diff options
| author | Roger Frank <rfrank@pglaf.org> | 2025-10-14 20:04:03 -0700 |
|---|---|---|
| committer | Roger Frank <rfrank@pglaf.org> | 2025-10-14 20:04:03 -0700 |
| commit | 40ba54b9c7e24ca09b3d41751801d6a381ba67b9 (patch) | |
| tree | bad06dfc33c069a1d23bdd31649da240c69f21ef /35561-h | |
Diffstat (limited to '35561-h')
| -rw-r--r-- | 35561-h/35561-h.htm | 20783 | ||||
| -rw-r--r-- | 35561-h/images/img310a.jpg | bin | 0 -> 26120 bytes | |||
| -rw-r--r-- | 35561-h/images/img310b.jpg | bin | 0 -> 28931 bytes | |||
| -rw-r--r-- | 35561-h/images/img310c.jpg | bin | 0 -> 32681 bytes | |||
| -rw-r--r-- | 35561-h/images/img310d.jpg | bin | 0 -> 29504 bytes | |||
| -rw-r--r-- | 35561-h/images/img310e.jpg | bin | 0 -> 38950 bytes | |||
| -rw-r--r-- | 35561-h/images/img310f.jpg | bin | 0 -> 33664 bytes | |||
| -rw-r--r-- | 35561-h/images/img310g.jpg | bin | 0 -> 33804 bytes | |||
| -rw-r--r-- | 35561-h/images/img310h.jpg | bin | 0 -> 32754 bytes | |||
| -rw-r--r-- | 35561-h/images/img310i.jpg | bin | 0 -> 34730 bytes | |||
| -rw-r--r-- | 35561-h/images/img310j.jpg | bin | 0 -> 43474 bytes | |||
| -rw-r--r-- | 35561-h/images/img310k.jpg | bin | 0 -> 41770 bytes | |||
| -rw-r--r-- | 35561-h/images/img310l.jpg | bin | 0 -> 40126 bytes | |||
| -rw-r--r-- | 35561-h/images/img320.jpg | bin | 0 -> 12379 bytes | |||
| -rw-r--r-- | 35561-h/images/img332.jpg | bin | 0 -> 98949 bytes | |||
| -rw-r--r-- | 35561-h/images/img333.jpg | bin | 0 -> 98177 bytes | |||
| -rw-r--r-- | 35561-h/images/img335a.jpg | bin | 0 -> 10840 bytes | |||
| -rw-r--r-- | 35561-h/images/img335b.jpg | bin | 0 -> 75452 bytes | |||
| -rw-r--r-- | 35561-h/images/img341.jpg | bin | 0 -> 41856 bytes | |||
| -rw-r--r-- | 35561-h/images/img376.jpg | bin | 0 -> 40768 bytes | |||
| -rw-r--r-- | 35561-h/images/img378.jpg | bin | 0 -> 7116 bytes | |||
| -rw-r--r-- | 35561-h/images/img379a.jpg | bin | 0 -> 9823 bytes | |||
| -rw-r--r-- | 35561-h/images/img379b.jpg | bin | 0 -> 63535 bytes | |||
| -rw-r--r-- | 35561-h/images/img379c.jpg | bin | 0 -> 25864 bytes | |||
| -rw-r--r-- | 35561-h/images/img380a.jpg | bin | 0 -> 52032 bytes | |||
| -rw-r--r-- | 35561-h/images/img380b.jpg | bin | 0 -> 41381 bytes | |||
| -rw-r--r-- | 35561-h/images/img380c.jpg | bin | 0 -> 32906 bytes | |||
| -rw-r--r-- | 35561-h/images/img381.jpg | bin | 0 -> 56472 bytes |
28 files changed, 20783 insertions, 0 deletions
diff --git a/35561-h/35561-h.htm b/35561-h/35561-h.htm new file mode 100644 index 0000000..7518dbb --- /dev/null +++ b/35561-h/35561-h.htm @@ -0,0 +1,20783 @@ +<!DOCTYPE html PUBLIC "-//W3C//DTD XHTML 1.0 Strict//EN" "http://www.w3.org/TR/xhtml1/DTD/xhtml1-strict.dtd"> +<html xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1999/xhtml" xml:lang="en" lang="en"> + + <head> + <meta http-equiv="Content-Type" content= + "text/html; charset=iso-8859-1" /> + + <title> + The Project Gutenberg eBook of Encyclopædia Britannica, Volume X Slice III - Fenton, Edward to Finistere. + </title> + + <style type="text/css"> + + body { margin-left: 12%; margin-right: 12%; text-align: justify; } + p { margin-top: .75em; margin-bottom: .75em; text-indent: 1em; line-height: 1.4em;} + p.c { margin-top: .25em; margin-bottom: .25em; text-indent: 1em; padding-left: 1em; line-height: 1.4em;} + p.noind { margin-top: .75em; margin-bottom: .75em; text-indent: 0; } + + h2,h3 { text-align: center; } + hr { margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto; text-align: center; width: 70%; height: 5px; background-color: #dcdcdc; border:none; } + hr.art { margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto; width: 40%; height: 5px; background-color: #778899; + margin-top: 2em; margin-bottom: 6em } + hr.foot {margin-left: 2em; width: 16%; background-color: black; margin-top: 1em; margin-bottom: 0; height: 1px; } + hr.full {width: 100%} + + table.ws {white-space: nowrap; border-collapse: collapse; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto; + margin-top: 2em; margin-bottom: 2em;} + table.reg { margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto; clear: both;} + table.reg td { white-space: normal;} + table.nobctr { margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto; border-collapse: collapse; } + table.flt { border-collapse: collapse; } + table.pic { margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto; } + table.math0 { vertical-align: middle; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto; border-collapse: collapse;} + table.math0 td {text-align: center;} + table.math0 td.np {text-align: center; padding-left: 0; padding-right: 0;} + + table.reg p {text-indent: 1em; margin-left: 1.5em; text-align: justify;} + table.reg td.tc5p { padding-left: 2em; text-indent: 0em; white-space: normal;} + table.nobctr td, table.flt td { white-space: normal; } + table.pic td { white-space: normal; text-indent: 1em; padding-left: 2em; padding-right: 1em;} + table.nobctr p, table.flt p {text-indent: -1.5em; margin-left: 1.5em;} + table.pic td p {text-indent: -1.5em; margin-left: 1.5em;} + + td { white-space: nowrap; padding-right: 0.3em; padding-left: 0.3em;} + td.norm { white-space: normal; } + td.denom { border-top: 1px solid black; text-align: center; padding-right: 0.3em; padding-left: 0.3em;} + + td.tcc { padding-right: 0.5em; padding-left: 0.5em; text-align: center; vertical-align: top;} + td.tccm { padding-right: 0.5em; padding-left: 0.5em; text-align: center; vertical-align: middle;} + td.tccb { padding-right: 0.5em; padding-left: 0.5em; text-align: center; vertical-align: bottom;} + td.tcr { padding-right: 0.5em; padding-left: 0.5em; text-align: right; vertical-align: top;} + td.tcrb { padding-right: 0.5em; padding-left: 0.5em; text-align: right; vertical-align: bottom;} + td.tcrm { padding-right: 0.5em; padding-left: 0.5em; text-align: right; vertical-align: middle;} + td.tcl { padding-right: 0.5em; padding-left: 0.5em; text-align: left; vertical-align: top;} + td.tclb { padding-right: 0.5em; padding-left: 0.5em; text-align: left; vertical-align: bottom;} + td.tclm { padding-right: 0.5em; padding-left: 0.5em; text-align: left; vertical-align: middle;} + td.vb { vertical-align: bottom; } + + .caption { font-size: 0.9em; text-align: center; padding-bottom: 1em; padding-left: 1em; padding-right: 1em;} + .caption1 { font-size: 0.9em; text-align: left; padding-bottom: 1em; padding-left: 3em; padding-right: 2em;} + .caption80 { font-size: 0.8em; text-align: left; padding-bottom: 1em; padding-left: 3em; padding-right: 2em;} + + td.lb {border-left: black 1px solid;} + td.ltb {border-left: black 1px solid; border-top: black 1px solid;} + td.rb {border-right: black 1px solid;} + td.rb2 {border-right: black 2px solid;} + td.tb, span.tb {border-top: black 1px solid;} + td.bb {border-bottom: black 1px solid;} + td.bb1 {border-bottom: #808080 3px solid; padding-top: 1em; padding-bottom: 1em;} + td.rlb {border-right: black 1px solid; border-left : black 1px solid;} + td.allb {border: black 1px solid;} + td.cl {background-color: #e8e8e8} + + table p { margin: 0;} + + a:link, a:visited, link {text-decoration:none} + + .author {text-align: right; margin-top: -1em; margin-right: 1em; font-variant: small-caps;} + .center {text-align: center; text-indent: 0;} + .center1 {text-align: center; text-indent: 0; margin-top: 1em; margin-bottom: 1em;} + .grk {font-style: normal; font-family:"Palatino Linotype","New Athena Unicode",Gentium,"Lucida Grande", Galilee, "Arial Unicode MS", sans-serif;} + + .f80 {font-size: 80%} + .f90 {font-size: 90%} + .f150 {font-size: 150%} + .f200 {font-size: 200%} + + .sp {position: relative; bottom: 0.5em; font-size: 0.75em;} + .sp1 {position: relative; bottom: 0.6em; font-size: 0.75em;} + .su {position: relative; top: 0.3em; font-size: 0.75em;} + .su1 {position: relative; top: 0.5em; font-size: 0.75em; margin-left: -1.2ex;} + .spp {position: relative; bottom: 0.5em; font-size: 0.6em;} + .suu {position: relative; top: 0.2em; font-size: 0.6em;} + .sc {font-variant: small-caps;} + .scs {text-transform: lowercase; font-variant: small-caps;} + .ov {text-decoration: overline} + .cl {background-color: #f5f5f5;} + .bk {padding-left: 0; font-size: 80%;} + .bk1 {margin-left: -1em;} + + .pagenum {position: absolute; right: 5%; text-align: right; font-size: 10pt; + background-color: #f5f5f5; color: #778899; text-indent: 0; + padding-left: 0.5em; padding-right: 0.5em; font-style: normal; } + span.sidenote {width: 8em; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-top: 1.7em; margin-right: 2em; + font-size: 85%; float: left; clear: left; font-weight: bold; + font-style: italic; text-align: left; text-indent: 0; + background-color: #f5f5f5; color: black; } + .note {margin-left: 2em; margin-right: 2em; font-size: 0.9em; } + .fn { position: absolute; left: 12%; text-align: left; background-color: #f5f5f5; + text-indent: 0; padding-left: 0.2em; padding-right: 0.2em; } + span.correction {border-bottom: 1px dashed red;} + + div.poemr { margin-top: .75em; margin-bottom: .75em;} + div.poemr p { margin-left: 0; padding-left: 3em; text-indent: -3em; margin-top: 0em; margin-bottom: 0em; } + div.poemr p.s { margin-top: 1.5em; } + div.poemr p.i05 { margin-left: 0.4em; } + div.poemr p.i1 { margin-left: 1em; } + div.poemr p.i3 { margin-left: 3em; } + div.poemr p.i10 { margin-left: 10em; } + + .figright1 { padding-right: 1em; padding-left: 2em; padding-top: 1.5em; text-align: center; } + .figleft1 { padding-right: 2em; padding-left: 1em; padding-top: 1.5em; text-align: center; } + .figcenter {text-align: center; margin: auto; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto; padding-top: 1.5em;} + .figcenter1 {text-align: center; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto; padding-top: 2em; padding-bottom: 2em;} + .figure {text-align: center; padding-left: 1.5em; padding-right: 1.5em; padding-top: 1.5em; padding-bottom: 0;} + .bold {font-weight: bold; } + + div.minind {text-align: justify;} + div.condensed, div.condensed1 { line-height: 1.3em; margin-left: 3%; margin-right: 3%; font-size: 95%; } + div.condensed1 p {margin-left: 0; padding-left: 2em; text-indent: -2em;} + div.condensed span.sidenote {font-size: 90%} + + div.list {margin-left: 0;} + div.list p {padding-left: 4em; text-indent: -2em;} + div.list1 {margin-left: 0;} + div.list1 p {padding-left: 5em; text-indent: -3em;} + + .pt05 {padding-top: 0.5em;} + .pt1 {padding-top: 1em;} + .pt2 {padding-top: 2em;} + .ptb1 {padding-top: 1em; padding-bottom: 1em;} + td.prl {padding-left: 10%; padding-right: 7em; text-align: left; vertical-align: top;} + + </style> + </head> +<body> + + +<pre> + +The Project Gutenberg EBook of Encyclopaedia Britannica, 11th Edition, +Volume 10, Slice 3, by Various + +This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with +almost no restrictions whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or +re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included +with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org + + +Title: Encyclopaedia Britannica, 11th Edition, Volume 10, Slice 3 + "Fenton, Edward" to "Finistere" + +Author: Various + +Release Date: March 12, 2011 [EBook #35561] + +Language: English + +Character set encoding: ISO-8859-1 + +*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK ENCYC. BRITANNICA, VOL 10 SL 3 *** + + + + +Produced by Marius Masi, Don Kretz and the Online +Distributed Proofreading Team at https://www.pgdp.net + + + + + + +</pre> + + + +<table border="0" cellpadding="10" style="background-color: #dcdcdc; color: #696969; " summary="Transcriber's note"> +<tr> +<td style="width:25%; vertical-align:top"> +Transcriber’s note: +</td> +<td class="norm"> +A few typographical errors have been corrected. They +appear in the text <span class="correction" title="explanation will pop up">like this</span>, and the +explanation will appear when the mouse pointer is moved over the marked +passage. Sections in Greek will yield a transliteration +when the pointer is moved over them, and words using diacritic characters in the +Latin Extended Additional block, which may not display in some fonts or browsers, will +display an unaccented version. <br /><br /> +<a name="artlinks">Links to other EB articles:</a> Links to articles residing in other EB volumes will +be made available when the respective volumes are introduced online. +</td> +</tr> +</table> +<div style="padding-top: 3em; "> </div> + +<h2>THE ENCYCLOPÆDIA BRITANNICA</h2> + +<h2>A DICTIONARY OF ARTS, SCIENCES, LITERATURE AND GENERAL INFORMATION</h2> + +<h3>ELEVENTH EDITION</h3> +<div style="padding-top: 3em; "> </div> + +<hr class="full" /> +<h3>VOLUME X SLICE III<br /><br /> +Fenton, Edward to Finistere</h3> +<hr class="full" /> +<div style="padding-top: 3em; "> </div> + +<p class="center1" style="font-size: 150%; font-family: 'verdana';">Articles in This Slice</p> +<table class="reg" style="width: 90%; font-size: 90%; border: gray 2px solid;" cellspacing="8" summary="Contents"> + +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar1">FENTON, EDWARD</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar110">FEUDALISM</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar2">FENTON, ELIJAH</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar111">FEUERBACH, ANSELM</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar3">FENTON, SIR GEOFFREY</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar112">FEUERBACH, LUDWIG ANDREAS</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar4">FENTON, LAVINIA</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar113">FEUERBACH, PAUL JOHANN ANSELM</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar5">FENTON</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar114">FEUILLANTS, CLUB OF THE</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar6">FENUGREEK</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar115">FEUILLET, OCTAVE</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar7">FENWICK, SIR JOHN</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar116">FEUILLETON</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar8">FEOFFMENT</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar117">FEUQUIÈRES, ISAAC MANASSÈS DE PAS</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar9">FERDINAND</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar118">FÉVAL, PAUL HENRI CORENTIN</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar10">FERDINAND I.</a> (Roman emperor)</td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar119">FEVER</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar11">FERDINAND II.</a> (Roman emperor)</td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar120">FEYDEAU, ERNEST-AIMÉ</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar12">FERDINAND III.</a> (Roman emperor)</td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar121">FEZ</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar13">FERDINAND I.</a> (emperor of Austria)</td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar122">FEZZAN</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar14">FERDINAND I.</a> (king of Naples)</td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar123">FIACRE, SAINT</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar15">FERDINAND II.</a> (king of Naples)</td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar124">FIARS PRICES</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar16">FERDINAND IV.</a> (king of Naples)</td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar125">FIBRES</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar17">FERDINAND I.</a> (king of Portugal)</td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar126">FIBRIN</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar18">FERDINAND I.</a> (king of Castile)</td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar127">FICHTE, IMMANUEL HERMANN VON</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar19">FERDINAND II.</a> (king of Leon)</td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar128">FICHTE, JOHANN GOTTLIEB</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar20">FERDINAND III.</a> (king of Castile)</td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar129">FICHTELGEBIRGE</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar21">FERDINAND IV.</a> (king of Castile)</td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar130">FICINO, MARSILIO</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar22">FERDINAND I.</a> (king of Aragon)</td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar131">FICKSBURG</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar23">FERDINAND V.</a> (of Castile and Leon)</td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar132">FICTIONS</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar24">FERDINAND VI.</a> (king of Spain)</td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar133">FIDDES, RICHARD</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar25">FERDINAND VII.</a> (king of Spain)</td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar134">FIDDLE</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar26">FERDINAND II.</a> (king of Sicily)</td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar135">FIDENAE</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar27">FERDINAND III.</a> (duke of Tuscany)</td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar136">FIDUCIARY</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar28">FERDINAND, MAXIMILIAN KARL LEOPOLD MARIA</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar137">FIEF</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar29">FERDINAND</a> (duke of Brunswick)</td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar138">FIELD, CYRUS WEST</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar30">FERDINAND</a> (archbishop of Cologne)</td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar139">FIELD, DAVID DUDLEY</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar31">FERENTINO</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar140">FIELD, EUGENE</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar32">FERENTUM</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar141">FIELD, FREDERICK</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar33">FERETORY</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar142">FIELD, HENRY MARTYN</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar34">FERGHANA</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar143">FIELD, JOHN</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar35">FERGUS FALLS</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar144">FIELD, MARSHALL</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar36">FERGUSON, ADAM</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar145">FIELD, NATHAN</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar37">FERGUSON, JAMES</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar146">FIELD, STEPHEN JOHNSON</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar38">FERGUSON, ROBERT</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar147">FIELD, WILLIAM VENTRIS FIELD</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar39">FERGUSON, SIR SAMUEL</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar148">FIELD</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar40">FERGUSSON, JAMES</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar149">FIELDFARE</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar41">FERGUSSON, ROBERT</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar150">FIELDING, ANTHONY VANDYKE COPLEY</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar42">FERGUSSON, SIR WILLIAM</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar151">FIELDING, HENRY</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar43">FERINGHI</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar152">FIELDING, WILLIAM STEVENS</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar44">FERISHTA, MAHOMMED KASIM</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar153">FIELD-MOUSE</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar45">FERMANAGH</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar154">FIELD OF THE CLOTH OF GOLD</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar46">FERMAT, PIERRE DE</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar155">FIELDS, JAMES THOMAS</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar47">FERMENTATION</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar156">FIENNES, NATHANIEL</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar48">FERMO</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar157">FIERI FACIAS</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar49">FERMOY</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar158">FIESCHI, GIUSEPPE MARCO</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar50">FERN</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar159">FIESCO, GIOVANNI LUIGI</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar51">FERNANDEZ, ALVARO</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar160">FIESOLE</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar52">FERNANDEZ, DIEGO</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar161">FIFE</a> (county of Scotland)</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar53">FERNANDEZ, JOHN</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar162">FIFE</a> (flute)</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar54">FERNANDEZ, JUAN</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar163">FIFTH MONARCHY MEN</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar55">FERNANDEZ, LUCAS</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar164">FIG</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar56">FERNANDINA</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar165">FIGARO</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar57">FERNANDO DE NORONHA</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar166">FIGEAC</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar58">FERNANDO PO</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar167">FIGUEIRA DA FOZ</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar59">FERNEL, JEAN FRANÇOIS</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar168">FIGUERAS</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar60">FERNIE</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar169">FIGULUS, PUBLIUS NIGIDIUS</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar61">FERNOW, KARL LUDWIG</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar170">FIGURATE NUMBERS</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar62">FEROZEPUR</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar171">FIJI</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar63">FEROZESHAH</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar172">FILANDER</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar64">FERRAND, ANTOINE FRANÇOIS CLAUDE</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar173">FILANGIERI, CARLO</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar65">FERRAR, NICHOLAS</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar174">FILANGIERI, GAETANO</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar66">FERRAR, ROBERT</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar175">FILARIASIS</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar67">FERRARA</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar176">FILDES, SIR LUKE</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar68">FERRARA-FLORENCE</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar177">FILE</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar69">FERRARI, GAUDENZIO</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar178">FILE-FISH</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar70">FERRARI, GIUSEPPE</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar179">FILELFO, FRANCESCO</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar71">FERRARI, PAOLO</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar180">FILEY</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar72">FERREIRA, ANTONIO</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar181">FILIBUSTER</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar73">FERREL'S LAW</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar182">FILICAJA, VINCENZO DA</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar74">FERRERS</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar183">FILIGREE</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar75">FERRERS, LAURENCE SHIRLEY</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar184">FILLAN, SAINT</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar76">FERRET</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar185">FILLET</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar77">FERRI, CIRO</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar186">FILLMORE, MILLARD</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar78">FERRI, LUIGI</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar187">FILMER, SIR RORERT</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar79">FERRIER, ARNAUD DU</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar188">FILMY FERNS</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar80">FERRIER, JAMES FREDERICK</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar189">FILON, PIERRE MARIE AUGUSTIN</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar81">FERRIER, PAUL</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar190">FILOSA</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar82">FERRIER, SUSAN EDMONSTONE</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar191">FILTER</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar83">FERROL</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar192">FIMBRIA, GAIUS FLAVIUS</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar84">FERRUCCIO, FRANCESCO</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar193">FIMBRIATE</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar85">FERRULE</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar194">FINALE</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar86">FERRY, JULES FRANÇOIS CAMILLE</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar195">FINANCE</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar87">FERRY</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar196">FINCH, FINCH-HATTON</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar88">FERSEN, FREDRIK AXEL</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar197">FINCH OF FORDWICH, JOHN FINCH</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar89">FERSEN, HANS AXEL</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar198">FINCH</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar90">FESCA, FREDERIC ERNEST</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar199">FINCHLEY</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar91">FESCENNIA</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar200">FINCK, FRIEDRICH AUGUST VON</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar92">FESCENNINE VERSES</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar201">FINCK, HEINRICH</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar93">FESCH, JOSEPH</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar202">FINCK, HERMANN</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar94">FESSA</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar203">FINDEN, WILLIAM</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar95">FESSENDEN, WILLIAM PITT</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar204">FINDLATER, ANDREW</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar96">FESSLER, IGNAZ AURELIUS</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar205">FINDLAY, SIR GEORGE</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar97">FESTA, CONSTANZO</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar206">FINDLAY, JOHN RITCHIE</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar98">FESTINIOG</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar207">FINDLAY</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar99">FESTOON</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar208">FINE</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar100">FESTUS</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar209">FINE ARTS</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar101">FESTUS, SEXTUS POMPEIUS</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar210">FINGER</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar102">FÉTIS, FRANÇOIS JOSEPH</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar211">FINGER-AND-TOE</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar103">FETISHISM</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar212">FINGER-PRINTS</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar104">FETTERCAIRN</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar213">FINGO</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar105">FETTERS AND HANDCUFFS</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar214">FINIAL</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar106">FEU</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar215">FINIGUERRA, MASO</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar107">FEUCHÈRES, SOPHIE</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar216">FINISHING</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar108">FEUCHTERSLEBEN, ERNST</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar217">FINISTÈRE</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar109">FEUD</a></td> <td class="tcl"> </td></tr> +</table> + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page259" id="page259"></a>259</span></p> +<p><span class="bold">FENTON, EDWARD<a name="ar1" id="ar1"></a></span> (d. 1603), English navigator, son of +Henry Fenton and brother of Sir Geoffrey Fenton (<i>q.v.</i>), was a +native of Nottinghamshire. In 1577 he sailed, in command of +the “Gabriel,” with Sir Martin Frobisher’s second expedition +for the discovery of the north-west passage, and in the following +year he took part as second in command in Frobisher’s third +expedition, his ship being the “Judith.” He was then employed +in Ireland for a time, but in 1582 he was put in charge of an +expedition which was to sail round the Cape of Good Hope to the +Moluccas and China, his instructions being to obtain any knowledge +of the north-west passage that was possible without +hindrance to his trade. On this unsuccessful voyage he got +no farther than Brazil, and throughout he was engaged in +quarrelling with his officers, and especially with his lieutenant, +William Hawkins, the nephew of Sir John Hawkins, whom he had +in irons when he arrived back in the Thames. In 1588 he had +command of the “Mary Rose,” one of the ships of the fleet that +was formed to oppose the Armada. He died fifteen years afterwards.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">FENTON, ELIJAH<a name="ar2" id="ar2"></a></span> (1683-1730), English poet, was born at +Shelton near Newcastle-under-Lyme, of an old Staffordshire +family, on the 25th of May 1683. He graduated from Jesus +College, Cambridge, in 1704, but was prevented by religious +scruples from taking orders. He accompanied the earl of Orrery +to Flanders as private secretary, and on returning to England +became assistant in a school at Headley, Surrey, being soon +afterwards appointed master of the free grammar school at +Sevenoaks in Kent. In 1710 he resigned his appointment in the +expectation of a place from Lord Bolingbroke, but was disappointed. +He then became tutor to Lord Broghill, son of his +patron Orrery. Fenton is remembered as the coadjutor of +Alexander Pope in his translation of the <i>Odyssey</i>. He was responsible +for the first, fourth, nineteenth and twentieth books, for +which he received £300. He died at East Hampstead, Berkshire, +on the 16th of July 1730. He was buried in the parish church, +and his epitaph was written by Pope.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>Fenton also published <i>Oxford and Cambridge Miscellany Poems</i> +(1707); <i>Miscellaneous Poems</i> (1717); <i>Mariamne</i>, a tragedy (1723); +an edition (1725) of Milton’s poems, and one of Waller (1729) with +elaborate notes. See W.W. Lloyd, <i>Elijah Fenton, his Poetry and +Friends</i> (1894).</p> +</div> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page260" id="page260"></a>260</span></p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">FENTON, SIR GEOFFREY<a name="ar3" id="ar3"></a></span> (<i>c.</i> 1539-1608), English writer and +politician, was the son of Henry Fenton, of Nottinghamshire. +He was brother of Edward Fenton the navigator. He is said +to have visited Spain and Italy in his youth; possibly he went +to Paris in Sir Thomas Hoby’s train in 1566, for he was living +there in 1567, when he wrote <i>Certaine tragicall discourses written +oute of Frenche and Latin</i>. This book is a free translation of +François de Belleforest’s French rendering of Matteo Bandello’s +<i>Novelle</i>. Till 1579 Fenton continued his literary labours, +publishing <i>Monophylo</i> in 1572, <i>Golden epistles gathered out of +Guevarae’s workes as other authors</i> ... 1575, and various religious +tracts of strong protestant tendencies. In 1579 appeared +the <i>Historie of Guicciardini, translated out of French by G. F.</i> +and dedicated to Elizabeth. Through Lord Burghley he obtained, +in 1580, the post of secretary to the new lord deputy of +Ireland, Lord Grey de Wilton, and thus became a fellow worker +with the poet, Edmund Spenser. From this time Fenton +abandoned literature and became a faithful if somewhat unscrupulous +servant of the crown. He was a bigoted protestant, +longing to use the rack against “the diabolicall secte of Rome,” +and even advocating the assassination of the queen’s most +dangerous subjects. He won Elizabeth’s confidence, and the +hatred of all his fellow-workers, by keeping her informed of +every one’s doings in Ireland. In 1587 Sir John Perrot arrested +Fenton, but the queen instantly ordered his release. Fenton +was knighted in 1589, and in 1590-1591 he was in London as +commissioner on the impeachment of Perrot. Full of dislike +of the Scots and of James VI. (which he did not scruple to utter), +on the latter’s accession Fenton’s post of secretary was in danger, +but Burghley exerted himself in his favour, and in 1604 it was +confirmed to him for life, though he had to share it with Sir +Richard Coke. Fenton died in Dublin on the 19th of October +1608, and was buried in St Patrick’s cathedral. He married in +June 1585, Alice, daughter of Dr Robert Weston, formerly +lord chancellor of Ireland, and widow of Dr Hugh Brady, bishop +of Meath, by whom he had two children, a son, Sir William Fenton, +and a daughter, Catherine, who in 1603 married Richard Boyle, +1st earl of Cork.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p><span class="sc">Bibliography</span>.—Harl. Soc. publications, vol. iv., Visitation of +Nottinghamshire, 1871; Roy. Hist. MSS. Comm. (particularly +Hatfield collection); Calendar of State papers, Ireland (very full), +domestic, Carew papers; Lismore papers, ed. A.B. Grosart (1886-1888); +<i>Certaine tragicall Discourses</i>, ed. R.L. Douglas (2 vols., +1898), Tudor Translation series, vols. xix., xx. (introd.).</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">FENTON, LAVINIA<a name="ar4" id="ar4"></a></span> (1708-1760), English actress, was probably +the daughter of a naval lieutenant named Beswick, but +she bore the name of her mother’s husband. Her first appearance +was as Monimia in Otway’s <i>Orphans</i>, in 1726 at the Haymarket. +She then joined the company of players at the theatre +in Lincoln’s Inn Fields, where her success and beauty made her +the toast of the beaux. It was in Gay’s <i>Beggar’s Opera</i>, as Polly +Peachum, that Miss Fenton made her greatest success. Her +pictures were in great demand, verses were written to her and +books published about her, and she was the most talked-of person +in London. Hogarth’s picture shows her in one of the scenes, +with the duke of Bolton in a box. After appearing in several +comedies, and then in numerous repetitions of the <i>Beggar’s Opera</i>, +she ran away with her lover Charles Paulet, 3rd duke of Bolton, +a man much older than herself, who, after the death of his wife +in 1751, married her. Their three children all died young. The +duchess survived her husband and died on the 24th of January +1760.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">FENTON,<a name="ar5" id="ar5"></a></span> a town of Staffordshire, England, on the North +Staffordshire railway, adjoining the east side of Stoke-on-Trent, +in which parliamentary and municipal borough it is included. +Pop. (1891) 16,998; (1901) 22,742. The manufacture of earthenware +common to the district (the Potteries) employs the bulk +of the large industrial population.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">FENUGREEK,<a name="ar6" id="ar6"></a></span> in botany, <i>Trigonella Foenum-graecum</i> (so +called from the name given to it by the ancients, who used it as +fodder for cattle), a member of a genus of leguminous herbs very +similar in habit and in most of their characters to the species of +the genus <i>Medicago</i>. The leaves are formed of three obovate +leaflets, the middle one of which is stalked; the flowers are +solitary, or in clusters of two or three, and have a campanulate, +5-cleft calyx; and the pods are many-seeded, cylindrical or +flattened, and straight or only slightly curved. The genus is +widely diffused over the south of Europe, West and Central +Asia, and the north of Africa, and is represented by several +species in Australia. Fenugreek is indigenous to south-eastern +Europe and western Asia, and is cultivated in the Mediterranean +region, parts of central Europe, and in Morocco, and largely +in Egypt and in India. It bears a sickle-shaped pod, containing +from 10 to 20 seeds, from which 6% of a fetid, fatty and bitter +oil can be extracted by ether. In India the fresh plant is employed +as an esculent. The seed is an ingredient in curry +powders, and is used for flavouring cattle foods. It was formerly +much esteemed as a medicine, and is still in repute in veterinary +practice.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">FENWICK, SIR JOHN<a name="ar7" id="ar7"></a></span> (<i>c.</i> 1645-1697), English conspirator, +was the eldest son of Sir William Fenwick, or Fenwicke, a +member of an old Northumberland family. He entered the army, +becoming major-general in 1688, but before this date he had been +returned in succession to his father as one of the members of +parliament for Northumberland, which county he represented +from 1677 to 1687. He was a strong partisan of King James II., +and in 1685 was one of the principal supporters of the act of +attainder against the duke of Monmouth; but he remained in +England when William III. ascended the throne three years +later. He began at once to plot against the new king, for which +he underwent a short imprisonment in 1689. Renewing his +plots on his release, he publicly insulted Queen Mary in 1691, +and it is practically certain that he was implicated in the schemes +for assassinating William which came to light in 1695 and 1696. +After the seizure of his fellow-conspirators, Robert Charnock +and others, he remained in hiding until the imprudent conduct +of his friends in attempting to induce one of the witnesses against +him to leave the country led to his arrest in June in 1696. To +save himself he offered to reveal all he knew about the Jacobite +conspiracies; but his confession was a farce, being confined to +charges against some of the leading Whig noblemen, which were +damaging, but not conclusive. By this time his friends had +succeeded in removing one of the two witnesses, and in these +circumstances it was thought that the charge of treason must +fail. The government, however, overcame this difficulty by +introducing a bill of attainder, which after a long and acrimonious +discussion passed through both Houses of Parliament. His wife +persevered in her attempts to save his life, but her efforts were +fruitless, and Fenwick was beheaded in London on the 28th of +January 1697, with the same formalities as were usually observed +at the execution of a peer. By his wife, Mary (d. 1708), daughter +of Charles Howard, 1st earl of Carlisle, he had three sons and one +daughter. Macaulay says that “of all the Jacobites, the most +desperate characters not excepted, he (Fenwick) was the only +one for whom William felt an intense personal aversion”; and +it is interesting to note that Fenwick’s hatred of the king is said +to date from the time when he was serving in Holland, and was +reprimanded by William, then prince of Orange.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">FEOFFMENT,<a name="ar8" id="ar8"></a></span> in English law, during the feudal period, the +usual method of granting or conveying a freehold or fee. For the +derivation of the word see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Fief</a></span> and <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Fee</a></span>. The essential elements +were <i>livery of seisin</i> (delivery of possession), which consisted in +formally giving to the feoffee on the land a clod or turf, or a +growing twig, as a symbol of the transfer of the land, and words by +the feoffor declaratory of his intent to deliver possession to the +feoffee with a “limitation” of the estate intended to be transferred. +This was called livery <i>in deed</i>. Livery <i>in law</i> was made +not on but in sight of this land, the feoffor saying to the feoffee, +“I give you that land; enter and take possession.” Livery in +law, in order to pass the estate, had to be perfected by entry by +the feoffee during the joint lives of himself and the feoffor. It +was usual to evidence the feoffment by writing in a charter or +deed of feoffment; but writing was not essential until the +Statute of Frauds; now, by the Real Property Act 1845, a +conveyance of real property is void unless evidenced by deed, and +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page261" id="page261"></a>261</span> +thus feoffments have been rendered unnecessary and superfluous. +All corporeal hereditaments were by that act declared to be <i>in +grant</i> as well as <i>livery</i>, <i>i.e.</i> they could be granted by deed without +livery. A feoffment might be a tortious conveyance, <i>i.e.</i> if a +person attempted to give to the feoffee a greater estate than he +himself had in the land, he forfeited the estate of which he was +seised. (See <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Conveyancing</a></span>; <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Real Property</a></span>.)</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">FERDINAND<a name="ar9" id="ar9"></a></span> (Span. <i>Fernando</i> or <i>Hernando</i>; Ital. <i>Ferdinando</i> +or <i>Ferrante</i>; in O.H. Ger. <i>Herinand</i>, <i>i.e.</i> “brave in the +host,” from O.H.G. Heri, “army,” A.S. <i>here</i>, Mod. Ger. <i>Heer</i>, and +the Goth, <i>nanþjan</i>, “to dare”), a name borne at various times by +many European sovereigns and princes, the more important of +whom are noticed below in the following order: emperors, kings +of Naples, Portugal, Spain (Castile, Leon and Aragon) and the +two Sicilies; then the grand duke of Tuscany, the prince of +Bulgaria, the duke of Brunswick and the elector of Cologne.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">FERDINAND I.<a name="ar10" id="ar10"></a></span> (1503-1564), Roman emperor, was born at +Alcalá de Henares on the 10th of March 1503, his father being +Philip the Handsome, son of the emperor Maximilian I., and his +mother Joanna, daughter of Ferdinand and Isabella, king and +queen of Castile and Aragon. Philip died in 1506 and Ferdinand, +educated in Spain, was regarded with especial favour by his +maternal grandfather who wished to form a Spanish-Italian +kingdom for his namesake. This plan came to nothing, and the +same fate attended a suggestion made after the death of Maximilian +in 1519 that Ferdinand, and not his elder brother Charles, +afterwards the emperor Charles V., should succeed to the imperial +throne. Charles, however, secured the Empire and the whole of +the lands of Maximilian and Ferdinand, while the younger +brother was perforce content with a subordinate position. Yet +some provision must be made for Ferdinand. In April 1521 the +emperor granted to him the archduchies and duchies of upper +and lower Austria, Carinthia, Styria and Carniola, adding soon +afterwards the county of Tirol and the hereditary possessions of +the Habsburgs in south-western Germany. About the same time +the archduke was appointed to govern the duchy of Württemberg, +which had come into the possession of Charles V.; and in May +1521 he was married at Linz to Anna (d. 1547), a daughter of +Ladislaus, king of Hungary and Bohemia, a union which had been +arranged some years before by the emperor Maximilian. In 1521 +also he was made president of the council of regency (<i>Reichsregiment</i>), +appointed to govern Germany during the emperor’s +absence, and the next five years were occupied with imperial +business, in which he acted as his brother’s representative, and in +the government of the Austrian lands.</p> + +<p>In Austria and the neighbouring duchies Ferdinand sought at +first to suppress the reformers and their teaching, and this was +possibly one reason why he had some difficulty in quelling +risings in the districts under his rule after the Peasants’ War +broke out in 1524. But a new field was soon opened for his +ambition. In August 1526 his childless brother-in-law, Louis II., +king of Hungary and Bohemia, was killed at the battle of +Mohacs, and the archduke at once claimed both kingdoms, both +by treaty and by right of his wife. Taking advantage of the +divisions among his opponents, he was chosen king of Bohemia in +October 1526, and crowned at Prague in the following February, +but in Hungary he was less successful. John Zapolya, supported +by the national party and soon afterwards by the Turks, offered +a sturdy resistance, and although Ferdinand was chosen king at +Pressburg in December 1526, and after defeating Zapolya at +Tokay was crowned at Stuhlweissenburg in November 1527, he +was unable to take possession of the kingdom. The Bavarian +Wittelsbachs, incensed at not securing the Bohemian throne, were +secretly intriguing with his foes; the French, after assisting +spasmodically, made a formal alliance with Turkey in 1535; and +Zapolya was a very useful centre round which the enemies of the +Habsburgs were not slow to gather. A truce made in 1533 was +soon broken, and the war dragged on until 1538, when by the +treaty of Grosswardein, Hungary was divided between the +claimants. The kingly title was given to Zapolya, but Ferdinand +was to follow him on the throne. Before this, in January 1531, he +had been chosen king of the Romans, or German king, at Cologne, +and his coronation took place a few days later at Aix-la-Chapelle. +He had thoroughly earned this honour by his loyalty to his +brother, whom he had represented at several diets. In religious +matters the king was now inclined, probably owing to the Turkish +danger, to steer a middle course between the contending parties, +and in 1532 he agreed to the religious peace of Nuremberg, +receiving in return from the Protestants some assistance for the +war against the Turks. In 1534, however, his prestige suffered a +severe rebuff. Philip, landgrave of Hesse, and his associates had +succeeded in conquering Württemberg on behalf of its exiled +duke, Ulrich (<i>q.v.</i>), and, otherwise engaged, neither Charles nor +Ferdinand could send much help to their lieutenants. They +were consequently obliged to consent to the treaty of Cadan, +made in June 1534, by which the German king recognized +Ulrich as duke of Württemberg, on condition that he held his +duchy under Austrian suzerainty.</p> + +<p>In Hungary the peace of 1538 was not permanent. When +Zapolya died in July 1540 a powerful faction refused to admit +the right of Ferdinand to succeed him, and put forward his young +son John Sigismund as a candidate for the throne. The cause of +John Sigismund was espoused by the Turks and by Ferdinand’s +other enemies, and, unable to get any serious assistance from the +imperial diet, the king repeatedly sought to make peace with the +sultan, but his envoys were haughtily repulsed. In 1544, +however, a short truce was made. This was followed by others, +and in 1547 one was concluded for five years, but only on condition +that Ferdinand paid tribute for the small part of Hungary +which remained in his hands. The struggle was renewed in 1551 +and was continued in the same desultory fashion until 1562, when +a truce was made which lasted during the remainder of Ferdinand’s +lifetime. During the war of the league of Schmalkalden in 1546 +and 1547 the king had taken the field primarily to protect +Bohemia, and after the conclusion of the war he put down a +rising in this country with some rigour. He appears during +these years to have governed his lands with vigour and success, +but in imperial politics he was merely the representative and +spokesman of the emperor. About 1546, however, he began to +take up a more independent position. Although Charles had +crushed the league of Schmalkalden he had refused to restore +Württemberg to Ferdinand; and he gave further offence by +seeking to secure the succession of his son Philip, afterwards king +of Spain, to the imperial throne. Ferdinand naturally objected, +but in 1551 his reluctant consent was obtained to the plan that, on +the proposed abdication of Charles, Philip should be chosen king +of the Romans, and should succeed Ferdinand himself as emperor. +Subsequent events caused the scheme to be dropped, but it had a +somewhat unfortunate sequel for Charles, as during the short war +between the emperor and Maurice, elector of Saxony, in 1552 +Ferdinand’s attitude was rather that of a spectator and mediator +than of a partisan. There seems, however, to be no truth in the +suggestion that he acted treacherously towards his brother, and +was in alliance with his foes. On behalf of Charles he negotiated +the treaty of Passau with Maurice in 1552, and in 1555 after the +conduct of imperial business had virtually been made over to him, +and harmony had been restored between the brothers, he was +responsible for the religious peace of Augsburg. Early in 1558 +Charles carried out his intention to abdicate the imperial throne, +and on the 24th of March Ferdinand was crowned as his successor +at Frankfort. Pope Paul IV. would not recognize the new +emperor, but his successor Pius IV. did so in 1559 through the +mediation of Philip of Spain. The emperor’s short reign was +mainly spent in seeking to settle the religious differences of +Germany, and in efforts to prosecute the Turkish war more +vigorously. His hopes at one time centred round the council of +Trent which resumed its sittings in 1562, but he was unable to +induce the Protestants to be represented. Although he held +firmly to the Roman Catholic Church he sought to obtain +tangible concessions to her opponents; but he refused to +conciliate the Protestants by abrogating the clause concerning +ecclesiastical reservation in the peace of Augsburg, and all his +efforts to bring about reunion were futile. He did indeed secure +the privilege of communion in both kinds from Pius IV. for the +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page262" id="page262"></a>262</span> +laity in Bohemia and in various parts of Germany, but the hearty +support which he gave the Jesuits shows that he had no sympathy +with Protestantism, and was only anxious to restore union in the +Church. In November 1562 he obtained the election of his son +Maximilian as king of the Romans, and having arranged a +partition of his lands among his three surviving sons, died in +Vienna on the 25th of July 1564. His family had consisted of +six sons and nine daughters.</p> + +<p>In spite of constant and harassing engagements Ferdinand was +fairly successful both as king and emperor. He sought to +consolidate his Austrian lands, reformed the monetary system in +Germany, and reorganized the Aulic council (<i>Reichshofrat</i>). +Less masterful but more popular than his brother, whose +character overshadows his own, he was just and tolerant, a good +Catholic and a conscientious ruler.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See the article on <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Charles V.</a></span> and the bibliography appended +thereto. Also, A. Ulloa, <i>Vita del potentissimo e christianissimo +imperatore Ferdinando primo</i> (Venice, 1565); S. Schard, <i>Epitome +rerum in variis orbis partibus a confirmatione Ferdinandi I</i>. (Basel, +1574); F.B. von Bucholtz, <i>Geschichte der Regierung Ferdinands +des Ersten</i> (Vienna, 1831-1838); K. Oberleitner, <i>Österreichs Finanzen +und Kriegswesen unter Ferdinand I</i>. (Vienna, 1859); A. Rezek, +<i>Geschichte der Regierung Ferdinands I. in Böhmen</i> (Prague, 1878); +E. Rosenthal, <i>Die Behördenorganisation Kaiser Ferdinands I</i>. +(Vienna, 1887); and W. Bauer, <i>Die Anfänge Ferdinands I</i>. (Vienna, +1907).</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">FERDINAND II.<a name="ar11" id="ar11"></a></span> (1578-1637), Roman emperor, was the eldest +son of Charles, archduke of Styria (d. 1590), and his wife Maria, +daughter of Albert IV., duke of Bavaria and a grandson of the +emperor Ferdinand I. Born at Gratz on the 9th of July 1578, he +was trained by the Jesuits, finishing his education at the university +of Ingolstadt, and became the pattern prince of the counter-reformation. +In 1596 he undertook the government of Styria, +Carinthia and Carniola, and after a visit to Italy began an +organized attack on Protestantism which under his father’s rule +had made great progress in these archduchies; and although +hampered by the inroads of the Turks, he showed his indifference +to the material welfare of his dominions by compelling many of +his Protestant subjects to choose between exile and conversion, +and by entirely suppressing Protestant worship. He was not, +however, unmindful of the larger interest of his family, or of the +Empire which the Habsburgs regarded as belonging to them by +hereditary right. In 1606 he joined his kinsmen in recognizing +his cousin Matthias as the head of the family in place of the +lethargic Rudolph II.; but he shrank from any proceedings +which might lead to the deposition of the emperor, whom he +represented at the diet of Regensburg in 1608; and his conduct +was somewhat ambiguous during the subsequent quarrel between +Rudolph and Matthias.</p> + +<p>In the first decade of the 17th century the house of Habsburg +seemed overtaken by senile decay, and the great inheritance of +Charles V. and Ferdinand I. to be threatened with disintegration +and collapse. The reigning emperor, Rudolph II., was inert and +childless; his surviving brothers, the archduke Matthias (afterwards +emperor), Maximilian (1558-1618) and Albert (1559-1621), +all men of mature age, were also without direct heirs; the racial +differences among its subjects were increased by their religious +animosities; and it appeared probable that the numerous +enemies of the Habsburgs had only to wait a few years and then to +divide the spoil. In spite of the recent murder of Henry IV. of +France, this issue seemed still more likely when Matthias succeeded +Rudolph as emperor in 1612. The Habsburgs, however, +were not indifferent to the danger, and about 1615 it was agreed +that Ferdinand, who already had two sons by his marriage with +his cousin Maria Anna (d. 1616), daughter of William V., duke of +Bavaria, should be the next emperor, and should succeed Matthias +in the elective kingdoms of Hungary and Bohemia. The obstacles +which impeded the progress of the scheme were gradually overcome +by the energy of the archduke Maximilian. The elder +archdukes renounced their rights in the succession; the claims of +Philip III. and the Spanish Habsburgs were bought off by a +promise of Alsace; and the emperor consented to his supercession +in Hungary and Bohemia. In 1617 Ferdinand, who was +just concluding a war with Venice, was chosen king of Bohemia, +and in 1618 king of Hungary; but his election as German king, +or king of the Romans, delayed owing to the anxiety of Melchior +Klesl (<i>q.v.</i>) to conciliate the protestant princes, had not been +accomplished when Matthias died in March 1619. Before this +event, however, an important movement had begun in Bohemia. +Having been surprised into choosing a devoted Roman Catholic as +their king, the Bohemian Protestants suddenly realized that their +religious, and possibly their civil liberties, were seriously menaced, +and deeds of aggression on the part of Ferdinand’s representatives +showed that this was no idle fear. Gaining the upper hand they +declared Ferdinand deposed, and elected the elector palatine of +the Rhine, Frederick V., in his stead; and the struggle between +the rivals was the beginning of the Thirty Years’ War. At the +same time other difficulties confronted Ferdinand, who had not +yet secured the imperial throne. Bethlen Gabor, prince of +Transylvania, invaded Hungary, while the Austrians rose and +joined the Bohemians; but having seen his foes retreat from +Vienna, Ferdinand hurried to Frankfort, where he was chosen +emperor on the 28th of August 1619.</p> + +<p>To deal with the elector palatine and his allies the new emperor +allied himself with Maximilian I., duke of Bavaria, and the +Catholic League, who drove Frederick from Bohemia in 1620, +while Ferdinand’s Spanish allies devastated the Palatinate. +Peace having been made with Bethlen Gabor in December 1621, +the first period of the war ended in a satisfactory fashion for the +emperor, and he could turn his attention to completing the work +of crushing the Protestants, which had already begun in his +archduchies and in Bohemia. In 1623 the Protestant clergy +were expelled from Bohemia; in 1624 all worship save that of +the Roman Catholic church was forbidden; and in 1627 an order +of banishment against all Protestants was issued. A new constitution +made the kingdom hereditary in the house of Habsburg, +gave larger powers to the sovereign, and aimed at destroying the +nationality of the Bohemians. Similar measures in Austria +led to a fresh rising which was put down by the aid of the +Bavarians in 1627, and Ferdinand could fairly claim that in +his hereditary lands at least he had rendered Protestantism +innocuous.</p> + +<p>The renewal of the Thirty Years’ War in 1625 was caused +mainly by the emperor’s vigorous championship of the cause +of the counter-reformation in northern and north-eastern +Germany. Again the imperial forces were victorious, chiefly +owing to the genius of Wallenstein, who raised and led an army +in this service, although the great scheme of securing the +southern coast of the Baltic for the Habsburgs was foiled partly +by the resistance of Stralsund. In March 1629 Ferdinand and +his advisers felt themselves strong enough to take the important +step towards which their policy in the Empire had been steadily +tending. Issuing the famous edict of restitution, the emperor +ordered that all lands which had been secularized since 1552, the +date of the peace of Passau, should be restored to the church, +and prompt measures were taken to enforce this decree. Many +and powerful interests were vitally affected by this proceeding, +and the result was the outbreak of the third period of the war, +which was less favourable to the imperial arms than the preceding +ones. This comparative failure was due, in the initial +stages of the campaign, to Ferdinand’s weakness in assenting +in 1630 to the demand of Maximilian of Bavaria that Wallenstein +should be deprived of his command, and also to the genius +of Gustavus Adolphus; and in its later stages to his insistence +on the second removal of Wallenstein, and to his complicity in +the assassination of the general. This deed was followed by the +peace of Prague, concluded in 1635, primarily with John +George I., elector of Saxony, but soon assented to by other +princes; and this treaty, which made extensive concessions to +the Protestants, marks the definite failure of Ferdinand to crush +Protestantism in the Empire, as he had already done in Austria +and Bohemia. It is noteworthy, however, that the emperor +refused to allow the inhabitants of his hereditary dominions to +share in the benefits of the peace. During these years Ferdinand +had also been menaced by the secret or open hostility of France. +A dispute over the duchies of Mantua and Monferrato was +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page263" id="page263"></a>263</span> +ended by the treaty of Cherasco in 1631, but the influence of +France was employed at the imperial diets and elsewhere in +thwarting the plans of Ferdinand and in weakening the power +of the Habsburgs. The last important act of the emperor was +to secure the election of his son Ferdinand as king of the Romans. +An attempt in 1630 to attain this end had failed, but in December +1636 the princes, meeting at Regensburg, bestowed the coveted +dignity upon the younger Ferdinand. A few weeks afterwards, +on the 15th of February 1637, the emperor died at Vienna, +leaving, in addition to the king of the Romans, a son Leopold +William (1614-1662), bishop of Passau and Strassburg. Ferdinand’s +reign was so occupied with the Thirty Years’ War and +the struggle with the Protestants that he had little time or +inclination for other business. It is interesting to note, however, +that this orthodox and Catholic emperor was constantly at +variance with Pope Urban VIII. The quarrel was due principally, +but not entirely, to events in Italy, where the pope sided +with France in the dispute over the succession to Mantua and +Monferrato. The succession question was settled, but the +enmity remained; Urban showing his hostility by preventing +the election of the younger Ferdinand as king of the Romans +in 1630, and by turning a deaf ear to the emperor’s repeated +requests for assistance to prosecute the war against the heretics. +Ferdinand’s character has neither individuality nor interest, +but he ruled the Empire during a critical and important period. +Kind and generous to his dependents, his private life was simple +and blameless, but he was to a great extent under the influence +of his confessors.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p><span class="sc">Bibliography.</span>—The chief authorities for Ferdinand’s life and +reign are F.C. Khevenhiller, <i>Annales Ferdinandei</i> (Regensburg, +1640-1646); F. van Hurter, <i>Geschichte Kaiser Ferdinands II</i>. +(Schaffhausen, 1850-1855); <i>Korrespondenz Kaiser Ferdinands II. +mit P. Becanus und P.W. Lamormaini</i>, edited by B. Dudik (Vienna, +1848 fol.); and F. Stieve, in the <i>Allegmeine deutsche Biographie</i>, +Band vi. (Leipzig, 1877). See also the elaborate bibliography in the +<i>Cambridge Modern History</i>, vol. iv. (Cambridge, 1906).</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">FERDINAND III.<a name="ar12" id="ar12"></a></span> (1608-1657), Roman emperor, was the +elder son of the emperor Ferdinand II., and was born at Gratz +on the 13th of July 1608. Educated by the Jesuits, he was +crowned king of Hungary in December 1625, and king of Bohemia +two years later, and soon began to take part in imperial business. +Wallenstein, however, refused to allow him to hold a command +in the imperial army; and henceforward reckoned among his +enemies, the young king was appointed the successor of the +famous general when he was deposed in 1634; and as commander-in-chief +of the imperial troops he was nominally responsible for +the capture of Regensburg and Donauwörth, and the defeat of +the Swedes at Nördlingen. Having been elected king of the +Romans, or German king, at Regensburg in December 1636, +Ferdinand became emperor on his father’s death in the following +February, and showed himself anxious to put an end to the +Thirty Years’ War. He persuaded one or two princes to assent +to the terms of the treaty of Prague; but a general peace was +delayed by his reluctance to grant religious liberty to the +Protestants, and by his anxiety to act in unison with Spain. +In 1640 he had refused to entertain the idea of a general amnesty +suggested by the diet at Regensburg; but negotiations for +peace were soon begun, and in 1648 the emperor assented to the +treaty of Westphalia. This event belongs rather to the general +history of Europe, but it is interesting to note that owing +to Ferdinand’s insistence the Protestants in his hereditary +dominions did not obtain religious liberty at this settlement. +After 1648 the emperor was engaged in carrying out the terms +of the treaty and ridding Germany of the foreign soldiery. In +1656 he sent an army into Italy to assist Spain in her struggle +with France, and he had just concluded an alliance with Poland +to check the aggressions of Charles X, of Sweden when he died +on the 2nd of April 1657. Ferdinand was a scholarly and cultured +man, an excellent linguist and a composer of music. +Industrious and popular in public life, his private life was +blameless; and although a strong Roman Catholic he was less +fanatical than his father. His first wife was Maria Anna (d. +1646), daughter of Philip III. of Spain, by whom he had three +sons: Ferdinand, who was chosen king of the Romans in 1653, +and who died in the following year; Leopold, who succeeded +his father on the imperial throne; and Charles Joseph (d. 1664), +bishop of Passau and Breslau, and grand-master of the Teutonic +order. The emperor’s second wife was his cousin Maria (d. 1649), +daughter of the archduke Leopold; and his third wife was +Eleanora of Mantua (d. 1686). His musical works, together with +those of the emperors Leopold I. and Joseph I., have been +published by G. Adler (Vienna, 1892-1893).</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See M. Koch, <i>Geschichte des deutschen Reiches unter der Regierung +Ferdinands III</i>. (Vienna, 1865-1866).</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">FERDINAND I.<a name="ar13" id="ar13"></a></span> (1793-1875), emperor of Austria, eldest son +of Francis I. and of Maria Theresa of Naples, was born at Vienna +on the 19th of April 1793. In his boyhood he suffered from +epileptic fits, and could therefore not receive a regular education. +As his health improved with his growth and with travel, he was +not set aside from the succession. In 1830 his father caused him +to be crowned king of Hungary, a pure formality, which gave +him no power, and was designed to avoid possible trouble in the +future. In 1831 he was married to Anna, daughter of Victor +Emmanuel I. of Sardinia. The marriage was barren. When +Francis I. died on the 2nd of March 1835, Ferdinand was recognized +as his successor. But his incapacity was so notorious that +the conduct of affairs was entrusted to a council of state, consisting +of Prince Metternich (<i>q.v.</i>) with other ministers, and two +archdukes, Louis and Francis Charles. They composed the +<i>Staatsconferenz</i>, the ill-constructed and informal regency which +led the Austrian dominions to the revolutionary outbreaks of +1846-1849. (See <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Austria-Hungary</a></span>.) The emperor, who was +subject to fits of actual insanity, and in his lucid intervals was +weak and confused in mind, was a political nullity. His personal +amiability earned him the affectionate pity of his subjects, and +he became the hero of popular stories which did not tend to maintain +the dignity of the crown. It was commonly said that having +taken refuge on a rainy day in a farmhouse he was so tempted +by the smell of the dumplings which the farmer and his family +were eating for dinner, that he insisted on having one. His +doctor, who knew them to be indigestible, objected, and thereupon +Ferdinand, in an imperial rage, made the answer:—“Kaiser +bin i’, und Knüdel müss i’ haben” (I am emperor, and +will have the dumpling)—which has become a Viennese proverb. +His popular name of <i>Der Gütige</i> (the good sort of man) expressed +as much derision as affection. Ferdinand had good taste for +art and music. Some modification of the tight-handed rule of +his father was made by the <i>Staatsconferenz</i> during his reign. In +the presence of the revolutionary troubles, which began with +agrarian riots in Galicia in 1846, and then spread over the whole +empire, he was personally helpless. He was compelled to escape +from the disorders of Vienna to Innsbruck on the 17th of May +1848. He came back on the invitation of the diet on the 12th +of August, but soon had to escape once more from the mob of +students and workmen who were in possession of the city. On +the 2nd of December he abdicated at Olmütz in favour of his +nephew, Francis Joseph. He lived under supervision by doctors +and guardians at Prague till his death on the 29th of June +1855.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See Krones von Marchland, <i>Grundriss der österreichischen +Geschichte</i> (Vienna, 1882), which gives an ample bibliography; +Count F. Hartig, <i>Genesis der Revolution in Österreich</i> (Leipzig, +1850),—an enlarged English translation will be found in the 4th +volume of W. Coxe’s <i>House of Austria</i> (London, 1862).</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">FERDINAND I.<a name="ar14" id="ar14"></a></span> (1423-1494), also called Don Ferrante, king +of Naples, the natural son of Alphonso V. of Aragon and I. of +Sicily and Naples, was horn in 1423. In accordance with his +father’s will, he succeeded him on the throne of Naples in 1458, +but Pope Calixtus III. declared the line of Aragon extinct and +the kingdom a fief of the church. But although he died before +he could make good his claim (August 1458), and the new Pope +Pius II. recognized Ferdinand, John of Anjou, profiting by the +discontent of the Neapolitan barons, decided to try to regain +the throne conquered by his ancestors, and invaded Naples. +Ferdinand was severely defeated by the Angevins and the rebels +at Sarno in July 1460, but with the help of Alessandro Sforza +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page264" id="page264"></a>264</span> +and of the Albanian chief, Skanderbeg, who chivalrously came +to the aid of the prince whose father had aided him, he triumphed +over his enemies, and by 1464 had re-established his authority +in the kingdom. In 1478 he allied himself with Pope Sixtus IV. +against Lorenzo de’ Medici, but the latter journeyed alone to +Naples when he succeeded in negotiating an honourable peace +with Ferdinand. In 1480 the Turks captured Otranto, and +massacred the majority of the inhabitants, but in the following +year it was retaken by his son Alphonso, duke of Calabria. His +oppressive government led in 1485 to an attempt at revolt on +the part of the nobles, led by Francesca Coppola and Antonello +Sanseverino and supported by Pope Innocent VIII.; the rising +having been crushed, many of the nobles, notwithstanding +Ferdinand’s promise of a general amnesty, were afterwards +treacherously murdered at his express command. In 1493 +Charles VIII. of France was preparing to invade Italy for the +conquest of Naples, and Ferdinand realized that this was a greater +danger than any he had yet faced. With almost prophetic +instinct he warned the Italian princes of the calamities in store +for them, but his negotiations with Pope Alexander VI. and +Ludovico il Moro, lord of Milan, having failed, he died in +January 1494, worn out with anxiety. Ferdinand was gifted +with great courage and real political ability, but his method of +government was vicious and disastrous. His financial administration +was based on oppressive and dishonest monopolies, and +he was mercilessly severe and utterly treacherous towards his +enemies.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p><span class="sc">Authorities.</span>—<i>Codice Aragonese</i>, edited by F. Trinchera (Naples, +1866-1874); P. Giannone, <i>Istoria Civile del Regno di Napoli</i>; J. +Alvini, <i>De gestis regum Neapol. ab Aragonia</i> (Naples, 1588); S. de +Sismondi, <i>Histoire des républiques italiennes</i>, vols. v. and vi. (Brussels, +1838); P. Villari, <i>Machiavelli</i>, pp. 60-64 (Engl. transl., London, 1892); +for the revolt of the nobles in 1485 see Camillo Porzio, <i>La Congiura +dei Baroni</i> (first published Rome, 1565; many subsequent editions), +written in the Royalist interest.</p> +</div> +<div class="author">(L. V.*)</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">FERDINAND II.<a name="ar15" id="ar15"></a></span> (1469-1496), king of Naples, was the grandson +of the preceding, and son of Alphonso II. Alphonso finding +his tenure of the throne uncertain on account of the approaching +invasion of Charles VIII. of France and the general dissatisfaction +of his subjects, abdicated in his son’s favour in 1495, but +notwithstanding this the treason of a party in Naples rendered +it impossible to defend the city against the approach of +Charles VIII. Ferdinand fled to Ischia; but when the French +king left Naples with most of his army, in consequence of the +formation of an Italian league against him, he returned, defeated +the French garrisons, and the Neapolitans, irritated by the +conduct of their conquerors during the occupation of the city, +received him back with enthusiasm; with the aid of the great +Spanish general Gonzalo de Cordova he was able completely to +rid his state of its invaders shortly before his death, which +occurred on the 7th of September 1496.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>For authorities see under <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Ferdinand I.</a></span> of Naples; for the +exploits of Gonzalo de Cordova see H.P. del Pulgar, <i>Crónica del +gran capitano don Gonzalo de Cordoba</i> (new ed., Madrid, 1834).</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">FERDINAND IV.<a name="ar16" id="ar16"></a></span> (1751-1825), king of Naples (III. of Sicily, +and I. of the Two Sicilies), third son of Don Carlos of Bourbon, +king of Naples and Sicily (afterwards Charles III. of Spain), +was born in Naples on the 12th of January 1751. When his +father ascended the Spanish throne in 1759 Ferdinand, in accordance +with the treaties forbidding the union of the two crowns, +succeeded him as king of Naples, under a regency presided over +by the Tuscan Bernardo Tanucci. The latter, an able, ambitious +man, wishing to keep the government as much as possible in his +own hands, purposely neglected the young king’s education, +and encouraged him in his love of pleasure, his idleness and his +excessive devotion to outdoor sports. Ferdinand grew up +athletic, but ignorant, ill-bred, addicted to the lowest amusements; +he delighted in the company of the <i>lazzaroni</i> (the most +degraded class of the Neapolitan people), whose dialect and +habits he affected, and he even sold fish in the market, haggling +over the price.</p> + +<p>His minority ended in 1767, and his first act was the expulsion +of the Jesuits. The following year he married Maria Carolina, +daughter of the empress Maria Theresa. By the marriage contract +the queen was to have a voice in the council of state after +the birth of her first son, and she was not slow to avail herself +of this means of political influence. Beautiful, clever and +proud, like her mother, but cruel and treacherous, her ambition +was to raise the kingdom of Naples to the position of a great +power; she soon came to exercise complete sway over her stupid +and idle husband, and was the real ruler of the kingdom. Tanucci, +who attempted to thwart her, was dismissed in 1777, and the +Englishman Sir John Acton (1736), who in 1779 was appointed +director of marine, succeeded in so completely winning the +favour of Maria Carolina, by supporting her in her scheme to +free Naples from Spanish influence and securing a <i>rapprochement</i> +with Austria and England, that he became practically and afterwards +actually prime minister. Although not a mere grasping +adventurer, he was largely responsible for reducing the internal +administration of the country to an abominable system of +espionage, corruption and cruelty. On the outbreak of the +French Revolution the Neapolitan court was not hostile to the +movement, and the queen even sympathized with the revolutionary +ideas of the day. But when the French monarchy was +abolished and the royal pair beheaded, Ferdinand and Carolina +were seized with a feeling of fear and horror and joined the first +coalition against France in 1793. Although peace was made +with France in 1796, the demands of the French Directory, +whose troops occupied Rome, alarmed the king once more, and +at his wife’s instigation he took advantage of Napoleon’s absence +in Egypt and of Nelson’s victories to go to war. He marched +with his army against the French and entered Rome (29th of +November), but on the defeat of some of his columns he hurried +back to Naples, and on the approach of the French, fled on board +Nelson’s ship the “Vanguard” to Sicily, leaving his capital in +a state of anarchy. The French entered the city in spite of the +fierce resistance of the <i>lazzaroni</i>, who were devoted to the king, +and with the aid of the nobles and bourgeois established the +Parthenopaean Republic (January 1799). When a few weeks +later the French troops were recalled to the north of Italy, +Ferdinand sent an expedition composed of Calabrians, brigands +and gaol-birds, under Cardinal Ruffo, a man of real ability, +great devotion to the king, and by no means so bad as he has +been painted, to reconquer the mainland kingdom. Ruffo was +completely successful, and reached Naples in May. His army +and the <i>lazzaroni</i> committed nameless atrocities, which he +honestly tried to prevent, and the Parthenopaean Republic +collapsed.</p> + +<p>The savage punishment of the Neapolitan Republicans is +dealt with in more detail under <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Naples</a></span>, <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Nelson</a></span> and <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Caracciolo</a></span>, +but it is necessary to say here that the king, and above all the +queen, were particularly anxious that no mercy should be shown +to the rebels, and Maria Carolina made use of Lady Hamilton, +Nelson’s mistress, to induce him to execute her own spiteful +vengeance. Her only excuse is that as a sister of Marie Antoinette +the very name of Republican or Jacobin filled her with +loathing. The king returned to Naples soon afterwards, and +ordered wholesale arrests and executions of supposed Liberals, +which continued until the French successes forced him to agree +to a treaty in which amnesty for members of the French party +was included. When war broke out between France and Austria +in 1805, Ferdinand signed a treaty of neutrality with the former, +but a few days later he allied himself with Austria and allowed +an Anglo-Russian force to land at Naples. The French victory +at Austerlitz enabled Napoleon to despatch an army to southern +Italy. Ferdinand with his usual precipitation fled to Palermo +(23rd of January 1806), followed soon after by his wife and son, +and on the 14th of February the French again entered Naples. +Napoleon declared that the Bourbon dynasty had forfeited the +crown, and proclaimed his brother Joseph king of Naples and +Sicily. But Ferdinand continued to reign over the latter kingdom +under British protection. Parliamentary institutions of a +feudal type had long existed in the island, and Lord William +Bentinck (<i>q.v.</i>), the British minister, insisted on a reform of the +constitution on English and French lines. The king indeed +practically abdicated his power, appointing his son Francis +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page265" id="page265"></a>265</span> +regent, and the queen, at Bentinck’s instance, was exiled to +Austria, where she died in 1814.</p> + +<p>After the fall of Napoleon, Joachim Murat, who had succeeded +Joseph Bonaparte as king of Naples in 1808, was dethroned, and +Ferdinand returned to Naples. By a secret treaty he had bound +himself not to advance further in a constitutional direction than +Austria should at any time approve; but, though on the whole +he acted in accordance with Metternich’s policy of preserving +the <i>status quo</i>, and maintained with but slight change Murat’s +laws and administrative system, he took advantage of the +situation to abolish the Sicilian constitution, in violation of his +oath, and to proclaim the union of the two states into the kingdom +of the Two Sicilies (December 12th, 1816). He was now +completely subservient to Austria, an Austrian, Count Nugent, +being even made commander-in-chief of the army; and for four +years he reigned as a despot, every tentative effort at the expression +of liberal opinion being ruthlessly suppressed. The +result was an alarming spread of the influence and activity of +the secret society of the Carbonari (<i>q.v.</i>), which in time affected +a large part of the army. In July 1820 a military revolt broke +out under General Pepe, and Ferdinand was terrorized into +subscribing a constitution on the model of the impracticable +Spanish constitution of 1812. On the other hand, a revolt in +Sicily, in favour of the recovery of its independence, was suppressed +by Neapolitan troops.</p> + +<p>The success of the military revolution at Naples seriously +alarmed the powers of the Holy Alliance, who feared that it +might spread to other Italian states and so lead to that general +European conflagration which it was their main preoccupation +to avoid (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Europe</a></span>: <i>History</i>). After long diplomatic negotiations, +it was decided to hold a congress <i>ad hoc</i> at Troppau +(October 1820). The main results of this congress were the issue +of the famous Troppau Protocol, signed by Austria, Prussia +and Russia only, and an invitation to King Ferdinand to attend +the adjourned congress at Laibach (1821), an invitation of +which Great Britain approved “as implying negotiation” (see +<span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Troppau</a></span>, <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Laibach</a></span>, <i>Congresses of</i>). At Laibach Ferdinand +played so sorry a part as to provoke the contempt of those whose +policy it was to re-establish him in absolute power. He had +twice sworn, with gratuitous solemnity, to maintain the new +constitution; but he was hardly out of Naples before he repudiated +his oaths and, in letters addressed to all the sovereigns +of Europe, declared his acts to have been null and void. An +attitude so indecent threatened to defeat the very objects of the +reactionary powers, and Gentz congratulated the congress that +these sorry protests would be buried in the archives, offering +at the same time to write for the king a dignified letter in which +he should express his reluctance at having to violate his oaths +in the face of irresistible force! But, under these circumstances, +Metternich had no difficulty in persuading the king to allow an +Austrian army to march into Naples “to restore order.”</p> + +<p>The campaign that followed did little credit either to the +Austrians or the Neapolitans. The latter, commanded by +General Pepe (<i>q.v.</i>), who made no attempt to defend the difficult +defiles of the Abruzzi, were defeated, after a half-hearted struggle +at Rieti (March 7th, 1821), and the Austrians entered Naples. +The parliament was now dismissed, and Ferdinand inaugurated +an era of savage persecution, supported by spies and informers, +against the Liberals and Carbonari, the Austrian commandant +in vain protesting against the savagery which his presence alone +rendered possible.</p> + +<p>Ferdinand died on the 4th of January 1825. Few sovereigns +have left behind so odious a memory. His whole career is one +long record of perjury, vengeance and meanness, unredeemed by +a single generous act, and his wife was a worthy helpmeet and +actively co-operated in his tyranny.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p><span class="sc">Bibliography.</span>—The standard authority on Ferdinand’s reign is +Pietro Colletta’s <i>Storia del Reame di Napoli</i> (2nd ed., Florence, 1848), +which, although heavily written and not free from party passion, +is reliable and accurate; L. Conforti, <i>Napoli nel 1799</i> (Naples, 1886); +G. Pepe, <i>Memorie</i> (Paris, 1847), a most valuable book; C. Auriol, +<i>La France, l’Angleterre, et Naples</i> (Paris, 1906); for the Sicilian +period and the British occupation, G. Bianco, <i>La Sicilia durante +l’occupazione Inglese</i> (Palermo, 1902), which contains many new +documents of importance; Freiherr A. von Helfert has attempted +the impossible task of whitewashing Queen Carolina in his <i>Königin +Karolina von Neapel und Sicilien</i> (Vienna, 1878), and <i>Maria Karolina +von Oesterreich</i> (Vienna, 1884); he has also written a useful life of +<i>Fabrizio Ruffo</i> (Italian edit., Florence, 1885); for the Sicilian +revolution of 1820 see G. Bianco’s <i>La Rivoluzione in Sicilia del 1820</i> +(Florence, 1905), and M. Amari’s <i>Carteggio</i> (Turin, 1896).</p> +</div> +<div class="author">(L. V.*)</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">FERDINAND I.,<a name="ar17" id="ar17"></a></span> king of Portugal (1345-1383), sometimes +referred to as <i>el Gentil</i> (the Gentleman), son of Pedro I. of +Portugal (who is not to be confounded with his Spanish contemporary +Pedro the Cruel), succeeded his father in 1367. On +the death of Pedro of Castile in 1369, Ferdinand, as great-grandson +of Sancho IV. by the female line, laid claim to the +vacant throne, for which the kings of Aragon and Navarre, and +afterwards the duke of Lancaster (married in 1370 to Constance, +the eldest daughter of Pedro), also became competitors. Meanwhile +Henry of Trastamara, the brother (illegitimate) and conqueror +of Pedro, had assumed the crown and taken the field. +After one or two indecisive campaigns, all parties were ready to +accept the mediation of Pope Gregory XI. The conditions of the +treaty, ratified in 1371, included a marriage between Ferdinand +and Leonora of Castile. But before the union could take place +the former had become passionately attached to Leonora Tellez, +the wife of one of his own courtiers, and having procured a +dissolution of her previous marriage, he lost no time in making +her his queen. This strange conduct, although it raised a serious +insurrection in Portugal, did not at once result in a war with +Henry; but the outward concord was soon disturbed by the +intrigues of the duke of Lancaster, who prevailed on Ferdinand +to enter into a secret treaty for the expulsion of Henry from his +throne. The war which followed was unsuccessful; and peace +was again made in 1373. On the death of Henry in 1379, the +duke of Lancaster once more put forward his claims, and again +found an ally in Portugal; but, according to the Continental +annalists, the English proved as offensive to their companions +in arms as to their enemies in the field; and Ferdinand made +a peace for himself at Badajoz in 1382, it being stipulated that +Beatrix, the heiress of Ferdinand, should marry King John +of Castile, and thus secure the ultimate union of the crowns. +Ferdinand left no male issue when he died on the 22nd of October +1383, and the direct Burgundian line, which had been in possession +of the throne since the days of Count Henry (about 1112), became +extinct. The stipulations of the treaty of Badajoz were set +aside, and John, grand-master of the order of Aviz, Ferdinand’s +illegitimate brother, was proclaimed. This led to a war which +lasted for several years.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">FERDINAND I.,<a name="ar18" id="ar18"></a></span> <i>El Magno</i> or “the Great,” king of Castile +(<i>d.</i> 1065), son of Sancho of Navarre, was put in possession of +Castile in 1028, on the murder of the last count, as the heir of his +mother Elvira, daughter of a previous count of Castile. He +reigned with the title of king. He married Sancha, sister and +heiress of Bermudo, king of Leon. In 1038 Bermudo was killed +in battle with Ferdinand at Tamaron, and Ferdinand then took +possession of Leon by right of his wife, and was recognized in +Spain as emperor. The use of the title was resented by the +emperor Henry IV. and by Pope Victor II. in 1055, as implying +a claim to the headship of Christendom, and as a usurpation +on the Holy Roman Empire. It did not, however, mean more +than that Spain was independent of the Empire, and that the +sovereign of Leon was the chief of the princes of the peninsula. +Although Ferdinand had grown in power by a fratricidal strife +with Bermudo of Leon, and though at a later date he defeated +and killed his brother Garcia of Navarre, he ranks high among +the kings of Spain who have been counted religious. To a large +extent he may have owed his reputation to the victories over +the Mahommedans, with which he began the period of the great +reconquest. But there can be no doubt that Ferdinand was +profoundly pious. Towards the close of his reign he sent a special +embassy to Seville to bring back the body of Santa Justa. The +then king of Seville, Motadhid, one of the small princes who +had divided the caliphate of Cordova, was himself a sceptic and +poisoner, but he stood in wholesome awe of the power of the +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page266" id="page266"></a>266</span> +Christian king. He favoured the embassy in every way, and +when the body of Santa Justa could not be found, helped the +envoys who were also aided by a vision seen by one of them in +a dream, to discover the body of Saint Isidore, which was +reverently carried away to Leon. Ferdinand died on the feast +of Saint John the Evangelist, the 24th of June 1065, in Leon, +with many manifestations of ardent piety—having laid aside +his crown and royal mantle, dressed in the frock of a monk and +lying on a bier, covered with ashes, which was placed before the +altar of the church of Saint Isidore.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">FERDINAND II.,<a name="ar19" id="ar19"></a></span> king of Leon only (<i>d.</i> 1188), was the son +of Alphonso VII. and of Berenguela, of the house of the counts +of Barcelona. On the division of the kingdoms which had +obeyed his father, he received Leon. His reign of thirty years +was one of strife marked by no signal success or reverse. He +had to contend with his unruly nobles, several of whom he put +to death. During the minority of his nephew Alphonso VIII. of +Castile he endeavoured to impose himself on the kingdom as +regent. On the west he was in more or less constant strife with +Portugal, which was in process of becoming an independent +kingdom. His relations to the Portuguese house must have +suffered by his repudiation of his wife Urraca, daughter of +Alphonso I. of Portugal. Though he took the king of Portugal +prisoner in 1180, he made no political use of his success. He +extended his dominions southward in Estremadura at the expense +of the Moors. Ferdinand, who died in 1188, left the +reputation of a good knight and hard fighter, but did not display +political or organizing faculty.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">FERDINAND III.,<a name="ar20" id="ar20"></a></span> <i>El Santo</i> or “the Saint,” king of Castile +(1199-1252), son of Alphonso IX. of Leon, and of Berengaria, +daughter of Alphonso VIII. of Castile, ranks among the greatest +of the Spanish kings. The marriage of his parents, who were +second cousins, was dissolved as unlawful by the pope, but the +legitimacy of the children was recognized. Till 1217 he lived +with his father in Leon. In that year the young king of Castile, +Henry, was killed by accident. Berengaria sent for her son +with such speed that her messenger reached Leon before the news +of the death of the king of Castile, and when he came to her she +renounced the crown in his favour. Alphonso of Leon considered +himself tricked, and the young king had to begin his reign by a +war against his father and a faction of the Castilian nobles. +His own ability and the remarkable capacity of his mother +proved too much for the king of Leon and his Castilian allies. +Ferdinand, who showed himself docile to the influence of Berengaria, +so long as she lived, married the wife she found for him, +Beatrice, daughter of the emperor Philip (of Hohenstaufen), and +followed her advice both in prosecuting the war against the Moors +and in the steps which she took to secure his peaceful succession +to Leon on the death of his father in 1231. After the union of +Castile and Leon in that year he began the series of campaigns +which ended by reducing the Mahommedan dominions in Spain +to Granada. Cordova fell in 1236, and Seville in 1248. The +king of Granada did homage to Ferdinand, and undertook to +attend the cortes when summoned. The king was a severe +persecutor of the Albigenses, and his formal canonization was +due as much to his orthodoxy as to his crusading by Pope +Clement X. in 1671. He revived the university first founded +by his grandfather Alphonso VIII., and placed it at Salamanca. +By his second marriage with Joan (d. 1279), daughter of Simon, +of Dammartin, count of Ponthieu, by right of his wife Marie, +Ferdinand was the father of Eleanor, the wife of Edward I. of +England.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">FERDINAND IV.,<a name="ar21" id="ar21"></a></span> <i>El Emplazado</i> or “the Summoned,” king +of Castile (<i>d</i>. 1312), son of Sancho El Bravo, and his wife +Maria de Molina, is a figure of small note in Spanish history. +His strange title is given him in the chronicles on the strength +of a story that he put two brothers of the name of Carvajal to +death tyrannically, and was given a time, a <i>plazo</i>, by them in +which to answer for his crime in the next world. But the tale +is not contemporary, and is an obvious copy of the story told +of Jacques de Molay, grand-master of the Temple, and Philippe +Le Bel. Ferdinand IV. succeeded to the throne when a boy of +six. His minority was a time of anarchy. He owed his escape +from the violence of competitors and nobles, partly to the tact +and undaunted bravery of his mother Maria de Molina, and +partly to the loyalty of the citizens of Avila, who gave him +refuge within their walls. As a king he proved ungrateful to his +mother, and weak as a ruler. He died suddenly in his tent at +Jaen when preparing for a raid into the Moorish territory of +Granada, on the 7th of September 1312.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">FERDINAND I.,<a name="ar22" id="ar22"></a></span> king of Aragon (1373-1416), called “of +Antequera,” was the son of John I. of Castile by his wife Eleanor, +daughter of the third marriage of Peter IV. of Aragon. His +surname “of Antequera” was given him because he was besieging +that town, then in the hands of the Moors, when he was told +that the cortes of Aragon had elected him king in succession to his +uncle Martin, the last male of the old line of Wilfred the Hairy. +As infante of Castile Ferdinand had played an honourable part. +When his brother Henry III. died at Toledo, in 1406, the cortes +was sitting, and the nobles offered to make him king in preference +to his nephew John. Ferdinand refused to despoil his brother’s +infant son, and even if he did not act on the moral ground he +alleged, his sagacity must have shown him that he would be at +the mercy of the men who had chosen him in such circumstances. +As co-regent of the kingdom with Catherine, widow of Henry III. +and daughter of John of Gaunt by his marriage with Constance, +daughter of Peter the Cruel and Maria de Padilla, Ferdinand +proved a good ruler. He restrained the follies of his sister-in-law, +and kept the realm quiet, by firm government, and by prosecuting +the war with the Moors. As king of Aragon his short reign of +two years left him little time to make his mark. Having been +bred in Castile, where the royal authority was, at least in theory, +absolute, he showed himself impatient under the checks imposed +on him by the <i>fueros</i>, the chartered rights of Aragon and Catalonia. +He particularly resented the obstinacy of the Barcelonese, +who compelled the members of his household to pay municipal +taxes. His most signal act as king was to aid in closing the +Great Schism in the Church by agreeing to the deposition of the +antipope Benedict XIV., an Aragonese. He died at Ygualada +in Catalonia on the 2nd of April 1416.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">FERDINAND V.<a name="ar23" id="ar23"></a></span> of Castile and Leon, and II. of Aragon +(1452-1516), was the son of John I. of Aragon by his second +marriage with Joanna Henriquez, of the family of the hereditary +grand admirals of Castile, and was born at Sos in Aragon on the +16th of March 1452. Under the name of “the Catholic” and +as the husband of Isabella, queen of Castile, he played a great +part in Europe. His share in establishing the royal authority +in all parts of Spain, in expelling the Moors from Granada, in the +conquest of Navarre, in forwarding the voyages of Columbus, +and in contending with France for the supremacy in Italy, is +dealt with elsewhere (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Spain</a></span>: <i>History</i>). In personal character +he had none of the attractive qualities of his wife. It may +fairly be said of him that he was purely a politician. His marriage +in 1469 to his cousin Isabella of Castile was dictated by the +desire to unite his own claims to the crown, as the head of the +younger branch of the same family, with hers, in case Henry IV. +should die childless. When the king died in 1474 he made an +ungenerous attempt to procure his own proclamation as king +without recognition of the rights of his wife. Isabella asserted +her claims firmly, and at all times insisted on a voice in the +government of Castile. But though Ferdinand had sought a +selfish political advantage at his wife’s expense, he was well aware +of her ability and high character. Their married life was dignified +and harmonious; for Ferdinand had no common vices, and +their views in government were identical. The king cared for +nothing but dominion and political power. His character +explains the most ungracious acts of his life, such as his breach +of his promises to Columbus, his distrust of Ximenez and of the +Great Captain. He had given wide privileges to Columbus on +the supposition that the discoverer would reach powerful kingdoms. +When islands inhabited by feeble savages were discovered, +Ferdinand appreciated the risk that they might become +the seat of a power too strong to be controlled, and took +measures to avert the danger. He feared that <span class="correction" title="amended from Ximinez">Jiménez</span> and the +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page267" id="page267"></a>267</span> +Great Captain would become too independent, and watched +them in the interest of the royal authority. Whether he ever +boasted, as he is said to have boasted, that he had deceived +Louis XII. of France twelve times, is very doubtful; but it is +certain that when Ferdinand made a treaty, or came to an +understanding with any one, the contract was generally found +to contain implied meanings favourable to himself which the +other contracting party had not expected. The worst of his +character was prominently shown after the death of Isabella +in 1504. He endeavoured to lay hands on the regency of Castile +in the name of his insane daughter Joanna, and without regard +to the claims of her husband Philip of Habsburg. The hostility +of the Castilian nobles, by whom he was disliked, baffled him +for a time, but on Philip’s early death he reasserted his authority. +His second marriage with Germaine of Foix in 1505 was apparently +contracted in the hope that by securing an heir male he +might punish his Habsburg son-in-law. Aragon did not recognize +the right of women to reign, and would have been detached +together with Catalonia, Valencia and the Italian states if he +had had a son. This was the only occasion on which Ferdinand +allowed passion to obscure his political sense, and lead him into +acts which tended to undo his work of national unification. As +king of Aragon he abstained from inroads on the liberties of his +subjects which might have provoked rebellion. A few acts of +illegal violence are recorded of him—as when he invited a notorious +demagogue of Saragossa to visit him in the palace, and caused +the man to be executed without form of trial. Once when presiding +over the Aragonese cortes he found himself sitting in a +thorough draught and ordered the window to be shut, adding +in a lower voice, “If it is not against the <i>fueros</i>.” But his ill-will +did not go beyond such sneers. He was too intent on building +up a great state to complicate his difficulties by internal troubles. +His arrangement of the convention of Guadalupe, which ended +the fierce Agrarian conflicts of Catalonia, was wise and profitable +to the country, though it was probably dictated mainly by a wish +to weaken the landowners by taking away their feudal rights. +Ferdinand died at Madrigalejo in Estremadura on the 23rd of +February 1516.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>The lives of the kings of this name before Ferdinand V. are contained +in the chronicles, and in the <i>Anales de Aragon</i> of Zurita, and +the History of Spain by Mariana. Both deal at length with the +life of Ferdinand V. Prescott’s <i>History of the Reign of Ferdinand +and Isabella</i>, in any of its numerous editions, gives a full life of him +with copious references to authorities.</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">FERDINAND VI.,<a name="ar24" id="ar24"></a></span> king of Spain (1713-1759), second son of +Philip V., founder of the Bourbon dynasty, by his first marriage +with Maria Louisa of Savoy, was born at Madrid on the 23rd +of September 1713. His youth was depressed. His father’s +second wife, Elizabeth Farnese, was a managing woman, who +had no affection except for her own children, and who looked +upon her stepson as an obstacle to their fortunes. The hypochondria +of his father left Elizabeth mistress of the palace. +Ferdinand was married in 1729 to Maria Magdalena Barbara, +daughter of John V. of Portugal. The very homely looks of his +wife were thought by observers to cause the prince a visible +shock when he was first presented to her. Yet he became deeply +attached to his wife, and proved in fact nearly as uxorious as his +father. Ferdinand was by temperament melancholy, shy and +distrustful of his own abilities. When complimented on his +shooting, he replied, “It would be hard if there were not something +I could do.” As king he followed a steady policy of neutrality +between France and England, and refused to be tempted +by the offers of either into declaring war on the other. In his +life he was orderly and retiring, averse from taking decisions, +though not incapable of acting firmly, as when he cut short the +dangerous intrigues of his able minister Ensenada by dismissing +and imprisoning him. Shooting and music were his only +pleasures, and he was the generous patron of the famous singer +Farinelli (<i>q.v.</i>), whose voice soothed his melancholy. The death +of his wife Barbara, who had been devoted to him, and who carefully +abstained from political intrigue, broke his heart. Between +the date of her death in 1758 and his own on the 10th of August +1759 he fell into a state of prostration in which he would not +even dress, but wandered unshaven, unwashed and in a night-gown +about his park. The memoirs of the count of Fernan +Nuñez give a shocking picture of his death-bed.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>A good account of the reign and character of Ferdinand VI. will +be found in vol. iv. of Coxe’s <i>Memoirs of the Kings of Spain of the +House of Bourbon</i> (London, 1815). See also <i>Vida de Carlos III.</i>, by +the count of Fernan Nuñez, ed. M. Morel Fatio and Don A. Paz y +Melia (1898).</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">FERDINAND VII.,<a name="ar25" id="ar25"></a></span> king of Spain (1784-1833), the eldest son +of Charles IV., king of Spain, and of his wife Maria Louisa of +Parma, was born at the palace of San Ildefonso near Balsain in +the Somosierra hills, on the 14th of October 1784. The events +with which he was connected were many, tragic and of the widest +European interest. In his youth he occupied the painful position +of an heir apparent who was carefully excluded from all share in +government by the jealousy of his parents, and the prevalence +of a royal favourite. National discontent with a feeble government +produced a revolution in 1808 by which he passed to the +throne by the forced abdication of his father. Then he spent +years as the prisoner of Napoleon, and returned in 1814 to find +that while Spain was fighting for independence in his name a new +world had been born of foreign invasion and domestic revolution. +He came back to assert the ancient doctrine that the sovereign +authority resided in his person only. Acting on this principle he +ruled frivolously, and with a wanton indulgence of whims. In +1820 his misrule provoked a revolt, and he remained in the hands +of insurgents till he was released by foreign intervention in 1823. +When free, he revenged himself with a ferocity which disgusted +his allies. In his last years he prepared a change in the order of +succession established by his dynasty in Spain, which angered +a large part of the nation, and made a civil war inevitable. +We have to distinguish the part of Ferdinand VII. in all these +transactions, in which other and better men were concerned. +It can confidently be said to have been uniformly base. He had +perhaps no right to complain that he was kept aloof from all +share in government while only heir apparent, for this was the +traditional practice of his family. But as heir to the throne +he had a right to resent the degradation of the crown he was to +inherit, and the power of a favourite who was his mother’s lover. +If he had put himself at the head of a popular rising he would +have been followed, and would have had a good excuse. His +course was to enter on dim intrigues at the instigation of his first +wife, Maria Antonietta of Naples. After her death in 1806 he +was drawn into other intrigues by flatterers, and, in October +1807, was arrested for the conspiracy of the Escorial. The +conspiracy aimed at securing the help of the emperor Napoleon. +When detected, Ferdinand betrayed his associates, and grovelled +to his parents. When his father’s abdication was extorted by a +popular riot at Aranjuez in March 1808, he ascended the throne—not +to lead his people manfully, but to throw himself into the +hands of Napoleon, in the fatuous hope that the emperor would +support him. He was in his turn forced to make an abdication +and imprisoned in France, while Spain, with the help of England, +fought for its life. At Valançay, where he was sent as a prisoner +of state, he sank contentedly into vulgar vice, and did not scruple +to applaud the French victories over the people who were suffering +unutterable misery in his cause. When restored in March +1814, on the fall of Napoleon, he had just cause to repudiate the +impracticable constitution made by the cortes without his +consent. He did so, and then governed like an evil-disposed +boy—indulging the merest animal passions, listening to a small +<i>camarilla</i> of low-born favourites, changing his ministers every +three months, and acting on the impulse of whims which were +sometimes mere buffoonery, but were at times lubricous, or +ferocious. The autocratic powers of the Grand Alliance, though +forced to support him as the representative of legitimacy in Spain, +watched his proceedings with disgust and alarm. “The king,” +wrote Gentz to the hospodar Caradja on the 1st of December +1814, “himself enters the houses of his first ministers, arrests +them, and hands them over to their cruel enemies”; and again, +on the 14th of January 1815, “The king has so debased himself +that he has become no more than the leading police agent and +gaoler of his country.” When at last the inevitable revolt came +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page268" id="page268"></a>268</span> +in 1820 he grovelled to the insurgents as he had done to his parents, +descending to the meanest submissions while fear was on him, +then intriguing and, when detected, grovelling again. When at +the beginning of 1823, as a result of the congress of Verona, the +French invaded Spain,<a name="fa1a" id="fa1a" href="#ft1a"><span class="sp">1</span></a> “invoking the God of St Louis, for the +sake of preserving the throne of Spain to a descendant of Henry +IV., and of reconciling that fine kingdom with Europe,” and in +May the revolutionary party carried Ferdinand to Cadiz, he +continued to make promises of amendment till he was free. +Then, in violation of his oath to grant an amnesty, he revenged +himself for three years of coercion by killing on a scale which +revolted his “rescuers,” and against which the duke of +Angoulême, powerless to interfere, protested by refusing the +Spanish decorations offered him for his services. During his +last years Ferdinand’s energy was abated. He no longer changed +ministers every few months as a sport, and he allowed some of +them to conduct the current business of government. His habits +of life were telling on him. He became torpid, bloated and +horrible to look at. After his fourth marriage in 1829 with Maria +Christina of Naples, he was persuaded by his wife to set aside +the law of succession of Philip V., which gave a preference to all +the males of the family in Spain over the females. His marriage +had brought him only two daughters. When well, he consented +to the change under the influence of his wife. When ill, he was +terrified by priestly advisers, who were partisans of his brother +Don Carlos. What his final decision was is perhaps doubtful. +His wife was mistress by his death-bed, and she could put the +words she chose into the mouth of a dead man—and could move +the dead hand at her will. Ferdinand died on the 29th of September +1833. It had been a frequent saying with the more zealous +royalists of Spain that a king must be wiser than his ministers, +for he was placed on the throne and directed by God. Since +the reign of Ferdinand VII. no one has maintained this unqualified +version of the great doctrine of divine right.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>King Ferdinand VII. kept a diary during the troubled years +1820-1823, which has been published by the count de Casa Valencia.</p> +</div> + +<hr class="foot" /> <div class="note"> + +<p><a name="ft1a" id="ft1a" href="#fa1a"><span class="fn">1</span></a> Louis XVIII.’s speech from the throne, Jan. 28, 1823.</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">FERDINAND II.<a name="ar26" id="ar26"></a></span> (1810-1859), king of the Two Sicilies, son of +Francis I, was born at Palermo on the 12th of January 1810. +In his early years he was credited with Liberal ideas and he was +fairly popular, his free and easy manners having endeared him +to the <i>lazzaroni</i>. On succeeding his father in 1830, he published +an edict in which he promised to “give his most anxious attention +to the impartial administration of justice,” to reform the +finances, and to “use every effort to heal the wounds which had +afflicted the kingdom for so many years”; but these promises +seem to have been meant only to lull discontent to sleep, for +although he did something for the economic development of +the kingdom, the existing burden of taxation was only slightly +lightened, corruption continued to flourish in all departments +of the administration, and an absolutism was finally established +harsher than that of all his predecessors, and supported by even +more extensive and arbitrary arrests. Ferdinand was naturally +shrewd, but badly educated, grossly superstitious and possessed +of inordinate self-esteem. Though he kept the machinery of +his kingdom fairly efficient, and was a patriot to the extent of +brooking no foreign interference, he made little account of the +wishes or welfare of his subjects. In 1832 he married Cristina, +daughter of Victor Emmanuel I., king of Sardinia, and shortly +after her death in 1836 he took for a second wife Maria Theresa, +daughter of archduke Charles of Austria. After his Austrian +alliance the bonds of despotism were more closely tightened, and +the increasing discontent of his subjects was manifested by +various abortive attempts at insurrection; in 1837 there was a +rising in Sicily in consequence of the outbreak of cholera, and in +1843 the Young Italy Society tried to organize a general rising, +which, however, only manifested itself in a series of isolated outbreaks. +The expedition of the Bandiera brothers (<i>q.v.</i>) in 1844, +although it had no practical result, aroused great ill-feeling owing +to the cruel sentences passed on the rebels. In January 1848 +a rising in Sicily was the signal for revolutions all over Italy and +Europe; it was followed by a movement in Naples, and the king +granted a constitution which he swore to observe. A dispute, +however, arose as to the nature of the oath which should be taken +by the members of the chamber of deputies, and as neither the +king nor the deputies would yield, serious disturbances broke +out in the streets of Naples on the 15th of May; so the king, +making these an excuse for withdrawing his promise, dissolved +the national parliament on the 13th of March 1849. He retired +to Gaeta to confer with various deposed despots, and when the +news of the Austrian victory at Novara (March 1849) reached +him, he determined to return to a reactionary policy. Sicily, +whence the Royalists had been expelled, was subjugated by +General Filangieri (<i>q.v.</i>), and the chief cities were bombarded, +an expedient which won for Ferdinand the epithet of “King +Bomba.” During the last years of his reign espionage and +arbitrary arrests prevented all serious manifestations of discontent +among his subjects. In 1851 the political prisoners of +Naples were calculated by Mr Gladstone in his letters to Lord +Aberdeen (1851) to number 15,000 (probably the real figure was +nearer 40,000), and so great was the scandal created by the prevailing +reign of terror, and the abominable treatment to which +the prisoners were subjected, that in 1856 France and England +made diplomatic representations to induce the king to mitigate +his rigour and proclaim a general amnesty, but without success. +An attempt was made by a soldier to assassinate Ferdinand in +1856. He died on the 22nd of May 1856, just after the declaration +of war by France and Piedmont against Austria, which was +to result in the collapse of his kingdom and his dynasty. He +was bigoted, cruel, mean, treacherous, though not without a +certain bonhomie; the only excuse that can be made for him +is that with his heredity and education a different result could +scarcely be expected.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See <i>Correspondence respecting the Affairs of Naples and Sicily, +1848-1849, presented to both Houses of Parliament by Command of +Her Majesty</i>, 4th May 1849; <i>Two Letters to the Earl of Aberdeen</i>, by +the Right Hon. W.E. Gladstone, 1st ed., 1851 (an edition published +in 1852 and the subsequent editions contain an <i>Examination of the +Official Reply of the Neapolitan Government</i>); N. Nisco, <i>Ferdinando II. +il suo regno</i> (Naples, 1884); H. Remsen Whitehouse, <i>The Collapse of +the Kingdom of Naples</i> (New York, 1899); R. de Cesare, <i>La Caduta +d’ un Regno</i>, vol. i. (Città di Castello, 1900), which contains a great +deal of fresh information, but is badly arranged and not always +reliable.</p> +</div> +<div class="author">(L. V.*)</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">FERDINAND III.<a name="ar27" id="ar27"></a></span> (1769-1824), grand duke of Tuscany, and +archduke of Austria, second son of the emperor Leopold II., +was born on the 6th of May 1769. On his father becoming +emperor in 1790, he succeeded him as grand duke of Tuscany. +Ferdinand was one of the first sovereigns to enter into diplomatic +relations with the French republic (1793); and although, a few +months later, he was compelled by England and Russia to join +the coalition against France, he concluded peace with that +power in 1795, and by observing a strict neutrality saved his +dominions from invasion by the French, except for a temporary +occupation of Livorno, till 1799, when he was compelled to vacate +his throne, and a provisional Republican government was established +at Florence. Shortly afterwards the French arms suffered +severe reverses in Italy, and Ferdinand was restored to his +territories; but in 1801, by the peace of Lunéville, Tuscany +was converted into the kingdom of Etruria, and he was again +compelled to return to Vienna. In lieu of the sovereignty of +Tuscany, he obtained in 1802 the electorship of Salzburg, which +he exchanged by the peace of Pressburg in 1805 for that of Würzburg. +In 1806 he was admitted as grand duke of Würzburg to the +confederation of the Rhine. He was restored to the throne of +Tuscany after the abdication of Napoleon in 1814 and was received +with enthusiasm by the people, but had again to vacate +his capital for a short time in 1815, when Murat proclaimed war +against Austria. The final overthrow of the French supremacy +at the battle of Waterloo secured him, however, in the undisturbed +possession of his grand duchy during the remainder +of his life. The restoration in Tuscany was not accompanied by +the reactionary excesses which characterized it elsewhere, and +a large part of the French legislation was retained. His +prime minister was Count V. Fossombroni (<i>q.v.</i>). The mild +rule of Ferdinand, his solicitude for the welfare of his subjects, +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page269" id="page269"></a>269</span> +his enlightened patronage of art and science, his encouragement +of commerce, and his toleration render him an honourable exception +to the generality of Italian princes. At the same time +his paternal despotism tended to emasculate the Tuscan character. +He died in June 1824, and was succeeded by his son +Leopold II. (<i>q.v.</i>).</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p><span class="sc">Bibliography</span>.—A. von Reumont, <i>Geschichte Toscanas</i> (Gotha, +1877); and “Federico Manfredini e la politica Toscana nei primi +anni di Ferdinando III.” (in the <i>Archivio Storico Italiano</i>, 1877); +Emmer, <i>Erzherzog Ferdinand III.</i>, <i>Grossherzog von Toskana</i> (Salzburg, +1871); C. Tivaroni, <i>L’ Italia durante il dominio francese</i>, ii. 1-44 +(Turin, 1889), and <i>L’ Italia durante il dominio austriaco</i>, ii. 1-18 +(Turin, 1893). See also under <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Fossombroni</a></span>; <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Vittorio</a></span>; and +<span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Capponi, Gino</a></span>.</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">FERDINAND, MAXIMILIAN KARL LEOPOLD MARIA,<a name="ar28" id="ar28"></a></span> +king of Bulgaria (1861-  ), fifth and youngest son of Prince +Augustus of Saxe-Coburg and Gotha, was born on the 26th of +February 1861. Great care was exercised in his education, and +every encouragement given to the taste for natural history which +he exhibited at an early age. In 1879 he travelled with his +brother Augustus to Brazil, and the results of their botanical +observations were published at Vienna, 1883-1888, under the +title of <i>Itinera Principum S. Coburgi</i>. Having been appointed +to a lieutenancy in the 2nd regiment of Austrian hussars, he +was holding this rank when, by unanimous vote of the National +Assembly, he was elected prince of Bulgaria, on the 7th of July +1887, in succession to Prince Alexander, who had abdicated on +the 7th of September preceding. He assumed the government +on the 14th of August 1887, for Russia for a long time refused +to acknowledge the election, and he was accordingly exposed to +frequent military conspiracies, due to the influence or attitude +of that power. The firmness and vigour with which he met all +attempts at revolution were at length rewarded, and his election +was confirmed in March 1896 by the Porte and the great powers. +On the 20th of April 1893 he married Marie Louise de Bourbon +(d. 1899), eldest daughter of Duke Robert of Parma, and in May +following the Grand Sobranye confirmed the title of Royal Highness +to the prince and his heir. The prince adhered to the +Roman Catholic faith, but his son and heir, the young Prince +Boris, was received into the Orthodox Greek Church on the +14th of February 1896. Prince Boris, to whom the tsar +Nicholas III. became godfather, accompanied his father to +Russia in 1898, when Prince Ferdinand visited St Petersburg +and Moscow, and still further strengthened the bond already +existing between Russia and Bulgaria. In 1908 Ferdinand +married Eleanor (b. 1860), a princess of the house of Reuss. +Later in the year, in connexion with the Austrian annexation +of Bosnia-Herzegovina and the crisis with Turkey, he proclaimed +the independence of Bulgaria, and took the title of king or tsar. +(See <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Bulgaria</a></span>, and <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Europe</a></span>: <i>History</i>.)</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">FERDINAND,<a name="ar29" id="ar29"></a></span> duke of Brunswick (1721-1792), Prussian +general field marshal, was the fourth son of Ferdinand Albert, +duke of Brunswick, and was born at Wolfenbüttel on the 12th +of January 1721. He was carefully educated with a view to a +military career, and in his twentieth year he was made chief of a +newly-raised Brunswick regiment in the Prussian service. He +was present in the battles of Mollwitz and Chotusitz. In succession +to Margrave Wilhelm of Brandenburg, killed at Prague +(1744), Ferdinand received the command of Frederick the +Great’s <i>Leibgarde</i> battalion, and at Sohr (1745) he distinguished +himself so greatly at the head of his brigade that Frederick +wrote of him, “le Prince Ferdinand s’est surpassé.” The height +which he captured was defended by his brother Ludwig as an +officer of the Austrian service, and another brother of Duke +Ferdinand was killed by his side in the charge. During the ten +years’ peace he was in the closest touch with the military work +of Frederick the Great, who supervised the instruction of the +guard battalion, and sought to make it a model of the whole +Prussian army. Ferdinand was, moreover, one of the most +intimate friends of the king, and thus he was peculiarly fitted +for the tasks which afterwards fell to his lot. In this time he +became successively major-general and lieutenant-general. In +the first campaign of the Seven Years’ War Ferdinand commanded +one of the Prussian columns which converged upon +Dresden, and in the operations which led up to the surrender of +the Saxon army at Pirna (1756), and at the battle of Lobositz, +he led the right wing of the Prussian infantry. In 1757 he was +present, and distinguished himself, at Prague, and he served also +in the campaign of Rossbach. Shortly after this he was appointed +to command the allied forces which were being organized +for the war in western Germany. He found this army dejected +by a reverse and a capitulation, yet within a week of his taking +up the command he assumed the offensive, and thus began the +career of victory which made his European reputation as a +soldier. His conduct of the five campaigns which followed (see +<span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Seven Years’ War</a></span>) was naturally influenced by the teachings +of Frederick, whose pupil the duke had been for so many years. +Ferdinand, indeed, approximated more closely to Frederick in +his method of making war than any other general of the time. +Yet his task was in many respects far more difficult than that of +the king. Frederick was the absolute master of his own homogeneous +army, Ferdinand merely the commander of a group of +contingents, and answerable to several princes for the troops +placed under his control. The French were by no means despicable +opponents in the field, and their leaders, if not of the first +grade, were cool and experienced veterans. In 1758 he fought +and won the battle of Crefeld, several marches beyond the +Rhine, but so advanced a position he could not well maintain, +and he fell back to the Lippe. He resumed a bold offensive in +1759, only to be repulsed at Bergen (near Frankfort-on-Main). +On the 1st of August of this year Ferdinand won the brilliant +victory of Minden (<i>q.v.</i>). Vellinghausen, Wilhelmsthal, Warburg +and other victories attested the increasing power of Ferdinand +in the following campaigns, and Frederick, hard pressed in +the eastern theatre of war, owed much of his success in an almost +hopeless task to the continued pressure exerted by Ferdinand in +the west. In promoting him to be a field marshal (November +1758) Frederick acknowledged his debt in the words, “Je n’ai +fait que ce que je dois, mon cher Ferdinand.” After Minden, +King George II. gave the duke the order of the Garter, and the +thanks of the British parliament were voted on the same occasion +to the “Victor of Minden.” After the war he was honoured by +other sovereigns, and he received the rank of field marshal and +a regiment from the Austrians. During the War of American +Independence there was a suggestion, which came to nothing, of +offering him the command of the British forces. He exerted +himself to compensate those who had suffered by the Seven +Years’ War, devoting to this purpose most of the small income he +received from his various offices and the rewards given to him +by the allied princes. The estrangement of Frederick and +Ferdinand in 1766 led to the duke’s retirement from Prussian +service, but there was no open breach between the old friends, +and Ferdinand visited the king in 1772, 1777, 1779 and 1782. +After 1766 he passed the remainder of his life at his castle of +Veschelde, where he occupied himself in building and other improvements, +and became a patron of learning and art, and a +great benefactor of the poor. He died on the 3rd of July 1792. +The merits, civil and military, of the prince were recognized by +memorials not only in Prussia and Hanover, but also in Denmark, +the states of western Germany and England. The Prussian +memorials include an equestrian statue at Berlin (1863).</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See E. v. L. Knesebeck, <i>Ferdinand, Herzog von Braunschweig und +Lüneburg, während des Siebenjährigen Kriegs</i> (2 vols., Hanover, +1857-1858); Von Westphalen, <i>Geschichte der Feldzüge des Herzogs +Ferdinands von Braunschweig-Lüneburg</i> (5 vols., Berlin, 1859-1872); +v. d. Osten, <i>Tagebuch des Herzogl. Gen. Adjutanten v. Reden</i> (Hamburg, +1805); v. Schafer, <i>Vie militaire du maréchal Prince Ferdinand</i> +(Magdeburg, 1796; Nuremberg, 1798); also the <i>Œuvres</i> of Frederick +the Great, <i>passim</i>, and authorities for the <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Seven Years’ War</a></span>.</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">FERDINAND<a name="ar30" id="ar30"></a></span> (1577-1650), elector and archbishop of Cologne, +son of William V., duke of Bavaria, was born on the 7th of +October 1577. Intended for the church, he was educated by the +Jesuits at the university of Ingolstadt, and in 1595 became +coadjutor archbishop of Cologne. He became elector and archbishop +in 1612 on the death of his uncle Ernest, whom he also +succeeded as bishop of Liége, Munster and Hildesheim. He +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page270" id="page270"></a>270</span> +endeavoured resolutely to root out heresy in the lands under his +rule, and favoured the teaching of the Jesuits in every possible +way. He supported the league founded by his brother Maximilian +I., duke of Bavaria, and wished to involve the leaguers +in a general attack on the Protestants of north Germany. The +cool political sagacity of the duke formed a sharp contrast to +the impetuosity of the archbishop, and he refused to accede to +his brother’s wish; but, in spite of these temporary differences, +Ferdinand sent troops and money to the assistance of the league +when the Thirty Years’ War broke out in 1619. The elector’s +alliance with the Spaniards secured his territories to a great +extent from the depredations of the war until the arrival of +the Swedes in Germany in 1630, when the extension of the area +of the struggle to the neighbourhood of Cologne induced him +to enter into negotiations for peace. Nothing came of these +attempts until 1647, when he joined his brother Maximilian in +concluding an armistice with France and Sweden at Ulm. The +elector’s later years were marked by a conflict with the citizens +of Liége; and when the peace of Westphalia freed him from his +enemies, he was able to crush the citizens and deprive them of +many privileges. Ferdinand, who had held the bishopric of +Paderborn since 1618, died at Arnsberg on the 13th of September +1650, and was buried in the cathedral at Cologne.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See L. Ennen, <i>Frankreich und der Niederrhein oder Geschichte von +Stadt und Kurstadt Köln seit dem 30 jährigen Kriege</i>, Band i. (Cologne, +1855-1856).</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">FERENTINO<a name="ar31" id="ar31"></a></span> (anc. <i>Ferentinum</i>, to be distinguished from +Ferentum or Ferentinum in Etruria), a town and episcopal see +of Italy, in the province of Rome, from which it is 48 m. +E.S.E. by rail. Pop. (1901) 7957 (town), 12,279 (commune). It +is picturesquely situated on a hill 1290 ft. above sea-level, and +still possesses considerable remains of ancient fortifications. +The lower portion of the outer walls, which probably did not +stand free, is built of roughly hewn blocks of a limestone which +naturally splits into horizontal layers; above this in places is +walling of rectangular blocks of tufa. Two gates, the Porta +Sanguinaria (with an arch with tufa voussoirs), and the Porta +S. Maria, a double gate constructed entirely of rectangular blocks +of tufa, are preserved. Outside this gate is the tomb of A. +Quinctilius Priscus, a citizen of Ferentinum, with a long inscription +cut in the rock. See Th. Mommsen in <i>Corp. Inscrip. Lat.</i> x. +(Berlin, 1883), No. 5853.</p> + +<p>The highest part of the town, the acropolis, is fortified also; +it has massive retaining walls similar to those of the lower town. +At the eastern corner, under the present episcopal palace, the +construction is somewhat more careful. A projecting rectangular +terrace has been erected, supported by walls of quadrilateral +blocks of limestone arranged almost horizontally; while +upon the level thus formed a building of rectangular blocks of +local travertine was raised. The projecting cornice of this +building bears two inscriptions of the period of Sulla, recording +its construction by two censors (local officials); and in the interior, +which contains several chambers, there is an inscription +of the same censors over one of the doors, and another over a +smaller external side door. The windows lighting these chambers +come immediately above the cornice, and the wall continues +above them again. The whole of this construction probably +belongs to one period (Mommsen, <i>op. cit.</i> No. 5837 seq.). The +cathedral occupies a part of the level top of the ancient acropolis; +it was reconstructed on the site of an older church in 1099-1118; +the interior was modernized in 1693, but was restored to its +original form in 1902. It contains a fine canopy in the “Cosmatesque” +style (see <i>Relazione dei lavori eseguiti dall’ ufficio tecnico +per la conservazione dei monumenti di Rome a provincia</i>, Rome, +1903, 175 seq.). The Gothic church of S. Maria Maggiore, in the +lower town (13th-14th century), has a very fine exterior; the +interior, the plan of which is a perfect rectangle, has been spoilt +by restoration. There are several other Gothic churches in the +town.</p> + +<p>Ferentinum was the chief town of the Hernici; it was captured +from them by the Romans in 364 <span class="scs">B.C.</span> and took no part in the +rising of 306 <span class="scs">B.C.</span> The inhabitants became Roman citizens after +195 <span class="scs">B.C.</span>, and the place later became a <i>municipium</i>. It lay just +above the Via Latina and, being a strong place, served for the +detention of hostages. Horace praises its quietness, and it does +not appear much in later history.</p> +<div class="author">(T. As.)</div> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See further Ashby, <i>Röm. Mittell.</i> xxiv. (1909).</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">FERENTUM,<a name="ar32" id="ar32"></a></span> or <span class="sc">Ferentinum</span>, an ancient town of Etruria, +about 6 m. N. of Viterbo (the ancient name of which is unknown) +and 3½ m. E. of the Via Cassia. It was the birthplace (32 <span class="scs">A.D.</span>) of +the emperor Otho, was destroyed in the 11th century, and is now +entirely deserted, though it retains its ancient name. It occupied +a ridge running from east to west, with deep ravines on three +sides. There are some remains of the city walls, and of various +Roman structures, but the most important ruin is that of the +theatre. The stage front is still standing; it is pierced by seven +openings with flat arches, and shows traces of reconstruction. +The acropolis was on the hill called Talone on the north-east.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See G. Dennis, <i>Cities and Cemeteries of Etruria</i> (London, 1883), +i. 156; <i>Notizie degli scavi</i>, 1900, 401; 1902, 84; 1905, 31.</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">FERETORY<a name="ar33" id="ar33"></a></span> (from Lat. <i>feretrum</i>, a bier, from <i>ferre</i>, to bear), +in architecture, the enclosure or chapel within which the +“fereter” shrine, or tomb (as in Henry VII.’s chapel), was +placed.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">FERGHANA,<a name="ar34" id="ar34"></a></span> or <span class="sc">Fergana</span>, a province of Russian Turkestan, +formed in 1876 out of the former khanate of Khokand. It is +bounded by the provinces of Syr-darya on the N. and N.W., +Samarkand on the W., and Semiryechensk on the N.E., by +Chinese Turkestan (Kashgaria) on the E., and by Bokhara and +Afghanistan on the S. Its southern limits, on the Pamirs, were +fixed by an Anglo-Russian commission in 1885, from Zor-kul +(Victoria Lake) to the Chinese frontier; and Shignan, Roshan +and Wakhan were assigned to Bokhara in exchange for part of +Darvaz (on the left bank of the Panj), which was given to +Afghanistan. The area amounts to some 53,000 sq. m., of which +17,600 sq. m. are on the Pamirs. The most important part of +the province is a rich and fertile valley (1200-1500 ft.), opening +towards the S.W. Thence the province stretches northwards +across the mountains of the Tian-shan system and southwards +across the Alai and Trans-Alai Mts., which reach their highest +point in Peak Kaufmann (23,000 ft.), in the latter range. The +valley owes its fertility to two rivers, the Naryn and the Karadarya, +which unite within its confines, near Namangan, to form +the Syr-darya or Jaxartes. These streams, and their numerous +mountain affluents, not only supply water for irrigation, but +also bring down vast quantities of sand, which is deposited +alongside their courses, more especially alongside the Syr-darya +where it cuts its way through the Khojent-Ajar ridge, forming +there the Karakchikum. This expanse of moving sands, covering +an area of 750 sq. m., under the influence of south-west winds, +encroaches upon the agricultural districts. The climate of this +valley is dry and warm. In March the temperature reaches +68° F., and then rapidly rises to 95° in June, July and August. +During the five months following April no rain falls, but it begins +again in October. Snow and frost (down to −4° F.) occur in +December and January.</p> + +<p>Out of some 3,000,000 acres of cultivated land, about two-thirds +are under constant irrigation and the remaining third +under partial irrigation. The soil is admirably cultivated, the +principal crops being wheat, rice, barley, maize, millet, lucerne, +tobacco, vegetables and fruit. Gardening is conducted with a +high degree of skill and success. Large numbers of horses, +cattle and sheep are kept, and a good many camels are bred. +Over 17,000 acres are planted with vines, and some 350,000 +acres are under cotton. Nearly 1,000,000 acres are covered with +forests. The government maintains a forestry farm at Marghelan, +from which 120,000 to 200,000 young trees are distributed free +every year amongst the inhabitants of the province.</p> + +<p>Silkworm breeding, formerly a prosperous industry, has +decayed, despite the encouragement of a state farm at New +Marghelan. Coal, iron, sulphur, gypsum, rock-salt, lacustrine +salt and naphtha are all known to exist, but only the last two +are extracted. Some seventy or eighty factories are engaged +in cotton cleaning; while leather, saddlery, paper and cutlery +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page271" id="page271"></a>271</span> +are the principal products of the domestic industries. A considerable +trade is carried on with Russia; raw cotton, raw silk, +tobacco, hides, sheepskins, fruit and cotton and leather goods are +exported, and manufactured wares, textiles, tea and sugar are +imported and in part re-exported to Kashgaria and Bokhara. +The total trade of Ferghana reaches an annual value of nearly +£3,500,000. A new impulse was given to trade by the extension +(1899) of the Transcaspian railway into Ferghana and by the +opening of the Orenburg-Tashkent railway (1906). The routes +to Kashgaria and the Pamirs are mere bridle-paths over the +mountains, crossing them by lofty passes. For instance, the +passes of Kara-kazyk (14,400 ft.) and Tenghiz-bai (11,200 ft.), +both passable all the year round, lead from Marghelan to Kara-teghin +and the Pamirs, while Kashgar is reached via Osh and +Gulcha, and then over the passes of Terek-davan (12,205 ft.; +open all the year round), Taldyk (11,500 ft.), Archat (11,600 ft.), +and Shart-davan (14,000 ft.). Other passes leading out of the +valley are the Jiptyk (12,460 ft.), S. of Khokand; the Isfairam +(12,000 ft.), leading to the glen of the Surkhab, and the Kavuk +(13,000 ft.), across the Alai Mts.</p> + +<p>The population numbered 1,571,243 in 1897, and of that number +707,132 were women and 286,369 were urban. In 1906 it was +estimated at 1,796,500. Two-thirds of the total are Sarts and +Uzbegs (of Turkic origin). They live mostly in the valley; +while the mountain slopes above it are occupied by Kirghiz, +partly nomad and pastoral, partly agricultural and settled. +The other races are Tajiks, Kashgarians, Kipchaks, Jews and +Gypsies. The governing classes are of course Russians, who +constitute also the merchant and artizan classes. But the +merchants of West Turkestan are called all over central Asia +Andijanis, from the town of Andijan in Ferghana. The great +mass of the population are Mussulmans (1,039,115 in 1897). +The province is divided into five districts, the chief towns of +which are New Marghelan, capital of the province (8977 inhabitants +in 1897), Andijan (49,682 in 1900), Khokand (86,704 +in 1900), Namangan (61,906 in 1897), and Osh (37,397 in +1900); but Old Marghelan (42,855 in 1900) and Chust (13,686 +in 1897) are also towns of importance. For the history, see +<span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Khokand</a></span>.</p> +<div class="author">(P. A. K.; J. T. Be.)</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">FERGUS FALLS,<a name="ar35" id="ar35"></a></span> a city and the county-seat of Otter Tail +county, Minnesota, U.S.A., on the Red river, 170 m. N.W. of +Minneapolis. Pop. (1890) 3772; (1900) 6072, of whom 2131 +were foreign-born; (1905) 6692; (1910) 6887. A large part +of the population is of Scandinavian birth or descent. Fergus +Falls is served by the Great Northern and the Northern Pacific +railways. Situated in the celebrated “park region” of the state, +the city possesses great natural beauty, which has been enhanced +by a system of boulevards and well-kept private lawns. Lake +Alice, in the residential district, adds to the city’s attractions. +The city has a public library, a county court house, St Luke’s +hospital, the G.B. Wright memorial hospital, and a city hall. +It is the seat of a state hospital for the insane (1887) with about +1600 patients, of a business college, of the Park Region Luther +College (Norwegian Lutheran, 1892), and of the North-western +College (Swedish Lutheran; opened in 1901). It has one of +the finest water-powers in the state. Flour is the principal +product; among others are woollen goods, foundry and machine-shop +products, wooden ware, sash, doors and blinds, caskets, +shirts, wagons and packed meats. The city owns and operates +its water-works and its electric-lighting plant. Fergus Falls was +settled about 1859 and was incorporated in 1863.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">FERGUSON, ADAM<a name="ar36" id="ar36"></a></span> (1723-1816), Scottish philosopher and +historian, was born on the 20th of June 1723, at Logierait, +Perthshire. He was educated at Perth grammar school and the +university of St Andrews. In 1745, owing to his knowledge of +Gaelic, he was appointed deputy chaplain of the 43rd (afterwards +the 42nd) regiment (the Black Watch), the licence to preach +being granted him by special dispensation, although he had not +completed the required six years of theological study. At the +battle of Fontenoy (1745) Ferguson fought in the ranks throughout +the day, and refused to leave the field, though ordered to +do so by his colonel. He continued attached to the regiment till +1754, when, disappointed at not obtaining a living, he abandoned +the clerical profession and resolved to devote himself to literary +pursuits. In January 1757 he succeeded David Hume as +librarian to the faculty of advocates, but soon relinquished this +office on becoming tutor in the family of Lord Bute.</p> + +<p>In 1759 Ferguson was appointed professor of natural philosophy +in the university of Edinburgh, and in 1764 was transferred +to the chair of “pneumatics” (mental philosophy) “and +moral philosophy.” In 1767, against Hume’s advice, he published +his <i>Essay on the History of Civil Society</i>, which was well received +and translated into several European languages. In 1776 +appeared his (anonymous) pamphlet on the American revolution +in opposition to Dr Price’s <i>Observations on the Nature of Civil +Liberty</i>, in which he sympathized with the views of the British +legislature. In 1778 Ferguson was appointed secretary to the +commission which endeavoured, but without success, to +negotiate an arrangement with the revolted colonies. In 1783 +appeared his <i>History of the Progress and Termination of the +Roman Republic</i>; it was very popular, and went through several +editions. Ferguson was led to undertake this work from a conviction +that the history of the Romans during the period of their +greatness was a practical illustration of those ethical and political +doctrines which were the object of his special study. The history +is written in an agreeable style and a spirit of impartiality, and +gives evidence of a conscientious use of authorities. The influence +of the author’s military experience shows itself in certain +portions of the narrative. Finding himself unequal to the labour +of teaching, he resigned his professorship in 1785, and devoted +himself to the revision of his lectures, which he published (1792) +under the title of <i>Principles of Moral and Political Science</i>.</p> + +<p>When in his seventieth year, Ferguson, intending to prepare +a new edition of the history, visited Italy and some of the principal +cities of Europe, where he was received with honour by +learned societies. From 1795 he resided successively at the old +castle of Neidpath near Peebles, at Hallyards on Manor Water +and at St Andrews, where he died on the 22nd of February 1816.</p> + +<p>In his ethical system Ferguson treats man throughout as a +social being, and illustrates his doctrines by political examples. +As a believer in the progression of the human race, he placed the +principle of moral approbation in the attainment of perfection. +His speculations were carefully criticized by Cousin (see his +<i>Cours d’histoire de la philosophie morale au dix-huitième siècle</i>, +pt. ii., 1839-1840):—“We find in his method the wisdom and +circumspection of the Scottish school, with something more +masculine and decisive in the results. The principle of <i>perfection</i> +is a new one, at once more rational and comprehensive than +benevolence and sympathy, which in our view places Ferguson +as a moralist above all his predecessors.” By this principle +Ferguson endeavours to reconcile all moral systems. With +Hobbes and Hume he admits the power of self-interest or utility, +and makes it enter into morals as the law of self-preservation. +Hutcheson’s theory of universal benevolence and Smith’s idea +of sympathy he combines under the law of society. But, as these +laws are the means rather than the end of human destiny, they +are subordinate to a supreme end, and this supreme end is perfection. +In the political part of his system Ferguson follows +Montesquieu, and pleads the cause of well-regulated liberty and +free government. His contemporaries, with the exception of +Hume, regarded his writings as of great importance; in point of +fact they are superficial. The facility of their style and the +frequent occurrence of would-be weighty epigrams blinded his +critics to the fact that, in spite of his recognition of the importance +of observation, he made no real contribution to political +theory (see Sir Leslie Stephen, <i>English Thought in the Eighteenth +Century</i>, x. 89-90).</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>The chief authority for Ferguson’s life is the <i>Biographical Sketch</i> +by John Small (1864); see also <i>Public Characters</i> (1799-1800); +<i>Gentleman’s Magazine</i>, i. (1816 supp.); W.R. Chambers’s <i>Biographical +Dictionary of Eminent Scotsmen</i>; memoir by Principal Lee in early +editions of the <i>Encyclopaedia Britannica</i>; J. McCosh, <i>The Scottish +Philosophy</i> (1875); articles in <i>Dictionary of National Biography</i> and +<i>Edinburgh Review</i> (January 1867); Lord Henry Cockburn, <i>Memorials +of his Time</i> (1856).</p> +</div> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page272" id="page272"></a>272</span></p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">FERGUSON, JAMES<a name="ar37" id="ar37"></a></span> (1710-1776), Scottish mechanician and +astronomer, was born near Rothiemay in Banffshire on the 25th +of April 1710, of parents in very humble circumstances. He +first learned to read by overhearing his father teach his elder +brother, and with the help of an old woman was “able,” he says +in his autobiography, “to read tolerably well before his father +thought of teaching him.” After receiving further instruction +in reading from his father, who also taught him to write, he was +sent at the age of seven for three months to the grammar school +at Keith. His taste for mechanics was about this time accidentally +awakened on seeing his father making use of a lever to +raise a part of the roof of his house—an exhibition of seeming +strength which at first “excited his terror as well as wonder.” +In 1720 he was sent to a neighbouring farm to keep sheep, where +in the daytime he amused himself by making models of mills +and other machines, and at night in studying the stars. Afterwards, +as a servant with a miller, and then with a doctor, he met +with hardships which rendered his constitution feeble through +life. Being compelled by his weak health to return home, he +there amused himself with making a clock having wooden wheels +and a whalebone spring. When slightly recovered he showed +this and some other inventions to a neighbouring gentleman, +who engaged him to clean his clocks, and also desired him to +make his house his home. He there began to draw patterns for +needlework, and his success in this art led him to think of +becoming a painter. In 1734 he went to Edinburgh, where he +began to take portraits in miniature, by which means, while +engaged in his scientific studies, he supported himself and his +family for many years. Subsequently he settled at Inverness, +where he drew up his <i>Astronomical Rotula</i> for showing the +motions of the planets, places of the sun and moon, &c., and in +1743 went to London, which was his home for the rest of his life. +He wrote various papers for the Royal Society, of which he +became a fellow in 1763, devised astronomical and mechanical +models, and in 1748 began to give public lectures on experimental +philosophy. These he repeated in most of the principal towns +in England. His deep interest in his subject, his clear explanations, +his ingeniously constructed diagrams, and his mechanical +apparatus rendered him one of the most successful of popular +lecturers on scientific subjects. It is, however, as the inventor +and improver of astronomical and other scientific apparatus, +and as a striking instance of self-education, that he claims a +place among the most remarkable men of science of his country. +During the latter years of his life he was in receipt of a pension +of £50 from the privy purse. He died in London on the 17th of +November 1776.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>Ferguson’s principal publications are <i>Astronomical Tables</i> (1763); +<i>Lectures on Select Subjects</i> (1st ed., 1761, edited by Sir David Brewster +in 1805); <i>Astronomy explained upon Sir Isaac Newton’s Principles</i> +(1756, edited by Sir David Brewster in 1811); and <i>Select Mechanical +Exercises, with a Short Account of the Life of the Author, written +by himself</i> (1773). This autobiography is included in a <i>Life</i> by E. +Henderson, LL.D. (1st ed., 1867; 2nd, 1870), which also contains a full +description of Ferguson’s principal inventions, accompanied with +illustrations. See also <i>The Story of the Peasant-Boy Philosopher</i>, by +Henry Mayhew (1857).</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">FERGUSON, ROBERT<a name="ar38" id="ar38"></a></span> (<i>c.</i> 1637-1714), British conspirator +and pamphleteer, called the “Plotter,” was a son of William +Ferguson (d. 1699) of Badifurrow, Aberdeenshire, and after +receiving a good education, probably at the university of Aberdeen, +became a Presbyterian minister. According to Bishop +Burnet he was cast out by the Presbyterians; but whether this +be so or not, he soon made his way to England and became vicar +of Godmersham, Kent, from which living he was expelled by +the Act of Uniformity in 1662. Some years later, having gained +meanwhile a reputation as a theological controversialist and +become a person of importance among the Nonconformists, he +attracted the notice of the earl of Shaftesbury and the party +which favoured the exclusion of the duke of York (afterwards +King James II.) from the throne, and he began to write political +pamphlets just at the time when the feeling against the Roman +Catholics was at its height. In 1680 he wrote “A Letter to a +Person of Honour concerning the ‘Black Box,’” in which he +supported the claim of the duke of Monmouth to the crown +against that of the duke of York; returning to the subject after +Charles II. had solemnly denied the existence of a marriage +between himself and Lucy Waters. He took an active part in +the controversy over the Exclusion Bill, and claimed to be the +author of the whole of the pamphlet “No Protestant Plot” +(1681), parts of which are usually ascribed to Shaftesbury. +Ferguson was deeply implicated in the Rye House Plot, although +he asserted that he had frustrated both this and a subsequent +attempt to assassinate the king, and he fled to Holland with +Shaftesbury in 1682, returning to England early in 1683. For +his share in another plot against Charles II. he was declared an +outlaw, after which he entered into communication with Argyll, +Monmouth and other malcontents. Ferguson then took a leading +part in organizing the rising of 1685. Having overcome Monmouth’s +reluctance to take part in this movement, he accompanied +the duke to the west of England and drew up the manifesto +against James II., escaping to Holland after the battle of Sedgemoor. +He landed in England with William of Orange in 1688, +and aided William’s cause with his pen; but William and his +advisers did not regard him as a person of importance, although +his services were rewarded with a sinecure appointment in the +Excise. Chagrined at this treatment, Ferguson was soon in +correspondence with the exiled Jacobites. He shared in all the +plots against the life of William, and after his removal from +the Excise in 1692 wrote violent pamphlets against the government. +Although he was several times arrested on suspicion, he +was never brought to trial. He died in great poverty in 1714, +leaving behind him a great and deserved reputation for treachery. +It has been thought by Macaulay and others that Ferguson led +the English government to believe that he was a spy in their +interests, and that his frequent escapes from justice were due +to official connivance. In a proclamation issued for his arrest +in 1683 he is described as “a tall lean man, dark brown hair, +a great Roman nose, thin-jawed, heat in his face, speaks in the +Scotch tone, a sharp piercing eye, stoops a little in the shoulders.” +Besides numerous pamphlets Ferguson wrote: <i>History of the +Revolution</i> (1706); <i>Qualifications requisite in a Minister of State</i> +(1710); and part of the <i>History of all the Mobs, Tumults and +Insurrections in Great Britain</i> (London, 1715).</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See James Ferguson, <i>Robert Ferguson, the Plotter</i> (Edinburgh, 1887), +which gives a favourable account of Ferguson.</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">FERGUSON, SIR SAMUEL<a name="ar39" id="ar39"></a></span> (1810-1886), Irish poet and antiquary, +was born at Belfast, on the 10th of March 1810. He +was educated at Trinity College, Dublin, was called to the Irish +bar in 1838, and was made Q.C. in 1859, but in 1867 retired +from practice upon his appointment as deputy-keeper of the +Irish records, then in a much neglected condition. He was +an excellent civil servant, and was knighted in 1878 for his +services to the department. His spare time was given to general +literature, and in particular to poetry. He had long been a +leading contributor to the <i>Dublin University Magazine</i> and to +<i>Blackwood</i>, where he had published his two literary masterpieces, +“The Forging of the Anchor,” one of the finest of modern +ballads, and the humorous prose extravaganza of “Father Tom +and the Pope.” He published <i>Lays of the Western Gael</i> in 1865, +<i>Poems</i> in 1880, and in 1872 <i>Congal</i>, a metrical narrative of the +heroic age of Ireland, and, though far from ideal perfection, +perhaps the most successful attempt yet made by a modern Irish +poet to revivify the spirit of the past in a poem of epic proportions. +Lyrics have succeeded better in other hands; many of +Ferguson’s pieces on modern themes, notably his “Lament for +Thomas Davis” (1845), are, nevertheless, excellent. He was an +extensive contributor on antiquarian subjects to the <i>Transactions +of the Royal Irish Academy</i>, and was elected its president in +1882. His manners were delightful, and his hospitality was +boundless. He died at Howth on the 9th of August 1886. His +most important antiquarian work, <i>Ogham Inscriptions in Ireland, +Wales, Scotland</i>, was published in the year after his death.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See <i>Sir Samuel Ferguson in the Ireland of his Day</i> (1896), by his +wife, Mary C. Ferguson; also an article by A.P. Graves in <i>A Treasury +of Irish Poetry in the English Tongue</i> (1900), edited by Stopford +Brooke and T.W. Rolleston.</p> +</div> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page273" id="page273"></a>273</span></p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">FERGUSSON, JAMES<a name="ar40" id="ar40"></a></span> (1808-1886), Scottish writer on architecture, +was born at Ayr on the 22nd of January 1808. His +father was an army surgeon. After being educated first at the +Edinburgh high school, and afterwards at a private school at +Hounslow, James went to Calcutta as partner in a mercantile +house. Here he was attracted by the remains of the ancient +architecture of India, little known or understood at that time. +The successful conduct of an indigo factory, as he states in his +own account, enabled him in about ten years to retire from +business and settle in London. The observations made on +Indian architecture were first embodied in his book on <i>The +Rock-cut Temples of India</i>, published in 1845. The task of analysing +the historic and aesthetic relations of this type of ancient +buildings led him further to undertake a historical and critical +comparative survey of the whole subject of architecture in <i>The +Handbook of Architecture</i>, a work which first appeared in 1855. +This did not satisfy him, and the work was reissued ten years +later in a much more extended form under the title of <i>The History +of Architecture</i>. The chapters on Indian architecture, which had +been considered at rather disproportionate length in the <i>Handbook</i>, +were removed from the general <i>History</i>, and the whole of +this subject treated more fully in a separate volume, <i>The History +of Indian and Eastern Architecture</i>, which appeared in 1876, and, +although complete in itself, formed a kind of appendix to <i>The +History of Architecture</i>. Previously to this, in 1862, he issued +his <i>History of Modern Architecture</i>, in which the subject was +continued from the Renaissance to the present day, the period +of “modern architecture” being distinguished as that of revivals +and imitations of ancient styles, which began with the +Renaissance. The essential difference between this and the +spontaneously evolved architecture of preceding ages Fergusson +was the first clearly to point out and characterize. His treatise +on <i>The True Principles of Beauty in Art</i>, an early publication, +is a most thoughtful metaphysical study. Some of his essays +on special points in archaeology, such as the treatise on <i>The +Mode in which Light was introduced into Greek Temples</i>, included +theories which have not received general acceptance. His real +monument is his <i>History of Architecture</i> (later edition revised by +R. Phenè Spiers), which, for grasp of the whole subject, comprehensiveness +of plan, and thoughtful critical analysis, stands +quite alone in architectural literature. He received the gold +medal of the Royal Institute of British Architects in 1871. +Among his works, besides those already mentioned, are: <i>A +Proposed New System of Fortification</i> (1849), <i>Palaces of Nineveh +and Persepolis restored</i> (1851), <i>Mausoleum at Halicarnassus +restored</i> (1862), <i>Tree and Serpent Worship</i> (1868), <i>Rude Stone +Monuments in all Countries</i> (1872), and <i>The Temples of the Jews +and the other Buildings in the Haram Area at Jerusalem</i> (1878). +The sessional papers of the Institute of British Architects include +papers by him on <i>The History of the Pointed Arch</i>, +<i>Architecture of Southern India</i>, <i>Architectural Splendour of the +City of Beejapore</i>, <i>On the Erechtheum</i> and on the <i>Temple of +Diana at Ephesus</i>.</p> + +<p>Although Fergusson never practised architecture he took a +keen interest in all the professional work of his time. He was +adviser with Austen Layard in the scheme of decoration for the +Assyrian court at the Crystal Palace, and indeed assumed in +1856 the duties of general manager to the Palace Company, a +post which he held for two years. In 1847 Fergusson had published +an “Essay on the Ancient Topography of Jerusalem,” in +which he had contended that the “Mosque of Omar” was the +identical church built by Constantine the Great over the tomb +of our Lord at Jerusalem, and that it, and not the present church +of the Holy Sepulchre, was the genuine burial-place of Jesus. +The burden of this contention was further explained by the +publication in 1860 of his <i>Notes on the Site of the Holy Sepulchre +at Jerusalem</i>; and <i>The Temples of the Jews and the other Buildings +in the Haram Area at Jerusalem</i>, published in 1878, was a still +completer elaboration of these theories, which are said to have +been the origin of the establishment of the Palestine Exploration +fund. His manifold activities continued till his death, which +took place in London on the 9th of January 1886.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">FERGUSSON, ROBERT<a name="ar41" id="ar41"></a></span> (1750-1774), Scottish poet, son of Sir +William Fergusson, a clerk in the British Linen Company, was +born at Edinburgh on the 5th of September 1750. Robert was +educated at the grammar school of Dundee, and at the university +of St Andrews, where he matriculated in 1765. His father died +while he was still at college; but a bursary enabled him to complete +his four years of study. He refused to study for the church, +and was too nervous to study medicine as his friends wished. +He quarrelled with his uncle, John Forbes of Round Lichnot, +Aberdeenshire, and went to Edinburgh, where he obtained +employment as copying clerk in a lawyer’s office. In this humble +occupation he passed the remainder of his life. While at college +he had written a clever elegy on Dr David Gregory, and in 1771 +he began to contribute verses regularly to Ruddiman’s <i>Weekly +Magazine</i>. He was a member of the Cape Club, celebrated by him +in his poem of “Auld Reekie.” “The Knights of the Cape” +assembled at a tavern in Craig’s Close, in the vicinity of the +Cross; each member had a name and character assigned to him, +which he was required to maintain at all gatherings of the order. +David Herd (1732-1810), the collector of the classic edition of +<i>Ancient and Modern Scottish Songs</i> (1776), was sovereign of the +Cape (in which he was known as “Sir Scrape”) when Fergusson +was dubbed a knight of the order, with the title of “Sir Precentor,” +in allusion to his fine voice. Alexander Runciman, the +historical painter, his pupil Jacob More, and Sir Henry Raeburn +were all members. The old minute books of the club abound +with pencilled sketches by them, one of the most interesting of +which, ascribed to Runciman’s pencil, is a sketch of Fergusson +in his character of “Sir Precentor.”</p> + +<p>Fergusson’s gaiety and wit made him an entertaining companion, +and he indulged too freely in the convivial habits of the +time. After a meeting with John Brown of Haddington he +became, however, very serious, and would read nothing but his +Bible. A fall by which his head was severely injured aggravated +symptoms of mental aberration which had begun to show +themselves; and after about two months’ confinement in the +old Darien House—then the only public asylum in Edinburgh—the +poet died on the 16th of October 1774.</p> + +<p><span class="correction" title="amended from Fergussons'">Fergusson’s</span> poems were collected in the year before his death. +The influence of his writings on Robert Burns is undoubted. +His “Leith Races” unquestionably supplied the model for the +“Holy Fair.” Not only is the stanza the same, but the Mirth +who plays the part of conductor to Fergusson, and the Fun who +renders a like service to Burns, are manifestly conceived on the +same model. “The Mutual Complaint of Plainstanes and +Causey” probably suggested “The Brigs of Ayr”; “On seeing +a Butterfly in the Street” has reflections in it which strikingly +correspond with “To a Mouse”; nor will a comparison of “The +Farmer’s Ingle” of the elder poet with “The Cottar’s Saturday +Night” admit of a doubt as to the influence of the city-bred +poet’s muse on that exquisite picturing of homely peasant life. +Burns was himself the first to render a generous tribute to the +merits of Fergusson; on his visit to Edinburgh in 1787 he sought +out the poet’s grave, and petitioned the authorities of the +Canongate burying-ground for permission to erect the memorial +stone which is preserved in the existing monument. The date +there assigned for his birth differs from the one given above, +which rests on the authority of his younger sister Margaret.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>The first edition of Fergusson’s poems was published by Ruddiman +at Edinburgh in 1773, and a supplement containing additional poems, +in 1779. A second edition appeared in 1785. There are later editions, +by Robert Chambers (1850) and Dr A.B. Grosart (1851). A life of +Fergusson is included in Dr David Irving’s <i>Lives of the Scottish Poets</i>, +and in Robert Chambers’s Lives of <i>Illustrious and Distinguished +Scotsmen</i>.</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">FERGUSSON, SIR WILLIAM,<a name="ar42" id="ar42"></a></span> Bart. (1808-1877), British +surgeon, the son of James Fergusson of Lochmaben, Dumfriesshire, +was born at Prestonpans, East Lothian, on the 20th of +March 1808. After receiving his early education at Lochmaben +and the high school of Edinburgh, he entered the university +of Edinburgh with the view of studying law, but soon afterwards +abandoned his intention and became a pupil of the +anatomist Robert Knox (1791-1862) whose demonstrator he was +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page274" id="page274"></a>274</span> +appointed at the age of twenty. In 1836 he succeeded Robert +Liston as surgeon to the Edinburgh Royal Infirmary, and coming +to London in 1840 as professor of surgery in King’s College, +and surgeon to King’s College Hospital, he acquired a commanding +position among the surgeons of the metropolis. He revived +the operation for cleft-palate, which for many years had fallen +into disrepute, and invented a special mouth-gag for the same. +He also devised many other surgical instruments, chief among +which, and still in use to-day, are his bone forceps, lion forceps +and vaginal speculum. In 1866 he was created a baronet. +He died in London on the 10th of February 1877. As a surgeon +Fergusson’s greatest merit is that of having introduced the +practice of “conservative surgery,” by which he meant the +excision of a joint rather than the amputation of a limb. He +made his diagnosis with almost intuitive certainty; as an +operator he was characterized by self-possession in the most +critical circumstances, by minute attention to details and by +great refinement of touch, and he relied more on his mechanical +dexterity than on complicated instruments. He was the author +of <i>The Progress of Anatomy and Surgery in the Nineteenth Century</i> +(1867), and of a <i>System of Practical Surgery</i> (1842), which went +through several editions.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">FERINGHI,<a name="ar43" id="ar43"></a></span> or <span class="sc">Feringhee</span>, a Frank (Persian, <i>Farangi</i>). This +term for a European is very old in Asia, and was originally used +in a purely geographical sense, but now generally carries a hostile +or contemptuous significance. The combatants on either side +during the Indian Mutiny called each other Feringhies and +Pandies.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">FERISHTA, MAHOMMED KASIM<a name="ar44" id="ar44"></a></span> (<i>c</i>. 1570-<i>c</i>. 1611), Persian +historian, was born at Astrabad, on the shores of the Caspian +Sea. While he was still a child his father was summoned away +from his native country into Hindostan, where he held high office +in the Deccan; and by his influence the young Ferishta received +court promotion. In 1589 Ferishta removed to Bijapur, where +he spent the remainder of his life under the immediate protection +of the shah Ibrahim Adil II., who engaged him to write a history +of India. At the court of this monarch he died about 1611. In +the introduction to his work a <i>résumé</i> is given of the history of +Hindostan prior to the times of the Mahommedan conquest, and +also of the victorious progress of the Arabs through the East. +The first ten books are each occupied with a history of the kings +of one of the provinces; the eleventh book gives an account of +the Mussulmans of Malabar; the twelfth a history of the Mussulman +saints of India; and the conclusion treats of the geography +and climate of India. Ferishta is reputed one of the most trustworthy +of the Oriental historians, and his work still maintains +a high place as an authority. Several portions of it have been +translated into English; but the best as well as the most complete +translation is that published by General J. Briggs under +the title of <i>The History of the Rise of the Mahometan Power in +India</i> (London, 1829, 4 vols. 8vo). Several additions were +made by Briggs to the original work of Ferishta, but he omitted +the whole of the twelfth book, and various other passages which +had been omitted in the copy from which he translated.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">FERMANAGH,<a name="ar45" id="ar45"></a></span> a county of Ireland, in the province of Ulster, +bounded N.W. by Donegal, N.E. by Tyrone, E. by Monaghan +and S.W. by Cavan and Leitrim. The area is 457,369 acres or +about 715 sq. m. The county is situated mostly in the basin +of the Erne, which divides the county into two nearly equal +sections. Its surface is hilly, and its appearance (in many parts) +somewhat sterile, though in the main, and especially in the +neighbourhood of Lough Erne, it is picturesque and attractive. +The climate, though moist, is healthy, and the people are generally +tall and robust. The chief mountains are Cuilcagh (2188 ft.), +partly in Leitrim and Cavan, Belmore (1312), Glenkeel (1223), +North Shean (1135), Tappahan (1110), Carnmore (1034). +Tossett or Toppid and Turaw mountains command extensive +prospects, and form striking features in the scenery of the county. +But the most distinguishing features of Fermanagh are the +Upper and Lower Loughs Erne, which occupy a great extent of +its surface, stretching for about 45 m. from S.E. to N.W. These +lakes are expansions of the river Erne, which enters the county +from Cavan at Wattle Bridge. It passes Belturbet, the Loughs +Erne, Enniskillen and Belleek, on its way to the Atlantic, into +which it descends at Ballyshannon. At Belleek it forms a considerable +waterfall and is here well known to sportsmen for its +good salmon fishing. Trout are taken in most of the loughs, +and pike of great size in the Loughs Erne. There are several +mineral springs in the county, some of them chalybeate, others +sulphurous. At Belcoo, near Enniskillen, there is a famous well +called Daragh Phadric, held in repute by the peasantry for its +cure of paralytic and other diseases; and 4 m. N.W. of the same +town, at a place called “the Daughton,” are natural caves of +considerable size.</p> + +<p>This county includes in the north an area of the gneiss that is +discussed under county Donegal, and, west of Omagh, a metamorphic +region that stretches in from the central axis of Tyrone. +A fault divides the latter from the mass of red-brown Old Red +Sandstone that spreads south nearly to Enniskillen. Lower +Carboniferous sandstone and limestone occur on the north of +Lower Lough Erne. The limestone forms fine scarps on the +southern side of the lake, capped by beds regarded as the +Yoredale series. The scenery about the two Loughs Macnean +is carved out in similarly scarped hills, rising to 2188 ft. in Cuilcagh +on the south. The “Marble Arch” cave near Florence-court, +with its emerging river, is a characteristic example of +the subterranean waterways in the limestone. Upper Lough +Erne is a typical meandering lake of the limestone lowland, with +outliers of higher Carboniferous strata forming highlands north-east +and south-west of it.</p> + +<p>With the exception of the pottery works at Belleek, where +iridescent ware of good quality is produced, Fermanagh has no +distinguishing manufactures. It is chiefly an agricultural +county. The proportion of tillage to pasture is roughly as 1 to +2½. Cattle and poultry are the principal classes of live stock. +Oats and potatoes are the crops most extensively cultivated. +The north-western division of the Great Northern railway passes +through the most populous portion of the county, one branch +connecting Enniskillen with Clones, another connecting Enniskillen +with Londonderry via Omagh, and a third connecting +Bundoran Junction with Bundoran, in county Donegal. The +Sligo, Leitrim & Northern Counties railway connects with the +Great Northern at Enniskillen, and the Clogher Valley light +railway connects southern county Tyrone with the Great +Northern at Maguiresbridge.</p> + +<p>The population (74,170 in 1891; 65,430 in 1901; almost +wholly rural) shows a decrease among the most serious of the +county populations of Ireland. It includes 55% of Roman +Catholics and about 35% of Protestant Episcopalians. Enniskillen +(the county town, pop. 5412) is the only town of importance, +the rest being little more than villages. The principal are +Lisnaskea, Irvinestown (formerly Lowtherstown), Maguiresbridge, +Tempo, Newtownbutler, Belleek, Derrygonnelly and Kesh, at +which fairs are held. Garrison, a fishing station on the wild +Lough Melvin, and Pettigo, near to the lower Lough Erne, are +market villages. Fermanagh returns two members to parliament, +one each for the north and south divisions. It comprises +eight baronies and nineteen civil parishes. The assizes are held +at Enniskillen, quarter sessions at Enniskillen and Newtownbutler. +The headquarters of the constabulary are at Enniskillen. +Ecclesiastically it belongs to the Protestant and Roman +Catholic dioceses of Clogher and Kilmore.</p> + +<p>By the ancient Irish the district was called <i>Feor-magh-Eanagh</i>, +or the “country of the lakes” (lit. “the mountain-valley marsh +district”); and also Magh-uire, or “the country of the waters.” +A large portion was occupied by the <i>Guarii</i>, the ancestors of the +MacGuires or Maguires, a name still common in the district. +This family was so influential that for centuries the county was +called after it Maguire’s Country, and one of the towns still +existing bears its name, Maguiresbridge. Fermanagh was +formed into a county on the shiring of Ulster in 1585 by Sir +John Perrot, and was included in the well-known scheme of +colonization of James I., the Plantation of Ulster. In 1689 +battles were fought between William III.’s army and the Irish +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page275" id="page275"></a>275</span> +under Macarthy (for James II.), Lisnaskea (26th July) and +Newtownbutler (30th July). The chief place of interest to the +antiquary is Devenish Island in Lough Erne, about 2½ m. N.W. +from Enniskillen (<i>q.v.</i>), with its ruined abbey, round tower and +cross. In various places throughout the county may be seen the +ruins of several ancient castles, Danish raths or encampments, +and tumuli, in the last of which urns and stone coffins have +sometimes been found. The round tower on Devenish Island +is one of the finest examples in the country.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">FERMAT, PIERRE DE<a name="ar46" id="ar46"></a></span> (1601-1665), French mathematician, +was born on the 17th of August 1601, at Beaumont-de-Lomagne +near Montauban. While still young, he, along with Blaise +Pascal, made some discoveries in regard to the properties of +numbers, on which he afterwards built his method of calculating +probabilities. He discovered a simpler method of quadrating +parabolas than that of Archimedes, and a method of finding the +greatest and the smallest ordinates of curved lines analogous +to that of the then unknown differential calculus. His great +work <i>De maximis et minimis</i> brought him into conflict with René +Descartes, but the dispute was chiefly due to a want of explicitness +in the statement of Fermat (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Infinitesimal Calculus</a></span>). +His brilliant researches in the theory of numbers entitle +him to rank as the founder of the modern theory. They originally +took the form of marginal notes in a copy of Bachet’s +<i>Diophantus</i>, and were published in 1670 by his son Samuel, who +incorporated them in a new edition of this Greek writer. Other +theorems were published in his <i>Opera Varia</i>, and in John Wallis’s +<i>Commercium epistolicum</i> (1658). He died in the belief that he had +found a relation which every prime number must satisfy, namely +2<span class="sp">2n</span> + 1 = a prime. This was afterwards disproved by Leonhard +Euler for the case when n = 5. <i>Fermat’s Theorem</i>, if p is prime +and a is prime to p then a<span class="sp">p−1</span> − 1 is divisible by p, was first given +in a letter of 1640. <i>Fermat’s Problem</i> is that x<span class="sp">n</span> + y<span class="sp">n</span> = z<span class="sp">n</span> is impossible +for integral values of x, y and z when n is greater than 2.</p> + +<p>Fermat was for some time councillor for the parliament of +Toulouse, and in the discharge of the duties of that office he was +distinguished both for legal knowledge and for strict integrity +of conduct. Though the sciences were the principal objects of +his private studies, he was also an accomplished general scholar +and an excellent linguist. He died at Toulouse on the 12th of +January 1665. He left a son, Samuel de Fermat (1630-1690) +who published translations of several Greek authors and wrote +certain books on law in addition to editing his father’s works.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>The <i>Opera mathematica</i> of Fermat were published at Toulouse, in +2 vols. folio, 1670 and 1679. The first contains the “Arithmetic +of Diophantus,” with notes and additions. The second includes a +“Method for the Quadrature of Parabolas,” and a treatise “on +Maxima and Minima, on Tangents, and on Centres of Gravity,” +containing the same solutions of a variety of problems as were afterwards +incorporated into the more extensive method of fluxions by +Newton and Leibnitz. In the same volume are treatises on “Geometric +Loci, or Spherical Tangencies,” and on the “Rectification of +Curves,” besides a restoration of “Apollonius’s Plane Loci,” together +with the author’s correspondence addressed to Descartes, Pascal, +Roberval, Huygens and others. The <i>Œuvres</i> of Fermat have been +re-edited by P. Tannery and C. Henry (Paris, 1891-1894).</p> + +<p>See Paul Tannery, “Sur la date des principales découvertes de +Fermat,” in the <i>Bulletin Darboux</i> (1883); and “Les Manuscrits de +Fermat,” in the <i>Annales de la faculté des lettres de Bordeaux</i>.</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">FERMENTATION.<a name="ar47" id="ar47"></a></span> The process of fermentation in the preparation +of wine, vinegar, beer and bread was known and +practised in prehistoric times. The alchemists used the terms +fermentation, digestion and putrefaction indiscriminately; any +reaction in which chemical energy was displayed in some form +or other—such, for instance, as the effervescence occasioned by +the addition of an acid to an alkaline solution—was described +as a fermentation (Lat. <i>fervere</i>, to boil); and the idea of the +“Philosopher’s Stone” setting up a fermentation in the common +metals and developing the essence or germ, which should transmute +them into silver or gold, further complicated the conception +of fermentation. As an outcome of this alchemical doctrine +the process of fermentation was supposed to have a purifying and +elevating effect on the bodies which had been submitted to its +influence. Basil Valentine wrote that when yeast was added to +wort “an internal inflammation is communicated to the liquid, +so that it raises in itself, and thus the segregation and separation +of the feculent from the clear takes place.” Johann Becher, +in 1669, first found that alcohol was formed during the fermentation +of solutions of sugar; he distinguished also between +fermentation and putrefaction. In 1697 Georg Stahl admitted +that fermentation and putrefaction were analogous processes, +but that the former was a particular case of the latter.</p> + +<p>The beginning of definite knowledge on the phenomenon of +fermentation may be dated from the time of Antony Leeuwenhoek, +who in 1680 designed a microscope sufficiently powerful +to render yeast cells and bacteria visible; and a description of +these organisms, accompanied by diagrams, was sent to the +Royal Society of London. This investigator just missed a great +discovery, for he did not consider the spherical forms to be living +organisms but compared them with starch granules. It was not +until 1803 that L.J. Thénard stated that yeast was the cause of +fermentation, and held it to be of an animal nature, since it contained +nitrogen and yielded ammonia on distillation, nor was +it conclusively proved that the yeast cell was the originator of +fermentation until the researches of C. Cagniard de la Tour, +T. Schwann and F. Kützing from 1836 to 1839 settled the point. +These investigators regarded yeast as a plant, and Meyer gave +to the germs the systematic name of “Saccharomyces” (sugar +fungus). In 1839-1840 J. von Liebig attacked the doctrine that +fermentation was caused by micro-organisms, and enunciated +his theory of mechanical decomposition. He held that every +fermentation consisted of molecular motion which is transmitted +from a substance in a state of chemical motion—that is, of decomposition—to +other substances, the elements of which are +loosely held together. It is clear from Liebig’s publications +that he first regarded yeast as a lifeless, albuminoid mass; but, +although later he considered they were living cells, he would +never admit that fermentation was a physiological process, the +chemical aspect being paramount in the mind of this distinguished +investigator.</p> + +<p>In 1857 Pasteur decisively proved that fermentation was a physiological +process, for he showed that the yeast which produced +fermentation was no dead mass, as assumed by Liebig, but +consisted of living organisms capable of growth and multiplication. +His own words are: “The chemical action of fermentation +is essentially a correlative phenomenon of a vital act, +beginning and ending with it. I think that there is never any +alcoholic fermentation without there being at the same time +organization, development and multiplication of globules, or +the continued consecutive life of globules already formed.” +Fermentation, according to Pasteur, was caused by the growth +and multiplication of unicellular organisms out of contact with +free oxygen, under which circumstance they acquire the power +of taking oxygen from chemical compounds in the medium in +which they are growing. In other words “fermentation is life +without air, or life without oxygen.” This theory of fermentation +was materially modified in 1892 and 1894 by A.J. Brown, +who described experiments which were in disagreement with +Pasteur’s dictum. A.J. Brown writes: “If for the theory +’life without air’ is substituted the consideration that yeast cells +can use oxygen in the manner of ordinary aërobic fungi, and +probably do require it for the full completion of their life-history, +but that the exhibition of their fermentative functions +is independent of their environment with regard to free +oxygen, it will be found that there is nothing contradictory +in Pasteur’s experiments to such a hypothesis.”</p> + +<p>Liebig and Pasteur were in agreement on the point that fermentation +is intimately connected with the presence of yeast +in the fermenting liquid, but their explanations concerning the +mechanism of fermentation were quite opposed. According to +M. Traube (1858), the active cause of fermentation is due to the +action of different enzymes contained in yeast and not to the +yeast cell itself. As will be seen later this theory was confirmed +by subsequent researches of E. Fischer and E. Buchner.</p> + +<p>In 1879 C. Nägeli formulated his well-known molecular-physical +theory, which supported Liebig’s chemical theory on +the one hand and Pasteur’s physiological hypothesis on the +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page276" id="page276"></a>276</span> +other: “Fermentation is the transference of the condition of +motion of the molecules, atomic groups and atoms of the various +compounds constituting the living plasma, to the fermenting +material, in consequence of which equilibrium in the molecules +of the latter is destroyed, the result being their disintegration.” +He agreed with Pasteur that the presence of living cells is essential +to the transformation of sugar into alcohol, but dissented +from the view that the process occurs within the cell. This +investigator held that the decomposition of the sugar molecules +takes place outside the cell wall. In 1894 and 1895, Fischer, in a +remarkable series of papers on the influence of molecular structure +upon the action of the enzyme, showed that various species of +yeast behave very differently towards solutions of sugars. For +example, some species hydrolyse <span class="correction" title="amended from came">cane</span> sugar and maltose, and +then carry on fermentation at the expense of the simple sugars +(hexoses) so formed. <i>Saccharomyces Marxianus</i> will not hydrolyse +maltose, but it does attack cane sugar and ferment the products +of hydrolysis. Fischer next suggested that enzymes can +only hydrolyse those sugars which possess a molecular structure +in harmony with their own, or to use his ingenious analogy, +“the one may be said to fit into the other as a key fits into a +lock.” The preference exhibited by yeast cells for sugar molecules +is shared by mould fungi and soluble enzymes in their +fermentative actions. Thus, Pasteur showed that <i>Penicillium +glaucum</i>, when grown in an aqueous solution of ammonium +racemate, decomposed the dextro-tartrate, leaving the laevo-tartrate, +and the solution which was originally inactive to +polarized light became dextro-rotatory. Fischer found that +the enzyme “invertase,” which is present in yeast, attacks +methyl-<i>d</i>-glucoside but not methyl-<i>l</i>-glucoside.</p> + +<p>In 1897 Buchner submitted yeast to great pressure, and +isolated a nitrogenous substance, enzymic in character, which +he termed “zymase.” This body is being continually formed +in the yeast cell, and decomposes the sugar which has diffused +into the cell. The freshly-expressed yeast juice causes concentrated +solutions of cane sugar, glucose, laevulose and maltose to +ferment with the production of alcohol and carbon dioxide, but +not milk-sugar and mannose. In this respect the plasma +behaves in a similar manner towards the sugars as does the +living yeast cell. Pasteur found that, when cane sugar was +fermented by yeast, 49.4% of carbonic acid and 51.1% of +alcohol were produced; with expressed yeast juice cane sugar +yields 47% of carbonic acid and 47.7% of alcohol. According +to Buchner the fermentative activity of yeast-cell juice is not +due to the presence of living yeast cells, or to the action of living +yeast protoplasm, but it is caused by a soluble enzyme. A. +Macfadyen, G.H. Morris and S. Rowland, in repeating Buchner’s +experiments, found that zymase possessed properties differing +from all other enzymes, thus: dilution with twice its volume +of water practically destroys the fermentative power of the yeast +juice. These investigators considered that differences of this +nature cannot be explained by the theory that it is a soluble +enzyme, which brings about the alcoholic fermentation of sugar. +The remarkable discoveries of Fischer and Buchner to a great +extent confirm Traube’s views, and reconcile Liebig’s and +Pasteur’s theories. Although the action of zymase may be +regarded as mechanical, the enzyme cannot be produced by +any other than living protoplasm.</p> + +<p>Pasteur’s important researches mark an epoch in the technical +aspect of fermentation. His investigations on vinegar-making +revolutionized that industry, and he showed how, instead of +waiting two or three months for the elaboration of the process, +the vinegar could be made in eight or ten days by exposing the +vats containing the mixture of wine and vinegar to a temperature +of 20° to 25° C., and sowing with a small quantity of the +acetic organism. To the study of the life-history of the butyric +and acetic organisms we owe the terms “anaërobic” and +“aërobic.” His researches from 1860 and onwards on the +then vexed question of spontaneous generation proved that, +in all cases where spontaneous generation appeared to have +taken place, some defect or other was in the experiment. Although +the direct object of Pasteur was to prove a negative, +yet it was on these experiments that sterilization as known to +us was developed. It is only necessary to bear in mind the great +part played by sterilization in the laboratory, and pasteurization +on the fermentation industries and in the preservation +of food materials. Pasteur first formulated the idea that bacteria +are responsible for the diseases of fermented liquids; the corollary +of this was a demand for pure yeast. He recommended that +yeast should be purified by cultivating it in a solution of sugar +containing tartaric acid, or, in wort containing a small quantity +of phenol. It was not recognized that many of the diseases of +fermented liquids are occasioned by foreign yeasts; moreover, +this process, as was shown later by Hansen, favours the development +of foreign yeasts at the expense of the good yeast.</p> + +<p>About this time Hansen, who had long been engaged in researches +on the biology of the fungi of fermentation, demonstrated +that yeast free from bacteria could nevertheless occasion +diseases in beer. This discovery was of great importance to the +zymo-technical industries, for it showed that bacteria are not +the only undesirable organisms which may occur in yeast. +Hansen set himself the task of studying the properties of the +varieties of yeast, and to do this he had to cultivate each variety +in a pure state. Having found that some of the commonest +diseases of beer, such as yeast turbidity and the objectionable +changes in flavour, were caused not by bacteria but by certain +species of yeast, and, further, that different species of good +brewery yeast would produce beers of different character, Hansen +argued that the pitching yeast should consist only of a single +species—namely, that best suited to the brewery in question. +These views met with considerable opposition, but in 1890 +Professor E. Duclaux stated that the yeast question as regards +low fermentation has been solved by Hansen’s investigations. +He emphasized the opinion that yeast derived from one cell was +of no good for top fermentation, and advocated Pasteur’s +method of purification. But in the course of time, notwithstanding +many criticisms and objections, the reform spread from +bottom fermentation to top fermentation breweries on the +continent and in America. In the United Kingdom the employment +of brewery yeasts selected from a single cell has not come +into general use; it may probably be accounted for in a great +measure by conservatism and the wrong application of Hansen’s +theories.</p> + +<p><i>Pure Cultivation of Yeasts.</i>—The methods which were first +adopted by Hansen for obtaining pure cultures of yeast were +similar in principle to one devised by J. Lister for isolating a +pure culture of lactic acid bacterium. Lister determined the +number of bacteria present in a drop of the liquid under examination +by counting, and then diluted this with a sufficient quantity +of sterilized water so that each drop of the mixture should contain, +on an average, less than one bacterium. A number of flasks +containing a nutrient medium were each inoculated with one +drop of this mixture; it was found that some remained sterile, +and Lister assumed that the remaining flasks each contained +a pure culture. This method did not give very certain results, +for it could not be guaranteed that the growth in the inoculated +flask was necessarily derived from a single bacterium. Hansen +counted the number of yeast cells suspended in a drop of liquid +diluted with sterilized water. A volume of the diluted yeast +was introduced into flasks containing sterilized wort, the degree +of dilution being such that only a small proportion of the flasks +became infected. The flasks were then well shaken, and the yeast +cell or cells settled to the bottom, and gave rise to a separate +yeast speck. Only those cultures which contained a single yeast +speck were assumed to be pure cultivations. By this method +several races of <i>Saccharomycetes</i> and brewery yeasts were +isolated and described.</p> + +<p>The next important advance was the substitution of solid for +liquid media; due originally to Schroter. R. Koch subsequently +improved the method. He introduced bacteria into liquid +sterile nutrient gelatin. After being well shaken, the liquid +was poured into a sterile glass Petrie dish and covered with a +moist and sterile bell-jar. It was assumed that each separate +speck contained a pure culture. Hansen pointed out that this +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page277" id="page277"></a>277</span> +was by no means the case, for it is more difficult to separate the +cells from each other in the gelatin than in the liquid. To obtain +an absolutely pure culture with certainty it is necessary, even +when the gelatin method is employed, to start from a single cell. +To effect this some of the nutrient gelatin containing yeast cells +is placed on the under-surface of the cover-glass of the moist +chamber. Those cells are accurately marked, the position of +which is such that the colonies, to which they give rise, can grow +to their full size without coming into contact with other colonies. +The growth of the marked cells is kept under observation for +three or four days, by which time the colonies will be large +enough to be taken out of the chamber and placed in flasks. +The contents of the flasks can then be introduced into larger +flasks, and finally into an apparatus suitable for making enough +yeast for technical purposes. Such, in brief, are the methods +devised by that brilliant investigator Hansen; and these +methods have not only been the basis on which our modern +knowledge of the <i>Saccharomycetes</i> is founded, but are the only +means of attack which the present-day observer has at his +disposal.</p> + +<p>From the foregoing it will be seen that the term fermentation +has now a much wider significance than when it was applied +to such changes as the decomposition of must or wort with the +production of carbon dioxide and alcohol. Fermentation now +includes all changes in organic compounds brought about by +ferments elaborated in the living animal or vegetable cell. There +are two distinct types of fermentation: (1) those brought about +by living organisms (organized ferments), and (2) those brought +about by non-living or unorganized ferments (enzymes). The +first class include such changes as the alcoholic fermentation +of sugar solutions, the acetic acid fermentation of alcohol, the +lactic acid fermentation of milk sugar, and the putrefaction of +animal and vegetable nitrogenous matter. The second class +include all changes brought about by the agency of enzymes, +such as the action of diastase on starch, invertase on cane sugar, +glucase on maltose, &c. The actions are essentially hydrolytic.</p> + +<p><i>Biological Aspect of Yeast.</i>—The Saccharomycetes belong to +that division of the Thallophyta called the Hyphomycetes or +Fungi (<i>q.v.</i>). Two great divisions are recognized in the Fungi: +(i.) the <i>Phycomycetes</i> or Algal Fungi, which retain a definitely +sexual method of reproduction as well as asexual (vegetative) +methods, and (ii.) the <i>Mycomycetes</i>, characterized by extremely +reduced or very doubtful sexual reproduction. The Mycomycetes +may be divided as follows: (A) forms bearing both +sporangia and conidia (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Fungi</a></span>), (B) forms bearing conidia +only, <i>e.g.</i> the common mushroom. Division A comprises (<i>a</i>) +the true <i>Ascomycetes</i>, of which the moulds Eurotium and Penicillium +are examples, and (<i>b</i>) the <i>Hemiasci</i>, which includes the +yeasts. The gradual disappearance of the sexual method of +reproduction, as we pass upwards in the fungi from the points +of their departure from the Algae, is an important fact, the last +traces of sexuality apparently disappearing in the ascomycetes.</p> + +<p>With certain rare exceptions the Saccharomycetes have three +methods of asexual reproduction:—</p> + +<p>1. The most common.—The formation of <i>buds</i> which separate +to form new cells. A portion of the nucleus of the parent cell +makes its way through the extremely narrow neck into the +daughter cell. This method obtains when yeast is vigorously +fermenting a saccharine solution.</p> + +<p>2. A division by <i>fission</i> followed by Endogenous spore +formation, characteristic of the Schizosaccharomycetes. Some +species show fermentative power.</p> + +<p>3. <i>Endospore</i> formation, the conditions for which are as +follows: (1) suitable temperature, (2) presence of air, (3) +presence of moisture, (4) young and vigorous cells, (5) a food +supply in the case of one species at least is necessary, and is in +no case prejudicial. In some cases a sexual act would appear +to precede spore formation. In most cases four spores are formed +within the cell by free formation. These may readily be +seen after appropriate staining.</p> + +<p>In some of the true Ascomycetes, such as <i>Penicillium glaucum</i>, +the conidia if grown in saccharine solutions, which they have +the power of fermenting, develop single cell yeast-like forms, +and do not—at any rate for a time—produce again the characteristic +branching mycelium. This is known as the <i>Torula</i> +condition. It is supposed by some that Saccharomyces is a very +degraded Ascomycete, in which the Torula condition has become +fixed.</p> + +<p>The yeast plant and its allies are saprophytes and form no +chlorophyll. Their extreme reduction in form and loss of +sexuality may be correlated with the saprophytic habit, the +proteids and other organic material required for the growth and +reproduction being appropriated ready synthesized, the plant +having entirely lost the power of forming them for itself, as +evidenced by the absence of chlorophyll. The beer yeast +<i>S. cerevisiae</i>, is never found wild, but the wine yeasts occur +abundantly in the soil of vineyards, and so are always present on +the fruit, ready to ferment the expressed juice.</p> + +<p><i>Chemical Aspect of Alcoholic Fermentation.</i>—Lavoisier was +the first investigator to study fermentation from a quantitative +standpoint. He determined the percentages of carbon, hydrogen +and oxygen in the sugar and in the products of fermentation, and +concluded that sugar in fermenting breaks up into alcohol, +carbonic acid and acetic acid. The elementary composition of +sugar and alcohol was fixed in 1815 by analyses made by Gay-Lussac, +Thénard and de Saussure. The first-mentioned chemist +proposed the following formula to represent the change which +takes place when sugar is fermented:—</p> + +<table class="ws" summary="Contents"> +<tr><td class="tcc">C<span class="su">6</span>H<span class="su">12</span>O<span class="su">6</span></td> <td class="tcc">   =   2CO<span class="su">2</span>   +   </td> <td class="tcc">2C<span class="su">2</span>H<span class="su">6</span>O.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcc">Sugar.</td> <td class="tcc">Carbon dioxide.</td> <td class="tcc">Alcohol.</td></tr> +</table> + +<p class="noind">This formula substantially holds good to the present day, +although a number of definite bodies other than carbon dioxide +and alcohol occur in small and varying quantities, according +to the conditions of the fermentation and the medium fermented. +Prominent among these are glycerin and succinic acid. In this +connexion Pasteur showed that 100 parts of cane sugar on inversion +gave 105.4 parts of invert sugar, which, when fermented, +yielded 51.1 parts alcohol, 49.4 carbonic acid, 0.7 succinic acid, +3.2 glycerin and 1.0 unestimated. A. Béchamp and E. Duclaux +found that acetic acid is formed in small quantities during +fermentation; aldehyde has also been detected. The higher +alcohols such as propyl, isobutyl, amyl, capryl, oenanthyl and +caproyl, have been identified; and the amount of these vary +according to the different conditions of the fermentation. A +number of esters are also produced. The characteristic flavour +and odour of wines and spirits is dependent on the proportion of +higher alcohols, aldehydes and esters which may be produced.</p> + +<p>Certain yeasts exercise a reducing action, forming sulphuretted +hydrogen, when sulphur is present. The “stinking fermentations” +occasionally experienced in breweries probably +arise from this, the free sulphur being derived from the hops. +Other yeasts are stated to form sulphurous acid in must and +wort. Another fact of considerable technical importance is, +that the various races of yeast show considerable differences in +the amount and proportion of fermentation products other than +ethyl alcohol and carbonic acid which they produce. From +these remarks it will be clear that to employ the most suitable +kind of yeast for a given alcoholic fermentation is of fundamental +importance in certain industries. It is beyond the scope +of the present article to attempt to describe the different forms +of budding fungi (Saccharomyces), mould fungi and bacteria +which are capable of fermenting sugar solutions. Thus, six +species isolated by Hansen, <i>Saccharomyces cerevisiae</i>, <i>S. Pasteurianus</i> +I.,<a name="fa1b" id="fa1b" href="#ft1b"><span class="sp">1</span></a> II., III., and <i>S. ellipsoideus</i>, contained invertase +and maltase, and can invert and subsequently ferment cane sugar +and maltose. <i>S. exiguus</i> and <i>S. Ludwigii</i> contain only invertase +and not maltase, and therefore ferment cane sugar but not +maltose. <i>S. apiculatus</i> (a common wine yeast) contains neither +of these enzymes, and only ferments solutions of glucose or +laevulose.</p> + +<p>Previously to Hansen’s work the only way of differentiating +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page278" id="page278"></a>278</span> +yeasts was by studying morphological differences with the aid +of the microscope. Max Reess distinguished the species according +to the appearance of the cells thus, the ellipsoidal cells were +designated <i>Saccharomyces ellipsoideus</i>, the sausage-shaped +<i>Saccharomyces Pasteurianus</i>, and so on. It was found by +Hansen that the same species of yeast can assume different +shapes; and it therefore became necessary to determine how +the different varieties of yeast could be distinguished with +certainty. The formation of spores in yeast (first discovered +by T. Schwann in 1839) was studied by Hansen, who found that +each species only developed spores between certain definite +temperatures. The time taken for spore formation varies greatly; +thus, at 52° F., <i>S. cerevisiae</i> takes 10, <i>S. Pasteurianus</i> I. and II. +about 4, <i>S. Pasteurianus</i> III. about 7, and <i>S. ellipsoideus</i> about +4½ days. The formation of spores is used as an analytical +method for determining whether a yeast is contaminated with +another species,—for example: a sample of yeast is placed on a +gypsum or porcelain block saturated with water; if in ten days +at a temperature of 52° F. no spores make their appearance, the +yeast in question may be regarded as <i>S. cerevisiae</i>, and not +associated with <i>S. Pasteurianus</i> or <i>S. ellipsoideus</i>.</p> + +<p>The formation of films on fermented liquids is a well-known +phenomenon and common to all micro-organisms. A free still +surface with a direct access of air are the necessary conditions. +Hansen showed that the microscopic appearance of film cells +of the same species of Saccharomycetes varies according to the +temperature of growth; the limiting temperatures of film formation, +as well as the time of its appearance for the different +species, also vary.</p> + +<p>In the zymo-technical industries the various species of yeast +exhibit different actions during fermentations. A well-known +instance of this is the “top” and “bottom” brewery fermentations +(see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Brewing</a></span>). In a top fermentation—typical of +English breweries—the yeast rises, in a bottom fermentation, +as the phrase implies, it settles in the vessel. Sometimes a +bottom yeast may for a time exhibit signs of a top fermentation. +It has not, however, been possible to transform a typical top yeast +into a permanent typical bottom yeast. There appear to be +no true distinctive characteristics for these two types. Their +selection for a particular purpose depends upon some special +quality which they possess; thus for brewing certain essentials +are demanded as regards stability, clarification, taste and smell; +whereas, in distilleries, the production of alcohol and a high +multiplying power in the yeast are required. Culture yeasts +have also been successfully employed in the manufacture of wine +and cider. By the judicious selection of a type of yeast it is +possible to improve the bouquet, and from an inferior must +obtain a better wine or cider than would otherwise be produced.</p> + +<p>Certain acid fermentations are of common occurrence. The +<i>Bacterium acidi lacti</i> described by Pasteur decomposes milk +sugar into lactic acid. <i>Bacillus amylobacter</i> usually accompanies +the lactic acid organism, and decomposes lactic and other +higher acids with formation of butyric acid. Moulds have been +isolated which occasion the formation of citric acid from glucose. +The production of acetic acid from alcohol has received much +attention at the hands of investigators, and it has an important +technical aspect in the manufacture of vinegar. The phenomenon +of nitrification (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Bacteriology</a></span>, <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Agriculture</a></span> and +<span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Manure</a></span>), <i>i.e.</i> the formation of nitrites and nitrates from ammonia +and its compounds in the soil, was formerly held to be a +purely chemical process, until Schloesing and Müntz suggested +in 1877 that it was biological. It is now known that the action +takes place in two stages; the ammonium salt is first oxidized +to the nitrite stage and subsequently to the nitrate.</p> +<div class="author">(J. L. B.)</div> + +<hr class="foot" /> <div class="note"> + +<p><a name="ft1b" id="ft1b" href="#fa1b"><span class="fn">1</span></a> Hansen found there were three species of spore-bearing Saccharomycetes +and that these could be subdivided into varieties. Thus, +<i>S. cerevisiae</i> I., <i>S. cerevisiae</i> II., <i>S. Pasteurianus</i> I., &c.</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">FERMO<a name="ar48" id="ar48"></a></span> (anc. <i>Firmum Picenum</i>), a town and archiepiscopal +see of the Marches, Italy, in the province of Ascoli Piceno, on a +hill with a fine view, 1046 ft. above sea-level, on a branch from +Porto S. Giorgio on the Adriatic coast railway. Pop. (1901) +town, 16,577, commune 20,542. The summit of the hill was +occupied by the citadel until 1446. It is crowned by the +cathedral, reconstructed in 1227 by Giorgio da Como; the fine +façade and campanile of this period still remain, and the side +portal is good; the beautiful rose-window over the main door +dates from 1348. In the porch are several good tombs, including +one of 1366 by Tura da Imola, and also the modern monument +of Giuseppe Colucci, a famous writer on the antiquities of +Picenum. The interior has been modernized. The building is +now surrounded by a garden, with a splendid view. Against the +side of the hill was built the Roman theatre; scanty traces of +an amphitheatre also exist. Remains of the city wall, of rectangular +blocks of hard limestone, may be seen just outside the +Porta S. Francesco; whether the walling under the Casa Porti +belongs to them is doubtful. The medieval battlemented walls +superposed on it are picturesque. The church of S. Francesco +has a good tower and choir in brickwork of 1240, the rest having +been restored in the 17th century. Under the Dominican +monastery is a very large Roman reservoir in two storeys, belonging +to the imperial period, divided into many chambers, at least +24 on each level, each 30 by 20 ft., for filtration (see G. de Minicis +in <i>Annali dell’ Istituto</i>, 1846, p. 46; 1858, p. 125). The piazza contains +the Palazzo Comunale, restored in 1446, with a statue of +Pope Sixtus V. in front of it. The Biblioteca Comunale contains +a collection of inscriptions and antiquities. Porto S. Giorgio +has a fine castle of 1269, blocking the valley which leads to +Fermo.</p> + +<p>The ancient Firmum Picenum was founded as a Latin colony +in 264 <span class="scs">B.C.</span>, after the conquest of the Picentes, as the local headquarters +of the Roman power, to which it remained faithful. +It was originally governed by five quaestors. It was made a +colony with full rights after the battle of Philippi, the 4th legion +being settled there. It lay at the junction of roads to Pausulae, +Urbs Salvia and Asculum, being connected with the coast road by +a short branch road from Castellum Firmanum (Porto S. Giorgio). +In the 10th century it became the capital of the <i>Marchia Firmana</i>. +In 1199 it became a free city, and remained independent until +1550, when it became subject to the papacy.</p> +<div class="author">(T. As.)</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">FERMOY,<a name="ar49" id="ar49"></a></span> a market town in the east riding of Co. Cork, +Ireland, in the north-east parliamentary division, 21 m. by +road N.E. of Cork, and 14 m. E. of Mallow by a branch of the +Great Southern & Western railway. Pop. of urban district +(1901) 6126. It is situated on the river Blackwater, which +divides the town into two parts, the larger of which is on the +southern bank, and there the trade of the town, which is chiefly +in flour and agricultural produce, is mainly carried on. The +town has several good streets and some noteworthy buildings. +Of the latter, the most prominent are the military barracks on +the north bank of the river, the Protestant church, the Roman +Catholic cathedral and St Colman’s Roman Catholic college. +Fermoy rose to importance only at the beginning of the 19th +century, owing entirely to the devotion of John Anderson, a +citizen, on becoming landlord. The town is a centre for salmon +and trout fishing on the Blackwater and its tributary the +Funshion. The neighbouring scenery is attractive, especially +in the Glen of Araglin, once famed for its ironworks.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">FERN<a name="ar50" id="ar50"></a></span> (from O. Eng. <i>fearn</i>, a word common to Teutonic +languages, cf. Dutch <i>varen</i>, and Ger. <i>Farn</i>; the Indo-European +root, seen in the Sanskrit <i>parna</i>, a feather, shows the primary +meaning; cf. Gr. <span class="grk" title="pteron">πτερόν</span>, feather, <span class="grk" title="pteris">πτερίς</span>, fern), a name often +used to denote the whole botanical class of Pteridophytes, +including both the true ferns, Filicales, by far the largest group +of this class in the existing flora, and the fern-like plants, +Equisetales, Sphenophyllales, Lycopodiales (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Pteridophyta</a></span>).</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">FERNANDEZ, ALVARO,<a name="ar51" id="ar51"></a></span> one of the leading Portuguese explorers +of the earlier 15th century, the age of Henry the Navigator. +He was brought up (as a page or esquire) in the household +of Prince Henry, and while still “young and audacious” took +an important part in the discovery of “Guinea.” He was a +nephew of João Gonçalvez Zarco, who had rediscovered the +Madeira group in Henry’s service (1418-1420), and had become +part-governor of Madeira and commander of Funchal; when +the great expedition of 1445 sailed for West Africa he was +entrusted by his uncle with a specially fine caravel, under particular +injunctions to devote himself to discovery, the most +cherished object of his princely master, so constantly thwarted. +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page279" id="page279"></a>279</span> +Fernandez, as a pioneer, outstripped all other servants of the prince +at this time. After visiting the mouth of the Senegal, rounding +Cape Verde, and landing in Goree (?), he pushed on to the “Cape +of Masts” (Cabo dos Matos, or Mastos, so called from its tall +spindle-palms), probably between Cape Verde and the Gambia, +the most southerly point till then attained. Next year (1446) he +returned, and coasted on much farther, to a bay one hundred +and ten leagues “south” (<i>i.e.</i> S.S.E.) of Cape Verde, perhaps +in the neighbourhood of Konakry and the Los Islands, and but +little short of Sierra Leone. This record was not broken till +1461, when Sierra Leone was sighted and named. A wound, +received from a poisoned arrow in an encounter with natives, +now compelled Fernandez to return to Portugal, where he was +received with distinguished honour and reward by Prince Henry +and the regent of the kingdom, Henry’s brother Pedro.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See Gomes Eannes de Azurara, <i>Chronica de ... Guiné</i>, chs. +lxxv., lxxxvii.; João de Barros, <i>Asia</i>, Decade I., bk. i. chs. xiii., xiv.</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">FERNANDEZ, DIEGO,<a name="ar52" id="ar52"></a></span> a Spanish adventurer and historian +of the 16th century. Born at Palencia, he was educated for the +church, but about 1545 he embarked for Peru, where he served +in the royal army under Alonzo de Alvarado. Andres Hurtado +de Mendoza, marquess of Cañeté, who became viceroy of Peru in +1655, bestowed on Fernandez the office of chronicler of Peru; +and in this capacity he wrote a narrative of the insurrection of +Francisco Hernandez Giron, of the rebellion of Gonzalo Pizarro, +and of the administration of Pedro de la Gasca. The whole work, +under the title <i>Primera y segunda parte de la Historia del Piru</i>, +was published at Seville in 1571 and was dedicated to King +Philip II. It is written in a clear and intelligible style, and with +more art than is usual in the compositions of the time. It gives +copious details, and, as he had access to the correspondence +and official documents of the Spanish leaders, it is, although +necessarily possessing bias, the fullest and most authentic record +existing of the events it relates.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>A notice of the work will be found in W.H. Prescott’s <i>History of +the Conquest of Peru</i> (new ed., London, 1902).</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">FERNANDEZ, JOHN<a name="ar53" id="ar53"></a></span> (<i>João</i>, <i>Joam</i>), Portuguese traveller of the +15th century. He was perhaps the earliest of modern explorers +in the upland of West Africa, and a pioneer of the European +slave- and gold-trade of Guinea. We first hear of him (before +1445) as a captive of the Barbary Moors in the western Mediterranean; +while among these he acquired a knowledge of +Arabic, and probably conceived the design of exploration in the +interior of the continent whose coasts the Portuguese were now +unveiling. In 1445 he volunteered to stay in Guinea and gather +what information he could for Prince Henry the Navigator; +with this object he accompanied Antam Gonçalvez to the +“River of Gold” (Rio d’Ouro, Rio de Oro) in 23° 40′ N., where +he landed and went inland with some native shepherds. He +stayed seven months in the country, which lay just within +Moslem Africa, slightly north of Pagan Negroland (W. Sudan); +he was taken off again by Antam Gonçalvez at a point farther +down the coast, near the “Cape of Ransom” (Cape Mirik), in +19° 22′ 14″; and his account of his experiences proved of great +interest and value, not only as to the natural features, climate, +fauna and flora of the south-western Sahara, but also as to the +racial affinities, language, script, religion, nomad habits, and +trade of its inhabitants. These people—though Mahommedans, +maintaining a certain trade in slaves, gold, &c., with the Barbary +coast (especially with Tunis), and classed as “Arabs,” +“Berbers,” and “Tawny Moors”—did not then write or speak +Arabic. In 1446 and 1447 John Fernandez accompanied other +expeditions to the Rio d’Ouro and other parts of West Africa +in the service of Prince Henry. He was personally known to +Gomes Eannes de Azurara, the historian of this early period of +Portuguese expansion; and from Azurara’s language it is clear +that Fernandez’ revelation of unknown lands and races was fully +appreciated at home.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See Azurara, <i>Chronica de ... Guiné</i>, chs. xxix., xxxii., xxxiv., +xxxv., lxxvii., lxxviii., xc., xci., xciii.</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">FERNANDEZ, JUAN<a name="ar54" id="ar54"></a></span> (fl. <i>c</i>. 1570), Spanish navigator and discoverer. +While navigating the coasts of South America it +occurred to him that the south winds constantly prevailing +near the shore, and retarding voyages between Peru and Chile, +might not exist farther out at sea. His idea proved correct, and +by the help of the trade winds and some currents at a distance +from the coast he sailed with such rapidity (thirty days) from +Callao to Chile that he was apprehended on a charge of sorcery. +His inquisitors, however, accepted his natural explanation of +the marvel. During one of his voyages in 1563 (from Lima to +Valdivia) Fernandez discovered the islands which now bear his +name. He was so enchanted with their beauty and fertility that +he solicited the concession of them from the Spanish government. +It was granted in 1572, but a colony which he endeavoured to +establish at the largest of them (Isla Mas-a-Tierra) soon broke +up, leaving behind the goats, whose progeny were hunted by +Alexander Selkirk. In 1574 Fernandez discovered St Felix and +St Ambrose islands (in 27° S., 82° 7′ W.); and in 1576, while +voyaging in the southern ocean, he is said to have sighted not +only Easter Island, but also a continent, which was probably +Australia or New Zealand if the story (rejected by most critics, +but with reservations as to Easter Island) is to be accepted.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See J.L. Arias, <i>Memoir recommending to the king the conversion +of the new discovered islands</i> (in Spanish, 1609; Eng. trans., 1773); +Ulloa, <i>Relacion del Viaje</i>, bk. ii. ch. iv.; Alexander Dalrymple, <i>An +Historical Collection of the several Voyages and Discoveries in the +South Pacific Ocean</i> (London, 1769-1771); Fréville, <i>Voyages de la +Mer du Sud par les Espagnols</i>.</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">FERNANDEZ, LUCAS,<a name="ar55" id="ar55"></a></span> Spanish dramatist, was born at Salamanca +about the middle of the 15th century. Nothing is known +of his life, and he is represented by a single volume of plays, +<i>Farsas y églogas al modo y estilo pastoril</i> (1514). In his secular +pieces—a <i>comedia</i> and two <i>farsas</i>—he introduces few personages, +employs the simplest possible action, and burlesques the language +of the uneducated class; the secular and devout elements +are skilfully intermingled in his two <i>Farsas del nascimiento de +Nuestro Señor Jesucristo</i>. But the best of his dramatic essays +is the <i>Auto de la Pasión</i>, a devout play intended to be given on +Maundy Thursday. It is written in the manner of Encina, with +less spontaneity, but with a sombre force to which Encina +scarcely attained.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>Fernandez’ plays were reprinted by the Spanish Academy in 1867.</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">FERNANDINA,<a name="ar56" id="ar56"></a></span> a city, a port of entry, and the county-seat of +Nassau county, Florida, U.S.A., a winter and summer resort, +in the N.E. part of the state, 36 m. N.E. of Jacksonville, on +Amelia Island (about 22 m. long and from ½ m. to 1½ m. wide), +which is separated from the mainland by an arm of the sea, known +as Amelia river and bay. Pop. (1900) 3245; (1905, state census), +4959 (2957 negroes); (1910) 3482. Fernandina is served by the +Seaboard Air Line railway, and by steamship lines connecting +with domestic and foreign ports; its harbour, which has the +deepest water on the E. coast of Florida, opens on the N. to +Cumberland Sound, which was improved by the Federal government, +beginning in 1879, reducing freight rates at Fernandina +by 25 to 40%. Under an act of 1907 the channel of Fernandina +harbour, 1300 ft. wide at the entrance and about 2 m. long, was +dredged to a depth of 20 to 24 ft. at mean low water with a +width of 400 to 600 ft. The “inside” water-route between +Savannah, Georgia and Fernandina is improved by the Federal +government (1892 sqq.) and has a 7-ft. channel. The principal +places of interest are “Amelia Beach,” more than 20 m. long +and 200 ft. wide, connected with the city by a compact shell road +nearly 2 m. long and by electric line; the Amelia Island lighthouse, +in the N. end of the island, established in 1836 and rebuilt +in 1880; Fort Clinch, at the entrance to the harbour; +Cumberland Island, in Georgia, N. of Amelia Island, where land +was granted to General Nathanael Greene after the War of +American Independence by the state of Georgia; and Dungeness, +the estate of the Carnegie family. Ocean City, on Amelia +Beach, is a popular pleasure resort. The principal industries +are the manufacture of lumber, cotton, palmetto fibres, and +cigars, the canning of oysters, and the building and repair of +railway cars. The foreign exports, chiefly lumber, railway ties, +cotton, phosphate rock, and naval stores, were valued at +$9,346,704 in 1907; and the imports in 1907 at $116,514.</p> + +<p>The harbour of Fernandina was known to the early explorers +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page280" id="page280"></a>280</span> +of Florida, and it was here that Dominic de Gourgues landed +when he made his expedition against the Spanish at San Mateo +in 1568. An Indian mission was established by Spanish priests +later in the same century, but it was not successful. When +Georgia was founded, General James Oglethorpe placed a military +guard on Amelia Island to prevent sudden attack upon his +colony by the Spanish, and the first blood shed in the petty +warfare between Georgia and Florida was the murder of two +unarmed members of the guard by a troop of Spanish soldiers +and Indians in 1739. The first permanent settlement was made +by the Spanish in 1808, at what is now the village of Old Fernandina, +about 1 m. from the city. The island was a centre for +smuggling during the period of the embargo and non-importation +acts preceding the war of 1812. This was the pretext for General +George Matthews (1738-1812) to gather a band of adventurers +at St Mary’s, Georgia, invade the island, and capture Fernandina +in 1812. In the following year the American forces were withdrawn. +In 1817 Gregor MacGregor, a filibuster who had aided +the Spanish provinces of South America in their revolt against +Spain, fitted out an expedition in Baltimore and seized Fernandina, +but departed soon after. Later in the same year +Louis Aury, another adventurer, appeared with a small force +from Texas, and took possession of the place in the name of the +Republic of Mexico. In the following year Aury was expelled +by United States troops, who held Fernandina in trust for +Spain until Florida was finally ceded to the United States in +1821. Fernandina was first incorporated in 1859. In 1861 +Fort Clinch was seized by the Confederates, and Fernandina +harbour was a centre of blockade running in the first two years +of the Civil War. In 1862 the place was captured by a Federal +naval force from Port Royal, South Carolina, commanded by +Commodore S.F. Du Pont.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">FERNANDO DE NORONHA<a name="ar57" id="ar57"></a></span> [<i>Fernão de N.</i>], an island in the +South Atlantic, 125 m. from the coast of Brazil, to which country +it belongs, in 3° 50′ S., 32° 25′ W. It is about 7 m. long and 1½ +wide, and some other islets lie adjacent to it. Its surface is +rugged, and it contains a number of rocky hills from 500 to +700 ft. high, and one peak towering to the height of 1089 ft. It +is formed of basalt, trachyte and phonolite, and the soil is very +fertile. The climate is healthy. It is defended by forts, and +serves as a place of banishment for criminals from Brazil. The +next largest island of the group is about a mile in circumference, +and the others are small barren rocks. The population is about +2000, all males, including some 1400 criminals, and a garrison +of 150. Communication is maintained by steamer with Pernambuco. +The island takes name from its Portuguese discoverer +(1503), the count of Noronha.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">FERNANDO PO,<a name="ar58" id="ar58"></a></span> or <span class="sc">Fernando Póo</span>, a Spanish island on the +west coast of Africa, in the Bight of Biafra, about 20 m. from +the mainland, in 3° 12′ N. and 8° 48′ E. It is of volcanic origin, +related to the Cameroon system of the adjacent mainland, is the +largest island in the Gulf of Guinea, is 44 m. long from N.N.E. +to S.S.W., about 20 m. broad, and has an area of about 780 sq. m. +Fernando Po is noted for its beautiful aspect, seeming from a +short distance to be a single mountain rising from the sea, its +sides covered with luxuriant vegetation. The shores are steep +and rocky and the coast plain narrow. This plain is succeeded +by the slopes of the mountains which occupy the rest of the +island and culminate in the magnificent cone of Clarence Peak +or Pico de Santa Isabel (native name Owassa). Clarence Peak, +about 10,000 ft. high,<a name="fa1c" id="fa1c" href="#ft1c"><span class="sp">1</span></a> is in the north-central part of the island. +In the south Musolo Mt. attains a height of 7400 ft. There are +numerous other peaks between 4000 and 6000 ft. high. The +mountains contain craters and crater lakes, and are covered, most +of them to their summits, with forests. Down the narrow intervening +valleys rush torrential streams which have cut deep beds +through the coast plains. The trees most characteristic of the +forest are oil palms and tree ferns, but there are many varieties, +including ebony, mahogany and the African oak. The undergrowth +is very dense; it includes the sugar-cane and cotton +and indigo plants. The fauna includes antelopes, monkeys, +lemurs, the civet cat, porcupine, pythons and green tree-snakes, +crocodiles and turtles. The climate is very unhealthy in the +lower districts, where malarial fever is common. The mean +temperature on the coast is 78° Fahr. and varies little, but in +the higher altitudes there is considerable daily variation. The +rainfall is very heavy except during November-January, which +is considered the dry season.</p> + +<p>The inhabitants number about 25,000. In addition to about +500 Europeans, mostly Spaniards and Cubans, they are of two +classes, the Bubis or Bube (formerly also called Ediya), who +occupy the interior, and the coast dwellers, a mixed Negro race, +largely descended from slave ancestors with an admixture of +Portuguese and Spanish blood, and known to the Bubis as +“Portos”—a corruption of Portuguese. The Bubis are of +Bantu stock and early immigrants from the mainland. Physically +they are a finely developed race, extremely jealous of their +independence and unwilling to take service of any kind with +Europeans. They go unclothed, smearing their bodies with a +kind of pomatum. They stick pieces of wood in the lobes of their +ears, wear numerous armlets made of ivory, beads or grass, and +always wear hats, generally made of palm leaves. Their weapons +are mainly of wood; stone axes and knives were in use as late +as 1858. They have no knowledge of working iron. Their +villages are built in the densest parts of the forest, and care is +taken to conceal the approach to them. The Bubis are sportsmen +and fishermen rather than agriculturists. The staple foods +of the islanders generally are millet, rice, yams and bananas. +Alcohol is distilled from the sugar-cane. The natives possess +numbers of sheep, goats and fowls.</p> + +<p>The principal settlement is Port Clarence (pop. 1500), called +by the Spaniards Santa Isabel, a safe and commodious harbour +on the north coast. In its graveyard are buried Richard Lander +and several other explorers of West Africa. Port Clarence is +unhealthy, and the seat of government has been removed to +Basile, a small town 5 m. from Port Clarence and over 1000 ft. +above the sea. On the west coast are the bay and port of San +Carlos, on the east coast Concepcion Bay and town. The chief +industry until the close of the 19th century was the collection of +palm-oil, but the Spaniards have since developed plantations +of cocoa, coffee, sugar, tobacco, vanilla and other tropical plants. +The kola nut is also cultivated. The cocoa plantations are of +most importance. The amount of cocoa exported in 1905 was +1800 tons, being 370 tons above the average export for the preceding +five years. The total value of the trade of the island +(1900-1905) was about £250,000 a year.</p> + +<p><i>History.</i>—The island was discovered towards the close of the +15th century by a Portuguese navigator called Fernão do Po, who, +struck by its beauty, named it Formosa, but it soon came to be +called by the name of its discoverer.<a name="fa2c" id="fa2c" href="#ft2c"><span class="sp">2</span></a> A Portuguese colony was +established in the island, which together with Annobon was +ceded to Spain in 1778. The first attempts of Spain to develop +the island ended disastrously, and in 1827, with the consent of +Spain, the administration of the island was taken over by Great +Britain, the British “superintendent” having a Spanish commission +as governor. By the British Fernando Po was used as +a naval station for the ships engaged in the suppression of the +slave trade. The British headquarters were named Port Clarence +and the adjacent promontory Cape William, in honour of the +duke of Clarence (William IV.). In 1844 the Spaniards reclaimed +the island, refusing to sell their rights to Great Britain. They +did no more at that time, however, than hoist the Spanish flag, +appointing a British resident, John Beecroft, governor. Beecroft, +who was made British consul in 1849, died in 1854. During the +British occupation a considerable number of Sierra Leonians, +West Indians and freed slaves settled in the island, and English +became and remains the common speech of the coast peoples. +In 1858 a Spanish governor was sent out, and the Baptist +missionaries who had laboured in the island since 1843 were +compelled to withdraw. They settled in Ambas Bay on the +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page281" id="page281"></a>281</span> +neighbouring mainland (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Cameroon</a></span>). The Jesuits who succeeded +the Baptists were also expelled, but mission and educational +work is now carried on by other Roman Catholic agencies, +and (since 1870) by the Primitive Methodists. In 1879 the +Spanish government recalled its officials, but a few years later, +when the partition of Africa was being effected, they were replaced +and a number of Cuban political prisoners were deported +thither. Very little was done to develop the resources of the +island until after the loss of the Spanish colonies in the West +Indies and the Pacific, when Spain turned her attention to her +African possessions. Stimulated by the success of the Portuguese +cocoa plantations in the neighbouring island of St Thomas, +the Spaniards started similar plantations, with some measure of +success. The strategical importance and commercial possibilities +of the island caused Germany and other powers to approach +Spain with a view to its acquisition, and in 1900 the +Spaniards gave France, in return for territorial concessions on +the mainland, the right of pre-emption over the island and her +other West African possessions.</p> + +<p>The administration of the island is in the hands of a governor-general, +assisted by a council, and responsible to the ministry +of foreign affairs at Madrid. The governor-general has under his +authority the sub-governors of the other Spanish possessions +in the Gulf of Guinea, namely, the Muni River Settlement, +Corisco and Annobon (see those articles). None of these +possessions is self-supporting.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See E. d’Almonte, “Someras Notas ... de la isla de Fernando +Póo y de la Guinea continental española,” in <i>Bol. Real. Soc. Geog.</i> of +Madrid (1902); and a further article in the <i>Riv. Geog. Col.</i> of Madrid +(1908); E.L. Vilches, “Fernando Póo y la Guinea española,” in +the <i>Bol. Real. Soc. Geog.</i> (1901); San Javier, <i>Tres Años en Fernando +Póo</i> (Madrid, 1875); O. Baumann, <i>Eine africanische Tropeninsel: +Fernando Póo und die Bube</i> (Vienna, 1888); Sir H.H. Johnston, +<i>George Grenfell and the Congo ... and Notes on Fernando Pô</i> +(London, 1908); Mary H. Kingsley, <i>Travels in West Africa</i>, ch. iii. +(London, 1897); T.J. Hutchinson, sometime British Consul at +Fernando Po, <i>Impressions of Western Africa</i>, chs. xii. and xiii. +(London, 1858), and <i>Ten Years’ Wanderings among the Ethiopians</i>, +chs. xvii. and xviii. (London, 1861). For the Bubi language see +J. Clarke, <i>The Adeeyah Vocabulary</i> (1841), and <i>Introduction to the +Fernandian Tongue</i> (1848). Consult also <i>Wanderings in West Africa</i> +(1863) and other books written by Sir Richard Burton as the result +of his consulship at Fernando Po, 1861-1865, and the works cited +under <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Muni River Settlements</a></span>.</p> +</div> + +<hr class="foot" /> <div class="note"> + +<p><a name="ft1c" id="ft1c" href="#fa1c"><span class="fn">1</span></a> The heights given by explorers vary from 9200 to 10,800 ft.</p> + +<p><a name="ft2c" id="ft2c" href="#fa2c"><span class="fn">2</span></a> Some authorities maintain that another Portuguese seaman, +Lopes Gonsalves, was the discoverer of the island. The years 1469, +1471 and 1486 are variously given as those of the date of the discovery.</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">FERNEL, JEAN FRANÇOIS<a name="ar59" id="ar59"></a></span> (1497-1558), French physician, +was born at Clermont in 1497, and after receiving his early +education at his native town, entered the college of Sainte-Barbe, +Paris. At first he devoted himself to mathematical and astronomical +studies; his <i>Cosmotheoria</i> (1528) records a determination +of a degree of the meridian, which he made by counting the revolutions +of his carriage wheels on a journey between Paris and +Amiens. But from 1534 he gave himself up entirely to medicine, +in which he graduated in 1530. His extraordinary general +erudition, and the skill and success with which he sought to +revive the study of the old Greek physicians, gained him a great +reputation, and ultimately the office of physician to the court. +He practised with great success, and at his death in 1558 left +behind him an immense fortune. He also wrote <i>Monalosphaerium, +sive astrolabii genus, generalis horarii structura et +usus</i> (1526); <i>De proportionibus</i> (1528); <i>De evacuandi ratione</i> +(1545); <i>De abditis rerum causis</i> (1548); and <i>Medicina ad +Henricum II.</i> (1554).</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">FERNIE,<a name="ar60" id="ar60"></a></span> an important city in the east Kootenay district of +British Columbia. Pop. about 4000. It is situated on the Crow’s +Nest branch of the Canadian Pacific railway, at the junction of +Coal Creek with the Elk river, and owes its importance to the +extensive coal mines in its vicinity. There are about 500 coke +ovens in operation at Fernie, which supply most of the smelting +plants in southern British Columbia with fuel.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">FERNOW, KARL LUDWIG<a name="ar61" id="ar61"></a></span> (1763-1808), German art-critic +and archaeologist, was born in Pomerania on the 19th of +November 1763. His father was a servant in the household of +the lord of Blumenhagen. At the age of twelve he became +clerk to a notary, and was afterwards apprenticed to a druggist. +While serving his time he had the misfortune accidentally to +shoot a young man who came to visit him; and although through +the intercession of his master he escaped prosecution, the untoward +event weighed heavily on his mind, and led him at the +close of his apprenticeship to quit his native place. He obtained +a situation at Lübeck, where he had leisure to cultivate his +natural taste for drawing and poetry. Having formed an +acquaintance with the painter Carstens, whose influence was an +important stimulus and help to him, he renounced his trade of +druggist, and set up as a portrait-painter and drawing-master. +At Ludwigslust he fell in love with a young girl, and followed +her to Weimar; but failing in his suit, he went next to Jena. +There he was introduced to Professor Reinhold, and in his house +met the Danish poet Baggesen. The latter invited him to accompany +him to Switzerland and Italy, a proposal which he eagerly +accepted (1794) for the sake of the opportunity of furthering his +studies in the fine arts. On Baggesen’s return to Denmark, +Fernow, assisted by some of his friends, visited Rome and made +some stay there. He now renewed his intercourse with Carstens, +who had settled at Rome, and applied himself to the study of +the history and theory of the fine arts and of the Italian language +and literature. Making rapid progress, he was soon qualified to +give a course of lectures on archaeology, which was attended +by the principal artists then at Rome. Having married a Roman +lady, he returned in 1802 to Germany, and was appointed in the +following year professor extraordinary of Italian literature at +Jena. In 1804 he accepted the post of librarian to Amelia, +duchess-dowager of Weimar, which gave him the leisure he +desired for the purpose of turning to account the literary and +archaeological researches in which he had engaged at Rome. +His most valuable work, the <i>Römische Studien</i>, appeared in 3 +vols. (1806-1808). Among his other works are—<i>Das Leben +des Künstlers Carstens</i> (1806), <i>Ariosto’s Lebenslauf</i> (1809), and +<i>Francesco Petrarca</i> (1818). Fernow died at Weimar, December 4, +1808.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>A memoir of his life by Johanna Schopenhauer, mother of the +philosopher, Arthur Schopenhauer, appeared in 1810, and a complete +edition of his works in 1829.</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">FEROZEPUR,<a name="ar62" id="ar62"></a></span> or <span class="sc">Firozpur</span>, a town and district of British +India, in the Jullundur division of the Punjab. The town is a +railway junction connecting the North-Western and Rajputana +railways, and is situated about 4 m. from the present south +bank of the Sutlej. Pop. (1901) 49,341. The arsenal is the +largest in India, and Ferozepur is the headquarters of a brigade +in the 3rd division of the northern army corps. British rule was +first established at Ferozepur in 1835, when, on the failure of +heirs to the Sikh family who possessed it, a small territory 86 m. +in extent became an escheat to the British government, and the +present district has been gradually formed around this nucleus. +The strategic importance of Ferozepur was at this time very +great; and when, in 1839, Captain (afterwards Sir Henry) +Lawrence took charge of the station as political officer, it was the +outpost of British India in the direction of the Sikh power. +Ferozepur accordingly became the scene of operations during the +first Sikh War. The Sikhs crossed the Sutlej in December 1845, +and were defeated successively at Mudki, Ferozepur, Aliwal and +Sobraon; after which they withdrew into their own territory, +and peace was concluded at Lahore. At the time of the mutiny +Ferozepur cantonments contained two regiments of native +infantry and a regiment of native cavalry, together with the 61st +Foot and two companies of European artillery. One of the +native regiments, the 57th, was disarmed; but the other, the +45th, broke into mutiny, and, after an unsuccessful attempt +to seize the magazine, which was held by the Europeans, proceeded +to join the rebel forces in Delhi. Throughout the mutiny +Ferozepur remained in the hands of the English.</p> + +<p>Ferozepur has rapidly advanced in material prosperity of late +years, and is now a very important seat of commerce, trade being +mainly in grain. The main streets of the city are wide and well +paved, and the whole is enclosed by a low brick wall. Great improvements +have been made in the surroundings of the city. +The cantonment lies 2 m. to the south of the city, and is connected +with it by a good metalled road.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page282" id="page282"></a>282</span></p> + +<p>The <span class="sc">District of Ferozepur</span> comprises an area of 4302 sq. m. +The surface is level, with the exception of a few sand-hills in the +south and south-east. The country consists of two distinct tracts, +that liable to annual fertilizing inundations from the Sutlej, +known as the <i>bhet</i>, and the <i>rohi</i> or upland tract. The only river +is the Sutlej, which runs along the north-western boundary. +The principal crops are wheat, barley, millet, gram, pulses, oil-seeds, +cotton, tobacco, &c. The manufactures are of the +humblest kind, consisting chiefly of cotton and wool-weaving, +and are confined entirely to the supply of local wants. The +Lahore and Ludhiāna road runs for 51 m. through the district, +and forms an important trade route. The North-Western, the +Southern Punjab, and a branch of the Rajputana-Malwa railways +serve the district. The other important towns and seats +of commerce are Fazilka (pop. 8505), Dharmkot (6731), Moga +(6725), and Muktsar (6389). Owing principally to the dryness +of its climate, Ferozepur has the reputation of being an exceptionally +healthy district. In September and October, however, +after the annual rains, the people suffer a good deal from remittent +fever. In 1901 the population was 958,072. Distributaries +of the Sirhind canal water the whole district.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">FEROZESHAH,<a name="ar63" id="ar63"></a></span> a village in the Punjab, India, notable as the +scene of one of the chief battles in the first Sikh War. The battle +immediately succeeded that of Mudki, and was fought on the +21st and 22nd of December 1845. During its course Sir Hugh +Gough, the British commander, was overruled by the governor-general, +Lord Hardinge, who was acting as his second in command +(see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Sikh Wars</a></span>). At the end of the first day’s fighting +the British had occupied the Sikh position, but had not gained +an undisputed victory. On the following morning the battle +was resumed, and the Sikhs were reinforced by a second army +under Tej Singh; but through cowardice or treachery Tej Singh +withdrew at the critical moment, leaving the field to the British. +In the course of the fight the British lost 694 killed and 1721 +wounded, the vast majority being British troops, while the Sikhs +lost 100 guns and about 5000 killed and wounded.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">FERRAND, ANTOINE FRANÇOIS CLAUDE,<a name="ar64" id="ar64"></a></span> <span class="sc">Comte</span> (1751-1825), +French statesman and political writer, was born in Paris +on the 4th of July 1751, and became a member of the parlement +of Paris at eighteen. He left France with the first party of +emigrants, and attached himself to the prince of Condé; later +he was a member of the council of regency formed by the comte +de Provence after the death of Louis XVI. He lived at Regensburg +until 1801, when he returned to France, though he still +sought to serve the royalist cause. In 1814 Ferrand was made +minister of state and postmaster-general. He countersigned +the act of sequestration of Napoleon’s property, and introduced +a bill for the restoration of the property of the emigrants, +establishing a distinction, since become famous, between royalists +of <i>la ligne droite</i> and those of <i>la ligne courbe</i>. At the second +restoration Ferrand was again for a short time postmaster-general. +He was also made a peer of France, member of the +privy council, grand-officer and secretary of the orders of Saint +Michel and the Saint Esprit, and in 1816 member of the Academy, +He continued his active support of ultra-royalist views until his +death, which took place in Paris on the 17th of January 1825.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>Besides a large number of political pamphlets, Ferrand is the +author of <i>L’Esprit de l’histoire, ou Lettres d’un père à son fils sur la +manière d’étudier l’histoire</i> (4 vols., 1802), which reached seven +editions, the last number in 1826 having prefixed to it a biographical +sketch of the author by his nephew Héricart de Thury; <i>Éloge +historique de Madame Élisabeth de France</i> (1814); <i>Œuvres dramatiques +</i>(1817); <i>Théorie des révolutions rapprochée des événements qui +en ont été l’origine, le développement, ou la suite</i> (4 vols., 1817); and +<i>Histoire des trois démembrements de la Pologne, pour faire suite à +l’Histoire de l’anarchie de Pologne par Rulhière</i> (3 vols., 1820).</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">FERRAR, NICHOLAS<a name="ar65" id="ar65"></a></span> (1592-1637), English theologian, was +born in London in 1592 and educated at Clare Hall, Cambridge, +graduating in 1610. He was obliged for some years to travel for +his health, but on returning to England in 1618 became actively +connected with the Virginia Company. When this company +was deprived of its patent in 1623 Ferrar turned his attention +to politics, and was elected to parliament. But he soon decided +to devote himself to a religious life; he purchased the manor +of Little Gidding in Huntingdonshire, where he organized a +small religious community. Here, in 1626, he was ordained a +deacon by Laud, and declining preferment, he lived an austere, +almost monastic life of study and good works. He died on the +4th of December 1637, and the house was despoiled and the +community broken up ten years later. There are extant a +number of “harmonies” of the Gospel, printed and bound by +the community, two of them by Ferrar himself. One of the +latter was made for Charles I. on his request, after a visit in +1633 to see the “Arminian Nunnery at Little Gidding,” which +had been the subject of some scandalous—and undeserved—criticism.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">FERRAR, ROBERT<a name="ar66" id="ar66"></a></span> (d. 1555), bishop of St David’s and +martyr, born about the end of the 15th century of a Yorkshire +family, is said to have been educated at Cambridge, whence he +proceeded to Oxford and became a canon regular of St Augustine. +He came under the influence of Thomas Gerrard and Lutheran +theology, and was compelled to bear a faggot with Anthony +Dalaber and others in 1528. He graduated B.D. in 1533, accompanied +Bishop Barlow on his embassy to Scotland in 1535, and +was made prior of St Oswald’s at Nostell near Pontefract. At +the dissolution he surrendered his priory without compunction +to the crown, and received a liberal pension. For the rest of +Henry’s reign his career is obscure; perhaps he fled abroad on +the enactment of the Six Articles. He certainly married, and +is said to have been made Cranmer’s chaplain, and bishop of +Sodor and Man; but he was never consecrated to that see.</p> + +<p>After the accession of Edward VI., Ferrar was, probably +through the influence of Bishop Barlow, appointed chaplain to +Protector Somerset, a royal visitor, and bishop of St David’s +on Barlow’s translation to Bath and Wells in 1548. He was +the first bishop appointed by letters patent under the act passed +in 1547 without the form of capitular election; and the service +performed at his consecration was also novel, being in English; +he also preached at St Paul’s on the 11th of November clad +only as a priest and not as a bishop, and inveighed against vestments +and altars. At St David’s he had trouble at once with his +singularly turbulent chapter, who, finding that he was out of +favour at court since Somerset’s fall in 1549, brought a long list of +fantastic charges against him. He had taught his child to whistle, +dined with his servants, talked of “worldly things such as baking, +brewing, enclosing, ploughing and mining,” preferred walking +to riding, and denounced the debasement of the coinage. He +seems to have been a kindly, homely, somewhat feckless person +like many an excellent parish priest, who did not conceal his +indignation at some of Northumberland’s deeds. He had voted +against the act of November 1549 for a reform of the canon law, +and on a later occasion his nonconformity brought him into +conflict with the Council; he was also the only bishop who +satisfied Hooper’s test of sacramental orthodoxy. The Council +accordingly listened to the accusations of Ferrar’s chapter, and +in 1552 he was summoned to London and imprisoned on a charge +of <i>praemunire</i> incurred by omitting the king’s authority in a +commission which he issued for the visitation of his diocese.</p> + +<p>Imprisonment on such a charge under Northumberland might +have been expected to lead to liberation under Mary. But Ferrar +had been a monk and was married. Even so, it is difficult to see +on what legal ground he was kept in the queen’s bench prison +after July 1553; for Mary herself was repudiating the royal +authority in religion. Ferrar’s marriage accounts for the loss +of his bishopric in March 1554, and his opinions for his further +punishment. As soon as the heresy laws and ecclesiastical +jurisdiction had been re-established, Ferrar was examined by +Gardiner, and then with signal indecency sent down to be tried +by Morgan, his successor in the bishopric of St David’s. He +appealed from Morgan’s sentence to Pole as papal legate, but in +vain, and was burnt at Caermarthen on the 30th of March 1555. +It was perhaps the most wanton of all Mary’s acts of persecution; +Ferrar had been no such protagonist of the Reformation as +Cranmer, Ridley, Hooper and Latimer; he had had nothing +to do with Northumberland’s or Wyatt’s conspiracy. He had +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page283" id="page283"></a>283</span> +taken no part in politics, and, so far as is known, had not said a +word or raised a hand against Mary. He was burnt simply +because he could not change his religion with the law and would +not pretend that he could; and his execution is a complete +refutation of the idea that Mary only persecuted heretics because +and when they were traitors.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See <i>Dictionary of National Biography</i>, xviii. 380-382, and authorities +there cited. Also Acts of the Privy Council (1550-1554); H.A.L. +Fisher, <i>Political History of England</i>, vol. vi.</p> +</div> +<div class="author">(A. F. P.)</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">FERRARA,<a name="ar67" id="ar67"></a></span> a city and archiepiscopal see of Emilia, Italy, +capital of the province of Ferrara, 30 m. N.N.E. of Bologna, +situated 30 ft. above sea-level on the Po di Vomano, a branch +channel of the main stream of the Po, which is 3½ m. N. Pop. +(1901) 32,968 (town), 86,392 (commune). The town has broad +streets and numerous palaces, which date from the 16th century, +when it was the seat of the court of the house of Este, and had, +it is said, 100,000 inhabitants.</p> + +<p>The most prominent building is the square castle of the house +of Este, in the centre of the town, a brick building surrounded +by a moat, with four towers. It was built after 1385 and partly +restored in 1554; the pavilions on the top of the towers date +from the latter year. Near it is the hospital of S. Anna, where +Tasso was confined during his attack of insanity (1579-1586). +The Palazzo del Municipio, rebuilt in the 18th century, was the +earlier residence of the Este family. Close by is the cathedral +of S. Giorgio, consecrated in 1135, when the Romanesque lower +part of the main façade and the side façades were completed. +It was built by Guglielmo degli Adelardi (d. 1146), who is buried +in it. The upper part of the main façade, with arcades of pointed +arches, dates from the 13th century, and the portal has recumbent +lions and elaborate sculptures above. The interior was +restored in the baroque style in 1712. The campanile, in the +Renaissance style, dates from 1451-1493, but the last storey was +added at the end of the 16th century. Opposite the cathedral +is the Gothic Palazzo della Ragione, in brick (1315-1326), now +the law-courts. A little way off is the university, which has +faculties of law, medicine and natural science (hardly 100 +students in all); the library has valuable MSS., including part +of that of the <i>Orlando Furioso</i> and letters by Tasso. The other +churches are of less interest than the cathedral, though S. +Francesco, S. Benedetto, S. Maria in Vado and S. Cristoforo are +all good early Renaissance buildings. The numerous early Renaissance +palaces, often with good terra-cotta decorations, form +quite a feature of Ferrara; few towns of Italy have so many +of them proportionately, though they are mostly comparatively +small in size. Among them may be noted those in the N. +quarter (especially the four at the intersection of its two main +streets), which was added by Ercole (Hercules) I. in 1492-1505, +from the plans of Biagio Rossetti, and hence called the “Addizione +Erculea.” The finest of these is the Palazzo de’ Diamanti, so +called from the diamond points into which the blocks of stone +with which it is faced are cut. It contains the municipal picture +gallery, with a large number of pictures of artists of the school +of Ferrara. This did not require prominence until the latter +half of the 15th century, when its best masters were Cosimo +Tura (1432-1495), Francesco Cossa (d. 1480) and Ercole dei +Roberti (d. 1496). To this period are due famous frescoes in the +Palazzo Schifanoia, which was built by the Este family; those of +the lower row depict the life of Borso of Este, in the central +row are the signs of the zodiac, and in the upper are allegorical +representations of the months. The vestibule was decorated +with stucco mouldings by Domenico di Paris of Padua. The +building also contains fine choir-books with miniatures, and a +collection of coins and Renaissance medals. The simple house +of Ariosto, erected by himself after 1526, in which he died in +1532, lies farther west. The best Ferrarese masters of the 16th +century of the Ferrara school were Lorenzo Costa (1460-1535), +and Dosso Dossi (1479-1542), the most eminent of all, while +Benvenuto Tisi (Garofalo, 1481-1559) is somewhat monotonous +and insipid.</p> + +<p>The origin of Ferrara is uncertain, and probabilities are against +the supposition that it occupies the site of the ancient Forum +Alieni. It was probably a settlement formed by the inhabitants +of the lagoons at the mouth of the Po. It appears first in a +document of Aistulf of 753 or 754 as a city forming part of the +exarchate of Ravenna. After 984 we find it a fief of Tedaldo, +count of Modena and Canossa, nephew of the emperor Otho I. +It afterwards made itself independent, and in 1101 was taken +by siege by the countess Matilda. At this time it was mainly +dominated by several great families, among them the Adelardi.</p> + +<p>In 1146 Guglielmo, the last of the Adelardi, died, and his +property passed, as the dowry of his niece Marchesella, to +Azzolino d’ Este. There was considerable hostility between the +newly entered family and the Salinguerra, but after considerable +struggles Azzo Novello was nominated perpetual podestà in +1242; in 1259 he took Ezzelino of Verona prisoner in battle. +His grandson, Obizzo II. (1264-1293), succeeded him, and the +pope nominated him captain-general and defender of the states +of the Church; and the house of Este was from henceforth +settled in Ferrara. Niccolò III. (1393-1441) received several +popes with great magnificence, especially Eugene IV., who held +a council here in 1438. His son Borso received the fiefs of +Modena and Reggio from the emperor Frederick III. as first +duke in 1452 (in which year Girolamo Savonarola was born here), +and in 1470 was made duke of Ferrara by Pope Paul II. Ercole I. +(1471-1505) carried on a war with Venice and increased the +magnificence of the city. His son Alphonso I. married Lucrezia +Borgia, and continued the war with Venice with success. In +1509 he was excommunicated by Julius II., and attacked the +pontifical army in 1512 outside Ravenna, which he took. Gaston +de Foix fell in the battle, in which he was supporting Alphonso. +With the succeeding popes he was able to make peace. He was +the patron of Ariosto from 1518 onwards. His son Ercole II. +married Renata, daughter of Louis XII. of France; he too +embellished Ferrara during his reign (1534-1559). His son +Alphonso II. married Barbara, sister of the emperor Maximilian +II. He raised the glory of Ferrara to its highest point, +and was the patron of Tasso and Guarini, favouring, as the +princes of his house had always done, the arts and sciences. He +had no legitimate male heir, and in 1597 Ferrara was claimed as +a vacant fief by Pope Clement VIII., as was also Comacchio. +A fortress was constructed by him on the site of the castle of +Tedaldo, at the W. angle of the town. The town remained a +part of the states of the Church, the fortress being occupied by +an Austrian garrison from 1832 until 1859, when it became part +of the kingdom of Italy.</p> + +<p>A considerable area within the walls of Ferrara is unoccupied +by buildings, especially on the north, where, the handsome +Renaissance church of S. Cristoforo, with the cemetery, +stands; but modern times have brought a renewal of industrial +activity. Ferrara is on the main line from Bologna to Padua +and Venice, and has branches to Ravenna and Poggio Rusco +(for Suzzara).</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See G. Agnelli, <i>Ferrara e Pomposa</i> (Bergamo, 1902); E.G. Gardner, +<i>Dukes and Poets of Ferrara</i> (London, 1904).</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">FERRARA-FLORENCE,<a name="ar68" id="ar68"></a></span> COUNCIL OF (1438 ff.). The council +of Ferrara and Florence was the culmination of a series of futile +medieval attempts to reunite the Greek and Roman churches. +The emperor, John VI. Palaeologus, had been advised by his +experienced father to avoid all serious negotiations, as they had +invariably resulted in increased bitterness; but John, in view +of the rapid dismemberment of his empire by the Turks, felt +constrained to seek a union. The situation was, however, complicated +by the strife which broke out between the pope (Eugenius +IV.) and the oecumenical council of Basel. Both sides sent +embassies to the emperor at Constantinople, as both saw the +importance of gaining the recognition and support of the East, +for on this practically depended the victory in the struggle +between papacy and council for the supreme jurisdiction over +the church (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Councils</a></span>). The Greeks, fearing the domination +of the papacy, were at first more favourably inclined toward +the conciliar party; but the astute diplomacy of the Roman +representatives, who have been charged by certain Greek writers +with the skilful use of money and of lies, won over the emperor. +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page284" id="page284"></a>284</span> +With a retinue of about 700 persons, entertained in Italy at the +pope’s expense, he reached Ferrara early in March 1438. Here +a council had been formally opened in January by the papal +party, a bull of the previous year having promptly taken advantage +of the death of the Emperor Sigismund by ordering the +removal of the council of Basel to Ferrara; and one of the first +acts of the assemblage at Ferrara had been to excommunicate +the remnant at Basel. A month after the coming of the Greeks, +the Union Synod was solemnly inaugurated on the 9th of April +1438. After six months of negotiation, the first formal session +was held on the 8th of October, and on the 14th the real +issues were reached. The time-honoured question of the <i>filioque</i> +was still in the foreground when it seemed for several reasons +advisable to transfer the council to Florence: Ferrara was +threatened by condottieri, the pest was raging; Florence +promised a welcome subvention, and a situation further inland +would make it more difficult for uneasy Greek bishops to flee +the synod.</p> + +<p>The first session at Florence and the seventeenth of the union +council took place on the 26th of February 1439; there ensued +long debates and negotiations on the <i>filioque</i>, in which Markos +Eugenikos, archbishop of Ephesus, spoke for the irreconcilables; +but the Greeks under the leadership of Bessarion, archbishop +of Nicaea, and Isidor, metropolitan of Kiev, at length made a +declaration on the <i>filioque</i> (4th of June), to which all save Markos +Eugenikos subscribed. On the next topic of importance, the +primacy of the pope, the project of union nearly suffered shipwreck; +but here a vague formula was finally constructed which, +while acknowledging the pope’s right to govern the church, +attempted to safeguard as well the rights of the patriarchs. +On the basis of the above-mentioned agreements, as well as of +minor discussions as to purgatory and the Eucharist, the decree +of union was drawn up in Latin and in Greek, and signed on the +5th of July by the pope and the Greek emperor, and all the +members of the synod save Eugenikos and one Greek bishop +who had fled; and on the following day it was solemnly published +in the cathedral of Florence. The decree explains the +<i>filioque</i> in a manner acceptable to the Greeks, but does not +require them to insert the term in their symbol; it demands +that celebrants follow the custom of their own church as to the +employment of leavened or unleavened bread in the Eucharist. +It states essentially the Roman doctrine of purgatory, and asserts +the world-wide primacy of the pope as the “true vicar of Christ +and the head of the whole Church, the Father and teacher of all +Christians”; but, to satisfy the Greeks, inconsistently adds that +all the rights and privileges of the Oriental patriarchs are to be +maintained unimpaired. After the consummation of the union +the Greeks remained in Florence for several weeks, discussing +matters such as the liturgy, the administration of the sacraments, +and divorce; and they sailed from Venice to Constantinople +in October.</p> + +<p>The council, however, desirous of negotiating unions with the +minor churches of the East, remained in session for several years, +and seems never to have reached a formal adjournment. The +decree for the Armenians was published on the 22nd of November +1439; they accepted the <i>filioque</i> and the Athanasian creed, +rejected Monophysitism and Monothelitism, agreed to the developed +scholastic doctrine concerning the seven sacraments, +and conformed their calendar to the Western in certain points. +On the 26th of April 1441 the pope announced that the synod +would be transferred to the Lateran; but before leaving Florence +a union was negotiated with the Oriental Christians known as +Jacobites, through a monk named Andreas, who, at least as +regards Abyssinia, acted in excess of his powers. The <i>Decretum +pro Jacobitis</i>, published on the 4th of February 1442, is, like +that for the Armenians, of high dogmatic interest, as it summarizes +the doctrine of the great medieval scholastics on the points +in controversy. The decree for the Syrians, published at the +Lateran on the 30th of September 1444, and those for the +Chaldeans (Nestorians) and the Maronites (Monothelites), published +at the last known session of the council on the 7th of +August 1445, added nothing of doctrinal importance. Though +the direct results of these unions were the restoration of prestige +to the absolutist papacy and the bringing of Byzantine men of +letters, like Bessarion, to the West, the outcome was on the +whole disappointing. Of the complicated history of the +“United” churches of the East it suffices to say that Rome +succeeded in securing but fragments, though important fragments, +of the greater organizations. As for the Greeks, the union +met with much opposition, particularly from the monks, and was +rejected by three Oriental patriarchs at a synod of Jerusalem in +1443; and after various ineffective attempts to enforce it, the +fall of Constantinople in 1453 put an end to the endeavour. As +Turkish interests demanded the isolation of the Oriental +Christians from their western brethren, and as the orthodox +Greek nationalists feared Latinization more than Mahommedan +rule, a patriarch hostile to the union was chosen, and a synod +of Constantinople in 1472 formally rejected the decisions of +Florence.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p><span class="sc">Authorities.</span>—Hardouin, vol. 9; Mansi, vols. 31 A, 31 B, 35; +Sylvester Sguropulus (properly Syropulus), <i>Vera historia Unionis</i>, +transl. R. Creyghton (Hague, 1660); Cecconi, <i>Studi storici sul +concilio di Firenze</i> (Florence, 1869), (appendix); J. Zhishman, <i>Die +Unionsverhandlungen ... bis zum Concil von Ferrara</i> (Vienna, +1858); Gorski, of Moscow, 1847, <i>The History of the Council of +Florence</i>, trans. from the Russian by Basil Popoff, ed. by J.M. +Neale (London, 1861); C.J. von Hefele, <i>Conciliengeschichte</i>, vol. 7 +(Freiburg i. B., 1874), 659-761, 793 ff., 814 ff.; H. Vast, <i>Le Cardinal +Bessarion</i> (Paris, 1878), 53-113; A. Warschauer, <i>Über die Quellen +zur Geschichte des Florentiner Concils</i> (Breslau, 1881), (Dissertation); +M. Creighton, <i>A History of the Papacy during the Period of the Reformation</i>, +vol. 2 (London, 1882), 173-194 (vivid); Knöpfler, in Wetzer +and Welte’s <i>Kirchenlexikon</i>, vol. 4 (2nd ed., Freiburg i. B., 1885), +1363-1380 (instructive); L. Pastor, <i>History of the Popes</i>, vol. 1 +(London, 1891), 315 ff.; F. Kattenbusch, <i>Lehrbuch der vergleichenden +Confessionskunde</i>, vol. 1 (Freiburg i. B., 1892), 128 ff.; N. Kalogeras, +archbishop of Patras, “Die Verhandlungen zwischen der orthodox-katholischen +Kirche und dem Konzil von Basel über die Wiedervereinigung +der Kirchen” (<i>Internationale Theologische Zeitschrift</i>), +vol. 1 (Bern, 1893, 39-57); P. Tschackert, in Herzog-Hauck, <i>Realencyklopädie</i>, +vol. 6 (3rd ed., Leipzig, 1899), 45-48 (good bibliography); +Walter Norden, <i>Das Papsttum und Byzanz</i>: <i>Die Trennung +der beiden Mächte und das Problem ihrer Wiedervereinigung bis 1453</i> +(Berlin, 1903), 712 ff.</p> +</div> +<div class="author">(W. W. R.*)</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">FERRARI, GAUDENZIO<a name="ar69" id="ar69"></a></span> (1484-1549), Italian painter and +sculptor, of the Milanese, or more strictly the Piedmontese, +school, was born at Valduggia, Piedmont, and is said (very +dubiously) to have learned the elements of painting at Vercelli +from Girolamo Giovenone. He next studied in Milan, in the +school of Scotto, and some say of Luini; towards 1504 he +proceeded to Florence, and afterwards (it used to be alleged) to +Rome. His pictorial style may be considered as derived mainly +from the old Milanese school, with a considerable tinge of the +influence of Da Vinci, and later on of Raphael; in his personal +manner there was something of the demonstrative and fantastic. +The gentler qualities diminished, and the stronger intensified, +as he progressed. By 1524 he was at Varallo in Piedmont, and +here, in the chapel of the Sacro Monte, the sanctuary of the +Piedmontese pilgrims, he executed his most memorable work. +This is a fresco of the Crucifixion, with a multitude of figures, +no less than twenty-six of them being modelled in actual relief, +and coloured; on the vaulted ceiling are eighteen lamenting +angels, powerful in expression. Other leading examples are the +following. In the Royal Gallery, Turin, a “Pietà,” an able early +work. In the Brera Gallery, Milan, “St Katharine miraculously +preserved from the Torture of the Wheel,” a very characteristic +example, hard and forcible in colour, thronged in composition, +turbulent in emotion; also several frescoes, chiefly from the +church of Santa Maria della Pace, three of them being from the +history of Joachim and Anna. In the cathedral of Vercelli, the +choir, the “Virgin with Angels and Saints under an Orange +Tree.” In the refectory of San Paolo, the “Last Supper.” In +the church of San Cristoforo, the transept (in 1532-1535), a +series of paintings in which Ferrari’s scholar Lanini assisted him; +by Ferrari himself are the “Birth of the Virgin,” the “Annunciation,” +the “Visitation,” the “Adoration of the Shepherds +and Kings,” the “Crucifixion,” the “Assumption of the Virgin,” +all full of life and decided character, though somewhat mannered. +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page285" id="page285"></a>285</span> +In the Louvre, “St Paul Meditating.” In Varallo, convent of the +Minorites (1507), a “Presentation in the Temple,” and “Christ +among the Doctors,” and (after 1510) the “History of Christ,” +in twenty-one subjects; also an ancona in six compartments, +named the “Ancona di San Gaudenzio.” In Santa Maria di +Loreto, near Varallo (after 1527), an “Adoration.” In the +church of Saronno, near Milan, the cupola (1535), a “Glory of +Angels,” in which the beauty of the school of Da Vinci alternates +with bravura of foreshortenings in the mode of Correggio. In +Milan, Santa Maria delle Grazie (1542), the “Scourging of Christ,” +an “Ecce Homo” and a “Crucifixion.” The “Scourging,” or +else a “Last Supper,” in the Passione of Milan (unfinished), is +regarded as Ferrari’s latest work. He was a very prolific painter, +distinguished by strong expression, animation and fulness of +composition, and abundant invention; he was skilful in painting +horses, and his decisive rather hard colour is marked by a +partiality for shot tints in drapery. In general character, his +work appertains more to the 15th than the 16th century. His +subjects were always of the sacred order. Ferrari’s death took +place in Milan. Besides Lanini, already mentioned, Andrea +Solario, Giambattista della Cerva and Fermo Stella were three +of his principal scholars. He is represented to us as a good man, +attached to his country and his art, jovial and sometimes +facetious, but an enemy of scandal. The reputation which he +enjoyed soon after his death was very great, but it has not fully +stood the test of time. Lomazzo went so far as to place him +seventh among the seven prime painters of Italy.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See G. Bordiga, two works concerning <i>Gaudenzio Ferrari</i> (1821 and +1835); G. Colombo, <i>Vita ed opere di Gaudenzio Ferrari</i> (1881); +Ethel Halsey, <i>Gaudenzio Ferrari</i> (in the series <i>Great Masters</i>, 1904).</p> + +<p>There was another painter nearly contemporary with Gaudenzio, +Difendente Ferrari, also of the Lombard school. His celebrity is by +no means equal to that of Gaudenzio; but <i>Kugler</i> (1887, as edited +by Layard) pronounced him to be “a good and original colourist, +and the best artist that Piedmont has produced.”</p> +</div> +<div class="author">(W. M. R.)</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">FERRARI, GIUSEPPE<a name="ar70" id="ar70"></a></span> (1812-1876), Italian philosopher, +historian and politician, was born at Milan on the 7th of March +1812, and died in Rome on the 2nd of July 1876. He studied law +at Pavia, and took the degree of doctor in 1831. A follower of +Romagnosi (d. 1835) and Giovan Battista Vico (<i>q.v.</i>), his first +works were an article in the <i>Biblioteca Italiana</i> entitled “Mente +di Gian Domenico Romagnosi” (1835), and a complete edition +of the works of Vico, prefaced by an appreciation (1835). Finding +Italy uncongenial to his ideas, he went to France and, in +1839, produced in Paris his <i>Vico et l’Italie</i>, followed by <i>La +Nouvelle Religion de Campanella</i> and <i>La Théorie de l’erreur</i>. +On account of these works he was made Docteur-ès-lettres of the +Sorbonne and professor of philosophy at Rochefort (1840). His +views, however, provoked antagonism, and in 1842 he was +appointed to the chair of philosophy at Strassburg. After fresh +trouble with the clergy, he returned to Paris and published a +defence of his theories in a work entitled <i>Idées sur la politique +de Platon et d’Aristote</i>. After a short connexion with the college +at Bourges, he devoted himself from 1849 to 1858 exclusively to +writing. The works of this period are <i>Les Philosophes Salariés, +Machiavel juge des révolutions de notre temps</i> (1849), <i>La Federazione +repubblicana</i> (1851), <i>La Filosofia della rivoluzione</i> (1851), +<i>L’ Italia dopo il colpo di Stato</i> (1852), <i>Histoire des révolutions, ou +Guelfes et Gibelins</i> (1858; Italian trans., 1871-1873). In 1859 +he returned to Italy, where he opposed Cavour, and upheld +federalism against the policy of a single Italian monarchy. In +spite of this opposition, he held chairs of philosophy at Turin, +Milan and Rome in succession, and during several administrations +represented the college of Gavirate in the chamber. He was a +member of the council of education and was made senator on the +15th of May 1876. Amongst other works may be mentioned +<i>Histoire de la raison d’état, La China et l’ Europa, Corso d’ istoria +degli scrittori politici italiani</i>. A sceptic in philosophy and a +revolutionist in politics, rejoicing in controversy of all kinds, he +was admired as a man, as an orator, and as a writer.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See Marro Macchi, <i>Annuario istorico italiano</i> (Milan, 1877); +Mazzoleni, <i>Giuseppe Ferrari</i>; Werner, <i>Die ital. Philosophie des 19. +Jahrh.</i> vol. 3 (Vienna, 1885); Überweg, <i>History of Philosophy</i> (Eng. +trans. ii. 461 foll.).</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">FERRARI, PAOLO<a name="ar71" id="ar71"></a></span> (1822-1889), Italian dramatist, was born +at Modena. After producing some minor pieces, in 1852 he +made his reputation as a playwright with <i>Goldoni e le sue sedici +commedie</i>. Among numerous later plays his comedy <i>Parini e +la satira</i> (1857) had considerable success. Ferrari may be +regarded as a follower of Goldoni, modelling himself on the +French theatrical methods. His collected plays were published +in 1877-1880.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">FERREIRA, ANTONIO<a name="ar72" id="ar72"></a></span> (1528-1569), Portuguese poet, was a +native of Lisbon; his father held the post of <i>escrivão de fazenda</i> +in the house of the duke of Coimbra at Setubal, so that he must +there have met the great adventurer Mendes Pinto. In 1547-1548 +he went to the university of Coimbra, and on the 16th of +July 1551 took his bachelor’s degree. The Sonnets forming the +First Book in his collected works date from 1552 and contain the +history of his early love for an unknown lady. They seem to +have been written in Coimbra or during vacations in Lisbon; +and if some are dry and stilted, others, like the admirable +No. 45, are full of feeling and tears. The Sonnets in the Second +Book were inspired by D. Maria Pimentel, whom he afterwards +married, and they are marked by that chastity of sentiment, +seriousness and ardent patriotism which characterized the man +and the writer. Ferreira’s ideal, as a poet, was to win “the +applause of the good,” and, in the preface to his poems, he says, +“I am content with this glory, that I have loved my land and +my people.” He was intimate with princes, nobles and the most +distinguished literary men of the time, such as the scholarly +Diogo de Teive and the poets Bernardes, Caminha and Corte-Real, +as well as with the aged Sá de Miranda, the founder of the +classical school of which Ferreira became the foremost representative.</p> + +<p>The death in 1554 of Prince John, the heir to the throne, drew +from him, as from Camoens, Bernardes and Caminha, a poetical +lament, which consisted of an elegy and two eclogues, imitative +of Virgil and Horace, and devoid of interest. On the 14th of +July 1555 he took his doctor’s degree, an event which was celebrated, +according to custom, by a sort of Roman triumph, and +he stayed on as a professor, finding Coimbra with its picturesque +environs congenial to his poetical tastes and love of a country +life. The year 1557 produced his sixth elegy, addressed to the +son of the great Albuquerque, a poem of noble patriotism +expressed in eloquent and sonorous verse, and in the next year +he married. After a short and happy married life, his wife died, +and the ninth sonnet of Book 2 describes her end in moving +words. This loss lent Ferreira’s verse an added austerity, and +the independence of his muse is remarkable when he addresses +King Sebastian and reminds him of his duties as well as his +rights. On the 14th of October 1567 he became <i>Disembargador +da Casa do Civel</i>, and had to leave the quiet of Coimbra for Lisbon. +His verses tell how he disliked the change, and how the bustle of +the capital, then a great commercial emporium, made him sad +and almost tongue-tied for poetry. The intrigues and moral +twists of the courtiers and traders, among whom he was forced +to live, hurt his fine sense of honour, and he felt his mental +isolation the more, because his friends were few and scattered +in that great city which the discoveries and conquests of the +Portuguese had made the centre of a world empire. In 1569 a +terrible epidemic of carbunculous fever broke out and carried +off 50,000 inhabitants of Lisbon, and, on the 29th of November, +Ferreira, who had stayed there doing his duty when others fled, +fell a victim.</p> + +<p>Horace was his favourite poet, erudition his muse, and his +admiration of the classics made him disdain the popular poetry +of the Old School (<i>Escola Velha</i>) represented by Gil Vicente. +His national feeling would not allow him to write in Latin or +Spanish, like most of his contemporaries, but his Portuguese is +as Latinized as he could make it, and he even calls his poetical +works <i>Poemas Lusitanos</i>. Sá de Miranda had philosophized in +the familiar <i>redondilha</i>, introduced the epistle and founded the +comedy of learning. It was the beginning of a revolution, which +Ferreira completed by abandoning the hendecasyllable for the +Italian decasyllable, and by composing the noble and austere +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page286" id="page286"></a>286</span> +Roman poetry of his letters, odes and elegies. It was all done +of set purpose, for he was a reformer conscious of his mission +and resolved to carry it out. The gross realism of the popular +poetry, its lack of culture and its carelessness of form, offended +his educated taste, and its picturesqueness and ingenuity made +no appeal to him. It is not surprising, however, that though +he earned the applause of men of letters he failed to touch the +hearts of his countrymen. Ferreira wrote the Terentian prose +comedy <i>Bristo</i>, at the age of twenty-five (1553), and dedicated +it to Prince John in the name of the university. It is neither +a comedy of character nor manners, but its <i>vis comica</i> lies in its +plot and situations. The <i>Cioso</i>, a later product, may almost +be called a comedy of character. <i>Castro</i> is Ferreira’s most considerable +work, and, in date, is the first tragedy in Portuguese, +and the second in modern European literature. Though +fashioned on the great models of the ancients, it has little plot or +action, and the characters, except that of the prince, are ill-designed. +It is really a splendid poem, with a chorus which +sings the sad fate of Ignez in musical odes, rich in feeling and +grandeur of expression. Her love is the chaste, timid affection +of a wife and a vassal rather than the strong passion of a mistress, +but Pedro is really the man history describes, the love-fettered +prince whom the tragedy of Ignez’s death converted into the cruel +tyrant. King Alfonso is little more than a shadow, and only +meets Ignez once, his son never; while, stranger still, Pedro and +Ignez never come on the stage together, and their love is merely +narrated. Nevertheless, Ferreira merits all praise for choosing +one of the most dramatic episodes in Portuguese history for his +subject, and though it has since been handled by poets of renown +in many <span class="correction" title="amended from differenc">different</span> languages, none has been able to surpass the +old master.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>The <i>Castro</i> was first printed in Lisbon in 1587, and it is included in +Ferreira’s <i>Poemas</i>, published in 1598 by his son. It has been translated +by Musgrave (London, 1825), and the chorus of Act I. appeared +again in English in the <i>Savoy</i> for July 1896. It has also been done +into French and German. The <i>Bristo</i> and <i>Cioso</i> first appeared +with the comedies of Sá de Miranda in Lisbon in 1622. There is +a good modern edition of the Complete Works of Ferreira (2 +vols., Paris, 1865). See Castilho’s <i>Antonio Ferreira</i> (3 vols., Rio, +1865), which contains a full biographical and critical study with +extracts.</p> +</div> +<div class="author">(E. Pr.)</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">FERREL’S LAW,<a name="ar73" id="ar73"></a></span> in physical geography. “If a body moves +in any direction on the earth’s surface, there is a deflecting force +arising from the earth’s rotation, which deflects it to the right +in the northern hemisphere and to the left in the southern hemisphere.” +This law applies to every body that is set in motion +upon the surface of the rotating earth, but usually the duration +of the motion of any body due to a single impulse is so brief, +and there are so many frictional disturbances, that it is not easy +to observe the results of this deflecting force. The movements +of the atmosphere, however, are upon a scale large enough to +make this observation easy, and the simplest evidence is obtained +from a study of the direction of the air movements in the great +wind systems of the globe. (See <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Meteorology</a></span>.)</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">FERRERS,<a name="ar74" id="ar74"></a></span> the name of a great Norman-English feudal house, +derived from Ferrières-St-Hilaire, to the south of Bernay, in +Normandy. Its ancestor Walkelin was slain in a feud during +the Conqueror’s minority, leaving a son Henry, who took part +in the Conquest. At the time of the Domesday survey his fief +extended into fourteen counties, but the great bulk of it was in +Derbyshire and Leicestershire, especially the former. He himself +occurs in Worcestershire as one of the royal commissioners +for the survey. He established his chief seat at Tutbury Castle, +Staffordshire, on the Derbyshire border, and founded there a +Cluniac priory. As was the usual practice with the great Norman +houses, his eldest son succeeded to Ferrières, and, according to +Stapleton, he was ancestor of the Oakham house of Ferrers, +whose memory is preserved by the horseshoes hanging in the hall +of their castle. Robert, a younger son of Henry, inherited his +vast English fief, and, for his services at the battle of the Standard +(1138), was created earl of Derby by Stephen. He appears to +have died a year after.</p> + +<p>Both the title and the arms of the earls have been the subject +of much discussion, and they seem to have been styled indifferently +earls of Derby or Nottingham (both counties then forming +one shrievalty) or of Tutbury, or simply (de) Ferrers. Robert, +the 2nd earl, who founded Merevale Abbey, was father of William, +the 3rd earl, who began the opposition of his house to the crown +by joining in the great revolt of 1173, when he fortified his castles +of Tutbury and Duffield and plundered Nottingham, which was +held for the king. On his subsequent submission his castles +were razed. Dying at the siege of Acre, 1190, he was succeeded +by his son William, who attacked Nottingham on Richard’s +behalf in 1194, but whom King John favoured and confirmed +in the earldom of Derby, 1199. A claim that he was heir to the +honour of Peveral of Nottingham, which has puzzled genealogists, +was compromised with the king, whom the earl thenceforth +stoutly supported, being with him at his death and witnessing +his will, with his brother-in-law the earl of Chester, and with +William Marshal, earl of Pembroke, whose daughter married +his son. With them also he acted in securing the succession +of the young Henry, joining in the siege of Mountsorrel and the +battle of Lincoln. But he was one of those great nobles who +looked with jealousy on the rising power of the king’s favourites. +In 1227 he was one of the earls who rose against him on behalf +of his brother Richard and made him restore the forest charters, +and in 1237 he was one of the three counsellors forced on the king +by the barons. His influence had by this time been further +increased by the death, in 1232, of the earl of Chester, whose +sister, his wife, inherited a vast estate between the Ribble and +the Mersey. On his death in 1247, his son William succeeded +as 5th earl, and inherited through his wife her share of the great +possessions of the Marshals, earls of Pembroke. By his second +wife, a daughter of the earl of Winchester, he was father of +Robert, 6th and last earl. Succeeding as a minor in 1254, +Robert had been secured by the king, as early as 1249, as a +husband for his wife’s niece, Marie, daughter of Hugh, count of +Angoulême, but, in spite of this, he joined the opposition in +1263 and distinguished himself by his violence. He was one +of the five earls summoned to Simon de Montfort’s parliament, +though, on taking the earl of Gloucester’s part, he was arrested +by Simon. In spite of this he was compelled on the king’s +triumph to forfeit his castles and seven years’ revenues. In +1266 he broke out again in revolt on his own estates in Derbyshire, +but was utterly defeated at Chesterfield by Henry “of +Almain,” deprived of his earldom and lands and imprisoned. +Eventually, in 1269, he agreed to pay £50,000 for restoration, +and to pledge all his lands save Chartley and Holbrook for its +payment. As he was not able to find the money, the lands passed +to the king’s son, Edmund, to whom they had been granted on +his forfeiture.</p> + +<p>The earl’s son John succeeded to Chartley, a Staffordshire +estate long famous for the wild cattle in its chase, and was summoned +as a baron in 1299, though he had joined the baronial +opposition in 1297. On the death, in 1450, of the last Ferrers +lord of Chartley, the barony passed with his daughter to the +Devereux family and then to the Shirleys, one of whom was +created Earl Ferrers in 1711. The barony has been in abeyance +since 1855.</p> + +<p>The line of Ferrers of Groby was founded by William, younger +brother of the last earl, who inherited from his mother Margaret +de Quinci her estate of Groby in Leicestershire, and some Ferrers +manors from his father. His son was summoned as a baron in +1300, but on the death of his descendant, William, Lord Ferrers +of Groby, in 1445, the barony passed with his granddaughter +to the Grey family and was forfeited with the dukedom of Suffolk +in 1554. A younger son of William, the last lord, married the +heiress of Tamworth Castle, and his line was seated at Tamworth +till 1680, when an heiress carried it to a son of the first Earl +Ferrers. From Sir Henry, a younger son of the first Ferrers of +Tamworth, descended Ferrers of Baddesley Clinton, seated there +in the male line till towards the end of the 19th century. The +line of Ferrers of Wemme was founded by a younger son of +Lord Ferrers of Chartley, who married the heiress of Wemme, +Co. Salop, and was summoned as a baron in her right; but it +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page287" id="page287"></a>287</span> +ended with their son. There are doubtless male descendants +of this great Norman house still in existence.</p> + +<p>Higham Ferrers, Northants, and Woodham Ferrers, Essex, +take their names from this family. It has been alleged that they +bore horseshoes for their arms in allusion to Ferrières (<i>i.e.</i> ironworks); +but when and why they were added to their coat is a +moot point.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See Dugdale’s <i>Baronage</i>; J.R. Planché’s <i>The Conqueror and his +Companions</i>; G.E. C(okayne)’s <i>Complete Peerage</i>; <i>Chronicles +and Memorials</i> (Rolls Series); T. Stapleton’s <i>Rotuli Scaccarii Normannie</i>.</p> +</div> +<div class="author">(J. H. R.)</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">FERRERS, LAURENCE SHIRLEY,<a name="ar75" id="ar75"></a></span> <span class="sc">4th Earl</span> (1720-1760), +the last nobleman in England to suffer a felon’s death, was born +on the 18th of August 1720. There was insanity in his family, +and from an early age his behaviour seems to have been eccentric, +and his temper violent, though he was quite capable of managing +his business affairs. In 1758 his wife obtained a separation +from him for cruelty. The Ferrers estates were then vested +in trustees, the Earl Ferrers secured the appointment of an old +family steward, Johnson, as receiver of rents. This man faithfully +performed his duty as a servant to the trustees, and did +not prove amenable to Ferrer’s personal wishes. On the 18th +of January 1760, Johnson called at the earl’s mansion at Staunton +Harold, Leicestershire, by appointment, and was directed to his +lordship’s study. Here, after some business conversation, Lord +Ferrers shot him. In the following April Ferrers was tried for +murder by his peers in Westminster Hall. His defence, which +he conducted in person with great ability, was a plea of insanity, +and it was supported by considerable evidence, but he was found +guilty. He subsequently said that he had only pleaded insanity +to oblige his family, and that he had himself always been ashamed +of such a defence. On the 5th of May 1760, dressed in a light-coloured +suit, embroidered with silver, he was taken in his own +carriage from the Tower of London to Tyburn and there hanged. +It has been said that as a concession to his order the rope used +was of silk.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See Peter Burke, <i>Celebrated Trials connected with the Aristocracy +in the Relations of Private Life</i> (London, 1849); Edward Walford, +<i>Tales of our Great Families</i> (London, 1877); <i>Howell’s State Trials</i> +(1816), xix. 885-980.</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">FERRET,<a name="ar76" id="ar76"></a></span> a domesticated, and frequently albino breed of +quadruped, derived from the wild polecat (<i>Putorius foetidus</i>, +or <i>P. putorius</i>), which it closely resembles in size, form, and +habits, and with which it interbreeds. It differs in the colour of +its fur, which is usually yellowish-white, and of its eyes, which +are pinky-red. The “polecat-ferret” is a brown breed, apparently +the product of the above-mentioned cross. The ferret +attains a length of about 14 in., exclusive of the tail, which +measures 5 in. Although exhibiting considerable tameness, it +seems incapable of attachment, and when not properly fed, or +when irritated, is apt to give painful evidence of its ferocity. +It is chiefly employed in destroying rats and other vermin, and +in driving rabbits from their burrows. The ferret is remarkably +prolific, the female bringing forth two broods annually, each +numbering from six to nine young. It is said to occasionally +devour its young immediately after birth, and in this case +produces another brood soon after. The ferret was well known +to the Romans, Strabo stating that it was brought from Africa +into Spain, and Pliny that it was employed in his time in rabbit-hunting, +under the name <i>Viverra</i>; the English name is not +derived from this, but from Fr. <i>furet</i>, Late Lat. <i>furo</i>, robber. +The date of its introduction into Great Britain is uncertain, +but it has been known in England for at least 600 years.</p> + +<p>The ferret should be kept in dry, clean, well-ventilated hutches, +and fed twice daily on bread, milk, and meat, such as rabbits’ +and fowls’ livers. When used to hunt rabbits it is provided with +a muzzle, or, better and more usual, a cope, made by looping +and knotting twine about the head and snout, in order to prevent +it killing its quarry, in which case it would gorge itself and go +to sleep in the hole. As the ferret enters the hole the rabbits +flee before it, and are shot or caught by dogs as they break +ground. A ferret’s hold on its quarry is as obstinate as that of +a bulldog, but can easily be broken by a strong pressure of +the thumb just above the eyes. Only full-grown ferrets are +“worked to” rats. Several are generally used at a time and +without copes, as rats are fierce fighters.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See <i>Ferrets</i>, by Nicholas Everitt (London, 1897).</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">FERRI, CIRO<a name="ar77" id="ar77"></a></span> (1634-1689), Roman painter, the chief disciple +and successor of Pietro da Cortona. He was born in the Roman +territory, studied under Pietro, to whom he became warmly +attached, and, at an age a little past thirty, completed the painting +of the ceilings and other internal decorations begun by his +instructor in the Pitti palace, Florence. He also co-operated +in or finished several other works by Pietro, both in Florence +and in Rome, approaching near to his style and his particular +merits, but with less grace of design and native vigour, and in +especial falling short of him in colour. Of his own independent +productions, the chief is an extensive series of scriptural frescoes +in the church of S. Maria Maggiore in Bergamo; also a painting +(rated as Ferri’s best work) of St Ambrose healing a sick person, +the principal altarpiece in the church of S. Ambrogio della Massima +in Rome. The paintings of the cupola of S. Agnese in the same +capital might rank even higher than these; but this labour +remained uncompleted at the death of Ferri, and was marred by +the performances of his successor Corbellini. He executed also +a large amount of miscellaneous designs, such as etchings and +frontispieces for books; and he was an architect besides. Ferri +was appointed to direct the Florentine students in Rome, and +Gabbiani was one of his leading pupils. As regards style, Ferri +ranks as chief of the so-called Machinists, as opposed to the +school founded by Sacchi, and continued by Carlo Maratta. +He died in Rome—his end being hastened, as it is said, by +mortification at his recognized inferiority to Bacciccia in colour.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">FERRI, LUIGI<a name="ar78" id="ar78"></a></span> (1826-1895), Italian philosopher, was born at +Bologna on the 15th of June 1826. His education was obtained +mainly at the École Normale in Paris, where his father, a painter +and architect, was engaged in the construction of the Théâtre +Italien. From his twenty-fifth year he began to lecture in the +colleges of Evreux, Dieppe, Blois and Toulouse. Later, he was +lecturer at Annecy and Casal-Montferrat, and became head of +the education department under Mamiani in 1860. Three years +later he was appointed to the chair of philosophy at the Istituto +di Perfezionamento at Florence, and, in 1871, was made professor +of philosophy in the university of Rome. On the death of +Mamiani in 1885 he became editor of the <i>Filosofia delle scuole +italiane</i>, the title of which he changed to <i>Rivista italiana di +filosofia</i>. He wrote both on psychology and on metaphysics, but +is known especially as a historian of philosophy. His original +work is eclectic, combining the psychology of his teachers, Jules +Simon, Saisset and Mamiani, with the idealism of Rosmini and +Gioberti. Among his works may be mentioned <i>Studii sulla +coscienza</i>; <i>Il Fenomeno nelle sue relazioni con la sensazione</i>; +<i>Della idea del vero</i>; <i>Della filosofia del diritto presso Aristotile</i> +(1885); <i>Il Genio di Aristotile</i>; <i>La Psicologia di Pietro Pomponazzi</i> +(1877), and, most important, <i>Essai sur l’histoire de la philosophie +en Italie au XIX<span class="sp">e</span> siècle</i> (Paris, 1869), and <i>La Psychologie de +l’association depuis Hobbes jusqu’à nos jours</i>.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">FERRIER, ARNAUD DU<a name="ar79" id="ar79"></a></span> (<i>c.</i> 1508-1585), French jurisconsult +and diplomatist, was born at Toulouse about 1508, and practised +as a lawyer first at Bourges, afterwards at Toulouse. Councillor +to the <i>parlement</i> of the latter town, and then to that of Rennes, +he later became president of the <i>parlement</i> of Paris. He represented +Charles IX., king of France, at the council of Trent in +1562, but had to retire in consequence of the attitude he had +adopted, and was sent as ambassador to Venice, where he +remained till 1567, returning again in 1570. On his return to +France he came into touch with the Calvinists whose tenets +he probably embraced, and consequently lost his place in the +privy council and part of his fortune. As compensation, Henry, +king of Navarre, appointed him his chancellor. He died in the +end of October 1585.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See also E. Frémy, <i>Un Ambassadeur libéral sous Charles IX et +Henri III, Arnaud du Ferrier</i> (Paris, 1880).</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">FERRIER, JAMES FREDERICK<a name="ar80" id="ar80"></a></span> (1808-1864), Scottish +metaphysical writer, was born in Edinburgh on the 16th of +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page288" id="page288"></a>288</span> +June 1808, the son of John Ferrier, writer to the signet. His +mother was a sister of John Wilson (Christopher North). He was +educated at the university of Edinburgh and Magdalen College, +Oxford, and subsequently, his metaphysical tastes having +been fostered by his intimate friend, Sir William Hamilton, +spent some time at Heidelberg studying German philosophy. +In 1842 he was appointed professor of civil history in Edinburgh +University, and in 1845 professor of moral philosophy and political +economy at St Andrews. He was twice an unsuccessful candidate +for chairs in Edinburgh, for that of moral philosophy on Wilson’s +resignation in 1852, and for that of logic and metaphysics in +1856, after Hamilton’s death. He remained at St Andrews till +his death on the 11th of June 1864. He married his cousin, +Margaret Anne, daughter of John Wilson. He had five children, +one of whom became the wife of Sir Alexander Grant.</p> + +<p>Ferrier’s first contribution to metaphysics was a series of +articles in <i>Blackwood’s Magazine</i> (1838-1839), entitled <i>An +Introduction to the Philosophy of Consciousness</i>. In these he +condemns previous philosophers for ignoring in their psychological +investigations the fact of consciousness, which is the +distinctive feature of man, and confining their observation +to the so-called “states of the mind.” Consciousness comes +into manifestation only when the man has used the word “I” +with full knowledge of what it means. This notion he must +originate within himself. Consciousness cannot spring from +the states which are its object, for it is in antagonism to them. +It originates in the will, which in the act of consciousness puts +the “I” in the place of our sensations. Morality, conscience, +and responsibility are necessary results of consciousness. These +articles were succeeded by a number of others, of which the +most important were <i>The Crisis of Modern Speculation</i> (1841), +<i>Berkeley and Idealism</i> (1842), and an important examination +of Hamilton’s edition of Reid (1847), which contains a vigorous +attack on the philosophy of common sense. The perception of +matter is pronounced to be the <i>ne plus ultra</i> of thought, and +Reid, for presuming to analyse it, is declared to be a representationist +in fact, although he professed to be an intuitionist. A +distinction is made between the “perception of matter” and +“our apprehension of the perception of matter.” Psychology +vainly tries to analyse the former. Metaphysic shows the +latter alone to be analysable, and separates the subjective +element, “our apprehension,” from the objective element, +“the perception of matter,”—not matter <i>per se</i>, but the perception +of matter is the existence independent of the individual’s +thought. It cannot, however, be independent of thought. It +must belong to some mind, and is therefore the property of the +Divine Mind. There, he thinks, is an indestructible foundation +for the <i>a priori</i> argument for the existence of God.</p> + +<p>Ferrier’s matured philosophical doctrines find expression in +the <i>Institutes of Metaphysics</i> (1854), in which he claims to have +met the twofold obligation resting on every system of philosophy, +that it should be reasoned and true. His method is that of +Spinoza, strict demonstration, or at least an attempt at it. +All the errors of natural thinking and psychology must fall under +one or other of three topics:—Knowing and the Known, Ignorance, +and Being. These are all-comprehensive, and are therefore +the departments into which philosophy is divided, for the sole +end of philosophy is to correct the inadvertencies of ordinary +thinking.</p> + +<p>The problems of knowing and the known are treated in the +“Epistemology or Theory of Knowing.” The truth that “along +with whatever any intelligence knows it must, as the ground +or condition of its knowledge, have some cognizance of itself,” +is the basis of the whole philosophical system. Object + subject, +thing + me, is the only possible knowable. This leads to the +conclusion that the only independent universe which any mind +can think of is the universe in synthesis with some <i>other</i> mind +or <i>ego</i>.</p> + +<p>The leading contradiction which is corrected in the “Agnoiology +or Theory of Ignorance” is this: that there can be an +ignorance of that of which there can be no knowledge. Ignorance +is a defect. But there is no defect in not knowing what cannot +be known by any intelligence (<i>e.g.</i> that two and two make five), +and therefore there can be an ignorance only of that of which +there can be a knowledge, <i>i.e.</i> of some-object-<i>plus</i>-some-subject. +The knowable alone is the ignorable. Ferrier lays special claim +to originality for this division of the <i>Institutes</i>.</p> + +<p>The “Ontology or Theory of Being” forms the third and +final division. It contains a discussion of the origin of knowledge, +in which Ferrier traces all the perplexities and errors of philosophers +to the assumption of the absolute existence of matter. +The conclusion arrived at is that the only true real and independent +existences are minds-together-with-that-which-they-apprehend, +and that the one strictly necessary absolute existence +is a supreme and infinite and everlasting mind in synthesis with +all things.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>Ferrier’s works are remarkable for an unusual charm and simplicity +of style. These qualities are especially noticeable in the +<i>Lectures on Greek Philosophy</i>, one of the best introductions on the +subject in the English language. A complete edition of his philosophical +writings was published in 1875, with a memoir by E.L. +Lushington; see also monograph by E.S. Haldane in the Famous +Scots Series.</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">FERRIER, PAUL<a name="ar81" id="ar81"></a></span> (1843-  ), French dramatist, was born +at Montpellier on the 29th of March 1843. He had already +produced several comedies when in 1873 he secured real success +with two short pieces, <i>Chez l’avocat</i> and <i>Les Incendies de Massoulard</i>. +Others of his numerous plays are <i>Les Compensations</i> (1876); +<i>L’Art de tromper les femmes</i> (1890), with M. Najac. One of +Ferrier’s greatest triumphs was the production with Fabrice +Carré of <i>Joséphine vendue par ses sœurs</i> (1886), an <i>opéra bouffe</i> +with music by Victor Roger. His opera libretti include <i>La +Marocaine</i> (1879), music of J. Offenbach; <i>Le Chevalier d’Harmental</i> +(1896) after the play of Dumas père, for the music of +A. Messager; <i>La Fille de Tabarin</i> (1901), with Victorien Sardou, +music of Gabriel Pierné.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">FERRIER, SUSAN EDMONSTONE<a name="ar82" id="ar82"></a></span> (1782-1854), Scottish +novelist, born in Edinburgh on the 7th of September 1782, was +the daughter of James Ferrier, for some years factor to the duke +of Argyll, and at one time one of the clerks of the court of session +with Sir Walter Scott. Her mother was a Miss Coutts, the +beautiful daughter of a Forfarshire farmer. James Frederick +Ferrier, noticed above, was Susan Ferrier’s nephew.</p> + +<p>Miss Ferrier’s first novel, <i>Marriage</i>, was begun in concert with +a friend, Miss Clavering, a niece of the duke of Argyll; but this +lady only wrote a few pages, and <i>Marriage</i>, completed by Miss +Ferrier as early as 1810, appeared in 1818. It was followed in +1824 by <i>The Inheritance</i>, a better constructed and more mature +work; and the last and perhaps best of her novels, <i>Destiny</i>, +dedicated to Sir Walter Scott (who himself undertook to strike +the bargain with the publisher Cadell), appeared in 1831. All +these novels were published anonymously; but, with their +clever portraiture of contemporary Scottish life and manners, +and even recognizable caricatures of some social celebrities of +the day, they could not fail to become popular north of the Tweed. +“Lady MacLaughlan” represents Mrs Seymour Damer in dress +and Lady Frederick Campbell, whose husband, Lord Ferrier, +was executed in 1760, in manners. Mary, Lady Clark, well +known in Edinburgh, figured as “Mrs Fox” and the three maiden +aunts were the Misses Edmonstone. Many were the conjectures +as to the authorship of the novels. In the <i>Noctes Ambrosianae</i> +(November 1826), James Hogg is made to mention <i>The Inheritance</i>, +and adds, “which I aye thought was written by +Sir Walter, as weel’s <i>Marriage</i>, till it spunked out that it was +written by a leddy.” Scott himself gave Miss Ferrier a very +high place indeed among the novelists of the day. In his diary +(March 27, 1826), criticizing a new work which he had been +reading, he says, “The women do this better. Edgeworth, +Ferrier, Austen, have all given portraits of real society far +superior to anything man, vain man, has produced of the like +nature.” Another friendly recognition of Miss Ferrier is to be +found at the conclusion of his <i>Tales of my Landlord</i>, where Scott +calls her his “sister shadow,” the still anonymous author of +“the very lively work entitled <i>Marriage</i>.” Lively, indeed, all +Miss Ferrier’s works are,—written in clear, brisk English, and +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page289" id="page289"></a>289</span> +with an inexhaustible fund of humour. It is true her books +portray the eccentricities, the follies, and foibles of the society in +which she lived, caricaturing with terrible exactness its hypocrisy, +boastfulness, greed, affectation, and undue subservience to public +opinion. Yet Miss Ferrier wrote less to reform than to amuse. +In this she is less like Miss Edgeworth than Miss Austen. Miss +Edgeworth was more of a moralist; her wit is not so involuntary, +her caricatures not always so good-natured. But Miss Austen +and Miss Ferrier were genuine humorists, and with Miss Ferrier +especially a keen sense of the ludicrous was always dominant. +Her humorous characters are always her best. It was no doubt +because she felt this that in the last year of her life she regretted +not having devoted her talents more exclusively to the service of +religion. But if she was not a moralist, neither was she a cynic; +and her wit, even where it is most caustic, is never uncharitable.</p> + +<p>Miss Ferrier’s mother died in 1797, and from that date she +kept house for her father until his death in 1829. She lived +quietly at Morningside House and in Edinburgh for more than +twenty years after the publication of her last work. The +pleasantest picture that we have of her is in Lockhart’s description +of her visit to Scott in May 1831. She was asked there +to help to amuse the dying master of Abbotsford, who, when +he was not writing <i>Count Robert of Paris</i>, would talk as brilliantly +as ever. Only sometimes, before he had reached the point in a +narrative, “it would seem as if some internal spring had given +way.” He would pause, and gaze blankly and anxiously round +him. “I noticed,” says Lockhart, “the delicacy of Miss Ferrier +on such occasions. Her sight was bad, and she took care not to +use her glasses when he was speaking; and she affected to be also +troubled with deafness, and would say, ‘Well, I am getting as +dull as a post; I have not heard a word since you said +so-and-so,’—being +sure to mention a circumstance behind that at which +he had really halted. He then took up the thread with his +habitual smile of courtesy—as if forgetting his case entirely in +the consideration of the lady’s infirmity.”</p> + +<p>Miss Ferrier died on the 5th of November 1854, at her brother’s +house in Edinburgh. She left among her papers a short unpublished +article, entitled “Recollections of Visits to Ashestiel +and Abbotsford.” This is her own very interesting account of +her long friendship with Sir Walter Scott, from the date of her +first visit to him and Lady Scott at Ashestiel, where she went +with her father in the autumn of 1811, to her last sad visit +to Abbotsford in 1831. It contains some impromptu verses +written by Scott in her album at Ashestiel.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>Miss Ferrier’s letters to her sister, which contained much interesting +biographical matter, were destroyed at her particular request, but a +volume of her correspondence with a memoir by her grand-nephew, +John Ferrier, was published in 1898.</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">FERROL<a name="ar83" id="ar83"></a></span> [<i>El Ferrol</i>], a seaport of north-western Spain, in +the province of Corunna; situated 12 m. N.E. of the city of +Corunna, and on the Bay of Ferrol, an inlet of the Atlantic Ocean. +Pop. (1900) 25,281. Together with San Fernando, near Cadiz, +and Cartagena, Ferrol is governed by an admiral, with the +special title of captain-general; and it ranks beside these two +ports as one of the principal naval stations of Spain. The town +is beautifully situated on a headland overlooking the bay, and +is surrounded by rocky hills which render it invisible from the +sea. Its harbour, naturally one of the best in Europe, and the +largest in Spain except those of Vigo and Corunna, is deep, +capacious and secure; but the entrance is a narrow strait about +2 m. long, which admits only one vessel at a time, and is commanded +by modern and powerfully armed forts, while the neighbouring +heights are also crowned by defensive works. Ferrol is +provided with extensive dockyards, quays, warehouses and +an arsenal; most of these, with the palace of the captain-general, +the bull-ring, theatres, and other principal buildings, were built +or modernized between 1875 and 1905. The local industries are +mainly connected with the shipping trade, or the refitting of +warships. Owing to the lack of railway communication, and +the competition of Corunna at so short a distance, Ferrol is not +a first-class commercial port; and in the early years of the 20th +century its trade, already injured by the loss to Spain of Cuba +and Porto Rico in 1898, showed little prospect of improvement. +The exports are insignificant, and consist chiefly of wooden +staves and beams for use as pit-props; the chief imports are +coal, cement, timber, iron and machinery. In 1904, 282 vessels +of 155,881 tons entered the harbour. In the same year the construction +of a railway to the neighbouring town of Betanzos +was undertaken, and in 1909 important shipbuilding operations +were begun.</p> + +<p>Ferrol was a mere fishing village until 1752, when Ferdinand VI. +began to fit it for becoming an arsenal. In 1799 the British +made a fruitless attempt to capture it, but on the 4th of +November 1805 they defeated the French fleet in front of the +town, which they compelled to surrender. On the 27th of +January 1809 it was through treachery delivered over to the +French, but it was vacated by them on the 22nd of July. On +the 15th of July 1823 another blockade was begun by the French, +and Ferrol surrendered to them on the 27th of August.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">FERRUCCIO,<a name="ar84" id="ar84"></a></span> or <span class="sc">Ferrucci</span>, <b>FRANCESCO</b> (1489-1530), +Florentine captain. After spending a few years as a merchant’s +clerk he took to soldiering at an early age, and served in the +<i>Bande Nere</i> in various parts of Italy, earning a reputation as a +daring fighter and somewhat of a swashbuckler. When Pope +Clement VII. and the emperor Charles V. decided to reinstate +the Medici in Florence, they made war on the Florentine republic, +and Ferruccio was appointed Florentine military commissioner +at Empoli, where he showed great daring and resource by his +rapid marches and sudden attacks on the Imperialists. Early +in 1530 Volterra had thrown off Florentine allegiance and +had been occupied by an Imperialist garrison, but Ferruccio +surprised and recaptured the city. During his absence, however, +the Imperialists captured Empoli by treachery, thus cutting +off one of the chief avenues of approach to Florence. Ferruccio +proposed to the government of the republic that he should +march on Rome and terrorize the pope by the threat of a sack +into making peace with Florence on favourable terms, but +although the war committee appointed him commissioner-general +for the operations outside the city, they rejected his +scheme as too audacious. Ferruccio then decided to attempt +a diversion by attacking the Imperialists in the rear and started +from Volterra for the Apennines. But at Pisa he was laid up +for a month with a fever—a misfortune which enabled the enemy +to get wind of his plan and to prepare for his attack. At the end +of July Ferruccio left Pisa at the head of about 4000 men, and +although the besieged in Florence, knowing that a large part +of the Imperialists under the prince of Orange had gone to meet +Ferruccio, wished to co-operate with the latter by means of a +sortie, they were prevented from doing so by their own traitorous +commander-in-chief, Malatesta Baglioni. Ferruccio encountered +a much larger force of the enemy on the 3rd of August at Gavinana; +a desperate battle ensued, and at first the Imperialists +were driven back by Ferruccio’s fierce onslaught and the prince +of Orange himself was killed, but reinforcements under Fabrizio +Maramaldo having arrived, the Florentines were almost annihilated +and Ferruccio was wounded and captured. Maramaldo +out of personal spite despatched the wounded man with his own +hand. This defeat sealed the fate of the republic, and nine days +later Florence surrendered. Ferruccio was one of the great +soldiers of the age, and his enterprise is the finest episode of the +last days of the Florentine republic. See also under <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Florence</a></span> +and <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Medici</a></span>.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p><span class="sc">Bibliography.</span>—F. Sassetti, <i>Vita di Francesco Ferrucci</i>, written +in the 16th century and published in the <i>Archivio storico</i>, vol. iv. +pt. ii. (Florence, 1853), with an introduction by C. Monzani; E. +Aloisi, <i>La Battaglia di Gavinana</i> (Bologna, 1881); cf. P. Villari’s +criticism of the latter work, “Ferruccio e Maramaldo,” in his <i>Arte, +storia, e filosofia</i> (Florence, 1884); Gino Capponi, <i>Storia della repubblica +di Firenze</i>, vol. ii. (Florence, 1875).</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">FERRULE,<a name="ar85" id="ar85"></a></span> a small metal cap or ring used for holding parts +of a rod, &c., together, and for giving strength to weakened +materials, or especially, when attached to the end of a stick, +umbrella, &c., for preventing wearing or splitting. The word +is properly <i>verrel</i> or <i>verril</i>, in which form it was used till the +18th century, and is derived through the O. Fr. <i>virelle</i>, modern +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page290" id="page290"></a>290</span> +<i>virole</i>, from a diminutive Latin <i>viriola</i> of <i>viriae</i>, bracelets. The +form in which the word is now known is due to the influence +of Latin <i>ferrum</i>, iron. “Ferrule” must be distinguished from +“ferule” or “ferula,” properly the Latin name of the “giant +fennel.” From the use of the stalk of this plant as a cane or +rod for punishment, comes the application of the word to many +instruments used in chastisement, more particularly a short +flat piece of wood or leather shaped somewhat like the sole of a +boot, and applied to the palms of the hand. It is the common +form of disciplinary instrument in Roman Catholic schools; +the pain inflicted is exceedingly sharp and immediate, but the +effects are momentary and leave no chance for any dangerous +results. The word is sometimes applied to the ordinary cane as +used by schoolmasters.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">FERRY, JULES FRANÇOIS CAMILLE<a name="ar86" id="ar86"></a></span> (1832-1893), French +statesman, was born at Saint Dié (Vosges) on the 5th of April +1832. He studied law, and was called to the bar at Paris, but +soon went into politics, contributing to various newspapers, +particularly to the <i>Temps</i>. He attacked the Empire with great +violence, directing his opposition especially against Baron +Haussmann, prefect of the Seine. Elected republican deputy +for Paris in 1869, he protested against the declaration of war +with Germany, and on the 6th of September 1870 was appointed +prefect of the Seine by the government of national defence. +In this position he had the difficult task of administering Paris +during the siege, and after the Commune was obliged to resign +(5th of June 1871). From 1872-1873 he was sent by Thiers +as minister to Athens, but returned to the chamber as deputy +for the Vosges, and became one of the leaders of the republican +party. When the first republican ministry was formed under +W.H. Waddington on the 4th of February 1879, he was one of +its members, and continued in the ministry until the 30th of +March 1885, except for two short interruptions (from the 10th of +November 1881 to the 30th of January 1882, and from the 29th +of July 1882 to the 21st of February 1883), first as minister +of education and then as minister of foreign affairs. He was +twice premier (1880-1881 and 1883-1885). Two important +works are associated with his administration, the non-clerical +organization of public education, and the beginning of the +colonial expansion of France. Following the republican +programme he proposed to destroy the influence of the clergy +in the university. He reorganized the committee of public +education (law of the 27th of February 1880), and proposed +a regulation for the conferring of university degrees, which, +though rejected, aroused violent polemics because the 7th +article took away from the unauthorized religious orders the right +to teach. He finally succeeded in passing the great law of the +28th of March 1882, which made primary education in France +free, non-clerical and obligatory. In higher education the +number of professors doubled under his ministry. After the +military defeat of France by Germany in 1870, he formed the +idea of acquiring a great colonial empire, not to colonize it, but +for the sake of economic exploitation. He directed the negotiations +which led to the establishment of a French protectorate +in Tunis (1881), prepared the treaty of the 17th of December +1885 for the occupation of Madagascar; directed the exploration +of the Congo and of the Niger region; and above all he organized +the conquest of Indo-China. The excitement caused at Paris +by an unimportant reverse of the French troops at Lang-son +caused his downfall (30th of March 1885), but the treaty of +peace with China (9th of June 1885) was his work. He still +remained an influential member of the moderate republican +party, and directed the opposition to General Boulanger. After +the resignation of President Grévy (2nd of December 1887), +he was a candidate for the presidency of the republic, but the +radicals refused to support him, and he withdrew in favour of +Sadi Carnot. The violent polemics aroused against him at this +time caused a madman to attack him with a revolver, and he +died from the wound, on the 17th of March 1893. The chamber +of deputies voted him a state funeral.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See Edg. Zevort, <i>Histoire de la troisième République</i>; A. Rambaud, +<i>Jules Ferry</i> (Paris, 1903).</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">FERRY<a name="ar87" id="ar87"></a></span> (from the same root as that of the verb “to fare,” +to journey or travel, common to Teutonic languages, cf. Ger. +<i>fahren</i>; it is connected with the root of Gr. <span class="grk" title="poros">πόρος</span>, way, and +Lat. <i>portare</i>, to carry), a place where boats ply regularly across +a river or arm of the sea for the conveyance of goods and persons. +The word is also applied to the boats employed (ferry boats). +In a car-ferry or train-ferry railway cars or complete trains are +conveyed across a piece of water in vessels which have railway +lines laid on their decks, so that the vehicles run on and off them +on their own wheels. In law the right of ferrying persons or +goods across a particular river or strait, and of exacting a reasonable +toll for the service, belongs, like the right of fair and market, +to the class of rights known as franchises. Its origin must be +by statute, royal grant, or prescription. It is wholly unconnected +with the ownership or occupation of land, so that the owner +of the ferry need not be proprietor of the soil on either side of +the water over which the right is exercised. He is bound to +maintain safe and suitable boats ready for the use of the public, +and to employ fit persons as ferrymen. As a correlative of +this duty he has a right of action, not only against those who +evade or refuse payment of toll when it is due, but also against +those who disturb his franchise by setting up a new ferry, so +as to diminish his custom, unless a change of circumstances, such +as an increase of population near the ferry, justify other means +of passage, whether of the same kind or not. See also <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Water +Rights</a></span>.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">FERSEN, FREDRIK AXEL,<a name="ar88" id="ar88"></a></span> <span class="sc">Count von</span> (1719-1794), +Swedish politician, was a son of Lieutenant-General Hans +Reinhold Fersen and entered the Swedish Life Guards in 1740, +and from 1743 to 1748 was in the French service (<i>Royal-Suédois</i>), +where he rose to the rank of brigadier. In the Seven Years’ War +Fersen distinguished himself during the operations round Usedom +and Wollin (1759), when he inflicted serious loss on the +Prussians. But it is as a politician that he is best known. At +the diet of 1755-1756 he was elected <i>landtmarskalk</i>, or marshal +of the diet, and from henceforth, till the revolution of 1772, +led the Hat party (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Sweden</a></span>: <i>History</i>). In 1756 he defeated +the projects of the court for increasing the royal power; but, +after the disasters of the Seven Years’ War, gravitated towards +the court again and contributed, by his energy and eloquence, to +uphold the tottering Hats for several years. On the accession of +the Caps to power in 1766, Fersen assisted the court in its +struggle with them by refusing to employ the Guards to keep +order in the capital when King Adolphus Frederick, driven to +desperation by the demands of the Caps, publicly abdicated, and +a seven days’ interregnum ensued. At the ensuing diet of 1769, +when the Hats returned to power, Fersen was again elected +marshal of the diet; but he made no attempt to redeem his +pledges to the crown prince Gustavus, as to a very necessary +reform of the constitution, which he had made before the elections, +and thus involuntarily contributed to the subsequent +establishment of absolutism. When Gustavus III. ascended +the throne in 1772, and attempted to reconcile the two factions +by a composition which aimed at dividing all political power +between them, Fersen said he despaired of bringing back, in a +moment, to the path of virtue and patriotism a people who +had been running riot for more than half a century in the wilderness +of political licence and corruption. Nevertheless he consented +to open negotiations with the Caps, and was the principal +Hat representative on the abortive composition committee. +During the revolution of August 1772, Fersen remained a passive +spectator of the overthrow of the constitution, and was one of +the first whom Gustavus summoned to his side after his triumph. +Yet his relations with the king were never cordial. The old +party-leader could never forget that he had once been a power +in the state, and it is evident, from his <i>Historiska Skrifter</i>, how +jealous he was of Gustavus’s personal qualities. There was a +slight collision between them as early as the diet of 1778; but +at the diet of 1786 Fersen boldly led the opposition against the +king’s financial measures (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Gustavus III.</a></span>) which were consequently +rejected; while in private interviews, if his own account +of them is to be trusted, he addressed his sovereign with +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page291" id="page291"></a>291</span> +outrageous insolence. At the diet of 1789 Fersen marshalled the +nobility around him for a combat <i>à outrance</i> against the throne +and that, too, at a time when Sweden was involved in two +dangerous foreign wars, and national unity was absolutely +indispensable. This tactical blunder cost him his popularity +and materially assisted the secret operations of the king. Obstruction +was Fersen’s chief weapon, and he continued to postpone +the granting of subsidies by the house of nobles for some +weeks. But after frequent stormy scenes in the diet, which were +only prevented from becoming mêlées by Fersen’s moderation, +or hesitation, at the critical moment, he and twenty of his friends +of the nobility were arrested (17th February 1789) and the +opposition collapsed. Fersen was speedily released, but henceforth +kept aloof from politics, surviving the king two years. +He was a man of great natural talent, with an imposing presence, +and he always bore himself like the aristocrat he was. But his +haughtiness and love of power are undeniable, and he was perhaps +too great a party-leader to be a great statesman. Yet for seventeen +years, with very brief intervals, he controlled the destinies +of Sweden, and his influence in France was for some time pretty +considerable. His <i>Historiska Skrifter</i>, which are a record of +Swedish history, mainly autobiographical, during the greater +part of the 18th century, is excellent as literature, but somewhat +unreliable as an historical document, especially in the later +parts.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See C.G. Malmström, <i>Sveriges politiska Historia</i> (Stockholm, +1855-1865); R.N. Bain, <i>Gustavus III.</i> (London, 1895); C.T. +Odhner, <i>Sveriges politiska Historia under Gustaf III.’s Regering</i> +(Stockholm, 1885, &c.); F.A. Fersen, <i>Historiska Skrifter</i> (Stockholm, +1867-1872).</p> +</div> +<div class="author">(R. N. B.)</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">FERSEN, HANS AXEL,<a name="ar89" id="ar89"></a></span> <span class="sc">Count von</span> (1755-1810), Swedish +statesman, was carefully educated at home, at the Carolinum +at Brunswick and at Turin. In 1779 he entered the French +military service (<i>Royal-Bavière</i>), accompanied General Rochambeau +to America as his adjutant, distinguished himself during +the war with England, notably at the siege of Yorktown, 1781, +and in 1785 was promoted to be <i>colonel propriétaire</i> of the +regiment <i>Royal-Suédois</i>. The young nobleman was, from the +first, a prime favourite at the French court, owing, partly to +the recollection of his father’s devotion to France, but principally +because of his own amiable and brilliant qualities. The +queen, Marie Antoinette, was especially attracted by the grace +and wit of <i>le beau Fersen</i>, who had inherited his full share +of the striking handsomeness which was hereditary in the +family.</p> + +<p>It is possible that Fersen would have spent most of his life at +Versailles, but for a hint from his own sovereign, then at Pisa, +that he desired him to join his suite. He accompanied Gustavus +III. in his Italian tour and returned home with him in 1784. +When the war with Russia broke out, in 1788, Fersen accompanied +his regiment to Finland, but in the autumn of the same +year was sent to France, where the political horizon was already +darkening. It was necessary for Gustavus to have an agent +thoroughly in the confidence of the French royal family, and, at +the same time, sufficiently able and audacious to help them in +their desperate straits, especially as he had lost all confidence +in his accredited minister, the baron de Stael. With his usual +acumen, he fixed upon Fersen, who was at his post early in 1790. +Before the end of the year he was forced to admit that the cause +of the French monarchy was hopeless so long as the king and +queen of France were nothing but captives in their own capital, +at the mercy of an irresponsible mob. He took a leading part +in the flight to Varennes. He found most of the requisite funds +at the last moment. He ordered the construction of the famous +carriage for six, in the name of the baroness von Korff, and kept +it in his hotel grounds, rue Matignon, that all Paris might get +accustomed to the sight of it. He was the coachman of the <i>fiacre</i> +which drove the royal family from the Carrousel to the Porte +Saint-Martin. He accompanied them to Bondy, the first stage +of their journey.</p> + +<p>In August 1791, Fersen was sent to Vienna to induce the emperor +Leopold to accede to a new coalition against revolutionary +France, but he soon came to the conclusion that the Austrian +court meant to do nothing at all. At his own request, therefore, +he was transferred to Brussels, where he could be of more service +to the queen of France. In February 1792, at his own +mortal peril, he once more succeeded in reaching Paris with +counterfeit credentials as minister plenipotentiary to Portugal. +On the 13th he arrived, and the same evening contrived to steal +an interview with the queen unobserved. On the following day +he was with the royal family from six o’clock in the evening till +six o’clock the next morning, and convinced himself that a second +flight was physically impossible. On the afternoon of the 21st +he succeeded in paying a third visit to the Tuileries, stayed +there till midnight and succeeded, with great difficulty, in +regaining Brussels on the 27th. This perilous expedition, a +monumental instance of courage and loyalty, had no substantial +result. In 1797 Fersen was sent to the congress of Rastatt as +the Swedish delegate, but in consequence of a protest from the +French government, was not permitted to take part in it.</p> + +<p>During the regency of the duke of Sudermania (1792-1796) +Fersen, like all the other Gustavians, was in disgrace; but, on +Gustavus IV. attaining his majority in 1796, he was welcomed +back to court with open arms, and reinstated in all his offices +and dignities. In 1801 he was appointed <i>Riksmarskalk</i> (= earl-marshal). +On the outbreak of the war with Napoleon, Fersen +accompanied Gustavus IV. to Germany to assist him in gaining +fresh allies. He prevented Gustavus from invading Prussia in +revenge for the refusal of the king of Prussia to declare war +against France, and during the rest of the reign was in +semi-disgrace, +though generally a member of the government when +the king was abroad.</p> + +<p>Fersen stood quite aloof from the revolution of 1809. (See +<span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Sweden</a></span>: <i>History</i>.) His sympathies were entirely with Prince +Gustavus, son of the unfortunate Gustavus IV., and he was +generally credited with the desire to see him king. When the +newly elected successor to the throne, the highly popular prince +Christian Augustus of Augustenburg, died suddenly in Skåne +in May 1810, the report spread that he had been poisoned, and +that Fersen and his sister, the countess Piper, were accessories. +The source of this equally absurd and infamous libel has never +been discovered. But it was eagerly taken up by the anti-Gustavian +press, and popular suspicion was especially aroused +by a fable called “The Foxes” directed against the Fersens, +which appeared in <i>Nya Posten</i>. When, then, on the 20th of +June 1810, the prince’s body was conveyed to Stockholm, and +Fersen, in his official capacity as <i>Riksmarskalk</i>, received it at the +barrier and led the funeral cortège into the city, his fine carriage +and his splendid robes seemed to the people an open derision +of the general grief. The crowd began to murmur and presently +to fling stones and cry “murderer!” He sought refuge in a +house in the Riddarhus Square, but the mob rushed after him, +brutally maltreated him and tore his robes to pieces. To quiet +the people and save the unhappy victim, two officers volunteered +to conduct him to the senate house and there place him in arrest. +But he had no sooner mounted the steps leading to the entrance +than the crowd, which had followed him all the way beating him +with sticks and umbrellas, made a rush at him, knocked him down, +and kicked and trampled him to death. This horrible outrage, +which lasted more than an hour, happened, too, in the presence +of numerous troops, drawn up in the Riddarhus Square, who +made not the slightest effort to rescue the Riksmarskalk from +his tormentors. In the circumstances, one must needs adopt +the opinion of Fersen’s contemporary, Baron Gustavus Armfelt, +“One is almost tempted to say that the government wanted to +give the people a victim to play with, just as when one throws +something to an irritated wild beast to distract its attention. +The more I consider it all, the more I am certain that the mob +had the least to do with it.... But in God’s name what were +the troops about? How could such a thing happen in broad +daylight during a procession, when troops and a military escort +were actually present?” The responsibility certainly rests +with the government of Charles XIII., which apparently intended +to intimidate the Gustavians by the removal of one of +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page292" id="page292"></a>292</span> +their principal leaders. Armfelt escaped in time, so Fersen fell +the victim.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See R.M. Klinckowström, <i>Le Comte de Fersen et la cour de France</i> +(Paris, 1877; Eng. ed., London, 1902); <i>Historia om Axel von +Fersens mord</i> (Stockholm, 1844); R.N. Bain, <i>Gustavus III.</i>, vol. ii. +(London, 1895); P. Gaulot, <i>Un Ami de la reine</i> (Paris, 1892); F.F. +Flach, <i>Grefve Hans Axel von Fersen</i> (Stockholm, 1896); E. Tegner, +<i>Gustaf Mauritz Armfelt</i>, vol. iii. (Stockholm, 1883-1887).</p> +</div> +<div class="author">(R. N. B.)</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">FESCA, FREDERIC ERNEST<a name="ar90" id="ar90"></a></span> (1789-1826), German violinist +and composer of instrumental music, was born on the 15th of +February 1789 at Magdeburg, where he received his early musical +education. He completed his studies at Leipzig under Eberhard +Müller, and at the early age of fifteen appeared before the public +with several concerti for the violin, which were received with +general applause, and resulted in his being appointed leading +violinist of the Leipzig orchestra. This position he occupied till +1806, when he became concert-master to the duke of Oldenburg. +In 1808 he was appointed solo-violinist by King Jerome of Westphalia +at Cassel, and there he remained till the end of the French +occupation (1814), when he went to Vienna, and soon afterwards +to Carlsruhe, having been appointed concert-master to the grand-duke +of Baden. His failing health prevented him from enjoying +the numerous and well-deserved triumphs he owed to his art, +and in 1826 he died of consumption at the early age of thirty-seven. +As a virtuoso Fesca ranks amongst the best masters +of the German school of violinists, the school subsequently of +Spohr and of Joachim. Especially as leader of a quartet he is +said to have been unrivalled with regard to classic dignity and +simplicity of style. Amongst his compositions, his quartets for +stringed instruments and other pieces of chamber music are the +most remarkable. His two operas, <i>Cantemira</i> and <i>Omar and Leila</i>, +were less successful, lacking dramatic power and originality. +He also wrote some sacred compositions, and numerous songs +and vocal quartets.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">FESCENNIA,<a name="ar91" id="ar91"></a></span> an ancient city of Etruria, which is probably +to be placed immediately to the N. of the modern Corchiano, +6 m. N.W. of Civita Castellana (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Falerii</a></span>). The Via Amerina +traverses it. G. Dennis (<i>Cities and Cemeteries of Etruria</i>, London, +1883, i. 115) proposed to place it at the Riserva S. Silvestro, +3 m. E. of Corchiano, nearer the Tiber, where remains of Etruscan +walls exist. At Corchiano itself, however, similar walls may be +traced, and the site is a strong and characteristic one—a triangle +between two deep ravines, with the third (west) side cut off by +a ditch. Here, too, remains of two bridges may be seen, and +several rich tombs have been excavated.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See A. Buglione, “Conte di Monale,” in <i>Römische Mitteilungen</i> +(1887), p. 21 seq.</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">FESCENNINE VERSES<a name="ar92" id="ar92"></a></span> (<i>Fescennina carmina</i>), one of the +earliest kinds of Italian poetry, subsequently developed into +the Satura and the Roman comic drama. Originally sung at +village harvest-home rejoicings, they made their way into the +towns, and became the fashion at religious festivals and private +gatherings—especially weddings, to which in later times they +were practically restricted. They were usually in the Saturnian +metre and took the form of a dialogue, consisting of an interchange +of extemporaneous raillery. Those who took part in them +wore masks made of the bark of trees. At first harmless and +good-humoured, if somewhat coarse, these songs gradually outstripped +the bounds of decency; malicious attacks were made +upon both gods and men, and the matter became so serious that +the law intervened and scurrilous personalities were forbidden +by the Twelve Tables (Cicero, <i>De re publica</i>, iv. 10). Specimens +of the Fescennines used at weddings are the Epithalamium of +Manlius (Catullus, lxi. 122) and the four poems of Claudian in +honour of the marriage of Honorius and Maria; the first, however, +is distinguished by a licentiousness which is absent in the +latter. Ausonius in his <i>Cento nuptialis</i> mentions the Fescennines +of Annianus Faliscus, who lived in the time of Hadrian. Various +derivations have been proposed for <i>Fescennine</i>. According to +Festus, they were introduced from Fescennia in Etruria, but +there is no reason to assume that any particular town was +specially devoted to the use of such songs. As an alternative +Festus suggests a connexion with <i>fascinum</i>, either because the +Fescennina were regarded as a protection against evil influences +(see Munro, <i>Criticisms and Elucidations of Catullus</i>, p. 76) or +because <i>fascinum</i> (= <i>phallus</i>), as the symbol of fertility, would +from early times have been naturally associated with harvest +festivals. H. Nettleship, in an article on “The Earliest Italian +Literature” (<i>Journal of Philology</i>, xi. 1882), in support of +Munro’s view, translates the expression “verses used by +charmers,” assuming a noun <i>fescennus</i>, connected with <i>fas fari</i>.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>The <i>locus classicus</i> in ancient literature is Horace, <i>Epistles</i>, ii. +1. 139; see also Virgil, <i>Georgics</i>, ii. 385; Tibullus ii. 1. 55; E. +Hoffmann, “Die Fescenninen,” in <i>Rheinisches Museum</i>, li. p. 320 +(1896); art. <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Latin Literature</a></span>.</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">FESCH, JOSEPH<a name="ar93" id="ar93"></a></span> (1763-1839), cardinal, was born at Ajaccio +on the 3rd of January 1763. His father, a Swiss officer in the +service of the Genoese Republic, had married the mother of +Laetitia Bonaparte, after the decease of her first husband. +Fesch therefore stood almost in the relation of an uncle to the +young Bonapartes, and after the death of Lucien Bonaparte, +archdeacon of Ajaccio, he became for a time the protector and +patron of the family. In the year 1789, when the French +Revolution broke out, he was archdeacon of Ajaccio, and, like +the majority of the Corsicans, he felt repugnance for many of +the acts of the French government during that period; in particular +he protested against the application to Corsica of the act +known as the “Civil Constitution of the Clergy” (July 1790). +As provost of the “chapter” in that city he directly felt the +pressure of events; for on the suppression of religious orders +and corporations, he was constrained to retire into private life.</p> + +<p>Thereafter he shared the fortunes of the Bonaparte family +in the intrigues and strifes which ensued. Drawn gradually +by that family into espousing the French cause against Paoli +and the Anglophiles, he was forced to leave Corsica and to +proceed with Laetitia and her son to Toulon, in the early part +of the autumn of 1793. Failing to find clerical duties at that +time (the period of the Terror), he entered civil life, and served +in various capacities, until on the appointment of Napoleon +Bonaparte to the command of the French “Army of Italy” +he became a commissary attached to that army. This part of +his career is obscure and without importance. His fortunes +rose rapidly on the attainment of the dignity of First Consul +by his former charge, Napoleon, after the <i>coup d’état</i> of Brumaire +(November 1799). Thereafter, when the restoration of the +Roman Catholic religion was in the mind of the First Consul, +Fesch resumed his clerical vocation and took an active part +in the complex negotiations which led to the signing of the +Concordat with the Holy See on the 15th of July 1801. His +reward came in the prize of the archbishopric of Lyons, on the +duties of which he entered in August 1802. Six months later +he received a still more signal reward for his past services, being +raised to the dignity of cardinal.</p> + +<p>In 1804 on the retirement of Cacault from the position of +French ambassador at Rome, Fesch received that important +appointment. He was assisted by Châteaubriand, but soon +sharply differed with him on many questions. Towards the +close of the year 1804 Napoleon entrusted to Fesch the difficult +task of securing the presence of Pope Pius VII. at the forthcoming +coronation of the emperor at Notre Dame, Paris (Dec. +2nd, 1804). His tact in overcoming the reluctance of the pope +to be present at the coronation (it was only eight months after +the execution of the duc d’Enghien) received further recognition. +He received the grand cordon of the Legion of Honour, became +grand-almoner of the empire and had a seat in the French +senate. He was to receive further honours. In 1806 one of the +most influential of the German clerics, Karl von Dalberg, then +prince bishop of Regensburg, chose him to be his coadjutor +and designated him as his successor.</p> + +<p>Events, however, now occurred which overclouded his prospects. +In the course of the years 1806-1807 Napoleon came +into sharp collision with the pope on various matters both +political and religious. Fesch sought in vain to reconcile the +two potentates. Napoleon was inexorable in his demands, +and Pius VII. refused to give way where the discipline and +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page293" id="page293"></a>293</span> +vital interests of the church seemed to be threatened. The +emperor on several occasions sharply rebuked Fesch for what +he thought to be weakness and ingratitude. It is clear, however, +that the cardinal went as far as possible in counselling the +submission of the spiritual to the civil power. For a time he +was not on speaking terms with the pope; and Napoleon recalled +him from Rome.</p> + +<p>Affairs came to a crisis in the year 1809, when Napoleon +issued at Vienna the decree of the 17th of May, ordering the +annexation of the papal states to the French empire. In that +year Napoleon conferred on Fesch the archbishopric of Paris, +but he refused the honour. He, however, consented to take +part in an ecclesiastical commission formed by the emperor +from among the dignitaries of the Gallican Church, but in 1810 +the commission was dissolved. The hopes of Fesch with respect +to Regensburg were also damped by an arrangement of the year +1810 whereby Regensburg was absorbed in Bavaria.</p> + +<p>In the year 1811 the emperor convoked a national council +of Gallican clerics for the discussion of church affairs, and +Fesch was appointed to preside over their deliberations. Here +again, however, he failed to satisfy the inflexible emperor and +was dismissed to his diocese. The friction between uncle and +nephew became more acute in the following year. In June +1812, Pius VII. was brought from his first place of detention, +Savona, to Fontainebleau, where he was kept under surveillance +in the hope that he would give way in certain matters relating +to the Concordat and in other clerical affairs. Fesch ventured +to write to the aged pontiff a letter which came into the hands +of the emperor. His anger against Fesch was such that he +stopped the sum of 150,000 florins which had been accorded +to him. The disasters of the years 1812-1813 brought Napoleon +to treat Pius VII. with more lenity and the position of Fesch +thus became for a time less difficult. On the first abdication +of Napoleon (April 11th, 1814) and the restoration of the Bourbons, +he, however, retired to Rome where he received a welcome. +The events of the Hundred Days (March-June, 1815) brought +him back to France; he resumed his archiepiscopal duties at +Lyons and was further named a member of the senate. On +the second abdication of the emperor (June 22nd, 1815) Fesch +retired to Rome, where he spent the rest of his days in dignified +ease, surrounded by numerous masterpieces of art, many of +which he bequeathed to the city of Lyons. He died at Rome +on the 13th of May 1839.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See J.B. Monseigneur Lyonnet, <i>Le Cardinal Fesch</i> (2 vols., Lyons, +1841); Ricard, <i>Le Cardinal Fesch</i> (Paris, 1893); H. Welschinger, +<i>Le Pape et l’empereur</i> (Paris, 1905); F. Masson, <i>Napoléon et sa +famille</i> (4 vols., Paris, 1897-1900).</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">FESSA,<a name="ar94" id="ar94"></a></span> a town and district of Persia in the province of Fars. +The town is situated in a fertile plain in 29° N. and 90 m. from +Shiraz, and has a population of about 5000. The district has +forty villages and extends about 40 m. north-south from Runiz +to Nassīrabad and 16 m. east-west from Vāsilabad to Deh +Dasteh (Dastajah); it produces much grain, dates, tobacco, +opium and good fruit.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">FESSENDEN, WILLIAM PITT<a name="ar95" id="ar95"></a></span> (1806-1869), American statesman +and financier, was born in Boscawen, New Hampshire, +on the 16th of October 1806. After graduating at Bowdoin +College in 1823, he studied law, and in 1827 was admitted to +the bar, eventually settling in Portland, Maine, where for two +years he was associated in practice with his father, Samuel +Fessenden (1784-1869), a prominent lawyer and anti-slavery +leader. In 1832 and in 1840 Fessenden was a representative in +the Maine legislature, and in 1841-1843 was a Whig member of +the national House of Representatives. When his term in this +capacity was over, he devoted himself unremittingly and with +great success to the law. He became well known, also, as an +eloquent advocate of slavery restriction. In 1845-1846 and +1853-1854 he again served in the state House of Representatives, +and in 1854 was chosen by the combined votes of Whigs +and Anti-Slavery Democrats to the United States Senate. +Within a fortnight after taking his seat he delivered a speech +in opposition to the Kansas-Nebraska Bill, which at once +made him a force in the congressional anti-slavery contest. +From then on he was one of the most eloquent and frequent +debaters among his colleagues, and in 1859, almost without +opposition, he was re-elected to the Senate as a member of the +Republican party, in the organization of which he had taken +an influential part. He was a delegate in 1861 to the Peace +Congress, but after the actual outbreak of hostilities he insisted +that the war should be prosecuted vigorously. As chairman +of the Senate Committee on Finance, his services were second +in value only to those of President Lincoln and Secretary Salmon +P. Chase in efforts to provide funds for the defence of the Union; +and in July 1864 Fessenden succeeded Chase as secretary of +the treasury. The finances of the country in the early summer +of 1864 were in a critical condition; a few days before leaving +office Secretary Chase had been compelled to withdraw from +the market $32,000,000 of 6% bonds, on account of the lack +of acceptable bids; gold had reached 285 and was fluctuating +between 225 and 250, while the value of the paper dollar had +sunk as low as 34 cents. It was Secretary Fessenden’s policy +to avoid a further increase of the circulating medium, and to +redeem or consolidate the temporary obligations outstanding. +In spite of powerful pressure the paper currency was not increased +a dollar during his tenure of the office. As the sales of bonds and +treasury notes were not sufficient for the needs of the Treasury, +interest-bearing certificates of indebtedness were issued to +cover the deficits; but when these began to depreciate the +secretary, following the example of his predecessors, engaged +the services of the Philadelphia banker Jay Cooke (<i>q.v.</i>) and +secured the consent of Congress to raise the balance of the +$400,000,000 loan authorized on the 30th of June 1864 by the +sale of the so-called “seven-thirty” treasury notes (<i>i.e.</i> notes +bearing interest at 7.3% payable in currency in three years or +convertible at the option of the holder into 6% 5-20 year gold +bonds). Through Cooke’s activities the sales became enormous; +the notes, issued in denominations as low as $50, appealed to +the patriotic impulses of the people who could not subscribe +for bonds of a higher denomination. In the spring of 1865 +Congress authorized an additional loan of $600,000,000 to be +raised in the same manner, and for the first time in four years +the Treasury was able to meet all its obligations. After thus +securing ample funds for the enormous expenditures of the +war, Fessenden resigned the treasury portfolio in March 1865, +and again took his seat in the Senate, serving till his death. +In the Senate he again became chairman of the finance committee, +and also of the joint committee on reconstruction. +He was the author of the report of this last committee (1866), +in which the Congressional plan of reconstruction was set forth +and which has been considered a state paper of remarkable +power and cogency. He was not, however, entirely in accord +with the more radical members of his own party, and this +difference was exemplified in his opposition to the impeachment +of President Johnson and subsequently in his voting for Johnson’s +acquittal. He bore with calmness the storm of reproach from +his party associates which followed, and lived to regain the +esteem of those who had attacked him. He died at Portland, +Maine, on the 6th of September 1869.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See Francis Fessenden, <i>Life and Public Services of William Pitt +Fessenden</i> (2 vols., Boston, 1907).</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">FESSLER, IGNAZ AURELIUS<a name="ar96" id="ar96"></a></span> (1756-1839), Hungarian +ecclesiastic, historian and freemason, was born on the 18th of +May 1756 at the village of Zurány in the county of Moson. +In 1773 he joined the order of Capuchins, and in 1779 was +ordained priest. He had meanwhile continued his classical +and philological studies, and his liberal views brought him into +frequent conflict with his superiors. In 1784, while at the +monastery of Mödling, near Vienna, he wrote to the emperor +Joseph II., making suggestions for the better education of the +clergy and drawing his attention to the irregularities of the +monasteries. The searching investigation which followed +raised up against him many implacable enemies. In 1784 he +was appointed professor of Oriental languages and hermeneutics +in the university of Lemberg, when he took the degree of doctor +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page294" id="page294"></a>294</span> +of divinity; and shortly afterwards he was released from his +monastic vows on the intervention of the emperor. In 1788 he +brought out his tragedy of <i>Sidney</i>, an <i>exposé</i> of the tyranny of +James II. and of the fanaticism of the papists in England. This +was attacked so violently as profane and revolutionary that he +was compelled to resign his office and seek refuge in Silesia. +In Breslau he met with a cordial reception from G.W. Korn +the publisher, and was, moreover, subsequently employed by +the prince of Carolath-Schönaich as tutor to his sons. In 1791 +Fessler was converted to Lutheranism and next year contracted +an unhappy marriage, which was dissolved in 1802, when he +married again. In 1796 he went to Berlin, where he founded +a humanitarian society, and was commissioned by the freemasons +of that city to assist Fichte in reforming the statutes +and ritual of their lodge. He soon after this obtained a government +appointment in connexion with the newly-acquired +Polish provinces, but in consequence of the battle of Jena (1806) +he lost this office, and remained in very needy circumstances +until 1809, when he was summoned to St Petersburg by Alexander +I., to fill the post of court councillor, and the professorship of +oriental languages and philosophy at the Alexander-Nevski +Academy. This office, however, he was soon obliged to resign, +owing to his alleged atheistic tendencies, but he was subsequently +nominated a member of the legislative commission. In 1815 +he went with his family to Sarepta, where he joined the Moravian +community and again became strongly orthodox. This cost +him the loss of his salary, but it was restored to him in 1817. +In November 1820 he was appointed consistorial president of +the evangelical communities at Saratov and subsequently +became chief superintendent of the Lutheran communities in +St Petersburg. Fessler’s numerous works are all written in +German. In recognition of his important services to Hungary +as a historian, he was in 1831 elected a corresponding member +of the Hungarian Academy of Sciences. He died at St Petersburg +on the 15th of December 1839.</p> + +<p>Fessler was a voluminous writer, and during his life exercised +great influence; but, with the possible exception of the history +of Hungary, none of his books has any value now. He did not +pretend to any critical treatment of his materials, and most +of his historical works are practically historical novels. He did +much, however, to make the study of history popular. His +most important works are—<i>Die Geschichten der Ungarn und +ihrer Landsassen</i> (10 vols. Leipzig, 1815-1825); <i>Marcus +Aurelius</i> (3 vols., Breslau, 1790-1792; 3rd edition, 4 vols., 1799); +<i>Aristides und Themistokles</i> (2 vols., Berlin, 1792; 3rd edition, +1818); <i>Attila, König der Hunnen</i> (Breslau, 1794); <i>Mathias +Corvinus</i> (2 vols., Breslau, 1793-1794); and <i>Die drei grossen +Könige der Hungarn aus dem Arpadischen Stamme</i> (Breslau, +1808).</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See Fessler’s <i>Rückblicke auf seine siebzigjährige Pilgerschaft</i> +(Breslau, 1824; 2nd edition, Leipzig, 1851).</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">FESTA, CONSTANZO<a name="ar97" id="ar97"></a></span> (<i>c.</i> 1495-1545), Italian singer and +musical composer, became a member of the Pontifical choir in +Rome in 1517, and soon afterwards <i>maestro</i> at the Vatican. +His motets and madrigals (the first book of which appeared in +1537) excited Dr Burney’s warm praise in his <i>History of Music</i>; +and, among other church music, his <i>Te Deum</i> (published in +1596) is still sung at important services in Rome. His madrigal, +called in English “Down in a flow’ry vale,” is well known.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">FESTINIOG<a name="ar98" id="ar98"></a></span> (or <span class="sc">Ffestiniog</span>), a town of Merionethshire, +North Wales, at the head of the Festiniog valley, 600 ft. above +the sea, in the midst of rugged scenery, near the stream Dwyryd, +31 m. from Conway. Pop. of urban district (1901), 11,435. +There are many large slate quarries in this parish, especially +at Blaenau Festiniog, the junction of three railways, London & +North Western, Great Western and Festiniog, a narrow-gauge +line between Portmadoc and Duffws. This light railway runs +at a considerable elevation (some 700 ft.), commanding a view +across the valley and lake of Tan y Bwlch. Lord Lyttelton’s +letter to Mr Bower is a well-known panegyric on Festiniog. +Thousands of workmen are employed in the slate quarries. +The Cynfael falls are famous. Near are <i>Beddau gwyr Ardudwy</i> +(the graves of the men of Ardudwy), memorials of a fight to +recover women of the Clwyd valley from the men of Ardudwy. +Near, too, is a rock named “Hugh Lloyd’s pulpit” (Lloyd lived +in the time of Charles I., Cromwell and Charles II.).</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">FESTOON<a name="ar99" id="ar99"></a></span> (from Fr. <i>feston</i>, Ital. <i>festone</i>, from a Late Lat. <i>festo</i>, +originally a “festal garland,” Lat. <i>festum</i>, feast), a wreath or +garland, and so in architecture a conventional arrangement of +flowers, foliage or fruit bound together and suspended by ribbons, +either from a decorated knot, or held in the mouths of lions, +or suspended across the back of bulls’ heads as in the Temple +of Vesta at Tivoli. The “motif” is sometimes known as a “swag.” +It was largely employed both by the Greeks and Romans and +formed the principal decoration of altars, friezes and panels. +The ends of the ribbons are sometimes formed into bows or +twisted curves; when in addition a group of foliage or flowers +is suspended it is called a “drop.” Its origin is probably due +to the representation in stone of the garlands of natural flowers, +&c., which were hung up over an entrance doorway on fête days, +or suspended round the altar.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">FESTUS<a name="ar100" id="ar100"></a></span> (? <span class="sc">Rufus</span> or <span class="sc">Rufius</span>), one of the Roman writers of +<i>breviaria</i> (epitomes of Roman history). The reference to the +defeat of the Goths at Noviodunum (<span class="scs">A.D.</span> 369) by the emperor +Valens, and the fact that the author is unaware of the constitution +of Valentia as a province (which took place in the same year) +are sufficient indication to fix the date of composition. Mommsen +identifies the author with Rufius Festus, proconsul of Achaea +(366), and both with Rufius Festus Avienus (<i>q.v.</i>), the translator +of Aratus. But the absence of the name Rufius in the best MSS. +is against this. Others take him to be Festus of Tridentum, +<i>magister memoriae</i> (secretary) to Valens and proconsul of Asia, +where he was sent to punish those implicated in the conspiracy +of Theodorus, a commission which he executed with such +merciless severity that his name became a byword. The work +itself (<i>Breviarium rerum gestarum populi Romani</i>) is divided +into two parts—one geographical, the other historical. The +chief authorities used are Livy, Eutropius and Florus. It is +extremely meagre, but the fact that the last part is based on the +writer’s personal recollections makes it of some value for the +history of the 4th century.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>Editions by W. Förster (Vienna, 1873) and C. Wagener (Prague, +1886); see also R. Jacobi, <i>De Festi breviarii fontibus</i> (Bonn, 1874), +and H. Peter, <i>Die geschichtliche Litt. über die römische Kaiserzeit</i> ii. +p. 133 (1897), where the epitomes of Festus, Aurelius Victor and +Eutropius are compared.</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">FESTUS, SEXTUS POMPEIUS,<a name="ar101" id="ar101"></a></span> Roman grammarian, probably +flourished in the 2nd century <span class="scs">A.D.</span> He made an epitome of the +celebrated work <i>De verborum significatu</i>, a valuable treatise +alphabetically arranged, written by M. Verrius Flaccus, a +freedman and celebrated grammarian who flourished in the +reign of Augustus. Festus gives the etymology as well as the +meaning of every word; and his work throws considerable light +on the language, mythology and antiquities of ancient Rome. +He made a few alterations, and inserted some critical remarks +of his own. He also omitted such ancient Latin words as had +long been obsolete; these he discussed in a separate work now lost, +entitled <i>Priscorum verborum cum exemplis</i>. Of Flaccus’s work +only a few fragments remain, and of Festus’s epitome only one +original copy is in existence. This MS., the Codex Festi Farnesianus +at Naples, only contains the second half of the work +(M-V) and that not in a perfect condition. It has been published +in facsimile by Thewrewk de Ponor (1890). At the close of +the 8th century Paulus Diaconus abridged the abridgment. +From his work and the solitary copy of the original attempts +have been made with the aid of conjecture to reconstruct the +treatise of Festus.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>Of the early editions the best are those of J. Scaliger (1565) and +Fulvius Ursinus (1581); in modern times, those of C.O. Müller +(1839, reprinted 1880) and de Ponor (1889); see J.E. Sandys, +<i>History of Classical Scholarship</i>, vol. i. (1906).</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">FÉTIS, FRANÇOIS JOSEPH<a name="ar102" id="ar102"></a></span> (1784-1871), Belgian composer +and writer on music, was born at Mons in Belgium on the 25th +of March 1784, and was trained as a musician by his father, who +followed the same calling. His talent for composition manifested +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page295" id="page295"></a>295</span> +itself at the age of seven, and at nine years old he was an organist +at Sainte-Waudru. In 1800 he went to Paris and completed his +studies at the conservatoire under such masters as Boieldieu, +Rey and Pradher. In 1806 he undertook the revision of the +Roman liturgical chants in the hope of discovering and establishing +their original form. In this year he married the granddaughter +of the Chevalier de Kéralio, and also began his +<i>Biographie universelle des musiciens</i>, the most important of his +works, which did not appear until 1834. In 1821 he was +appointed professor at the conservatoire. In 1827 he founded +the <i>Revue musicale</i>, the first serious paper in France devoted +exclusively to musical matters. Fétis remained in the French +capital till in 1833, at the request of Leopold I., he became +director of the conservatoire of Brussels and the king’s chapel-master. +He also was the founder, and, till his death, the conductor +of the celebrated concerts attached to the conservatoire +of Brussels, and he inaugurated a free series of lectures on +musical history and philosophy. He produced a large quantity +of original compositions, from the opera and the oratorio down +to the simple <i>chanson</i>. But all these are doomed to oblivion. +Although not without traces of scholarship and technical ability, +they show total absence of genius. More important are his +writings on music. They are partly historical, such as the +<i>Curiosités historiques de la musique</i> (Paris, 1850), and the <i>Histoire +universelle de musique</i> (Paris, 1869-1876); partly theoretical, +such as the <i>Méthode des méthodes de piano</i> (Paris, 1837), written +in conjunction with Moscheles. Fétis died at Brussels on the +26th of March 1871. His valuable library was purchased by +the Belgian government and presented to the Brussels conservatoire. +His work as a musical historian was prodigious +in quantity, and, in spite of many inaccuracies and some prejudice +revealed in it, there can be no question as to its value for +the student.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">FETISHISM,<a name="ar103" id="ar103"></a></span> an ill-defined term, used in many different +senses: (<i>a</i>) the worship of inanimate objects, often regarded +as peculiarly African; (<i>b</i>) negro religion in general; (<i>c</i>) the +worship of inanimate objects conceived as the residence of spirits +not inseparably bound up with, nor originally connected with, +such objects; (<i>d</i>) the doctrine of spirits embodied in, or attached +to, or conveying influence through, certain material objects +(Tylor); (<i>e</i>) the use of charms, which are not worshipped, but +derive their magical power from a god or spirit; (<i>f</i>) the use as +charms of objects regarded as magically potent in themselves. +A further extension is given by some writers, who use the term +as synonymous with the religions of primitive peoples, including +under it not only the worship of inanimate objects, such as the +sun, moon or stars, but even such phases of primitive philosophy +as totemism. Comte applied the term to denominate the view +of nature more commonly termed animism.</p> + +<p><i>Derivation.</i>—The word fetish (or fetich) was first used in +connexion with Africa by the Portuguese discoverers of the last +half of the 15th century; relics of saints, rosaries and images +were then abundant all over Europe and were regarded as +possessing magical virtue; they were termed by the Portuguese +<i>feiticos</i> (<i>i.e.</i> charms). Early voyagers to West Africa applied +this term to the wooden figures, stones, &c., regarded as the +temporary residence of gods or spirits, and to charms. There +is no reason to suppose that the word <i>feitico</i> was applied either to +an animal or to the local spirit of a river, hill or forest. <i>Feitico</i> +is sometimes interpreted to mean artificial, made by man, but +the original sense is more probably “magically active or artful.” +The word was probably brought into general use by C. de Brosses, +author of <i>Du culte des dieux fétiches</i> (1760), but it is frequently +used by W. Bosman in his <i>Description of Guinea</i> (1705), in the +sense of “the false god, Bossum” or “Bohsum,” properly a +tutelary deity of an individual.</p> + +<p><i>Definition.</i>—The term fetish is commonly understood to mean +the worship of or respect for material, inanimate objects, conceived +as magically active from a virtue inherent in them, +temporarily or permanently, which does not arise from the fact +that a god or spirit is believed to reside in them or communicate +virtue to them. Taken in this sense fetishism is probably a +mark of decadence. There is no evidence of any such belief in +Africa or elsewhere among primitive peoples. It is only after +a certain grade of culture has been attained that the belief in +luck appears; the fetish is essentially a mascot or object carried +for luck.</p> + +<p><i>Ordinary Usage.</i>—In the sense in which Dr Tylor uses the +term the fetish is (1) a “god-house” or (2) a charm derived from +a tutelary deity or spirit, and magically active in virtue of its +association with such deity or spirit. In the first of these senses +the word is applied to objects ranging from the unworked stone +to the pot or the wooden figure, and is thus hardly distinguishable +from idolatry. (<i>a</i>) The <i>bohsum</i> or tutelary deity of a particular +section of the community is derived from the local gods through +the priests by the performance of a certain series of rites. The +priest indicates into what object the <i>bohsum</i> will enter and +proceeds to the abode of the local god to procure the object in +question. After making an offering the object is carried to an +appropriate spot and a “fetish” tree set up as a shade for it, +which is sacred so long as the <i>bohsum</i> remains beneath it. The +fall of the tree is believed to mark the departure of the spirit. +A <i>bohsum</i> may also be procured through a dream; but in this +case, too, it is necessary to apply to the priest to decide whether +the dream was veridical. (<i>b</i>) The <i>suhman</i> or tutelary deity of +an individual is not an object selected at random to be the +residence of the spirit. It is only procurable at the residence +of a Sasabonsum, a malicious non-human being. Various +ceremonies are performed, and a spirit connected with the +Sasabonsum is finally asked to enter an object. This is then +kept for three days; if no good fortune results it is concluded +either that the spirit did not enter the object selected, or that +it is disinclined to extend its protection. In either case the +ceremonies must be commenced afresh. Otherwise offerings and +even human sacrifices in exceptional cases are made to the <i>suhman</i>. +It is commonly believed that the negro claims the power of +coercing his tutelary deity. This is denied by Colonel Ellis. +It is certain that coercion of deities is not unknown, but further +evidence is required that the negro uses it when his deity is +refractory.</p> + +<p>The <i>suhman</i> can, it is believed, communicate a part of his +powers to various objects in which he does not dwell; these are +also termed <i>suhman</i> by the natives and may have given rise to +the belief that the practices commonly termed fetishism are not +animistic. These charms are many in number; offerings of +food and drink are made, <i>i.e.</i> to the portion of the power of the +<i>suhman</i> which resides in them. These charms can only be made +by the possessor of the <i>suhman</i>.</p> + +<p>On the Guinea Coast the spirit implanted in the object is +usually, if not invariably, non-human. Farther south on the +Congo the “fetish” is inhabited by human souls also. The +priest goes into the forest and cuts an image; when a party +enters a wood for this purpose they may not mention the name +of any living being unless they wish him to die and his soul to +enter the fetish. The right person having been selected, his name +is mentioned; and he is believed to die within ten days, his +soul passing into the <i>nkissi</i>. It is into these figures that the nails +are driven, in order to procure the vengeance of the indwelling +spirit on some enemy.</p> + +<p>In many cases the fetish spirit is believed to leave the “god-house” +and pass for the time being into the body of the priest, +who manifests the phenomena of possession (<i>q.v.</i>). It is a +common error to suppose that the whole of African religion is +embraced in the practices connected with these tutelary deities; +so far from this being the case, belief in higher gods, not necessarily +accompanied with worship or propitiation, is common +in many parts of Africa, and there is no reason to suppose that +it had been derived in every case, perhaps not in any case, from +Christian or Mahommedan missionaries.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See A.B. Ellis, <i>Tshi-speaking Peoples</i>, chs. vii., viii. and xii.; +Waitz, <i>Anthropologie der Naturvölker</i>, ii. 174; R.E. Dennett in +<i>Folklore</i>, vol. xvi.; R.H. Nassau, <i>Fetichism in West Africa</i> (1904); +also Tylor, <i>Primitive Culture</i>, ii. 143, and M.H. Kingsley, <i>West +African Studies</i> (2nd ed., 1901), where the term is used in a more +extended sense.</p> +</div> +<div class="author">(N. W. T.)</div> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page296" id="page296"></a>296</span></p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">FETTERCAIRN,<a name="ar104" id="ar104"></a></span> a burgh of barony of Kincardineshire, +Scotland, 4½ m. N.W. of Laurencekirk. Pop. of parish (1901) +1390. The chief structures include a public hall, library and +reading-room, and the arch built to commemorate the visit +of Queen Victoria in 1861. The most interesting relic, however, +is the market cross, which originally belonged to the extinct +town of Kincardine. To the S.W. is Balbegno Castle, dating +from 1509, and planned on a scale that threatened to ruin its +projector. It contains a lofty hall of fine proportions. Two +miles N. is Fasque, the estate of the Gladstones, which was +acquired in 1831 by Sir John Gladstone (1764-1851), the father +of W.E. Gladstone. The castle, which stands in beautiful +grounds, was built in 1809. Sir John Gladstone’s tomb is in the +Episcopal church of St Andrew, which he erected and endowed. +In the immediate vicinity are the ruins of the royal castle of +Kincardine, where, according to tradition, Kenneth III. was +assassinated in 1005, although he is more generally said to have +been slain in battle at Monzievaird, near Crieff in Perthshire.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">FETTERS AND HANDCUFFS,<a name="ar105" id="ar105"></a></span> instruments for securing the +feet and hands of prisoners under arrest, or as a means of punishment. +The old names were manacles, shackbolts or shackles, +gyves and swivels. Until within recent times handcuffs were of +two kinds, the figure-8 ones which confined the hands close +together either in front or behind the prisoner, or the rings from +the wrists were connected by a short chain much on the model +of the handcuffs in use by the police forces of to-day. Much +improvement has been made in handcuffs of late. They are much +lighter and they are adjustable, fitting any wrist, and thus the +one pair will serve a police officer for any prisoner. For the +removal of gangs of convicts an arrangement of handcuffs connected +by a light chain is used, the chain running through a ring +on each fetter and made fast at both ends by what are known +as <i>end-locks</i>. Several recently invented appliances are used as +handcuffs, <i>e.g.</i> snaps, nippers, twisters. They differ from +handcuffs in being intended for one wrist only, the other portion +being held by the captor. In the snap the smaller circlet is +snapped to on the prisoner’s wrist. The nippers can be instantly +fastened on the wrist. The twister, not now used in England as +being liable to injure prisoners seriously, is a chain attached to +two handles; the chain is put round the wrist and the two +handles twisted till the chain is tight enough.</p> + +<p>Leg-irons are anklets of steel connected by light chains long +enough to permit of the wearer walking with short steps. An +obsolete form was an anklet and chain to the end of which was +attached a heavy weight, usually a round shot. The Spanish +used to secure prisoners in bilboes, shackles round the ankles +secured by a long bar of iron. This form of leg-iron was adopted +in England, and was much employed in the services during the +17th and 18th centuries. An ancient example is preserved in +the Tower of London. The French marine still use a kind of +leg-iron of the bilbo type.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">FEU,<a name="ar106" id="ar106"></a></span> in Scotland, the commonest mode of land tenure. The +word is the Scots variant of “fee” (<i>q.v.</i>). The relics of the +feudal system still dominate Scots conveyancing. That system +has recognized as many as seven forms of tenure—ward, socage, +mortification, feu, blench, burgage, booking. Ward, the original +military holding, was abolished in 1747 (20 G. II. c. 20), as an +effect of the rising of 1745. Socage and mortification have long +since disappeared. Booking is a conveyance peculiar to the +borough of Paisley, but does not differ essentially from feu. +Burgage is the system by which land is held in royal boroughs. +Blench holding is by a nominal payment, as of a penny Scots, or +a red rose, often only to be rendered upon demand. In feu +holding there is a substantial annual payment in money or in +kind in return for the enjoyment of the land. The crown is the +first overlord or superior, and land is held of it by crown vassals, +but they in their turn may “feu” their land, as it is called, to +others who become <i>their</i> vassals, whilst they themselves are +mediate overlords or superiors; and this process of sub-infeudation +may be repeated to an indefinite extent. The Conveyancing +Act of 1874 renders any clause in a disposition against sub-infeudation +null and void. In England on the other hand, since +1290, when the statute <i>Quia Emptores</i> was passed, sub-infeudation +is impossible, as the new holder simply effaces the grantor, +holding by the same title as the grantor himself. Casualties, +which are a feature of land held in feu, are certain payments +made to the superior, contingent on the happening of certain +events. The most important was the payment of an amount +equal to one year’s feu-duty by a new holder, whether heir or +purchaser of the feu. The Conveyancing Act of 1874 abolished +casualties in all feus after that date, and power was given to +redeem this burden on feus already existing. If the vassal does +not pay the feu-duty for two years, the superior, among other +remedies, may obtain by legal process a decree of irritancy, +whereupon <i>tinsel</i> or forfeiture of the feu follows. Previously to +1832 only the vassals of the crown had votes in parliamentary +elections for the Scots counties, and this made in favour of sub-infeudation +as against sale outright. In Orkney and Shetland +land is still largely possessed as udal property, a holding derived +or handed down from the time when these islands belonged +to Norway. Such lands may be converted into feus at the will +of the proprietor and held from the crown or Lord Dundas. At +one time the system of conveyancing by which the transfer +of feus was effected was curious and complicated, requiring the +presence of parties on the land itself and the symbolical handing +over of the property, together with the registration of various +documents. But legislation since the middle of the 19th century +has changed all that. The system of feuing in Scotland, as +contrasted with that of long leaseholds in England, has tended +to secure greater solidity and firmness in the average buildings +of the northern country.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See Erskine’s <i>Principles</i>; Bell’s <i>Principles</i>; Rankine, <i>Law of +Landownership in Scotland</i>.</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">FEUCHÈRES, SOPHIE,<a name="ar107" id="ar107"></a></span> <span class="sc">Baronne de</span> (1795-1840), Anglo-French +adventuress, was born at St Helens, Isle of Wight, in +1795, the daughter of a drunken fisherman named Dawes. +She grew up in the workhouse, went up to London as a servant, +and became the mistress of the duc de Bourbon, afterwards +prince de Condé. She was ambitious, and he had her well +educated not only in modern languages but, as her exercise +books—still extant—show, in Greek and Latin. He took her +to Paris and, to prevent scandal and to qualify her to be received +at court, had her married in 1818 to Adrien Victor de Feuchères, +a major in the Royal Guards. The prince provided her dowry, +made her husband his aide-de-camp and a baron. The baroness, +pretty and clever, became a person of consequence at the court +of Louis XVIII. De Feuchères, however, finally discovered +the relations between his wife and Condé, whom he had been +assured was her father, left her—he obtained a legal separation +in 1827—and told the king, who thereupon forbade her appearance +at court. Thanks to her influence, however, Condé was +induced in 1829 to sign a will bequeathing about ten million +francs to her, and the rest of his estate—more than sixty-six +millions—to the duc d’Aumale, fourth son of Louis Philippe. +Again she was in high favour. Charles X. received her at court, +Talleyrand visited her, her niece married a marquis and her +nephew was made a baron. Condé, wearied by his mistress’s +importunities, and but half pleased by the advances made him +by the government of July, had made up his mind to leave +France secretly. When on the 27th of August 1830 he was +found hanging dead from his window, the baroness was suspected +and an inquiry was held, but the evidence of death being the +result of any crime appearing insufficient, she was not prosecuted. +Hated as she was alike by legitimatists and republicans, life +in Paris was no longer agreeable for her, and she returned to +London, where she died in December 1840.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">FEUCHTERSLEBEN, ERNST,<a name="ar108" id="ar108"></a></span> <span class="sc">Freiherr von</span> (1806-1849), +Austrian physician, poet and philosopher, was born in Vienna +on the 29th of April 1806; of an old Saxon noble family. He +attended the “Theresian Academy” in his native city, and in +1825 entered its university as a student of medicine. In 1833 +he obtained the degree of doctor of medicine, settled in Vienna as +a practising surgeon, and in 1834 married. The young doctor +kept up his connexion with the university, where he lectured, and +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page297" id="page297"></a>297</span> +in 1844 was appointed dean of the faculty of medicine. He +cultivated the acquaintance of Franz Grillparzer, Heinrich +Laube, and other intellectual lights of the Viennese world, +interested himself greatly in educational matters, and in 1848, +while refusing the presidency of the ministry of education, +accepted the appointment of under secretary of state in that +department. His health, however, gave way, and he died at +Vienna on the 3rd of September 1849. He was not only a +clever physician, but a poet of fine aesthetical taste and a +philosopher. Among his medical works may be mentioned: <i>Über +das Hippokratische erste Buch von der Diät</i> (Vienna, 1835), +<i>Ärzte und Publicum</i> (Vienna, 1848) and <i>Lehrbuch der ärztlichen +Seelenkunde</i> (1845). His poetical works include <i>Gedichte</i> (Stutt. +1836), among which is the well-known beautiful hymn, which +Mendelssohn set to music. “<i>Es ist bestimmt in Gottes Rat.</i>” +As a philosopher he is best known by his <i>Zur Diätetik der Seele</i> +[Dietetics of the soul] (Vienna, 1838), which attained great +popularity, and the tendency of which, in contrast to Hufeland’s +<i>Makrobiotik</i> (On the Art of Prolonging Life), is to show the true +way of rendering life harmonious and lovely. This work had +by 1906 gone into fifty editions. Noteworthy also is his <i>Beiträge +zur Litteratur-, Kunst- und Lebenstheorie</i> (Vienna, 1837-1841), and +an anthology, <i>Geist der deutschen</i> Klassiker (Vienna, 1851; +3rd ed. 1865-1866).</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>His collected works (with the exception of the purely medical ones) +were published in 7 vols. by Fr. Hebbel (Vienna, 1851-1853). See +M. Necker, “Ernst von Feuchtersleben, der Freund Grillparzers,” +in the <i>Jahrbuch der Grillparzer Gesellschaft</i>, vol. iii. (Vienna, 1893).</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">FEUD,<a name="ar109" id="ar109"></a></span> animosity, hatred, especially a permanent condition of +hostilities between persons, and hence applied to a state of private +warfare between tribes, clans or families, a “vendetta.” The word +appears in Mid. Eng. as <i>fede</i>, which came through the O. Fr. +from the O. High Ger. <i>fehida</i>, modern <i>Fehde</i>. The O. Teutonic +<i>faiho</i>, an adjective, the source of <i>fehida</i>, gives the O. Eng. fáh, +foe. “Fiend,” originally an enemy (cf. Ger. <i>Feind</i>), hence the +enemy of mankind, the devil, and so any evil spirit, is probably +connected with the same source. The word <i>fede</i> was of Scottish +usage, but in the 16th century took the form <i>foode</i>, <i>fewd</i> in English. +The <i>New English Dictionary</i> points out that “feud, fee (Lat. +<i>feudum</i>) could not have influenced the change, for it appears +fifty years later than the first instances of <i>foode</i>, &c., and was +only used by writers on feudalism.” For the etymology of +“feud” (<i>feudum</i>) see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Fee</a></span>, and for its history see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Feudalism</a></span>.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">FEUDALISM<a name="ar110" id="ar110"></a></span> (from Late Lat. <i>feodum</i> or <i>feudum</i>, a fee or +fiel; see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Fee</a></span>). In every case of institutional growth in history +two things are to be clearly distinguished from the beginning +for a correct understanding of the process and its results. One +of these is the change of conditions in the political or social +environment which made growth necessary. The other is the +already existing institutions which began to be transformed to +meet the new needs. In studying the origin and growth of +political feudalism, the distinction is easy to make. The all-prevailing +need of the later Roman and early medieval society +was protection—protection against the sudden attacks of +invading tribes or revolted peasants, against oppressive neighbours, +against the unwarranted demands of government officers, +or even against the legal but too heavy exactions of the government +itself. In the days of the decaying empire and of the +chaotic German settlement, the weak freeman, the small landowner, +was exposed to attack in almost every relation of life +and on every side. The protection which normally it is the +business of government to furnish he could no longer obtain. +He must seek protection elsewhere wherever he could get it, +and pay the price demanded for it. This is the great social fact—the +failure of government to perform one of its most primary +duties, the necessity of finding some substitute in private life—extending +in greater or less degree through the whole formative +period of feudalism, which explains the transformation of +institutions that brought it into existence. Similar conditions +have produced an organization which may be called feudal, in +various countries, and in widely separated periods of history. +While these different feudal systems have shown a general +similarity of organization, there has been also great variation +in their details, because they have started from different institutions +and developed in different ways. The feudal system +with which history most concerns itself is that of medieval +western Europe, and it is that which will be here described.</p> + +<p>The institutions which the need of protection seized upon +when it first began to turn away from the state were twofold. +They had both long existed in the private, not public, +relations of the Romans, and they had up to this time +<span class="sidenote">Roman origins.</span> +shown no tendency to grow. One of them related to +the person, to the man himself, without reference to property, +the other related to land. There are thus distinguished at the +beginning those two great sides of feudalism which remained to +the end of its history more or less distinct, the personal relation +and the land relation. The personal institution needs little +description. It was the Roman patron and client relationship +which had remained in existence into the days of the empire, +in later times less important perhaps legally than socially, and +which had been reinforced in Gaul by very similar practices in +use among the Celts before their conquest. The description of +this institution which has come down to us from Roman sources +of the days when feudalism was beginning is not so detailed +as we could wish, but we can see plainly enough that it met a +frequent need, that it was called by a new name, the <i>patrocinium</i>, +and that it was firmly enough entrenched in usage to survive +the German conquest, and to be taken up and continued by +the conquerors. In its new use, alike in the later Roman and the +early German state, the landless freeman who could not support +himself went to some powerful man, stated his need, and offered +his services, those proper to a freeman, in return for shelter and +support. This transaction, which was called commendation, gave +rise in the German state to a written contract which related the +facts and provided a penalty for its violation. It created a +relationship of protection and support on one side, and of free +service on the other.</p> + +<p>The other institution, relating to land, was that known to the +Roman law as the <i>precarium</i>, a name derived from one of its +essential features through all its history, the prayer of the +suppliant by which the relationship was begun. The <i>precarium</i> +was a form of renting land not intended primarily for income, +but for use when the lease was made from friendship for example, +or as a reward, or to secure a debt. Legally its characteristic +feature was that the lessee had no right of any kind against +the grantor. The owner could call in his land and terminate +the relation at any time, for any reason, or for none at all. +Even a definite understanding at the outset that the lease might +be enjoyed to a specified date was no protection.<a name="fa1d" id="fa1d" href="#ft1d"><span class="sp">1</span></a> It followed +of course that the heir had no right in the land which his father +held in this way, nor was the heir of the donor bound by his father’s +act. The legal character of this transaction is summed up in a +well-known passage in the <i>Digest:—Interdictum de precariis +merito introductum est, quia nulla eo nomine juris civilis actio +esset, magis enim ad donationes et beneficii causam, quam ad +negotii contracti spectat precarii conditio.</i><a name="fa2d" id="fa2d" href="#ft2d"><span class="sp">2</span></a> This may be paraphrased +as follows:—The <i>precarium</i> tenant may employ the +interdict against a third party, because he cannot use the +ordinary civil action, his holding being not a matter of business +but rather of favour and kindness. It should be noted that from +its very beginning the land relationship of feudalism was not +created primarily for the grantor’s income, but that it emphasized +in the most striking way his continued ownership.</p> + +<p>As used for protection in later Roman days the <i>precarium</i> +gave rise to what was called the commendation of lands, <i>patrocinium +fundorum</i>. The poor landowner, likely to lose all that +he had from one kind of oppression or another, went to the great +landowner, his neighbour, whose position gave him immunity +from attack or the power to prevent official abuses, and begged +to be protected. The rich man answered, I can only protect my +own. Of necessity the poor man must surrender to his powerful +neighbour the ownership of his lands, which he then received +back as a <i>precarium</i>—gaining protection during his lifetime +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page298" id="page298"></a>298</span> +at the cost of his children, who were left without legal claim and +compelled to make the best terms they could.<a name="fa3d" id="fa3d" href="#ft3d"><span class="sp">3</span></a> Applied to this +use the <i>precarium</i> found extensive employment in the last age +of the empire. The government looked on the practice with +great disfavour, because it transferred large areas from the easy +access of the state to an ownership beyond its reach. The laws +repeatedly forbade it under increasing penalties, but clearly +it could not be stopped. The motive was too strong on both +sides—the need of protection on one side, the natural desire to +increase large possessions and means of self-defence on the other.</p> + +<p>These practices the Frankish conquerors of Gaul found in +full possession of society when they entered into that province. +They seem to have understood them at once, and, like +much else Roman, to have made them their own without +<span class="sidenote">Frankish development.</span> +material change. The <i>patrocinium</i> they were made +ready to understand by the existence of a somewhat +similar institution among themselves, the <i>comitatus</i>, described +by Tacitus. In this institution the chief of the tribe, or of some +plainly marked division of the tribe, gathered about himself a +band of chosen warriors, who formed a kind of private military +force and body-guard. The special features of the institution +were the strong tie of faith and service which bound the man, +the support and rewards given by the lord, and the pride of +both in the relationship. The <i>patrocinium</i> might well seem to +the German only a form of the <i>comitatus</i>, but it was a form which +presented certain advantages in his actual situation. The chief +of these was perhaps the fact that it was not confined to king or +tribal chief, but that every noble was able in the Roman practice +to surround himself with his organized private army. Probably +this fact, together with the more general fact of the absorption +in most things of the German in the Roman, accounts for the +substitution of the <i>patrocinium</i> for the <i>comitatus</i> which took +place under the Merovingians.</p> + +<p>This change did not occur, however, without some modification +of the Roman customs. The <i>comitatus</i> made contributions of +its own to future feudalism, to some extent to its institutional +side, largely to the ideas and spirit which ruled in it. Probably +the ceremony which grew into feudal homage, and the oath of +fealty, certainly the honourable position of the vassal and his +pride in the relationship, the strong tie which bound lord and +man together, and the idea that faith and service were due on +both sides in equal measure, we may trace to German sources. +But we must not forget that the origin of the vassal relationship, +as an institution, is to be found on Roman and not on German +soil. The <i>comitatus</i> developed and modified, it did not originate. +Nor was the feudal system established in any sense by the settlement +of the <i>comitatus</i> group on the conquered land. The uniting +of the personal and the land sides of feudalism came long after +the conquest, and in a different way.</p> + +<p>To the <i>precarium</i> German institutions offered no close parallel. +The advantages, however, which it afforded were obvious, and +this side of feudalism developed as rapidly after the conquest +as the personal. The new German noble was as eager to extend +the size of his lands and to increase the numbers of his dependants +as the Roman had been. The new German government furnished +no better protection from local violence, nor was it able any more +effectively to check the practices which were creating feudalism; +indeed for a long time it made no attempt to do so. <i>Precarium</i> +and <i>patrocinium</i> easily passed from the Roman empire to the +Frankish kingdom, and became as firmly rooted in the new +society as they had ever been in the old. Up to this point we +have seen only the small landowner and the landless man entering +into these relations. Feudalism could not be established, +however, until the great of the land had adopted them for +themselves, and had begun to enter the clientage of others and +to hold lands by the <i>precarium</i> tenure. The first step towards +this result was easily and quickly taken. The same class continued +to furnish the king’s men, and to form his household and +body-guard whether the relation was that of the <i>patrocinium</i> or +the <i>comitatus</i>, and to be made noble by entering into it. It was +later that they became clients of one another, and in part at +least as a result of their adoption of the <i>precarium</i> tenure. In +this latter step the influence of the Church rather than of the king +seems to have been effective. The large estates which pious +intentions had bestowed on the Church it was not allowed to +alienate. It could most easily make them useful to gain the +influence and support which it needed, and to provide for the +public functions which fell to its share, by employing the <i>precarium</i> +tenure. On the other side, the great men coveted the +wide estates of bishop and abbot, and were ready without +persuasion to annex portions of them to their own on the easy +terms of this tenure, not always indeed observed by the holder, +or able to be enforced by the Church. The employment of the +<i>precarium</i> by the Church seems to have been one of the surest +means by which this form of landholding was carried over +from the Romans to the Frankish period and developed into +new forms. It came to be made by degrees the subject of +written contract, by which the rights of the holder were more +definitely defined and protected than had been the case in +Roman law. The length of time for which the holding should +last came to be specified, at first for a term of years and then for +life, and some payment to the grantor was provided for, not +pretending to represent the economic value of the land, but only +to serve as a mark of his continued ownership.</p> + +<p>These changes characterize the Merovingian age of Frankish +history. That period had practically ended, however, before +these two institutions showed any tendency to join together +as they were joined in later feudalism. Nor had the king up +to that time exerted any apparent influence on the processes +that were going forward. Grants of land of the Merovingian +kings had carried with them ownership and not a limited right, +and the king’s <i>patrocinium</i> had not widened in extent in the +direction of the later vassal relation. It was the advent of the +Carolingian princes and the difficulties which they had to overcome +that carried these institutions a stage further forward. +Making their way up from a position among the nobility to +be the rulers of the land, and finally to supplant the kings, the +Carolingians had especial need of resources from which to +purchase and reward faithful support. This need was greatly increased +when the Arab attack on southern Gaul forced them to +transform a large part of the old Frankish foot army into cavalry.<a name="fa4d" id="fa4d" href="#ft4d"><span class="sp">4</span></a> +The fundamental principle of the Frankish military system, that +the man served at his own expense, was still unchanged. It +had indeed begun to break down under the strain of frequent +and distant campaigns, but it was long before it was changed as +the recognized rule of medieval service. If now, in addition +to his own expenses, the soldier must provide a horse and its +keeping, the system was likely to break down altogether. It +was this problem which led to the next step. To solve it the +early Carolingian princes, especially Charles Martel, who found +the royal domains exhausted and their own inadequate, grasped +at the land of the Church. Here was enough to endow an army, +if some means could be devised to permit its use. This means +was found in the <i>precarium</i> tenure. Keeping alive, as it did, the +fact of the grantor’s ownership, it did not in form deprive the +Church of the land. Recognizing that ownership by a small +payment only, not corresponding to the value of the land, it +left the larger part of the income to meet the need which had +arisen. At the same time undoubtedly the new holder of the +land, if not already the vassal of the prince, was obliged to +become so and to assume an obligation of service with a mounted +force when called upon.<a name="fa5d" id="fa5d" href="#ft5d"><span class="sp">5</span></a> This expedient seems to have solved +the problem. It gave rise to the numerous <i>precariae verbo regis</i>, +of the Church records, and to the condemnation of Charles +Martel in the visions of the clergy to worse difficulties in the +future life than he had overcome in this. The most important +consequences of the expedient, however, were not intended or +perceived at the time. It brought together the two sides of +feudalism, vassalage and benefice, as they were now commonly +called, and from this age their union into what is really a single +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page299" id="page299"></a>299</span> +institution was rapid;<a name="fa6d" id="fa6d" href="#ft6d"><span class="sp">6</span></a> it emphasized military service as an +essential obligation of the vassal; and it spread the vassal +relation between individual proprietors and the sovereign widely +over the state.</p> + +<p>In the period that followed, the reign of Charlemagne and the +later Carolingian age, continued necessities, military and civil, +forced the kings to recognize these new institutions more fully, +even when standing in a position between the government +and the subject, intercepting the public duties of the latter. +The incipient feudal baron had not been slow to take advantage +of the break-down of the old German military system. As in +the last days of the Roman empire the poor landowner had found +his only refuge from the exactions of the government in the +protection of the senator, who could in some way obtain exemptions, +so the poor Frank could escape the ruinous demands of +military service only by submitting himself and his lands to the +count, who did not hesitate on his side to force such submission. +Charlemagne legislated with vigour against this tendency, trying +to make it easier for the poor freeman to fulfil his military duties +directly to the state, and to forbid the misuse of power by the +rich, but he was not more successful than the Roman government +had been in a like attempt. Finally the king found himself +compelled to recognize existing facts, to lay upon the lord the +duty of producing his men in the field and to allow him to +appear as their commander. This solved the difficulty of military +service apparently, but with decisive consequences. It completed +the transformation of the army into a vassal army; it completed +the recognition of feudalism by the state, as a legitimate +relation between different ranks of the people; and it recognized +the transformation in a great number of cases of a public duty +into a private obligation.</p> + +<p>In the meantime another institution had grown up in this +Franco-Roman society, which probably began and certainly +assisted in another transformation of the same kind. This +is the immunity. Suggested probably by Roman practices, +possibly developed directly from them, it received a great +extension in the Merovingian period, at first and especially in +the interest of the Church, but soon of lay land-holders. By the +grant of an immunity to a proprietor the royal officers, the count +and his representatives, were forbidden to enter his lands to +exercise any public function there. The duties which the count +should perform passed to the proprietor, who now represented +the government for all his tenants free and unfree. Apparently +no modification of the royal rights was intended by this +arrangement, but the beginning of a great change had really +been made. The king might still receive the same revenues +and the same services from the district held by the lord as +formerly, but for their payment a private person in his capacity +as overlord was now responsible. In the course of a long +period characterized by a weak central government, it was +not difficult to enlarge the rights which the lord thus +obtained, to exclude even the king’s personal authority from the +immunity, and to translate the duties and payments which the +tenant had once owed to the state into obligations which he +owed to his lord, even finally into incidents of his tenure. The +most important public function whose transformation into a +private possession was assisted by the growth of the immunity +was the judicial. This process had probably already begun in a +small way in the growth of institutions which belong to the +economic side of feudalism, the organization of agriculture +on the great estates. Even in Roman days the proprietor had +exercised a jurisdiction over the disputes of his unfree tenants. +Whether this could by its own growth have been extended over +his free tenants and carried so far as to absorb a local court, +like that of the hundred, into private possession, is not certain. +It seems probable that it could. But in any case, the immunity +easily carried the development of private jurisdiction through +these stages. The lord’s court took the place of the public +court in civil, and even by degrees in criminal cases. The +plaintiff, even if he were under another lord, was obliged to sue +in the court of the defendant’s lord, and the portion of the fine +for a breach of the peace which should have gone to the state +went in the end to the lord.</p> + +<p>The transfer of the judicial process, and of the financial and +administrative sides of the government as well, into private +possession, was not, however, accomplished entirely by the road +of the immunity. As government weakened after the strong +days of Charlemagne, and disorder, invasion, and the difficulty +of intercommunication tended to throw the locality more and +more upon its own resources, the officer who had once been the +means of centralization, the count, found success in the effort +for independence which even Charlemagne had scarcely overcome. +He was able to throw off responsibility to any central authority, +and to exercise the powers which had been committed to him as +an agent of the king, as if they were his own private possession. +Nor was the king’s aid lacking to this method of dividing up the +royal authority, any more than to the immunity, for it became +a frequent practice to make the administrative office into a +fief, and to grant it to be held in that form of property by the +count. In this way the feudal county, or duchy, formed itself, +corresponding in most cases only roughly to the old administrative +divisions of the state, for within the bounds of the county +there had often formed private feudal possessions too powerful +to be forced into dependence upon the count, sometimes the +vice-comes had followed the count’s example, and often, on the +other hand, the count had attached to his county like private +possessions of his own lying outside its boundaries. In time +the private lord, who had never been an officer of the state, +assumed the old administrative titles and called himself count +or viscount, and perhaps with some sort of right, for his position +in his territories, through the development of the immunity, +did not differ from that now held by the man who had been +originally a count.</p> + +<p>In these two ways then the feudal system was formed, and +took possession of the state territorially, and of its functions in +government. Its earliest stage of growth was that of the private +possession only. Under a government too weak to preserve +order, the great landowner formed his estate into a little territory +which could defend itself. His smaller neighbours who needed +protection came to him for it. He forced them to become his +dependants in return under a great variety of forms, but especially +developing thereby the <i>precarium</i> land tenure and the <i>patrocinium</i> +personal service, and organizing a private jurisdiction over his +tenants, and a private army for defence. Finally he secured +from the king an immunity which excluded the royal officers +from his lands and made him a quasi-representative of the state. +In the meantime his neighbour the count had been following +a similar process, and in addition he had enjoyed considerable +advantages of his own. His right to exact military, financial +and judicial duties for the state he had used to force men to +become his dependants, and then he had stood between them +and the state, freeing them from burdens which he threw with +increased weight upon those who still stood outside his personal +protection. In ignorance of their danger, and later in despair +of getting public services adequately performed in any other +way, the kings first adopted for themselves some of the forms +and practices which had thus grown up, and by degrees recognized +them as legally proper for all classes. It proved to be +easier to hold the lord responsible for the public duties of all +his dependants because he was the king’s vassal and by attaching +them as conditions to the benefices which he held, than to +enforce them directly upon every subject.</p> + +<p>When this stage was reached the formative age of feudalism +may be considered at an end. When the government of the +state had entered into feudalism, and the king was as much +senior as king; when the vassal relationship was recognized +as a proper and legal foundation of public duties; when the two +separate sides of early feudalism were united as the almost +universal rule, so that a man received a fief because he owed a +vassal’s duties, or looked at in the other and finally prevailing +way, that he owed a vassal’s duties because he had received a +fief; and finally, when the old idea of the temporary character +of the <i>precarium</i> tenure was lost sight of, and the right of the +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page300" id="page300"></a>300</span> +vassal’s heir to receive his father’s holding was recognized as the +general rule—then the feudal system may be called full grown. +Not that the age of growth was really over. Feudal history +was always a becoming, always a gradual passing from one stage +to another, so long as feudalism continued to form the main +organization of society. But we may say that the formative +age was over when these features of the system had combined +to be its characteristic marks. What follows is rather a perfection +of details in the direction of logical completeness. To assign +any specific date to the end of this formative age is of course +impossible, but meaning by the end what has just been stated, +we shall not be far wrong if we place it somewhere near the +beginning of the 10th century.</p> + +<p>Before we leave the history of feudal origins another word is +necessary. We have traced a definite line of descent for feudal +institutions from Roman days through the Merovingian and +Carolingian ages to the 10th century. That line of descent can +be made out with convincing clearness and with no particular +difficulty from epoch to epoch, from the <i>precarium</i> and the +<i>patrocinium</i>, through the benefice and commendation, to the +fief and vassalage. But the definiteness of this line should not +cause us to overlook the fact that there was during these centuries +much confusion of custom and practice. All round and about +this line of descent there was a crowd of varying forms branching +off more or less widely from the main stem, different kinds of +commendation, different forms of <i>precarium</i>, some of which +varied greatly from that through which the fief descends, and +some of which survived in much the old character and under the +old name for a long time after later feudalism was definitely +established.<a name="fa7d" id="fa7d" href="#ft7d"><span class="sp">7</span></a> The variety and seeming confusion which reign +in feudal society, under uniform controlling principles, rule also +in the ages of beginning. It is easy to lose one’s bearings by +over-emphasizing the importance of variation and exception. +It is indeed true that what was the exception, the temporary +offshoot, might have become the main line. It would then have +produced a system which would have been feudal, in the wide +sense of the term, but it would have been marked by different +characteristics, it would have operated in a somewhat different +way. The crowd of varying forms should not prevent us from +seeing that we can trace through their confusion the line along +which the characteristic traits and institutions of European +feudalism, as it actually was, were growing constantly more +distinct.<a name="fa8d" id="fa8d" href="#ft8d"><span class="sp">8</span></a> That is the line of the origin of the feudal system. +(See also <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">France</a></span>: <i>Law and Institutions.</i>)</p> + +<p>The growth which we have traced took place within the +Frankish empire. When we turn to Anglo-Saxon England we +find a different situation and a different result. There +<i>precarium</i> and <i>patrocinium</i> were lacking. Certain +<span class="sidenote">Results in England.</span> +forms of personal commendation did develop, certain +forms of dependent land tenure came into use. These do not +show, however, the characteristic marks of the actual line of +feudal descent. They belong rather in the varying forms around +that line. Scholars are not yet agreed as to what would have +been their result if their natural development had not been cut +off by the violent introduction of Frankish feudalism with the +Norman conquest, whether the historical feudal system, or a +feudal system in the general sense. To the writer it seems clear +that the latter is the most that can be asserted. They were forms +which may rightly be called feudal, but only in the wider meaning +in which we speak of the feudalism of Japan, or of Central Africa, +not in the sense of 12th-century European feudalism; Saxon +commendation may rightly be called vassalage, but only as +looking back to the early Frankish use of the term for many +varying forms of practice, not as looking forward to the later +and more definite usage of completed feudalism; and such use +of the terms feudal and vassalage is sure to be misleading. It +is better to say that European feudalism is not to be found in +England before the Conquest, not even in its beginnings. If +these had really been in existence it would require no argument +to show the fact. There is no trace of the distinctive marks of +Frankish feudalism in Saxon England, not where military +service may be thought to rest upon the land, nor even in the +rare cases where the tenant seems to some to be made responsible +for it, for between these cases as they are described in the original +accounts, legally interpreted, and the feudal conception of the +vassal’s military service, there is a great gulf.</p> + +<p>In turning from the origin of feudalism to a description of the +completed system one is inevitably reminded of the words with +which de Quincey opens the second part of his essay +on style. He says: “It is a natural resource that +<span class="sidenote">The completed system.</span> +whatsoever we find it difficult to investigate as a +result, we endeavour to follow as a growth. Failing +analytically to probe its nature, historically we seek relief to our +perplexities by tracing its origin.... Thus for instance when +any feudal institution (be it Gothic, Norman, or Anglo-Saxon) +eludes our deciphering faculty from the imperfect records of its +use and operation, then we endeavour conjecturally to amend +our knowledge by watching the circumstances in which that +institution arose.” The temptation to use the larger part of any +space allotted to the history of feudalism for a discussion of +origins does not arise alone from greater interest in that phase of +the subject. It is almost impossible even with the most discriminating +care to give a brief account of completed feudalism +and convey no wrong impression. We use the term “feudal +system” for convenience sake, but with a degree of impropriety +if it conveys the meaning “systematic.” Feudalism in its most +flourishing age was anything but systematic. It was confusion +roughly organized. Great diversity prevailed everywhere, +and we should not be surprised to find some different fact or +custom in every lordship. Anglo-Norman feudalism attained a +logical completeness and a uniformity of practice which, in the +feudal age proper, can hardly be found elsewhere through so +large a territory; but in Anglo-Norman feudalism the exception +holds perhaps as large a place as the regular, and the uniformity +itself was due to the most serious of exceptions from the feudal +point of view—centralization under a powerful monarchy.</p> + +<p>But too great emphasis upon variation conveys also a wrong +impression. Underlying all the apparent confusion of fact and +practice were certain fundamental principles and relationships, +which were alike everywhere, and which really gave shape to +everything that was feudal, no matter what its form might be. +The chief of these are the following: the relation of vassal and +lord; the principle that every holder of land is a tenant and not +an owner, until the highest rank is reached, sometimes even the +conception rules in that rank; that the tenure by which a thing +of value is held is one of honourable service, not intended to be +economic, but moral and political in character; the principle +of mutual obligations of loyalty, protection and service binding +together all the ranks of this society from the highest to the +lowest; and the principle of contract between lord and tenant, +as determining all rights, controlling their modification, and +forming the foundation of all law. There was actually in fact +and practice a larger uniformity than this short list implies, +because these principles tended to express themselves in similar +forms, and because historical derivation from a common source +in Frankish feudalism tended to preserve some degree of uniformity +in the more important usages.</p> + +<p>The foundation of the feudal relationship proper was the fief, +which was usually land, but might be any desirable thing, as an +office, a revenue in money or kind, the right to collect a toll, +or operate a mill. In return for the fief, the man became the +vassal of his lord; he knelt before him, and, with his hands +between his lord’s hands, promised him fealty and service; he +rose to his feet and took the oath of fealty which bound him to +the obligations he had assumed in homage; he received from +his lord ceremonial investiture with the fief. The faithful +performance of all the duties he had assumed in homage constituted +the vassal’s right and title to his fief. So long as they +were fulfilled, he, and his heir after him, held the fief as his +property, practically and in relation to all under tenants as if +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page301" id="page301"></a>301</span> +he were the owner. In the ceremony of homage and investiture, +which is the creative contract of feudalism, the obligations +assumed by the two parties were, as a rule, not specified in +exact terms. They were determined by local custom. What +they were, however, was as well known, as capable of proof, +and as adequate a check on innovation by either party, as if +committed to writing. In many points of detail the vassal’s +services differed widely in different parts of the feudal world. +We may say, however, that they fall into two classes, general +and specific. The general included all that might come under +the idea of loyalty, seeking the lord’s interests, keeping his +secrets, betraying the plans of his enemies, protecting his family, +&c. The specific services are capable of more definite statement, +and they usually received exact definition in custom and sometimes +in written documents. The most characteristic of these +was the military service, which included appearance in the +field on summons with a certain force, often armed in a specified +way, and remaining a specified length of time. It often included +also the duty of guarding the lord’s castle, and of holding one’s +own castle subject to the plans of the lord for the defence of his +fief. Hardly less characteristic was court service, which included +the duty of helping to form the court on summons, of taking +one’s own cases to that court instead of to some other, and of +submitting to its judgments. The duty of giving the lord advice +was often demanded and fulfilled in sessions of the court, and +in these feudal courts the obligations of lord and vassal were +enforced, with an ultimate appeal to war. Under this head +may be enumerated also the financial duties of the vassal, +though these were not regarded by the feudal law as of the nature +of the tenure, <i>i.e.</i> failure to pay them did not lead to confiscation, +but they were collected by suit and distraint like any debt. +They did not have their origin in economic considerations, but +were either intended to mark the vassal’s tenant relation, like +the relief, or to be a part of his service, like the aid, that is, he +was held to come to the aid of his lord in a case of financial as +of military necessity. The relief was a sum paid by the heir +for the lord’s recognition of his succession. The aids were paid +on a few occasions, determined by custom, where the lord was +put to unusual expense, as for his ransom when captured by the +enemy, or for the knighting of his eldest son. There was great +variety regarding the occasion and amount of these payments, +and in some parts of the feudal world they did not exist at all. +The most lucrative of the lord’s rights were wardship and +marriage, but the feudal theory of these also was non-economic. +The fief fell into the hands of the lord, and he enjoyed its revenues +during the minority of the heir, because the minor could not +perform the duties by which it was held. The heiress must +marry as the lord wished, because he had a right to know that +the holder of the fief could meet the obligations resting upon +it. Both wardship and marriage were, however, valuable rights +which the lord could exercise himself or sell to others. These +were by no means the only rights and duties which could be +described as existing in feudalism, but they are the most characteristic, +and on them, or some of them, as a foundation, the +whole structure of feudal obligation was built, however detailed.</p> + +<p>Ideally regarded, feudalism covered Europe with a network +of these fiefs, rising in graded ranks one above the other from +the smallest, the knight’s fee, at the bottom, to the king at the +top, who was the supreme landowner, or who held the kingdom +from God. Actually not even in the most regular of feudal +countries, like England or Germany, was there any fixed gradation +of rank, titles or size. A knight might hold directly of the +king, a count of a viscount, a bishop of an abbot, or the king +himself of one of his own vassals, or even of a vassal’s vassal, +and in return his vassal’s vassal might hold another fief directly +of him. The case of the count of Champagne, one of the peers +of France, is a famous example. His great territory was held +only in small part of the king of France. He held a portion of +a foreign sovereign, the emperor, and other portions of the duke +of Burgundy, of two archbishops, of four bishops, and of the abbot +of St Denis. Frequently did great lay lords, as in this case, +hold lands by feudal tenure of ecclesiastics.</p> + +<p>It is now possible perhaps to get some idea of the way in which +the government of a feudal country was operated. The early +German governments whose chief functions, military, judicial, +financial, legislative, were carried on by the freemen of the nation +because they were members of the body politic, and were performed +as duties owed to the community for its defence and +sustenance, no longer existed. New forms of organization had +arisen in which indeed these conceptions had not entirely +disappeared, but in which the vast majority of cases a wholly +different idea of the ground of service and obligation prevailed. +Superficially, for example, the feudal court differed but little +from its Teutonic predecessor. It was still an assembly court. +Its procedure was almost the same as the earlier. It often +included the same classes of men. Saxon Witenagemot and +Norman <i>Curia regis</i> seem very much alike. But the members +of the feudal court met, not to fulfil a duty owed to the community, +but a private obligation which they had assumed in +return for the fiefs they held, and in the history of institutions +it is differences of this sort which are the determining principles. +The feudal state was one in which, as it has been said, private +law had usurped the place of public law. Public duty had become +private obligation. To understand the feudal state it is essential +to make clear to one’s mind that all sorts of services, which men +ordinarily owe to the public or to one another, were translated +into a form of rent paid for the use of land, and defined and +enforced by a private contract. In every feudal country, however, +something of the earlier conception survived. A general military +levy was occasionally made. Something like taxation occasionally +occurred, though the government was usually sustained by the +scanty feudal payments, by the proceeds of justice and by the +income of domain manors. About the office of king more of +this earlier conception gathered than elsewhere in the state, +and gradually grew, aided not merely by traditional ideas, but +by the active influence of the Bible, and soon of the Roman law. +The kingship formed the nucleus of new governments as the +feudal system passed away.</p> + +<p>Actual government in the feudal age was primitive and undifferentiated. +Its chief and almost only organ, for kingdom +and barony alike, was the <i>curia</i>—a court formed of the vassals. +This acted at once and without any consciousness of difference +of function, as judiciary, as legislature, in so far as there was +any in the feudal period, and as council, and it exercised final +supervision and control over revenue and administration. +Almost all the institutions of modern states go back to the +<i>curia regis</i>, branching off from it at different dates as the growing +complexity of business forced differentiation of function and +personnel. In action it was an assembly court, deciding all +questions by discussion and the weight of opinion, though its +decisions obtained their legal validity by the formal pronunciation +of the presiding member, <i>i.e.</i> of the lord whose court it was. +It can readily be seen that in a government of this kind the +essential operative element was the baron. So long as the +government remained dependent on the baron, it remained +feudal in its character. When conditions so changed that government +could free itself from its dependence on the baron, feudalism +disappeared as the organization of society; when a professional +class arose to form the judiciary, when the increased circulation +of money made regular taxation possible and enabled the government +to buy military and other services, and when better means +of intercommunication and the growth of common ideas made +a wide centralization possible and likely to be permanent. +Feudalism had performed a great service, during an age of +disintegration, by maintaining a general framework of government, +while allowing the locality to protect and care for itself. +When the function of protection and local supervision could be +resumed by the general government the feudal age ended. In +nearly all the states of Europe this end was reached during, or +by the close of, the 13th century.</p> + +<p>At the moment, however, when feudalism was disappearing +as the organization of society, it gave rise to results which in a +sense continued it into after ages and even to our own day. +One of these results was the system of law which it created. +<span class="sidenote">Decline and survivals.</span> +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page302" id="page302"></a>302</span> +As feudalism passed from its age of supremacy into its age +of decline, its customs tended to crystallize into fixed forms. +At the same time a class of men arose interested in +these forms for their own sake, professional lawyers +or judges, who wrote down for their own and others’ +use the feudal usages with which they were familiar. +The great age of these codes was the 13th century, and especially +the second half of it. The codes in their turn tended still further +to harden these usages into fixed forms, and we may date from +the end of the 13th century an age of feudal law regulating +especially the holding and transfer of land, and much more +uniform in character than the law of the feudal age proper. +This was particularly the case in parts of France and Germany +where feudalism continued to regulate the property relations +of lords and vassals longer than elsewhere, and where the underlying +economic feudalism remained in large part unchanged. +In this later pseudo-feudalism, however, the political had given +way to the economic, and customs which had once had no +economic significance came to have that only.</p> + +<p>Feudalism formed the starting-point also of the later social +nobilities of Europe. They drew from it their titles and ranks +and many of their regulative ideas, though these were formed +into more definite and regular systems than ever existed in +feudalism proper. It was often the policy of kings to increase +the social privileges and legal exemptions of the nobility while +taking away all political power, so that it is necessary in the +history of institutions to distinguish sharply between these +nobilities and the feudal baronage proper. It is only in certain +backward parts of Europe that the terms feudal and baronage +in any technical sense can be used of the nobility of the 15th +century.</p> +<div class="author">(G. B. A.)</div> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p><span class="sc">Bibliography.</span>—For more detailed information the reader is +referred to the articles <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">English Law</a></span>; <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">France</a></span>: <i>French Law +and Institutions</i>, <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Villenage</a></span>; <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Manor</a></span>; <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Scutage</a></span>; <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Knight +Service</a></span>; <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Hide</a></span>. For a general sketch of Feudalism the chapters in +tome ii. of the <i>Histoire générale</i> of Lavisse and Rambaud should be +consulted. Other general works are J.T. Abdy, <i>Feudalism</i> (1890); +Paul Roth, <i>Feudalität und Unterthanverband</i> (Weimar, 1863); and +<i>Geschichte des Beneficialwesens</i> (1850); M.M. Kovalevsky, <i>Ökonomische +Entwickelung Europas</i> (1902); E. de Laveleye, <i>De la propriété +et de ses formes primitives</i> (1891); and <i>The Origin of Property +in Land</i>, a translation by M. Ashley from the works of N.D. Fustel de +Coulanges, with an introductory chapter by Professor W.J. Ashley. +Two other works of value are Sir H.S. Maine, <i>Village Communities in +the East and West</i> (1876); and Léon Gautier, <i>La Chevalerie</i> (Paris, +1884; Eng. trans. by Henry Frith, <i>Chivalry</i>, London, 1891).</p> + +<p>For feudalism in England see the various constitutional histories, +especially W. Stubbs, <i>Constitutional History of England</i>, vol. i. (ed. +1897). Very valuable also are the writings of Mr J.H. Round, of +Professor F.W. Maitland and of Professor P. Vinogradoff. Among +Round’s works may be mentioned <i>Feudal England</i> (1895); <i>Geoffrey +de Mandeville</i> (1892); and <i>Studies on the Red Book of the Exchequer</i> +(1898). Maitland’s <i>Domesday Book and Beyond</i> (Cambridge, 1897) +is indispensable; and the same remark applies to his <i>History of +English Law before the time of Edward I.</i> (Cambridge, 1895), written +in conjunction with Sir Frederick Pollock. Vinogradoff has illuminated +the subject in his <i>Villainage in England</i> (1892) and his <i>English +Society in the 11th century</i> (1908). See also J.F. Baldwin, <i>The +Scutage and Knight Service in England</i> (Chicago, 1897); Rudolf +Gneist, <i>Adel und Ritterschaft in England</i> (1853); and F. Seebohm, +<i>The English Village Community</i> (1883).</p> + +<p>For feudalism in France see N.D. Fustel de Coulanges, <i>Histoire des +institutions politiques de l’ancienne France</i> (<i>Les Origines du système +féodal</i>, 1890; <i>Les Transformations de la royauté pendant l’époque +carolingienne</i>, 1892); A. Luchaire, <i>Histoire des institutions monarchiques +de la France sous les premiers Capétiens, 987-1180</i> (2nd ed., +1890); and <i>Manuel des institutions françaises: période des Capétiens +directs</i> (1892); J. Flach, <i>Les Origines de l’ancienne France</i> (1886-1893); +Paul Viollet, <i>Droit public: Histoires des institutions politiques +et administratives de la France</i> (1890-1898); and Henri Sée, <i>Les +classes rurales et le régime domanial</i> (1901).</p> + +<p>For Germany see G. Waitz, <i>Deutsche Verfassungsgeschichte</i> (Kiel +and Berlin, 1844 foll.); H. Brunner, <i>Grundzüge der deutschen +Rechtsgeschichte</i> (Leipzig, 1901); V. Menzel, <i>Die Entstehung des +Lebenswesens</i> (Berlin, 1890); and G.L. von Maurer’s works on the +early institutions of the Germans.</p> +</div> + +<hr class="foot" /> <div class="note"> + +<p><a name="ft1d" id="ft1d" href="#fa1d"><span class="fn">1</span></a> <i>Digest</i>, xliii. 26. 12.</p> + +<p><a name="ft2d" id="ft2d" href="#fa2d"><span class="fn">2</span></a> <i>Ibid.</i> xliii. 26. 14, and cf. 17.</p> + +<p><a name="ft3d" id="ft3d" href="#fa3d"><span class="fn">3</span></a> Salvian, <i>De gub. Dei</i>, v. 8, ed. Halm, p. 62.</p> + +<p><a name="ft4d" id="ft4d" href="#fa4d"><span class="fn">4</span></a> H. Brunner, <i>Zeitschr. der sav. Stift. für Rechtsgeschichte</i>, Germ. +Abth. viii. 1-38 (1887). Also in his Forschungen, 39-74 (1894).</p> + +<p><a name="ft5d" id="ft5d" href="#fa5d"><span class="fn">5</span></a> See F. Dahn, <i>Könige der Germanen</i>, viii. 2, 90 ff.</p> + +<p><a name="ft6d" id="ft6d" href="#fa6d"><span class="fn">6</span></a> F. Dahn, <i>Könige der Germanen</i>, viii. 2, 197.</p> + +<p><a name="ft7d" id="ft7d" href="#fa7d"><span class="fn">7</span></a> G. Waitz, <i>Deutsche Verfassungsgeschichte</i>, vi. 112 ff. (1896). +Most fully described in G. Seeliger, <i>Die soziale u. politische Bedeutung +d. Grundherrschaft im früheren Mittelalter</i> (1903).</p> + +<p><a name="ft8d" id="ft8d" href="#fa8d"><span class="fn">8</span></a> F. Dahn, <i>Könige</i>, viii. 2, 89-90; 95.</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">FEUERBACH, ANSELM<a name="ar111" id="ar111"></a></span> (1829-1880), German painter, born +at Spires, the son of a well-known archaeologist, was the leading +classicist painter of the German 19th-century school. He was +the first to realize the danger arising from contempt of technique, +that mastery of craftsmanship was needed to express even the +loftiest ideas, and that an ill-drawn coloured cartoon can never +be the supreme achievement in art. After having passed through +the art schools of Düsseldorf and Munich, he went to Antwerp +and subsequently to Paris, where he benefited by the teaching +of Couture, and produced his first masterpiece, “Hafiz at the +Fountain” in 1852. He subsequently worked at Karlsruhe, +Venice (where he fell under the spell of the greatest school of +colourists), Rome and Vienna. He was steeped in classic +knowledge, and his figure compositions have the statuesque +dignity and simplicity of Greek art. Disappointed with the +reception given in Vienna to his design of “The Fall of the +Titans” for the ceiling of the Museum of Modelling, he went to +live in Venice, where he died in 1880. His works are to be found +at the leading public galleries of Germany; Stuttgart has his +“Iphigenia”; Karlsruhe, the “Dante at Ravenna”; Munich, +the “Medea”; and Berlin, “The Concert,” his last important +picture. Among his chief works are also “The Battle of the +Amazons,” “Pietà,” “The Symposium of Plato,” “Orpheus +and Eurydice” and “Ariosto in the Park of Ferrara.”</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">FEUERBACH, LUDWIG ANDREAS<a name="ar112" id="ar112"></a></span> (1804-1872), German +philosopher, fourth son of the eminent jurist (see below), was born +at Landshut in Bavaria on the 28th of July 1804. He matriculated +at Heidelberg with the intention of pursuing an ecclesiastical +career. Through the influence of Prof. Daub he was led to +an interest in the then predominant philosophy of Hegel and, +in spite of his father’s opposition, went to Berlin to study under +the master himself. After two years’ discipleship the Hegelian +influence began to slacken. “Theology,” he wrote to a friend, +“I can bring myself to study no more. I long to take nature +to my heart, that nature before whose depth the faint-hearted +theologian shrinks back; and with nature man, man in his +entire quality.” These words are a key to Feuerbach’s development. +He completed his education at Erlangen with the study +of natural science. His first book, published anonymously, +<i>Gedanken über Tod und Unsterblichkeit</i> (1830, 3rd ed. 1876), +contains an attack upon personal immortality and an advocacy +of the Spinozistic immortality of reabsorption in nature. These +principles, combined with his embarrassed manner of public +speaking, debarred him from academic advancement. After +some years of struggling, during which he published his <i>Geschichte +der neueren Philosophie</i> (2 vols., 1833-1837, 2nd ed. 1844), and +<i>Abälard und Heloise</i> (1834, 3rd ed. 1877), he married in 1837 +and lived a rural existence at Bruckberg near Nuremberg, +supported by his wife’s share in a small porcelain factory. In +two works of this period, <i>Pierre Bayle</i> (1838) and <i>Philosophie +und Christentum</i> (1839), which deal largely with theology, he +held that he had proved “that Christianity has in fact long +vanished not only from the reason but from the life of mankind, +that it is nothing more than a fixed idea” in flagrant contradiction +to the distinctive features of contemporary civilization. +This attack is followed up in his most important work, <i>Das +Wesen des Christentums</i> (1841), which was translated into +English (<i>The Essence of Religion</i>, by George Eliot, 1853, 2nd ed. +1881), French and Russian. Its aim may be described shortly +as an effort to humanize theology. He lays it down that man, +so far as he is rational, is to himself his own object of thought. +Religion is consciousness of the infinite. Religion therefore +is “nothing else than the consciousness of the infinity of the +consciousness; or, in the consciousness of the infinite, the +conscious subject has for his object the infinity of his own +nature.” Thus God is nothing else than man: he is, so to speak, +the outward projection of man’s inward nature. In part 1 of +his book he develops what he calls the “true or anthropological +essence of religion.” Treating of God in his various aspects +“as a being of the understanding,” “as a moral being or law,” +“as love” and so on, Feuerbach shows that in every aspect God +corresponds to some feature or need of human nature. “If +man is to find contentment in God, he must find himself in God.” +In part 2 he discusses the “false or theological essence of religion,” +<i>i.e.</i> the view which regards God as having a separate existence +over against man. Hence arise various mistaken beliefs, such +as the belief in revelation which not only injures the moral +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page303" id="page303"></a>303</span> +sence, but also “poisons, nay destroys, the divinest feeling in +man, the sense of truth,” and the belief in sacraments such as +the Lord’s Supper, a piece of religious materialism of which “the +necessary consequences are superstition and immorality.” +In spite of many admirable qualities both of style and matter +the <i>Essence of Christianity</i> has never made much impression +upon British thought. To treat the actual forms of religion +as expressions of our various human needs is a fruitful idea +which deserves fuller development than it has yet received; +but Feuerbach’s treatment of it is fatally vitiated by his subjectivism. +Feuerbach denied that he was rightly called an +atheist, but the denial is merely verbal: what he calls “theism” +is atheism in the ordinary sense. Feuerbach labours under the +same difficulty as Fichte; both thinkers strive in vain to reconcile +the religious consciousness with subjectivism.</p> + +<p>During the troubles of 1848-1849 Feuerbach’s attack upon +orthodoxy made him something of a hero with the revolutionary +party; but he never threw himself into the political movement, +and indeed had not the qualities of a popular leader. During the +period of the diet of Frankfort he had given public lectures on +religion at Heidelberg. When the diet closed he withdrew to +Bruckberg and occupied himself partly with scientific study, +partly with the composition of his <i>Theogonie</i> (1857). In 1860 he +was compelled by the failure of the porcelain factory to leave +Bruckberg, and he would have suffered the extremity of want +but for the assistance of friends supplemented by a public +subscription. His last book, <i>Gottheit, Freiheit und Unsterblichkeit</i>, +appeared in 1866 (2nd ed., 1890). After a long period of decay he +died on the 13th of September 1872.</p> + +<p>Feuerbach’s influence has been greatest upon the anti-Christian +theologians such as D.F. Strauss, the author of the +<i>Leben Jesu</i>, and Bruno Bauer, who like Feuerbach himself had +passed over from Hegelianism to a form of naturalism. But +many of his ideas were taken up by those who, like Arnold Ruge, +had entered into the struggle between church and state in +Germany, and those who, like F. Engels and Karl Marx, were +leaders in the revolt of labour against the power of capital. His +work was too deliberately unsystematic (“keine Philosophie ist +meine Philosophie”) ever to make him a power in philosophy. +He expressed in an eager, disjointed, but condensed and laboured +fashion, certain deep-lying convictions—that philosophy must +come back from unsubstantial metaphysics to the solid facts of +human nature and natural science, that the human body was no +less important than the human spirit (“Der Mensch ist was er +isst”) and that Christianity was utterly out of harmony with the +age. His convictions gained weight from the simplicity, uprightness +and diligence of his character; but they need a more +effective justification than he was able to give them.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>His works appeared in 10 vols. (Leipzig, 1846-1866); his correspondence +has been edited with an indifferent biography by Karl +Grün (1874). See A. Lévy, <i>La Philosophie de Feuerbach</i> (1904); +M. Meyer, <i>L. Feuerbach’s Moralphilosophie</i> (Berlin, 1899); E. v. +Hartmann, <i>Geschichte d. Metaphysik</i> (Leipzig, 1899-1900), ii. 437-444: +F. Engels, <i>L. Feuerbach und d. Ausgang d. class, deutsch. Philos.</i> +(2nd ed., 1895).</p> +</div> +<div class="author">(H. St.)</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">FEUERBACH, PAUL JOHANN ANSELM,<a name="ar113" id="ar113"></a></span> <span class="sc">Ritter von</span> (1775-1833), +German jurist and writer on criminal law, was born at +Hainichen near Jena on the 14th of November 1775. He received +his early education at Frankfort on Main, whither his family had +removed soon after his birth. At the age of sixteen, however, +he ran away from home, and, going to Jena, was helped by +relations there to study at the university. In spite of poor health +and the most desperate poverty, he made rapid progress. He +attended the lectures of Karl Leonhard Reinhold and Gottlieb +Hufeland, and soon published some literary essays of more than +ordinary merit. In 1795 he took the degree of doctor in philosophy, +and in the same year, though he only possessed 150 +thalers (£22 : 10s.), he married. It was this step which led him +to success and fame, by forcing him to turn from his favourite +studies of philosophy and history to that of law, which was +repugnant to him, but which offered a prospect of more rapid +advancement. His success in this new and uncongenial sphere +was soon assured. In 1796 he published <i>Kritik des natürlichen +Rechts als Propädeutik zu einer Wissenschaft der natürlichen +Rechte</i>, which was followed, in 1798, by <i>Anti-Hobbes, oder über die +Grenzen der bürgerlichen Gewalt</i>, a dissertation on the limits of the +civil power and the right of resistance on the part of subjects +against their rulers, and by <i>Philosophische, juristische Untersuchungen +über das Verbrechen des Hochverraths</i>. In 1799 he +obtained the degree of doctor of laws. Feuerbach, as the founder +of a new theory of penal law, the so-called “psychological-coercive +or intimidation theory,” occupied a prominent place in +the history of criminal science. His views, which he first made +known in his <i>Revision der Grundsätze und Grundbegriffe des +positiven peinlichen Rechts</i> (1799), were further elucidated and +expounded in the <i>Bibliothek für die peinliche Rechtswissenschaft</i> +(1800-1801), an encyclopaedic work produced in conjunction with +Karl L.W.G. Grolmann and Ludwig Harscher von Almendingen, +and in his famous <i>Lehrbuch des gemeinen in Deutschland geltenden +peinlichen Rechts</i> (1801). These works were a powerful protest +against vindictive punishment, and did much towards the +reformation of the German criminal law. The <i>Carolina</i> (the +penal code of the emperor Charles V.) had long since ceased to be +respected. What in 1532 was an inestimable blessing, as a check +upon the arbitrariness and violence of the effete German procedure, +had in the course of time outlived its usefulness and +become a source of evils similar to those it was enacted to +combat. It availed nothing that, at the commencement of the +18th century, a freer and more scientific spirit had been breathed +into Roman law; it failed to reach the criminal law. The +administration of justice was, before Feuerbach’s time, especially +distinguished by two characteristics: the superiority of the +judge to all law, and the blending of the judicial and executive +offices, with the result that the individual was practically at the +mercy of his prosecutors. This state of things Feuerbach set +himself to reform, and using as his chief weapon the <i>Revision der +Grundbegriffe</i> above referred to, was successful in his task. His +achievement in the struggle may be summed up as: <i>nullum +crimen, nulla poena sine lege</i> (no wrong and no punishment +without a remedy). In 1801 Feuerbach was appointed extraordinary +professor of law without salary, at the university of +Jena, and in the following year accepted a chair at Kiel, where he +remained two years. In 1804 he removed to the university of +Landshut; but on being commanded by King Maximilian +Joseph to draft a penal code for Bavaria (<i>Strafgesetzbuch für +das Königreich Bayern</i>), he removed in 1805 to Munich, where he +was given a high appointment in the ministry of justice and was +ennobled in 1808. Meanwhile the practical reform of penal +legislation in Bavaria was begun under his influence in 1806 by +the abolition of torture. In 1808 appeared the first volume of his +<i>Merkwürdige Criminalfälle</i>, completed in 1811—a work of deep +interest for its application of psychological considerations to cases +Of crime, and intended to illustrate the inevitable imperfection of +human laws in their application to individuals. In his <i>Betrachtungen +über das Geschworenengericht</i> (1811) Feuerbach declared +against trial by jury, maintaining that the verdict of a jury was +not adequate legal proof of a crime. Much controversy was +aroused on the subject, and the author’s view was subsequently +to some extent modified. The result of his labours was promulgated +in 1813 as the Bavarian penal code. The influence of this +code, the embodiment of Feuerbach’s enlightened views, was +immense. It was at once made the basis for new codes in +Württemberg and Saxe-Weimar; it was adopted in its entirety +in the grand-duchy of Oldenburg; and it was translated into +Swedish by order of the king. Several of the Swiss cantons +reformed their codes in conformity with it. Feuerbach had also +undertaken to prepare a civil code for Bavaria, to be founded on +the Code Napoléon. This was afterwards set aside, and the +Codex Maximilianus adopted as a basis. But the project did not +become law. During the war of liberation (1813-1814) Feuerbach +showed himself an ardent patriot, and published several political +brochures which, from the writer’s position, had almost the +weight of state manifestoes. One of these is entitled <i>Über +deutsche Freiheit und Vertretung deutsche Volker durch Landstände</i> +(1514). In 1814 Feuerbach was appointed second president +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page304" id="page304"></a>304</span> +of the court of appeal at Bamberg, and three years later he +became first president of the court of appeal at Anspach. In +1821 he was deputed by the government to visit France, +Belgium, and the Rhine provinces for the purpose of investigating +their juridical institutions. As the fruit of this visit, he +published his treatises <i>Betrachtungen über Öffentlichkeit und +Mündigkeit der Gerechtigkeitspflege</i> (1821) and <i>Über die Gerichtsverfassung +und das gerichtliche Verfahren Frankreichs</i> (1825). In +these he pleaded unconditionally for publicity in all legal proceedings. +In his later years he took a deep interest in the fate of +the strange foundling Kaspar Hauser (<i>q.v.</i>), which had excited so +much attention in Europe; and he was the first to publish a +critical summary of the ascertained facts, under the title of +<i>Kaspar Hauser, ein Beispiel eines Verbrechens am Seelenleben</i> +(1832). Shortly before his death appeared a collection of his +<i>Kleine Schriften</i> (1833). Feuerbach, still in the full enjoyment of +his intellectual powers, died suddenly at Frankfort, while on his +way to the baths of Schwalbach, on the 29th of May 1833. In +1853 was published the <i>Leben und Wirken Ans. von Feuerbachs</i>, +2 vols., consisting of a selection of his letters and journals, with +occasional notes by his fourth son Ludwig, the distinguished +philosopher.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See also, for an estimate of Feuerbach’s life and work, Marquardtsen, +in <i>Allgemeine deutsche Biographie</i>, vol. vi.; and an “in +memoriam” notice in <i>Die allgemeine Zeitung</i> (Augsburg), 15th Nov. +1875, by Professor Dr Karl Binding of Leipzig University.</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">FEUILLANTS, CLUB OF THE,<a name="ar114" id="ar114"></a></span> a political association which +played a prominent part during the French Revolution. It +was founded on the 16th of July 1791 by several members of +the Jacobin Club, who refused to sign a petition presented by +this body, demanding the deposition of Louis XVI. Among the +dissident members were B. Barère; and E.J. Sieyès, who were +later joined by other politicians, among them being Dupont de +Nemours. The name of Feuillants was popularly given to this +group of men, because they met in the fine buildings which had +been occupied by the religious order bearing this name, in the rue +Saint-Honoré, near the Place Vendôme, in Paris. The members +of the club preserved the title of <i>Amis de la Constitution</i>, as being a +sufficient indication of the line they intended to pursue. This consisted +in opposing everything not contained in the Constitution; +in their opinion, the latter was in need of no modification, and +they hated alike all those who were opposed to it, whether <i>émigrés</i> +or Jacobins; they affected to avoid all political discussion, and +called themselves merely a “conservative assembly.”</p> + +<p>This attitude they maintained after the Constituent Assembly +had been succeeded by the Legislative, but not many of the new +deputies became members of the club. With the rapid growth of +extreme democratic ideas the Feuillants soon began to be looked +upon as reactionaries, and to be classed with “aristocrats.” +They did, indeed, represent the aristocracy of wealth, for they +had to pay a subscription of four louis, a large sum at that time, +besides six livres for attendance. Moreover, the luxury with +which they surrounded themselves, and the restaurant which +they had annexed to their club, seemed to mock the misery of the +half-starved proletariat, and added to the suspicion with which +they were viewed, especially after the popular triumphs of the +20th of June and the 10th of August 1792 (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">French +Revolution</a></span>). A few days after the insurrection of the 10th of +August, the papers of the Feuillants were seized, and a list was +published containing the names of 841 members proclaimed as +suspects. This was the death-blow of the club. It had made an +attempt, though a weak one, to oppose the forward march of the +Revolution, but, unlike the Jacobins, had never sent out branches +into the provinces. The name of Feuillants, as a party designation, +survived the club. It was applied to those who advocated +a policy of “cowardly moderation,” and <i>feuillantisme</i> was +associated with <i>aristocratie</i> in the mouths of the sansculottes.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>The act of separation of the Feuillants from the Jacobins was +published in a pamphlet dated the 16th of July 1791, beginning with +the words, <i>Les Membres de l’assemblée nationale</i> ... (Paris, 1791). +The statutes of the club were also published in Paris. See also +A. Aulard, <i>Histoire politique de la Révolution française</i> (Paris, +1903), 2nd ed., p. 153.</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">FEUILLET, OCTAVE<a name="ar115" id="ar115"></a></span> (1821-1890), French novelist and +dramatist, was born at Saint-Lô, Manche, on the 11th of August +1821. He was the son of a Norman gentleman of learning and +distinction, who would have played a great part in politics “sans +ses diables de nerfs,” as Guizot said. This nervous excitability +was inherited, though not to the same excess, by Octave, whose +mother died in his infancy and left him to the care of the hyper-sensitive +invalid. The boy was sent to the lycée Louis-le Grand, +in Paris, where he achieved high distinction, and was destined for +the diplomatic service. In 1840 he appeared before his father +at Saint-Lô, and announced that he had determined to adopt +the profession of literature. There was a stormy scene, and the +elder Feuillet cut off his son, who returned to Paris and lived as +best he could by a scanty journalism. In company with Paul +Bocage he began to write for the stage, and not without success; +at all events, he continued to exist until, three years after the +quarrel, his father consented to forgive him. Enjoying a liberal +allowance, he now lived in Paris in comfort and independence, +and he published his early novels, none of which is quite of +sufficient value to retain the modern reader. The health and +spirits of the elder M. Feuillet, however, having still further +declined, he summoned his son to leave Paris and bury himself +as his constant attendant in the melancholy château at Saint-Lô. +This was to demand a great sacrifice, but Octave Feuillet cheerfully +obeyed the summons. In 1851 he married his cousin, +Mlle Valérie Feuillet, who helped him to endure the mournful +captivity to which his filial duty bound him. Strangely enough, +in this exile—rendered still more irksome by his father’s mania +for solitude and by his tyrannical temper—the genius of Octave +Feuillet developed. His first definite success was gained in the +year 1852, when he published the novel <i>Bellah</i> and produced the +comedy <i>La Crise</i>. Both were reprinted from the <i>Revue des deux +mondes</i>, where many of his later novels also appeared. He +wrote books which have long held their place, <i>La Petite Comtesse</i> +(1857), <i>Dalila</i> (1857), and in particular that universal favourite, +<i>Le Roman d’un jeune homme pauvre</i> (1858). He himself fell +into a nervous state in his “prison,” but he was sustained by +the devotion and intelligence of his wife and her mother. In +1857, having been persuaded to make a play of the novel of +<i>Dalila</i>, he brought out this piece at the Vaudeville, and enjoyed +a brilliant success; on this occasion he positively broke through +the <i>consigne</i> and went up to Paris to see his play rehearsed. +His father bore the shock of his temporary absence, and the +following year Octave ventured to make the same experiment +on occasion of the performance of <i>Un Jeune Homme pauvre</i>. +To his infinite chagrin, during this brief absence his father died. +Octave was now, however, free, and the family immediately +moved to Paris, where they took part in the splendid social +existence of the Second Empire. The elegant and distinguished +young novelist became a favourite at court; his pieces were +performed at Compiègne before they were given to the public, +and on one occasion the empress Eugénie deigned to play the +part of Mme de Pons in <i>Les Portraits de la Marquise</i>. Feuillet +did not abandon the novel, and in 1862 he achieved a great +success with <i>Sibylle</i>. His health, however, had by this time +begun to decline, affected by the sad death of his eldest son. +He determined to quit Paris, where the life was far too exciting +for his nerves, and to regain the quietude of Normandy. The +old château of the family had been sold, but he bought a house +called “Les Paillers” in the suburbs of Saint-Lô, and there he +lived, buried in his roses, for fifteen years. He was elected to +the French Academy in 1862, and in 1868 he was made librarian +of Fontainebleau palace, where he had to reside for a month +or two in each year. In 1867 he produced his masterpiece of +<i>Monsieur de Camors</i>, and in 1872 he wrote <i>Julia de Tréœur</i>, +which is hardly less admirable. His last years, after the sale +of “Les Paillers,” were passed in a ceaseless wandering, the +result of the agitation of his nerves. He was broken by sorrow +and by ill-health, and when he passed away in Paris on the 29th +of December 1890, his death was a release. His last book was +<i>Honneur d’artiste</i> (1890). Among the too-numerous writings +of Feuillet, the novels have lasted longer than the dramas; +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page305" id="page305"></a>305</span> +of the former three or four seem destined to retain their charm +as classics. He holds a place midway between the romanticists +and the realists, with a distinguished and lucid portraiture of +life which is entirely his own. He drew the women of the world +whom he saw around him with dignity, with indulgence, with +extraordinary penetration and clairvoyance. There is little +description in his novels, which sometimes seem to move on an +almost bare and colourless stage, but, on the other hand, the +analysis of motives, of emotions, and of “the fine shades” has +rarely been carried further. Few have written French with +greater purity than Feuillet, and his style, reserved in form and +never excessive in ornament, but full of wit and delicate animation, +is in admirable uniformity with his subjects and his treatment. +It is probably in <i>Sibylle</i> and in <i>Julia de Trécœur</i> that he +can now be studied to most advantage, though <i>Monsieur de +Camors</i> gives a greater sense of power, and though <i>Le Roman +d’un jeune homme pauvre</i> still preserves its popularity.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See also Sainte-Beuve, <i>Nouveaux Lundis</i>, vol. v.; F. Brunetière, +<i>Nouveaux Essais sur la littérature contemporaine</i> (1895).</p> +</div> +<div class="author">(E. G.)</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">FEUILLETON<a name="ar116" id="ar116"></a></span> (a diminutive of the Fr. <i>feuillet</i>, the leaf of a +book), originally a kind of supplement attached to the political +portion of French newspapers. Its inventor was Bertin the +elder, editor of the <i>Débats</i>. It was not usually printed on a +separate sheet, but merely separated from the political part of the +newspaper by a line, and printed in smaller type. In French +newspapers it consists chiefly of non-political news and gossip, +literature and art criticism, a chronicle of the fashions, and +epigrams, charades and other literary trifles; and its general +characteristics are lightness, grace and sparkle. The <i>feuilleton</i> in +its French sense has never been adopted by English newspapers, +though in various modern journals (in the United States especially) +the sort of matter represented by it is now included. But +the term itself has come into English use to indicate the instalment +of a serial story printed in one part of a newspaper.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">FEUQUIÈRES, ISAAC MANASSÈS DE PAS,<a name="ar117" id="ar117"></a></span> <span class="sc">Marquis de</span> +(1590-1640), French soldier, came of a distinguished family of +which many members held high command in the civil wars of +the 16th century. He entered the Royal army at the age of +thirty, and soon achieved distinction. In 1626 he served in the +Valtelline, and in 1628-1629 at the celebrated siege of La Rochelle, +where he was taken prisoner. In 1629 he was made <i>Maréchal +de Camp</i>, and served in the fighting on the southern frontiers +of France. After occupying various military positions in +Lorraine, he was sent as an ambassador into Germany, where +he rendered important services in negotiations with Wallenstein. +In 1636 he commanded the French corps operating with the +duke of Weimar’s forces (afterwards Turenne’s “Army of +Weimar”). With these troops he served in the campaigns of +1637 (in which he became lieutenant-general), 1638 and 1639. +At the siege of Thionville (Diedenhofen) he received a mortal +wound. His <i>lettres inédites</i> appeared (ed. Gallois) in Paris in +1845.</p> + +<p>His son <span class="sc">Antoine Manassès de Pas</span>, Marquis de Feuquières +(1648-1711), was born at Paris in 1648, and entered the army +at the age of eighteen. His conduct at the siege of Lille in 1667, +where he was wounded, won him promotion to the rank of +captain. In the campaigns of 1672 and 1673 he served on the +staff of Marshal Luxemburg, and at the siege of Oudenarde +in the following year the king gave him command of the Royal +Marine regiment, which he held until he obtained a regiment +of his own in 1676. In 1688 he served as a brigadier at the siege +of Philipsburg, and afterwards led a ravaging expedition into +south Germany, where he acquired much booty. Promoted +<i>Maréchal de Camp</i>, he served under Catinat against the +Waldenses, and in the course of the war won the nickname of +the “Wizard.” In 1692 he made a brilliant defence of Speierbach +against greatly superior forces, and was rewarded with the rank +of lieutenant-general. He bore a distinguished part in Luxemburg’s +great victory of Neerwinden or Landen in 1693. Marshal +Villeroi impressed him less favourably than his old commander +Luxemburg, and the resumption of war in 1701 found him in +disfavour in consequence. The rest of his life, embittered by +the refusal of the marshal’s baton, he spent in compiling his +celebrated memoirs, which, coloured as they were by the personal +animosities of the writer, were yet considered by Frederick the +Great and the soldiers of the 18th century as the standard work +on the art of war as a whole. He died in 1711. The <i>Mémoires +sur la guerre</i> appeared in the same year and new editions were +frequently published (Paris 1711, 1725, 1735, &c., London 1736, +Amsterdam subsequently). An English version appeared in +London 1737, under the title <i>Memoirs of the Marquis de Feuquières</i>, +and a German translation (<i>Feuquières geheime Nachrichten</i>) +at Leipzig 1732, 1738, and Berlin 1786. They deal in +detail with every branch of the art of war and of military service.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">FÉVAL, PAUL HENRI CORENTIN<a name="ar118" id="ar118"></a></span> (1817-1887), French +novelist and dramatist, was born on the 27th of September 1817, +at Rennes in Brittany, and much of his best work deals with the +history of his native province. He was educated for the bar, +but after his first brief he went to Paris, where he gained a footing +by the publication of his “Club des phoques” (1841) in the +<i>Revue de Paris</i>. The <i>Mystères de Londres</i> (1844), in which an +Irishman tries to avenge the wrongs of his countrymen by +seeking the annihilation of England, was published under the +ingenious pseudonym “Sir Francis Trolopp.” Others of his +novels are: <i>Le Fils du diable</i> (1846); <i>Les Compagnons du silence</i> +(1857); <i>Le Bossu</i> (1858); <i>Le Poisson d’or</i> (1863); <i>Les Habits +noirs</i> (1863); <i>Jean le diable</i> (1868), and <i>Les Compagnons du +trésor</i> (1872). Some of his novels were dramatized, <i>Le Bossu</i> +(1863), in which he had M. Victorien Sardou for a collaborator, +being especially successful in dramatic form. His chronicles +of crime exercised an evil influence, eventually recognized by +the author himself. In his later years he became an ardent +Catholic, and occupied himself in revising his earlier works from +his new standpoint and in writing religious pamphlets. Reverses +of fortune and consequent overwork undermined his mental +and bodily health, and he died of paralysis in the monastery of +the Brothers of Saint John in Paris on the 8th of March 1887.</p> + +<p>His son, <span class="sc">Paul Féval</span> (1860-  ), became well known as a +novelist and dramatist. Among his works are <i>Nouvelles</i> (1890), +<i>Maria Laura</i> (1891), and <i>Chantepie</i> (1896).</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">FEVER<a name="ar119" id="ar119"></a></span> (Lat. <i>febris</i>, connected with <i>fervere</i>, to burn), a term +generally used to include all conditions in which the normal +temperature of the animal body is markedly exceeded for any +length of time. When the temperature reaches as high a point +as 106° F. the term hyperpyrexia (excessive fever) is applied, +and is regarded as indicating a condition of danger; while, if +it exceeds 107° or 108° for any length of time, death almost +always results. The diseases which are called specific fevers, +because of its being a predominant factor in them, are discussed +separately under their ordinary names. Occasionally in certain +specific fevers and febrile diseases the temperature may attain +the elevation of 110°-112° prior to the fatal issue. For the +treatment of fever in general, see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Therapeutics</a></span>.</p> + +<p><i>Pathology.</i>—Every rise of temperature is due to a disturbance +in the heat-regulating mechanism, the chief variable in which +is the action of the skin in eliminating heat (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Animal Heat</a></span>). +Although for all practical purposes this mechanism works satisfactorily, +it is not by any means perfect, and many physiological +conditions cause a transient rise of temperature; <i>e.g.</i> severe +muscular exercise, in which the cutaneous eliminating mechanism +is unable at once to dispose of the increased amount of heat +produced in the muscles. Pathologically, the heat-regulating +mechanism may be disturbed in three different ways: 1st, by +mechanical interference with the nervous system; 2nd, by +interference with heat elimination; 3rd, by the action of various +poisons.</p> + +<p>1. In the human subject, fever the result of <i>mechanical interference</i> +with the nervous system rarely occurs, but it can readily +be produced in the lower animals by stimulating certain parts of +the great brain, <i>e.g.</i> the anterior portion of the corpus striatum. +This leads to a rise of temperature with increased heat production. +The high temperature seems to cause <span class="correction" title="amended from distintegration">disintegration</span> of cell +protoplasm and increased excretion of nitrogen and of carbonic +acid. Possibly some of the cases of high temperature recorded +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page306" id="page306"></a>306</span> +after injuries to the nervous system may be caused in this way; +but some may also be due to stimulation of vaso-constrictor +fibres to the cutaneous vessels diminishing heat elimination. +So far the pathology of this condition has not been studied with +the same care that has been devoted to the investigation of the +third type of fever.</p> + +<p>2. Fever may readily be produced by <i>interference with heat +elimination</i>. This has been done by submitting dogs to a +temperature slightly below that of the rectum, and it is seen in +man in <i>Sunstroke</i>. The typical nervous symptoms of fever +are thus produced, and the rate of chemical change in the tissues +is accelerated, as is shown by the increased excretion of carbonic +acid. The protoplasm is also injured and the proteids are broken +down, and thus an increased excretion of nitrogen is produced +and the cells undergo degenerative changes.</p> + +<p>3. The products of various micro-organisms have a toxic +action on the protoplasm of a large number of animals, and +among the symptoms of this toxic action one of the most frequent +is a rise in temperature. While this is by no means a necessary +accompaniment, its occurrence is so general that the term <i>Fever</i> +has been applied to the general reaction of the organism to the +microbial poison. Toxins which cause a marked rise of temperature +in men may cause a fall in other animals. It is not the +alteration of temperature which is the great index of the severity +of the struggle between the host and the parasite, but the death +and removal to a greater or lesser extent of the protoplasm of +the host. In this respect fever resembles poisoning with phosphorus +and arsenic and other similar substances. The true +measure of the intensity of a fever is the extent of disintegration +of protoplasm, and this may be estimated by the amount of +nitrogen excreted in the urine. The increased disintegration +of protoplasm is also indicated by the rise in the excretion of +sulphur and phosphorus and by the appearance in the urine of +acetone, aceto-acetic and β-oxybutyric acids (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Nutrition</a></span>). +Since the temperature is generally proportionate to the intensity +of the toxic action, its height is usually proportionate to the +excretion of nitrogen. But sometimes the rise of temperature +is not marked, while the excretion of nitrogen is very decidedly +increased. When the temperature is sufficiently elevated, the +heat has of itself an injurious action on the protoplasm, and +tends to increase disintegration just as when heat elimination +is experimentally retarded. But the increase due to rise of +temperature is small compared to that produced by the destructive +action of the microbial products. In the beginning +of a fever the activity of the metabolism is not increased to any +marked extent, and any increase is necessarily largely due to +the greater activity of the muscles of the heart and respiratory +mechanism, and to the muscular contractions which produce +the initial rigors. Thus the excretion of carbon dioxide—the +great measure of the <i>activity of metabolism</i>—is not usually +increased, and there is no evidence of an increased combustion. +In the later stages the increased temperature may bring about +an acceleration in the rate of chemical change; but this is +comparatively slight, less in fact than the increase observed on +taking muscular exercise after rest. The <i>rise of temperature</i> +is primarily due to diminished heat elimination. This +diminished giving off of heat was demonstrated by means of +the calorimeter by I. Rosenthal, while E. Maragliano showed +that the cutaneous vessels are contracted. Even in the later +stages, until defervescence occurs, heat elimination is inadequate +to get rid of the heat produced.</p> + +<p>The toxic action is manifested not only by the increased +disintegration of protoplasm, but also by disturbances in the +functions of the various organs. The activity of the <i>digestive +glands</i> is diminished and appetite is lost. Food is therefore not +taken, although when taken it appears to be absorbed in undiminished +quantities. As a result of this the patient suffers +from inanition, and lives largely on his own fats and proteids, +and for this reason rapidly emaciates. The functions of the +<i>liver</i> are also diminished in activity. Glycogen is not stored +in the cells, and the bile secretion is modified, the essential +constituents disappearing almost entirely in some cases. The +production of urea is also interfered with, and the proportion +of nitrogen in the urine not in the urea increases. This is in part +due to the increased disintegration of proteids setting free +sulphur and phosphorus, which, oxidized into sulphuric and +phosphoric acids, combine with the ammonia which would otherwise +have been changed to urea. Thus the proportion of ammonia +in the urine is increased. Concurrently with these alterations +in the functions of the liver-cells, a condition of granular degeneration +and probably a state of fatty degeneration makes its appearance. +That the functional activity of the <i>kidneys</i> is modified, +is shown by the frequent appearance of proteoses or of albumen +and globulin in the urine. Frequently the toxin acts very +markedly on the protoplasm of the kidney epithelium, and +causes a shedding of the cells and sometimes inflammatory +reaction. The <i>muscles</i> are weakened, but so far no satisfactory +study has been made of the influence of microbial poisons on +muscular contraction. A granular and fatty degeneration supervenes, +and the fibres waste. The <i>nervous structures</i>, especially +the nerve-cells, are acted upon, and not only is their functional +activity modified, but they also undergo structural changes of a +chromatolytic nature. The <i>blood</i> shows two important changes—first, +a fall in the alkalinity due to the products of disintegration +of protoplasm; and, secondly, an increase in the number of +leucocytes, and chiefly in the polymorpho-nuclear variety. This +is best marked in pneumonia, where the normal number is often +increased twofold and sometimes more than tenfold, while it is +altogether absent in enteric fever.</p> + +<p>An interesting general modification in the metabolism is the +enormous fall in the excretion of chlorine, a fall far in excess +of what could be accounted for by inanition, and out of all +proportion to the fall in the sodium and potassium with which +the chlorine is usually combined in the urine. The fevered +animal in fact stores chlorine in its tissues, though in what +manner and for what reason is not at present known.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p><span class="sc">Authorities.</span>—Von Noorden, <i>Lehrbuch der Pathologie des Stoffwechsels</i> +(Berlin, 1893); <i>Metabolism and Practical Medicine</i>, vol. ii., +article “Fever” by F. Kraus (1907); Dr A. Rabe, <i>Die modernen +Fiebertheorien</i> (Berlin, 1894); Dr G.B. Ughetti, <i>Das Fieber</i>, trans. +by Dr R. Teuscher (Jena, 1895); Dr M. Lövit, “Die Lehre von +Fieber,” <i>Vorlesungen über allgemeine Pathologie</i>, erstes Heft (Jena, +1897); Louis Guinon, “De la fièvre,” in Bouchard’s <i>Traité de +pathologie générale</i>, t. iii. 2nd partie (Paris, 1899); Sir J.B. Sanderson, +“The Doctrine of Fever,” in Allbutt’s <i>System of Medicine</i>, vol. i. +p. 139 (London, 1896).</p> +</div> +<div class="author">(D. N. P.)</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">FEYDEAU, ERNEST-AIMÉ<a name="ar120" id="ar120"></a></span> (1821-1873), French author, was +born in Paris, on the 16th of March 1821. He began his literary +career in 1844, by the publication of a volume of poetry, <i>Les +Nationales</i>. Either the partial failure of this literary effort, or +his marriage soon afterwards to a daughter of the economist +Blanqui, caused him to devote himself to finance and to +archaeology. He gained a great success with his novel <i>Fanny</i> +(1858), a success due chiefly to the cleverness with which it +depicted and excused the corrupt manners of a certain portion +of French society. This was followed in rapid succession by a +series of fictions, similar in character, but wanting the attraction +of novelty; none of them enjoyed the same vogue as <i>Fanny</i>. +Besides his novels Feydeau wrote several plays, and he is also +the author of <i>Histoire générale des usages funèbres et des sépultures +des peuples anciens</i> (3 vols., 1857-1861); <i>Le Secret du bonheur</i> +(sketches of Algerian life) (2 vols., 1864); and <i>L’Allemagne en +1871</i> (1872), a clever caricature of German life and manners. He +died in Paris on the 27th of October 1873.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See Sainte-Beuve, <i>Causeries du lundi</i>, vol. xiv., and Barbey +d’Aurevilly, <i>Les Œuvres et les hommes au XIX<span class="sp">e</span> siècle</i>.</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">FEZ<a name="ar121" id="ar121"></a></span> (<i>Fās</i>), the chief city of Morocco, into which empire it +was incorporated in 1548. It lies in 34° 6′ 3″ N., 4° 38′ 15″ W., +about 230 m. N.E. of Marrākesh, 100 m. E. from the Atlantic +and 85 m. S. of the Mediterranean. It is beautifully situated +in a deep valley on the Wad Fās, an affluent of the Wad Sebu, +which divides the town into two parts—the ancient town, Fās +el Bali, on the right bank, and the new, Fās el Jadīd, on the left.</p> + +<p>Like many other Oriental cities, Fez from a distance appears +a very attractive place. It stretches out between low hills, +crowned by the ruins of ancient fortresses, and though there +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page307" id="page307"></a>307</span> +is nothing imposing, there is something particularly impressive +in the sight of that white-roofed conglomeration of habitations, +broken only by occasional mosque towers or, on the outskirts, +by luxuriant foliage. Except on the south side the city is surrounded +by hills, interspersed with groves of orange, pomegranate +and other fruit trees, and large olive gardens.</p> + +<p>From its peculiar situation Fez has a drainage superior to that +of most Moorish towns. When the town becomes very dirty, the +water is allowed to run down the streets by opening lids for the +purpose in the conduits and closing the ordinary exits, so that +it overflows and cleanses the pavements. The Fasis as a rule +prefer to drink the muddy river water rather than that of the +pure springs which abound in certain quarters of the town. But +the assertion that the supply and drainage system are one is a +libel, since the drainage system lies below the level of the fresh +river water, and was organized by a French renegade, under +Mohammed XVI., about the close of the 18th century. The +general dampness of the town renders it unhealthy, however, +as the pallid faces of the inhabitants betoken, but this is considered +a mark of distinction and is jealously guarded.</p> + +<p>Most of the streets are exceedingly narrow, and as the houses +are high and built in many cases over the thoroughfares these +are often very dark and gloomy, though, since wooden beams, +rough stones and mortar are used in building, there is less of +that ruined, half-decayed appearance so common in other +Moorish towns where mud concrete is the material employed.</p> + +<p>As a commercial town Fez is a great depot for the trade of +Barbary and wares brought from the east and south by caravans. +The manufactures still carried on are those of yellow slippers +of the famous Morocco leather, fine white woollen and silk haiks, +of which it is justly proud, women’s embroidered sashes, various +coarse woollen cloths and blankets, cotton and silk handkerchiefs, +silk cords and braids, swords and guns, saddlery, brass trays, +Moorish musical instruments, rude painted pottery and coloured +tiles. Until recent times the city had a monopoly of the manufacture +of Fez caps, for it was supposed that the dye which +imparts the dull crimson hue of these caps could not be procured +elsewhere; they are now, however, made both in France and +Turkey. The dye is obtained from the juice of a berry which +grows in large quantities near the town, and is also used in the +dyeing of leather. Some gold ornaments are made, the gold +being brought from the interior by caravans which trade regularly +with Timbuktu.</p> + +<p>As in other capitals each trade has a district or street devoted +chiefly to its activities. Old Fez is the business portion of the +town, new Fez being occupied principally by government +quarters and the Jews’ mellah. The tradesman usually sits +cross-legged in a corner of his shop with his goods so arranged +that he can reach most of them without moving.</p> + +<p>In the early days of Mahommedan rule in Morocco, Fez was +the seat of learning and the empire’s pride. Its schools of +religion, philosophy and astronomy enjoyed a great reputation +in Africa and also in southern Europe, and were even attended +by Christians. On the expulsion of the Moors from Spain, +refugees of all kinds flocked to Fez, and brought with them +some knowledge of arts, sciences and manufactures, and thither +flocked students to make use of its extensive libraries. But +its glories were brief, and though still “the university town” +of Morocco, it retains but a shadow of its greatness. Its library, +estimated by Gerhard Rohlfs in 1861 to contain 5000 volumes, +is open on Fridays, and any Moor of known respectability may +borrow volumes on getting an order and signing a receipt for +them. There are about 1500 students who read at the Karueein. +They pay no rents, but buy the keys of the rooms from the +last occupants, selling them again on leaving.</p> + +<p>The Karueein is celebrated as the largest mosque in Africa, +but it is by no means the most magnificent. On account of +the vast area covered, the roof, supported by three hundred +and sixty-six pillars of stone, appears very low. The side chapel +for services for the dead contains twenty-four pillars. All +these columns support horse-shoe arches, on which the roof +is built, long vistas of arches being seen from each of the eighteen +doors of the mosque. The large lamp is stated to weigh 1763 ℔ +and to have 509 lights, but it is very seldom lit. The total +number of lights in the Karueein is given as seventeen +hundred, and they are said to require 3½ cwt. of oil for one +filling. The mosque of Mulai Idris, built by the founder of Fez +about the year 810, is considered so sacred that the streets +which approach its entrance are forbidden to Jews, Christians +or four-footed beasts. The sanctity of the shrine in particular +is esteemed very great, and this accounts for the crowds which +daily flock to it. The Tumiat door leading to it was once very +fine, but is now much faded. Opposite to it is a refuge for friendless +sharifas—the female descendants of Mahomet—built by +Mohammed XVII.</p> + +<p>It is believed that the foundation stone of Fez was laid in +808 by Idris II. Since then its history has been chequered, +as it was successfully besieged no fewer than eight times in the +first five hundred years of its existence, yet only once knew +foreign masters, when in 1554 the Turks took possession of it +without a siege and held it for a short time. Fez became the +chief residence of the Filali dynasty, who obtained possession +of the town in 1649 (see further <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Morocco</a></span>: <i>History</i>).</p> + +<p>The population has been very varyingly estimated; probably +the inhabitants number under one hundred thousand, even when +the court is in residence.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See H. Gaillard, <i>Une Ville de l’Islam. Fès</i> (Paris, 1905); C. René-Leclerc, +“Le commerce et l’industrie à Fez” in <i>Renseignements col. +comité afrique française</i> (1905).</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">FEZZAN<a name="ar122" id="ar122"></a></span> (the ancient <i>Phazania</i>, or country of the Garamantes), +a region of the Sahara, forming a “kaimakamlik” +of the Ottoman vilayet of Tripoli (<i>q.v.</i>). Its frontiers, ill-defined, +run from Bonjem, within 50 m. of the Mediterranean on the +north, south-westward to the Akakus range of hills, which +separates Fezzan from Ghat, thence eastward for over 400 m., +and then turn north and west to Bonjem again, embracing an +area of about 156,000 sq. m.</p> + +<p><i>Physical Features.</i>—The general form of the country is +determined by the ranges of hills, including the Jebel-es-Suda +(highest peak about 4000 ft.), the Haruj-el-Aswad and the +Haruj-el-Abiad, which between 14° and 19° E. and 27° and 29° N. +form the northern edge of a broad desert plateau, and shut off +the northern region draining to the Mediterranean from the +depressions in which lie the oases of Fezzan proper in the south. +The central depression of Hofra (“ditch”), as it is called, lies +in about 26° N. It does not form a continuous fertile tract, +but consists of a monotonous sandy expanse somewhat more +thickly studded with oases than the surrounding wastes. The +Hofra at its lowest part is not more than 600 ft. above the sea-level, +and in this hollow is situated the capital Murzuk. It has +a general east to west direction. North-west of the Hofra is +a long narrow valley, the Wadi-el-Gharbi, which trends north-east +and is the most fertile district of Fezzan. It contains several +perennial springs and lake-like basins. One of these basins, the +saline Bahr-el-Dud (“Sea of Worms”), has an extent of 600 +sq. m., and is in places 26 ft. deep. Southwards the Hofra rises +to a height of 2000 ft., and in this direction lies the oasis of +Gatron, followed by Tejerri on the verge of the desert, which +marks the southern limit of the date and the northern of the dum +palm. Beyond Tejerri the Saharan plateau rises continuously +to the Tibesti highlands. (See further <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Tripoli</a></span>.)</p> + +<p><i>Climate.</i>—The average temperature of Murzuk was found +by Rohlfs to be 70° F. Frost is not uncommon in the winter +months. The climate is a very regular one, and is in general +healthy, the dryness of the air in summer making the heat more +bearable than on the sea coast. An almost perpetual blue +sky overhangs the desert, and the people of Fezzan are so +unaccustomed to and so ill-prepared for wet weather that, +as in Tuat and Tidikelt, they pray to be spared from rain. +Water is found almost everywhere at small depths.</p> + +<p><i>Flora and Fauna.</i>—The date-palm is the characteristic tree +of Fezzan, and constitutes the chief wealth of the land. Many +different kinds of date-palms are found in the oases: in that +of Murzuk alone more than 30 varieties are counted, the most +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page308" id="page308"></a>308</span> +esteemed being named the Tillis, Tuati and Auregh. In all +Fezzan the date is the staple food, not only for men, but for +camels, horses and dogs. Even the stones of the fruit are +softened and given to the cattle. The huts of the poorer classes +are entirely made of date-palm leaves, and the more substantial +habitations consist chiefly of the same material. The produce +of the tree is small, 100 full-grown trees yielding only about +40 cwt. of dates. Besides the date there are numerous olive, +fig and almond trees. Various grains are cultivated. Wheat +and barley are sown in winter, and in spring, summer and autumn +several kinds of durra, especially ksob and gafoli. Cotton +flourishes, is perennial for six or seven years, and gives large pods +of moderate length of staple.</p> + +<p>There are no large carnivora in Fezzan. In the uninhabited +oases gazelles and antelopes are occasionally found. The most +important animal is the camel, of which there are two varieties, +the Tebu or Sudan camel and the Arabian, differing very much +in size, form and capabilities. Horses and cattle are not +numerous. Among birds are ostriches, falcons, vultures, +swallows and ravens; in summer wild pigeons and ducks are +numerous, but in winter they seek a warmer climate. There are +no remarkable insects or snakes. A species of <i>Artemia</i> or brine +shrimp, about a quarter of an inch in length, of a colour +resembling the bright hue of the gold fish, is fished for with +cotton nets in the “Sea of Worms,” and mixed with dates and +kneaded into a paste, which has the taste and smell of salt +herring, is considered a luxury by the people of Fezzan.</p> + +<p><i>Inhabitants.</i>—The total population is estimated at between +50,000 and 80,000. The inhabitants are a mixed people, derived +from the surrounding Teda and Bornu on the south, Tuareg of +the plateaus on the west, Berbers and Arabs from the north. +The primitive inhabitants, called by their Arab conquerors +Berāuna, are believed to have been of Negro origin. They no +longer persist as a distinct people. In colour the present +inhabitants vary from black to white, but the prevailing hue of +skin is a Malay-like yellow, the features and woolly hair being +Negro. The chief languages are the Kanuri or Bornu language +and Arabic. Many understand Targish, the Teda and the Hausa +tongues. If among such a mixed people there can be said to be +any national language, it is that of Bornu, which is most widely +understood and spoken. The people of Sokna, north of the Jebel-es-Suda, +have a peculiar Berber dialect which Rohlfs found to +be very closely allied to that of Ghadames. The men wear a haik +or barakan like those of Tripoli, and a fez; short hose, and a +large loose shirt called mansarīa, with red or yellow slippers, +complete their toilet. Yet one often sees the large blue or white +<i>tobe</i> of Bornu, and the <i>litham</i> or shawl-muffler of the Tuareg, +wound round the mouth to keep out the blown sand of the +desert. The women, who so long as they are young have very +plump forms, and who are generally small, are more simply +dressed, as a rule, in the barakan, wound round their bodies; +they seldom wear shoes, but generally have sandals made of +palm leaf. Like the Arab women they load arms and legs with +heavy metal rings, which are of silver among the more wealthy. +The hair, thickly greased with butter, soon catching the dust +which forms a crust over it, is done up in numberless little plaits +round the head, in the same fashion as in Bornu and the Hausa +countries. Children run about naked until they attain the age +of puberty, which comes very early, for mothers of ten or twelve +years of age are not uncommon. The Fezzani are of a gay +disposition, much given to music and dancing.</p> + +<p><i>Towns and Trade.</i>—Murzuk, the present capital, which is +in telegraphic communication with the town of Tripoli, lies in +the western corner of the Hofra depression, in 25° 55′ N. and 14° +10′ E. It was founded about 1310, about which time the <i>kasbah</i> +or citadel was built. The Turks repaired it, as well as the town-wall, +which has, however, again fallen into a ruinous condition. +Murzuk, which had in 1906 some 3000 inhabitants, is cut in two +by a wide street, the <i>dendal</i>. The citadel and most of the houses +are built of salt-saturated dried mud. Sokna, about midway +between Tripoli and Murzuk, situated on a great gravel plain +north of the Suda range, has a population of about 2500.</p> + +<p>Garama (Jerma-el-Kedima), the capital under the Garamantes +and the Romans, was in the Wadi-el-Gharbi. It was a flourishing +town at the time of the Arab conquest but is now deserted. +Among the ruins is a well-preserved stone monument marking +the southern limit of the Roman dominions in this part of Africa. +The modern Jerma is a small place a little north of the site of +Garama. Zuila, the capital under the Arabs, lies in a depression +called the Sherguia east of Murzuk on the most direct caravan +route to Barca and Egypt. Of Traghen, the capital under the +Nesur dynasty, which was on the same caravan route and +between Zuila and Murzuk, little besides the ruined kasbah +remains.</p> + +<p>Placed roughly midway between the countries of the central +Sudan and Tripoli, Fezzan serves as a depot for caravans crossing +the Sahara; its commerce is unimportant. Its most important +export is that of dates. Slave dealing, formerly the most lucrative +occupation of the people, is moribund owing to the stoppage of +slave raiding by the European governments in their Sudan +territories.</p> + +<p><i>History.</i>—The country formed part of the territory of the +Garamantes, described by Herodotus as a very powerful people. +Attempts have been made to identify the Garamantes with the +Berāuna of the Arabs of the 7th century, and to the period of +the Garamantes Duveyrier assigns the remains of remarkable +hydraulic works, and certain tombs and rock sculptures—indications, +it is held, of a Negro civilization of ancient date +which existed in the northern Sahara. The Garamantes, whether +of Libyan or Negro origin, had certainly a considerable degree +of civilization when in the year 19 <span class="scs">B.C.</span> they were conquered by +the proconsul L. Cornelius Balbus Minor and their country added +to the Roman empire. By the Romans it was called Phazania, +whence the present name Fezzan. After the Vandal invasion +Phazania appears to have regained independence and to have +been ruled by a Berāuna dynasty. At this time the people were +Christians, but in 666 the Arabs conquered the country and all +traces of Christianity seem speedily to have disappeared. Subject +at first to the caliphs, an independent Arab dynasty, that of the +Beni Khattab, obtained power early in the 10th century. In +the 13th century the country came under the rule of the king of +Kanem (Bornu), but soon afterwards the Nesur, said to have +been a native or Berāuna dynasty, were in power. More probably +the Nesur were hereditary governors originally appointed by +the rulers of Kanem. In the 14th century the Nesur were +conquered and dethroned by an Arab tribe, that of Khorman, +who reduced the people of Fezzan to a state of slavery, a position +from which they were rescued about the middle of the 16th +century by a sherif of Morocco, Montasir-b.-Mahommed, who +founded the dynasty of Beni Mahommed. This dynasty, which +came into frequent conflict with the Turks, who had about the +same time that Montasir secured Fezzan established themselves +in Tripoli, gradually extended its borders as far as Sokna in the +north. It was the Beni Mahommed who chose Murzuk as their +capital. They became intermittently tributary to the pasha +of Tripoli, but within Fezzan the power of the sultans was +absolute. They maintained a body-guard of mamelukes, mostly +Europeans—Greeks, Genoese, or their immediate descendants. +The annual tribute was paid to the pasha either in money or +in gold, senna or slaves. The last of the Beni Mahommed sultans +was killed in the vicinity of Traghen in 1811 by El-Mukkeni, +one of the lieutenants of Yusef Pasha, the last sovereign but one +of the independent Karamanli dynasty of Tripoli. El-Mukkeni +now made himself sultan of Fezzan, and became notorious by +his slaving expeditions into the central Sudan, in which he +advanced as far as Bagirmi. In 1831, Abd-el-Jelil, a chief of the +Walid-Sliman Arabs, usurped the sovereign authority. After a +troublous reign of ten years he was slain in battle by a Turkish +force under Bakir Bey, and Fezzan was added to the Turkish +empire. Towards the end of the 19th century the Turks, alarmed +at the increase of French influence in the neighbouring countries, +reinforced their garrison in Fezzan. The kaimakamlik is said +to yield an annual revenue of £6000 only to the Tripolitan +treasury.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page309" id="page309"></a>309</span></p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p><span class="sc">Authorities.</span>—The most notable of the European travellers who +have visited Fezzan, and to whose works reference should be made +for more detailed information regarding it, are, taking them in the +order of date, as follows: F. Hornemann, 1798; G.F. Lyon, 1819; +D. Denham, H. Clapperton and W. Oudney, 1822; J. Richardson, +1845; H. Barth, 1850-1855; E. Vogel, 1854; H. Duveyrier, 1859-1861; +M. von Beurmann, 1862; G. Rohlfs, 1865; G. Nachtigal, +1869; P.L. Monteil, 1892; H. Vischer, 1906. Nachtigal’s <i>Sahara +and Sudan</i>, vol. i. (Berlin, 1879), gathers up much of the information +in earlier works, and a list of the Beni Mahommed sovereigns is +given in A.M.H.J. Stokvis, <i>Manuel d’histoire</i>, vol. i. (Leiden, 1888), +p. 471. Miss Tinné (<i>q.v.</i>), who travelled with Nachtigal as far as +Murzuk, was shortly afterwards murdered at the Sharaba wells +on the road to Ghat.</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">FIACRE, SAINT<a name="ar123" id="ar123"></a></span> (Celt. <i>Fiachra</i>), an anchorite of the 7th century, +of noble Irish descent. We have no information concerning his +life in his native country. His <i>Acta</i>, which have scarcely any +historical value, relate that he left Ireland, and came to France +with his companions. He approached St Faro, the bishop of +Meaux, to whom he made known his desire to live a life of +solitude in the forest. St Faro assigned him a spot called +Prodilus (Brodolium), the modern Breuil, in the province of Brie. +There St Fiacre built a monastery in honour of the Holy Virgin, +and to it added a small house for guests, to which he himself +withdrew. Here he received St Chillen (? Killian), who was +returning from a pilgrimage to Rome, and here he remained until +his death, having acquired a great reputation for miracles. +His remains rested for a long time in the place which he had +sanctified. In 1568, at the time of the religious troubles, they +were transferred to the cathedral of Meaux, where his shrine +may still be seen in the sacristy. Various relics of St Fiacre were +given to princes and great personages. His festival is celebrated +on the 30th of August. He is the patron of Brie, and gardeners +invoke him as their protector. French hackney-coaches received +the name of <i>fiacre</i> from the Hôtel St Fiacre, in the rue St Martin, +Paris, where one Sauvage, who was the first to provide cabs for +hire, kept his vehicles.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See <i>Acta Sanctorum</i>, Augusti vi. 598-620; J. O’Hanlon, <i>Lives of +the Irish Saints</i>, viii. 421-447 (Dublin, 1875-1904); J.C. O’Meagher, +“Saint Fiacre de la Brie,” in <i>Proceedings of the Royal Irish Academy</i>, +3rd series, ii. 173-176.</p> +</div> +<div class="author">(H. De.)</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">FIARS PRICES,<a name="ar124" id="ar124"></a></span> in the law of Scotland, the average prices of +each of the different sorts of grain grown in each county, as +fixed annually by the sheriff, usually after the verdict of a jury; +they serve as a rule for ascertaining the value of the grain due to +feudal superiors, to the clergy or to lay proprietors of teinds, to +landlords as a part or the whole of their rents and in all cases +where the price of grain has not been fixed by the parties. It is +not known when or how the practice of “striking the fiars,” as it +is called, originated. It probably was first used to determine the +value of the grain rents and duties payable to the crown. In +confirmation of this view it seems that at first the duty of the +sheriffs was merely to make a return to the court of exchequer of +the prices of grain within their counties, the court itself striking +the fiars; and from an old case it appears that the fiars were +struck above the true prices, being regarded rather as punishments +to force the king’s tenants to pay their rents than as the +proper equivalent of the grain they had to pay. Co-existent, +however, with these fiars, which were termed sheriffs’ fiars, there +was at an early period another class called commissaries’ fiars, by +which the values of teinds were regulated. They have been +traced back to the Reformation, and were under the management +of the commissary or consistorial courts, which then took the +place of the bishops and their officials. They have now been long +out of use, but they were perhaps of greater antiquity than the +sheriffs’ fiars, and the model upon which these were instituted. +In 1723 the court of session passed an Act of Sederunt for the +purpose of regulating the procedure in fiars courts. Down to +that date the practice of striking the fiars was by no means +universal over Scotland; and even in those counties into which +it had been introduced, there was, as the preamble of the act puts +it, “a general complaint that the said fiars are struck and given +out by the sheriffs without due care and inquiry into the current +and just prices.” The act in consequence provided that all +sheriffs should summon annually, between the 4th and the 20th +of February, a competent number of persons, living in the shire, of +experience in the prices of grain within its bounds, and that from +these they should choose a jury of fifteen, of whom at least eight +were to be heritors; that witnesses and other evidence as to the +price of grain grown in the county, especially since the 1st of +November preceding until the day of inquiry, were to be brought +before the jury, who might also proceed on “their own proper +knowledge”; that the verdict was to be returned and the +sentence of the sheriff pronounced by the 1st of March; and +further, where custom or expediency recommended it, the sheriff +was empowered to fix fiars of different values according to the +different qualities of the grain. It cannot be said that this act +has remedied all the evils of which it complained. The propriety +of some of its provisions has been questioned, and the competency +of the court to pass it has been doubted, even by the court itself. +Its authority has been entirely disregarded in one county—Haddingtonshire—where +the fiars are struck by the sheriff alone, +without a jury; and when this practice was called in question the +court declined to interfere, observing that the fiars were better +struck in Haddingtonshire than anywhere else. The other +sheriffs have in the main followed the act, but with much variety +of detail, and in many instances on principles the least calculated +to reach the true average prices. Thus in some counties the +averages are taken on the number of transactions, without regard +to the quantities sold. In one case, in 1838, the evidence was so +carelessly collected that the second or inferior barley fiars were +2s. 4d. higher than the first. Formerly the price was struck by +the boll, commonly the Linlithgowshire boll; now the imperial +quarter is always used.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>The origin of the plural word fiars (feors, feers, fiers) is uncertain. +Jamieson, in his <i>Dictionary</i>, says that it comes from the Icelandic +<i>fe</i>, wealth; Paterson derives it from an old French word <i>feur</i>, an +average; others connect it with the Latin <i>forum</i> (<i>i.e.</i> market). +The <i>New English Dictionary</i> accepts the two latter connexions. On +the general subject of fiars prices see Paterson’s <i>Historical Account +of the Fiars in Scotland</i> (Edin., 1852); Connell, <i>On Tithes</i>; Hunter’s +<i>Landlord and Tenant</i>.</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">FIBRES<a name="ar125" id="ar125"></a></span> (or <span class="sc">Fibers</span>, in American spelling; from Lat. <i>fibra</i>, +apparently connected either with <i>filum</i>, thread, or <i>findere</i>, to +split), the general term for certain structural components of +animal and vegetable tissue utilized in manufactures, and in +respect of such uses, divided for the sake of classification into +textile, papermaking, brush and miscellaneous fibres.</p> + +<p>I. <i>Textile Fibres</i> are mostly products of the organic world, +elaborated in their elongated form to subserve protective functions +in animal life (as wool and epidermal hairs, &c.) or as structural +components of vegetable tissues (flax, hemp and wood cells). +It may be noted that the inorganic world provides an exception to +this general statement in the fibrous mineral asbestos (<i>q.v.</i>), +which is spun or twisted into coarse textiles. Other silicates are +also transformed by artificial processes into fibrous forms, such +as “glass,” which is fused and drawn or spun to a continuous +fibre, and various “slags” which, in the fused state, are transformed +into “slag wool.” Lastly, we note that a number of +metals are drawn down to the finest dimensions, in continuous +lengths, and these are woven into cloth or gauze, such metallic +cloths finding valuable applications in the arts. Certain metals +in the form of fine wire are woven into textile fabrics used as +dress materials. Such exceptional applications are of insignificant +importance, and will not be further considered in this article.</p> + +<p>The common characteristics of the various forms of matter +comprised in the widely diversified groups of textile fibres are +those of the colloids. Colloidal matter is intrinsically devoid of +structure, and in the mass may be regarded as homogeneous; +whereas crystalline matter in its proximate forms assumes +definite and specific shapes which express a complex of internal +stresses. The properties of matter which condition its adaptation +to structural functions, first as a constituent of a living individual, +and afterwards as a textile fibre, are homogeneous continuity of +substance, with a high degree of interior cohesion, and associated +with an irreducible minimum of elasticity or extensibility. The +colloids show an infinite diversity of variations in these essential +properties: certain of them, and notably cellulose (<i>q.v.</i>), maintain +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page310" id="page310"></a>310</span> +these characteristics throughout a cycle of transformations +such as permit of their being brought into a soluble plastic form, +in which condition they may be drawn into filaments in continuous +length. The artificial silks or lustra-celluloses are +produced in this way, and have already taken an established +position as staple textiles. For a more detailed account of these +products see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Cellulose</a></span>.</p> + +<p>The animal fibres are composed of nitrogenous colloids of +which the typical representatives are the albumens, fibrines and +gelatines. They are of highly complex constitution and their +characteristics have only been generally investigated. The +vegetable fibre substances are celluloses and derivatives of +celluloses, also typically colloidal bodies. The broad distinction +between the two groups is chiefly evident in their relationship to +alkalis. The former group are attacked, resolved and finally +dissolved, under conditions of action by no means severe. The +celluloses, on the other hand, and therefore the vegetable fibres, +are extraordinarily resistant to the action of alkalis.</p> + +<p>The animal fibres are relatively few in number but of great +industrial importance. They occur as detached units and are of +varying dimensions; sheep’s wool having lengths up to 36 in., +the fleeces being shorn for textile uses at lengths of 2 to 16 in.; +horse hair is used in lengths of 4 to 24 in., whereas the silks +may be considered as being produced in continuous length, +“reeled silks” having lengths measured in hundreds of yards, +but “spun silks” are composed of silk fibres purposely broken +up into short lengths.</p> + +<p>The vegetable fibres are extremely numerous and of very +diversified characteristics. They are individualized units only in +the case of seed hairs, of which cotton is by far the most important; +with this exception they are elaborated as more or less complex +aggregates. The bast tissues of dicotyledonous annuals furnish +such staple materials as flax, hemp, rhea or ramie and jute. The +bast occurs in a peripheral zone, external to the wood and +beneath the cortex, and is mechanically separated from the stem, +usually after steeping, followed by drying.</p> + +<p>The commercial forms of these fibres are elongated filaments +composed of the elementary bast cells (ultimate fibres) aggregated +into bundles. The number of these as any part of the filament +may vary from 3 to 20 (see figs.). In the processes of refinement +preparatory to the spinning (hackling, scutching) and in the +spinning process itself, the fibre-bundles are more or less subdivided, +and the divisibility of the bundles is an element in the +textile value of the raw material. But the value of the material +is rather determined by the length of the ultimate fibres (for, +although not the spinning unit, the tensile strength of the yarn is +ultimately limited by the cohesion of these fibres), qualified by +the important factor of uniformity.</p> + +<p>Thus, the ultimate fibre of flax has a length of 25 to 35 mm.; jute, +on the other hand, 2 to 3 mm.; and this disparity is an essential +condition of the difference of values of these fibres. Rhea or +ramie, to cite another typical instance, has an ultimate fibre of +extraordinary length, but of equally conspicuous variability, +viz. from 50 to 200 mm. The variability is a serious impediment +in the preparation of the material for spinning and this defect, +together with low drawing or spinning quality, limits the applications +of this fibre to the lower counts or grades of yarn.</p> + +<p>The monocotyledons yield still more complex fibre aggregates, +which are the fibro-vascular bundles of leaves and stems. These +complex structures as a class do not yield to the mechanical +treatment by which the bast fibres are subdivided, nor is there +any true spinning quality such as is conditioned by bringing the +ultimate fibres into play under the drawing process, which +immediately precedes the twisting into yarn. Such materials are +therefore only used for the coarsest textiles, such as string or +rope. An exception to be noted in passing is to be found in the +pine apple (<i>Ananassa Sativa</i>) the fibres of which are worked into +yarns and cloth of the finest quality. The more important fibres +of this class are manila, sisal, phormium. A heterogeneous mass +of still more complex fibre aggregates, in many cases the entire +stem (cereal straws, esparto), in addition to being used in plaited +form, <i>e.g.</i> in hats, chairs, mats, constitute the staple raw material +for paper manufacturers, requiring a severe chemical treatment +for the separation of the ultimate fibres.</p> + +<p>In this class we must include the woods which furnish wood +pulps of various classes and grades. Chemical processes of two +types, (<i>a</i>) acid and (<i>b</i>) alkaline, are also employed in resolving +the wood, and the resolution not only effects a complete isolation +of the wood cells, but, by attacking the hydrolysable constituents +of the wood substance (lignocellulose), the cells are obtained +in the form of cellulose. These cellulose pulps are known in +commerce as “sulphite pulps” and “soda pulps” respectively. +In addition to these raw materials or “half stuffs” the paper-maker +employs the rejecta of the vegetable and textile industries, +scutching, spinning and cloth wastes of all kinds, which are +treated by chemical (boiling) and mechanical means (beating) +to separate the ultimate fibres and reduce them to the suitable +dimensions (0.5-2.0 mm.). These papermaking fibres have also +to be reckoned with as textile raw materials, in view of a new +and growing industry in “pulp yarns” (<i>Papierstoffgarn</i>), a +coarse textile obtained by treating paper as delivered in narrow +strips from the paper machine; the strips are reeled, dried to +retain 30-40% moisture, and in this condition subjected to the +twisting operation, which confers the cylindrical form and adds +considerably to the strength of the fibrous strip. The following +are the essential characteristics of the economically important +fibres.</p> + +<p><i>Animal.</i>—A. Silk. (<i>a</i>) The true silks are produced by the +<i>Bombyx Mori</i>, the worm feeding on the leaves of the mulberry. +The fibre is extruded as a viscous liquid from the glands of the +worm, and solidifies to a cylindrical thread. The cohesion of +these threads in pairs gives to raw silk the form of a dual cylinder +(Plate I. fig. 2). For textile purposes the thread is reeled from +the cocoon, and several units, five and upwards, are brought +together and suitably twisted. (<i>b</i>) The “Wild” silks are produced +by a large variety of insects, of which the most important +are the various species of Antherea, which yield the Tussore +silks. These silks differ in form and composition from the true +silks. While they consist of a “dual” thread, each unit of +these is complex, being made up of a number of fibrillae. This +unit thread is quadrangular in section, and of larger diameter +than the true silk, the mean breadth being 0.052 mm., as compared +with 0.018, the mean diameter of the true silks. The +variations in structure as well as in dimensions are, however, +very considerable.</p> + +<p>B. Epidermal hairs. Of these (<i>a</i>) wool, the epidermal +protective covering of sheep, is the most important. The +varying species of the animal produce wools of characteristic +qualities, varying considerably in fineness, in length of staple, in +composition and in spinning quality. Hence the classing of +the fleeces or raw wool followed by the elaborate processes +of selection, <i>i.e.</i> “sorting” and preparation, which precede the +actual spinning or twisting of the yarn. These consist in entirely +freeing the fibres and sorting them mechanically (combing, &c.), +thereafter forming them into continuous lengths of parallelized +units. This is followed by the spinning process which consists +in a simultaneous drawing and twisting, and a continuous production +of the yarn with the structural characteristics of worsted +yarns. The shorter staple—from 5 to 25% of average fleeces—is +prepared by the “carding” process for the spinning operation, +in which drawing and twisting are simultaneous, the +length spun being then wound up, and the process being consequently +intermittent. This section of the industry is known +as “woollen spinning” in contrast to the former or “<i>worsted</i> +spinning.”</p> + +<p>(<i>b</i>) An important group of raw material closely allied to the +wools are the epidermal hairs of the Angora goat (mohair), +the llama, alpaca. Owing to their form and the nature of the +substance of which they are composed, they possess more +lustre than the wools. They present structural differences +from sheep wools which influence the processes by which they +are prepared or spun, and the character of the yarns; but the +differences are only of subordinate moment.</p> + +<p class="pt2 noind f90 sc">Plate I.</p> + +<table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:397px; height:400px" src="images/img310a.jpg" alt="" /></td> +<td class="figcenter"><img style="width:396px; height:398px" src="images/img310b.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig.</span> 1.—RAW SILK. <i>Bombyx mori</i>. Filament of bave, +viewed in length. × 110.</td> +<td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig.</span> 2.—RAW SILK. <i>Bombyx mori</i>. Single fibres in transverse +section showing each fibre or “bave” as dual cylinder. × 235.</td></tr> + +<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:395px; height:393px" src="images/img310c.jpg" alt="" /></td> +<td class="figcenter"><img style="width:392px; height:395px" src="images/img310d.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig.</span> 3.—ARTIFICIAL “SILK.” Lustra-cellulose viscose process, +single fibres in transverse section × 235. Normal type—polygon +of 5 sides—with concave sides due to contact of the +component units of textile filament.</td> +<td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig.</span> 4.—WOOL FIBRES. Australian merino viewed in length, +× 235. Surface imbrications—the structural cause of true +felting properties.</td></tr> + +<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:394px; height:389px" src="images/img310e.jpg" alt="" /></td> +<td class="figcenter"><img style="width:392px; height:391px" src="images/img310f.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig.</span> 5.—FLAX STEM. <i>Linum usitatissimum</i>. <span class="correction" title="amended from tranverse">Transverse</span> section +of stem, × 235, showing bast fibres occupying central zone.</td> +<td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig.</span> 6.—RAMIE. Section of bast region, × 235. Showing bast +fibres bundles but only slightly occurring as individuals.</td></tr></table> + +<p class="pt2 noind f90 sc">Plate II.</p> + +<table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:395px; height:393px" src="images/img310g.jpg" alt="" /></td> +<td class="figcenter"><img style="width:388px; height:389px" src="images/img310h.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig.</span> 7.—JUTE. Bast bundles. Section of bast region, × 235, +showing agglomerated bundles of bast fibre, each bundle representing +a spinning unit or filament.</td> +<td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig.</span> 8.—MAIZE STEM. <i>Zea mais</i>. Fibro-vascular bundle in +section. × 110, typical of monocotyledonous structure.</td></tr></table> + +<table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:407px; height:411px" src="images/img310i.jpg" alt="" /></td> +<td class="figcenter"><img style="width:405px; height:398px" src="images/img310j.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig.</span> 9.—COTTON. FLAX. RAMIE. JUTE. Ultimate fibres in +the length, × 110. Portions selected to show typical structural +characteristics.</td> +<td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig.</span> 10.—COTTON. FLAX. RAMIE. JUTE. Ultimate fibres—transverse +section, × 110. Note similarity of ramie to cotton +and jute to flax.</td></tr></table> + +<table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:394px; height:391px" src="images/img310k.jpg" alt="" /></td> +<td class="figcenter"><img style="width:392px; height:388px" src="images/img310l.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig.</span> 11.—ESPARTO. Cellulose. Ultimate fibres of paper making +pulp. Typical fusiform bast fibres. × 65.</td> +<td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig.</span> 12.—SECTION OF HAND-MADE PAPER. × 110. Ultimate +component fibres disposed in every plane.</td></tr></table> + +<p>(<i>c</i>) Various animal hairs, such as those of the cow, camel +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page311" id="page311"></a>311</span> +and rabbit, are also employed; the latter is largely worked +into the class of fabrics known as felts. In these the hairs are +compacted together by taking advantage of the peculiarity of +structure which causes the imbrications of the surface.</p> + +<p>(<i>d</i>) Horse hair is employed in its natural form as an individual +filament or monofil.<a name="fa1e" id="fa1e" href="#ft1e"><span class="sp">1</span></a></p> + +<p><i>Vegetable Fibres.</i>—The subjoined scheme of classification sets +out the morphological structural characteristics of the vegetable +fibres:—</p> + +<table class="ws" summary="Contents"> +<tr><td class="tcc" colspan="2">Produced from</td></tr> + +<tr><td class="tcc"><i>Dicotyledons.</i></td> <td class="tcc"><i>Monocotyledons.</i></td></tr> + +<tr><td class="tcl">A. Seed hairs.</td> <td class="tcl">D. Fibro-vascular bundles.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl">B. Bast fibres.</td> <td class="tcl">E. Entire leaves and stems.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl">C. Bast aggregates.</td> <td class="tcl"> </td></tr> +</table> + +<p class="noind">In the list of the more important fibrous raw materials subjoined, +the capital letter immediately following the name refers the +individual to its position in this classification. In reference to +the important question of chemical composition and the actual +nature of the fibre substance, it may be premised that the +vegetable fibres are composed of cellulose, an important representative +of the group of carbohydrates, of which the cotton +fibre substance is the chemical prototype, mixed and combined +with various derivatives belonging to the subgroups. (<i>a</i>) +Carbohydrates. (<i>b</i>) Unsaturated compounds of benzenoid and +furfuroid constitutions. (<i>c</i>) “Fat and wax” derivatives, <i>i.e.</i> +groups belonging to the fatty series, and of higher molecular +dimensions—of such compound celluloses the following are the +prototypes:—</p> + +<div class="list"> +<p>(<i>a</i>) Cellulose combined and mixed with “pectic” bodies +(<i>i.e.</i> pecto-celluloses), flax, rhea.</p> + +<p>(<i>b</i>) Cellulose combined with unsaturated groups or ligno-celluloses, +jute and the woods.</p> + +<p>(<i>c</i>) Cellulose combined and mixed with higher fatty acids, +alcohols, ethers, cuto-celluloses, protective epidermal +covering of leaves.</p> +</div> + +<p class="noind">The letters <i>a</i>, <i>b</i>, <i>c</i> in the table below and following the capitals, +which have reference to the structural basis of classification, +indicate the main characteristics of the fibre substances. (See +also <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Cellulose</a></span>.)</p> + +<p><i>Miscellaneous.</i>—Various species of the family Palmaceae +yield fibrous products of value, of which mention must be made +of the following. <i>Raffia</i>, epidermal strips of the leaves of +<i>Raphia ruffia</i> (Madagascar), <i>R. taedigera</i> (Japan), largely employed +as binder twine in horticulture, replacing the “bast” +(linden) formerly employed. <i>Coir</i>, the fibrous envelope of the +fruit of the <i>Cocos nucifera</i>, extensively used for matting and +other coarse textiles. <i>Carludovica palmata</i> (Central America) +yields the raw material for Panama hats, the <i>Corypha australis</i> +(Australia) yields a similar product. The leaves of the date +palm, <i>Phoenix dactylifera</i>, are employed locally in making baskets +and mats, and the fibro-vascular bundles are isolated for working +up into coarse twine and rope; similarly, the leaves of the +<i>Elaeis guineensis</i>, the fruit of which yields the “palm oil” of +commerce, yield a fibre which finds employment locally (Africa) +for special purposes. <i>Chamaerops humilis</i>, the dwarf palm, +yields the well-known “Crin d’Afrique.” Locally (Algiers) +it is twisted into ropes, but its more general use, in Europe, +is in upholstery as a stuffing material. The cereal straws are +used in the form of plait in the making of hats and mats. Esparto +grass is also used in the making of coarse mats.</p> + +<table class="ws f90" summary="Contents"> +<tr><td class="tccm allb"> </td> <td class="tccm allb">Botanical Identity.<br />Genus and Order.</td> <td class="tccm allb">Country of Origin.</td> <td class="tccm allb">Dimensions of Ultimate.</td> <td class="tccm allb">Textile Uses.</td></tr> + +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Cotton, A.<i>a</i></td> <td class="tcl rb">Gossypium</td> <td class="tcl rb">Tropical and subtropical</td> <td class="tcl rb">12-40 mm. 0.019-0.025.</td> <td class="tcl rb">Universal. Also as a raw material</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb"> </td> <td class="tcl rb">Malvaceae</td> <td class="tcl rb">   countries</td> <td class="tcl rb">   Av. 28 mm.</td> <td class="tcl rb">   in chemical industries, notably</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb"> </td> <td class="tcl rb"> </td> <td class="tcl rb"> </td> <td class="tcl rb"> </td> <td class="tcl rb">   explosives, celluloid.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Flax, B.<i>a</i></td> <td class="tcl rb">Linum</td> <td class="tcl rb">Temperate (and subtropical)</td> <td class="tcl rb">6.60 mm. 0.011-0.025.</td> <td class="tcl rb">General. Special effects in lustre</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb"> </td> <td class="tcl rb">Linaceae</td> <td class="tcl rb">   countries, chiefly European</td> <td class="tcl rb">   Av. 28 mm.</td> <td class="tcl rb">   damasks. In India and America</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb"> </td> <td class="tcl rb"> </td> <td class="tcl rb"> </td> <td class="tcl rb"> </td> <td class="tcl rb">   plants grown for seed (linseed).</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Hemp, B.<i>a</i></td> <td class="tcl rb">Cannabis</td> <td class="tcl rb">Temperate countries, chiefly</td> <td class="tcl rb">5-55 mm. 0.016-0.050.</td> <td class="tcl rb">Coarser textiles, sail-cloth,</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb"> </td> <td class="tcl rb">Cannabineae</td> <td class="tcl rb">   Europe</td> <td class="tcl rb">   Av. 22. mm. Av. 0.022</td> <td class="tcl rb">rope and twine.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Ramie, B.<i>a</i></td> <td class="tcl rb">Boehmeria</td> <td class="tcl rb">Tropical countries (some</td> <td class="tcl rb">60-200 mm. 0.03-0.08.</td> <td class="tcl rb">Coarse textiles. Cost of preparation</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb"> </td> <td class="tcl rb">Urticaceae</td> <td class="tcl rb">   temperate)</td> <td class="tcl rb">   Av. 120 mm. Av. 0.050</td> <td class="tcl rb">   for fine textiles prohibitive.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Jute, B.<i>b</i></td> <td class="tcl rb">Corchorus</td> <td class="tcl rb">Tropical countries, chiefly</td> <td class="tcl rb">1.5-5 mm. 0.020-0.025.</td> <td class="tcl rb">Coarse textiles, chiefly “Hessians”</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb"> </td> <td class="tcl rb">Tiliaceae</td> <td class="tcl rb">   India</td> <td class="tcl rb">   Av. 2.5 mm. Av. 0.022</td> <td class="tcl rb">   and sacking. “Line” spun yarns</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb"> </td> <td class="tcl rb"> </td> <td class="tcl rb"> </td> <td class="tcl rb"> </td> <td class="tcl rb">   used in cretonne and furniture</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb"> </td> <td class="tcl rb"> </td> <td class="tcl rb"> </td> <td class="tcl rb"> </td> <td class="tcl rb">   textiles.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">    B.<i>b</i></td> <td class="tcl rb">Crotalaria</td> <td class="tcl rb">India</td> <td class="tcl rb">4.0-12.0. 0.025-0.050.</td> <td class="tcl rb">Twine and rope. Coarse textiles.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb"> </td> <td class="tcl rb">Leguminosae</td> <td class="tcl rb"> </td> <td class="tcl rb">   Av. 7.5. Av. 0.022</td> <td class="tcl rb"> </td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Hibiscus, B.<i>b</i></td> <td class="tcl rb">Hibiscus</td> <td class="tcl rb">Tropical, chiefly India</td> <td class="tcl rb">2-6 mm. 0.014-0.033.</td> <td class="tcl rb">Coarse textiles. H. Elams has been</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb"> </td> <td class="tcl rb"> </td> <td class="tcl rb"> </td> <td class="tcl rb">   Av. 4 mm. Av. 0.021</td> <td class="tcl rb">   extensively used in making mats.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Sida, B.<i>b</i></td> <td class="tcl rb">Sida</td> <td class="tcl rb">Tropical and subtropical</td> <td class="tcl rb">1.5-4 mm. 0.013-0.02.</td> <td class="tcl rb">Coarse textiles. Appears capable of</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb"> </td> <td class="tcl rb">Malvaceae</td> <td class="tcl rb"> </td> <td class="tcl rb">   Av. 2 mm. Av. 0.015</td> <td class="tcl rb">   substituting jute.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Lime or Linden,</td> <td class="tcl rb">Tilia</td> <td class="tcl rb">European countries, chiefly</td> <td class="tcl rb">1.5 mm. 0.014-0.020.</td> <td class="tcl rb">Matting and binder twine.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">   C.<i>b</i></td> <td class="tcl rb">Tiliaceae</td> <td class="tcl rb">   Russia</td> <td class="tcl rb">   Av. 2 mm. Av. 0.016</td> <td class="tcl rb"> </td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Mulberry, C</td> <td class="tcl rb">Broussonetia</td> <td class="tcl rb">Far East</td> <td class="tcl rb">5-31 mm. 0.02-0.04.</td> <td class="tcl rb">Paper and paper cloths.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb"> </td> <td class="tcl rb">Moraceae</td> <td class="tcl rb"> </td> <td class="tcl rb">   Av. 15 mm. Av. 0.03</td> <td class="tcl rb"> </td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Monocotyledons—</td> <td class="tcl rb"> </td> <td class="tcl rb"> </td> <td class="tcl rb"> </td> <td class="tcl rb"> </td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">   Manila, D</td> <td class="tcl rb">Musa</td> <td class="tcl rb">Tropical countries, chiefly</td> <td class="tcl rb">3-12 mm. 0.016-0.032.</td> <td class="tcl rb">Twine and ropes. Produces papers</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb"> </td> <td class="tcl rb">Musaceae</td> <td class="tcl rb">Philippine Islands</td> <td class="tcl rb">   Av. 6 mm. Av. 0.024</td> <td class="tcl rb">   of special quality.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">   Sisal, D</td> <td class="tcl rb">Agave</td> <td class="tcl rb">Tropical countries, chiefly</td> <td class="tcl rb">1.5-4 mm. 0.020-0.032.</td> <td class="tcl rb">Twine and ropes.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb"> </td> <td class="tcl rb">Amaryllideae</td> <td class="tcl rb">   Central America</td> <td class="tcl rb">   Av. 2.5. Av. 0.024</td> <td class="tcl rb"> </td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb"> </td> <td class="tcl rb">Yucca</td> <td class="tcl rb">    do.</td> <td class="tcl rb">0.5-6 mm. 0.01-0.02.</td> <td class="tcl rb">    do.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb"> </td> <td class="tcl rb">Liliaceae</td> <td class="tcl rb"> </td> <td class="tcl rb"> </td> <td class="tcl rb"> </td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb"> </td> <td class="tcl rb">Sansevieria</td> <td class="tcl rb">East Indies, Ceylon, East</td> <td class="tcl rb">1.5-6 mm. 0.015-0.026.</td> <td class="tcl rb">    do.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb"> </td> <td class="tcl rb">Liliaceae</td> <td class="tcl rb">   Africa</td> <td class="tcl rb">   Av. 3 mm. Av. 0.020</td> <td class="tcl rb"> </td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">   Phormium, D</td> <td class="tcl rb">Phormium tenax</td> <td class="tcl rb">New Zealand</td> <td class="tcl rb">5.0-15 mm. 0.010-0.020.</td> <td class="tcl rb">Twine and ropes. Distinguished by</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb"> </td> <td class="tcl rb">Liliaceae</td> <td class="tcl rb"> </td> <td class="tcl rb">   Av. 9 mm. Av. 0.016</td> <td class="tcl rb">   high yield of fibre from green</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb"> </td> <td class="tcl rb"> </td> <td class="tcl rb"> </td> <td class="tcl rb"> </td> <td class="tcl rb">   leaf.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">   Pine-apple, D</td> <td class="tcl rb">Ananassa</td> <td class="tcl rb">Tropical East and West</td> <td class="tcl rb">3.0-9.0 mm. 0.004-0.008.</td> <td class="tcl rb">Textiles of remarkable fineness.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb"> </td> <td class="tcl rb">Bromeliaceae</td> <td class="tcl rb">   Indies</td> <td class="tcl rb">   Av. 5. Av. 0.006</td> <td class="tcl rb">   Exceptional fineness of ultimate</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb bb"> </td> <td class="tcl rb bb"> </td> <td class="tcl rb bb"> </td> <td class="tcl rb bb"> </td> <td class="tcl rb bb">  fibre.</td></tr> +</table> + +<p>The processes by which the fibres are transformed into textile +fabrics are in the main determined by their structural features. +The following are the distinctive types of treatment.</p> + +<p>A. The fibre is in virtually continuous lengths. The textile +yarn is produced by assembling together the unit threads, which +are wound together <span class="correction" title="amended from aud">and</span> suitably twisted (silk; artificial silk).</p> + +<p>B. The fibres in the form of units of variable short dimensions +are treated by more or less elaborate processes of scutching, +hackling, combing, with the aim of producing a mass of free +parallelized units of uniform dimensions; these are then laid +together and drawn into continuous bands of sliver and roving, +which are finally drawn and twisted into yarns. In this group +are comprised the larger number of textile products, such as +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page312" id="page312"></a>312</span> +cotton, wool, flax and jute, and it also includes at the other +extreme the production of coarse textiles, such as twine and rope.</p> + +<p>C. The fibres of still shorter dimensions are treated in various +ways for the production of a fabric in continuous length.</p> + +<p>The distinction of type of manufacturing processes in which +the relatively short fibres are utilized, either as disintegrated +units or comminuted long fibres, follows the lines of division +into long and short fibres; the long fibres are worked into yarns +by various processes, whereas the shorter fibres are agglomerated +by both dry and wet processes to felted tissues or felts. It is +obvious, however, that these distinctions do not constitute rigid +dividing lines. Thus the principles involved in felting are also +applied in the manipulation of long fibre fabrics. For instance, +woollen goods are closed or shrunk by milling, the web being +subjected to a beating or hammering treatment in an apparatus +known as “the Stocks,” or is continuously run through squeezing +rollers, in weak alkaline liquids. Flax goods are “closed” by +the process of beetling, a long-continued process of hammering, +under which the ultimate fibres are more or less subdivided, and +at the same time welded or incorporated together. As already +indicated, paper, which is a web composed of units of short +dimensions produced by deposition from suspension in water +and agglomerated by the interlacing of the component fibres in +all planes within the mass, is a species of textile. Further, +whereas the silks are mostly worked up in the extreme lengths +of the cocoon, there are various systems of spinning silk wastes +of variable short lengths, which are similar to those required for +spinning the fibres which occur naturally in the shorter lengths.</p> + +<p>The fibres thus enumerated as commercially and industrially +important have established themselves as the result of a struggle +for survival, and each embodies typical features of <span class="correction" title="amended from ultility">utility</span>. There +are innumerable vegetable fibres, many of which are utilized in +the locality or region of their production, but are not available +for the highly specialized applications of modern competitive +industry to qualify for which a very complex range of requirements +has to be met. These include primarily the factors of +production and transport summed up in cost of production, +together with the question of regularity of supply; structural +characteristics, form and dimensions, including uniformity of +ultimate unit and adaptability to standard methods of preparing +and spinning, together with tenacity and elasticity, lustre. +Lastly, composition, which determines the degree of resistance to +chemical disintegrating influences as well as subsidiary questions +of colour and relationship to colouring matters. The quest for +new fibres, as well as modified methods of production of those +already known, require critical investigation from the point of +view of established practice. The present perspective outline +of the group will be found to contain the elements of a grammar +of the subject. But those who wish to pursue the matter will +require to amplify this outlined picture by a study of the special +treatises which deal with general principles, as well as the separate +articles on the various fibres.</p> + +<p><i>Analysis and Identification.</i>—For the analysis of textile fabrics +and the identification of component fibre, a special treatise must +be consulted. The following general facts are to be noted as of +importance.</p> + +<p>All animal fibres are effectively dissolved by 10% solution +of caustic potash or soda. The fabric or material is boiled in +this solution for 10 minutes and exhaustively washed. Any +residue will be vegetable or cellulose fibre. It must not be forgotten +that the chemical properties of the fibre substances are +modified more or less by association in combination with colouring +matters and mordants. These may, in many cases, be +removed by treatments which do not seriously modify the fibre +substances.</p> + +<p>Wool is distinguished from silk by its relative resistance to the +action of sulphuric acid. The cold concentrated acid rapidly +dissolves silk as well as the vegetable fibres. The attack on wool +is slow, and the epidermal scales of wool make their appearance. +The true silks are distinguished from the wild silks by the action +of concentrated hydrochloric acid in the cold, which reagent +dissolves the former, but has only a slight effect on Tussore +silk. After preliminary resolution by these group reagents, +the fabric is subjected to microscopical analysis for the final +identification of its component fibres (see H. Schlichter, <i>Journal +Soc. Chem. Ind</i>., 1890, p. 241).</p> + +<p>A scheme for the commercial analysis or assay of vegetable +fibres, originally proposed by the author,<a name="fa2e" id="fa2e" href="#ft2e"><span class="sp">2</span></a> and now generally +adopted, includes the following operations:—</p> + +<p>1. Determination of moisture.</p> + +<p>2. Determination of ash left after complete ignition.</p> + +<p>3. Hydrolysis:</p> + +<div class="list"> +<p>(<i>a</i>) loss of weight after boiling the raw fibre with a 1% +caustic soda solution for five minutes;</p> + +<p>(<i>b</i>) loss after boiling for one hour.</p> +</div> + +<p>4. Determination of cellulose: the white residue after</p> + +<div class="list"> +<p>(<i>a</i>) boiling for five minutes with 1% caustic soda,</p> + +<p>(<i>b</i>) exposure to chlorine gas for one hour,</p> + +<p>(<i>c</i>) boiling with basic sodium sulphite solution.</p> +</div> + +<p>5. Mercerizing: the loss of weight after digestion with a +20% solution of sodium hydrate for one hour in the cold.</p> + +<p>6. Nitration: the weight of the product obtained after +digestion with a mixture of equal volumes of sulphuric +and nitric acids for one hour in the cold.</p> + +<p>7. Acid purification: treatment of the raw fibre with 20% +acetic acid for one minute, the product being washed +with water and alcohol, and then dried.</p> + +<p>8. Determination of the total carbon by combustion.</p> + +<p>II. <i>Papermaking.</i>—The papermaking industry (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Paper</a></span>) +employs as raw materials a large proportion of the vegetable +fibre products already enumerated, and, for the reasons incidentally +mentioned, they may be, and are, employed in a large variety +of forms: in fact any fibrous material containing over 30% +“cellulose” and yielding ultimate fibres of a length exceeding +1 mm. can be used in this industry. Most important staples are +cotton and flax; these are known to the paper-maker as “rag” +fibres, rags, <i>i.e.</i> cuttings of textile fabrics, new and old, being +their main source of supply. These are used for writing and +drawing papers. In the class of “printings” two of the most +important staples are wood pulp, prepared by chemical treatment +from both pine and foliage woods, and in England esparto cellulose, +the cellulose obtained from esparto grass by alkali treatment; +the cereal straws are also used and are resolved into +cellulose by alkaline boiling followed by bleaching. In the class +of “wrappings” and miscellaneous papers a large number of +other materials find use, such as various residues of manufacturing +and preparing processes, scutching wastes, ends of rovings +and yarns, flax, hemp and manila rope waste, adansonia bast, +and jute wastes, raw (cuttings) and manufactured (bagging). +Other materials have been experimentally tried, and would no +doubt come into use on their papermaking merits, but as a matter +of fact the actually suitable raw materials are comprised in the +list above enumerated, and are limited in number, through the +influence of a number of factors of value or utility.</p> + +<p>III. <i>Brush Fibres, &c.</i>—In addition to the textile industries +there are manufactures which utilize fibres of both animal and +vegetable character. The most important of these is brush-making. +The familiar brushes of everyday use are extremely +diversified in form and texture. The supplies of animal fibres +are mainly drawn from the badger, hog, bear, sable, squirrel and +horse. These fibres and bristles cover a large range of effects. +Brushes required for cleansing purposes are composed of fibres +of a more or less hard and resilient character, such as horse hairs, +and other tail hairs and bristles. For painting work brushes +of soft quality are employed, graduating for fine work into the +extreme softness of the “camel hair” pencil. Of vegetable +fibres the following are used in this industry. The <i>Caryota urens</i> +furnishes the Kittul fibre, obtained from the base of the leaf +stalks. Piassava is obtained from the <i>Attalea funifera</i>, also from +the <i>Leopoldina piassaba</i> (Brazil). Palmyra fibre is obtained +from the <i>Borassus flabellifer</i>. These are all members of the +natural order of the Palmaceae. Mexican fibre, or Istle, is +obtained from the agave. The fibre known as Whisk, largely +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page313" id="page313"></a>313</span> +used for dusting brushes, is obtained from various species +of the Gramineae; the “Mexican Whisk” from <i>Epicampeas +macroura</i>; and “Italian Whisk” from <i>Andropogon</i>. The <i>coir</i> +fibre mentioned above in connexion with coarse textiles is also +extensively used in brush-making. Aloe and Agave fibres in their +softer forms are also used for <span class="correction" title="amended from plasterers's">plasterers’</span> brushes. Many of the +whitewashes and cleansing solutions used in house decoration +are alkaline in character, and for such uses advantage is taken +of the specially resistant character of the cellulose group of +materials.</p> + +<p><i>Stuffing and Upholstery.</i>—Another important use for fibrous +materials is for filling or stuffing in connexion with the seats and +cushions in upholstery. In the large range of effects required, +a corresponding number and variety of products find employment. +One of the most important is the floss or seed-hair of the +<i>Eriodendron anfractuosum</i>, known as Kapok, the use of which +in Europe was created by the Dutch merchants who drew their +supplies from Java. The fibre is soft, silky and elastic, and +maintains its elasticity in use. Many fibres when used in the +mass show, on the other hand, a tendency to become matted +and compressed in use, and to restore them to their original +state the fibre requires to be removed and subjected to a teasing +or carding process. This defect limits the use of other “flosses” +or seed hairs in competition with Kapok. Horse hair is extensively +used in this industry, as are also wool flocks and other +short animal hairs and wastes.</p> + +<p><i>Hats and Matting.</i>—For these manufactures a large range +of the fibrous products above described are employed, chiefly +in their natural or raw state.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p><span class="sc">Bibliography.</span>—The list of works appended comprises only a +small fraction of the standard literature of the subject, but they are +sufficiently representative to enable the specialist, by referring to +them, to cover the subject-matter. F.H. Bowman, <i>The Structure +of the Wood Fibre</i> (1885), <i>The Structure of Cotton Fibre</i> (1882); Cross, +Bevan and King, <i>Indian Fibres and Fibrous Substances</i> (London, +1887); C.F. Cross, <i>Report on Miscellaneous Fibres</i>, Colonial Indian +Exhibition, 1886 (London, 1887); Cross and Bevan, <i>Cellulose, +Researches on Cellulose</i>, i. and ii. (London, 1895-1905); C.R. Dodge, +<i>A Descriptive Catalogue of Useful Fibre Plants of the World</i> (Report +No. 9, U.S. Dept. of Agriculture, Washington, 1897); von Höhmel, +<i>Die Mikroskopie der technisch verwendeten Faserstoffe</i> (Leipzig, 1905); +J.J. Hummel, <i>The Dyeing of Textile Fabrics</i> (London, 1885); J.M. +Matthews, <i>The Textile Fibres, their Physical, Microscopical and +Chemical Properties</i> (New York, 1904); H. Müller, <i>Die Pflanzenfaser</i> +(Braunschweig, 1877); H. Schlichter, “The Examination of Textile +Fibres and Fabrics” (<i>Jour. Soc. Chem. Ind.</i>, 1890, 241); M. Vetillart, +<i>Études sur les fibres végétales textiles</i> (Paris, 1876); Sir T.H. +Wardle, <i>Silk and Wild Silks</i>, original memoirs in connexion with +Col. Ind. Ex., 1886, Jubilee Ex. Manchester, 1887; Sir G. Watt, +<i>Dictionary of Economic Products of India</i> (London, 1891); Wiesner, +<i>Die Rohstoffe des Pflanzenreichs</i> (Leipzig, 1873); O.N. Witt, <i>Chemische +Technologie der Gespinnstfasern</i> (Braunschweig, 1888); <i>Kew +Bulletin</i>; <i>The Journal of the Imperial Institute</i>; <i>The Journal of the +Society of Arts</i>; W.I. Hannam, <i>The Textile Fibres of Commerce</i> +(London, 1902); J. Jackson, <i>Commercial Botany</i>; J. Zipser, <i>Die +Textilen Rohmaterialien</i> (Wien, 1895); F. Zetzsche, <i>Die wichtigsten +Faserstoffe der europäischen Industrie</i> (Leipzig, 1895).</p> +</div> +<div class="author">(C. F. C.)</div> + +<hr class="foot" /> <div class="note"> + +<p><a name="ft1e" id="ft1e" href="#fa1e"><span class="fn">1</span></a> See also <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Alpaca</a></span>, <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Felt</a></span>, <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Mohair</a></span>, <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Shoddy</a></span> and <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Wool</a></span>.</p> + +<p><a name="ft2e" id="ft2e" href="#fa2e"><span class="fn">2</span></a> Col. Ind. Exhibition, 1886, <i>Miscellaneous Reports</i>.</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">FIBRIN,<a name="ar126" id="ar126"></a></span> or <span class="sc">Fibrine</span>, a protein formed by the action of the +so-called fibrin-ferment on fibrinogen, a constituent of the blood-plasma +of all vertebrates. This change takes place when blood +leaves the arteries, and the fibrin thus formed occasions the +clotting which ensues (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Blood</a></span>). To obtain pure coagulated +fibrin it is best to heat blood-plasma (preferably that of the horse) +to 56° C. The usual method of beating a blood-clot with twigs +and removing the filamentous fibrin which attaches itself to +them yields a very impure product containing haemoglobin and +much globulin; moreover, it is very difficult to purify. Fibrin +is a very voluminous, tough, strongly elastic, jelly-like substance; +when denaturalized by heat, alcohol or salts, it behaves as any +other coagulated albumin.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">FICHTE, IMMANUEL HERMANN<a name="ar127" id="ar127"></a></span> (originally <span class="sc">Hartmann</span>) +<b>VON</b> (1797-1879), German philosopher, son of J.G. Fichte, +was born at Jena on the 18th of July 1797. Having held educational +posts at Saarbrücken and Düsseldorf, in 1836 he became +extraordinary professor of philosophy at Bonn, and in 1840 full +professor. In 1842 he received a call to Tübingen, retired in +1867, and died at Stuttgart on the 8th of August 1879. The +most important of his comprehensive writings are: <i>System der +Ethik</i> (1850-1853), <i>Anthropologie</i> (1856, 3rd ed. 1876), <i>Psychologie</i> +(1864-1873), <i>Die theistische Weltansicht</i> (1873). In 1837 he had +founded the <i>Zeitschrift für Philosophie</i> as an organ of his views, +more especially on the subject of the philosophy of religion, +where he was in alliance with C.H. Weisse; but, whereas Weisse +thought that the Hegelian structure was sound in the main, and +that its imperfections might be mended, Fichte held it to be +incurably defective, and spoke of it as a “masterpiece of +erroneous consistency or consistent error.” Fichte’s general +views on philosophy seem to have changed considerably as he +advanced in years, and his influence has been impaired by certain +inconsistencies and an appearance of eclecticism, which is +strengthened by his predominantly historical treatment of +problems, his desire to include divergent systems within his own, +and his conciliatory tone. His philosophy is an attempt to +reconcile monism (Hegel) and individualism (Herbart) by means +of theism (Leibnitz). He attacks Hegelianism for its pantheism, +its lowering of human personality, and imperfect recognition of +the demands of the moral consciousness. God, he says, is to be +regarded not as an absolute but as an Infinite Person, whose +nature it is that he should realize himself in finite persons. +These persons are objects of God’s love, and he arranges the +world for their good. The direct connecting link between God +and man is the “genius,” a higher spiritual individuality existing +in man by the side of his lower, earthly individuality. Fichte, +in short, advocates an ethical theism, and his arguments might +easily be turned to account by the apologist of Christianity. In +his conception of finite personality he recurs to something like +the monadism of Leibnitz. His insistence on moral experience +is connected with his insistence on personality. One of the tests +by which Fichte discriminates the value of previous systems is +the adequateness with which they interpret moral experience. +The same reason that made him depreciate Hegel made him +praise Krause (panentheism) and Schleiermacher, and speak +respectfully of English philosophy. It is characteristic of Fichte’s +almost excessive receptiveness that in his latest published work, +<i>Der neuere Spiritualismus</i> (1878), he supports his position by +arguments of a somewhat occult or theosophical cast, not unlike +those adopted by F.W.H. Myers. He also edited the complete +works and literary correspondence of his father, including his +life.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See R. Eucken, “Zur Erinnerung I. H. F.,” in <i>Zeitschrift für +Philosophie</i>, ex. (1897); C.C. Scherer, <i>Die Gotteslehre von I. H. F.</i> +(1902); article by Karl Hartmann in <i>Allegemeine deutsche Biographie</i> +xlviii. (1904). Some of his works were translated by J.D. Morell +under the title of <i>Contributions to Mental Philosophy</i> (1860).</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">FICHTE, JOHANN GOTTLIEB<a name="ar128" id="ar128"></a></span> (1762-1814), German philosopher, +was born at Rammenau in Upper Lusatia on the 19th +of May 1762. His father, a ribbon-weaver, was a descendant of +a Swedish soldier who (in the service of Gustavus Adolphus) +was left wounded at Rammenau and settled there. The family +was distinguished for piety, uprightness, and solidity of character. +With these qualities Fichte himself combined a certain impetuosity +and impatience probably derived from his mother, +a woman of a somewhat querulous and jealous disposition.</p> + +<p>At a very early age the boy showed remarkable mental vigour +and moral independence. A fortunate accident which brought +him under the notice of a neighbouring nobleman, Freiherr von +Miltitz, was the means of procuring him a more excellent education +than his father’s circumstances would have allowed. He +was placed under the care of Pastor Krebel at Niederau. After +a short stay at Meissen he was entered at the celebrated +school at Pforta, near Naumburg. In 1780 he entered the +university of Jena as a student of theology. He supported +himself mainly by private teaching, and during the years 1784-1787 +acted as tutor in various families of Saxony. In 1787, after +an unsuccessful application to the consistory for pecuniary assistance, +he seems to have been driven to miscellaneous literary work. +A tutorship at Zürich was, however, obtained in the spring of +1788, and Fichte spent in Switzerland two of the happiest +years of his life. He made several valuable acquaintances, +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page314" id="page314"></a>314</span> +among others Lavater and his brother-in-law Hartmann Rahn, +to whose daughter, Johanna Maria, he became engaged.</p> + +<p>Settling at Leipzig, still without any fixed means of livelihood, +he was again reduced to literary drudgery. In the midst of +this work occurred the most important event of his life, his +introduction to the philosophy of Kant. At Schulpforta he had +read with delight Lessing’s <i>Anti-Goeze</i>, and during his Jena days +had studied the relation between philosophy and religion. The +outcome of his speculations, <i>Aphorismen über Religion und +Deismus</i> (unpublished, date 1790; <i>Werke</i>, i. 1-8), was a species +of Spinozistic determinism, regarded, however, as lying altogether +outside the boundary of religion. It is remarkable that +even for a time fatalism should have been predominant in his +reasoning, for in character he was opposed to such a view, and, +as he has said, “according to the man, so is the system of +philosophy he adopts.”</p> + +<p>Fichte’s <i>Letters</i> of this period attest the influence exercised +on him by the study of Kant. It effected a revolution in his +mode of thinking; so completely did the Kantian doctrine of +the inherent moral worth of man harmonize with his own +character, that his life becomes one effort to perfect a true +philosophy, and to make its principles practical maxims. At +first he seems to have thought that the best method for accomplishing +his object would be to expound Kantianism in a popular, +intelligible form. He rightly felt that the reception of Kant’s +doctrines was impeded by their phraseology. An abridgment +of the <i>Kritik der Urtheilskraft</i> was begun, but was left unfinished.</p> + +<p>Fichte’s circumstances had not improved. It had been +arranged that he should return to Zürich and be married to +Johanna Rahn, but the plan was overthrown by a commercial +disaster which affected the fortunes of the Rahn family. Fichte +accepted a post as private tutor in Warsaw, and proceeded on +foot to that town. The situation proved unsuitable; the lady, +as Kuno Fischer says, “required greater submission and better +French” than Fichte could yield, and after a fortnight’s stay +Fichte set out for Königsberg to see Kant. His first interview +was disappointing; the coldness and formality of the aged +philosopher checked the enthusiasm of the young disciple, +though it did not diminish his reverence. He resolved to bring +himself before Kant’s notice by submitting to him a work in which +the principles of the Kantian philosophy should be applied. +Such was the origin of the work, written in four weeks, the +<i>Versuch einer Kritik aller Offenbarung</i> (Essay towards a Critique +of all Revelation). The problem which Fichte dealt with in +this essay was one not yet handled by Kant himself, the relations +of which to the critical philosophy furnished matter for surmise. +Indirectly, indeed, Kant had indicated a very definite opinion +on theology: from the <i>Critique of Pure Reason</i> it was clear that +for him speculative theology must be purely negative, while the +<i>Critique of Practical Reason</i> as clearly indicated the view that +the moral law is the absolute content or substance of any religion. +A <i>critical</i> investigation of the conditions under which religious +belief was possible was still wanting. Fichte sent his essay to +Kant, who approved it highly, extended to the author a warm +reception, and exerted his influence to procure a publisher. +After some delay, consequent on the scruples of the theological +censor of Halle, who did not like to see miracles rejected, the +book appeared (Easter, 1792). By an oversight Fichte’s name +did not appear on the title-page, nor was the preface given, in +which the author spoke of himself as a beginner in philosophy. +Outsiders, not unnaturally, ascribed the work to Kant. The +<i>Allgemeine Literatur-Zeitung</i> went so far as to say that no one +who had read a line of Kant’s writings could fail to recognize +the eminent author of this new work. Kant himself corrected +the mistake, at the same time highly commending the work. +Fichte’s reputation was thus secured at a stroke.</p> + +<p>The <i>Critique of Revelation</i> marks the culminating point of +Fichte’s Kantian period. The exposition of the conditions under +which revealed religion is possible turns upon the absolute +requirements of the moral law in human nature. Religion itself +is the belief in this moral law as divine, and such belief is a +practical postulate, necessary in order to add force to the law. +It follows that no revealed religion, so far as matter or substance +is concerned, can contain anything beyond this law; nor can +any fact in the world of experience be recognized by us as supernatural. +The supernatural element in religion can only be the +divine character of the moral law. Now, the revelation of this +divine character of morality is possible only to a being in whom +the lower impulses have been, or are, successful in overcoming +reverence for the law. In such a case it is conceivable that a +revelation might be given in order to add strength to the moral +law. Religion ultimately then rests upon the practical reason, +and expresses some demand or want of the pure ego. In this +conclusion we can trace the prominence assigned by Fichte to +the practical element, and the tendency to make the requirements +of the ego the ground for all judgment on reality. It was not +possible that having reached this point he should not press +forward and leave the Kantian position.</p> + +<p>This success was coincident with an improvement in the +fortunes of the Rahn family, and the marriage took place at +Zürich in October 1793. The remainder of the year he spent +at Zürich, slowly perfecting his thoughts on the fundamental +problems left for solution in the Kantian philosophy. During +this period he published anonymously two remarkable political +works, <i>Zurückforderung der Denkfreiheit von den Fürsten Europas</i> +and <i>Beiträge zur Berichtigung der Urtheile des Publicums über die +französische Revolution</i>. Of these the latter is much the more +important. The French Revolution seemed to many earnest +thinkers the one great outcry of modern times for the liberty +of thought and action which is the eternal heritage of every +human being. Unfortunately the political condition of Germany +was unfavourable to the formation of an unbiassed opinion on +the great movement. The principles involved in it were lost +sight of under the mass of spurious maxims on social order +which had slowly grown up and stiffened into system. To +direct attention to the true nature of revolution, to demonstrate +how inextricably the right of liberty is interwoven with the very +existence of man as an intelligent agent, to point out the inherent +progressiveness of state arrangements, and the consequent +necessity of reform or amendment, such are the main objects +of the <i>Beiträge</i>; and although, as is often the case with Fichte, +the arguments are too formal and the distinctions too wire-drawn, +yet the general idea is nobly conceived and carried out. +As in the <i>Critique of Revelation</i> so here the rational nature of +man and the conditions necessary for its manifestation or realization +become the standard for critical judgment.</p> + +<p>Towards the close of 1793 Fichte received an invitation to +succeed K.L. Reinhold as extraordinary professor of philosophy +at Jena. This chair, not in the ordinary faculty, had become, +through Reinhold, the most important in the university, and +great deliberation was exercised in selecting his successor. It +was desired to secure an exponent of Kantianism, and none +seemed so highly qualified as the author of the <i>Critique of Revelation</i>. +Fichte, while accepting the call, desired to spend a year +in preparation; but as this was deemed inexpedient he rapidly +drew out for his students an introductory outline of his system, +and began his lectures in May 1794. His success was instantaneous +and complete. The fame of his predecessor was altogether +eclipsed. Much of this success was due to Fichte’s rare power +as a lecturer. In oral exposition the vigour of thought and +moral intensity of the man were most of all apparent, while +his practical earnestness completely captivated his hearers. +He lectured not only to his own class, but on general moral +subjects to all students of the university. These general +addresses, published under the title <i>Bestimmung des Gelehrten</i> +(Vocation of the Scholar), were on a subject dear to Fichte’s +heart, the supreme importance of the highest intellectual culture +and the duties incumbent on those who had received it. Their +tone is stimulating and lofty.</p> + +<p>The years spent at Jena were unusually productive; indeed, +the completed Fichtean philosophy is contained in the writings +of this period. A general introduction to the system is given +in the tractate <i>Über den Begriff der Wissenschaftslehre</i> (On the +Notion of the Theory of Science), 1794, and the theoretical +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page315" id="page315"></a>315</span> +portion is worked out in the <i>Grundlage der gesammten Wissenschaftslehre</i> +(Foundation of the whole Theory of Science, 1794) +and <i>Grundriss des Eigenthümlichen d. Wissenschaftslehre</i> (Outline +of what is peculiar in the Theory of Science, 1794). To these +were added in 1797 a <i>First</i> and a <i>Second Introduction to the +Theory of Science</i>, and an <i>Essay towards a new Exposition of the +Theory of Science</i>. The <i>Introductions</i> are masterly expositions. +The practical philosophy was given in the <i>Grundlage des +Naturrechts</i> (1796) and <i>System der Sittenlehre</i> (1798). The last +is probably the most important of all Fichte’s works; apart +from it, his theoretical philosophy is unintelligible.</p> + +<p>During this period Fichte’s academic career had been troubled +by various storms, the last so violent as to put a close to his +professorate at Jena. The first of them, a complaint against the +delivery of his general addresses on Sundays, was easily settled. +The second, arising from Fichte’s strong desire to suppress the +<i>Landsmannschaften</i> (students’ orders), which were productive +of much harm, was more serious. Some misunderstanding +caused an outburst of ignorant ill-feeling on the part of the +students, who proceeded to such lengths that Fichte was compelled +to reside out of Jena. The third storm, however, was +the most violent. In 1798 Fichte, who, with F.I. Niethammer +(1766-1848), had edited the <i>Philosophical Journal</i> since 1795, +received from his friend F.K. Forberg (1770-1848) an essay +on the “Development of the Idea of Religion.” With much +of the essay he entirely agreed, but he thought the exposition +in so many ways defective and calculated to create an erroneous +impression, that he prefaced it with a short paper <i>On the Grounds +of our Belief in a Divine Government of the Universe</i>, in which +God is defined as the moral order of the universe, the eternal +law of right which is the foundation of all our being. The cry +of atheism was raised, and the electoral government of Saxony, +followed by all the German states except Prussia, suppressed +the <i>Journal</i> and confiscated the copies found in their universities. +Pressure was put by the German powers on Charles Augustus, +grand-duke of Saxe-Weimar, in whose dominions Jena university +was situated, to reprove and dismiss the offenders. Fichte’s +defences (<i>Appellation an das Publicum gegen die Anklage des +Atheismus</i>, and <i>Gerichtliche Verantwortung der Herausgeber der +phil. Zeitschrift</i>, 1799), though masterly, did not make it easier +for the liberal-minded grand-duke to pass the matter over, and +an unfortunate letter, in which he threatened to resign in case +of reprimand, turned the scale against him. The grand-duke +accepted his threat as a request to resign, passed censure, and +extended to him permission to withdraw from his chair at Jena; +nor would he alter his decision, even though Fichte himself +endeavoured to explain away the unfortunate letter.</p> + +<p>Berlin was the only town in Germany open to him. His +residence there from 1799 to 1806 was unbroken save for a +course of lectures during the summer of 1805 at Erlangen, where +he had been named professor. Surrounded by friends, including +Schlegel and Schleiermacher, he continued his literary work, +perfecting the <i>Wissenschaftslehre</i>. The most remarkable of the +works from this period are—(1) the <i>Bestimmung des Menschen</i> +(Vocation of Man, 1800), a book which, for beauty of style, +richness of content, and elevation of thought, may be ranked +with the Meditations of Descartes; (2) <i>Der geschlossene Handelsstaat</i>, +1800 (The Exclusive or Isolated Commercial State), a very +remarkable treatise, intensely socialist in tone, and inculcating +organized protection; (3) <i>Sonnenklarer Bericht an das grössere +Publicum über die neueste Philosophie</i>, 1801. In 1801 was also +written the <i>Darstellung der Wissenschaftslehre</i>, which was not +published till after his death. In 1804 a set of lectures on the +<i>Wissenschaftslehre</i> was given at Berlin, the notes of which were +published in the <i>Nachgelassene Werke</i>, vol. ii. In 1804 were +also delivered the noble lectures entitled <i>Grundzüge des gegenwärtigen +Zeitalters</i> (Characteristics of the Present Age, 1804), +containing a most admirable analysis of the <i>Aufklärung</i>, tracing +the position of such a movement of thought in the natural +evolution of the general human consciousness, pointing out +its inherent defects, and indicating as the ultimate goal of progress +the life of reason in its highest aspect as a belief in the divine +order of the universe. The philosophy of history sketched in +this work has something of value with much that is fantastic. +In 1805 and 1806 appeared the <i>Wesen des Gelehrten</i> (Nature of +the Scholar) and the <i>Anweisung zum seligen Leben oder Religionslehre</i> +(Way to a Blessed Life), the latter the most important +work of this Berlin period. In it the union between the finite +self-consciousness and the infinite ego or God is handled in an +almost mystical manner. The knowledge and love of God is +the end of life; by this means only can we attain blessedness +(<i>Seligkeit</i>), for in God alone have we a permanent, enduring object +of desire. The infinite God is the all; the world of independent +objects is the result of reflection or self-consciousness, by which +the infinite unity is broken up. God is thus over and above the +distinction of subject and object; our knowledge is but a reflex +or picture of the infinite essence. Being is not thought.</p> + +<p>The <span class="correction" title="amended from diasters">disasters</span> of Prussia in 1806 drove Fichte from Berlin. +He retired first to Stargard, then to Königsberg (where he +lectured for a time), then to Copenhagen, whence he returned +to the capital in August 1807. From this time his published +writings are practical in character; not till after the appearance +of the <i>Nachgelassene Werke</i> was it known in what shape his final +speculations had been thrown out. We may here note the order +of these posthumous writings as being of importance for tracing +the development of Fichte’s thought. From the year 1806 we +have the remarkable <i>Bericht über die Wissenschaftslehre</i> (<i>Werke</i>, +vol. viii.), with its sharp critique of Schelling; from 1810 we +have the <i>Thatsachen des Bewusstseyns</i>, published in 1817, of +which another treatment is given in lectures of 1813 (<i>Nachgel. +Werke</i>, vol. i.). Of the <i>Wissenschaftslehre</i> we have, in 1812-1813, +four separate treatments contained in the <i>Nachgel Werke</i>. As +these consist mainly of notes for lectures, couched in uncouth +phraseology, they cannot be held to throw much light on Fichte’s +views. Perhaps the most interesting are the lectures of 1812 +on <i>Transcendental Logic</i> (<i>Nach. Werke</i>, i. 106-400).</p> + +<p>From 1812 we have notes of two courses on practical philosophy, +<i>Rechtslehre</i> (<i>Nach. Werke</i>, vol. ii.) and <i>Sittenlehre</i> (<i>ib.</i> vol. iii.). +A finished work in the same department is the <i>Staatslehre</i>, +published in 1820. This gives the Fichtean utopia organized +on principles of pure reason; in too many cases the proposals +are identical with principles of pure despotism.</p> + +<p>During these years, however, Fichte was mainly occupied +with public affairs. In 1807 he drew up an elaborate and +minute plan for the proposed new university of Berlin. In +1507-1808 he delivered at Berlin, amidst danger and discouragement, +his noble addresses to the German people (<i>Reden an die +deutsche Nation</i>). Even if we think that in these pure reason +is sometimes overshadowed by patriotism, we cannot but recognize +the immense practical value of what he recommended as +the only true foundation for national prosperity.</p> + +<p>In 1810 he was elected rector of the new university founded +in the previous year. This post he resigned in 1812, mainly on +account of the difficulties he experienced in his endeavour to +reform the student life of the university.</p> + +<p>In 1813 began the great effort of Germany for national independence. +Debarred from taking an active part, Fichte +made his contribution by way of lectures. The addresses on +the idea of a true war (<i>Über den Begriff eines wahrhaften Kriegs</i>, +forming part of the <i>Staatslehre</i>) contain a very subtle contrast +between the positions of France and Germany in the war.</p> + +<p>In the autumn of 1813 the hospitals of Berlin were filled with +sick and wounded from the campaign. Among the most devoted +in her exertions was Fichte’s wife, who, in January 1814, was +attacked with a virulent hospital fever. On the day after she +was pronounced out of danger Fichte was struck down. He +lingered for some days in an almost unconscious state, and died +on the 27th of January 1814.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>The philosophy of Fichte, worked out in a series of writings, +and falling chronologically into two distinct periods, that of Jena +and that of Berlin, seemed in the course of its development to +undergo a change so fundamental that many critics have sharply +separated and opposed to one another an earlier and a later phase. +The ground of the modification, further, has been sought and +apparently found in quite external influences, principally that of +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page316" id="page316"></a>316</span> +Schelling’s <i>Naturphilosophie</i>, to some extent that of Schleiermacher. +But as a rule most of those who have adopted this view have done +so without the full and patient examination which the matter +demands; they have been misled by the difference in tone and +style between the earlier and later writings, and have concluded that +underlying this was a fundamental difference of philosophic conception. +One only, Erdmann, in his <i>Entwicklung d. deut. Spek. +seit Kant</i>, § 29, seems to give full references to justify his opinion, +and even he, in his later work, <i>Grundriss der Gesch. der Philos.</i> +(ed. 3), § 311, admits that the difference is much less than he had +at the first imagined. He certainly retains his former opinion, +but mainly on the ground, in itself intelligible and legitimate, that, so +far as Fichte’s philosophical reputation and influence are concerned, +attention may be limited to the earlier doctrines of the <i>Wissenschaftslehre</i>. +This may be so, but it can be admitted neither that +Fichte’s views underwent radical change, nor that the <i>Wissenschaftslehre</i> +was ever regarded as in itself complete, nor that Fichte was +unconscious of the apparent difference between his earlier and later +utterances. It is demonstrable by various passages in the works +and letters that he never looked upon the <i>Wissenschaftslehre</i> as containing +the whole system; it is clear from the chronology of his +writings that the modifications supposed to be due to other thinkers +were from the first implicit in his theory; and if one fairly traces +the course of thought in the early writings, one can see how he +was inevitably led on to the statement of the later and, at first sight, +divergent views. On only one point, the position assigned in the +<i>Wissenschaftslehre</i> to the absolute ego, is there any obscurity; but +the relative passages are far from decisive, and from the early work, +<i>Neue Darstellung der Wissenchaftslehre</i>, unquestionably to be included +in the Jena period, one can see that from the outset the +doctrine of the absolute ego was held in a form differing only in +statement from the later theory.</p> + +<p>Fichte’s system cannot be compressed with intelligibility. We +shall here note only three points:—(<i>a</i>) the origin in Kant; (<i>b</i>) the +fundamental principle and method of the <i>Wissenschaftslehre</i>; (<i>c</i>) the +connexion with the later writings. The most important works for +(<i>a</i>) are the “Review of Aenesidemus,” and the <i>Second Introduction +to the Wissenschaftslehre</i>; for (<i>b</i>) the great treatises of the Jena +period; for (<i>c</i>) the <i>Thatsachen des Bewusstseyns</i> of 1810.</p> + +<p>(<i>a</i>) The Kantian system had for the first time opened up a truly +fruitful line of philosophic speculation, the transcendental consideration +of knowledge, or the analysis of the conditions under +which cognition is possible. To Kant the fundamental condition +was given in the synthetical unity of consciousness. The primitive +fact under which might be gathered the special conditions of that +synthesis which we call cognition was this unity. But by Kant +there was no attempt made to show that the said special conditions +were necessary from the very nature of consciousness itself. Their +necessity was discovered and proved in a manner which might be +called empirical. Moreover, while Kant in a quite similar manner +pointed out that intuition had special conditions, space and time, +he did not show any link of connexion between these and the primitive +conditions of pure cognition. Closely connected with this +remarkable defect in the Kantian view—lying, indeed, at the foundation +of it—was the doctrine that the matter of cognition is altogether +<i>given</i>, or thrown into the <i>form</i> of cognition from without. So +strongly was this doctrine emphasized by Kant, that he seemed to +refer the <i>matter</i> of knowledge to the action upon us of a non-ego +or <i>Ding-an-sich</i>, absolutely beyond consciousness. While these +hints towards a completely intelligible account of cognition were +given by Kant, they were not reduced to system, and from the way +in which the elements of cognition were related, could not be so +reduced. Only in the sphere of practical reason, where the intelligible +nature prescribed to itself its own laws, was there the possibility of +systematic deduction from a single principle.</p> + +<p>The peculiar position in which Kant had left the theory of cognition +was assailed from many different sides and by many writers, +specially by Schultze (Aenesidemus) and Maimon. To the criticisms +of the latter, in particular, Fichte owed much, but his own activity +went far beyond what they supplied to him. To complete Kant’s +work, to demonstrate that all the necessary conditions of knowledge +can be deduced from a single principle, and consequently to expound +the complete system of reason, that is the business of the <i>Wissenschaftslehre</i>. +By it the theoretical and practical reason shall be +shown to coincide; for while the categories of cognition and the +whole system of pure thought can be expounded from one principle, +the ground of this principle is scientifically, or to cognition, inexplicable, +and is made conceivable only in the practical philosophy. +The ultimate basis for the activity of cognition is given by the will. +Even in the practical sphere, however, Fichte found that the contradiction, +insoluble to cognition, was not completely suppressed, +and he was thus driven to the higher view, which is explicitly stated +in the later writings though not, it must be confessed, with the +precision and scientific clearness of the <i>Wissenschaftslehre</i>.</p> + +<p>(<i>b</i>) What, then, is this single principle, and how does it work +itself out into system? To answer this one must bear in mind +what Fichte intended by designating all philosophy <i>Wissenschaftslehre</i>, +or theory of science. Philosophy is to him the rethinking of +actual cognition, the <i>theory</i> of knowledge, the complete, systematic +exposition of the principles which lie at the basis of all reasoned +cognition. It traces the necessary acts by which the cognitive +consciousness comes to be what it is, both in form and in content. +Not that it is a natural history, or even a <i>phenomenology</i> of consciousness; +only in the later writings did Fichte adopt even the +genetic method of exposition; it is the complete statement of the +pure principles of the understanding in their rational or necessary +order. But if complete, this <i>Wissenschaftslehre</i> must be able to +deduce the whole organism of cognition from certain fundamental +axioms, themselves unproved and incapable of proof; only thus +can we have a <i>system</i> of reason. From these primary axioms the +whole body of necessary thoughts must be developed, and, as +Socrates would say, the argument itself will indicate the path of +the development.</p> + +<p>Of such primitive principles, the absolutely necessary conditions +of possible cognition, only three are thinkable—one perfectly unconditioned +both in form and matter; a second, unconditioned in +form but not in matter; a third, unconditioned in matter but not +in form. Of these, evidently the first must be the fundamental; to +some extent it conditions the other two, though these cannot be +deduced from it or proved by it. The statement of these principles +forms the introduction to <i>Wissenschaftslehre</i>.</p> + +<p>The method which Fichte first adopted for stating these axioms +is not calculated to throw full light upon them, and tends to exaggerate +the apparent airiness and unsubstantiality of his deduction. +They may be explained thus. The primitive condition of all intelligence +is that the ego shall posit, affirm or be aware of itself. +The ego is the ego; such is the first pure act of conscious intelligence, +that by which alone consciousness can come to be what it is. It +is what Fichte called a Deed-act (<i>Thathandlung</i>); we cannot be +aware of the process,—the ego <i>is</i> not until it has affirmed itself,—but +we are aware of the result, and can see the necessity of the act +by which it is brought about. The ego then posits itself, as real. +What the ego posits is real. But in consciousness there is equally +given a primitive act of op-positing, or contra-positing, formally +distinct from the act of position, but materially determined, in so +far as what is op-posited must be the negative of that which was +posited. The non-ego—not, be it noticed, the world as we know +it—is op-posed in consciousness to the ego. The ego is not the +non-ego. How this act of op-positing is possible and necessary, +only becomes clear in the practical philosophy, and even there the +inherent difficulty leads to a higher view. But third, we have now +an absolute antithesis to our original thesis. Only the ego is real, +but the non-ego is posited in the ego. The contradiction is solved +in a higher synthesis, which takes up into itself the two opposites. +The ego and non-ego <i>limit</i> one another, or determine one another; +and, as limitation is negation of part of a divisible quantum, in this +third act, the divisible ego is op-posed to a divisible non-ego.</p> + +<p>From this point onwards the course proceeds by the method +already made clear. We progress by making explicit the oppositions +contained in the fundamental synthesis, by uniting these opposites, +analysing the new synthesis, and so on, until we reach an ultimate +pair. Now, in the synthesis of the third act two principles may be +distinguished:—(1) the non-ego determines the ego; (2) the ego +determines the non-ego. As determined the ego is theoretical, as +determining it is practical; ultimately the opposed principles must +be united by showing how the ego is both determining and determined.</p> + +<p>It is impossible to enter here on the steps by which the theoretical +ego is shown to develop into the complete system of cognitive +categories, or to trace the deduction of the processes (productive +imagination, intuition, sensation, understanding, judgment, reason) +by which the quite indefinite non-ego comes to assume the appearance +of definite objects in the forms of time and space. All this +evolution is the necessary consequence of the determination of +the ego by the non-ego. But it is clear that the non-ego cannot +really determine the ego. There is no reality beyond the ego itself. +The contradiction can only be suppressed if the ego itself opposes +to itself the non-ego, places it as an <i>Anstoss</i> or plane on which its +own activity breaks and from which it is reflected. Now, this op-positing +of the <i>Anstoss</i> is the necessary condition of the practical ego, +of the will. If the ego be a striving power, then of necessity a +limit must be set by which its striving is manifest. But how can +the infinitely active ego posit a limit to its own activity? Here +we come to the <i>crux</i> of Fichte’s system, which is only partly cleared +up in the <i>Rechtslehre</i> and <i>Sittenlehre</i>. If the ego be pure activity, +free activity, it can only become aware of itself by positing some +limit. We cannot possibly have any cognition of how such an act +is possible. But as it is a free act, the ego cannot be determined +to it by anything beyond itself; it cannot be aware of its own freedom +otherwise than as determined by other free egos. Thus in the +<i>Rechtslehre</i> and <i>Sittenlehre</i>, the multiplicity of egos is deduced, and +with this deduction the first form of the <i>Wissenschaftslehre</i> appeared +to end.</p> + +<p>(<i>c</i>) But in fact deeper questions remained. We have spoken of +the ego as becoming aware of its own freedom, and have shown how +the existence of other egos and of a world in which these egos may +act are the necessary conditions of consciousness of freedom. But +all this is the work of the ego. All that has been expounded follows +if the ego comes to consciousness. We have therefore to consider that +the absolute ego, from which spring all the individual egos, is not +subject to these conditions, but freely determines itself to them. +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page317" id="page317"></a>317</span> +How is this absolute ego to be conceived? As early as 1797 Fichte +had begun to see that the ultimate basis of his system was the +absolute ego, in which is no difference of subject and object; in 1800 +the <i>Bestimmung des Menschen</i> defined this absolute ego as the +infinite moral will of the universe, God, in whom are all the individual +egos, from whom they have sprung. It lay in the nature +of the thing that more precise utterances should be given on this +subject, and these we find in the <i>Thatsachen des Bewusstseyns</i> and in +all the later lectures. God in them is the absolute Life, the absolute +One, who becomes conscious of himself by self-diremption into the +individual egos. The individual ego is only possible as opposed to a +non-ego, to a world of the senses; thus God, the infinite will, manifests +himself in the individual, and the individual has over against +him the non-ego or thing. “The individuals do not make part of +the being of the one life, but are a pure form of its absolute freedom.” +“The individual is not conscious of himself, but the Life is conscious +of itself in individual form and as an individual.” In order that +the Life may act, though it is not necessary that it <i>should act</i>, individualization +is necessary. “Thus,” says Fichte, “we reach a +final conclusion. Knowledge is not mere knowledge of itself, but +of being, and of the one being that truly is, viz. God.... This one +possible object of knowledge is never known in its purity, but ever +broken into the various forms of knowledge which are and can be +shown to be necessary. The demonstration of the necessity of these +forms is philosophy or <i>Wissenschaftslehre</i>” (<i>Thats. des Bewuss. +Werke</i>, ii. 685). This ultimate view is expressed throughout the +lectures (in the <i>Nachgel. Werke</i>) in uncouth and mystical language.</p> + +<p>It will escape no one (1) how the idea and method of the <i>Wissenschaftslehre</i> +prepare the way for the later Hegelian dialectic, and +(2) how completely the whole philosophy of Schopenhauer is contained +in the later writings of Fichte. It is not to the credit of +historians that Schopenhauer’s debt should have been allowed to +pass with so little notice.</p> + +<p><span class="sc">Bibliography.</span>—Fichte’s complete works were published by his +son J.H. Fichte, <i>Sämmtliche Werke</i> (8 vols., Berlin, 1845-1846), +with <i>Nachgelassene Werke</i> (3 vols., Bonn, 1834-1835); also <i>Leben +und Briefwechsel</i> (2 vols., 1830, ed. 1862). Among translations are +those of William Smith, <i>Popular Writings of Fichte, with Memoir</i> +(2 vols., London, 1848-1849, 4th ed. 1889); A.E. Kroeger, portions +of the <i>Wissenschaftslehre</i> (<i>Science of Knowledge</i>, Philadelphia, 1868; +ed. London, 1889), the <i>Naturrecht</i> (<i>Science of Rights</i>, 1870; ed. +London, 1889); of the <i>Vorlesungen ü. d. Bestimmung d. Gelehrten</i> +(<i>The Vocation of the Scholar</i>, by W. Smith, 1847); <i>Destination of Man</i>, +by Mrs P. Sinnett; <i>Discours à la nation allemande</i>, French by Léon +Philippe (1895), with preface by F. Picavet, and a biographical +memoir.</p> + +<p>The number of critical works is very large. Besides the histories +of post-Kantian philosophy by Erdmann, Fortlage (whose account +is remarkably good), Michelet, Biedermann and others, see Wm. +Busse, <i>Fichte und seine Beziehung zur Gegenwart des deutschen Volkes</i> +(Halle, 1848-1849); J.H. Löwe, <i>Die Philosophic Fichtes</i> (Stuttgart, +1862); Kuno Fischer, <i>Geschichte d. neueren Philosophie</i> (1869, 1884, +1890); Ludwig Noack, <i>Fichte nach seinem Leben, Lehren und Wirken</i> +(Leipzig, 1862); R. Adamson, Fichte (1881, in Knight’s “Philosophical +Classics”); Oscar Benzow, <i>Zu Fichtes Lekre von Nicht-Ich</i> +(Bern, 1898); E.O. Burmann, <i>Die Transcendentalphilosophie +Fichtes und Schellings</i> (Upsala, 1890-1892); M. Carrière, <i>Fichtes +Geistesentwickelung in die Reden über d. Bestimmung des Gelehrten</i> +(1894); C.C. Everett, <i>Fichte’s Science of Knowledge</i> (Chicago, 1884); +O. Pfleiderer, J.G. <i>Fichtes Lebensbild eines deutschen Denkers und +Patrioten</i> (Stuttgart, 1877); T. Wotschke, <i>Fichte und Erigena</i> +(1896); W. Kabitz, <i>Studien zur Entwickelungsgeschichte der Fichtehen +Wissenschaftslehre aus der Kantischen Philosophie</i> (1902); +E. Lask, <i>Fichtes Idealismus und die Geschichte</i> (1902); X. Léon, +<i>La Philos. de Fichte</i> (1902); M. Wiener, J.G. <i>Fichtes Lehre vom +Wesen und Inhalt der Geschichte</i> (1906).</p> + +<p>On Fichte’s social philosophy see, <i>e.g.</i>, F. Schmidt-Warneck, +<i>Die Sociologie Fichtes</i> (Berlin, 1884); W. Windelband, <i>Fichtes Idee +des deutschen Staates</i> (1890); M. Weber, <i>Fichtes Sozialismus und sein +Verhältnis zur Marx’schen Doctrin</i> (1900); S.H. Gutman, J.G. +<i>Fichtes Sozialpädogogik</i> (1907); H. Lindau, <i>Johann G. Fichte und der +neuere Socialismus</i> (1900).</p> +</div> +<div class="author">(R. Ad.; X.)</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">FICHTELGEBIRGE,<a name="ar129" id="ar129"></a></span> a mountain group of Bavaria, forming +the centre from which various mountain ranges proceed,—the +Elstergebirge, linking it to the Erzgebirge, in a N.E., the Frankenwald +in a N.W., and the Böhmerwald in a S.E. direction. The +streams to which it gives rise flow towards the four cardinal +points,—<i>e.g.</i> the Eger eastward and the Saale northward, both +to the Elbe; the Weisser Main westward to the Rhine, and the +Naab southward to the Danube. The chief points of the mass +are the Schneeberg and the Ochsenkopf, the former having a +height of 3448, and the latter of 3356 ft. The whole district +is pretty thickly populated, and there is great abundance of +wood, as well as of iron, vitriol, sulphur, copper, lead and many +kinds of marble. The inhabitants are employed chiefly in the +iron mines, at forges and blast furnaces, and in charcoal burning +and the manufacture of blacking from firewood. Although +surrounded by railways and crossed by the lines Nuremberg-Eger +and Regensburg-Oberkotzau, the Fichtelgebirge, owing +principally to its raw climate and bleakness, is not much visited +by strangers, the only important points of interest being Alexandersbad +(a delightfully situated watering-place) and the +granite labyrinth of Luisenburg.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See A. Schmidt, <i>Führer durch das Fichtelgebirge</i> (1899); Daniel, +<i>Deutschland</i>; and Meyer, <i>Conversations-Lexikon</i> (1904).</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">FICINO, MARSILIO<a name="ar130" id="ar130"></a></span> (1433-1499), Italian philosopher and +writer, was born at Figline, in the upper Arno valley, in the year +1433. His father, a physician of some eminence, settled in +Florence, and attached himself to the person of Cosimo de’ +Medici. Here the young Marsilio received his elementary +education in grammar and Latin literature at the high school +or studio pubblico. While still a boy, he showed promise of +rare literary gifts, and distinguished himself by his facility in +the acquisition of knowledge. Not only literature, but the +physical sciences, as then taught, had a charm for him; and he +is said to have made considerable progress in medicine under +the tuition of his father. He was of a tranquil temperament, +sensitive to music and poetry, and debarred by weak health +from joining in the more active pleasures of his fellow-students. +When he had attained the age of eighteen or nineteen years, +Cosimo received him into his household, and determined to make +use of his rare disposition for scholarship in the development +of a long-cherished project. During the session of the council +for the union of the Greek and Latin churches at Florence in +1439, Cosimo had made acquaintance with Gemistos Plethon, +the Neo-Platonic sage of Mistra, whose discourses upon Plato +and the Alexandrian mystics so fascinated the learned society +of Florence that they named him the second Plato. It had been +the dream of this man’s whole life to supersede both forms of +Christianity by a semi-pagan theosophy deduced from the +writings of the later Pythagoreans and Platonists. When, +therefore, he perceived the impression he had made upon the +first citizen of Florence, Gemistos suggested that the capital +of modern culture would be a fit place for the resuscitation of the +once so famous Academy of Athens. Cosimo took this hint. +The second half of the 15th century was destined to be the age +of academies in Italy, and the regnant passion for antiquity +satisfied itself with any imitation, however grotesque, of Greek +or Roman institutions. In order to found his new academy +upon a firm basis Cosimo resolved not only to assemble men of +letters for the purpose of Platonic disputation at certain regular +intervals, but also to appoint a hierophant and official expositor +of Platonic doctrine. He hoped by these means to give a certain +stability to his projected institution, and to avoid the superficiality +of mere enthusiasm. The plan was good; and with +the rare instinct for character which distinguished him, he +made choice of the right man for his purpose in the young +Marsilio.</p> + +<p>Before he had begun to learn Greek, Marsilio entered upon the +task of studying and elucidating Plato. It is known that at +this early period of his life, while he was yet a novice, he wrote +voluminous treatises on the great philosopher, which he afterwards, +however, gave to the flames. In the year 1459 John +Argyropoulos was lecturing on the Greek language and literature +at Florence, and Marsilio became his pupil. He was then about +twenty-three years of age. Seven years later he felt himself a +sufficiently ripe Greek scholar to begin the translation of Plato, +by which his name is famous in the history of scholarship, and +which is still the best translation of that author Italy can boast. +The MSS. on which he worked were supplied by this patron +Cosimo de’ Medici and by Amerigo Benci. While the translation +was still in progress Ficino from time to time submitted its +pages to the scholars, Angelo Poliziano, Cristoforo Landino, +Demetrios Chalchondylas and others; and since these men +were all members of the Platonic Academy, there can be no +doubt that the discussions raised upon the text and Latin +version greatly served to promote the purpose of Cosimo’s +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page318" id="page318"></a>318</span> +foundation. At last the book appeared in 1482, the expenses of +the press being defrayed by the noble Florentine, Filippo Valori. +About the same time Marsilio completed and published his treatise +on the Platonic doctrine of immortality (<i>Theologia Platonica +de immortalitate animae</i>), the work by which his claims to take +rank as a philosopher must be estimated. This was shortly +followed by the translation of Plotinus into Latin, and by a +voluminous commentary, the former finished in 1486, the latter +in 1491, and both published at the cost of Lorenzo de’ Medici +just one month after his death. As a supplement to these +labours in the field of Platonic and Alexandrian philosophy, +Marsilio next devoted his energies to the translation of Dionysius +the Areopagite, whose work on the celestial hierarchy, though +recognized as spurious by the Neapolitan humanist, Lorenzo +Valla, had supreme attraction for the mystic and uncritical +intellect of Ficino.</p> + +<p>It is not easy to value the services of Marsilio Ficino at their +proper worth. As a philosopher, he can advance no claim to +originality, his laborious treatise on Platonic theology being +little better than a mass of ill-digested erudition. As a scholar, +he failed to recognize the distinctions between different periods +of antiquity and various schools of thought. As an exponent +of Plato he suffered from the fatal error of confounding Plato +with the later Platonists. It is true that in this respect he did +not differ widely from the mass of his contemporaries. Lorenzo +Valla and Angelo Poliziano, almost alone among the scholars of +that age, showed a true critical perception. For the rest, it was +enough that an author should be ancient to secure their admiration. +The whole of antiquity seemed precious in the eyes of its +discoverers; and even a thinker so acute as Pico di Mirandola +dreamed of the possibility of extracting the essence of philosophical +truth by indiscriminate collation of the most divergent +doctrines. Ficino was, moreover, a firm believer in planetary +influences. He could not separate his philosophical from his +astrological studies, and caught eagerly at any fragment of +antiquity which seemed to support his cherished delusions. +It may here be incidentally mentioned that this superstition +brought him into trouble with the Roman Church. In 1489 +he was accused of magic before Pope Innocent VIII., and had to +secure the good offices of Francesco Soderini, Ermolao Barbaro, +and the archbishop Rinaldo Orsini, in order to purge himself of +a most perilous imputation. What Ficino achieved of really solid, +was his translation. The value of that work cannot be denied; +the impulse which it gave to Platonic studies in Italy, and through +them to the formation of the new philosophy in Europe, is +indisputable. Ficino differed from the majority of his contemporaries +in this that, while he felt the influence of antiquity no less +strongly than they did, he never lost his faith in Christianity, +or contaminated his morals by contact with paganism. For him, +as for Petrarch, St Augustine was the model of a Christian student. +The cardinal point of his doctrine was the identity of religion and +philosophy. He held that philosophy consists in the study of +truth and wisdom, and that God alone is truth and wisdom,—so +that philosophy is but religion, and true religion is genuine +philosophy. Religion, indeed, is common to all men, but its +pure form is that revealed through Christ; and the teaching +of Christ is sufficient to a man in all circumstances of life. Yet +it cannot be expected that every man should accept the faith +without reasoning; and here Ficino found a place for Platonism. +He maintained that the Platonic doctrine was providentially +made to harmonize with Christianity, in order that by its means +speculative intellects might be led to Christ. The transition +from this point of view to an almost superstitious adoration +of Plato was natural; and Ficino, we know, joined in the hymns +and celebrations with which the Florentine Academy honoured +their great master on the day of his birth and death. Those +famous festivals in which Lorenzo de’ Medici delighted had +indeed a pagan tone appropriate to the sentiment of the Renaissance; +nor were all the worshippers of the Athenian sage so +true to Christianity as his devoted student.</p> + +<p>Of Ficino’s personal life there is but little to be said. In order +that he might have leisure for uninterrupted study, Cosimo de’ +Medici gave him a house near S. Maria Nuova in Florence, and +a little farm at Montevecchio, not far from the villa of Careggi. +Ficino, like nearly all the scholars of that age in Italy, delighted +in country <span class="correction" title="amended from lfe">life</span>. At Montevecchio he lived contentedly among +his books, in the neighbourhood of his two friends, Pico at +Querceto, and Poliziano at Fiesole, cheering his solitude by +playing on the lute, and corresponding with the most illustrious +men of Italy. His letters, extending over the years 1474-1494, +have been published, both separately and in his collected works. +From these it may be gathered that nearly every living scholar +of note was included in the list of his friends, and that the +subjects which interested him were by no means confined to +his Platonic <span class="correction" title="amended from sudies">studies</span>. As instances of his close intimacy with +illustrious Florentine families, it may be mentioned that he +held the young Francesco Guicciardini at the font, and that +he helped to cast the horoscope of the Casa Strozzi in the Via +Tornabuoni.</p> + +<p>At the age of forty Ficino took orders, and was honoured +with a canonry of S. Lorenzo. He was henceforth assiduous +in the performance of his duties, preaching in his cure of Novoli, +and also in the cathedral and the church of the Angeli at Florence. +He used to say that no man was better than a good priest, and +none worse than a bad one. His life corresponded in all points +to his principles. It was the life of a sincere Christian and a real +sage,—of one who found the best fruits of philosophy in the +practice of the Christian virtues. A more amiable and a more +harmless man never lived; and this was much in that age of +discordant passions and lawless licence. In spite of his weak +health, he was indefatigably industrious. His tastes were of the +simplest; and while scholars like Filelfo were intent on extracting +money from their patrons by flattery and threats, he +remained so poor that he owed the publication of all his many +works to private munificence. For his old patrons of the house +of Medici Ficino always cherished sentiments of the liveliest +gratitude. Cosimo he called his second father, saying that Ficino +had given him life, but Cosimo new birth,—the one had devoted +him to Galen, the other to the divine Plato,—the one was physician +of the body, the other of the soul. With Lorenzo he lived on +terms of familiar, affectionate, almost parental intimacy. He had +seen the young prince grow up in the palace of the Via Larga, +and had helped in the development of his rare intellect. In later +years he did not shrink from uttering a word of warning and +advice, when he thought that the master of the Florentine +republic was too much inclined to yield to pleasure. A characteristic +proof of his attachment to the house of Medici was furnished +by a yearly custom which he practised at his farm at Montevecchio. +He used to invite the contadini who had served +Cosimo to a banquet on the day of Saints Cosimo and Damiano +(the patron saints of the Medici), and entertained them with +music and singing. This affection was amply returned. Cosimo +employed almost the last hours of his life in listening to Ficino’s +reading of a treatise on the highest good; while Lorenzo, in +a poem on true happiness, described him as the mirror of the +world, the nursling of sacred muses, the harmonizer of wisdom +and beauty in complete accord. Ficino died at Florence in +1499.</p> + +<p>Besides the works already noticed, Ficino composed a treatise +on the Christian religion, which was first given to the world in +1476, a translation into Italian of Dante’s <i>De monarchia</i>, a life +of Plato, and numerous essays on ethical and semi-philosophical +subjects. Vigour of reasoning and originality of view were not +his characteristics as a writer; nor will the student who has +raked these dust-heaps of miscellaneous learning and old-fashioned +mysticism discover more than a few sentences of +genuine enthusiasm and simple-hearted aspiration to repay his +trouble and reward his patience. Only in familiar letters, +prolegomena, and prefaces do we find the man Ficino, and learn +to know his thoughts and sentiments unclouded by a mist of +citations; these minor compositions have therefore a certain +permanent value, and will continually be studied for the light +they throw upon the learned circle gathered round Lorenzo in +the golden age of humanism.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page319" id="page319"></a>319</span></p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>The student may be referred for further information to the following +works:—<i>Marsilii Ficini opera</i> (Basileae, 1576); <i>Marsilii Ficini +vita</i>, auctore Corsio (ed. Bandini, Pisa, 1771); Roscoe’s <i>Life of +Lorenzo de’ Medici</i>; Pasquale Villari, <i>La Storia di Girolamo Savonarola</i> +(Firenze, Le Monnier, 1859); Von Reumont, <i>Lorenzo de’ +Medici</i> (Leipzig, 1874).</p> +</div> +<div class="author">(J. A. S.)</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">FICKSBURG,<a name="ar131" id="ar131"></a></span> a town of Orange Free State 110 m. by rail +E. by N. of Bloemfontein. Pop. (1904) 1954, of whom 1021 were +whites. The town is situated near the north bank of the Caledon +river and is the capital of one of the finest agricultural and stock-raising +regions of the province. It has direct railway communication +with Natal and an extensive trade. In the neighbourhood +are petroleum wells and a diamond mine. In the fossilized ooze +of the Wonderkop, a table mountain of the adjacent Wittebergen, +are quantities of petrified fish.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">FICTIONS,<a name="ar132" id="ar132"></a></span> or legal fictions, in law, the term used for false +averments, the truth of which is not permitted to be called in +question. English law as well as Roman law abounds in fictions. +Sometimes they are merely the condensed expression of a rule +of law,—<i>e.g.</i>, the fiction of English law that husband and wife +were one person, and the fiction of Roman law that the wife +was the daughter of the husband. Sometimes they must be +regarded as reasons invented in order to justify a rule of law +according to an implied ethical standard. Of this sort seems to be +the fiction or presumption that every one knows the law, which +reconciles the rule that ignorance is no excuse for crime with +the moral commonplace that it is unfair to punish a man for +violating a law of whose existence he was unaware. Again, +some fictions are deliberate falsehoods, adopted as true for the +purpose of establishing a remedy not otherwise attainable. Of +this sort are the numerous fictions of English law by which the +different courts obtained jurisdiction in private business, removed +inconvenient restrictions in the law relating to land, &c.</p> + +<p>What to the scientific jurist is a stumbling-block is to the older +writers on English law a beautiful device for reconciling the strict +letter of the law with common sense and justice. Blackstone, +in noticing the well-known fiction by which the court of king’s +bench established its jurisdiction in common pleas (viz. that the +defendant was in custody of the marshal of the court), says, +“These fictions of law, though at first they may startle the +student, he will find upon further consideration to be highly +beneficial and useful; especially as this maxim is ever invariably +observed, that no fiction shall extend to work an injury; its +proper operation being to prevent a mischief or remedy an +inconvenience that might result from the general rule of law. +So true it is that <i>in fictione juris semper subsistit aequitas</i>.” +Austin, on the other hand, while correctly assigning as the +cause of many fictions the desire to combine the necessary +reform with some show of respect for the abrogated law, makes +the following harsh criticism as to others:—“Why the plain +meanings which I have now stated should be obscured by the +fictions to which I have just adverted I cannot conjecture. +A wish on the part of the authors of the fictions to render the law +as <i>uncognoscible</i> as may be is probably the cause which Mr +Bentham would assign. I judge not, I confess, so uncharitably; +I rather impute such fictions to the sheer imbecility (or, if you +will, to the active and sportive fancies) of their grave and venerable +authors, than to any deliberate design, good or evil.” +Bentham, of course, saw in fictions the instrument by which +the great object of his abhorrence, <i>judiciary law</i>, was produced. +It was the means by which judges usurped the functions of +legislators. “A fiction of law.” he says, “may be defined as +a wilful falsehood, having for its object the stealing legislative +powers by and for hands which could not or durst not openly +claim it, and but for the delusion thus produced could not +exercise it.” A partnership, he says, was formed between the +kings and the judges against the interests of the people. +“Monarchs found force, lawyers fraud; thus was the capital +found” (<i>Historical Preface to the second edition of the Fragment +on Government</i>).<a name="fa1f" id="fa1f" href="#ft1f"><span class="sp">1</span></a></p> + +<p>Sir H. Maine (<i>Ancient Law</i>) supplies the historical element +which is always lacking in the explanations of Austin and +Bentham. Fictions form one of the agencies by which, in progressive +societies, positive law is brought into harmony with +public opinion. The others are equity and statutes. Fictions +in this sense include, not merely the obvious falsities of the +English and Roman systems, but any assumption which conceals +a change of law by retaining the old formula after the change has +been made. It thus includes both the case law of the English and +the <i>Responsa Prudentum</i> of the Romans. “At a particular stage +of social progress they are invaluable expedients for overcoming +the rigidity of law; and, indeed, without one of them, the +fiction of adoption, which permits the family tie to be artificially +created, it is difficult to understand how society would ever have +escaped from its swaddling clothes, and taken its first steps +towards civilization.”</p> + +<p>The bolder remedial fictions of English law have been to a +large extent removed by legislation, and one great obstacle to +any reconstruction of the legal system has thus been partially +removed. Where the real remedy stood in glaring contrast to +the nominal rule, it has been openly ratified by statute. In +ejectment cases the mysterious sham litigants have disappeared. +The bond of entail can be broken without having recourse to +the collusive proceedings of fine and recovery. Fictions have +been almost entirely banished from the procedure of the +courts. The action for damages on account of seduction, which +is still nominally an action by the father for loss of his +daughter’s services, is perhaps the only fictitious action now +remaining.</p> + +<p>Fictions which appear in the form of principles are not so +easily dealt with by legislation. To expel them formally from +the system would require the re-enactment of vast portions of +law. A change in legal modes of speech and thought would be +more effective. The legal mind instinctively seizes upon concrete +aids to abstract reasoning. Many hard and revolting fictions +must have begun their career as metaphors. In some cases the +history of the change may still almost be traced. The conception +that a man-of-war is a floating island, or that an ambassador’s +house is beyond the territorial limits of the country in which he +resides, was originally a figure of speech designed to set a rule +of law in a striking light. It is then gravely accepted as true +in fact, and other rules of law are deduced from it. Its beginning +is to be compared with such phrases as “an Englishman’s house +is his castle,” which have had no legal offshoots and still remain +mere figures of speech.</p> + +<p>Constitutional law is of course honeycombed with fictions. +Here there is hardly ever anything like direct legislative change, +and yet real change is incessant. The rules defining the sovereign +power and fixing the authority of its various members are in most +points the same as they were at the last revolution,—in many +points they have been the same since the beginning of parliamentary +government. But they have long ceased to be true in +fact; and it would hardly be too much to say that the entire +series of formal propositions called the constitution is merely a +series of fictions. The legal attributes of the king, and even of +the House of Lords, are fictions. If we could suppose that the +effects of the Reform Acts had been brought about, not by legislation, +but by the decisions of law courts and the practice of House +of Commons committees—by such assumptions as that freeholder +includes lease-holder and that ten means twenty—we should +have in the legal constitution of the House of Commons the same +kind of fictions that we find in the legal statement of the attributes +of the crown and the House of Lords. Here, too, fictions have +been largely resorted to for the purpose of supporting particular +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page320" id="page320"></a>320</span> +theories,—popular or monarchical,—and such have flourished +even more vigorously than purely legal fictions.</p> + +<hr class="foot" /> <div class="note"> + +<p><a name="ft1f" id="ft1f" href="#fa1f"><span class="fn">1</span></a> In the same essay Bentham notices the comparative rarity of +fictions in Scots law. As to fiction in particular, compared with the +work done by it in English law, the use made of it by the Scottish +lawyers is next to nothing. No need have they had of any such +clumsy instrument. They have two others “of their own making, +by which things of the same sort have been done with much less +trouble. <i>Nobile officium</i> gives them the creative power of legislation; +this and the word desuetude together the annihilative.” And he +notices aptly enough that, while the English lawyers declared that +James II. had abdicated the throne (which everybody knew to be +false), the Scottish lawyers boldly said he had forfeited it.</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">FIDDES, RICHARD<a name="ar133" id="ar133"></a></span> (1671-1725), English divine and historian, +was born at Hunmanby and educated at Oxford. He took +orders, and obtained the living of Halsham in Holderness in +1696. Owing to ill-health he applied for leave to reside at +Wickham, and in 1712 he removed to London on the plea of +poverty, intending to pursue a literary career. In London he +met Swift, who procured him a chaplaincy at Hull. He also +became chaplain to the earl of Oxford. After losing the Hull +chaplaincy through a change of ministry in 1714, he devoted +himself to writing. His best book is a <i>Life of Cardinal Wolsey</i> +(London, 1724), containing documents which are still valuable +for reference; of his other writings the <i>Prefatory Epistle containing +some remarks to be published on Homer’s Iliad</i> (London, 1714), +was occasioned by Pope’s proposed translation of the <i>Iliad</i>, +and his <i>Theologia speculativa</i> (London, 1718), earned him the +degree of D.D. at Oxford. In his own day he had a considerable +reputation as an author and man of learning.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">FIDDLE<a name="ar134" id="ar134"></a></span> (O. Eng. <i>fithele</i>, <i>fidel</i>, &c., Fr. <i>vièle</i>, viole, <i>violon</i>; +M. H. Ger. <i>videle</i>, mod. Ger. <i>Fiedel</i>), a popular term for the violin, +derived from the names of certain of its ancestors. The word +fiddle antedates the appearance of the violin by several centuries, +and in England did not always represent an instrument of the same +type. The word has first been traced in 1205 in Layamon’s <i>Brut</i> +(7002), “of harpe, of salteriun, of fithele and of coriun.” In +Chaucer’s time the fiddle was evidently a well-known instrument:</p> + +<table class="reg" summary="poem f90"><tr><td> <div class="poemr"> +<p>“For him was lever have at his beddes hed</p> +<p class="i05">A twenty bokes, clothed in black or red.</p> +<p class="i05">Of Aristotle and his Philosophie,</p> +<p class="i05">Than robes riche or fidel or sautrie.”</p> +<p class="i10">(<i>Prologue</i>, v. 298.)</p> +</div> </td></tr></table> + +<p>The origin of the fiddle is of the greatest interest; it will be +found inseparable from that of the violin both as regards the +instruments and the etymology of the words; the remote +common ancestor is the <i>ketharah</i> of the Assyrians, the parent of +the Greek cithara. The Romans are responsible for the word +fiddle, having bestowed upon a kind of cithara—probably then +in its first transition—the name of <i>fidiculae</i> (more rarely <i>fidicula</i>), +a diminutive form of <i>fides</i>. In Alain de Lille’s <i>De planctu +naturae</i> against the word <i>lira</i> stands as equivalent <i>vioel</i>, with +the definition “Lira est quoddam genuē citharae vel fitola +alioquin de reot. Hoc instrumentum est multum vulgare.” +This is a marginal note in writing of the 13th century.<a name="fa1g" id="fa1g" href="#ft1g"><span class="sp">1</span></a></p> + +<p>Some of the transitions from <i>fidicula</i> to fiddle are made evident +in the accompanying table:</p> + +<table class="ws f90" summary="Contents"> +<tr><td class="tcl">Latin</td> <td class="tcl">fidiculae</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl">Medieval Latin</td> <td class="tcl">vitula, fitola.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl">French</td> <td class="tcl">vièle, vielle, viole.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl">Provencal</td> <td class="tcl">viula.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl">Spanish</td> <td class="tcl">viguela, vihuela, vigolo.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl">Old High German</td> <td class="tcl">fidula.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl">Middle High German</td> <td class="tcl">videle.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl">German</td> <td class="tcl">fiedel, violine.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl">Italian</td> <td class="tcl">viola, violino.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl">Dutch</td> <td class="tcl">vedel.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl">Danish</td> <td class="tcl">fiddel.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl">Anglo-Saxon</td> <td class="tcl">fithele.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl">Old English</td> <td class="tcl">fithele, fythal, fithel, fythylle,</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"> </td> <td class="tcl">  fidel, fidylle, (south) vithele.</td></tr> +</table> + +<p>For the descent of the guitar-fiddle, the first bowed ancestor +of the violin, through many transitions from the cithara, see +<span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Cithara</a></span>, <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Guitar</a></span> and <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Guitar-Fiddle</a></span>.</p> + +<table class="flt" style="float: right; width: 245px;" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figright1"><img style="width:194px; height:221px" src="images/img320.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption1 f80">From Julius Rühlmann’s <i>Geschichte der +Bogeninstrumente</i>.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption1">Minnesinger Fiddle. Germany, +13th Century, from the Manesse +MSS.</td></tr></table> + +<p>In the minnesinger and troubadour fiddles, of which evidences +abound during the 12th, 13th and 14th centuries, are to be +observed the structural characteristics of the violin and its +ancestors in the course of evolution. The principal of these are +first of all the shallow sound-chest, composed of belly and back, +almost flat, connected by ribs (also present in the cithara), +with incurvations more or less pronounced, an arched bridge, +a finger-board and strings (varying in number), vibrated by means +of a bow. The central rose sound-holes of stringed instruments +whose strings are plucked by fingers, or plectrum have given +place to smaller lateral sound-holes +placed on each side of +the strings. It is in Germany,<a name="fa2g" id="fa2g" href="#ft2g"><span class="sp">2</span></a> +where contemporary drawings +of fiddles of the 13th and 14th +centuries furnish an authoritative +clue, and in France, that +the development may best be +followed. The German minnesinger +fiddle with sloping +shoulders was the prototype of +the viols, whereas the guitar-fiddle +produced the violin +through the intermediary of the +Italian bowed <i>Lyra</i>.</p> + +<p>The fiddle of the Carolingian +epoch,—such, for instance, as +that mentioned by Otfrid of Weissenburg<a name="fa3g" id="fa3g" href="#ft3g"><span class="sp">3</span></a> in his <i>Harmony of the +Gospels</i> (<i>c.</i> 868),</p> + +<table class="reg f90" summary="poem"><tr><td> <div class="poemr"> +<p>“Sih thar ouch al ruarit</p> +<p class="i05">This organo fuarit</p> +<p class="i05">Lira joh fidula,” &c.,—</p> +</div> </td></tr></table> + +<p class="noind">was in all probability still an instrument whose strings were +plucked by the fingers, a cithara in transition.</p> +<div class="author">(K. S.)</div> + +<hr class="foot" /> <div class="note"> + +<p><a name="ft1g" id="ft1g" href="#fa1g"><span class="fn">1</span></a> See C.E.H. de Coussemaker, Mémoire sur Hucbald (Paris, 1841).</p> + +<p><a name="ft2g" id="ft2g" href="#fa2g"><span class="fn">2</span></a> See the Manesse MSS. reproduced in part by F.H. von der +Hagen, <i>Heldenbilder</i> (Leipzig and Berlin, 1855) and <i>Bildersaal</i>. +The fiddles are reproduced in J. Rühlmann’s <i>Geschichte der Bogeninstrumente</i> +(Brunswick, 1882), plates.</p> + +<p><a name="ft3g" id="ft3g" href="#fa3g"><span class="fn">3</span></a> See Schiller’s <i>Thesaurus antiq. Teut.</i> vol. i. p. 379.</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">FIDENAE,<a name="ar135" id="ar135"></a></span> an ancient town of Latium, situated about 5 m. +N. of Rome on the Via Salaria, which ran between it and the +Tiber. It was for some while the frontier of the Roman territory +and was often in the hands of Veii. It appears to have fallen +under the Roman sway after the capture of this town, and is +spoken of by classical authors as a place almost deserted in their +time. It seems, however, to have had some importance as a post +station. The site of the <i>arx</i> of the ancient town is probably to be +sought on the hill on which lies the Villa Spada, though no traces +of early buildings or defences are to be seen: pre-Roman tombs +are to be found in the cliffs to the north. The later village lay at +the foot of the hill on the eastern edge of the high-road, and +its <i>curia</i>, with a dedicatory inscription to M. Aurelius by the +<i>Senatus Fidenatium</i>, was excavated in 1889. Remains of other +buildings may also be seen.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See T. Ashby in <i>Papers of the British School at Rome</i>, iii. 17.</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">FIDUCIARY<a name="ar136" id="ar136"></a></span> (Lat. <i>fiduciaries</i>, one in whom trust, fiducia, is +reposed), of or belonging to a position of trust, especially of one +who stands in a particular relationship of confidence to another. +Such relationships are, in law, those of parent and child, guardian +and ward, trustee and <i>cestui que trust</i>, legal adviser and client, +spiritual adviser, doctor and patient, &c. In many of these the +law has attached special obligations in the case of gifts made to the +“fiduciary,” on whom is laid the onus of proving that no “undue +influence” has been exercised. (See <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Contract</a></span>; <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Children, +Law Relating to</a></span>; <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Infant</a></span>; <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Trust</a></span>.)</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">FIEF,<a name="ar137" id="ar137"></a></span> a feudal estate in land, land held from a superior (see +<span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Feudalism</a></span>). The word is the French form, which is represented +in Medieval Latin as <i>feudum</i> or <i>feodum</i>, and in English as “fee” +or “feu” (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Fee</a></span>). The A. Fr. <i>feoffer</i>, to invest with a fief or fee, +has given the English law terms “feoffee” and “feoffment” (<i>q.v.</i>).</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">FIELD, CYRUS WEST<a name="ar138" id="ar138"></a></span> (1819-1892), American capitalist, +projector of the first Atlantic cable, was born at Stockbridge, +Massachusetts, on the 30th of November 1819. He was a brother +of David Dudley Field. At fifteen he became a clerk in the store +of A.T. Stewart & Co., of New York, and stayed there three +years; then worked for two years with his brother, Matthew +Dickinson Field, in a paper-mill at Lee, Massachusetts; and in +1840 went into the paper business for himself at Westfield, +Massachusetts, but almost immediately became a partner in +E. Root & Co., wholesale paper dealers in New York City, who +failed in the following year. Field soon afterwards formed with a +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page321" id="page321"></a>321</span> +brother-in-law the firm of Cyrus W. Field & Co., and in 1853 had +accumulated $250,000, paid off the debts of the Root company +and retired from active business, leaving his name and $100,000 +with the concern. In the same year he travelled with Frederick +E. Church, the artist, through South America. In 1854 he +became interested, through his brother Matthew, a civil engineer, +in the project of Frederick Newton Gisborne (1824-1892) for a +telegraph across Newfoundland; and he was attracted by the +idea of a trans-Atlantic telegraphic cable, as to which he consulted +S.F.B. Morse and Matthew F. Maury, head of the National +Observatory at Washington. With Peter Cooper, Moses Taylor +(1806-1882), Marshall Owen Roberts (1814-1880) and Chandler +White, he formed the New York, Newfoundland & London +Telegraph Company, which procured a more favourable charter +than Gisborne’s, and had a capital of $1,500,000. Having +secured all the practicable landing rights on the American side +of the ocean, he and John W. Brett, who was now his principal +colleague, approached Sir Charles Bright (<i>q.v.</i>) in London, and in +December 1556 the Atlantic Telegraph Company was organized +by them in Great Britain, a government grant being secured of +£14,000 annually for government messages, to be reduced to +£10,000 annually when the cable should pay a 6% yearly +dividend; similar grants were made by the United States +government. Unsuccessful attempts to lay the cable were made +in August 1857 and in June 1858, but the complete cable was +laid between the 7th of July and the 5th of August 1858; for a +time messages were transmitted, but in October the cable became +useless, owing to the failure of its electrical insulation. Field, +however, did not abandon the enterprise, and finally in July +1866, after a futile attempt in the previous year, a cable was +laid and brought successfully into use. From the Congress of the +United States he received a gold medal and a vote of thanks, and he +received many other honours both at home and abroad. In 1877 he +bought a controlling interest in the New York Elevated Railroad +Company, controlling the Third and Ninth Avenue lines, of +which he was president in 1877-1880. He worked with Jay +Gould for the completion of the Wabash railway, and at the time of +his greatest stock activity bought <i>The New York Evening Express</i> +and <i>The Mail</i> and combined them as <i>The Mail and Express</i>, +which he controlled for six years. In 1879 Field suffered +financially by Samuel J. Tilden’s heavy sales (during Field’s +absence in Europe) of “Elevated” stock, which forced the price +down from 200 to 164; but Field lost much more in the great +“Manhattan squeeze” of the 24th of June 1887, when Jay +Gould and Russell Sage, who had been supposed to be his +backers in an attempt to bring the Elevated stock to 200, +forsook him, and the price fell from 156½ to 114 in half an hour. +Field died in New York on the 12th of July 1892.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See the biography by his daughter, Isabella (Field) Judson, <i>Cyrus +W. Field, His Life and Work</i> (New York, 1896); H.M. Field, <i>History +of the Atlantic Telegraph</i> (New York, 1866); and Charles Bright, +<i>The Story of the Atlantic Cable</i> (New York, 1903).</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">FIELD, DAVID DUDLEY<a name="ar139" id="ar139"></a></span> (1805-1894), American lawyer and +law reformer, was born in Haddam, Connecticut, on the 13th +of February 1805. He was the oldest of the four sons of the +Rev. David Dudley Field (1781-1867), a well-known American +clergyman and author. He graduated at Williams College in +1825, and settled in New York City, where he studied law, was +admitted to the bar in 1828, and rapidly won a high position in +his profession. Becoming convinced that the common law in +America, and particularly in New York state, needed radical +changes in respect to the unification and simplification of its +procedure, he visited Europe in 1836 and thoroughly investigated +the courts, procedure and codes of England, France and other +countries, and then applied himself to the task of bringing about +in the United States a codification of the common law procedure. +For more than forty years every moment that he could spare from +his extensive practice was devoted to this end. He entered upon +his great work by a systematic publication of pamphlets and +articles in journals and magazines in behalf of his reform, but +for some years he met with a discouraging lack of interest. He +appeared personally before successive legislative committees, and +in 1846 published a pamphlet, “The Reorganization of the +Judiciary,” which had its influence in persuading the New York +State Constitutional Convention of that year to report in favour of +a codification of the laws. Finally in 1847 he was appointed as the +head of a state commission to revise the practice and procedure. +The first part of the commission’s work, consisting of a code of +civil procedure, was reported and enacted in 1848, and by the 1st +of January 1850 the complete code of civil and criminal procedure +was completed, and was subsequently enacted by the legislature. +The basis of the new system, which was almost entirely Field’s +work, was the abolition of the existing distinction in forms of procedure +between suits in law and equity requiring separate actions, +and their unification and simplification in a single action. Eventually +the civil code with some changes was adopted in twenty-four +states, and the criminal code in eighteen, and the whole formed +a basis of the reform in procedure in England and several of her +colonies. In 1857 Field became chairman of a state commission +for the reduction into a written and systematic code of the +whole body of law of the state, excepting those portions already +reported upon by the Commissioners of Practice and Pleadings. +In this work he personally prepared almost the whole of the +political and civil codes. The codification, which was completed +in February 1865, was adopted only in small part by the state, +but it has served as a model after which most of the law codes of +the United States have been constructed. In 1866 he proposed +to the British National Association for the Promotion of Social +Science a revision and codification of the laws of all nations. For +an international commission of lawyers he prepared <i>Draft Outlines +of an International Code</i> (1872), the submission of which +resulted in the organization of the international Association for +the Reform and Codification of the Laws of Nations, of which he +became president. In politics Field was originally an anti-slavery +Democrat, and he supported Van Buren in the Free Soil campaign +of 1848. He gave his support to the Republican party in 1856 and +to the Lincoln administration throughout the Civil War. After +1876, however, he returned to the Democratic party, and from +January to March 1877 served out in Congress the unexpired term +of Smith Ely, elected mayor of New York City. During his +brief Congressional career he delivered six speeches, all of which +attracted attention, introduced a bill in regard to the presidential +succession, and appeared before the Electoral Commission in +Tilden’s interest. He died in New York City on the 13th of +April 1894.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>Part of his numerous pamphlets and addresses were collected in +his <i>Speeches, Arguments and Miscellaneous Papers</i> (3 vols., 1884-1890). +See also the <i>Life of David Dudley Field</i> (New York, 1898), +by Rev. Henry Martyn Field.</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">FIELD, EUGENE<a name="ar140" id="ar140"></a></span> (1850-1895), American poet, was born at +St Louis, Missouri, on the 2nd of September 1850. He spent +his boyhood in Vermont and Massachusetts; studied for short +periods at Williams and Knox Colleges and the University of +Missouri, but without taking a degree; and worked as a journalist +on various papers, finally becoming connected with the +Chicago <i>News</i>. <i>A Little Book of Profitable Tales</i> appeared in +Chicago in 1889 and in New York the next year; but Field’s +place in later American literature chiefly depends upon his poems +of Christmas-time and childhood (of which “Little Boy Blue” +and “A Dutch Lullaby” are most widely known), because of +their union of obvious sentiment with fluent lyrical form. His +principal collections of poems are: <i>A Little Book of Western +Verse</i> (1889); <i>A Second Book of Verse</i> (1892); <i>With Trumpet +and Drum</i> (1892); and <i>Love Songs of Childhood</i> (1894). Field +died at Chicago on the 4th of November 1895.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>His works were collected in ten volumes (1896), at New York. +His prose <i>Love-affairs of a Bibliomaniac</i> (1896) contains a Memoir +by his brother Roswell Martin Field (b. 1851). See also Slason +Thompson, <i>Eugene Field: a study in heredity and contradictions</i> +(2 vols., New York, 1901).</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">FIELD, FREDERICK<a name="ar141" id="ar141"></a></span> (1801-1885), English divine and biblical +scholar, was born in London and educated at Christ’s hospital +and Trinity College, Cambridge, where he obtained a fellowship +in 1824. He took orders in 1828, and began a close study of +patristic theology. Eventually he published an emended and +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page322" id="page322"></a>322</span> +annotated text of Chrysostom’s <i>Homiliae in Matthaeum</i> (Cambridge, +1839), and some years later he contributed to Pusey’s +<i>Bibliotheca Patrum</i> (Oxford, 1838-1870), a similarly treated text +of Chrysostom’s homilies on Paul’s epistles. The scholarship +displayed in both of these critical editions is of a very high order. +In 1839 he had accepted the living of Great Saxham, in Suffolk, +and in 1842 he was presented by his college to the rectory of +Reepham in Norfolk. He resigned in 1863, and settled at +Norwich, in order to devote his whole time to study. Twelve +years later he completed the <i>Origenis Hexaplorum quae supersunt</i> +(Oxford, 1867-1875), now well known as <i>Field’s Hexapla</i>, a text +reconstructed from the extant fragments of Origen’s work of +that name, together with materials drawn from the <i>Syro-hexaplar</i> +version and the <i>Septuagint</i> of Holmes and Parsons (Oxford, +1798-1827). Field was appointed a member of the Old Testament +revision company in 1870.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">FIELD, HENRY MARTYN<a name="ar142" id="ar142"></a></span> (1822-1907), American author +and clergyman, brother of Cyrus Field, was born at Stockbridge, +Massachusetts, on the 3rd of April 1822; he graduated at +Williams College in 1838, and was pastor of a Presbyterian +church in St Louis, Missouri, from 1842 to 1847, and of a Congregational +church in West Springfield, Massachusetts, from +1850 to 1854. The interval between his two pastorates he spent +in Europe. From 1854 to 1898 he was editor and for many years +he was also sole proprietor of <i>The Evangelist</i>, a New York +periodical devoted to the interests of the Presbyterian church. +He spent the last years of his life in retirement at Stockbridge, +Mass., where he died on the 26th of January 1907. +He was the author of a series of books of travel, which achieved +unusual popularity. His two volumes descriptive of a trip +round the world in 1875-1876, entitled <i>From the Lakes of Killarney +to the Golden Horn</i> (1876) and <i>From Egypt to Japan</i> (1877), +are almost classic in their way, and have passed through more +than twenty editions. Among his other publications are <i>The +Irish Confederates and the Rebellion of 1798</i> (1850), <i>The +History of the Atlantic Telegraph</i> (1866), <i>Faith or Agnosticism? +the Field-Ingersoll Discussion</i> (1888), <i>Old Spain and New Spain</i> +(1888), and <i>Life of David Dudley Field</i> (1898).</p> + +<p>He is not to be confused with another <span class="sc">Henry Martyn Field</span>, +the gynaecologist, who was born in 1837 at Brighton, Mass., and +graduated at Harvard in 1859 and at the College of Physicians +and Surgeons in New York City in 1862; he was professor of +Materia Medica and therapeutics at Dartmouth from 1871 to +1887 and of therapeutics from 1887 to 1893.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">FIELD, JOHN<a name="ar143" id="ar143"></a></span> (1782-1837), English musical composer and +pianist, was born at Dublin in 1782. He came of a musical +family, his father being a violinist, and his grandfather the +organist in one of the churches of Dublin. From the latter the +boy received his first musical education. When a few years +later the family settled in London, Field became the favourite +pupil of the celebrated Clementi, whom he accompanied to +Paris, and later, in 1802, on his great concert tour through France, +Germany and Russia. Under the auspices of his master Field +appeared in public in most of the great European capitals, +especially in St Petersburg, and in that city he remained when +Clementi returned to England. During his stay with the great +pianist Field had to suffer many privations owing to Clementi’s +all but unexampled parsimony; but when the latter left Russia +his splendid connexion amongst the highest circles of the capital +became Field’s inheritance. His marriage with a French lady +of the name of Charpentier was anything but happy, and had +soon to be dissolved. Field made frequent concert tours to the +chief cities of Russia, and in 1820 settled permanently in Moscow. +In 1831 he came to England for a short time, and for the next +four years led a migratory life in France, Germany and Italy, +exciting the admiration of amateurs wherever he appeared in +public. In Naples he fell seriously ill, and lay several months in +the hospital, till a Russian family discovered him and brought +him back to Moscow. There he lingered for several years till +his death on the 11th of January 1837. Field’s training and the +cast of his genius were not of a kind to enable him to excel in +the larger forms of instrumental music, and his seven concerti +for the pianoforte are now forgotten. Neither do his quartets +for strings and pianoforte hold their own by the side of those +of the great masters. But his “nocturnes,” a form of music +highly developed if not actually created by him, remain all but +unrivalled for their tenderness and dreaminess of conception, +combined with a continuous flow of beautiful melody. They +were indeed Chopin’s models. Field’s execution on the pianoforte +was nearly allied to the nature of his compositions, beauty and +poetical charm of touch being one of the chief characteristics +of his style. Moscheles, who heard Field in 1831, speaks of his +“enchanting legato, his tenderness and elegance and his beautiful +touch.”</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">FIELD, MARSHALL<a name="ar144" id="ar144"></a></span> (1835-1906), American merchant, was +born at Conway, Massachusetts, on the 18th of August 1835. +Reared on a farm, he obtained a common school and academy +education, and at the age of seventeen became a clerk in a dry +goods store at Pittsfield, Mass. In 1856 he removed to Chicago, +where he became a clerk in the large mercantile establishment +of Cooley, Wadsworth & Company. In 1860 the firm was reorganized +as Cooley, Farwell & Company, and he was admitted +to a junior partnership. In 1865, with Potter Palmer (1826-1902) +and Levi Z. Leiter (1834-1904), he organized the firm of +Field, Palmer & Leiter, which subsequently became Field, +Leiter & Company, and in 1881 on the retirement of Leiter +became Marshall Field & Company. Under Field’s management +the annual business of the firm increased from $12,000,000 in +1871 to more than $40,000,000 in 1895, when it ranked as one of +the two or three largest mercantile establishments in the world. +He died in New York city on the 16th of January 1906. He had +married, for the second time, in the previous year. Field’s +public benefactions were numerous; notable among them being +his gift of land valued at $300,000 and of $100,000 in cash to the +University of Chicago, an endowment fund of $1,000,000 to +support the Field Columbian Museum at Chicago, and a bequest +of $8,000,000 to this museum.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">FIELD, NATHAN<a name="ar145" id="ar145"></a></span> (1587-1633), English dramatist and actor, +was baptized on the 17th of October 1587. His father, the +rector of Cripplegate, was a Puritan divine, author of a <i>Godly +Exhortation</i> directed against play-acting, and his brother +Theophilus became bishop of Hereford. Nat. Field early +became one of the children of Queen Elizabeth’s chapel, and in +that capacity he played leading parts in Ben Jonson’s <i>Cynthia’s +Revels</i> (in 1600), in the <i>Poetaster</i> (in 1601), and in <i>Epicoene</i> (in +1608), and the title rôle in Chapman’s <i>Bussy d’Ambois</i> (in 1606). +Ben Jonson was his dramatic model, and may have helped his +career. The two plays of which he was author were probably +both written before 1611. They are boisterous, but well-constructed +comedies of contemporary London life; the earlier +one, <i>A Woman is a Weathercock</i> (printed 1612), dealing with the +inconstancy of woman, while the second, <i>Amends for Ladies</i> +(printed 1618), was written with the intention, as the title +indicates, of retracting the charge. From Henslowe’s papers +it appears that Field collaborated with Robert Daborne and +with Philip Massinger, one letter from all three authors being a +joint appeal for money to free them from prison. In 1614 +Field received £10 for playing before the king in <i>Bartholomew +Fair</i>, a play in which Jonson records his reputation as an actor +in the words “which is your Burbadge now?... Your best +actor, your Field?” He joined the King’s Players some time +before 1619, and his name comes seventeenth on the list prefixed +to the Shakespeare folio of 1623 of the “principal actors in all +these plays.” He retired from the stage before 1625, and died +on the 20th of February 1633. Field was part author with +Massinger in the <i>Fatal Dowry</i> (printed 1632), and he prefixed +commendatory verses to Fletcher’s <i>Faithful Shepherdess</i>.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>His two plays were reprinted in J.P. Collier’s <i>Five Old Plays</i> (1833), +in Hazlitt’s edition of <i>Dodsley’s Old Plays</i>, and in <i>Nero and other +Plays</i> (Mermaid series, 1888), with an introduction by Mr A.W. +Verity.</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">FIELD, STEPHEN JOHNSON<a name="ar146" id="ar146"></a></span> (1816-1899), American jurist, +was born at Haddam, Connecticut, on the 4th of November +1816. He was the brother of David Dudley Field, Cyrus W. +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page323" id="page323"></a>323</span> +Field and Henry M. Field. At the age of thirteen he accompanied +his sister Emilia and her husband the Rev. Josiah Brewer +(the parents of the distinguished judge of the Supreme Court, +David J. Brewer) to Smyrna, Turkey, for the purpose of studying +Oriental languages, but after three years he returned to the +United States, and in 1837 graduated at Williams College at the +head of his class. He then studied law in his elder brother’s +office, and in 1841 he was admitted to the New York bar. He +was associated in practice there with his brother until 1848, +and early in 1849 removed to California, settling soon afterward +at Marysville, of which place, in 1850, he became the first alcalde +or mayor. In the same year he was chosen a member of the first +state legislature of California, in which he drew up and secured +the enactment of two bodies of law known as the Civil and +Criminal Practices Acts, based on the similar codes prepared +by his brother David Dudley for New York. In the former +act he embodied a provision regulating and giving authority +to the peculiar customs, usages, and regulations voluntarily +adopted by the miners in various districts of the state for the +adjudication of disputed mining claims. This, as Judge Field +truly says, “was the foundation of the jurisprudence respecting +mines in the country,” having greatly influenced legislation upon +this subject in other states and in the Congress of the United +States. He was elected, in 1857, a justice of the California +Supreme Court, of which he became chief justice in 1859, on the +resignation of Judge David S. Terry to fight the duel with the +United States senator David C. Broderick which ended fatally +for the latter. Field held this position until 1863, when he was +appointed by President Lincoln a justice of the United States +Supreme Court. In this capacity he was conspicuous for fearless +independence of thought and action in his opinion in the test +oath case, and in his dissenting opinions in the legal tender, +conscription and “slaughter house” cases, which displayed unusual +legal learning, and gave powerful expression to his strict +constructionist theory of the implied powers of the Federal +constitution. Originally a Democrat, and always a believer +in states’ rights, his strong Union sentiments caused him nevertheless +to accept Lincoln’s doctrine of coercion, and that, together +with his anti-slavery sympathies, led him to act with the Republican +party during the period of the Civil War. He was a +member of the commission which revised the California code +in 1873 and of the Electoral Commission in 1877, voting in favour +of Tilden. In 1880 he received sixty-five votes on the first +ballot for the presidential nomination at the Democratic National +Convention at Cincinnati. In August 1889, as a result of a ruling +in the course of the Sharon-Hill litigation, a notorious conspiracy +case, he was assaulted in a California railway station by Judge +David S. Terry, who in turn was shot and killed by a United +States deputy marshall appointed to defend Justice Field against +the carrying out of Terry’s often-expressed threats. He retired +from the Supreme Court on the 1st of December 1897 after a +service of thirty-four years and six months, the longest in the +court’s history, and died in Washington on the 9th of April 1899.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>His <i>Personal Reminiscences of Early Days in California</i>, originally +privately printed in 1878, was republished in 1893 with George C. +Gorham’s <i>Story of the Attempted Assassination of Justice Field</i>.</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">FIELD, WILLIAM VENTRIS FIELD,<a name="ar147" id="ar147"></a></span> <span class="sc">Baron</span> (1813-1907), +English judge, second son of Thomas Flint Field, of Fielden, +Bedfordshire, was born on the 21st of August 1813. He was +educated at King’s school, Bruton, Somersetshire, and entered +the legal profession as a solicitor. In 1843, however, he ceased +to practise as such, and entered at the Inner Temple, being called +to the bar in 1850, after having practised for some time as a +special pleader. He joined the Western circuit, but soon exchanged +it for the Midland. He obtained a large business as a +junior, and became a queen’s counsel and bencher of his inn in +1864. As a Q.C. he had a very extensive common law practice, +and had for some time been the leader of the Midland circuit, +when in February 1875, on the retirement of Mr Justice Keating, +he was raised to the bench as a justice of the queen’s bench. +Mr Justice Field was an excellent puisne judge of the type that +attracts but little public attention. He was a first-rate lawyer, +had a good knowledge of commercial matters, great shrewdness +and a quick intellect, while he was also painstaking and scrupulously +fair. When the rules of the Supreme Court 1883 came +into force in the autumn of that year, Mr Justice Field was so +well recognized an authority upon all questions of practice that +the lord chancellor selected him to sit continuously at Judges’ +Chambers, in order that a consistent practice under the new +rules might as far as possible be established. This he did for +nearly a year, and his name will always, to a large extent, be +associated with the settling of the details of the new procedure, +which finally did away with the former elaborate system of +“special pleading.” In 1890 he retired from the bench and was +raised to the peerage as Baron Field of Bakeham, becoming at +the same time a member of the privy council. In the House of +Lords he at first took part, not infrequently, in the hearing of +appeals, and notably delivered a carefully-reasoned judgment +in the case of the <i>Bank of England</i> v. <i>Vagliano Brothers</i> (5th of +March 1891), in which, with Lord Bramwell, he differed from the +majority of his brother peers. Before long, however, deafness +and advancing years rendered his attendances less frequent. +Lord Field died at Bognor on the 23rd of January 1907, and as +he left no issue the peerage became extinct.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">FIELD<a name="ar148" id="ar148"></a></span> (a word common to many West German languages, cf. +Ger. <i>Feld</i>, Dutch <i>veld</i>, possibly cognate with O.E. <i>folde</i>, the earth, +and ultimately with root of the Gr. <span class="grk" title="platos">πλατός</span>, broad), open country +as opposed to woodland or to the town, and particularly land for +cultivation divided up into separate portions by hedges, banks, +stone walls, &c.; also used in combination with words denoting +the crop grown on such a portion of land, such as corn-field, +turnip-field, &c. The word is similarly applied to a region with +particular reference to its products, as oil-field, gold-field, &c. +For the “open” or “common field” system of agriculture in +village communities see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Commons</a></span>. Generally with a reference to +their “wild” as opposed to their “domestic” nature “field” is +applied to many animals, such as the “field-mouse.” There are +many applications of the word; thus from the use of the term for +the place where a battle is fought, and widely of the whole +theatre of war, come such phrases as to “take the field” for the +opening of a campaign, “in the field” of troops that are engaged +in the operations of a campaign. It is frequently used figuratively +in this sense, of the subject matter of a controversy, and +also appears in military usage, in field-fortification, field-day and +the like. A “field-officer” is one who ranks above a captain and +below a general (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Officers</a></span>); a field marshal is the highest +rank of general officer in the British and many European armies +(see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Marshal</a></span>). “Field” is used in many games, partly with the +idea of an enclosed space, partly with the idea of the ground of +military operations, for the ground in which such games as +cricket, football, baseball and the like are played. Hence it is +applied to those players in cricket and baseball who are not “in,” +and “to field” is to perform the functions of such a player—to +stop or catch the ball played by the “in” side. “The field” is +used in hunting, &c., for those taking part in the sport, and in +racing for all the horses entered for a race, and, in such expressions +as “to back the field,” is confined to all the horses with +the exception of the “favourite.” A common application of the +word is to a surface, more or less wide, as of the sky or sea, or of +such physical phenomena as ice or snow, and particularly of the +ground, of a special “tincture,” on which armorial bearings are +displayed (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Heraldry</a></span>); it is thus used also of the “ground” +of a flag, thus the white ensign of the British navy has a red St +George’s cross on a white “field.” In scientific usage the word is +also used of the sphere of observation or of operations, and has +come to be almost equivalent to a department of knowledge. In +physics, a particular application is that to the area which is +influenced by some agent, as in the magnetic or electric field. +The field of observation or view is the area within which objects +can be seen through any optical instrument at any one position. +A “field-glass” is the name given to a binocular glass used in the +field (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Binocular Instrument</a></span>); the older form of field-glass +was a small achromatic telescope with joints. This terms is also +applied, in an astronomical telescope or compound microscope, to +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page324" id="page324"></a>324</span> +that one of the two lenses of the “eye-piece” which is next to the +object-glass; the other is called the “eye-glass.”</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">FIELDFARE<a name="ar149" id="ar149"></a></span> (O.E. <i>fealo-for</i> = fallow-farer), a large species of +thrush, the <i>Turdus pilaris</i> of Linnaeus—well known as a regular +and common autumnal visitor throughout the British Islands and +a great part of Europe, besides western Asia, and even reaching +northern Africa. It is the <i>Veldjakker</i> and <i>Veld-lyster</i> of the Dutch, +the <i>Wachholderdrossel</i> and <i>Kramtsvogel</i> of Germans, the <i>Litorne</i> of +the French, and the <i>Cesena</i> of Italians. This bird is of all +thrushes the most gregarious in. habit, not only migrating in large +bands and keeping in flocks during the winter, but even commonly +breeding in society—200 nests or more having been seen within a +very small space. The birch-forests of Norway, Sweden and +Russia are its chief resorts in summer, but it is known also to +breed sparingly in some districts of Germany. Though its nest +has been many times reported to have been found in Scotland, +there is perhaps no record of such an incident that is not open to +doubt; and unquestionably the missel-thrush (<i>T. viscivorus</i>) has +been often mistaken for the fieldfare by indifferent observers. +The head, neck, upper part of the back and the rump are grey; +the wings, wing-coverts and middle of the back are rich hazel-brown; +the throat is ochraceous; and the breast reddish-brown—both +being streaked or spotted with black, while the belly and +lower wing-coverts are white, and the legs and toes very dark-brown. +The nest and eggs resemble those of the blackbird +(<i>T. merula</i>), but the former is usually built high up in a tree. +The fieldfare’s call-note is harsh and loud, sounding like <i>t’chatt’chat</i>: +its song is low, twittering and poor. It usually arrives in +Britain about the middle or end of October, but sometimes earlier, +and often remains till the middle of May before departing for its +northern breeding-places. In hard weather it throngs to the +berry-bearing bushes which then afford it sustenance, but in open +winters the flocks spread over the fields in search of animal food—worms, +slugs and the larvae of insects. In very severe seasons it +will altogether leave the country, and then return for a shorter +or longer time as spring approaches. From <i>William of Palerne</i> +(translated from the French c. 1350) to the writers of our own day +the fieldfare has occasionally been noticed by British poets with +varying propriety. Thus Chaucer’s association Of its name with +frost is as happy as true, while Scott was more than unlucky in his +well-known reference to its “lowly nest” in the Highlands.</p> + +<p>Structurally very like the fieldfare, but differing greatly in +many other respects, is the bird known in North America as the +“robin”—its ruddy breast and familiar habits reminding the +early British settlers in the New World of the household favourite +of their former homes. This bird, the <i>Turdus migratorius</i> of +Linnaeus, has a wide geographical range, extending from the +Atlantic to the Pacific, and from Greenland to Guatemala, and, +except at its extreme limits, is almost everywhere a very abundant +species. As its scientific name imports, it is essentially a migrant, +and gathers in flocks to pass the winter in the south, though a few +remain in New England throughout the year. Yet its social +instincts point rather in the direction of man than of its own kind, +and it is not known to breed in companies, while it affects the +homesteads, villages and even the parks and gardens of the large +cities, where its fine song, its attractive plumage, and its great +services as a destroyer of noxious insects, combine to make it +justly popular.</p> +<div class="author">(A. N.)</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">FIELDING, ANTHONY VANDYKE COPLEY<a name="ar150" id="ar150"></a></span> (1787-1855), +commonly called Copley Fielding, English landscape painter (son +of a portrait painter), became at an early age a pupil of John +Varley. He took to water-colour painting, and to this he confined +himself almost exclusively. In 1810 he became an associate +exhibitor in the Water-colour Society, in 1813 a full member, and +in 1831 president of that body. He also engaged largely in +teaching the art, and made ample profits. His death took place at +Worthing in March 1855. Copley Fielding was a painter of much +elegance, taste and accomplishment, and has always been highly +popular with purchasers, without reaching very high in originality +of purpose or of style: he painted in vast number all sorts of +views (occasionally in oil-colour) including marine subjects in +large proportion. Specimens of his work are to be seen in the +water-colour gallery of the Victoria and Albert Museum, of dates +ranging from 1829 to 1850. Among the engraved specimens of +his art is the <i>Annual of British Landscape Scenery</i>, published +in 1839.</p> +<div class="author">(W. M. R.)</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">FIELDING, HENRY<a name="ar151" id="ar151"></a></span> (1707-1754), English novelist and playwright, +was born at Sharpham Park, near Glastonbury, Somerset, +on the 22nd of April 1707. His father was Lieutenant Edmund +Fielding, third son of John Fielding, who was canon of Salisbury +and fifth son of the earl of Desmond. The earl of Desmond +belonged to the younger branch of the Denbigh family, who, +until lately, were supposed to be connected with the Habsburgs. +To this claim, now discredited by the researches of Mr J. Horace +Round (<i>Studies in Peerage</i>, 1901, pp. 216-249), is to be attributed +the famous passage in Gibbon’s <i>Autobiography</i> which predicts for +<i>Tom Jones</i>—“that exquisite picture of human manners”—a +diuturnity exceeding that of the house of Austria. Henry +Fielding’s mother was Sarah Gould, daughter of Sir Henry +Gould, a judge of the king’s bench. It is probable that the +marriage was not approved by her father, since, though she +remained at Sharpham Park for some time after that event, +his will provided that her husband should have nothing to do +with a legacy of £3000 left her in 1710. About this date the +Fieldings moved to East Stour in Dorset. Two girls, Catherine +and Ursula, had apparently been born at Sharpham Park; +and three more, together with a son, Edmund, followed at East +Stour. Sarah, the third of the daughters, born November +1710, and afterwards the author of <i>David Simple</i> and other +works, survived her brother.</p> + +<p>Fielding’s education up to his mother’s death, which took +place in April 1718 at East Stour, seems to have been entrusted +to a neighbouring clergyman, Mr Oliver of Motcombe, in whom +tradition traces the uncouth lineaments of “Parson Trulliber” +in <i>Joseph Andrews</i>. But he must have contrived, nevertheless, +to prepare his pupil for Eton, to which place Fielding went about +this date, probably as an oppidan. Little is known of his schooldays. +There is no record of his name in the college lists; but, +if we may believe his first biographer, Arthur Murphy, by no +means an unimpeachable authority, he left “uncommonly +versed in the Greek authors, and an early master of the Latin +classics,”—a statement which should perhaps be qualified by +his own words to Sir Robert Walpole in 1730:—</p> + +<table class="reg f90" summary="poem"><tr><td> <div class="poemr"> +<p>“Tuscan and French are in my head;</p> +<p class="i05">Latin I write, and Greek—I read.”</p> +</div> </td></tr></table> + +<p class="noind">But he certainly made friends among his class-fellows—some of +whom continued friends for life. Winnington and Hanbury-Williams +were among these. The chief, however, and the most +faithful, was George, afterwards Sir George, and later Baron +Lyttelton of Frankley.</p> + +<p>When Fielding left Eton is unknown. But in November 1725 +we hear of him definitely in what seems like a characteristic +escapade. He was staying at Lyme (in company with a trusty +retainer, ready to “beat, maim or kill” in his young master’s +behalf), and apparently bent on carrying off, if necessary by force, +a local heiress, Miss Sarah Andrew, whose fluttered guardians +promptly hurried her away, and married her to some one else +(<i>Athenaeum</i>, 2nd June 1883). Her baffled admirer consoled +himself by translating part of Juvenal’s sixth satire into verse +as “all the Revenge taken by an injured Lover.” After this +he must have lived the usual life of a young man about town, +and probably at this date improved the acquaintance of his +second cousin, Lady Mary Wortley Montagu, to whom he inscribed +his first comedy, <i>Love in Several Masques</i>, produced at +Drury Lane in February 1728. The moment was not particularly +favourable, since it succeeded Cibber’s <i>Provok’d Husband</i>, and +was contemporary with Gay’s popular <i>Beggar’s Opera</i>. Almost +immediately afterwards (March 16th) Fielding entered himself +as “Stud. Lit.” at Leiden University. He was still there in +February 1729. But he had apparently left before the annual +registration of February 1730, when his name is absent from +the books (<i>Macmillan’s Magazine</i>, April 1907); and in January +1730 he brought out a second comedy at the newly-opened +theatre in Goodman’s Fields. Like its predecessor, the <i>Temple</i> +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page325" id="page325"></a>325</span> +<i>Beau</i> was an essay in the vein of Congreve and Wycherley, +though, in a measure, an advance on <i>Love in Several Masques</i>.</p> + +<p>With the <i>Temple Beau</i> Fielding’s dramatic career definitely +begins. His father had married again; and his Leiden career +had been interrupted for lack of funds. Nominally, he was +entitled to an allowance of £200 a year; but this (he was +accustomed to say) “any body might pay that would.” Young, +handsome, ardent and fond of pleasure, he began that career as +a hand-to-mouth playwright around which so much legend has +gathered—and gathers. Having—in his own words—no choice +but to be a hackney coachman or a hackney writer, he chose the +pen; and his inclinations, as well as his opportunities, led him +to the stage. From 1730 to 1736 he rapidly brought out a large +number of pieces, most of which had merit enough to secure their +being acted, but not sufficient to earn a lasting reputation for +their author. His chief successes, from a critical point of view, +the <i>Author’s Farce</i> (1730) and <i>Tom Thumb</i> (1730, 1731), were +burlesques; and he also was fortunate in two translations from +Molière, the <i>Mock Doctor</i> (1732) and the <i>Miser</i> (1733). Of the +rest (with one or two exceptions, to be mentioned presently) +the names need only be recorded. They are <i>The Coffee-House +Politician</i>, a comedy (1730); <i>The Letter Writers</i>, a farce (1731); +<i>The Grub-Street Opera</i>, a burlesque (1731); <i>The Lottery</i>, a farce +(1732); <i>The Modern Husband</i>, a comedy (1732); <i>The Covent +Garden Tragedy</i>, a burlesque (1732); <i>The Old Debauchees</i>, a +comedy (1732); <i>Deborah; or, a Wife for you all</i>, an after-piece +(1733); <i>The Intriguing Chambermaid</i> (from Regnard), a two-act +comedy (1734); and <i>Don Quixote in England</i>, a comedy, which +had been partly sketched at Leiden.</p> + +<p><i>Don Quixote</i> was produced in 1734, and the list of plays may +be here interrupted by an event of which the date has only +recently been ascertained, namely, Fielding’s first marriage. +This took place on the 28th of November 1734 at St Mary, +Charlcornbe, near Bath (<i>Macmillan’s Magazine</i>, April 1907), +the lady being a Salisbury beauty, Miss Charlotte Cradock, of +whom he had been an admirer, if not a suitor, as far back as +1730. This is a fact which should be taken into consideration +in estimating the exact Bohemianism of his London life, for +there is no doubt that he was devotedly attached to her. After +a fresh farce entitled <i>An Old Man taught Wisdom</i>, and the comparative +failure of a new comedy, <i>The Universal Gallant</i>, both +produced early in 1735, he seems for a time to have retired with +his bride, who came into £1500, to his old home at East Stour. +Around this rural seclusion fiction has freely accreted. He is +supposed to have lived for three years on the footing of a typical +18th-century country gentleman; to have kept a pack of +hounds; to have put his servants into impossible yellow liveries; +and generally, by profuse hospitality and reckless expenditure, +to have made rapid duck and drake of Mrs Fielding’s modest +legacy. Something of this is demonstrably false; much, +grossly exaggerated. In any case, he was in London as late as +February 1735 (the date of the “Preface” to <i>The Universal +Gallant</i>); and early in March 1736 he was back again managing +the Haymarket theatre with a so-called “<i>Great Mogul’s</i> Company +of <i>English</i> Comedians.”</p> + +<p>Upon this new enterprise fortune, at the outset, seemed to +smile. The first piece (produced on the 5th of March) was +<i>Pasquin, a Dramatick Satire on the Times</i> (a piece akin in its +plan to Buckingham’s <i>Rehearsal</i>), which contained, in addition +to much admirable burlesque, a good deal of very direct criticism +of the shameless political corruption of the Walpole era. Its +success was unmistakable; and when, after bringing out the +remarkable <i>Fatal Curiosity</i> of George Lillo, its author followed +up <i>Pasquin</i> by the <i>Historical Register for the Year 1736</i>, of which +the effrontery was even more daring than that of its predecessor, +the ministry began to bethink themselves that matters were +going too far. How they actually effected their object is obscure: +but grounds were speedily concocted for the Licensing Act of +1737, which restricted the number of theatres, rendered the lord +chamberlain’s licence an indispensable preliminary to stage +representation, and—in a word—effectually put an end to +Fielding’s career as a dramatist.</p> + +<p>Whether, had that career been prolonged to its maturity, +the result would have enriched the theatrical repertoire with +a new species of burlesque, or reinforced it with fresh variations +on the “wit-traps” of Wycherley and Congreve, is one of those +inquiries that are more academic than, profitable. What may +be affirmed is, that Fielding’s plays, as we have them, exhibit +abundant invention and ingenuity; that they are full of humour +and high spirits; that, though they may have been hastily +written, they were by no means thoughtlessly constructed; +and that, in composing them, their author attentively considered +either managerial hints, or the conditions of the market. Against +this, one must set the fact that they are often immodest; and +that, whatever their intrinsic merit, they have failed to rival +in permanent popularity the work of inferior men. Fielding’s +own conclusion was, “that he left off writing for the stage, when +he ought to have begun”—which can only mean that he himself +regarded his plays as the outcome of imitation rather than +experience. They probably taught him how to construct <i>Tom +Jones</i>; but whether he could ever have written a comedy at +the level of that novel, can only be established by a comparison +which it is impossible to make, namely, a comparison with +<i>Tom Jones</i> of a comedy written at the same age, and in similar +circumstances.</p> + +<p><i>Tumble-Down Dick; or, Phaeton in the Suds</i>, <i>Eurydice</i> and +<i>Eurydice hissed</i> are the names of three occasional pieces which +belong to the last months of Fielding’s career as a Haymarket +manager. By this date he was thirty, with a wife and daughter. +As a means of support, he reverted to the profession of his +maternal grandfather; and, in November 1737, he entered the +Middle Temple, being described in the books of the society as +“of East Stour in Dorset.” That he set himself strenuously to +master his new profession, is admitted; though it is unlikely +that he had entirely discarded the irregular habits which had +grown upon him in his irresponsible bachelorhood. He also +did a good deal of literary work, the best known of which is +contained in the <i>Champion</i>, a “News-Journal” of the <i>Spectator</i> +type undertaken with James Ralph, whose poem of “Night” +is made notorious in the <i>Dunciad</i>. That the <i>Champion</i> was not +without merit is undoubted; but the essay-type was for the +moment out-worn, and neither Fielding nor his coadjutor could +lend it fresh vitality. Fielding contributed papers from the +15th of November 1739 to the 19th of June 1740. On the 20th +of June he was called to the bar, and occupied chambers in +Pump Court. It is further related that, in the diligent pursuit +of his calling, he travelled the Western Circuit, and attended +the Wiltshire sessions.</p> + +<p>Although, with the <i>Champion</i>, he professed, for the time, +to have relinquished periodical literature, he still wrote at +intervals, a fact which, taken in connexion with his past reputation +as an effective satirist, probably led to his being “unjustly +censured” for much that he never produced. But he certainly +wrote a poem “Of True Greatness” (1741); a first book of a +burlesque epic, the <i>Vernoniad</i>, prompted by Vernon’s expedition +of 1739; a vision called the <i>Opposition</i>, and, perhaps, a political +sermon entitled the <i>Crisis</i> (1741). Another piece, now known +to have been attributed to him by his contemporaries (<i>Hist. +MSS. Comm., Rept.</i> 12, App. Pt. ix., p. 204), is the pamphlet +entitled <i>An Apology for the Life of Mrs Shamela Andrews</i>, a clever +but coarse attack upon the prurient side of Richardson’s <i>Pamela</i>, +which had been issued in 1740, and was at the height of its +popularity. <i>Shamela</i> followed early in 1741. Richardson, who +was well acquainted with Fielding’s four sisters, at that date +his neighbours at Hammersmith, confidently attributed it to +Fielding (<i>Corr.</i> 1804, iv. 286, and unpublished letter at South +Kensington); and there are suggestive points of internal evidence +(such as the transformation of <i>Pamela’s</i> “MR B.” into “Mr +Booby”) which tend to connect it with the future <i>Joseph +Andrews</i>. Fielding, however, never acknowledged it, or referred +to it; and a great deal has been laid to his charge that he never +deserved (“Preface” to <i>Miscellanies</i>, 1743).</p> + +<p>But whatever may be decided in regard to the authorship of +<i>Shamela</i>, it is quite possible that it prompted the more memorable +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page326" id="page326"></a>326</span> +<i>Joseph Andrews</i>, which made its appearance in February 1742, +and concerning which there is no question. Professing, on his +title-page, to imitate Cervantes, Fielding set out to cover <i>Pamela</i> +with Homeric ridicule by transferring the heroine’s embarrassments +to a hero, supposed to be her brother. Allied to this +purpose was a collateral attack upon the slipshod <i>Apology</i> of the +playwright Colley Cibber, with whom, for obscure reasons, +Fielding had long been at war. But the avowed object of the +book fell speedily into the background as its author warmed +to his theme. His secondary speedily became his primary +characters, and Lady Booby and Joseph Andrews do not interest +us now as much as Mrs Slipslop and Parson Adams—the latter +an invention that ranges in literature with Sterne’s “Uncle +Toby” and Goldsmith’s “Vicar.” Yet more than these and +others equally admirable in their round veracity, is the writer’s +penetrating outlook upon the frailties and failures of human +nature. By the time he had reached his second volume, he had +convinced himself that he had inaugurated a new fashion of +fiction; and in a “Preface” of exceptional ability, he announced +his discovery. Postulating that the epic might be “comic” +or “tragic,” prose or verse, he claimed to have achieved what +he termed the “Comic Epos in Prose,” of which the action was +“ludicrous” rather than “sublime,” and the personages +selected from society at large, rather than the restricted ranks +of conventional high life. His plan, it will be observed, was +happily adapted to his gifts of humour, satire, and above all, +irony. That it was matured when it began may perhaps be +doubted, but it was certainly matured when it ended. Indeed, +except for the plot, which, in his picaresque first idea, had not +preceded the conception, <i>Joseph Andrews</i> has all the characteristics +of <i>Tom Jones</i>, even (in part) to the initial chapters.</p> + +<p><i>Joseph Andrews</i> had considerable success, and the exact sum +paid for it by Andrew Millar, the publisher, according to the +assignment now at South Kensington, was £183:11s., one of +the witnesses being the author’s friend, William Young, popularly +supposed to be the original of Parson Adams. It was with Young +that Fielding undertook what, with exception of “a very small +share” in the farce of <i>Miss Lucy in Town</i> (1742), constituted +his next work, a translation of the <i>Plutus</i> of Aristophanes, +which never seems to have justified any similar experiments. +Another of his minor works was a <i>Vindication of the Dowager +Duchess of Marlborough</i> (1742), then much before the public +by reason of the <i>Account of her Life</i> which she had recently put +forth. Later in the same year, Garrick applied to Fielding +for a play; and a very early effort, <i>The Wedding Day</i>, was +hastily patched together, and produced at Drury Lane in +February 1743 with no great success. It was, however, included +in Fielding’s next important publication, the three volumes of +<i>Miscellanies</i> issued by subscription in the succeeding April. +These also comprised some early poems, some essays, a Lucianic +fragment entitled a <i>Journey from this World to the Next</i>, and, +last but not least, occupying the entire final volume, the remarkable +performance entitled the <i>History of the Life of the late Mr +Jonathan Wild the Great</i>.</p> + +<p>It is probable that, in its composition, <i>Jonathan Wild</i> preceded +<i>Joseph Andrews</i>. At all events it seems unlikely that Fielding +would have followed up a success in a new line by an effort so +entirely different in character. Taking for his ostensible hero +a well-known thief-taker, who had been hanged in 1725, he +proceeds to illustrate, by a mock-heroic account of his progress +to Tyburn, the general proposition that greatness without +goodness is no better than badness. He will not go so far as to +say that all “Human Nature is Newgate with the Mask on”; +but he evidently regards the description as fairly applicable to +a good many so-called great people. Irony (and especially Irony +neat) is not a popular form of rhetoric; and the remorseless +pertinacity with which Fielding pursues his demonstration is +to many readers discomforting and even distasteful. Yet—in +spite of Scott—<i>Jonathan Wild</i> has its softer pages; and as a +purely intellectual conception it is not surpassed by any of the +author’s works.</p> + +<p>His actual biography, both before and after <i>Jonathan Wild</i>, +is obscure. There are evidences that he laboured diligently +at his profession; there are also evidences of sickness and +embarrassment. He had become early a martyr to the malady +of his century—gout, and the uncertainties of a precarious +livelihood told grievously upon his beautiful wife, who eventually +died of fever in his arms, leaving him for the time so stunned and +bewildered by grief that his friends feared for his reason. For +some years his published productions were unimportant. He +wrote “Prefaces” to the <i>David Simple</i> of his sister Sarah in +1744 and 1747; and, in 1745-1746 and 1747-1748, produced +two newspapers in the ministerial interest, the <i>True Patriot</i> +and the <i>Jacobite’s Journal</i>, both of which are connected with, +or derive from, the rebellion of 1745, and were doubtless, when +they ceased, the pretext of a pension from the public service +money (<i>Journal of a Voyage to Lisbon</i>, “Introduction”). In +November 1747 he married his wife’s maid, Mary Daniel, at St +Bene’t’s, Paul’s Wharf; and in December 1748, by the interest +of his old school-fellow, Lyttelton, he was made a principal justice +of peace for Middlesex and Westminster, an office which put him +in possession of a house in Bow Street, and £300 per annum +“of the dirtiest money upon earth” (<i>ibid.</i>), which might have +been more had he condescended to become what was known as +a “trading” magistrate.</p> + +<p>For some time previously, while at Bath, Salisbury, Twickenham +and other temporary resting-places, he had intermittently +occupied himself in composing his second great novel, <i>Tom Jones; +or, the History of a Foundling</i>. For this, in June 1748, Millar had +paid him £600, to which he added £100 more in 1749. In the +February of the latter year it was published with a dedication +to Lyttelton, to whose pecuniary assistance to the author during +the composition it plainly bears witness. In <i>Tom Jones</i> Fielding +systematically developed the “new Province of Writing” he +had discovered incidentally in <i>Joseph Andrews</i>. He paid closer +attention to the construction and evolution of the plot; he +elaborated the initial essays to each book which he had partly +employed before, and he compressed into his work the flower +and fruit of his forty years’ experience of life. He has, indeed, +no character quite up to the level of Parson Adams, but his +Westerns and Partridges, his Allworthys and Blifils, have the +inestimable gift of life. He makes no pretence to produce “models +of perfection,” but pictures of ordinary humanity, rather perhaps +in the rough than the polished, the natural than the artificial, +and his desire is to do this with absolute truthfulness, neither +extenuating nor disguising defects and shortcomings. One of the +results of this unvarnished naturalism has been to attract more +attention to certain of the episodes than their inventor ever +intended. But that, in the manners of his time, he had chapter +and verse for everything he drew is clear. His sincere purpose +was, he declared, “to recommend goodness and innocence,” +and his obvious aversions are vanity and hypocrisy. The +methods of fiction have grown more sophisticated since his day, +and other forms of literary egotism have taken the place of his +once famous introductory essays, but the traces of <i>Tom Jones</i> +are still discernible in most of our manlier modern fiction.</p> + +<p>Meanwhile, its author was showing considerable activity +in his magisterial duties. In May 1749, he was chosen chairman +of quarter sessions for Westminster; and in June he delivered +himself of a weighty charge to the grand jury. Besides other +pamphlets, he produced a careful and still readable <i>Enquiry into +the Causes of the late Increase of Robbers</i>, &c. (1751), which, among +its other merits, was not ineffectual in helping on the famous +Gin Act of that year, a practical result to which the “Gin Lane” +and “Beer Street” of his friend Hogarth also materially contributed. +These duties and preoccupations left their mark on +his next fiction, <i>Amelia</i> (1752), which is rather more taken up +with social problems and popular grievances than its forerunners. +But the leading personage, in whom, as in the Sophia Western +of <i>Tom Jones</i>, he reproduced the traits of his first wife, is certainly, +as even Johnson admitted, “the most pleasing heroine of all the +romances.” The minor characters, too, especially Dr Harrison +and Colonel Bath, are equal to any in <i>Tom Jones</i>. The book +nevertheless shows signs, not of failure but of fatigue, perhaps +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page327" id="page327"></a>327</span> +of haste—a circumstance heightened by the absence of those +“prolegomenous” chapters over which the author had lingered +so lovingly in <i>Tom Jones</i>. In 1749 he had been dangerously +ill, and his health was visibly breaking. The £1000 which Millar +is said to have given for <i>Amelia</i> must have been painfully +earned.</p> + +<p>Early in 1752 his still indomitable energy prompted him to +start a third newspaper, the <i>Covent Garden Journal</i>, which ran +from the 4th of January to the 25th of November. It is an interesting +contemporary record, and throws a good deal of light +on his Bow Street duties. But it has no great literary value, +and it unhappily involved him in harassing and undignified +hostilities with Smollett, Dr John Hill, Bonnell Thornton +and other of his contemporaries. To the following year belong +pamphlets on “Provision for the Poor,” and the case of the +strange impostor, Elizabeth Canning (1734-1773).<a name="fa1h" id="fa1h" href="#ft1h"><span class="sp">1</span></a> By 1754 +his own case, as regards health, had grown desperate; and he +made matters worse by a gallant and successful attempt to break +up a “gang of villains and cut-throats,” who had become the +terror of the metropolis. This accomplished, he resigned his +office to his half-brother John (afterwards Sir John) Fielding. +But it was now too late. After fruitless essay both of Dr Ward’s +specifics and the tar-water of Bishop Berkeley, it was felt that +his sole chance of prolonging life lay in removal to a warmer +climate. On the 26th of June 1754 he accordingly left his little +country house at Fordhook, Ealing, for Lisbon, in the “Queen +of Portugal,” Richard Veal master. The ship, as often, was +tediously wind-bound, and the protracted discomforts of the sick +man and his family are narrated at length in the touching +posthumous tract entitled the <i>Journal of a Voyage to Lisbon</i>, +which, with a fragment of a comment on Bolingbroke’s then +recently issued essays, was published in February 1755 “for the +Benefit of his [Fielding’s] Wife and Children.” Reaching Lisbon +at last in August 1754, he died there two months later (8th +October), and was buried in the English cemetery, where a +monument was erected to him in 1830. <i>Luget Britannia gremio +non dari fovere natum</i> is inscribed upon it.</p> + +<p>His estate, including the proceeds of a fair library, only +covered his just debts (<i>Athenaeum</i>, 25th Nov. 1905); but his +family, a daughter by his first, and two boys and a girl by his +second wife, were faithfully cared for by his brother John, and +by his friend Ralph Allen of Prior Park, Bath, the Squire +Allworthy of <i>Tom Jones</i>. His will (undated) was printed in +the <i>Athenaeum</i> for the 1st of February 1890. There is but one +absolutely authentic portrait of him, a familiar outline by +Hogarth, executed from memory for Andrew Millar’s edition +of his works in 1762. It is the likeness of a man broken by ill-health, +and affords but faint indication of the handsome Harry +Fielding who in his salad days “warmed both hands before +the fire of life.” Far too much stress, it is now held, has been laid +by his first biographers upon the unworshipful side of his early +career. That he was always profuse, sanguine and more or less +improvident, is as probable as that he was always manly, generous +and sympathetic. But it is also plain that, in his later years, +he did much, as father, friend and magistrate, to redeem the +errors, real and imputed, of a too-youthful youth.</p> + +<p>As a playwright and essayist his rank is not elevated. But +as a novelist his place is a definite one. If the <i>Spectator</i> is to be +credited with foreshadowing the characters of the novel, Defoe +with its earliest form, and Richardson with its first experiments +in sentimental analysis, it is to Henry Fielding that we owe its +first accurate delineation of contemporary manners. Neglecting, +or practically neglecting, sentiment as unmanly, and relying +chiefly on humour and ridicule, he set out to draw life precisely +as he saw it around him, without blanks or dashes. +He was, it may be, for a judicial moralist, too indulgent to some +of its frailties, but he was merciless to its meaner vices. For +reasons which have been already given, his high-water mark is +<i>Tom Jones</i>, which has remained, and remains, a model in its way +of the kind he inaugurated.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>An essay on Fielding’s life and writings is prefixed to Arthur +Murphy’s edition of his works (1762), and short biographies have +been written by Walter Scott and William Roscoe. There are also +lives by Watson (1807), Lawrence (1855), Austin Dobson (“Men of +Letters,” 1883, 1907) and G.M. Godden (1909). An annotated +edition of the <i>Journal of a Voyage to Lisbon</i> is included in the +“World’s Classics” (1907).</p> +</div> +<div class="author">(A. D.)</div> + +<hr class="foot" /> <div class="note"> + +<p><a name="ft1h" id="ft1h" href="#fa1h"><span class="fn">1</span></a> For a full account of this celebrated case see Howell, <i>State Trials</i> +(1813), vol. xix.</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">FIELDING, WILLIAM STEVENS<a name="ar152" id="ar152"></a></span> (1848-  ), Canadian +journalist and statesman, was born in Halifax, Nova Scotia, on +the 24th of November 1848. From 1864 to 1884 he was one of +the staff of the <i>Morning Chronicle</i>, the chief Liberal paper of the +province, and worked at all departments of newspaper life. In +1882 he entered the local legislature as Liberal member for +Halifax, and from 1884 to 1896 was premier and provincial +secretary of the province, but in the latter year became finance +minister in the Dominion administration of Sir Wilfrid Laurier, +and was elected to the House of Commons for Shelburne and +Queen’s county. He opposed Confederation in 1864-1867, and as +late as 1886 won a provincial election on the promise to advocate +the repeal of the British North America Act. His administration +as finance minister of Canada was important, since in 1897 he +introduced a new tariff, granting to the manufactures of Great +Britain a preference, subsequently increased; and later he +imposed a special surtax on German imports owing to unfriendly +tariff legislation by that country. In 1902 he represented Canada +at the Colonial Conference in London.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">FIELD-MOUSE,<a name="ar153" id="ar153"></a></span> the popular designation of such mouse-like +British rodents as are not true or “house” mice. The term +thus includes the long-tailed field mouse, <i>Mus</i> (<i>Micromys</i>) +<i>sylvaticus</i>, easily recognized by its white belly, and sometimes +called the wood-mouse; and the two species of short-tailed +field-mice, <i>Microtus agrestis</i> and <i>Evotomys glareolus</i>, together with +their representatives in Skomer island and the Orkneys (see +<span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Mouse</a></span> and <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Vole</a></span>).</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">FIELD OF THE CLOTH OF GOLD,<a name="ar154" id="ar154"></a></span> the French <i>Camp du drap +d’or</i>, the name given to the place between Guînes and Ardres +where Henry VIII. of England met Francis I. of France in June +1520. The most elaborate arrangements were made for the +accommodation of the two monarchs and their large retinues; +and on Henry’s part especially no efforts were spared to make a +great impression in Europe by this meeting. Before the castle of +Guînes a temporary palace, covering an area of nearly 12,000 +sq. yds., was erected for the reception of the English king. It +was decorated in the most sumptuous fashion, and like the +chapel, served by thirty-five priests, was furnished with a +profusion of golden ornaments. Some idea of the size of Henry’s +following may be gathered from the fact that in one month +2200 sheep and other viands in a similar proportion were consumed. +In the fields beyond the castle, tents to the number of +2800 were erected for less distinguished visitors, and the whole +scene was one of the greatest animation. Ladies gorgeously +clad, and knights, showing by their dress and bearing their +anxiety to revive the glories and the follies of the age of chivalry, +jostled mountebanks, mendicants and vendors of all kinds.</p> + +<p>Journeying from Calais Henry reached his headquarters at +Guînes on the 4th of June 1520, and Francis took up his residence +at Ardres. After Cardinal Wolsey, with a splendid train had +visited the French king, the two monarchs met at the Val Doré, a +spot midway between the two places, on the 7th. The following +days were <span class="correction" title="amended from take">taken</span> up with tournaments, in which both kings took +part, banquets and other entertainments, and after Wolsey had +said mass the two sovereigns separated on the 24th. This +meeting made a great impression on contemporaries, but its +political results were very small.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>The <i>Ordonnance</i> for the <i>Field</i> is printed by J.S. Brewer in the +<i>Calendar of State Papers, Henry VIII</i>. vol. iii. (1867). See also +J.S. Brewer, <i>Reign of Henry VIII</i>. (1884).</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">FIELDS, JAMES THOMAS<a name="ar155" id="ar155"></a></span> (1817-1881), American publisher +and author, was born in Portsmouth, New Hampshire, on the +31st of December 1817. At the age of seventeen he went to +Boston as clerk in a bookseller’s shop. Afterwards he wrote +for the newspapers, and in 1835 he read an anniversary poem +entitled “Commerce” before the Boston Mercantile Library +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page328" id="page328"></a>328</span> +Association. In 1839 he became junior partner in the publishing +and bookselling firm known after 1846 as Ticknor & Fields, and +after 1868 as Fields, Osgood & Company. He was the publisher +of the foremost contemporary American writers, with whom he +was on terms of close personal friendship, and he was the +American publisher of some of the best-known British writers of +his time, some of whom, also, he knew intimately. The first +collected edition of De Quincey’s works (20 vols., 1850-1855) was +published by his firm. As a publisher he was characterized by a +somewhat rare combination of keen business acumen and sound, +discriminating literary taste, and as a man he was known for his +geniality and charm of manner. In 1862-1870, as the successor +of James Russell Lowell, he edited the <i>Atlantic Monthly</i>. In 1871 +Fields retired from business and from his editorial duties, and +devoted himself to lecturing and to writing. Of his books the +chief were the collection of sketches and essays entitled <i>Underbrush</i> +(1877) and the chapters of reminiscence composing <i>Yesterdays +with Authors</i> (1871), in which he recorded his personal +friendship with Wordsworth, Thackeray, Dickens, Hawthorne +and others. He died in Boston on the 24th of April 1881.</p> + +<p>His second wife, <span class="sc">Annie Adams Fields</span> (b. 1834), whom +he married in 1854, published <i>Under the Olive</i> (1880), a book +of verses; <i>James T. Fields: Biographical Notes and Personal +Sketches</i> (1882); <i>Authors and Friends</i> (1896); <i>The Life and +Letters of Harriet Beecher Stowe</i> (1897); and <i>Orpheus</i> (1900).</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">FIENNES, NATHANIEL<a name="ar156" id="ar156"></a></span> (<i>c.</i> 1608-1669) English politician, +second son of William, 1st Viscount Saye and Sele, by Elizabeth, +daughter of John Temple, of Stow in Buckinghamshire, was born +in 1607 or 1608, and educated at Winchester and at New College, +Oxford, where as founder’s kin he was admitted a perpetual +fellow in 1624. After about five years’ residence he left without +taking a degree, travelled abroad, and in Switzerland imbibed or +strengthened those religious principles and that hostility to the +Laudian church which were to be the chief motive in his future +political career. He returned to Scotland in 1639, and established +communications with the Covenanters and the Opposition in +England, and as member for Banbury in both the Short and +Long Parliaments he took a prominent part in the attacks upon +the church. He spoke against the illegal canons on the 14th of +December 1640, and again on the 9th of February 1641 on the +occasion of the reception of the London petition, when he argued +against episcopacy as constituting a political as well as a religious +danger and made a great impression on the House, his name being +added immediately to the committee appointed to deal with +church affairs. He took a leading part in the examination into +the army plot; was one of the commissioners appointed to attend +the king to Scotland in August 1641; and was nominated one +of the committee of safety in July 1642. On the outbreak of +hostilities he took arms immediately, commanded a troop of +horse in the army of Lord Essex, was present at the relief of +Coventry in August, and at the fight at Worcester in September, +where he distinguished himself, and subsequently at Edgehill. +Of the last two engagements he wrote accounts, viz. <i>True and +Exact Relation of both the Battles fought by ... Earl of Essex ... +against the Bloudy Cavaliers</i> (1642). (See also <i>A Narrative of the +Late Battle before Worcester taken by a Gentleman of the Inns of +Court from the mouth of Master Fiennes</i>, 1642). In February +1643 Fiennes was sent down to Bristol, arrested Colonel Essex +the governor, executed the two leaders of a plot to deliver up the +city, and received a commission himself as governor on the 1st +of May 1643. On the arrival, however, of Prince Rupert on the +22nd of July the place was in no condition to resist an attack, +and Fiennes capitulated. He addressed to Essex a letter in his +defence (Thomason Tracts E. 65, 26), drew up for the parliament +a <i>Relation concerning the Surrender</i> ... (1643), answered by +Prynne and Clement Walker accusing him of treachery and +cowardice, to which he opposed <i>Col. Fiennes his Reply</i>.... He +was tried at St Albans by the council of war in December, was +pronounced guilty of having surrendered the place improperly, +and sentenced to death. He was, however, pardoned, and the +facility with which Bristol subsequently capitulated to the +parliamentary army induced Cromwell and the generals to +exonerate him completely. His military career nevertheless now +came to an end. He went abroad, and it was some time before he +reappeared on the political scene. In September 1647 he was +included in the army committee, and on the 3rd of January 1648 +he became a member of the committee of safety. He was, +however, in favour of accepting the king’s terms at Newport in +December, and in consequence was excluded from the House by +Pride’s Purge. An opponent of church government in any form, +he was no friend to the rigid and tyrannical Presbyterianism of +the day, and inclined to Independency and Cromwell’s party. +He was a member of the council of state in 1654, and in June +1655 he received the strange appointment of commissioner for +the custody of the great seal, for which he was certainly in no way +fitted. In the parliament of 1654 he was returned for Oxford +county and in that of 1656 for the university, while in January +1658 he was included in Cromwell’s House of Lords. He was in +favour of the Protector’s assumption of the royal title and urged +his acceptance of it on several occasions. His public career +closes with addresses delivered in his capacity as chief commissioner +of the great seal at the beginning of the sessions of +January 20, 1658, and January 2, 1659, in which the religious +basis of Cromwell’s government is especially insisted upon, the +feature to which Fiennes throughout his career had attached most +value. On the reassembling of the Long Parliament he was +superseded; he took no part in the Restoration, and died at +Newton Tony in Wiltshire on the 16th of December 1669. +Fiennes married (1), Elizabeth, daughter of the famous parliamentarian +Sir John Eliot, by whom he had one son, afterwards +3rd Viscount Saye and Sele; and (2), Frances, daughter of +Richard Whitehead of Tuderley, Hants, by whom he had three +daughters.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>Besides the pamphlets already cited, a number of his speeches and +other political tracts were published (see Gen. Catalogue, British +Museum). Wood also attributed to him <i>Monarchy Asserted</i> (1666) +(reprinted in Somers Tracts, vi. 346 [ed. Scott]), but there seems no +reason to ascribe to him with Clement Walker the authorship of +Sprigge’s <i>Anglia Rediviva</i>.</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">FIERI FACIAS,<a name="ar157" id="ar157"></a></span> usually abbreviated <i>fi. fa.</i> (Lat. “that you +cause to be made”), in English law, a writ of execution after +judgment obtained in action of debt or damages. It is addressed +to the sheriff, and commands him to make good the amount +out of the goods of the person against whom judgment has been +obtained. (See <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Execution</a></span>.)</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">FIESCHI, GIUSEPPE MARCO<a name="ar158" id="ar158"></a></span> (1790-1836), the chief conspirator +in the attempt on the life of Louis Philippe in July +1835, was a native of Murato in Corsica. He served under +Murat, then returned to Corsica, where he was condemned to +ten years’ imprisonment and perpetual surveillance by the +police for theft and forgery. After a period of vagabondage he +eluded the police and obtained a small post in Paris by means +of forged papers; but losing it on account of his suspicious +manner of living, he resolved to revenge himself on society. +He took lodgings on the Boulevard du Temple, and there, with +two members of the Société des Droits de l’Homme, Morey and +Pépin by name, contrived an “infernal machine,” constructed +with twenty gun barrels, to be fired simultaneously. On the +28th of July 1835, as Louis Philippe was passing along the boulevard +to the Bastille, accompanied by his three sons and a +numerous staff, the machine was exploded. A ball grazed the +king’s forehead, and his horse, with those of the duke of Nemours +and of the prince de Joinville, was shot; Marshal Mortier was +killed, with seventeen other persons, and many were wounded; +but the king and the princes escaped as if by miracle. Fieschi +himself was severely wounded by the discharge of his machine, +and vainly attempted to escape. The attentions of the most +skilful physicians were lavished upon him, and his life was saved +for the stroke of justice. On his trial he named his accomplices, +displayed much bravado, and expected or pretended to expect +ultimate pardon. He was condemned to death, and was guillotined +on the 19th of February 1836. Morey and Pépin were +also executed, another accomplice was sentenced to twenty +years’ imprisonment and one was acquitted. No less than +seven plots against the life of Louis Philippe had been discovered +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page329" id="page329"></a>329</span> +by the police within the year, and apologists were not wanting +in the revolutionary press for the crime of Fieschi.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See <i>Procès de Fieschi, precédé de sa vie privée, sa condamnation par +la Cour des Pairs et celles de ses complices</i> (2 vols., 1836); also P. +Thureau-Dangin, <i>Hist, de la monarchie de Juillet</i> (vol. iv. ch. xii., +1884).</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">FIESCO<a name="ar159" id="ar159"></a></span> (<span class="sc">de’ Fieschi</span>), <b>GIOVANNI LUIGI</b> (<i>c.</i> 1523-1547), +count of Lavagna, was descended from one of the greatest +families of Liguria, first mentioned in the 10th century. Among +his ancestors were two popes (Innocent IV. and Adrian V.), +many cardinals, a king of Sicily, three saints, and many generals +and admirals of Genoa and other states. Sinibaldo Fiesco, +his father, had been a close friend of Andrea Doria (<i>q.v.</i>), and +had rendered many important services to the Genoese republic. +On his death in 1532 Giovanni found himself at the age of +nine the head of the family and possessor of immense estates. +He grew up to be a handsome, intelligent youth, of attractive +manners and very ambitious. He married Eleonora Cibò, +marchioness of Massa, in 1540, a woman of great beauty and +family influence. There were many reasons which inspired his +hatred of the Doria family; the almost absolute power wielded +by the aged admiral and the insolence of his nephew and heir +Giannettino Doria, the commander of the galleys, were galling +to him as to many other Genoese, and it is said that Giannettino +was the lover of Fiesco’s wife. Moreover, the Fiesco belonged +to the French or popular party, while the Doria were aristocrats +and Imperialists. When Fiesco determined to conspire against +Doria he found friends in many quarters. Pope Paul III. was +the first to encourage him, while both Pier Luigi Farnese, duke +of Parma, and Francis I. of France gave him much assistance +and promised him many advantages. Among his associates in +Genoa were his brothers Girolamo and Ottobuono, Verrina +and R. Sacco. A number of armed men from the Fiesco fiefs +were secretly brought to Genoa, and it was agreed that on the +2nd of January 1547, during the interregnum before the election +of the new doge, the galleys in the port should be seized and the +city gates held. The first part of the programme was easily +carried out, and Giannettino Doria, aroused by the tumult, +rushed down to the port and was killed, but Andrea escaped +from the city in time. The conspirators attempted to gain +possession of the government, but unfortunately for them +Giovanni Luigi, while crossing a plank from the quay to one +of the galleys, fell into the water and was drowned. The news +spread consternation among the Fiesco faction, and Girolamo +Fiesco found few adherents. They came to terms with the +senate and were granted a general amnesty. Doria returned +to Genoa on the 4th thirsting for revenge, and in spite of the +amnesty he confiscated the Fiesco estates; Girolamo had shut +himself up, with Verrina and Sacco and other conspirators, in +his castle of Montobbia, which the Genoese at Doria’s instigation +besieged and captured. Girolamo Fiesco and Verrina were +tried, tortured and executed; all their estates were seized, some +of which, including Torriglia, Doria obtained for himself. Ottobuono +Fiesco, who had escaped, was captured eight years afterwards +and put to death by Doria’s orders.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>There are many accounts of the conspiracy, of which perhaps the +best is contained in E. Petit’s <i>André Doria</i> (Paris, 1887), chs. xi. +and xii., where all the chief authorities are quoted; see also Calligari, +<i>La Congiura del Fiesco</i> (Venice 1892), and Gavazzo, <i>Nuovi documenti +sulla congiura del conte Fiesco</i> (Genoa, 1886); E. Bernabò-Brea, in his +<i>Sulla congiura di Giovanni Luigi Fieschi</i>, publishes many important +documents, while L. Capelloni’s <i>Congiura del Fiesco</i>, edited by +Olivieri, and A. Mascardi’s <i>Congiura del conte Giovanni Luigi de’ +Fieschi</i> (Antwerp, 1629) may be commended among the earlier +works. The Fiesco conspiracy has been the subject of many poems +and dramas, of which the most famous is that by Schiller. See also +under <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Doria</a></span>, <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Andrea</a></span>; <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Farnese</a></span>.</p> +</div> +<div class="author">(L. V.*)</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">FIESOLE<a name="ar160" id="ar160"></a></span> (anc. <i>Faesulae</i>, <i>q.v.</i>), a town and episcopal see +of Tuscany, Italy, in the province of Florence, from which it +is 3 m. N.E. by electric tramway. Pop. (1901) town 4951, +commune 16,816. It is situated on a hill 970 ft. above sea-level, +and commands a fine view. The cathedral of S. Romolo is an +early and simple example of the Tuscan Romanesque style; +it is a small basilica, begun in 1028 and restored in 1256. The +picturesque battlemented campanile belongs to 1213. The +tomb of the bishop Leonardo Salutati (d. 1466). with a beautiful +portrait bust by the sculptor, Mino da Fiesole (1431-1484), +is fine. The 13th-century Palazzo Pretorio contains a small +museum of antiquities. The Franciscan monastery commands +a fine view. The church of S. Maria Primerana has some works +of art, and S. Alessandro, which is attributed to the 6th century, +contains fifteen ancient columns of cipollino. The inhabitants +of Fiesole are largely engaged in straw-plaiting.</p> + +<p>Below Fiesole, between it and Florence, lies San Domenico +di Fiesole (485 ft.); in the Dominican monastery the painter, +Fra Giovanni Angelico da Fiesole (1387-1455), lived until he +went to S. Marco at Florence. Here, too, is the Badia di Fiesole, +founded in 1028 and re-erected about 1456-1466 by a follower +of Brunelleschi. It is an irregular pile of buildings, in fine and +simple early Renaissance style; a small part of the original +façade of 1028 in black and white marble is preserved. The +interior of the Church is decorated with sculptures by pupils of +Desiderio da Settignano. The slopes of the hill on which Fiesole +stands are covered with fine villas. To the S.E. of Fiesole lies +Monte Ceceri (1453 ft.), with quarries of grey <i>pietra serena</i>, +largely used in Florence for building. To the E. of this lies the +14th-century castle of Vincigliata restored and fitted up in the +medieval style.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">FIFE,<a name="ar161" id="ar161"></a></span> an eastern county of Scotland, bounded N. by the +Firth of Tay, E. by the North Sea, S. by the Firth of Forth, +and W. by the shires of Perth, Kinross and Clackmannan. The +Isle of May, Inchkeith, Inchcolm, Inchgarvie and the islet of +Oxcar belong to the shire. It has an area of 322,844, acres or +504 sq. m. Its coast-line measure 108 m. The Lomond Hills +to the S. and S.W. of Falkland, of which West Lomond is 1713 ft. +high and East Lomond 1471 ft., Saline Hill (1178 ft.) to the N.W. +of Dunfermline, and Benarty (1131 ft.) on the confines of Kinross +are the chief heights. Of the rivers the Eden is the longest; +formed on the borders of Kinross-shire by the confluence of +Beattie Burn and Carmore Burn, it pursues a wandering course +for 25 m. N.E., partly through the Howe, or Hollow of Fife, and +empties into the North Sea. There is good trout fishing in its +upper waters, but weirs prevent salmon from ascending it. +The Leven drains the loch of that name and enters the Forth +at the town of Leven after flowing eastward for 15 m. There +are numerous factories at various points on its banks. The +Ore, rising not far from Roscobie Hills to the north of Dunfermline, +follows a mainly north-easterly course for 15 m. till it joins +the Leven at Windygates. The old loch of Ore which was an +expansion of its water was long ago reclaimed. Motray Water +finds its source in the parish of Kilmany, a few miles W. by N. +of Cupar, makes a bold sweep towards the north-east, and then, +taking a southerly turn, enters the head-waters of St Andrews +Bay, after a course of 12 m. The principal lochs are Loch +Fitty, Loch Gelly, Loch Glow and Loch Lindores; they are +small but afford some sport for trout, perch and pike. “Freshwater +mussels” occur in Loch Fitty. There are no glens, and the +only large valley is the fertile Stratheden, which supplies part +of the title of the combined baronies of Stratheden (created +1836) and Campbell (created 1841).</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p><i>Geology.</i>—Between Damhead and Tayport on the northern side of +the low-lying Howe of Fife the higher ground is formed of Lower Old +Red Sandstone volcanic rocks, consisting of red and purple porphyrites +and andesites and some coarse agglomerates, which, in the +neighbourhood of Auchtermuchty, are rounded and conglomeratic. +These rocks have a gentle dip towards the S.S.E. They are overlaid +unconformably by the soft red sandstones of the Upper Old Red +series which underlie the Howe of Fife from Loch Leven to the +coast. The quarries in these rocks in Dura Den are famous for +fossil fishes. Following the Old Red rocks conformably are the +Carboniferous formations which occupy the remainder of the county, +and are well exposed on the coast and in the numerous quarries. +The Carboniferous rocks include, at the base, the Calciferous Sandstone +series of dark shales with thin limestones, sandstones and coals. +They are best developed around Fife Ness, between St Andrews and +Elie, and again around Burntisland between Kirkcaldy and Inverkeithing +Bay. In the Carboniferous Limestone series, which comes +next in upward succession, are the valuable gas-coals and ironstones +worked in the coal-fields of Dunfermline, Saline, Oakley, Torryburn, +Kirkcaldy and Markinch. The true Coal Measures lie in the district +around Dysart and Leven, East Wemyss and Kinglassie, and they +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page330" id="page330"></a>330</span> +are separated from the coal-bearing Carboniferous Limestone series +by the sandstones and conglomerates of the Millstone Grit, Fourteen +seams of coal are found in the Dysart Coal Measures, associated +with sandstones, shales and clay ironstones. Fife is remarkably rich +in evidences of former volcanic activity. Besides the Old Red +Sandstone volcanic rocks previously mentioned, there are many beds +of contemporaneous basaltic lavas and tuffs in the Carboniferous +rocks; Saline Hill and Knock Hill were the sites of vents, which at +that time threw out ashes; these interbedded rocks are well exposed +on the shore between Burntisland and and Seafield Tower. There were +also many intrusive sheets of dolerite and basalt forced into the +lower Carboniferous rocks, and these now play an important part +in the scenery of the county. They form the summits of the Lomond +Hills and Benarty, and they may be followed from Cult Hill by the +Cleish Hills to Blairadam; and again near Dunfermline, Burntisland, +Torryburn, Auchtertool and St Andrews. Later, in Permian times, +eastern Fife was the seat of further volcanic action, and great numbers +of “necks” or vents pierce the Carboniferous rocks; Largo Law is a +striking example. In one of these necks on the shore at Kincraig +Point is a fine example of columnar basalt; the “Rock and Spindle” +near St Andrews is another. Last of all in Tertiary times, east and +west rifts in the Old Red Sandstone were filled by basalt dikes. +Glacial deposits, ridges of gravel and sand, boulder clay, &c., brought +from the N. W., cover much of the older rocks, and traces of old +raised beaches are found round the coast and in the Howe cf Fife. +In the 25-ft. beach in the East Neuk of Fife is an island sea-cliff with +small caves.</p> +</div> + +<p><i>Climate and Agriculture.</i>—Since the higher hills all lie in the +west, most of the county is exposed to the full force of the east +winds from the North Sea, which often, save in the more sheltered +areas, check the progress of vegetation. At an elevation of 500 or +600 ft. above the sea harvests are three or four weeks later than +in the valleys and low-lying coast-land. The climate, on the +whole, is mild, proximity to the sea qualifying the heat in summer +and the cold in winter. The average annual rainfall is 31 in., +rather less in the East Neuk district and around St Andrews, +somewhat more as the hills are approached, late summer and +autumn being the wet season. The average temperature for +January is 38° F., for July 59.5°, and for the year 47.6°. Four-fifths +of the total area is under cultivation, and though the +acreage under grain is smaller than it was, the yield of each crop +is still extraordinarily good, oats, barley, wheat being the order +of acreage. Of the green crops most attention is given to turnips. +Potatoes also do well. The acreage under permanent pasture +and wood is very considerable. Cattle are mainly kept for feeding +purposes, and dairy farming, though attracting more notice, +has never been followed more than to supply local markets. +Sheep-farming, however, is on the increase, and the raising of +horses, especially farm horses, is an important pursuit. They +are strong, active and hardy, with a large admixture, or purely, +of Clydesdale blood. The ponies, hunters and carriage horses so +bred are highly esteemed. The strain of pigs has been improved +by the introduction of Berkshires. North of the Eden the soil, +though generally thin, is fertile, but the sandy waste of Tents +Moor is beyond redemption. From St Andrews southwards all +along the coast the land is very productive. That adjacent to +the East Neuk consists chiefly of clay and rich loam. From +Leven to Inverkeithing it varies from a light sand to a rich +clayey loam. Excepting Stratheden and Strathleven, which are +mostly rich, fertile loam, the interior is principally cold and stiff +clay or thin loam with strong clayey subsoil. Part of the Howe of +Fife is light and shingly and covered with heather. Some small +peat mosses still exist, and near Lochgelly there is a tract of +waste, partly moss and partly heath. The character of the farm +management may be judged by its results. The best methods are +pursued, and houses, steadings and cottages are all in good order, +commodious and comfortable. Rabbits, hares, pheasants and +partridges are common in certain districts; roe deer are occasionally +seen; wild geese, ducks and teal haunt the lochs; pigeon-houses +are fairly numerous; and grouse and blackcock are +plentiful on the Lomond moors. The shire is well suited for +fox-hunting, and there are packs in both the eastern and the +western division of Fife.</p> + +<p><i>Mining.</i>—Next to Lanarkshire, Fife is the largest coal-producing +county in Scotland. The coal-field may roughly be +divided into the Dunfermline basin (including Halbeath, Lochgelly +and Kelty), where the principal house coals are found, and +the Wemyss or Dysart basin (including Methil and the hinterland), +where gas-coal of the best quality is obtained. Coal is also +extensively worked at Culross, Carnock, Falfield, Donibristle, +Ladybank, Kilconquhar and elsewhere. Beds of ironstone, +limestone, sandstone and shale lie in many places contiguous to +the coal. Blackband ironstone is worked at Lochgelly and +Oakley, where there are large smelting furnaces. Oil shale is +worked at Burntisland and Airdrie near Crail. Among the +principal limestone quarries are those at Charlestown, Burntisland +and Cults. Freestone of superior quality is quarried at +Strathmiglo, Burntisland and Dunfermline. Whinstone of +unusual hardness and durability is obtained in nearly every +district. Lead has been worked in the Lomond Hills and copper +and zinc have been met with, though not in paying quantities. +It is of interest to note that in the trap tufa at Elie there have +been found pyropes (a variety of dark-red garnet), which are +regarded as the most valuable of Scottish precious stones and +are sold under the name of Elie rubies.</p> + +<p><i>Other Industries.</i>—The staple manufacture is linen, ranging +from the finest damasks to the coarsest ducks and sackings. Its +chief seats are at Kirkcaldy and Dunfermline, but it is carried on at +many of the inland towns and villages, especially those situated +near the Eden and Leven, on the banks of which rivers, as well as +at Kirkcaldy, Dunfermline and Ceres, are found the bleaching-greens. +Kirkcaldy is famous for its oil-cloth and linoleum. +Most of the leading towns possess breweries and tanneries, and +the largest distilleries are at Cameron Bridge and Burntisland. +Woollen cloth is made to a small extent in several towns, and +fishing-net at Kirkcaldy, Largo and West Wemyss. Paper is +manufactured at Guardbridge, Markinch and Leslie; earthenware +at Kirkcaldy; tobacco at Dunfermline and Kirkcaldy; +engineering works and iron foundries are found at Kirkcaldy and +Dunfermline; and shipbuilding is carried on at Kinghorn, +Dysart, Burntisland, Inverkeithing and Tayport. From Inverkeithing +all the way round the coast to Newburgh there are +harbours at different points. They are mostly of moderate +dimensions, the principal port being Kirkcaldy. The largest +salmon fisheries are conducted at Newburgh and the chief seat of +the herring fishery is Anstruther, but most of the coast towns +take some part in the fishing either off the shore, or at stations +farther north, or in the deep sea.</p> + +<p><i>Communications.</i>—The North British railway possesses a +monopoly in the shire. From the Forth Bridge the main line +follows the coast as far as Dysart and then turns northwards to +Ladybank, where it diverges to the north-east for Cupar and the +Tay Bridge. From Thornton Junction a branch runs to Dunfermline +and another to Methil, and here begins also the coast +line for Leven, Crail and St Andrews which touches the main line +again at Leuchars Junction; at Markinch a branch runs to +Leslie; at Ladybank there are branches to Mawcarse Junction, +and to Newburgh and Perth; and at Leuchars Junction a loop +line runs to Tayport and Newport, joining the main at Wormit. +From the Forth Bridge the system also connects, via Dunfermline, +with Alloa and Stirling in the W. and with Kinross and +Perth in the N. From Dunfermline there is a branch to Charlestown, +which on that account is sometimes called the port of +Dunfermline.</p> + +<p><i>Population and Government.</i>—The population was 190,365 +in 1891, and 218,840 in 1901, when 844 persons spoke Gaelic +and English and 3 Gaelic only. The chief towns are the +Anstruthers (pop. in 1901, 4233), Buckhaven (8828), Burntisland +(4846), Cowdenbeath (7908), Cupar (4511), Dunfermline (25,250), +Dysart (3562), Kelty (3986), Kirkcaldy (34,079), Leslie (3587), +Leven (5577), Lochgelly (5472), Lumphinnans (2071), Newport +(2869), St Andrews (7621), Tayport (3325) and Wemyss (2522). +For parliamentary purposes Fife is divided into an eastern +and a western division, each returning one member. It also +includes the Kirkcaldy district of parliamentary burghs (comprising +Burntisland, Dysart, Kinghorn and Kirkcaldy), and the +St Andrews district (the two Anstruthers, Crail, Cupar, Kilrenny, +Pittenweem and St Andrews); while Culross, Dunfermline +and Inverkeithing are grouped with the Stirling district. As +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page331" id="page331"></a>331</span> +regards education the county is under school-board jurisdiction, +and in respect of higher education its equipment is effective. +St Andrews contains several excellent schools; at Cupar there is +the Bell-Baxter school; at Dunfermline and <span class="correction" title="amended from Kirkclady">Kirkcaldy</span> there are +high schools and at Anstruther there is the Waid Academy.</p> + +<p><i>History.</i>—In remote times the term Fife was applied to the +peninsula lying between the estuaries of the Tay and Forth +and separated from the rest of the mainland by the Ochil Hills. +Its earliest inhabitants were Picts of the northern branch and +their country was long known as Pictavia. Doubtless it was +owing to the fact that the territory was long subject to the rule +of an independent king that Fife itself came to be called distinctively +The Kingdom, a name of which the natives are still proud. +The Romans effected no settlement in the province, though it is +probable that they temporarily occupied points here and there. +In any case the Romans left no impression on the civilization of +the natives. With the arrival of the missionaries—especially +St Serf, St Kenneth, St Rule, St Adrian, St Moran and St Fillan—and +conversion of the Picts went on apace. Interesting memorials +of these devout missionaries exist in the numerous coast caves +between Dysart and St Andrews and in the crosses and sculptured +stones, some doubtless of pre-Christian origin, to be seen at various +places. The word Fife, according to Skene, seems to be identical +with the Jutland <i>Fibh</i> (pronounced <i>Fife</i>) meaning “forest,” +and was probably first used by the Frisians to describe the country +behind the coasts of the Forth and Tay, where Frisian tribes are +supposed to have settled at the close of the 4th century. The +next immigration was Danish, which left lasting traces in many +place-names (such as the frequent use of <i>law</i> for hill). An +ancient division of the Kingdom into Fife and Fothrif survived +for a period for ecclesiastical purposes. The line of demarcation +ran from Leven to the east of Cults, thence to the west of Collessie +and thence to the east of Auchtermuchty. To the east of this +line lay Fife proper. In 1426 the first shire of Kinross was +formed, consisting of Kinross and Orwell, and was enlarged to +its present dimensions by the transference from Fife of the +parishes of Portmoak, Cleish and Tulliebole. Although the +county has lain outside of the main stream of Scottish history, +its records are far from dull or unimportant. During the reigns +of the earlier Stuarts, Dunfermline, Falkland and St Andrews +were often the scene of solemn pageantry and romantic episodes. +Out of the seventy royal burghs in Scotland no fewer than +eighteen are situated in the shire. However, notwithstanding +the marked preference of the Stuarts, the Kingdom did not +hesitate to play the leading part in the momentous dramas of +the Reformation and the Covenant, and by the 18th century the +people had ceased to regard the old royal line with any but +sentimental interest, and the Jacobite risings of 1715 and 1745 +evoked only the most lukewarm support.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See Sir Robert Sibbald, <i>History of the Sheriffdoms of Fife and +Kinross</i>; Rev. J.W. Taylor, <i>Historical Antiquities of Fife</i> (1875); +A.H. Millar, <i>Fife, Pictorial and Historical</i> (Cupar, 1895); Sheriff +Aeneas Mackay, sketch of the <i>History of Fife</i> (Edinburgh, 1890); +<i>History of Fife and Kinross</i> (Scottish County History series) (Edinburgh, +1896); John Geddie, <i>The Fringe of Fife</i> (Edinburgh, 1894).</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">FIFE<a name="ar162" id="ar162"></a></span> (Fr. <i>fifre</i>; Med. Ger. <i>Schweizerpfeiff</i>, <i>Feldpfeiff</i>; Ital. +<i>ottavino</i>), originally the small primitive cylindrical transverse +flute, now the small B♭ military flute, usually conoidal in bore, +used in a drum and fife band. The pitch of the fife lies between +that of the concert flute and piccolo. The fife, like the flute, is +an open pipe, for although the upper end is stopped by means +of a cork, an outlet is provided by the embouchure which is +never entirely closed by the lips. The six finger-holes of the +primitive flute, with the open end of the tube for a key-note, +gave the diatonic scale of the fundamental octave; the second +octave was produced by overblowing the notes of the fundamental +scale an octave higher; part of a third octave was +obtained by means of the higher harmonics produced by using +certain of the finger-holes as vent-holes. The modern fife has, +in addition to the six finger-holes, 4, 5 or 6 keys. Mersenne +describes and figures the fife, which had in his day the compass +of a fifteenth.<a name="fa1i" id="fa1i" href="#ft1i"><span class="sp">1</span></a> The fife, which, he states, differed from the +German flute only in having a louder and more brilliant tone and +a shorter and narrower bore, was the instrument used by the +Swiss with the drum. The sackbut, or serpent, was used as its +bass, for, as Mersenne explains, the bass instrument could not +be made long enough, nor could the hands reach the holes, +although some flutes were actually made with keys and had the +tube doubled back as in the bassoon.<a name="fa2i" id="fa2i" href="#ft2i"><span class="sp">2</span></a></p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>The words <i>fife</i> and the Fr. <i>fifre</i> were undoubtedly derived from +the Ger. <i>Pfeiff</i>, the fife being called by Praetorius<a name="fa3i" id="fa3i" href="#ft3i"><span class="sp">3</span></a> <i>Schweizerpfeiff</i> +and <i>Feldpfeiff</i>, while Martin Agricola,<a name="fa4i" id="fa4i" href="#ft4i"><span class="sp">4</span></a> writing a century earlier +(1529), mentions the transverse flute by the names of <i>Querchpfeiff</i> +or <i>Schweizerpfeiff</i>, which Sebastian Virdung<a name="fa5i" id="fa5i" href="#ft5i"><span class="sp">5</span></a> writes <i>Zwerchpfeiff</i>. +The Old English spelling was <i>phife</i>, <i>phiphe</i> or <i>ffyffe</i>. The fife was in +use in England in the middle of the 16th century, for at a muster of +the citizens of London in 1540, <i>droumes</i> and ffyffes are mentioned. +At the battle of St Quentin (1557) the list of the English army<a name="fa6i" id="fa6i" href="#ft6i"><span class="sp">6</span></a> +employed states that one trumpet was allowed to each cavalry troop +of 100 men, and a drum and fife to each hundred of foot. A drumme +and <i>phife</i> were also employed at one shilling per diem for the “Trayne +of Artillery.”<a name="fa7i" id="fa7i" href="#ft7i"><span class="sp">7</span></a> This was the nucleus of the modern military band, +and may be regarded as the first step in its formation. In England +the adoption of the fife as a military instrument was due to the +initiative of Henry VIII., who sent to Vienna for ten good drums +and as many fifers.<a name="fa8i" id="fa8i" href="#ft8i"><span class="sp">8</span></a> Ralph Smith<a name="fa9i" id="fa9i" href="#ft9i"><span class="sp">9</span></a> gives rules for drummers and +fifers who, in addition to the duty of giving signals in peace and war +to the company, were expected to be brave, secret and ingenious, +and masters of several languages, for they were oft sent to parley +with the enemy and were entrusted with honourable but dangerous +missions. In 1585 the drum and fife formed part of the furniture +for war among the companies of the city of London.<a name="fa10i" id="fa10i" href="#ft10i"><span class="sp">10</span></a> Queen +Elizabeth (according to Michaud, <i>Biogr. universelle</i>, tome xiii. p. 60) +had a peculiar taste for noisy music, and during meals had a concert +of twelve trumpets, two kettledrums, with fifes and drums. The +fife became such a favourite military instrument during the 16th +and 17th centuries in England that it displaced the bagpipe; it +was, however, in turn superseded early in the 18th century by the +hautboy (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Oboe</a></span>), introduced from France. In the middle of the +18th century the fife was reintroduced into the British army band +by the duke of Cumberland<a name="fa11i" id="fa11i" href="#ft11i"><span class="sp">11</span></a> in the Guards in 1745, commemorated +by William Hogarth’s picture of the “March of the Guards towards +Scotland in 1745,” in which are seen a drummer and fifer; and by +Colonel Bedford into the royal regiment of artillery in 1748, at the +end of the war, when a Hanoverian fifer, John Ulrich, was brought +over from Flanders as instructor.<a name="fa12i" id="fa12i" href="#ft12i"><span class="sp">12</span></a> In 1747 the 19th regiment, +known as Green Howards, also had the advantage of a Hanoverian +fifer as teacher, a youth presented by his colonel to Lieutenant-Colonel +Williams commanding the regiment at Bois-le-Duc. Drum +and fife bands in a short time became common in all infantry regiments, +while among the cavalry the trumpet prevailed.</p> + +<p>For the acoustics, construction and origin of the fife see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Flute</a></span>. +Illustrations of the fife may be seen in Cowdray’s picture of an encampment +at Portsmouth in 1548; in Sandford’s “Coronation +Procession of James II.,” and in C.R. Day’s <i>Descriptive Catalogue</i>, +pl. i. (F) (description No. 42, p. 27).</p> +</div> +<div class="author">(K. S.)</div> + +<hr class="foot" /> <div class="note"> + +<p><a name="ft1i" id="ft1i" href="#fa1i"><span class="fn">1</span></a> <i>Harmonie universelle</i> (Paris, 1636), bk. v. prop. 9, pp. 241-244.</p> + +<p><a name="ft2i" id="ft2i" href="#fa2i"><span class="fn">2</span></a> For an illustration of one of these bass flutes see article <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Flute</a></span>, +Fig. 2.</p> + +<p><a name="ft3i" id="ft3i" href="#fa3i"><span class="fn">3</span></a> <i>Syntagma musicum</i> (Wolfenbüttel, 1618), pp. 40-41 of Reprint.</p> + +<p><a name="ft4i" id="ft4i" href="#fa4i"><span class="fn">4</span></a> <i>Musica instrumentalis</i> (Wittenberg, 1529).</p> + +<p><a name="ft5i" id="ft5i" href="#fa5i"><span class="fn">5</span></a> <i>Musica getutscht und auszgezogen</i> (Basel, 1511).</p> + +<p><a name="ft6i" id="ft6i" href="#fa6i"><span class="fn">6</span></a> See Sir S.D. Scott, <i>The British Army</i>, vol. ii. p. 396.</p> + +<p><a name="ft7i" id="ft7i" href="#fa7i"><span class="fn">7</span></a> See H.G. Farmer, <i>Memoirs of the Royal Artillery Band</i> (London, +1904).</p> + +<p><a name="ft8i" id="ft8i" href="#fa8i"><span class="fn">8</span></a> <i>Id.</i></p> + +<p><a name="ft9i" id="ft9i" href="#fa9i"><span class="fn">9</span></a> <i>Id.</i></p> + +<p><a name="ft10i" id="ft10i" href="#fa10i"><span class="fn">10</span></a> Stowe’s <i>Chronicles</i>, p. 702.</p> + +<p><a name="ft11i" id="ft11i" href="#fa11i"><span class="fn">11</span></a> Grose, <i>Military Antiquities</i> (London, 1801), vol. ii.</p> + +<p><a name="ft12i" id="ft12i" href="#fa12i"><span class="fn">12</span></a> See Colonel P. Forbes Macbean, <i>Memoirs of the Royal Regiment of +Artillery</i>.</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">FIFTH MONARCHY MEN,<a name="ar163" id="ar163"></a></span> the name of a Puritan sect in +England which for a time supported the government of Oliver +Cromwell in the belief that it was a preparation for the “fifth +monarchy,” that is for the monarchy which should succeed the +Assyrian, the Persian, the Greek and the Roman, and during +which Christ should reign on earth with His saints for a thousand +years. These sectaries aimed at bringing about the entire abolition +of the existing laws and institutions, and the substitution +of a simpler code based upon the law of Moses. Disappointed +at the delay in the fulfilment of their hopes, they soon began +to agitate against the government and to vilify Cromwell; but +the arrest of their leaders and preachers, Christopher Feake, +John Rogers and others, cooled their ardour, and they were, +perforce, content to cherish their hopes in secret until after the +Restoration. Then, on the 6th of January 1661, a band of fifth +monarchy men, headed by a cooper named Thomas Venner, +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page332" id="page332"></a>332</span> +who was one of their preachers, made an attempt to obtain +possession of London. Most of them were either killed or taken +prisoners, and on the 19th and 21st of January Venner and ten +others were executed for high treason. From that time the +special doctrines of the sect either died out, or became merged +in a milder form of millenarianism, similar to that which exists +at the present day.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>For the proceedings of the sect see S.R. Gardiner, <i>History of +the Commonwealth and Protectorate</i>, <i>passim</i> (London, 1894-1901); +and for an account of the rising of 1661 see Sir John Reresby, +<i>Memoirs</i>, 1634-1689, edited by J.J. Cartwright (London, 1875).</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">FIG,<a name="ar164" id="ar164"></a></span> the popular name given to plants of the genus <i>Ficus</i>, an +extensive group, included in the natural order Moraceae, and +characterized by a remarkable development of the pear-shaped +receptacle, the edge of which curves inwards, so as to form a +nearly closed cavity, bearing the numerous fertile and sterile +flowers mingled on its surface. The figs vary greatly in habit,—some +being low trailing shrubs, others gigantic trees, among the +most striking forms of those tropical forests to which they are +chiefly indigenous. They have alternate leaves, and abound in a +milky juice, usually acrid, though in a few instances sufficiently +mild to be used for allaying thirst. This juice contains caoutchouc +in large quantity.</p> + +<table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:520px; height:580px" src="images/img332.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Figure</span> 1.—Fruiting Branch of Fig, <i>Ficus Carica</i>; about <span class="spp">2</span>⁄<span class="suu">7</span> nat. size.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl f90">1. Unripe fruit cut lengthwise; about ½ nat. size. 2. Female +flower taken from 1; enlarged. 3. Ripe fruit cut lengthwise; about +½ nat. size.</td></tr></table> + +<p class="pt2"><i>Ficus Carica</i> (figure 1), which yields the well-known figs of +commerce, is a bush or small tree—rarely more than 18 or 20 ft. +high,—with broad, rough, deciduous leaves, very deeply lobed in +the cultivated varieties, but in the wild plant sometimes nearly +entire. The green, rough branches bear the solitary, nearly +sessile receptacles in the axils of the leaves. The male flowers are +placed chiefly in the upper part of the cavity, and in most +varieties are few in number. As it ripens, the receptacle enlarges +greatly, and the numerous single-seeded pericarps or true fruits +become imbedded in it. The fruit of the wild fig never acquires +the succulence of the cultivated kinds. The fig seems to be +indigenous to Asia Minor and Syria, but now occurs in a wild +state in most of the countries around the Mediterranean. From +the ease with which the nutritious fruit can be preserved, it +was probably one of the earliest objects of cultivation, as may +be inferred from the frequent allusions to it in the Hebrew +Scriptures.<a name="fa1j" id="fa1j" href="#ft1j"><span class="sp">1</span></a> From a passage in Herodotus the fig would seem to +have been unknown to the Persians in the days of the first Cyrus; +but it must have spread in remote ages over all the districts +around the Aegean and Levant. The Greeks are said to have +received it from Caria (hence the specific name); but the fruit so +improved under Hellenic culture that Attic figs became celebrated +throughout the East, and special laws were made to regulate +their exportation. From the contemptuous name given to informers +against the violation of those enactments, <span class="grk" title="sukophantai +(sukon, phainô)">συκοφάνται (σῦκον, φαίνω)</span>, our word sycophant is usually derived. The +fig was one of the principal articles of sustenance among the +Greeks; the Spartans especially used it largely at their public +tables. From Hellas, at some prehistoric period, it was transplanted +to Italy and the adjacent islands. Pliny enumerates +many varieties, and alludes to those from Ebusus (the modern +Iviza) as most esteemed by Roman epicures; while he describes +those of home growth as furnishing a large portion of the food of +the slaves, particularly those employed in agriculture, by whom +great quantities were eaten in the fresh state at the periods of +fig-harvest. In Latin myths the plant plays an important part. +Held sacred to Bacchus, it was employed in religious ceremonies; +and the fig-tree that overshadowed the twin founders of Rome in +the wolf’s cave, as an emblem of the future prosperity of the race, +testified to the high value set upon the fruit by the nations of +antiquity. The tree is now cultivated in all the Mediterranean +countries, but the larger portion of our supply of figs comes from +Asia Minor, the Spanish Peninsula and the south of France. +Those of Asiatic Turkey are considered the best. The varieties +are extremely numerous, and the fruit is of various colours, from +deep purple to yellow, or nearly white. The trees usually bear +two crops,—one in the early summer from the buds of the last +year, the other in the autumn from those on the spring growth; +the latter forms the chief harvest. Many of the immature +receptacles drop off from imperfect fertilization, which circumstance +has led, from very ancient times, to the practice of +<i>caprification</i>.<a name="fa2j" id="fa2j" href="#ft2j"><span class="sp">2</span></a> Branches of the wild fig in flower are placed over +the cultivated bushes. Certain hymenopterous insects, of the +genera <i>Blastophaga</i> and <i>Sycophaga</i>, which frequent the wild fig, +enter the minute orifice of the receptacle, apparently to deposit +their eggs; conveying thus the pollen more completely to the +stigmas, they ensure the fertilization and consequent ripening of +the fruit. By some the nature of the process has been questioned, +and the better maturation of the fruit attributed merely to the +stimulus given by the puncture of the insect, as in the case of the +apple; but the arrangement of the unisexual flowers in the fig +renders the first theory the more probable. In some districts a +straw or small twig is thrust into the receptacle with a similar +object. When ripe the figs are picked, and spread out to dry in +the sun,—those of better quality being much pulled and extended +by hand during the process. Thus prepared, the fruit is packed +closely in barrels, rush baskets, or wooden boxes, for commerce. +The best kind, known as elemi, are shipped at Smyrna, where the +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page333" id="page333"></a>333</span> +pulling and packing of figs form one of the most important +industries of the people.</p> + +<p>This fruit still constitutes a large part of the food of the natives +of western Asia and southern Europe, both in the fresh and dried +state. A sort of cake made by mashing up the inferior kinds +serves in parts of the Archipelago as a substitute for bread. +Alcohol is obtained from fermented figs in some southern +countries; and a kind of wine, still made from the ripe fruit, +was known to the ancients, and mentioned by Pliny under the +name of <i>sycites</i>. Medicinally the fig is employed as a gentle +laxative, when eaten abundantly often proving useful in +chronic constipation; it forms a part of the well-known “confection +of senna.” The milky juice of the stems and leaves is +very acrid, and has been used in some countries for raising +blisters. The wood is porous and of little value; though a piece, +saturated with oil and spread with emery, is in France a common +substitute for a hone.</p> + +<p>The fig is grown for its fresh fruit (eaten as an article of dessert) +in all the milder parts of Europe, and in the United States, with +protection in winter, succeeds as far north as Pennsylvania. +The fig was introduced into England by Cardinal Pole, from +Italy, early in the 16th century. It lives to a great age, and +along the southern coast of England bears fruit abundantly as a +standard; but in Scotland and in many parts of England a south +wall is indispensable for its successful cultivation out of doors.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>Fig trees are propagated by cuttings, which should be put into +pots, and placed in a gentle hotbed. They may be obtained more +speedily from layers, which should consist of two or three years old +shoots, and these, when rooted, will form plants ready to bear fruit +the first or second year after planting. The best soil for a fig border +is a friable loam, not too rich, but well drained; a chalky subsoil +is congenial to the tree, and, to correct the tendency to over-luxuriance +of growth, the roots should be confined within spaces surrounded +by a wall enclosing an area of about a square yard. The sandy soil +of Argenteuil, near Paris, suits the fig remarkably well; but the best +trees are those which grow in old quarries, where their roots are free +from stagnant water, and where they are sheltered from cold, while +exposed to a very hot sun, which ripens the fruit perfectly. The fig +succeeds well planted in a paved court against a building with a +south aspect.</p> + +<p>The fig tree naturally produces two sets of shoots and two crops +of fruit in the season. The first shoots generally show young figs +in July and August, but these in the climate of England very seldom +ripen, and should therefore be rubbed off. The late or midsummer +shoots likewise put forth fruit-buds, which, however, do not develop +themselves till the following spring; and these form the only crop of +figs on which the British gardener can depend.</p> + +<p>The fig tree grown as a standard should get very little pruning, +the effect of cutting being to stimulate the buds to push shoots too +vigorous for bearing. When grown against a wall, it has been +recommended that a single stem should be trained to the height of +a foot. Above this a shoot should be trained to the right, and +another to the left; from these principals two other subdivisions +should be encouraged, and trained 15 in. apart; and along these +branches, at distances of about 8 in., shoots for bearing, as nearly +as possible of equal vigour, should be encouraged. The bearing shoots +produced along the leading branches should be trained in at full +length, and in autumn every alternate one should be cut back to +one eye. In the following summer the trained shoots should bear +and ripen fruit, and then be cut back in autumn to one eye, while +shoots from the bases of those cut back the previous autumn should +be trained for succession. In this way every leading branch will +be furnished alternately with bearing and successional shoots.</p> + +<p>When protection is necessary, as it may be in severe winters, +though it is too often provided in excess, spruce branches have been +found to answer the purpose exceedingly well, owing to the fact +that their leaves drop off gradually when the weather becomes +milder in spring, and when the trees require less protection and +more light and air. The principal part requiring protection is the +main stem, which is more tender than the young wood.</p> + +<p>In forcing, the fig requires more heat than the vine to bring it +into leaf. It may be subjected to a temperature of 50° at night, +and from 60° to 65 ° C in the day, and this should afterwards be increased +to 60° and 65° by night, and 70° to 75° by day, or even +higher by sun heat, giving plenty of air at the same time. In this +temperature the evaporation from the leaves is very great, and this +must be replaced and the wants of the swelling fruit supplied by +daily watering, by syringing the foliage, and by moistening the +floor, this atmospheric moisture being also necessary to keep down +the red spider. When the crop begins to ripen, a moderately dry +atmosphere should be maintained, with abundant ventilation when +the weather permits.</p> + +<p>The fig tree is easily cultivated in pots, and by introducing the +plants into heat in succession the fruiting season may be considerably +extended. The plants should be potted in turfy loam mixed +with charcoal and old mortar rubbish, and in summer top-dressings +of rotten manure, with manure water two or three times a week, +will be beneficial. While the fruit is swelling, the pots should be +plunged in a bed of fermenting leaves.</p> + +<p>The following are a few of the best figs; those marked F, are good +forcing sorts, and those marked W. suitable for walls:—</p> + +<p>Agen: brownish-green, turbinate.</p> + +<p>Brown Ischia, F.: chestnut-coloured, roundish-turbinate.</p> + +<p>Brown Turkey (Lee’s Perpetual), F., W.: purplish-brown, turbinate.</p> + +<p>Brunswick, W.: brownish-green, pyriform.</p> + +<p>Col di Signora Bianca, F.: greenish-yellow, pyriform.</p> + +<p>Col di Signora Nero: dark chocolate, pyriform.</p> + +<p>Early Violet, F.: brownish-purple, roundish.</p> + +<p>Grizzly Bourjassotte: chocolate, round.</p> + +<p>Grosse Monstreuse de Lipari: pale chestnut, turbinate.</p> + +<p>Negro Largo, F.: black, long pyriform.</p> + +<p>White Ischia, F.: greenish-yellow, roundish-obovate.</p> + +<p>White Marseilles, F., W.: pale green, roundish-obovate.</p> +</div> + +<p>The sycamore fig, <i>Ficus Sycomorus</i>, is a tree of large size, with +heart-shaped leaves, which, from their fancied resemblance to +those of the mulberry, gave origin to the name <span class="grk" title="Sukomoros">Συκόμορος</span>. From +the deep shade cast by its spreading branches, it is a favourite +tree in Egypt and Syria, being often planted along roads and +near houses. It bears a sweet edible fruit, somewhat like that of +the common fig, but produced in racemes on the older boughs. +The apex of the fruit is sometimes removed, or an incision made +in it, to induce earlier ripening. The ancients, after soaking it in +water, preserved it like the common fig. The porous wood is only +fit for fuel.</p> + +<table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:523px; height:436px" src="images/img333.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Figure</span> 2.—India-rubber Tree, <i>Ficus elastica</i>, showing spreading +woody roots.</td></tr></table> + +<p>The sacred fig, peepul, or bo, <i>Ficus religiosa</i>, a large tree with +heart-shaped, long-pointed leaves on slender footstalks, is much +grown in southern Asia. The leaves are used for tanning, and +afford lac, and a gum resembling caoutchouc is obtained from the +juice; but in India it is chiefly planted with a religious object, +being regarded as sacred by both Brahmans and Buddhists. +The former believe that the last avatar of Vishnu took place +beneath its shade. A gigantic bo, described by Sir J. Emerson +Tennent as growing near Anarajapoora, in Ceylon, is, if tradition +may be trusted, one of the oldest trees in the world. It is said to +have been a branch of the tree under which Gautama Buddha +became endued with his divine powers, and has always been held +in the greatest veneration. The figs, however, hold as important +a place in the religious fables of the East as the ash in the myths +of Scandinavia.</p> + +<p><i>Ficus elastica</i>, the India-rubber tree (figure 2), the large, +oblong, glossy leaves, and pink buds of which are so familiar in +our greenhouses, furnishes most of the caoutchouc obtained +from the East Indies. It grows to a large size, and is remarkable +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page334" id="page334"></a>334</span> +for the snake-like roots that extend in contorted masses around +the base of the trunk. The small fruit is unfit for food.</p> + +<p><i>Ficus bengalensis</i>, or the Banyan, wild in parts of northern +India, but generally planted throughout the country, has a woody +stem, branching to a height of 70 to 100 ft. and of vast extent +with heart-shaped entire leaves terminating in acute points. +Every branch from the main body throws out its own roots, at +first in small tender fibres, several yards from the ground; but +these continually grow thicker until they reach the surface, +when they strike in, increase to large trunks, and become parent +trees, shooting out new branches from the top, which again +in time suspend their roots, and these, swelling into trunks, +produce other branches, the growth continuing as long as the +earth contributes her sustenance. On the bank’s of the Nerbudda +stood a celebrated tree of this kind, which is supposed to be that +described by Nearchus, the admiral of Alexander the Great. +This tree once covered an area so immense, that it was known +to shelter no fewer than 7000 men, and though much reduced in +size by the destructive power of the floods, the remainder was +described by James Forbes (1749-1819), in his <i>Oriental Memoirs</i> +(1813-1815) as nearly 2000 ft. in circumference, while the trunks +large and small exceeded 3000 in number. The tree usually +grows from seeds dropped by birds on other trees. The leaf-axil +of a palm forms a frequent receptacle for their growth, the palm +becoming ultimately strangled by the growth of the fig, which +by this time has developed numerous daughter stems which +continue to expand and cover ultimately a large area. The +famous tree in the Royal Botanic Gardens, Calcutta, began its +growth at the end of the 18th century on a sacred date-palm. +In 1907 it had nearly 250 aerial roots, the parent trunk was +42 ft. in girth, and its leafy crown had a circumference of 857 ft.; +and it was still growing vigorously. Both this tree and <i>F. religiosa</i> +cause destruction to buildings, especially in Bengal, from seeds +dropped by birds germinating on the walls. The tree yields an +inferior rubber, and a coarse rope is prepared from the bark and +from the aerial roots.</p> + +<hr class="foot" /> <div class="note"> + +<p><a name="ft1j" id="ft1j" href="#fa1j"><span class="fn">1</span></a> Of these the case of the Barren Fig-tree (Mark. xi. 12-14, 20-21: +compare Matt. xxi. 18-20), which Jesus cursed and which then +withered away, has been much discussed among theologians. The +difficulty is in Mark xi. 13: “And seeing a fig-tree afar off having +leaves, he came, if haply he might find anything thereon; and when +he came to it he found nothing but leaves, for the time of figs was +not yet.” These last words obviously raise the question whether +the expectation of Jesus of finding figs, and his cursing of the tree +on finding none, were not unreasonable. Many ingenious solutions +have been propounded, by suggested emendations of the text and +otherwise, for which consult M’Clintock and Strong’s <i>Cyclopaedia +of Biblical Literature</i> (<i>sub</i> “Fig”) and the <i>Encyclopaedia Biblica</i> +(“Fig-tree”); the former demurs to the unreasonableness, and +contends that the appearance of the leaves at this season (March) +indicated a pretentious precocity in this particular fig-tree, so that +Jesus was entitled to expect that it would also have fruit, even +though the season had not arrived; the <i>Ency. Biblica</i>, on the other +hand, supposes that some “early Christian,” confounding parable +with history, has misunderstood the parable in Luke xiii. 6-9, and, +forgetting that the season was not one for figs, has transformed it +here into the narrative of an act of Jesus. The probability seems to +be that the words “for the time of figs was not yet” are an unintelligent +gloss by an early reader, which has made its way into the +text. For authorities see the works mentioned above.</p> + +<p><a name="ft2j" id="ft2j" href="#fa2j"><span class="fn">2</span></a> From Lat. <i>caprificus</i>, a wild fig; O. Eng. <i>caprifig</i>.</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">FIGARO,<a name="ar165" id="ar165"></a></span> a famous dramatic character first introduced on the +stage by Beaumarchais in the <i>Barbier de Séville</i>, the <i>Mariage +de Figaro</i>, and the <i>Folle Journée</i>. The name is said to be an old +Spanish and Italian word for a wigmaker, connected with the +verb <i>cigarrar</i>, to roll in paper. Many of the traits of the character +are to be found in earlier comic types of the Roman and Italian +stage, but as a whole the conception was marked by great +originality; and Figaro soon, seized the popular imagination, +and became the recognized representative of daring, clever and +nonchalant roguery and intrigue. Almost immediately after its +appearance, Mozart chose the <i>Marriage of Figaro</i> as the subject +of an opera, and the <i>Barber of Seville</i> was treated first by Paisiello, +and afterwards in 1816 by Rossini. In 1826 the name of the +witty rogue was taken by a journal which continued till 1833 +to be one of the principal Parisian periodicals, numbering among +its contributors such men as Jules Janin, Paul Lacroix, Léon +Gozlan, Alphonse Karr, Dr Veron, Jules Sandeau and George +Sand. Various abortive attempts were made to restore the +<i>Figaro</i> during the next twenty years; and in 1854 the efforts of +M. de Villemessant were crowned with success (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Newspapers</a></span>: +<i>France</i>).</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See Marc Monnier, <i>Les Aieux de Figaro</i> (1868); H. de Villemessant, +<i>Mémoires d’un journaliste</i> (1867).</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">FIGEAC,<a name="ar166" id="ar166"></a></span> a town of south-western France, capital of an +arrondissement in the department of Lot, 47 m. E.N.E. of +Cahors on the Orléans railway. Pop. (1906) 4330. It is enclosed +by an amphitheatre of wooded and vine-clad hills, on the right +bank of the Célé, which is here crossed by an old bridge. It is +ill-built and the streets are narrow and dirty; on the outskirts +shady boulevards have taken the place of the ramparts by which +it was surrounded. The town is very rich in old houses of the +13th and 14th centuries; among them may be mentioned +the Hôtel de Balène, of the 14th century, used as a prison. +Another house, dating from the 15th century, was the birthplace +of the Egyptologist J.F. Champollion, in memory of whom the +town has erected an obelisk. The principal church is that of +St Sauveur, which once belonged to the abbey of Figeac. It +was built at the beginning of the 12th century, but restored +later; the façade in particular is modern. Notre-Dame du Puy, +in the highest part of the town, belongs to the 12th and 13th +centuries. It has no transept and its aisles extend completely +round the interior. The altar-screen is a fine example of carved +woodwork of the end of the 17th century. Of the four obelisks +which used to mark the limits of the authority of the abbots +of Figeac, those to the south and the west of the town remain. +Figeac is the seat of a subprefect and has a tribunal of first instance, +and a communal college. Brewing, tanning, printing, +cloth-weaving and the manufacture of agricultural implements +are among the industries. Trade is in cattle, leather, wool, plums, +walnuts and grain, and there are zinc mines in the neighbourhood.</p> + +<p>Figeac grew up round an abbey founded by Pippin the Short +in the 8th century, and throughout the middle ages it was the +property of the monks. At the end of the 16th century the lordship +was acquired by King Henry IV.’s minister, the duke of +Sully, who sold it to Louis XIII. in 1622.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">FIGUEIRA DA FOZ,<a name="ar167" id="ar167"></a></span> or <span class="sc">Figueira</span>, a seaport of central +Portugal, in the district of Coimbra, formerly included in the +province of Beira; on the north bank of the river Mondego, +at its mouth, and at the terminus of the Lisbon-Figueira and +Guarda-Figueira railways. Pop. (1900) 6221. Figueira da Foz +is an important fishing-station, and one of the headquarters of +the coasting trade in grain, fruit, wine, olive oil, cork and coal; +but owing to the bar at the mouth of the Mondego large ships +cannot enter. Glass is manufactured, and the city attracts many +visitors by its excellent climate and sea-bathing. A residential +suburb, the Bairro Novo, exists chiefly for their accommodation, +to the north-west of the old town. Figueira is connected by +a tramway running 4 m. N. W. with Buarcos (pop. 5033) and +with the coal-mines of Cape Mondego. Lavos (pop. 7939), on +the south bank of the Mondego, was the principal landing-place +of the British troops which came, in 1808, to take part in the +Peninsular War. Figueira da Foz received the title and privileges +of city by a decree dated the 20th of September 1882.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">FIGUERAS,<a name="ar168" id="ar168"></a></span> a town of north-eastern Spain, in the province +of Gerona, 14 m. S. of the French frontier, on the Barcelona-Perpignan +railway. Pop. (1900) 10,714. Figueras is built at +the foot of the Pyrenees, and on the northern edge of El +Ampurdan, a fertile and well-irrigated plain, which produces wine, +olives and rice, and derives its name from the seaport of Ampurias, +the ancient Emporiae. The castle of San Fernando, 1 m. N.W., is +an irregular pentagonal structure, built by order of Ferdinand VI. +(1746-1759), on the site of a Capuchin convent. Owing to its +situation, and the rocky nature of the ground over which a +besieger must advance, it is still serviceable as the key to the +frontier. It affords accommodation for 16,000 men and is well +provided with bomb-proof cover. In 1794 Figueras was surrendered +to the French, but it was regained in 1795. During +the Peninsular War it was taken by the French in 1808, recaptured +by the Spaniards in 1811, and retaken by the French +in the same year. In 1823, after a long defence, it was once more +captured by the French. An annual pilgrimage from Figueras +to the chapel of Nuestra Señora de Requesens, 15 m. N., commemorates +the deliverance of the town from a severe epidemic +of fever in 1612.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">FIGULUS, PUBLIUS NIGIDIUS<a name="ar169" id="ar169"></a></span> (<i>c</i>. 98-45 <span class="scs">B.C.</span>), Roman +savant, next to Varro the most learned Roman of the age. He +was a friend of Cicero, to whom he gave his support at the time +of the Catilinarian conspiracy (Plutarch, <i>Cicero</i>, 20; Cicero, +<i>Pro Sulla</i>, xiv. 42). In 58 he was praetor, sided with Pompey +in the Civil War, and after his defeat was banished by Caesar, +and died in exile. According to Cicero (<i>Timaeus</i>, 1), Figulus +endeavoured with some success to revive the doctrines of Pythagoreanism. +With this was included mathematics, astronomy +and astrology, and even the magic arts. According to Suetonius +(<i>Augustus</i>, 94) he foretold the greatness of the future emperor +on the day of his birth, and Apuleius (<i>Apologia</i>, 42) records +that, by the employment of “magic boys” (<i>magici pueri</i>), he +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page335" id="page335"></a>335</span> +helped to find a sum of money that had been lost. Jerome (the +authority for the date of his death) calls him <i>Pythagoricus et +magus</i>. The abstruse nature of his studies, the mystical character +of his writings, and the general indifference of the Romans to +such subjects, caused his works to be soon forgotten. Amongst +his scientific, theological and grammatical works mention may +be made of <i>De diis</i>, containing an examination of various cults +and ceremonials; treatises on divination and the interpretation +of dreams; on the sphere, the winds and animals. His <i>Commentarii +grammatici</i> in at least 29 books was an ill-arranged collection +of linguistic, grammatical and antiquarian notes. In these he +expressed the opinion that the meaning of words was natural, +not fixed by man. He paid especial attention to orthography, +and sought to differentiate the meanings of cases of like ending by +distinctive marks (the apex to indicate a long vowel is attributed +to him). In etymology he endeavoured to find a Roman explanation +of words where possible (according to him <i>frater</i> was += <i>fere alter</i>). Quintilian (<i>Instit. orat.</i> xi, 3. 143) speaks of a +rhetorical treatise <i>De gestu</i> by him.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See Cicero, <i>Ad Fam.</i> iv. 13; scholiast on Lucan i. 639; several +references in Aulus Gellius; Teuffel, <i>Hist. of Roman Literature</i>, 170; +M. Hertz, De N.F. <i>studiis atque operibus</i> (1845); <i>Quaestiones +Nigidianae</i> (1890), and edition of the fragments (1889) by A. Swoboda.</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">FIGURATE NUMBERS,<a name="ar170" id="ar170"></a></span> in mathematics. If we take the sum +of n terms of the series 1 + 1 + 1 + ..., <i>i.e.</i> n, as the nth term of +a new series, we obtain the series 1 + 2 + 3 + ..., the sum +of n terms of which is ½n · n + 1. Taking this sum as the nth +term, we obtain the series 1 + 3 + 6 + 10 + ..., which has +for the sum of n terms n (n + 1) (n + 2) / 3!<a name="fa1k" id="fa1k" href="#ft1k"><span class="sp">1</span></a> This sum is taken as +the nth term of the next series, and proceeding in this way we +obtain series having the following nth terms:—</p> + +<p class="center">1, n, n(n + 1)/2!, n(n + 1)(n + 2)/3!, ...n(n+1) ...(n + r − 2)/(r − 1)!.</p> + +<p class="noind">The numbers obtained by giving n any value in these expressions +are of the first, second, third, ... or rth order of figurate +numbers.</p> + +<table class="flt" style="float: right; width: 275px;" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figright1"><img style="width:225px; height:190px" src="images/img335a.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr></table> + +<p>Pascal treated these numbers in his <i>Traité du triangle arithmetique</i> +(1665), using them to develop a theory of combinations +and to solve problems in probability. +His table is here shown +in its simplest form. It is to be +noticed that each number is the +sum of the numbers immediately +above and to the left of it; and +that the numbers along a line, +termed a <i>base</i>, which cuts off an +equal number of units along the +top row and column are the coefficients +in the binomial expansion +of (1 + x)<span class="sp">r−1</span>, where r represents the number of units +cut off.</p> + +<hr class="foot" /> <div class="note"> + +<p><a name="ft1k" id="ft1k" href="#fa1k"><span class="fn">1</span></a> The notation n! denotes the product 1 · 2 · 3 · ... n, and is termed +“factorial n.”</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" style="clear: both;" /> +<p><span class="bold">FIJI<a name="ar171" id="ar171"></a></span> (<i>Viti</i>), a British colony consisting of an archipelago in +the Pacific Ocean, the most important in Polynesia, between +15° and 20° S., and on and about the meridian of 180°. The +islands number about 250, of which some 80 are inhabited. +The total land area is 7435 sq. m. (thus roughly equalling that +of Wales), and the population is about 121,000. The principal +island is Viti Levu, 98 m. in length (E. to W.) and 67 in extreme +breadth, with an area of 4112 sq. m. Forty miles N.E. lies +Vanua Levu, measuring 117 m. by 30, with an area of 2432 sq. m. +Close off the south-eastern shore of Vanua Levu is Taviuni, +26 m. in length by 10 in breadth; Kandavu or Kadavu, 36 m. +long and very narrow, is 41 m. S. of Viti Levu, and the three +other main islands, lying east of Viti Levu in the Koro Sea, are +Koro, Ngau or Gau, and Ovalau. South-east from Vanua Levu +a loop of islets extends nearly to 20° S., enclosing the Koro Sea. +North-west of Viti Levu lies another chain, the Yasawa or +western group; and, finally, the colony includes the island of +Rotumah (<i>q.v.</i>), 300 m. N.W. by N. of Vanua Levu.</p> + +<p>The formation of the larger islands is volcanic, their surface +rugged, their vegetation luxuriant, and their appearance very +beautiful; their hills rise often above 3000, and, in the case of a +few summits, above 4000 ft., and they contrast strongly with the +low coral formation of the smaller members of the group. There +is not much level country, except in the coral islets, and certain +rich tracts along the coasts of the two large islands, especially +near the mouths of the rivers. The large islands have a considerable +extent of undulating country, dry and open on their +lee sides. Streams and rivers are abundant, the latter very +large in proportion to the size of the islands, affording a waterway +to the rich districts along their banks. These and the extensive +mud flats and deltas at their mouths are often flooded, by which +their fertility is increased, though at a heavy cost to the cultivator. +The Rewa, debouching through a wide delta at the +south-east of Viti Levu, is navigable for small vessels for 40 m. +There are also in this island the Navua and Sigatoka (flowing S.), +the Nandi (W.), and the Ba (N.W.). The Dreketi, flowing W., +is the chief stream of Vanua Levu. It breaches the mountains +in a fine valley; for this island consists practically of one long +range, whereas the main valleys and ranges separating them in +Viti Levu radiate for the most part from a common centre. +With few exceptions the islands are surrounded by barriers +of coral, broken by openings opposite the mouths of streams. +Viti Levu is the most important island not only from its size, +but from its fertility, variety of surface, and population, which +is over one-third of that of the whole group. The town of Suva +lies on an excellent harbour at the south-east of the island, and +has been the capital of the colony since 1882, containing the +government buildings and other offices. Vanua Levu is less +fertile than Viti Levu; it has good anchorages along its entire +southern coast. Of the other islands, Taviuni, remarkable for +a lake (presumably a crater-lake) at the top of its lofty central +ridge, is fertile, but exceptionally devoid of harbours; whereas +the well-timbered island of Kandavu has an excellent one. On +the eastern shore of Ovalau, an island which contains in a small +area a remarkable series of gorge-like valleys between commanding +hills, is the town of Levuka, the capital until 1882. It stands +partly upon the narrow shore, and partly climbs the rocky slope +behind. The chief islands on the west of the chain enclosing +the Koro Sea are Koro, Ngau, Moala and Totoya, all productive, +affording good anchorage, elevated and picturesque. The +eastern islands of the chain are smaller and more numerous, +Vanua Batevu (one of the Exploring Group) being a centre of +trade. Among others, Mago is remarkable for a subterranean +outlet of the waters of the fertile valley in its midst.</p> + +<div class="center pt2"><img style="width:522px; height:471px; vertical-align: middle;" src="images/img335b.jpg" alt="" /></div> + +<p class="pt2">The land is of recent geological formation, the principal +ranges being composed of igneous rock, and showing traces of +much volcanic disturbance. There are boiling springs in Vanua +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page336" id="page336"></a>336</span> +Levu and Ngau, and slight shocks of earthquake are occasionally +felt. The tops of many of the mountains, from Kandavu in the +S.W., through Nairai and Koro, to the Ringgold group in the +N.E., have distinct craters, but their activity has long ceased. +The various decomposing volcanic rocks—tufas, conglomerates +and basalts—mingled with decayed vegetable matter, and +abundantly watered, form a very fertile soil. Most of the high +peaks on the larger islands are basaltic, and the rocks generally +are igneous, with occasional upheaved coral found sometimes +over 1000 ft. above the sea; but certain sedimentary rocks +observed on Viti Levu seem to imply a nucleus of land of considerable +age. Volcanic activity in the neighbourhood is further +shown by the quantities of pumice-stone drifted on to the south +coasts of Kandavu and Viti Levu; malachite, antimony and +graphite, gold in small quantities, and specular iron-sand occur.</p> + +<p><i>Climate.</i>—The colony is beyond the limits of the perpetual +S.E. trades, while not within the range of the N.W. monsoons. +From April to November the winds are steady between S.E. and +E.N.E., and the climate is cool and dry, after which the weather +becomes uncertain and the winds often northerly, this being the +wet warm season. In February and March heavy gales are +frequent, and hurricanes sometimes occur, causing scarcity by +destroying the crops. The rainfall is much greater on the windward +than on the lee sides of the islands (about 110 in. at Suva), +but the mean temperature is much the same, viz., about 80° F. +In the hills the temperature sometimes falls below 50°. The +climate, especially from November to April, is somewhat enervating +to the Englishman, but not unhealthy. Fevers are hardly +known. Dysentery, which is common, and the most serious +disease in the islands, is said to have been unknown before the +advent of Europeans.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p><i>Fauna.</i>—Besides the dog and the pig, which (with the domestic +fowl) must have been introduced in early times, the only land +mammals are certain species of rats and bats. Insects are numerous, +but the species few. Bees have been introduced. The avifauna is +not remarkable. Birds of prey are few; the parrot and pigeon tribes +are better represented. Fishes, of an Indo-Malay type, are numerous +and varied; Mollusca, especially marine, and Crustaceae are also +very numerous. These three form an important element in the food +supply.</p> + +<p><i>Flora.</i>—The vegetation is mostly of a tropical Indo-Malayan +character—thick jungle with great trees covered with creepers and +epiphytes. The lee sides of the larger islands, however, have grassy +plains suitable for grazing, with scattered trees, chiefly <i>Pandanus</i>, +and ferns. The flora has also some Australian and New Zealand +affinities (resembling in this respect the New Caledonia and New +Hebrides groups), shown especially in these western districts by the +<i>Pandanus</i>, by certain acacias and others. At an elevation of about +2000 ft. the vegetation assumes a more mountainous type. Among +the many valuable timber trees are the vesi (<i>Afzelia bijuga</i>); the +dilo (<i>Calophyllum Inophyllum</i>), the oil from its seeds being much +used in the islands, as in India, in the treatment of rheumatism; +the dakua (<i>Dammara Vitiensis</i>), allied to the New Zealand kauri, +and others. The dakua or Fiji pine, however, has become scarce. +Most of the fruit trees are also valuable as timber. The native cloth +(<i>masi</i>) is beaten out from the bark of the paper mulberry cultivated +for the purpose. Of the palms the cocoanut is by far the most +important. The yasi or sandal-wood was formerly a valuable +product, but is now rarely found. There are various useful drugs, +spices and perfumes; and many plants are cultivated for their +beauty, to which the natives are keenly alive. Among the plants +used as pot-herbs are several ferns, and two or three Solanums, +one of which, <i>S. anthropophagorum</i>, was one of certain plants always +cooked with human flesh, which was said to be otherwise difficult of +digestion. The use of the kava root, here called yanggona, from +which the well-known national beverage is made, is said to have been +introduced from Tonga. Of fruit trees, besides the cocoanut, there +may be mentioned the many varieties of the bread-fruit, of bananas +and plantains, of sugar-cane and of lemon; the wi (<i>Spondias dulcis</i>), +the kavika (<i>Eugenia malaccensis</i>), the ivi or Tahitian chestnut +(<i>Inocarpus edulis</i>), the pine-apple and others introduced in modern +times. Edible roots are especially abundant. The chief staple of +life is the yam, the names of several months in the calendar having +reference to its cultivation and ripening. The natives use no grain or +pulse, but make a kind of bread (<i>mandrai</i>) from this, the taro, and other +roots, as well as from the banana (which is the best), the bread-fruit, +the ivi, the kavika, the arrowroot, and in times of scarcity the +mangrove. This bread is made by burying the materials for months, +till the mass is thoroughly fermented and homogeneous, when it is +dug up and cooked by baking or steaming. This simple process, +applicable to such a variety of substances, is a valuable security +against famine.</p> +</div> + +<p><i>People.</i>—The Fijians are a people of Melanesian (Papuan) +stock much crossed with Polynesians (Tongans and Samoans). +They occupy the extreme east limits of Papuan territory and +are usually classified as Melanesians; but they are physically +superior to the pure examples of that race, combining their dark +colour, harsh hirsute skin, crisp hair, which is bleached with lime +and worn in an elaborately trained mop, and muscular limbs, +with the handsome features and well proportioned bodies of the +Polynesians. They are tall and well built. The features are +strongly marked, but not unpleasant, the eyes deep set, the beard +thick and bushy. The chiefs are fairer, much better-looking, and +of a less negroid type of face than the people. This negroid type +is especially marked on the west coasts, and still more in the +interior of Viti Levu. The Fijians have other characteristics of +both Pacific races, <i>e.g.</i> the quick intellect of the fairer, and the +savagery and suspicion of the dark. They wear a minimum of +covering, but, unlike the Melanesians, are strictly decent, while +they are more moral than the Polynesians. They are cleanly and +particular about their personal appearance, though, unlike other +Melanesians, they care little for ornament, and only the women +are tattooed. A partial circumcision is practised, which is +exceptional with the Melanesians, nor have these usually an +elaborate political and social system like that of Fiji. The status +of the women is also somewhat better, those of the upper class +having considerable freedom and influence. If less readily +amenable to civilizing influences than their neighbours to the +eastward, the Fijians show greater force of character and ingenuity. +Possessing the arts of both races they practise them +with greater skill than either. They understand the principle of +division of labour and production, and thus of commerce. They +are skilful cultivators and good boat-builders, the carpenters +being an hereditary caste; there are also tribes of fishermen and +sailors; their mats, baskets, nets, cordage and other fabrics +are substantial and tasteful; their pottery, made, like many of +the above articles, by women, is far superior to any other in +the South Seas; but many native manufactures have been +supplanted by European goods.</p> + +<p>The Fijians were formerly notorious for cannibalism, which +may have had its origin in religion, but long before the first +contact with Europeans had degenerated into gluttony. The +Fijian’s chief table luxury was human flesh, euphemistically +called by him “long pig,” and to satisfy his appetite he would +sacrifice even friends and relatives. The Fijians combined with +this greediness a savage and merciless <span class="correction" title="amended from natures">nature</span>. Human sacrifices +were of daily occurrence. On a chief’s death wives and slaves +were buried alive with him. When building a chief’s house a +slave was buried alive in the hole dug for each foundation post. +At the launching of a war-canoe living men were tied hand and +foot between two plantain stems making a human ladder over +which the vessel was pushed down into the water. The people +acquiesced in these brutal customs, and willingly met their deaths. +Affection and a firm belief in a future state, in which the exact +condition of the dying is continued, are the Fijians’ own explanations +of the custom, once universal, of killing sick or aged +relatives. Yet in spite of this savagery the Fijians have always +been remarkable for their hospitality, open-handedness and +courtesy. They are a sensitive, proud, if vindictive, and boastful +people, with good conversational and reasoning powers, much +sense of humour, tact and perception of character. Their code of +social etiquette is minute and elaborate, and the graduations of +rank well marked. These are (1) chiefs, greater and lesser; (2) +priests; (3) <i>Mata ni Vanua</i> (lit., eyes of the land), employés, +messengers or counsellors; (4) distinguished warriors of low +birth; (5) common people; (6) slaves.</p> + +<p>The family is the unit of political society. The families are +grouped in townships or otherwise (<i>qali</i>) under the lesser chiefs, +who again owe allegiance to the supreme chief of the <i>matanitu</i> or +tribe. The chiefs are a real aristocracy, excelling the people in +physique, skill, intellect and acquirements of all sorts; and the +reverence felt for them, now gradually diminishing, was very +great, and had something of a religious character. All that a man +had belonged to his chief. On the other hand, the chief’s property +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page337" id="page337"></a>337</span> +practically belonged to his people, and they were as ready to give +as to take. In a time of famine, a chief would declare the +contents of the plantations to be common property. A system +of feudal service-tenures (<i>lala</i>) is the institution on which their +social and political fabric mainly depended. It allowed the chief +to call for the labour of any district, and to employ it in planting, +house or canoe-building, supplying food on the occasion of another +chief’s visit, &c. This power was often used with much discernment; +thus an unpopular chief would redeem his character by +calling for some customary service and rewarding it liberally, or a +district would be called on to supply labour or produce as a +punishment. The privilege might, of course, be abused by needy +or unscrupulous chiefs, though they generally deferred somewhat +to public opinion; it has now, with similar customary exactions +of cloth, mats, salt, pottery, &c. been reduced within definite +limits. An allied custom, <i>solevu</i>, enabled a district in want of any +particular article to call on its neighbours to supply it, giving +labour or something else in exchange. Although, then, the chief +is lord of the soil, the inferior chiefs and individual families have +equally distinct rights in it, subject to payment of certain dues; +and the idea of permanent alienation of land by purchase was +never perhaps clearly realized. Another curious custom was that +of <i>vasu</i> (lit. nephew). The son of a chief by a woman of rank had +almost unlimited rights over the property of his mother’s family, +or of her people. In time of war the chief claimed absolute +control over life and property. Warfare was carried on with +many courteous formalities, and considerable skill was shown in +the fortifications. There were well-defined degrees of dependence +among the different tribes or districts: the first of these, <i>bati</i>, is +an alliance between two nearly equal tribes, but implying a sort +of inferiority on one side, acknowledged by military service; the +second, <i>qali</i>, implies greater subjection, and payment of tribute. +Thus A, being bati to B, might hold C in qali, in which case C was +also reckoned subject to B, or might be protected by B for +political purposes.</p> + +<p>The former religion of the Fijians was a sort of ancestor-worship, +had much in common with the creeds of Polynesia, and +included a belief in a future existence. There were two classes of +gods—the first immortal, of whom Ndengei is the greatest, said +to exist eternally in the form of a serpent, but troubling himself +little with human or other affairs, and the others had usually only +a local recognition. The second rank (who, though far above +mortals, are subject to their passions, and even to death) comprised +the spirits of chiefs, heroes and other ancestors. The +gods entered and spoke through their priests, who thus pronounced +on the issue of every enterprise, but they were not +represented by idols; certain groves and trees were held sacred, +and stones which suggest phallic associations. The priesthood +usually was hereditary, and their influence great, and they had +generally a good understanding with the chief. The institution +of Taboo existed in full force. The <i>mburé</i> or temple was also the +council chamber and place of assemblage for various purposes.</p> + +<p>The weapons of the Fijians are spears, slings, throwing clubs +and bows and arrows. Their houses, of which the framework is +timber and the rest lattice and thatch, are ingeniously constructed, +with great taste in ornamentation, and are well +furnished with mats, mosquito-curtains, baskets, fans, nets and +cooking and other utensils. Their canoes, sometimes more than +100 ft. long, are well built. Ever excellent agriculturists, their +implements were formerly digging sticks and hoes of turtlebone +or flat oyster-shells. In irrigation they showed skill, draining +their fields with built watercourses and bamboo pipes. Tobacco, +maize, sweet potatoes, yams, kava, taro, beans and pumpkins, +are the principal crops.</p> + +<p>Fijians are fond of amusements. They have various games, +and dancing, story-telling and songs are especially popular. +Their poetry has well-defined metres, and a sort of rhyme. +Their music is rude, and is said to be always in the major key. +They are clever cooks, and for their feasts preparations are sometimes +made months in advance, and enormous waste results +from them. Mourning is expressed by fasting, by shaving the +head and face, or by cutting off the little finger. This last is +sometimes done at the death of a rich man in the hope that his +family will reward the compliment; sometimes it is done vicariously, +as when one chief cuts off the little finger of his dependent +in regret or in atonement for the death of another.</p> + +<p>A steady, if not a very rapid, decrease in the native population +set in after 1875. A terrible epidemic of measles in that year +swept away 40,000, or about one-third of the Fijians. Subsequent +epidemics have not been attended by anything like this +mortality, but there has, however, been a steady decrease, +principally among young children, owing to whooping-cough, +tuberculosis and croup. Every Fijian child seems to contract +yaws at some time in its life, a mistaken notion existing on the +part of the parents that it strengthens the child’s physique. +Elephantiasis, influenza; rheumatism, and a skin disease, <i>thoko</i>, +also occur. One per cent of the natives are lepers. A commission +appointed in 1891 to inquire into the causes of the native decrease +collected much interesting anthropological information +regarding native customs, and provincial inspectors and medical +officers were specially appointed to compel the natives to carry +out the sanitary reforms recommended by the commission. +A considerable sum was also spent in laying on good water to the +native villages. The Fijians show no disposition to intermarry +with the Indian coolies. The European half-castes are not +prolific <i>inter se</i>, and they are subject to a scrofulous taint. The +most robust cross in the islands is the offspring of the African +negro and the Fijian. Miscegenation with the Micronesians, +the only race in the Pacific which is rapidly increasing, is regarded +as the most hopeful manner of preserving the native Fijian +population. There is a large Indian immigrant population.</p> + +<p><i>Trade, Administration, &c.</i>—The principal industries are the +cultivation of sugar and fruits and the manufacture of sugar and +copra, and these three are the chief articles of export trade, +which is carried on almost entirely with Australia and New +Zealand. The fruits chiefly exported are bananas and pineapples. +There are also exported maize, vanilla and a variety +of fruits in small quantities; pearl and other shells and bêche-de-mer. +There is a manufacture of soap from coconut oil; a fair +quantity of tobacco is grown, and among other industries may +be included boat-building and saw-milling. Regular steamship +communications are maintained with Sydney, Auckland and +Vancouver. Good bridle-tracks exist in all the larger islands, +and there are some macadamized roads, principally in Viti Levu. +There is an overland mail service by native runners. The export +trade is valued at nearly £600,000 annually, and the imports at +£500,000. The annual revenue of the colony is about £140,000 +and the expenditure about £125,000. The currency and weights +and measures are British. Besides the customs and stamp +duties, some £18,000 of the annual revenue is raised from native +taxation. The seventeen provinces of the colony (at the head of +which is either a European or a <i>roko tui</i> or native official) are +assessed annually by the legislative council for a fixed tax in kind. +The tax on each province is distributed among districts under +officials called <i>bulis</i>, and further among villages within these +districts. Any surplus of produce over the assessment is sold to +contractors, and the money received is returned to the natives.</p> + +<p>Under a reconstruction made in 1904 there is an executive +council consisting of the governor and four official members. +The legislative council consists of the governor, ten official, six +elected and two native members. The native chiefs and provincial +representatives meet annually under the presidency of +the governor, and their recommendations are submitted for +sanction to the legislative council. Suva and Levuka have each +a municipal government, and there are native district and +village councils. There is an armed native constabulary; and +a volunteer and cadet corps in Suva and Levuka.</p> + +<p>The majority of the natives are Wesleyan Methodists. The +Roman Catholic missionaries have about 3000 adherents; the +Church of England is confined to the Europeans and <i>kanakas</i> +in the towns; the Indian coolies are divided between Mahommedans +and Hindus. There are public schools for Europeans +and half-castes in the towns, but there is no provision for the +education of the children of settlers in the out-districts. By an +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page338" id="page338"></a>338</span> +ordinance of 1890 provision was made for the constitution of +school boards, and the principle was first applied in Suva and +Levuka. The missions have established schools in every native +village, and most natives are able to read and write their own +language. The government has established a native technical +school for the teaching of useful handicrafts. The natives show +themselves very slow in adopting European habits in food, +clothing and house-building.</p> + +<p><i>History.</i>—A few islands in the north-east of the group were +first seen by Abel Tasman in 1643. The southernmost of the +group, Turtle Island, was discovered by Cook in 1773. Lieutenant +Bligh, approaching them in the launch of the “Bounty,” 1789, +had a hostile encounter with natives. In 1827 Dumont d’Urville +in the “Astrolabe” surveyed them much more accurately, but +the first thorough survey was that of the United States exploring +expedition in 1840. Up to this time, owing to the evil reputation +of the islanders, European intercourse was very limited. The +labours of the Wesleyan missionaries, however, must always have +a prominent place in any history of Fiji. They came from Tonga +in 1835 and naturally settled first in the eastern islands, where +the Tongan element, already familiar to them, preponderated. +They perhaps identified themselves too closely with their Tongan +friends, whose dissolute, lawless, tyrannical conduct led to much +mischief; but it should not be forgotten that their position was +difficult, and it was mainly through their efforts that many +terrible heathen practices were stamped out.</p> + +<p>About 1804 some escaped convicts from Australia and runaway +sailors established themselves around the east part of Viti Levu, +and by lending their services to the neighbouring chiefs probably +led to their preponderance over the rest of the group. Na +Ulivau, chief of the small island of Mbau, established before +his death in 1829 a sort of supremacy, which was extended by +his brother Tanoa, and by Tanoa’s son Thakombau, a ruler +of considerable capacity. In his time, however, difficulties +thickened. The Tongans, who had long frequented Fiji (especially +for canoe-building, their own islands being deficient in +timber), now came in larger numbers, led by an able and ambitious +chief, Maafu, who, by adroitly taking part in Fijian +quarrels, made himself chief in the Windward group, threatening +Thakombau’s supremacy. He was harassed, too, by an arbitrary +demand for £9000 from the American government, for alleged +injuries to their consul. Several chiefs who disputed his authority +were crushed by the aid of King George of Tonga, who (1855) +had opportunely arrived on a visit; but he afterwards, taking +some offence, demanded £12,000 for his services. At last +Thakombau, disappointed in the hope that his acceptance +of Christianity (1854) would improve his position, offered the +sovereignty to Great Britain (1859) with the fee simple of 100,000 +acres, on condition of her paying the American claims. Colonel +Smythe, R.A., was sent out to report on the question, and +decided against annexation, but advised that the British consul +should be invested with full magisterial powers over his countrymen, +a step which would have averted much subsequent difficulty.</p> + +<p>Meanwhile Dr B. Seemann’s favourable report on the +capabilities of the islands, followed by a time of depression in +Australia and New Zealand, led to a rapid increase of settlers—from +200 in 1860 to 1800 in 1869. This produced fresh complications, +and an increasing desire among the respectable settlers +for a competent civil and criminal jurisdiction. Attempts +were made at self-government, and the sovereignty was again +offered, conditionally, to England, and to the United States. +Finally, in 1871, a “constitutional government” was formed +by certain Englishmen under King Thakombau; but this, +after incurring heavy debt, and promoting the welfare of neither +whites nor natives, came after three years to a deadlock, and +the British government felt obliged, in the interest of all parties, +to accept the unconditional cession now offered (1874). It had +besides long been thought desirable to possess a station on the +route between Australia and Panama; it was also felt that the +Polynesian labour traffic, the abuses in which had caused much +indignation, could only be effectually regulated from a point +contiguous to the recruiting field, and the locality where that +labour was extensively employed. To this end the governor of +Fiji was also created “high commissioner for the western +Pacific.” Rotumah (<i>q.v.</i>) was annexed in 1881.</p> + +<p>At the time of the British annexation the islands were suffering +from commercial depression, following a fall in the price of cotton +after the American Civil War. Coffee, tea, cinchona and sugar +were tried in turn, with limited success. The coffee was attacked +by the leaf disease; the tea could not compete with that grown +by the cheap labour of the East; the sugar machinery was too +antiquated to withstand the fall in prices consequent on the +European sugar bounties. In 1878 the first coolies were imported +from India and the cultivation of sugar began to pass +into the hands of large companies working with modern +machinery. With the introduction of coolies the Fijians began +to fall behind in the development of their country. Many of the +coolies chose to remain in the colony after the termination of +their indentures, and began to displace the European country +traders. With a regular and plentiful supply of Indian coolies, +the recruiting of <i>kanaka</i> labourers practically ceased. The +settlement of European land claims, and the measures taken +for the protection of native institutions, caused lively dissatisfaction +among the colonists, who laid the blame of the commercial +depression at the door of the government; but with returning +prosperity this feeling began to disappear. In 1900 the government +of New Zealand made overtures to absorb Fiji. The +Aborigines Society protested to the colonial office, and the +imperial government refused to sanction the proposal.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See Smyth, <i>Ten Months in the Fiji Islands</i> (London, 1864); +B. Seemann, <i>Flora Vitiensis</i> (London, 1865); and <i>Viti: Account of +a Government Mission in the Vitian or Fijian Islands</i> (1860-1861); +W.T. Pritchard, <i>Polynesian Reminiscences</i> (London, 1866); H. +Forbes, <i>Two Years in Fiji</i> (London, 1875); Commodore Goodenough, +<i>Journal</i> (London, 1876); H.N. Moseley, <i>Notes of a Naturalist in the +“Challenger”</i> (London, 1879); Sir A.H. Gordon, <i>Story of a Little +War</i> (Edinburgh, privately printed, 1879); J.W. Anderson, <i>Fiji +and New Caledonia</i> (London, 1880); C.F. Gordon-Cumming, <i>At +Home in Fiji</i> (Edinburgh, 1881); John Horne, <i>A Year in Fiji</i> +(London, 1881); H.S. Cooper, <i>Our New Colony, Fiji</i> (London, +1882); S.E. Scholes, <i>Fiji and the Friendly Islands</i> (London, 1882); +Princes Albert Victor and George of Wales, <i>Cruise of H. M. S. “Bacchante”</i> +(London, 1886); A. Agassiz, <i>The Islands and Coral Reefs of +Fiji</i> (Cambridge, Mass., U.S., 1899); H.B. Guppy, <i>Observations of +a Naturalist in the Pacific</i> (1896-1899), vol. i.; <i>Vanua Levu, Fiji</i> +(Phys. Geog. and Geology) (London, 1903); Lorimer Fison, <i>Tales +from Old Fiji</i> (folk-lore, &c.) (London, 1904); B. Thomson, <i>The +Fijians</i> (London, 1908).</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">FILANDER,<a name="ar172" id="ar172"></a></span> the name by which the Aru Island wallaby +(<i>Macropus brunii</i>) was first described. It occurs in a translation +of C. de Bruyn’s <i>Travels</i> (ii. 101) published in 1737.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">FILANGIERI, CARLO<a name="ar173" id="ar173"></a></span> (1784-1867), prince of Satriano, +Neapolitan soldier and statesman, was the son of Gaetano +Filangieri (1752-1788), a celebrated philosopher and jurist. +At the age of fifteen he decided on a military career, and having +obtained an introduction to Napoleon Bonaparte, then first +consul, was admitted to the Military Academy at Paris. In +1803 he received a commission in an infantry regiment, and +took part in the campaign of 1805 under General Davoust, first +in the Low Countries, and later at Ulm, Maria Zell and Austerlitz, +where he fought with distinction, was wounded several times +and promoted. He returned to Naples as captain on Masséna’s +staff to fight the Bourbons and the Austrians in 1806, and +subsequently went to Spain, where he followed Jerome Bonaparte +in his retreat from Madrid. In consequence of a fatal +duel he was sent back to Naples; there he served under Joachim +Murat with the rank of general, and fought against the Anglo-Sicilian +forces in Calabria and at Messina. On the fall of +Napoleon he took part in Murat’s campaign against Eugène +Beauharnais, and later in that against Austria, and was severely +wounded at the battle of the Panaro (1815). On the restoration +of the Bourbon king Ferdinand IV. (I.), Filangieri retained his +rank and command, but found the army utterly disorganized +and impregnated with Carbonarism. In the disturbances of +1820 he adhered to the Constitutionalist party, and fought +under General Pepe (<i>q.v.</i>) against the Austrians. On the reestablishment +of the autocracy he was dismissed from the +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page339" id="page339"></a>339</span> +service, and retired to Calabria where he had inherited the +princely title and estates of Satriano. In 1831 he was recalled +by Ferdinand II. and entrusted with various military reforms. +On the outbreak of the troubles of 1848 Filangieri advised the +king to grant the constitution, which he did in February 1848, +but when the Sicilians formally seceded from the Neapolitan +kingdom Filangieri was given the command of an armed force +with which to reduce the island to obedience. On the 3rd of +September he landed near Messina, and after very severe fighting +captured the city. He then advanced southwards, besieged +and took Catania, where his troops committed many atrocities, +and by May 1849 he had conquered the whole of Sicily, though +not without much bloodshed. He remained in Sicily as governor +until 1855, when he retired into private life, as he could not +carry out the reforms he desired owing to the hostility of Giovanni +Cassisi, the minister for Sicily. On the death of Ferdinand II. +(22nd of May 1859) the new king Francis II. appointed Filangieri +premier and minister of war. He promoted good relations +with France, then fighting with Piedmont against the Austrians +in Lombardy, and strongly urged on the king the necessity of +an alliance with Piedmont and a constitution as the only means +whereby the dynasty might be saved. These proposals being +rejected, Filangieri resigned office. In May 1860, Francis at +last promulgated the constitution, but it was too late, for Garibaldi +was in Sicily and Naples was seething with rebellion. +On the advice of Liborio Romano, the new prefect of police, +Filangieri was ordered to leave Naples. He went to Marseilles +with his wife and subsequently to Florence, where at the instance +of General La Marmora he undertook to write an account of +the Italian army. Although he adhered to the new government +he refused to accept any dignity at its hands, and died at his +villa of San Giorgio a Cremano near Naples on the 9th of October +1867.</p> + +<p>Filangieri was a very distinguished soldier, and a man of +great ability; although he changed sides several times he +became really attached to the Bourbon dynasty, which he hoped +to save by freeing it from its reactionary tendencies and infusing +a new spirit into it. His conduct in Sicily was severe and harsh, +but he was not without feelings of humanity, and he was an +honest man and a good administrator.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>His biography has been written by his daughter Teresa Filangieri +Fieschi-Ravaschieri, <i>Il Generale Carlo Filangieri</i> (Milan, 1902), an +interesting, although somewhat too laudatory volume based on the +general’s own unpublished memoirs; for the Sicilian expedition see +V. Finocchiaro, <i>La Rivoluzione siciliana del 1848-49</i> (Catania, 1906, +with bibliography), in which Filangieri is bitterly attacked; see also +under <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Naples</a></span>; <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Ferdinand IV.</a></span>; <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Francis I.</a></span>; <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Ferdinand II.</a></span>; +<span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Francis II.</a></span></p> +</div> +<div class="author">(L. V.*)</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">FILANGIERI, GAETANO<a name="ar174" id="ar174"></a></span> (1752-1788), Italian publicist, was +born at Naples on the 18th of August 1752. His father, Caesar, +prince of Arianiello, intended him for a military career, which he +commenced at the early age of seven, but soon abandoned for the +study of the law. At the bar his knowledge and eloquence early +secured his success, while his defence of a royal decree reforming +abuses in the administration of justice gained him the favour of +the king, Charles, afterwards Charles III. of Spain, and led to +several honourable appointments at court. The first two books of +his great work, <i>La Scienza della legislazione</i>, appeared in 1780. +The first book contained an exposition of the rules on which +legislation in general ought to proceed, while the second was +devoted to economic questions. These two books showed him an +ardent reformer, and vehement in denouncing the abuses of his +time. He insisted on unlimited free trade, and the abolition of the +medieval institutions which impeded production and national +well-being. Its success was great and immediate not only in +Italy, but throughout Europe at large. In 1783 he married, resigned +his appointments at court, and retiring to Cava, devoted +himself steadily to the completion of his work. In the same year +appeared the third book, relating entirely to the principles of +criminal jurisprudence. The suggestion which he made in it as to +the need for reform in the Roman Catholic church brought upon +him the censure of the ecclesiastical authorities, and it was +condemned by the congregation of the Index in 1784. In 1785 he +published three additional volumes, making the fourth book of +the projected work, and dealing with education and morals. In +1787 he was appointed a member of the supreme treasury council +by Ferdinand IV., but his health, impaired by close study and +over-work in his new office, compelled his withdrawal to the +country at Vico Equense. He died somewhat suddenly on the +21st of July 1788, having just completed the first part of the +fifth book of his <i>Scienza</i>. He left an outline of the remainder of +the work, which was to have been completed in six books.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p><i>La Scienza della legislazione</i> has gone through many editions, and +has been translated into most of the languages of Europe. The +best Italian edition is in 5 vols. 8vo. (1807). The Milan edition (1822) +contains the <i>Opusculi scelti</i> and a life by Donato Tommasi. A French +translation appeared in Paris in 7 vols. 8vo. (1786-1798); it was +republished in 1822-1824, with the addition of the <i>Opuscles</i> and +notes by Benjamin Constant. <i>The Science of Legislation</i> was translated +into English by Sir R. Clayton (London, 1806).</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">FILARIASIS,<a name="ar175" id="ar175"></a></span> the name of a disease due to the nematode +<i>Filaria sanguinis hominis</i>. A milky appearance of the urine, due +to the presence of a substance like chyle, which forms a clot, had +been observed from time to time, especially in tropical and +subtropical countries; and it was proved by Dr Wucherer of +Bahia, and by Dr Timothy Lewis, that this peculiar condition is +uniformly associated with the presence in the blood of minute +eel-like worms, visible only under the microscope, being the +embryo forms of a <i>Filaria</i> (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Nematoda</a></span>). Sometimes the +discharge of lymph takes place at one or more points of the +surface of the body, and there is in other cases a condition of +naevoid elephantiasis of the scrotum, or lymph-scrotum. More +or less of blood may occur along with the chylous fluid in the +urine. Both the chyluria and the presence of filariae in the blood +are curiously intermittent; it may happen that not a single +filaria is to be seen during the daytime, while they swarm in the +blood at night, and it has been ingeniously shown by Dr S. +Mackenzie that they may be made to disappear if the patient sits +up all night, reappearing while he sleeps through the day.</p> + +<p>Sir P. Manson proved that mosquitoes imbibe the embryo +filariae from the blood of man; and that many of these reach full +development within the mosquito, acquiring their freedom when +the latter resorts to water, where it dies after depositing its eggs. +Mosquitoes would thus be the intermediate host of the filariae, +and their introduction into the human body would be through the +medium of water (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Parasitic Diseases</a></span>).</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">FILDES, SIR LUKE<a name="ar176" id="ar176"></a></span> (1844-  ), English painter, was born at +Liverpool, and trained in the South Kensington and Royal +Academy schools. At first a highly successful illustrator, he took +rank later among the ablest English painters, with “The Casual +Ward” (1874), “The Widower” (1876), “The Village Wedding” +(1883), “An Al-fresco Toilette” (1889); and “The Doctor” +(1891), now in the National Gallery of British Art. He also +painted a number of pictures of Venetian life and many notable +portraits, among them the coronation portraits of King Edward +VII. and Queen Alexandra. He was elected an associate of the +Royal Academy in 1879, and academician in 1887; and was +knighted in 1906.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See David Croal Thomson, <i>The Life and Work of Luke Fildes, R.A.</i> +(1895).</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">FILE.<a name="ar177" id="ar177"></a></span> 1. A bar of steel having sharp teeth on its surface, and +used for abrading or smoothing hard surfaces. (The O. Eng. word +is <i>féol</i>, and cognate forms appear in Dutch <i>vijl</i>, Ger. <i>Feile</i>, &c.; +the ultimate source is usually taken to be an Indo-European root +meaning to mark or scratch, and seen in the Lat. <i>pingere</i>, to +paint.) Some uncivilized tribes polish their weapons with such +things as rough stones, pieces of shark skin or fishes’ teeth. +The operation of filing is recorded in 1 Sam. xiii. 21; and, among +other facts, the similarity of the name for the filing instrument +among various European peoples points to an early practice of +the art. A file differs from a <i>rasp</i> (which is chiefly used for +working wood, horn and the like) in having its teeth cut with a +chisel whose straight edge extends across its surface, while the +teeth of the rasp are formed by solitary indentations of a pointed +chisel. According to the form of their teeth, files may be <i>single-cut</i> +or <i>double-cut</i>; the former have only one set of parallel ridges +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page340" id="page340"></a>340</span> +(either at right angles or at some other angle with the length); +the latter (and more common) have a second set cut at an angle +with the first. The double-cut file presents sharp angles to the +filed surface, and is better suited for hard metals. Files are +classed according to the fineness of their teeth (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Tool</a></span>), and +their shapes present almost endless varieties. Common forms +are—the <i>flat</i> file, of parallelogram section, with uniform breadth +and thickness, or tapering, or “bellied”; the <i>four-square</i> file, of +square section, sometimes with one side “safe,” or left smooth; +and the so-called <i>three-square</i> file, having its cross section an +equilateral triangle, the <i>half-round</i> file, a segment of a circle, the +<i>round</i> or <i>rat-tail</i> file, a circle, which are generally tapered. The +<i>float</i> file is like the <i>flat</i>, but single-cut. There are many others. +Files vary in length from three-quarters of an inch (watchmakers’) +to 2 or 3 ft. and upwards (engineers’). The length is reckoned +exclusively of the spike or tang which enters the handle. Most +files are tapered; the <i>blunt</i> are nearly parallel, with larger section +near the middle; a few are parallel. The <i>rifflers</i> of sculptors and +a few other files are curvilinear in their central line.</p> + +<p>In manufacturing files, steel blanks are forged from bars which +have been sheared or rolled as nearly as possible to the sections +required, and after being carefully annealed are straightened, if +necessary, and then rendered clean and accurate by grinding or +filing. The process of cutting them used to be largely performed +by hand, but machines are now widely employed. The hand-cutter, +holding in his left hand a short chisel (the edge of which is +wider than the width of the file), places it on the blank with an +inclination from the perpendicular of 12° or 14°, and beginning +near the farther end (the blank is placed with the tang or handle +end towards him) strikes it sharply with a hammer. An indentation +is thus made, and the steel, slightly thrown up on the side +next the tang, forms a ridge. The chisel is then transferred to the +uncut surface and slid away from the operator till it encounters +the ridge just made; the position of the next cut being thus +determined, the chisel is again struck, and so on. The workman +seeks to strike the blows as uniformly as possible, and he will +make 60 or 80 cuts a minute. If the file is to be single-cut, it is +now ready to be hardened, but if it is to be double-cut he proceeds +to make the second series or course of cuts, which are +generally somewhat finer than the first. Thus the surface is +covered with teeth inclined towards the point of the file. If the +file is flat and is to be cut on the other side, it is turned over, and a +thin plate of pewter placed below it to protect the teeth. Triangular +and other files are supported in grooves in lead. In +cutting round and half-round files, a straight chisel is applied as +tangent to the curve. The round face of a half-round file requires +eight, ten or more courses to complete it. Numerous attempts +were made, even so far back as the 18th century, to invent +machinery for cutting files, but little success was attained till the +latter part of the 19th century. In most of the machines the +idea was to arrange a metal arm and hand to hold the chisel with +a hammer to strike the blow, and so to imitate the manual +process as closely as possible. The general principle on which the +successful forms are constructed is that the blanks, laid on a +moving table, are slowly traversed forward under a rapidly +reciprocating chisel or knife.</p> + +<p>The filing of a flat surface perfectly true is the test of a good +filer; and this is no easy matter to the beginner. The piece to be +operated upon is generally fixed about the level of the elbow, +the operator standing, and, except in the case of small files, +grasping the file with both hands, the handle with the right, +the farther end with the left. The great point is to be able to +move the file forward with pressure in horizontal straight lines; +from the tendency of the hands to move in arcs of circles, the heel +and point of the file are apt to be alternately raised. This is +partially compensated by the bellied form given to many files +(which also counteracts the frequent warping effect of the hardening +process, by which one side of a flat file may be rendered +concave and useless). In bringing back the file for the next +thrust it is nearly lifted off the work. Further, much delicacy +and skill are required in adapting the pressure and velocity, +ascertaining if foreign matters or filings remain interposed +between the file and the work, &c. Files can be cleaned with +a piece of the so-called <i>cotton-card</i> (used in combing cotton wool) +nailed to a piece of wood. In <i>draw-filing</i>, which is sometimes +resorted to to give a neat finish, the file is drawn sideways to +and fro over the work. New files are generally used for a time +on brass or cast-iron, and when partially worn they are still +available for filing wrought iron and steel.</p> + +<p>2. A string or thread (through the Fr. <i>fil</i> and <i>file</i>, from Lat. +<i>filum</i>, a thread); hence used of a device, originally a cord, wire +or spike on which letters, receipts, papers, &c., may be strung +for convenient reference. The term has been extended to +embrace various methods for the preservation of papers in a +particular order, such as expanding books, cabinets, and ingenious +improvements on the simple wire file which enable any +single document to be readily found and withdrawn without +removing the whole series. From the devices used for filing the +word is transferred to the documents filed, and thus is used of a +catalogue, list, or collection of papers, &c. File is also employed +to denote a row of persons or objects arranged one behind the +other. In military usage a “file” is the opposite of a “rank,” +that is, it is composed of a (variable) number of men aligned from +front to rear one behind the other, while a rank contains a number +of men aligned from right to left abreast. Thus a British infantry +company, in line two deep, one hundred strong, has two ranks +of fifty men each, and fifty “files” of two men each. Up to +about 1600 infantry companies or battalions were often sixteen +deep, one front rank man and the fifteen “coverers” forming a +file. The number of ranks and, therefore, of men in the file +diminished first to ten (1600), then to six (1630), then to three +(1700), and finally to two (about 1808 in the British army, 1888 +in the German). Denser formations when employed have been +formed, not by altering the order of men within the unit, but by +placing several units, one closely behind the other (“doubling” +and “trebling” the line of battle, as it used to be called). In +the 17th century a file formed a small command under the “file +leader,” the whole of the front rank consisting therefore of old +soldiers or non-commissioned officers. This use of the word to +express a unit of command gave rise to the old-fashioned term +“file firing,” to imply a species of fire (equivalent to the modern +“independent”) in which each man in the file fired in succession +after the file leader, and to-day a corporal or sergeant is still +ordered to take one or more files under his charge for independent +work. In the above it is to be understood that the men are facing +to the front or rear. If they are turned to the right or left so +that the company now stands two men broad and fifty deep, it +is spoken of as being “in file.” From this come such phrases as +“single file” or “Indian file” (one man leading and the rest +following singly behind him).<a name="fa1l" id="fa1l" href="#ft1l"><span class="sp">1</span></a> The use of verbs “to file” and +“to defile,” implying the passage from fighting to marching +formation, is to be derived from this rather than from the resemblance +of a marching column to a long flexible thread, for +in the days when the word was first used the infantry company +whether in battle or on the march was a solid rectangle of men, +a file often containing even more men than a rank.</p> + +<hr class="foot" /> <div class="note"> + +<p><a name="ft1l" id="ft1l" href="#fa1l"><span class="fn">1</span></a> This may also be understood as meaning simply “a single file,” +but the explanation given above is more probable, as it is essentially +a marching and not a fighting formation that is expressed by the +phrase.</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">FILE-FISH,<a name="ar178" id="ar178"></a></span> or <span class="sc">Trigger-Fish</span>, the names given to fishes +of the genus <i>Balistes</i> (and <i>Monacanthus</i>) inhabiting all tropical +and subtropical seas. Their body is compressed and not covered +with ordinary scales, but with small juxtaposed scutes. Their +other principal characteristics consist in the structure of their +first dorsal fin (which consists of three spines) and in their peculiar +dentition. The first of the three dorsal spines is very strong, +roughened in front like a file, and hollowed out behind to receive +the second much smaller spine, which, besides, has a projection +in front, at its base, fitting into a notch of the first. Thus these +two spines can only be raised or depressed simultaneously, in +such a manner that the first cannot be forced down unless the +second has been previously depressed. The latter has been compared +to a trigger, hence the name of Trigger-fish. Also the +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page341" id="page341"></a>341</span> +generic name <i>Balistes</i> and the Italian name of “Pesce balistra” +refer to this structure. Both jaws are armed with eight strong +incisor-like and sometimes pointed teeth, by which these fishes are +enabled, not only to break off pieces of madrepores and other +corals on which they feed, but also to chisel a hole into the hard +shells of Mollusca, in order to extract the soft parts. In this way +they destroy an immense number of molluscs, and become most +injurious to the pearl-fisheries. The gradual failure of those +fisheries in Ceylon has been ascribed to this cause, although +evidently other agencies must have been at work at the same +time. The <i>Monacanthi</i> are distinguished from the <i>Balistes</i> in +having only one dorsal spine and a velvety covering of the skin. +Some 30 different species are known of <i>Balistes</i> and about 50 +of <i>Monacanthus</i>. Two species (<i>B. maculatus</i> and <i>capriscus</i>), +common in the Atlantic, sometimes wander to the British +coasts.</p> + +<table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:447px; height:276px" src="images/img341.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption"><i>Balistes vidua.</i></td></tr></table> + + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">FILELFO, FRANCESCO<a name="ar179" id="ar179"></a></span> (1398-1481), Italian humanist, was +born in 1398 at Tolentino, in the March of Ancona. When he +appeared upon the scene of human life, Petrarch and the students +of Florence had already brought the first act in the recovery of +classic culture to conclusion. They had created an eager appetite +for the antique, had disinterred many important Roman +authors, and had freed Latin scholarship to some extent from +the barbarism of the middle ages. Filelfo was destined to carry +on their work in the field of Latin literature, and to be an important +agent in the still unaccomplished recovery of Greek +culture. His earliest studies in grammar, rhetoric and the Latin +language were conducted at Padua, where he acquired so great +a reputation for learning that in 1417 he was invited to teach +eloquence and moral philosophy at Venice. According to the +custom of that age in Italy, it now became his duty to explain the +language, and to illustrate the beauties of the principal Latin +authors, Cicero and Virgil being considered the chief masters of +moral science and of elegant diction. Filelfo made his mark +at once in Venice. He was admitted to the society of the first +scholars and the most eminent nobles of that city; and in 1419 +he received an appointment from the state, which enabled him +to reside as secretary to the consul-general (<i>baylo</i>) of the Venetians +in Constantinople. This appointment was not only honourable +to Filelfo as a man of trust and general ability, but it also gave +him the opportunity of acquiring the most coveted of all possessions +at that moment for a scholar—a knowledge of the Greek +language. Immediately after his arrival in Constantinople, +Filelfo placed himself under the tuition of John Chrysoloras, +whose name was already well known in Italy as relative of Manuel, +the first Greek to profess the literature of his ancestors in Florence. +At the recommendation of Chrysoloras he was employed in several +diplomatic missions by the emperor John Palaeologus. Before +very long the friendship between Filelfo and his tutor was +cemented by the marriage of the former to Theodora, the +daughter of John Chrysoloras. He had now acquired a thorough +knowledge of the Greek language, and had formed a large +collection of Greek manuscripts. There was no reason why he +should not return to his native country. Accordingly, in 1427 he +accepted an invitation from the republic of Venice, and set sail for +Italy, intending to resume his professorial career. From this +time forward until the date of his death, Filelfo’s history consists +of a record of the various towns in which he lectured, the masters +whom he served, the books he wrote, the authors he illustrated, +the friendships he contracted, and the wars he waged with rival +scholars. He was a man of vast physical energy, of inexhaustible +mental activity, of quick passions and violent appetites; vain, +restless, greedy of gold and pleasure and fame; unable to stay +quiet in one place, and perpetually engaged in quarrels with his +compeers.</p> + +<p>When Filelfo arrived at Venice with his family in 1427, he +found that the city had almost been emptied by the plague, +and that his scholars would be few. He therefore removed to +Bologna; but here also he was met with drawbacks. The +city was too much disturbed with political dissensions to attend +to him; so Filelfo crossed the Apennines and settled in Florence. +At Florence began one of the most brilliant and eventful periods +of his life. During the week he lectured to large audiences of +young and old on the principal Greek and Latin authors, and on +Sundays he explained Dante to the people in the Duomo. In +addition to these labours of the chair, he found time to translate +portions of Aristotle, Plutarch, Xenophon and Lysias from the +Greek. Nor was he dead to the claims of society. At first he +seems to have lived with the Florentine scholars on tolerably +good terms; but his temper was so arrogant that Cosimo de’ +Medici’s friends were not long able to put up with him. Filelfo +hereupon broke out into open and violent animosity; and when +Cosimo was exiled by the Albizzi party in 1433, he urged the +signoria of Florence to pronounce upon him the sentence of +death. On the return of Cosimo to Florence, Filelfo’s position +in that city was no longer tenable. His life, he asserted, had +been already once attempted by a cut-throat in the pay of the +Medici; and now he readily accepted an invitation from the +state of Siena. In Siena, however, he was not destined to remain +more than four years. His fame as a professor had grown great +in Italy, and he daily received tempting offers from princes and +republics. The most alluring of these, made him by the duke +of Milan, Filippo Maria Visconti, he decided on accepting; and +in 1440 he was received with honour by his new master in the +capital of Lombardy.</p> + +<p>Filelfo’s life at Milan curiously illustrates the multifarious +importance of the scholars of that age in Italy. It was his duty +to celebrate his princely patrons in panegyrics and epics, to +abuse their enemies in libels and invectives, to salute them with +encomiastic odes on their birthdays, and to compose poems on +their favourite themes. For their courtiers he wrote epithalamial +and funeral orations; ambassadors and visitors from foreign +states he greeted with the rhetorical lucubrations then so much +in vogue. The students of the university he taught in daily +lectures, passing in review the weightiest and lightest authors +of antiquity, and pouring forth a flood of miscellaneous erudition. +<span class="correction" title="amended from No">Not</span> satisfied with these outlets for his mental energy, Filelfo +went on translating from the Greek, and prosecuted a paper +warfare with his enemies in Florence. He wrote, moreover, +political pamphlets on the great events of Italian history; and +when Constantinople was taken by the Turks, he procured the +liberation of his wife’s mother by a message addressed in his own +name to the sultan. In addition to a fixed stipend of some +700 golden florins yearly, he was continually in receipt of special +payments for the orations and poems he produced; so that, +had he been a man of frugal habits or of moderate economy, +he might have amassed a considerable fortune. As it was, he +spent his money as fast as he received it, living in a style of +splendour ill befitting a simple scholar, and indulging his taste +for pleasure in more than questionable amusements. In consequence +of this prodigality, he was always poor. His letters +and his poems abound in impudent demands for money from +patrons, some of them couched in language of the lowest adulation, +and others savouring of literary brigandage.</p> + +<p>During the second year of his Milanese residence Filelfo lost +his first wife, Theodora. He soon married again; and this time +he chose for his bride a young lady of good Lombard family, +called Orsina Osnaga. When she died he took in wedlock for +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page342" id="page342"></a>342</span> +the third time a woman of Lombard birth, Laura Magiolini. To +all his three wives, in spite of numerous infidelities, he seems +to have been warmly attached; and this is perhaps the best +trait in a character otherwise more remarkable for arrogance +and heat than for any amiable qualities.</p> + +<p>On the death of Filippo Maria Visconti, Filelfo, after a short +hesitation, transferred his allegiance to Francesco Sforza, the +new duke of Milan; and in order to curry favour with this +parvenu, he began his ponderous epic, the <i>Sforziad</i>, of which +12,800 lines were written, but which was never published. When +Francesco Sforza died, Filelfo turned his thoughts towards +Rome. He was now an old man of seventy-seven years, honoured +with the friendship of princes, recognized as the most distinguished +of Italian humanists, courted by pontiffs, and decorated +with the laurel wreath and the order of knighthood by kings. +Crossing the Apennines and passing through Florence, he reached +Rome in the second week of 1475. The terrible Sixtus IV. now +ruled in the Vatican; and from this pope Filelfo had received +an invitation to occupy the chair of rhetoric with good emoluments. +At first he was vastly pleased with the city and court +of Rome; but his satisfaction ere long turned to discontent, +and he gave vent to his ill-humour in a venomous satire on the +pope’s treasurer, Milliardo Cicala. Sixtus himself soon fell +under the ban of his displeasure; and when a year had passed +he left Rome never to return. Filelfo reached Milan to find that +his wife had died of the plague in his absence, and was already +buried. His own death followed speedily. For some time past +he had been desirous of displaying his abilities and adding to +his fame in Florence. Years had healed the breach between +him and the Medicean family; and on the occasion of the Pazzi +conspiracy against the life of Lorenzo de’ Medici, he had sent +violent letters of abuse to his papal patron Sixtus, denouncing +his participation in a plot so dangerous to the security of Italy. +Lorenzo now invited him to profess Greek at Florence, and +thither Filelfo journeyed in 1481. But two weeks after his +arrival he succumbed to dysentery, and was buried at the age +of eighty-three in the church of the Annunziata.</p> + +<p>Filelfo deserves commemoration among the greatest humanists +of the Italian Renaissance, not for the beauty of his style, not +for the elevation of his genius, not for the accuracy of his learning, +but for his energy, and for his complete adaptation to the times +in which he lived. His erudition was large but ill-digested; +his knowledge of the ancient authors, if extensive, was superficial; +his style was vulgar; he had no brilliancy of imagination, no +pungency of epigram, no grandeur of rhetoric. Therefore he +has left nothing to posterity which the world would not very +willingly let die. But in his own days he did excellent service +to learning by his untiring activity, and by the facility with +which he used his stores of knowledge. It was an age of accumulation +and preparation, when the world was still amassing and +cataloguing the fragments rescued from the wrecks of Greece +and Rome. Men had to receive the very rudiments of culture +before they could appreciate its niceties. And in this work of +collection and instruction Filelfo excelled, passing rapidly from +place to place, stirring up the zeal for learning by the passion +of his own enthusiastic temperament, and acting as a pioneer +for men like Poliziano and Erasmus.</p> + +<p>All that is worth knowing about Filelfo is contained in Carlo de’ +Rosmini’s admirable <i>Vita di Filelfo</i> (Milan, 1808); see also W. +Roscoe’s <i>Life of Lorenzo de’ Medici</i>, Vespasiano’s <i>Vite di uomini +illustri</i>, and J.A. Symonds’s <i>Renaissance in Italy</i> (1877).</p> +<div class="author">(J. A. S.)</div> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>A complete edition of Filelfo’s Greek letters (based on the Codex +Trevulzianus) was published for the first time, with French translation, +notes and commentaries, by E. Legrand in 1892 at Paris (C. xii. +of <i>Publications de l’école des lang. orient.</i>). For further references, +especially to monographs, &c., on Filelfo’s life and work, see Ulysse +Chevalier, <i>Répertoire des sources hist., bio-bibliographie</i> (Paris, 1905), +s.v. <i>Philelphe, François</i>.</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">FILEY,<a name="ar180" id="ar180"></a></span> a seaside resort in the Buckrose parliamentary +division of the East Riding of Yorkshire, England, 9-1/2 m. S.E. of +Scarborough by a branch of the North Eastern railway. Pop. of +urban district (1901) 3003. It stands upon the slope and +summit of the cliffs above Filey Bay, which is fringed by a fine +sandy beach. The northern horn of the bay is formed by Filey +Brigg, a narrow and abrupt promontory, continued seaward by +dangerous reefs. The coast-line sweeps hence south-eastward to +the finer promontory of Flamborough Head, beyond which is the +watering-place of Bridlington. The church of St Oswald at +Filey is a fine cruciform building with central tower, Transitional +Norman and Early English in date. There are pleasant +promenades and good golf links, also a small spa which has fallen +into disuse. Filey is in favour with visitors who desire a quiet +resort without the accompaniment of entertainment common to +the larger watering-places. Roman remains have been discovered +on the cliff north of the town; the site was probably +important, but nothing is certainly known about it.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">FILIBUSTER,<a name="ar181" id="ar181"></a></span> a name originally given to the buccaneers +(<i>q.v.</i>). The term is derived most probably from the Dutch <i>vry +buiter</i>, Ger. <i>Freibeuter</i>, Eng. <i>freebooter</i>, the word changing first into +<i>fribustier</i>, and then into Fr. <i>flibustier</i>, Span. <i>filibustero</i>. <i>Flibustier</i> +has passed into the French language, and <i>filibustero</i> into +the Spanish language, as a general name for a pirate. The term +“filibuster” was revived in America to designate those +adventurers who, after the termination of the war between +Mexico and the United States, organized expeditions within the +United States to take part in West Indian and Central American +revolutions. From this has sprung the modern use of the word +to imply one who engages in private, unauthorized and irregular +warfare against any state. In the United States it is colloquially +applied to legislators who practise obstruction.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">FILICAJA, VINCENZO DA<a name="ar182" id="ar182"></a></span> (1642-1707), Italian poet, sprung +from an ancient and noble family of Florence, was born in that +city on the 30th of December 1642. From an incidental notice +in one of his letters, stating the amount of house rent paid during +his childhood, his parents must have been in easy circumstances, +and the supposition is confirmed by the fact that he enjoyed all +the advantages of a liberal education, first under the Jesuits of +Florence, and then in the university of Pisa.</p> + +<p>At Pisa his mind became stored, not only with the results of +patient study in various branches of letters, but with the great +historical associations linked with the former glory of the Pisan +republic, and with one remarkable institution of which Pisa was +the seat. To the tourist who now visits Pisa the banners and +emblems of the order of St Stephen are mere matter of curiosity, +but they had a serious significance two hundred years ago to the +young Tuscan, who knew that these naval crusaders formed the +main defence of his country and commerce against the Turkish, +Algerine and Tunisian corsairs. After a five years’ residence in +Pisa he returned to Florence, where he married Anna, daughter of +the senator and marquis Scipione Capponi, and withdrew to a +small villa at Figline, not far from the city. Abjuring the thought +of writing amatory poetry in consequence of the premature death +of a young lady to whom he had been attached, he occupied +himself chiefly with literary pursuits, above all the composition of +Italian and Latin poetry. His own literary eminence, the +opportunities enjoyed by him as a member of the celebrated +Academy Della Crusca for making known his critical taste and +classical knowledge, and the social relations within the reach of a +noble Florentine so closely allied with the great house of Capponi, +sufficiently explain the intimate terms on which he stood with +such eminent men of letters as Magalotti, Menzini, Gori and Redi. +The last-named, the author of <i>Bacchus in Tuscany</i>, was not only +one of the most brilliant poets of his time, and a safe literary +adviser; he was the court physician, and his court influence was +employed with zeal and effect in his friend’s favour. Filicaja’s +rural seclusion was owing even more to his straitened means than +to his rural tastes. If he ceased at length to pine in obscurity, the +change was owing not merely to the fact that his poetical genius, +fired by the deliverance of Vienna from the Turks in 1683, poured +forth the right strains at the right time, but also to the influence of +Redi, who not only laid Filicaja’s verses before his own sovereign, +but had them transmitted with the least possible delay to the +foreign princes whose noble deeds they sung. The first recompense +came, however, not from those princes, but from Christina, +the ex-queen of Sweden, who, from her circle of savants and +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page343" id="page343"></a>343</span> +courtiers at Rome, spontaneously and generously announced to +Filicaja her wish to bear the expense of educating his two sons, +enhancing her kindness by the delicate request that it should +remain a secret.</p> + +<p>The tide of Filicaja’s fortunes now turned. The grand-duke of +Tuscany, Cosmo III., conferred on him an important office, the +commissionership of official balloting. He was named governor +of Volterra in 1696, where he strenuously exerted himself to raise +the tone of public morality. Both there and at Pisa, where he +was subsequently governor in 1700, his popularity was so great +that on his removal the inhabitants of both cities petitioned for +his recall. He passed the close of his life at Florence; the grand-duke +raised him to the rank of senator, and he died in that city on +the 24th of September 1707. He was buried in the family vault in +the church of St Peter, and a monument was erected to his +memory by his sole surviving son Scipione Filicaja. In the six +celebrated odes inspired by the great victory of Sobieski, Filicaja +took a lyrical flight which has placed him at moments on a level +with the greatest Italian poets. They are, however, unequal, +like all his poetry, reflecting in some passages the native vigour of +his genius and purest inspirations of his tastes, whilst in others +they are deformed by the affectations of the <i>Seicentisti</i>. When +thoroughly natural and spontaneous—as in the two sonnets +“Italia, Italia, o tu cui feo la sorte” and “Dov’ è, Italia, il tuo +braccio? e a che ti serve;” in the verses “Alla beata Vergine,” +“Al divino amore;” in the sonnet “Sulla fede nelle disgrazie”—the +truth and beauty of thought and language recall the verse +of Petrarch.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>Besides the poems published in the complete Venice edition of +1762, several other pieces appeared for the first time in the small +Florence edition brought out by Barbera in 1864.</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">FILIGREE<a name="ar183" id="ar183"></a></span> (formerly written <i>filigrain</i> or <i>filigrane</i>; the Ital. +<i>filigrana</i>, Fr. <i>filigrane</i>, Span, <i>filigrana</i>, Ger. <i>Drahtgeflecht</i>), +jewel work of a delicate kind made with twisted threads usually +of gold and silver. The word, which is usually derived from the +Lat. <i>filum</i>, thread, and <i>granum</i>, grain, is not found in Ducange, +and is indeed of modern origin. According to Prof. Skeat it is +derived from the Span. <i>filigrana</i>, from “<i>filar</i>, to spin, and <i>grano</i>, +the grain or principal fibre of the material.” Though filigree has +become a special branch of jewel work in modern times it was +anciently part of the ordinary work of the jeweller. Signor A. +Castellani states, in his <i>Memoir on the Jewellery of the Ancients</i> +(1861), that all the jewelry of the Etruscans and Greeks (other +than that intended for the grave, and therefore of an unsubstantial +character) was made by soldering together and so building +up the gold rather than by chiselling or engraving the material.</p> + +<p>The art may be said to consist in curling, twisting and plaiting +fine pliable threads of metal, and uniting them at their points of +contact with each other, and with the ground, by means of gold +or silver solder and borax, by the help of the blowpipe. Small +grains or beads of the same metals are often set in the eyes of +volutes, on the junctions, or at intervals at which they will set +off the wire-work effectively. The more delicate work is generally +protected by framework of stouter wire. Brooches, crosses, +earrings and other personal ornaments of modern filigree are +generally surrounded and subdivided by bands of square or flat +metal, giving consistency to the filling up, which would not otherwise +keep its proper shape. Some writers of repute have laid equal +stress on the <i>filum</i> and the <i>granum</i>, and have extended the use of +the term filigree to include the granulated work of the ancients, +even where the twisted wire-work is entirely wanting. Such a +wide application of the term is not approved by current usage, +according to which the presence of the twisted threads is the +predominant fact.</p> + +<p>The Egyptian jewellers employed wire, both to lay down on a +background and to plait or otherwise arrange <i>à jour</i>. But, with +the exception of chains, it cannot be said that filigree work was +much practised by them. Their strength lay rather in their +cloisonné work and their moulded ornaments. Many examples, +however, remain of round plaited gold chains of fine wire, such +as are still made by the filigree workers of India, and known +as Trichinopoly chains. From some of these are hung smaller +chains of finer wire with minute fishes and other pendants +fastened to them. In ornaments derived from Phoenician sites, +such as Cyprus and Sardinia, patterns of gold wire are laid +down with great delicacy on a gold ground, but the art was +advanced to its highest perfection in the Greek and Etruscan +filigree of the 6th to the 3rd centuries <span class="scs">B.C.</span> A number of earrings +and other personal ornaments found in central Italy are preserved +in the Louvre and in the British Museum. Almost all +of them are made of filigree work. Some earrings are in the +form of flowers of geometric design, bordered by one or more +rims each made up of minute volutes of gold wire, and this kind +of ornament is varied by slight differences in the way of disposing +the number or arrangement of the volutes. But the feathers +and petals of modern Italian filigree are not seen in these ancient +designs. Instances occur, but only rarely, in which filigree +devices in wire are self-supporting and not applied to metal +plates. The museum of the Hermitage at St Petersburg contains +an amazingly rich collection of jewelry from the tombs of the +Crimea. Many bracelets and necklaces in that collection are +made of twisted wire, some in as many as seven rows of plaiting, +with clasps in the shape of heads of animals of beaten work. +Others are strings of large beads of gold, decorated with volutes, +knots and other patterns of wire soldered over the surfaces. +(See the <i>Antiquités du Bosphore Cimmérien</i>, by Gille, 1854; +reissued by S. Reinach, 1892, in which will be found careful +engravings of these objects.) In the British Museum a sceptre, +probably that of a Greek priestess, is covered with plaited and +netted gold wire, finished with a sort of Corinthian capital and +a boss of green glass.</p> + +<p>It is probable that in India and various parts of central Asia +filigree has been worked from the most remote period without +any change in the designs. Whether the Asiatic jewellers were +influenced by the Greeks settled on that continent, or merely +trained under traditions held in common with them, it is certain +that the Indian filigree workers retain the same patterns as those +of the ancient Greeks, and work them in the same way, down to +the present day. Wandering workmen are given so much gold, +coined or rough, which is weighed, heated in a pan of charcoal, +beaten into wire, and then worked in the courtyard or verandah +of the employer’s house according to the designs of the artist, +who weighs the complete work on restoring it and is paid at a +specified rate for his labour. Very fine grains or beads and +spines of gold, scarcely thicker than coarse hair, projecting +from plates of gold are methods of ornamentation still used.</p> + +<p>Passing to later times we may notice in many collections of +medieval jewel work (such as that in the South Kensington +Museum) reliquaries, covers for the gospels, &c., made either +in Constantinople from the 6th to the 12th centuries, or in +monasteries in Europe, in which Byzantine goldsmiths’ work +was studied and imitated. These objects, besides being enriched +with precious stones, polished, but not cut into facets, and with +enamel, are often decorated with filigree. Large surfaces of gold +are sometimes covered with scrolls of filigree soldered on; and +corner pieces of the borders of book covers, or the panels of +reliquaries, are not unfrequently made up of complicated pieces +of plaited work alternating with spaces encrusted with enamel. +Byzantine filigree work occasionally has small stones set amongst +the curves or knots. Examples of such decoration can be seen +in the South Kensington and British Museums.</p> + +<p>In the north of Europe the Saxons, Britons and Celts were +from an early period skilful in several kinds of goldsmiths’ work. +Admirable examples of filigree patterns laid down in wire on +gold, from Anglo-Saxon tombs, may be seen in the British +Museum—notably a brooch from Dover, and a sword-hilt from +Cumberland.</p> + +<p>The Irish filigree work is more thoughtful in design and more +varied in pattern than that of any period or country that could +be named. Its highest perfection must be placed in the 10th +and 11th centuries. The Royal Irish Academy in Dublin +contains a number of reliquaries and personal jewels, of which +filigree is the general and most remarkable ornament. The +“Tara” brooch has been copied and imitated, and the shape and +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page344" id="page344"></a>344</span> +decoration of it are well known. Instead of fine curls or volutes +of gold thread, the Irish filigree is varied by numerous designs +in which one thread can be traced through curious knots and +complications, which, disposed over large surfaces, balance one +another, but always with special varieties and arrangements +difficult to trace with the eye. The long thread appears and +disappears without breach of continuity, the two ends generally +worked into the head and the tail of a serpent or a monster. +The reliquary containing the “Bell of St Patrick” is covered +with knotted work in many varieties. A two-handled chalice, +called the “Ardagh cup,” found near Limerick in 1868, is +ornamented with work of this kind of extraordinary fineness. +Twelve plaques on a band round the body of the vase, plaques +on each handle and round the foot of the vase have a series of +different designs of characteristic patterns, in fine filigree wire +work wrought on the front of the repoussé ground. (See a paper +by the 3rd earl of Dunraven in <i>Transactions of Royal Irish +Academy</i>, xxiv. pt. iii. 1873.)</p> + +<p>Much of the medieval jewel work all over Europe down to +the 15th century, on reliquaries, crosses, croziers and other +ecclesiastical goldsmiths’ work, is set off with bosses and borders +of filigree. Filigree work in silver was practised by the Moors +of Spain during the middle ages with great skill, and was introduced +by them and established all over the Peninsula, whence +it was carried to the Spanish colonies in America. The Spanish +filigree work of the 17th and 18th centuries is of extraordinary +complexity (examples in the Victoria and Albert Museum), and +silver filigree jewelry of delicate and artistic design is still made +in considerable quantities throughout the country. The manufacture +spread over the Balearic Islands, and among the populations +that border the Mediterranean. It is still made all over +Italy, and in Malta, Albania, the Ionian Islands and many +other parts of Greece. That of the Greeks is sometimes on a +large scale, with several thicknesses of wires alternating with +larger and smaller bosses and beads, sometimes set with +turquoises, &c., and mounted on convex plates, making rich +ornamental headpieces, belts and breast ornaments. Filigree +silver buttons of wire-work and small bosses are worn by the +peasants in most of the countries that produce this kind of +jewelry. Silver filigree brooches and buttons are also made +in Denmark, Norway and Sweden. Little chains and pendants +are added to much of this northern work.</p> + +<p>Some very curious filigree work was brought from Abyssinia +after the capture of Magdala—arm-guards, slippers, cups, &c., +some of which are now in the South Kensington Museum. They +are made of thin plates of silver, over which the wire-work is +soldered. The filigree is subdivided by narrow borders of simple +pattern, and the intervening spaces are made up of many +patterns, some with grains set at intervals.</p> + +<p>A few words must be added as to the granulated work which, +as stated above, some writers have classed under the term of +filigree, although the twisted wires may be altogether wanting. +Such decoration consists of minute globules of gold, soldered +to form patterns on a metal surface. Its use is rare in Egypt. +(See J. de Morgan, <i>Fouilles à Dahchour</i>, 1894-1895, pl. xii.) +It occurs in Cyprus at an early period, as for instance on a gold +pendant in the British Museum from Enkomi in Cyprus (10th +century <span class="scs">B.C.</span>). The pendant is in the form of a pomegranate, +and has upon it a pattern of triangles, formed by more than +3000 minute globules separately soldered on. It also occurs on +ornaments of the 7th century <span class="scs">B.C.</span> from Camirus in Rhodes. +But these globules are large, compared with those which are +found on Etruscan jewelry. Signor Castellani, who had made +the antique jewelry of the Etruscans and Greeks his special +study, with the intention of reproducing the ancient models, +found it for a long time impossible to revive this particular +process of delicate soldering. He overcame the difficulty at +last, by the discovery of a traditional school of craftsmen at +St Angelo in Vado, by whose help his well-known reproductions +were executed.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>For examples of antique work the student should examine the +gold ornament rooms of the British Museum, the Louvre and the +collection in the Victoria and Albert Museum. The last contains a +large and very varied assortment of modern Italian, Spanish, Greek +and other jewelry made for the peasants of various countries. It +also possesses interesting examples of the modern work in granulated +gold by Castellani and Giuliano. The Celtic work is well represented +in the Royal Irish Academy in Dublin.</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">FILLAN, SAINT,<a name="ar184" id="ar184"></a></span> or <span class="sc">Faelan</span>, the name of the two Scottish +saints, of Irish origin, whose lives are of a purely legendary +character. The St Fillan whose feast is kept on the 20th of June +had churches dedicated to his honour at Ballyheyland, Queen’s +county, Ireland, and at Loch Earn, Perthshire. The other, +who is commemorated on the 9th of January, was specially +venerated at Cluain Mavscua, Co. Westmeath, Ireland, and so +early as the 8th or 9th century at Strathfillan, Perthshire, Scotland, +where there was an ancient monastery dedicated to him, which, +like most of the religious houses of early times, was afterwards +secularized. The lay-abbot, who was its superior in the reign +of William the Lion, held high rank in the Scottish kingdom. +This monastery was restored in the reign of Robert Bruce, and +became a cell of the abbey of canons regular at Inchaffray. +The new foundation received a grant from King Robert, in gratitude +for the aid which he was supposed to have obtained from a +relic of the saint on the eve of the great victory of Bannockburn. +Another relic was the saint’s staff or crozier, which became +known as the coygerach or quigrich, and was long in the possession +of a family of the name of Jore or Dewar, who were its +hereditary guardians. They certainly had it in their custody +in the year 1428, and their right was formally recognized by +King James III. in 1487. The head of the crozier, which is of +silver-gilt with a smaller crozier of bronze inclosed within it, is +now deposited in the National Museum of the Society of Antiquaries +of Scotland.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>The legend of the second of these saints is given in the Bollandist +<i>Acta SS.</i> (1643), 9th of January, i. 594-595; A.P. Forbes, <i>Kalendars +of Scottish Saints</i> (Edinburgh, 1872), pp. 341-346; D. O’Hanlon’s +<i>Lives of Irish Saints</i> (Dublin), n.d. pp. 134-144. See also <i>Historical +Notices of St Fillan’s Crozier</i>, by Dr John Stuart (Aberdeen, 1877).</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">FILLET<a name="ar185" id="ar185"></a></span> (through Fr. <i>filet</i>, from the med. Lat. <i>filettum</i>, diminutive +of <i>filum</i>, a thread), a band or ribbon used for tying the hair, +the Lat. <i>vitta</i>, which was used as a sacrificial emblem, and also +worn by vestal virgins, brides and poets. The word is thus +applied to anything in the shape of a band or strip, as, in coining, +to the metal ribbon from which the blanks are punched. In +architecture, a “fillet” is a narrow flat band, sometimes called +a “listel,” which is used to separate mouldings one from the other, +or to terminate a suite of mouldings as at the top of a cornice. +In the fluted column of the Ionic and Corinthian Orders the fillet +is employed between the flutes. It is a very important feature +in Gothic work, being frequently worked on large mouldings; +when placed on the front and sides of the moulding of a rib it +has been termed the “keel and wings” of the rib.</p> + +<p>In cooking, “fillet” is used of the “undercut” of a sirloin of +beef, or of a thick slice of fish or meat; more particularly of a +boned and rolled piece of veal or other meat, tied by a “fillet” +or string.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">FILLMORE, MILLARD<a name="ar186" id="ar186"></a></span> (1800-1874), thirteenth president of +the United States of America, came of a family of English stock, +which had early settled in New England. His father, Nathaniel, +in 1795, made a clearing within the limits of what is now the town +of Summerhill, Cayuga county, New York, and there Millard +Fillmore was born, on the 7th of January 1800. Until he was +fifteen he could have acquired only the simplest rudiments of +education, and those chiefly from his parents. At that age he +was apprenticed to a fuller and clothier, to card wool, and to dye +and dress the cloth. Two years before the close of his term, with +a promissory note for thirty dollars, he bought the remainder +of his time from his master, and at the age of nineteen began to +study law. In 1820 he made his way to Buffalo, then only +a village, and supported himself by teaching school and aiding +the postmaster while continuing his studies.</p> + +<p>In 1823 he was admitted to the bar, and began practice at +Aurora, New York, to which place his father had removed. +Hard study, temperance and integrity gave him a good reputation +and moderate success, and in 1827 he was made an attorney +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page345" id="page345"></a>345</span> +and, in 1829, counsellor of the supreme court of the state. +Returning to Buffalo in 1830 he formed, in 1832, a partnership +with Nathan K. Hall (1810-1874), later a member of Congress +and postmaster-general in his cabinet. Solomon G. Haven (1810-1861), +member of Congress from 1851 to 1857, joined them in +1836. The firm met with great success. From 1829 to 1832 +Fillmore served in the state assembly, and, in the single term +of 1833-1835, the national House of Representatives, coming +in as anti-Jackson, or in opposition to the administration. From +1837 to 1843, when he declined further service, he again represented +his district in the House, this time as a member of the +Whig party. In Congress he opposed the annexation of Texas +as slave territory, was an advocate of internal improvements and +a protective tariff, supported J.Q. Adams in maintaining the +right of offering anti-slavery petitions, advocated the prohibition +by Congress of the slave trade between the states, and favoured +the exclusion of slavery from the District of Columbia. His +speech and tone, however, were moderate on these exciting +subjects, and he claimed the right to stand free of pledges, and +to adjust his opinions and his course by the development of +circumstances. The Whigs having the ascendancy in the Twenty-Seventh +Congress, he was made chairman of the House Committee +of Ways and Means. Against a strong opposition he +carried an appropriation of $30,000 to Morse’s telegraph, +and reported from his committee the Tariff Bill of 1842. In +1844 he was the Whig candidate for the governorship of New +York, but was defeated. In November 1847 he was elected +comptroller of the state of New York, and in 1848 he was +elected vice-president of the United States on the ticket with +Zachary Taylor as president. Fillmore presided over the senate +during the exciting debates on the “Compromise Measures of +1850.”</p> + +<p>President Taylor died on the 9th of July 1850, and on the next +day Fillmore took the oath of office as his successor. The cabinet +which he called around him contained Daniel Webster, Thomas +Corwin and John J. Crittenden. On the death of Webster in +1852, Edward Everett became secretary of state. Unlike Taylor, +Fillmore favoured the “Compromise Measures,” and his signing +one of them, the Fugitive Slave Law, in spite of the vigorous +protests of anti-slavery men, lost him much of his popularity +in the North. Few of his opponents, however, questioned his +own full persuasion that the Compromise Measures were vitally +necessary to pacify the nation. In 1851 he interposed promptly +but ineffectively in thwarting the projects of the “filibusters,” +under Narciso Lopez for the invasion of Cuba. Commodore +Matthew Calbraith Perry’s expedition, which opened up diplomatic +relations with Japan, and the exploration of the valley +of the Amazon by Lieutenants William L. Herndon (1813-1857) +and Lardner Gibbon also occurred during his term. In the +autumn of 1852 he was an unsuccessful candidate for nomination +for the presidency by the Whig National Convention, and he went +out of office on the 4th of March 1853. In February 1856, while +he was travelling abroad, he was nominated for the presidency +by the American or Know Nothing party, and later this nomination +was also accepted by the Whigs; but in the ensuing presidential +election, the last in which the Know Nothings and the +Whigs as such took any part, he received the electoral votes of +only one state, Maryland. Thereafter he took no public share +in political affairs. Fillmore was twice married: in 1826 to +Abigail Powers (who died in 1853, leaving him with a son and +daughter), and in 1858 to Mrs. Caroline C. Mclntosh. He died +at Buffalo on the 8th of March 1874.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>In 1907 the Buffalo Historical Society, of which Fillmore was one +of the founders and the first president, published the <i>Millard Fillmore +Papers</i> (2 vols., vol. x. and xi. of the Society’s publications; edited +by F.H. Severance), containing miscellaneous writings and speeches, +and official and private correspondence. Most of his correspondence, +however, was destroyed in pursuance of a direction in his son’s will.</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">FILMER, SIR RORERT<a name="ar187" id="ar187"></a></span> (d. 1653), English political writer, was +the son of Sir Edward Filmer of East Sutton in Kent. He +studied at Trinity College, Cambridge, where he matriculated in +1604. Knighted by Charles I. at the beginning of his reign, he +was an ardent supporter of the king’s cause, and his house is said +to have been plundered by the parliamentarians ten times. He +died on the 26th of May 1653.</p> + +<p>Filmer was already a middle-aged man when the great controversy +between the king and the Commons roused him into literary +activity. His writings afford an exceedingly curious example of +the doctrines held by the most extreme section of the Divine +Right party. Filmer’s theory is founded upon the statement that +the government of a family by the father is the true original and +model of all government. In the beginning of the world God gave +authority to Adam, who had complete control over his descendants, +even as to life and death. From Adam this authority was +inherited by Noah; and Filmer quotes as not unlikely the +tradition that Noah sailed up the Mediterranean and allotted the +three continents of the Old World to the rule of his three sons. +From Shem, Ham and Japheth the patriarchs inherited the +absolute power which they exercised over their families and +servants; and from the patriarchs all kings and governors +(whether a single monarch or a governing assembly) derive their +authority, which is therefore absolute, and founded upon divine +right. The difficulty that a man “by the secret will of God may +unjustly” attain to power which he has not inherited appeared to +Filmer in no way to alter the nature of the power so obtained, +for “there is, and always shall be continued to the end of the +world, a natural right of a supreme father over every multitude.” +The king is perfectly free from all human control. He cannot be +bound by the acts of his predecessors, for which he is not responsible; +nor by his own, for “impossible it is in nature that a +man should give a law unto himself”—a law must be imposed by +another than the person bound by it. With regard to the English +constitution, he asserted, in his <i>Freeholder’s Grand Inquest +touching our Sovereign Lord the King and his Parliament</i> (1648), +that the Lords only give counsel to the king, the Commons only +“perform and consent to the ordinances of parliament,” and the +king alone is the maker of laws, which proceed purely from his +will. It is monstrous that the people should judge or depose +their king, for they would then be judges in their own cause.</p> + +<p>The most complete expression of Filmer’s opinions is given in +the <i>Patriarcha</i>, which was published in 1680, many years after his +death. His position, however, was sufficiently indicated by the +works which he published during his lifetime: the <i>Anarchy of a +Limited and Mixed Monarchy</i> (1648), an attack upon a treatise on +monarchy by Philip Hunton (1604?-1682), who maintained that +the king’s prerogative is not superior to the authority of the +houses of parliament; the pamphlet entitled <i>The Power of Kings, +and in particular of the King of England</i> (1648), first published +in 1680; and his <i>Observations upon Mr Hobbes’s Leviathan, Mr +Milton against Salmasius, and H. Grotius De jure belli et pacis, +concerning the Originall of Government</i> (1652). Filmer’s theory, +owing to the circumstances of the time, obtained a recognition +which it is now difficult to understand. Nine years after the +publication of the <i>Patriarcha</i>, at the time of the Revolution which +banished the Stuarts from the throne, Locke singled out Filmer +as the most remarkable of the advocates of Divine Right, and +thought it worth while to attack him expressly in the first part of +the <i>Treatise on Government</i>, going into all his arguments <i>seriatim</i>, +and especially pointing out that even if the first steps of his +argument be granted, the rights of the eldest born have been so +often set aside that modern kings can claim no such inheritance of +authority as he asserted.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">FILMY FERNS,<a name="ar188" id="ar188"></a></span> a general name for a group of ferns with +delicate much-divided leaves and often moss-like growth, +belonging to the genera <i>Hymenophyllum</i>, <i>Todea</i> and <i>Trichomanes</i>. +They require to be kept in close cases in a cool fernery, and the +stones and moss amongst which they are grown must be kept +continually moist so that the evaporated water condenses on the +very numerous divisions of the leaves.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">FILON, PIERRE MARIE AUGUSTIN<a name="ar189" id="ar189"></a></span> (1841-  ), French man +of letters, son of the historian Charles Auguste Désiré Filon +(1800-1875), was born in Paris in 1841. His father became +professor of history at Douai, and eventually “<i>inspecteur +d’académie</i>” in Paris; his principal works were +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page346" id="page346"></a>346</span> +<i>Histoire comparée de France et de l’Angleterre</i> (1832), <i>Histoire de l’Europe au +XVI<span class="sp">e</span> siècle</i> (1838), <i>La Diplomatie française sous Louis XV</i> +(1843), <i>Histoire de l’Italie méridionale</i> (1849), <i>Histoire du sénat +romain</i> (1850), <i>Histoire de la démocratie athénienne</i> (1854). +Educated at the École normale, Augustin Filon was appointed +tutor to the prince imperial and accompanied him to England, +where he remained for some years. He is the author of <i>Guy +Patin, sa vie, sa correspondance</i> (1862); <i>Nos grands-pères</i> (1887); +<i>Prosper Mérimée</i> (1894); <i>Sous la tyrannie</i> (1900). On English +subjects he has written chiefly under the pseudonym of Pierre +Sandrié, <i>Les Mariages de Londres</i> (1875); <i>Histoire de la littérature +anglaise</i> (1883); <i>Le Théâtre anglais</i> (1896), and <i>La Caricature +en Angleterre</i> (1902).</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">FILOSA<a name="ar190" id="ar190"></a></span> (A. Lang), one of the two divisions of Rhizopoda, +characterized by protoplasm granular at the surface, and fine +pseudopodia branching and usually acutely pointed at the tips.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">FILTER<a name="ar191" id="ar191"></a></span> (a word common in various forms to most European +languages, adapted from the medieval Lat. <i>filtrum</i>, felt, a +material used as a filtering agent), an arrangement for separating +solid matter from liquids. In some cases the operation of +filtration is performed for the sake of removing impurities from +the filtrate or liquid filtered, as in the purification of water for +drinking purposes; in others the aim is to recover and collect +the solid matter, as when the chemist filters off a precipitate from +the liquid in which it is suspended.</p> + +<p>In regard to the purification of water, filtration was long looked +upon as merely a mechanical process of straining out the solid +particles, whereby a turbid water could be rendered clear. In +the course of time it was noticed that certain materials, such as +charcoal, had the power to some extent also of softening hard +water and of removing organic matter, and at the beginning of +the 19th century charcoal, both animal and vegetable, came into +use for filtering purposes. Porous carbon blocks, made by +strongly heating a mixture of powdered charcoal with oil, resin, +&c., were introduced about a generation later, and subsequently +various preparations of iron (spongy iron, magnetic oxide) found +favour. Innumerable forms of filters made with these and other +materials were put on the market, and were extolled as removing +impurities of every kind from water, and as affording complete +protection against the communication of disease. But whatever +merits they had as clarifiers of turbid water, the advent of +bacteriology, and the recognition of the fact that the bacteria of +certain diseases may be water-borne, introduced a new criterion +of effectiveness, and it was perceived that the removal of solid +particles, or even of organic impurities (which were realized to be +important not so much because they are dangerous to health +<i>per se</i> as because their presence affords grounds for suspecting +that the water in which they occur has been exposed to circumstances +permitting contamination with infective disease), was not +sufficient; the filter must also prevent the passage of pathogenic +organisms, and so render the water sterile bacteriologically. +Examined from this point of view the majority of domestic +filters were found to be gravely defective, and even to be worse +than useless, since unless they were frequently and thoroughly +cleansed, they were liable to become favourable breeding-places for +microbes. The first filter which was more or less completely +impermeable to bacteria was the Pasteur-Chamberland, which +was devised in Pasteur’s laboratory, and is made of dense biscuit +porcelain. The filtering medium in this, as in other filters of the +same kind, takes the form of a hollow cylinder or “candle,” +through the walls of which the water has to pass from the outside +to the inside, the candles often being arranged so that they may +be directly attached to a tap, whereby the rate of flow, which is +apt to be slow, is accelerated by the pressure of the main. But +even filters of this type, if they are to be fully relied upon, must be +frequently cleaned and sterilized, and great care must be taken +that the joints and connexions are watertight, and that the +candles are without cracks or flaws. In cases where the water +supply is known to be infected, or even where it is merely +doubtful, it is wise to have recourse to sterilization by boiling, +rather than trust to any filter. Various machines have been +constructed to perform this operation, some of them specially +designed for the use of troops in the field; those in which +economy of fuel is studied have an exchange-heater, by means of +which the incoming cold water receives heat from the outgoing +hot water, which thus arrives at the point of outflow at a +temperature nearly as low as that of the supply. Chemical +methods of sterilization have also been suggested, depending on +the use of iodine, chlorine, bromine, ozone, potassium permanganate, +copper sulphate or chloride and other substances. +For the sand-filtration of water on a large scale, in which the +presence of a surface film containing zooglaea of bacteria is an +essential feature, see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Water Supply</a></span>.</p> + +<p>Filtration in the chemical laboratory is commonly effected +by the aid of a special kind of unsized paper, which in the more +expensive varieties is practically pure cellulose, impurities like +<span class="correction" title="amended from feric">ferric</span> oxide, alumina, lime, magnesia and silica having been removed +by treatment with hydrochloric and hydrofluoric acids. +A circular piece of this paper is folded twice upon itself so as to +form a quadrant, one of the folds is pulled out, and the cone thus +obtained is supported in a glass or porcelain funnel having an +apical angle of 60°. The liquid to be filtered is poured into the +cone, preferably down a glass rod upon the sides of the funnel +to prevent splashing and to preserve the apex of the filter-paper, +and passes through the paper, upon which the solid matter is +retained. In the case of liquids containing strong acids or +alkalis, which the paper cannot withstand, a plug of carefully +purified asbestos or glass-wool (spun glass) is often employed, +contained in a bulb blown as an enlargement on a narrow “filter-tube.” +To accelerate the rate of filtration various devices are +resorted to, such as lengthening the tube below the filtering +material, increasing the pressure on the liquid being filtered, +or decreasing it in the receiver of the filtrate. R.W. Bunsen may +be regarded as the originator of the second method, and it was he +who devised the small cone of platinum foil, sometimes replaced +by a cone of parchment perforated with pinholes, arranged at +the apex of the funnel to serve as a support for the paper, which +is apt to burst under the pressure differences. In the so-called +“Buchner funnel,” the filtering vessel is cylindrical, and the +paper receives support by being laid upon its flat perforated +bottom. In filtering into a vacuum the flask receiving the filtrate +should be connected to the exhaust through a second flask. +The suction may be derived from any form of air-pump; a form +often employed where water at fair pressure is available is +the jet-pump, which in consequence is known as a filter-pump. +Another method of filtering into a vacuum is to immerse a porous +jar (“Pukall cell”) in the liquid to be filtered, and attach a +suction-pipe to its interior. A filtering arrangement devised +by F.C. Gooch, which has come into common use in quantitative +analysis where the solid matter has to be submitted to heating +or ignition, consists of a crucible having a perforated bottom. +By means of a piece of stretched rubber tubing, this crucible +is supported in the mouth of an ordinary funnel which is connected +with an exhausting apparatus; and water holding in +suspension fine scrapings of asbestos, purified by boiling with +strong hydrochloric acid and washing with water, is run through +it, so that the perforated bottom is covered with a layer of felted +asbestos. The crucible is then removed from the rubber support, +weighed and replaced; the liquid is filtered through in the +ordinary way; and the crucible with its contents is again removed, +dried, ignited and weighed. A perforated cone, similarly coated +with asbestos and fitted into a conical funnel, is sometimes +employed.</p> + +<p>In many processes of chemical technology filtration plays an +important part. A crude method consists of straining the liquid +through cotton or other cloth, either stretched on wooden frames +or formed into long narrow bags (“bag-filters”). Occasionally +filtration into a vacuum is practised, but more often, as in filter-presses, +the liquid is forced under pressure, either hydrostatic +or obtained from a force-pump or compressed air, into a series of +chambers partitioned off by cloth, which arrests the solids, but +permits the passage of the liquid portions. For separating +liquids from solids of a fibrous or crystalline character “hydro-extractors” +or “centrifugals” are frequently employed. The +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page347" id="page347"></a>347</span> +material is placed in a perforated cage or “basket,” which +is enclosed in an outer casing, and when the cage is rapidly +rotated by suitable gearing, the liquid portions are forced out +into the external casing.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">FIMBRIA, GAIUS FLAVIUS<a name="ar192" id="ar192"></a></span> (d. 84 <span class="scs">B.C.</span>), Roman soldier and +a violent partisan of Marius. He was sent to Asia in 86 <span class="scs">B.C.</span> +as legate to L. Valerius Flaccus, but quarrelled with him and was +dismissed. Taking advantage of the absence of Flaccus at +Chalcedon and the discontent aroused by his avarice and severity, +Fimbria stirred up a revolt and slew Flaccus at Nicomedia. +He then assumed the command of the army and obtained several +successes against Mithradates, whom he shut up in Pitane on +the coast of Aeolis, and would undoubtedly have captured him +had Lucullus co-operated with the fleet. Fimbria treated most +cruelly all the people of Asia who had revolted from Rome or +sided with Sulla. Having gained admission to Ilium by declaring +that, as a Roman, he was friendly, he massacred the inhabitants +and burnt the place to the ground. But in 84 Sulla crossed over +from Greece to Asia, made peace with Mithradates, and turned +his arms against Fimbria, who, seeing that there was no chance +of escape, committed suicide. His troops were made to serve in +Asia till the end of the third Mithradatic War.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Rome</a></span>: <i>History</i>; and arts, on <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Sulla</a></span> and <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Marius</a></span>.</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">FIMBRIATE<a name="ar193" id="ar193"></a></span> (from Lat. <i>fimbriae</i>, fringe), a zoological and +botanical term, meaning fringed. In heraldry, “fimbriate” +or “fimbriated” refers to a narrow edge or border running round +a bearing.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">FINALE<a name="ar194" id="ar194"></a></span> (Ital. for “end”), a term in music for the concluding +movement in an instrumental composition, whether symphony, +concerto or sonata, and, in dramatic music, the concerted piece +which ends each act. Of instrumental finales, the great choral +finale to Beethoven’s 9th symphony, and of operatic finales, +that of Mozart’s <i>Nozze di Figaro</i>, to the second act, and to the +last act of Verdi’s <i>Falstaff</i> may be mentioned. In the Wagnerian +opera the finale has no place.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">FINANCE.<a name="ar195" id="ar195"></a></span> The term “finance,” which comes into English +through French, in its original meaning denoted a payment +(<i>finatio</i>). In the later middle ages, especially in Germany, it +acquired the sense of usurious or oppressive dealing with money +and capital. The specialized use of the word as equivalent to +the management of the public expenditure and receipts first +became prominent in France during the 16th century and quickly +spread to other countries. The plural form (<i>Les Finances</i>) was +particularly reserved for this application, while the singular +came to denote business activity in respect to monetary dealings +(as in the expression <i>la haute finance</i>). For the Germans the +phrase “science of finance” (<i>Finanzwissenschaft</i>) refers exclusively +to the economy of the state. English and American +writers are less definite in their employment of the term, which +varies with the convenience of the author.</p> + +<p>A work on “finance” may deal with the Money Market or the +Stock Exchange; it may treat of banking and credit organization, +or it may be devoted to state revenue and expenditure, +which is on the whole the prevailing sense. The expressions +“science of finance” and “public finance” have been suggested as +suitable to delimit the last mentioned application. At all events, +the broad sense is quite intelligible. “Financial” means what is +concerned with business, and the idea of a balance between +effort and return is also prominent. In the present article +attention will be directed to “public finance”; for the other +aspects of the subject reference may be made (<i>inter alia</i>) to the +following:—<span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Banks and Banking</a></span>; <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Company</a></span>; <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Exchange</a></span>; +<span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Market</a></span>; <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Stock Exchange</a></span>. See also <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">English Finance</a></span>, +and the sections on finance under headings of countries.</p> + +<p>Finance, regarded as state house-keeping, or “political +economy” (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Economics</a></span>) in the older sense of the term, deals +with (1) the expenditure of the state; (2) state revenues; (3) +the balance between expenditure and receipts; (4) the organization +which collects and applies the public funds. Each of these +large divisions presents a series of problems of which the practical +treatment is illustrated in the financial history of the great nations +of the world. Thus the amount and character of public expenditure +necessarily depends on the functions that the state +undertakes to perform—national defence, the maintenance of +internal order, and the efficient equipment of the state organization; +such are the tasks that all governments have to discharge, +and for their cost due provision has to be made. The widening +sphere of state activity, so marked a characteristic of modern +civilization, involves outlay for what may be best described +as “developmental” services. Education, relief of distress, +regulation of labour and trade, are duties now in great part +performed by public agencies, and their increasing prominence +involves augmented expense. The first problem on this side of +expenditure is the due balancing of outlay by income. The +financier has to “cover” his outlay. There is, further, the duty +of establishing a proper proportion between the several forms of +expenditure. Not only has there to be a strict control over the +total national expense; supervision has to be carried into each +department of the state. No one branch of public activity is +entitled to make unlimited calls on the state’s revenue. The +claims of the “expert” require to be carefully scrutinized. The +great financiers have made their reputation quite as much by +rigorous control over extravagance in expenditure as by dexterity +in devising new forms of revenue. Unfortunately they have not +been able to reduce their methods to rule. As yet no more definite +principle has been discovered than the somewhat obvious one of +measuring the proposed items of outlay (1) against each other, +(2) against the sacrifice that additional taxation involves. Of +almost equal importance is the rule that the utmost return is to +be obtained for the given outlay. The canon of <i>economy</i> is as +fundamental in regard to public expenditure as it will appear, +later, to be in respect to revenue. Just application of the outlay +of the state, so that no class receives undue advantage, and the +use of public funds for “reproductive,” in preference to “unproductive” +objects, are evident general principles whose +difficulty lies in their application to the circumstances of each +particular case.</p> + +<p>Far greater progress has been made in the formulation of +general canons as to the nature, growth and treatment of the +public revenues. Historically, there is, first, the tendency +towards increase in state income to balance the advance in outlay. +A second general feature is the relative decline of the receipts +from state property and industries in contrast to the expansion +of taxation. Regarded as an organized system, the body of +receipts has to be made conformable to certain general conditions. +Thus there should be revenue sufficient to meet the public requirements. +Otherwise the financial organization has failed in +one of its essential purposes. In order continuously to attain +this end, the revenue must be flexible, or, as is often said, elastic +enough to vary in response to pressure. Frequently recurring +deficits are, in themselves, a condemnation of the methods +under which they are found. Again, the rule of “economy” +in raising revenue, or, in other words, taking as little as possible +from the contributors over and above what the state receives, +holds good for the whole and for each part of public revenue. +In like manner the principle of formal justice has the same claim +in respect to revenue as to expenditure. No class of person should +bear more than his or its proper share. In fact the special maxims +usually placed under the head of taxation have really a wider +scope as governing the whole financial system. The recognition +of even the most elementary rules has been a very slow process, +as the course of financial history abundantly proves. Until the +18th century no scientific treatment of financial problems was +attained, though there had been great advances on the administrative +side.</p> + +<p>A brief description of the historical evolution of the earlier +financial forms will be the most effective illustration of this +statement. The theory of well-organized public finance is also +discussed under <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Taxation</a></span> and <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">National Debt</a></span>.</p> + +<p>The earliest forms of public revenue are those obtained +from the property of the chief or ruler. Land, cattle and slaves +are the principal kinds of wealth, and they are all constituents +of the king’s revenue; enforced work contributed by members of +the community, and the furnishing commodities on requisition, +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page348" id="page348"></a>348</span> +further aid in the maintenance of the primitive state. Financial +organization makes its earliest appearance in the great Eastern +monarchies, in which tribute was regularly collected and the +oldest and most general form of taxation—that levied on the +produce of land—was established. In its normal shape this +impost consisted in a given proportion of the yield, or of certain +portions of the yield, of the soil; one-fourth as in India, one-fifth +as in Egypt, or two separate levies of a tenth as in Palestine, +are examples of what may from the last instance be called the +“tithe” system. Dues of various kinds were gradually added +to the land revenue, until, as in the later Egyptian monarchy, +the forms of revenue reached a bewildering complexity. But +no Eastern state advanced beyond the condition generally +characterized as the “patrimonial,” <i>i.e.</i> an organization on the +model of the household. The part played by money economy +was small, and it is noticeable that the revenues were collected +by the monarch’s servants, the farming out of taxes being +completely unknown. Tribute, however, was paid by subject +communities as a whole, and was collected by them for transmission +to the conquerors.</p> + +<p>A much higher stage was reached in the financial methods +of the Greek states, or more correctly speaking of Athens, the +best-known specimen of the class. Instead of the +comparatively simple expedients of the barbarian +<span class="sidenote">Ancient Greek.</span> +monarchies, as indicated above, the Athenian city +state by degrees developed a rather complex revenue system. +Some of the older forms are retained. The city owned public +land which was let on lease and the rents were farmed out by +auction. A specially valuable property of Athens was the +possession of the silver mines at Laurium, which were worked on +lease by slave labour. The produce, at first distributed amongst +the citizens, was later a part of the state income, and forms the +subject of some of the suggestions respecting the revenue in +the treatise formerly ascribed to Xenophon. The reverence +that attached to the precious metals caused undue exaltation +of the services rendered by this property.</p> + +<p>One of the characteristics of the ancient state was its extensive +control over the persons and property of its citizens. In respect +to finance this authority was strikingly manifested in the +burdens imposed on wealthy citizens by the requirements of the +“liturgies” (<span class="grk" title="leitourgiai">λειτουργίαι</span>), which consisted in the provision of +a chorus for theatrical performances, or defraying the expenses +of the public games, or, finally, the equipment of a ship, “the +trierarchy,” which was economically and politically the most +important. Athenian statesmanship in the time of Demosthenes +was gravely exercised to make this form of contribution more +effective. The grouping into classes and the privilege of exchanging +property, granted to the contributor against any one whom +he believed entitled to take his place, are marks of the defective +economic and financial organization of the age.</p> + +<p>Amongst taxes strictly so called were the market dues or tolls, +which in some cases approximated to excise duties, though in +their actual mode of levy they were closely similar to the <i>octrois</i> +of modern times. Of greater importance were the customs +duties on imports and exports. These at the great period of +Athenian history were only 2%. The prohibition of export +of corn was an economic rather than a financial provision. In +the treatment of her subject allies Athens was more rigorous, +general import and export duties of 5% being imposed on their +trade. The high cost of carriage, and the need of encouraging +commerce in a community relying on external sources for its +food supply, help to explain the comparatively low rates adopted. +Neither as financial nor as protective expedients were the custom +duties of classical societies of much importance.</p> + +<p>Direct taxation received much greater expansion. A special +levy on the class of resident aliens (<span class="grk" title="metoikton">μετοίκιον</span>), probably +paralleled by a duty on slaves, was in force. A far more important +source of revenue was the general tax on property (<span class="grk" title="eisphora">εἰσφορά</span>), +which according to one view existed as early as the time of Solon, +who made it a part of his constitutional system. Modern +inquiry, however, tends towards the conclusion that it was under +the stress of the Peloponnesian War that this impost was introduced +(428 <span class="scs">B.C.</span>). At first it was only levied at irregular intervals; +afterwards, in 378 <span class="scs">B.C.</span>, it became a permanent tax based on +elaborate valuation under which the richer members paid on a +larger quota of their capital; in the case of the wealthiest class +the taxable quota was taken as one-fifth, smaller fractions being +adopted for those belonging to the other divisions. The assessment +(<span class="grk" title="timema">τίμημα</span>) included all the property of the contributor, +whose accuracy in making full returns was safeguarded by the +right given to other citizens to proceed against him for fraudulent +under-valuation. A further support was provided in the reform +of 378 <span class="scs">B.C.</span> by the establishment of the symmories, or groups +of tax-paying citizens; the wealthier members of each group +being responsible for the tax payments of all the members.</p> + +<p>The scanty and obscure references to finance, and to economic +matters generally, in classical literature do not elucidate all the +details of the system; but the analogies of other countries, <i>e.g.</i> +the mode of levying the <i>taille</i> in 18th century France and the +“tenth and fifteenth” in medieval England, make it tolerably +plain that in the 4th century <span class="scs">B.C.</span> the Athenian state had developed +a mode of taxation on property which raised those questions of +just distribution and effective valuation that present themselves +in the latest tax systems of the modern world. Taken together +with the liturgies, the “eisphora” placed a very heavy burden +on the wealthier citizens, and this financial pressure accounts +in great part for the hostility of the rich towards the democratic +constitution that facilitated the imposition of graduated taxation +and super-taxes—to use modern terms—on the larger incomes. +The normal yield of the property tax is reported as 60 talents +(£14,400); but on special occasions it reached 200 talents +(£48,000), or about one-sixth of the total receipts.</p> + +<p>On the administrative side also remarkable advances were +made by the entrusting of military expenditure to the “generals,” +and in the 4th century <span class="scs">B.C.</span> by the appointment of an administrator +whose duty it was to distribute the revenue of the state +under the directions of the assembly. The absence of settled +public law and the influence of direct democracy made a complete +ministry of finance impossible.</p> + +<p>The Athenian “hegemony” in its earlier and later phases +had an important financial side. The confederacy of Delos +made provision for the collection of a revenue (<span class="grk" title="phoros">φόρος</span>) from the +members of the league, which was employed at first for defence +against Persian aggression, but afterwards was at the disposal +of Athens as the ruling state. The annual collection of 460 +talents (£110,400) shows sufficiently the magnitude of the league.</p> + +<p>Too little is known of the financial methods of the other +Greek states and of the Macedonian kingdoms to allow of any +definite account of their position. In the latter, particularly +in Egypt, the methods of the earlier rulers probably survived. +Their finance, like their social life generally, exhibited a blending +of Hellenic and barbarian elements. The older land-taxes were +probably accompanied by import dues and taxes on property.</p> + +<p>In the infancy of the Roman republic its revenues were of +the kind usual in such communities. The public land yielded +receipts which may indifferently be regarded as rents +or taxes; the citizens contributed their services or +<span class="sidenote">Roman.</span> +commodities, and dues were raised on certain articles coming +to market. With the progress of the Roman dominion the +financial organization grew in extent. In order to meet the +cost of the early wars a special contribution from property +(<i>tributum ex censu</i>) was levied at times of emergency, though it +was in some cases regarded as an advance to be repaid when +the occasion of expense was over. Owing to the great military +successes, and the consequent increase of the other sources of +revenue, it became feasible to suspend the <i>tributum</i> in 167 <span class="scs">B.C.</span>, +and it was not again levied till after the death of Julius Caesar. +From this date the expenses of the Roman state “were undisguisedly +supported by the taxation of the provinces.” +Neither the state monopolies nor the public land in Italy afforded +any appreciable revenue. The other charges that affected Italy +were the 5% duty on manumissions, and customs dues on seaborne +imports. But with the acquisition of the important +provinces of Sicily, Spain and Africa, the formation of a tax +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page349" id="page349"></a>349</span> +system based on the tributes of the dependencies became possible. +To a great extent the pre-existing forms of revenue were retained, +but were gradually systematized. In legal theory the land of +conquered communities passed into the ownership of the Roman +state; in practice a revenue was obtained through land taxes +in the form of either tithes (<i>decumae</i>) or money payments +(<i>stipendia</i>). To the latter were adjoined capitation and trade +taxes (the <i>tributum capitis</i>). For pasture land a special rent +was paid. In some provinces (<i>e.g.</i> Sicily) payment in produce +was preferred, as affording the supply needed for the free +distribution of corn at Rome.</p> + +<p>The great form of indirect taxation consisted in the customs +dues (<i>portoria</i>), which were collected at the provincial boundaries +and varied in amount, though the maximum did not exceed 5%. +Under the same head were included the town dues (or <i>octrois</i>). +Further, the local administration was charged on the district +concerned, and requisitions for the public service were frequently +made on the provincial communities. Supplies of grain, ships +and timber for military use were often demanded.</p> + +<p>The methods of levy may be regarded as an additional tax. +“Vexation,” as Adam Smith remarks, “though not strictly +speaking expense, is certainly equivalent to the expense at which +every man would be willing to redeem himself from it”; and +the Roman system was extraordinarily vexatious. From an +early date the collection of the taxes had been farmed out to +companies of contractors (<i>societates vectigales</i>), who became a +by-word for rapacity. Being bound to pay a stated sum to the +public authorities these <i>publicani</i> naturally aimed at extracting +the largest possible amount from the unfortunate provincials, +and, as they belonged to the Roman capitalist class, they were +able to influence the provincial governors. Undue claims on the +part of the tax collectors were aggravated by the extortion of +the public officials. The defects of the financial organization +were a serious influence in the complex of causes that brought +about the fall of the Republic.</p> + +<p>One of the reasons that induced the subject populations +to accept with pleasure the establishment of the Empire was the +improvement in financial treatment that it secured. The corrupt +and uneconomical method of farming out the collection of the +revenue was, to a great extent, replaced by collection through +the officials of the imperial household. The earlier Roman +treasury (<i>aerarium</i>) was formally retained for the receipt of +revenue from the senatorial provinces, but the officials were +appointed by the Princeps and became gradually mere municipal +officers. The real centre of finance was the <i>fiscus</i> or imperial +treasury, which was under the exclusive control of the ruler +(“res fiscales,” says Ulpian, “quasi propriae et privatae principis +sunt”), and was administered by officials of his household. +Under the Republic the Senate had been the financial authority, +with the Censors as finance ministers and the Quaestors as +secretaries of the treasury. Never very precise, this system in +the 1st century <span class="scs">B.C.</span> fell into extreme decay. By means of his +freedmen the emperor introduced the more rigorous economy +of the Roman household into public finance. The census as a +method of valuation was revived; the important and productive +land taxes were placed on a more definite footing; while, above +all, the substitution of direct collection by state officials for the +letting out by auction of the tax-collection to the companies +of <i>publicani</i> was made general. Thus some of the most valuable +lessons as to the normal evolution of a system of finance are to +be learned in this connexion. Of equal, or even greater moment +is the failure of the administrative reforms of the Empire to +secure lasting improvement, a result due to the absence of +constitutional guarantees. The close relation between finance +and general policy is most impressively illustrated in this failure +of benevolent autocracy.</p> + +<p>Viewed broadly, the financial resources of the earlier Empire +were obtained from (1) the public land alike of the state and the +Princeps; (2) the monopolies, principally of minerals; (3) the +land tax; (4) the customs; (5) the taxes on inheritances, on +sales and on the purchase of slaves (<i>vectigalia</i>). One result +of the establishment of the Principate was the consolidation of +the public domain. The old “public land” in Italy had nearly +disappeared; but the royal possessions in the conquered provinces +and the private properties of the emperor became ultimately +a part of the property of the Fiscus. Such land was let either +on five-year leases or in perpetuity to coloni. Mines were also +taken over for public use and worked by slaves or, in later times, +by convict labour. The tendency towards state monopoly +became more marked in the closing days of the Empire, the 4th +and 5th centuries <span class="scs">A.D.</span> Perhaps the most comprehensive of the +fiscal reforms of the Empire was the reconstruction of the land +tax, based on a census or (to use the French term) <i>cadastre</i>, in +which the area, the modes of cultivation and the estimated +productiveness of each holding were stated, the average of ten +preceding years being taken as the standard. After the reconstruction +under Diocletian at the end of the 3rd century <span class="scs">A.D.</span>, +fifteen years (the <i>indictio</i>)—though probably used as early as +the time of Hadrian—was recognized as the period for revaluation. +With the growing needs of the state this taxation became +more rigorous and was one of the great grievances of the population, +especially of the sections that were declining in status and +passing into the condition of villenage. The <i>portoria</i>, or customs, +received a better organization, though the varying rates for +different provinces continued. By degrees the older maximum +of 5% was exceeded, until in the 4th century 12½% was in +some cases levied. Even at this higher rate the facilities for +trade were greater than in medieval or (until the revolution in +transport) modern times. In spite of certain prejudices against +the import of luxuries and the export of gold, there is little +indication of the influence of mercantilist or protectionist ideas. +The nearest approach to excise was the duty of 1% on all sales, +a tax that in Gibbon’s words “has ever been the occasion of +clamour and discontent.” The higher charge of 4% on the +purchase of slaves, and the still heavier 5% on successions after +death, were likewise established at the beginning of the Empire +and specially applied to the full citizens. Escheats and lapsed +legacies (<i>caduca</i>) were further miscellaneous sources of gain to +the state.</p> + +<p>Taken as a whole, the financial system of Imperial Rome +shows a very high elaboration in <i>form</i>. The <i>patrimonium</i>, +the <i>tributa</i> and the <i>vectigalia</i> are divisions parallel to the <i>domaine</i>, +the <i>contributions directes</i> and the <i>contributions indirectes</i> of +modern French administration; or the English “non-tax” +revenue, inland revenue and “customs and excise.” The +careful regulations given in the Codes and the Digest show the +observance of technical conditions as to assessment and accounting. +In substance and spirit, however, Roman finance was +essentially backward. Without altogether accepting Merivale’s +judgment that “their principles of finance were to the last rude +and unphilosophical,” it may be granted that Roman statesmen +never seriously faced the questions of just distribution and +maximum productiveness in the tax system. Still less did they +perceive the connexion between these two aspects of finance. +Mechanical uniformity and minute regulation are inadequate +substitutes for observance of the canons of equality, certainty +and economy in the operation of the tax system. Whether +(as has been suggested) an Adam Smith in power could have +saved the Empire is doubtful; but he would certainly have +remodelled its finance. The most glaring fault was plainly +the undue and increasing pressure on the productive classes. +Each century saw heavier burdens imposed on the actual workers +and on their employers, while expenditure was chiefly devoted +to unproductive purposes. The distribution was also unfair as +between the different territorial divisions. The capital and +certain provincial towns were favoured at the expense of the +provinces and the country districts. Again, the cost of collection, +though less than under the farming-out system, was far too +great. Some alleviation was indeed obtained by the apportionment +of contributions amongst the districts liable, leaving to +the community to decide as it thought best between its members. +The allotment of the land-tax to units (<i>juga</i>) of equal value +whatever might be the area, was a contrivance similar in +character.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page350" id="page350"></a>350</span></p> + +<p>The gradual way in which the several provinces were brought +under the general tax system, and the equally gradual extension +of Roman citizenship, account further for the irregularity and +increased weight of the taxes; as the absence of publicity and +the growth of autocracy explain the sense of oppression and the +hopelessness of resistance so vividly indicated in the literature +of the later Empire. Exemptions at first granted to the +citizens were removed, while the cost of local government which +continually increased was placed on the middle-class of the +towns as represented by the <i>decuriones</i>, or members of the +municipalities.</p> + +<p>The fact that no ingenuity of modern research has been able +to construct a real budget of expenditure and receipt for any +part of the long centuries of the Empire is significant as to the +secrecy that surrounded the finances, especially in the later +period. For at the beginning of the principate Augustus seems +to have aimed at a complete estimate of the financial situation, +though this may be regarded as due to the influence of the freer +republican traditions which the reverence that soon attached +to the emperor’s dignity completely extinguished.</p> + +<p>In addition to its value as illustrating the difficulties and +defects that beset the development of a complex financial +organization from the simpler forms of the city and the province, +Roman finance is of special importance in consequence of its +place as supplying a model or rather a guide for the administration +of the states that arose on its ruins. The barbarian invaders, +though they were accustomed to contributions to their chiefs +and to the payment of commodities as tributes or as penalties, +had no acquaintance with the working of a regular system of +taxation. The more astute rulers utilized the machinery that +they inherited from the Roman government. Under the Franks +the land tax and the provincial customs continued as forms of +revenue, while beside them the gifts and court fees of Teutonic +origin took their place. Similar conditions appear in Theodoric’s +administration of Italy. The maintenance of Roman forms and +terms is prominent in fiscal administration. But institutions +that have lost their life and animating spirit can hardly be +preserved for any length of time. All over western Europe the +elaborate devices of the <i>census</i> and the stations for the collection +of customs crumbled away; taxation as such disappeared, +through the hostility of the clergy and the exemptions accorded +to powerful subjects. This process of disintegration spread out +over centuries. The efforts made from time to time by vigorous +rulers to enforce the charges that remained legally due, proved +quite ineffectual to restore the older fiscal system. The final +result was a complete transformation of the ingredients of +revenue. The character of the change may be best indicated +as a substitution of private claims for public rights. Thus, the +land-tax disappears in the 7th century and only comes into +notice in the 9th century in the shape of private customary +dues. The customs duties become the tolls and transit charges +levied by local potentates on the diminishing trade of the earlier +middle ages. This revolution is in accordance with—indeed it +is one side of—the movement towards feudalism which was the +great feature of this period. Finance is essentially a part of <i>public</i> +law and administration. It could, therefore, hold no prominent +place in a condition of society which hardly recognized the state, +as distinct from the members of the community, united by feudal +ties. The same conception may be expressed in another way, +viz. by the statement that the kingdoms which succeeded the +Roman Empire were organized on the patrimonial basis (<i>i.e.</i> the +revenues passed into the hands of the king or, rather, his domestic +officials), and thus in fact returned to the condition of pre-classical +times. Notwithstanding the differing features in the +several countries, retrogression is the common characteristic +of European history from the 5th to the 10th century, and it +was from the ruder state that this decline created that the rebuilding +of social and political organization had to be accomplished. +On the financial side the work, as already suggested, +was aided by the ideas and institutions inherited from the Roman +Empire. This influence was common to all the continental states +and indirectly was felt even in England. Each of the great realms +has, however, worked out its financial system on lines suitable +to its own particular conditions, which are best considered in +connexion with the separate national histories.</p> + +<p>Running through the different national systems there are +some common elements the result not of inheritance merely but +still more of necessity, or at the lowest of similarity in environment. +Over and above the details of financial development +there is a thread of connexion which requires treatment under +Finance taken as a whole. As the great aim of this side of public +activity is to secure funds for the maintenance of the state’s life +and working, the administration which operates for this end is the +true nucleus of all national finance. The first sign of revival +from the catastrophe of the invasions is the reorganization of the +Imperial household under Charlemagne with the intention of +establishing a more exact collection of revenue. The later +German empire of Otto and the Frederics; the French Capetian +monarchy and, in a somewhat different sphere, the medieval +Italian and German cities show the same movement. The +treasury is the centre towards which the special receipts of the +ruler or rulers should be brought, and from it the public wants +should be supplied. Feudalism, as the antithesis of this orderly +treatment, had to be overthrown before national finance could +become established. The development can be traced in the +financial history of England, France and the German states; +but the advance in the French financial organization of the 15th +and 16th centuries affords the best illustration. The gradual +unification operates on all the branches of finance,—expenditure, +revenue, debt and methods of control. In respect to the first +head there is a well-marked “integration” of the modes for +meeting the cost of the public services. What were semi-private +duties become public tasks, which, with the growing importance +of “money-economy,” have to be defrayed by state payments. +Thus, the creation of the standing army in France by Charles VII. +marks a financial change of the first order. The English navy, +though more gradually developed, is an equally good illustration +of the movement. All outlay by the state is brought into due +co-ordination, and it becomes possible for constitutional government +to supervise and direct it. This improvement, due to +English initiative, has been adopted amongst the essential forms +of financial administration on the continent. The immense importance +of this view of public expenditure as representing the +consumption of the state in its unified condition is obvious; +it has affected, for the most part unconsciously, the conception of +all modern peoples as to the functions of the state and the right +of the people to direct them.</p> + +<p>On the side of receipts a similar unifying process has been +accomplished. The almost universal separation between +“ordinary” and “extraordinary” receipts, taxation being put +under the latter head, has completely ceased. It was, however, +the fundamental division for the early French writers on +finance, and it survives for England as late as Blackstone’s <i>Commentaries</i>. +The idea that the ruler possessed a normal income +in certain rents and dues of a quasi-private character, which on +emergency he might supplement by calls on the revenues of his +subjects, was a bequest of feudalism which gave way before the +increasing power of the state. In order to meet the unified +public wants, an equally unified public fund was requisite. The +great economic changes which depreciated the value of the +king’s domain contributed towards the result. Only by well-adjusted +taxation was it possible to meet the public necessities. +In respect to taxation also there has been a like course of readjustment. +Separate charges, assigned for distinct purposes, +have been taken into the national exchequer and come to form +a part of the general revenue. There has been—taking long +periods—a steady absorption of special taxes into more general +categories. The replacement of the four direct taxes by the +income tax in France, as proposed in 1909, is a very recent +example. Equally important is the growth of “direct” taxation. +As tax contributions have taken the places of the revenue +from land and fees, so, it would seem, are the taxes on commodities +likely to be replaced or at least exceeded by the imposts +levied on income as such, in the shape either of income taxes +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page351" id="page351"></a>351</span> +proper or of charges on accumulated wealth. The recent history +of the several financial systems of the world is decisive on this +point. A clearer perception of the conditions under which the +effective attainment of revenue is possible is another outcome of +financial development. Security, and in particular the absence +of arbitrary impositions, combined with convenient modes of +collection, have come to be recognized as indispensable auxiliaries +in financial administration which further aims at the selection of +really productive forms of charge. Unproductiveness is, according +to modern standard, the cardinal fault of any particular tax. +How great has been the progress in these aspects is best illustrated +in the case of English finance, but both French and German +fiscal history can supply many instructive examples.</p> + +<p>In a third direction the co-ordination of finance has been just +as remarkable. Financial adjustment implies the conception of +a balance, and this should be found in the relation of outlay and +income. Under the pressure of war and other emergencies it has +been found impossible to maintain this desirable equilibrium. +But the use of the system of credit, and the general establishment +of constitutional government, have enabled the difficulty to be +surmounted by the creation on a vast scale of national debts. +Apart from the special problems that this system of borrowing +raises, there is the general one of its aid in making national +finance continuous and orderly. Deficits can be transferred to +the capital account, and the country’s resources employed most +usefully by repaying liabilities contracted in times of extreme +need. The growth of this department, parallel with the general +progress of finance, is significant of its function.</p> + +<p>Finally, in all countries though with diversities due to national +peculiarities, the modes of account and control have been brought +into a more effective condition. Previous legislative sanction for +both expenditure and receipts in all their particular forms is +absolutely necessary; so is thorough scrutiny of the actual +application of the funds provided. Either by administrative +survey or by judicial examination care is taken to see that there +has been no improper diversion from the designed purposes. It +is only when the varied systems of financial organization are +studied in their general bearing, and with regard to what may be +called their frame-work, that their essential resemblance is +thoroughly realized. Such a real underlying unity is the reason +and justification for regarding “public finance” as a distinct +subject of study and as an independent division of political +science.</p> + +<p><i>Local Finance.</i>—One of the most remarkable features of +modern financial development has been the growth of the complementary +system of local finance, which in extent and complication +bids to rival that of the central authority. Under the +constraining power of the Roman Empire the older city states +were reduced to the position of municipalities, and their financial +administration became dependent on the control of the Emperor—as +is abundantly illustrated in the correspondence of Pliny and +Trajan. After the fall of the Western Empire, a partial revival +of city life, particularly in Italy and Germany, gave some scope +for a return to the type of finance presented by the Athenian +state. Florence affords an instructive specimen; but the +passage from feudalism to the national state under the authority +of monarchy made the cities and country districts parts of a +larger whole. It is in this condition of subordination that the +finance of localities has been framed and effectively organized. +Though each great state has adopted its own methods, influenced +by historical circumstances and by ideas of policy, there are +general resemblances that furnish material for scientific treatment +and allow of important generalizations being made.</p> + +<p>Amongst these the first to be noticed is the essential <i>subordination</i> +of local finance. Alike in expenditure, in forms of receipt, +and in methods of administration the central government has +the right of directing and supervising the work of municipal and +provincial agencies. The modes employed are various, but they +all rest on the sovereignty of the state, whether exercised by the +central officials or by the courts. A second characteristic is the +predominance of the <i>economic</i> element in the several tasks that +local administrations have to perform, and the consequent +tendency to treat the charges of local finance as payments for +services rendered, or, in the usual phrase, to apply the “benefits” +principle, in contrast to that of “ability,” which rightly prevails +in national finance. Over a great part of municipal administration—particularly +that engaged in supplying the needs of the +individual citizens—the finance may be assimilated to that of the +joint-stock company, with of course the necessary differences, +viz. that the association is compulsory; and that dividends are +paid, not in money, but in social advantage. The great expansion +in recent years of what is known as <i>Municipal Trading</i> has +brought this aspect of local finance into prominence. Water +supply, transport and lighting have become public services, +requiring careful financial management, and still retaining traces +of their earlier private character.</p> + +<p>Corresponding to the mainly economic nature of local expenditure +there is the further limitation imposed on the side of +revenue. Unlike the state in this, localities are limited in respect +to the amount and form of their taxation. Several distinct +influences combine to produce this result. The needs of the +central government lead to its retention of the more profitable +modes of procuring revenue. No modern country can surrender +the chief direct and indirect taxes to the local administrations. +Another limiting condition is found in the practical impossibility +of levying by local agencies such imposts as the customs and the +income-tax in their modern forms. The elaborate machinery +that is requisite for covering the national area and securing the +revenue against loss can only be provided by an authority that +can deal with the whole territory. Hence the very general +limitation of local revenues to certain typical forms. Though in +some cases municipal taxation is imposed on commodities in the +form of <i>octrois</i> or entry duties—as is notably the case in France—yet +the prevailing tendency is towards the levy of direct charges +on immovable property, which cannot escape by removal outside +the tax jurisdiction. In addition to these “land” and “house” +taxes, the employment of licence duties on trades, particularly +those that are in special need of supervision, is a favourite +method. Closely akin are the payments demanded for privileges +to industrial undertakings given as “franchises,” very often in +connexion with monopolies, <i>e.g.</i> gas-works and tramways. +Over and above the peculiar revenues of local bodies there is the +further resource—which emphasizes the subordinate position of +local finance—of obtaining supplemental revenue from the +central treasury, either by taxes additional to the charges of the +state, and collected at the same time; or by donations from its +funds, in the shape of grants for special services, or assignments of +certain parts of the state’s receipts. Great Britain, France and +Prussia furnish good examples of these different modes of +preserving local administration from financial collapse.</p> + +<p>The broad resemblance between the two parts of the entire +system of public finance is seen in another direction. To national +debts there has been added a great mass of municipal and local +indebtedness, which seems likely to equal, or even exceed in +magnitude the liabilities of the central governments. But here +also the essential limitations of the newer form are easily perceptible. +The sovereignty of the state enables it to deal as it +thinks best with the public creditor. In its methods of borrowing, +in its plans for repayment, or, in extremity, in its power of +repudiation it is independent of external control. Local debt on +the other hand can only be contracted under the sanction of the +appropriate administrative organ of the state. The creditor has +the right of claiming the aid of the law against the defaulting +municipality; and the amounts, the terms, and the time of +duration of local debt are supervised in order to prevent injustice +to particular persons or improvidence with regard to the revenue +and property of the local units. The chief reason for contracting +local debt being the establishment of works that are, directly or +indirectly, reproductive, the governing conditions are evidently +to be found in the character and probable yield of those businesses. +The principles of company investments are fully applicable: the +creation of sinking-funds, the fixing the term of each loan to the +time at which the return from its employment ceases, and the +avoidance of the formation of fictitious capital, become guiding +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page352" id="page352"></a>352</span> +rules from this part of finance, and indicate the connexion with +what the commercial world calls “financial operations.”</p> + +<p>Finally, there is the same set of problems in respect to accounting +and control in local as in central finance. Though the +materials are simpler, the need for a well-prepared budget is +existent in the case of the city, county or department, if there is +to be clear and accurate financial management. Perhaps the +greatest weakness of local finance lies in this direction. The +public opinion that affects the national budget is unfortunately +too often lacking in the most important towns, not excluding +those in which political life is highly developed.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p><span class="sc">Bibliography.</span>—The English literature on finance is rather unsatisfactory; +for public finance the available text-books are: +Adams, <i>Science of Finance</i> (New York, 1898); Bastable, <i>Public +Finance</i> (London, 1892; 3rd ed., 1903); Daniels, <i>Public Finance</i> +(New York, 1899), and Plehn, <i>Public Finance</i> (3rd ed., New York, +1909). In French, Leroy-Beaulieu, <i>Traité de la science des finances</i> +(1877; 3rd ed., 1908), is the standard work. The German literature +is abundant. Roscher, 5th ed. (edited by Gerlach), 1901; Wagner +(4 vols.), incomplete; Cohn (1889) and Eheberg (9th ed., 1908) +have published works entitled <i>Finanzwissenschaft</i>, dealing with +all the aspects of state finance. For Greek financial history Boekh, +<i>Staalshaushaltung der Athenen</i> (ed. Fränkel, 1887), is still a standard +work. For Rome, Marquardt, <i>Römische Staatsverwaltung</i>, vol. ii., +and Humbert, <i>Les Finances et la comptabilité publique chez les Romains</i>, +are valuable. Clamageran, <i>Histoire de l’impôt en France</i> (1876), +gives the earlier development of French finance. R.H. Patterson, +<i>Science of Finance</i> (London, 1868), C.S. Meade, <i>Trust Finance</i> (1903), +and E. Carroll, <i>Principles and Practice of Finance</i>, deal with finance +in the wider sense of business transactions.</p> +</div> +<div class="author">(C. F. B.)</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">FINCH, FINCH-HATTON.<a name="ar196" id="ar196"></a></span> This old English family has had +many notable members, and has contributed in no small degree +to the peerage. Sir Thomas Finch (d. 1563), who was knighted +for his share in suppressing Sir T. Wyatt’s insurrection against +Queen Mary, was a soldier of note, and was the son and heir of +Sir William Finch, who was knighted in 1513. He was the +father of Sir Moyle Finch (d. 1614), who was created a baronet +in 1611, and whose widow Elizabeth (daughter of Sir Thomas +Heneage) was created a peeress as countess of Maidstone in 1623 +and countess of Winchilsea in 1628; and also of Sir Henry +Finch (1558-1625), whose son John, Baron Finch of Fordwich +(1584-1660), is separately noticed. Thomas, eldest son of Sir +Moyle, succeeded his mother as first earl of Winchilsea; and +Sir Heneage, the fourth son (d. 1631), was the speaker of the +House of Commons, whose son Heneage (1621-1682), lord +chancellor, was created earl of Nottingham in 1675. The latter’s +second son Heneage (1649-1719) was created earl of Aylesford +in 1714. The earldoms of Winchilsea and Nottingham became +united in 1729, when the fifth earl of Winchilsea died, leaving +no son, and the title passed to his cousin the second earl of +Nottingham, the earldom of Nottingham having since then been +held by the earl of Winchilsea. In 1826, on the death of the ninth +earl of Winchilsea and fifth of Nottingham, his cousin George +William Finch-Hatton succeeded to the titles, the additional +surname of Hatton (since held in this line) having been assumed +in 1764 by his father under the will of an aunt, a daughter of +Christopher, Viscount Hatton (1632-1706), whose father was +related to the famous Sir Christopher Hatton.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">FINCH OF FORDWICH, JOHN FINCH,<a name="ar197" id="ar197"></a></span> <span class="sc">Baron</span> (1584-1660), +generally known as Sir John Finch, English judge, a member +of the old family of Finch, was born on the 17th of September +1584, and was called to the bar in 1611. He was returned to +parliament for Canterbury in 1614, and became recorder of the +same place in 1617. Having attracted the notice of Charles I., +who visited Canterbury in 1625, and was received with an address +by Finch in his capacity as recorder, he was the following year +appointed king’s counsel and attorney-general to the queen and +was knighted. In 1628 he was elected speaker of the House of +Commons, a post which he retained till its dissolution in 1629. +He was the speaker who was held down in his chair by Holles +and others on the occasion of Sir John Eliot’s resolution on +tonnage and poundage. In 1634 he was appointed chief justice of +the court of common pleas, and distinguished himself by the active +zeal with which he upheld the king’s prerogative. Notable +also was the brutality which characterized his conduct as chief +justice, particularly in the cases of William Prynne and John +Langton. He presided over the trial of John Hampden, who +resisted the payment of ship-money, and he was chiefly responsible +for the decision of the judges that ship-money was +constitutional. As a reward for his services he was, in 1640, +appointed lord keeper, and was also created Baron Finch of +Fordwich. He had, however, become so unpopular that one of +the first acts of the Long Parliament, which met in the same +year was his impeachment. He took refuge in Holland, but had +to suffer the sequestration of his estates. When he was allowed +to return to England is uncertain, but in 1660 he was one of the +commissioners for the trial of the regicides, though he does not +appear to have taken much part in the proceedings. He died +on the 27th of November 1660 and was buried in St Martin’s +church near Canterbury, his peerage becoming extinct.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See Foss, <i>Lives of the Judges</i>; Campbell, <i>Lives of the Chief Justices</i>.</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">FINCH<a name="ar198" id="ar198"></a></span> (Ger. <i>Fink</i>, Lat. <i>Fringilla</i>), a name applied (but +almost always in composition—as bullfinch, chaffinch, goldfinch, +hawfinch, &c.) to a great many small birds of the order <i>Passeres</i>, +and now pretty generally accepted as that of a group or family—the +<i>Fringillidae</i> of most ornithologists. Yet it is one the extent +of which must be regarded as being uncertain. Many writers +have included in it the buntings (<i>Emberizidae</i>), though these +seem to be quite distinct, as well as the larks (<i>Alaudidae</i>), the +tanagers (<i>Tanagridae</i>), and the weaver-birds (<i>Ploceidae</i>). +Others have separated from it the crossbills, under the title of +<i>Loxiidae</i>, but without due cause. The difficulty which at this +time presents itself in regard to the limits of the <i>Fringillidae</i> +arises from our ignorance of the anatomical features, especially +those of the head, possessed by many exotic forms.</p> + +<p>Taken as a whole, the finches, concerning which no reasonable +doubt can exist, are not only little birds with a hard bill, adapted +in most cases for shelling and eating the various seeds that form +the chief portion of their diet when adult, but they appear to be +mainly forms which predominate in and are highly characteristic +of the Palaearctic Region; moreover, though some are found +elsewhere on the globe, the existence of but very few in the +Notogaean hemisphere can as yet be regarded as certain.</p> + +<p>But even with this limitation, the separation of the undoubted +<i>Fringillidae</i><a name="fa1m" id="fa1m" href="#ft1m"><span class="sp">1</span></a> into groups is a difficult task. Were we merely +to consider the superficial character of the form of the bill, the +genus <i>Loxia</i> (in its modern sense) would be easily divided not +only from the other finches, but from all other birds. The birds +of this genus—the crossbills—when their other characters are +taken into account, prove to be intimately allied on the one hand +to the grosbeaks (<i>Pinicola</i>) and on the other through the redpolls +(<i>Aegiothus</i>) to the linnets (<i>Linota</i>)—if indeed these two can be +properly separated. The linnets, through the genus <i>Leucosticte</i>, +lead to the mountain-finches (<i>Montifringilla</i>), and the redpolls +through the siskins (<i>Chrysomitris</i>) to the goldfinches (<i>Carduelis</i>); +and these last again to the hawfinches, one group of which +(<i>Coccothraustes</i>) is apparently not far distant from the chaffinches +(<i>Fringilla</i> proper), and the other (<i>Hesperiphona</i>) seems to be +allied to the greenfinches (<i>Ligurinus</i>). Then there is the group +of serins (<i>Serinus</i>), to which the canary belongs, that one is in +doubt whether to refer to the vicinity of the greenfinches or that +of the redpolls. The mountain-finches may be regarded as +pointing first to the rock-sparrows (<i>Petronia</i>) and then to the +true sparrows (<i>Passer</i>); while the grosbeaks pass into many +varied forms and throw out a very well marked form—the +bullfinches (<i>Pyrrhula</i>). Some of the modifications of the family +are very gradual, and therefore conclusions founded on them +are likely to be correct; others are further apart, and the links +which connect them, if not altogether missing, can but be +surmised. To avoid as much as possible prejudicing the case, +we shall therefore take the different groups of <i>Fringillidae</i> which +it is convenient to consider in this article in an alphabetical +arrangement.</p> + +<p>Of the Bullfinches the best known is the familiar bird (<i>Pyrrhula</i> +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page353" id="page353"></a>353</span> +<i>europaea</i>). The varied plumage of the cock—his bright red +breast and his grey back, set off by his coal-black head and quills—is +naturally attractive; while the facility with which he +is tamed, with his engaging disposition in confinement, makes +him a popular cage-bird,—to say nothing of the fact (which +in the opinion of so many adds to his charms) of his readily +learning to “pipe” a tune, or some bars of one. By gardeners +the bullfinch has long been regarded as a deadly enemy, from its +undoubted destruction of the buds of fruit-trees in spring-time, +though whether the destruction is really so much of a detriment +is by no means so undoubted. Northern and eastern Europe +is inhabited by a larger form (<i>P. major</i>), which differs in nothing +but size and more vivid tints from that which is common in the +British Isles and western Europe. A very distinct species (<i>P. +murina</i>), remarkable for its dull coloration, is peculiar to the +Azores, and several others are found in Asia from the Himalayas +to Japan. A bullfinch (<i>P. cassini</i>) has been discovered in Alaska, +being the first recognition of this genus in the New World.</p> + +<p>The Canary (<i>Serinus canarius</i>) is indigenous to the islands +whence it takes its name, as well, apparently, as to the neighbouring +groups of the Madeiras and Azores, in all of which it abounds. +It seems to have been imported into Europe at least as early +as the first half of the 16th century,<a name="fa2m" id="fa2m" href="#ft2m"><span class="sp">2</span></a> and has since become the +commonest of cage-birds. The wild stock is of an olive-green, +mottled with dark brown above, and greenish-yellow beneath. +All the bright-hued examples we now see in captivity have been +induced by carefully breeding from any chance varieties that +have shown themselves; and not only the colour, but the build +and stature of the bird have in this manner been greatly modified. +The ingenuity of “the fancy,” which might seem to have exhausted +itself in the production of topknots, feathered feet, +and so forth, has brought about a still further change from the +original type. It has been found that by a particular treatment, +in which the mixing of large quantities of vegetable colouring +agents with the food plays an important part, the ordinary +“canary yellow” may be intensified so as to verge upon a +more or less brilliant flame colour.<a name="fa3m" id="fa3m" href="#ft3m"><span class="sp">3</span></a></p> + +<p>Very nearly resembling the canary, but smaller in size, is the +Serin (<i>Serinus hortulanus</i>), a species which not long since was +very local in Europe, and chiefly known to inhabit the countries +bordering on the Mediterranean. It has pushed its way towards +the north, and has even been several times taken in England +(Yarrell’s <i>Brit. Birds</i>, ed. 4, ii. pp. 111-116). A closely allied +species (<i>S. canonicus</i>) is peculiar to Palestine.</p> + +<p>The Chaffinches are regarded as the type-form of <i>Fringillidae</i>. +The handsome and sprightly <i>Fringilla coelebs</i><a name="fa4m" id="fa4m" href="#ft4m"><span class="sp">4</span></a> is common +throughout the whole of Europe. Conspicuous by his variegated +plumage, his peculiar call note<a name="fa5m" id="fa5m" href="#ft5m"><span class="sp">5</span></a> and his glad song, the cock is +almost everywhere a favourite. In Algeria the British chaffinch +is replaced by a closely-allied species (<i>F. spodogenia</i>), while in +the Atlantic Islands it is represented by two others (<i>F. tintillon</i> +and <i>F. teydea</i>)—all of which, while possessing the general appearance +of the European bird, are clothed in soberer tints.<a name="fa6m" id="fa6m" href="#ft6m"><span class="sp">6</span></a> Another +species of true <i>Fringilla</i> is the brambling (<i>F. montifringilla</i>), +which has its home in the birch forests of northern Europe and +Asia, whence it yearly proceeds, often in flocks of thousands, +to pass the winter in more southern countries. This bird is +still more beautifully coloured than the chaffinch—especially +in summer, when, the brown edges of the feathers being shed, it +presents a rich combination of black, white and orange. Even +in winter, however, its diversified plumage is sufficiently striking.</p> + +<p>With the exception of the single species of bullfinch already +noticed as occurring in Alaska, all the above forms of finches +are peculiar to the Palaearctic Region.</p> +<div class="author">(A. N.)</div> + +<hr class="foot" /> <div class="note"> + +<p><a name="ft1m" id="ft1m" href="#fa1m"><span class="fn">1</span></a> About 200 species of these have been described, and perhaps 150 +may really exist.</p> + +<p><a name="ft2m" id="ft2m" href="#fa2m"><span class="fn">2</span></a> The earliest published description seems to be that of Gesner in +1555 (<i>Orn.</i> p. 234), but he had not seen the bird, an account of which +was communicated to him by Raphael Seiler of Augsburg, under the +name of <i>Suckeruögele</i>.</p> + +<p><a name="ft3m" id="ft3m" href="#fa3m"><span class="fn">3</span></a> See also <i>The Canary Book</i>, by Robert L. Wallace; <i>Canaries and +Cage Birds</i>, by W.A. Blackston; and Darwin’s <i>Animals and Plants +under Domestication</i>, vol. i. p. 295. An excellent monograph on the +wild bird is that by Dr Carl Bolle (<i>Journ. für Orn.</i>, 1858, pp. 125-151).</p> + +<p><a name="ft4m" id="ft4m" href="#fa4m"><span class="fn">4</span></a> This fanciful trivial name was given by Linnaeus on the supposition +(which later observations do not entirely confirm) that in +Sweden the hens of the species migrated southward in autumn, +leaving the cocks to lead a celibate life till spring. It is certain, +however, that in some localities the sexes live apart during the +winter.</p> + +<p><a name="ft5m" id="ft5m" href="#fa5m"><span class="fn">5</span></a> This call-note, which to many ears sounds like “pink” or +“spink,” not only gives the bird a name in many parts of Britain, +but is also obviously the origin of the German <i>Fink</i> and the English +<i>Finch</i>. The similar Celtic form <i>Pinc</i> is said to have given rise to the +Low Latin <i>Pincio</i>, and thence come the Italian <i>Pincione</i>, the Spanish +<i>Pinzon</i>, and the French <i>Pinson</i>.</p> + +<p><a name="ft6m" id="ft6m" href="#fa6m"><span class="fn">6</span></a> This is especially the ease with <i>F. teydea</i> of the Canary Islands, +which from its dark colouring and large size forms a kind of parallel +to the Azorean <i>Pyrrhula murina</i>.</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">FINCHLEY,<a name="ar199" id="ar199"></a></span> an urban district in the Hornsey parliamentary +division of Middlesex, England, 7 m. N.W. of St Paul’s cathedral, +London, on a branch of the Great Northern railway. Pop. +(1891) 16,647; (1901) 22,126. A part, adjoining Highgate on +the north, lies at an elevation between 300 and 400 ft., while a +portion in the Church End district lies lower, in the valley of +the Dollis Brook. The pleasant, healthy situation has caused +Finchley to become a populous residential district. Finchley +Common was formerly one of the most notorious resorts of highwaymen +near London; the Great North Road crossed it, and +it was a haunt of Dick Turpin and Jack Sheppard, and was +still dangerous to cross at night at the close of the 18th century. +Sheppard was captured in this neighbourhood in 1724. The +Common has not been preserved from the builder. In 1660 +George Monk, marching on London immediately before the +Restoration, made his camp on the Common, and in 1745 a +regular and volunteer force encamped here, prepared to resist +the Pretender, who was at Derby. The gathering of this force +inspired Hogarth’s famous picture, the “March of the Guards +to Finchley.”</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">FINCK, FRIEDRICH AUGUST VON<a name="ar200" id="ar200"></a></span> (1718-1766), Prussian +soldier, was born at Strelitz in 1718. He first saw active service +in 1734 on the Rhine, as a member of the suite of Duke Anton +Ulrich of Brunswick-Wolfenbüttel. Soon after this he transferred +to the Austrian service, and thence went to Russia, where +he served until the fall of his patron Marshal Münnich put an end +to his prospects of advancement. In 1742 he went to Berlin, and +Frederick the Great made him his aide-de-camp, with the rank of +major. Good service brought him rapid promotion in the Seven +Years’ War. After the battle of Kolin (June 18th, 1757) he was +made colonel, and at the end of 1757 major-general. At the +beginning of 1759 Finck became lieutenant-general, and in this +rank commanded a corps at the disastrous battle of Kunersdorf, +where he did good service both on the field of battle and +(Frederick having in despair handed over to him the command) +in the rallying of the beaten Prussians. Later in the year he +fought in concert with General Wunsch a widespread combat, +called the action of Korbitz (Sept. 21st) in which the Austrians and +the contingents of the minor states of the Empire were sharply +defeated. For this action Frederick gave Finck the Black Eagle +(Seyfarth, <i>Beilagen</i>, ii. 621-630). But the subsequent catastrophe +of Maxen (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Seven Years’ War</a></span>) abruptly put an end to Finck’s +active career. Dangerously exposed, and with inadequate forces, +Finck received the king’s positive order to march upon Maxen +(a village in the Pirna region of Saxony). Unfortunately for +himself the general dared not disobey his master, and, cut off by +greatly superior numbers, was forced to surrender with some +11,000 men (21st Nov. 1759). After the peace, Frederick sent +him before a court-martial, which sentenced him to be cashiered +and to suffer a term of imprisonment in a fortress. At the expiry +of this term Finck entered the Danish service as general of +infantry. He died at Copenhagen in 1766.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>He left a work called <i>Gedanken über militärische Gegenstände</i> +(Berlin, 1788). See <i>Denkwürdigkeiten der militärischen Gesellschaft</i>, +vol. ii. (Berlin, 1802-1805), and the report of the Finck court-martial +in <i>Zeitschrift für Kunst, Wissenschaft und Geschichte des Krieges</i>, pt. +81 (Berlin, 1851). There is a life of Finck in MS. in the library +of the Great General Staff.</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">FINCK, HEINRICH<a name="ar201" id="ar201"></a></span> (d. <i>c.</i> 1519), German musical composer, +was probably born at Bamberg, but nothing is certainly known +either of the place or date of his birth. Between 1492 and 1506 +he was a musician in, and later possibly conductor of the court +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page354" id="page354"></a>354</span> +orchestra of successive kings of Poland at Warsaw. He held the +post of conductor at Stuttgart from 1510 till about 1519, in +which year he probably died. His works, mostly part songs and +other vocal compositions, show great musical knowledge, and +amongst the early masters of the German school he holds a high +position. They are found scattered amongst ancient and modern +collections of songs and other musical pieces (see R. Eitner, +<i>Bibl. der Musiksammelwerke des 16. und 17. Jahrh.</i>, Berlin, 1877). +The library of Zwickau possesses a work containing a collection of +fifty-five songs by Finck, printed about the middle of the 16th +century.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">FINCK, HERMANN<a name="ar202" id="ar202"></a></span> (1527-1558), German composer, the +great-nephew of Heinrich Finck, was born on the 21st of March +1527 in Pirna, and died at Wittenberg on the 28th of December +1558. After 1553 he lived at Wittenberg, where he was organist, +and there, in 1555, was published his collection of “wedding +songs.” Few details of his life have been preserved. His +theoretical writing was good, particularly his observations on the +art of singing and of making ornamentations in song. His most +celebrated work is entitled <i>Practica musica, exempla variorum +signorum, proportionum, et canonum, judicium de tonis ac quaedam +de arte suaviter et artificiose cantandi continens</i> (Wittenberg, +1556). It is of great historic value, but very rare.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">FINDEN, WILLIAM<a name="ar203" id="ar203"></a></span> (1787-1852), English line engraver, was +born in 1787. He served his apprenticeship to one James Mitan, +but appears to have owed far more to the influence of James +Heath, whose works he privately and earnestly studied. His +first employment on his own account was engraving illustrations +for books, and among the most noteworthy of these early plates +were Smirke’s illustrations to Don Quixote. His neat style and +smooth finish made his pictures very attractive and popular, and +although he executed several large plates, his chief work throughout +his life was book illustration. His younger brother, Edward +Finden, worked in conjunction with him, and so much demand +arose for their productions that ultimately a company of +assistants was engaged, and plates were produced in increasing +numbers, their quality as works of art declining as their quantity +rose. The largest plate executed by William Finden was the +portrait of King George IV. seated on a sofa, after the painting by +Sir Thomas Lawrence. For this work he received two thousand +guineas, a sum larger than had ever before been paid for an +engraved portrait. Finden’s next and happiest works on a large +scale were the “Highlander’s Return” and the “Village Festival,” +after Wilkie. Later in life he undertook, in co-operation with his +brother, aided by their numerous staff, the publication as well as +the production of various galleries of engravings. The first of +these, a series of landscape and portrait illustrations to the life +and works of Byron, appeared in 1833 and following years, and +was very successful. But by his <i>Gallery of British Art</i> (in fifteen +parts, 1838-1840), the most costly and best of these ventures, he +lost the fruits of all his former success. Finden’s last undertaking +was an engraving on a large scale of Hilton’s “Crucifixion.” The +plate was bought by the Art Union for £1470. He died in London +on the 20th of September 1852.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">FINDLATER, ANDREW<a name="ar204" id="ar204"></a></span> (1810-1885), Scottish editor, was +born in 1810 near Aberdour, Aberdeenshire, the son of a small +farmer. By hard study in the evening, after his day’s work on +the farm was finished, he qualified himself for entrance at +Aberdeen University, and after graduating as M.A. he attended +the Divinity classes with the idea of entering the ministry. In +1853 he began that connexion with the firm of W. & R. Chambers +which gave direction to his subsequent activity. His first +engagement was the editing of a revised edition of their <i>Information +for the People</i> (1857). In this capacity he gave evidence of +qualities and acquirements that marked him as a suitable editor +for <i>Chambers’s Encyclopaedia</i>, then projected, and his was the +directing mind that gave it its character. Many of the more +important articles were written by him. This work occupied him +till 1868, and he afterwards edited a revised edition (1874). He +also had charge of other publications for the same firm, and wrote +regularly for the <i>Scotsman</i>. In 1864 he was made LL.D. of +Aberdeen University. In 1877 he gave up active work for +Chambers, but his services were retained as consulting editor. +He died in Edinburgh on the 1st of January 1885.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">FINDLAY, SIR GEORGE<a name="ar205" id="ar205"></a></span> (1829-1893), English railway +manager, was of pure Scottish descent, and was born at Rainhill, +in Lancashire, on the 18th of May 1829. For some time he +attended Halifax grammar school, but left at the age of fourteen, +and began to learn practical masonry on the Halifax railway, +upon which his father was then employed. Two years later he +obtained a situation on the Trent Valley railway works, and +when that line was finished in 1847 went up to London. There +he was for a short time among the men employed in building +locomotive sheds for the London & North-Western railway at +Camden Town, and years afterwards, when he had become +general manager of that railway, he was able to point out stones +which he had dressed with his own hands. For the next two or +three years he was engaged in a higher capacity as supervisor +of the mining and brickwork of the Harecastle tunnel on the +North Staffordshire line, and of the Walton tunnel on the +Birkenhead, Lancashire & Cheshire Junction railway. In 1850 +the charge of the construction of a section of the Shrewsbury +& Hereford line was entrusted to him, and when the line was +opened for traffic T. Brassey, the contractor, having determined +to work it himself, installed him as manager. In the course +of his duties he was brought for the first time into official relations +with the London & North-Western railway, which had undertaken +to work the Newport, Abergavenny & Hereford line, +and he ultimately passed into the service of that company, when +in 1862, jointly with the Great Western, it leased the railway +of which he was manager. In 1864 he was moved to Euston as +general goods manager, in 1872 he became chief traffic manager, +and in 1880 he was appointed full general manager; this last +post he retained until his death, which occurred on the 26th +of March 1893 at Edgware, Middlesex. He was knighted in +1892. Sir George Findlay was the author of a book on the +<i>Working and Management of an English Railway</i> (London, 1889), +which contains a great deal of information, some of it not easily +accessible to the general public, as to English railway practice +about the year 1890.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">FINDLAY, JOHN RITCHIE<a name="ar206" id="ar206"></a></span> (1824-1898), Scottish newspaper +owner and philanthropist, was born at Arbroath on the 21st of +October 1824, and was educated at Edinburgh University. +He entered first the publishing office and then the editorial +department of the <i>Scotsman</i>, became a partner in the paper +in 1868, and in 1870 inherited the greater part of the property +from his great uncle, John Ritchie, the founder. The large +increase in the influence and circulation of the paper was in +a great measure due to his activity and direction, and it brought +him a fortune, which he spent during his lifetime in public +benefaction. He presented to the nation the Scottish National +Portrait Gallery, opened in Edinburgh in 1889, and costing +over £70,000; and he contributed largely to the collections of +the Scottish National Gallery. He held numerous offices in +antiquarian, educational and charitable societies, showing his +keen interest in these matters, but he avoided political office +and refused the offer of a baronetcy. The freedom of Edinburgh +was given him in 1896. He died at Aberlour, Banffshire, on the +16th of October 1898.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">FINDLAY,<a name="ar207" id="ar207"></a></span> a city and the county-seat of Hancock county, +Ohio, U.S.A., on Blanchard’s Fork of the Auglaize river, about +42 m. S. by W. of Toledo. Pop. (1890) 18,553; (1900) 17,613, +(1051 foreign-born); (1910) 14,858. It is served by the Cleveland, +Cincinnati, Chicago & St Louis, the Cincinnati, Hamilton & +Dayton, the Lake Erie & Western, and the Ohio Central railways, +and by three interurban electric railways. Findlay lies about +780 ft. above sea-level on gently rolling ground. The city is the +seat of Findlay College (co-educational), an institution of the +Church of God, chartered in 1882 and opened in 1886; it has +collegiate, preparatory, normal, commercial and theological +departments, a school of expression, and a conservatory of +music, and in 1907 had 588 students, the majority of whom were +in the conservatory of music. Findlay is the centre of the +Ohio natural gas and oil region, and lime and building stone +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page355" id="page355"></a>355</span> +abound in the vicinity. Among manufactures are refined +petroleum, flour and grist-mill products, glass, boilers, bricks, +tile, pottery, bridges, ditching machines, carriages and furniture. +The total value of the factory product in 1905 was $2,925,309, an +increase of 73.6% since 1900. The municipality owns and +operates the water-works. Findlay was laid out as a town in +1821, was incorporated as a village in 1838, and was chartered +as a city in 1890. The city was named in honour of Colonel +James Findlay (<i>c.</i> 1775-1835), who built a fort here during the +war of 1812; he served in this war under General William +Hull, and from 1825 to 1833 was a Democratic representative +in Congress.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">FINE,<a name="ar208" id="ar208"></a></span> a word which in all its senses goes back to the Lat. +<i>finire</i>, to bring to an end (<i>finis</i>). Thus in the common +adjectival meanings of elegant, thin, subtle, excellent, reduced +in size, &c., it is in origin equivalent to “finished.” In the +various substantival meanings in law, with which this article +deals, the common idea underlying them is an end or final +settlement of a matter.</p> + +<p>A fine, in the ordinary sense, is a pecuniary penalty inflicted +for the less serious offences. Fines are necessarily discretionary +as to amount; but a maximum is generally fixed when the +penalty is imposed by statute. And it is an old constitutional +maxim that fines must not be unreasonable. In Magna Carta, +c. 111, it is ordained “<i>Liber homo non amercietur pro parvo +delicto nisi secundum modum ipsius delicti, et pro magno delicto +secundum magnitudinem delicti.</i>”</p> + +<p>The term is also applied to payments made to the lord of a +manor on the alienation of land held according to the custom +of the manor, to payments made by a lessee on a renewal of a +lease, and to other similar payments.</p> + +<p>Fine also denotes a fictitious suit at law, which played the +part of a conveyance of landed property. “A fine,” says +Blackstone, “may be described to be an amicable composition +or agreement of a suit, either actual or fictitious, by leave of +the king or his justices, whereby the lands in question become +or are acknowledged to be the right of one of the parties. In +its original it was founded on an actual suit commenced at law +for the recovery of the possession of land or other hereditaments; +and the possession thus gained by such composition was found +to be so sure and effectual that fictitious actions were and +continue to be every day commenced for the sake of obtaining +the same security.” Freehold estates could thus be transferred +from one person to another without the formal delivery of +possession which was generally necessary to a feoffment. This +is one of the oldest devices of the law. A statute of 18 Edward +I. describes it as the most solemn and satisfactory of securities, +and gives a reason for its name—“Qui quidem finis sic vocatur, +eo quod finis et consummatio omnium placitorum esse debet, +et hac de causa providebatur.” The action was supposed to +be founded on a breach of covenant: the defendant, owning +himself in the wrong,<a name="fa1n" id="fa1n" href="#ft1n"><span class="sp">1</span></a> makes overtures of compromise, which +are authorized by the <i>licentia concordandi</i>; then followed the +concord, or the compromise itself. These, then were the essential +parts of the performance, which became efficient as soon as +they were complete; the formal parts were the <i>notes</i>, or abstract +of the proceedings, and the <i>foot</i> of the fine, which recited the +final agreement. Fines were said to be of four kinds, according +to the purpose they had in view, as, for instance, to convey lands +in pursuance of a covenant, to grant revisionary interest only, +&c. In addition to the formal record of the proceedings, various +statutes required other solemnities to be observed, the great +object of which was to give publicity to the transaction. Thus +by statutes of Richard III. and Henry VII. the fine had to be +openly read and proclaimed in court no less than sixteen times. +A statute of Elizabeth required a list of fines to be exposed in the +court of common pleas and at assizes. The reason for these +formalities was the high and important nature of the conveyance, +which, according to the act of Edward I. above mentioned, +“precludes not only those which are parties and privies to the +fine and their heirs, but all other persons in the world who are +of full age, out of prison, of sound memory, and within the four +seas, the day of the fine levied, unless they put in their claim +on the foot of the fine within a year and a day.” This barring +by <i>non-claim</i> was abolished in the reign of Edward III., but +restored with an extension of the time to five years in the reign +of Henry VII. The effect of this statute, intentional according +to Blackstone, unintended and brought about by judicial +construction according to others, was that a tenant-in-tail +could bar his issue by a fine. A statute of Henry VIII. expressly +declares this to be the law. Fines, along with the kindred +fiction of recoveries, were abolished by the Fines and Recoveries +Act 1833, which substituted a deed enrolled in the court of +chancery.</p> + +<p>Fines are so generally associated in legal phraseology with +recoveries that it may not be inconvenient to describe the +latter in the present place. A recovery was employed as a means +for evading the strict law of entail. The purchaser or alienee +brought an action against the tenant-in-tail, alleging that he had +no legal title to the land. The tenant-in-tail brought a third +person into court, declaring that he had warranted his title, +and praying that he might be ordered to defend the action. +This person was called the <i>vouchee</i>, and he, after having appeared +to defend the action, takes himself out of the way. Judgment +for the lands is given in favour of the plaintiff; and judgment to +recover lands of equal value from the vouchee was given to the +defendant, the tenant-in-tail. In real action, such lands when +recovered would have fallen under the settlement of entail; +but in the fictitious recovery the vouchee was a man of straw, +and nothing was really recovered from him, while the lands +of the tenant-in-tail were effectually conveyed to the successful +plaintiff. A recovery differed from a fine, as to <i>form</i>, in being +an action carried through to the end, while a fine was settled +by compromise, and as to effect, by barring all reversions and +remainders in estates tail, while a fine barred the issue only of +the tenant. (See also <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Ejectment</a></span>; <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Proclamation</a></span>.)</p> + +<hr class="foot" /> <div class="note"> + +<p><a name="ft1n" id="ft1n" href="#fa1n"><span class="fn">1</span></a> Hence called <i>cognizor</i>; the other party, the purchaser, is the +<i>cognizee</i>.</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">FINE ARTS,<a name="ar209" id="ar209"></a></span> the name given to a whole group of human +activities, which have for their result what is collectively known +as Fine Art. The arts which constitute the group are the +five greater arts of architecture, sculpture, painting, music and +poetry, with a number of minor or subsidiary arts, of which +dancing and the drama are among the most ancient and universal. +In antiquity the fine arts were not explicitly named, nor even +distinctly recognized, as a separate class. In other modern +languages besides English they are called by the equivalent +name of the beautiful arts (<i>belle arti</i>, <i>beaux arts</i>, <i>schöne Künste</i>). +The fine or beautiful arts then, it is usually said, are those among +the arts of man which minister, not primarily to his material +necessities or conveniences, but to his love of beauty; and if +any art fulfils both these purposes at once, still as fulfilling the +latter only is it called a fine art. Thus architecture, in so far as +it provides shelter and accommodation, is one of the useful or +mechanical arts, and one of the fine arts only in so far as its +structures impress or give pleasure by the aspect of strength, +fitness, harmony and proportion of parts, by disposition and +contrast of light and shade, by colour and enrichment, by variety +and relation of contours, surfaces and intervals. But this, +the commonly accepted account of the matter, does not really +cover the ground. The idea conveyed by the words “love of +beauty,” even stretched to its widest, can hardly be made to +include the love of caricature and the grotesque; and these are +admittedly modes of fine art. Even the terrible, the painful, +the squalid, the degraded, in a word every variety of the significant, +can be so handled and interpreted as to be brought within +the province of fine art. A juster and more inclusive, although +clumsier, account of the matter might put it that the fine arts +are those among the arts of man which spring from his impulse +to do or make certain things in certain ways for the sake, first, +of a special kind of pleasure, independent of direct utility, which +it gives him so to do or make them, and next for the sake of the +kindred pleasure which he derives from witnessing or contemplating +them when they are so done or made by others.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page356" id="page356"></a>356</span></p> + +<p>The nature of this impulse, and the several grounds of these +pleasures, are subjects which have given rise to a formidable +body of speculation and discussion, the chief phases of which +will be found summarized under the heading <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Aesthetics</a></span>. +In the present article we have only to attend to the concrete +processes and results of the artistic activities of man; in other +words, we shall submit (1) a definition of fine art in general, +(2) a definition and classification of the principal fine arts +severally, (3) some observations on their historical development.</p> + +<p class="pt2 center">I. <i>Of Fine Art in General.</i></p> + +<p>According to the popular and established distinction between +art and nature, the idea of Art (<i>q.v.</i>) only includes phenomena +of which man is deliberately the cause; while the +idea of Nature includes all phenomena, both in man +<span class="sidenote">Premeditation essential to art.</span> +and in the world outside him, which take place without +forethought or studied initiative of his own. Art, +accordingly, means every regulated operation or dexterity whereby +we pursue ends which we know beforehand; and it means +nothing but such operations and dexterities. What is true of +art generally is of course also true of the special group of the +fine arts. One of the essential qualities of all art is premeditation; +and when Shelley talks of the skylark’s profuse strains +of “unpremeditated art,” he in effect lays emphasis on the +fact that it is only by a metaphor that he uses the word art in +this case at all; he calls attention to that which (if the songs of +birds are as instinctive as we suppose) precisely makes the +difference between the skylark’s outpourings and his own. We are +slow to allow the title of fine art to natural eloquence, to charm +or dignity of manner, to delicacy and tact in social intercourse, +and other such graces of life and conduct, since, although in any +given case they may have been deliberately cultivated in early +life, or even through ancestral generations, they do not produce +their full effect until they are so ingrained as to have become +unreflecting and spontaneous. When the exigencies of a philosophic +scheme lead some writers on aesthetics to include such +acts or traits of beautiful and expressive behaviour among +the deliberate artistic activities of mankind, we feel that an +essential distinction is being sacrificed to the exigencies of a +system. That distinction common parlance very justly observes, +with its opposition of “art” to “nature” and its phrase of +“second nature” for those graces which have become so habitual +as to seem instinctive, whether originally the result of discipline +or not. When we see a person in all whose ordinary movements +there are freedom and beauty, we put down the charm of these +with good reason to inherited and inbred aptitudes of which +the person has never thought or long since ceased to think, and +could not still be thinking without spoiling the charm by self-consciousness; +and we call the result a gift of nature. But +when we go on to notice that the same person is beautifully +and appropriately dressed, since we know that it is impossible +to dress without thinking of it, we put down the charm of this +to judicious forethought and calculation and call the result a +work of art.</p> + +<p>The processes then of fine art, like those of all arts properly +so called, are premeditated, and the property of every fine art +is to give to the person exercising it a special kind of +active pleasure, and a special kind of passive or +<span class="sidenote">The active and the passive pleasures of fine art.</span> +receptive pleasure to the person witnessing the results +of such exercise. This latter statement seems to imply +that there exist in human societies a separate class +producing works of fine art and another class enjoying them. +Such an implication, in regard to advanced societies, is near +enough the truth to be theoretically admitted (like the analogous +assumption in political economy that there exist separate +classes of producers and consumers). In developed communities +the gifts and calling of the artist constitute in fact a separate +profession of the creators or purveyors of fine art, while the rest +of the community are its enjoyers or recipients. In the most +primitive societies, apparently, this cannot have been so, and we +can go back to an original or rudimentary stage of almost every +fine art at which the separation between a class of producers +or performers and a class of recipients hardly exists. Such an +original or rudimentary stage of the dramatic art is presented +by children, who will occupy themselves for ever with mimicry +and make-believe for their own satisfaction, with small regard +or none to the presence or absence of witnesses. The original +or rudimentary type of the profession of imitative sculptors or +painters is the cave-dweller of prehistoric ages, who, when he +rested from his day’s hunting, first took up the bone handle of +his weapon, and with a flint either carved it into the shape, +or on its surface scratched the outlines, of the animals of the +chase. The original or rudimentary type of the architect, considered +not as a mere builder but as an artist, is the savage +who, when his tribe had taken to live in tents or huts instead +of caves, first arranged the skins and timbers of his tent or hut +in one way because it pleased his eye, rather than in some other +way which was as good for shelter. The original type of the +artificer or adorner of implements, considered in the same light, +was the other savage who first took it into his head to fashion +his club or spear in one way rather than another for the pleasure +of the eye only and not for any practical reason, and to ornament +it with tufts or markings. In none of these cases, it would +seem, can the primitive artist have had much reason for pleasing +anybody but himself. Again, the original or rudimentary +type of lyric song and dancing arose when the first reveller +clapped hands and stamped or shouted in time, in honour of his +god, in commemoration of a victory, or in mere obedience to the +blind stirring of a rhythmic impulse within him. To some very +remote and solitary ancestral savage the presence or absence +of witnesses at such a display may in like manner have been +indifferent; but very early in the history of the race the primitive +dancer and singer joined hands and voices with others of his +tribe, while others again sat apart and looked on at the performance, +and the rite thus became both choral and social. A +primitive type of the instrumental musician is the shepherd who +first notched a reed and drew sounds from it while his sheep +were cropping. The father of all artists in dress and personal +adornment was the first wild man who tattooed himself or bedecked +himself with shells and plumes. In both of these latter +instances, it may be taken as certain, the primitive artist had the +motive of pleasing not himself only, but his mate, or the female +whom he desired to be his mate, and in the last instance of all +the further motive of impressing his fellow-tribesmen and striking +awe or envy into his enemies. The tendency of recent speculation +and research concerning the origins of art has been to +ascribe the primitive artistic activities of man less and less to +individual and solitary impulse, and more and more to social +impulse and the desire of sharing and communicating pleasure. +(The writer who has gone furthest in developing this view, +and on grounds of the most careful study of evidence, has +been Dr Yrjö Hirn of Helsingfors.) Whatever relative parts the +individual and the social impulses may have in fact played at +the outset, it is clear that what any one can enjoy or admire by +himself, whether in the way of mimicry, of rhythmical movements +or utterances, of imitative or ornamental carving and drawing, +of the disposition and adornment of dwelling-places and utensils—the +same things, it is clear, others are able also to enjoy or +admire with him. And so, with the growth of societies, it came +about that one class of persons separated themselves and became +the ministers or producers of this kind of pleasures, while the rest +became the persons ministered to, the participators in or recipients +of the pleasures. Artists are those members of a society +who are so constituted as to feel more acutely than the rest +certain classes of pleasures which all can feel in their degree. +By this fact of their constitution they are impelled to devote +their active powers to the production of such pleasures, to the +making or doing of some of those things which they enjoy so +keenly when they are made and done by others. At the same +time the artist does not, by assuming these ministering or +creative functions, surrender his enjoying or receptive functions. +He continues to participate in the pleasures of which he is +himself the cause, and remains a conscious member of his own +public. The architect, sculptor, painter, are able respectively +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page357" id="page357"></a>357</span> +to stand off from and appreciate the results of their own labours; +the singer enjoys the sound of his own voice, and the musician +of his own instrument; the poet, according to his temperament, +furnishes the most enthusiastic or the most fastidious reader +for his own stanzas. Neither, on the other hand, does the person +who is a habitual recipient from others of the pleasures of fine +art forfeit the privilege of producing them according to his +capabilities, and of becoming, if he has the power, an <i>amateur</i> +or occasional artist.</p> + +<p>Most of the common properties which have been recognized +by consent as peculiar to the group of fine arts will be found on +examination to be implied in, or deducible from, +the one fundamental character generally claimed for +<span class="sidenote">Pleasures of fine art disinterested.</span> +them, namely, that they exist independently of direct +practical necessity or utility. Let us take, first, a +point relating to the frame of mind of the recipient, as distinguished +from the producer, of the pleasures of fine art. It is +an observation as old as Aristotle that such pleasures differ +from most other pleasures of experience in that they are disinterested, +in the sense that they are not such as nourish a man’s +body nor add to his riches; they are not such as can gratify +him, when he receives them, by the sense of advantage or +superiority over his fellow-creatures; they are not such as one +human being can in any sense receive exclusively from the +object which bestows them. Thus it is evidently characteristic +of a beautiful building that its beauty cannot be monopolized, +but can be seen and admired by the inhabitants of a whole city +and by all visitors for all generations. The same thing is true +of a picture or a statue, except in so far as an individual possessor +may choose to keep such a possession to himself, in which case +his pride in exclusive ownership is a sentiment wholly independent +of his pleasure in artistic contemplation. Similarly, music is +composed to be sung or played for the enjoyment of many at a +time, and for such enjoyment a hundred years hence as much as +to-day. Poetry is written to be read by all readers for ever +who care for the ideas and feelings of the poet, and can apprehend +the meaning and melody of his language. Hence, though we +can speak of a class of the producers of fine art, we cannot +speak of a class of its consumers, only of its recipients or +enjoyers. If we consider other pleasures which might seem to be +analogous to those of fine art, but to which common consent +yet declines to allow that character, we shall see that one reason +is that such pleasures are not in their nature thus disinterested. +Thus the sense of smell and taste have pleasures of their own +like the senses of sight and hearing, and pleasures neither less +poignant nor very much less capable of fine graduation and +discrimination than those. Why, then, is the title of fine art not +claimed for any skill in arranging and combining them? Why +are there no recognized arts of savours and scents corresponding +in rank to the arts of forms, colours and sounds—or at least +none among Western nations, for in Japan, it seems, there is a +recognized and finely regulated social art of the combination +and succession of perfumes? An answer commonly given is +that sight and hearing are intellectual and therefore higher +senses, that through them we have our avenues to all knowledge +and all ideas of things outside us; while taste and smell are +unintellectual and therefore lower senses, through which few +such impressions find their way to us as help to build up our +knowledge and our ideas. Perhaps a more satisfactory reason +why there are no fine arts of taste and smell—or let us in deference +to Japanese modes leave out smell, and say of taste only—is this, +that savours yield only private pleasures, which it is not possible +to build up into separate and durable schemes such that every +one may have the benefit of them, and such as cannot be monopolized +or used up. If against this it is contended that what the +programme of a performance is in the musical art, the same is +a <i>menu</i> in the culinary, and that practically it is no less possible +to serve up a thousand times and to a thousand different companies +the same dinner than the same symphony, we must fall +back upon that still more fundamental form of the distinction +between the aesthetic and non-aesthetic bodily senses, upon +which the physiological psychologists of the English school lay +stress. We must say that the pleasures of taste cannot be +pleasures of fine art, because their enjoyment is too closely +associated with the most indispensable and the most strictly +personal of utilities, eating and drinking. To pass from these +lower pleasures to the highest; consider the nature of the delight +derived from the contemplation, by the person who is their +object, of the signs and manifestations of love. That at least +is a beautiful experience; why is the pleasure which it affords +not an artistic pleasure either? Why, in order to receive an +artistic pleasure from human signs and manifestations of this +kind, are we compelled to go to the theatre and see them exhibited +in favour of a third person who is not really their object any +more than ourselves? This is so, for one reason, evidently, +because of the difference between art and nature. Not to art, +but to nature and life, belongs love where it is really felt, with its +attendant train of vivid hopes, fears, passions and contingencies. +To art belongs love displayed where it is not really felt; and in +this sphere, along with reality and spontaneousness of the +display, and along with its momentous bearings, there disappear +all those elements of pleasure in its contemplation which are +not disinterested—the elements of personal exultation and +self-congratulation, the pride of exclusive possession or acceptance, +all these emotions, in short, which are summed up in the +lover’s triumphant monosyllable, “Mine.” Thus, from the +lowest point of the scale to the highest, we may observe that +the element of personal advantage or monopoly in human gratifications +seems to exclude, them from the kingdom of fine art. +The pleasures of fine art, so far as concerns their passive or +receptive part, seem to define themselves as pleasures of gratified +contemplation, but of such contemplation only when it is +disinterested—which is simply another way of saying, when it is +unconcerned with ideas of utility.</p> + +<p>Modern speculation has tended in some degree to modify and +obscure this old and established view of the pleasures of fine +art by urging that the hearer or spectator is not after +all so free from self-interest as he seems; that in the +<span class="sidenote">An objection and its answer.</span> +act of artistic contemplation he experiences an enhancement +or expansion of his being which is in truth a +gain of the egoistic kind; that in witnessing a play, for instance, +a large part of his enjoyment consists in sympathetically identifying +himself with the successful lover or the virtuous hero. All +this may be true, but does not really affect the argument, since +at the same time he is well aware that every other spectator +or auditor present may be similarly engaged with himself. At +most the objection only requires us to define a little more +closely, and to say that the satisfactions of the ego excluded +from among the pleasures of fine art are not these ideal, sympathetic, +indirect satisfactions, which every one can share +together, but only those which arise from direct, private and +incommunicable advantage to the individual.</p> + +<p>Next, let us consider another generally accepted observation +concerning the nature of the fine arts, and one, this time, relating +to the disposition and state of mind of the practising +artist himself. While for success in other arts it is only +<span class="sidenote">Fine arts cannot be practised by rule and precept.</span> +necessary to learn their rules and to apply them until +practice gives facility, in the fine arts, it is commonly +and justly said, rules and their application will carry +but a little way towards success. All that can depend +on rules, on knowledge, and on the application of knowledge +by practice, the artist must indeed acquire, and the acquisition +is often very complicated and laborious. But outside of and +beyond such acquisitions he must trust to what is called genius +or imagination, that is, to the spontaneous working together +of an incalculably complex group of faculties, reminiscences, +preferences, emotions, instincts in his constitution. This characteristic +of the activities of the artist is a direct consequence +or corollary of the fundamental fact that the art he practices +is independent of utility. A utilitarian end is necessarily a +determinate and prescribed end, and to every end which is +determinate and prescribed there must be one road which is +the best. Skill in any useful art means knowing practically, by +rules and the application of rules, the best road to the particular +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page358" id="page358"></a>358</span> +ends of that art. Thus the farmer, the engineer, the carpenter, +the builder so far as he is not concerned with the look of his +buildings, the weaver so far as he is not concerned with the +designing of the patterns which he weaves, possesses each his +peculiar skill, but a skill to which fixed problems are set, and +which, if it indulges in new inventions and combinations at all, +can indulge them only for the sake of an improved solution of +those particular problems. The solution once found, the invention +once made, its rules can be written down, or at any rate +its practice can be imparted to others who will apply it in their +turn. Whereas no man can write down, in a way that others +can act upon, how Beethoven conquered unknown kingdoms +in the world of harmony, or how Rembrandt turned the aspects +of gloom, squalor and affliction into pictures as worthy of contemplation +as those into which the Italians before him had +turned the aspects of spiritual exaltation and shadowless day. +The reason why the operations of the artist thus differ from the +operations of the ordinary craftsman or artificer is that his ends, +being ends other than useful, are not determinate nor fixed as +theirs are. He has large liberty to choose his own problems, and +may solve each of them in a thousand different ways according +to the prompting of his own ordering or creating instincts. +The musical composer has the largest liberty of all. Having +learned what is learnable in his art, having mastered the complicated +and laborious rules of musical form, having next determined +the particular class of the work which he is about to +compose, he has then before him the whole inexhaustible world +of appropriate successions and combinations of emotional sound. +He is merely directed and not fettered, in the case of song, +cantata, oratorio or opera, by the sense of the words which he +has to set. The value of the result depends absolutely on his +possessing or failing to possess powers which can neither be +trained in nor communicated to any man. And this double +freedom, alike from practical service and from the representation +of definite objects, is what makes music in a certain sense the +typical fine art, or art of arts. Architecture shares one-half of +this freedom. It has not to copy or represent natural objects; +for this service it calls in sculpture to its aid; but architecture +is without the other half of freedom altogether. The architect +has a sphere of liberty in the disposition of his masses, lines, +colours, alternations of light and shadow, of plain and ornamented +surface, and the rest; but upon this sphere he can only +enter on condition that he at the same time fulfils the strict +practical task of supplying the required accommodation, and +obeys the strict mechanical necessities imposed by the laws of +weight, thrust, support, resistance and other properties of +solid matter. The sculptor again, the painter, the poet, has +each in like manner his sphere of necessary facts, rules and +conditions corresponding to the nature of his task. The sculptor +must be intimately versed both in the surface aspects and the +inner mechanism of the human frame alike in rest and motion, +and in the rules and conditions for its representation in solid +form; the painter in a much more extended range of natural +facts and appearances, and the rules and conditions for representing +them on a plane surface; the poet’s art of words has its +own not inconsiderable basis of positive and disciplined acquisition. +So far as rules, precepts, formulas and other communicable +laws or secrets can carry the artist, so far also the spectator +can account for, analyse, and, so to speak, tabulate the effects +of his art. But the essential character of the artist’s operation, +its very bloom and virtue, lies in those parts of it which fall +outside this range of regulation on the one hand and analysis +on the other. His merit varies according to the felicity with +which he is able, in that region, to exercise his free choice and +frame his individual ideal, and according to the tenacity with +which he strives to grasp and realize his choice, or to attain +perfection according to that ideal.</p> + +<p>In this connexion the question naturally arises, In what way +do the progress and expansion of mechanical art affect the power +and province of fine art? The great practical movement of +the world in our age is a movement for the development of +<span class="sidenote">Fine arts and machinery: “art manufactures.”</span> +mechanical inventions and multiplication of mechanical products. +So far as these inventions are applied to purposes purely +useful, and so far as their products to not profess to offer anything +delightful to contemplation, this movement in +no way concerns our argument. But there is a vast +multitude of products which do profess qualities of +pleasantness, and upon which the ornaments intended +to make them pleasurable are bestowed by machinery; +and in speaking of these we are accustomed to the +phrases art-industry, industrial art, art manufactures and the +like. In these cases the industry or ingenuity which directs the +machine is not fine art at all, since the object of the machine +is simply to multiply as easily and as perfectly as possible a +definite and prescribed impress or pattern. This is equally +true whether the machine is a simple one, like the engraver’s +press, for producing and multiplying impressions from an +engraved plate, or a highly complex one, like the loom, in which +elaborate patterns of carpet or curtain are set for weaving. In +both cases there exists behind the mechanical industry an +industry which is one of fine art in its degree. In the case of the +engraver’s press, there exists behind the industry of the printer +the art of the engraver, which, if the engraver is also the free +inventor of the design, is then a fine art, or, if he is but the +interpreter of the invention of another, is then in its turn a +semi-mechanical skill applied in aid of the fine art of the first +inventor. In the case of the weaver’s loom there is, behind the +mechanical industry which directs the loom at its given task, the +fine art, or what ought to be the fine art, of the designer who has +contrived the pattern. In the case of the engraving, the mechanical +industry of printing only exists for the sake of bringing out +and disseminating abroad the fine art employed upon the design. +In the case of the carpet or curtain, the fine art is often only +called in to make the product of the useful or mechanical industry +of the loom acceptable, since the eye of man is so constituted +as to receive pleasure or the reverse of pleasure from whatever +it rests upon, and it is to the interest of the manufacturer to +have his product so made as to give pleasure if it can. Whether +the machine is thus a humble servant to the artist, or the artist +a kind of humble purveyor to the machine, the fine art in the +result is due to the former alone; and in any case it reaches +the recipient at second-hand, having been put in circulation by +a medium not artistic but mechanical.</p> + +<p>Again, with reference not to the application of mechanical +contrivances but to their invention; is not, it may be inquired, +the title of artist due to the inventor of some of the +astonishingly complex and astonishingly efficient +<span class="sidenote">Perfected machines: are they works of fine art?</span> +machines of modern-times? Does he not spend as +much thought, labour, genius as any sculptor or +musician in perfecting his construction according to +his ideal, and is not the construction when it is done—so finished, +so responsive in all its parts, so almost human—is not that +worthy to be called a work of fine art? The answer is that the +inventor has a definite and practical end before him; his ideal +is not <i>free</i>; he deserves all credit as the perfector of a particular +instrument for a prescribed function, but an artist, a free follower +of the fine arts, he is not; although we may perhaps have to +concede him a narrow sphere for the play of something like an +artistic sense when he contrives the proportion, arrangement, +form or finish of the several parts of his machine in one way +rather than another, not because they work better so but simply +because their look pleases him better.</p> + +<p>Returning from this digression, let us consider one common +observation more on the nature of the fine arts. They are +activities, it is said, which were put forth not because +they need but because they like. They have the +<span class="sidenote">Fine arts called a kind of play.</span> +activity to spare, and to put it forth in this way pleases +them. Fine art is to mankind what play is to the +individual, a free and arbitrary vent for energy which is not +needed to be spent upon tasks concerned with the conservation, +perpetuation or protection of life. To insist on the superfluous +or optional character of the fine arts, to call them the play or +pastime of the human race as distinguished from its inevitable +and sterner tasks, is obviously only to reiterate our fundamental +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page359" id="page359"></a>359</span> +distinction between the fine arts and the useful or necessary. +But the distinction, as expressed in this particular form, has been +interpreted in a great variety of ways and followed out to an +infinity of conclusions, conclusions regarding both the nature +of the activities themselves and the character and value of their +results.</p> + +<p>For instance, starting from this saying that the aesthetic +activities are a kind of play, the English psychology of association +goes back to the spontaneous cries and movements +of children, in which their superfluous energies find a +<span class="sidenote">The play idea as worked out by the English associationists.</span> +vent. It then enumerates pleasures of which the +human constitution is capable apart from direct +advantage or utility. Such are the primitive or +organic pleasures of sight and hearing, and the secondary +or derivative pleasures of association or unconscious +reminiscence and inference that soon become mixed up with +these. Such are also the pleasures derived from following any +kind of mimicry, or representation of things real or like reality. +The association psychology describes the grouping within the +mind of predilections based upon these pleasures; it shows +how the growing organism learns to govern its play, or direct +its superfluous energies, in obedience to such predilections, +till in mature individuals, and still more in mature societies, a +highly regulated and accomplished group of leisure activities are +habitually employed in supplying to a not less highly cultivated +group of disinterested sensibilities their appropriate artistic +pleasures. It is by Herbert Spencer that this view has been +most fully and systematically worked out.</p> + +<p>Again, in the views of an ancient philosopher, Plato, and a +modern poet, Schiller, the consideration that the artistic activities +are in the nature of play, and the manifestations in +which they result independent of realities and utilities, +<span class="sidenote">By Plato.</span> +has led to judgments so differing as the following. Plato held +that the daily realities of things in experience are not realities, +indeed, but only far-off shows or reflections of the true realities, +that is, of certain ideal or essential forms which can be apprehended +as existing by the mind. Holding this, Plato saw in +the works of fine art but the reflections of reflections, the shows +of shows, and depreciated them according to their degree of +remoteness from the ideal, typical or sense-transcending existences. +He sets the arts of medicine, agriculture, shoemaking +and the rest above the fine arts, inasmuch as they produce +something serious or useful (<span class="grk" title="spoudaionti">σπουδαῖόντι</span>). Fine art, he says, produces +nothing useful, and makes only semblances (<span class="grk" title="eidolopiïke">εἰδωλοποιϊκή</span>), +whereas what mechanical art produces are utilities, and even in +the ordinary sense realities (<span class="grk" title="autopoietike">αὐτοποιητική</span>).</p> + +<p>In another age, and thinking according to another system, +Schiller, so far from holding thus cheap the kingdom of play +and show, regarded his sovereignty over that kingdom +as the noblest prerogative of man. Schiller wrote his +<span class="sidenote">By Schiller.</span> +famous <i>Letters on the Aesthetic Education of Man</i> in +order to throw into popular currency, and at the same time +to modify and follow up in a particular direction, certain metaphysical +doctrines which had lately been launched upon the +schools by Kant. The spirit of man, said Schiller after Kant, +is placed between two worlds, the physical world or world of +sense, and the moral world or world of will. Both of these are +worlds of constraint or necessity. In the sensible world, the +spirit of man submits to constraint from without; in the moral +world, it imposes constraint from within. So far as man yields +to the importunities of sense, in so far he is bound and passive, +the subject of outward shocks and victim of irrational forces. +So far as he asserts himself by the exercise of will, imposing upon +sense and outward things the dominion of the moral law within +him, in so far he is free and active, the rational lord of nature +and not her slave. Corresponding to these two worlds, he has +within him two conflicting impulses or impulsions of his nature, +the one driving him towards one way of living, the other towards +another. The one, or sense-impulsion (<i>Stofftrieb</i>), Schiller +thinks of as that which enslaves the spirit of man as the victim +of matter, the other or moral impulsion (<i>Formtrieb</i>) as that +which enthrones it as the dictator of form. Between the two +the conflict at first seems inveterate. The kingdom of brute +nature and sense, the sphere of man’s subjection and passivity, +wages war against the kingdom of will and moral law, the sphere +of his activity and control, and every conquest of the one is an +encroachment upon the other. Is there, then, no hope of truce +between the two kingdoms, no ground where the two contending +impulses can be reconciled? Nay, the answer comes, there is +such a hope; such a neutral territory there exists. Between +the passive kingdom of matter and sense, where man is compelled +blindly to feel and be, and the active kingdom of law and reason, +where he is compelled sternly to will and act, there is a kingdom +where both sense and will may have their way, and where man +may give the rein to all his powers. But this middle kingdom +does not lie in the sphere of practical life and conduct. It lies +in the sphere of those activities which neither subserve any +necessity of nature nor fulfil any moral duty. Towards activities +of this kind we are driven by a third impulsion of our nature not +less essential to it than the other two, the impulsion, as Schiller +calls it, of Play (<i>Spieltrieb</i>). Relatively to real life and conduct, +play is a kind of harmless show; it is that which we are free to +do or leave undone as we please, and which lies alike outside the +sphere of needs and duties. In play we may do as we like, and +no mischief will come of it. In this sphere man may put forth +all his powers without risk of conflict, and may invent activities +which will give a complete ideal satisfaction to the contending +faculties of sense and will at once, to the impulses which bid him +feel and enjoy the shocks of physical and outward things, and +the impulse which bids him master such things, control and +regulate them. In play you may impose upon Matter what +Form you choose, and the two will not interfere with one another +or clash. The kingdom of Matter and the kingdom of Form +thus harmonized, thus reconciled by the activities of play and +show, will in other words be the kingdom of the Beautiful. +Follow the impulsion of play, and to the beautiful you will find +your road; the activities you will find yourself putting forth +will be the activities of aesthetic creation—you will have discovered +or invented the fine arts. “Midway”—these are Schiller’s +own words—“midway between the formidable kingdom of +natural forces and the hallowed kingdom of moral laws, the +impulse of aesthetic creation builds up a third kingdom unperceived, +the gladsome kingdom of play and show, wherein it +emancipates man from all compulsion alike of physical and of +moral forces.” Schiller, the poet and enthusiast, thus making +his own application of the Kantian metaphysics, goes on to set +forth how the fine arts, or activities of play and show, are for +him the typical, the ideal activities of the race, since in them +alone is it possible for man to put forth his whole, that is his ideal +self. “Only when he plays is man really and truly man.” +“Man ought only to play with the beautiful, and he ought to +play with the beautiful only.” “Education in taste and beauty +has for its object to train up in the utmost attainable harmony +the whole sum of the powers both of sense and spirit.” And the +rest of Schiller’s argument is addressed to show how the activities +of artistic creation, once invented, react upon other departments +of human life, how the exercise of the play impulse prepares +men for an existence in which the inevitable collision of the two +other impulses shall be softened or averted more and more. +That harmony of the powers which clash so violently in man’s +primitive nature, having first been found possible in the sphere +of the fine arts, reflects itself, in his judgment, upon the whole +composition of man, and attunes him, as an aesthetic being, into +new capabilities for the conduct of his social existence.</p> + +<p>Our reasons for dwelling on this wide and enthusiastic formula +of Schiller’s are both its importance in the history of reflection—it +remained, indeed, for nearly a century a formula +almost classical—and the measure of positive value +<span class="sidenote">The strong points of Schiller’s theory.</span> +which it still retains. The notion of a sphere of +voluntary activity for the human spirit, in which, +under no compulsion of necessity or conscience, we +order matters as we like them apart from any practical end, +seems coextensive with the widest conception of fine art and the +fine arts as they exist in civilized and developed communities. +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page360" id="page360"></a>360</span> +It insists on and brings into the light the free or optional character +of these activities, as distinguished from others to which we are +compelled by necessity or duty, as well as the fact that these +activities, superfluous as they may be from the points of view of +necessity and of duty, spring nevertheless from an imperious +and a saving instinct of our nature. It does justice to the part +which is, or at any rate may be, filled in the world by pleasures +which are apart from profit, and by delights for the enjoyment +of which men cannot quarrel. It claims the dignity they deserve +for those shows and pastimes in which we have found a way to +make permanent all the transitory delights of life and nature, +to turn even our griefs and yearnings, by their artistic utterance, +into sources of appeasing joy, to make amends to ourselves for +the confusion and imperfection of reality by conceiving and +imaging forth the semblances of things clearer and more complete, +since in contriving them we incorporate with the experiences +we have had the better experiences we have dreamed of and +longed for.</p> + +<p>One manifestly weak point of Schiller’s theory is that though +it asserts that man ought only to play with the beautiful, and +that he is his best or ideal self only when he does so, +yet it does not sufficiently indicate what kinds of +<span class="sidenote">Its weak points.</span> +play are beautiful nor why we are moved to adopt +them. It does not show how the delights of the eye and spirit +in contemplating forms, colours and movements, of the ear and +spirit in apprehending musical and verbal sounds, or of the whole +mind at once in following the comprehensive current of images +called up by poetry—it does not clearly show how delights +like these differ from those yielded by other kinds of play or +pastime, which are by common consent excluded from the +sphere of fine art.</p> + +<p>The chase, for instance, is a play or pastime which gives scope +for any amount of premeditated skill; it has pleasures, for +those who take part in it, which are in some degree +analogous to the pleasures of the artist; we all know +<span class="sidenote">Kinds of play which are not fine art.</span> +the claims made on behalf of the noble art of venerie +(following true medieval precedent) by the knights +and woodmen of Sir Walter Scott’s romances. It is an +obvious reply to say that though the chase is play to us, who in +civilized communities follow it on no plea of necessity, yet to a +not remote ancestry it was earnest; in primitive societies +hunting does not belong to the class of optional activities at all, +but is among the most pressing of utilitarian needs. But this +reply loses much of its force since we have learnt how many of +the fine arts, however emancipated from direct utility now, +have as a matter of history been evolved out of activities +primarily utilitarian. It would be more to the point to remark +that the pleasures of the sportsman are the only pleasures +arising from the chase; his exertions afford pain to the victim, +and no satisfaction to any class of recipients but himself; or +at least the sympathetic pleasures of the lookers-on at a hunt +or at a battle are hardly to be counted as pleasures of artistic +contemplation. The issue which they witness is a real issue; +the skilled endeavours with which they sympathize are put +forth for a definite practical result, and a result disastrous to one +of the parties concerned.</p> + +<p>What then, it may be asked, about athletic games and sports, +which hurt nobody, have no connexion with the chase, and +give pleasure to thousands of spectators? Here the difference +is, that the event which excites the spectator’s interest and +pleasure at a race or match or athletic contest is not a wholly +unreal or simulated event; it is less real than life, but it is more +real than art. The contest has no momentous practical consequences, +but it is a contest, an <span class="grk" title="athlos">ἄθλος</span>, all the same, in which +competitors put forth real strength, and one really wins and +others are defeated. Such a struggle, in which the exertions +are real and the issue uncertain, we follow with an excitement +and a suspense different in kind from the feelings with which +we contemplate a fictitious representation. For example, let +the reader recall the feelings with which he may have watched +a real fencing bout, and compare them with those with which +he watches the simulated fencing bout in Shakespeare’s <i>Hamlet</i>. +The instance is a crucial one, because in the fictitious case the +excitement is heightened by the introduction of the poisoned +foil, and by the tremendous consequences which we are aware +will turn, in the representation, on the issue. Yet because the +fencing scene in <i>Hamlet</i> is a representation, and not real, we find +ourselves watching it in a mood quite different from that in +which we watch the most ordinary real fencing-match with +vizors and blunt foils; a mood more exalted, if the representation +is good, but amid the aesthetic emotions of which the +fluctuations of strained, if trivial, suspense and the eagerness of +sympathetic participation find no place. “The delight of tragedy,” +says Johnson, “proceeds from our consciousness of fiction; +if we thought murders and treasons real, they would please no +more.” So does the peculiar quality of our pleasure in watching +the fencing-match in <i>Hamlet</i>, or the wrestling-match in <i>As You +Like It</i>, depend on our consciousness of fiction: if we thought +the matches real they might please us still, but please us in a +different way. Again, of athletics in general, they are pursuits +to a considerable degree definitely utilitarian, having for their +specific end the training and strengthening of individual human +bodies. Nevertheless, in some systems the title of fine arts +has been consistently claimed, if not for athletics technically +so called, and involving the idea of competition and defeat, at +any rate for gymnastics, regarded simply as a display of the +physical frame of man cultivated by exercise—as, for instance, +it was cultivated by the ancient Greeks—to an ideal perfection +of beauty and strength.</p> + +<p>But apart from criticisms like these on the theory of Schiller, +the Kantian doctrine of a metaphysical opposition between +the senses and the reason has for most minds of to-day +lost its validity, and with it falls away Schiller’s +<span class="sidenote">The play theory in the light of anthropological research.</span> +derivative theory of a <i>Stofftrieb</i> and a <i>Formtrieb</i> +contending like enemies for dominion over the human +spirit, with a neutral or reconciling <i>Spieltrieb</i> standing +between them. Even taking the existence of the +<i>Spieltrieb</i>, or play-impulse, by itself as a plain and indubitable +fact in human nature, the theory that this impulse +is the general or universal source of the artistic activities of the +race, which seemed adequate to thinkers so far apart as Schiller +and Herbert Spencer, is found no longer to hold water. The +tendency of recent thought and study on these subjects has been +to abandon the abstract or dialectical method in favour of the +methods of historical and anthropological inquiry. In the +light of these methods it is claimed that the artistic activities +of the race spring in point of fact from no single source but from +a number of different sources. It is admitted that the play-impulse +is one of these, and the allied and overlapping, but not +identical, impulse of mimicry or imitation another. But it is +urged at the same time that these twin impulses, rooted as they +both are among the primordial faculties both of men and animals, +are far from existing merely to provide a vent whereby the +superfluous energies of sentient beings may discharge themselves +at pleasure, but are indispensable utilitarian instincts, by which +the young are led to practise and rehearse in sport those activities +the exercise of which in earnest will be necessary to their preservation +in the adult state. (The researches of Professor Karl +Groos in this field seem to be conclusive.) A third impulse +innate in man, though scarcely so primordial as the other two, +and one which the animals cannot share with him, is the impulse +of record or commemoration. Man instinctively desires, alike +for safety, use and pleasure, to perpetuate and hand on the +memory of his deeds and experiences whether by words or by +works of his hands contrived for permanence. This impulse +of record is the most stimulating ally of the impulse of mimicry +or imitation, and perhaps a large part of the arts usually put +down as springing from the love of imitation ought rather to +be put down as springing from the commemorative or recording +impulse, using imitation as its necessary means. Granting the +existence in primitive man of these three allied impulses of play, +of mimicry, and of record, it is urged that they are so many +distinct though contiguous sources from which whole groups of +the fine arts have sprung, and that all three in their origin +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page361" id="page361"></a>361</span> +served ends primarily or in great part utilitarian. Examining +any of the rudimentary artistic activities of primitive man already +mentioned: the decoration of the person with tattooings or +strings of shells or teeth or feathers had primarily the object +of attracting or impressing the opposite sex, or terrifying an +enemy, or indicating the tribal relations of the person so adorned; +some of the same purposes were served by the scratches and +tufts and markings on weapons or utensils; the <i>graffiti</i> or outline +drawings of animals incised by cave-dwellers on bones are +surmised to have sprung in like manner from the desire of conveying +information, combined, probably, sometimes with that of +obtaining magic power over the things represented; the erection +of memorial shrines and images of all kinds, from the rudest +upwards, had among other purposes the highly practical one of +propitiating the spirits of the departed; and so on through the +whole range of kindred activities. It is contended, next, that +such activities only take on the character of rudimentary fine +arts at a certain stage of their evolution. Before they can +assume that character, they must come under the influence +and control of yet another rooted and imperious impulse in +mankind. That is the impulse of emotional self-expression, +the instinct which compels us to seek relief under the stimulus +of pent-up feeling; an instinct, it is added, second only in +power to those which drive us to seek food, shelter, protection +from enemies, and satisfaction for-sexual desires. According +to a law of our constitution, the argument goes on, this need for +emotional self-expression finds itself fully satisfied only by +certain modes of activity; those, namely, which either have +in themselves, or impress on their products, the property of +rhythm, that is, of regular interval and recurrence, flow, order +and proportion. Leaping, shouting, and clapping hands is the +human animal’s most primitive way of seeking relief under the +pressure of emotion; so soon as one such animal found out +that he both expressed and relieved his emotions best, and +communicated them best to his fellows, when he moved in regular +rhythm and shouted in regular time and with regular changes +of pitch, he ceased to be a mere excited savage and became a +primitive dancer, singer, musician—in a word, artist. So soon +as another found himself taking pleasure in certain qualities of +regular interval, pattern and arrangement of lines, shapes, +and colours, apart from all questions of purpose or utility, +in his tattooings and self-adornments, his decoration of tools +or weapons or structures for shelter or commemoration, he in +like manner became a primitive artist in ornamental and +imitative design.</p> + +<p>The special qualities of pleasure felt and communicated by +doing things in one way rather than another, independently +of direct utility, which we indicated at the outset as characteristic +of the whole range of the fine arts, appear on this showing to +be dependent primarily on the response of our organic sensibilities +of nerve and muscle, eye, ear and brain to the stimulus of rhythm, +(using the word in its widest sense) imparted either to our own +actions and utterances or to the works of our hands. Such +pleasures would seem to have been first experienced by man +directly, in the endeavour to find relief with limbs and voice +from states of emotional tension, and then incidentally, as a +kind of by-product arising and affording similar relief in the +development of a wide range of utilitarian activities. Into the +nature of those organic sensibilities, and the grounds of the +relief they afford us when gratified, it is the province of physiological +and psychological aesthetics to inquire: our business +here is only with the activities directed towards their satisfaction +and the results of those activities in the works of fine art. On +the whole the account of the matter yielded by the method of +anthropological research, and here very briefly summarized, +may be accepted as answering more closely to the complex +nature of the facts than any of the accounts hitherto current; +and so we may expand our first tentative suggestion of a definition +into one more complete, which from the nature of the case +cannot be very brief or simple and must run somehow thus: +<i>Fine art is everything which man does or makes in one way rather +than another, freely and with premeditation, in order to express +and arouse emotion, in obedience to laws of rhythmic movement +or utterance or regulated design, and with results independent of +direct utility and capable of affording to many permanent and +disinterested delight.</i></p> + +<p class="pt2 center">II. <i>Of the Fine Arts severally.</i></p> + +<p><i>Architecture</i>, <i>sculpture</i>, <i>painting</i>, <i>music</i> and <i>poetry</i> are by +common consent, as has been said at the outset, the five principal +or greater fine arts practised among developed communities +of men. It is possible in thought to group +<span class="sidenote">Modes in which the five greater arts have been classified.</span> +these five arts in as many different orders as there are +among them different kinds of relation or affinity. +One thinker fixes his attention upon one kind of relations +as the most important, and arranges his group +accordingly; another upon another; and each, when +he has done so, is very prone to claim for his arrangement the +virtue of being the sole essentially and fundamentally true. +For example, we may ascertain one kind of relations between +the arts by inquiring which is the simplest or most limited in +its effects, which next simplest, which another degree less +simple, which least simple or most complex of them all. This, +the relation of progressive complexity or comprehensiveness +between the fine arts, is the relation upon which Auguste Comte +fixed his attention, and it yields in his judgment the following +order:—Architecture lowest in complexity, because both of the +kinds of effects which it produces and of the material conditions +and limitations under which it works; sculpture next; painting +third; then music; and poetry highest, as the most complex +or comprehensive art of all, both in its own special effects and +in its resources for ideally calling up the effects of all the other +arts as well as all the phenomena of nature and experiences of +life. A somewhat similar grouping was adopted, though from +the consideration of a wholly different set of relations, by Hegel. +Hegel fixed his attention on the varying relations borne by the +idea, or spiritual element, to the embodiment of the idea, or +material element, in each art. Leaving aside that part of his +doctrine which concerns, not the phenomena of the arts themselves, +but their place in the dialectical world-plan or scheme of +the universe, Hegel said in effect something like this. In certain +ages and among certain races, as in Egypt and Assyria, and +again in the Gothic age of Europe, mankind has only dim ideas +for art to express, ideas insufficiently disengaged and realized, +of which the expression cannot be complete or lucid, but only +adumbrated and imperfect; the characteristic art of those +ages is a symbolic art, with its material element predominating +over and keeping down its spiritual; and such a symbolic art +is architecture. In other ages, as in the Greek age, the ideas +of men have come to be definite, disengaged, and clear; the +characteristic art of such an age will be one in which the spiritual +and material elements are in equilibrium, and neither predominates +over nor keeps down the other, but a thoroughly realized +idea is expressed in a thoroughly adequate and lucid form; +this is the mode of expression called classic, and the classic art +is sculpture. In other ages, again, and such are the modern +ages of Europe, the idea grows in power and becomes importunate; +the spiritual and material elements are no longer in equilibrium, +but the spiritual element predominates; the characteristic +arts of such an age will be those in which thought, passion, +sentiment, aspiration, emotion, emerge in freedom, dealing with +material form as masters or declining its shackles altogether; +this is the romantic mode of expression, and the romantic arts +are painting, music and poetry. A later systematizer, Lotze, +fixed his attention on the relative degrees of freedom or independence +which the several arts enjoy—their freedom, that is, from +the necessity of either imitating given facts of nature or ministering, +as part of their task, to given practical uses. In his grouping, +instead of the order architecture, sculpture, painting, music, +poetry, music comes first, because it has neither to imitate any +natural facts nor to serve any practical end; architecture next, +because, though it is tied to useful ends and material conditions, +yet it is free from the task of imitation, and pleases the eye in +its degree, by pure form, light and shade, and the rest, as music +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page362" id="page362"></a>362</span> +pleases the ear by pure sound; then, as arts all tied to the task +of imitation, sculpture, painting and poetry, taken in progressive +order according to the progressing comprehensiveness of their +several resources.</p> + +<p>The thinker on these subjects has, moreover, to consider the +enumeration and classification of the lesser or subordinate fine +arts. Whole clusters or families of these occur to the +mind at once; such as <i>dancing</i>, an art subordinate +<span class="sidenote">Place of the minor or subordinate fine arts.</span> +to music, but quite different in kind; <i>acting</i>, an art +auxiliary to <i>poetry</i>, from which in kind it differs no +less; <i>eloquence</i> in all kinds, so far as it is studied and +not merely spontaneous; and among the arts which fashion or +dispose material objects, <i>embroidery</i> and the weaving of patterns, +<i>pottery</i>, <i>glassmaking</i>, <i>goldsmith’s work</i> and <i>jewelry</i>, <i>joiner’s work</i>, +<i>gardening</i> (according to the claim of some), and a score of other +dexterities and industries which are more than mere dexterities +and industries because they add elements of beauty and pleasure +to elements of serviceableness and use. To decide whether any +given one of these has a right to the title of fine art, and, if so, +to which of the greater fine arts it should be thought of as +appended and subordinate, or between which two of them +intermediate, is often no easy task.</p> + +<p>The weak point of all classifications of the kind of which +we have above given examples is that each is intended to be +final, and to serve instead of any other. The truth +is, that the relations between the several fine arts are +<span class="sidenote">No one classification final or sufficient.</span> +much too complex for any single classification to bear +this character. Every classification of the fine arts +must necessarily be provisional, according to the +particular class of relations which it keeps in view. And for +practical purposes it is requisite to bear in mind not one classification +but several. Fixing our attention, not upon complicated +or problematical relations between the various arts, but only +upon their simple and undisputed relations, and giving the first +place in our consideration to the five greater arts of architecture, +sculpture, painting, music and poetry, we shall find at least +three principal modes in which every fine art either resembles +or differs from the rest.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>1. <i>The Shaping and the Speaking Arts</i> (<i>or Arts of Form and Arts of +Utterance, or Arts of Space and Arts of Time</i>).—Each of the greater +arts either makes something or not which can be seen and +handled. The arts which make something which can be +<span class="sidenote">First classification: the shaping and the speaking arts.</span> +seen and handled are architecture, sculpture and painting. +In the products or results of all these arts external matter +is in some way or another manually put together, fashioned +or disposed. But music and poetry do not produce any +results of this kind. What music produces is something +that can be heard, and what poetry produces is something +that can be either heard or read—which last is a kind of ideal hearing, +having for its avenue the eye instead of the ear, and for its material, +written signs for words instead of the spoken words themselves. +Now what the eye sees from any one point of view, it sees all at once; +in other words, the parts of anything we see fill or occupy not time +but space, and reach us from various points in space at a single +simultaneous perception. If we are at the proper distance we see +at one glance a house from the ground to the chimneys, a statue from +head to foot, and in a picture at once the foreground and background, +and everything that is within the four corners of the frame. There +is, indeed, this distinction to be drawn, that in walking round or +through a temple, church, house or any other building, new parts +and proportions of the building unfold themselves to view; and the +same thing happens in walking round a statue or turning it on a turntable: +so that the spectator, by his own motions and the time it +takes to effect them, can impart to architecture and sculpture +something of the character of time arts. But their products, as +contemplated from any one point of view, are in themselves solid, +stationary and permanent in space. Whereas the parts of anything +we hear, or, reading, can imagine that we hear, fill or occupy not +space at all but time, and can only reach us from various points in +time through a continuous series of perceptions, or, in the case of +reading, of images raised by words in the mind. We have to wait, +in music, while one note follows another in a theme, and one theme +another in a movement; and in poetry, while one line with its +images follows another in a stanza, and one stanza another in a +canto, and so on. It is a convenient form of expressing both aspects +of this difference between the two groups of arts, to say that architecture, +sculpture and painting are arts which give shape to things +in space, or, more briefly, shaping arts; and music and poetry arts +which give utterance to things in time, or, more briefly, speaking +arts. These simple terms of the <i>shaping</i> and the <i>speaking</i> arts (the +equivalent of the Ger. <i>bildende und redende Künste</i>) are not usual +in English; but they seem appropriate and clear; the simplest +alternatives for their use is to speak of the <i>manual</i> and the <i>vocal</i> +arts, or the arts of <i>space</i> and the arts of <i>time</i>. This is practically, +if not logically, the most substantial and vital distinction upon which +a classification of the fine arts can be based. The arts which surround +us in space with stationary effects for the eye, as the house we live +in, the pictures on the walls, the marble figure in the vestibule, are +stationary, hold a different kind of place in our experience—not a +greater or a higher place, but essentially a different place—from the +arts which provide us with transitory effects in time, effects capable +of being awakened for the ear or mind at any moment, as a symphony +is awakened by playing and an ode by reading, but lying in abeyance +until we bid that moment come, and passing away when the performance +or the reading is over. Such, indeed, is the practical force of the +distinction that in modern usage the expression <i>fine art</i>, or even <i>art</i>, +is often used by itself in a sense which tacitly excludes music and +poetry, and signifies the group of manual or shaping arts alone.</p> + +<p>As between three of the five greater arts and the other two, the +distinction on which we are now dwelling is complete. Buildings, +statues, pictures, belong strictly to sight and space; to +time and to hearing, real through the ear, or ideal through +<span class="sidenote">Intermediate class of arts of motion.</span> +the mind in reading, belong music and poetry. Among +the lesser or subordinate arts, however, there are several +in which this distinction finds no place, and which produce, +in space and time at once, effects midway between the +stationary or stable, and the transitory or fleeting. Such is the +<i>dramatic</i> art, in which the actor makes with his actions and gestures, +or several actors make with the combination of their different +actions and gestures, a kind of shifting picture, which appeals to the +eyes of the witnesses while the sung or spoken words of the drama +appeal to their ears; thus making of them spectators and auditors +at once, and associating with the pure time art of words the mixed +time-and-space art of bodily movements. As all movement whatsoever +is necessarily movement through space, and takes time to +happen, so every other fine art which is wholly or in part an act of +movement partakes in like manner of this double character. Along +with acting thus comes <i>dancing</i>. Dancing, when it is of the mimic +character, may itself be a kind of acting; historically, indeed, the +dancer’s art was the parent of the actor’s; whether apart from or in +conjunction with the mimic element, dancing is an art in which +bodily movements obey, accompany, and, as it were, express or +accentuate in space the time effects of music. <i>Eloquence</i> or oratory +in like manner, so far as its power depends on studied and premeditated +gesture, is also an art which to some extent enforces its +primary appeal through the ear in time by a secondary appeal +through the eye in space. So much for the first distinction, that +between the shaping or space arts and the speaking or time arts, +with the intermediate and subordinate class of arts which, like +acting, dancing, oratory, add to the pure time element a mixed +time-and-space element. These last can hardly be called shaping +arts, because it is his own person, and not anything outside himself, +which the actor, the dancer, the orator disposes or adjusts; they +may perhaps best be called arts of motion, or moving arts.</p> + +<p>2. <i>The Imitative and the Non-Imitative Arts.</i>—Each art either does +or does not represent or imitate something which exists already in +<span class="sidenote">Second classification: the imitative and non-imitative arts.</span> +nature. Of the five greater fine arts, those which thus +represent objects existing in nature are sculpture, painting +and poetry. Those which do not represent anything so +existing are music and architecture. On this principle we +get a new grouping. Two shaping or space arts and one +speaking or time art now form the imitative group of +sculpture, painting and poetry; while one space art and +one time art form the non-imitative group of music and +architecture. The mixed space-and-time arts of the actor, and of the +dancer, so far as he or she is also a mimic, belong, of course, by their +very name and nature, to the imitative class.</p> + +<p>It was the imitative character of the fine arts which chiefly +occupied the attention of Aristotle. But in order to understand the +art theories of Aristotle it is necessary to bear in mind +the very different meanings which the idea of imitation +<span class="sidenote">The imitative functions of art according to Aristotle.</span> +bore to his mind and bears to ours. For Aristotle the +idea of imitation or representation (<i>mimēsis</i>) was extended +so as to denote the expressing, evoking or making manifest +of anything whatever, whether material objects or ideas +or feelings. Music and dancing, by which utterance or +expression is given to emotions that may be quite detached +from all definite ideas or images, are thus for him varieties of imitation. +He says, indeed, <i>most</i> music and dancing, as if he was aware +that there were exceptions, but he does not indicate what the exceptions +are; and under the head of imitative music, he distinctly +reckons some kinds of instrumental music without words. But in +our own more restricted usage, to imitate means to copy, mimic or +represent some existing phenomenon, some definite reality of +experience; and we can only call those imitative arts which bring +before us such things, either directly by showing us their actual +likeness, as sculpture does in solid form, and as painting does by +means of lines and colours on a plane surface, or else indirectly, by +calling up ideas or images of them in the mind, as poetry and literature +do by means of words. It is by a stretch of ordinary usage +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page363" id="page363"></a>363</span> +that we apply the word imitation even to this last way of representing +things; since words are no true likeness of, but only customary signs +for, the thing they represent. And those arts we cannot call +imitative at all, which by combinations of abstract sound or form +express and arouse emotions unattended by the recognizable likeness, +idea or image of any definite thing.</p> + +<p>Now the emotions of music when music goes along with words, +whether in the shape of actual song or even of the instrumental +accompaniment of song, are no doubt in a certain sense +attended with definite ideas; those, namely, which are +<span class="sidenote">Non-imitative character of music.</span> +expressed by the words themselves. But the same ideas +would be conveyed to the mind equally well by the same +words if they were simply spoken. What the music +contributes is a special element of its own, an element of pure +emotion, aroused through the sense of hearing, which heightens the +effect of the words upon the feelings without helping to elucidate +them for the understanding. Nay, it is well known that a song well +sung produces its intended effect upon the feelings almost as fully +though we fail to catch the words or are ignorant of the language +to which they belong. Thus the view of Aristotle cannot be defended +on the ground that he was familiar with music only in an elementary +form, and principally as the direct accompaniment of words, and +that in his day the modern development of the art, as an art for +building up constructions of independent sound, vast and intricate +fabrics of melody and harmony detached from words, was a thing +not yet imagined. That is perfectly true; the immense technical +and intellectual development of music, both in its resources and its +capacities, is an achievement of the modern world; but the essential +character of musical sound is the same in its most elementary as in +its most complicated stage. Its privilege is to give delight, not by +communicating definite ideas, or calling up particular images, but +by appealing to certain organic sensibilities in our nerves of hearing, +and through such appeal expressing on the one part and arousing +on the other a unique kind of emotion. The emotion caused by +music may be altogether independent of any ideas conveyable by +words. Or it may serve to intensify and enforce other emotions +arising at the same time in connexion with the ideas conveyed by +words; and it was one of the contentions of Richard Wagner that +in the former phase the art is now exhausted, and that only in the +latter are new conquests in store for it. But in either case the music +is the music, and <i>is like nothing else</i>; it is no representation or +similitude of anything whatsoever.</p> + +<p>But does not instrumental music, it will be said, sometimes really +imitate the sounds of nature, as the piping of birds, the whispering +of woods, the moaning of storms or explosion of thunder; +or does it not, at any rate, suggest these things by resemblances +<span class="sidenote">An objection and its answer.</span> +so close that they almost amount in the strict +sense to imitation? Occasionally, it is true, music does +allow itself these playful excursions into a region of quasi-imitation +or mimicry. It modifies the character of its abstract sounds into +something, so to speak, more concrete, and, instead of sensations +which are like nothing else, affords us sensations which recognizably +resemble those we receive from some of the sounds of nature. But +such excursions are hazardous, and to make them often is the surest +proof of vulgarity in a musician. Neither are the successful effects +of the great composers in evoking ideas of particular natural phenomena +generally in the nature of real imitations or representations; +although passages such as the notes of the dove and nightingale in +Haydn’s <i>Creation</i>, and of the cuckoo in Beethoven’s <i>Pastoral Symphony</i>, +the bleating of the sheep in the <i>Don Quixote</i> symphony of +Richard Strauss, must be acknowledged to be exceptions. Again, +it is a recognized fact concerning the effect of instrumental music +on those of its hearers who try to translate such effect into words, +that they will all find themselves in tolerable agreement as to the +meaning of any passage so long as they only attempt to describe +it in terms of vague emotion, and to say such and such a passage +expresses, as the case may be, dejection or triumph, effort or the +relaxation of effort, eagerness or languor, suspense or fruition, +anguish or glee. But their agreement comes to an end the moment +they begin to associate, in their interpretation, definite ideas with +these vague emotions; then we find that what suggests in idea to +one hearer the vicissitudes of war will suggest to another, or to the +same at another time, the vicissitudes of love, to another those of +spiritual yearning and aspiration, to another, it may be, those of +changeful travel by forest, field and ocean, to another those of +life’s practical struggle and ambition. The infinite variety of ideas +which may thus be called up in different minds by the same strain +of music is proof enough that the music is not <i>like</i> any particular +thing. The torrent of varied and entrancing emotion which it pours +along the heart, emotion latent and undivined until the spell of +sound begins, that is music’s achievement and its secret. It is this +effect, whether coupled or not with a trained intellectual recognition +of the highly abstract and elaborate nature of the laws of the relation, +succession and combinations of sounds on which the effect depends, +that has caused some thinkers, with Schopenhauer at their head, to +find in music the nearest approach we have to a voice from behind +the veil, a universal voice expressing the central purpose and +deepest essence of things, unconfused by fleeting actualities or by the +distracting duty of calling up images of particular and perishable +phenomena. “Music,” in Schopenhauer’s own words, “reveals the +innermost essential being of the world, and expresses the highest +wisdom in a language the reason does not understand.”</p> + +<p>Aristotle endeavoured to frame a classification of the arts, in their +several applications and developments, on two grounds—the nature +of the objects imitated by each, and the means or instruments +employed in the imitation. But in the case of +<span class="sidenote">Definition of music.</span> +music, as it exists in the modern world, the first part of +this endeavour falls to the ground, because the object imitated has, +in the sense in which we now use the word imitation, no existence. +The means employed by music are successions and combinations of +vocal or instrumental sounds regulated according to the three +conditions of time and pitch (which together make up melody) and +harmony, or the relations of different strains of time and tone cooperant +but not parallel. With these means, music either creates +her independent constructions, or else accompanies, adorns, enforces +the imitative art of speech—but herself imitates not; and may be +best defined simply as <i>a speaking or time art, of which the business is to +express and arouse emotion by successions and combinations of regulated +sound</i>.</p> + +<p>That which music is thus among the speaking or time-arts, +architecture is among the shaping or space-arts. As music appeals +to our faculties for taking pleasure in non-imitative +combinations of transitory sound, so architecture appeals +<span class="sidenote">Non-imitative character of architecture.</span> +to our faculties for taking pleasure in non-imitative +combinations of stationary mass. Corresponding to the +system of ear-effects or combinations of time, tone and +harmony with which music works, architecture works +with a system of eye-effects or combinations of mass, contour, light +and shade; colour, proportion, interval, alternation of plain and +decorated parts, regularity and variety in regularity, apparent +stability, vastness, appropriateness and the rest. Only the materials +of architecture are not volatile and intangible like sound, but solid +timber, brick, stone, metal and mortar, and the laws of weight and +force according to which these materials have to be combined are +much more severe and cramping than the laws of melody and harmony +which regulate the combinations of music. The architect is further +subject, unlike the musician, to the dictates and precise prescriptions +of utility. Even in structures raised for purposes not of everyday +use and necessity, but of commemoration or worship, the rules for +such commemoration and such worship have prescribed a more or +less fixed arrangement and proportion of the parts or members, +whether in the Egyptian temple or temple-tomb, the Greek temple +or herōon, or in the churches of the middle ages and Renaissance in +the West.</p> + +<p>Hence the effects of architecture are necessarily less full of various, +rapturous and unforeseen enchantment than the effects of music. +Yet for those who possess sensibility to the pleasures of the +eye and the perfections of shaping art, the architecture +<span class="sidenote">Analogies of architecture and music.</span> +of the great ages has yielded combinations which, so far +as comparison is permissible between things unlike in their +materials, fall little short of the achievements of music +in those kinds of excellence which are common to them both. In +the virtues of lucidity, of just proportion and organic interdependence +of the several parts or members, in the mathematic subtlety of their +mutual relations, and of the transitions from one part or member to +another, in purity and finish of individual forms, in the character +of one thing growing naturally out of another and everything serving +to complete the whole—in these qualities, no musical combination +can well surpass a typical Doric temple such as the Parthenon at +Athens. None, again, can well surpass some of the great cathedrals +of the middle ages in the qualities of sublimity, of complexity, in the +power both of expressing and suggesting spiritual aspiration, in the +invention of intricate developments and ramifications about a central +plan, in the union of majesty in the main conception with fertility +of adornment in detail. In fancifulness, in the unexpected, in +capricious and far-sought opulence, in filling the mind with mingled +enchantments of east and west and south and north, music can +hardly do more than a building like St Mark’s at Venice does with +its blending of Byzantine elements, Italian elements, Gothic elements, +each carried to the utmost pitch of elaboration and each enriched +with a hundred caprices of ornament, but all working together, all in +obedience to a law, and “all beginning and ending with the Cross.”</p> + +<p>In the case of architecture, however, as in the case of music, the +non-imitative character must not be stated quite without exception +or reserve. There have been styles of architecture in +which forms suggesting or imitating natural or other +<span class="sidenote">Exceptional and limited admission of imitative forms in architecture.</span> +phenomena have held a place among the abstract forms +proper to the art. Often the mode of such suggestions +is rather symbolical to the mind than really imitative to +the eye; as when the number and relations of the heavenly +planets were imaged by that race of astronomers, the Babylonians, +in the seven concentric walls of their great temple, +and in many other architectural constructions; or as when +the shape of the cross was adopted, with innumerable slight varieties +and modifications, for the ground plan of the churches of Christendom. +Passing to examples of imitation more properly so called, +it may be true, and was, at any rate, long believed, that the aisles +of Gothic churches, when once the use of the pointed arch had been +evolved as a principle of construction, were partly designed to evoke +the idea of the natural aisles of the forest, and that the upsoaring +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page364" id="page364"></a>364</span> +forest trunks and meeting branches were more or less consciously +imaged in their piers and vaultings. In the temple-palaces of +Egypt, one of the regular architectural members, the sustaining pier, +is often systematically wrought in the actual likeness of a conventionalized +cluster of lotus stems, with lotus flowers for the capital. +When we come to the fashion, not rare in Greek architecture, of +carving this same sustaining member, the column, in complete human +likeness, and employing caryatids, canephori, atlases or the like, +to support the entablature of a building, it then becomes difficult +to say whether we have to do with a work of architecture or of +sculpture. The case, at any rate, is different from that in which +the sculptor is called in to supply surface decoration to the various +members of a building, or to fill with the products of his own art +spaces in the building specially contrived and left vacant for that +purpose. When the imitative feature is in itself an indispensable +member of the architectural construction, to architecture rather +than sculpture we shall probably do best to assign it.</p> + +<p>Defining architecture, then (apart from its utility, which for the +present we leave out of consideration), as <i>a shaping art, of which the +<span class="sidenote">Definition of architecture.</span> +function is to express and arouse emotion by combinations +of ordered and decorated mass</i>, we pass from the characteristics +of the non-imitative to those of the imitative group +of arts, namely sculpture, painting and poetry.</p> + +<p>If we keep in mind the source and origin of these arts, we must +remember what has already been observed, that they spring by no +means from man’s love of imitation alone, but from his +desire to record and commemorate experience, using the +<span class="sidenote">The imitative arts are arts of record using imitation as their means.</span> +faculty of imitation as his means. Mnemosyne (Memory) +was in Greek tradition the mother of the Muses; imitation, +in the sense above defined, is but their instrument. Hence +we might think “arts of record” a better name for this +group than arts of imitation. The answer is—but a large +part of pure architecture is also commemorative; from +the pyramids and obelisks of Egypt down there are many +monuments in which the impulse of men to perpetuate their own or +others’ memories has worked without any aid of imitation. Hence +as the definition of a class of arts contrasted with architecture and +music the name “arts of record” would fail; and we have to fall +back on the current and established name of the “imitative arts.” +In considering them we cannot do better than follow that Aristotelian +division which describes each art according, first, to the objects +which it imitates, and, secondly, to the means it employs.</p> + +<p>Taking sculpture first, as imitating a smaller range of objects than +the other two, and imitating them more completely: sculpture may +have for the objects of its imitation the shapes of whatever +things possess length, breadth and magnitude. For its +<span class="sidenote">Sculpture as an imitative art.</span> +means or instruments it has solid form, which the sculptor +either carves out of a hard substance, as in the case of +wood and stone, or models in a yielding substance, as in the case of +clay and wax, or casts in a dissolved or molten substance, as in the +case of plaster and of metal in certain uses, or beats, draws or chases +in a malleable and ductile substance, as in the case of metal in other +uses, or stamps from dies or moulds, a method sometimes used in +all soft or fusible materials. Thus a statue or statuette may either +be carved straight out of a block of stone or wood, or first modelled +in clay or wax, then moulded in plaster or some equivalent material, +and then carved in stone or cast in bronze. A gem is wrought in +stone by cutting and grinding. Figures in jeweller’s work are +wrought by beating and chasing; a medallion by beating and +chasing or else by stamping from a die; a coin by stamping from a +die; and so forth. The process of modelling (Gr. <span class="grk" title="plattein">πλάττειν</span>) in a soft +substance being regarded as the typical process of the sculptor, the +name <i>plastic art</i> has been given to his operations in general.</p> + +<p>In general terms, the task of sculpture is to imitate solid form with +solid form. But sculptured form may be either completely or incompletely +solid. Sculpture in completely solid form +exactly reproduces, whether on the original or on a different +<span class="sidenote">Sculpture in the round and in relief.</span> +scale, the relations or proportions of the object imitated +in the three dimensions of length, breadth and depth or +thickness. Sculpture in incompletely solid form reproduces +the proportions of the objects with exactness +only so far as concerns two of its dimensions, namely, those of +length and breadth; while the third dimension, that of depth +or thickness, it reproduces in a diminished proportion, leaving it +to the eye to infer, from the partial degree of projection given to +the work, the full projection of the object imitated. The former, or +completely solid kind of sculpture, is called sculpture in the round; +its works stand free, and can be walked round and seen from all +points. The latter, or incompletely solid kind of sculpture, is called +sculpture in relief; its works do not stand free, but are engaged in or +attached to a background, and can only be seen from in front. +According, in the latter kind of sculpture, to its degree of projection +from the background, a work is said to be in high or in low relief. +Sculpture in the round and sculpture in relief are alike in this, that +the properties of objects which they imitate are their external forms +as defined by their outlines—that is, by the boundaries and circumscriptions +of their masses—and their light and shade—the lights and +shadows, that is, which diversify the curved surfaces of the masses +in consequence of their alternations and gradations of projection and +recession. But the two kinds of sculpture differ in this. A work +of sculpture in the round imitates the whole of the outlines by +which the object imitated is circumscribed in the three dimensions +of space, and presents to the eye, as the object itself would do, +a new outline succeeding the last every moment as you walk round it. +Whereas a work of sculpture in relief imitates only one outline of +any object; it takes, so to speak, a section of the object as seen +from a particular point, and traces on the background the boundary-line +of that particular section, merely suggesting, by modelling the +surface within such boundary according to a regular, but a diminished, +ratio of projection, the other outlines which the object would +present if seen from all sides successively.</p> + +<p>As sculpture in the round reproduces the real relations of a solid +object in space, it follows that the only kind of object which it can +reproduce with pleasurable effect according to the laws +of regulated or rhythmical design must be one not too +<span class="sidenote">Subjects proper for sculpture in the round.</span> +vast or complicated, one that can afford to be detached +and isolated from its surroundings, and of which all the +parts can easily be perceived and apprehended in their +organic relations. Further, it will need to be an object +interesting enough to mankind in general to make them take +delight in seeing it reproduced with all its parts in complete +imitation. And again, it must be such that some considerable +part of the interest lies in those particular properties of outline, +play of surface, and light and shade which it is the special function +of sculpture to reproduce. Thus a sculptured representation in +the round, say, of a mountain with cities on it, would hardly be a +sculpture at all; it could only be a model, and as a model might +have value; but value as a work of fine art it could not have, because +the object imitated would lack organic definiteness and completeness; +it would lack universality of interest, and of the interest +which it did possess, a very inconsiderable part would depend upon +its properties of outline, surface, and light and shade. Obviously +there is no kind of object in the world that so well unites the required +conditions for pleasurable imitation in sculpture as the human body. +It is at once the most complete of organisms, and the shape of all +others the most subtle as well as the most intelligible in its outlines; +the most habitually detached in active or stationary freedom; +the most interesting to mankind, because its own; the richest in +those particular effects, contours and modulations, contrasts, +harmonies and transitions of modelled surface and circumscribing +line, which it is the prerogative of sculpture to imitate. Accordingly +the object of imitation for this art is pre-eminently the body of man +or woman. That it has not been for the sake of representing men and +women as such, but for the sake of representing gods in the likeness +of men and women, that the human form has been most enthusiastically +studied, does not affect this fact in the theory of the art, though +it is a consideration of great importance in its history. Besides the +human form, sculpture may imitate the forms of those of the lower +animals whose physical endowments have something of a kindred +perfection, with other natural or artificial objects as may be needed +merely by way of accessory or symbol. The body must for the +purposes of this art be divested of covering, or covered only with +such tissues as reveal, translate or play about without concealing +it. Chiefly in lands and ages where climate and social use have +given the sculptor the opportunity of studying human forms so +draped or undraped has this art attained perfection, and become +exemplary and enviable to that of other races.</p> + +<p>Relief sculpture is more closely connected with architecture than +the other kind, and indeed is commonly used in subordination to it. +But if its task is thus somewhat different from that of +sculpture in the round, its principal objects of imitation +<span class="sidenote">Subjects proper for sculpture in relief.</span> +are the same. The human body remains the principal +theme of the sculptor in relief; but the nature of his art +allows, and sometimes compels, him to include other +objects in the range of his imitation. As he has not to +represent the real depth or projection of things, but only +to suggest them according to a ratio which he may fix himself, so +he can introduce into the third or depth dimension, thus arbitrarily +reduced, a multitude of objects for which the sculptor in the round, +having to observe the real ratio of the three dimensions, has no room. +He cam place one figure in slightly raised outline emerging from +behind the more fully raised outline of another, and by the same +system can add to his representation rocks, trees, nay mountains +and cities and birds on the wing. But the more he uses this liberty +the less will he be truly a sculptor. Solid modelling, and real light +and shade, are the special means or instrument of effect which the +sculptor alone among imitative artists enjoys. Single outlines and +contours, the choice of one particular section and the tracing of its +circumscription, are means which the sculptor enjoys in common +with the painter or draughtsman. And indeed, when we consider +works executed wholly or in part in very low relief, whether Assyrian +battle-pieces and hunting-pieces in alabaster or bronze, or the +backgrounds carved in bronze, marble or wood by the Italian +sculptors who followed the example set by Ghiberti at the Renaissance, +we shall see that the principle of such work is not the principle +of sculpture at all. Its effect depends little on qualities of surface-light +and shadow, and mainly on qualities of contour, as traced by a +slight line of shadow on the side away from the light, and a slight +line of light on the side next to it. And we may fairly hesitate +whether we shall rank the artist who works on this principle, which +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page365" id="page365"></a>365</span> +is properly a graphic rather than a plastic principle, among sculptors +or among draughtsmen. The above are cases in which the relief +sculptor exercises his liberty in the introduction of other objects +besides human figures into his sculptured compositions. But there is +another kind of relief sculpture in which the artist has less choice. +That is, the kind in which the sculptor is called in to decorate with +carved work parts of an architectural construction which are not +adapted for the introduction of figure subjects, or for their introduction +only as features in a scheme of ornament that comprises many +other elements. To this head belongs most of the carving of capitals, +mouldings, friezes (except the friezes of Greek temples), bands, +cornices, and, in the Gothic style, of doorway arches, niches, canopies, +pinnacles, brackets, spandrels and the thousand members and parts +of members which that style so exquisitely adorned with true or +conventionalized imitations of natural forms. This is no doubt a +subordinate function of the art; and it is impossible, as we have seen +already, to find a precise line of demarcation between carving, in this +decorative use, which is properly sculpture, and that which belongs +properly to architecture.</p> + +<p>Leaving such discussions, we may content ourselves with the +definition of sculpture as +<span class="sidenote">Definition of sculpture.</span> +<i>a shaping art, of which the business is to +express and arouse emotion by the imitation of natural +objects, and principally the human body, in solid form, +reproducing either their true proportions in three dimensions, +or their proportions in the two dimensions of length and +breadth only, with a diminished proportion in the third dimension of +depth or thickness.</i></p> + +<p>In considering bas-relief as a form of sculpture, we have found +ourselves approaching the confines of the second of the shaping +imitative arts, the graphic art or art of painting. Painting, +as to its means or instruments of imitation, dispenses +<span class="sidenote">Painting as an imitative art.</span> +with the third dimension altogether. It imitates natural +objects by representing them as they are represented on +the retina of the eye itself, simply as an assemblage of +variously shaped and variously shaded patches of colour on a flat +surface. Painting does not reproduce the third dimension of reality +by any third dimension of its own whatever; but leaves the eye to +infer the solidity of objects, their recession and projection, their +nearness and remoteness, by the same perspective signs by which +it also infers those facts in nature, namely, by the direction of their +several boundary lines, the incidence and distribution of their lights +and shadows, the strength or faintness of their tones of colour.</p> + +<p>Hence this art has an infinitely greater range and freedom than +any form of sculpture. Near and far is all the same to it, and +whatever comes into the field of vision can come also +into the field of a picture; trees as well as persons, and +<span class="sidenote">Range of objects imitable by painting.</span> +clouds as well as trees, and stars as well as clouds; the +remotest mountain snows, as well as the violet of the +foreground, and far-off multitudes of people as well as +one or two near the eye. Whatever any man has seen, or can imagine +himself as seeing, that he can also fix by painting, subject only to +one great limitation,—that of the range of brightness which he is +able to attain in imitating natural colour illuminated by light. +In this particular his art can but correspond according to a greatly +diminished ratio with the effects of nature. But excepting this it +can do for the eye almost all that nature herself does; or at least +all that nature would do if man had only one eye since the three +dimensions of space produce upon our binocular machinery of vision +a particular stereoscopic effect of which a picture, with its two +dimensions only, is incapable. The range of the art being thus almost +unbounded, its selections have naturally been dictated by the varying +interest felt in this or that subject of representation by the societies +among whom the art has at various times been practised. As in +sculpture, so in painting, the human form has always held the first +place. For the painter, the intervention of costume between man +and his environment is not a misfortune in the same degree as it is +for the sculptor. For him, clothes of whatever fashion or amplitude +have their own charm; they serve to diversify the aspect of the +world, and to express the characters and stations, if not the physical +frames, of his personages; and he is as happy or happier among the +brocades of Venice as among the bare limbs of the Spartan palaestra. +Along with man, there come into painting all animals and vegetation, +all man’s furniture and belongings, his dwelling-places, fields and +landscape; and in modern times also landscape and nature for their +own sakes, skies, seas, mountains and wildernesses apart from man.</p> + +<p>Besides the two questions about any art, what objects does it +imitate, and by the use of what means or instruments, Aristotle +proposes (in the case of poetry) the further question, +which of several possible forms does the imitation in any +<span class="sidenote">The chief forms or modes of painting: line, light-and-shade and colour.</span> +given case assume? We may transfer very nearly the +same inquiry to painting, and may ask, concerning any +painter, according to which of three possible systems he +works. The three possible systems are (1) that which +attends principally to the configuration and relations of +natural objects as indicated by the direction of their +boundaries, for defining which there is a convention in universal +use, the convention, that is, of line; this may be called for short +the system of <i>line</i>; (2) that which attends chiefly to their configuration +and relations as indicated by the incidence and distribution +of their lights and shadows—this is the system of <i>light-and-shade</i> or +<i>chiaroscuro</i>; and (3) that which attends chiefly, not to their configuration +at all, but to the distribution, qualities and relations of +local colours upon their surface—this is the system of <i>colour</i>. It is +not possible for a painter to imitate natural objects to the eye at all +without either defining their boundaries by outlines, or suggesting +the shape of their masses by juxtapositions of light and dark or of +local colours. In the complete art of painting, of course, all three +methods are employed at once. But in what is known as outline +drawing and outline engraving, one of the three methods only is +employed, line; in monochrome pictures, and in shaded drawings +and engravings, two only, line with light-and-shade; and in the +various shadeless forms of decorative painting and colour-printing, +two only, line with colour. Even in the most accomplished examples +of the complete art of painting, as was pointed out by Ruskin, we +find that there almost always prevails a predilection for some one +of these three parts of painting over the other two. Thus among +the mature Italians of the Renaissance, Titian is above all things a +painter in colour, Michelangelo in line, Leonardo in light-and-shade. +Many academic painters in their day tried to combine the three +methods in equal balance; to the impetuous spirit of the great +Venetian, Tintoretto, it was alone given to make the attempt with a +great measure of success. A great part of the effort of modern +painting has been to get rid of the linear convention altogether, to +banish line and develop the resources of the oil medium in imitating +on canvas, more strictly than the early masters attempted, the actual +appearance of things on the retina as an assemblage of coloured +streaks and patches modified and toned in the play of light-and-shade +and atmosphere.</p> + +<p>It remains to consider, for the purpose of our classification, what +are the technical varieties of the painter’s craft. Since we gave the +generic name of painting to all imitation of natural objects +by the assemblage of lines, colours and lights and darks +<span class="sidenote">Technical varieties of the painter’s craft.</span> +on a single plane, we must logically include as varieties of +painting not only the ordinary crafts of spreading or +laying pictures on an opaque surface in fresco, oil, distemper +or water-colour, but also the craft of arranging a +picture to be seen by the transmission of light through a transparent +substance, in glass painting; the craft of fitting together a multitude +of solid cubes or cylinders so that their united surface forms a +picture to the eye, as in mosaic; the craft of spreading vitreous +colours in a state of fusion so that they form a picture when hardened, +as in enamel; and even, it would seem, the crafts of weaving, tapestry, +and embroidery, since these also yield to the eye a plane surface +figured in imitation of nature. As drawing we must also count +incised or engraved work of all kinds representing merely the outlines +of objects and not their modellings, as for instance the <i>graffiti</i> +on Greek and Etruscan mirror-backs and dressing-cases; while +raised work in low relief, in which outlines are plainly marked and +modellings neglected, furnishes, as we have seen, a doubtful class +between sculpture and painting. In all figures that are first modelled +in the solid and then variously coloured, sculpture and painting +bear a common share; and by far the greater part both of ancient +and medieval statuary was in fact tinted so as to imitate or at least +suggest the colours of life. But as the special characteristic of +sculpture, solidity in the third dimension, is in these cases present, +it is to that art and not to painting that we shall still ascribe the +resulting work.</p> + +<p>With these indications we may leave the art of painting defined +in general terms as a +<span class="sidenote">Definition of painting.</span> +<i>shaping or space art, of which the business is to +express and arouse emotion by the imitation of all kinds of +natural objects, reproducing on a plane surface the relations +of their boundary lines, lights and shadows, or colours, or +all three of these appearances together</i>.</p> + +<p>The next and last of the imitative arts is the speaking art of poetry. +The transition from sculpture and painting to poetry is, from the +point of view not of our present but of our first division +among the fine arts, abrupt and absolute. It is a transition +<span class="sidenote">Poetry as an imitative art.</span> +from space into time, from the sphere of material forms +to the sphere of immaterial images. Following Aristotle’s +method, we may define the objects of poetry’s imitation or evocation, +as everything of which the idea or image can be called up by words, +that is, every force and phenomenon of nature, every operation and +result of art, every fact of life and history, or every imagination of +such a fact, every thought and feeling of the human spirit, for which +mankind in the course of its long evolution has been able to create +in speech an explicit and appropriate sign. The means or instruments +of poetry’s imitation are these verbal signs or words, arranged +in lines, strophes or stanzas, so that their sounds have some of the +regulated qualities and direct emotional effect of music.</p> + +<p>The three chief modes or forms of the imitation may still be +defined as they were defined by Aristotle himself. First comes the +<i>epic</i> or narrative form, in which the poet speaks alternately +for himself and his characters, now describing their +<span class="sidenote">The chief forms or modes of poetry.</span> +situations and feelings in his own words, and anon making +each of them speak in the first person for himself. Second +comes the <i>lyric</i> form, in which the poet speaks in his own +name exclusively, and gives expression to sentiments which are +purely personal. Third comes the <i>dramatic</i> form, in which the poet +does not speak for himself at all, but only puts into the mouths of +each of his personages successively such discourse as he thinks +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page366" id="page366"></a>366</span> +appropriate to the part. The last of these three forms of poetry, +the dramatic, calls, if it is merely read, on the imagination of the +reader to fill up those circumstances of situation, action and the rest, +which in the first or epic form are supplied by the narrative between +the speeches, and for which in the lyric or personal form there is no +occasion. To avoid making this call upon the imagination, to bring +home its effects with full vividness, dramatic poetry has to call in +the aid of several subordinate arts, the shaping or space art of the +scene-painter, the mixed time and space arts of the actor and the +dancer. Occasionally also, or in the case of opera throughout, +dramatic poetry heightens the emotional effect of its words with +music. A play or drama is thus, as performed upon the theatre, +not a poem merely, but a poem accompanied, interpreted, completed +and brought several degrees nearer to reality by a combination of +auxiliary effects of the other arts. Besides the narrative, the lyric +and dramatic forms of poetry, the <i>didactic</i>, that is the teaching or +expository form, has usually been recognized as a fourth. Aristotle +refused so to recognize it, regarding a didactic poem in the light +not so much of a poem as of a useful treatise. But from the <i>Works +and Days</i> down to the <i>Loves of the Plants</i> there has been too much +literature produced in this form for us to follow Aristotle here. We +shall do better to regard didactic poetry as a variety corresponding, +among the speaking arts, to architecture and the other manual +arts of which the first purpose is use, but which are capable of +accompanying and adorning use by a pleasurable appeal to the +emotions.</p> + +<p>We shall hardly make our definition of poetry, considered as an +imitative art, too extended if we say that it is +<span class="sidenote">Definition of poetry.</span> +<i>a speaking or time art, +of which the business is to express and arouse emotion by +imitating or evoking all or any of the phenomena of life and +nature by means of words arranged with musical regularity</i>.</p> + +<p>Neither the varieties of poetical form, however, nor the modes in +which the several forms have been mixed up and interchanged—as +such mixture and interchange are implied, for instance, +by the very title of a group of Robert Browning’s poems, +<span class="sidenote">Relation of poetry as an Imitative art to painting and sculpture.</span> +the <i>Dramatic Lyrics</i>,—the observation of neither of these +things concerns us here so much as the observation of the +relations of poetry in general, as an art of representation +or imitation, to the other arts of imitation, painting and +sculpture. Verbal signs have been invented for innumerable +things which cannot be imitated or represented +at all either in solid form or upon a coloured surface. You cannot +carve or paint a sigh, or the feeling which finds utterance in a sigh; +you can only suggest the idea of the feeling, and that in a somewhat +imperfect and uncertain way, by representing the physical aspect of a +person in the act of breathing the sigh. Similarly you cannot carve +or paint any movement, but only figures or groups in which the +movement is represented as arrested in some particular point of time; +nor any abstract idea, but only figures or groups in which the +abstract idea, as for example release, captivity, mercy, is symbolized +in the concrete shape of allegorical or illustrative figures. The whole +field of thought, of propositions, arguments, injunctions and exhortations +is open to poetry but closed to sculpture and painting. +Poetry, by its command over the regions of the understanding, of +abstraction, of the movement and succession of things in time, by +its power of instantaneously associating one image with another +from the remotest regions of the mind, by its names for every shade +of feeling and experience, exercises a sovereignty a hundred times +more extended than that of either of the two arts of manual imitation. +But, on the other hand, words do not as a rule bear any sensible +resemblance to the things of which they are the signs. There are few +things that words do not stand for or cannot call up; but they stand +for things symbolically and at second hand, and call them up only +in idea, and not in actual presentment to the senses. In strictness, +the business of poetry should not be called imitation at all, but rather +evocation. The strength of painting and sculpture lies in this, that +though there are countless phenomena which they cannot represent +at all, and countless more which they can only represent by symbolism +and suggestion more or less ambiguous, yet there are a few which +each can represent more fully and directly than poetry can represent +any thing at all. These are, for sculpture, the forms or configurations +of things, which that art represents directly to the senses both of +sight and touch; and for painting the forms and colours of things +and their relations to each other in space, air and light, which the +art represents to the sense of sight, directly so far as regards surface +appearance, and indirectly so far as regards solidity. For many +delicate qualities and differences in these visible relations of things +there are no words at all—the vocabulary of colours, for instance, +is in all languages surprisingly scanty and primitive. And those +visible qualities, for which words exist, the words still call up indistinctly +and at second hand. Poetry is almost as powerless to +bring before the mind’s eye with precision a particular shade of red +or blue, a particular linear arrangement or harmony of colour-tones, +as sculpture is to relate a continuous experience, or painting to enforce +an exhortation or embellish an abstract proposition. The +wise poet, as has been justly remarked, when he wants to produce a +vivid impression of a visible thing, does not attempt to catalogue or +describe its stationary beauties. Shakespeare, when he wants to +make us realize the perfections of Perdita, puts into the mouth of +Florizel, not, as a bad poet would have done, a description of her +lilies and carnations, and the other charms which a painter could +make us realize better, but the praises of her ways and movements; +and with the final touch,</p> + +<table class="reg f90" summary="poem"><tr><td> <div class="poemr"> + <p class="i3">“When you do dance, I wish you</p> +<p>A wave o’ the sea, that you might ever do</p> +<p>Nothing but that,”</p> +</div> </td></tr></table> + +<p class="noind">he evokes a twofold image of beauty in motion, of which one half +might be the despair of those painters who designed the dancing +maidens of the walls of Herculaneum, and the other half the despair +of all artists who in modern times have tried to fix upon their canvas +the buoyancy and grace of dancing waves. In representing the +perfections of form in a bride’s slender foot, the speaking art, poetry, +would find itself distanced by either of the shaping arts, painting or +sculpture. Suckling calls up the charm of such a foot by describing +it not at rest but in motion, and in the feet which</p> + +<table class="reg" summary="poem f90"><tr><td> <div class="poemr"> + <p class="i3">“Beneath the petticoat,</p> +<p>Like little mice, went in and out,”</p> +</div> </td></tr></table> + +<p class="noind">leaves us an image which baffles the power of the other arts. Keats, +when he tells of Madeline unclasping her jewels on St Agnes’s Eve, +does not attempt to conjure up their lustre to the eye, as a painter +would have done, and a less poetical poet might have tried to do, +but in the words “her warmed jewels” evoked instead a quality, +breathing of the very life of the wearer, which painting could not +even have remotely suggested.</p> + +<p>The differences between the means and capacities of representation +proper to the shaping arts of sculpture and painting and those +proper to the speaking art of poetry were for a long while +overlooked or misunderstood. The maxim of Simonides, +<span class="sidenote">General law of the relative means and capacities of the several imitative arts: sculpture.</span> +that poetry is a kind of articulate painting, and painting +a kind of mute poetry, was vaguely accepted until the +days of Lessing, and first overthrown by the famous +treatise of that writer on the Laocoön. Following in the +main the lines laid down by Lessing, other writers have +worked out the conditions of representation or imitation +proper not only to sculpture and painting as distinguished +from poetry, but to sculpture as distinguished from +painting. The chief points established may really all be +condensed under one simple law, <i>that the more direct and complete +the imitation effected by any art, the less is the range and number of +phenomena which that art can imitate</i>. Thus sculpture in the round +imitates its objects much more completely and directly than any other +single art, reproducing one whole set of their relations which no +other art attempts to reproduce at all, namely, their solid relations +in space. Precisely for this reason, such sculpture is limited to a +narrow class of objects. As we have seen, it must represent human +or animal figures; nothing else has enough either of universal interest +or of organic beauty and perfection. Sculpture in the round must +represent such figures standing free in full clearness and detachment, +in combinations and with accessories comparatively simple, on pain +of teasing the eye with a complexity and entanglement of masses and +lights and shadows; and in attitudes comparatively quiet, on pain +of violating, or appearing to violate, the conditions of mechanical +stability. Being a stationary or space-art, it can only represent a +single action, which it fixes and perpetuates for ever; and it must +therefore choose for that action one as significant and full of interest +as is consistent with due observation of the above laws of simplicity +and stability. Such actions, and the facial expressions accompanying +them, should not be those of sharp crisis or transition, because sudden +movement or flitting expression, thus arrested and perpetuated in +full and solid imitation by bronze or marble, would be displeasing +and not pleasing to the spectator. They must be actions and expressions +in some degree settled, collected and capable of continuance, +and in their collectedness must at the same time suggest to the +spectator as much as possible of the circumstances which have led +up to them and those which will next ensue. These conditions evidently +bring within a very narrow range the phenomena with which +this art can deal, and explain why, as a matter of fact, the greater +number of statues represent simply a single figure in repose, with the +addition of one or two symbolic or customary attributes. Paint a +statue (as the greater part both of Greek and Gothic statuary was +in fact painted), and you bring it to a still further point of imitative +completeness to the eye; but you do not thereby lighten the restrictions +laid upon the art by its material, so long as it undertakes to +reproduce in full the third or solid dimension of bodies. You only +begin to lighten its restrictions when you begin to relieve it of that +duty. We have traced how sculpture in relief, which is satisfied +with only a partial reproduction of the third dimension, is free to +introduce a larger range of objects, bringing forward secondary +figures and accessories, indicating distant planes, indulging even in +considerable violence and complexity of motion, since limbs attached +to a background do not alarm the spectator by any idea of danger of +fragility. But sculpture in the round has not this licence. It is true +that the art has at various periods made efforts to escape from its +natural limitations. Several of the later schools of antiquity, +especially that of Pergamus in the 3rd and 2nd centuries <span class="scs">B.C.</span>, strove +hard both for violence of expression and complexity of design, not +only in relief-sculptures, like the great altar-friezes now at Berlin, +but in detached groups, such as (<i>pace</i> Lessing) the Laocoön itself. +Many modern <i>virtuosi</i> of sculpture since Bernini have misspent their +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page367" id="page367"></a>367</span> +skill in trying to fix in marble both the restlessness of momentary +actions and the flimsiness of fluttering tissues. In latter days +Auguste Rodin, an innovating master with a real genius for his art, +has attacked many problems of complicated grouping, more or less +in the nature of the Greek <i>symplegmata</i>, but keeps these interlocked +or contorted actions circumscribed within strict limiting lines, so +that they do not by jutting or straggling suggest a kind of acrobatic +challenge to the laws of gravity. The same artist and others inspired +by him have further sought to emancipate sculpture from the +necessity of rendering form in clear and complete definition, and to +enrich it with a new power of mysterious suggestion, by leaving his +figures wrought in part to the highest finish and vitality of surface, +while other parts (according to a precedent set in some unfinished +works of Michelangelo) remain scarcely emergent from the rough-hewn +or unhewn block. But it may be doubted whether such experiments +and expedients can permanently do much to enlarge +the scope of the art.</p> + +<p>Next we arrive at painting, in which the third dimension is dismissed +altogether, and nothing is actually reproduced, in full or +partially, except the effect made by the appearance of +natural objects upon the retina of the eye. The consequence +<span class="sidenote">Means and capacities of painting.</span> +is that this art can range over distance and +multitude, can represent complicated relations between its +various figures and groups of figures, extensive backgrounds, +and all those infinite subtleties of appearance in natural +things which depend upon local colours and their modification in +the play of light and shade and enveloping atmosphere. These last +phenomena of natural things are in our experience subject to change +in a sense in which the substantial or solid properties of things are +not so subject. Colours, shadows and atmospheric effects are +naturally associated with ideas of transition, mystery and evanescence. +Hence painting is able to extend its range to another kind +of facts over which sculpture has no power. It can suggest and +perpetuate in its imitation, without breach of its true laws, many +classes of facts which are themselves fugitive and transitory, as a +smile, the glance of an eye, a gesture of horror or of passion, the +waving of hair in the wind, the rush of horses, the strife of mobs, +the whole drama of the clouds, the toss and gathering of ocean waves, +even the flashing of lightning across the sky. Still, any long or +continuous series of changes, actions or movements is quite beyond +the means of this art to represent. Painting remains, in spite of its +comparative width of range, tied down to the inevitable conditions +of a space-art: that is to say, it has to delight the mind by a harmonious +variety in its effects, but by a variety apprehended not +through various points of time successively, but from various points +in space at the same moment. The old convention which allowed +painters to indicate sequence in time by means of distribution in +space, dispersing the successive episodes of a story about the different +parts of a single picture, has been abandoned since the early Renaissance; +and Wordsworth sums up our modern view of the matter +when he says that it is the business of painting</p> + +<table class="reg" summary="poem"><tr><td> <div class="poemr"> + <p class="i10">“to give</p> +<p>To one blest moment snatched from fleeting time</p> +<p>The appropriate calm of blest eternity.”</p> +</div> </td></tr></table> + +<p>Lastly, a really unfettered range is only attained by the art which +does not give a full and complete reproduction of any natural fact +at all, but evokes or brings natural facts before the mind +merely by the images which words convey. The whole +<span class="sidenote">Means and capacities of poetry.</span> +world of movement, of continuity, of cause and effect, +of the successions, alternations and interaction of events, +characters and passions of everything that takes time to happen and +time to declare, is open to poetry as it is open to no other art. As +an imitative or, more properly speaking, an evocative art, then, +poetry is subject to no limitations except those which spring from +the poverty of human language, and from the fact that its means of +imitation are indirect. Poetry’s account of the visible properties of +things is from these causes much less full, accurate and efficient than +the reproduction or delineation of the same properties by sculpture +and painting. And this is the sum of the conditions concerning the +respective functions of the three arts of imitation which had been +overlooked, in theory at least, until the time of Lessing.</p> + +<p>To the above law, in the form in which we have expressed it, +it may perhaps be objected that the acted drama is at once the most +full and complete reproduction of nature which we owe +to the fine arts, and that at the same time the number of +<span class="sidenote">The acted drama no real exception to the general law.</span> +facts over which its imitation ranges is the greatest. +The answer is that our law applies to the several arts +only in that which we may call their pure or unmixed +state. Dramatic poetry is in that state only when it is +read or spoken like any other kind of verse. When it is +witnessed on the stage, it is in a mixed or impure state; +the art of the actor has been called in to give actual reproduction +to the gestures and utterances of the personages, that of the costumier +to their appearances and attire, that of the stage-decorator to their +furniture and surroundings, that of the scene-painter to imitate to +the eye the dwelling-places and landscapes among which they +move; and only by the combination of all these subordinate arts +does the drama gain its character of imitative completeness or +reality.</p> + +<p>Throughout the above account of the imitative and non-imitative +groups of fine arts, we have so far followed Aristotle as to allow the +name of imitation to all recognizable representation or +evocation of realities,—using the word “realities” in no +<span class="sidenote">Things unknown shadowed forth by imitation of things known.</span> +metaphysical sense, but to signify the myriad phenomena +of life and experience, whether as they actually and +literally exist to-day, or as they may have existed in the +past, or may be conceived to exist in some other world +not too unlike our own for us to conceive and realize in +thought. When we find among the ruins of a Greek +temple the statue of a beautiful young man at rest, or above +the altar of a Christian church the painting of one transfixed +with arrows, we know that the statue is intended to bring to our +minds no mortal youth, but the god Hermes or Apollo, the transfixed +victim no simple captive, but Sebastian the holy saint. At +the same time we none the less know that the figures in either +case have been studied by the artist from living models before his +eyes. In like manner, in all the representations alike of sculpture, +painting and poetry the things and persons represented may bear +symbolic meanings and imaginary names and characters; they may +be set in a land of dreams, and grouped in relations and circumstances +upon which the sun of this world never shone; in point of fact, +through many ages of history they have been chiefly used to embody +human ideas of supernatural powers; but it is from real things +and persons that their lineaments and characters have been taken +in the first instance, in order to be attributed by the imagination to +another and more exalted order of existences.</p> + +<p>The law which we have last laid down is a law defining the relations +of sculpture, painting and poetry, considered simply as arts having +their foundations at any rate in reality, and drawing from +the imitation of reality their indispensable elements and +<span class="sidenote">Imitation by art necessarily an idealized imitation.</span> +materials. It is a law defining the range and character +of those elements or materials in nature which each art is +best fitted, by its special means and resources, to imitate. +But we must remember that, even in this fundamental +part of its operations, none of these arts proceeds by +imitation or evocation pure and simple. None of them contents +itself with seeking to represent realities, however literally +taken, exactly as those realities are. A portrait in sculpture or +painting, a landscape in painting, a passage of local description in +poetry, may be representations of known things taken literally or +for their own sakes, and not for the sake of carrying out thoughts +to the unknown; but none of them ought to be, or indeed can possibly +be, a representation of all the observed parts and details of such a +reality on equal terms and without omissions. Such a representation, +were it possible, would be a mechanical inventory and not a work of +fine art.</p> + +<p>Hence the value of a pictorial imitation is by no means necessarily +in proportion to the number of facts which it records. Many accomplished +pictures, in which all the resources of line, colour +and light-and-shade have been used to the utmost of +<span class="sidenote">Completeness not the test of value in a pictorial imitation.</span> +the artist’s power for the imitation of all that he could see +in nature, are dead and worthless in comparison with a +few faintly touched outlines or lightly laid shadows or +tints of another artist who could see nature more vitally +and better. Unless the painter knows how to choose and +combine the elements of his finished work so that it +shall contain in every part suggestions and delights over and +above the mere imitation, it will fall short, in that which +is the essential charm of fine art, not only of any scrap +of a great master’s handiwork, such as an outline sketch of +a child by Raphael or a colour sketch of a boat or a mackerel by +Turner, but even of any scrap of the merest journeyman’s handiwork +produced by an artistic race, such as the first Japanese drawing in +which a water-flag and kingfisher, or a spray of peach or almond +blossom across the sky, is dashed in with a mere hint of colour, +but a hint that tells a whole tale to the imagination. That only, we +know, is fine art which affords keen and permanent delight to contemplation. +Such delight the artist can never communicate by the +display of a callous and pedantic impartiality in presence of the +facts of life and nature. His representation of realities will only +strike or impress others in so far as it concentrates their attention on +things by which he has been struck and impressed himself. To +arouse emotion, he must have felt emotion; and emotion is impossible +without partiality. The artist is one who instinctively tends to +modify and work upon every reality before him in conformity with +some poignant and sensitive principle of preference or selection in his +mind. He instinctively adds something to nature in one direction +and takes away something in another, overlooking this kind of fact +and insisting on that, suppressing many particulars which he holds +irrelevant in order to insist on and bring into prominence others by +which he is attracted and arrested.</p> + +<p>The instinct by which an artist thus prefers, selects and brings into +light one order of facts or aspects in the thing before him rather +than the rest, is part of what is called the <i>idealizing</i> or <i>ideal</i> +faculty. Interminable discussion has been spent on the +<span class="sidenote">Nature of the idealizing process.</span> +questions,—What is the ideal, and how do we idealize? +The answer has been given in one form by those thinkers +(<i>e.g.</i> Vischer and Lotze) who have pointed out that the +process of aesthetic idealization carried on by the artist is only the +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page368" id="page368"></a>368</span> +higher development of a process carried on in an elementary fashion +by all men, from the very nature of their constitution. The physical +organs of sense themselves do not retain or put on record all the +impressions made upon them. When the nerves of the eye receive +a multitude of different stimulations at once from different points in +space, the sense of eyesight, instead of being aware of all these +stimulations singly, only abstracts and retains a total impression +of them together. In like manner we are not made aware by the +sense of hearing of all the several waves of sound that strike in a +momentary succession upon the nerves of the ear; that sense only +abstracts and retains a total impression from the combined effect +of a number of such waves. And the office which each sense thus +performs singly for its own impressions, the mind performs in a +higher degree for the impressions of all the senses equally, and for +all the other parts of our experience. We are always dismissing or +neglecting a great part of our impressions, and abstracting and +combining among those which we retain. The ordinary human +consciousness works like an artist up to this point; and when we +speak of the ordinary or inartistic man as being impartial in the +retention or registry of his daily impressions, we mean, of course, +in the retention or registry of his impressions as already thus far +abstracted and assorted in consciousness. The artistic man, whose +impressions affect him much more strongly, has the faculty of +carrying much farther these same processes of abstraction, combination +and selection among his impressions.</p> + +<p>The possession of this faculty is the artist’s most essential gift. +To attempt to carry farther the psychological analysis of the gift is +outside our present object; but it is worth while to consider +somewhat closely its modes of practical operation. +<span class="sidenote">Subjective and objective ideals.</span> +One mode is this: the artist grows up with certain innate +or acquired predilections which become a part of his +constitution whether he will or no,—predilections, say, +if he is a dramatic poet, for certain types of plot, character and +situation; if he is a sculptor, for certain proportions and a certain +habitual carriage and disposition of the limbs; if he is a figure +painter, for certain schemes of composition and moulds of figure +and airs and expressions of countenance; if a landscape painter, +for a certain class of local character, sentiment and pictorial effect in +natural scenery. To such predilections he cannot choose but make +his representations of reality in large measure conform. This is one +part of the transmuting process which the data of life and experience +have to undergo at the hands of artists, and may be called the +subjective or purely personal mode of idealization. But there is +another part of that work which springs from an impulse in the +artistic constitution not less imperious than the last named, and in a +certain sense contrary to it. As an imitator or evoker of the facts +of life and nature, the artist must recognize and accept the character +of those facts with which he has in any given case to deal. All facts +cannot be of the cast he prefers, and in so far as he undertakes to +deal with those of an opposite cast he must submit to them; he +must study them as they actually are, must apprehend, enforce and +bring into prominence their own dominant tendencies. If he cannot +find in them what is most pleasing to himself, he will still be led +by the abstracting and discriminating powers of his observation to +discern what is most expressive and significant in <i>them</i>, he will +emphasize and put on record this, idealizing the facts before him not +in his direction but in their own. This is the second or objective +half of the artist’s task of idealization. It is this half upon which +Taine dwelt almost exclusively, and on the whole with a just insight +into the principles of the operation, in his well-known treatise <i>On +the Ideal in Art</i>. Both these modes of idealization are legitimate; +that which springs from inborn and overmastering personal preference +in the artist for particular aspects of life and nature, and that which +springs from his insight into the dominant and significant character +of the phenomena actually before him, and his desire to emphasize +and disengage them. But there is a third mode of idealizing which +is less vital and genuine than either of these, and therefore less +legitimate, though unfortunately far more common. This mode +consists in making things conform to a borrowed and conventional +standard of beauty and taste, which corresponds neither to any +strong inward predilection of the artist nor to any vital characteristic +in the objects of his representation. Since the rediscovery of Greek +and Roman sculpture in the Renaissance, a great part of the efforts +of artists have been spent in falsifying their natural instincts and +misrepresenting the facts of nature in pursuit of a conventional ideal +of abstract and generalized beauty framed on a false conception +and a shallow knowledge of the antique. School after school from +the 16th century downwards has been confirmed in this practice by +academic criticism and theory, with resulting insipidities and insincerities +of performance which have commonly been acclaimed in +their day, but from which later generations have sooner or later +turned away with a wholesome reaction of distaste.</p> + +<p>The two genuine modes of idealization, the subjective and the +objective, are not always easy to be reconciled. The greatest artist +is no doubt he who can combine the strongest personal instincts +of preference with the keenest power of observing characteristics as +<span class="sidenote">Examples of the two modes and of their reconciliation.</span> +they are, yet in fact we find few in whom both these elements of the +ideal faculty have been equally developed. To take an example +among Florentine painters, Sandro Botticelli is usually thought of as +one who could never escape from the dictation of his own personal +ideals, in obedience to which he is supposed to have invested all the +creations of his art with nearly the same conformation of brows, +lips, cheeks and chin, nearly the same looks of wistful +yearning and dejection. There is some truth in this +impression, though it is largely based on the works not of +the master himself, but of pupils who exaggerated his +mannerisms. Leonardo da Vinci was strong in both +directions; haunted in much of his work by a particular +human ideal of intellectual sweetness and alluring +mystery, he has yet left us a vast number of exercises +which show him as an indefatigable student of objective characteristics +and psychological expressions of an order the most opposed to +this. And in this case again followers have over-emphasized the +master’s predilections, Luini, Sodoma and the rest borrowing and +repeating the mysterious smile of Leonardo till it becomes in their +work an affectation cloying however lovely. Among latter-day +painters, Burne-Jones will occur to every reader as the type of an +artist always haunted and dominated by ideals of an intensely +personal cast partly engendered in his imagination by sympathy +with the early Florentines. If we seek for examples of the opposite +principle, of that idealism which idealizes above all things objectively, +and seeks to disengage the very inmost and individual characters +of the thing or person before it, we think naturally of certain great +masters of the northern schools, as Dürer, Holbein and Rembrandt. +Dürer’s endeavour to express such characters by the most searching +intensity of linear definition was, however, hampered and conditioned +by his inherited national and Gothic predilection for the strained in +gesture and the knotted and the gnarled in structure, against which +his deliberate scholarly ambition to establish a canon of ideal +proportion contended for the most part in vain. And Rembrandt’s +profound spiritual insight into human character and personality +did not prevent him from plunging his subjects, ever deeper and +deeper as his life advanced, into a mysterious shadow-world of his +own imagination, where all local colours were broken up and crumbled, +and where amid the struggle of gloom and gleam he could make his +intensely individualized men and women breathe more livingly than +in plain human daylight.</p> + +<p>It is by the second mode of operation chiefly, that is by imaginatively +discerning, disengaging and forcing into prominence their +inherent significance, that the idealizing faculty brings +into the sphere of fine art deformities and degeneracies +<span class="sidenote">Caricature and the grotesque as modes of the ideal.</span> +to which the name beautiful or sublime can by no stretch +of usage be applied. Hence arise creations like the Stryge +of Notre-Dame and a thousand other grotesques of Gothic +architectural carving. Hence, although on a lower plane +and interpreted with a less transmuting intensity of insight +and emphasis, the snarling or jovial grossness of the +peasants of Adrian Brauwer and the best of his Dutch compeers. +Hence Shakespeare’s Caliban and figures like those of Quilp and +Quasimodo in the romances of Dickens and Hugo; hence the cynic +grimness of Goya’s Caprices and the profound and bitter impressiveness +of Daumier’s caricatures of Parisian bourgeois life; or +again, in an angrier and more insulting and therefore less understanding +temper, the brutal energy of the political drawings of +Gilray.</p> + +<p>Sculpture, painting and poetry, then, are among the greater fine +arts those which express and arouse emotion by imitating or evoking +real and known things, either for their own sakes literally, +or for the sake of shadowing forth things not known but +<span class="sidenote">Unidealized imitation not fine art.</span> +imagined. In either case they represent their originals, +not indiscriminately as they are, but sifted, simplified, +enforced and enhanced to our apprehensions partly by +the artist’s power of making things conform to his own instincts +and preferences, partly by his other power of interpreting +and emphasizing the significant characters of the facts before him. +Any imitation that does not do one or other or both of these things +in full measure fails in the quality of emotional expression and +emotional appeal, and in so failing falls short, taken merely as +imitation, of the standard of fine art.</p> + +<p>But we must remember that idealized imitation, as such, is not the +whole task of these arts nor their only means of appeal. There is +another part of their task, logically though not practically +independent of the relations borne by their imitations +<span class="sidenote">The appeal of the imitative arts depends partly on non-imitative elements.</span> +to the original phenomena of nature, and dependent on +the appeal made through the eye and ear to our primal +organic sensibilities by the properties of rhythm, pattern +and regulated design in the arrangement of sounds, lines, +masses, colours and light-and-shade. That appeal we +noted as lying at the root of the art impulse in its most +elementary stage. In its most developed stage every +fine art is bound still to play upon the same sensibilities. +In a work of sculpture the contours and interchanges of +light and shadow are bound to be such as would please the eye, +whether the statue or relief represented the figure of anything real +in the world or not. The flow and balance of line, and the distribution +of colours and light-and-shade, in a picture are bound to be such as +would make an agreeable pattern although they bore no resemblance +to natural fact (as, indeed, many subordinate applications of this +art, in decorative painting and geometrical and other ornaments, +do, we know, give pleasure though they represent nothing). The +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page369" id="page369"></a>369</span> +sound of a line or verse in poetry is bound to be such as would thrill +the physical ear in hearing, or the mental ear in reading, with a +delightful excitement even though the meaning went for nothing. +If the imitative arts are to touch and elevate the emotions, if they +are to afford permanent delight of the due pitch and volume, it is +not a more essential law that their imitation, merely as such, should +be of the order which we have defined as ideal, than that they should +at the same time exhibit these independent effects which they share +with the non-imitative group.</p> + +<p>So far we have assumed, without asserting, the necessity that +the artist in whatever kind should possess a power of execution, +or technique as it is called in modern phrase, adequate +to the task of embodying and giving shape to his ideals. +<span class="sidenote">Necessity of due balance between conception and technique: the non-imitative arts and their technique.</span> +In thought it is possible to separate the conception of a +work of art from its execution; in practice it is not +possible, and half the errors in criticism and speculation +about the fine arts spring from failing to realize that an +artistic conception can only be brought home to us through +and by its appropriate embodiment. Whatever the artist’s +cast of imagination or degree of sensibility may be in +presence of the materials of life, it is essential that he +should be able to express himself appropriately in the +material of his particular art. To quote the writer +(R.A.M. Stevenson) who has enforced this point most +clearly and vividly, perhaps with some pardonable measure +of over-statement: “It is a sensitiveness to the special qualities +of some visible or audible medium of art which distinguishes the +species artist from the genus man.” And again: “There are as many +separate faculties of imagination as there are separate mediums in +which to conceive an image—clay, words, paint, notes of music.” +... “Technique differs as the material of each art differs—differs +as marble, pigments, musical notes and words differ.” The artist +who does not enjoy and has not with delighted labour mastered +the effects of his own chosen medium will never be a master; the +hearer, reader or spectator who cannot appreciate the qualities of +skill, vitality and charm in the handling of the given material, or +who fails to feel their absence when they are lacking, or who looks +in one material primarily for the qualities appropriate to another, +will never make a critic. The technique of the space-arts differs +radically from that of the time-arts. So again do those of the imitative +and the non-imitative arts differ among themselves. The non-imitative +arts of music and architecture are in a certain degree +alike in this, that the artist is in neither case his own executant +(this at least is true of music so far as concerns its modern concerted +and orchestral developments); the musical composer and the +architect each imagines and composes a design in the medium of +his own art which it is left for others to carry out under his direction. +The technique in each case consists not in mastery of an instrument +(though the musical composer may be, and often is, a master of +some one of the instruments whose effects he in his mind’s ear +co-ordinates and combines); it lies in the power of knowing and +conjuring up all the emotional resources and effects of the various +materials at his command, and of conceiving and designing to their +last detail vast and ordered structures, to be raised by subordinate +executants from those materials, which shall adequately express his +temperament and embody his ideals.</p> + +<p>In the imitative arts, on the other hand, the sculptor, unless he +is a fraud, must be wholly his own executant in the original task +of modelling his design in the soft material of clay or +wax, though he must accept the aid of assistants whether +<span class="sidenote">The imitative arts and their technique: painting and sculpture.</span> +in the casting of his work in bronze or in first roughing +it out from the block in marble. Too many sculptors +have been inclined further to trust to trained mechanical +help in finishing their work with the chisel; with the +result that the surface loses the touch which is the expression +of personal temperament and personal feeling +for the relations of his material to nature. The artist in +love with the vital qualities of form, or those of his own +handiwork in expressing such qualities in modelling-clay, will +never stop until he learns how to translate them for himself in +marble. Proceeding to that imitative art which leaves out the third +dimension of nature, and by so doing enormously increases the range +of objects and effects which come within its power—proceeding to +the art of painting, the painter is in theory exclusively his own +executant, and in practice mainly so, though in certain schools and +periods the great artists have been accustomed to surround themselves +with pupils to whom they have imparted their methods and who +have helped them in the subordinate and preparatory parts of their +work. But the painter fit to teach and lead can by no means escape +the necessity of being himself a master of his material, and his +handling of it must needs bear the immediate impress of his temperament. +His emotional preferences among the visible facts of nature, +his feeling for the relative importance and charm of line, colour, +light and shade, used whether for the interpretation and heightening +of natural fact or for producing a pattern in itself harmonious and +suggestive to the eye, his sense of the special modes of handling most +effective for communicating the impression he desires, all these +together inevitably appear in, and constitute, his style and technique. +If he is careless or inexpert or conventional, or cold or without delight, +in technique, though he may be animated by the noblest purposes +and the loftiest ideas, he is a failure as a painter. At certain periods +in the history of painting, as in the 13th and 14th centuries in Italy, +the technique seems indeed to modern eyes wholly immature; +but that was because there were many aspects of visible things which +the art had not yet attempted or desired to portray, not because it +did not put forth with delight its best traditional or newly acquired +skill in portraying the special aspects with which it had so far +attempted to grapple. At certain other periods, as in the later +16th and 17th centuries in the same country, the elements of inherited +technical facility and academic pride of skill outweigh the sincerity +and freshness of interest taken in the aspects of things to be portrayed, +and the true balance is lost. At other times, as in much of the work +of the 19th century, especially in England, painters have been +diverted from their true task, and lost hold of intelligent and living +technique altogether, in trying to please a public blind to the special +qualities of their art, and prone to seek in it the effects, frivolous or +serious, which are appropriate not to paint and canvas but to +literature.</p> + +<p>Lastly, the poet and literary artist must obviously be the exclusive +master of his own technique. No one can help him: all depends on +the keenness of his double sensibility to the thrill of life +and to that of words, and to his power of maintaining a +<span class="sidenote">Technique in poetry: the magic of words.</span> +just balance between the two. If he is truly and organically +sensitive to words alone, and has learnt life only +through their medium and not through the energies of +his own imagination, nor through personal sensibility to the impact +of things and thoughts and passions and experience, then his work +may be a miracle of accomplished verbal music, and may entrance +the ear for the moment, but will never live to illuminate and sustain +and console. If, on the other hand, he has imagination and sensibility +in full measure, and lacks the inborn love of and gift for words +and their magic, he will be but a dumb or stammering poet all his +days. There is no better witness on this point than Wordsworth. +His own prolonged lapses from verbal felicity, and continual habit +of solemn meditation on themes not always inspiring, might make us +hesitate to choose him as an example of that particular love and gift. +But Wordsworth could never have risen to his best and greatest self +had he not truly possessed the sensibilities which he attributes to +himself in the Prelude:</p> + +<table class="reg" summary="poem"><tr><td> <div class="poemr"> + <p class="i10">“Twice five years</p> +<p>Or less I might have seen, when first my mind</p> +<p>With conscious pleasure opened to the charm</p> +<p>Of words in tuneful order, found them sweet</p> +<p>For their own sakes, a passion, and a power;</p> +<p>And phrases pleased me chosen for delight,</p> +<p>For pomp, or love.”</p> +</div> </td></tr></table> + +<p class="noind">And again, expressing better than any one else the relation which +words in true poetry hold to things, he writes:</p> + +<table class="reg" summary="poem"><tr><td> <div class="poemr"> + <p class="i10">“Visionary power</p> +<p>Attends the motions of the viewless winds,</p> +<p>Embodied in the mystery of words;</p> +<p>There darkness makes abode, and all the host</p> +<p>Of shadowy things work endless changes,—there,</p> +<p>As in a mansion like their proper home,</p> +<p>Even forms and substances are circumfused</p> +<p>By that transparent veil with light divine,</p> +<p>And, through the turnings intricate of verse,</p> +<p>Present themselves as objects recognized,</p> +<p>In flashes, and with glory not their own.”</p> +</div> </td></tr></table> + +<p>3. <i>The Serviceable and the Non-Serviceable Arts.</i>—It has been +established from the outset that, though the essential distinction of +fine art as such is to minister not to material necessity or +practical use, but to delight, yet there are some among the +<span class="sidenote">Third classification: the serviceable and the non-serviceable arts.</span> +arts of men which do both these things at once and are +arts of direct use and of beauty or emotional appeal +together. Under this classification a survey of the field +of art at different periods of history would yield different +results. In ruder times, we have seen, the utilitarian aim +was still the predominant aim of art, and most of what +we now call fine arts served in the beginning to fulfil the +practical needs of individual and social life; and this not only among +primitive or savage races. In ancient Egypt and Assyria the primary +purpose of the relief-sculptures on palace and temple walls was the +practical one of historical record and commemoration. Even as late +as the middle ages and early Renaissance the primary business of +the painter was to give instruction to the unlearned in Bible history +and in the lives of the saints, and to rouse him to moods of religious +and ethical exaltation. The pleasures of fine art proper among the +manual-imitative group—the pleasures, namely, of producing and +contemplating certain arrangements rather than others of design, +proportion, pattern, colour and light and shade, and of putting forth +and appreciating certain qualities of skill, truth and significance in +idealized imitation,—these were, historically speaking, by-products +that arose gradually in the course of practice and development. +As time went on, the conscious aim of ministering to such pleasures +displaced and threw into the background the utilitarian ends for +which the arts had originally been practised, and the pleasures +became ends in themselves.</p> + +<p>But even in advanced societies the double qualities of use and +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page370" id="page370"></a>370</span> +beauty still remain inseparable, among the five greater arts, in +architecture. We build in the first instance for the sake of +<span class="sidenote">Among the greater arts, architecture alone exist primarily for service.</span> +necessary shelter and accommodation, or for the commemoration, +propitiation or worship of spiritual powers on +whom we believe our welfare to depend. By and by we +find out that the aspect of our constructions is pleasurable +or the reverse. Architecture is the art of building at once +as we need and as we like, and a practical treatise on +architecture must treat the beauty and the utility of +buildings as bound up together. But for our present +purpose it has been proper to take into account one half +only of the vocation of architecture, the half by which it impresses, +gives delight and belongs to that which is the subject of +our study, to fine art; and to neglect the other half of its vocation, +by which it belongs to what is not the subject of our study, to useful +or mechanical art. It is plain, however, that the presence or absence +of this foreign element, the element of practical utility, constitutes +a fair ground for a new and separate classification of the fine arts. +If we took the five greater arts as they exist in modern times by +themselves, architecture would on this ground stand alone in one +division, as the directly useful or serviceable fine art; with sculpture, +painting, music and poetry together in the other division, as fine +arts unassociated with such use or service. Not that the divisions +would, even thus, be quite sharply and absolutely separated. +Didactic poetry, we have already acknowledged, is a branch of the +poetic art which aims at practice and utility. Again, the hortatory +and patriotic kinds of lyric poetry, from the strains of Tyrtaeus to +those of Arndt or Rouget de Lisle or Wordsworth’s sonnets written +in war-time, may fairly be said to belong to a phase of fine art which +aims directly at one of the highest utilities, the stimulation of +patriotic feeling and self-devotion. So may the strains of music +which accompany such poetry. The same practical character, as +stimulating and attuning the mind to definite ends and actions, +might indeed have been claimed for the greater part of the whole art +of music as that art was practised in antiquity, when each of several +prescribed and highly elaborated moods, or modes, of melody was +supposed to have a known effect upon the courage and moral temper +of the hearer. Compare Milton, when he tells of the Dorian mood of +flutes and soft recorders which assuaged the sufferings and renewed +the courage of Satan and his legions as they marched through hell. +In modern music, of which the elements, much more complex in +themselves than those of ancient music, have the effect of stirring +our fibres to moods of rapturous contemplation rather than of +action, military strains in march time are in truth the only purely +instrumental variety of the art which may still be said to retain +this character.</p> + +<p>To reinforce, however, the serviceable or useful division of fine +arts in our present classification, it is not among the greater arts +that we must look. We must look among the lesser or +auxiliary arts of the manual or shaping group. The +<span class="sidenote">Other and minor arts of service subordinate to architecture.</span> +weaver, the joiner, the potter, the smith, the goldsmith, +the glass-maker, these and a hundred artificers who produce +wares primarily for use, produce them in a form or +with embellishments that have the secondary virtue of +giving pleasure both to the producer and the user. Much +ingenuity has been spent to little purpose in attempting to +group and classify these lesser shaping arts under one or other of +the greater shaping arts, according to the nature of the means +employed in each. Thus the potter’s art has been classed under +sculpture, because he moulds in solid form the shapes of his cups, +plates and ewers; the art of the joiner under that of the architect, +because his tables, seats and cupboards are fitted and framed together, +like the houses they furnish, out of solid materials previously prepared +and cut; and the weaver and embroiderer, from the point of +view of the effects produced by their art, among painters. But the +truth is, that each one of these auxiliary handicrafts has its own +materials and technical procedure, which cannot, without forcing +and confusion, be described by the name proper to the materials +and technical procedure of any of the greater arts. The only satisfactory +classification of these handicrafts is that now before us, +according to which we think of them all together in the same group +with architecture, not because any one or more of them may be +technically allied to that art, but because, like it, they all yield +products capable of being practically useful and beautiful at the +same time. Architecture is the art which fits and frames together, +of stone, brick, mortar, timber or iron, the abiding and assembling +places of man, all his houses, palaces, temples, monuments, museums, +workshops, roofed places of meeting and exchange, theatres for +spectacle, fortresses of defence, bridges, aqueducts, and ships for +seafaring. The wise architect having fashioned any one of these +great constructions at once for service and beauty in the highest +degree, the lesser or auxiliary manual arts (commonly called “industrial” +or “applied” arts) come in to fill, furnish and adorn it +with things of service and beauty in a lower degree, each according +to its own technical laws and capabilities; some, like pottery, +delighting the user at once by beauty of form, delicacy of substance, +and pleasantness of imitative or non-imitative ornament; some, like +embroidery, by richness of tissue, and by the same twofold pleasantness +of ornament; some, like goldsmith’s work, by exquisiteness +of fancy and workmanship proportionate to the exquisiteness of the +material. To this vast group of workmen, whose work is at the same +time useful and fine in its degree, the ancient Greek gave the place +which is most just and convenient for thought, when he classed +them all together under the name of <span class="grk" title="téktones">τέκτονες</span>, or artificers, and called +the builder by the name of <span class="grk" title="architéktôn">ἀρχιτέκτων</span>, arch-artificer or artificer-in-chief. +Modern usage has adopted the phrase “arts and crafts” +as a convenient general name for their pursuits.</p> +</div> + +<p class="pt2 center">III. <i>Of the History of the Fine Arts.</i></p> + +<p>Students of human culture have concentrated a great deal +of attentive thought upon the history of fine art, and have put +forth various comprehensive generalizations intended +at once to sum up and to account for the phases and +<span class="sidenote">Current generalizations on the history of fine art: Hegel.</span> +vicissitudes of that history. The most famous formulae +are those of Hegel, who regarded particular arts as being +characteristic of and appropriate to particular forms +of civilization and particular ages of history. For him, +architecture was the symbolic art appropriate to ages of +obscure and struggling ideas, and characteristic of the Egyptian +and the Asiatic races of old and of the medieval age in Europe. +Sculpture was the classical art appropriate to ages of lucid and +self-possessed ideas, and characteristic of the Greek and Roman +period. Painting, music and poetry were the romantic arts, +appropriate to the ages of complicated and overmastering ideas, +and characteristic of modern humanity in general. In the +working out of these generalizations Hegel brought together +a mass of judicious and striking observations; and that they +contain on the whole a preponderance of truth may be admitted. +It has been objected against them, from the philosophical +point of view, that they too much mix up the definition of what +the several arts theoretically are with considerations of what +in various historical circumstances they have practically been. +From the historical point of view there can be taken what +seems a more valid objection, that these formulae of Hegel +tend too much to fix the attention of the student upon the one +dominant art chosen as characteristic of any period, and to +give him false ideas of the proportions and relations of the several +arts at the same period—of the proportions and relations which +poetry, say, really bore to sculpture among the Greeks and +Romans, or sculpture to architecture among the Christian nations +of the middle age. The truth is, that the historic survey gained +over any field of human activity from the height of generalizations +so vast in scope as these are must needs, in the complexity +of earthly affairs, be a survey too distant to give much guidance +until its omissions are filled up by a great deal of nearer study; +and such nearer study is apt to compel the student in the long +run to qualify the theories with which he has started until they +are in danger of disappearing altogether.</p> + +<p>Another systematic exponent of the universe, whose system +is very different from that of Hegel, Herbert Spencer, brought +the doctrine of evolution to bear, not without interesting +results, upon the history of the fine arts and their +<span class="sidenote">Herbert Spencer and the evolution theory.</span> +development. Herbert Spencer set forth how the +manual group of fine arts, architecture, sculpture +and painting, were in their first rudiments bound up +together, and how each of them in the course of history has +liberated itself from the rest by a gradual process of separation. +These arts did not at first exist in the distinct and developed +forms in which we have above described them. There were no +statues in the round, and no painted panels or canvases hung +upon the wall. Only the rudiments of sculpture and painting +existed, and that only as ornaments applied to architecture, +in the shape of tiers of tinted reliefs, representing in a kind of +picture-writing the exploits of kings upon the walls of their +temple-palaces. Gradually sculpture took greater salience +and roundness, and tended to disengage itself from the wall, +while painting found out how to represent solidity by means of +its own, and dispensed with the raised surface upon which it +was first applied. But the old mixture and union of the three +arts, with an undeveloped art of painting and an undeveloped +art of sculpture still engaged in or applied to the works of architecture, +continued on the whole to prevail through the long +cycles of Egyptian and Assyrian history. In the Egyptian +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page371" id="page371"></a>371</span> +palace-temple we find a monument at once political and religious, +upon the production of which were concentrated all the energies +and faculties of all the artificers of the race. With its incised +and pictured walls, its half-detached colossi, its open and its +colonnaded chambers, the forms of the columns and their +capitals recalling the stems and blossoms of the lotus and papyrus, +with its architecture everywhere taking on the characters and +covering itself with the adornments of immature sculpture and +painting—this structure exhibits within its single fabric the +origins of the whole subsequent group of shaping arts. From +hence it is a long way to the innumerable artistic surroundings +of later Greek and Roman life, the many temples with their +detached and their engaged statues, the theatres, the porticoes, +the baths, the training-schools, the stadiums, with free and +separate statues both of gods and men adorning every building +and public place, the frescoes upon the walls, the panel pictures +hung in temples and public and private galleries. In the terms +of the Spencerian theory of evolution, the advance from the +early Egyptian to the later Greek stage is an advance from the +one to the manifold, from the simple to the complex, from the +homogeneous to the heterogeneous, and affords a striking +instance of that vast and ceaseless process of differentiation and +integration which it is the law of all things to undergo. In the +Christian monuments of the early middle age, again, the arts, +owing to the political and social cataclysm in which Roman +civilization went down, have gone back to the rudimentary +stage, and are once more attached to and combined with each +other. The single monument, the one great birth of art, in that +age, is the Gothic church. In this we find the art of applied +sculpture exercised in fashions infinitely rich and various, but +entirely in the service and for the adornment of the architecture; +we find painting exercised in fashions more rudimentary still, +principally in the forms of translucent imagery in the chancel +windows and tinted decorations on the walls and vaultings. +From this stage again the process of the differentiation of the +arts is repeated. It is by a new evolution or unfolding, and +by one carried to much further and more complicated stages +than the last had reached, that the arts since the middle age +have come to the point where we find them to-day; when +architecture is applied to a hundred secular and civil uses with +not less magnificence, or at least not less desire of magnificence, +than that with which it fulfilled its two only uses in the middle +age, the uses of worship and of defence; when detached sculptures +adorn, or are intended to adorn, all our streets and commemorate +all our likenesses; when the subjects of painting have been +extended from religion to all life and nature, until this one art +has been divided into the dozen branches of history, landscape, +still life, genre, anecdote and the rest. Such being in brief the +successive stages, and such the reiterated processes, of evolution +among the shaping or space arts, the action of the same law +can be traced, it is urged, in the growth of the speaking or time +arts also. Originally poetry and music, the two great speaking +arts, were not separated from each other and from the art of +bodily motion, dancing. The father of song, music and dancing, +all three, was that primitive man of whom so much has already +been said, he who first clapped hands and leapt and shouted in +time at some festival of his tribe. From the clapping, or rudimentary +rhythmical noise, has been evolved the whole art of +instrumental music, down to the entrancing complexity of the +modern symphony. From the shout, or rudimentary emotional +utterance, has proceeded by a kindred evolution the whole art +of vocal music down to the modern opera or oratorio. From +the leap, or rudimentary expression of emotion by rhythmical +movements of the body, has descended every variety of dancing, +from the stately figures of the tragic chorus of the Greeks to +the <i>kordax</i> of their comedy or the complexities of the modern +ballet.</p> + +<p>That the theory of evolution serves usefully to group and to +interpret many facts in the history of art we shall not deny, +though it would be easy to show that Herbert Spencer’s instances +and applications are not sufficient to sustain all the conclusions +<span class="sidenote">Weak and strong points of Spencer’s generalization.</span> +that he seems to draw from them. Thus, it is perfectly true +that the Egyptian or Assyrian palace wall is an instance of +rudimentary painting and rudimentary sculpture in subservience +to architecture. But it is not less true that races +who had no architecture at all, but lived in caverns of +the earth, exhibit, as we have already had occasion to +notice, excellent rudiments of the other two shaping arts +in a different form, in the carved or incised handles of +their weapons. And it is almost certain that, among +the nations of oriental antiquity themselves, the art of decorating +solid walls so as to please the eye with patterns and presentations +of natural objects was borrowed from the precedent of an older +art which works in easier materials, namely, the art of the +weaver. It would be in the perished textile fabrics of the +earliest dwellers in the valleys of the Euphrates and the Nile +that we should find, if anywhere, the origins of the systems of +surface design, whether conventional or imitative, which those +races afterwards applied to the decoration of their solid constructions. +Not, therefore, in any one exclusive type of primitive +artistic activity, but in a score of such types equally, varying +according to race, region and circumstances, shall we find so +many germs or nuclei from which whole families of fine arts +have in the course of the world’s history differentiated and +unfolded themselves. And more than once during that history, +a cataclysm of political and social forces has not only checked +the process of the evolution of the fine arts, but from an advanced +stage of development has thrown them back again to a primitive +stage. Recent research has shown how the Minoan and Mycenaean +civilizations in the Mediterranean basin, with their developed +fine arts, must have perished and been effaced before the second +growth of art from new rudiments took place in Greece. The +great instance of the downfall of the Roman civilization need +not be requoted. By Spencer’s application of the theory of +evolution, not less than by Hegel’s theory of the historic periods, +attention is called to the fact that Christian Europe, during +several centuries of the middle age, presents to our study a +civilization analogous to the civilization of the old oriental +empires in this respect, that its ruling and characteristic manual +art is architecture, to which sculpture and painting are, as in +the oriental empires, once more subjugated and attached. It +does not of course follow that such periods of fusion or mutual +dependence among the arts are periods of bad art. On the +contrary, each stage of the evolution of any art has its own +characteristic excellence. The arts can be employed in combination, +and yet be all severally excellent. When music, dancing, +acting and singing were combined in the performance of the +Greek chorus, the combination no doubt presented a relative +perfection of each of the four elements analogous to the combined +perfection, in the contemporary Doric temple, of pure architectural +form, sculptured enrichment of spaces specially contrived +for sculpture in the pediments and frieze, and coloured decoration +over all. The extreme differentiation of any art from every +other art, and of the several branches of one art among themselves, +does not by any means tend to the perfection of that art. The +process of evolution among the fine arts may go, and indeed +in the course of history has gone, much too far for the health +of the arts severally. Thus an artist of our own day is usually +either a painter only or a sculptor only; but yet it is acknowledged +that the painter who can model a statue, or the sculptor +who can paint a picture, is likely to be the more efficient master +of both arts; and in the best days of Florentine art the greatest +men were generally painters, sculptors, architects and goldsmiths +all at once. In like manner a landscape painter who paints +landscape only is apt not to paint it so well as one who paints +the figure too; and in recent times the craft of engraving had +almost ceased to be an art from the habit of allotting one part +of the work, as skies, to one hand, another part, as figures, to a +second, and another part, as landscape, to a third. This kind +of continually progressing subdivision of labour, which seems +to be the necessary law of industrial processes, is fatal to any +skill which demands, as skill in the fine arts, we have seen, +demands, the free exercise and direction of a highly complex +cluster both of faculties and sensibilities.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page372" id="page372"></a>372</span></p> + +<p>In the second half of the 19th century a reaction set in against +such over-differentiation of the several manual arts and crafts. +This reaction is chiefly identified in England with the +name of William Morris, who insisted by precept and +<span class="sidenote">Reaction against over-evolution amongst the fine arts.</span> +example that one form of artistic activity was as +worthy as another, and himself both practised and +trained others in the practice of glass-painting, weaving, +embroidery, furniture and wall-paper designing, and +book decoration alike. His example has been to some +extent followed in most European countries, and efforts have +been made to reunite the functions of artist and craftsman, +and to set a limit to the process of differentiation among the +various manual arts. In the vocal or time arts also, a reformer +of high genius and force of character, Richard Wagner, rose to +contend that in music the process of evolution and differentiation +had gone much too far. Music, he urged, as separated from +words and actions, independent orchestral and instrumental +music, had reached its utmost development, and its further +advance could only be an advance into the inane; while operatic +music had broken itself up into a number of set and separate +forms, as aria, scena, recitative, which corresponded to no real +varieties of instinctive emotional utterance, and in the aimless +production of which the art was in danger of paralysing and +stultifying itself. This process, he declared, must be checked; +music and words must be brought back again into close connexion +and mutual dependence; the artificial opera forms must be +abolished, and a new and homogeneous music-drama be created, +of which the author must combine in himself the functions of +poet, composer, inventor, and director of scenery and stage +appliances, so that the entire creation should bear the impress +of a single mind; to the creation of such a music-drama he +accordingly devoted all the energies of his being.</p> + +<p>It is thus evident that the evolution theory, though it furnishes +us with some instructive points of view for the history of the fine +arts as for other things, is far from being the whole +key to that history. Another key, employed with +<span class="sidenote">Taine’s philosophy or natural history of the fine arts.</span> +results perhaps less really luminous than they are +certainly showy and attractive, is that supplied by +Taine. Taine’s philosophy, which might perhaps +be better called a natural history, of fine art consists +in regarding the fine arts as the necessary result of the +general conditions under which they are at any time produced—conditions +of race and climate, of religion, civilization and +manners. Acquaint yourself with these conditions as they +existed in any given people at any given period, and you will +be able to account for the characters assumed by the arts of that +people at that period, and to reason from one to the other, as a +botanist can account for the flora of any given locality, and can +reason from its soil, exposure and temperature, to the orders +of vegetation which it will produce. This method of treating +the history of the fine arts, again, is one which can be pursued +with profit in so far as it makes the student realize the connexion +of fine arts with human culture in general, and teaches him how +the arts of any age and country are not an independent or +arbitrary phenomenon, but are essentially an outcome, or +efflorescence, to use a phrase of Ruskin’s, of deep-seated elements +in the civilization which produces them. But it is a method +which, rashly used, is very apt to lead to a hasty and one-sided +handling both of history and of art. It is easy to fasten on +certain obvious relations of fine art to general civilization when +you know a few of the facts of both, and to say, the cloudy skies +and mongrel industrial population of Protestant Amsterdam at +such and such a date had their inevitable reflection in the art of +Rembrandt; the wealth and pomp of the full-fleshed burghers +and burgesses of Catholic Antwerp had theirs in the art of +Rubens. But to do this in the precise and conclusive manner +of Taine’s treatises on the philosophy of art always means to +ignore a large range of conditions or causes for which no corresponding +effect is on the surface apparent, and generally also +a large number of effects for which appropriate causes cannot +easily be discovered at all.</p> + +<p>These considerations have resulted in a reaction against +Taine’s theories which goes probably too far. It is no complete +confutation of his philosophy of art-history to contend, +as has been done somewhat contemptuously by +<span class="sidenote">Criticisms and counter-criticisms on Taine’s methods.</span> +Professor Ernst Grosse and others, that the great +artist, so far from representing the general tendencies +of his time and environment, is commonly a solitary +innovator and revolutionist, and has to educate and +create his own public, often through years of obloquy +or neglect. This is sometimes true when the traditions and +ideals of art are undergoing revolution or swift experimental +change, but hardly ever true in times of stable tradition and +accepted ideals; and when true it only shows that the tendencies +the innovating genius represents are tendencies which have till +his time been working underground, and which he is born to +bring into light and evidence. A new and revolutionary impulse +in art, as in thought or politics, is like a yeast or ferment working +at first secretly, affecting for a while only a few spirits, as a new +epidemic may for a while only affect a few constitutions, and +then gradually ripening and strengthening till it communicates +itself to thousands. In its inception such a ferment is not, +indeed, one of the obvious phenomena of the society in which +it takes root, but it is none the less one of the most vital and +significant phenomena. The truth is, that this particular +efflorescence of human culture depends for its character at any +given time upon combinations of causes which are by no means +simple, but generally highly complex, obscure and nicely +balanced. For instance, the student who should try to reason +back from the holy and beatified character which prevails in +much of the devotional painting of the Italian schools down +to the Renaissance would be much mistaken were he to conclude, +“like art, like life, thoughts and manners.” He would not +understand the relation of the art to the general civilization of +those days unless he were to remember that one of the chief +functions of the imagination is to make up for the shortcomings +of reality, and to supply to contemplation images of that which +is most lacking in actual life; so that the visions at once peaceful +and ardent embodied by the religious schools of art in the +Italian cities are to be explained, not by the peace, but rather +in great part by the dispeace, of contemporary existence, and +by the longing of the human spirit to escape into happier and +more calm conditions.</p> + +<p>Any one of the three modes of generalization to which we have +referred might no doubt yield, however, supposing in the student +the due gifts of patience and of caution, a working +clue to guide him through that immense region of +<span class="sidenote">Difficulty of combining the study of the manual with that of the vocal group of fine arts.</span> +research, the history of the fine arts. But it is hardly +possible to pursue to any purpose the history of the +two great groups, the shaping group and the speaking +group, together. At some stages of the world’s +history the manual and the monumental arts have +flourished, as in Egypt and Assyria, when there was +no fine art of words at all, and the only literature was +that of records cut in hieroglyph or cuneiform on +palace walls and temples, and on tablets, seals and cylinders. +At other times and in other communities there has existed +a great tradition and inheritance of poetry and song when the +manual arts were only beginning to emerge again from the +wreck of an old civilization, as in the Homeric age of Greece, +or where they had never flourished at all except by imitation +and importation, as in Palestine. In historic Greece all three +divisions of the art of poetry, the epic, lyric and the dramatic, +had been perfected, and two of them had again declined, before +sculpture had reached maturity or painting had passed beyond +the stage of its early severity. The European poetry of the +middle ages, abundant and rich as it was alike in France and +Provence, in Germany and Scandinavia, can yet not take rank, +among the creations of human genius, beside the great masterpieces +of Romanesque and Gothic architecture; it was in Italy +only that Dante, before the end of that age, carried poetry to +a place of equality if not of primacy among the arts. Taking the +England of the Elizabethan age, we find the great outburst of +our national genius in poetry contemporary with nothing more +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page373" id="page373"></a>373</span> +interesting in the manual arts than the gradual and only half-intelligent +transformation of late Gothic architecture by the +adoption of Italian Renaissance forms imported principally +by way of Flanders or France, together with a fine native skill +shown in the art of miniature portrait-painting, and none at +all worth mentioning in other branches of painting or in sculpture. +If the course of poetry and that of the manual arts have thus +run independently throughout almost the whole field of history, +those of music and the manual arts have been more widely +separated still. In ancient Greece music and poetry were, we +know, most intimately connected, but of the true nature of Greek +music we know but little, of that of the earlier middle ages less +still, and throughout the later middle ages and the earlier +Renaissance the art remained undeveloped, whether in the +service of the church or in secular and popular use, and in both +cases in strict subservience to words. The growth of independent +music is entirely the work of the modern world, and will probably +rank in the esteem of posterity as its highest spiritual achievement +and claim to gratitude, when the mechanical inventions and +applications of applied science, which now occupy so disproportionate +a part of the attention of humanity, have become a +normal and unregarded part of its existence.</p> + +<p>Moments in history there have no doubt been when literature +and the manual arts, and even music, have been swept simultaneously +along a single stream of ideas and feelings. Such a +moment was experienced in France in 1830 and the following +years, when (to choose only a few of the greatest names) Hugo +in poetry, Delacroix in painting, and Berlioz in music were +roused to a high pitch of consentaneous inspiration by the new +ideas and feelings of romanticism. But such moments are rare +and exceptional. On the other hand, it is very possible to take +the whole of the shaping or manual group of fine arts together +and to pursue their history connectedly throughout the course +of civilization. By the history of art what is usually meant is +indeed the history of these three arts with that of some of their +subordinate and connected crafts. Leaving aside the arts of +the races of the farther East, which, profoundly interesting +as they are, have but gradually and late become known to us, +and the relations of which with the arts of the nearer East and +the Mediterranean are still quite obscure—leaving these aside, +the history of the manual arts of architecture, painting and +sculpture falls naturally into several great periods or divisions to +some extent overlapping each other but in the main consecutive.</p> + +<p>These periods are roughly as follows:—</p> + +<p>1. The period of the great civilizations of Mesopotamia +and the Nile, beginning approximately about 5000 <span class="scs">B.C.</span> +<span class="sidenote">Main divisions of the history of art.</span> +and ending, roughly speaking (but some of them +much earlier), with the spread of Greek power and +Greek ideas under Alexander. On the main characteristics +of the art of these empires we have already +had occasion to touch.</p> + +<p>2. The Minoan and Mycenaean period, partly contemporary +with the above and dating probably from about 2500 to about +1000 <span class="scs">B.C.</span>; our knowledge of this is due entirely to quite recent +researches, confined at present to certain points in Greece and +Asia Minor, in Crete and other islands in the Mediterranean +basin; enough has already been revealed to prove the existence +of an original and highly developed palace-architecture and of +forms of relief-painting and of all the minor and decorative +arts more free and animated than anything known to Egypt or +Assyria. (See <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Crete</a></span> and <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Aegean Civilization</a></span>.)</p> + +<p>3. The Greek and Roman period, from about 700 <span class="scs">B.C.</span> to the +final triumph of Christianity, say <span class="scs">A.D.</span> 400. During the first +two or three centuries of this period the Hellenic race, beginning +again after the cataclysm which had swallowed up the earlier +Mediterranean civilizations, carried to perfection its most +characteristic art, that of sculpture, in the endeavour to embody +worthily its ideas of the supernatural powers governing the world. +Putting aside the monstrous gods of Egypt and the East, it +found its ideals in varieties of the human form as presented by +the most harmoniously developed specimens of the race under +conditions of the greatest health, activity and grace. In the figures +of Greek sculpture, both decorative and independent, and no +doubt in Greek painting also (but of that we can only judge from +such specimens of the minor handicrafts, chiefly vase-paintings, +as have come down to us)—in these were set for the whole +Western world the types and standards of human beauty, and +in their grouping and arrangement the types and standards +of rhythmical composition and design. Gradually human portraiture +and themes of everyday life took their place beside +representations of the gods and heroes. New schools struck +out new tendencies within certain limits. But in the general +standards of form and design there was in the imitative arts +relatively little change, though towards the end there was much +failure of skill, throughout the whole period. The one great +change was in architecture. Greece had been content with the +constructive system of columns and horizontal entablature, +and under that system had invented and perfected her three +successive modes or orders of architecture—the Doric, Ionic and +Corinthian. The genius of Rome invented the round arch, +and by help of that system erected throughout her subject +world a thousand vast constructions—temple, palace, bath, +amphitheatre, forum, aqueduct, triumphal gate and the rest—on +a scale of monumental grandeur such as Greece had never +known.</p> + +<p>4. The Christian period, from about 400 to about 1400. +The decay or petrifaction of the imitative arts which had set +in during the latter days of Rome continued during all the +earlier centuries of the Christian period, while the Western +world was in process of remaking. Free painting and free +sculpture practically ceased to exist. Roman architecture +underwent modifications under the influence of the church and +of the new conditions of life; the Byzantine form, touched at +certain times and places with oriental influences, developed +itself wherever the Eastern Empire still stood erect in decay; +the Romanesque form, as it is called, in the barbarian-conquered +regions of the west and north. Sculpture existed for centuries +only in rudimentary and subordinate forms as applied to architecture; +painting only in forms of rigid though sometimes +impressive hieratic imagery, whether as mosaic in the apses and +vaults of churches, as rude illumination in MSS. and service-books, +or as still ruder altar-painting carried on according to a +frozen mechanical tradition. As time went on and medieval +institutions developed themselves, a gradual vitality dawned +in all these arts. In architecture the introduction of the pointed +or Gothic arch at the beginning of the 13th century led to almost +as great a revolution as that brought about by the use of the +round or vaulted arch among the Romans. The same vital +impulse that informed the new Gothic architecture breathed +into the still quite subordinate arts of sculpture and painting +(the latter now including the craft of glass-painting for church +windows) a new spirit whether of devotional intensity or sweetness, +or of human pathos or rugged humour, with a new technical +skill for its embodiment. We have not set down, as is usually +done, a specifically Gothic period in art, for this reason. The +characteristic of the whole Christian period is that its dominant +art is architecture, chiefly employed in the service of the church, +with painting and sculpture only subordinately introduced for +its enrichment. It makes no essential difference that from the +5th to the 12th century the forms of this art were derived with +various modifications from the round-arched architecture of the +Empire, and that by the 13th century new forms both of construction +and decoration, in which the round arch was replaced +by the pointed, had been invented in France, and from thence +spread abroad to Germany and Scandinavia, Great Britain, +Spain, and last and most superficially to Italy. The essential +difference only begins when the imitative arts, sculpture and +painting, begin to emancipate and detach themselves, to exist +and strive after perfection on their own account. This happened +first and very partially in Italy with the artificers of the 13th +and 14th centuries—with the sculptors Nicola, Giovanni, and +Andrea Pisano; the Sienese group of painters, Duccio, Simone +Martini, and the Lorenzetti; and the Florentine group, Cimabue +(if Cimabue is not a myth), Giotto and the Giotteschi. The +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page374" id="page374"></a>374</span> +development of the rapid and flowing craft of fresco in place of +the laborious and piecemeal craft of mosaic (henceforth for +several centuries almost lost) was a great aid to this movement. +After a period of something like stagnation, the movement +received a vigorous fresh impulse soon after 1400, at about +which date in Italy (not till near a century later in northern +Europe) the beginning of the Renaissance is usually fixed.</p> + +<p>5. The Renaissance period, from about 1400 to about 1600. +The passion for classic literature, stimulated by the influence +of Greek scholars into Italy after the fall of Constantinople; +the enthusiastic revival of classic forms of architecture by +architects like Brunelleschi and Alberti; the achievements in +sculpture and painting of masters like Donatello and Masaccio, +based on a new and impassioned study of nature and the antique +together; these are the outstanding and universally known +symptoms of the Italian Renaissance in the second and third +quarters of the 15th century. Promptly and contemptuously +in Italy, much more gradually and incompletely in the north, +Gothic principles of construction and decoration were cast +aside for classical principles, as reformulated by eager spirits +from a combined study of Roman remains and of the text of +Vitruvius. To the ideal types of devout and prayer-worn, +ascetic and spiritualized humanity (tempered in certain subjects +with elements of the homely and the grotesque), which the +spirit of the middle ages had dictated to the sculptor and the +painter, succeeded ideals of physical power, beauty and grace +rivalling the Hellenic. The personages of the Christian faith +and story were brought into visible kindred with those of ancient +paganism. In the hands of certain artists a fortunate blending +of the two ideals yielded results of a poignant and unique charm, +which for us, who are the heirs both of antiquity and the middle +ages, is far from being yet exhausted. At the same time, the +love alike of republics, great princes, churchmen, nobles and +merchants for works of art gave employment to sculptors and +painters on themes other than ecclesiastical. The taste for civic +or personal commemoration, for portraiture, for illustrations +of allegory, romance and classic fable, covered with pictures +the walls of council halls, of public and private palaces, and of +villas. The invention of the oil medium by the painters of +Flanders, and its gradual adoption by the Venetians and other +schools of Italy for all purposes except the external decorations +of buildings, added enormously to the resources of the art in +rivalry with nature, and to the splendour of its results as objects +of pride and luxury. The glories of matured Italian art reacted, +not always favourably, on the north. The great days of Flemish +painting had been from about 1430 to 1500, before any appreciable +influence of the Renaissance had touched the schools of +Brussels, of Bruges or of Antwerp. By about 1520 the artists +of those schools had begun, except in portraiture, to lose their +native vigour and originality by contact with the alien south. +Among the great artists of Germany in the first half of the 16th +century the work of one or two, like Burgkmair and Holbein, +shows Italian influence reconciled not unsuccessfully with native +instinct; but Dürer, the greatest of them, remained in all +essentials Gothic and German to the end. During the last half +of the century, the Netherlands and Germany alike yielded +little but work of mongrel Teutonized Italian or Italianized +Teutonic type, until towards its close Rubens accomplished, in +the fire of his prodigious temperament, a true fusion of Flemish +and Venetian qualities, at the same time closing gloriously +the Renaissance period properly so called, and handing on an +example which irresistibly affected a great part of modern +painting.</p> + +<p>6. Modern period, from about 1600 to the present time. +During this period architecture remained in all European +countries, until the 19th century, more or less completely under +the influence of the Italian Renaissance. The principles of the +classical revival had during a century or more of transition been +gradually absorbed, first by France, then by Germany, the Low +Countries, and Spain, and last by England, each country modifying +the style according to its degree of knowledge or ignorance, +its needs, instincts and traditions. Sculpture, which in the +hands of the great masters of the earlier and later Renaissance +in Italy had almost equalled its ancient glories, nay, in those of +Michelangelo had actually surpassed them in the qualities at +least of superhuman energy and intellectual expression—sculpture +lost the sense of its true limitations, and entered, +with the work of Bernini and even earlier, into an extravagant +or “baroque” period of relaxed and bulging line, of exaggerated +and ostentatious virtuosity. In this it followed the lead given +by Italian architecture, by Jesuit church architecture especially, +at and after the height of the Catholic reaction. From the +monumental and memorial purposes which sculpture principally +serves, it remained still, except in purely iconic uses, attached +to or dependent on architecture. Not so painting, which asserted +its independence more and more. In Protestant countries the +old ecclesiastical patronage of the art had quite died out; in +those that remained Catholic it continued, and even received +a new stimulus from the anti-Protestant reaction. The demand +for religious art was supplied with abundance of traditional +facility, of technical accomplishment and devotional display, +but with a loss of the old sincerity and inspiration. Almost all +painting, even for the most extensive and monumental phases +of decoration in church or palace or civic hall, was on canvas +stretched over or fitted into its allotted space in the architecture, +and the art of fresco, even in Venice, its last stronghold, was +for a time neglected or forgotten. Portable paintings for princely +or private galleries and cabinets became the chief and most +characteristic products of the art. The subjects of painting +multiplied themselves. All manner of new aspects of life and +nature were brought within the technical compass of the painter. +Besides devotional and classical subjects and portraiture, daily +life in all its phases, down to the homeliest and grossest, the +life of the parlour and the tavern, of field and shore and sea, +with landscape in all its varieties, took their place as material +for the painter. The truths of indoor and outdoor atmosphere +were translated on canvas for the first time. The Dutchmen +from about 1620 to 1670 were the most active innovators and +path-breakers of modern art along all these lines. The greatest +of them, Rembrandt, dealt, as has been said, like a master and a +magician with the problems of human individuality as revealed +in a mysterious colour and shadow world of his own invention. +At the same time a painter of no less power in Spain, Velazquez, +viewing the world in the natural light of every day, showed for +the first time how vitally and subtly paint could render the +relief and mutual values of figures and objects in space, the +essential truth of their visible relations and reactions in the +enveloping atmosphere. The achievement of these two victorious +innovators has only come to be fully understood in our own day. +The simultaneous conquest of Claude le Lorrain, on the other +hand, over the atmospheric glow of summer and sunset on the +Roman Campagna and the adjacent hills and coasts, found +acceptance instantly, less perhaps for its own sake than because +of the classical associations of the scenery which he depicted. +The vast widening of the field of the painter’s art and multiplication +of its subjects, which thus took place at the dawn of the +modern period, were gains attended by one drawback, the loss, +namely, of the sense of high seriousness and universal appeal +which belonged to the art while its themes had been those of +religion and classic story almost exclusively.</p> + +<p>During the three hundred or so years of the modern period, +academical schools attempting, more or less unsuccessfully, +to carry on the great Italian and classical traditions +of the Renaissance have not ceased to exist side by +<span class="sidenote">Classical and romantic revivals.</span> +side with those which have striven to express new +ways of seeing and feeling. Sometimes, as in France +first under Louis XIV., and again for forty years from the +beginning of the Revolution to the dawn of romanticism, such +schools have succeeded in crushing out and discrediting all +efforts in other directions. Between these two epochs, say +from 1710 to 1780, French 18th-century ideals of social elegance +and brilliant frivolity expressed themselves in forms of great +accomplishment and vivacity both in poetry and sculpture, +from the days of Watteau to those of Fragonard and Clodion. +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page375" id="page375"></a>375</span> +At the same time England produced one of the finest and at the +same time most national and downright masters of the brush in +Hogarth; two of the greatest aristocratic portrait-painters of the +world in Reynolds and Gainsborough, each of whom modified +according to his own instincts the tradition imported in the +previous century by Van Dyck, the greatest pupil of Rubens +(Reynolds fusing with this influence those of Rembrandt and the +Venetians in almost equal shares). Pastoral landscape in the +hands of Gainsborough, classical, following Claude, in those of +Wilson—these together with the humble but wholesome discipline +of topographical illustration led on to the ambitious, wide-ranging +and often inspired experiments of Turner, and to the narrower +but more secure achievements of Constable in the same field, +and made this country the acknowledged pioneer of modern +landscape art. In the meantime the wave of classical enthusiasm +which passed over Europe in the later years of the 18th century +had produced in architecture generally a return to severer +principles and purer lines, in reaction from the baroque and the +rococo Renaissance styles of the preceding century and a half. +In Italian sculpture, the same movement inspired during the +Napoleonic period the over-honeyed accomplishment of Canova +and his school; in northern sculpture, the more truly antique +but almost wholly imitative work of Thorwaldsen, and the pure +and rhythmic grace of the English Flaxman, a true master of +design though scarcely of sculpture strictly so called. The +same movement again was partly responsible in English painting +and illustration from about 1770 to 1820 for much pastoral and +idyllic work of agreeable but shallow elegance. In French +painting the classic movement struck deeper. Along with +much would-be Roman attitudinizing there was much real, if +rigid, power in the work of David, much accomplished purity +and sweetness in that of Prud’hon. The last and truest classic +of France, and at the same time in portraiture the greatest +realist, Ingres, held high the standard of his cause even through +and past the great romantic revival which began with Géricault +and culminated in Delacroix and the school of landscape painters +who had received their inspiration from Constable. The main +instincts embodied in the Romantic movement were the awakening +of the human spirit to an eager retrospective love of the past, +and especially of the medieval past, and simultaneously to a +new passion for the beauties of nature, and especially of wild +nature. Germany and England preceded France in this double +awakening; in both countries the movement inspired a fine +literature, but in neither did it express itself so fully and self-consciously +through literature and the other arts together as +it did in France when the hour struck. The revival of medieval +sentiment in Germany had inspired comparatively early in the +century the learned but somewhat aridly ascetic and essentially +unpainterlike work of the group of artists who styled themselves +<i>Nazarener</i>. In England the same revival expressed itself +during a great part of the Victorian age in an enthusiastic return +to the early Gothic ecclesiastical styles of architecture, a return +unsuccessful upon the whole, because in pursuit of archaeological +and grammatical detail the root qualities of right proportion +and organic design were too often neglected.</p> + +<p>Allied with this Gothic revival, and stimulated like it by the +persuasive conviction and brilliant resource of Ruskin in criticism +was the pre-Raphaelite movement in painting. Among +the artists identified with this movement there was +<span class="sidenote">The pre-Raphaelites.</span> +little really in common except in impatience of the +prevailing modes of empty academic convention or +anecdotic frivolity. The name covered for a while the essentially +divergent aims of a vigorous unintellectual craftsman like +Millais, fired for a few years in youth by contact with more +imaginative temperaments, of a strenuous imitator of unharmonized +local colours and unsubordinated natural facts like Holman +Hunt, and of born poets and impassioned medievalists like +Rossetti and after him Burne-Jones. Meantime in France, +putting aside the work of the great Delacroix, the impulse of +1830 expressed itself best and most lastingly in the monumental +work of Daumier both in caricature and romance, the impressive +and significant treatment of peasant life and labour by J.F. +Millet, the vitally truthful pastoral and landscape work of +Troyon, Corot, Daubigny and the rest.</p> + +<p>Since the exhaustion of the Romantic movement, the other +movements that have been taking place in European art have +been too numerous and too rapid to be touched on +here to any purpose. Both in sculpture and painting +<span class="sidenote">Contemporary tendencies.</span> +France has taken and held the lead. Mention has +already been made of the special tendency in recent +sculpture identified with the name and influence of Rodin. In +painting there has been the fertilizing and transforming influence +of Japan on the decorative ideals of the West; there have +been successively the Realist movement, the movements of +the Impressionists, the Luminists, the Neo-impressionists, the +Independents, movements initiated almost always in Paris, +and in other countries eagerly adopted and absorbed, or angrily +controverted and denounced, or simply neglected and ignored +according to the predilection of this or that group of artists +and critics; there has been a vast amount of heterogeneous, +hurried, confident and clamant innovating activity in this +direction and in that, much of it perhaps doomed to futility in +the eyes of posterity, but at any rate there has not been stagnation.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p><span class="sc">Bibliography.</span>—To attempt in this place anything like a full +bibliography covering so vast a field would be idle. Many of the +books necessary to a first-hand study of the subject are cited in the +article <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Aesthetics</a></span>. The following are some of the most important +writings actually referred to in the text, English translations being +mentioned where they exist: Aristotle, <i>Poetics</i>, edited with critical +notes and a translation by S.H. Butcher (1898); S.H. Butcher, +<i>Aristotle’s Theory of Poetry and Fine Art</i>, with a critical text and a +translation of the <i>Poetics</i> (1902); Plato, <i>Republic</i>, bk. x. 596 ff., +600 ff. (Grote, iii. 117 ff.; Jowett, iii. 489 ff.); B. Bosanquet, +<i>Introduction to Hegel’s Philosophy of Fine Art</i> (<i>Ästhetik</i>), translation +with notes and prefatory essay (1896); <i>The Philosophy of Art, an +Introduction to the Science of Aesthetics</i>, by Hegel and C.L. Michelet, +trans. Hastie (1886); Schiller, <i>Briefe über die ästhetische Erziehung +des Menschen</i> (trans, by G.J. Weiss, with preface by J. Chapman, +1845; also in Bohn’s Standard Library, 1846); Herbert Spencer, +<i>First Principles</i>, ch. xxii.; Gottfried Semper, <i>Der Stil</i> (1860-1863); +Hippolyte Taine, <i>De l’idéal dans l’art</i> (1867), <i>Philosophie de l’art en +Grèce</i> (1869), <i>Philosophie de l’art en Italie</i>, <i>Philosophic de l’art dans +les Pays-Bas</i> (translations in 5 vols. by J. Durand, New York, 1889); +Karl Groos, <i>Die Spiele der Menschen</i> (1899; trans, by E.L. Baldwin, +1901), and <i>Die Spiele der Tiere</i> (2nd ed., 1907; trans, by E.L. +Baldwin, 1898); Ernst Grosse, <i>Die Anfänge der Kunst</i> (1894; trans, +in the Anthropological Series, 1894); Yrjö Hirn, <i>The Origins of Art</i> +(1900); G. Baldwin Brown, <i>The Fine Arts</i> (2nd ed., 1902); Felix +Clay, <i>The Origins of the Sense of Beauty</i> (1908). For a general history +of the manual or shaping group of arts, C.J.F. Schnasse, <i>Geschichte +der bildenden Künste</i> (2nd ed., 1866-1879), though in parts obsolete, +is still unsuperseded. A very summary general view is given in +Salomon Reinach, <i>The Story of Art through the Ages</i> (trans. by +Florence Simmonds, 1904); a general history of the same group +was undertaken by Giulio Carotti (English translation by Alice Todd, +1909).</p> +</div> +<div class="author">(S. C.)</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">FINGER,<a name="ar210" id="ar210"></a></span> one of the five members with which the hand is +terminated, a digit; sometimes the word is restricted to the +four digits other than the thumb. The word is common to +Teutonic languages, cf. Dutch <i>vinger</i> and Ger. <i>Finger</i>; probably +the ultimate origin is to be found in the root of the words appearing +in Greek <span class="grk" title="pente">πέντε</span>, Lat. <i>quinque</i>, five. (See <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Skeleton</a></span>: +<i>Appendicular</i>.)</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">FINGER-AND-TOE,<a name="ar211" id="ar211"></a></span> <span class="sc">Club Root</span> or <span class="sc">Anbury</span>, a destructive +plant-disease known botanically as <i>Plasmodiophora Brassicae</i>, +which attacks cabbages, turnips, radishes and other cultivated +and wild members of the order Cruciferae. It is one of the +so-called Slime-fungi or Myxogastres. The presence of the +disease is indicated by nodules or warty outgrowths on the +root, which sometimes becomes much swollen and ultimately +rots, emitting an unpleasant smell. The disease is contracted +from spores present in the soil, which enter the root. The +parasite develops within the living cells of the plant, forming +a glairy mass of protoplasm known as the <i>plasmodium</i>, the form +of which alters from time to time. The cells which have been +attacked increase enormously in size and the disease spreads +from cell to cell. Ultimately the plasmodium becomes resolved +into numerous minute round spores which, on the decay of the +root, are set free in the soil. A preventive is quicklime, the +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page376" id="page376"></a>376</span> +application of which destroys the spores in the soil. It is important +that diseased plants should be burned, also that cruciferous +weeds, such as shepherd’s purse, charlock, &c., should not be +allowed to grow in places where plants of the same order are in +cultivation.</p> + +<table class="pic" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:352px; height:411px" src="images/img376.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption">Finger-and-Toe (<i>Plasmodiophora Brassicae</i>).</td></tr> + +<tr><td class="f90" style="width: 50%; vertical-align: top;"> +<p>1, Turnip attacked by the disease, reduced.</p> + +<p>2, A cell of the tissue containing the plasmodium; the smaller cells +at the sides are unaffected.</p> + +<p>3, Infected cell, showing spore formation. 2, 3, highly magnified.</p></td></tr></table> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">FINGER-PRINTS.<a name="ar212" id="ar212"></a></span> The use of finger-prints as a system of +identification (<i>q.v.</i>) is of very ancient origin, and was known +from the earliest days in the East when the impression of his +thumb was the monarch’s sign-manual. A relic of this practice +is still preserved in the formal confirmation of a legal document +by “delivering” it as one’s “act and deed.” The permanent +character of the finger-print was first put forward scientifically +in 1823 by J.E. Purkinje, an eminent professor of physiology, +who read a paper before the university of Breslau, adducing nine +standard types of impressions and advocating a system of classification +which attracted no great attention. Bewick, the +English draughtsman, struck with the delicate qualities of the +lineation, made engravings of the impression of two of his finger-tips +and used them as signatures for his work. Sir Francis +Galton, who laboured to introduce finger-prints, points out that +they were proposed for the identification of Chinese immigrants +when registering their arrival in the United States. In India, +Sir William Herschel desired to use finger-prints in the courts +of the Hugli district to prevent false personation and fix +the identity upon the executants of documents. The Bengal +police under the wise administration of Sir E.R. Henry, afterwards +chief commissioner of the London metropolitan police, +usefully adopted finger-prints for the detection of crime, an +example followed in many public departments in India. A +transfer of property is attested by the thumb-mark, so are +documents when registered, and advances made to opium-growers +or to labourers on account of wages, or to contracts +signed under the emigration law, or medical certificates to +vouch for the persons examined, all tending to check the frauds +and impostures constantly attempted.</p> + +<p>The prints depend upon a peculiarity seen in the human hand +and to some extent in the human foot. The skin is traversed +in all directions by creases and ridges, which are ineradicable +and show no change from childhood to extreme old age. The +persistence of the markings of the finger-tips has been proved +beyond all question, and this universally accepted quality has +been the basis of the present system of identification. The +impressions, when examined, show that the ridges appear in +certain fixed patterns, from which an alphabet of signs or a +system of notation has been arrived at for convenience of record. +As the result of much experiment a fourfold scheme of classification +has been evolved, and the various types employed +are styled “arches,” “loops,” “whorls” and “composites.” +There are seven subclasses, and all are perfectly distinguishable +by an expert, who can describe each by its particular symbol +in the code arranged, so that the whole “print” can be read +as a distinct and separate expression. Very few, and the simplest, +appliances are required for taking the print—a sheet of white +paper, a tin slab, and some printer’s ink. Scars or malformations +do not interfere with the result.</p> + +<p>The unchanging character of the finger-prints has repeatedly +helped in the detection of crime. We may quote the case of the +thief who broke into a residence and among other things helped +himself to a glass of wine, leaving two finger-prints upon the +tumbler which were subsequently found to be identical with +those of a notorious criminal who was arrested, pleaded guilty +and was convicted. Another burglar effected entrance by removing +a pane of glass from a basement window, but, unhappily +for him, left his imprints, which were referred to the registry +and found to agree exactly with those of a convict at large; +his address was known, and when visited some of the stolen +property was found in his possession. In India a murderer was +identified by the brown mark of a blood-stained thumb he had +left when rummaging amongst the papers of the deceased. +This man was convicted of theft but not of the murder.</p> + +<p>The keystone to the whole system is the central office where +the register or index of all criminals is kept for ready reference. +The operators need no special gifts or lengthy training; method +and accuracy suffice, and abundant checks exist to obviate +incorrect classification and reduce the liability to error.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p><span class="sc">Authorities.</span>—F. Galton, <i>Finger Prints</i> (1892), <i>Fingerprint +Directories</i> (1895); E.R. Henry, <i>Classification and Uses of Finger +Prints</i>; A. Yvert, <i>L’Identification par les empreintes digitales palmaires</i> +(1905); K. Windt, R.S. Kodicek, <i>Daktyloskopie. Verwertung +von Fingerabdrücken zu Identifizierungszwecken</i> (Vienna, 1904); E. +Loeard, <i>La Dactyloscopie. Identification des récidivistes par les +empreintes digitales</i> (1904); H. Faulds, <i>Guide to Finger-Print +Identification</i> (1905); H. Gross, <i>Criminal Investigation</i> (trans. J. and +J.C. Adam, 1907).</p> +</div> +<div class="author">(A. G.)</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">FINGO,<a name="ar213" id="ar213"></a></span> or <span class="sc">Fengu</span> (<i>Ama-Fengu</i>, “wanderers”), a Bantu-Negro +people, allied to the Zulu family, who have given their +name to the district of Fingoland, the S.W. portion of the +Transkei division of the Cape province. The Fingo tribes were +formed from the nations broken up by Chaka and his Zulu; +after some years of oppression by the Xosa they appealed to the +Cape government in 1835, and were permitted by Sir Benjamin +D’Urban to settle on the banks of the Great Fish river. They +have been always loyal to the British, and have steadily advanced +in social respects. They have largely adapted themselves to +western culture, wearing European clothes, supporting their +schools by voluntary contributions, editing newspapers, translating +English poetry, and setting their national songs to correct +music. The majority call themselves Christians and many of +them have intermarried with Europeans. (See <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Kaffirs</a></span>.)</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">FINIAL<a name="ar214" id="ar214"></a></span> (a variant of “final”; Lat. <i>finis</i>, end), an architectural +term for the termination of a pinnacle, gable end, +buttress, or canopy, consisting of a bunch of foliage, which +bears a close affinity to the crockets (<i>q.v.</i>) running up the gables, +turrets or spires, and in some cases may be formed by uniting +four or more crockets together. Sometimes the term is incorrectly +applied to a small pinnacle of which it is only the +termination (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Epi</a></span>).</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">FINIGUERRA, MASO<a name="ar215" id="ar215"></a></span> [<i>i.e.</i> <span class="sc">Tommaso</span>] (1426-1464), Florentine +goldsmith, draughtsman, and engraver, whose name is distinguished +in the history of art and craftsmanship for reasons which +are partly mythical. Vasari represents him as having been the +first inventor of the art of engraving (using that word in its +popular sense of taking impressions on paper from designs +engraved on metal plates), and Vasari’s account was universally +accepted and repeated until recent research proved it erroneous. +What we actually know from contemporary documents of +Finiguerra, his origin, his life, and his work, is as follows. He +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page377" id="page377"></a>377</span> +was the son of Antonio, and grandson of Tommaso Finiguerra or +Finiguerri, both goldsmiths of Florence, and was born in Sta +Lucia d’Ognissanti in 1426. He was brought up to the hereditary +profession of goldsmith and was early distinguished for his work +in niello. In his twenty-third year (1449) we find note of a +sulphur cast from a niello of his workmanship being handed +over by the painter Alessio Baldovinetti to a customer in payment +or exchange for a dagger received. In 1452 Maso delivered +and was paid for a niellated silver pax commissioned for the +baptistery of St John by the consuls of the gild of merchants +or Calimara. By this time he seems to have left his father’s +workshop: and we know that he was in partnership with Piero +di Bartolommeo di Sali and the great Antonio Pollaiuolo in 1457, +when the firm had an order for a pair of fine silver candlesticks +for the church of San Jacopo at Pistoia. In 1459 we find Finiguerra +noted in the house-book of Giovanni Rucellai as one of +several distinguished artists with whose works the Casa Rucellai +was adorned. In 1462 he is recorded as having supplied another +wealthy Florentine, Cino di Filippo Rinuccini, with waist-buckles, +and in the years next following with forks and spoons +for christening presents. In 1463 he drew cartoons, the heads +of which were coloured by Alessio Baldovinetti, for five or more +figures for the sacristy of the duomo, which was being decorated +in wood inlay by a group of artists with Giuliano da Maiano at +their head. On the 14th of December 1464 Maso Finiguerra +made his will, and died shortly afterwards.</p> + +<p>These documentary facts are supplemented by several writers +of the next generation with statements more or less authoritative. +Thus Baccio Bandinelli says that Maso was among the young +artists who worked under Ghiberti on the famous gates of the +baptistery; Benvenuto Cellini that he was the finest master of +his day in the art of niello engraving, and that his masterpiece +was a pax of the Crucifixion in the baptistery of St John; that +being no great draughtsman, he in most cases, including that of +the above-mentioned pax, worked from drawings by Antonio +Pollaiuolo. Vasari, on the other hand, allowing that Maso was +a much inferior draughtsman to Pollaiuolo, mentions nevertheless +a number of original drawings by him as existing in his own +collection, “with figures both draped and nude, and histories +drawn in water-colour.” Vasari’s account was confirmed and +amplified in the next century by Baldinucci, who says that he +has seen many drawings by Finiguerra much in the manner of +Masaccio; adding that Maso was beaten by Pollaiuolo in competition +for the reliefs of the great silver altar-table commission +by the merchants’ gild for the baptistery of St John (this famous +work is now preserved in the Opera del Duomo). But the paragraph +of Vasari which has chiefly held the attention of posterity +is that in which he gives this craftsman the credit of having +been the first to print off impressions from niello plates on sulphur +casts and afterwards on sheets of paper, and of having followed +up this invention by engraving copper-plates for the express +purpose of printing impressions from them, and thus became +the inventor and father of the art of engraving in general. +Finiguerra, adds Vasari, was succeeded in the practice of engraving +at Florence by a goldsmith called Baccio Baldini, who, not +having much invention of his own, borrowed his designs from +other artists and especially from Botticelli. In the last years of +the 18th century Vasari’s account of Finiguerra’s invention was +held to have received a decisive and startling confirmation under +the following circumstances. There was in the baptistery at +Florence (now in the Bargello) a beautiful 15th-century niello +pax of the Coronation of the Virgin. The Abate Gori, a savant +and connoisseur of the mid-century, had claimed this conjecturally +for the work of Finiguerra; a later and still more enthusiastic +virtuoso, the Abate Zani, discovered first, in the collection +of Count Seratti at Leghorn, a sulphur cast from the very same +niello (this cast is now in the British Museum), and then, in the +National library at Paris, a paper impression corresponding to +both. Here, then, he proclaimed, was the actual material first-fruit +of Finiguerra’s invention and proof positive of Vasari’s +accuracy.</p> + +<p>Zani’s famous discovery, though still accepted in popular +art histories and museum guides, is now discredited among +serious students. For one thing, it has been proved that the +art of printing from engraved copper-plates had been known in +Germany, and probably in Italy also, for years before the date +of Finiguerra’s alleged invention. For another, Maso’s pax for +the baptistery, if Cellini is to be trusted, represented not a +Coronation of the Virgin but a Crucifixion. In the next place, its +recorded weight does not at all agree with that of the pax claimed +by Gori and Zani to be his. Again, and perhaps this is the +strongest argument of any, all authentic records agree in representing +Finiguerra as a close associate in art and business of +Antonio Pollaiuolo. Now nothing is more marked than the +special style of Pollaiuolo and his group; and nothing is more +unlike it than the style of the Coronation pax, the designer of +which must obviously have been trained in quite a different +school, namely that of Filippo Lippi. So this seductive identification +has to be abandoned, and we have to look elsewhere for +traces of the real work of Finiguerra. The only fully authenticated +specimens which exist are the above-mentioned tarsia +figures, over half life-size, executed from his cartoons for the +sacristy of the duomo. But his hand has lately been conjecturally +recognized in a number of other things: first in a set of +drawings of the school of Pollaiuolo at the Uffizi, some of which +are actually inscribed “Maso Finiguerra” in a 17th-century +writing, probably that of Baldinucci himself; and secondly +in a very curious and important book of nearly a hundred +drawings by the same hand, acquired in 1888 for the British +Museum. The Florence series depicts for the most part figures +of the studio and the street, to all appearance members of the +artist’s own family and workshop, drawn direct from life. The +museum volume, on the other hand, is a picture-chronicle, drawn +from imagination, and representing parallel figures of sacred +and profane history, in a chronological series from the Creation +to Julius Caesar, dressed and accoutred with inordinate richness +according to the quaint pictures which Tuscan popular fancy +in the mid-15th century conjured up to itself of the ancient +world. Except for the differences naturally resulting from the +difference of subject, and that the one series are done from life +and the other from imagination, the technical style and handling +of the two are identical and betray unmistakably a common +origin. Both can be dated with certainty, from their style, +costumes, &c., within a few years of 1460. Both agree strictly +with the accounts of Finiguerra’s drawings left us by Vasari and +Baldinucci, and disagree in no respect with the character of the +inlaid figures of the sacristy. That the draughtsman was a +goldsmith is proved on every page of the picture-chronicle by +his skill and extravagant delight in the ornamental parts of +design—chased and jewelled cups, helmets, shields, breastplates, +scabbards and the like,—as well as by the symmetrical metallic +forms into which he instinctively conventionalizes plants and +flowers. That he was probably also an engraver in niello appears +from the fact that figures from the Uffizi series of drawings are +repeated among the rare anonymous Florentine niello prints +of the time (the chief collection of which, formerly belonging to +the marquis of Salamanca, is now in the cabinet of M. Edmond de +Rothschild in Paris). That he was furthermore an engraver on +copper seems certain from the fact that the general style and +many particular figures and features of the British Museum +chronicle drawings are exactly repeated in some of those primitive +15th-century Florentine prints which used to be catalogued +loosely under the names of Baldini or Botticelli, but have of +late years been classed more cautiously as anonymous prints in +the “fine manner” (in contradistinction to another contemporary +group of prints in the “broad manner”). The fine-manner +group of primitive Florentine engravings itself falls +into two divisions, one more archaic, more vigorous and original +than the other, and consisting for the most part of larger and +more important prints. It is this division which the drawings of +the Chronicle series most closely resemble; so closely as almost +to compel the conclusion that drawings and engravings are by +the same hand. The later division of fine-manner prints represent +a certain degree of technical advance from the earlier, and are +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page378" id="page378"></a>378</span> +softer in style, with elements of more classic grace and playfulness; +their motives moreover are seldom original, but are +borrowed from various sources, some from German engravings, +some from Botticelli or a designer closely akin to him, some +from the pages of the British Museum Chronicle-book itself, +with a certain softening and attenuating of their rugged spirit; +as though the book, after the death of the original draughtsman-engraver, +had remained in his workshop and continued to be +used by his successors. We thus find ourselves in presence of a +draughtsman of the school of Pollaiuolo, some of whose drawings +bear an ancient attribution to Finiguerra, while all agree with +what is otherwise known of him, and one or two are exactly +repeated in extant works of niello, the craft which was peculiarly +his own; others being intimately related to the earliest or all +but the earliest works of Florentine engraving, the kindred +craft which tradition avers him to have practised, and which +Vasari erroneously believed him to have invented. Surely, +it has been confidently argued, this draughtsman must be no +other than the true Finiguerra himself. The argument has not +yet been universally accepted, but neither has any competent +criticism appeared to shake it; so that it may be regarded for +the present as holding the field.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p><span class="sc">Bibliography.</span>—See Bandinelli in Bottari, <i>Raccolta di lettere</i> +(1754), i. p. 75; Vasari (ed. Milanesi), i. p. 209, iii. p. 206; Benvenuto +Cellini, <i>I Trattati dell’ orificeria</i>, &c. (ed. Lemonnier), pp. 7, +12, 13, 14; Baldinucci, <i>Notizie dei professori di disegno</i> (1845), i. +pp. 518, 519, 533; Zani, <i>Materiali per servire</i>, &c. (1802); Duchesne, +<i>Essai sur les nielles</i> (1824); Dutuit, <i>Manuel de l’amateur d’estampes</i>, +vol. i. pref. and vol. ii.; and for a full discussion of the whole question, +with quotations from earlier authorities and reproductions +of the works discussed, Sidney Colvin, <i>A Florentine Picture Chronicle</i> +(1898).</p> +</div> +<div class="author">(S. C.)</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">FINISHING.<a name="ar216" id="ar216"></a></span> The term <i>finishing</i>, as specially applied in the +textile industries, embraces the process or processes to which +bleached, dyed or printed fabrics of any description are subjected, +with the object of imparting a characteristic appearance to the +surface of the fabric, or of influencing its handle or feel. Strictly +speaking, certain operations might be classed under this heading +which are conducted previous to bleaching, dyeing, &c; <i>e.g.</i> +mercerizing (<i>q.v.</i>), stretching and crabbing, singeing (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Bleaching</a></span>); +but as these are not undertaken by the finisher, only +those will be dealt with here which are not mentioned under +other headings. By the various treatments to which the fabric +is subjected in finishing, it is often so altered in appearance that +it is impossible to recognize in it the same material that came +from the loom or from the bleacher or dyer. On the other hand, +one and the same fabric, subjected to different processes of +finishing, may be made to represent totally different classes of +material. In other cases, however, the appearance of the finished +article differs but slightly from that of the piece on leaving the +loom.</p> + +<p>All processes of finishing are purely mechanical in character, +and the most important of them depend upon the fact that in +their ordinary condition (<i>i.e.</i> containing their normal amount of +moisture), or better still in a damp state, the textile fibres are +plastic, and consequently yield to pressure or tension, ultimately +assuming the shape imparted to them. The old-fashioned box +press, formerly largely used for household linen, owed its efficacy +to this principle. At elevated temperatures the damp fibres +become very much more plastic than at the ordinary temperature, +the simplest form of finishing appliance based on this fact being +the ordinary flat iron. Indeed it may safely be stated that most +of the modern finishing processes have been evolved from the +household operations of washing (milling), brushing, starching, +mangling, ironing and pressing.</p> + +<p><i>Cotton Pieces.</i>—In the ordinary process of bleaching, cotton +goods are subjected during the various operations to more or +less continual longitudinal tension, and while becoming elongated, +shrink more or less considerably in width. In order to bring +them back to their original width, they are stretched or +“stentered” by means of specially constructed machines. The +most effective of these is the so-called stentering frame, which +consists essentially of two slightly diverging endless chains +carrying clips or pins which hold the piece in position as it +traverses the machine. The length of a frame may vary from +20 to 30 yds. On the upper part of the frame the chains run in +slots, and by means of set screws the distance between the two +chains can be set within the required limits. The pieces are +fed on to one end of the machine in the damp state by hand and +are then naturally slack. But before they have travelled many +yards they become taut, the stretching increasing as they travel +along. Simultaneously with the stretching, the pieces are dried +by a current of hot air which is blown through from below, so +that on arriving at the end of the machine they are not only +stretched to the required degree but are also dry. The machine +used for stentering is more fully described under <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Mercerizing</a></span> +(<i>q.v.</i>). In case the goods come straight from the loom to be +finished, stentering is not necessary.</p> + +<p>Pieces intended to receive a “pure” finish pass on without +further treatment to the ordinary finishing processes such as +calendering, hot pressing, raising, &c. But in the majority of +cases they are previously impregnated, according to the finish +desired, with stiffening or softening agents, weighting materials, +&c. Usually, starch constitutes the main stiffening agent, with +additions of china clay, barium compounds, &c., for weighting +purposes, and Turkey red oil, with or without the addition of +some vegetable oil or fat, as the softening agent. Magnesium +sulphate is also largely used in order to give “body” to the cloth, +which it does by virtue of its property of crystallizing in fine +felted needle-shaped crystals throughout the mass of the fabric. +When starch is used in filling, it is advisable to add some anti-septic, +such as zinc chloride, sodium silicofluoride, phenol or +salicylic acid, in order to prevent or retard subsequent development +of mildew. The impregnation of the pieces with the +filling is effected in two ways, viz. either throughout the thickness +of the cloth or on one surface only (back starching). When the +whole piece is to be impregnated the operation is conducted in a +starching mangle, which is similar in construction to an ordinary +household mangle, though naturally larger and more elaborate +in construction. The pieces run at full width through a trough +situated immediately below the bowls and containing the filling +(starch paste, &c.), then between the bowls, the pressure (“nip”) +of which regulates the amount of filling taken up, and thence +over a range of steam-heated drying cylinders (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Bleaching</a></span>). +In case one side only of the goods is to be stiffened—and this +is usually necessary in the case of printed goods,—a so-called +back-starching mangle is employed.</p> + +<table class="flt" style="float: right; width: 400px;" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figright1"><img style="width:362px; height:146px" src="images/img378.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig.</span> 1.—Principle of Back-Starching Machine.</td></tr></table> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>The construction of the machine varies, but the simplest form +consists essentially of a wooden bowl <i>a</i> (Fig. 1) which runs in the +starch paste contained in trough <i>t</i>. The pieces pass from the batch-roller +B, through +scrimp rails S and +over the bowl +under tension, +touching the surface +from which +they gather the +starch paste. By +means of the fixed +“doctor” blade <i>d</i>, which extends across the piece, the paste is +levelled on the surface of the fabric and excess scraped off, falling +back into the trough. The goods are then dried with the face side +to the cylinders.</p> +</div> + +<p>Some goods come into the market with no further treatment +after starching other than running through a mangle with a +little softening and then drying, but in the great majority of +cases they are subjected to further operations.</p> + +<p><i>Damping.</i>—When deprived of their natural moisture by +drying on the cylinder drying machine, cotton goods are not in a +fit condition to undergo the subsequent operations of calendering, +beetling, &c., since the fibres in the dry state have lost their +plasticity. The pieces are consequently damped to the desired +degree, and this is usually effected in a damping machine in +passing through which they meet with a fine spray of water.</p> + +<table class="flt" style="float: right; width: 410px;" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figright1"><img style="width:377px; height:167px" src="images/img379a.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption"> <span class="sc">Fig.</span> 2.—Principle of Damping Machine.</td></tr></table> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>A simple and effective device for this purpose is shown in section +in Fig. 2. It consists essentially of a brass roller <i>r</i> running in water +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page379" id="page379"></a>379</span> +contained in a trough or box <i>t</i>. Touching the brass roller is a brush +roller <i>b</i> which revolves at a high speed, thus spraying the water, +which it takes up +continuously from +the wet revolving +brass roller in all +directions, and +consequently also +against the piece +which passes in a +stretched condition +over the top +of the box, being +drawn from the +batch roller B, +over scrimp rails S, and batched again on the other side on roller R. +The level of the water in the trough is kept constant.</p> +</div> + +<p><i>Calendering.</i>—The calender may be regarded as an elaboration +of the ordinary mangle, from which, however, it differs essentially +inasmuch as one or more of the rollers or bowls are made of steel +or iron and can be treated either by gas or steam; the other +bowls are made of compressed cotton or paper. Three distinct +forms of calender are in use, viz. the ordinary calender, the +friction calender and the embossing calender.</p> + +<p>The number of bowls in an ordinary calender varies between +two and six according to the character of the finish for which +it is intended. In a modern five-bowl calender the bottom bowl +is made of cast iron, the second of compressed cotton or paper, +the third of iron being hollow and fitted with steam heating +apparatus. The fourth bowl is made of compressed cotton, and +the fifth of cast iron. The pieces are simply passed through for +“swissing,” <i>i.e.</i> for the production of an ordinary plain finish. +The same calender may also be used for “chasing,” in which +two pieces are passed through, face to face, in order to produce +an imitation linen finish. Moiré or “watered” effects are +produced in a similar way, but these effects are frequently +imitated in the embossing calender.</p> + +<p>The friction calender, the object of which is to produce a high +gloss on the fabric, differs from the ordinary calender inasmuch +as one of the bowls is caused to revolve at a greater speed than +the others. In an ordinary three-bowl friction calender the +bottom bowl is made of cast iron, the middle one of compressed +cotton or paper, and the top one (the friction bowl) of highly +polished chilled iron. The last-named bowl, which has a greater +peripheral speed than the others, is hollow and can be heated +either by steam or gas.</p> + +<p>The embossing calender is usually constructed of two bowls, +one of which is of steel and the other of compressed cotton or +paper. The steel roller, which is hollow and can be heated +either by steam or gas, is engraved with the pattern which it is +desired to impart to the piece. If the pattern is deep, as is the +case in the production of book cloths, it is necessary to run the +machine empty under pressure until the pattern of the steel +bowl has impressed itself into the cotton or paper bowls, but if +the effect desired only consists of very fine lines, this is not +necessary; for instance, in the production of the Schreiner +finish, which is intended to give the pieces (especially after +mercerizing) the appearance of silk, the steel roller is engraved +with fine diagonal lines which are so close together (about 250 +to the in.) as to be undistinguishable by the naked eye.</p> + +<p><i>Beetling</i> is a process by which a peculiar linen-like appearance +and a leathery feel or handle are imparted to cotton fabrics, the +process being also employed for improving the appearance of +linen goods. For the best class of beetle finish, the pieces are +first impregnated with sago starch and the other necessary +ingredients (softening, &c.) and are dried on cylinders. They +are then damped on a water mangle, and beamed on to the +heavy iron bowl of the beetling machine.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>A beetling machine of the kind, with four sets of “fallers,” is +shown in Fig. 3. The fallers are made of beech wood, are about 8 ft. +long, 5½ in. deep and 4 in. wide, and are kept in their vertical position +by two pairs of guide rails. Each faller is provided with a tappet +or wooden peg driven in at one side, which engages with the teeth +or “wipers” of the revolving shaft in the front of the machine. +The effect of this mechanism is to lift the faller a distance of about +13 in. and then let it drop on to the cloth wound on the beam. This +lifting and dropping of the fallers on to the beam takes place in +rhythmical and rapid succession. To ensure even treatment the +beam turns slowly round and also has a to-and-fro movement imparted +to it. The treatment may last, according to the finish which +it is desired to obtain, from one to sixty hours.</p> +</div> + +<table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:513px; height:335px" src="images/img379b.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig.</span> 3.—Beetling Machine (Edmeston & Sons).</td></tr></table> + +<p>Beetling was originally used for linen goods, but to-day is +almost entirely applied to cotton for the production of so-called +<i>linenettes</i>.</p> + +<p><i>Hot-pressing</i> is used to a limited extent in order to obtain a +soft finish on cotton goods, but as this operation is more used for +wool, it will be described below.</p> + +<p><i>Raising.</i>—This operation, which was formerly only used for +woollen goods (teasing), has come largely into use for cotton +pieces, partly in consequence of the introduction of the direct +cotton colours by which the cotton is dyed evenly throughout +(see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Dyeing</a></span>), and partly in consequence of new and improved +machinery having been devised for the purpose. Starting with +a plain bleached, dyed or printed fabric, the process consists +in principle in raising or drawing out the ends of individual +fibres from the body of the cloth, so as to produce a nap or soft +woolly surface on the face.</p> + +<table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:527px; height:317px" src="images/img379c.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig.</span> 4.—Raising.</td></tr></table> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>This is effected by passing the fabric slowly round a large drum D, +which is surrounded, as shown in the diagram, (Fig. 4), by a number of +small cylinders or rollers, <i>r</i>, covered with steel wire brushes or +“carding,” such as is used in carding engines (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Cotton-Spinning +Machinery</a></span>).</p> + +<p>The rollers <i>r</i>, which are all driven by one and the same belt +(not shown in the figure), revolve at a high rate of speed, and can be +made to do so either in the same direction as that followed by the +piece as it travels through the machine or in the opposite one. In +addition to their revolving round their own axes, the raising rollers +may be either kept stationary or may be moved round the drum D in +either direction.</p> + +<p>In the more modern machines there are two sets of raising rollers, +of which each alternate one is caused to revolve in the direction +followed by the piece, while the other is made to revolve in the +opposite direction. By passing through an arrangement of this +kind several times, or through several such machines in succession, +the ends of the fibres are gradually drawn out to the desired extent.</p> +</div> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page380" id="page380"></a>380</span></p> + +<p>After raising, the pieces are sheared (for better class work) +in order to produce greater regularity in the length of the nap. +The raised style of finishing is used chiefly for the production of +uniformly white or coloured flannelettes but is also used for +such as are dyed in the yarn, and to a limited extent for printed +fabrics.</p> + +<p><i>Woollen and Worsted Pieces.</i>—Although both of these classes +of material are made from wool, their treatment in finishing +differs so materially that it is necessary to deal with them +separately. <i>Unions</i> or fabrics consisting of a cotton warp with +a worsted weft are in general treated like worsteds.</p> + +<p>In the finishing of woollen pieces the most important operation +is that of <i>milling</i>, which consists in subjecting the pieces to +mechanical friction, usually in an alkaline medium (soap or +soap and soda) but sometimes in an acid (sulphuric acid) medium, +in order to bring about felting and consequent “fulling” of the +fabric. This felting of the wool is due to the peculiar structure +of the fibre, the scales of which all protrude in one direction, so +that the individual fibres can slip past each other in one direction +more readily than in the opposite one and thus become more and +more interlocked as the milling proceeds. If the pieces contain +<i>burrs</i> these are usually removed by a process known as “carbonizing,” +which generally, but not necessarily, precedes the milling. +Their removal depends upon the fact that the burrs, which +consist in the main of cellulose, are disintegrated at elevated +temperatures by dilute mineral acids. The pieces are run +through sulphuric acid of from 4° to 6° Tw., squeezed or hydro-extracted, +and dried over cylinders and then in stoves. The +acid is thus concentrated and attacks the burrs, which fall to +dust, while leaving the wool intact. For the removal of the acid +the fabric is first washed in water and then in weak soda. Carbonizing +is also sometimes used for worsteds.</p> + +<table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:529px; height:344px" src="images/img380a.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig.</span> 5.—Milling Stocks.</td></tr></table> + +<p>Milling was formerly all done in milling or fulling stocks (see +Fig. 5), in which the cloth saturated with a strong solution of soap +(with or without other additions such as stale urine, potash, +fuller’s earth, &c.) is subjected to the action of heavy wooden +hammers, which are raised by the cams attached to the wheel +(E) on the revolving shaft, and fall with their own weight on to +the bundles of cloth. The shape of the hammer-head causes the +cloth to turn slowly in the cavity in which the milling takes place. +Occasionally, the cloth is taken out, straightened, washed if +necessary, and then returned to the stocks to undergo further +treatment, the process being continued until the material is +uniformly shrunk or milled to the desired degree.</p> + +<p>In the more modern forms of milling machines the principle +adopted is to draw the pieces in rope form, saturated with soap +solution and sewn together end to end so as to form an endless +band, between two or more rollers, on leaving which they are +forced down a closed trough ending in an aperture the size of +which can be varied, but which in any case is sufficiently small +to cause a certain amount of force to be necessary to push the +pieces through. A machine of this kind is shown in Fig. 6. It is +evident that for coloured goods which have to be milled only +such colouring matters must be chosen for dyeing that are +absolutely fast to soap.</p> + +<table class="flt" style="float: right; width: 400px;" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figright1"><img style="width:361px; height:312px" src="images/img380b.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption80">From Ganswindt, <i>Technologie der Appretur</i>.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig.</span> 6.—Roller Milling Machine.</td></tr></table> + +<p>After the pieces have been milled down to the desired degree, +they present an uneven and, undesirable appearance on the +surface, the ends +of many of the +fibres which previously +projected +having been +turned and thus +become embedded +in the body of the +cloth. In order to +bring these hairs +to the surface +again, the fabric is +subjected to <i>teasing</i> +or <i>raising</i>, an +operation identical +in principle +with one which +has already been +noticed under the finishing of cotton. In place of the steel wire +brushes it is the usual practice to employ teasels for the treatment +of woollen goods.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>The teasel (see Fig. 7) is the dried head (fruit) of a kind of thistle +(<i>Dipsacus fullorum</i>), the horny sharp spikes of which turn downwards +at their extremity, and, while possessing the necessary sharpness +and strength for raising the fibres, are not sufficiently rigid to cause +any material damage to the cloth. For raising, the teasels are fixed +in rows on a large revolving drum, and the piece to be treated is +drawn lengthways underneath the drum, being guided by rollers +or rods so as to just touch the teasels as they sweep past. In the +raising of woollen goods it is necessary that the pieces should be +damp or moist while undergoing this treatment.</p> +</div> + +<p>After teasing, the pieces are stretched and dried. At this +stage they still have an irregular appearance, for although the +raising has brought all the loose ends of the fibres to the surface, +these vary considerably in length and thus give rise to an uneven +nap.</p> + +<table class="flt" style="float: right; width: 340px;" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figright1"><img style="width:288px; height:465px" src="images/img380c.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption80">From Ganswindt, <i>Technologie der Appretur</i>.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig.</span> 7.—Teasel used for Raising.</td></tr></table> + +<p>By the next operation of <i>shearing</i> or <i>cropping</i>, the long hairs +are cut off arid a uniform surface is thus obtained. Shearing +was in former times done by +hand, by means of shears, +but is to-day universally +effected by means of a cutting +device which works on +the same principle as an +ordinary lawn-mower, in +which a number of spiral +blades set on the surface of +a rapidly revolving roller +pass continuously over a +straight fixed blade underneath, +the roller being set +so that the spiral blades +just touch the fixed blade. +Before the piece comes to +the shearing device the nap +is raised by means of a +rotary brush. Shearing may +be effected either transversely, +in which case the +fixed blade is parallel to +the warp, or longitudinally +with the fixed blade parallel +to the weft. In the first case, +the piece being stretched on +a table, over which the cutter, carried on rails, travels from selvedge +to selvedge. The length of the piece that can be shorn in +one operation will naturally depend upon the length of the blade, +but in any case the process is necessarily intermittent, many +operations being required before the whole piece is shorn. In +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page381" id="page381"></a>381</span> +the longitudinal shearing machines the process is continuous, +the pieces passing from the beam in the stretched condition +over the rotary brush, under the fixed blade, and then being +again brushed before being beamed on the other side of the +machine. Shearing once is generally insufficient, and for this +reason many of the modern machines are constructed with +duplicate arrangements so as to effect the shearing twice in the +same operation. In the finishing of certain woollen goods the +pieces, after having been milled, raised and sheared, go through +these operations again in the same sequence.</p> + +<p>After these operations the goods are pressed either in the +hydraulic press or in the continuous press, and according to the +character of the material and the finish desired may or may +not be steamed under pressure, all of which operations are +described below.</p> + +<p>New cloth, as it comes into the hands of the tailor, frequently +shows an undesirable gloss or sheen, which is removed before +making up by a process known as shrinking, in which the material +is simply damped or steamed.</p> + +<p><i>Worsteds and Unions.</i>—The pieces are first singed by gas or +hot plate (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Bleaching</a></span>), and are then usually subjected to a +process known as “crabbing,” the object of which is to “set” +the wool fibres. If this operation is omitted, especially in the +case of unions, the fabric will “cockle,” or assume an uneven +surface on being wetted. In crabbing the pieces are drawn +at full breadth and under as much tension as they will stand +through boiling water, and are wound or beamed on to a roller +under the pressure of a superposed heavy iron roller, the operation +being conducted two or three times as required. From the +crabbing machine the pieces are wound on to a perforated +shell or steel cylinder which is closed at one end. The open +end is then attached to a steam pipe, and steam, at a pressure +of 30 to 45 ℔, is allowed to enter until it makes its way through +all the layers of cloth to the outside, when the steam is turned +off and the whole allowed to cool. Since those layers of the cloth +which are nearest the shell are acted upon for a longer period +than those at the outside, it is necessary to re-wind and repeat +the operation, the outside portions coming this time nearest to +the shell. The principle of the process depends upon the fact +that at elevated temperatures moist wool becomes plastic, and +then easily assumes the shape imparted to it by the great tension +under which the pieces are wound. On cooling the shape is +retained, and since the temperature at which the pieces were +steamed under tension exceeds any to which they are submitted +in the subsequent processes, the “setting” of the fibres is +permanent. After crabbing, the pieces are washed or “scoured” +in soap either on the winch or at full width. In some cases the +crabbing precedes the scouring. The goods are then dyed and +finished.</p> + +<p>The nature of the finishing process will vary considerably +according to the special character of the goods under treatment. +Thus, for certain classes of goods cold pressing is sufficient, +while in other cases the pieces are steamed under pressure in a +manner analogous to the treatment after crabbing (“decatizing”). +The treatment in most common use for worsteds and +unions is hot pressing, which may be effected either in the +hydraulic press or in the continuous press, but in most cases in +the former.</p> + +<p>In pressing in the hydraulic press the pieces are folded down +by hand on a table, a piece of press paper (thin hand-made +cardboard with a glossed and extremely hard surface) being +inserted between each lap. After a certain number of laps, a +steel or iron press plate is inserted, and the folding proceeds +in this way until the pile is sufficiently high, when it is placed +in the press. The press being filled, the hydraulic ram is set +in motion until the reading on the gauge shows that the desired +amount of pressure has been obtained. The heating of the press +plates was formerly done in ovens, previous to their insertion +in the piece, but although this practice is still in vogue in rare +instances, the heating is now effected either by means of steam +which is caused to circulate through the hollow steel plates, +or in the more modern forms of presses by means of an electric +current. After the pieces have thus been subjected to the +combined effects of heat and pressure for the desired length of +time, they are allowed to cool in the press. It is evident that +portions of the pieces, viz. the folds, thus escape the finishing +process, and for this reason it is necessary to repeat the process, +the folds now being made to lie in the middle of the press +papers.</p> + +<table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:509px; height:411px" src="images/img381.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl f80">From Ganswindt,’ <i>Technologie der Appretur</i>.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig.</span> 8.—Continuous Press.</td></tr></table> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>The continuous press, which is used for certain classes of worsteds, +but more especially for woollen goods, consists in principle of a +polished steam-heated steel cylinder against which either one or two +steam-heated chilled iron cheeks are set by means of levers and adjusting +screws. The pieces to be pressed are drawn slowly between the +cheeks and the bowl. A machine of the kind is shown in section in +Fig. 8. In working, the cheeks C, C<span class="su">1</span> are pressed against the bowl B. +The course followed by the cloth to be finished is shown by the +dotted line, the finished material being mechanically folded down +on the left-hand side of the machine. The pieces thus acquire a +certain amount of finish which is, however, not comparable with +that produced in the hydraulic press.</p> +</div> + +<p><i>Pile Fabrics</i>, such as velvets, velveteens, corduroys, plushes, +sealskins, &c., require a special treatment in finishing, and great +care must be taken in all operations to prevent the pile being +crushed or otherwise damaged. Velveteens and corduroys are +singed before boiling or bleaching. Velveteens dyed in black +or in dark shades are brushed with an oil colour (<i>e.g.</i> Prussian +blue for blacks), and dried over-night in a hot stove in order to +give them a characteristic bloom. Regularity in the pile and +gloss are obtained by shearing and brushing. Corduroys are +stiffened at the back by the application of “bone-size” (practically +an impure form of glue) in a machine similar to that used +for back-starching. The face of the fabric is waxed with beeswax +by passing the piece under a revolving drum, on the surface +of which bars of this material are fixed parallel to the axis. +The bars just touch the surface of the fabric as it passes through +the machine. The gloss is then obtained by brushing with +circular brushes which run partly in the direction of the piece +and partly diagonally. In the finishing of velvets, shearing +and brushing are the most important operations. The same +applies to sealskins and other long pile fabrics, but with these +an additional operation, viz. that of “batting,” is employed +after dyeing and before shearing and brushing, which consists +in beating the back of the stretched fabric with sticks in order +to shake out the pile and cause it to stand erect.</p> + +<p>For the finishing of silk pieces the operations and machinery +employed are similar in character to some of those used for +cotton and worsteds. Most high-class silks require no further +treatment other than simple damping and pressing after they +leave the loom. Inferior qualities are frequently filled or back-filled +with glue, sugar, gum tragacanth, dextrin, &c., after which +they are dried, damped and given a light calender finish. Moiré +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page382" id="page382"></a>382</span> +or watered effects are produced by running two pieces face to +face through a calender or by means of an embossing calender. +In the latter case the pattern repeats itself. For the production +of silk crape the dyed (generally black) piece is impregnated +with a solution of shellac in methylated spirit and dried. It +is then “goffered,” an operation which is practically identical +with embossing (see above), and may either be done on an +embossing calender or by means of heated brass plates in which +the design is engraved to the desired depth and pattern.</p> + +<p>The measuring, wrapping, doubling, folding, &c., of piece goods +previous to making up are done in the works by specially constructed +machinery.</p> + +<p><i>Finishing of Yarn.</i>—The finishing of yarn is not nearly so +important as the finishing of textiles in the piece, and it will +suffice to draw attention to the main operations. Cotton yarns +are frequently “gassed,” <i>i.e.</i> drawn through a gas flame, in +order to burn or singe off the projecting fibres and thus to produce +a clean thread which is required for the manufacture of certain +classes of fabrics. The most important finishing process for +cotton yarn is “mercerizing” (<i>q.v.</i>), by means of which a permanent +silk-like gloss is obtained. The “polishing” of cotton +yarn, by means of which a highly glazed product, similar in +appearance to horsehair, is obtained, is effected by impregnating +the yarn with a paste consisting essentially of starch, beeswax +or paraffin wax and soap, and then subjecting the damp material +to the action of revolving brushes until dry. Woollen yarn is +not subjected to any treatment, but worsted yarns (especially +twofold) have to be “set” before scouring and dyeing in order +to prevent curling. This is effected by stretching the yarn +tight on a frame, which is immersed in boiling water and then +allowing it to cool in this condition.</p> + +<p>A peculiar silk-like gloss and feel is sometimes imparted to +yarns made from lustre wool by a treatment with a weak solution +of chlorine (bleaching powder and hydrochloric acid) followed +by a treatment with soap.</p> + +<p>Worsted and mohair yarns intended for the manufacture of +braids are singed by gas, a process technically known as +“Genapping.”</p> + +<p>Silk yarn is subjected to various mechanical processes before +weaving. The most important of these are stretching, shaking, +lustreing and glossing. Stretching and shaking are simple +operations the nature of which is sufficiently indicated by their +names, and by these means the hanks are stretched to their +original length and straightened out by hand or on a specially +devised machine. In <i>lustreing</i>, the yarn is stretched slightly +beyond its original length between two polished revolving +cylinders (one of which is steam heated) contained in a box or +chest into which steam is admitted. In <i>glossing</i>, the yarn is +twisted tight, first in one direction and then in the other, on a +machine, this alternating action being continued until the +maximum gloss is obtained.</p> + +<p>The so-called “scrooping” process, which gives to silk a +peculiar feel and causes it to crackle or crunch when compressed +by the hand, is a very simple operation, and consists in treating +the yarn after dyeing in a bath of dilute acid (acetic, tartaric or +sulphuric) and then drying without washing. Heavily weighted +black silks are passed after dyeing through an emulsion of olive +oil in soap and dried without washing, in order to give additional +lustre to the material or rather to restore some of the lustre +which has been lost in weighting.</p> +<div class="author">(E. K.)</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">FINISTÈRE,<a name="ar217" id="ar217"></a></span> or <span class="sc">Finisterre</span>, the most western department of +France, formed from part of the old province of Brittany. Pop. +(1906) 795,103. Area, 2713 sq. m. It is bounded W. and S. by +the Atlantic Ocean, E. by the departments of Côtes-du-Nord +and Morbihan, and N. by the English Channel. Two converging +chains of hills run from the west towards the east of the department +and divide it into three zones conveying the waters in three +different directions. North of the Arrée, or more northern of +the two chains, the waters of the Douron, Penzé and Flèche +flow northward to the sea. The Elorn, however, after a short +northerly course, turns westward and empties into the Brest +roads. South of the Montagnes Noires, the Odet, Aven, Isole +and Ellé flow southward; while the waters of the Aulne, flowing +through a region enclosed by the two chains with a westward +declination, discharge into the Brest roads. The rivers are all +small, and none of the hills attain a height of 1300 ft. The +coast is generally steep and rocky and at some points dangerous, +notably off Cape Raz and the Île de Sein; it is indented with +numerous bays and inlets, the chief of which—the roadstead +of Brest and the Bays of Douarnenez and Audierne—are on the +west. The principal harbours are those of Brest, Concarneau, +Morlaix, Landerneau, Quimper and Douarnenez. Off the coast +lie a number of islands and rocks, the principal of which are +Ushant (<i>q.v.</i>) N.W. of Cape St Mathieu, and Batz off Roscoff. +The climate is temperate and equable, but humid; the prevailing +winds are the W., S.W. and N.W. Though more than a third +of the department is covered by heath, waste land and forest, +it produces oats, wheat, buckwheat, rye and barley in quantities +more than sufficient for its population. In the extreme north +the neighbourhood of Roscoff, and farther south the borders +of the Brest roadstead, are extremely fertile and yield large +quantities of asparagus, artichokes and onions, besides melons +and other fruits. The cider apple is abundant and furnishes the +chief drink of the inhabitants. Hemp and flax are also grown. +The farm and dairy produce is plentiful, and great attention is +paid to the breeding and feeding of cattle and horses. The production +of honey and wax is considerable. The fisheries of the +coast, particularly the pilchard fishery, employ a great many +hands and render this department an excellent nursery of seamen +for the French navy. Coal, though found in Finistère, is not +mined; there are quarries of granite, slate, potter’s clay, &c. +The lead mines of Poullaouen and Huelgoat, which for several +centuries yielded a considerable quantity of silver, are no longer +worked. The preparation of sardines is carried on on a large +scale at several of the coast-towns. The manufactures include +linens, woollens, sail-cloth, ropes, agricultural implements, paper, +leather, earthenware, soda, soap, candles, and fertilizers and +chemicals derived from seaweed. Brest has important foundries +and engineering works; and shipbuilding is carried on there +and at other seaports. Brest and Morlaix are the most important +commercial ports. Trade is in fish, vegetables and fruit. +Coal is the chief import. The department is served by the +Orleans and Western railways. The canal from Nantes to Brest +has 51 m. of its length in the department. The Aulne is +navigable for 17 m., and many of the smaller rivers for short +distances.</p> + +<p>Finistère is divided into the arrondissements of Quimperlé, +Brest, Châteaulin, Morlaix and Quimper (43 cantons, 294 communes), +the town of Quimper being the capital of the department +and the seat of a bishopric. The department belongs to the +region of the XI. army corps and to the archiepiscopal province +and académie (educational division) of Rennes, where its court +of appeal is also situated.</p> + +<p>The more important places are Quimper, Brest, Morlaix, +Quimperlé, St Pol-de-Léon, Douarnenez, Concarneau, Roscoff, +Penmarc’h and Pont-l’Abbé. Finistère abounds in menhirs and +other megalithic monuments, of which those of Penmarc’h, +Plouarzal and Crozon are noted. The two religious structures +characteristic of Brittany—calvaries and charnel-houses—are +frequently met with. The calvaries of Plougastel-Daoulas, +Pleyben, St Thégonnec, Lampaul-Guimiliau, which date from +the 17th century, and that of Guimiliau (16th century), and the +charnel-houses of Sizun and St Thégonnec (16th century) and +of Guimiliau (17th century) may be instanced as the most +remarkable. Daoulas has the remains of a fine church and +cloister in the Romanesque style. The chapel of St Herbot +(16th century) near Loqueffret, the churches of St Jean-du-Doigt +and Locronan, which belong to the 15th and 16th centuries, +those of Ploaré, Roscoff, Penmarc’h and Pleyben of the 16th +century, that of Le Folgoët (14th and 16th centuries), and the +huge château of Kerjean (16th century) are of architectural interest. +Religious festivals, and processions known as “pardons,” +are held in many places, notably at Locronan, St Jean-du-Doigt, +St Herbot and Le Faou.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> + + + + + + + + + +<pre> + + + + + +End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of Encyclopaedia Britannica, 11th +Edition, Volume 10, Slice 3, by Various + +*** END OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK ENCYC. BRITANNICA, VOL 10 SL 3 *** + +***** This file should be named 35561-h.htm or 35561-h.zip ***** +This and all associated files of various formats will be found in: + https://www.gutenberg.org/3/5/5/6/35561/ + +Produced by Marius Masi, Don Kretz and the Online +Distributed Proofreading Team at https://www.pgdp.net + + +Updated editions will replace the previous one--the old editions +will be renamed. + +Creating the works from public domain print editions means that no +one owns a United States copyright in these works, so the Foundation +(and you!) can copy and distribute it in the United States without +permission and without paying copyright royalties. Special rules, +set forth in the General Terms of Use part of this license, apply to +copying and distributing Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works to +protect the PROJECT GUTENBERG-tm concept and trademark. Project +Gutenberg is a registered trademark, and may not be used if you +charge for the eBooks, unless you receive specific permission. If you +do not charge anything for copies of this eBook, complying with the +rules is very easy. You may use this eBook for nearly any purpose +such as creation of derivative works, reports, performances and +research. They may be modified and printed and given away--you may do +practically ANYTHING with public domain eBooks. Redistribution is +subject to the trademark license, especially commercial +redistribution. + + + +*** START: FULL LICENSE *** + +THE FULL PROJECT GUTENBERG LICENSE +PLEASE READ THIS BEFORE YOU DISTRIBUTE OR USE THIS WORK + +To protect the Project Gutenberg-tm mission of promoting the free +distribution of electronic works, by using or distributing this work +(or any other work associated in any way with the phrase "Project +Gutenberg"), you agree to comply with all the terms of the Full Project +Gutenberg-tm License (available with this file or online at +https://gutenberg.org/license). + + +Section 1. General Terms of Use and Redistributing Project Gutenberg-tm +electronic works + +1.A. By reading or using any part of this Project Gutenberg-tm +electronic work, you indicate that you have read, understand, agree to +and accept all the terms of this license and intellectual property +(trademark/copyright) agreement. If you do not agree to abide by all +the terms of this agreement, you must cease using and return or destroy +all copies of Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works in your possession. +If you paid a fee for obtaining a copy of or access to a Project +Gutenberg-tm electronic work and you do not agree to be bound by the +terms of this agreement, you may obtain a refund from the person or +entity to whom you paid the fee as set forth in paragraph 1.E.8. + +1.B. "Project Gutenberg" is a registered trademark. It may only be +used on or associated in any way with an electronic work by people who +agree to be bound by the terms of this agreement. There are a few +things that you can do with most Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works +even without complying with the full terms of this agreement. See +paragraph 1.C below. There are a lot of things you can do with Project +Gutenberg-tm electronic works if you follow the terms of this agreement +and help preserve free future access to Project Gutenberg-tm electronic +works. See paragraph 1.E below. + +1.C. The Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation ("the Foundation" +or PGLAF), owns a compilation copyright in the collection of Project +Gutenberg-tm electronic works. Nearly all the individual works in the +collection are in the public domain in the United States. If an +individual work is in the public domain in the United States and you are +located in the United States, we do not claim a right to prevent you from +copying, distributing, performing, displaying or creating derivative +works based on the work as long as all references to Project Gutenberg +are removed. Of course, we hope that you will support the Project +Gutenberg-tm mission of promoting free access to electronic works by +freely sharing Project Gutenberg-tm works in compliance with the terms of +this agreement for keeping the Project Gutenberg-tm name associated with +the work. You can easily comply with the terms of this agreement by +keeping this work in the same format with its attached full Project +Gutenberg-tm License when you share it without charge with others. + +1.D. The copyright laws of the place where you are located also govern +what you can do with this work. Copyright laws in most countries are in +a constant state of change. If you are outside the United States, check +the laws of your country in addition to the terms of this agreement +before downloading, copying, displaying, performing, distributing or +creating derivative works based on this work or any other Project +Gutenberg-tm work. The Foundation makes no representations concerning +the copyright status of any work in any country outside the United +States. + +1.E. Unless you have removed all references to Project Gutenberg: + +1.E.1. The following sentence, with active links to, or other immediate +access to, the full Project Gutenberg-tm License must appear prominently +whenever any copy of a Project Gutenberg-tm work (any work on which the +phrase "Project Gutenberg" appears, or with which the phrase "Project +Gutenberg" is associated) is accessed, displayed, performed, viewed, +copied or distributed: + +This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with +almost no restrictions whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or +re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included +with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org + +1.E.2. If an individual Project Gutenberg-tm electronic work is derived +from the public domain (does not contain a notice indicating that it is +posted with permission of the copyright holder), the work can be copied +and distributed to anyone in the United States without paying any fees +or charges. If you are redistributing or providing access to a work +with the phrase "Project Gutenberg" associated with or appearing on the +work, you must comply either with the requirements of paragraphs 1.E.1 +through 1.E.7 or obtain permission for the use of the work and the +Project Gutenberg-tm trademark as set forth in paragraphs 1.E.8 or +1.E.9. + +1.E.3. If an individual Project Gutenberg-tm electronic work is posted +with the permission of the copyright holder, your use and distribution +must comply with both paragraphs 1.E.1 through 1.E.7 and any additional +terms imposed by the copyright holder. Additional terms will be linked +to the Project Gutenberg-tm License for all works posted with the +permission of the copyright holder found at the beginning of this work. + +1.E.4. Do not unlink or detach or remove the full Project Gutenberg-tm +License terms from this work, or any files containing a part of this +work or any other work associated with Project Gutenberg-tm. + +1.E.5. Do not copy, display, perform, distribute or redistribute this +electronic work, or any part of this electronic work, without +prominently displaying the sentence set forth in paragraph 1.E.1 with +active links or immediate access to the full terms of the Project +Gutenberg-tm License. + +1.E.6. You may convert to and distribute this work in any binary, +compressed, marked up, nonproprietary or proprietary form, including any +word processing or hypertext form. However, if you provide access to or +distribute copies of a Project Gutenberg-tm work in a format other than +"Plain Vanilla ASCII" or other format used in the official version +posted on the official Project Gutenberg-tm web site (www.gutenberg.org), +you must, at no additional cost, fee or expense to the user, provide a +copy, a means of exporting a copy, or a means of obtaining a copy upon +request, of the work in its original "Plain Vanilla ASCII" or other +form. Any alternate format must include the full Project Gutenberg-tm +License as specified in paragraph 1.E.1. + +1.E.7. Do not charge a fee for access to, viewing, displaying, +performing, copying or distributing any Project Gutenberg-tm works +unless you comply with paragraph 1.E.8 or 1.E.9. + +1.E.8. You may charge a reasonable fee for copies of or providing +access to or distributing Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works provided +that + +- You pay a royalty fee of 20% of the gross profits you derive from + the use of Project Gutenberg-tm works calculated using the method + you already use to calculate your applicable taxes. The fee is + owed to the owner of the Project Gutenberg-tm trademark, but he + has agreed to donate royalties under this paragraph to the + Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation. Royalty payments + must be paid within 60 days following each date on which you + prepare (or are legally required to prepare) your periodic tax + returns. Royalty payments should be clearly marked as such and + sent to the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation at the + address specified in Section 4, "Information about donations to + the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation." + +- You provide a full refund of any money paid by a user who notifies + you in writing (or by e-mail) within 30 days of receipt that s/he + does not agree to the terms of the full Project Gutenberg-tm + License. You must require such a user to return or + destroy all copies of the works possessed in a physical medium + and discontinue all use of and all access to other copies of + Project Gutenberg-tm works. + +- You provide, in accordance with paragraph 1.F.3, a full refund of any + money paid for a work or a replacement copy, if a defect in the + electronic work is discovered and reported to you within 90 days + of receipt of the work. + +- You comply with all other terms of this agreement for free + distribution of Project Gutenberg-tm works. + +1.E.9. If you wish to charge a fee or distribute a Project Gutenberg-tm +electronic work or group of works on different terms than are set +forth in this agreement, you must obtain permission in writing from +both the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation and Michael +Hart, the owner of the Project Gutenberg-tm trademark. Contact the +Foundation as set forth in Section 3 below. + +1.F. + +1.F.1. Project Gutenberg volunteers and employees expend considerable +effort to identify, do copyright research on, transcribe and proofread +public domain works in creating the Project Gutenberg-tm +collection. Despite these efforts, Project Gutenberg-tm electronic +works, and the medium on which they may be stored, may contain +"Defects," such as, but not limited to, incomplete, inaccurate or +corrupt data, transcription errors, a copyright or other intellectual +property infringement, a defective or damaged disk or other medium, a +computer virus, or computer codes that damage or cannot be read by +your equipment. + +1.F.2. LIMITED WARRANTY, DISCLAIMER OF DAMAGES - Except for the "Right +of Replacement or Refund" described in paragraph 1.F.3, the Project +Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation, the owner of the Project +Gutenberg-tm trademark, and any other party distributing a Project +Gutenberg-tm electronic work under this agreement, disclaim all +liability to you for damages, costs and expenses, including legal +fees. YOU AGREE THAT YOU HAVE NO REMEDIES FOR NEGLIGENCE, STRICT +LIABILITY, BREACH OF WARRANTY OR BREACH OF CONTRACT EXCEPT THOSE +PROVIDED IN PARAGRAPH 1.F.3. YOU AGREE THAT THE FOUNDATION, THE +TRADEMARK OWNER, AND ANY DISTRIBUTOR UNDER THIS AGREEMENT WILL NOT BE +LIABLE TO YOU FOR ACTUAL, DIRECT, INDIRECT, CONSEQUENTIAL, PUNITIVE OR +INCIDENTAL DAMAGES EVEN IF YOU GIVE NOTICE OF THE POSSIBILITY OF SUCH +DAMAGE. + +1.F.3. LIMITED RIGHT OF REPLACEMENT OR REFUND - If you discover a +defect in this electronic work within 90 days of receiving it, you can +receive a refund of the money (if any) you paid for it by sending a +written explanation to the person you received the work from. If you +received the work on a physical medium, you must return the medium with +your written explanation. The person or entity that provided you with +the defective work may elect to provide a replacement copy in lieu of a +refund. If you received the work electronically, the person or entity +providing it to you may choose to give you a second opportunity to +receive the work electronically in lieu of a refund. If the second copy +is also defective, you may demand a refund in writing without further +opportunities to fix the problem. + +1.F.4. Except for the limited right of replacement or refund set forth +in paragraph 1.F.3, this work is provided to you 'AS-IS' WITH NO OTHER +WARRANTIES OF ANY KIND, EXPRESS OR IMPLIED, INCLUDING BUT NOT LIMITED TO +WARRANTIES OF MERCHANTIBILITY OR FITNESS FOR ANY PURPOSE. + +1.F.5. Some states do not allow disclaimers of certain implied +warranties or the exclusion or limitation of certain types of damages. +If any disclaimer or limitation set forth in this agreement violates the +law of the state applicable to this agreement, the agreement shall be +interpreted to make the maximum disclaimer or limitation permitted by +the applicable state law. The invalidity or unenforceability of any +provision of this agreement shall not void the remaining provisions. + +1.F.6. INDEMNITY - You agree to indemnify and hold the Foundation, the +trademark owner, any agent or employee of the Foundation, anyone +providing copies of Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works in accordance +with this agreement, and any volunteers associated with the production, +promotion and distribution of Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works, +harmless from all liability, costs and expenses, including legal fees, +that arise directly or indirectly from any of the following which you do +or cause to occur: (a) distribution of this or any Project Gutenberg-tm +work, (b) alteration, modification, or additions or deletions to any +Project Gutenberg-tm work, and (c) any Defect you cause. + + +Section 2. Information about the Mission of Project Gutenberg-tm + +Project Gutenberg-tm is synonymous with the free distribution of +electronic works in formats readable by the widest variety of computers +including obsolete, old, middle-aged and new computers. It exists +because of the efforts of hundreds of volunteers and donations from +people in all walks of life. + +Volunteers and financial support to provide volunteers with the +assistance they need are critical to reaching Project Gutenberg-tm's +goals and ensuring that the Project Gutenberg-tm collection will +remain freely available for generations to come. In 2001, the Project +Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation was created to provide a secure +and permanent future for Project Gutenberg-tm and future generations. +To learn more about the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation +and how your efforts and donations can help, see Sections 3 and 4 +and the Foundation web page at https://www.pglaf.org. + + +Section 3. Information about the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive +Foundation + +The Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation is a non profit +501(c)(3) educational corporation organized under the laws of the +state of Mississippi and granted tax exempt status by the Internal +Revenue Service. The Foundation's EIN or federal tax identification +number is 64-6221541. Its 501(c)(3) letter is posted at +https://pglaf.org/fundraising. Contributions to the Project Gutenberg +Literary Archive Foundation are tax deductible to the full extent +permitted by U.S. federal laws and your state's laws. + +The Foundation's principal office is located at 4557 Melan Dr. S. +Fairbanks, AK, 99712., but its volunteers and employees are scattered +throughout numerous locations. Its business office is located at +809 North 1500 West, Salt Lake City, UT 84116, (801) 596-1887, email +business@pglaf.org. Email contact links and up to date contact +information can be found at the Foundation's web site and official +page at https://pglaf.org + +For additional contact information: + Dr. Gregory B. Newby + Chief Executive and Director + gbnewby@pglaf.org + + +Section 4. Information about Donations to the Project Gutenberg +Literary Archive Foundation + +Project Gutenberg-tm depends upon and cannot survive without wide +spread public support and donations to carry out its mission of +increasing the number of public domain and licensed works that can be +freely distributed in machine readable form accessible by the widest +array of equipment including outdated equipment. Many small donations +($1 to $5,000) are particularly important to maintaining tax exempt +status with the IRS. + +The Foundation is committed to complying with the laws regulating +charities and charitable donations in all 50 states of the United +States. Compliance requirements are not uniform and it takes a +considerable effort, much paperwork and many fees to meet and keep up +with these requirements. We do not solicit donations in locations +where we have not received written confirmation of compliance. To +SEND DONATIONS or determine the status of compliance for any +particular state visit https://pglaf.org + +While we cannot and do not solicit contributions from states where we +have not met the solicitation requirements, we know of no prohibition +against accepting unsolicited donations from donors in such states who +approach us with offers to donate. + +International donations are gratefully accepted, but we cannot make +any statements concerning tax treatment of donations received from +outside the United States. U.S. laws alone swamp our small staff. + +Please check the Project Gutenberg Web pages for current donation +methods and addresses. Donations are accepted in a number of other +ways including including checks, online payments and credit card +donations. To donate, please visit: https://pglaf.org/donate + + +Section 5. General Information About Project Gutenberg-tm electronic +works. + +Professor Michael S. Hart was the originator of the Project Gutenberg-tm +concept of a library of electronic works that could be freely shared +with anyone. For thirty years, he produced and distributed Project +Gutenberg-tm eBooks with only a loose network of volunteer support. + + +Project Gutenberg-tm eBooks are often created from several printed +editions, all of which are confirmed as Public Domain in the U.S. +unless a copyright notice is included. Thus, we do not necessarily +keep eBooks in compliance with any particular paper edition. + + +Most people start at our Web site which has the main PG search facility: + + https://www.gutenberg.org + +This Web site includes information about Project Gutenberg-tm, +including how to make donations to the Project Gutenberg Literary +Archive Foundation, how to help produce our new eBooks, and how to +subscribe to our email newsletter to hear about new eBooks. + + +</pre> + +</body> +</html> + + + + diff --git a/35561-h/images/img310a.jpg b/35561-h/images/img310a.jpg Binary files differnew file mode 100644 index 0000000..e64ed48 --- /dev/null +++ b/35561-h/images/img310a.jpg diff --git a/35561-h/images/img310b.jpg b/35561-h/images/img310b.jpg Binary files differnew file mode 100644 index 0000000..3d76ff4 --- /dev/null +++ b/35561-h/images/img310b.jpg diff --git a/35561-h/images/img310c.jpg b/35561-h/images/img310c.jpg Binary files differnew file mode 100644 index 0000000..bca5bf2 --- /dev/null +++ b/35561-h/images/img310c.jpg diff --git a/35561-h/images/img310d.jpg b/35561-h/images/img310d.jpg Binary files differnew file mode 100644 index 0000000..67fbc05 --- /dev/null +++ b/35561-h/images/img310d.jpg diff --git a/35561-h/images/img310e.jpg b/35561-h/images/img310e.jpg Binary files differnew file mode 100644 index 0000000..439ada8 --- /dev/null +++ b/35561-h/images/img310e.jpg diff --git a/35561-h/images/img310f.jpg b/35561-h/images/img310f.jpg Binary files differnew file mode 100644 index 0000000..d70efe5 --- /dev/null +++ b/35561-h/images/img310f.jpg diff --git a/35561-h/images/img310g.jpg b/35561-h/images/img310g.jpg Binary files differnew file mode 100644 index 0000000..61c4835 --- /dev/null +++ b/35561-h/images/img310g.jpg diff --git a/35561-h/images/img310h.jpg b/35561-h/images/img310h.jpg Binary files differnew file mode 100644 index 0000000..e9e4efb --- /dev/null +++ b/35561-h/images/img310h.jpg diff --git a/35561-h/images/img310i.jpg b/35561-h/images/img310i.jpg Binary files differnew file mode 100644 index 0000000..ad80f7f --- /dev/null +++ b/35561-h/images/img310i.jpg diff --git a/35561-h/images/img310j.jpg b/35561-h/images/img310j.jpg Binary files differnew file mode 100644 index 0000000..f26994d --- /dev/null +++ b/35561-h/images/img310j.jpg diff --git a/35561-h/images/img310k.jpg b/35561-h/images/img310k.jpg Binary files differnew file mode 100644 index 0000000..e404cbf --- /dev/null +++ b/35561-h/images/img310k.jpg diff --git a/35561-h/images/img310l.jpg b/35561-h/images/img310l.jpg Binary files differnew file mode 100644 index 0000000..1d6e8dc --- /dev/null +++ b/35561-h/images/img310l.jpg diff --git a/35561-h/images/img320.jpg b/35561-h/images/img320.jpg Binary files differnew file mode 100644 index 0000000..a0a83c3 --- /dev/null +++ b/35561-h/images/img320.jpg diff --git a/35561-h/images/img332.jpg b/35561-h/images/img332.jpg Binary files differnew file mode 100644 index 0000000..60657b5 --- /dev/null +++ b/35561-h/images/img332.jpg diff --git a/35561-h/images/img333.jpg b/35561-h/images/img333.jpg Binary files differnew file mode 100644 index 0000000..118ff2d --- /dev/null +++ b/35561-h/images/img333.jpg diff --git a/35561-h/images/img335a.jpg b/35561-h/images/img335a.jpg Binary files differnew file mode 100644 index 0000000..5e130e9 --- /dev/null +++ b/35561-h/images/img335a.jpg diff --git a/35561-h/images/img335b.jpg b/35561-h/images/img335b.jpg Binary files differnew file mode 100644 index 0000000..35d5da4 --- /dev/null +++ b/35561-h/images/img335b.jpg diff --git a/35561-h/images/img341.jpg b/35561-h/images/img341.jpg Binary files differnew file mode 100644 index 0000000..d1d8c20 --- /dev/null +++ b/35561-h/images/img341.jpg diff --git a/35561-h/images/img376.jpg b/35561-h/images/img376.jpg Binary files differnew file mode 100644 index 0000000..1ca8ea7 --- /dev/null +++ b/35561-h/images/img376.jpg diff --git a/35561-h/images/img378.jpg b/35561-h/images/img378.jpg Binary files differnew file mode 100644 index 0000000..03b46c3 --- /dev/null +++ b/35561-h/images/img378.jpg diff --git a/35561-h/images/img379a.jpg b/35561-h/images/img379a.jpg Binary files differnew file mode 100644 index 0000000..f2b54c8 --- /dev/null +++ b/35561-h/images/img379a.jpg diff --git a/35561-h/images/img379b.jpg b/35561-h/images/img379b.jpg Binary files differnew file mode 100644 index 0000000..3ab189b --- /dev/null +++ b/35561-h/images/img379b.jpg diff --git a/35561-h/images/img379c.jpg b/35561-h/images/img379c.jpg Binary files differnew file mode 100644 index 0000000..1a01925 --- /dev/null +++ b/35561-h/images/img379c.jpg diff --git a/35561-h/images/img380a.jpg b/35561-h/images/img380a.jpg Binary files differnew file mode 100644 index 0000000..59a1d11 --- /dev/null +++ b/35561-h/images/img380a.jpg diff --git a/35561-h/images/img380b.jpg b/35561-h/images/img380b.jpg Binary files differnew file mode 100644 index 0000000..39d8366 --- /dev/null +++ b/35561-h/images/img380b.jpg diff --git a/35561-h/images/img380c.jpg b/35561-h/images/img380c.jpg Binary files differnew file mode 100644 index 0000000..92e0128 --- /dev/null +++ b/35561-h/images/img380c.jpg diff --git a/35561-h/images/img381.jpg b/35561-h/images/img381.jpg Binary files differnew file mode 100644 index 0000000..12b4471 --- /dev/null +++ b/35561-h/images/img381.jpg |
