p> +I +</p> + +<p class="index"> +Iberians, <a href="#P71">71</a>, <a href="#P92">92</a> +</p> + +<p class="index"> +Ice age, <a href="#P43">43</a>. (<i>Cf.</i> Glacial ages) +</p> + +<p class="index"> +Iceland, <a href="#P263">263</a> +</p> + +<p class="index"> +Ichthyosaurs, <a href="#P29">29</a>, <a href="#P36">36</a> +</p> + +<p class="index"> +Ignatius of Loyola, St., <a href="#P308">308</a>, <a +href="#P434">434</a> +</p> + +<p class="index"> +<i>Iliad</i>, <a href="#P127">127</a> +</p> + +<p class="index"> +Illinois, <a href="#P386">386</a> +</p> + +<p class="index"> +Illyria, <a href="#P179">179</a>, <a href="#P182">182</a> +</p> + +<p class="index"> +Immolation of human beings, <a href="#P102">102</a> +</p> + +<p class="index"> +Immortality, idea of, <a href="#P210">210</a>, <a +href="#P211">211</a>, <a href="#P224">224</a> +</p> + +<p class="index"> +Imperialism, <a href="#P399">399</a> +</p> + +<p class="index"> +Implements, <a href="#P46">46</a>, <a href="#P48">48</a>, <a +href="#P56">56</a>, <a href="#P57">57</a>, <a href="#P65">65</a>, <a +href="#P87">87</a> +</p> + +<p class="index"> +Implements, use of, by animals, <a href="#P44">44</a>, <a +href="#P45">45</a> +</p> + +<p class="index"> +India, <a href="#P71">71</a>, <a href="#P84">84</a>, <a +href="#P104">104</a>, <a href="#P108">108</a>, <a +href="#P122">122</a>, <a href="#P149">149</a>, <a +href="#P156">156</a>, <a href="#P163">163</a>, <a +href="#P164">164</a>, <a href="#P196">196</a>, <a +href="#P199">199</a>, <a href="#P287">287</a>, <a +href="#P302">302</a>, <a href="#P335">335</a>, <a href="#P394">394- +95</a>, <a href="#P399">399</a>, <a href="#P409">409</a>, <a +href="#P433">433</a>, <a href="#P434">434</a> +</p> + +<p class="index"> +Indian Empire, <a href="#P405">405</a> +</p> + +<p class="index"> +Indian Ocean, <a href="#P329">329</a> +</p> + +<p class="index"> +Indiana, <a href="#P383">383</a>, <a href="#P386">386</a> +</p> + +<p class="index"> +Individualists, <a href="#P375">375</a> <i>et seq.</i> +</p> + +<p class="index"> +Individuality in reproduction, <a href="#P16">16</a> <i>et seq.</i> +</p> + +<p class="index"> +Indo-Scythians, <a href="#P199">199</a>, <a href="#P430">430</a> +</p> + +<p class="index"> +Indus, <a href="#P149">149</a>, <a href="#P429">429</a> +</p> + +<p class="index"> +Industrial revolution, <a href="#P365">365</a> <i>et seq.</i> +</p> + +<p class="index"> +Infantry, <a href="#P178">178</a> +</p> + +<p class="index"> +Influenza, <a href="#P414">414</a> +</p> + +<p class="index"> +Innocent III, Pope, <a href="#P276">276</a>, <a href="#P279">279</a>, +<a href="#P280">280</a>, <a href="#P432">432</a> +</p> + +<p class="index"> +Innocent IV, Pope, <a href="#P281">281</a> +</p> + +<p class="index"> +Innsbruck, <a href="#P313">313</a> +</p> + +<p class="index"> +Inquisition, the, <a href="#P276">276</a>, <a href="#P349">349</a> +</p> + +<p class="index"> +Insects, <a href="#P26">26</a>, <a href="#P31">31</a> +</p> + +<p class="index"> +Interdicts, papal, <a href="#P275">275</a> +</p> + +<p class="index"> +Interglacial period, <a href="#P44">44</a> +</p> + +<p class="index"> +Internationalism, <a href="#P380">380</a> +</p> + +<p class="index"> +Invertebrata, <a href="#P13">13</a> +</p> + +<p class="index"> +Investitures, <a href="#P275">275</a> +</p> + +<p class="index"> +Ionic Greeks, <a href="#P108">108</a>, <a href="#P130">130</a> +</p> + +<p class="index"> +Iowa, <a href="#P385">385</a> +</p> + +<p class="index"> +Ireland, <a href="#P106">106</a>, <a href="#P405">405</a> +</p> + +<p class="index"> +Iron, <a href="#P80">80</a>, <a href="#P87">87</a>, <a +href="#P94">94</a>, <a href="#P97">97</a>, <a href="#P102">102</a>, +<a href="#P104">104</a>, <a href="#P168">168</a>, <a +href="#P319">319</a>, <a href="#P321">321</a>, <a +href="#P358">358</a>, <a href="#P359">359</a> +</p> + +<p class="index"> +Irrigation, <a href="#P290">290</a> +</p> + +<p class="index"> +Isabella of Castile, Queen, <a href="#P293">293</a>, <a +href="#P302">302</a>, <a href="#P309">309</a> +</p> + +<p class="index"> +Isaiah, <a href="#P125">125</a>, <a href="#P133">133</a>, <a +href="#P156">156</a> +</p> + +<p class="index"> +Isis, <a href="#P209">209</a>, <a href="#P210">210</a>, <a +href="#P211">211</a>, <a href="#P212">212</a> +</p> + +<p class="index"> +Islam, <a href="#P251">251</a>, <a href="#P252">252</a>, <a +href="#P432">432</a> +</p> + +<p class="index"> +Islamism, <a href="#P267">267</a>, <a href="#P319">319</a>. (<i>See +also</i> Moslem, Muhammedanism) +</p> + +<p class="index"> +Isocrates, <a href="#P145">145</a> +</p> + +<p class="index"> +Israel, judges of, <a href="#P118">118</a> +</p> + +<p class="index"> +Israel, kings of, <a href="#P118">118</a>, <a href="#P119">119</a>, +<a href="#P121">121</a> +</p> + +<p class="index"> +Issus, battle of, <a href="#P147">147</a>, <a href="#P430">430</a> +</p> + +<p class="index"> +Italian language, <a href="#P203">203</a> +</p> + +<p class="index"> +Italians, <a href="#P107">107</a>, <a href="#P351">351</a> +</p> + +<p class="index"> +Italica, <a href="#P202">202</a> +</p> + +<p class="index"> +Italy, <a href="#P94">94</a>, <a href="#P108">108</a>, <a +href="#P129">129</a>, <a href="#P134">134</a>, <a +href="#P176">176</a>, <a href="#P180">180</a>, <a +href="#P230">230</a>, <a href="#P236">236</a>, <a +href="#P312">312</a>, <a href="#P327">327</a>, <a +href="#P347">347</a>, <a href="#P390">390</a>, <a +href="#P396">396</a>, <a href="#P409">409</a>, <a +href="#P411">411</a>, <a href="#P429">429</a>, <a +href="#P431">431</a>, <a href="#P434">434</a> +</p> + +<p class="index"> +Italy, Central, <a href="#P429">429</a> +</p> + +<p class="index"> +Italy, North, <a href="#P263">263</a>, <a href="#P312">312</a>, <a +href="#P351">351</a>, <a href="#P390">390</a>, <a +href="#P429">429</a>, <a href="#P431">431</a> +</p> + +<p class="index"> +Italy, South, <a href="#P429">429</a> +</p> + +<p class="index"> +Ivan III (the Great), <a href="#P327">327</a>, <a +href="#P433">433</a> +</p> + +<p class="index"> +Ivan IV (the Terrible), <a href="#P327">327</a>, <a +href="#P433">433</a> +</p> + +<p> +J +</p> + +<p class="index"> +Jacobin republic, <a href="#P434">434</a> +</p> + +<p class="index"> +Jamaica, <a href="#P393">393</a>, <a href="#P407">407</a> +</p> + +<p class="index"> +James I, King of England and Scotland, <a href="#P324">324</a>, <a +href="#P433">433</a> +</p> + +<p class="index"> +Jamestown (Va.), <a href="#P433">433</a> +</p> + +<p class="index"> +Japan, <a href="#P166">166</a>, <a href="#P300">300</a>, <a +href="#P399">399</a>, <a href="#P400">400-01</a> <i>et seq.</i>, <a +href="#P409">409</a>, <a href="#P410">410</a>, <a +href="#P435">435</a> +</p> + +<p class="index"> +Japanese, <a href="#P419">419</a> +</p> + +<p class="index"> +Jarandilla, <a href="#P315">315</a> +</p> + +<p class="index"> +Java, <a href="#P302">302</a>, <a href="#P329">329</a> +</p> + +<p class="index"> +Jaw-bone, Heidelberg, <a href="#P45">45-46</a>; Piltdown, <a +href="#P46">46</a> +</p> + +<p class="index"> +Jehovah, <a href="#P125">125</a> +</p> + +<p class="index"> +Jena, <a href="#P434">434</a> +</p> + +<p class="index"> +Jengis Khan, <a href="#P287">287</a>, <a href="#P298">298</a>, <a +href="#P334">334</a>, <a href="#P432">432</a> +</p> + +<p class="index"> +Jerusalem, <a href="#P115">115</a>, <a href="#P116">116</a>, <a +href="#P119">119</a>, <a href="#P121">121</a>, <a +href="#P123">123</a>, <a href="#P124">124</a>, <a +href="#P184">184</a>, <a href="#P215">215</a>, <a +href="#P243">243</a>, <a href="#P267">267</a>, <a +href="#P271">271</a>, <a href="#P272">272</a>, <a +href="#P299">299</a>, <a href="#P431">431</a>, <a +href="#P432">432</a> +</p> + +<p class="index"> +Jerusalem, Temple of, <a href="#P119">119</a>, <a +href="#P184">184</a> +</p> + +<p class="index"> +Jesuits, <a href="#P308">308</a>, <a href="#P400">400</a>, <a +href="#P433">433</a> +</p> + +<p class="index"> +Jesus, life and teaching of, <a href="#P214">214</a> <i>et seq.</i>, +<a href="#P224">224</a>, <a href="#P270">270</a>, <a +href="#P306">306</a>, <a href="#P374">374</a>, <a +href="#P430">430</a> +</p> + +<p class="index"> +Jews, <a href="#P123">123</a>, <a href="#P124">124</a>, <a +href="#P147">147</a>, <a href="#P184">184</a>, <a +href="#P213">213</a>, <a href="#P215">215</a>, <a +href="#P255">255</a>, <a href="#P256">256</a>, <a +href="#P270">270</a>, <a href="#P294">294</a> +</p> + +<p class="index"> +Jews, early history of, <a href="#P115">115</a> <i>et seq.</i> +</p> + +<p class="index"> +Jews, literature of, <a href="#P115">115</a> +</p> + +<p class="index"> +Jewish religion and sacred books, <a href="#P116">116</a> +</p> + +<p class="index"> +John III of Poland, <a href="#P434">434</a> +</p> + +<p class="index"> +John XI, Pope, <a href="#P272">272</a> +</p> + +<p class="index"> +John XII, Pope, <a href="#P272">272</a>, <a href="#P432">432</a> +</p> + +<p class="index"> +Joppa, <a href="#P117">117</a> +</p> + +<p class="index"> +Joseph, King of Spain, <a href="#P349">349</a>, <a +href="#P434">434</a> +</p> + +<p class="index"> +Josiah, King of Judah, <a href="#P110">110</a>, <a +href="#P115">115</a>, <a href="#P116">116</a>, <a +href="#P429">429</a> +</p> + +<p class="index"> +Judah, <a href="#P115">115</a>, <a href="#P119">119</a> +</p> + +<p class="index"> +Judah, kings of, <a href="#P119">119</a> +</p> + +<p class="index"> +Judea, <a href="#P115">115</a>, <a href="#P183">183</a>, <a +href="#P214">214</a> +</p> + +<p class="index"> +Judea, priests and prophets in, <a href="#P122">122</a> <i>et +seq.</i> +</p> + +<p class="index"> +Judges, book of, <a href="#P117">117</a> +</p> + +<p class="index"> +Judges of Israel, <a href="#P118">118</a> +</p> + +<p class="index"> +Jugo-Slavia, <a href="#P354">354</a> +</p> + +<p class="index"> +Jugo-Slavs, <a href="#P351">351</a> +</p> + +<p class="index"> +Jugurtha, <a href="#P192">192</a> +</p> + +<p class="index"> +Julian the Apostate, <a href="#P431">431</a> +</p> + +<p class="index"> +Julius III, <a href="#P316">316</a> +</p> + +<p class="index"> +Junks, Chinese, <a href="#P400">400</a> +</p> + +<p class="index"> +Jupiter (god), <a href="#P211">211</a>, <a href="#P212">212</a> +</p> + +<p class="index"> +Jupiter (planet), <a href="#P2">2</a>, <a href="#P3">3</a> +</p> + +<p class="index"> +Jupiter Capitolinus, <a href="#P184">184</a> +</p> + +<p class="index"> +Jupiter Serapis, <a href="#P226">226</a> +</p> + +<p class="index"> +Justinian I, <a href="#P232">232</a>, <a href="#P238">238</a>, <a +href="#P243">243</a>, <a href="#P431">431</a> +</p> + +<p class="index"> +Jutes, <a href="#P230">230</a> +</p> + +<p> +K +</p> + +<p class="index"> +Kaaba, the, <a href="#P249">249</a> +</p> + +<p class="index"> +Kadessia, battle of, <a href="#P253">253</a>, <a href="#P431">431</a> +</p> + +<p class="index"> +Kalinga, <a href="#P163">163</a> +</p> + +<p class="index"> +Kansas, <a href="#P383">383</a> +</p> + +<p class="index"> +Karakorum, <a href="#P287">287</a>, <a href="#P298">298</a> +</p> + +<p class="index"> +Karnak, <a href="#P101">101</a> +</p> + +<p class="index"> +Kashgar, <a href="#P300">300</a> +</p> + +<p class="index"> +Kashmir, Buddhists in, <a href="#P165">165</a> +</p> + +<p class="index"> +Kavadh, <a href="#P243">243</a>, <a href="#P244">244</a>, <a +href="#P431">431</a> +</p> + +<p class="index"> +Kentucky, <a href="#P383">383</a>, <a href="#P386">386</a> +</p> + +<p class="index"> +Kerensky, <a href="#P416">416</a>, <a href="#P417">417</a> +</p> + +<p class="index"> +Khans, <a href="#P287">287</a> <i>et seq.</i> +</p> + +<p class="index"> +Khyber Pass, <a href="#P148">148</a>, <a href="#P199">199</a> +</p> + +<p class="index"> +Kiau Chau, <a href="#P400">400</a> +</p> + +<p class="index"> +Kieff, <a href="#P287">287</a>, <a href="#P432">432</a> +</p> + +<p class="index"> +Kin dynasty, <a href="#P287">287</a> +</p> + +<p class="index"> +Kings, book of, <a href="#P119">119</a> +</p> + +<p class="index"> +Kioto, <a href="#P402">402</a> +</p> + +<p class="index"> +Ki-wi, the, <a href="#P32">32</a> +</p> + +<p class="index"> +Koltchak, Admiral, <a href="#P419">419</a> +</p> + +<p class="index"> +Koran, the, <a href="#P251">251</a>, <a href="#P255">255</a> +</p> + +<p class="index"> +Korea, <a href="#P400">400</a>, <a href="#P402">402</a> +</p> + +<p class="index"> +Kotan, <a href="#P300">300</a> +</p> + +<p class="index"> +Krum of Bulgaria, <a href="#P432">432</a> +</p> + +<p class="index"> +Kublai Khan, <a href="#P290">290</a>, <a href="#P298">298</a>, <a +href="#P300">300</a>, <a href="#P433">433</a> +</p> + +<p class="index"> +Kushan dynasty, <a href="#P199">199</a> +</p> + +<p> +L +</p> + +<p class="index"> +Labyrinth, Cretan, <a href="#P127">127</a> +</p> + +<p class="index"> +Lahore, <a href="#P287">287</a> +</p> + +<p class="index"> +Lake Ontario, <a href="#P336">336</a> +</p> + +<p class="index"> +Land scorpions, <a href="#P23">23</a> +</p> + +<p class="index"> +Langley, Professor, <a href="#P363">363</a> +</p> + +<p class="index"> +Languages of mankind, <a href="#P94">94</a>, <a href="#P95">95</a>, +<a href="#P100">100</a>, <a href="#P106">106</a>, <a +href="#P107">107</a>, <a href="#P108">108</a>, <a +href="#P134">134</a>, <a href="#P145">145</a>, <a +href="#P156">156</a>, <a href="#P176">176</a>, <a +href="#P201">201</a>, <a href="#P202">202</a>, <a +href="#P203">203</a>, <a href="#P230">230</a>, <a +href="#P236">236</a>, <a href="#P243">243</a>, <a +href="#P245">245</a>, <a href="#P259">259</a>, <a +href="#P325">325</a>, <a href="#P328">328</a> +</p> + +<p class="index"> +Lao Tse, <a href="#P133">133</a>, <a href="#P170">170</a> <i>et +seq.</i>, <a href="#P222">222</a>, <a href="#P429">429</a> +</p> + +<p class="index"> +Lapland, <a href="#P233">233</a> +</p> + +<p class="index"> +Latin Emperor, <a href="#P259">259</a> +</p> + +<p class="index"> +Latin language, <a href="#P201">201</a>, <a href="#P202">202</a>, <a +href="#P203">203</a>, <a href="#P236">236</a>, <a +href="#P259">259</a>. (<i>Cf.</i> also Languages) +</p> + +<p class="index"> +Latins, the, <a href="#P271">271</a>, <a href="#P272">272</a>, <a +href="#P432">432</a> +</p> + +<p class="index"> +Law, <a href="#P238">238</a> +</p> + +<p class="index"> +<i>Laws</i>, Plato’s, <a href="#P142">142</a> +</p> + +<p class="index"> +League of Nations, <a href="#P422">422</a>, <a href="#P423">423</a>, +<a href="#P424">424</a>, <a href="#P425">425</a>, <a +href="#P435">435</a> +</p> + +<p class="index"> +Learning, <a href="#P255">255</a> +</p> + +<p class="index"> +Lee, General, <a href="#P387">387</a>, <a href="#P389">389</a> +</p> + +<p class="index"> +Legionaries, <a href="#P229">229</a> +</p> + +<p class="index"> +Lemurs, <a href="#P43">43</a> +</p> + +<p class="index"> +Lenin, <a href="#P417">417</a>, <a href="#P419">419</a> +</p> + +<p class="index"> +Leo III, Pope, <a href="#P265">265</a>, <a href="#P272">272</a>, <a +href="#P432">432</a> +</p> + +<p class="index"> +Leo X, Pope, <a href="#P310">310</a>, <a href="#P312">312</a>, <a +href="#P433">433</a> +</p> + +<p class="index"> +Leonidas, <a href="#P136">136</a> +</p> + +<p class="index"> +Leopold I, <a href="#P353">353</a> +</p> + +<p class="index"> +Leopold of Saxe-Coburg-Gotha, <a href="#P434">434</a> +</p> + +<p class="index"> +Lepanto, battle of, <a href="#P293">293</a> +</p> + +<p class="index"> +Lepidus, <a href="#P194">194</a> +</p> + +<p class="index"> +Lexington, <a href="#P338">338</a> +</p> + +<p class="index"> +Liberia, <a href="#P398">398</a> +</p> + +<p class="index"> +Libraries, <a href="#P151">151</a>, <a href="#P164">164</a>, <a +href="#P170">170</a> +</p> + +<p class="index"> +Liegnitz, battle of, <a href="#P288">288</a>, <a +href="#P289">289</a>, <a href="#P433">433</a> +</p> + +<p class="index"> +Life, beginnings of, the Record of the Rocks, <a href="#P11">11</a> +<i>et seq.</i>; progressive nature of, <a href="#P16">16</a>; of what +it consists, <a href="#P16">16</a>; theory of Natural Selection, <a +href="#P18">18</a>; a teachable type: advent of, <a +href="#P39">39</a> +</p> + +<p class="index"> +Lincoln, Abraham, <a href="#P385">385</a>, <a href="#P386">386</a>, +<a href="#P388">388</a>, <a href="#P389">389</a>, <a +href="#P435">435</a>; assassination of, <a href="#P389">389</a> +</p> + +<p class="index"> +Linen, <a href="#P102">102</a> +</p> + +<p class="index"> +Lions, <a href="#P42">42</a>, <a href="#P127">127</a> +</p> + +<p class="index"> +Lisbon, <a href="#P294">294</a>, <a href="#P315">315</a>, <a +href="#P329">329</a> +</p> + +<p class="index"> +Literary criticism, evolution of, <a href="#P205">205</a> +</p> + +<p class="index"> +Literature, European, <a href="#P298">298</a> +</p> + +<p class="index"> +Literature, pre-historic, <a href="#P115">115</a> +</p> + +<p class="index"> +Lizards, <a href="#P27">27</a>, <a href="#P28">28</a> +</p> + +<p class="index"> +Llamas, <a href="#P42">42</a> +</p> + +<p class="index"> +Lob Nor, <a href="#P300">300</a> +</p> + +<p class="index"> +Lochau, battle of, <a href="#P313">313</a> +</p> + +<p class="index"> +Locke, John, <a href="#P371">371</a> +</p> + +<p class="index"> +Logic, science of, <a href="#P144">144</a> +</p> + +<p class="index"> +Lombard kingdom, <a href="#P259">259</a> +</p> + +<p class="index"> +Lombards, <a href="#P431">431</a> +</p> + +<p class="index"> +Lombardy, <a href="#P431">431</a> +</p> + +<p class="index"> +London, <a href="#P294">294</a>, <a href="#P413">413</a> +</p> + +<p class="index"> +Lopez de Recalde, Inigo, <a href="#P308">308</a>, (<i>See also</i> +Ignatius of Loyola) +</p> + +<p class="index"> +Lorraine, <a href="#P391">391</a> +</p> + +<p class="index"> +Louis XIV, <a href="#P324">324</a>, <a href="#P433">433</a> +</p> + +<p class="index"> +Louis XV, <a href="#P434">434</a> +</p> + +<p class="index"> +Louis XVI, <a href="#P342">342</a>, <a href="#P343">343</a>, <a +href="#P434">434</a> +</p> + +<p class="index"> +Louis XVIII, <a href="#P350">350</a>, <a href="#P434">434</a> +</p> + +<p class="index"> +Louis Philippe, <a href="#P350">350</a>, <a href="#P434">434</a> +</p> + +<p class="index"> +Louis the Pious, <a href="#P265">265</a>, <a href="#P432">432</a> +</p> + +<p class="index"> +Louisiana, <a href="#P336">336</a>, <a href="#P385">385</a> +</p> + +<p class="index"> +Lu, state of, <a href="#P170">170</a> +</p> + +<p class="index"> +Lucretius, <a href="#P294">294</a> +</p> + +<p class="index"> +Lucullus, <a href="#P192">192</a> +</p> + +<p class="index"> +Lunar month, <a href="#P68">68</a> +</p> + +<p class="index"> +Lung, the, <a href="#P24">24</a> +</p> + +<p class="index"> +Luther, Martin, <a href="#P306">306</a>, <a href="#P310">310</a>, <a +href="#P433">433</a> +</p> + +<p class="index"> +Luxembourg, <a href="#P351">351</a> +</p> + +<p class="index"> +Luxor, <a href="#P101">101</a> +</p> + +<p class="index"> +Lvoff, Prince, <a href="#P416">416</a> +</p> + +<p class="index"> +Lyceum, Athens, <a href="#P142">142</a>, <a href="#P144">144</a> +</p> + +<p class="index"> +Lydia, <a href="#P98">98</a>, <a href="#P134">134</a> +</p> + +<p class="index"> +Lydians, <a href="#P94">94</a> +</p> + +<p class="index"> +Lyons, <a href="#P345">345</a> +</p> + +<p> +M +</p> + +<p class="index"> +Macao, <a href="#P329">329</a> +</p> + +<p class="index"> +Macaulay, Lord, <a href="#P187">187</a> +</p> + +<p class="index"> +Maccabeans, <a href="#P184">184</a> +</p> + +<p class="index"> +Macedonia and Macedonians, <a href="#P131">131</a>, <a +href="#P135">135</a>, <a href="#P139">139</a>, <a +href="#P145">145</a>, <a href="#P179">179</a>, <a +href="#P292">292</a>, <a href="#P350">350</a> +</p> + +<p class="index"> +Machinery, <a href="#P322">322</a>, <a href="#P356">356</a> +</p> + +<p class="index"> +Madeira, <a href="#P122">122</a>, <a href="#P302">302</a> +</p> + +<p class="index"> +Madras, <a href="#P163">163</a> +</p> + +<p class="index"> +Magellan, Ferdinand, <a href="#P302">302</a> +</p> + +<p class="index"> +Magic, <a href="#P172">172</a> +</p> + +<p class="index"> +Magna Græcia, <a href="#P129">129</a>, <a href="#P178">178</a> +</p> + +<p class="index"> +Magnesia, battle of, <a href="#P183">183</a> +</p> + +<p class="index"> +Magyars, <a href="#P263">263</a>, <a href="#P264">264</a>, <a +href="#P270">270</a>, <a href="#P289">289</a> +</p> + +<p class="index"> +Mahaffy, Professor, <a href="#P151">151</a> +</p> + +<p class="index"> +Maine, <a href="#P336">336</a>, <a href="#P339">339</a> +</p> + +<p class="index"> +Majuba Hill, battle of, <a href="#P398">398</a> +</p> + +<p class="index"> +Malta, <a href="#P393">393</a>, <a href="#P407">407</a> +</p> + +<p class="index"> +Mammals, the earliest, <a href="#P33">33</a>; viviparous, <a +href="#P33">33</a>; egg-laying, <a href="#P34">34</a>; the Age of, <a +href="#P37">37</a> <i>et seq. </i> +</p> + +<p class="index"> +Mammoth, <a href="#P43">43</a>, <a href="#P49">49</a> +</p> + +<p class="index"> +Man, brotherhood of, <a href="#P216">216</a>, <a +href="#P224">224</a>, <a href="#P380">380</a> +</p> + +<p class="index"> +Man, <a href="#P43">43</a>; Heidelberg, <a href="#P45">45</a>; +Eoanthropus, <a href="#P47">47</a>; Neanderthal, <a +href="#P47">47</a>, <a href="#P48">48</a> <i>et seq.</i>; earliest +known, <a href="#P53">53</a> <i>et seq.</i> +</p> + +<p class="index"> +Manchu, <a href="#P333">333</a>, <a href="#P433">433</a> +</p> + +<p class="index"> +Manchuria, <a href="#P197">197</a>, <a href="#P400">400</a>, <a +href="#P402">402</a>, <a href="#P403">403</a>, <a +href="#P404">404</a> +</p> + +<p class="index"> +Mangu Khan, <a href="#P290">290</a>, <a href="#P433">433</a> +</p> + +<p class="index"> +Mani, <a href="#P241">241</a>, <a href="#P270">270</a>, <a +href="#P430">430</a>, <a href="#P431">431</a> +</p> + +<p class="index"> +Manichæans, <a href="#P243">243</a>, <a href="#P255">255</a> +</p> + +<p class="index"> +Mankind, racial divisions of, <a href="#P54">54</a>, <a +href="#P71">71</a> +</p> + +<p class="index"> +Mantua, <a href="#P345">345</a> +</p> + +<p class="index"> +Maoris, <a href="#P71">71</a> +</p> + +<p class="index"> +Marathon, <a href="#P136">136</a> +</p> + +<p class="index"> +Marathon, battle of, <a href="#P430">430</a> +</p> + +<p class="index"> +Marchand, Colonel, <a href="#P398">398</a> +</p> + +<p class="index"> +Marcus Aurelius, <a href="#P174">174</a>, <a href="#P430">430</a> +</p> + +<p class="index"> +Marie Antoinette, <a href="#P343">343</a>, <a href="#P346">346</a> +</p> + +<p class="index"> +Mariner’s compass, <a href="#P302">302</a>, <a +href="#P320">320</a> +</p> + +<p class="index"> +Marius, <a href="#P191">191</a>, <a href="#P192">192</a>, <a +href="#P237">237</a>, <a href="#P430">430</a> +</p> + +<p class="index"> +“Marriage of East and West,” <a href="#P149">149</a> +</p> + +<p class="index"> +Mars (planet), <a href="#P2">2</a>, <a href="#P3">3</a> +</p> + +<p class="index"> +Marseillaise, the, <a href="#P343">343</a>, <a href="#P345">345</a> +</p> + +<p class="index"> +Marseilles, <a href="#P129">129</a>, <a href="#P182">182</a>, <a +href="#P312">312</a>, <a href="#P345">345</a> +</p> + +<p class="index"> +Martel, Charles, <a href="#P259">259</a>, <a href="#P432">432</a> +</p> + +<p class="index"> +Marlin V, Pope, <a href="#P286">286</a>, <a href="#P304">304</a> +</p> + +<p class="index"> +Marx, <a href="#P376">376</a> +</p> + +<p class="index"> +Maryland, <a href="#P337">337</a> +</p> + +<p class="index"> +Mas d’Azil cave, <a href="#P57">57</a> +</p> + +<p class="index"> +Maximilian, Emperor of Mexico, <a href="#P390">390</a>, <a +href="#P391">391</a> +</p> + +<p class="index"> +Maximilian I, Emperor, <a href="#P309">309</a>, <a +href="#P433">433</a> +</p> + +<p class="index"> +Maya writing, <a href="#P74">74</a>, <a href="#P75">75</a> +</p> + +<p class="index"> +Mayence, <a href="#P265">265</a>, <a href="#P344">344</a> +</p> + +<p class="index"> +<i>Mayflower</i> expedition, <a href="#P433">433</a> +</p> + +<p class="index"> +Mazarin, Cardinal, <a href="#P324">324</a> +</p> + +<p class="index"> +Mecca, <a href="#P248">248</a>, <a href="#P249">249</a>, <a +href="#P251">251</a>, <a href="#P431">431</a> +</p> + +<p class="index"> +Mechanical revolution, <a href="#P256">256</a> <i>et seq.</i>, <a +href="#P366">366</a>, <a href="#P369">369</a> +</p> + +<p class="index"> +Medes, <a href="#P100">100</a>, <a href="#P108">108</a>, <a +href="#P109">109</a>, <a href="#P115">115</a>, <a +href="#P122">122</a>, <a href="#P134">134</a>, <a +href="#P155">155</a>, <a href="#P174">174</a>, <a +href="#P429">429</a> +</p> + +<p class="index"> +Media, rebellion in, <a href="#P136">136</a> +</p> + +<p class="index"> +Median Empire, <a href="#P109">109</a>, <a href="#P110">110</a>, <a +href="#P112">112</a> +</p> + +<p class="index"> +Medicine man, the, <a href="#P64">64</a> +</p> + +<p class="index"> +Medina, <a href="#P249">249</a> +</p> + +<p class="index"> +Mediterranean, <a href="#P71">71</a>, <a href="#P91">91</a>, <a +href="#P176">176</a>, <a href="#P292">292</a>, <a +href="#P293">293</a>; valley, <a href="#P71">71</a> +</p> + +<p class="index"> +“Mediterranean” people, pre-Greek, <a +href="#P130">130</a> +</p> + +<p class="index"> +Megatherium, <a href="#P74">74</a> +</p> + +<p class="index"> +Megiddo, battle of, <a href="#P110">110</a>, <a href="#P115">115</a>, +<a href="#P429">429</a> +</p> + +<p class="index"> +Melasgird, battle of, <a href="#P268">268</a>, <a +href="#P432">432</a> +</p> + +<p class="index"> +Mentality, primitive, <a href="#P60">60</a>, <i>et seq.</i> +</p> + +<p class="index"> +Mercury (planet), <a href="#P2">2</a>, <a href="#P3">3</a> +</p> + +<p class="index"> +Mesopotamia, <a href="#P77">77</a>, <a href="#P80">80</a>, <a +href="#P96">96</a>, <a href="#P100">100</a>, <a href="#P109">109</a>, +<a href="#P127">127</a>, <a href="#P174">174</a>, <a +href="#P267">267</a>, <a href="#P290">290</a>, <a +href="#P299">299</a> +</p> + +<p class="index"> +Mesozoic period, <a href="#P27">27</a>; land life of, <a +href="#P28">28</a>; sea life of, <a href="#P30">30</a>; scarcity of +bird and mammal life in, <a href="#P32">32</a>, <a +href="#P34">34</a>; its difference from Cainozoic period, <a +href="#P38">38</a> +</p> + +<p class="index"> +Messina, <a href="#P179">179</a>, <a href="#P180">180</a> +</p> + +<p class="index"> +Messina, Straits of, <a href="#P179">179</a> +</p> + +<p class="index"> +Metallurgy, <a href="#P356">356</a>, <a href="#P359">359</a>, <a +href="#P360">360</a> +</p> + +<p class="index"> +Metals, transmutation of, <a href="#P257">257</a> +</p> + +<p class="index"> +Meteoric iron, <a href="#P80">80</a>, <a href="#P94">94</a> +</p> + +<p class="index"> +Metz, <a href="#P391">391</a> +</p> + +<p class="index"> +Mexico, <a href="#P74">74</a>, <a href="#P76">76</a>, <a +href="#P324">324</a>, <a href="#P321">321</a>, <a +href="#P384">384</a>, <a href="#P385">385</a>, <a +href="#P389">389</a>, <a href="#P399">399</a> +</p> + +<p class="index"> +Michael VII, Emperor, <a href="#P268">268</a> +</p> + +<p class="index"> +Michael VIII. (<i>See</i> Palæologus) +</p> + +<p class="index"> +Microscope, <a href="#P355">355</a> +</p> + +<p class="index"> +Midianites, <a href="#P117">117</a> +</p> + +<p class="index"> +Milan, <a href="#P227">227</a>, <a href="#P235">235</a>, <a +href="#P309">309</a>, <a href="#P312">312</a>, <a +href="#P351">351</a> +</p> + +<p class="index"> +Miletus, <a href="#P129">129</a> +</p> + +<p class="index"> +Millipedes, <a href="#P23">23</a> +</p> + +<p class="index"> +Milton, <a href="#P129">129</a> +</p> + +<p class="index"> +Ming dynasty, <a href="#P290">290</a>, <a href="#P333">333</a>, <a +href="#P433">433</a> +</p> + +<p class="index"> +Mining, <a href="#P335">335</a> +</p> + +<p class="index"> +Minnesota, <a href="#P385">385</a> +</p> + +<p class="index"> +Minos, <a href="#P92">92</a>, <a href="#P95">95</a>, <a +href="#P127">127</a>, <a href="#P131">131</a> +</p> + +<p class="index"> +Missionaries, <a href="#P236">236</a>, <a href="#P247">247</a>, <a +href="#P380">380</a>, <a href="#P400">400</a>, <a +href="#P431">431</a> +</p> + +<p class="index"> +Mississippi (state), <a href="#P385">385</a> +</p> + +<p class="index"> +Mississippi River, <a href="#P386">386</a> +</p> + +<p class="index"> +Missouri, <a href="#P382">382</a> +</p> + +<p class="index"> +Mithraism, <a href="#P211">211</a>, <a href="#P212">212</a>, <a +href="#P213">213</a>, <a href="#P222">222</a>, <a +href="#P431">431</a> +</p> + +<p class="index"> +Mithras, <a href="#P211">211</a>, <a href="#P213">213</a> +</p> + +<p class="index"> +Mnemonics, Chinese and Peruvian method of, <a href="#P76">76</a> +</p> + +<p class="index"> +Moabites, <a href="#P117">117</a> +</p> + +<p class="index"> +Moawija, Caliph, <a href="#P431">431</a> +</p> + +<p class="index"> +Mogul dynasty, <a href="#P292">292</a>, <a href="#P433">433</a> +</p> + +<p class="index"> +Moluccas, <a href="#P329">329</a> +</p> + +<p class="index"> +Monarchy, <a href="#P323">323</a>, <a href="#P341">341</a>, <a +href="#P347">347</a> +</p> + +<p class="index"> +Monasticism, <a href="#P213">213</a>, <a href="#P236">236</a> +</p> + +<p class="index"> +Money, <a href="#P114">114</a>, <a href="#P176">176</a>, <a +href="#P201">201</a>, <a href="#P319">319</a> +</p> + +<p class="index"> +Mongol conquests, influence of, <a href="#P298">298</a> +</p> + +<p class="index"> +Mongol Court, the, <a href="#P299">299</a> +</p> + +<p class="index"> +Mongol Empire, <a href="#P332">332</a> +</p> + +<p class="index"> +Mongolia, <a href="#P197">197</a> +</p> + +<p class="index"> +Mongolian language, <a href="#P108">108</a> +</p> + +<p class="index"> +Mongolian peoples, <a href="#P72">72</a>, <a href="#P73">73</a>, <a +href="#P88">88</a>, <a href="#P167">167</a>, <a href="#P197">197</a>, +<a href="#P227">227</a>, <a href="#P232">232</a>, <a +href="#P233">233</a> <i>et seq.</i>, <a href="#P245">245</a>, <a +href="#P258">258</a>, <a href="#P287">287</a> <i>et seq.</i>, <a +href="#P298">298</a>, <a href="#P320">320</a>, <a +href="#P333">333</a>, <a href="#P400">400</a>, <a +href="#P433">433</a> +</p> + +<p class="index"> +Mongoloid tribes, <a href="#P69">69</a> +</p> + +<p class="index"> +Monkeys, <a href="#P43">43</a>, <a href="#P45">45</a> +</p> + +<p class="index"> +Monotheism, <a href="#P251">251</a>. (<i>See also</i> Muhammad) +</p> + +<p class="index"> +Monroe doctrine, <a href="#P349">349</a>, <a href="#P389">389</a>, <a +href="#P396">396</a>, <a href="#P423">423</a> +</p> + +<p class="index"> +Monroe, President, <a href="#P349">349</a> +</p> + +<p class="index"> +Montesquieu, <a href="#P371">371</a> +</p> + +<p class="index"> +Montgomery, <a href="#P385">385</a> +</p> + +<p class="index"> +Month, the lunar, <a href="#P68">68</a> +</p> + +<p class="index"> +Moon, the, <a href="#P2">2</a>, <a href="#P3">3</a>, <a +href="#P6">6</a>, <a href="#P8">8</a>, <a href="#P10">10</a>, <a +href="#P68">68</a> +</p> + +<p class="index"> +Moorish paper-mills, <a href="#P297">297</a> +</p> + +<p class="index"> +More, Sir Thomas, <a href="#P365">365</a>, <a href="#P371">371</a> +</p> + +<p class="index"> +Morelly, <a href="#P371">371</a> +</p> + +<p class="index"> +Morocco, <a href="#P185">185</a>, <a href="#P398">398</a> +</p> + +<p class="index"> +Mortillet, <a href="#P57">57</a> +</p> + +<p class="index"> +Moscow, <a href="#P293">293</a>, <a href="#P434">434</a> +</p> + +<p class="index"> +Moscow, Grand Duke of, <a href="#P290">290</a> +</p> + +<p class="index"> +Moses, <a href="#P116">116</a> +</p> + +<p class="index"> +Moslem Empire, <a href="#P253">253</a> +</p> + +<p class="index"> +Moslems, <a href="#P297">297</a>, <a href="#P431">431</a>, <a +href="#P432">432</a> +</p> + +<p class="index"> +Moslim, the, <a href="#P253">253</a>, <a href="#P269">269</a>, <a +href="#P271">271</a>, <a href="#P290">290</a> +</p> + +<p class="index"> +Mososaurs, <a href="#P29">29</a> +</p> + +<p class="index"> +Moses, <a href="#P23">23</a> +</p> + +<p class="index"> +Mounds, Neolithic, <a href="#P70">70</a> +</p> + +<p class="index"> +Mountains, <a href="#P197">197</a> +</p> + +<p class="index"> +Mozambique, <a href="#P329">329</a> +</p> + +<p class="index"> +Muehlon, Herr, <a href="#P424">424</a> +</p> + +<p class="index"> +Muhammad, prophet, <a href="#P243">243</a>, <a href="#P247">247</a>, +<a href="#P248">248</a> <i>et seq.</i>, <a href="#P270">270</a>, <a +href="#P431">431</a> +</p> + +<p class="index"> +Muhammad II, Sultan, <a href="#P292">292</a>, <a href="#P433">433</a> +</p> + +<p class="index"> +Mules, <a href="#P102">102</a> +</p> + +<p class="index"> +Mummies, <a href="#P70">70</a> +</p> + +<p class="index"> +Munitions, <a href="#P412">412</a> +</p> + +<p class="index"> +Musk ox, <a href="#P43">43</a> +</p> + +<p class="index"> +Mycalæ, battle of, <a href="#P136">136</a>, <a +href="#P430">430</a> +</p> + +<p class="index"> +Mycenæ, <a href="#P92">92</a>, <a href="#P108">108</a> +</p> + +<p class="index"> +Mycerinus, <a href="#P83">83</a> +</p> + +<p class="index"> +Mylæ, battle of, <a href="#P181">181</a>, <a +href="#P430">430</a> +</p> + +<p> +N +</p> + +<p class="index"> +Nabonidus, <a href="#P111">111</a>, <a href="#P112">112</a> +</p> + +<p class="index"> +Nankin, <a href="#P173">173</a> +</p> + +<p class="index"> +Naples, <a href="#P178">178</a>, <a href="#P350">350</a>, <a +href="#P431">431</a> +</p> + +<p class="index"> +Napoleon Bonaparte, <a href="#P345">345</a>, <a href="#P347">347</a>, +<a href="#P348">348</a>, <a href="#P356">356</a>, <a +href="#P434">434</a> +</p> + +<p class="index"> +Napoleon III, <a href="#P390">390</a>, <a href="#P434">434</a>, <a +href="#P435">435</a> +</p> + +<p class="index"> +Nasmyth, <a href="#P359">359</a> +</p> + +<p class="index"> +Natal, <a href="#P398">398</a> +</p> + +<p class="index"> +“National schools,” <a href="#P369">369</a> +</p> + +<p class="index"> +Natural history, father of, <a href="#P144">144</a> +</p> + +<p class="index"> +Natural Selection, theory of, <a href="#P17">17</a> +</p> + +<p class="index"> +Nautilus, the pearly, <a href="#P39">39</a> +</p> + +<p class="index"> +Navarino, battle of, <a href="#P353">353</a>, <a href="#P434">434</a> +</p> + +<p class="index"> +Neanderthaler Man, <a href="#P47">47</a>, <a href="#P48">48</a> <i>et +seq.</i> +</p> + +<p class="index"> +Nebraska, <a href="#P383">383</a> +</p> + +<p class="index"> +Nebuchadnezzar II (the Great), <a href="#P102">102</a>, <a +href="#P110">110</a>, <a href="#P115">115</a>, <a +href="#P429">429</a> +</p> + +<p class="index"> +Nebulæ, <a href="#P4">4</a>, <a href="#P5">5</a> +</p> + +<p class="index"> +Necho II, <a href="#P109">109</a>, <a href="#P110">110</a>, <a +href="#P115">115</a>, <a href="#P122">122</a>, <a +href="#P147">147</a>, <a href="#P429">429</a> +</p> + +<p class="index"> +Needles, bone, <a href="#P57">57</a> +</p> + +<p class="index"> +Negroid tribes, <a href="#P72">72</a>, <a href="#P88">88</a> +</p> + +<p class="index"> +Nelson, Horatio, <a href="#P348">348</a> +</p> + +<p class="index"> +Neolithic age, <a href="#P59">59</a>, <a href="#P65">65</a> +</p> + +<p class="index"> +Neolithic civilizations, primitive, <a href="#P71">71</a> <i>et +seq.</i> +</p> + +<p class="index"> +Neptune (planet), <a href="#P2">2</a>, <a href="#P3">3</a> +</p> + +<p class="index"> +Nero, <a href="#P195">195</a>, <a href="#P430">430</a> +</p> + +<p class="index"> +Nestorian missionaries, <a href="#P431">431</a>. (<i>Cf.</i> +Missionaries) +</p> + +<p class="index"> +Netherlands, <a href="#P259">259</a>, <a href="#P309">309</a>, <a +href="#P351">351</a> +</p> + +<p class="index"> +Neustria, <a href="#P431">431</a> +</p> + +<p class="index"> +Neva, <a href="#P327">327</a> +</p> + +<p class="index"> +New Assyrian Empire, <a href="#P97">97</a> +</p> + +<p class="index"> +<i>New Atlantis, The</i>, <a href="#P322">322</a>, <a +href="#P355">355</a> +</p> + +<p class="index"> +New England, <a href="#P335">335</a>, <a href="#P337">337</a> +</p> + +<p class="index"> +New Mexico, <a href="#P433">433</a> +</p> + +<p class="index"> +New Plymouth, <a href="#P433">433</a> +</p> + +<p class="index"> +Newts, <a href="#P24">24</a> +</p> + +<p class="index"> +New York, <a href="#P358">358</a>, <a href="#P434">434</a> +</p> + +<p class="index"> +New Zealand, <a href="#P322">322</a>, <a href="#P396">396</a>, <a +href="#P405">405</a> +</p> + +<p class="index"> +Newfoundland, <a href="#P405">405</a> +</p> + +<p class="index"> +Nicæa, <a href="#P268">268</a>, <a href="#P270">270</a> +</p> + +<p class="index"> +Nicæa, Council of, <a href="#P431">431</a> +</p> + +<p class="index"> +Nicephorus, Emperor, <a href="#P432">432</a> +</p> + +<p class="index"> +Nicholas I, Tsar, <a href="#P351">351</a>, <a href="#P390">390</a>, +<a href="#P434">434</a> +</p> + +<p class="index"> +Nicholas II, Tsar, <a href="#P416">416</a> +</p> + +<p class="index"> +Nickel, <a href="#P360">360</a> +</p> + +<p class="index"> +Nicomedia, <a href="#P227">227</a> +</p> + +<p class="index"> +Nieuw Amsterdam, <a href="#P434">434</a>. (<i>Cf.</i> New York) +</p> + +<p class="index"> +Nile, <a href="#P83">83</a>, <a href="#P100">100</a>, <a +href="#P129">129</a>, <a href="#P398">398</a>; valley <a +href="#P90">90</a>, <a href="#P429">429</a> +</p> + +<p class="index"> +Nile, battle of the, <a href="#P434">434</a> +</p> + +<p class="index"> +Nineveh, <a href="#P94">94</a>, <a href="#P97">97</a>, <a +href="#P101">101</a>, <a href="#P109">109</a>, <a +href="#P114">114</a>, <a href="#P243">243</a>, <a +href="#P429">429</a>, <a href="#P431">431</a> +</p> + +<p class="index"> +Nippur, <a href="#P78">78</a> +</p> + +<p class="index"> +Nirvana, <a href="#P161">161</a> +</p> + +<p class="index"> +Nish, <a href="#P227">227</a> +</p> + +<p class="index"> +Noah’s Ark, <a href="#P91">91</a> +</p> + +<p class="index"> +Nogaret, Guillaume de, <a href="#P284">284</a> +</p> + +<p class="index"> +Nomadic peoples, primitive, <a href="#P84">84</a> <i>et seq.</i>, +(<i>Cf.</i> Nomads) +</p> + +<p class="index"> +Nomads, <a href="#P122">122</a>, <a href="#P155">155</a>, <a +href="#P167">167</a>, <a href="#P168">168</a>, <a +href="#P174">174</a>, <a href="#P198">198-200</a>, <a +href="#P233">233-34</a>, <a href="#P245">245</a>, <a +href="#P287">287</a>, <a href="#P334">334</a> +</p> + +<p class="index"> +Nonconformity, <a href="#P307">307</a>, <a href="#P308">308</a> +</p> + +<p class="index"> +Nordic race, <a href="#P72">72</a>, <a href="#P88">88</a>, <a +href="#P104">104</a>, <a href="#P108">108</a>, <a +href="#P134">134</a>, <a href="#P154">154</a>, <a +href="#P155">155</a>, <a href="#P174">174</a>, <a +href="#P178">178</a>, <a href="#P185">185</a>, <a +href="#P197">197</a>, <a href="#P200">200</a>, <a +href="#P233">233</a>, <a href="#P258">258</a>, <a +href="#P261">261</a> +</p> + +<p class="index"> +Normandy, <a href="#P263">263</a>, <a href="#P342">342</a>, <a +href="#P432">432</a> +</p> + +<p class="index"> +Normandy, Duke of, <a href="#P266">266</a> +</p> + +<p class="index"> +Normans, <a href="#P263">263</a>, <a href="#P266">266</a>, <a +href="#P279">279</a>, <a href="#P302">302</a> +</p> + +<p class="index"> +Northmen, <a href="#P263">263</a>, <a href="#P264">264</a>, <a +href="#P266">266</a>, <a href="#P268">268</a>, <a +href="#P432">432</a> +</p> + +<p class="index"> +Norway, <a href="#P306">306</a>, <a href="#P313">313</a>, <a +href="#P432">432</a> +</p> + +<p class="index"> +Norwegians, <a href="#P351">351</a> +</p> + +<p class="index"> +Novgorod, <a href="#P294">294</a>, <a href="#P432">432</a> +</p> + +<p class="index"> +Nubians, <a href="#P238">238</a> +</p> + +<p class="index"> +Numerals, Arabic, <a href="#P282">282</a> +</p> + +<p class="index"> +Numidia, <a href="#P191">191</a> +</p> + +<p class="index"> +Numidians, <a href="#P182">182</a> +</p> + +<p class="index"> +Nuremberg, <a href="#P294">294</a> +</p> + +<p class="index"> +Nuremberg, Peace of, <a href="#P313">313</a> +</p> + +<p> +O +</p> + +<p class="index"> +Ocean dredgings, deepest, <a href="#P4">4</a> +</p> + +<p class="index"> +Ocean liners, <a href="#P322">322</a>, <a href="#P336">336</a> +</p> + +<p class="index"> +Octavian. (<i>See</i> Augustus) +</p> + +<p class="index"> +Odenathus of Palmyra, <a href="#P431">431</a> +</p> + +<p class="index"> +Odoacer, <a href="#P236">236</a>, <a href="#P431">431</a> +</p> + +<p class="index"> +<i>Odyssey</i>, <a href="#P127">127</a> +</p> + +<p class="index"> +Ogdai Khan, <a href="#P287">287</a>, <a href="#P289">289</a>, <a +href="#P432">432</a> +</p> + +<p class="index"> +Oglethorpe, <a href="#P336">336</a> +</p> + +<p class="index"> +Okapi, <a href="#P397">397</a> +</p> + +<p class="index"> +“Old Man,” <a href="#P372">372</a>, <a +href="#P373">373</a> +</p> + +<p class="index"> +Old Testament, <a href="#P115">115</a>, <a href="#P116">116</a> +</p> + +<p class="index"> +Olympiad, first, <a href="#P176">176</a>, <a href="#P429">429</a> +</p> + +<p class="index"> +Olympian games, <a href="#P131">131</a> +</p> + +<p class="index"> +Olympias, Queen, <a href="#P146">146</a> +</p> + +<p class="index"> +Omar, Caliph, <a href="#P431">431</a> +</p> + +<p class="index"> +Open-hearth process, <a href="#P359">359</a> +</p> + +<p class="index"> +Orange River, <a href="#P398">398</a> +</p> + +<p class="index"> +“Ordinance of secession,” <a href="#P385">385</a> +</p> + +<p class="index"> +Oregon, <a href="#P385">385</a> +</p> + +<p class="index"> +Organic Evolution, <a href="#P16">16</a> +</p> + +<p class="index"> +Ormuz, <a href="#P299">299</a> +</p> + +<p class="index"> +Orsini family, <a href="#P284">284</a> +</p> + +<p class="index"> +Orthodoxy, <a href="#P240">240</a> +</p> + +<p class="index"> +Osiris, <a href="#P200">200</a>, <a href="#P210">210</a>, <a +href="#P211">211</a> +</p> + +<p class="index"> +Ostrogoths, <a href="#P227">227</a>, <a href="#P431">431</a> +</p> + +<p class="index"> +Othman, <a href="#P432">432</a> +</p> + +<p class="index"> +Otho, <a href="#P430">430</a> +</p> + +<p class="index"> +Otto I, King of Germany, <a href="#P265">265</a>, <a +href="#P432">432</a> +</p> + +<p class="index"> +Otto of Bavaria, Prince, <a href="#P354">354</a> +</p> + +<p class="index"> +Ottoman Empire, <a href="#P202">202</a>. (<i>See also</i> Turkey, +Turks) +</p> + +<p class="index"> +Oudh, <a href="#P394">394</a> +</p> + +<p class="index"> +Ownership, <a href="#P373">373</a>, <a href="#P374">374</a>, <a +href="#P375">375</a> +</p> + +<p class="index"> +Oxen, <a href="#P49">49</a>, <a href="#P104">104</a>, <a +href="#P112">112</a> +</p> + +<p class="index"> +Oxford, <a href="#P295">295</a> +</p> + +<p> +P +</p> + +<p class="index"> +Padua, <a href="#P235">235</a> +</p> + +<p class="index"> +Pæstum, <a href="#P176">176</a> +</p> + +<p class="index"> +Palæologus, Michael (Michael VIII), <a href="#P283">283</a> +</p> + +<p class="index"> +Palæolithic age, <a href="#P13">13</a>, <a href="#P59">59</a>, +<a href="#P66">66</a> (note) +</p> + +<p class="index"> +Palermo, <a href="#P181">181</a> +</p> + +<p class="index"> +Palestine, <a href="#P290">290</a>, <a href="#P299">299</a> +</p> + +<p class="index"> +Pamirs, <a href="#P196">196</a>, <a href="#P300">300</a> +</p> + +<p class="index"> +Panama, <a href="#P385">385</a> +</p> + +<p class="index"> +Panama, Isthmus of, <a href="#P314">314</a> +</p> + +<p class="index"> +Pan Chau, <a href="#P197">197</a>, <a href="#P430">430</a> +</p> + +<p class="index"> +Panipat, battle of, <a href="#P433">433</a> +</p> + +<p class="index"> +Pannonia, <a href="#P203">203</a>, <a href="#P229">229</a>, <a +href="#P232">232</a>, <a href="#P234">234</a>, <a +href="#P431">431</a> +</p> + +<p class="index"> +Papacy (including Popes), <a href="#P237">237</a>, <a +href="#P261">261</a>, <a href="#P265">265</a>, <a +href="#P277">277</a> <i>et seq.</i>, <a href="#P329">329</a> <i>et +seq.</i>, <a href="#P343">343</a> +</p> + +<p class="index"> +Papal schism (the Great Schism), <a href="#P285">285</a>, <a +href="#P394">394</a>, <a href="#P433">433</a> +</p> + +<p class="index"> +Paper, <a href="#P153">153</a>, <a href="#P236">236</a>, <a +href="#P255">255</a>, <a href="#P297">297</a>, <a +href="#P320">320</a>, <a href="#P322">322</a> +</p> + +<p class="index"> +Papyrus, <a href="#P78">78</a>, <a href="#P153">153</a> +</p> + +<p class="index"> +Parables, <a href="#P216">216</a> +</p> + +<p class="index"> +<i>Paradise Lost</i>, <a href="#P129">129</a> +</p> + +<p class="index"> +Parchment, <a href="#P153">153</a> +</p> + +<p class="index"> +Paris, <a href="#P294">294</a>, <a href="#P295">295</a>, <a +href="#P342">342</a>, <a href="#P350">350</a>, <a +href="#P356">356</a>, <a href="#P390">390</a>, <a +href="#P391">391</a>, <a href="#P412">412</a>, <a +href="#P413">413</a>, <a href="#P415">415</a>, <a +href="#P435">435</a> +</p> + +<p class="index"> +Paris, Peace of, <a href="#P338">338</a>, <a href="#P434">434</a> +</p> + +<p class="index"> +Parthian dynasty, <a href="#P202">202</a> +</p> + +<p class="index"> +Parthians, <a href="#P155">155</a>, <a href="#P192">192</a>, <a +href="#P194">194</a>, <a href="#P198">198</a>, <a +href="#P199">199</a>, <a href="#P245">245</a> +</p> + +<p class="index"> +Passau, Treaty of, <a href="#P314">314</a> +</p> + +<p class="index"> +Patricians, Roman, <a href="#P176">176</a>, <a href="#P188">188</a> +</p> + +<p class="index"> +Paul, St., <a href="#P202">202</a>, <a href="#P223">223</a> +</p> + +<p class="index"> +Pavia, siege of, <a href="#P312">312</a> +</p> + +<p class="index"> +<i>Peace Conference</i>, Dr. Dillon’s, <a href="#P424">434</a> +</p> + +<p class="index"> +Peasant revolts, <a href="#P305">305</a>, <a href="#P310">310</a> +</p> + +<p class="index"> +Peculium, <a href="#P206">206</a> +</p> + +<p class="index"> +Pedro I, <a href="#P340">340</a> +</p> + +<p class="index"> +Pegu, <a href="#P300">300</a> +</p> + +<p class="index"> +Pekin, <a href="#P173">173</a>, <a href="#P287">287</a>, <a +href="#P300">300</a>, <a href="#P383">383</a>, <a +href="#P400">400</a>, <a href="#P432">432</a> +</p> + +<p class="index"> +Peloponnesian War, <a href="#P139">139</a>, <a href="#P145">145</a>, +<a href="#P430">430</a> +</p> + +<p class="index"> +Pentateuch, the, <a href="#P116">116</a> +</p> + +<p class="index"> +“People’s crusade,” the, <a href="#P270">270</a>, +<a href="#P432">432</a>. (<i>Cf.</i> Crusades) +</p> + +<p class="index"> +Pepi II, <a href="#P83">83</a> +</p> + +<p class="index"> +Pepin I, <a href="#P259">259</a> +</p> + +<p class="index"> +Pepin of Hersthal, <a href="#P431">431</a> +</p> + +<p class="index"> +Pergamum, <a href="#P154">154</a>, <a href="#P180">180</a>, <a +href="#P183">183</a>, <a href="#P430">430</a> +</p> + +<p class="index"> +Pericles, <a href="#P139">139</a>, <a href="#P140">140</a> +</p> + +<p class="index"> +Perry, Commodore, <a href="#P402">402</a> +</p> + +<p class="index"> +Persepolis, <a href="#P114">114</a>, <a href="#P148">148</a>, <a +href="#P155">155</a> +</p> + +<p class="index"> +Persia, <a href="#P77">77</a>, <a href="#P134">134</a> <i>et +seq.</i>, <a href="#P165">165</a>, <a href="#P185">185</a>, <a +href="#P192">192</a>, <a href="#P227">227</a>, <a +href="#P243">243</a>, <a href="#P253">253</a>, <a +href="#P255">255</a>, <a href="#P287">287</a>, <a +href="#P399">399</a>, <a href="#P409">409</a>, <a +href="#P430">430</a>, <a href="#P431">431</a> +</p> + +<p class="index"> +Persian Empire, <a href="#P112">112</a>, <a href="#P134">134</a>, <a +href="#P238">238</a>, <a href="#P429">429</a> +</p> + +<p class="index"> +Persian Gulf, <a href="#P77">77</a>, <a href="#P78">78</a>, <a +href="#P91">91</a>, <a href="#P299">299</a> +</p> + +<p class="index"> +Persian language, <a href="#P95">95</a> +</p> + +<p class="index"> +Persians, <a href="#P100">100</a>, <a href="#P108">108</a>, <a +href="#P109">109</a>, <a href="#P115">115</a>, <a +href="#P155">155</a>, <a href="#P174">174</a>, <a +href="#P431">431</a> +</p> + +<p class="index"> +Peru, <a href="#P74">74</a>, <a href="#P75">75</a>, <a +href="#P314">314</a>, <a href="#P321">321</a> +</p> + +<p class="index"> +Pestilence, <a href="#P305">305</a>, <a href="#P320">320</a>, <a +href="#P334">334</a>, <a href="#P413">413</a>, <a +href="#P430">430</a>, <a href="#P431">431</a>, <a +href="#P433">433</a> +</p> + +<p class="index"> +Peter the Great, <a href="#P327">327</a>, <a href="#P434">434</a> +</p> + +<p class="index"> +Peter the Hermit, <a href="#P269">269</a>, <a href="#P270">270</a> +</p> + +<p class="index"> +Peterhof, <a href="#P327">327</a> +</p> + +<p class="index"> +Petersburg, <a href="#P127">127</a>, <a href="#P419">419</a>. +(<i>See also</i> Petrograd) +</p> + +<p class="index"> +Petrograd, <a href="#P416">416</a>, <a href="#P417">417</a>. (<i>See +also</i> Petersburg) +</p> + +<p class="index"> +Petschenegs, <a href="#P268">268</a> +</p> + +<p class="index"> +Phalanx, <a href="#P145">145</a>, <a href="#P178">178</a> +</p> + +<p class="index"> +Pharaohs, the, <a href="#P90">90</a>, <a href="#P96">96</a>, <a +href="#P119">119</a>, <a href="#P131">131</a>, <a +href="#P150">150</a>, <a href="#P188">188</a> +</p> + +<p class="index"> +Pharsalos, <a href="#P430">430</a> +</p> + +<p class="index"> +Philadelphia, <a href="#P358">358</a>, <a href="#P434">434</a> +</p> + +<p class="index"> +Philip, Duke of Orleans, <a href="#P350">350</a> +</p> + +<p class="index"> +Philip, King of France, <a href="#P285">285</a> +</p> + +<p class="index"> +Philip II, King of Spain, <a href="#P314">314</a>, <a +href="#P324">324</a> +</p> + +<p class="index"> +Philip of Hesse, <a href="#P313">313</a> +</p> + +<p class="index"> +Philip of Macedon, <a href="#P145">145</a>, <a href="#P146">146</a>, +<a href="#P430">430</a> +</p> + +<p class="index"> +Philippine Islands, <a href="#P302">302</a>, <a href="#P393">393</a>, +<a href="#P400">400</a> +</p> + +<p class="index"> +Philistines, <a href="#P100">100</a>, <a href="#P117">117</a> +</p> + +<p class="index"> +Philosopher’s stone, <a href="#P257">257</a> +</p> + +<p class="index"> +Philosophers and Philosophy, <a href="#P133">133</a>, <a +href="#P139">139</a>, <a href="#P152">152</a>, <a +href="#P168">168</a>, <a href="#P239">239</a>, <a +href="#P294">294</a>, <a href="#P295">295</a> +</p> + +<p class="index"> +PhÅ“nicians, <a href="#P92">92</a>, <a href="#P94">94</a>, <a +href="#P107">107</a>, <a href="#P123">123</a>, <a +href="#P147">147</a> +</p> + +<p class="index"> +<i>PhÅ“nix</i>, steamship, <a href="#P358">358</a> +</p> + +<p class="index"> +Phrygians, <a href="#P100">100</a>, <a href="#P108">108</a> +</p> + +<p class="index"> +Physiocrats, <a href="#P371">371</a> +</p> + +<p class="index"> +Picture writing, <a href="#P56">56</a>, <a href="#P57">57</a>, <a +href="#P78">78</a>, <a href="#P79">79</a>, <a href="#P167">167</a> +</p> + +<p class="index"> +Piedmont, <a href="#P345">345</a> +</p> + +<p class="index"> +Pirates and Piracy, <a href="#P92">92</a>, <a href="#P179">179</a>, +<a href="#P180">180</a>, <a href="#P200">200</a>, <a +href="#P263">263</a> +</p> + +<p class="index"> +Pithecanthropus erectus, <a href="#P45">45</a> +</p> + +<p class="index"> +Pizarro, <a href="#P314">314</a> +</p> + +<p class="index"> +Plague, (<i>See</i> Pestilence) +</p> + +<p class="index"> +Planetoids, <a href="#P2">2</a> +</p> + +<p class="index"> +Planets, <a href="#P2">2</a> +</p> + +<p class="index"> +Plant lice, <a href="#P13">13</a> +</p> + +<p class="index"> +Plants, <a href="#P22">22</a>, <a href="#P23">23</a>, <a +href="#P36">36</a> +</p> + +<p class="index"> +Platea, battle of, <a href="#P136">136</a>, <a href="#P430">430</a> +</p> + +<p class="index"> +Plato, <a href="#P140">140</a>, <a href="#P142">142</a>, <a +href="#P144">144</a>, <a href="#P170">170</a>, <a href="#P370">370- +71</a> +</p> + +<p class="index"> +Platypus, duck-billed, <a href="#P34">34</a> +</p> + +<p class="index"> +Plebeians, Roman, <a href="#P176">176</a>, <a href="#P177">177</a>, +<a href="#P187">187-88</a> +</p> + +<p class="index"> +Plesiosaurs, <a href="#P29">29</a>, <a href="#P30">30</a>, <a +href="#P36">36</a> +</p> + +<p class="index"> +Poison-gas, <a href="#P413">413</a> +</p> + +<p class="index"> +Poitiers, <a href="#P432">432</a> +</p> + +<p class="index"> +Poitiers, battle of, <a href="#P253">253</a>, <a href="#P259">259</a> +</p> + +<p class="index"> +Poland, <a href="#P288">288</a>, <a href="#P327">327</a>, <a +href="#P353">353</a>, <a href="#P434">434</a> +</p> + +<p class="index"> +Poles, <a href="#P288">288</a>, <a href="#P419">419</a> +</p> + +<p class="index"> +Political experiment, age of, <a href="#P318">318</a> <i>et seq.</i> +</p> + +<p class="index"> +Political ideas, development of, <a href="#P370">370</a> <i>et +seq.</i> +</p> + +<p class="index"> +Political science, founder of, <a href="#P144">144</a> +</p> + +<p class="index"> +Political worship, <a href="#P412">412</a> +</p> + +<p class="index"> +Polo, Marco, <a href="#P299">299-300</a> +</p> + +<p class="index"> +Polynesian races, <a href="#P71">71</a> +</p> + +<p class="index"> +Pompey the Great, <a href="#P192">192</a>, <a href="#P193">193</a>, +<a href="#P196">196</a>, <a href="#P198">198</a>, <a +href="#P430">430</a> +</p> + +<p class="index"> +Pontifex maximus, <a href="#P237">237</a>, <a href="#P261">261</a> +</p> + +<p class="index"> +Popes. (<i>See</i> Papacy) +</p> + +<p class="index"> +Population, <a href="#P379">379</a>, <a href="#P383">383</a> +</p> + +<p class="index"> +Port Arthur, <a href="#P400">400</a>, <a href="#P403">403</a> +</p> + +<p class="index"> +Portugal, <a href="#P340">340</a>, <a href="#P394">394</a>, <a +href="#P396">396</a>, <a href="#P431">431</a> +</p> + +<p class="index"> +Portuguese, <a href="#P302">302</a>, <a href="#P329">329</a>, <a +href="#P332">332</a>, <a href="#P400">400</a> +</p> + +<p class="index"> +Porus, King, <a href="#P149">149</a> +</p> + +<p class="index"> +Potato, <a href="#P76">76</a> +</p> + +<p class="index"> +Potsdam, <a href="#P327">327</a> +</p> + +<p class="index"> +Pottery, <a href="#P75">75</a>, <a href="#P87">87X</a> +</p> + +<p class="index"> +Prague, <a href="#P433">433</a> +</p> + +<p class="index"> +Prescott, <a href="#P314">314</a> +</p> + +<p class="index"> +Priestcraft (including Priests), <a href="#P64">64</a>, <a +href="#P68">68</a>, <a href="#P69">69</a>, <a href="#P74">74</a>, <a +href="#P75">75</a>, <a href="#P77">77</a>, <a href="#P83">83</a>, <a +href="#P111">111</a>, <a href="#P114">114</a> <i>et seq.</i>, <a +href="#P122">122</a>, <a href="#P131">131</a>, <a +href="#P132">132</a>, <a href="#P167">167</a>, <a +href="#P174">174</a>, <a href="#P275">275</a>, <a +href="#P277">277</a> +</p> + +<p class="index"> +<i>Primal Law</i>, <a href="#P61">61</a> +</p> + +<p class="index"> +Primates, <a href="#P43">43</a>. (<i>Cf.</i> Mammalia) +</p> + +<p class="index"> +Printing, <a href="#P80">80</a>, <a href="#P153">153</a>, <a +href="#P247">247</a>, <a href="#P255">255</a>, <a +href="#P298">298</a>, <a href="#P302">302</a>, <a +href="#P305">305</a>, <a href="#P306">306</a>, <a +href="#P320">320</a>, <a href="#P322">322</a>, <a +href="#P329">329</a> +</p> + +<p class="index"> +Priscus, <a href="#P234">234</a> +</p> + +<p class="index"> +Property, <a href="#P274">274</a>, <a href="#P372">372</a>, <a +href="#P374">374</a>, <a href="#P375">375</a> +</p> + +<p class="index"> +Prophet, Muhammad as, <a href="#P249">249</a> +</p> + +<p class="index"> +Prophets, Jewish, <a href="#P118">118</a>, <a href="#P122">122</a> +<i>et seq.</i> +</p> + +<p class="index"> +Proprietorship, <a href="#P373">373</a> +</p> + +<p class="index"> +Protestantism, <a href="#P316">316</a>, <a href="#P324">324</a>, <a +href="#P327">327</a>, <a href="#P351">351</a>, <a +href="#P400">400</a> +</p> + +<p class="index"> +Proverbs, book of, <a href="#P116">116</a> +</p> + +<p class="index"> +Prussia, <a href="#P327">327</a>, <a href="#P348">348</a>, <a +href="#P351">351</a>, <a href="#P390">390</a>, <a +href="#P391">391</a>, <a href="#P392">392</a>, <a +href="#P434">434</a>, <a href="#P435">435</a> +</p> + +<p class="index"> +Prussia, East, <a href="#P412">412</a>, <a href="#P415">415</a> +</p> + +<p class="index"> +Psalms, <a href="#P116">116</a> +</p> + +<p class="index"> +Psammetichus I, <a href="#P109">109</a>, <a href="#P429">429</a> +</p> + +<p class="index"> +Psycho-analvsis, <a href="#P69">69</a> +</p> + +<p class="index"> +Pterodactyls, <a href="#P28">28</a>, <a href="#P29">29</a>, <a +href="#P31">31</a>, <a href="#P36">36</a> +</p> + +<p class="index"> +Ptolemy I, <a href="#P149">149</a>, <a href="#P150">150</a>, <a +href="#P151">151</a>, <a href="#P186">186</a>, <a +href="#P211">211</a> +</p> + +<p class="index"> +Ptolemy II, <a href="#P151">151</a>, <a href="#P186">186</a> +</p> + +<p class="index"> +Punic language, <a href="#P203">203</a> +</p> + +<p class="index"> +Punic Wars, <a href="#P180">180</a> <i>et seq.</i>, <a +href="#P187">187</a>, <a href="#P188">188</a>, <a +href="#P430">430</a> +</p> + +<p class="index"> +Punjab, <a href="#P163">163</a>, <a href="#P199">199</a> +</p> + +<p class="index"> +Puritans, <a href="#P335">335</a> +</p> + +<p class="index"> +Pygmies, <a href="#P397">397</a> +</p> + +<p class="index"> +Pyramids, <a href="#P69">69</a>, <a href="#P83">83</a>, <a +href="#P100">100</a> +</p> + +<p class="index"> +Pyrenees, <a href="#P253">253</a>, <a href="#P432">432</a> +</p> + +<p class="index"> +Pyrrhus, <a href="#P178">178</a>, <a href="#P179">179</a>, <a +href="#P430">430</a> +</p> + +<p> +Q +</p> + +<p class="index"> +Quebec, <a href="#P434">434</a> +</p> + +<p class="index"> +Quinqueremes, <a href="#P180">180</a> +</p> + +<p class="index"> +Quixada, <a href="#P314">314</a> +</p> + +<p> +R +</p> + +<p class="index"> +Races of mankind, <a href="#P71">71</a> <i>et seq.</i> +</p> + +<p class="index"> +Railways, <a href="#P322">322</a>, <a href="#P350">350</a>, <a +href="#P357">357</a>, <a href="#P382">382</a>, <a +href="#P383">383</a>, <a href="#P384">384</a>, <a +href="#P389">389</a>, <a href="#P395">395</a>, <a +href="#P396">396</a>, <a href="#P409">409</a>, <a +href="#P434">434</a> +</p> + +<p class="index"> +Rain, <a href="#P9">9</a>, <a href="#P10">10</a> +</p> + +<p class="index"> +Rameses II, <a href="#P96">96</a>, <a href="#P147">147</a>, <a +href="#P429">429</a> +</p> + +<p class="index"> +Rasputin, <a href="#P415">415</a>, <a href="#P416">416</a> +</p> + +<p class="index"> +Ratisbon, Diet of, <a href="#P313">313</a> +</p> + +<p class="index"> +Ravenna, <a href="#P431">431</a> +</p> + +<p class="index"> +Reading, <a href="#P176">176</a> +</p> + +<p class="index"> +Rebus, <a href="#P79">79</a> +</p> + +<p class="index"> +Red deer, <a href="#P56">56</a> +</p> + +<p class="index"> +Red Sea, <a href="#P91">91</a>, <a href="#P118">118</a>, <a +href="#P122">122</a>, <a href="#P196">196</a> +</p> + +<p class="index"> +Reformation, the, <a href="#P308">308</a> +</p> + +<p class="index"> +Reindeer, <a href="#P43">43</a>, <a href="#P49">49</a>, <a +href="#P51">51</a>, <a href="#P56">56</a>, <a href="#P73">73</a> +</p> + +<p class="index"> +Religion, and the creation of the world, <a href="#P1">1</a>; and +organic evolution, <a href="#P16">16</a>; primitive, <a +href="#P61">61</a>, <a href="#P64">64</a> +</p> + +<p class="index"> +Religions, <a href="#P172">172</a>, <a href="#P222">222</a> <i>et +seq.</i>, <a href="#P240">240</a> <i>et seq.</i>, <a +href="#P319">319</a>. (<i>Cf.</i> Buddhism, Christianity, etc.) +</p> + +<p class="index"> +Religious developments under the Roman Empire, <a +href="#P208">208</a> <i>et seq.</i> +</p> + +<p class="index"> +Religious wars, <a href="#P270">270</a>, <a href="#P304">304</a>, <a +href="#P313">313</a>. (<i>Cf.</i> Crusades) +</p> + +<p class="index"> +Reptiles, the age of, <a href="#P26">26</a> <i>et seq.</i>; mental +life of, <a href="#P38">38</a> +</p> + +<p class="index"> +Reproduction, <a href="#P17">17</a> <i>et seq.</i> +</p> + +<p class="index"> +<i>Republic</i>, Plato’s, <a href="#P142">142</a> +</p> + +<p class="index"> +Republic, the Assimilative, <a href="#P187">187</a> +</p> + +<p class="index"> +Republics, <a href="#P187">187</a> <i>et seq.</i>, <a +href="#P236">236</a>, <a href="#P308">308</a>, <a +href="#P324">324</a>, <a href="#P328">328</a>, <a +href="#P340">340</a>, <a href="#P343">343</a>, <a +href="#P344">344</a>, <a href="#P416">416</a>, <a +href="#P433">433</a>, <a href="#P434">434</a>, <a +href="#P435">435</a> +</p> + +<p class="index"> +Republicans, the first, <a href="#P131">131</a> +</p> + +<p class="index"> +Retreat of the Ten Thousand, <a href="#P150">150</a> +</p> + +<p class="index"> +Revolution, <a href="#P342">342</a> <i>et seq.</i>, <a +href="#P349">349</a> <i>et seq.</i>, <a href="#P390">390</a>, <a +href="#P404">404</a>, <a href="#P416">416</a>, <a +href="#P435">435</a> +</p> + +<p class="index"> +Rhine, <a href="#P200">200</a>, <a href="#P227">227</a> +</p> + +<p class="index"> +Rhine languages, <a href="#P236">236</a> +</p> + +<p class="index"> +Rhineland, <a href="#P270">270</a>, <a href="#P306">306</a> +</p> + +<p class="index"> +Rhinoceros, <a href="#P43">43</a>, <a href="#P49">49</a> +</p> + +<p class="index"> +Rhodes, <a href="#P108">108</a> +</p> + +<p class="index"> +Rhodesia, <a href="#P407">407</a> +</p> + +<p class="index"> +Rhodesian man, <a href="#P52">52</a> +</p> + +<p class="index"> +Richelieu, Cardinal, <a href="#P324">324</a> +</p> + +<p class="index"> +Richmond, U.S.A., <a href="#P386">386</a>, <a href="#P388">388</a>, +<a href="#P389">389</a> +</p> + +<p class="index"> +Roads, <a href="#P114">114</a>, <a href="#P187">187</a> +</p> + +<p class="index"> +Robertson, <a href="#P316">316</a> +</p> + +<p class="index"> +Robespierre, <a href="#P345">345</a>, <a href="#P346">346</a>, <a +href="#P434">434</a> +</p> + +<p class="index"> +Robinson, J. H., <a href="#P284">284</a> +</p> + +<p class="index"> +“Rocket,” Stephenson’s, <a href="#P356">356</a> +</p> + +<p class="index"> +Rock pictures, <a href="#P57">57</a>, <a href="#P78">78</a> +</p> + +<p class="index"> +Rocks as record of beginnings of life, <a href="#P11">11</a> <i>et +seq.</i> +</p> + +<p> +S +</p> + +<p class="index"> +Sabellians, <a href="#P224">224</a> +</p> + +<p class="index"> +Sabre-toothed tiger, <a href="#P43">43</a> +</p> + +<p class="index"> +Sacrifice, <a href="#P102">102</a>, <a href="#P103">103</a>, <a +href="#P167">167</a>, <a href="#P174">174</a>, <a +href="#P182">182</a>, <a href="#P186">186</a>, <a +href="#P211">211</a>, <a href="#P212">212</a>. (<i>Cf.</i> also +Blood sacrifice, Human sacrifice) +</p> + +<p class="index"> +Sagas, <a href="#P106">106</a> +</p> + +<p class="index"> +Saghalien, <a href="#P404">404</a> +</p> + +<p class="index"> +Sailing ships, <a href="#P91">91</a>, <a href="#P336">336</a> +</p> + +<p class="index"> +St. Angelo, castle of, <a href="#P312">312</a> +</p> + +<p class="index"> +St. Helena, <a href="#P407">407</a> +</p> + +<p class="index"> +St. Sophia, church of, <a href="#P238">238</a> +</p> + +<p class="index"> +Saladin, <a href="#P272">272</a>, <a href="#P432">432</a> +</p> + +<p class="index"> +Salamis, battle of, <a href="#P180">180</a>, <a href="#P430">430</a> +</p> + +<p class="index"> +Salamis, bay of, <a href="#P136">136</a> +</p> + +<p class="index"> +Salerno, <a href="#P282">282</a> +</p> + +<p class="index"> +Samarkand, <a href="#P256">256</a>, <a href="#P297">297</a> +</p> + +<p class="index"> +Samnites, <a href="#P430">430</a> +</p> + +<p class="index"> +Samos, <a href="#P129">129</a> +</p> + +<p class="index"> +Samson, <a href="#P116">116</a> +</p> + +<p class="index"> +Samurai, <a href="#P401">401</a> +</p> + +<p class="index"> +San Francisco, <a href="#P383">383</a> +</p> + +<p class="index"> +Sandstones, <a href="#P26">26</a> +</p> + +<p class="index"> +Sanskrit, <a href="#P95">95</a>, <a href="#P107">107</a>, <a +href="#P156">156</a> +</p> + +<p class="index"> +Sapor I, <a href="#P430">430</a> +</p> + +<p class="index"> +Saracens, <a href="#P264">264</a>, <a href="#P265">265</a>, <a +href="#P297">297</a> +</p> + +<p class="index"> +Saratoga, <a href="#P338">338</a> +</p> + +<p class="index"> +Sardanapalus (Assurbanipal), <a href="#P98">98</a>, <a +href="#P109">109</a>, <a href="#P111">111</a> +</p> + +<p class="index"> +Sardinia, <a href="#P182">182</a>, <a href="#P185">185</a>, <a +href="#P232">232</a>, <a href="#P309">309</a>, <a +href="#P351">351</a>, <a href="#P390">390</a> +</p> + +<p class="index"> +Sardis, <a href="#P98">98</a> +</p> + +<p class="index"> +Sargon I, <a href="#P90">90</a>, <a href="#P92">92</a>, <a +href="#P109">109</a>, <a href="#P122">122</a>, <a +href="#P429">429</a> +</p> + +<p class="index"> +Sargon II, <a href="#P97">97</a>, <a href="#P109">109</a>, <a +href="#P429">429</a> +</p> + +<p class="index"> +Sarmatians, <a href="#P100">100</a> +</p> + +<p class="index"> +Sassanid dynasty, <a href="#P227">227</a>, <a href="#P241">241</a>, +<a href="#P430">430</a> +</p> + +<p class="index"> +Saturn (planet), <a href="#P2">2</a>, <a href="#P3">3</a> +</p> + +<p class="index"> +Saul, King of Israel, <a href="#P118">118</a>, <a +href="#P429">429</a> +</p> + +<p class="index"> +Saul of Tarsus. (<i>See</i> Paul, St.)" +</p> + +<p class="index"> +<i>Savannah</i>, steamship, <a href="#P358">258</a> +</p> + +<p class="index"> +Savoy, <a href="#P334">334</a>, <a href="#P351">351</a>, <a +href="#P390">390</a> +</p> + +<p class="index"> +Saxons, <a href="#P230">230</a>, <a href="#P265">265</a> +</p> + +<p class="index"> +Saxony, Elector of, <a href="#P310">310</a> +</p> + +<p class="index"> +Scandinavians, <a href="#P329">329</a> +</p> + +<p class="index"> +Scarabeus beetle, <a href="#P209">209</a> +</p> + +<p class="index"> +Scheldt, <a href="#P344">344</a> +</p> + +<p class="index"> +Schmalkaldic League, <a href="#P312">312</a> +</p> + +<p class="index"> +Science, <a href="#P144">144</a> +</p> + +<p class="index"> +Science and religion, <a href="#P243">243</a> +</p> + +<p class="index"> +Science, exploitation of, <a href="#P362">362</a> +</p> + +<p class="index"> +Science, physical, <a href="#P412">412</a> +</p> + +<p class="index"> +Scientific societies, <a href="#P322">322</a> +</p> + +<p class="index"> +Scipio Africanus, <a href="#P182">182</a>, <a href="#P187">187</a> +</p> + +<p class="index"> +Scorpion, sea, <a href="#P13">13</a>, <a href="#P18">18</a>, <a +href="#P23">23</a> +</p> + +<p class="index"> +Scotland, <a href="#P306">306</a>, <a href="#P307">307</a> +</p> + +<p class="index"> +Scott, Michael, <a href="#P282">282</a> +</p> + +<p class="index"> +Scythia, <a href="#P429">429</a> +</p> + +<p class="index"> +Scythians, <a href="#P100">100</a>, <a href="#P108">108</a>, <a +href="#P134">134</a>, <a href="#P135">135</a> +</p> + +<p class="index"> +Sea trade, <a href="#P91">91</a> +</p> + +<p class="index"> +Sea worms, <a href="#P13">13</a> +</p> + +<p class="index"> +Seasons, the, <a href="#P68">68</a> +</p> + +<p class="index"> +Seaweed, <a href="#P13">13</a> +</p> + +<p class="index"> +Sedan, <a href="#P391">391</a> +</p> + +<p class="index"> +Seed-bearing trees, <a href="#P26">26</a> +</p> + +<p class="index"> +Seleucid dynasty, <a href="#P183">183</a>, <a href="#P186">186</a>, +<a href="#P196">196</a>, <a href="#P199">199</a> +</p> + +<p class="index"> +Seleucus I, <a href="#P149">149</a>, <a href="#P163">163</a> +</p> + +<p class="index"> +Seljuks, <a href="#P267">267</a>, <a href="#P268">268</a>, <a +href="#P272">272</a>, <a href="#P432">432</a> +</p> + +<p class="index"> +Semites and Semitic peoples, <a href="#P88">88</a>, <a +href="#P89">89</a>, <a href="#P91">91</a>, <a href="#P92">92</a>, <a +href="#P94">94</a>, <a href="#P107">107</a>, <a href="#P115">115</a> +, <a href="#P122">122</a>, <a href="#P134">134</a>, <a +href="#P174">174</a>, <a href="#P233">233</a>, <a +href="#P256">256</a>, <a href="#P258">258</a> +</p> + +<p class="index"> +Semitic language, <a href="#P202">202</a>, <a href="#P243">243</a> +</p> + +<p class="index"> +Sennacherib, <a href="#P97">97</a> +</p> + +<p class="index"> +Serapeum, <a href="#P211">211</a>, <a href="#P213">213</a> +</p> + +<p class="index"> +Serapis, <a href="#P211">211</a>, <a href="#P212">212</a> +</p> + +<p class="index"> +Serbia, <a href="#P179">179</a>, <a href="#P200">200</a>, <a +href="#P227">227</a>, <a href="#P228">228</a>, <a +href="#P292">292</a>, <a href="#P354">354</a>, <a +href="#P411">411</a> +</p> + +<p class="index"> +Serfdom, <a href="#P207">207</a> +</p> + +<p class="index"> +Seven Years’ War, <a href="#P434">434</a> +</p> + +<p class="index"> +Severus, Septimius, <a href="#P202">202</a> +</p> + +<p class="index"> +Seville, <a href="#P202">202</a>, <a href="#P213">213</a>, <a +href="#P302">302</a> +</p> + +<p class="index"> +Shang dynasty, <a href="#P103">103</a>, <a href="#P168">168</a> +</p> + +<p class="index"> +Sheep, <a href="#P77">77</a> +</p> + +<p class="index"> +Shell necklaces, <a href="#P56">56</a> +</p> + +<p class="index"> +Shellfish, <a href="#P13">13</a> +</p> + +<p class="index"> +Shells, as protection against drying, <a href="#P18">18</a> +</p> + +<p class="index"> +Sherman, General, <a href="#P387">387</a>, <a href="#P388">388</a> +</p> + +<p class="index"> +Shi Hwang-ti, <a href="#P173">173</a>, <a href="#P180">180</a>, <a +href="#P430">430</a> +</p> + +<p class="index"> +Shimonoseki, Straits of, <a href="#P402">402</a> +</p> + +<p class="index"> +Shipbuilding, <a href="#P359">359</a>, <a href="#P360">360</a>, <a +href="#P400">400</a> +</p> + +<p class="index"> +Ships, <a href="#P91">91</a>, <a href="#P119">119</a>, <a +href="#P122">122</a>, <a href="#P149">149</a>, <a +href="#P180">180</a>, <a href="#P196">196</a>, <a +href="#P320">320</a>, <a href="#P322">322</a>, <a +href="#P336">336</a> +</p> + +<p class="index"> +Shishak, <a href="#P119">119</a> +</p> + +<p class="index"> +Shrubs, <a href="#P16">16</a> +</p> + +<p class="index"> +Shumanism, <a href="#P298">298</a> +</p> + +<p class="index"> +Siam, <a href="#P166">166</a> +</p> + +<p class="index"> +Siberia, <a href="#P334">334</a> +</p> + +<p class="index"> +Siberia, Eastern, <a href="#P419">419</a> +</p> + +<p class="index"> +Siberian railway, <a href="#P403">403</a>, <a href="#P409">409</a> +</p> + +<p class="index"> +Sicilies, Two, <a href="#P287">287</a> +</p> + +<p class="index"> +Sicily, <a href="#P108">108</a>, <a href="#P122">122</a>, <a +href="#P129">129</a>, <a href="#P134">134</a>, <a +href="#P178">178</a>, <a href="#P179">179</a>, <a +href="#P182">182</a>, <a href="#P185">185</a>, <a +href="#P188">188</a>, <a href="#P232">323</a>, <a +href="#P263">263</a>, <a href="#P279">279</a>, <a +href="#P280">280</a> +</p> + +<p class="index"> +Sidon, <a href="#P92">92</a>, <a href="#P122">122</a>, <a +href="#P123">123</a>, <a href="#P134">134</a>, <a +href="#P147">147</a> +</p> + +<p class="index"> +Silurian system, <a href="#P19">19</a> +</p> + +<p class="index"> +Silver, <a href="#P80">80</a>, <a href="#P102">102</a>, <a +href="#P335">335</a> +</p> + +<p class="index"> +Sind, <a href="#P394">394</a> +</p> + +<p class="index"> +Sirmium, <a href="#P227">227</a> +</p> + +<p class="index"> +Skins, use of; for clothing, <a href="#P56">56</a> for writing, <a +href="#P75">75</a>; inflated as boats, <a href="#P91">91</a> +</p> + +<p class="index"> +Skull, Rhodesian, <a href="#P52">52</a> +</p> + +<p class="index"> +Slavery (and slaves), <a href="#P94">94</a>, <a href="#P102">102 +</a>, <a href="#P188">188</a>, <a href="#P191">191</a>, <a +href="#P194">194</a>, <a href="#P203">203</a> <i>et seq.</i>, <a +href="#P236">236</a>, <a href="#P320">320</a>, <a +href="#P337">337</a>, <a href="#P373">373</a>, <a +href="#P374">374</a>, <a href="#P384">384-86</a>, <a +href="#P388">388</a>, <a href="#P430">430</a>, <a +href="#P433">433</a> +</p> + +<p class="index"> +Slavonic language, <a href="#P236">236</a> +</p> + +<p class="index"> +Slavs, <a href="#P263">263</a>, <a href="#P265">265</a> +</p> + +<p class="index"> +Smelting, <a href="#P87">87</a>, <a href="#P104">104</a>, <a +href="#P322">322</a> +</p> + +<p class="index"> +Smith, Adam, <a href="#P377">377</a> +</p> + +<p class="index"> +Smith, Eliot, <a href="#P69">69</a> +</p> + +<p class="index"> +Snakes, <a href="#P27">27</a>, <a href="#P28">28</a> +</p> + +<p class="index"> +Social reform, <a href="#P125">125</a> +</p> + +<p class="index"> +Socialism, <a href="#P371">371</a>, <a href="#P416">416</a>, <a +href="#P417">417</a>, <a href="#P434">434</a> +</p> + +<p class="index"> +Socialists, <a href="#P375">375</a> <i>et seq.</i> +</p> + +<p class="index"> +Socialists, primitive, <a href="#P374">374</a> +</p> + +<p class="index"> +Society, primitive, <a href="#P60">60</a> +</p> + +<p class="index"> +Socrates, <a href="#P140">140</a> +</p> + +<p class="index"> +Solomon, King, <a href="#P119">119</a>, <a href="#P122">122</a>, <a +href="#P127">127</a>, <a href="#P429">429</a> +</p> + +<p class="index"> +Solomon’s temple, <a href="#P119">119</a> +</p> + +<p class="index"> +Sophists, <a href="#P140">140</a> +</p> + +<p class="index"> +Sophocles, <a href="#P139">139</a> +</p> + +<p class="index"> +South Carolina, <a href="#P385">385</a> +</p> + +<p class="index"> +Soviets, <a href="#P417">417</a> +</p> + +<p class="index"> +Space, the world in, <a href="#P1">1</a> <i>et seq.</i> +</p> + +<p class="index"> +Spain, <a href="#P93">93</a>, <a href="#P106">106</a>, <a +href="#P122">122</a>, <a href="#P123">123</a>, <a +href="#P180">180</a>, <a href="#P185">185</a>, <a +href="#P230">230</a>, <a href="#P232">232</a>, <a +href="#P236">236</a>, <a href="#P253">253</a>, <a +href="#P255">255</a>, <a href="#P256">256</a>, <a +href="#P309">309</a>, <a href="#P348">348</a>, <a +href="#P349">349</a>, <a href="#P350">350</a>, <a +href="#P393">393</a>, <a href="#P429">429</a>, <a +href="#P431">431</a>; relics of first true man in, <a +href="#P53">53</a> +</p> + +<p class="index"> +Spain, North, <a href="#P431">431</a> +</p> + +<p class="index"> +Spanish, <a href="#P329">329</a>, <a href="#P331">331</a> +</p> + +<p class="index"> +Spanish language, <a href="#P203">203</a> +</p> + +<p class="index"> +Sparta, <a href="#P129">129</a>, <a href="#P130">130</a>, <a +href="#P136">136</a>, <a href="#P203">203</a> +</p> + +<p class="index"> +Spartacus, <a href="#P191">191</a>, <a href="#P192">192</a>, <a +href="#P203">203</a>, <a href="#P430">430</a> +</p> + +<p class="index"> +Spartans, <a href="#P136">136</a> +</p> + +<p class="index"> +Species, generation of, <a href="#P17">17</a>; new, <a +href="#P36">36</a> +</p> + +<p class="index"> +Speech, primitive human, <a href="#P63">63</a> +</p> + +<p class="index"> +Spiders, <a href="#P23">23</a> +</p> + +<p class="index"> +Spiral nebulæ, <a href="#P5">5</a> +</p> + +<p class="index"> +Spores, <a href="#P24">24</a> +</p> + +<p class="index"> +Stagira, <a href="#P142">142</a> +</p> + +<p class="index"> +Stamford Bridge, battle of, <a href="#P286">286</a> +</p> + +<p class="index"> +Stars, <a href="#P68">68</a>, <a href="#P257">257</a> +</p> + +<p class="index"> +State, modern idea of a, <a href="#P375">375</a> +</p> + +<p class="index"> +State ownership, <a href="#P374">374</a> +</p> + +<p class="index"> +States General, the, <a href="#P341">341</a>, <a href="#P434">434 +</a> +</p> + +<p class="index"> +Steamboat, <a href="#P340">340</a>, <a href="#P357">357</a> <i>et +seq.</i>, <a href="#P374">374</a>, <a href="#P382">382</a>, <a +href="#P395">395</a>, <a href="#P396">396</a> +</p> + +<p class="index"> +Steam engine, <a href="#P151">151</a>, <a href="#P152">152</a>, <a +href="#P359">359</a> +</p> + +<p class="index"> +Steam hammer, <a href="#P359">359</a> +</p> + +<p class="index"> +Steam power, <a href="#P322">322</a> +</p> + +<p class="index"> +Steel, <a href="#P322">322</a>, <a href="#P359">359-60</a> +</p> + +<p class="index"> +Stephenson, George, <a href="#P356">356</a> +</p> + +<p class="index"> +Stilicho, <a href="#P230">230</a>, <a href="#P234">234</a>, <a +href="#P431">431</a> +</p> + +<p class="index"> +Stockholm, <a href="#P417">417</a> +</p> + +<p class="index"> +Stockton, <a href="#P356">356</a>, <a href="#P434">434</a> +</p> + +<p class="index"> +Stone age, <a href="#P53">53</a>, <a href="#P59">59</a> +</p> + +<p class="index"> +Stone implements, <a href="#P45">45</a>, <a href="#P65">65</a> +</p> + +<p class="index"> +Stonehenge, <a href="#P106">106</a>, <a href="#P429">429</a> +</p> + +<p class="index"> +Story-telling, primitive, <a href="#P62">62</a> +</p> + +<p class="index"> +Styria, <a href="#P309">309</a> +</p> + +<p class="index"> +Submarine campaign, <a href="#P423">423</a> +</p> + +<p class="index"> +Subutai, <a href="#P289">289</a> +</p> + +<p class="index"> +Sudan, the, <a href="#P405">405</a> +</p> + +<p class="index"> +Suevi, <a href="#P431">431</a> +</p> + +<p class="index"> +Suleiman the Magnificent, <a href="#P310">310</a>, <a +href="#P312">312</a>, <a href="#P432">432</a>, <a +href="#P433">433</a> +</p> + +<p class="index"> +Sulla, <a href="#P192">192</a>, <a href="#P237">237</a> +</p> + +<p class="index"> +Sumeria and Sumerians, <a href="#P77">77</a>, <a href="#P78">78</a> +<i>et seq.</i>, <a href="#P87">87</a>, <a href="#P88">88</a>, <a +href="#P90">90</a>, <a href="#P91">91</a>, <a href="#P122">122</a> +</p> + +<p class="index"> +Sumerian Empire, <a href="#P429">429</a> +</p> + +<p class="index"> +Sumerian language and writing, <a href="#P77">77</a>, <a +href="#P78">78</a>, <a href="#P79">79</a> +</p> + +<p class="index"> +Sun, the, <a href="#P5">5</a>, <a href="#P6">6</a>, <a +href="#P8">8</a>, <a href="#P9">9</a>, <a href="#P10">10</a> +</p> + +<p class="index"> +Sun worship, <a href="#P211">211</a> +</p> + +<p class="index"> +Sung dynasty, <a href="#P290">290</a> +</p> + +<p class="index"> +Susa, <a href="#P114">114</a>, <a href="#P135">135</a>, <a +href="#P148">148</a>, <a href="#P149">149</a>, <a +href="#P155">155</a> +</p> + +<p class="index"> +Suy dynasty, <a href="#P245">245</a> +</p> + +<p class="index"> +Swastika, <a href="#P70">70</a> +</p> + +<p class="index"> +Sweden, <a href="#P306">306</a>, <a href="#P313">313</a>, <a +href="#P348">348</a> +</p> + +<p class="index"> +Swedes, <a href="#P326">326</a>, <a href="#P329">329</a>, <a +href="#P330">330</a>, <a href="#P351">351</a> +</p> + +<p class="index"> +Swimming bladder, <a href="#P24">24</a> +</p> + +<p class="index"> +Switzerland, <a href="#P327">327</a>, <a href="#P347">347</a>, <a +href="#P350">350</a>, <a href="#P433">433</a> +</p> + +<p class="index"> +Syracuse, <a href="#P151">151</a>, <a href="#P154">154</a>, <a +href="#P170">170</a>, <a href="#P178">178</a> +</p> + +<p class="index"> +Syria, <a href="#P88">88</a>, <a href="#P91">91</a>, <a +href="#P115">115</a>, <a href="#P119">119</a>, <a +href="#P122">122</a>, <a href="#P138">138</a>, <a +href="#P238">238</a>, <a href="#P243">243</a>, <a +href="#P249">249</a>, <a href="#P290">290</a>, <a +href="#P431">431</a> +</p> + +<p class="index"> +Syrians, <a href="#P96">96</a>, <a href="#P98">98</a> +</p> + +<p> +T +</p> + +<p class="index"> +<i>Tabus</i>, the, <a href="#P61">61</a> +</p> + +<p class="index"> +Tadpoles, <a href="#P26">26</a> +</p> + +<p class="index"> +Tagus valley, <a href="#P314">314</a> +</p> + +<p class="index"> +Tai-Tsung, <a href="#P247">247</a>, <a href="#P431">431</a> +</p> + +<p class="index"> +Tang dynasty, <a href="#P200">200</a>, <a href="#P245">245</a>, <a +href="#P247">247</a>, <a href="#P287">287</a>, <a +href="#P431">431</a> +</p> + +<p class="index"> +“Tanks,” <a href="#P413">413</a> +</p> + +<p class="index"> +Taoism, <a href="#P174">174</a>, <a href="#P222">222</a>. (<i>See +also</i> Lao Tse) +</p> + +<p class="index"> +Taranto, <a href="#P178">178</a> +</p> + +<p class="index"> +Tarentum, <a href="#P178">178</a> +</p> + +<p class="index"> +Tarim valley, <a href="#P430">430</a> +</p> + +<p class="index"> +Tartars, <a href="#P167">167</a>, <a href="#P197">197</a>, <a +href="#P232">232</a>, <a href="#P243">243</a>, <a +href="#P288">288</a>, <a href="#P290">290</a>, <a +href="#P334">334</a> +</p> + +<p class="index"> +Tasmania, <a href="#P59">59</a>, <a href="#P322">322</a>, <a +href="#P393">393</a> +</p> + +<p class="index"> +Tattooing, <a href="#P70">70</a> +</p> + +<p class="index"> +Taxation, <a href="#P271">271</a>, <a href="#P337">337</a> +</p> + +<p class="index"> +Tea, <a href="#P247">247</a>, <a href="#P337">337</a> +</p> + +<p class="index"> +Teeth, <a href="#P19">19</a>, <a href="#P20">20</a> +</p> + +<p class="index"> +Telamon, battle of, <a href="#P182">182</a> +</p> + +<p class="index"> +Telegraph, electric, <a href="#P340">340</a>, <a +href="#P358">358</a>, <a href="#P382">382</a>, <a +href="#P384">384</a>, <a href="#P396">396</a> +</p> + +<p class="index"> +Telescope, <a href="#P355">355</a> +</p> + +<p class="index"> +Temples, <a href="#P77">77</a>, <a href="#P83">83</a>, <a +href="#P101">101</a>, <a href="#P129">129</a>, <a +href="#P131">131</a>, <a href="#P167">167</a>, <a +href="#P174">174</a>, <a href="#P184">184</a>, <a +href="#P186">186</a>, <a href="#P211">211</a>, <a +href="#P212">212</a>, <a href="#P213">213</a>, <a +href="#P240">240</a> +</p> + +<p class="index"> +Tennessee, <a href="#P386">386</a> +</p> + +<p class="index"> +Testament, Old, <a href="#P115">115</a>, <a href="#P116">116</a> +</p> + +<p class="index"> +Teutons, <a href="#P431">431</a> +</p> + +<p class="index"> +Texas, <a href="#P384">384</a>, <a href="#P385">385</a> +</p> + +<p class="index"> +Texel, <a href="#P344">344</a> +</p> + +<p class="index"> +Thales, <a href="#P131">131</a>, <a href="#P161">161</a> +</p> + +<p class="index"> +Thebes, <a href="#P101">101</a>, <a href="#P102">102</a>, <a +href="#P129">129</a>, <a href="#P136">136</a> +</p> + +<p class="index"> +Theocrasia, <a href="#P209">209</a> +</p> + +<p class="index"> +Theodora, Empress, <a href="#P238">238</a> +</p> + +<p class="index"> +Theodoric the Goth, <a href="#P236">236</a>, <a href="#P431">431</a> +</p> + +<p class="index"> +Theodosius II, <a href="#P234">234</a>, <a href="#P238">238</a> +</p> + +<p class="index"> +Theodosius the Great, <a href="#P226">226</a>, <a +href="#P229">229</a>, <a href="#P431">431</a> +</p> + +<p class="index"> +Thermopylæ, battle of, <a href="#P136">136</a>, <a +href="#P430">430</a> +</p> + +<p class="index"> +Thessaly, <a href="#P145">145</a>, <a href="#P178">178</a> +</p> + +<p class="index"> +Thirty Years’ War, <a href="#P326">326</a> +</p> + +<p class="index"> +Thothmes III, <a href="#P96">96</a>, <a href="#P127">127</a>, <a +href="#P147">147</a>, <a href="#P429">429</a> +</p> + +<p class="index"> +Thought and research, <a href="#P140">140</a> +</p> + +<p class="index"> +Thought, primitive, <a href="#P60">60</a> <i>et seq.</i> +</p> + +<p class="index"> +Thrace, <a href="#P135">135</a> +</p> + +<p class="index"> +Three Estates, council of the, <a href="#P285">285</a> +</p> + +<p class="index"> +Three Teachings, the, <a href="#P170">170</a> +</p> + +<p class="index"> +Tiberius Cæsar, <a href="#P195">195</a>, <a +href="#P214">214</a>, <a href="#P430">430</a> +</p> + +<p class="index"> +Tibet, <a href="#P196">196</a>, <a href="#P400">400</a> +</p> + +<p class="index"> +Tides, <a href="#P18">18</a> +</p> + +<p class="index"> +Tigers, <a href="#P42">42</a>, <a href="#P43">43</a> +</p> + +<p class="index"> +Tiglath Pileser I, <a href="#P97">97</a>, <a href="#P429">429</a> +</p> + +<p class="index"> +Tiglath Pileser III, <a href="#P97">97</a>, <a href="#P108">108</a>, +<a href="#P109">109</a>, <a href="#P429">429</a> +</p> + +<p class="index"> +Tigris, <a href="#P77">77</a>, <a href="#P84">84</a> +</p> + +<p class="index"> +Time, <a href="#P5">5</a>, <a href="#P6">6</a> +</p> + +<p class="index"> +Timor, <a href="#P329">329</a> +</p> + +<p class="index"> +Timurlane, <a href="#P290">290</a>, <a href="#P334">334</a> +</p> + +<p class="index"> +Tin, <a href="#P360">360</a> +</p> + +<p class="index"> +Tiryns, <a href="#P108">108</a> +</p> + +<p class="index"> +Titanotherium, the, <a href="#P39">39</a>, <a href="#P42">42</a> +</p> + +<p class="index"> +Tonkin, <a href="#P402">402</a> +</p> + +<p class="index"> +Tortoises, <a href="#P27">27</a>, <a href="#P28">28</a> +</p> + +<p class="index"> +Toulon, <a href="#P345">345</a> +</p> + +<p class="index"> +Trade, early, <a href="#P83">83</a>, <a href="#P88">88</a> +</p> + +<p class="index"> +Trade, Grecian, <a href="#P129">129</a> +</p> + +<p class="index"> +Trade routes, <a href="#P119">119</a> +</p> + +<p class="index"> +Traders, <a href="#P132">132</a>, <a href="#P335">335</a> +</p> + +<p class="index"> +Traders, sea, <a href="#P92">92</a> +</p> + +<p class="index"> +Trafalgar, battle of, <a href="#P348">348</a> +</p> + +<p class="index"> +Trajan, <a href="#P195">195</a>, <a href="#P430">430</a> +</p> + +<p class="index"> +Transport, <a href="#P319">319</a>, <a href="#P358">358</a>, <a +href="#P382">382</a> +</p> + +<p class="index"> +Transvaal, <a href="#P398">398</a> +</p> + +<p class="index"> +Transylvania, <a href="#P195">195</a> +</p> + +<p class="index"> +Trasimere, Lake, <a href="#P182">182</a> +</p> + +<p class="index"> +Trench warfare, <a href="#P412">412</a> +</p> + +<p class="index"> +Trevithick, <a href="#P356">356</a> +</p> + +<p class="index"> +Tribal life, <a href="#P61">61</a> +</p> + +<p class="index"> +Trilobites, <a href="#P13">13</a> +</p> + +<p class="index"> +Trinidad, <a href="#P407">407</a> +</p> + +<p class="index"> +Trinil, Java, <a href="#P45">45</a> +</p> + +<p class="index"> +Trinitarians, <a href="#P224">224</a> +</p> + +<p class="index"> +Trinity, doctrine of the, <a href="#P224">224</a>, <a +href="#P261">261</a> +</p> + +<p class="index"> +Triremes, <a href="#P180">180</a> +</p> + +<p class="index"> +Triumvirates, <a href="#P194">194</a> +</p> + +<p class="index"> +Trojans, <a href="#P94">94</a> +</p> + +<p class="index"> +Troy, <a href="#P92">92</a>, <a href="#P127">127</a> +</p> + +<p class="index"> +Troyes, battle of, <a href="#P235">235</a>, <a href="#P431">431</a> +</p> + +<p class="index"> +Tsar, title of, <a href="#P327">327</a> +</p> + +<p class="index"> +Tshushima, Straits of, <a href="#P404">404</a> +</p> + +<p class="index"> +Ts’i, <a href="#P173">173</a> +</p> + +<p class="index"> +Ts’in, <a href="#P173">173</a>, <a href="#P431">431</a> +</p> + +<p class="index"> +Tuileries, <a href="#P342">342</a>, <a href="#P343">343</a> +</p> + +<p class="index"> +Tunis, <a href="#P185">185</a> +</p> + +<p class="index"> +Turkestan, <a href="#P77">77</a>, <a href="#P108">108</a>, <a +href="#P148">148</a>, <a href="#P196">196</a>, <a +href="#P197">197</a>, <a href="#P198">198</a>, <a +href="#P199">199</a>, <a href="#P245">245</a>, <a +href="#P253">253</a>, <a href="#P287">287</a>, <a +href="#P290">290</a>, <a href="#P292">292</a>, <a +href="#P334">334</a> +</p> + +<p class="index"> +Turkey, <a href="#P390">390</a>, <a href="#P411">411</a> +</p> + +<p class="index"> +Turkoman dynasty, <a href="#P405">405</a> +</p> + +<p class="index"> +Turkomans, <a href="#P334">334</a> +</p> + +<p class="index"> +Turks, <a href="#P167">167</a>, <a href="#P197">197</a>, <a +href="#P243">243</a>, <a href="#P245">245</a>, <a +href="#P263">263</a>, <a href="#P267">267</a>, <a +href="#P287">287</a>, <a href="#P292">292</a>, <a +href="#P310">310</a>, <a href="#P312">312</a>, <a +href="#P334">334</a>, <a href="#P353">353</a>, <a +href="#P354">354</a>, <a href="#P434">434</a> +</p> + +<p class="index"> +Turtles, <a href="#P27">27</a>, <a href="#P28">28</a> +</p> + +<p class="index"> +Tushratta, king of Mitanni, <a href="#P97">97</a> +</p> + +<p class="index"> +Twelve tribes, the, <a href="#P116">116</a> +</p> + +<p class="index"> +Tyrannosaurus, <a href="#P28">28</a> +</p> + +<p class="index"> +Tyre, <a href="#P92">92</a>, <a href="#P118">118</a>, <a +href="#P119">119</a>, <a href="#P122">122</a>, <a +href="#P123">123</a>, <a href="#P134">134</a>, <a +href="#P147">147</a> +</p> + +<p> +U +</p> + +<p class="index"> +Uintatheres, <a href="#P42">42</a> +</p> + +<p class="index"> +Uncleanness, <a href="#P68">68</a> +</p> + +<p class="index"> +United States, <a href="#P357">357</a>, <a href="#P410">410</a>, <a +href="#P411">411</a>, <a href="#P422">422</a>, <a +href="#P434">434</a>; Declaration of Independence, <a +href="#P338">338</a>; treaty with Britain, <a href="#P339">339</a>; +expansion of, <a href="#P382">382</a> <i>et seq.</i> +</p> + +<p class="index"> +Universities, <a href="#P295">295</a>, <a href="#P304">304</a>, <a +href="#P355">355</a>, <a href="#P361">361</a> +</p> + +<p class="index"> +Uranus, <a href="#P2">2</a>, <a href="#P3">3</a> +</p> + +<p class="index"> +Urban II, Pope, <a href="#P268">268</a>, <a href="#P272">272</a>, <a +href="#P432">432</a> +</p> + +<p class="index"> +Urban VI, Pope, <a href="#P285">285</a>, <a href="#P433">433</a> +</p> + +<p class="index"> +Utopias, <a href="#P140">140</a>, <a href="#P142">142</a>, <a +href="#P144">144</a> +</p> + +<p> +V +</p> + +<p class="index"> +Valens, Emperor, <a href="#P229">229</a> +</p> + +<p class="index"> +Valerian, <a href="#P430">430</a> +</p> + +<p class="index"> +Valladolid, <a href="#P314">314</a>, <a href="#P315">315</a>, <a +href="#P316">316</a> +</p> + +<p class="index"> +Valmy, battle of, <a href="#P434">434</a> +</p> + +<p class="index"> +Vandals, <a href="#P227">227</a>, <a href="#P229">229</a>, <a +href="#P230">230</a>, <a href="#P232">232</a>, <a +href="#P431">431</a> +</p> + +<p class="index"> +Varennes, <a href="#P343">343</a>, <a href="#P434">434</a> +</p> + +<p class="index"> +Vassalage, <a href="#P259">259</a> +</p> + +<p class="index"> +Vatican, <a href="#P265">265</a>, <a href="#P266">266</a>, <a +href="#P272">272</a>, <a href="#P285">285</a> +</p> + +<p class="index"> +Vedas, <a href="#P106">106</a> +</p> + +<p class="index"> +Vegetation of Mesozoic period, <a href="#P28">28</a> +</p> + +<p class="index"> +Veii, <a href="#P177">177</a>, <a href="#P178">178</a> +</p> + +<p class="index"> +Vendée, <a href="#P345">345</a> +</p> + +<p class="index"> +Venetia, <a href="#P235">235</a> +</p> + +<p class="index"> +Venetians, <a href="#P301">301</a> +</p> + +<p class="index"> +Venice, <a href="#P235">235</a>, <a href="#P272">272</a>, <a +href="#P274">274</a>, <a href="#P294">294</a>, <a +href="#P327">327</a>, <a href="#P351">351</a>, <a +href="#P432">432</a> +</p> + +<p class="index"> +Venus (goddess), <a href="#P213">213</a> +</p> + +<p class="index"> +Venus (planet), <a href="#P2">2</a>, <a href="#P3">3</a> +</p> + +<p class="index"> +Verona, <a href="#P345">345</a> +</p> + +<p class="index"> +Versailles, <a href="#P325">325</a>, <a href="#P327">327</a>, <a +href="#P341">341</a>, <a href="#P342">342</a> +</p> + +<p class="index"> +Versailles, Peace Conference of, <a href="#P421">421</a> +</p> + +<p class="index"> +Versailles, Treaty of, <a href="#P421">421</a>, <a +href="#P422">422</a> +</p> + +<p class="index"> +Vertebrata, <a href="#P19">19</a>; ancestors of, <a +href="#P20">20</a> +</p> + +<p class="index"> +Verulam, Lord, (<i>See</i> Bacon, Sir Francis) +</p> + +<p class="index"> +Vespasian, <a href="#P430">430</a> +</p> + +<p class="index"> +Vesuvius, <a href="#P191">191</a> +</p> + +<p class="index"> +Victor Emmanuel, King of Italy, <a href="#P435">435</a> +</p> + +<p class="index"> +Victoria, Queen, <a href="#P394">394</a>, <a href="#P434">434</a> +</p> + +<p class="index"> +Vienna, <a href="#P292">292</a>, <a href="#P312">312</a>, <a +href="#P433">433</a>, <a href="#P434">434</a> +</p> + +<p class="index"> +Vienna, Congress of, <a href="#P348">348</a>, <a +href="#P349">349</a>, <a href="#P350">350</a> +</p> + +<p class="index"> +Vienna, Treaty of, <a href="#P355">355</a> +</p> + +<p class="index"> +Vilna, <a href="#P356">356</a> +</p> + +<p class="index"> +Vindhya Mountains, <a href="#P159">159</a> +</p> + +<p class="index"> +Virginia, <a href="#P337">337</a>, <a href="#P383">383</a>, <a +href="#P386">386</a> +</p> + +<p class="index"> +Visigoths, <a href="#P227">227</a>, <a href="#P229">229</a>, <a +href="#P232">232</a>, <a href="#P235">235</a>, <a +href="#P259">259</a>, <a href="#P431">431</a>. (<i>Cf.</i> Goths) +</p> + +<p class="index"> +Vitellus, <a href="#P430">430</a> +</p> + +<p class="index"> +<i>Vittoria</i>, ship, <a href="#P302">302</a> +</p> + +<p class="index"> +Viviparous mammals, <a href="#P33">33</a> +</p> + +<p class="index"> +Vivisection, Herophilus and, <a href="#P151">151</a> +</p> + +<p class="index"> +Volcanoes, <a href="#P37">37</a> +</p> + +<p class="index"> +Volga, <a href="#P200">200</a>, <a href="#P227">227</a> +</p> + +<p class="index"> +Volta, <a href="#P358">358</a> +</p> + +<p class="index"> +Voltaire, <a href="#P328">328</a> +</p> + +<p class="index"> +Votes, <a href="#P382">382</a> +</p> + +<p> +W +</p> + +<p class="index"> +Waldenses, <a href="#P276">276</a>, <a href="#P280">280</a>, <a +href="#P305">305</a> +</p> + +<p class="index"> +Waldo, <a href="#P276">276</a> +</p> + +<p class="index"> +Walid I, <a href="#P432">432</a> +</p> + +<p class="index"> +War and Warfare, <a href="#P96">96</a>, <a href="#P344">344</a>, <a +href="#P390">390</a>, <a href="#P422">422</a> +</p> + +<p class="index"> +War of American Independence, <a href="#P338">338</a> <i>et seq.</i> +</p> + +<p class="index"> +Warsaw, <a href="#P353">353</a> +</p> + +<p class="index"> +Washington, <a href="#P340">340</a>, <a href="#P357">357</a>, <a +href="#P383">383</a>, <a href="#P386">386</a>, <a +href="#P389">389</a> +</p> + +<p class="index"> +Washington, Conference of, <a href="#P425">425</a> +</p> + +<p class="index"> +Washington, George, <a href="#P338">338</a> +</p> + +<p class="index"> +Waterloo, battle of, <a href="#P348">348</a> +</p> + +<p class="index"> +Watt engine, <a href="#P356">356</a> +</p> + +<p class="index"> +Weapons, <a href="#P100">100</a>, <a href="#P106">106</a> +</p> + +<p class="index"> +Weaving, <a href="#P65">65</a>, <a href="#P75">75</a> +</p> + +<p class="index"> +Wei-hai-wei, <a href="#P400">400</a> +</p> + +<p class="index"> +Wellington, Duke of, <a href="#P348">348</a> +</p> + +<p class="index"> +West Indies, <a href="#P330">330</a>, <a href="#P385">385</a>, <a +href="#P393">393</a>, <a href="#P394">394</a> +</p> + +<p class="index"> +Western Empire, <a href="#P431">431</a> +</p> + +<p class="index"> +Westminster, <a href="#P306">306</a> +</p> + +<p class="index"> +Westphalia, Peace of, <a href="#P326">326</a>, <a +href="#P355">355</a>, <a href="#P433">433</a> +</p> + +<p class="index"> +Wheat, <a href="#P66">66</a>, <a href="#P104">104</a> +</p> + +<p class="index"> +White Huns. (<i>See</i> Ephthalites) +</p> + +<p class="index"> +William Duke of Normandy (William I), <a href="#P432">432</a> +</p> + +<p class="index"> +William II, German Emperor, <a href="#P410">410</a>, <a +href="#P435">435</a> +</p> + +<p class="index"> +Wilson, President, <a href="#P422">422</a>, <a href="#P423">423</a>, +<a href="#P424">424</a> +</p> + +<p class="index"> +Wings, birds’, <a href="#P32">32</a> +</p> + +<p class="index"> +Wisby, <a href="#P294">294</a> +</p> + +<p class="index"> +Wisconsin, <a href="#P385">385</a> +</p> + +<p class="index"> +“Wisdom lovers,” the first, <a href="#P133">133</a> +</p> + +<p class="index"> +Witchcraft, <a href="#P68">68</a> +</p> + +<p class="index"> +Wittenberg, <a href="#P306">306</a> +</p> + +<p class="index"> +Wolfe, General, <a href="#P434">434</a> +</p> + +<p class="index"> +Wolsey, Cardinal, <a href="#P324">324</a> +</p> + +<p class="index"> +Wood blocks for printing, <a href="#P247">247</a> +</p> + +<p class="index"> +Wool, <a href="#P102">102</a>, <a href="#P395">395</a> +</p> + +<p class="index"> +Workers’ Internationals, <a href="#P377">377</a> +</p> + +<p class="index"> +World, The, creation of, <a href="#P1">1</a>; in time, <a +href="#P5">5</a> <i>et seq.</i> +</p> + +<p class="index"> +Wrangel, General, <a href="#P419">419</a> +</p> + +<p class="index"> +Writing, <a href="#P74">74</a>, <a href="#P75">75</a>, <a +href="#P78">78</a>, <a href="#P79">79</a>, <a href="#P80">80</a>, <a +href="#P94">94</a>, <a href="#P124">124</a>, + <a href="#P176">176</a>; +dawn of, <a href="#P57">57</a> +</p> + +<p class="index"> +Wycliffe, John, and his followers, <a href="#P286">286</a>, <a +href="#P304">304</a>, <a href="#P433">433</a> +</p> + +<p> +X +</p> + +<p class="index"> +Xavier, Francis, <a href="#P400">400</a> +</p> + +<p class="index"> +Xenophon, <a href="#P150">150</a> +</p> + +<p class="index"> +Xerxes, <a href="#P136">136</a>, <a href="#P138">138</a>, <a +href="#P147">147</a>, <a href="#P150">150</a> +</p> + +<p> +Y +</p> + +<p class="index"> +Yang-Chow, <a href="#P300">300</a> +</p> + +<p class="index"> +Yang-tse-Kiang, <a href="#P173">173</a> +</p> + +<p class="index"> +Yangtse valley, <a href="#P173">173</a> +</p> + +<p class="index"> +Yarmuk, battle of, the, <a href="#P253">253</a>, <a +href="#P431">431</a> +</p> + +<p class="index"> +Yedo Bay, <a href="#P401">401</a> +</p> + +<p class="index"> +Yorktown, <a href="#P338">338</a> +</p> + +<p class="index"> +Yuan dynasty, <a href="#P290">290</a>, <a href="#P433">433</a> +</p> + +<p class="index"> +Yucatan, <a href="#P74">74</a> +</p> + +<p class="index"> +Yudenitch, General, <a href="#P419">419</a> +</p> + +<p class="index"> +Yuste, <a href="#P314">314</a>, <a href="#P317">317</a> +</p> + +<p> +Z +</p> + +<p class="index"> +Zama, battle of, <a href="#P182">182</a>, <a href="#P430">430</a> +</p> + +<p class="index"> +Zanzibar, <a href="#P329">329</a> +</p> + +<p class="index"> +Zarathustra, <a href="#P241">241</a> +</p> + +<p class="index"> +Zeppelins, <a href="#P413">413</a> +</p> + +<p class="index"> +Zero sign, <a href="#P257">257</a> +</p> + +<p class="index"> +Zeus, <a href="#P211">211</a> +</p> + +<p class="index"> +Zimbabwe, <a href="#P397">397</a> +</p> + +<p class="index"> +Zoophytes, fossilized, <a href="#P13">13</a> +</p> + +<p class="index"> +Zoroaster (and Zoroastrianism), <a href="#P241">241</a>, <a +href="#P243">243</a>, <a href="#P255">255</a> +</p> + +</div><!--end chapter--> + +<div style='display:block; margin-top:4em'>*** END OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK A SHORT HISTORY OF THE WORLD ***</div> +<div style='text-align:left'> + +<div style='display:block; margin:1em 0'> +Updated editions will replace the previous one—the old editions will +be renamed. +</div> + +<div style='display:block; margin:1em 0'> +Creating the works from print editions not protected by U.S. copyright +law means that no one owns a United States copyright in these works, +so the Foundation (and you!) can copy and distribute it in the United +States without permission and without paying copyright +royalties. 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