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diff --git a/35561.txt b/35561.txt new file mode 100644 index 0000000..b8ac011 --- /dev/null +++ b/35561.txt @@ -0,0 +1,18870 @@ +The Project Gutenberg EBook of Encyclopaedia Britannica, 11th Edition, +Volume 10, Slice 3, by Various + +This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with +almost no restrictions whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or +re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included +with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org + + +Title: Encyclopaedia Britannica, 11th Edition, Volume 10, Slice 3 + "Fenton, Edward" to "Finistere" + +Author: Various + +Release Date: March 12, 2011 [EBook #35561] + +Language: English + +Character set encoding: ASCII + +*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK ENCYC. BRITANNICA, VOL 10 SL 3 *** + + + + +Produced by Marius Masi, Don Kretz and the Online +Distributed Proofreading Team at https://www.pgdp.net + + + + + + + + + +Transcriber's notes: + +(1) Numbers following letters (without space) like C2 were originally + printed in subscript. Letter subscripts are preceded by an + underscore, like C_n. + +(2) Characters following a carat (^) were printed in superscript. + +(3) Side-notes were relocated to function as titles of their respective + paragraphs. + +(4) Macrons and breves above letters and dots below letters were not + inserted. + +(5) [root] stands for the root symbol; [alpha], [beta], etc. for greek + letters. + +(6) The following typographical errors have been corrected: + + ARTICLE FERDINAND V.: "He feared that Jimenez and the 267 Great + Captain would become too independent, and watched them in the + interest of the royal authority." 'Jimenez' amended from 'Ximinez'. + + ARTICLE FERGUSSON, ROBERT: "Fergusson's poems were collected in the + year before his death." "Fergusson's" amended from "Fergussons'". + + ARTICLE FERMENTATION: "For example, some species hydrolyse cane + sugar and maltose, and then carry on fermentation at the expense of + the simple sugars (hexoses) so formed." 'cane' amended from 'came'. + + ARTICLE FERREIRA, ANTONIO: "... and though it has since been + handled by poets of renown in many different languages, none has + been able to surpass the old master." 'different' amended from + 'differenc'. + + ARTICLE FEVER: "The high temperature seems to cause disintegration + of cell protoplasm and increased excretion of nitrogen and of + carbonic acid." 'disintegration' amended from 'distintegration'. + + ARTICLE FIBRES: "Transverse section of stem, X 235, showing bast + fibres occupying central zone." 'Transverse' amended from + 'tranverse'. + + ARTICLE FIBRES: "The textile yarn is produced by assembling + together the unit threads, which are wound together and suitably + twisted (silk; artificial silk)." 'and' amended from 'aud'. + + ARTICLE FIBRES: "Aloe and Agave fibres in their softer forms are + also used for plasterers' brushes." "plasterers'" amended from + "plasterers's". + + ARTICLE FICHTE, JOHANN GOTTLIEB: "The disasters of Prussia in 1806 + drove Fichte from Berlin." 'disasters' amended from 'diasters'. + + ARTICLE FICINO, MARSILIO: "Ficino, like nearly all the scholars of + that age in Italy, delighted in country life. 'life' amended from + 'lfe'. + + ARTICLE FICINO, MARSILIO: "From these it may be gathered that + nearly every living scholar of note was included in the list of his + friends, and that the subjects which interested him were by no + means confined to his Platonic studies. 'studies' amended from + 'sudies'. + + ARTICLE FIELD OF THE CLOTH OF GOLD: "The following days were taken + up with tournaments, in which both kings took part, banquets and + other entertainments ..." 'taken' amended from 'take'. + + ARTICLE FIFE: "... at Dunfermline and Kirkcaldy there are high + schools and at Anstruther there is the Waid Academy. 'Kirkcaldy' + amended from 'Kirkclady'. + + ARTICLE FIJI: "The Fijians combined with this greediness a savage + and merciless nature." 'nature' amended from 'natures'. + + ARTICLE FILELFO, FRANCESCO: "Not satisfied with these outlets for + his mental energy, Filelfo went on translating from the Greek, and + prosecuted a paper warfare with his enemies in Florence." 'Not' + amended from 'No'. + + ARTICLE FILTER: "... impurities like ferric oxide, alumina, lime, + magnesia and silica having been removed by treatment with + hydrochloric and hydrofluoric acids." 'ferric' amended from + 'feric'. + + + + + ENCYCLOPAEDIA BRITANNICA + + A DICTIONARY OF ARTS, SCIENCES, LITERATURE + AND GENERAL INFORMATION + + ELEVENTH EDITION + + + VOLUME X, SLICE III + + Fenton, Edward to Finistere + + + + +ARTICLES IN THIS SLICE: + + + FENTON, EDWARD FEUDALISM + FENTON, ELIJAH FEUERBACH, ANSELM + FENTON, SIR GEOFFREY FEUERBACH, LUDWIG ANDREAS + FENTON, LAVINIA FEUERBACH, PAUL JOHANN ANSELM + FENTON FEUILLANTS, CLUB OF THE + FENUGREEK FEUILLET, OCTAVE + FENWICK, SIR JOHN FEUILLETON + FEOFFMENT FEUQUIERES, ISAAC MANASSES DE PAS + FERDINAND FEVAL, PAUL HENRI CORENTIN + FERDINAND I. (Roman emperor) FEVER + FERDINAND II. (Roman emperor) FEYDEAU, ERNEST-AIME + FERDINAND III. (Roman emperor) FEZ + FERDINAND I. (emperor of Austria) FEZZAN + FERDINAND I. (king of Naples) FIACRE, SAINT + FERDINAND II. (king of Naples) FIARS PRICES + FERDINAND IV. (king of Naples) FIBRES + FERDINAND I. (king of Portugal) FIBRIN + FERDINAND I. (king of Castile) FICHTE, IMMANUEL HERMANN VON + FERDINAND II. (king of Leon) FICHTE, JOHANN GOTTLIEB + FERDINAND III. (king of Castile) FICHTELGEBIRGE + FERDINAND IV. (king of Castile) FICINO, MARSILIO + FERDINAND I. (king of Aragon) FICKSBURG + FERDINAND V. (of Castile & Leon) FICTIONS + FERDINAND VI. (king of Spain) FIDDES, RICHARD + FERDINAND VII. (king of Spain) FIDDLE + FERDINAND II. (king of Sicily) FIDENAE + FERDINAND III. (duke of Tuscany) FIDUCIARY + FERDINAND, MAXIMILIAN MARIA FIEF + FERDINAND (duke of Brunswick) FIELD, CYRUS WEST + FERDINAND (archbishop of Cologne) FIELD, DAVID DUDLEY + FERENTINO FIELD, EUGENE + FERENTUM FIELD, FREDERICK + FERETORY FIELD, HENRY MARTYN + FERGHANA FIELD, JOHN + FERGUS FALLS FIELD, MARSHALL + FERGUSON, ADAM FIELD, NATHAN + FERGUSON, JAMES FIELD, STEPHEN JOHNSON + FERGUSON, ROBERT FIELD, WILLIAM VENTRIS FIELD + FERGUSON, SIR SAMUEL FIELD + FERGUSSON, JAMES FIELDFARE + FERGUSSON, ROBERT FIELDING, ANTHONY VANDYKE COPLEY + FERGUSSON, SIR WILLIAM FIELDING, HENRY + FERINGHI FIELDING, WILLIAM STEVENS + FERISHTA, MAHOMMED KASIM FIELD-MOUSE + FERMANAGH FIELD OF THE CLOTH OF GOLD + FERMAT, PIERRE DE FIELDS, JAMES THOMAS + FERMENTATION FIENNES, NATHANIEL + FERMO FIERI FACIAS + FERMOY FIESCHI, GIUSEPPE MARCO + FERN FIESCO, GIOVANNI LUIGI + FERNANDEZ, ALVARO FIESOLE + FERNANDEZ, DIEGO FIFE (county of Scotland) + FERNANDEZ, JOHN FIFE (flute) + FERNANDEZ, JUAN FIFTH MONARCHY MEN + FERNANDEZ, LUCAS FIG + FERNANDINA FIGARO + FERNANDO DE NORONHA FIGEAC + FERNANDO PO FIGUEIRA DA FOZ + FERNEL, JEAN FRANCOIS FIGUERAS + FERNIE FIGULUS, PUBLIUS NIGIDIUS + FERNOW, KARL LUDWIG FIGURATE NUMBERS + FEROZEPUR FIJI + FEROZESHAH FILANDER + FERRAND, ANTOINE FRANCOIS CLAUDE FILANGIERI, CARLO + FERRAR, NICHOLAS FILANGIERI, GAETANO + FERRAR, ROBERT FILARIASIS + FERRARA FILDES, SIR LUKE + FERRARA-FLORENCE FILE + FERRARI, GAUDENZIO FILE-FISH + FERRARI, GIUSEPPE FILELFO, FRANCESCO + FERRARI, PAOLO FILEY + FERREIRA, ANTONIO FILIBUSTER + FERREL'S LAW FILICAJA, VINCENZO DA + FERRERS FILIGREE + FERRERS, LAURENCE SHIRLEY FILLAN, SAINT + FERRET FILLET + FERRI, CIRO FILLMORE, MILLARD + FERRI, LUIGI FILMER, SIR RORERT + FERRIER, ARNAUD DU FILMY FERNS + FERRIER, JAMES FREDERICK FILON, PIERRE MARIE AUGUSTIN + FERRIER, PAUL FILOSA + FERRIER, SUSAN EDMONSTONE FILTER + FERROL FIMBRIA, GAIUS FLAVIUS + FERRUCCIO, FRANCESCO FIMBRIATE + FERRULE FINALE + FERRY, JULES FRANCOIS CAMILLE FINANCE + FERRY FINCH, FINCH-HATTON + FERSEN, FREDRIK AXEL FINCH OF FORDWICH, JOHN FINCH + FERSEN, HANS AXEL FINCH + FESCA, FREDERIC ERNEST FINCHLEY + FESCENNIA FINCK, FRIEDRICH AUGUST VON + FESCENNINE VERSES FINCK, HEINRICH + FESCH, JOSEPH FINCK, HERMANN + FESSA FINDEN, WILLIAM + FESSENDEN, WILLIAM PITT FINDLATER, ANDREW + FESSLER, IGNAZ AURELIUS FINDLAY, SIR GEORGE + FESTA, CONSTANZO FINDLAY, JOHN RITCHIE + FESTINIOG FINDLAY + FESTOON FINE + FESTUS FINE ARTS + FESTUS, SEXTUS POMPEIUS FINGER + FETIS, FRANCOIS JOSEPH FINGER-AND-TOE + FETISHISM FINGER-PRINTS + FETTERCAIRN FINGO + FETTERS AND HANDCUFFS FINIAL + FEU FINIGUERRA, MASO + FEUCHERES, SOPHIE FINISHING + FEUCHTERSLEBEN, ERNST FINISTERE + FEUD + + + + +FENTON, EDWARD (d. 1603), English navigator, son of Henry Fenton and +brother of Sir Geoffrey Fenton (q.v.), was a native of Nottinghamshire. +In 1577 he sailed, in command of the "Gabriel," with Sir Martin +Frobisher's second expedition for the discovery of the north-west +passage, and in the following year he took part as second in command in +Frobisher's third expedition, his ship being the "Judith." He was then +employed in Ireland for a time, but in 1582 he was put in charge of an +expedition which was to sail round the Cape of Good Hope to the Moluccas +and China, his instructions being to obtain any knowledge of the +north-west passage that was possible without hindrance to his trade. On +this unsuccessful voyage he got no farther than Brazil, and throughout +he was engaged in quarrelling with his officers, and especially with his +lieutenant, William Hawkins, the nephew of Sir John Hawkins, whom he had +in irons when he arrived back in the Thames. In 1588 he had command of +the "Mary Rose," one of the ships of the fleet that was formed to oppose +the Armada. He died fifteen years afterwards. + + + + +FENTON, ELIJAH (1683-1730), English poet, was born at Shelton near +Newcastle-under-Lyme, of an old Staffordshire family, on the 25th of May +1683. He graduated from Jesus College, Cambridge, in 1704, but was +prevented by religious scruples from taking orders. He accompanied the +earl of Orrery to Flanders as private secretary, and on returning to +England became assistant in a school at Headley, Surrey, being soon +afterwards appointed master of the free grammar school at Sevenoaks in +Kent. In 1710 he resigned his appointment in the expectation of a place +from Lord Bolingbroke, but was disappointed. He then became tutor to +Lord Broghill, son of his patron Orrery. Fenton is remembered as the +coadjutor of Alexander Pope in his translation of the _Odyssey_. He was +responsible for the first, fourth, nineteenth and twentieth books, for +which he received L300. He died at East Hampstead, Berkshire, on the +16th of July 1730. He was buried in the parish church, and his epitaph +was written by Pope. + + Fenton also published _Oxford and Cambridge Miscellany Poems_ (1707); + _Miscellaneous Poems_ (1717); _Mariamne_, a tragedy (1723); an edition + (1725) of Milton's poems, and one of Waller (1729) with elaborate + notes. See W.W. Lloyd, _Elijah Fenton, his Poetry and Friends_ (1894). + + + + +FENTON, SIR GEOFFREY (c. 1539-1608), English writer and politician, was +the son of Henry Fenton, of Nottinghamshire. He was brother of Edward +Fenton the navigator. He is said to have visited Spain and Italy in his +youth; possibly he went to Paris in Sir Thomas Hoby's train in 1566, for +he was living there in 1567, when he wrote _Certaine tragicall +discourses written oute of Frenche and Latin_. This book is a free +translation of Francois de Belleforest's French rendering of Matteo +Bandello's _Novelle_. Till 1579 Fenton continued his literary labours, +publishing _Monophylo_ in 1572, _Golden epistles gathered out of +Guevarae's workes as other authors_ ... 1575, and various religious +tracts of strong protestant tendencies. In 1579 appeared the _Historie +of Guicciardini, translated out of French by G.F._ and dedicated to +Elizabeth. Through Lord Burghley he obtained, in 1580, the post of +secretary to the new lord deputy of Ireland, Lord Grey de Wilton, and +thus became a fellow worker with the poet, Edmund Spenser. From this +time Fenton abandoned literature and became a faithful if somewhat +unscrupulous servant of the crown. He was a bigoted protestant, longing +to use the rack against "the diabolicall secte of Rome," and even +advocating the assassination of the queen's most dangerous subjects. He +won Elizabeth's confidence, and the hatred of all his fellow-workers, by +keeping her informed of every one's doings in Ireland. In 1587 Sir John +Perrot arrested Fenton, but the queen instantly ordered his release. +Fenton was knighted in 1589, and in 1590-1591 he was in London as +commissioner on the impeachment of Perrot. Full of dislike of the Scots +and of James VI. (which he did not scruple to utter), on the latter's +accession Fenton's post of secretary was in danger, but Burghley exerted +himself in his favour, and in 1604 it was confirmed to him for life, +though he had to share it with Sir Richard Coke. Fenton died in Dublin +on the 19th of October 1608, and was buried in St Patrick's cathedral. +He married in June 1585, Alice, daughter of Dr Robert Weston, formerly +lord chancellor of Ireland, and widow of Dr Hugh Brady, bishop of Meath, +by whom he had two children, a son, Sir William Fenton, and a daughter, +Catherine, who in 1603 married Richard Boyle, 1st earl of Cork. + + BIBLIOGRAPHY.--Harl. Soc. publications, vol. iv., Visitation of + Nottinghamshire, 1871; Roy. Hist. MSS. Comm. (particularly Hatfield + collection); Calendar of State papers, Ireland (very full), domestic, + Carew papers; Lismore papers, ed. A.B. Grosart (1886-1888); _Certaine + tragicall Discourses_, ed. R.L. Douglas (2 vols., 1898), Tudor + Translation series, vols. xix., xx. (introd.). + + + + +FENTON, LAVINIA (1708-1760), English actress, was probably the daughter +of a naval lieutenant named Beswick, but she bore the name of her +mother's husband. Her first appearance was as Monimia in Otway's +_Orphans_, in 1726 at the Haymarket. She then joined the company of +players at the theatre in Lincoln's Inn Fields, where her success and +beauty made her the toast of the beaux. It was in Gay's _Beggar's +Opera_, as Polly Peachum, that Miss Fenton made her greatest success. +Her pictures were in great demand, verses were written to her and books +published about her, and she was the most talked-of person in London. +Hogarth's picture shows her in one of the scenes, with the duke of +Bolton in a box. After appearing in several comedies, and then in +numerous repetitions of the _Beggar's Opera_, she ran away with her +lover Charles Paulet, 3rd duke of Bolton, a man much older than herself, +who, after the death of his wife in 1751, married her. Their three +children all died young. The duchess survived her husband and died on +the 24th of January 1760. + + + + +FENTON, a town of Staffordshire, England, on the North Staffordshire +railway, adjoining the east side of Stoke-on-Trent, in which +parliamentary and municipal borough it is included. Pop. (1891) 16,998; +(1901) 22,742. The manufacture of earthenware common to the district +(the Potteries) employs the bulk of the large industrial population. + + + + +FENUGREEK, in botany, _Trigonella Foenum-graecum_ (so called from the +name given to it by the ancients, who used it as fodder for cattle), a +member of a genus of leguminous herbs very similar in habit and in most +of their characters to the species of the genus _Medicago_. The leaves +are formed of three obovate leaflets, the middle one of which is +stalked; the flowers are solitary, or in clusters of two or three, and +have a campanulate, 5-cleft calyx; and the pods are many-seeded, +cylindrical or flattened, and straight or only slightly curved. The +genus is widely diffused over the south of Europe, West and Central +Asia, and the north of Africa, and is represented by several species in +Australia. Fenugreek is indigenous to south-eastern Europe and western +Asia, and is cultivated in the Mediterranean region, parts of central +Europe, and in Morocco, and largely in Egypt and in India. It bears a +sickle-shaped pod, containing from 10 to 20 seeds, from which 6% of a +fetid, fatty and bitter oil can be extracted by ether. In India the +fresh plant is employed as an esculent. The seed is an ingredient in +curry powders, and is used for flavouring cattle foods. It was formerly +much esteemed as a medicine, and is still in repute in veterinary +practice. + + + + +FENWICK, SIR JOHN (c. 1645-1697), English conspirator, was the eldest +son of Sir William Fenwick, or Fenwicke, a member of an old +Northumberland family. He entered the army, becoming major-general in +1688, but before this date he had been returned in succession to his +father as one of the members of parliament for Northumberland, which +county he represented from 1677 to 1687. He was a strong partisan of +King James II., and in 1685 was one of the principal supporters of the +act of attainder against the duke of Monmouth; but he remained in +England when William III. ascended the throne three years later. He +began at once to plot against the new king, for which he underwent a +short imprisonment in 1689. Renewing his plots on his release, he +publicly insulted Queen Mary in 1691, and it is practically certain that +he was implicated in the schemes for assassinating William which came to +light in 1695 and 1696. After the seizure of his fellow-conspirators, +Robert Charnock and others, he remained in hiding until the imprudent +conduct of his friends in attempting to induce one of the witnesses +against him to leave the country led to his arrest in June in 1696. To +save himself he offered to reveal all he knew about the Jacobite +conspiracies; but his confession was a farce, being confined to charges +against some of the leading Whig noblemen, which were damaging, but not +conclusive. By this time his friends had succeeded in removing one of +the two witnesses, and in these circumstances it was thought that the +charge of treason must fail. The government, however, overcame this +difficulty by introducing a bill of attainder, which after a long and +acrimonious discussion passed through both Houses of Parliament. His +wife persevered in her attempts to save his life, but her efforts were +fruitless, and Fenwick was beheaded in London on the 28th of January +1697, with the same formalities as were usually observed at the +execution of a peer. By his wife, Mary (d. 1708), daughter of Charles +Howard, 1st earl of Carlisle, he had three sons and one daughter. +Macaulay says that "of all the Jacobites, the most desperate characters +not excepted, he (Fenwick) was the only one for whom William felt an +intense personal aversion"; and it is interesting to note that Fenwick's +hatred of the king is said to date from the time when he was serving in +Holland, and was reprimanded by William, then prince of Orange. + + + + +FEOFFMENT, in English law, during the feudal period, the usual method of +granting or conveying a freehold or fee. For the derivation of the word +see FIEF and FEE. The essential elements were _livery of seisin_ +(delivery of possession), which consisted in formally giving to the +feoffee on the land a clod or turf, or a growing twig, as a symbol of +the transfer of the land, and words by the feoffor declaratory of his +intent to deliver possession to the feoffee with a "limitation" of the +estate intended to be transferred. This was called livery _in deed_. +Livery _in law_ was made not on but in sight of this land, the feoffor +saying to the feoffee, "I give you that land; enter and take +possession." Livery in law, in order to pass the estate, had to be +perfected by entry by the feoffee during the joint lives of himself and +the feoffor. It was usual to evidence the feoffment by writing in a +charter or deed of feoffment; but writing was not essential until the +Statute of Frauds; now, by the Real Property Act 1845, a conveyance of +real property is void unless evidenced by deed, and thus feoffments +have been rendered unnecessary and superfluous. All corporeal +hereditaments were by that act declared to be _in grant_ as well as +_livery_, i.e. they could be granted by deed without livery. A feoffment +might be a tortious conveyance, _i.e._ if a person attempted to give to +the feoffee a greater estate than he himself had in the land, he +forfeited the estate of which he was seised. (See CONVEYANCING; REAL +PROPERTY.) + + + + +FERDINAND (Span. _Fernando_ or _Hernando_; Ital. _Ferdinando_ or +_Ferrante_; in O.H. Ger. _Herinand_, i.e. "brave in the host," from +O.H.G. Heri, "army," A.S. _here_, Mod. Ger. _Heer_, and the Goth, +_nanthjan_, "to dare"), a name borne at various times by many European +sovereigns and princes, the more important of whom are noticed below in +the following order: emperors, kings of Naples, Portugal, Spain +(Castile, Leon and Aragon) and the two Sicilies; then the grand duke of +Tuscany, the prince of Bulgaria, the duke of Brunswick and the elector +of Cologne. + + + + +FERDINAND I. (1503-1564), Roman emperor, was born at Alcala de Henares +on the 10th of March 1503, his father being Philip the Handsome, son of +the emperor Maximilian I., and his mother Joanna, daughter of Ferdinand +and Isabella, king and queen of Castile and Aragon. Philip died in 1506 +and Ferdinand, educated in Spain, was regarded with especial favour by +his maternal grandfather who wished to form a Spanish-Italian kingdom +for his namesake. This plan came to nothing, and the same fate attended +a suggestion made after the death of Maximilian in 1519 that Ferdinand, +and not his elder brother Charles, afterwards the emperor Charles V., +should succeed to the imperial throne. Charles, however, secured the +Empire and the whole of the lands of Maximilian and Ferdinand, while the +younger brother was perforce content with a subordinate position. Yet +some provision must be made for Ferdinand. In April 1521 the emperor +granted to him the archduchies and duchies of upper and lower Austria, +Carinthia, Styria and Carniola, adding soon afterwards the county of +Tirol and the hereditary possessions of the Habsburgs in south-western +Germany. About the same time the archduke was appointed to govern the +duchy of Wurttemberg, which had come into the possession of Charles V.; +and in May 1521 he was married at Linz to Anna (d. 1547), a daughter of +Ladislaus, king of Hungary and Bohemia, a union which had been arranged +some years before by the emperor Maximilian. In 1521 also he was made +president of the council of regency (_Reichsregiment_), appointed to +govern Germany during the emperor's absence, and the next five years +were occupied with imperial business, in which he acted as his brother's +representative, and in the government of the Austrian lands. + +In Austria and the neighbouring duchies Ferdinand sought at first to +suppress the reformers and their teaching, and this was possibly one +reason why he had some difficulty in quelling risings in the districts +under his rule after the Peasants' War broke out in 1524. But a new +field was soon opened for his ambition. In August 1526 his childless +brother-in-law, Louis II., king of Hungary and Bohemia, was killed at +the battle of Mohacs, and the archduke at once claimed both kingdoms, +both by treaty and by right of his wife. Taking advantage of the +divisions among his opponents, he was chosen king of Bohemia in October +1526, and crowned at Prague in the following February, but in Hungary he +was less successful. John Zapolya, supported by the national party and +soon afterwards by the Turks, offered a sturdy resistance, and although +Ferdinand was chosen king at Pressburg in December 1526, and after +defeating Zapolya at Tokay was crowned at Stuhlweissenburg in November +1527, he was unable to take possession of the kingdom. The Bavarian +Wittelsbachs, incensed at not securing the Bohemian throne, were +secretly intriguing with his foes; the French, after assisting +spasmodically, made a formal alliance with Turkey in 1535; and Zapolya +was a very useful centre round which the enemies of the Habsburgs were +not slow to gather. A truce made in 1533 was soon broken, and the war +dragged on until 1538, when by the treaty of Grosswardein, Hungary was +divided between the claimants. The kingly title was given to Zapolya, +but Ferdinand was to follow him on the throne. Before this, in January +1531, he had been chosen king of the Romans, or German king, at Cologne, +and his coronation took place a few days later at Aix-la-Chapelle. He +had thoroughly earned this honour by his loyalty to his brother, whom he +had represented at several diets. In religious matters the king was now +inclined, probably owing to the Turkish danger, to steer a middle course +between the contending parties, and in 1532 he agreed to the religious +peace of Nuremberg, receiving in return from the Protestants some +assistance for the war against the Turks. In 1534, however, his prestige +suffered a severe rebuff. Philip, landgrave of Hesse, and his associates +had succeeded in conquering Wurttemberg on behalf of its exiled duke, +Ulrich (q.v.), and, otherwise engaged, neither Charles nor Ferdinand +could send much help to their lieutenants. They were consequently +obliged to consent to the treaty of Cadan, made in June 1534, by which +the German king recognized Ulrich as duke of Wurttemberg, on condition +that he held his duchy under Austrian suzerainty. + +In Hungary the peace of 1538 was not permanent. When Zapolya died in +July 1540 a powerful faction refused to admit the right of Ferdinand to +succeed him, and put forward his young son John Sigismund as a candidate +for the throne. The cause of John Sigismund was espoused by the Turks +and by Ferdinand's other enemies, and, unable to get any serious +assistance from the imperial diet, the king repeatedly sought to make +peace with the sultan, but his envoys were haughtily repulsed. In 1544, +however, a short truce was made. This was followed by others, and in +1547 one was concluded for five years, but only on condition that +Ferdinand paid tribute for the small part of Hungary which remained in +his hands. The struggle was renewed in 1551 and was continued in the +same desultory fashion until 1562, when a truce was made which lasted +during the remainder of Ferdinand's lifetime. During the war of the +league of Schmalkalden in 1546 and 1547 the king had taken the field +primarily to protect Bohemia, and after the conclusion of the war he put +down a rising in this country with some rigour. He appears during these +years to have governed his lands with vigour and success, but in +imperial politics he was merely the representative and spokesman of the +emperor. About 1546, however, he began to take up a more independent +position. Although Charles had crushed the league of Schmalkalden he had +refused to restore Wurttemberg to Ferdinand; and he gave further offence +by seeking to secure the succession of his son Philip, afterwards king +of Spain, to the imperial throne. Ferdinand naturally objected, but in +1551 his reluctant consent was obtained to the plan that, on the +proposed abdication of Charles, Philip should be chosen king of the +Romans, and should succeed Ferdinand himself as emperor. Subsequent +events caused the scheme to be dropped, but it had a somewhat +unfortunate sequel for Charles, as during the short war between the +emperor and Maurice, elector of Saxony, in 1552 Ferdinand's attitude was +rather that of a spectator and mediator than of a partisan. There seems, +however, to be no truth in the suggestion that he acted treacherously +towards his brother, and was in alliance with his foes. On behalf of +Charles he negotiated the treaty of Passau with Maurice in 1552, and in +1555 after the conduct of imperial business had virtually been made over +to him, and harmony had been restored between the brothers, he was +responsible for the religious peace of Augsburg. Early in 1558 Charles +carried out his intention to abdicate the imperial throne, and on the +24th of March Ferdinand was crowned as his successor at Frankfort. Pope +Paul IV. would not recognize the new emperor, but his successor Pius IV. +did so in 1559 through the mediation of Philip of Spain. The emperor's +short reign was mainly spent in seeking to settle the religious +differences of Germany, and in efforts to prosecute the Turkish war more +vigorously. His hopes at one time centred round the council of Trent +which resumed its sittings in 1562, but he was unable to induce the +Protestants to be represented. Although he held firmly to the Roman +Catholic Church he sought to obtain tangible concessions to her +opponents; but he refused to conciliate the Protestants by abrogating +the clause concerning ecclesiastical reservation in the peace of +Augsburg, and all his efforts to bring about reunion were futile. He did +indeed secure the privilege of communion in both kinds from Pius IV. for +the laity in Bohemia and in various parts of Germany, but the hearty +support which he gave the Jesuits shows that he had no sympathy with +Protestantism, and was only anxious to restore union in the Church. In +November 1562 he obtained the election of his son Maximilian as king of +the Romans, and having arranged a partition of his lands among his three +surviving sons, died in Vienna on the 25th of July 1564. His family had +consisted of six sons and nine daughters. + +In spite of constant and harassing engagements Ferdinand was fairly +successful both as king and emperor. He sought to consolidate his +Austrian lands, reformed the monetary system in Germany, and reorganized +the Aulic council (_Reichshofrat_). Less masterful but more popular than +his brother, whose character overshadows his own, he was just and +tolerant, a good Catholic and a conscientious ruler. + + See the article on CHARLES V. and the bibliography appended thereto. + Also, A. Ulloa, _Vita del potentissimo e christianissimo imperatore + Ferdinando primo_ (Venice, 1565); S. Schard, _Epitome rerum in variis + orbis partibus a confirmatione Ferdinandi I_. (Basel, 1574); F.B. von + Bucholtz_, Geschichte der Regierung Ferdinands des Ersten_ (Vienna, + 1831-1838); K. Oberleitner, _Osterreichs Finanzen und Kriegswesen + unter Ferdinand I_. (Vienna, 1859); A. Rezek, _Geschichte der + Regierung Ferdinands I. in Bohmen_ (Prague, 1878); E. Rosenthal, _Die + Behordenorganisation Kaiser Ferdinands I_. (Vienna, 1887); and W. + Bauer, _Die Anfange Ferdinands I_. (Vienna, 1907). + + + + +FERDINAND II. (1578-1637), Roman emperor, was the eldest son of Charles, +archduke of Styria (d. 1590), and his wife Maria, daughter of Albert +IV., duke of Bavaria and a grandson of the emperor Ferdinand I. Born at +Gratz on the 9th of July 1578, he was trained by the Jesuits, finishing +his education at the university of Ingolstadt, and became the pattern +prince of the counter-reformation. In 1596 he undertook the government +of Styria, Carinthia and Carniola, and after a visit to Italy began an +organized attack on Protestantism which under his father's rule had made +great progress in these archduchies; and although hampered by the +inroads of the Turks, he showed his indifference to the material welfare +of his dominions by compelling many of his Protestant subjects to choose +between exile and conversion, and by entirely suppressing Protestant +worship. He was not, however, unmindful of the larger interest of his +family, or of the Empire which the Habsburgs regarded as belonging to +them by hereditary right. In 1606 he joined his kinsmen in recognizing +his cousin Matthias as the head of the family in place of the lethargic +Rudolph II.; but he shrank from any proceedings which might lead to the +deposition of the emperor, whom he represented at the diet of Regensburg +in 1608; and his conduct was somewhat ambiguous during the subsequent +quarrel between Rudolph and Matthias. + +In the first decade of the 17th century the house of Habsburg seemed +overtaken by senile decay, and the great inheritance of Charles V. and +Ferdinand I. to be threatened with disintegration and collapse. The +reigning emperor, Rudolph II., was inert and childless; his surviving +brothers, the archduke Matthias (afterwards emperor), Maximilian +(1558-1618) and Albert (1559-1621), all men of mature age, were also +without direct heirs; the racial differences among its subjects were +increased by their religious animosities; and it appeared probable that +the numerous enemies of the Habsburgs had only to wait a few years and +then to divide the spoil. In spite of the recent murder of Henry IV. of +France, this issue seemed still more likely when Matthias succeeded +Rudolph as emperor in 1612. The Habsburgs, however, were not indifferent +to the danger, and about 1615 it was agreed that Ferdinand, who already +had two sons by his marriage with his cousin Maria Anna (d. 1616), +daughter of William V., duke of Bavaria, should be the next emperor, and +should succeed Matthias in the elective kingdoms of Hungary and Bohemia. +The obstacles which impeded the progress of the scheme were gradually +overcome by the energy of the archduke Maximilian. The elder archdukes +renounced their rights in the succession; the claims of Philip III. and +the Spanish Habsburgs were bought off by a promise of Alsace; and the +emperor consented to his supercession in Hungary and Bohemia. In 1617 +Ferdinand, who was just concluding a war with Venice, was chosen king of +Bohemia, and in 1618 king of Hungary; but his election as German king, +or king of the Romans, delayed owing to the anxiety of Melchior Klesl +(q.v.) to conciliate the protestant princes, had not been accomplished +when Matthias died in March 1619. Before this event, however, an +important movement had begun in Bohemia. Having been surprised into +choosing a devoted Roman Catholic as their king, the Bohemian +Protestants suddenly realized that their religious, and possibly their +civil liberties, were seriously menaced, and deeds of aggression on the +part of Ferdinand's representatives showed that this was no idle fear. +Gaining the upper hand they declared Ferdinand deposed, and elected the +elector palatine of the Rhine, Frederick V., in his stead; and the +struggle between the rivals was the beginning of the Thirty Years' War. +At the same time other difficulties confronted Ferdinand, who had not +yet secured the imperial throne. Bethlen Gabor, prince of Transylvania, +invaded Hungary, while the Austrians rose and joined the Bohemians; but +having seen his foes retreat from Vienna, Ferdinand hurried to +Frankfort, where he was chosen emperor on the 28th of August 1619. + +To deal with the elector palatine and his allies the new emperor allied +himself with Maximilian I., duke of Bavaria, and the Catholic League, +who drove Frederick from Bohemia in 1620, while Ferdinand's Spanish +allies devastated the Palatinate. Peace having been made with Bethlen +Gabor in December 1621, the first period of the war ended in a +satisfactory fashion for the emperor, and he could turn his attention to +completing the work of crushing the Protestants, which had already begun +in his archduchies and in Bohemia. In 1623 the Protestant clergy were +expelled from Bohemia; in 1624 all worship save that of the Roman +Catholic church was forbidden; and in 1627 an order of banishment +against all Protestants was issued. A new constitution made the kingdom +hereditary in the house of Habsburg, gave larger powers to the +sovereign, and aimed at destroying the nationality of the Bohemians. +Similar measures in Austria led to a fresh rising which was put down by +the aid of the Bavarians in 1627, and Ferdinand could fairly claim that +in his hereditary lands at least he had rendered Protestantism +innocuous. + +The renewal of the Thirty Years' War in 1625 was caused mainly by the +emperor's vigorous championship of the cause of the counter-reformation +in northern and north-eastern Germany. Again the imperial forces were +victorious, chiefly owing to the genius of Wallenstein, who raised and +led an army in this service, although the great scheme of securing the +southern coast of the Baltic for the Habsburgs was foiled partly by the +resistance of Stralsund. In March 1629 Ferdinand and his advisers felt +themselves strong enough to take the important step towards which their +policy in the Empire had been steadily tending. Issuing the famous edict +of restitution, the emperor ordered that all lands which had been +secularized since 1552, the date of the peace of Passau, should be +restored to the church, and prompt measures were taken to enforce this +decree. Many and powerful interests were vitally affected by this +proceeding, and the result was the outbreak of the third period of the +war, which was less favourable to the imperial arms than the preceding +ones. This comparative failure was due, in the initial stages of the +campaign, to Ferdinand's weakness in assenting in 1630 to the demand of +Maximilian of Bavaria that Wallenstein should be deprived of his +command, and also to the genius of Gustavus Adolphus; and in its later +stages to his insistence on the second removal of Wallenstein, and to +his complicity in the assassination of the general. This deed was +followed by the peace of Prague, concluded in 1635, primarily with John +George I., elector of Saxony, but soon assented to by other princes; and +this treaty, which made extensive concessions to the Protestants, marks +the definite failure of Ferdinand to crush Protestantism in the Empire, +as he had already done in Austria and Bohemia. It is noteworthy, +however, that the emperor refused to allow the inhabitants of his +hereditary dominions to share in the benefits of the peace. During these +years Ferdinand had also been menaced by the secret or open hostility of +France. A dispute over the duchies of Mantua and Monferrato was ended +by the treaty of Cherasco in 1631, but the influence of France was +employed at the imperial diets and elsewhere in thwarting the plans of +Ferdinand and in weakening the power of the Habsburgs. The last +important act of the emperor was to secure the election of his son +Ferdinand as king of the Romans. An attempt in 1630 to attain this end +had failed, but in December 1636 the princes, meeting at Regensburg, +bestowed the coveted dignity upon the younger Ferdinand. A few weeks +afterwards, on the 15th of February 1637, the emperor died at Vienna, +leaving, in addition to the king of the Romans, a son Leopold William +(1614-1662), bishop of Passau and Strassburg. Ferdinand's reign was so +occupied with the Thirty Years' War and the struggle with the +Protestants that he had little time or inclination for other business. +It is interesting to note, however, that this orthodox and Catholic +emperor was constantly at variance with Pope Urban VIII. The quarrel was +due principally, but not entirely, to events in Italy, where the pope +sided with France in the dispute over the succession to Mantua and +Monferrato. The succession question was settled, but the enmity +remained; Urban showing his hostility by preventing the election of the +younger Ferdinand as king of the Romans in 1630, and by turning a deaf +ear to the emperor's repeated requests for assistance to prosecute the +war against the heretics. Ferdinand's character has neither +individuality nor interest, but he ruled the Empire during a critical +and important period. Kind and generous to his dependents, his private +life was simple and blameless, but he was to a great extent under the +influence of his confessors. + + BIBLIOGRAPHY.--The chief authorities for Ferdinand's life and reign + are F.C. Khevenhiller, _Annales Ferdinandei_ (Regensburg, 1640-1646); + F. van Hurter, _Geschichte Kaiser Ferdinands II_. (Schaffhausen, + 1850-1855); _Korrespondenz Kaiser Ferdinands II. mit P. Becanus und + P.W. Lamormaini_, edited by B. Dudik (Vienna, 1848 fol.); and F. + Stieve, in the _Allegmeine deutsche Biographie_, Band vi. (Leipzig, + 1877). See also the elaborate bibliography in the _Cambridge Modern + History_, vol. iv. (Cambridge, 1906). + + + + +FERDINAND III. (1608-1657), Roman emperor, was the elder son of the +emperor Ferdinand II., and was born at Gratz on the 13th of July 1608. +Educated by the Jesuits, he was crowned king of Hungary in December +1625, and king of Bohemia two years later, and soon began to take part +in imperial business. Wallenstein, however, refused to allow him to hold +a command in the imperial army; and henceforward reckoned among his +enemies, the young king was appointed the successor of the famous +general when he was deposed in 1634; and as commander-in-chief of the +imperial troops he was nominally responsible for the capture of +Regensburg and Donauworth, and the defeat of the Swedes at Nordlingen. +Having been elected king of the Romans, or German king, at Regensburg in +December 1636, Ferdinand became emperor on his father's death in the +following February, and showed himself anxious to put an end to the +Thirty Years' War. He persuaded one or two princes to assent to the +terms of the treaty of Prague; but a general peace was delayed by his +reluctance to grant religious liberty to the Protestants, and by his +anxiety to act in unison with Spain. In 1640 he had refused to entertain +the idea of a general amnesty suggested by the diet at Regensburg; but +negotiations for peace were soon begun, and in 1648 the emperor assented +to the treaty of Westphalia. This event belongs rather to the general +history of Europe, but it is interesting to note that owing to +Ferdinand's insistence the Protestants in his hereditary dominions did +not obtain religious liberty at this settlement. After 1648 the emperor +was engaged in carrying out the terms of the treaty and ridding Germany +of the foreign soldiery. In 1656 he sent an army into Italy to assist +Spain in her struggle with France, and he had just concluded an alliance +with Poland to check the aggressions of Charles X, of Sweden when he +died on the 2nd of April 1657. Ferdinand was a scholarly and cultured +man, an excellent linguist and a composer of music. Industrious and +popular in public life, his private life was blameless; and although a +strong Roman Catholic he was less fanatical than his father. His first +wife was Maria Anna (d. 1646), daughter of Philip III. of Spain, by whom +he had three sons: Ferdinand, who was chosen king of the Romans in +1653, and who died in the following year; Leopold, who succeeded his +father on the imperial throne; and Charles Joseph (d. 1664), bishop of +Passau and Breslau, and grand-master of the Teutonic order. The +emperor's second wife was his cousin Maria (d. 1649), daughter of the +archduke Leopold; and his third wife was Eleanora of Mantua (d. 1686). +His musical works, together with those of the emperors Leopold I. and +Joseph I., have been published by G. Adler (Vienna, 1892-1893). + + See M. Koch, _Geschichte des deutschen Reiches unter der Regierung + Ferdinands III_. (Vienna, 1865-1866). + + + + +FERDINAND I. (1793-1875), emperor of Austria, eldest son of Francis I. +and of Maria Theresa of Naples, was born at Vienna on the 19th of April +1793. In his boyhood he suffered from epileptic fits, and could +therefore not receive a regular education. As his health improved with +his growth and with travel, he was not set aside from the succession. In +1830 his father caused him to be crowned king of Hungary, a pure +formality, which gave him no power, and was designed to avoid possible +trouble in the future. In 1831 he was married to Anna, daughter of +Victor Emmanuel I. of Sardinia. The marriage was barren. When Francis I. +died on the 2nd of March 1835, Ferdinand was recognized as his +successor. But his incapacity was so notorious that the conduct of +affairs was entrusted to a council of state, consisting of Prince +Metternich (q.v.) with other ministers, and two archdukes, Louis and +Francis Charles. They composed the _Staatsconferenz_, the +ill-constructed and informal regency which led the Austrian dominions to +the revolutionary outbreaks of 1846-1849. (See AUSTRIA-HUNGARY.) The +emperor, who was subject to fits of actual insanity, and in his lucid +intervals was weak and confused in mind, was a political nullity. His +personal amiability earned him the affectionate pity of his subjects, +and he became the hero of popular stories which did not tend to maintain +the dignity of the crown. It was commonly said that having taken refuge +on a rainy day in a farmhouse he was so tempted by the smell of the +dumplings which the farmer and his family were eating for dinner, that +he insisted on having one. His doctor, who knew them to be indigestible, +objected, and thereupon Ferdinand, in an imperial rage, made the +answer:--"Kaiser bin i', und Knudel muss i' haben" (I am emperor, and +will have the dumpling)--which has become a Viennese proverb. His +popular name of _Der Gutige_ (the good sort of man) expressed as much +derision as affection. Ferdinand had good taste for art and music. Some +modification of the tight-handed rule of his father was made by the +_Staatsconferenz_ during his reign. In the presence of the revolutionary +troubles, which began with agrarian riots in Galicia in 1846, and then +spread over the whole empire, he was personally helpless. He was +compelled to escape from the disorders of Vienna to Innsbruck on the +17th of May 1848. He came back on the invitation of the diet on the 12th +of August, but soon had to escape once more from the mob of students and +workmen who were in possession of the city. On the 2nd of December he +abdicated at Olmutz in favour of his nephew, Francis Joseph. He lived +under supervision by doctors and guardians at Prague till his death on +the 29th of June 1855. + + See Krones von Marchland, _Grundriss der osterreichischen Geschichte_ + (Vienna, 1882), which gives an ample bibliography; Count F. Hartig, + _Genesis der Revolution in Osterreich_ (Leipzig, 1850),--an enlarged + English translation will be found in the 4th volume of W. Coxe's + _House of Austria_ (London, 1862). + + + + +FERDINAND I. (1423-1494), also called Don Ferrante, king of Naples, the +natural son of Alphonso V. of Aragon and I. of Sicily and Naples, was +horn in 1423. In accordance with his father's will, he succeeded him on +the throne of Naples in 1458, but Pope Calixtus III. declared the line +of Aragon extinct and the kingdom a fief of the church. But although he +died before he could make good his claim (August 1458), and the new Pope +Pius II. recognized Ferdinand, John of Anjou, profiting by the +discontent of the Neapolitan barons, decided to try to regain the throne +conquered by his ancestors, and invaded Naples. Ferdinand was severely +defeated by the Angevins and the rebels at Sarno in July 1460, but with +the help of Alessandro Sforza and of the Albanian chief, Skanderbeg, +who chivalrously came to the aid of the prince whose father had aided +him, he triumphed over his enemies, and by 1464 had re-established his +authority in the kingdom. In 1478 he allied himself with Pope Sixtus IV. +against Lorenzo de' Medici, but the latter journeyed alone to Naples +when he succeeded in negotiating an honourable peace with Ferdinand. In +1480 the Turks captured Otranto, and massacred the majority of the +inhabitants, but in the following year it was retaken by his son +Alphonso, duke of Calabria. His oppressive government led in 1485 to an +attempt at revolt on the part of the nobles, led by Francesca Coppola +and Antonello Sanseverino and supported by Pope Innocent VIII.; the +rising having been crushed, many of the nobles, notwithstanding +Ferdinand's promise of a general amnesty, were afterwards treacherously +murdered at his express command. In 1493 Charles VIII. of France was +preparing to invade Italy for the conquest of Naples, and Ferdinand +realized that this was a greater danger than any he had yet faced. With +almost prophetic instinct he warned the Italian princes of the +calamities in store for them, but his negotiations with Pope Alexander +VI. and Ludovico il Moro, lord of Milan, having failed, he died in +January 1494, worn out with anxiety. Ferdinand was gifted with great +courage and real political ability, but his method of government was +vicious and disastrous. His financial administration was based on +oppressive and dishonest monopolies, and he was mercilessly severe and +utterly treacherous towards his enemies. + + AUTHORITIES.--_Codice Aragonese_, edited by F. Trinchera (Naples, + 1866-1874); P. Giannone, _Istoria Civile del Regno di Napoli_; J. + Alvini, _De gestis regum Neapol. ab Aragonia_ (Naples, 1588); S. de + Sismondi, _Histoire des republiques italiennes_, vols. v. and vi. + (Brussels, 1838); P. Villari, _Machiavelli_, pp. 60-64 (Engl. transl., + London, 1892); for the revolt of the nobles in 1485 see Camillo + Porzio, _La Congiura dei Baroni_ (first published Rome, 1565; many + subsequent editions), written in the Royalist interest. (L. V.*) + + + + +FERDINAND II. (1469-1496), king of Naples, was the grandson of the +preceding, and son of Alphonso II. Alphonso finding his tenure of the +throne uncertain on account of the approaching invasion of Charles VIII. +of France and the general dissatisfaction of his subjects, abdicated in +his son's favour in 1495, but notwithstanding this the treason of a +party in Naples rendered it impossible to defend the city against the +approach of Charles VIII. Ferdinand fled to Ischia; but when the French +king left Naples with most of his army, in consequence of the formation +of an Italian league against him, he returned, defeated the French +garrisons, and the Neapolitans, irritated by the conduct of their +conquerors during the occupation of the city, received him back with +enthusiasm; with the aid of the great Spanish general Gonzalo de Cordova +he was able completely to rid his state of its invaders shortly before +his death, which occurred on the 7th of September 1496. + + For authorities see under FERDINAND I. of Naples; for the exploits of + Gonzalo de Cordova see H.P. del Pulgar, _Cronica del gran capitano don + Gonzalo de Cordoba_ (new ed., Madrid, 1834). + + + + +FERDINAND IV. (1751-1825), king of Naples (III. of Sicily, and I. of the +Two Sicilies), third son of Don Carlos of Bourbon, king of Naples and +Sicily (afterwards Charles III. of Spain), was born in Naples on the +12th of January 1751. When his father ascended the Spanish throne in +1759 Ferdinand, in accordance with the treaties forbidding the union of +the two crowns, succeeded him as king of Naples, under a regency +presided over by the Tuscan Bernardo Tanucci. The latter, an able, +ambitious man, wishing to keep the government as much as possible in his +own hands, purposely neglected the young king's education, and +encouraged him in his love of pleasure, his idleness and his excessive +devotion to outdoor sports. Ferdinand grew up athletic, but ignorant, +ill-bred, addicted to the lowest amusements; he delighted in the company +of the _lazzaroni_ (the most degraded class of the Neapolitan people), +whose dialect and habits he affected, and he even sold fish in the +market, haggling over the price. + +His minority ended in 1767, and his first act was the expulsion of the +Jesuits. The following year he married Maria Carolina, daughter of the +empress Maria Theresa. By the marriage contract the queen was to have a +voice in the council of state after the birth of her first son, and she +was not slow to avail herself of this means of political influence. +Beautiful, clever and proud, like her mother, but cruel and treacherous, +her ambition was to raise the kingdom of Naples to the position of a +great power; she soon came to exercise complete sway over her stupid and +idle husband, and was the real ruler of the kingdom. Tanucci, who +attempted to thwart her, was dismissed in 1777, and the Englishman Sir +John Acton (1736), who in 1779 was appointed director of marine, +succeeded in so completely winning the favour of Maria Carolina, by +supporting her in her scheme to free Naples from Spanish influence and +securing a _rapprochement_ with Austria and England, that he became +practically and afterwards actually prime minister. Although not a mere +grasping adventurer, he was largely responsible for reducing the +internal administration of the country to an abominable system of +espionage, corruption and cruelty. On the outbreak of the French +Revolution the Neapolitan court was not hostile to the movement, and the +queen even sympathized with the revolutionary ideas of the day. But when +the French monarchy was abolished and the royal pair beheaded, Ferdinand +and Carolina were seized with a feeling of fear and horror and joined +the first coalition against France in 1793. Although peace was made with +France in 1796, the demands of the French Directory, whose troops +occupied Rome, alarmed the king once more, and at his wife's instigation +he took advantage of Napoleon's absence in Egypt and of Nelson's +victories to go to war. He marched with his army against the French and +entered Rome (29th of November), but on the defeat of some of his +columns he hurried back to Naples, and on the approach of the French, +fled on board Nelson's ship the "Vanguard" to Sicily, leaving his +capital in a state of anarchy. The French entered the city in spite of +the fierce resistance of the _lazzaroni_, who were devoted to the king, +and with the aid of the nobles and bourgeois established the +Parthenopaean Republic (January 1799). When a few weeks later the French +troops were recalled to the north of Italy, Ferdinand sent an expedition +composed of Calabrians, brigands and gaol-birds, under Cardinal Ruffo, a +man of real ability, great devotion to the king, and by no means so bad +as he has been painted, to reconquer the mainland kingdom. Ruffo was +completely successful, and reached Naples in May. His army and the +_lazzaroni_ committed nameless atrocities, which he honestly tried to +prevent, and the Parthenopaean Republic collapsed. + +The savage punishment of the Neapolitan Republicans is dealt with in +more detail under NAPLES, NELSON and CARACCIOLO, but it is necessary to +say here that the king, and above all the queen, were particularly +anxious that no mercy should be shown to the rebels, and Maria Carolina +made use of Lady Hamilton, Nelson's mistress, to induce him to execute +her own spiteful vengeance. Her only excuse is that as a sister of Marie +Antoinette the very name of Republican or Jacobin filled her with +loathing. The king returned to Naples soon afterwards, and ordered +wholesale arrests and executions of supposed Liberals, which continued +until the French successes forced him to agree to a treaty in which +amnesty for members of the French party was included. When war broke out +between France and Austria in 1805, Ferdinand signed a treaty of +neutrality with the former, but a few days later he allied himself with +Austria and allowed an Anglo-Russian force to land at Naples. The French +victory at Austerlitz enabled Napoleon to despatch an army to southern +Italy. Ferdinand with his usual precipitation fled to Palermo (23rd of +January 1806), followed soon after by his wife and son, and on the 14th +of February the French again entered Naples. Napoleon declared that the +Bourbon dynasty had forfeited the crown, and proclaimed his brother +Joseph king of Naples and Sicily. But Ferdinand continued to reign over +the latter kingdom under British protection. Parliamentary institutions +of a feudal type had long existed in the island, and Lord William +Bentinck (q.v.), the British minister, insisted on a reform of the +constitution on English and French lines. The king indeed practically +abdicated his power, appointing his son Francis regent, and the queen, +at Bentinck's instance, was exiled to Austria, where she died in 1814. + +After the fall of Napoleon, Joachim Murat, who had succeeded Joseph +Bonaparte as king of Naples in 1808, was dethroned, and Ferdinand +returned to Naples. By a secret treaty he had bound himself not to +advance further in a constitutional direction than Austria should at any +time approve; but, though on the whole he acted in accordance with +Metternich's policy of preserving the _status quo_, and maintained with +but slight change Murat's laws and administrative system, he took +advantage of the situation to abolish the Sicilian constitution, in +violation of his oath, and to proclaim the union of the two states into +the kingdom of the Two Sicilies (December 12th, 1816). He was now +completely subservient to Austria, an Austrian, Count Nugent, being even +made commander-in-chief of the army; and for four years he reigned as a +despot, every tentative effort at the expression of liberal opinion +being ruthlessly suppressed. The result was an alarming spread of the +influence and activity of the secret society of the Carbonari (q.v.), +which in time affected a large part of the army. In July 1820 a military +revolt broke out under General Pepe, and Ferdinand was terrorized into +subscribing a constitution on the model of the impracticable Spanish +constitution of 1812. On the other hand, a revolt in Sicily, in favour +of the recovery of its independence, was suppressed by Neapolitan +troops. + +The success of the military revolution at Naples seriously alarmed the +powers of the Holy Alliance, who feared that it might spread to other +Italian states and so lead to that general European conflagration which +it was their main preoccupation to avoid (see EUROPE: _History_). After +long diplomatic negotiations, it was decided to hold a congress _ad hoc_ +at Troppau (October 1820). The main results of this congress were the +issue of the famous Troppau Protocol, signed by Austria, Prussia and +Russia only, and an invitation to King Ferdinand to attend the adjourned +congress at Laibach (1821), an invitation of which Great Britain +approved "as implying negotiation" (see TROPPAU, LAIBACH, CONGRESSES +OF). At Laibach Ferdinand played so sorry a part as to provoke the +contempt of those whose policy it was to re-establish him in absolute +power. He had twice sworn, with gratuitous solemnity, to maintain the +new constitution; but he was hardly out of Naples before he repudiated +his oaths and, in letters addressed to all the sovereigns of Europe, +declared his acts to have been null and void. An attitude so indecent +threatened to defeat the very objects of the reactionary powers, and +Gentz congratulated the congress that these sorry protests would be +buried in the archives, offering at the same time to write for the king +a dignified letter in which he should express his reluctance at having +to violate his oaths in the face of irresistible force! But, under these +circumstances, Metternich had no difficulty in persuading the king to +allow an Austrian army to march into Naples "to restore order." + +The campaign that followed did little credit either to the Austrians or +the Neapolitans. The latter, commanded by General Pepe (q.v.), who made +no attempt to defend the difficult defiles of the Abruzzi, were +defeated, after a half-hearted struggle at Rieti (March 7th, 1821), and +the Austrians entered Naples. The parliament was now dismissed, and +Ferdinand inaugurated an era of savage persecution, supported by spies +and informers, against the Liberals and Carbonari, the Austrian +commandant in vain protesting against the savagery which his presence +alone rendered possible. + +Ferdinand died on the 4th of January 1825. Few sovereigns have left +behind so odious a memory. His whole career is one long record of +perjury, vengeance and meanness, unredeemed by a single generous act, +and his wife was a worthy helpmeet and actively co-operated in his +tyranny. + + BIBLIOGRAPHY.--The standard authority on Ferdinand's reign is Pietro + Colletta's _Storia del Reame di Napoli_ (2nd ed., Florence, 1848), + which, although heavily written and not free from party passion, is + reliable and accurate; L. Conforti, _Napoli nel 1799_ (Naples, 1886); + G. Pepe, _Memorie_ (Paris, 1847), a most valuable book; C. Auriol, _La + France, l'Angleterre, et Naples_ (Paris, 1906); for the Sicilian + period and the British occupation, G. Bianco, _La Sicilia durante + l'occupazione Inglese_ (Palermo, 1902), which contains many new + documents of importance; Freiherr A. von Helfert has attempted the + impossible task of whitewashing Queen Carolina in his _Konigin + Karolina von Neapel und Sicilien_ (Vienna, 1878), and _Maria Karolina + von Oesterreich_ (Vienna, 1884); he has also written a useful life of + _Fabrizio Ruffo_ (Italian edit., Florence, 1885); for the Sicilian + revolution of 1820 see G. Bianco's _La Rivoluzione in Sicilia del + 1820_ (Florence, 1905), and M. Amari's _Carteggio_ (Turin, 1896). + (L. V.*) + + + + +FERDINAND I., king of Portugal (1345-1383), sometimes referred to as _el +Gentil_ (the Gentleman), son of Pedro I. of Portugal (who is not to be +confounded with his Spanish contemporary Pedro the Cruel), succeeded his +father in 1367. On the death of Pedro of Castile in 1369, Ferdinand, as +great-grandson of Sancho IV. by the female line, laid claim to the +vacant throne, for which the kings of Aragon and Navarre, and afterwards +the duke of Lancaster (married in 1370 to Constance, the eldest daughter +of Pedro), also became competitors. Meanwhile Henry of Trastamara, the +brother (illegitimate) and conqueror of Pedro, had assumed the crown and +taken the field. After one or two indecisive campaigns, all parties were +ready to accept the mediation of Pope Gregory XI. The conditions of the +treaty, ratified in 1371, included a marriage between Ferdinand and +Leonora of Castile. But before the union could take place the former had +become passionately attached to Leonora Tellez, the wife of one of his +own courtiers, and having procured a dissolution of her previous +marriage, he lost no time in making her his queen. This strange conduct, +although it raised a serious insurrection in Portugal, did not at once +result in a war with Henry; but the outward concord was soon disturbed +by the intrigues of the duke of Lancaster, who prevailed on Ferdinand to +enter into a secret treaty for the expulsion of Henry from his throne. +The war which followed was unsuccessful; and peace was again made in +1373. On the death of Henry in 1379, the duke of Lancaster once more put +forward his claims, and again found an ally in Portugal; but, according +to the Continental annalists, the English proved as offensive to their +companions in arms as to their enemies in the field; and Ferdinand made +a peace for himself at Badajoz in 1382, it being stipulated that +Beatrix, the heiress of Ferdinand, should marry King John of Castile, +and thus secure the ultimate union of the crowns. Ferdinand left no male +issue when he died on the 22nd of October 1383, and the direct +Burgundian line, which had been in possession of the throne since the +days of Count Henry (about 1112), became extinct. The stipulations of +the treaty of Badajoz were set aside, and John, grand-master of the +order of Aviz, Ferdinand's illegitimate brother, was proclaimed. This +led to a war which lasted for several years. + + + + +FERDINAND I., _El Magno_ or "the Great," king of Castile (_d._ 1065), +son of Sancho of Navarre, was put in possession of Castile in 1028, on +the murder of the last count, as the heir of his mother Elvira, daughter +of a previous count of Castile. He reigned with the title of king. He +married Sancha, sister and heiress of Bermudo, king of Leon. In 1038 +Bermudo was killed in battle with Ferdinand at Tamaron, and Ferdinand +then took possession of Leon by right of his wife, and was recognized in +Spain as emperor. The use of the title was resented by the emperor Henry +IV. and by Pope Victor II. in 1055, as implying a claim to the headship +of Christendom, and as a usurpation on the Holy Roman Empire. It did +not, however, mean more than that Spain was independent of the Empire, +and that the sovereign of Leon was the chief of the princes of the +peninsula. Although Ferdinand had grown in power by a fratricidal strife +with Bermudo of Leon, and though at a later date he defeated and killed +his brother Garcia of Navarre, he ranks high among the kings of Spain +who have been counted religious. To a large extent he may have owed his +reputation to the victories over the Mahommedans, with which he began +the period of the great reconquest. But there can be no doubt that +Ferdinand was profoundly pious. Towards the close of his reign he sent a +special embassy to Seville to bring back the body of Santa Justa. The +then king of Seville, Motadhid, one of the small princes who had divided +the caliphate of Cordova, was himself a sceptic and poisoner, but he +stood in wholesome awe of the power of the Christian king. He favoured +the embassy in every way, and when the body of Santa Justa could not be +found, helped the envoys who were also aided by a vision seen by one of +them in a dream, to discover the body of Saint Isidore, which was +reverently carried away to Leon. Ferdinand died on the feast of Saint +John the Evangelist, the 24th of June 1065, in Leon, with many +manifestations of ardent piety--having laid aside his crown and royal +mantle, dressed in the frock of a monk and lying on a bier, covered with +ashes, which was placed before the altar of the church of Saint Isidore. + + + + +FERDINAND II., king of Leon only (d. 1188), was the son of Alphonso VII. +and of Berenguela, of the house of the counts of Barcelona. On the +division of the kingdoms which had obeyed his father, he received Leon. +His reign of thirty years was one of strife marked by no signal success +or reverse. He had to contend with his unruly nobles, several of whom he +put to death. During the minority of his nephew Alphonso VIII. of +Castile he endeavoured to impose himself on the kingdom as regent. On +the west he was in more or less constant strife with Portugal, which was +in process of becoming an independent kingdom. His relations to the +Portuguese house must have suffered by his repudiation of his wife +Urraca, daughter of Alphonso I. of Portugal. Though he took the king of +Portugal prisoner in 1180, he made no political use of his success. He +extended his dominions southward in Estremadura at the expense of the +Moors. Ferdinand, who died in 1188, left the reputation of a good knight +and hard fighter, but did not display political or organizing faculty. + + + + +FERDINAND III., _El Santo_ or "the Saint," king of Castile (1199-1252), +son of Alphonso IX. of Leon, and of Berengaria, daughter of Alphonso +VIII. of Castile, ranks among the greatest of the Spanish kings. The +marriage of his parents, who were second cousins, was dissolved as +unlawful by the pope, but the legitimacy of the children was recognized. +Till 1217 he lived with his father in Leon. In that year the young king +of Castile, Henry, was killed by accident. Berengaria sent for her son +with such speed that her messenger reached Leon before the news of the +death of the king of Castile, and when he came to her she renounced the +crown in his favour. Alphonso of Leon considered himself tricked, and +the young king had to begin his reign by a war against his father and a +faction of the Castilian nobles. His own ability and the remarkable +capacity of his mother proved too much for the king of Leon and his +Castilian allies. Ferdinand, who showed himself docile to the influence +of Berengaria, so long as she lived, married the wife she found for him, +Beatrice, daughter of the emperor Philip (of Hohenstaufen), and followed +her advice both in prosecuting the war against the Moors and in the +steps which she took to secure his peaceful succession to Leon on the +death of his father in 1231. After the union of Castile and Leon in that +year he began the series of campaigns which ended by reducing the +Mahommedan dominions in Spain to Granada. Cordova fell in 1236, and +Seville in 1248. The king of Granada did homage to Ferdinand, and +undertook to attend the cortes when summoned. The king was a severe +persecutor of the Albigenses, and his formal canonization was due as +much to his orthodoxy as to his crusading by Pope Clement X. in 1671. He +revived the university first founded by his grandfather Alphonso VIII., +and placed it at Salamanca. By his second marriage with Joan (d. 1279), +daughter of Simon, of Dammartin, count of Ponthieu, by right of his wife +Marie, Ferdinand was the father of Eleanor, the wife of Edward I. of +England. + + + + +FERDINAND IV., _El Emplazado_ or "the Summoned," king of Castile (_d_. +1312), son of Sancho El Bravo, and his wife Maria de Molina, is a figure +of small note in Spanish history. His strange title is given him in the +chronicles on the strength of a story that he put two brothers of the +name of Carvajal to death tyrannically, and was given a time, a _plazo_, +by them in which to answer for his crime in the next world. But the tale +is not contemporary, and is an obvious copy of the story told of Jacques +de Molay, grand-master of the Temple, and Philippe Le Bel. Ferdinand IV. +succeeded to the throne when a boy of six. His minority was a time of +anarchy. He owed his escape from the violence of competitors and nobles, +partly to the tact and undaunted bravery of his mother Maria de Molina, +and partly to the loyalty of the citizens of Avila, who gave him refuge +within their walls. As a king he proved ungrateful to his mother, and +weak as a ruler. He died suddenly in his tent at Jaen when preparing for +a raid into the Moorish territory of Granada, on the 7th of September +1312. + + + + +FERDINAND I., king of Aragon (1373-1416), called "of Antequera," was the +son of John I. of Castile by his wife Eleanor, daughter of the third +marriage of Peter IV. of Aragon. His surname "of Antequera" was given +him because he was besieging that town, then in the hands of the Moors, +when he was told that the cortes of Aragon had elected him king in +succession to his uncle Martin, the last male of the old line of Wilfred +the Hairy. As infante of Castile Ferdinand had played an honourable +part. When his brother Henry III. died at Toledo, in 1406, the cortes +was sitting, and the nobles offered to make him king in preference to +his nephew John. Ferdinand refused to despoil his brother's infant son, +and even if he did not act on the moral ground he alleged, his sagacity +must have shown him that he would be at the mercy of the men who had +chosen him in such circumstances. As co-regent of the kingdom with +Catherine, widow of Henry III. and daughter of John of Gaunt by his +marriage with Constance, daughter of Peter the Cruel and Maria de +Padilla, Ferdinand proved a good ruler. He restrained the follies of his +sister-in-law, and kept the realm quiet, by firm government, and by +prosecuting the war with the Moors. As king of Aragon his short reign of +two years left him little time to make his mark. Having been bred in +Castile, where the royal authority was, at least in theory, absolute, he +showed himself impatient under the checks imposed on him by the +_fueros_, the chartered rights of Aragon and Catalonia. He particularly +resented the obstinacy of the Barcelonese, who compelled the members of +his household to pay municipal taxes. His most signal act as king was to +aid in closing the Great Schism in the Church by agreeing to the +deposition of the antipope Benedict XIV., an Aragonese. He died at +Ygualada in Catalonia on the 2nd of April 1416. + + + + +FERDINAND V. of Castile and Leon, and II. of Aragon (1452-1516), was the +son of John I. of Aragon by his second marriage with Joanna Henriquez, +of the family of the hereditary grand admirals of Castile, and was born +at Sos in Aragon on the 16th of March 1452. Under the name of "the +Catholic" and as the husband of Isabella, queen of Castile, he played a +great part in Europe. His share in establishing the royal authority in +all parts of Spain, in expelling the Moors from Granada, in the conquest +of Navarre, in forwarding the voyages of Columbus, and in contending +with France for the supremacy in Italy, is dealt with elsewhere (see +SPAIN: _History_). In personal character he had none of the attractive +qualities of his wife. It may fairly be said of him that he was purely a +politician. His marriage in 1469 to his cousin Isabella of Castile was +dictated by the desire to unite his own claims to the crown, as the head +of the younger branch of the same family, with hers, in case Henry IV. +should die childless. When the king died in 1474 he made an ungenerous +attempt to procure his own proclamation as king without recognition of +the rights of his wife. Isabella asserted her claims firmly, and at all +times insisted on a voice in the government of Castile. But though +Ferdinand had sought a selfish political advantage at his wife's +expense, he was well aware of her ability and high character. Their +married life was dignified and harmonious; for Ferdinand had no common +vices, and their views in government were identical. The king cared for +nothing but dominion and political power. His character explains the +most ungracious acts of his life, such as his breach of his promises to +Columbus, his distrust of Ximenez and of the Great Captain. He had given +wide privileges to Columbus on the supposition that the discoverer would +reach powerful kingdoms. When islands inhabited by feeble savages were +discovered, Ferdinand appreciated the risk that they might become the +seat of a power too strong to be controlled, and took measures to avert +the danger. He feared that Jimenez and the Great Captain would become +too independent, and watched them in the interest of the royal +authority. Whether he ever boasted, as he is said to have boasted, that +he had deceived Louis XII. of France twelve times, is very doubtful; but +it is certain that when Ferdinand made a treaty, or came to an +understanding with any one, the contract was generally found to contain +implied meanings favourable to himself which the other contracting party +had not expected. The worst of his character was prominently shown after +the death of Isabella in 1504. He endeavoured to lay hands on the +regency of Castile in the name of his insane daughter Joanna, and +without regard to the claims of her husband Philip of Habsburg. The +hostility of the Castilian nobles, by whom he was disliked, baffled him +for a time, but on Philip's early death he reasserted his authority. His +second marriage with Germaine of Foix in 1505 was apparently contracted +in the hope that by securing an heir male he might punish his Habsburg +son-in-law. Aragon did not recognize the right of women to reign, and +would have been detached together with Catalonia, Valencia and the +Italian states if he had had a son. This was the only occasion on which +Ferdinand allowed passion to obscure his political sense, and lead him +into acts which tended to undo his work of national unification. As king +of Aragon he abstained from inroads on the liberties of his subjects +which might have provoked rebellion. A few acts of illegal violence are +recorded of him--as when he invited a notorious demagogue of Saragossa +to visit him in the palace, and caused the man to be executed without +form of trial. Once when presiding over the Aragonese cortes he found +himself sitting in a thorough draught and ordered the window to be shut, +adding in a lower voice, "If it is not against the _fueros_." But his +ill-will did not go beyond such sneers. He was too intent on building up +a great state to complicate his difficulties by internal troubles. His +arrangement of the convention of Guadalupe, which ended the fierce +Agrarian conflicts of Catalonia, was wise and profitable to the country, +though it was probably dictated mainly by a wish to weaken the +landowners by taking away their feudal rights. Ferdinand died at +Madrigalejo in Estremadura on the 23rd of February 1516. + + The lives of the kings of this name before Ferdinand V. are contained + in the chronicles, and in the _Anales de Aragon_ of Zurita, and the + History of Spain by Mariana. Both deal at length with the life of + Ferdinand V. Prescott's _History of the Reign of Ferdinand and + Isabella_, in any of its numerous editions, gives a full life of him + with copious references to authorities. + + + + +FERDINAND VI., king of Spain (1713-1759), second son of Philip V., +founder of the Bourbon dynasty, by his first marriage with Maria Louisa +of Savoy, was born at Madrid on the 23rd of September 1713. His youth +was depressed. His father's second wife, Elizabeth Farnese, was a +managing woman, who had no affection except for her own children, and +who looked upon her stepson as an obstacle to their fortunes. The +hypochondria of his father left Elizabeth mistress of the palace. +Ferdinand was married in 1729 to Maria Magdalena Barbara, daughter of +John V. of Portugal. The very homely looks of his wife were thought by +observers to cause the prince a visible shock when he was first +presented to her. Yet he became deeply attached to his wife, and proved +in fact nearly as uxorious as his father. Ferdinand was by temperament +melancholy, shy and distrustful of his own abilities. When complimented +on his shooting, he replied, "It would be hard if there were not +something I could do." As king he followed a steady policy of neutrality +between France and England, and refused to be tempted by the offers of +either into declaring war on the other. In his life he was orderly and +retiring, averse from taking decisions, though not incapable of acting +firmly, as when he cut short the dangerous intrigues of his able +minister Ensenada by dismissing and imprisoning him. Shooting and music +were his only pleasures, and he was the generous patron of the famous +singer Farinelli (q.v.), whose voice soothed his melancholy. The death +of his wife Barbara, who had been devoted to him, and who carefully +abstained from political intrigue, broke his heart. Between the date of +her death in 1758 and his own on the 10th of August 1759 he fell into a +state of prostration in which he would not even dress, but wandered +unshaven, unwashed and in a night-gown about his park. The memoirs of +the count of Fernan Nunez give a shocking picture of his death-bed. + + A good account of the reign and character of Ferdinand VI. will be + found in vol. iv. of Coxe's _Memoirs of the Kings of Spain of the + House of Bourbon_ (London, 1815). See also _Vida de Carlos III._, by + the count of Fernan Nunez, ed. M. Morel Fatio and Don A. Paz y Melia + (1898). + + + + +FERDINAND VII., king of Spain (1784-1833), the eldest son of Charles +IV., king of Spain, and of his wife Maria Louisa of Parma, was born at +the palace of San Ildefonso near Balsain in the Somosierra hills, on the +14th of October 1784. The events with which he was connected were many, +tragic and of the widest European interest. In his youth he occupied the +painful position of an heir apparent who was carefully excluded from all +share in government by the jealousy of his parents, and the prevalence +of a royal favourite. National discontent with a feeble government +produced a revolution in 1808 by which he passed to the throne by the +forced abdication of his father. Then he spent years as the prisoner of +Napoleon, and returned in 1814 to find that while Spain was fighting for +independence in his name a new world had been born of foreign invasion +and domestic revolution. He came back to assert the ancient doctrine +that the sovereign authority resided in his person only. Acting on this +principle he ruled frivolously, and with a wanton indulgence of whims. +In 1820 his misrule provoked a revolt, and he remained in the hands of +insurgents till he was released by foreign intervention in 1823. When +free, he revenged himself with a ferocity which disgusted his allies. In +his last years he prepared a change in the order of succession +established by his dynasty in Spain, which angered a large part of the +nation, and made a civil war inevitable. We have to distinguish the part +of Ferdinand VII. in all these transactions, in which other and better +men were concerned. It can confidently be said to have been uniformly +base. He had perhaps no right to complain that he was kept aloof from +all share in government while only heir apparent, for this was the +traditional practice of his family. But as heir to the throne he had a +right to resent the degradation of the crown he was to inherit, and the +power of a favourite who was his mother's lover. If he had put himself +at the head of a popular rising he would have been followed, and would +have had a good excuse. His course was to enter on dim intrigues at the +instigation of his first wife, Maria Antonietta of Naples. After her +death in 1806 he was drawn into other intrigues by flatterers, and, in +October 1807, was arrested for the conspiracy of the Escorial. The +conspiracy aimed at securing the help of the emperor Napoleon. When +detected, Ferdinand betrayed his associates, and grovelled to his +parents. When his father's abdication was extorted by a popular riot at +Aranjuez in March 1808, he ascended the throne--not to lead his people +manfully, but to throw himself into the hands of Napoleon, in the +fatuous hope that the emperor would support him. He was in his turn +forced to make an abdication and imprisoned in France, while Spain, with +the help of England, fought for its life. At Valancay, where he was sent +as a prisoner of state, he sank contentedly into vulgar vice, and did +not scruple to applaud the French victories over the people who were +suffering unutterable misery in his cause. When restored in March 1814, +on the fall of Napoleon, he had just cause to repudiate the +impracticable constitution made by the cortes without his consent. He +did so, and then governed like an evil-disposed boy--indulging the +merest animal passions, listening to a small _camarilla_ of low-born +favourites, changing his ministers every three months, and acting on the +impulse of whims which were sometimes mere buffoonery, but were at times +lubricous, or ferocious. The autocratic powers of the Grand Alliance, +though forced to support him as the representative of legitimacy in +Spain, watched his proceedings with disgust and alarm. "The king," wrote +Gentz to the hospodar Caradja on the 1st of December 1814, "himself +enters the houses of his first ministers, arrests them, and hands them +over to their cruel enemies"; and again, on the 14th of January 1815, +"The king has so debased himself that he has become no more than the +leading police agent and gaoler of his country." When at last the +inevitable revolt came in 1820 he grovelled to the insurgents as he had +done to his parents, descending to the meanest submissions while fear +was on him, then intriguing and, when detected, grovelling again. When +at the beginning of 1823, as a result of the congress of Verona, the +French invaded Spain,[1] "invoking the God of St Louis, for the sake of +preserving the throne of Spain to a descendant of Henry IV., and of +reconciling that fine kingdom with Europe," and in May the revolutionary +party carried Ferdinand to Cadiz, he continued to make promises of +amendment till he was free. Then, in violation of his oath to grant an +amnesty, he revenged himself for three years of coercion by killing on a +scale which revolted his "rescuers," and against which the duke of +Angouleme, powerless to interfere, protested by refusing the Spanish +decorations offered him for his services. During his last years +Ferdinand's energy was abated. He no longer changed ministers every few +months as a sport, and he allowed some of them to conduct the current +business of government. His habits of life were telling on him. He +became torpid, bloated and horrible to look at. After his fourth +marriage in 1829 with Maria Christina of Naples, he was persuaded by his +wife to set aside the law of succession of Philip V., which gave a +preference to all the males of the family in Spain over the females. His +marriage had brought him only two daughters. When well, he consented to +the change under the influence of his wife. When ill, he was terrified +by priestly advisers, who were partisans of his brother Don Carlos. What +his final decision was is perhaps doubtful. His wife was mistress by his +death-bed, and she could put the words she chose into the mouth of a +dead man--and could move the dead hand at her will. Ferdinand died on +the 29th of September 1833. It had been a frequent saying with the more +zealous royalists of Spain that a king must be wiser than his ministers, +for he was placed on the throne and directed by God. Since the reign of +Ferdinand VII. no one has maintained this unqualified version of the +great doctrine of divine right. + + King Ferdinand VII. kept a diary during the troubled years 1820-1823, + which has been published by the count de Casa Valencia. + + +FOOTNOTE: + + [1] Louis XVIII.'s speech from the throne, Jan. 28, 1823. + + + + +FERDINAND II. (1810-1859), king of the Two Sicilies, son of Francis I, +was born at Palermo on the 12th of January 1810. In his early years he +was credited with Liberal ideas and he was fairly popular, his free and +easy manners having endeared him to the _lazzaroni_. On succeeding his +father in 1830, he published an edict in which he promised to "give his +most anxious attention to the impartial administration of justice," to +reform the finances, and to "use every effort to heal the wounds which +had afflicted the kingdom for so many years"; but these promises seem to +have been meant only to lull discontent to sleep, for although he did +something for the economic development of the kingdom, the existing +burden of taxation was only slightly lightened, corruption continued to +flourish in all departments of the administration, and an absolutism was +finally established harsher than that of all his predecessors, and +supported by even more extensive and arbitrary arrests. Ferdinand was +naturally shrewd, but badly educated, grossly superstitious and +possessed of inordinate self-esteem. Though he kept the machinery of his +kingdom fairly efficient, and was a patriot to the extent of brooking no +foreign interference, he made little account of the wishes or welfare of +his subjects. In 1832 he married Cristina, daughter of Victor Emmanuel +I., king of Sardinia, and shortly after her death in 1836 he took for a +second wife Maria Theresa, daughter of archduke Charles of Austria. +After his Austrian alliance the bonds of despotism were more closely +tightened, and the increasing discontent of his subjects was manifested +by various abortive attempts at insurrection; in 1837 there was a rising +in Sicily in consequence of the outbreak of cholera, and in 1843 the +Young Italy Society tried to organize a general rising, which, however, +only manifested itself in a series of isolated outbreaks. The expedition +of the Bandiera brothers (q.v.) in 1844, although it had no practical +result, aroused great ill-feeling owing to the cruel sentences passed on +the rebels. In January 1848 a rising in Sicily was the signal for +revolutions all over Italy and Europe; it was followed by a movement in +Naples, and the king granted a constitution which he swore to observe. +A dispute, however, arose as to the nature of the oath which should be +taken by the members of the chamber of deputies, and as neither the king +nor the deputies would yield, serious disturbances broke out in the +streets of Naples on the 15th of May; so the king, making these an +excuse for withdrawing his promise, dissolved the national parliament on +the 13th of March 1849. He retired to Gaeta to confer with various +deposed despots, and when the news of the Austrian victory at Novara +(March 1849) reached him, he determined to return to a reactionary +policy. Sicily, whence the Royalists had been expelled, was subjugated +by General Filangieri (q.v.), and the chief cities were bombarded, an +expedient which won for Ferdinand the epithet of "King Bomba." During +the last years of his reign espionage and arbitrary arrests prevented +all serious manifestations of discontent among his subjects. In 1851 the +political prisoners of Naples were calculated by Mr Gladstone in his +letters to Lord Aberdeen (1851) to number 15,000 (probably the real +figure was nearer 40,000), and so great was the scandal created by the +prevailing reign of terror, and the abominable treatment to which the +prisoners were subjected, that in 1856 France and England made +diplomatic representations to induce the king to mitigate his rigour and +proclaim a general amnesty, but without success. An attempt was made by +a soldier to assassinate Ferdinand in 1856. He died on the 22nd of May +1856, just after the declaration of war by France and Piedmont against +Austria, which was to result in the collapse of his kingdom and his +dynasty. He was bigoted, cruel, mean, treacherous, though not without a +certain bonhomie; the only excuse that can be made for him is that with +his heredity and education a different result could scarcely be +expected. + + See _Correspondence respecting the Affairs of Naples and Sicily, + 1848-1849, presented to both Houses of Parliament by Command of Her + Majesty_, 4th May 1849; _Two Letters to the Earl of Aberdeen_, by the + Right Hon. W.E. Gladstone, 1st ed., 1851 (an edition published in 1852 + and the subsequent editions contain an _Examination of the Official + Reply of the Neapolitan Government_); N. Nisco, _Ferdinando II. il suo + regno_ (Naples, 1884); H. Remsen Whitehouse, _The Collapse of the + Kingdom of Naples_ (New York, 1899); R. de Cesare, _La Caduta d' un + Regno_, vol. i. (Citta di Castello, 1900), which contains a great deal + of fresh information, but is badly arranged and not always reliable. + (L. V.*) + + + + +FERDINAND III. (1769-1824), grand duke of Tuscany, and archduke of +Austria, second son of the emperor Leopold II., was born on the 6th of +May 1769. On his father becoming emperor in 1790, he succeeded him as +grand duke of Tuscany. Ferdinand was one of the first sovereigns to +enter into diplomatic relations with the French republic (1793); and +although, a few months later, he was compelled by England and Russia to +join the coalition against France, he concluded peace with that power in +1795, and by observing a strict neutrality saved his dominions from +invasion by the French, except for a temporary occupation of Livorno, +till 1799, when he was compelled to vacate his throne, and a provisional +Republican government was established at Florence. Shortly afterwards +the French arms suffered severe reverses in Italy, and Ferdinand was +restored to his territories; but in 1801, by the peace of Luneville, +Tuscany was converted into the kingdom of Etruria, and he was again +compelled to return to Vienna. In lieu of the sovereignty of Tuscany, he +obtained in 1802 the electorship of Salzburg, which he exchanged by the +peace of Pressburg in 1805 for that of Wurzburg. In 1806 he was admitted +as grand duke of Wurzburg to the confederation of the Rhine. He was +restored to the throne of Tuscany after the abdication of Napoleon in +1814 and was received with enthusiasm by the people, but had again to +vacate his capital for a short time in 1815, when Murat proclaimed war +against Austria. The final overthrow of the French supremacy at the +battle of Waterloo secured him, however, in the undisturbed possession +of his grand duchy during the remainder of his life. The restoration in +Tuscany was not accompanied by the reactionary excesses which +characterized it elsewhere, and a large part of the French legislation +was retained. His prime minister was Count V. Fossombroni (q.v.). The +mild rule of Ferdinand, his solicitude for the welfare of his subjects, +his enlightened patronage of art and science, his encouragement of +commerce, and his toleration render him an honourable exception to the +generality of Italian princes. At the same time his paternal despotism +tended to emasculate the Tuscan character. He died in June 1824, and was +succeeded by his son Leopold II. (q.v.). + + BIBLIOGRAPHY.--A. von Reumont, _Geschichte Toscanas_ (Gotha, 1877); + and "Federico Manfredini e la politica Toscana nei primi anni di + Ferdinando III." (in the _Archivio Storico Italiano_, 1877); Emmer, + _Erzherzog Ferdinand III._, _Grossherzog von Toskana_ (Salzburg, + 1871); C. Tivaroni, _L' Italia durante il dominio francese_, ii. 1-44 + (Turin, 1889), and _L' Italia durante il dominio austriaco_, ii. 1-18 + (Turin, 1893). See also under FOSSOMBRONI; VITTORIO; and CAPPONI, + GINO. + + + + +FERDINAND, MAXIMILIAN KARL LEOPOLD MARIA, king of Bulgaria (1861- ), +fifth and youngest son of Prince Augustus of Saxe-Coburg and Gotha, was +born on the 26th of February 1861. Great care was exercised in his +education, and every encouragement given to the taste for natural +history which he exhibited at an early age. In 1879 he travelled with +his brother Augustus to Brazil, and the results of their botanical +observations were published at Vienna, 1883-1888, under the title of +_Itinera Principum S. Coburgi_. Having been appointed to a lieutenancy +in the 2nd regiment of Austrian hussars, he was holding this rank when, +by unanimous vote of the National Assembly, he was elected prince of +Bulgaria, on the 7th of July 1887, in succession to Prince Alexander, +who had abdicated on the 7th of September preceding. He assumed the +government on the 14th of August 1887, for Russia for a long time +refused to acknowledge the election, and he was accordingly exposed to +frequent military conspiracies, due to the influence or attitude of that +power. The firmness and vigour with which he met all attempts at +revolution were at length rewarded, and his election was confirmed in +March 1896 by the Porte and the great powers. On the 20th of April 1893 +he married Marie Louise de Bourbon (d. 1899), eldest daughter of Duke +Robert of Parma, and in May following the Grand Sobranye confirmed the +title of Royal Highness to the prince and his heir. The prince adhered +to the Roman Catholic faith, but his son and heir, the young Prince +Boris, was received into the Orthodox Greek Church on the 14th of +February 1896. Prince Boris, to whom the tsar Nicholas III. became +godfather, accompanied his father to Russia in 1898, when Prince +Ferdinand visited St Petersburg and Moscow, and still further +strengthened the bond already existing between Russia and Bulgaria. In +1908 Ferdinand married Eleanor (b. 1860), a princess of the house of +Reuss. Later in the year, in connexion with the Austrian annexation of +Bosnia-Herzegovina and the crisis with Turkey, he proclaimed the +independence of Bulgaria, and took the title of king or tsar. (See +BULGARIA, and EUROPE: _History_.) + + + + +FERDINAND, duke of Brunswick (1721-1792), Prussian general field marshal, +was the fourth son of Ferdinand Albert, duke of Brunswick, and was born +at Wolfenbuttel on the 12th of January 1721. He was carefully educated +with a view to a military career, and in his twentieth year he was made +chief of a newly-raised Brunswick regiment in the Prussian service. He +was present in the battles of Mollwitz and Chotusitz. In succession to +Margrave Wilhelm of Brandenburg, killed at Prague (1744), Ferdinand +received the command of Frederick the Great's _Leibgarde_ battalion, and +at Sohr (1745) he distinguished himself so greatly at the head of his +brigade that Frederick wrote of him, "le Prince Ferdinand s'est +surpasse." The height which he captured was defended by his brother +Ludwig as an officer of the Austrian service, and another brother of Duke +Ferdinand was killed by his side in the charge. During the ten years' +peace he was in the closest touch with the military work of Frederick the +Great, who supervised the instruction of the guard battalion, and sought +to make it a model of the whole Prussian army. Ferdinand was, moreover, +one of the most intimate friends of the king, and thus he was peculiarly +fitted for the tasks which afterwards fell to his lot. In this time he +became successively major-general and lieutenant-general. In the first +campaign of the Seven Years' War Ferdinand commanded one of the Prussian +columns which converged upon Dresden, and in the operations which led up +to the surrender of the Saxon army at Pirna (1756), and at the battle of +Lobositz, he led the right wing of the Prussian infantry. In 1757 he was +present, and distinguished himself, at Prague, and he served also in the +campaign of Rossbach. Shortly after this he was appointed to command the +allied forces which were being organized for the war in western Germany. +He found this army dejected by a reverse and a capitulation, yet within a +week of his taking up the command he assumed the offensive, and thus +began the career of victory which made his European reputation as a +soldier. His conduct of the five campaigns which followed (see SEVEN +YEARS' WAR) was naturally influenced by the teachings of Frederick, whose +pupil the duke had been for so many years. Ferdinand, indeed, +approximated more closely to Frederick in his method of making war than +any other general of the time. Yet his task was in many respects far more +difficult than that of the king. Frederick was the absolute master of his +own homogeneous army, Ferdinand merely the commander of a group of +contingents, and answerable to several princes for the troops placed +under his control. The French were by no means despicable opponents in +the field, and their leaders, if not of the first grade, were cool and +experienced veterans. In 1758 he fought and won the battle of Crefeld, +several marches beyond the Rhine, but so advanced a position he could not +well maintain, and he fell back to the Lippe. He resumed a bold offensive +in 1759, only to be repulsed at Bergen (near Frankfort-on-Main). On the +1st of August of this year Ferdinand won the brilliant victory of Minden +(q.v.). Vellinghausen, Wilhelmsthal, Warburg and other victories attested +the increasing power of Ferdinand in the following campaigns, and +Frederick, hard pressed in the eastern theatre of war, owed much of his +success in an almost hopeless task to the continued pressure exerted by +Ferdinand in the west. In promoting him to be a field marshal (November +1758) Frederick acknowledged his debt in the words, "Je n'ai fait que ce +que je dois, mon cher Ferdinand." After Minden, King George II. gave the +duke the order of the Garter, and the thanks of the British parliament +were voted on the same occasion to the "Victor of Minden." After the war +he was honoured by other sovereigns, and he received the rank of field +marshal and a regiment from the Austrians. During the War of American +Independence there was a suggestion, which came to nothing, of offering +him the command of the British forces. He exerted himself to compensate +those who had suffered by the Seven Years' War, devoting to this purpose +most of the small income he received from his various offices and the +rewards given to him by the allied princes. The estrangement of Frederick +and Ferdinand in 1766 led to the duke's retirement from Prussian service, +but there was no open breach between the old friends, and Ferdinand +visited the king in 1772, 1777, 1779 and 1782. After 1766 he passed the +remainder of his life at his castle of Veschelde, where he occupied +himself in building and other improvements, and became a patron of +learning and art, and a great benefactor of the poor. He died on the 3rd +of July 1792. The merits, civil and military, of the prince were +recognized by memorials not only in Prussia and Hanover, but also in +Denmark, the states of western Germany and England. The Prussian +memorials include an equestrian statue at Berlin (1863). + + See E. v. L. Knesebeck, _Ferdinand, Herzog von Braunschweig und + Luneburg, wahrend des Siebenjahrigen Kriegs_ (2 vols., Hanover, + 1857-1858); Von Westphalen, _Geschichte der Feldzuge des Herzogs + Ferdinands von Braunschweig-Luneburg_ (5 vols., Berlin, 1859-1872); v. + d. Osten, _Tagebuch des Herzogl. Gen. Adjutanten v. Reden_ (Hamburg, + 1805); v. Schafer, _Vie militaire du marechal Prince Ferdinand_ + (Magdeburg, 1796; Nuremberg, 1798); also the _Oeuvres_ of Frederick + the Great, _passim_, and authorities for the SEVEN YEARS' WAR. + + + + +FERDINAND (1577-1650), elector and archbishop of Cologne, son of William +V., duke of Bavaria, was born on the 7th of October 1577. Intended for +the church, he was educated by the Jesuits at the university of +Ingolstadt, and in 1595 became coadjutor archbishop of Cologne. He +became elector and archbishop in 1612 on the death of his uncle Ernest, +whom he also succeeded as bishop of Liege, Munster and Hildesheim. He +endeavoured resolutely to root out heresy in the lands under his rule, +and favoured the teaching of the Jesuits in every possible way. He +supported the league founded by his brother Maximilian I., duke of +Bavaria, and wished to involve the leaguers in a general attack on the +Protestants of north Germany. The cool political sagacity of the duke +formed a sharp contrast to the impetuosity of the archbishop, and he +refused to accede to his brother's wish; but, in spite of these +temporary differences, Ferdinand sent troops and money to the assistance +of the league when the Thirty Years' War broke out in 1619. The +elector's alliance with the Spaniards secured his territories to a great +extent from the depredations of the war until the arrival of the Swedes +in Germany in 1630, when the extension of the area of the struggle to +the neighbourhood of Cologne induced him to enter into negotiations for +peace. Nothing came of these attempts until 1647, when he joined his +brother Maximilian in concluding an armistice with France and Sweden at +Ulm. The elector's later years were marked by a conflict with the +citizens of Liege; and when the peace of Westphalia freed him from his +enemies, he was able to crush the citizens and deprive them of many +privileges. Ferdinand, who had held the bishopric of Paderborn since +1618, died at Arnsberg on the 13th of September 1650, and was buried in +the cathedral at Cologne. + + See L. Ennen, _Frankreich und der Niederrhein oder Geschichte von + Stadt und Kurstadt Koln seit dem 30 jahrigen Kriege_, Band i. + (Cologne, 1855-1856). + + + + +FERENTINO (anc. _Ferentinum_, to be distinguished from Ferentum or +Ferentinum in Etruria), a town and episcopal see of Italy, in the +province of Rome, from which it is 48 m. E.S.E. by rail. Pop. (1901) +7957 (town), 12,279 (commune). It is picturesquely situated on a hill +1290 ft. above sea-level, and still possesses considerable remains of +ancient fortifications. The lower portion of the outer walls, which +probably did not stand free, is built of roughly hewn blocks of a +limestone which naturally splits into horizontal layers; above this in +places is walling of rectangular blocks of tufa. Two gates, the Porta +Sanguinaria (with an arch with tufa voussoirs), and the Porta S. Maria, +a double gate constructed entirely of rectangular blocks of tufa, are +preserved. Outside this gate is the tomb of A. Quinctilius Priscus, a +citizen of Ferentinum, with a long inscription cut in the rock. See Th. +Mommsen in _Corp. Inscrip. Lat._ x. (Berlin, 1883), No. 5853. + +The highest part of the town, the acropolis, is fortified also; it has +massive retaining walls similar to those of the lower town. At the +eastern corner, under the present episcopal palace, the construction is +somewhat more careful. A projecting rectangular terrace has been +erected, supported by walls of quadrilateral blocks of limestone +arranged almost horizontally; while upon the level thus formed a +building of rectangular blocks of local travertine was raised. The +projecting cornice of this building bears two inscriptions of the period +of Sulla, recording its construction by two censors (local officials); +and in the interior, which contains several chambers, there is an +inscription of the same censors over one of the doors, and another over +a smaller external side door. The windows lighting these chambers come +immediately above the cornice, and the wall continues above them again. +The whole of this construction probably belongs to one period (Mommsen, +_op. cit._ No. 5837 seq.). The cathedral occupies a part of the level +top of the ancient acropolis; it was reconstructed on the site of an +older church in 1099-1118; the interior was modernized in 1693, but was +restored to its original form in 1902. It contains a fine canopy in the +"Cosmatesque" style (see _Relazione dei lavori eseguiti dall' ufficio +tecnico per la conservazione dei monumenti di Rome a provincia_, Rome, +1903, 175 seq.). The Gothic church of S. Maria Maggiore, in the lower +town (13th-14th century), has a very fine exterior; the interior, the +plan of which is a perfect rectangle, has been spoilt by restoration. +There are several other Gothic churches in the town. + +Ferentinum was the chief town of the Hernici; it was captured from them +by the Romans in 364 B.C. and took no part in the rising of 306 B.C. The +inhabitants became Roman citizens after 195 B.C., and the place later +became a _municipium_. It lay just above the Via Latina and, being a +strong place, served for the detention of hostages. Horace praises its +quietness, and it does not appear much in later history. (T. As.) + + See further Ashby, _Rom. Mittell._ xxiv. (1909). + + + + +FERENTUM, or FERENTINUM, an ancient town of Etruria, about 6 m. N. of +Viterbo (the ancient name of which is unknown) and 3-1/2 m. E. of the +Via Cassia. It was the birthplace (32 A.D.) of the emperor Otho, was +destroyed in the 11th century, and is now entirely deserted, though it +retains its ancient name. It occupied a ridge running from east to west, +with deep ravines on three sides. There are some remains of the city +walls, and of various Roman structures, but the most important ruin is +that of the theatre. The stage front is still standing; it is pierced by +seven openings with flat arches, and shows traces of reconstruction. The +acropolis was on the hill called Talone on the north-east. + + See G. Dennis, _Cities and Cemeteries of Etruria_ (London, 1883), i. + 156; _Notizie degli scavi_, 1900, 401; 1902, 84; 1905, 31. + + + + +FERETORY (from Lat. _feretrum_, a bier, from _ferre_, to bear), in +architecture, the enclosure or chapel within which the "fereter" shrine, +or tomb (as in Henry VII.'s chapel), was placed. + + + + +FERGHANA, or FERGANA, a province of Russian Turkestan, formed in 1876 +out of the former khanate of Khokand. It is bounded by the provinces of +Syr-darya on the N. and N.W., Samarkand on the W., and Semiryechensk on +the N.E., by Chinese Turkestan (Kashgaria) on the E., and by Bokhara and +Afghanistan on the S. Its southern limits, on the Pamirs, were fixed by +an Anglo-Russian commission in 1885, from Zor-kul (Victoria Lake) to the +Chinese frontier; and Shignan, Roshan and Wakhan were assigned to +Bokhara in exchange for part of Darvaz (on the left bank of the Panj), +which was given to Afghanistan. The area amounts to some 53,000 sq. m., +of which 17,600 sq. m. are on the Pamirs. The most important part of the +province is a rich and fertile valley (1200-1500 ft.), opening towards +the S.W. Thence the province stretches northwards across the mountains +of the Tian-shan system and southwards across the Alai and Trans-Alai +Mts., which reach their highest point in Peak Kaufmann (23,000 ft.), in +the latter range. The valley owes its fertility to two rivers, the Naryn +and the Karadarya, which unite within its confines, near Namangan, to +form the Syr-darya or Jaxartes. These streams, and their numerous +mountain affluents, not only supply water for irrigation, but also bring +down vast quantities of sand, which is deposited alongside their +courses, more especially alongside the Syr-darya where it cuts its way +through the Khojent-Ajar ridge, forming there the Karakchikum. This +expanse of moving sands, covering an area of 750 sq. m., under the +influence of south-west winds, encroaches upon the agricultural +districts. The climate of this valley is dry and warm. In March the +temperature reaches 68 deg. F., and then rapidly rises to 95 deg. in +June, July and August. During the five months following April no rain +falls, but it begins again in October. Snow and frost (down to -4 deg. +F.) occur in December and January. + +Out of some 3,000,000 acres of cultivated land, about two-thirds are +under constant irrigation and the remaining third under partial +irrigation. The soil is admirably cultivated, the principal crops being +wheat, rice, barley, maize, millet, lucerne, tobacco, vegetables and +fruit. Gardening is conducted with a high degree of skill and success. +Large numbers of horses, cattle and sheep are kept, and a good many +camels are bred. Over 17,000 acres are planted with vines, and some +350,000 acres are under cotton. Nearly 1,000,000 acres are covered with +forests. The government maintains a forestry farm at Marghelan, from +which 120,000 to 200,000 young trees are distributed free every year +amongst the inhabitants of the province. + +Silkworm breeding, formerly a prosperous industry, has decayed, despite +the encouragement of a state farm at New Marghelan. Coal, iron, sulphur, +gypsum, rock-salt, lacustrine salt and naphtha are all known to exist, +but only the last two are extracted. Some seventy or eighty factories +are engaged in cotton cleaning; while leather, saddlery, paper and +cutlery are the principal products of the domestic industries. A +considerable trade is carried on with Russia; raw cotton, raw silk, +tobacco, hides, sheepskins, fruit and cotton and leather goods are +exported, and manufactured wares, textiles, tea and sugar are imported +and in part re-exported to Kashgaria and Bokhara. The total trade of +Ferghana reaches an annual value of nearly L3,500,000. A new impulse was +given to trade by the extension (1899) of the Transcaspian railway into +Ferghana and by the opening of the Orenburg-Tashkent railway (1906). The +routes to Kashgaria and the Pamirs are mere bridle-paths over the +mountains, crossing them by lofty passes. For instance, the passes of +Kara-kazyk (14,400 ft.) and Tenghiz-bai (11,200 ft.), both passable all +the year round, lead from Marghelan to Kara-teghin and the Pamirs, while +Kashgar is reached via Osh and Gulcha, and then over the passes of +Terek-davan (12,205 ft.; open all the year round), Taldyk (11,500 ft.), +Archat (11,600 ft.), and Shart-davan (14,000 ft.). Other passes leading +out of the valley are the Jiptyk (12,460 ft.), S. of Khokand; the +Isfairam (12,000 ft.), leading to the glen of the Surkhab, and the Kavuk +(13,000 ft.), across the Alai Mts. + +The population numbered 1,571,243 in 1897, and of that number 707,132 +were women and 286,369 were urban. In 1906 it was estimated at +1,796,500. Two-thirds of the total are Sarts and Uzbegs (of Turkic +origin). They live mostly in the valley; while the mountain slopes above +it are occupied by Kirghiz, partly nomad and pastoral, partly +agricultural and settled. The other races are Tajiks, Kashgarians, +Kipchaks, Jews and Gypsies. The governing classes are of course +Russians, who constitute also the merchant and artizan classes. But the +merchants of West Turkestan are called all over central Asia Andijanis, +from the town of Andijan in Ferghana. The great mass of the population +are Mussulmans (1,039,115 in 1897). The province is divided into five +districts, the chief towns of which are New Marghelan, capital of the +province (8977 inhabitants in 1897), Andijan (49,682 in 1900), Khokand +(86,704 in 1900), Namangan (61,906 in 1897), and Osh (37,397 in 1900); +but Old Marghelan (42,855 in 1900) and Chust (13,686 in 1897) are also +towns of importance. For the history, see KHOKAND. + (P. A. K.; J. T. Be.) + + + + +FERGUS FALLS, a city and the county-seat of Otter Tail county, +Minnesota, U.S.A., on the Red river, 170 m. N.W. of Minneapolis. Pop. +(1890) 3772; (1900) 6072, of whom 2131 were foreign-born; (1905) 6692; +(1910) 6887. A large part of the population is of Scandinavian birth or +descent. Fergus Falls is served by the Great Northern and the Northern +Pacific railways. Situated in the celebrated "park region" of the state, +the city possesses great natural beauty, which has been enhanced by a +system of boulevards and well-kept private lawns. Lake Alice, in the +residential district, adds to the city's attractions. The city has a +public library, a county court house, St Luke's hospital, the G.B. +Wright memorial hospital, and a city hall. It is the seat of a state +hospital for the insane (1887) with about 1600 patients, of a business +college, of the Park Region Luther College (Norwegian Lutheran, 1892), +and of the North-western College (Swedish Lutheran; opened in 1901). It +has one of the finest water-powers in the state. Flour is the principal +product; among others are woollen goods, foundry and machine-shop +products, wooden ware, sash, doors and blinds, caskets, shirts, wagons +and packed meats. The city owns and operates its water-works and its +electric-lighting plant. Fergus Falls was settled about 1859 and was +incorporated in 1863. + + + + +FERGUSON, ADAM (1723-1816), Scottish philosopher and historian, was born +on the 20th of June 1723, at Logierait, Perthshire. He was educated at +Perth grammar school and the university of St Andrews. In 1745, owing to +his knowledge of Gaelic, he was appointed deputy chaplain of the 43rd +(afterwards the 42nd) regiment (the Black Watch), the licence to preach +being granted him by special dispensation, although he had not completed +the required six years of theological study. At the battle of Fontenoy +(1745) Ferguson fought in the ranks throughout the day, and refused to +leave the field, though ordered to do so by his colonel. He continued +attached to the regiment till 1754, when, disappointed at not obtaining +a living, he abandoned the clerical profession and resolved to devote +himself to literary pursuits. In January 1757 he succeeded David Hume as +librarian to the faculty of advocates, but soon relinquished this office +on becoming tutor in the family of Lord Bute. + +In 1759 Ferguson was appointed professor of natural philosophy in the +university of Edinburgh, and in 1764 was transferred to the chair of +"pneumatics" (mental philosophy) "and moral philosophy." In 1767, +against Hume's advice, he published his _Essay on the History of Civil +Society_, which was well received and translated into several European +languages. In 1776 appeared his (anonymous) pamphlet on the American +revolution in opposition to Dr Price's _Observations on the Nature of +Civil Liberty_, in which he sympathized with the views of the British +legislature. In 1778 Ferguson was appointed secretary to the commission +which endeavoured, but without success, to negotiate an arrangement with +the revolted colonies. In 1783 appeared his _History of the Progress and +Termination of the Roman Republic_; it was very popular, and went +through several editions. Ferguson was led to undertake this work from a +conviction that the history of the Romans during the period of their +greatness was a practical illustration of those ethical and political +doctrines which were the object of his special study. The history is +written in an agreeable style and a spirit of impartiality, and gives +evidence of a conscientious use of authorities. The influence of the +author's military experience shows itself in certain portions of the +narrative. Finding himself unequal to the labour of teaching, he +resigned his professorship in 1785, and devoted himself to the revision +of his lectures, which he published (1792) under the title of +_Principles of Moral and Political Science_. + +When in his seventieth year, Ferguson, intending to prepare a new +edition of the history, visited Italy and some of the principal cities +of Europe, where he was received with honour by learned societies. From +1795 he resided successively at the old castle of Neidpath near Peebles, +at Hallyards on Manor Water and at St Andrews, where he died on the 22nd +of February 1816. + +In his ethical system Ferguson treats man throughout as a social being, +and illustrates his doctrines by political examples. As a believer in +the progression of the human race, he placed the principle of moral +approbation in the attainment of perfection. His speculations were +carefully criticized by Cousin (see his _Cours d'histoire de la +philosophie morale au dix-huitieme siecle_, pt. ii., 1839-1840):--"We +find in his method the wisdom and circumspection of the Scottish school, +with something more masculine and decisive in the results. The principle +of _perfection_ is a new one, at once more rational and comprehensive +than benevolence and sympathy, which in our view places Ferguson as a +moralist above all his predecessors." By this principle Ferguson +endeavours to reconcile all moral systems. With Hobbes and Hume he +admits the power of self-interest or utility, and makes it enter into +morals as the law of self-preservation. Hutcheson's theory of universal +benevolence and Smith's idea of sympathy he combines under the law of +society. But, as these laws are the means rather than the end of human +destiny, they are subordinate to a supreme end, and this supreme end is +perfection. In the political part of his system Ferguson follows +Montesquieu, and pleads the cause of well-regulated liberty and free +government. His contemporaries, with the exception of Hume, regarded his +writings as of great importance; in point of fact they are superficial. +The facility of their style and the frequent occurrence of would-be +weighty epigrams blinded his critics to the fact that, in spite of his +recognition of the importance of observation, he made no real +contribution to political theory (see Sir Leslie Stephen, _English +Thought in the Eighteenth Century_, x. 89-90). + + The chief authority for Ferguson's life is the _Biographical Sketch_ + by John Small (1864); see also _Public Characters_ (1799-1800); + _Gentleman's Magazine_, i. (1816 supp.); W.R. Chambers's _Biographical + Dictionary of Eminent Scotsmen_; memoir by Principal Lee in early + editions of the _Encyclopaedia Britannica_; J. McCosh, _The Scottish + Philosophy_ (1875); articles in _Dictionary of National Biography_ and + _Edinburgh Review_ (January 1867); Lord Henry Cockburn, _Memorials of + his Time_ (1856). + + + + +FERGUSON, JAMES (1710-1776), Scottish mechanician and astronomer, was +born near Rothiemay in Banffshire on the 25th of April 1710, of parents +in very humble circumstances. He first learned to read by overhearing +his father teach his elder brother, and with the help of an old woman +was "able," he says in his autobiography, "to read tolerably well before +his father thought of teaching him." After receiving further instruction +in reading from his father, who also taught him to write, he was sent at +the age of seven for three months to the grammar school at Keith. His +taste for mechanics was about this time accidentally awakened on seeing +his father making use of a lever to raise a part of the roof of his +house--an exhibition of seeming strength which at first "excited his +terror as well as wonder." In 1720 he was sent to a neighbouring farm to +keep sheep, where in the daytime he amused himself by making models of +mills and other machines, and at night in studying the stars. +Afterwards, as a servant with a miller, and then with a doctor, he met +with hardships which rendered his constitution feeble through life. +Being compelled by his weak health to return home, he there amused +himself with making a clock having wooden wheels and a whalebone spring. +When slightly recovered he showed this and some other inventions to a +neighbouring gentleman, who engaged him to clean his clocks, and also +desired him to make his house his home. He there began to draw patterns +for needlework, and his success in this art led him to think of becoming +a painter. In 1734 he went to Edinburgh, where he began to take +portraits in miniature, by which means, while engaged in his scientific +studies, he supported himself and his family for many years. +Subsequently he settled at Inverness, where he drew up his _Astronomical +Rotula_ for showing the motions of the planets, places of the sun and +moon, &c., and in 1743 went to London, which was his home for the rest +of his life. He wrote various papers for the Royal Society, of which he +became a fellow in 1763, devised astronomical and mechanical models, and +in 1748 began to give public lectures on experimental philosophy. These +he repeated in most of the principal towns in England. His deep interest +in his subject, his clear explanations, his ingeniously constructed +diagrams, and his mechanical apparatus rendered him one of the most +successful of popular lecturers on scientific subjects. It is, however, +as the inventor and improver of astronomical and other scientific +apparatus, and as a striking instance of self-education, that he claims +a place among the most remarkable men of science of his country. During +the latter years of his life he was in receipt of a pension of L50 from +the privy purse. He died in London on the 17th of November 1776. + + Ferguson's principal publications are _Astronomical Tables_ (1763); + _Lectures on Select Subjects_ (1st ed., 1761, edited by Sir David + Brewster in 1805); _Astronomy explained upon Sir Isaac Newton's + Principles_ (1756, edited by Sir David Brewster in 1811); and _Select + Mechanical Exercises, with a Short Account of the Life of the Author, + written by himself_ (1773). This autobiography is included in a _Life_ + by E. Henderson, LL.D. (1st ed., 1867; 2nd, 1870), which also contains + a full description of Ferguson's principal inventions, accompanied + with illustrations. See also _The Story of the Peasant-Boy + Philosopher_, by Henry Mayhew (1857). + + + + +FERGUSON, ROBERT (c. 1637-1714), British conspirator and pamphleteer, +called the "Plotter," was a son of William Ferguson (d. 1699) of +Badifurrow, Aberdeenshire, and after receiving a good education, +probably at the university of Aberdeen, became a Presbyterian minister. +According to Bishop Burnet he was cast out by the Presbyterians; but +whether this be so or not, he soon made his way to England and became +vicar of Godmersham, Kent, from which living he was expelled by the Act +of Uniformity in 1662. Some years later, having gained meanwhile a +reputation as a theological controversialist and become a person of +importance among the Nonconformists, he attracted the notice of the earl +of Shaftesbury and the party which favoured the exclusion of the duke of +York (afterwards King James II.) from the throne, and he began to write +political pamphlets just at the time when the feeling against the Roman +Catholics was at its height. In 1680 he wrote "A Letter to a Person of +Honour concerning the 'Black Box,'" in which he supported the claim of +the duke of Monmouth to the crown against that of the duke of York; +returning to the subject after Charles II. had solemnly denied the +existence of a marriage between himself and Lucy Waters. He took an +active part in the controversy over the Exclusion Bill, and claimed to +be the author of the whole of the pamphlet "No Protestant Plot" (1681), +parts of which are usually ascribed to Shaftesbury. Ferguson was deeply +implicated in the Rye House Plot, although he asserted that he had +frustrated both this and a subsequent attempt to assassinate the king, +and he fled to Holland with Shaftesbury in 1682, returning to England +early in 1683. For his share in another plot against Charles II. he was +declared an outlaw, after which he entered into communication with +Argyll, Monmouth and other malcontents. Ferguson then took a leading +part in organizing the rising of 1685. Having overcome Monmouth's +reluctance to take part in this movement, he accompanied the duke to the +west of England and drew up the manifesto against James II., escaping to +Holland after the battle of Sedgemoor. He landed in England with William +of Orange in 1688, and aided William's cause with his pen; but William +and his advisers did not regard him as a person of importance, although +his services were rewarded with a sinecure appointment in the Excise. +Chagrined at this treatment, Ferguson was soon in correspondence with +the exiled Jacobites. He shared in all the plots against the life of +William, and after his removal from the Excise in 1692 wrote violent +pamphlets against the government. Although he was several times arrested +on suspicion, he was never brought to trial. He died in great poverty in +1714, leaving behind him a great and deserved reputation for treachery. +It has been thought by Macaulay and others that Ferguson led the English +government to believe that he was a spy in their interests, and that his +frequent escapes from justice were due to official connivance. In a +proclamation issued for his arrest in 1683 he is described as "a tall +lean man, dark brown hair, a great Roman nose, thin-jawed, heat in his +face, speaks in the Scotch tone, a sharp piercing eye, stoops a little +in the shoulders." Besides numerous pamphlets Ferguson wrote: _History +of the Revolution_ (1706); _Qualifications requisite in a Minister of +State_ (1710); and part of the _History of all the Mobs, Tumults and +Insurrections in Great Britain_ (London, 1715). + + See James Ferguson, _Robert Ferguson, the Plotter_ (Edinburgh, 1887), + which gives a favourable account of Ferguson. + + + + +FERGUSON, SIR SAMUEL (1810-1886), Irish poet and antiquary, was born at +Belfast, on the 10th of March 1810. He was educated at Trinity College, +Dublin, was called to the Irish bar in 1838, and was made Q.C. in 1859, +but in 1867 retired from practice upon his appointment as deputy-keeper +of the Irish records, then in a much neglected condition. He was an +excellent civil servant, and was knighted in 1878 for his services to +the department. His spare time was given to general literature, and in +particular to poetry. He had long been a leading contributor to the +_Dublin University Magazine_ and to _Blackwood_, where he had published +his two literary masterpieces, "The Forging of the Anchor," one of the +finest of modern ballads, and the humorous prose extravaganza of "Father +Tom and the Pope." He published _Lays of the Western Gael_ in 1865, +_Poems_ in 1880, and in 1872 _Congal_, a metrical narrative of the +heroic age of Ireland, and, though far from ideal perfection, perhaps +the most successful attempt yet made by a modern Irish poet to revivify +the spirit of the past in a poem of epic proportions. Lyrics have +succeeded better in other hands; many of Ferguson's pieces on modern +themes, notably his "Lament for Thomas Davis" (1845), are, nevertheless, +excellent. He was an extensive contributor on antiquarian subjects to +the _Transactions of the Royal Irish Academy_, and was elected its +president in 1882. His manners were delightful, and his hospitality was +boundless. He died at Howth on the 9th of August 1886. His most +important antiquarian work, _Ogham Inscriptions in Ireland, Wales, +Scotland_, was published in the year after his death. + + See _Sir Samuel Ferguson in the Ireland of his Day_ (1896), by his + wife, Mary C. Ferguson; also an article by A.P. Graves in _A Treasury + of Irish Poetry in the English Tongue_ (1900), edited by Stopford + Brooke and T.W. Rolleston. + + + + +FERGUSSON, JAMES (1808-1886), Scottish writer on architecture, was born +at Ayr on the 22nd of January 1808. His father was an army surgeon. +After being educated first at the Edinburgh high school, and afterwards +at a private school at Hounslow, James went to Calcutta as partner in a +mercantile house. Here he was attracted by the remains of the ancient +architecture of India, little known or understood at that time. The +successful conduct of an indigo factory, as he states in his own +account, enabled him in about ten years to retire from business and +settle in London. The observations made on Indian architecture were +first embodied in his book on _The Rock-cut Temples of India_, published +in 1845. The task of analysing the historic and aesthetic relations of +this type of ancient buildings led him further to undertake a historical +and critical comparative survey of the whole subject of architecture in +_The Handbook of Architecture_, a work which first appeared in 1855. +This did not satisfy him, and the work was reissued ten years later in a +much more extended form under the title of _The History of +Architecture_. The chapters on Indian architecture, which had been +considered at rather disproportionate length in the _Handbook_, were +removed from the general _History_, and the whole of this subject +treated more fully in a separate volume, _The History of Indian and +Eastern Architecture_, which appeared in 1876, and, although complete in +itself, formed a kind of appendix to _The History of Architecture_. +Previously to this, in 1862, he issued his _History of Modern +Architecture_, in which the subject was continued from the Renaissance +to the present day, the period of "modern architecture" being +distinguished as that of revivals and imitations of ancient styles, +which began with the Renaissance. The essential difference between this +and the spontaneously evolved architecture of preceding ages Fergusson +was the first clearly to point out and characterize. His treatise on +_The True Principles of Beauty in Art_, an early publication, is a most +thoughtful metaphysical study. Some of his essays on special points in +archaeology, such as the treatise on _The Mode in which Light was +introduced into Greek Temples_, included theories which have not +received general acceptance. His real monument is his _History of +Architecture_ (later edition revised by R. Phene Spiers), which, for +grasp of the whole subject, comprehensiveness of plan, and thoughtful +critical analysis, stands quite alone in architectural literature. He +received the gold medal of the Royal Institute of British Architects in +1871. Among his works, besides those already mentioned, are: _A Proposed +New System of Fortification_ (1849)_, Palaces of Nineveh and Persepolis +restored_ (1851), _Mausoleum at Halicarnassus restored_ (1862), _Tree +and Serpent Worship_ (1868), _Rude Stone Monuments in all Countries_ +(1872), and _The Temples of the Jews and the other Buildings in the +Haram Area at Jerusalem_ (1878). The sessional papers of the Institute +of British Architects include papers by him on _The History of the +Pointed Arch_, _Architecture of Southern India_, _Architectural +Splendour of the City of Beejapore_, _On the Erechtheum_ and on the +_Temple of Diana at Ephesus_. + +Although Fergusson never practised architecture he took a keen interest +in all the professional work of his time. He was adviser with Austen +Layard in the scheme of decoration for the Assyrian court at the Crystal +Palace, and indeed assumed in 1856 the duties of general manager to the +Palace Company, a post which he held for two years. In 1847 Fergusson +had published an "Essay on the Ancient Topography of Jerusalem," in +which he had contended that the "Mosque of Omar" was the identical +church built by Constantine the Great over the tomb of our Lord at +Jerusalem, and that it, and not the present church of the Holy +Sepulchre, was the genuine burial-place of Jesus. The burden of this +contention was further explained by the publication in 1860 of his +_Notes on the Site of the Holy Sepulchre at Jerusalem_; and _The Temples +of the Jews and the other Buildings in the Haram Area at Jerusalem_, +published in 1878, was a still completer elaboration of these theories, +which are said to have been the origin of the establishment of the +Palestine Exploration fund. His manifold activities continued till his +death, which took place in London on the 9th of January 1886. + + + + +FERGUSSON, ROBERT (1750-1774), Scottish poet, son of Sir William +Fergusson, a clerk in the British Linen Company, was born at Edinburgh +on the 5th of September 1750. Robert was educated at the grammar school +of Dundee, and at the university of St Andrews, where he matriculated in +1765. His father died while he was still at college; but a bursary +enabled him to complete his four years of study. He refused to study for +the church, and was too nervous to study medicine as his friends wished. +He quarrelled with his uncle, John Forbes of Round Lichnot, +Aberdeenshire, and went to Edinburgh, where he obtained employment as +copying clerk in a lawyer's office. In this humble occupation he passed +the remainder of his life. While at college he had written a clever +elegy on Dr David Gregory, and in 1771 he began to contribute verses +regularly to Ruddiman's _Weekly Magazine_. He was a member of the Cape +Club, celebrated by him in his poem of "Auld Reekie." "The Knights of +the Cape" assembled at a tavern in Craig's Close, in the vicinity of the +Cross; each member had a name and character assigned to him, which he +was required to maintain at all gatherings of the order. David Herd +(1732-1810), the collector of the classic edition of _Ancient and Modern +Scottish Songs_ (1776), was sovereign of the Cape (in which he was known +as "Sir Scrape") when Fergusson was dubbed a knight of the order, with +the title of "Sir Precentor," in allusion to his fine voice. Alexander +Runciman, the historical painter, his pupil Jacob More, and Sir Henry +Raeburn were all members. The old minute books of the club abound with +pencilled sketches by them, one of the most interesting of which, +ascribed to Runciman's pencil, is a sketch of Fergusson in his character +of "Sir Precentor." + +Fergusson's gaiety and wit made him an entertaining companion, and he +indulged too freely in the convivial habits of the time. After a meeting +with John Brown of Haddington he became, however, very serious, and +would read nothing but his Bible. A fall by which his head was severely +injured aggravated symptoms of mental aberration which had begun to show +themselves; and after about two months' confinement in the old Darien +House--then the only public asylum in Edinburgh--the poet died on the +16th of October 1774. + +Fergusson's poems were collected in the year before his death. The +influence of his writings on Robert Burns is undoubted. His "Leith +Races" unquestionably supplied the model for the "Holy Fair." Not only +is the stanza the same, but the Mirth who plays the part of conductor to +Fergusson, and the Fun who renders a like service to Burns, are +manifestly conceived on the same model. "The Mutual Complaint of +Plainstanes and Causey" probably suggested "The Brigs of Ayr"; "On +seeing a Butterfly in the Street" has reflections in it which strikingly +correspond with "To a Mouse"; nor will a comparison of "The Farmer's +Ingle" of the elder poet with "The Cottar's Saturday Night" admit of a +doubt as to the influence of the city-bred poet's muse on that exquisite +picturing of homely peasant life. Burns was himself the first to render +a generous tribute to the merits of Fergusson; on his visit to Edinburgh +in 1787 he sought out the poet's grave, and petitioned the authorities +of the Canongate burying-ground for permission to erect the memorial +stone which is preserved in the existing monument. The date there +assigned for his birth differs from the one given above, which rests on +the authority of his younger sister Margaret. + + The first edition of Fergusson's poems was published by Ruddiman at + Edinburgh in 1773, and a supplement containing additional poems, in + 1779. A second edition appeared in 1785. There are later editions, by + Robert Chambers (1850) and Dr A.B. Grosart (1851). A life of Fergusson + is included in Dr David Irving's _Lives of the Scottish Poets_, and in + Robert Chambers's Lives of _Illustrious and Distinguished Scotsmen_. + + + + +FERGUSSON, SIR WILLIAM, Bart. (1808-1877), British surgeon, the son of +James Fergusson of Lochmaben, Dumfriesshire, was born at Prestonpans, +East Lothian, on the 20th of March 1808. After receiving his early +education at Lochmaben and the high school of Edinburgh, he entered the +university of Edinburgh with the view of studying law, but soon +afterwards abandoned his intention and became a pupil of the anatomist +Robert Knox (1791-1862) whose demonstrator he was appointed at the age +of twenty. In 1836 he succeeded Robert Liston as surgeon to the +Edinburgh Royal Infirmary, and coming to London in 1840 as professor of +surgery in King's College, and surgeon to King's College Hospital, he +acquired a commanding position among the surgeons of the metropolis. He +revived the operation for cleft-palate, which for many years had fallen +into disrepute, and invented a special mouth-gag for the same. He also +devised many other surgical instruments, chief among which, and still in +use to-day, are his bone forceps, lion forceps and vaginal speculum. In +1866 he was created a baronet. He died in London on the 10th of February +1877. As a surgeon Fergusson's greatest merit is that of having +introduced the practice of "conservative surgery," by which he meant the +excision of a joint rather than the amputation of a limb. He made his +diagnosis with almost intuitive certainty; as an operator he was +characterized by self-possession in the most critical circumstances, by +minute attention to details and by great refinement of touch, and he +relied more on his mechanical dexterity than on complicated instruments. +He was the author of _The Progress of Anatomy and Surgery in the +Nineteenth Century_ (1867), and of a _System of Practical Surgery_ +(1842), which went through several editions. + + + + +FERINGHI, or FERINGHEE, a Frank (Persian, _Farangi_). This term for a +European is very old in Asia, and was originally used in a purely +geographical sense, but now generally carries a hostile or contemptuous +significance. The combatants on either side during the Indian Mutiny +called each other Feringhies and Pandies. + + + + +FERISHTA, MAHOMMED KASIM (c. 1570-c. 1611), Persian historian, was born +at Astrabad, on the shores of the Caspian Sea. While he was still a +child his father was summoned away from his native country into +Hindostan, where he held high office in the Deccan; and by his influence +the young Ferishta received court promotion. In 1589 Ferishta removed to +Bijapur, where he spent the remainder of his life under the immediate +protection of the shah Ibrahim Adil II., who engaged him to write a +history of India. At the court of this monarch he died about 1611. In +the introduction to his work a _resume_ is given of the history of +Hindostan prior to the times of the Mahommedan conquest, and also of the +victorious progress of the Arabs through the East. The first ten books +are each occupied with a history of the kings of one of the provinces; +the eleventh book gives an account of the Mussulmans of Malabar; the +twelfth a history of the Mussulman saints of India; and the conclusion +treats of the geography and climate of India. Ferishta is reputed one of +the most trustworthy of the Oriental historians, and his work still +maintains a high place as an authority. Several portions of it have been +translated into English; but the best as well as the most complete +translation is that published by General J. Briggs under the title of +_The History of the Rise of the Mahometan Power in India_ (London, 1829, +4 vols. 8vo). Several additions were made by Briggs to the original work +of Ferishta, but he omitted the whole of the twelfth book, and various +other passages which had been omitted in the copy from which he +translated. + + + + +FERMANAGH, a county of Ireland, in the province of Ulster, bounded N.W. +by Donegal, N.E. by Tyrone, E. by Monaghan and S.W. by Cavan and +Leitrim. The area is 457,369 acres or about 715 sq. m. The county is +situated mostly in the basin of the Erne, which divides the county into +two nearly equal sections. Its surface is hilly, and its appearance (in +many parts) somewhat sterile, though in the main, and especially in the +neighbourhood of Lough Erne, it is picturesque and attractive. The +climate, though moist, is healthy, and the people are generally tall and +robust. The chief mountains are Cuilcagh (2188 ft.), partly in Leitrim +and Cavan, Belmore (1312), Glenkeel (1223), North Shean (1135), Tappahan +(1110), Carnmore (1034). Tossett or Toppid and Turaw mountains command +extensive prospects, and form striking features in the scenery of the +county. But the most distinguishing features of Fermanagh are the Upper +and Lower Loughs Erne, which occupy a great extent of its surface, +stretching for about 45 m. from S.E. to N.W. These lakes are expansions +of the river Erne, which enters the county from Cavan at Wattle Bridge. +It passes Belturbet, the Loughs Erne, Enniskillen and Belleek, on its +way to the Atlantic, into which it descends at Ballyshannon. At Belleek +it forms a considerable waterfall and is here well known to sportsmen +for its good salmon fishing. Trout are taken in most of the loughs, and +pike of great size in the Loughs Erne. There are several mineral springs +in the county, some of them chalybeate, others sulphurous. At Belcoo, +near Enniskillen, there is a famous well called Daragh Phadric, held in +repute by the peasantry for its cure of paralytic and other diseases; +and 4 m. N.W. of the same town, at a place called "the Daughton," are +natural caves of considerable size. + +This county includes in the north an area of the gneiss that is +discussed under county Donegal, and, west of Omagh, a metamorphic region +that stretches in from the central axis of Tyrone. A fault divides the +latter from the mass of red-brown Old Red Sandstone that spreads south +nearly to Enniskillen. Lower Carboniferous sandstone and limestone occur +on the north of Lower Lough Erne. The limestone forms fine scarps on the +southern side of the lake, capped by beds regarded as the Yoredale +series. The scenery about the two Loughs Macnean is carved out in +similarly scarped hills, rising to 2188 ft. in Cuilcagh on the south. +The "Marble Arch" cave near Florence-court, with its emerging river, is +a characteristic example of the subterranean waterways in the limestone. +Upper Lough Erne is a typical meandering lake of the limestone lowland, +with outliers of higher Carboniferous strata forming highlands +north-east and south-west of it. + +With the exception of the pottery works at Belleek, where iridescent +ware of good quality is produced, Fermanagh has no distinguishing +manufactures. It is chiefly an agricultural county. The proportion of +tillage to pasture is roughly as 1 to 2-1/2. Cattle and poultry are the +principal classes of live stock. Oats and potatoes are the crops most +extensively cultivated. The north-western division of the Great Northern +railway passes through the most populous portion of the county, one +branch connecting Enniskillen with Clones, another connecting +Enniskillen with Londonderry via Omagh, and a third connecting Bundoran +Junction with Bundoran, in county Donegal. The Sligo, Leitrim & Northern +Counties railway connects with the Great Northern at Enniskillen, and +the Clogher Valley light railway connects southern county Tyrone with +the Great Northern at Maguiresbridge. + +The population (74,170 in 1891; 65,430 in 1901; almost wholly rural) +shows a decrease among the most serious of the county populations of +Ireland. It includes 55% of Roman Catholics and about 35% of Protestant +Episcopalians. Enniskillen (the county town, pop. 5412) is the only town +of importance, the rest being little more than villages. The principal +are Lisnaskea, Irvinestown (formerly Lowtherstown), Maguiresbridge, +Tempo, Newtownbutler, Belleek, Derrygonnelly and Kesh, at which fairs +are held. Garrison, a fishing station on the wild Lough Melvin, and +Pettigo, near to the lower Lough Erne, are market villages. Fermanagh +returns two members to parliament, one each for the north and south +divisions. It comprises eight baronies and nineteen civil parishes. The +assizes are held at Enniskillen, quarter sessions at Enniskillen and +Newtownbutler. The headquarters of the constabulary are at Enniskillen. +Ecclesiastically it belongs to the Protestant and Roman Catholic +dioceses of Clogher and Kilmore. + +By the ancient Irish the district was called _Feor-magh-Eanagh_, or the +"country of the lakes" (lit. "the mountain-valley marsh district"); and +also Magh-uire, or "the country of the waters." A large portion was +occupied by the _Guarii_, the ancestors of the MacGuires or Maguires, a +name still common in the district. This family was so influential that +for centuries the county was called after it Maguire's Country, and one +of the towns still existing bears its name, Maguiresbridge. Fermanagh +was formed into a county on the shiring of Ulster in 1585 by Sir John +Perrot, and was included in the well-known scheme of colonization of +James I., the Plantation of Ulster. In 1689 battles were fought between +William III.'s army and the Irish under Macarthy (for James II.), +Lisnaskea (26th July) and Newtownbutler (30th July). The chief place of +interest to the antiquary is Devenish Island in Lough Erne, about 2-1/2 +m. N.W. from Enniskillen (q.v.), with its ruined abbey, round tower and +cross. In various places throughout the county may be seen the ruins of +several ancient castles, Danish raths or encampments, and tumuli, in the +last of which urns and stone coffins have sometimes been found. The +round tower on Devenish Island is one of the finest examples in the +country. + + + + +FERMAT, PIERRE DE (1601-1665), French mathematician, was born on the +17th of August 1601, at Beaumont-de-Lomagne near Montauban. While still +young, he, along with Blaise Pascal, made some discoveries in regard to +the properties of numbers, on which he afterwards built his method of +calculating probabilities. He discovered a simpler method of quadrating +parabolas than that of Archimedes, and a method of finding the greatest +and the smallest ordinates of curved lines analogous to that of the then +unknown differential calculus. His great work _De maximis et minimis_ +brought him into conflict with Rene Descartes, but the dispute was +chiefly due to a want of explicitness in the statement of Fermat (see +INFINITESIMAL CALCULUS). His brilliant researches in the theory of +numbers entitle him to rank as the founder of the modern theory. They +originally took the form of marginal notes in a copy of Bachet's +_Diophantus_, and were published in 1670 by his son Samuel, who +incorporated them in a new edition of this Greek writer. Other theorems +were published in his _Opera Varia_, and in John Wallis's _Commercium +epistolicum_ (1658). He died in the belief that he had found a relation +which every prime number must satisfy, namely 2^2n + 1 = a prime. This +was afterwards disproved by Leonhard Euler for the case when n = 5. +_Fermat's Theorem_, if p is prime and a is prime to p then a^(p-1) - 1 +is divisible by p, was first given in a letter of 1640. _Fermat's +Problem_ is that x^n + y^n = z^n is impossible for integral values of x, +y and z when n is greater than 2. + +Fermat was for some time councillor for the parliament of Toulouse, and +in the discharge of the duties of that office he was distinguished both +for legal knowledge and for strict integrity of conduct. Though the +sciences were the principal objects of his private studies, he was also +an accomplished general scholar and an excellent linguist. He died at +Toulouse on the 12th of January 1665. He left a son, Samuel de Fermat +(1630-1690) who published translations of several Greek authors and +wrote certain books on law in addition to editing his father's works. + + The _Opera mathematica_ of Fermat were published at Toulouse, in 2 + vols. folio, 1670 and 1679. The first contains the "Arithmetic of + Diophantus," with notes and additions. The second includes a "Method + for the Quadrature of Parabolas," and a treatise "on Maxima and + Minima, on Tangents, and on Centres of Gravity," containing the same + solutions of a variety of problems as were afterwards incorporated + into the more extensive method of fluxions by Newton and Leibnitz. In + the same volume are treatises on "Geometric Loci, or Spherical + Tangencies," and on the "Rectification of Curves," besides a + restoration of "Apollonius's Plane Loci," together with the author's + correspondence addressed to Descartes, Pascal, Roberval, Huygens and + others. The _Oeuvres_ of Fermat have been re-edited by P. Tannery and + C. Henry (Paris, 1891-1894). + + See Paul Tannery, "Sur la date des principales decouvertes de Fermat," + in the _Bulletin Darboux_ (1883); and "Les Manuscrits de Fermat," in + the _Annales de la faculte des lettres de Bordeaux_. + + + + +FERMENTATION. The process of fermentation in the preparation of wine, +vinegar, beer and bread was known and practised in prehistoric times. +The alchemists used the terms fermentation, digestion and putrefaction +indiscriminately; any reaction in which chemical energy was displayed in +some form or other--such, for instance, as the effervescence occasioned +by the addition of an acid to an alkaline solution--was described as a +fermentation (Lat. _fervere_, to boil); and the idea of the +"Philosopher's Stone" setting up a fermentation in the common metals and +developing the essence or germ, which should transmute them into silver +or gold, further complicated the conception of fermentation. As an +outcome of this alchemical doctrine the process of fermentation was +supposed to have a purifying and elevating effect on the bodies which +had been submitted to its influence. Basil Valentine wrote that when +yeast was added to wort "an internal inflammation is communicated to the +liquid, so that it raises in itself, and thus the segregation and +separation of the feculent from the clear takes place." Johann Becher, +in 1669, first found that alcohol was formed during the fermentation of +solutions of sugar; he distinguished also between fermentation and +putrefaction. In 1697 Georg Stahl admitted that fermentation and +putrefaction were analogous processes, but that the former was a +particular case of the latter. + +The beginning of definite knowledge on the phenomenon of fermentation +may be dated from the time of Antony Leeuwenhoek, who in 1680 designed a +microscope sufficiently powerful to render yeast cells and bacteria +visible; and a description of these organisms, accompanied by diagrams, +was sent to the Royal Society of London. This investigator just missed a +great discovery, for he did not consider the spherical forms to be +living organisms but compared them with starch granules. It was not +until 1803 that L.J. Thenard stated that yeast was the cause of +fermentation, and held it to be of an animal nature, since it contained +nitrogen and yielded ammonia on distillation, nor was it conclusively +proved that the yeast cell was the originator of fermentation until the +researches of C. Cagniard de la Tour, T. Schwann and F. Kutzing from +1836 to 1839 settled the point. These investigators regarded yeast as a +plant, and Meyer gave to the germs the systematic name of +"Saccharomyces" (sugar fungus). In 1839-1840 J. von Liebig attacked the +doctrine that fermentation was caused by micro-organisms, and enunciated +his theory of mechanical decomposition. He held that every fermentation +consisted of molecular motion which is transmitted from a substance in a +state of chemical motion--that is, of decomposition--to other +substances, the elements of which are loosely held together. It is clear +from Liebig's publications that he first regarded yeast as a lifeless, +albuminoid mass; but, although later he considered they were living +cells, he would never admit that fermentation was a physiological +process, the chemical aspect being paramount in the mind of this +distinguished investigator. + +In 1857 Pasteur decisively proved that fermentation was a physiological +process, for he showed that the yeast which produced fermentation was no +dead mass, as assumed by Liebig, but consisted of living organisms +capable of growth and multiplication. His own words are: "The chemical +action of fermentation is essentially a correlative phenomenon of a +vital act, beginning and ending with it. I think that there is never any +alcoholic fermentation without there being at the same time +organization, development and multiplication of globules, or the +continued consecutive life of globules already formed." Fermentation, +according to Pasteur, was caused by the growth and multiplication of +unicellular organisms out of contact with free oxygen, under which +circumstance they acquire the power of taking oxygen from chemical +compounds in the medium in which they are growing. In other words +"fermentation is life without air, or life without oxygen." This theory +of fermentation was materially modified in 1892 and 1894 by A.J. Brown, +who described experiments which were in disagreement with Pasteur's +dictum. A.J. Brown writes: "If for the theory 'life without air' is +substituted the consideration that yeast cells can use oxygen in the +manner of ordinary aerobic fungi, and probably do require it for the +full completion of their life-history, but that the exhibition of their +fermentative functions is independent of their environment with regard +to free oxygen, it will be found that there is nothing contradictory in +Pasteur's experiments to such a hypothesis." + +Liebig and Pasteur were in agreement on the point that fermentation is +intimately connected with the presence of yeast in the fermenting +liquid, but their explanations concerning the mechanism of fermentation +were quite opposed. According to M. Traube (1858), the active cause of +fermentation is due to the action of different enzymes contained in +yeast and not to the yeast cell itself. As will be seen later this +theory was confirmed by subsequent researches of E. Fischer and E. +Buchner. + +In 1879 C. Nageli formulated his well-known molecular-physical theory, +which supported Liebig's chemical theory on the one hand and Pasteur's +physiological hypothesis on the other: "Fermentation is the +transference of the condition of motion of the molecules, atomic groups +and atoms of the various compounds constituting the living plasma, to +the fermenting material, in consequence of which equilibrium in the +molecules of the latter is destroyed, the result being their +disintegration." He agreed with Pasteur that the presence of living +cells is essential to the transformation of sugar into alcohol, but +dissented from the view that the process occurs within the cell. This +investigator held that the decomposition of the sugar molecules takes +place outside the cell wall. In 1894 and 1895, Fischer, in a remarkable +series of papers on the influence of molecular structure upon the action +of the enzyme, showed that various species of yeast behave very +differently towards solutions of sugars. For example, some species +hydrolyse cane sugar and maltose, and then carry on fermentation at the +expense of the simple sugars (hexoses) so formed. _Saccharomyces +Marxianus_ will not hydrolyse maltose, but it does attack cane sugar and +ferment the products of hydrolysis. Fischer next suggested that enzymes +can only hydrolyse those sugars which possess a molecular structure in +harmony with their own, or to use his ingenious analogy, "the one may be +said to fit into the other as a key fits into a lock." The preference +exhibited by yeast cells for sugar molecules is shared by mould fungi +and soluble enzymes in their fermentative actions. Thus, Pasteur showed +that _Penicillium glaucum_, when grown in an aqueous solution of +ammonium racemate, decomposed the dextro-tartrate, leaving the +laevo-tartrate, and the solution which was originally inactive to +polarized light became dextro-rotatory. Fischer found that the enzyme +"invertase," which is present in yeast, attacks methyl-_d_-glucoside but +not methyl-_l_-glucoside. + +In 1897 Buchner submitted yeast to great pressure, and isolated a +nitrogenous substance, enzymic in character, which he termed "zymase." +This body is being continually formed in the yeast cell, and decomposes +the sugar which has diffused into the cell. The freshly-expressed yeast +juice causes concentrated solutions of cane sugar, glucose, laevulose +and maltose to ferment with the production of alcohol and carbon +dioxide, but not milk-sugar and mannose. In this respect the plasma +behaves in a similar manner towards the sugars as does the living yeast +cell. Pasteur found that, when cane sugar was fermented by yeast, 49.4% +of carbonic acid and 51.1% of alcohol were produced; with expressed +yeast juice cane sugar yields 47% of carbonic acid and 47.7% of alcohol. +According to Buchner the fermentative activity of yeast-cell juice is +not due to the presence of living yeast cells, or to the action of +living yeast protoplasm, but it is caused by a soluble enzyme. A. +Macfadyen, G.H. Morris and S. Rowland, in repeating Buchner's +experiments, found that zymase possessed properties differing from all +other enzymes, thus: dilution with twice its volume of water practically +destroys the fermentative power of the yeast juice. These investigators +considered that differences of this nature cannot be explained by the +theory that it is a soluble enzyme, which brings about the alcoholic +fermentation of sugar. The remarkable discoveries of Fischer and Buchner +to a great extent confirm Traube's views, and reconcile Liebig's and +Pasteur's theories. Although the action of zymase may be regarded as +mechanical, the enzyme cannot be produced by any other than living +protoplasm. + +Pasteur's important researches mark an epoch in the technical aspect of +fermentation. His investigations on vinegar-making revolutionized that +industry, and he showed how, instead of waiting two or three months for +the elaboration of the process, the vinegar could be made in eight or +ten days by exposing the vats containing the mixture of wine and vinegar +to a temperature of 20 deg. to 25 deg. C., and sowing with a small +quantity of the acetic organism. To the study of the life-history of the +butyric and acetic organisms we owe the terms "anaerobic" and "aerobic." +His researches from 1860 and onwards on the then vexed question of +spontaneous generation proved that, in all cases where spontaneous +generation appeared to have taken place, some defect or other was in the +experiment. Although the direct object of Pasteur was to prove a +negative, yet it was on these experiments that sterilization as known +to us was developed. It is only necessary to bear in mind the great part +played by sterilization in the laboratory, and pasteurization on the +fermentation industries and in the preservation of food materials. +Pasteur first formulated the idea that bacteria are responsible for the +diseases of fermented liquids; the corollary of this was a demand for +pure yeast. He recommended that yeast should be purified by cultivating +it in a solution of sugar containing tartaric acid, or, in wort +containing a small quantity of phenol. It was not recognized that many +of the diseases of fermented liquids are occasioned by foreign yeasts; +moreover, this process, as was shown later by Hansen, favours the +development of foreign yeasts at the expense of the good yeast. + +About this time Hansen, who had long been engaged in researches on the +biology of the fungi of fermentation, demonstrated that yeast free from +bacteria could nevertheless occasion diseases in beer. This discovery +was of great importance to the zymo-technical industries, for it showed +that bacteria are not the only undesirable organisms which may occur in +yeast. Hansen set himself the task of studying the properties of the +varieties of yeast, and to do this he had to cultivate each variety in a +pure state. Having found that some of the commonest diseases of beer, +such as yeast turbidity and the objectionable changes in flavour, were +caused not by bacteria but by certain species of yeast, and, further, +that different species of good brewery yeast would produce beers of +different character, Hansen argued that the pitching yeast should +consist only of a single species--namely, that best suited to the +brewery in question. These views met with considerable opposition, but +in 1890 Professor E. Duclaux stated that the yeast question as regards +low fermentation has been solved by Hansen's investigations. He +emphasized the opinion that yeast derived from one cell was of no good +for top fermentation, and advocated Pasteur's method of purification. +But in the course of time, notwithstanding many criticisms and +objections, the reform spread from bottom fermentation to top +fermentation breweries on the continent and in America. In the United +Kingdom the employment of brewery yeasts selected from a single cell has +not come into general use; it may probably be accounted for in a great +measure by conservatism and the wrong application of Hansen's theories. + +_Pure Cultivation of Yeasts._--The methods which were first adopted by +Hansen for obtaining pure cultures of yeast were similar in principle to +one devised by J. Lister for isolating a pure culture of lactic acid +bacterium. Lister determined the number of bacteria present in a drop of +the liquid under examination by counting, and then diluted this with a +sufficient quantity of sterilized water so that each drop of the mixture +should contain, on an average, less than one bacterium. A number of +flasks containing a nutrient medium were each inoculated with one drop +of this mixture; it was found that some remained sterile, and Lister +assumed that the remaining flasks each contained a pure culture. This +method did not give very certain results, for it could not be guaranteed +that the growth in the inoculated flask was necessarily derived from a +single bacterium. Hansen counted the number of yeast cells suspended in +a drop of liquid diluted with sterilized water. A volume of the diluted +yeast was introduced into flasks containing sterilized wort, the degree +of dilution being such that only a small proportion of the flasks became +infected. The flasks were then well shaken, and the yeast cell or cells +settled to the bottom, and gave rise to a separate yeast speck. Only +those cultures which contained a single yeast speck were assumed to be +pure cultivations. By this method several races of _Saccharomycetes_ and +brewery yeasts were isolated and described. + +The next important advance was the substitution of solid for liquid +media; due originally to Schroter. R. Koch subsequently improved the +method. He introduced bacteria into liquid sterile nutrient gelatin. +After being well shaken, the liquid was poured into a sterile glass +Petrie dish and covered with a moist and sterile bell-jar. It was +assumed that each separate speck contained a pure culture. Hansen +pointed out that this was by no means the case, for it is more +difficult to separate the cells from each other in the gelatin than in +the liquid. To obtain an absolutely pure culture with certainty it is +necessary, even when the gelatin method is employed, to start from a +single cell. To effect this some of the nutrient gelatin containing +yeast cells is placed on the under-surface of the cover-glass of the +moist chamber. Those cells are accurately marked, the position of which +is such that the colonies, to which they give rise, can grow to their +full size without coming into contact with other colonies. The growth of +the marked cells is kept under observation for three or four days, by +which time the colonies will be large enough to be taken out of the +chamber and placed in flasks. The contents of the flasks can then be +introduced into larger flasks, and finally into an apparatus suitable +for making enough yeast for technical purposes. Such, in brief, are the +methods devised by that brilliant investigator Hansen; and these methods +have not only been the basis on which our modern knowledge of the +_Saccharomycetes_ is founded, but are the only means of attack which the +present-day observer has at his disposal. + +From the foregoing it will be seen that the term fermentation has now a +much wider significance than when it was applied to such changes as the +decomposition of must or wort with the production of carbon dioxide and +alcohol. Fermentation now includes all changes in organic compounds +brought about by ferments elaborated in the living animal or vegetable +cell. There are two distinct types of fermentation: (1) those brought +about by living organisms (organized ferments), and (2) those brought +about by non-living or unorganized ferments (enzymes). The first class +include such changes as the alcoholic fermentation of sugar solutions, +the acetic acid fermentation of alcohol, the lactic acid fermentation of +milk sugar, and the putrefaction of animal and vegetable nitrogenous +matter. The second class include all changes brought about by the agency +of enzymes, such as the action of diastase on starch, invertase on cane +sugar, glucase on maltose, &c. The actions are essentially hydrolytic. + +_Biological Aspect of Yeast._--The Saccharomycetes belong to that +division of the Thallophyta called the Hyphomycetes or Fungi (q.v.). Two +great divisions are recognized in the Fungi: (i.) the _Phycomycetes_ or +Algal Fungi, which retain a definitely sexual method of reproduction as +well as asexual (vegetative) methods, and (ii.) the _Mycomycetes_, +characterized by extremely reduced or very doubtful sexual reproduction. +The Mycomycetes may be divided as follows: (A) forms bearing both +sporangia and conidia (see FUNGI), (B) forms bearing conidia only, e.g. +the common mushroom. Division A comprises (a) the true _Ascomycetes_, of +which the moulds Eurotium and Penicillium are examples, and (b) the +_Hemiasci_, which includes the yeasts. The gradual disappearance of the +sexual method of reproduction, as we pass upwards in the fungi from the +points of their departure from the Algae, is an important fact, the last +traces of sexuality apparently disappearing in the ascomycetes. + +With certain rare exceptions the Saccharomycetes have three methods of +asexual reproduction:-- + +1. The most common.--The formation of _buds_ which separate to form new +cells. A portion of the nucleus of the parent cell makes its way through +the extremely narrow neck into the daughter cell. This method obtains +when yeast is vigorously fermenting a saccharine solution. + +2. A division by _fission_ followed by Endogenous spore formation, +characteristic of the Schizosaccharomycetes. Some species show +fermentative power. + +3. _Endospore_ formation, the conditions for which are as follows: (1) +suitable temperature, (2) presence of air, (3) presence of moisture, (4) +young and vigorous cells, (5) a food supply in the case of one species +at least is necessary, and is in no case prejudicial. In some cases a +sexual act would appear to precede spore formation. In most cases four +spores are formed within the cell by free formation. These may readily +be seen after appropriate staining. + +In some of the true Ascomycetes, such as _Penicillium glaucum_, the +conidia if grown in saccharine solutions, which they have the power of +fermenting, develop single cell yeast-like forms, and do not--at any +rate for a time--produce again the characteristic branching mycelium. +This is known as the _Torula_ condition. It is supposed by some that +Saccharomyces is a very degraded Ascomycete, in which the Torula +condition has become fixed. + +The yeast plant and its allies are saprophytes and form no chlorophyll. +Their extreme reduction in form and loss of sexuality may be correlated +with the saprophytic habit, the proteids and other organic material +required for the growth and reproduction being appropriated ready +synthesized, the plant having entirely lost the power of forming them +for itself, as evidenced by the absence of chlorophyll. The beer yeast +_S. cerevisiae_, is never found wild, but the wine yeasts occur +abundantly in the soil of vineyards, and so are always present on the +fruit, ready to ferment the expressed juice. + +_Chemical Aspect of Alcoholic Fermentation._--Lavoisier was the first +investigator to study fermentation from a quantitative standpoint. He +determined the percentages of carbon, hydrogen and oxygen in the sugar +and in the products of fermentation, and concluded that sugar in +fermenting breaks up into alcohol, carbonic acid and acetic acid. The +elementary composition of sugar and alcohol was fixed in 1815 by +analyses made by Gay-Lussac, Thenard and de Saussure. The +first-mentioned chemist proposed the following formula to represent the +change which takes place when sugar is fermented:-- + + C6H12O6 = 2CO2 + 2C2H6O. + Sugar. Carbon dioxide. Alcohol. + +This formula substantially holds good to the present day, although a +number of definite bodies other than carbon dioxide and alcohol occur in +small and varying quantities, according to the conditions of the +fermentation and the medium fermented. Prominent among these are +glycerin and succinic acid. In this connexion Pasteur showed that 100 +parts of cane sugar on inversion gave 105.4 parts of invert sugar, +which, when fermented, yielded 51.1 parts alcohol, 49.4 carbonic acid, +0.7 succinic acid, 3.2 glycerin and 1.0 unestimated. A. Bechamp and E. +Duclaux found that acetic acid is formed in small quantities during +fermentation; aldehyde has also been detected. The higher alcohols such +as propyl, isobutyl, amyl, capryl, oenanthyl and caproyl, have been +identified; and the amount of these vary according to the different +conditions of the fermentation. A number of esters are also produced. +The characteristic flavour and odour of wines and spirits is dependent +on the proportion of higher alcohols, aldehydes and esters which may be +produced. + +Certain yeasts exercise a reducing action, forming sulphuretted +hydrogen, when sulphur is present. The "stinking fermentations" +occasionally experienced in breweries probably arise from this, the free +sulphur being derived from the hops. Other yeasts are stated to form +sulphurous acid in must and wort. Another fact of considerable technical +importance is, that the various races of yeast show considerable +differences in the amount and proportion of fermentation products other +than ethyl alcohol and carbonic acid which they produce. From these +remarks it will be clear that to employ the most suitable kind of yeast +for a given alcoholic fermentation is of fundamental importance in +certain industries. It is beyond the scope of the present article to +attempt to describe the different forms of budding fungi +(Saccharomyces), mould fungi and bacteria which are capable of +fermenting sugar solutions. Thus, six species isolated by Hansen, +_Saccharomyces cerevisiae_, _S. Pasteurianus_ I.,[1] II., III., and _S. +ellipsoideus_, contained invertase and maltase, and can invert and +subsequently ferment cane sugar and maltose. _S. exiguus_ and _S. +Ludwigii_ contain only invertase and not maltase, and therefore ferment +cane sugar but not maltose. _S. apiculatus_ (a common wine yeast) +contains neither of these enzymes, and only ferments solutions of +glucose or laevulose. + +Previously to Hansen's work the only way of differentiating yeasts was +by studying morphological differences with the aid of the microscope. +Max Reess distinguished the species according to the appearance of the +cells thus, the ellipsoidal cells were designated _Saccharomyces +ellipsoideus_, the sausage-shaped _Saccharomyces Pasteurianus_, and so +on. It was found by Hansen that the same species of yeast can assume +different shapes; and it therefore became necessary to determine how the +different varieties of yeast could be distinguished with certainty. The +formation of spores in yeast (first discovered by T. Schwann in 1839) +was studied by Hansen, who found that each species only developed spores +between certain definite temperatures. The time taken for spore +formation varies greatly; thus, at 52 deg. F., _S. cerevisiae_ takes 10, +_S. Pasteurianus_ I. and II. about 4, _S. Pasteurianus_ III. about 7, +and _S. ellipsoideus_ about 4-1/2 days. The formation of spores is used +as an analytical method for determining whether a yeast is contaminated +with another species,--for example: a sample of yeast is placed on a +gypsum or porcelain block saturated with water; if in ten days at a +temperature of 52 deg. F. no spores make their appearance, the yeast in +question may be regarded as _S. cerevisiae_, and not associated with _S. +Pasteurianus_ or _S. ellipsoideus_. + +The formation of films on fermented liquids is a well-known phenomenon +and common to all micro-organisms. A free still surface with a direct +access of air are the necessary conditions. Hansen showed that the +microscopic appearance of film cells of the same species of +Saccharomycetes varies according to the temperature of growth; the +limiting temperatures of film formation, as well as the time of its +appearance for the different species, also vary. + +In the zymo-technical industries the various species of yeast exhibit +different actions during fermentations. A well-known instance of this is +the "top" and "bottom" brewery fermentations (see BREWING). In a top +fermentation--typical of English breweries--the yeast rises, in a bottom +fermentation, as the phrase implies, it settles in the vessel. Sometimes +a bottom yeast may for a time exhibit signs of a top fermentation. It +has not, however, been possible to transform a typical top yeast into a +permanent typical bottom yeast. There appear to be no true distinctive +characteristics for these two types. Their selection for a particular +purpose depends upon some special quality which they possess; thus for +brewing certain essentials are demanded as regards stability, +clarification, taste and smell; whereas, in distilleries, the production +of alcohol and a high multiplying power in the yeast are required. +Culture yeasts have also been successfully employed in the manufacture +of wine and cider. By the judicious selection of a type of yeast it is +possible to improve the bouquet, and from an inferior must obtain a +better wine or cider than would otherwise be produced. + +Certain acid fermentations are of common occurrence. The _Bacterium +acidi lacti_ described by Pasteur decomposes milk sugar into lactic +acid. _Bacillus amylobacter_ usually accompanies the lactic acid +organism, and decomposes lactic and other higher acids with formation of +butyric acid. Moulds have been isolated which occasion the formation of +citric acid from glucose. The production of acetic acid from alcohol has +received much attention at the hands of investigators, and it has an +important technical aspect in the manufacture of vinegar. The phenomenon +of nitrification (see BACTERIOLOGY, AGRICULTURE and MANURE), i.e. the +formation of nitrites and nitrates from ammonia and its compounds in the +soil, was formerly held to be a purely chemical process, until +Schloesing and Muntz suggested in 1877 that it was biological. It is now +known that the action takes place in two stages; the ammonium salt is +first oxidized to the nitrite stage and subsequently to the nitrate. + (J. L. B.) + + +FOOTNOTE: + + [1] Hansen found there were three species of spore-bearing + Saccharomycetes and that these could be subdivided into varieties. + Thus, _S. cerevisiae_ I., _S. cerevisiae_ II., _S. Pasteurianus_ I., + &c. + + + + +FERMO (anc. _Firmum Picenum_), a town and archiepiscopal see of the +Marches, Italy, in the province of Ascoli Piceno, on a hill with a fine +view, 1046 ft. above sea-level, on a branch from Porto S. Giorgio on the +Adriatic coast railway. Pop. (1901) town, 16,577, commune 20,542. The +summit of the hill was occupied by the citadel until 1446. It is crowned +by the cathedral, reconstructed in 1227 by Giorgio da Como; the fine +facade and campanile of this period still remain, and the side portal +is good; the beautiful rose-window over the main door dates from 1348. +In the porch are several good tombs, including one of 1366 by Tura da +Imola, and also the modern monument of Giuseppe Colucci, a famous writer +on the antiquities of Picenum. The interior has been modernized. The +building is now surrounded by a garden, with a splendid view. Against +the side of the hill was built the Roman theatre; scanty traces of an +amphitheatre also exist. Remains of the city wall, of rectangular blocks +of hard limestone, may be seen just outside the Porta S. Francesco; +whether the walling under the Casa Porti belongs to them is doubtful. +The medieval battlemented walls superposed on it are picturesque. The +church of S. Francesco has a good tower and choir in brickwork of 1240, +the rest having been restored in the 17th century. Under the Dominican +monastery is a very large Roman reservoir in two storeys, belonging to +the imperial period, divided into many chambers, at least 24 on each +level, each 30 by 20 ft., for filtration (see G. de Minicis in _Annali +dell' Istituto_, 1846, p. 46; 1858, p. 125). The piazza contains the +Palazzo Comunale, restored in 1446, with a statue of Pope Sixtus V. in +front of it. The Biblioteca Comunale contains a collection of +inscriptions and antiquities. Porto S. Giorgio has a fine castle of +1269, blocking the valley which leads to Fermo. + +The ancient Firmum Picenum was founded as a Latin colony in 264 B.C., +after the conquest of the Picentes, as the local headquarters of the +Roman power, to which it remained faithful. It was originally governed +by five quaestors. It was made a colony with full rights after the +battle of Philippi, the 4th legion being settled there. It lay at the +junction of roads to Pausulae, Urbs Salvia and Asculum, being connected +with the coast road by a short branch road from Castellum Firmanum +(Porto S. Giorgio). In the 10th century it became the capital of the +_Marchia Firmana_. In 1199 it became a free city, and remained +independent until 1550, when it became subject to the papacy. + (T. As.) + + + + +FERMOY, a market town in the east riding of Co. Cork, Ireland, in the +north-east parliamentary division, 21 m. by road N.E. of Cork, and 14 m. +E. of Mallow by a branch of the Great Southern & Western railway. Pop. +of urban district (1901) 6126. It is situated on the river Blackwater, +which divides the town into two parts, the larger of which is on the +southern bank, and there the trade of the town, which is chiefly in +flour and agricultural produce, is mainly carried on. The town has +several good streets and some noteworthy buildings. Of the latter, the +most prominent are the military barracks on the north bank of the river, +the Protestant church, the Roman Catholic cathedral and St Colman's +Roman Catholic college. Fermoy rose to importance only at the beginning +of the 19th century, owing entirely to the devotion of John Anderson, a +citizen, on becoming landlord. The town is a centre for salmon and trout +fishing on the Blackwater and its tributary the Funshion. The +neighbouring scenery is attractive, especially in the Glen of Araglin, +once famed for its ironworks. + + + + +FERN (from O. Eng. _fearn_, a word common to Teutonic languages, cf. +Dutch _varen_, and Ger. _Farn_; the Indo-European root, seen in the +Sanskrit _parna_, a feather, shows the primary meaning; cf. Gr. [Greek: +pteron], feather, [Greek: pteris], fern), a name often used to denote +the whole botanical class of Pteridophytes, including both the true +ferns, Filicales, by far the largest group of this class in the existing +flora, and the fern-like plants, Equisetales, Sphenophyllales, +Lycopodiales (see PTERIDOPHYTA). + + + + +FERNANDEZ, ALVARO, one of the leading Portuguese explorers of the +earlier 15th century, the age of Henry the Navigator. He was brought up +(as a page or esquire) in the household of Prince Henry, and while still +"young and audacious" took an important part in the discovery of +"Guinea." He was a nephew of Joao Goncalvez Zarco, who had rediscovered +the Madeira group in Henry's service (1418-1420), and had become +part-governor of Madeira and commander of Funchal; when the great +expedition of 1445 sailed for West Africa he was entrusted by his uncle +with a specially fine caravel, under particular injunctions to devote +himself to discovery, the most cherished object of his princely master, +so constantly thwarted. Fernandez, as a pioneer, outstripped all other +servants of the prince at this time. After visiting the mouth of the +Senegal, rounding Cape Verde, and landing in Goree (?), he pushed on to +the "Cape of Masts" (Cabo dos Matos, or Mastos, so called from its tall +spindle-palms), probably between Cape Verde and the Gambia, the most +southerly point till then attained. Next year (1446) he returned, and +coasted on much farther, to a bay one hundred and ten leagues "south" +(i.e. S.S.E.) of Cape Verde, perhaps in the neighbourhood of Konakry and +the Los Islands, and but little short of Sierra Leone. This record was +not broken till 1461, when Sierra Leone was sighted and named. A wound, +received from a poisoned arrow in an encounter with natives, now +compelled Fernandez to return to Portugal, where he was received with +distinguished honour and reward by Prince Henry and the regent of the +kingdom, Henry's brother Pedro. + + See Gomes Eannes de Azurara, _Chronica de ... Guine_, chs. lxxv., + lxxxvii.; Joao de Barros, _Asia_, Decade I., bk. i. chs. xiii., xiv. + + + + +FERNANDEZ, DIEGO, a Spanish adventurer and historian of the 16th +century. Born at Palencia, he was educated for the church, but about +1545 he embarked for Peru, where he served in the royal army under +Alonzo de Alvarado. Andres Hurtado de Mendoza, marquess of Canete, who +became viceroy of Peru in 1655, bestowed on Fernandez the office of +chronicler of Peru; and in this capacity he wrote a narrative of the +insurrection of Francisco Hernandez Giron, of the rebellion of Gonzalo +Pizarro, and of the administration of Pedro de la Gasca. The whole work, +under the title _Primera y segunda parte de la Historia del Piru_, was +published at Seville in 1571 and was dedicated to King Philip II. It is +written in a clear and intelligible style, and with more art than is +usual in the compositions of the time. It gives copious details, and, as +he had access to the correspondence and official documents of the +Spanish leaders, it is, although necessarily possessing bias, the +fullest and most authentic record existing of the events it relates. + + A notice of the work will be found in W.H. Prescott's _History of the + Conquest of Peru_ (new ed., London, 1902). + + + + +FERNANDEZ, JOHN (_Joao_, _Joam_), Portuguese traveller of the 15th +century. He was perhaps the earliest of modern explorers in the upland +of West Africa, and a pioneer of the European slave- and gold-trade of +Guinea. We first hear of him (before 1445) as a captive of the Barbary +Moors in the western Mediterranean; while among these he acquired a +knowledge of Arabic, and probably conceived the design of exploration in +the interior of the continent whose coasts the Portuguese were now +unveiling. In 1445 he volunteered to stay in Guinea and gather what +information he could for Prince Henry the Navigator; with this object he +accompanied Antam Goncalvez to the "River of Gold" (Rio d'Ouro, Rio de +Oro) in 23 deg. 40' N., where he landed and went inland with some native +shepherds. He stayed seven months in the country, which lay just within +Moslem Africa, slightly north of Pagan Negroland (W. Sudan); he was +taken off again by Antam Goncalvez at a point farther down the coast, +near the "Cape of Ransom" (Cape Mirik), in 19 deg. 22' 14"; and his +account of his experiences proved of great interest and value, not only +as to the natural features, climate, fauna and flora of the +south-western Sahara, but also as to the racial affinities, language, +script, religion, nomad habits, and trade of its inhabitants. These +people--though Mahommedans, maintaining a certain trade in slaves, gold, +&c., with the Barbary coast (especially with Tunis), and classed as +"Arabs," "Berbers," and "Tawny Moors"--did not then write or speak +Arabic. In 1446 and 1447 John Fernandez accompanied other expeditions to +the Rio d'Ouro and other parts of West Africa in the service of Prince +Henry. He was personally known to Gomes Eannes de Azurara, the historian +of this early period of Portuguese expansion; and from Azurara's +language it is clear that Fernandez' revelation of unknown lands and +races was fully appreciated at home. + + See Azurara, _Chronica de ... Guine_, chs. xxix., xxxii., xxxiv., + xxxv., lxxvii., lxxviii., xc., xci., xciii. + + + + +FERNANDEZ, JUAN (fl. c. 1570), Spanish navigator and discoverer. While +navigating the coasts of South America it occurred to him that the south +winds constantly prevailing near the shore, and retarding voyages +between Peru and Chile, might not exist farther out at sea. His idea +proved correct, and by the help of the trade winds and some currents at +a distance from the coast he sailed with such rapidity (thirty days) +from Callao to Chile that he was apprehended on a charge of sorcery. His +inquisitors, however, accepted his natural explanation of the marvel. +During one of his voyages in 1563 (from Lima to Valdivia) Fernandez +discovered the islands which now bear his name. He was so enchanted with +their beauty and fertility that he solicited the concession of them from +the Spanish government. It was granted in 1572, but a colony which he +endeavoured to establish at the largest of them (Isla Mas-a-Tierra) soon +broke up, leaving behind the goats, whose progeny were hunted by +Alexander Selkirk. In 1574 Fernandez discovered St Felix and St Ambrose +islands (in 27 deg. S., 82 deg. 7' W.); and in 1576, while voyaging in +the southern ocean, he is said to have sighted not only Easter Island, +but also a continent, which was probably Australia or New Zealand if the +story (rejected by most critics, but with reservations as to Easter +Island) is to be accepted. + + See J.L. Arias, _Memoir recommending to the king the conversion of the + new discovered islands_ (in Spanish, 1609; Eng. trans., 1773); Ulloa, + _Relacion del Viaje_, bk. ii. ch. iv.; Alexander Dalrymple, _An + Historical Collection of the several Voyages and Discoveries in the + South Pacific Ocean_ (London, 1769-1771); Freville, _Voyages de la Mer + du Sud par les Espagnols_. + + + + +FERNANDEZ, LUCAS, Spanish dramatist, was born at Salamanca about the +middle of the 15th century. Nothing is known of his life, and he is +represented by a single volume of plays, _Farsas y eglogas al modo y +estilo pastoril_ (1514). In his secular pieces--a _comedia_ and two +_farsas_--he introduces few personages, employs the simplest possible +action, and burlesques the language of the uneducated class; the secular +and devout elements are skilfully intermingled in his two _Farsas del +nascimiento de Nuestro Senor Jesucristo_. But the best of his dramatic +essays is the _Auto de la Pasion_, a devout play intended to be given on +Maundy Thursday. It is written in the manner of Encina, with less +spontaneity, but with a sombre force to which Encina scarcely attained. + + Fernandez' plays were reprinted by the Spanish Academy in 1867. + + + + +FERNANDINA, a city, a port of entry, and the county-seat of Nassau +county, Florida, U.S.A., a winter and summer resort, in the N.E. part of +the state, 36 m. N.E. of Jacksonville, on Amelia Island (about 22 m. +long and from 1/2 m. to 1-1/2 m. wide), which is separated from the +mainland by an arm of the sea, known as Amelia river and bay. Pop. +(1900) 3245; (1905, state census), 4959 (2957 negroes); (1910) 3482. +Fernandina is served by the Seaboard Air Line railway, and by steamship +lines connecting with domestic and foreign ports; its harbour, which has +the deepest water on the E. coast of Florida, opens on the N. to +Cumberland Sound, which was improved by the Federal government, +beginning in 1879, reducing freight rates at Fernandina by 25 to 40%. +Under an act of 1907 the channel of Fernandina harbour, 1300 ft. wide at +the entrance and about 2 m. long, was dredged to a depth of 20 to 24 ft. +at mean low water with a width of 400 to 600 ft. The "inside" +water-route between Savannah, Georgia and Fernandina is improved by the +Federal government (1892 sqq.) and has a 7-ft. channel. The principal +places of interest are "Amelia Beach," more than 20 m. long and 200 ft. +wide, connected with the city by a compact shell road nearly 2 m. long +and by electric line; the Amelia Island lighthouse, in the N. end of the +island, established in 1836 and rebuilt in 1880; Fort Clinch, at the +entrance to the harbour; Cumberland Island, in Georgia, N. of Amelia +Island, where land was granted to General Nathanael Greene after the War +of American Independence by the state of Georgia; and Dungeness, the +estate of the Carnegie family. Ocean City, on Amelia Beach, is a popular +pleasure resort. The principal industries are the manufacture of lumber, +cotton, palmetto fibres, and cigars, the canning of oysters, and the +building and repair of railway cars. The foreign exports, chiefly +lumber, railway ties, cotton, phosphate rock, and naval stores, were +valued at $9,346,704 in 1907; and the imports in 1907 at $116,514. + +The harbour of Fernandina was known to the early explorers of Florida, +and it was here that Dominic de Gourgues landed when he made his +expedition against the Spanish at San Mateo in 1568. An Indian mission +was established by Spanish priests later in the same century, but it was +not successful. When Georgia was founded, General James Oglethorpe +placed a military guard on Amelia Island to prevent sudden attack upon +his colony by the Spanish, and the first blood shed in the petty warfare +between Georgia and Florida was the murder of two unarmed members of the +guard by a troop of Spanish soldiers and Indians in 1739. The first +permanent settlement was made by the Spanish in 1808, at what is now the +village of Old Fernandina, about 1 m. from the city. The island was a +centre for smuggling during the period of the embargo and +non-importation acts preceding the war of 1812. This was the pretext for +General George Matthews (1738-1812) to gather a band of adventurers at +St Mary's, Georgia, invade the island, and capture Fernandina in 1812. +In the following year the American forces were withdrawn. In 1817 Gregor +MacGregor, a filibuster who had aided the Spanish provinces of South +America in their revolt against Spain, fitted out an expedition in +Baltimore and seized Fernandina, but departed soon after. Later in the +same year Louis Aury, another adventurer, appeared with a small force +from Texas, and took possession of the place in the name of the Republic +of Mexico. In the following year Aury was expelled by United States +troops, who held Fernandina in trust for Spain until Florida was finally +ceded to the United States in 1821. Fernandina was first incorporated in +1859. In 1861 Fort Clinch was seized by the Confederates, and Fernandina +harbour was a centre of blockade running in the first two years of the +Civil War. In 1862 the place was captured by a Federal naval force from +Port Royal, South Carolina, commanded by Commodore S.F. Du Pont. + + + + +FERNANDO DE NORONHA [_Fernao de N._], an island in the South Atlantic, +125 m. from the coast of Brazil, to which country it belongs, in 3 deg. +50' S., 32 deg. 25' W. It is about 7 m. long and 1-1/2 wide, and some +other islets lie adjacent to it. Its surface is rugged, and it contains +a number of rocky hills from 500 to 700 ft. high, and one peak towering +to the height of 1089 ft. It is formed of basalt, trachyte and +phonolite, and the soil is very fertile. The climate is healthy. It is +defended by forts, and serves as a place of banishment for criminals +from Brazil. The next largest island of the group is about a mile in +circumference, and the others are small barren rocks. The population is +about 2000, all males, including some 1400 criminals, and a garrison of +150. Communication is maintained by steamer with Pernambuco. The island +takes name from its Portuguese discoverer (1503), the count of Noronha. + + + + +FERNANDO PO, or FERNANDO POO, a Spanish island on the west coast of +Africa, in the Bight of Biafra, about 20 m. from the mainland, in 3 deg. +12' N. and 8 deg. 48' E. It is of volcanic origin, related to the +Cameroon system of the adjacent mainland, is the largest island in the +Gulf of Guinea, is 44 m. long from N.N.E. to S.S.W., about 20 m. broad, +and has an area of about 780 sq. m. Fernando Po is noted for its +beautiful aspect, seeming from a short distance to be a single mountain +rising from the sea, its sides covered with luxuriant vegetation. The +shores are steep and rocky and the coast plain narrow. This plain is +succeeded by the slopes of the mountains which occupy the rest of the +island and culminate in the magnificent cone of Clarence Peak or Pico de +Santa Isabel (native name Owassa). Clarence Peak, about 10,000 ft. +high,[1] is in the north-central part of the island. In the south Musolo +Mt. attains a height of 7400 ft. There are numerous other peaks between +4000 and 6000 ft. high. The mountains contain craters and crater lakes, +and are covered, most of them to their summits, with forests. Down the +narrow intervening valleys rush torrential streams which have cut deep +beds through the coast plains. The trees most characteristic of the +forest are oil palms and tree ferns, but there are many varieties, +including ebony, mahogany and the African oak. The undergrowth is very +dense; it includes the sugar-cane and cotton and indigo plants. The +fauna includes antelopes, monkeys, lemurs, the civet cat, porcupine, +pythons and green tree-snakes, crocodiles and turtles. The climate is +very unhealthy in the lower districts, where malarial fever is common. +The mean temperature on the coast is 78 deg. Fahr. and varies little, +but in the higher altitudes there is considerable daily variation. The +rainfall is very heavy except during November-January, which is +considered the dry season. + +The inhabitants number about 25,000. In addition to about 500 Europeans, +mostly Spaniards and Cubans, they are of two classes, the Bubis or Bube +(formerly also called Ediya), who occupy the interior, and the coast +dwellers, a mixed Negro race, largely descended from slave ancestors +with an admixture of Portuguese and Spanish blood, and known to the +Bubis as "Portos"--a corruption of Portuguese. The Bubis are of Bantu +stock and early immigrants from the mainland. Physically they are a +finely developed race, extremely jealous of their independence and +unwilling to take service of any kind with Europeans. They go unclothed, +smearing their bodies with a kind of pomatum. They stick pieces of wood +in the lobes of their ears, wear numerous armlets made of ivory, beads +or grass, and always wear hats, generally made of palm leaves. Their +weapons are mainly of wood; stone axes and knives were in use as late as +1858. They have no knowledge of working iron. Their villages are built +in the densest parts of the forest, and care is taken to conceal the +approach to them. The Bubis are sportsmen and fishermen rather than +agriculturists. The staple foods of the islanders generally are millet, +rice, yams and bananas. Alcohol is distilled from the sugar-cane. The +natives possess numbers of sheep, goats and fowls. + +The principal settlement is Port Clarence (pop. 1500), called by the +Spaniards Santa Isabel, a safe and commodious harbour on the north +coast. In its graveyard are buried Richard Lander and several other +explorers of West Africa. Port Clarence is unhealthy, and the seat of +government has been removed to Basile, a small town 5 m. from Port +Clarence and over 1000 ft. above the sea. On the west coast are the bay +and port of San Carlos, on the east coast Concepcion Bay and town. The +chief industry until the close of the 19th century was the collection of +palm-oil, but the Spaniards have since developed plantations of cocoa, +coffee, sugar, tobacco, vanilla and other tropical plants. The kola nut +is also cultivated. The cocoa plantations are of most importance. The +amount of cocoa exported in 1905 was 1800 tons, being 370 tons above the +average export for the preceding five years. The total value of the +trade of the island (1900-1905) was about L250,000 a year. + +_History._--The island was discovered towards the close of the 15th +century by a Portuguese navigator called Fernao do Po, who, struck by +its beauty, named it Formosa, but it soon came to be called by the name +of its discoverer.[2] A Portuguese colony was established in the island, +which together with Annobon was ceded to Spain in 1778. The first +attempts of Spain to develop the island ended disastrously, and in 1827, +with the consent of Spain, the administration of the island was taken +over by Great Britain, the British "superintendent" having a Spanish +commission as governor. By the British Fernando Po was used as a naval +station for the ships engaged in the suppression of the slave trade. The +British headquarters were named Port Clarence and the adjacent +promontory Cape William, in honour of the duke of Clarence (William +IV.). In 1844 the Spaniards reclaimed the island, refusing to sell their +rights to Great Britain. They did no more at that time, however, than +hoist the Spanish flag, appointing a British resident, John Beecroft, +governor. Beecroft, who was made British consul in 1849, died in 1854. +During the British occupation a considerable number of Sierra Leonians, +West Indians and freed slaves settled in the island, and English became +and remains the common speech of the coast peoples. In 1858 a Spanish +governor was sent out, and the Baptist missionaries who had laboured in +the island since 1843 were compelled to withdraw. They settled in Ambas +Bay on the neighbouring mainland (see CAMEROON). The Jesuits who +succeeded the Baptists were also expelled, but mission and educational +work is now carried on by other Roman Catholic agencies, and (since +1870) by the Primitive Methodists. In 1879 the Spanish government +recalled its officials, but a few years later, when the partition of +Africa was being effected, they were replaced and a number of Cuban +political prisoners were deported thither. Very little was done to +develop the resources of the island until after the loss of the Spanish +colonies in the West Indies and the Pacific, when Spain turned her +attention to her African possessions. Stimulated by the success of the +Portuguese cocoa plantations in the neighbouring island of St Thomas, +the Spaniards started similar plantations, with some measure of success. +The strategical importance and commercial possibilities of the island +caused Germany and other powers to approach Spain with a view to its +acquisition, and in 1900 the Spaniards gave France, in return for +territorial concessions on the mainland, the right of pre-emption over +the island and her other West African possessions. + +The administration of the island is in the hands of a governor-general, +assisted by a council, and responsible to the ministry of foreign +affairs at Madrid. The governor-general has under his authority the +sub-governors of the other Spanish possessions in the Gulf of Guinea, +namely, the Muni River Settlement, Corisco and Annobon (see those +articles). None of these possessions is self-supporting. + + See E. d'Almonte, "Someras Notas ... de la isla de Fernando Poo y de + la Guinea continental espanola," in _Bol. Real. Soc. Geog._ of Madrid + (1902); and a further article in the _Riv. Geog. Col._ of Madrid + (1908); E.L. Vilches, "Fernando Poo y la Guinea espanola," in the + _Bol. Real. Soc. Geog._ (1901); San Javier, _Tres Anos en Fernando + Poo_ (Madrid, 1875); O. Baumann, _Eine africanische Tropeninsel: + Fernando Poo und die Bube_ (Vienna, 1888); Sir H.H. Johnston, _George + Grenfell and the Congo ... and Notes on Fernando Po_ (London, 1908); + Mary H. Kingsley, _Travels in West Africa_, ch. iii. (London, 1897); + T.J. Hutchinson, sometime British Consul at Fernando Po, _Impressions + of Western Africa_, chs. xii. and xiii. (London, 1858), and _Ten + Years' Wanderings among the Ethiopians_, chs. xvii. and xviii. + (London, 1861). For the Bubi language see J. Clarke, _The Adeeyah + Vocabulary_ (1841), and _Introduction to the Fernandian Tongue_ + (1848). Consult also _Wanderings in West Africa_ (1863) and other + books written by Sir Richard Burton as the result of his consulship at + Fernando Po, 1861-1865, and the works cited under MUNI RIVER + SETTLEMENTS. + + +FOOTNOTES: + + [1] The heights given by explorers vary from 9200 to 10,800 ft. + + [2] Some authorities maintain that another Portuguese seaman, Lopes + Gonsalves, was the discoverer of the island. The years 1469, 1471 and + 1486 are variously given as those of the date of the discovery. + + + + +FERNEL, JEAN FRANCOIS (1497-1558), French physician, was born at +Clermont in 1497, and after receiving his early education at his native +town, entered the college of Sainte-Barbe, Paris. At first he devoted +himself to mathematical and astronomical studies; his _Cosmotheoria_ +(1528) records a determination of a degree of the meridian, which he +made by counting the revolutions of his carriage wheels on a journey +between Paris and Amiens. But from 1534 he gave himself up entirely to +medicine, in which he graduated in 1530. His extraordinary general +erudition, and the skill and success with which he sought to revive the +study of the old Greek physicians, gained him a great reputation, and +ultimately the office of physician to the court. He practised with great +success, and at his death in 1558 left behind him an immense fortune. He +also wrote_ Monalosphaerium, sive astrolabii genus, generalis horarii +structura et usus_ (1526); _De proportionibus_ (1528); _De evacuandi +ratione_ (1545); _De abditis rerum causis_ (1548); and _Medicina ad +Henricum II._ (1554). + + + + +FERNIE, an important city in the east Kootenay district of British +Columbia. Pop. about 4000. It is situated on the Crow's Nest branch of +the Canadian Pacific railway, at the junction of Coal Creek with the Elk +river, and owes its importance to the extensive coal mines in its +vicinity. There are about 500 coke ovens in operation at Fernie, which +supply most of the smelting plants in southern British Columbia with +fuel. + + + + +FERNOW, KARL LUDWIG (1763-1808), German art-critic and archaeologist, +was born in Pomerania on the 19th of November 1763. His father was a +servant in the household of the lord of Blumenhagen. At the age of +twelve he became clerk to a notary, and was afterwards apprenticed to a +druggist. While serving his time he had the misfortune accidentally to +shoot a young man who came to visit him; and although through the +intercession of his master he escaped prosecution, the untoward event +weighed heavily on his mind, and led him at the close of his +apprenticeship to quit his native place. He obtained a situation at +Lubeck, where he had leisure to cultivate his natural taste for drawing +and poetry. Having formed an acquaintance with the painter Carstens, +whose influence was an important stimulus and help to him, he renounced +his trade of druggist, and set up as a portrait-painter and +drawing-master. At Ludwigslust he fell in love with a young girl, and +followed her to Weimar; but failing in his suit, he went next to Jena. +There he was introduced to Professor Reinhold, and in his house met the +Danish poet Baggesen. The latter invited him to accompany him to +Switzerland and Italy, a proposal which he eagerly accepted (1794) for +the sake of the opportunity of furthering his studies in the fine arts. +On Baggesen's return to Denmark, Fernow, assisted by some of his +friends, visited Rome and made some stay there. He now renewed his +intercourse with Carstens, who had settled at Rome, and applied himself +to the study of the history and theory of the fine arts and of the +Italian language and literature. Making rapid progress, he was soon +qualified to give a course of lectures on archaeology, which was +attended by the principal artists then at Rome. Having married a Roman +lady, he returned in 1802 to Germany, and was appointed in the following +year professor extraordinary of Italian literature at Jena. In 1804 he +accepted the post of librarian to Amelia, duchess-dowager of Weimar, +which gave him the leisure he desired for the purpose of turning to +account the literary and archaeological researches in which he had +engaged at Rome. His most valuable work, the _Romische Studien_, +appeared in 3 vols. (1806-1808). Among his other works are--_Das Leben +des Kunstlers Carstens_ (1806), _Ariosto's Lebenslauf_ (1809), and +_Francesco Petrarca_ (1818). Fernow died at Weimar, December 4, 1808. + + A memoir of his life by Johanna Schopenhauer, mother of the + philosopher, Arthur Schopenhauer, appeared in 1810, and a complete + edition of his works in 1829. + + + + +FEROZEPUR, or FIROZPUR, a town and district of British India, in the +Jullundur division of the Punjab. The town is a railway junction +connecting the North-Western and Rajputana railways, and is situated +about 4 m. from the present south bank of the Sutlej. Pop. (1901) +49,341. The arsenal is the largest in India, and Ferozepur is the +headquarters of a brigade in the 3rd division of the northern army +corps. British rule was first established at Ferozepur in 1835, when, on +the failure of heirs to the Sikh family who possessed it, a small +territory 86 m. in extent became an escheat to the British government, +and the present district has been gradually formed around this nucleus. +The strategic importance of Ferozepur was at this time very great; and +when, in 1839, Captain (afterwards Sir Henry) Lawrence took charge of +the station as political officer, it was the outpost of British India in +the direction of the Sikh power. Ferozepur accordingly became the scene +of operations during the first Sikh War. The Sikhs crossed the Sutlej in +December 1845, and were defeated successively at Mudki, Ferozepur, +Aliwal and Sobraon; after which they withdrew into their own territory, +and peace was concluded at Lahore. At the time of the mutiny Ferozepur +cantonments contained two regiments of native infantry and a regiment of +native cavalry, together with the 61st Foot and two companies of +European artillery. One of the native regiments, the 57th, was disarmed; +but the other, the 45th, broke into mutiny, and, after an unsuccessful +attempt to seize the magazine, which was held by the Europeans, +proceeded to join the rebel forces in Delhi. Throughout the mutiny +Ferozepur remained in the hands of the English. + +Ferozepur has rapidly advanced in material prosperity of late years, and +is now a very important seat of commerce, trade being mainly in grain. +The main streets of the city are wide and well paved, and the whole is +enclosed by a low brick wall. Great improvements have been made in the +surroundings of the city. The cantonment lies 2 m. to the south of the +city, and is connected with it by a good metalled road. + +The DISTRICT OF FEROZEPUR comprises an area of 4302 sq. m. The surface +is level, with the exception of a few sand-hills in the south and +south-east. The country consists of two distinct tracts, that liable to +annual fertilizing inundations from the Sutlej, known as the _bhet_, and +the _rohi_ or upland tract. The only river is the Sutlej, which runs +along the north-western boundary. The principal crops are wheat, barley, +millet, gram, pulses, oil-seeds, cotton, tobacco, &c. The manufactures +are of the humblest kind, consisting chiefly of cotton and wool-weaving, +and are confined entirely to the supply of local wants. The Lahore and +Ludhiana road runs for 51 m. through the district, and forms an +important trade route. The North-Western, the Southern Punjab, and a +branch of the Rajputana-Malwa railways serve the district. The other +important towns and seats of commerce are Fazilka (pop. 8505), Dharmkot +(6731), Moga (6725), and Muktsar (6389). Owing principally to the +dryness of its climate, Ferozepur has the reputation of being an +exceptionally healthy district. In September and October, however, after +the annual rains, the people suffer a good deal from remittent fever. In +1901 the population was 958,072. Distributaries of the Sirhind canal +water the whole district. + + + + +FEROZESHAH, a village in the Punjab, India, notable as the scene of one +of the chief battles in the first Sikh War. The battle immediately +succeeded that of Mudki, and was fought on the 21st and 22nd of December +1845. During its course Sir Hugh Gough, the British commander, was +overruled by the governor-general, Lord Hardinge, who was acting as his +second in command (see SIKH WARS). At the end of the first day's +fighting the British had occupied the Sikh position, but had not gained +an undisputed victory. On the following morning the battle was resumed, +and the Sikhs were reinforced by a second army under Tej Singh; but +through cowardice or treachery Tej Singh withdrew at the critical +moment, leaving the field to the British. In the course of the fight the +British lost 694 killed and 1721 wounded, the vast majority being +British troops, while the Sikhs lost 100 guns and about 5000 killed and +wounded. + + + + +FERRAND, ANTOINE FRANCOIS CLAUDE, COMTE (1751-1825), French statesman +and political writer, was born in Paris on the 4th of July 1751, and +became a member of the parlement of Paris at eighteen. He left France +with the first party of emigrants, and attached himself to the prince of +Conde; later he was a member of the council of regency formed by the +comte de Provence after the death of Louis XVI. He lived at Regensburg +until 1801, when he returned to France, though he still sought to serve +the royalist cause. In 1814 Ferrand was made minister of state and +postmaster-general. He countersigned the act of sequestration of +Napoleon's property, and introduced a bill for the restoration of the +property of the emigrants, establishing a distinction, since become +famous, between royalists of _la ligne droite_ and those of _la ligne +courbe_. At the second restoration Ferrand was again for a short time +postmaster-general. He was also made a peer of France, member of the +privy council, grand-officer and secretary of the orders of Saint Michel +and the Saint Esprit, and in 1816 member of the Academy, He continued +his active support of ultra-royalist views until his death, which took +place in Paris on the 17th of January 1825. + + Besides a large number of political pamphlets, Ferrand is the author + of _L'Esprit de l'histoire, ou Lettres d'un pere a son fils sur la + maniere d'etudier l'histoire_ (4 vols., 1802), which reached seven + editions, the last number in 1826 having prefixed to it a biographical + sketch of the author by his nephew Hericart de Thury; _Eloge + historique de Madame Elisabeth de France_ (1814); _Oeuvres dramatiques + _(1817); _Theorie des revolutions rapprochee des evenements qui en ont + ete l'origine, le developpement, ou la suite_ (4 vols., 1817); and + _Histoire des trois demembrements de la Pologne, pour faire suite a + l'Histoire de l'anarchie de Pologne par Rulhiere_ (3 vols., 1820). + + + + +FERRAR, NICHOLAS (1592-1637), English theologian, was born in London in +1592 and educated at Clare Hall, Cambridge, graduating in 1610. He was +obliged for some years to travel for his health, but on returning to +England in 1618 became actively connected with the Virginia Company. +When this company was deprived of its patent in 1623 Ferrar turned his +attention to politics, and was elected to parliament. But he soon +decided to devote himself to a religious life; he purchased the manor +of Little Gidding in Huntingdonshire, where he organized a small +religious community. Here, in 1626, he was ordained a deacon by Laud, +and declining preferment, he lived an austere, almost monastic life of +study and good works. He died on the 4th of December 1637, and the house +was despoiled and the community broken up ten years later. There are +extant a number of "harmonies" of the Gospel, printed and bound by the +community, two of them by Ferrar himself. One of the latter was made for +Charles I. on his request, after a visit in 1633 to see the "Arminian +Nunnery at Little Gidding," which had been the subject of some +scandalous--and undeserved--criticism. + + + + +FERRAR, ROBERT (d. 1555), bishop of St David's and martyr, born about +the end of the 15th century of a Yorkshire family, is said to have been +educated at Cambridge, whence he proceeded to Oxford and became a canon +regular of St Augustine. He came under the influence of Thomas Gerrard +and Lutheran theology, and was compelled to bear a faggot with Anthony +Dalaber and others in 1528. He graduated B.D. in 1533, accompanied +Bishop Barlow on his embassy to Scotland in 1535, and was made prior of +St Oswald's at Nostell near Pontefract. At the dissolution he +surrendered his priory without compunction to the crown, and received a +liberal pension. For the rest of Henry's reign his career is obscure; +perhaps he fled abroad on the enactment of the Six Articles. He +certainly married, and is said to have been made Cranmer's chaplain, and +bishop of Sodor and Man; but he was never consecrated to that see. + +After the accession of Edward VI., Ferrar was, probably through the +influence of Bishop Barlow, appointed chaplain to Protector Somerset, a +royal visitor, and bishop of St David's on Barlow's translation to Bath +and Wells in 1548. He was the first bishop appointed by letters patent +under the act passed in 1547 without the form of capitular election; and +the service performed at his consecration was also novel, being in +English; he also preached at St Paul's on the 11th of November clad only +as a priest and not as a bishop, and inveighed against vestments and +altars. At St David's he had trouble at once with his singularly +turbulent chapter, who, finding that he was out of favour at court since +Somerset's fall in 1549, brought a long list of fantastic charges +against him. He had taught his child to whistle, dined with his +servants, talked of "worldly things such as baking, brewing, enclosing, +ploughing and mining," preferred walking to riding, and denounced the +debasement of the coinage. He seems to have been a kindly, homely, +somewhat feckless person like many an excellent parish priest, who did +not conceal his indignation at some of Northumberland's deeds. He had +voted against the act of November 1549 for a reform of the canon law, +and on a later occasion his nonconformity brought him into conflict with +the Council; he was also the only bishop who satisfied Hooper's test of +sacramental orthodoxy. The Council accordingly listened to the +accusations of Ferrar's chapter, and in 1552 he was summoned to London +and imprisoned on a charge of _praemunire_ incurred by omitting the +king's authority in a commission which he issued for the visitation of +his diocese. + +Imprisonment on such a charge under Northumberland might have been +expected to lead to liberation under Mary. But Ferrar had been a monk +and was married. Even so, it is difficult to see on what legal ground he +was kept in the queen's bench prison after July 1553; for Mary herself +was repudiating the royal authority in religion. Ferrar's marriage +accounts for the loss of his bishopric in March 1554, and his opinions +for his further punishment. As soon as the heresy laws and +ecclesiastical jurisdiction had been re-established, Ferrar was examined +by Gardiner, and then with signal indecency sent down to be tried by +Morgan, his successor in the bishopric of St David's. He appealed from +Morgan's sentence to Pole as papal legate, but in vain, and was burnt at +Caermarthen on the 30th of March 1555. It was perhaps the most wanton of +all Mary's acts of persecution; Ferrar had been no such protagonist of +the Reformation as Cranmer, Ridley, Hooper and Latimer; he had had +nothing to do with Northumberland's or Wyatt's conspiracy. He had taken +no part in politics, and, so far as is known, had not said a word or +raised a hand against Mary. He was burnt simply because he could not +change his religion with the law and would not pretend that he could; +and his execution is a complete refutation of the idea that Mary only +persecuted heretics because and when they were traitors. + + See _Dictionary of National Biography_, xviii. 380-382, and + authorities there cited. Also Acts of the Privy Council (1550-1554); + H.A.L. Fisher, _Political History of England_, vol. vi. (A. F. P.) + + + + +FERRARA, a city and archiepiscopal see of Emilia, Italy, capital of the +province of Ferrara, 30 m. N.N.E. of Bologna, situated 30 ft. above +sea-level on the Po di Vomano, a branch channel of the main stream of +the Po, which is 3-1/2 m. N. Pop. (1901) 32,968 (town), 86,392 +(commune). The town has broad streets and numerous palaces, which date +from the 16th century, when it was the seat of the court of the house of +Este, and had, it is said, 100,000 inhabitants. + +The most prominent building is the square castle of the house of Este, +in the centre of the town, a brick building surrounded by a moat, with +four towers. It was built after 1385 and partly restored in 1554; the +pavilions on the top of the towers date from the latter year. Near it is +the hospital of S. Anna, where Tasso was confined during his attack of +insanity (1579-1586). The Palazzo del Municipio, rebuilt in the 18th +century, was the earlier residence of the Este family. Close by is the +cathedral of S. Giorgio, consecrated in 1135, when the Romanesque lower +part of the main facade and the side facades were completed. It was +built by Guglielmo degli Adelardi (d. 1146), who is buried in it. The +upper part of the main facade, with arcades of pointed arches, dates +from the 13th century, and the portal has recumbent lions and elaborate +sculptures above. The interior was restored in the baroque style in +1712. The campanile, in the Renaissance style, dates from 1451-1493, but +the last storey was added at the end of the 16th century. Opposite the +cathedral is the Gothic Palazzo della Ragione, in brick (1315-1326), now +the law-courts. A little way off is the university, which has faculties +of law, medicine and natural science (hardly 100 students in all); the +library has valuable MSS., including part of that of the _Orlando +Furioso_ and letters by Tasso. The other churches are of less interest +than the cathedral, though S. Francesco, S. Benedetto, S. Maria in Vado +and S. Cristoforo are all good early Renaissance buildings. The numerous +early Renaissance palaces, often with good terra-cotta decorations, form +quite a feature of Ferrara; few towns of Italy have so many of them +proportionately, though they are mostly comparatively small in size. +Among them may be noted those in the N. quarter (especially the four at +the intersection of its two main streets), which was added by Ercole +(Hercules) I. in 1492-1505, from the plans of Biagio Rossetti, and hence +called the "Addizione Erculea." The finest of these is the Palazzo de' +Diamanti, so called from the diamond points into which the blocks of +stone with which it is faced are cut. It contains the municipal picture +gallery, with a large number of pictures of artists of the school of +Ferrara. This did not require prominence until the latter half of the +15th century, when its best masters were Cosimo Tura (1432-1495), +Francesco Cossa (d. 1480) and Ercole dei Roberti (d. 1496). To this +period are due famous frescoes in the Palazzo Schifanoia, which was +built by the Este family; those of the lower row depict the life of +Borso of Este, in the central row are the signs of the zodiac, and in +the upper are allegorical representations of the months. The vestibule +was decorated with stucco mouldings by Domenico di Paris of Padua. The +building also contains fine choir-books with miniatures, and a +collection of coins and Renaissance medals. The simple house of Ariosto, +erected by himself after 1526, in which he died in 1532, lies farther +west. The best Ferrarese masters of the 16th century of the Ferrara +school were Lorenzo Costa (1460-1535), and Dosso Dossi (1479-1542), the +most eminent of all, while Benvenuto Tisi (Garofalo, 1481-1559) is +somewhat monotonous and insipid. + +The origin of Ferrara is uncertain, and probabilities are against the +supposition that it occupies the site of the ancient Forum Alieni. It +was probably a settlement formed by the inhabitants of the lagoons at +the mouth of the Po. It appears first in a document of Aistulf of 753 or +754 as a city forming part of the exarchate of Ravenna. After 984 we +find it a fief of Tedaldo, count of Modena and Canossa, nephew of the +emperor Otho I. It afterwards made itself independent, and in 1101 was +taken by siege by the countess Matilda. At this time it was mainly +dominated by several great families, among them the Adelardi. + +In 1146 Guglielmo, the last of the Adelardi, died, and his property +passed, as the dowry of his niece Marchesella, to Azzolino d' Este. +There was considerable hostility between the newly entered family and +the Salinguerra, but after considerable struggles Azzo Novello was +nominated perpetual podesta in 1242; in 1259 he took Ezzelino of Verona +prisoner in battle. His grandson, Obizzo II. (1264-1293), succeeded him, +and the pope nominated him captain-general and defender of the states of +the Church; and the house of Este was from henceforth settled in +Ferrara. Niccolo III. (1393-1441) received several popes with great +magnificence, especially Eugene IV., who held a council here in 1438. +His son Borso received the fiefs of Modena and Reggio from the emperor +Frederick III. as first duke in 1452 (in which year Girolamo Savonarola +was born here), and in 1470 was made duke of Ferrara by Pope Paul II. +Ercole I. (1471-1505) carried on a war with Venice and increased the +magnificence of the city. His son Alphonso I. married Lucrezia Borgia, +and continued the war with Venice with success. In 1509 he was +excommunicated by Julius II., and attacked the pontifical army in 1512 +outside Ravenna, which he took. Gaston de Foix fell in the battle, in +which he was supporting Alphonso. With the succeeding popes he was able +to make peace. He was the patron of Ariosto from 1518 onwards. His son +Ercole II. married Renata, daughter of Louis XII. of France; he too +embellished Ferrara during his reign (1534-1559). His son Alphonso II. +married Barbara, sister of the emperor Maximilian II. He raised the +glory of Ferrara to its highest point, and was the patron of Tasso and +Guarini, favouring, as the princes of his house had always done, the +arts and sciences. He had no legitimate male heir, and in 1597 Ferrara +was claimed as a vacant fief by Pope Clement VIII., as was also +Comacchio. A fortress was constructed by him on the site of the castle +of Tedaldo, at the W. angle of the town. The town remained a part of the +states of the Church, the fortress being occupied by an Austrian +garrison from 1832 until 1859, when it became part of the kingdom of +Italy. + +A considerable area within the walls of Ferrara is unoccupied by +buildings, especially on the north, where, the handsome Renaissance +church of S. Cristoforo, with the cemetery, stands; but modern times +have brought a renewal of industrial activity. Ferrara is on the main +line from Bologna to Padua and Venice, and has branches to Ravenna and +Poggio Rusco (for Suzzara). + + See G. Agnelli, _Ferrara e Pomposa_ (Bergamo, 1902); E.G. Gardner, + _Dukes and Poets of Ferrara_ (London, 1904). + + + + +FERRARA-FLORENCE, COUNCIL OF (1438 ff.). The council of Ferrara and +Florence was the culmination of a series of futile medieval attempts to +reunite the Greek and Roman churches. The emperor, John VI. Palaeologus, +had been advised by his experienced father to avoid all serious +negotiations, as they had invariably resulted in increased bitterness; +but John, in view of the rapid dismemberment of his empire by the Turks, +felt constrained to seek a union. The situation was, however, +complicated by the strife which broke out between the pope (Eugenius +IV.) and the oecumenical council of Basel. Both sides sent embassies to +the emperor at Constantinople, as both saw the importance of gaining the +recognition and support of the East, for on this practically depended +the victory in the struggle between papacy and council for the supreme +jurisdiction over the church (see COUNCILS). The Greeks, fearing the +domination of the papacy, were at first more favourably inclined toward +the conciliar party; but the astute diplomacy of the Roman +representatives, who have been charged by certain Greek writers with the +skilful use of money and of lies, won over the emperor. With a retinue +of about 700 persons, entertained in Italy at the pope's expense, he +reached Ferrara early in March 1438. Here a council had been formally +opened in January by the papal party, a bull of the previous year having +promptly taken advantage of the death of the Emperor Sigismund by +ordering the removal of the council of Basel to Ferrara; and one of the +first acts of the assemblage at Ferrara had been to excommunicate the +remnant at Basel. A month after the coming of the Greeks, the Union +Synod was solemnly inaugurated on the 9th of April 1438. After six +months of negotiation, the first formal session was held on the 8th of +October, and on the 14th the real issues were reached. The time-honoured +question of the _filioque_ was still in the foreground when it seemed +for several reasons advisable to transfer the council to Florence: +Ferrara was threatened by condottieri, the pest was raging; Florence +promised a welcome subvention, and a situation further inland would make +it more difficult for uneasy Greek bishops to flee the synod. + +The first session at Florence and the seventeenth of the union council +took place on the 26th of February 1439; there ensued long debates and +negotiations on the _filioque_, in which Markos Eugenikos, archbishop of +Ephesus, spoke for the irreconcilables; but the Greeks under the +leadership of Bessarion, archbishop of Nicaea, and Isidor, metropolitan +of Kiev, at length made a declaration on the _filioque_ (4th of June), +to which all save Markos Eugenikos subscribed. On the next topic of +importance, the primacy of the pope, the project of union nearly +suffered shipwreck; but here a vague formula was finally constructed +which, while acknowledging the pope's right to govern the church, +attempted to safeguard as well the rights of the patriarchs. On the +basis of the above-mentioned agreements, as well as of minor discussions +as to purgatory and the Eucharist, the decree of union was drawn up in +Latin and in Greek, and signed on the 5th of July by the pope and the +Greek emperor, and all the members of the synod save Eugenikos and one +Greek bishop who had fled; and on the following day it was solemnly +published in the cathedral of Florence. The decree explains the +_filioque_ in a manner acceptable to the Greeks, but does not require +them to insert the term in their symbol; it demands that celebrants +follow the custom of their own church as to the employment of leavened +or unleavened bread in the Eucharist. It states essentially the Roman +doctrine of purgatory, and asserts the world-wide primacy of the pope as +the "true vicar of Christ and the head of the whole Church, the Father +and teacher of all Christians"; but, to satisfy the Greeks, +inconsistently adds that all the rights and privileges of the Oriental +patriarchs are to be maintained unimpaired. After the consummation of +the union the Greeks remained in Florence for several weeks, discussing +matters such as the liturgy, the administration of the sacraments, and +divorce; and they sailed from Venice to Constantinople in October. + +The council, however, desirous of negotiating unions with the minor +churches of the East, remained in session for several years, and seems +never to have reached a formal adjournment. The decree for the Armenians +was published on the 22nd of November 1439; they accepted the _filioque_ +and the Athanasian creed, rejected Monophysitism and Monothelitism, +agreed to the developed scholastic doctrine concerning the seven +sacraments, and conformed their calendar to the Western in certain +points. On the 26th of April 1441 the pope announced that the synod +would be transferred to the Lateran; but before leaving Florence a union +was negotiated with the Oriental Christians known as Jacobites, through +a monk named Andreas, who, at least as regards Abyssinia, acted in +excess of his powers. The _Decretum pro Jacobitis_, published on the 4th +of February 1442, is, like that for the Armenians, of high dogmatic +interest, as it summarizes the doctrine of the great medieval +scholastics on the points in controversy. The decree for the Syrians, +published at the Lateran on the 30th of September 1444, and those for +the Chaldeans (Nestorians) and the Maronites (Monothelites), published +at the last known session of the council on the 7th of August 1445, +added nothing of doctrinal importance. Though the direct results of +these unions were the restoration of prestige to the absolutist papacy +and the bringing of Byzantine men of letters, like Bessarion, to the +West, the outcome was on the whole disappointing. Of the complicated +history of the "United" churches of the East it suffices to say that +Rome succeeded in securing but fragments, though important fragments, of +the greater organizations. As for the Greeks, the union met with much +opposition, particularly from the monks, and was rejected by three +Oriental patriarchs at a synod of Jerusalem in 1443; and after various +ineffective attempts to enforce it, the fall of Constantinople in 1453 +put an end to the endeavour. As Turkish interests demanded the isolation +of the Oriental Christians from their western brethren, and as the +orthodox Greek nationalists feared Latinization more than Mahommedan +rule, a patriarch hostile to the union was chosen, and a synod of +Constantinople in 1472 formally rejected the decisions of Florence. + + AUTHORITIES.--Hardouin, vol. 9; Mansi, vols. 31 A, 31 B, 35; Sylvester + Sguropulus (properly Syropulus), _Vera historia Unionis_, transl. R. + Creyghton (Hague, 1660); Cecconi, _Studi storici sul concilio di + Firenze_ (Florence, 1869), (appendix); J. Zhishman, _Die + Unionsverhandlungen ... bis zum Concil von Ferrara_ (Vienna, 1858); + Gorski, of Moscow, 1847, _The History of the Council of Florence_, + trans. from the Russian by Basil Popoff, ed. by J.M. Neale (London, + 1861); C.J. von Hefele, _Conciliengeschichte_, vol. 7 (Freiburg i. B., + 1874), 659-761, 793 ff., 814 ff.; H. Vast, _Le Cardinal Bessarion_ + (Paris, 1878), 53-113; A. Warschauer, _Uber die Quellen zur Geschichte + des Florentiner Concils_ (Breslau, 1881), (Dissertation); M. + Creighton, _A History of the Papacy during the Period of the + Reformation_, vol. 2 (London, 1882), 173-194 (vivid); Knopfler, in + Wetzer and Welte's _Kirchenlexikon_, vol. 4 (2nd ed., Freiburg i. B., + 1885), 1363-1380 (instructive); L. Pastor, _History of the Popes_, + vol. 1 (London, 1891), 315 ff.; F. Kattenbusch, _Lehrbuch der + vergleichenden Confessionskunde_, vol. 1 (Freiburg i. B., 1892), 128 + ff.; N. Kalogeras, archbishop of Patras, "Die Verhandlungen zwischen + der orthodox-katholischen Kirche und dem Konzil von Basel uber die + Wiedervereinigung der Kirchen" (_Internationale Theologische + Zeitschrift_), vol. 1 (Bern, 1893, 39-57); P. Tschackert, in + Herzog-Hauck, _Realencyklopadie_, vol. 6 (3rd ed., Leipzig, 1899), + 45-48 (good bibliography); Walter Norden, _Das Papsttum und Byzanz: + Die Trennung der beiden Machte und das Problem ihrer Wiedervereinigung + bis 1453_ (Berlin, 1903), 712 ff. (W. W. R.*) + + + + +FERRARI, GAUDENZIO (1484-1549), Italian painter and sculptor, of the +Milanese, or more strictly the Piedmontese, school, was born at +Valduggia, Piedmont, and is said (very dubiously) to have learned the +elements of painting at Vercelli from Girolamo Giovenone. He next +studied in Milan, in the school of Scotto, and some say of Luini; +towards 1504 he proceeded to Florence, and afterwards (it used to be +alleged) to Rome. His pictorial style may be considered as derived +mainly from the old Milanese school, with a considerable tinge of the +influence of Da Vinci, and later on of Raphael; in his personal manner +there was something of the demonstrative and fantastic. The gentler +qualities diminished, and the stronger intensified, as he progressed. By +1524 he was at Varallo in Piedmont, and here, in the chapel of the Sacro +Monte, the sanctuary of the Piedmontese pilgrims, he executed his most +memorable work. This is a fresco of the Crucifixion, with a multitude of +figures, no less than twenty-six of them being modelled in actual +relief, and coloured; on the vaulted ceiling are eighteen lamenting +angels, powerful in expression. Other leading examples are the +following. In the Royal Gallery, Turin, a "Pieta," an able early work. +In the Brera Gallery, Milan, "St Katharine miraculously preserved from +the Torture of the Wheel," a very characteristic example, hard and +forcible in colour, thronged in composition, turbulent in emotion; also +several frescoes, chiefly from the church of Santa Maria della Pace, +three of them being from the history of Joachim and Anna. In the +cathedral of Vercelli, the choir, the "Virgin with Angels and Saints +under an Orange Tree." In the refectory of San Paolo, the "Last Supper." +In the church of San Cristoforo, the transept (in 1532-1535), a series +of paintings in which Ferrari's scholar Lanini assisted him; by Ferrari +himself are the "Birth of the Virgin," the "Annunciation," the +"Visitation," the "Adoration of the Shepherds and Kings," the +"Crucifixion," the "Assumption of the Virgin," all full of life and +decided character, though somewhat mannered. In the Louvre, "St Paul +Meditating." In Varallo, convent of the Minorites (1507), a +"Presentation in the Temple," and "Christ among the Doctors," and (after +1510) the "History of Christ," in twenty-one subjects; also an ancona in +six compartments, named the "Ancona di San Gaudenzio." In Santa Maria di +Loreto, near Varallo (after 1527), an "Adoration." In the church of +Saronno, near Milan, the cupola (1535), a "Glory of Angels," in which +the beauty of the school of Da Vinci alternates with bravura of +foreshortenings in the mode of Correggio. In Milan, Santa Maria delle +Grazie (1542), the "Scourging of Christ," an "Ecce Homo" and a +"Crucifixion." The "Scourging," or else a "Last Supper," in the Passione +of Milan (unfinished), is regarded as Ferrari's latest work. He was a +very prolific painter, distinguished by strong expression, animation and +fulness of composition, and abundant invention; he was skilful in +painting horses, and his decisive rather hard colour is marked by a +partiality for shot tints in drapery. In general character, his work +appertains more to the 15th than the 16th century. His subjects were +always of the sacred order. Ferrari's death took place in Milan. Besides +Lanini, already mentioned, Andrea Solario, Giambattista della Cerva and +Fermo Stella were three of his principal scholars. He is represented to +us as a good man, attached to his country and his art, jovial and +sometimes facetious, but an enemy of scandal. The reputation which he +enjoyed soon after his death was very great, but it has not fully stood +the test of time. Lomazzo went so far as to place him seventh among the +seven prime painters of Italy. + + See G. Bordiga, two works concerning _Gaudenzio Ferrari_ (1821 and + 1835); G. Colombo, _Vita ed opere di Gaudenzio Ferrari_ (1881); Ethel + Halsey, _Gaudenzio Ferrari_ (in the series _Great Masters_, 1904). + + There was another painter nearly contemporary with Gaudenzio, + Difendente Ferrari, also of the Lombard school. His celebrity is by no + means equal to that of Gaudenzio; but _Kugler_ (1887, as edited by + Layard) pronounced him to be "a good and original colourist, and the + best artist that Piedmont has produced." (W. M. R.) + + + + +FERRARI, GIUSEPPE (1812-1876), Italian philosopher, historian and +politician, was born at Milan on the 7th of March 1812, and died in Rome +on the 2nd of July 1876. He studied law at Pavia, and took the degree of +doctor in 1831. A follower of Romagnosi (d. 1835) and Giovan Battista +Vico (q.v.), his first works were an article in the _Biblioteca +Italiana_ entitled "Mente di Gian Domenico Romagnosi" (1835), and a +complete edition of the works of Vico, prefaced by an appreciation +(1835). Finding Italy uncongenial to his ideas, he went to France and, +in 1839, produced in Paris his _Vico et l'Italie_, followed by _La +Nouvelle Religion de Campanella_ and _La Theorie de l'erreur_. On +account of these works he was made Docteur-es-lettres of the Sorbonne +and professor of philosophy at Rochefort (1840). His views, however, +provoked antagonism, and in 1842 he was appointed to the chair of +philosophy at Strassburg. After fresh trouble with the clergy, he +returned to Paris and published a defence of his theories in a work +entitled _Idees sur la politique de Platon et d'Aristote_. After a short +connexion with the college at Bourges, he devoted himself from 1849 to +1858 exclusively to writing. The works of this period are _Les +Philosophes Salaries, Machiavel juge des revolutions de notre temps_ +(1849), _La Federazione repubblicana_ (1851), _La Filosofia della +rivoluzione_ (1851), _L' Italia dopo il colpo di Stato_ (1852), +_Histoire des revolutions, ou Guelfes et Gibelins_ (1858; Italian +trans., 1871-1873). In 1859 he returned to Italy, where he opposed +Cavour, and upheld federalism against the policy of a single Italian +monarchy. In spite of this opposition, he held chairs of philosophy at +Turin, Milan and Rome in succession, and during several administrations +represented the college of Gavirate in the chamber. He was a member of +the council of education and was made senator on the 15th of May 1876. +Amongst other works may be mentioned _Histoire de la raison d'etat, La +China et l' Europa, Corso d' istoria degli scrittori politici italiani_. +A sceptic in philosophy and a revolutionist in politics, rejoicing in +controversy of all kinds, he was admired as a man, as an orator, and as +a writer. + + See Marro Macchi, _Annuario istorico italiano_ (Milan, 1877); + Mazzoleni, _Giuseppe Ferrari_; Werner, _Die ital. Philosophie des 19. + Jahrh._ vol. 3 (Vienna, 1885); Uberweg, _History of Philosophy_ (Eng. + trans. ii. 461 foll.). + + + + + +FERRARI, PAOLO (1822-1889), Italian dramatist, was born at Modena. After +producing some minor pieces, in 1852 he made his reputation as a +playwright with _Goldoni e le sue sedici commedie_. Among numerous later +plays his comedy _Parini e la satira_ (1857) had considerable success. +Ferrari may be regarded as a follower of Goldoni, modelling himself on +the French theatrical methods. His collected plays were published in +1877-1880. + + + + +FERREIRA, ANTONIO (1528-1569), Portuguese poet, was a native of Lisbon; +his father held the post of _escrivao de fazenda_ in the house of the +duke of Coimbra at Setubal, so that he must there have met the great +adventurer Mendes Pinto. In 1547-1548 he went to the university of +Coimbra, and on the 16th of July 1551 took his bachelor's degree. The +Sonnets forming the First Book in his collected works date from 1552 and +contain the history of his early love for an unknown lady. They seem to +have been written in Coimbra or during vacations in Lisbon; and if some +are dry and stilted, others, like the admirable No. 45, are full of +feeling and tears. The Sonnets in the Second Book were inspired by D. +Maria Pimentel, whom he afterwards married, and they are marked by that +chastity of sentiment, seriousness and ardent patriotism which +characterized the man and the writer. Ferreira's ideal, as a poet, was +to win "the applause of the good," and, in the preface to his poems, he +says, "I am content with this glory, that I have loved my land and my +people." He was intimate with princes, nobles and the most distinguished +literary men of the time, such as the scholarly Diogo de Teive and the +poets Bernardes, Caminha and Corte-Real, as well as with the aged Sa de +Miranda, the founder of the classical school of which Ferreira became +the foremost representative. + +The death in 1554 of Prince John, the heir to the throne, drew from him, +as from Camoens, Bernardes and Caminha, a poetical lament, which +consisted of an elegy and two eclogues, imitative of Virgil and Horace, +and devoid of interest. On the 14th of July 1555 he took his doctor's +degree, an event which was celebrated, according to custom, by a sort of +Roman triumph, and he stayed on as a professor, finding Coimbra with its +picturesque environs congenial to his poetical tastes and love of a +country life. The year 1557 produced his sixth elegy, addressed to the +son of the great Albuquerque, a poem of noble patriotism expressed in +eloquent and sonorous verse, and in the next year he married. After a +short and happy married life, his wife died, and the ninth sonnet of +Book 2 describes her end in moving words. This loss lent Ferreira's +verse an added austerity, and the independence of his muse is remarkable +when he addresses King Sebastian and reminds him of his duties as well +as his rights. On the 14th of October 1567 he became _Disembargador da +Casa do Civel_, and had to leave the quiet of Coimbra for Lisbon. His +verses tell how he disliked the change, and how the bustle of the +capital, then a great commercial emporium, made him sad and almost +tongue-tied for poetry. The intrigues and moral twists of the courtiers +and traders, among whom he was forced to live, hurt his fine sense of +honour, and he felt his mental isolation the more, because his friends +were few and scattered in that great city which the discoveries and +conquests of the Portuguese had made the centre of a world empire. In +1569 a terrible epidemic of carbunculous fever broke out and carried off +50,000 inhabitants of Lisbon, and, on the 29th of November, Ferreira, +who had stayed there doing his duty when others fled, fell a victim. + +Horace was his favourite poet, erudition his muse, and his admiration of +the classics made him disdain the popular poetry of the Old School +(_Escola Velha_) represented by Gil Vicente. His national feeling would +not allow him to write in Latin or Spanish, like most of his +contemporaries, but his Portuguese is as Latinized as he could make it, +and he even calls his poetical works _Poemas Lusitanos_. Sa de Miranda +had philosophized in the familiar _redondilha_, introduced the epistle +and founded the comedy of learning. It was the beginning of a +revolution, which Ferreira completed by abandoning the hendecasyllable +for the Italian decasyllable, and by composing the noble and austere +Roman poetry of his letters, odes and elegies. It was all done of set +purpose, for he was a reformer conscious of his mission and resolved to +carry it out. The gross realism of the popular poetry, its lack of +culture and its carelessness of form, offended his educated taste, and +its picturesqueness and ingenuity made no appeal to him. It is not +surprising, however, that though he earned the applause of men of +letters he failed to touch the hearts of his countrymen. Ferreira wrote +the Terentian prose comedy _Bristo_, at the age of twenty-five (1553), +and dedicated it to Prince John in the name of the university. It is +neither a comedy of character nor manners, but its _vis comica_ lies in +its plot and situations. The _Cioso_, a later product, may almost be +called a comedy of character. _Castro_ is Ferreira's most considerable +work, and, in date, is the first tragedy in Portuguese, and the second +in modern European literature. Though fashioned on the great models of +the ancients, it has little plot or action, and the characters, except +that of the prince, are ill-designed. It is really a splendid poem, with +a chorus which sings the sad fate of Ignez in musical odes, rich in +feeling and grandeur of expression. Her love is the chaste, timid +affection of a wife and a vassal rather than the strong passion of a +mistress, but Pedro is really the man history describes, the +love-fettered prince whom the tragedy of Ignez's death converted into +the cruel tyrant. King Alfonso is little more than a shadow, and only +meets Ignez once, his son never; while, stranger still, Pedro and Ignez +never come on the stage together, and their love is merely narrated. +Nevertheless, Ferreira merits all praise for choosing one of the most +dramatic episodes in Portuguese history for his subject, and though it +has since been handled by poets of renown in many different languages, +none has been able to surpass the old master. + + The _Castro_ was first printed in Lisbon in 1587, and it is included + in Ferreira's _Poemas_, published in 1598 by his son. It has been + translated by Musgrave (London, 1825), and the chorus of Act I. + appeared again in English in the _Savoy_ for July 1896. It has also + been done into French and German. The _Bristo_ and _Cioso_ first + appeared with the comedies of Sa de Miranda in Lisbon in 1622. There + is a good modern edition of the Complete Works of Ferreira (2 vols., + Paris, 1865). See Castilho's _Antonio Ferreira_ (3 vols., Rio, 1865), + which contains a full biographical and critical study with extracts. + (E. Pr.) + + + + +FERREL'S LAW, in physical geography. "If a body moves in any direction +on the earth's surface, there is a deflecting force arising from the +earth's rotation, which deflects it to the right in the northern +hemisphere and to the left in the southern hemisphere." This law applies +to every body that is set in motion upon the surface of the rotating +earth, but usually the duration of the motion of any body due to a +single impulse is so brief, and there are so many frictional +disturbances, that it is not easy to observe the results of this +deflecting force. The movements of the atmosphere, however, are upon a +scale large enough to make this observation easy, and the simplest +evidence is obtained from a study of the direction of the air movements +in the great wind systems of the globe. (See METEOROLOGY.) + + + + +FERRERS, the name of a great Norman-English feudal house, derived from +Ferrieres-St-Hilaire, to the south of Bernay, in Normandy. Its ancestor +Walkelin was slain in a feud during the Conqueror's minority, leaving a +son Henry, who took part in the Conquest. At the time of the Domesday +survey his fief extended into fourteen counties, but the great bulk of +it was in Derbyshire and Leicestershire, especially the former. He +himself occurs in Worcestershire as one of the royal commissioners for +the survey. He established his chief seat at Tutbury Castle, +Staffordshire, on the Derbyshire border, and founded there a Cluniac +priory. As was the usual practice with the great Norman houses, his +eldest son succeeded to Ferrieres, and, according to Stapleton, he was +ancestor of the Oakham house of Ferrers, whose memory is preserved by +the horseshoes hanging in the hall of their castle. Robert, a younger +son of Henry, inherited his vast English fief, and, for his services at +the battle of the Standard (1138), was created earl of Derby by Stephen. +He appears to have died a year after. + +Both the title and the arms of the earls have been the subject of much +discussion, and they seem to have been styled indifferently earls of +Derby or Nottingham (both counties then forming one shrievalty) or of +Tutbury, or simply (de) Ferrers. Robert, the 2nd earl, who founded +Merevale Abbey, was father of William, the 3rd earl, who began the +opposition of his house to the crown by joining in the great revolt of +1173, when he fortified his castles of Tutbury and Duffield and +plundered Nottingham, which was held for the king. On his subsequent +submission his castles were razed. Dying at the siege of Acre, 1190, he +was succeeded by his son William, who attacked Nottingham on Richard's +behalf in 1194, but whom King John favoured and confirmed in the earldom +of Derby, 1199. A claim that he was heir to the honour of Peveral of +Nottingham, which has puzzled genealogists, was compromised with the +king, whom the earl thenceforth stoutly supported, being with him at his +death and witnessing his will, with his brother-in-law the earl of +Chester, and with William Marshal, earl of Pembroke, whose daughter +married his son. With them also he acted in securing the succession of +the young Henry, joining in the siege of Mountsorrel and the battle of +Lincoln. But he was one of those great nobles who looked with jealousy +on the rising power of the king's favourites. In 1227 he was one of the +earls who rose against him on behalf of his brother Richard and made him +restore the forest charters, and in 1237 he was one of the three +counsellors forced on the king by the barons. His influence had by this +time been further increased by the death, in 1232, of the earl of +Chester, whose sister, his wife, inherited a vast estate between the +Ribble and the Mersey. On his death in 1247, his son William succeeded +as 5th earl, and inherited through his wife her share of the great +possessions of the Marshals, earls of Pembroke. By his second wife, a +daughter of the earl of Winchester, he was father of Robert, 6th and +last earl. Succeeding as a minor in 1254, Robert had been secured by the +king, as early as 1249, as a husband for his wife's niece, Marie, +daughter of Hugh, count of Angouleme, but, in spite of this, he joined +the opposition in 1263 and distinguished himself by his violence. He was +one of the five earls summoned to Simon de Montfort's parliament, +though, on taking the earl of Gloucester's part, he was arrested by +Simon. In spite of this he was compelled on the king's triumph to +forfeit his castles and seven years' revenues. In 1266 he broke out +again in revolt on his own estates in Derbyshire, but was utterly +defeated at Chesterfield by Henry "of Almain," deprived of his earldom +and lands and imprisoned. Eventually, in 1269, he agreed to pay L50,000 +for restoration, and to pledge all his lands save Chartley and Holbrook +for its payment. As he was not able to find the money, the lands passed +to the king's son, Edmund, to whom they had been granted on his +forfeiture. + +The earl's son John succeeded to Chartley, a Staffordshire estate long +famous for the wild cattle in its chase, and was summoned as a baron in +1299, though he had joined the baronial opposition in 1297. On the +death, in 1450, of the last Ferrers lord of Chartley, the barony passed +with his daughter to the Devereux family and then to the Shirleys, one +of whom was created Earl Ferrers in 1711. The barony has been in +abeyance since 1855. + +The line of Ferrers of Groby was founded by William, younger brother of +the last earl, who inherited from his mother Margaret de Quinci her +estate of Groby in Leicestershire, and some Ferrers manors from his +father. His son was summoned as a baron in 1300, but on the death of his +descendant, William, Lord Ferrers of Groby, in 1445, the barony passed +with his granddaughter to the Grey family and was forfeited with the +dukedom of Suffolk in 1554. A younger son of William, the last lord, +married the heiress of Tamworth Castle, and his line was seated at +Tamworth till 1680, when an heiress carried it to a son of the first +Earl Ferrers. From Sir Henry, a younger son of the first Ferrers of +Tamworth, descended Ferrers of Baddesley Clinton, seated there in the +male line till towards the end of the 19th century. The line of Ferrers +of Wemme was founded by a younger son of Lord Ferrers of Chartley, who +married the heiress of Wemme, Co. Salop, and was summoned as a baron in +her right; but it ended with their son. There are doubtless male +descendants of this great Norman house still in existence. + +Higham Ferrers, Northants, and Woodham Ferrers, Essex, take their names +from this family. It has been alleged that they bore horseshoes for +their arms in allusion to Ferrieres (i.e. ironworks); but when and why +they were added to their coat is a moot point. + + See Dugdale's _Baronage_; J.R. Planche's _The Conqueror and his + Companions_; G.E. C(okayne)'s _Complete Peerage_; _Chronicles and + Memorials_ (Rolls Series); T. Stapleton's _Rotuli Scaccarii + Normannie_. (J. H. R.) + + + + +FERRERS, LAURENCE SHIRLEY, 4TH EARL (1720-1760), the last nobleman in +England to suffer a felon's death, was born on the 18th of August 1720. +There was insanity in his family, and from an early age his behaviour +seems to have been eccentric, and his temper violent, though he was +quite capable of managing his business affairs. In 1758 his wife +obtained a separation from him for cruelty. The Ferrers estates were +then vested in trustees, the Earl Ferrers secured the appointment of an +old family steward, Johnson, as receiver of rents. This man faithfully +performed his duty as a servant to the trustees, and did not prove +amenable to Ferrer's personal wishes. On the 18th of January 1760, +Johnson called at the earl's mansion at Staunton Harold, Leicestershire, +by appointment, and was directed to his lordship's study. Here, after +some business conversation, Lord Ferrers shot him. In the following +April Ferrers was tried for murder by his peers in Westminster Hall. His +defence, which he conducted in person with great ability, was a plea of +insanity, and it was supported by considerable evidence, but he was +found guilty. He subsequently said that he had only pleaded insanity to +oblige his family, and that he had himself always been ashamed of such a +defence. On the 5th of May 1760, dressed in a light-coloured suit, +embroidered with silver, he was taken in his own carriage from the Tower +of London to Tyburn and there hanged. It has been said that as a +concession to his order the rope used was of silk. + + See Peter Burke, _Celebrated Trials connected with the Aristocracy in + the Relations of Private Life_ (London, 1849); Edward Walford, _Tales + of our Great Families_ (London, 1877); _Howell's State Trials_ (1816), + xix. 885-980. + + + + +FERRET, a domesticated, and frequently albino breed of quadruped, +derived from the wild polecat (_Putorius foetidus_, or _P. putorius_), +which it closely resembles in size, form, and habits, and with which it +interbreeds. It differs in the colour of its fur, which is usually +yellowish-white, and of its eyes, which are pinky-red. The +"polecat-ferret" is a brown breed, apparently the product of the +above-mentioned cross. The ferret attains a length of about 14 in., +exclusive of the tail, which measures 5 in. Although exhibiting +considerable tameness, it seems incapable of attachment, and when not +properly fed, or when irritated, is apt to give painful evidence of its +ferocity. It is chiefly employed in destroying rats and other vermin, +and in driving rabbits from their burrows. The ferret is remarkably +prolific, the female bringing forth two broods annually, each numbering +from six to nine young. It is said to occasionally devour its young +immediately after birth, and in this case produces another brood soon +after. The ferret was well known to the Romans, Strabo stating that it +was brought from Africa into Spain, and Pliny that it was employed in +his time in rabbit-hunting, under the name _Viverra_; the English name +is not derived from this, but from Fr. _furet_, Late Lat. _furo_, +robber. The date of its introduction into Great Britain is uncertain, +but it has been known in England for at least 600 years. + +The ferret should be kept in dry, clean, well-ventilated hutches, and +fed twice daily on bread, milk, and meat, such as rabbits' and fowls' +livers. When used to hunt rabbits it is provided with a muzzle, or, +better and more usual, a cope, made by looping and knotting twine about +the head and snout, in order to prevent it killing its quarry, in which +case it would gorge itself and go to sleep in the hole. As the ferret +enters the hole the rabbits flee before it, and are shot or caught by +dogs as they break ground. A ferret's hold on its quarry is as obstinate +as that of a bulldog, but can easily be broken by a strong pressure of +the thumb just above the eyes. Only full-grown ferrets are "worked to" +rats. Several are generally used at a time and without copes, as rats +are fierce fighters. + + See Ferrets, by Nicholas Everitt (London, 1897). + + + + +FERRI, CIRO (1634-1689), Roman painter, the chief disciple and successor +of Pietro da Cortona. He was born in the Roman territory, studied under +Pietro, to whom he became warmly attached, and, at an age a little past +thirty, completed the painting of the ceilings and other internal +decorations begun by his instructor in the Pitti palace, Florence. He +also co-operated in or finished several other works by Pietro, both in +Florence and in Rome, approaching near to his style and his particular +merits, but with less grace of design and native vigour, and in especial +falling short of him in colour. Of his own independent productions, the +chief is an extensive series of scriptural frescoes in the church of S. +Maria Maggiore in Bergamo; also a painting (rated as Ferri's best work) +of St Ambrose healing a sick person, the principal altarpiece in the +church of S. Ambrogio della Massima in Rome. The paintings of the cupola +of S. Agnese in the same capital might rank even higher than these; but +this labour remained uncompleted at the death of Ferri, and was marred +by the performances of his successor Corbellini. He executed also a +large amount of miscellaneous designs, such as etchings and +frontispieces for books; and he was an architect besides. Ferri was +appointed to direct the Florentine students in Rome, and Gabbiani was +one of his leading pupils. As regards style, Ferri ranks as chief of the +so-called Machinists, as opposed to the school founded by Sacchi, and +continued by Carlo Maratta. He died in Rome--his end being hastened, as +it is said, by mortification at his recognized inferiority to Bacciccia +in colour. + + + + +FERRI, LUIGI (1826-1895), Italian philosopher, was born at Bologna on +the 15th of June 1826. His education was obtained mainly at the Ecole +Normale in Paris, where his father, a painter and architect, was engaged +in the construction of the Theatre Italien. From his twenty-fifth year +he began to lecture in the colleges of Evreux, Dieppe, Blois and +Toulouse. Later, he was lecturer at Annecy and Casal-Montferrat, and +became head of the education department under Mamiani in 1860. Three +years later he was appointed to the chair of philosophy at the Istituto +di Perfezionamento at Florence, and, in 1871, was made professor of +philosophy in the university of Rome. On the death of Mamiani in 1885 he +became editor of the _Filosofia delle scuole italiane_, the title of +which he changed to _Rivista italiana di filosofia_. He wrote both on +psychology and on metaphysics, but is known especially as a historian of +philosophy. His original work is eclectic, combining the psychology of +his teachers, Jules Simon, Saisset and Mamiani, with the idealism of +Rosmini and Gioberti. Among his works may be mentioned _Studii sulla +coscienza_; _Il Fenomeno nelle sue relazioni con la sensazione_; _Della +idea del vero_; _Della filosofia del diritto presso Aristotile_ (1885); +_Il Genio di Aristotile_; _La Psicologia di Pietro Pomponazzi_ (1877), +and, most important, _Essai sur l'histoire de la philosophie en Italie +au XIX^e siecle_ (Paris, 1869), and _La Psychologie de l'association +depuis Hobbes jusqu'a nos jours_. + + + + +FERRIER, ARNAUD DU (c. 1508-1585), French jurisconsult and diplomatist, +was born at Toulouse about 1508, and practised as a lawyer first at +Bourges, afterwards at Toulouse. Councillor to the _parlement_ of the +latter town, and then to that of Rennes, he later became president of +the _parlement_ of Paris. He represented Charles IX., king of France, at +the council of Trent in 1562, but had to retire in consequence of the +attitude he had adopted, and was sent as ambassador to Venice, where he +remained till 1567, returning again in 1570. On his return to France he +came into touch with the Calvinists whose tenets he probably embraced, +and consequently lost his place in the privy council and part of his +fortune. As compensation, Henry, king of Navarre, appointed him his +chancellor. He died in the end of October 1585. + + See also E. Fremy, _Un Ambassadeur liberal sous Charles IX et Henri + III, Arnaud du Ferrier_ (Paris, 1880). + + + + +FERRIER, JAMES FREDERICK (1808-1864), Scottish metaphysical writer, was +born in Edinburgh on the 16th of June 1808, the son of John Ferrier, +writer to the signet. His mother was a sister of John Wilson +(Christopher North). He was educated at the university of Edinburgh and +Magdalen College, Oxford, and subsequently, his metaphysical tastes +having been fostered by his intimate friend, Sir William Hamilton, spent +some time at Heidelberg studying German philosophy. In 1842 he was +appointed professor of civil history in Edinburgh University, and in +1845 professor of moral philosophy and political economy at St Andrews. +He was twice an unsuccessful candidate for chairs in Edinburgh, for that +of moral philosophy on Wilson's resignation in 1852, and for that of +logic and metaphysics in 1856, after Hamilton's death. He remained at St +Andrews till his death on the 11th of June 1864. He married his cousin, +Margaret Anne, daughter of John Wilson. He had five children, one of +whom became the wife of Sir Alexander Grant. + +Ferrier's first contribution to metaphysics was a series of articles in +_Blackwood's Magazine_ (1838-1839), entitled _An Introduction to the +Philosophy of Consciousness_. In these he condemns previous philosophers +for ignoring in their psychological investigations the fact of +consciousness, which is the distinctive feature of man, and confining +their observation to the so-called "states of the mind." Consciousness +comes into manifestation only when the man has used the word "I" with +full knowledge of what it means. This notion he must originate within +himself. Consciousness cannot spring from the states which are its +object, for it is in antagonism to them. It originates in the will, +which in the act of consciousness puts the "I" in the place of our +sensations. Morality, conscience, and responsibility are necessary +results of consciousness. These articles were succeeded by a number of +others, of which the most important were _The Crisis of Modern +Speculation_ (1841), _Berkeley and Idealism_ (1842), and an important +examination of Hamilton's edition of Reid (1847), which contains a +vigorous attack on the philosophy of common sense. The perception of +matter is pronounced to be the _ne plus ultra_ of thought, and Reid, for +presuming to analyse it, is declared to be a representationist in fact, +although he professed to be an intuitionist. A distinction is made +between the "perception of matter" and "our apprehension of the +perception of matter." Psychology vainly tries to analyse the former. +Metaphysic shows the latter alone to be analysable, and separates the +subjective element, "our apprehension," from the objective element, "the +perception of matter,"--not matter _per se_, but the perception of +matter is the existence independent of the individual's thought. It +cannot, however, be independent of thought. It must belong to some mind, +and is therefore the property of the Divine Mind. There, he thinks, is +an indestructible foundation for the _a priori_ argument for the +existence of God. + +Ferrier's matured philosophical doctrines find expression in the +_Institutes of Metaphysics_ (1854), in which he claims to have met the +twofold obligation resting on every system of philosophy, that it should +be reasoned and true. His method is that of Spinoza, strict +demonstration, or at least an attempt at it. All the errors of natural +thinking and psychology must fall under one or other of three +topics:--Knowing and the Known, Ignorance, and Being. These are +all-comprehensive, and are therefore the departments into which +philosophy is divided, for the sole end of philosophy is to correct the +inadvertencies of ordinary thinking. + +The problems of knowing and the known are treated in the "Epistemology +or Theory of Knowing." The truth that "along with whatever any +intelligence knows it must, as the ground or condition of its knowledge, +have some cognizance of itself," is the basis of the whole philosophical +system. Object + subject, thing + me, is the only possible knowable. +This leads to the conclusion that the only independent universe which +any mind can think of is the universe in synthesis with some _other_ +mind or _ego_. + +The leading contradiction which is corrected in the "Agnoiology or +Theory of Ignorance" is this: that there can be an ignorance of that of +which there can be no knowledge. Ignorance is a defect. But there is no +defect in not knowing what cannot be known by any intelligence (e.g. +that two and two make five), and therefore there can be an ignorance +only of that of which there can be a knowledge, i.e. of +some-object-_plus_-some-subject. The knowable alone is the ignorable. +Ferrier lays special claim to originality for this division of the +_Institutes_. + +The "Ontology or Theory of Being" forms the third and final division. It +contains a discussion of the origin of knowledge, in which Ferrier +traces all the perplexities and errors of philosophers to the assumption +of the absolute existence of matter. The conclusion arrived at is that +the only true real and independent existences are +minds-together-with-that-which-they-apprehend, and that the one strictly +necessary absolute existence is a supreme and infinite and everlasting +mind in synthesis with all things. + + Ferrier's works are remarkable for an unusual charm and simplicity of + style. These qualities are especially noticeable in the _Lectures on + Greek Philosophy_, one of the best introductions on the subject in the + English language. A complete edition of his philosophical writings was + published in 1875, with a memoir by E.L. Lushington; see also + monograph by E.S. Haldane in the Famous Scots Series. + + + + +FERRIER, PAUL (1843- ), French dramatist, was born at Montpellier on +the 29th of March 1843. He had already produced several comedies when in +1873 he secured real success with two short pieces, _Chez l'avocat_ and +_Les Incendies de Massoulard_. Others of his numerous plays are _Les +Compensations_ (1876); _L'Art de tromper les femmes_ (1890), with M. +Najac. One of Ferrier's greatest triumphs was the production with +Fabrice Carre of _Josephine vendue par ses soeurs_ (1886), an _opera +bouffe_ with music by Victor Roger. His opera libretti include _La +Marocaine_ (1879), music of J. Offenbach; _Le Chevalier d'Harmental_ +(1896) after the play of Dumas pere, for the music of A. Messager; _La +Fille de Tabarin_ (1901), with Victorien Sardou, music of Gabriel +Pierne. + + + + +FERRIER, SUSAN EDMONSTONE (1782-1854), Scottish novelist, born in +Edinburgh on the 7th of September 1782, was the daughter of James +Ferrier, for some years factor to the duke of Argyll, and at one time +one of the clerks of the court of session with Sir Walter Scott. Her +mother was a Miss Coutts, the beautiful daughter of a Forfarshire +farmer. James Frederick Ferrier, noticed above, was Susan Ferrier's +nephew. + +Miss Ferrier's first novel, _Marriage_, was begun in concert with a +friend, Miss Clavering, a niece of the duke of Argyll; but this lady +only wrote a few pages, and _Marriage_, completed by Miss Ferrier as +early as 1810, appeared in 1818. It was followed in 1824 by _The +Inheritance_, a better constructed and more mature work; and the last +and perhaps best of her novels, _Destiny_, dedicated to Sir Walter Scott +(who himself undertook to strike the bargain with the publisher Cadell), +appeared in 1831. All these novels were published anonymously; but, with +their clever portraiture of contemporary Scottish life and manners, and +even recognizable caricatures of some social celebrities of the day, +they could not fail to become popular north of the Tweed. "Lady +MacLaughlan" represents Mrs Seymour Damer in dress and Lady Frederick +Campbell, whose husband, Lord Ferrier, was executed in 1760, in manners. +Mary, Lady Clark, well known in Edinburgh, figured as "Mrs Fox" and the +three maiden aunts were the Misses Edmonstone. Many were the conjectures +as to the authorship of the novels. In the _Noctes Ambrosianae_ +(November 1826), James Hogg is made to mention _The Inheritance_, and +adds, "which I aye thought was written by Sir Walter, as weel's +_Marriage_, till it spunked out that it was written by a leddy." Scott +himself gave Miss Ferrier a very high place indeed among the novelists +of the day. In his diary (March 27, 1826), criticizing a new work which +he had been reading, he says, "The women do this better. Edgeworth, +Ferrier, Austen, have all given portraits of real society far superior +to anything man, vain man, has produced of the like nature." Another +friendly recognition of Miss Ferrier is to be found at the conclusion of +his _Tales of my Landlord_, where Scott calls her his "sister shadow," +the still anonymous author of "the very lively work entitled +_Marriage_." Lively, indeed, all Miss Ferrier's works are,--written in +clear, brisk English, and with an inexhaustible fund of humour. It is +true her books portray the eccentricities, the follies, and foibles of +the society in which she lived, caricaturing with terrible exactness its +hypocrisy, boastfulness, greed, affectation, and undue subservience to +public opinion. Yet Miss Ferrier wrote less to reform than to amuse. In +this she is less like Miss Edgeworth than Miss Austen. Miss Edgeworth +was more of a moralist; her wit is not so involuntary, her caricatures +not always so good-natured. But Miss Austen and Miss Ferrier were +genuine humorists, and with Miss Ferrier especially a keen sense of the +ludicrous was always dominant. Her humorous characters are always her +best. It was no doubt because she felt this that in the last year of her +life she regretted not having devoted her talents more exclusively to +the service of religion. But if she was not a moralist, neither was she +a cynic; and her wit, even where it is most caustic, is never +uncharitable. + +Miss Ferrier's mother died in 1797, and from that date she kept house +for her father until his death in 1829. She lived quietly at Morningside +House and in Edinburgh for more than twenty years after the publication +of her last work. The pleasantest picture that we have of her is in +Lockhart's description of her visit to Scott in May 1831. She was asked +there to help to amuse the dying master of Abbotsford, who, when he was +not writing _Count Robert of Paris_, would talk as brilliantly as ever. +Only sometimes, before he had reached the point in a narrative, "it +would seem as if some internal spring had given way." He would pause, +and gaze blankly and anxiously round him. "I noticed," says Lockhart, +"the delicacy of Miss Ferrier on such occasions. Her sight was bad, and +she took care not to use her glasses when he was speaking; and she +affected to be also troubled with deafness, and would say, 'Well, I am +getting as dull as a post; I have not heard a word since you said +so-and-so,'--being sure to mention a circumstance behind that at which +he had really halted. He then took up the thread with his habitual smile +of courtesy--as if forgetting his case entirely in the consideration of +the lady's infirmity." + +Miss Ferrier died on the 5th of November 1854, at her brother's house in +Edinburgh. She left among her papers a short unpublished article, +entitled "Recollections of Visits to Ashestiel and Abbotsford." This is +her own very interesting account of her long friendship with Sir Walter +Scott, from the date of her first visit to him and Lady Scott at +Ashestiel, where she went with her father in the autumn of 1811, to her +last sad visit to Abbotsford in 1831. It contains some impromptu verses +written by Scott in her album at Ashestiel. + + Miss Ferrier's letters to her sister, which contained much interesting + biographical matter, were destroyed at her particular request, but a + volume of her correspondence with a memoir by her grand-nephew, John + Ferrier, was published in 1898. + + + + +FERROL [_El Ferrol_], a seaport of north-western Spain, in the province +of Corunna; situated 12 m. N.E. of the city of Corunna, and on the Bay +of Ferrol, an inlet of the Atlantic Ocean. Pop. (1900) 25,281. Together +with San Fernando, near Cadiz, and Cartagena, Ferrol is governed by an +admiral, with the special title of captain-general; and it ranks beside +these two ports as one of the principal naval stations of Spain. The +town is beautifully situated on a headland overlooking the bay, and is +surrounded by rocky hills which render it invisible from the sea. Its +harbour, naturally one of the best in Europe, and the largest in Spain +except those of Vigo and Corunna, is deep, capacious and secure; but the +entrance is a narrow strait about 2 m. long, which admits only one +vessel at a time, and is commanded by modern and powerfully armed forts, +while the neighbouring heights are also crowned by defensive works. +Ferrol is provided with extensive dockyards, quays, warehouses and an +arsenal; most of these, with the palace of the captain-general, the +bull-ring, theatres, and other principal buildings, were built or +modernized between 1875 and 1905. The local industries are mainly +connected with the shipping trade, or the refitting of warships. Owing +to the lack of railway communication, and the competition of Corunna at +so short a distance, Ferrol is not a first-class commercial port; and in +the early years of the 20th century its trade, already injured by the +loss to Spain of Cuba and Porto Rico in 1898, showed little prospect of +improvement. The exports are insignificant, and consist chiefly of +wooden staves and beams for use as pit-props; the chief imports are +coal, cement, timber, iron and machinery. In 1904, 282 vessels of +155,881 tons entered the harbour. In the same year the construction of a +railway to the neighbouring town of Betanzos was undertaken, and in 1909 +important shipbuilding operations were begun. + +Ferrol was a mere fishing village until 1752, when Ferdinand VI. began +to fit it for becoming an arsenal. In 1799 the British made a fruitless +attempt to capture it, but on the 4th of November 1805 they defeated the +French fleet in front of the town, which they compelled to surrender. On +the 27th of January 1809 it was through treachery delivered over to the +French, but it was vacated by them on the 22nd of July. On the 15th of +July 1823 another blockade was begun by the French, and Ferrol +surrendered to them on the 27th of August. + + + + +FERRUCCIO, or FERRUCCI, FRANCESCO (1489-1530), Florentine captain. After +spending a few years as a merchant's clerk he took to soldiering at an +early age, and served in the _Bande Nere_ in various parts of Italy, +earning a reputation as a daring fighter and somewhat of a swashbuckler. +When Pope Clement VII. and the emperor Charles V. decided to reinstate +the Medici in Florence, they made war on the Florentine republic, and +Ferruccio was appointed Florentine military commissioner at Empoli, +where he showed great daring and resource by his rapid marches and +sudden attacks on the Imperialists. Early in 1530 Volterra had thrown +off Florentine allegiance and had been occupied by an Imperialist +garrison, but Ferruccio surprised and recaptured the city. During his +absence, however, the Imperialists captured Empoli by treachery, thus +cutting off one of the chief avenues of approach to Florence. Ferruccio +proposed to the government of the republic that he should march on Rome +and terrorize the pope by the threat of a sack into making peace with +Florence on favourable terms, but although the war committee appointed +him commissioner-general for the operations outside the city, they +rejected his scheme as too audacious. Ferruccio then decided to attempt +a diversion by attacking the Imperialists in the rear and started from +Volterra for the Apennines. But at Pisa he was laid up for a month with +a fever--a misfortune which enabled the enemy to get wind of his plan +and to prepare for his attack. At the end of July Ferruccio left Pisa at +the head of about 4000 men, and although the besieged in Florence, +knowing that a large part of the Imperialists under the prince of Orange +had gone to meet Ferruccio, wished to co-operate with the latter by +means of a sortie, they were prevented from doing so by their own +traitorous commander-in-chief, Malatesta Baglioni. Ferruccio encountered +a much larger force of the enemy on the 3rd of August at Gavinana; a +desperate battle ensued, and at first the Imperialists were driven back +by Ferruccio's fierce onslaught and the prince of Orange himself was +killed, but reinforcements under Fabrizio Maramaldo having arrived, the +Florentines were almost annihilated and Ferruccio was wounded and +captured. Maramaldo out of personal spite despatched the wounded man +with his own hand. This defeat sealed the fate of the republic, and nine +days later Florence surrendered. Ferruccio was one of the great soldiers +of the age, and his enterprise is the finest episode of the last days of +the Florentine republic. See also under FLORENCE and MEDICI. + + BIBLIOGRAPHY.--F. Sassetti, _Vita di Francesco Ferrucci_, written in + the 16th century and published in the _Archivio storico_, vol. iv. pt. + ii. (Florence, 1853), with an introduction by C. Monzani; E. Aloisi, + _La Battaglia di Gavinana_ (Bologna, 1881); cf. P. Villari's criticism + of the latter work, "Ferruccio e Maramaldo," in his _Arte, storia, e + filosofia_ (Florence, 1884); Gino Capponi, _Storia della repubblica di + Firenze_, vol. ii. (Florence, 1875). + + + + +FERRULE, a small metal cap or ring used for holding parts of a rod, &c., +together, and for giving strength to weakened materials, or especially, +when attached to the end of a stick, umbrella, &c., for preventing +wearing or splitting. The word is properly _verrel_ or _verril_, in +which form it was used till the 18th century, and is derived through the +O. Fr. _virelle_, modern _virole_, from a diminutive Latin _viriola_ of +_viriae_, bracelets. The form in which the word is now known is due to +the influence of Latin _ferrum_, iron. "Ferrule" must be distinguished +from "ferule" or "ferula," properly the Latin name of the "giant +fennel." From the use of the stalk of this plant as a cane or rod for +punishment, comes the application of the word to many instruments used +in chastisement, more particularly a short flat piece of wood or leather +shaped somewhat like the sole of a boot, and applied to the palms of the +hand. It is the common form of disciplinary instrument in Roman Catholic +schools; the pain inflicted is exceedingly sharp and immediate, but the +effects are momentary and leave no chance for any dangerous results. The +word is sometimes applied to the ordinary cane as used by schoolmasters. + + + + +FERRY, JULES FRANCOIS CAMILLE (1832-1893), French statesman, was born at +Saint Die (Vosges) on the 5th of April 1832. He studied law, and was +called to the bar at Paris, but soon went into politics, contributing to +various newspapers, particularly to the _Temps_. He attacked the Empire +with great violence, directing his opposition especially against Baron +Haussmann, prefect of the Seine. Elected republican deputy for Paris in +1869, he protested against the declaration of war with Germany, and on +the 6th of September 1870 was appointed prefect of the Seine by the +government of national defence. In this position he had the difficult +task of administering Paris during the siege, and after the Commune was +obliged to resign (5th of June 1871). From 1872-1873 he was sent by +Thiers as minister to Athens, but returned to the chamber as deputy for +the Vosges, and became one of the leaders of the republican party. When +the first republican ministry was formed under W.H. Waddington on the +4th of February 1879, he was one of its members, and continued in the +ministry until the 30th of March 1885, except for two short +interruptions (from the 10th of November 1881 to the 30th of January +1882, and from the 29th of July 1882 to the 21st of February 1883), +first as minister of education and then as minister of foreign affairs. +He was twice premier (1880-1881 and 1883-1885). Two important works are +associated with his administration, the non-clerical organization of +public education, and the beginning of the colonial expansion of France. +Following the republican programme he proposed to destroy the influence +of the clergy in the university. He reorganized the committee of public +education (law of the 27th of February 1880), and proposed a regulation +for the conferring of university degrees, which, though rejected, +aroused violent polemics because the 7th article took away from the +unauthorized religious orders the right to teach. He finally succeeded +in passing the great law of the 28th of March 1882, which made primary +education in France free, non-clerical and obligatory. In higher +education the number of professors doubled under his ministry. After the +military defeat of France by Germany in 1870, he formed the idea of +acquiring a great colonial empire, not to colonize it, but for the sake +of economic exploitation. He directed the negotiations which led to the +establishment of a French protectorate in Tunis (1881), prepared the +treaty of the 17th of December 1885 for the occupation of Madagascar; +directed the exploration of the Congo and of the Niger region; and above +all he organized the conquest of Indo-China. The excitement caused at +Paris by an unimportant reverse of the French troops at Lang-son caused +his downfall (30th of March 1885), but the treaty of peace with China +(9th of June 1885) was his work. He still remained an influential member +of the moderate republican party, and directed the opposition to General +Boulanger. After the resignation of President Grevy (2nd of December +1887), he was a candidate for the presidency of the republic, but the +radicals refused to support him, and he withdrew in favour of Sadi +Carnot. The violent polemics aroused against him at this time caused a +madman to attack him with a revolver, and he died from the wound, on the +17th of March 1893. The chamber of deputies voted him a state funeral. + + See Edg. Zevort, _Histoire de la troisieme Republique_; A. Rambaud, + _Jules Ferry_ (Paris, 1903). + + + + + +FERRY (from the same root as that of the verb "to fare," to journey or +travel, common to Teutonic languages, cf. Ger. _fahren_; it is connected +with the root of Gr. [Greek: poros], way, and Lat. _portare_, to carry), +a place where boats ply regularly across a river or arm of the sea for +the conveyance of goods and persons. The word is also applied to the +boats employed (ferry boats). In a car-ferry or train-ferry railway cars +or complete trains are conveyed across a piece of water in vessels which +have railway lines laid on their decks, so that the vehicles run on and +off them on their own wheels. In law the right of ferrying persons or +goods across a particular river or strait, and of exacting a reasonable +toll for the service, belongs, like the right of fair and market, to the +class of rights known as franchises. Its origin must be by statute, +royal grant, or prescription. It is wholly unconnected with the +ownership or occupation of land, so that the owner of the ferry need not +be proprietor of the soil on either side of the water over which the +right is exercised. He is bound to maintain safe and suitable boats +ready for the use of the public, and to employ fit persons as ferrymen. +As a correlative of this duty he has a right of action, not only against +those who evade or refuse payment of toll when it is due, but also +against those who disturb his franchise by setting up a new ferry, so as +to diminish his custom, unless a change of circumstances, such as an +increase of population near the ferry, justify other means of passage, +whether of the same kind or not. See also WATER RIGHTS. + + + + +FERSEN, FREDRIK AXEL, COUNT VON (1719-1794), Swedish politician, was a +son of Lieutenant-General Hans Reinhold Fersen and entered the Swedish +Life Guards in 1740, and from 1743 to 1748 was in the French service +(_Royal-Suedois_), where he rose to the rank of brigadier. In the Seven +Years' War Fersen distinguished himself during the operations round +Usedom and Wollin (1759), when he inflicted serious loss on the +Prussians. But it is as a politician that he is best known. At the diet +of 1755-1756 he was elected _landtmarskalk_, or marshal of the diet, and +from henceforth, till the revolution of 1772, led the Hat party (see +SWEDEN: _History_). In 1756 he defeated the projects of the court for +increasing the royal power; but, after the disasters of the Seven Years' +War, gravitated towards the court again and contributed, by his energy +and eloquence, to uphold the tottering Hats for several years. On the +accession of the Caps to power in 1766, Fersen assisted the court in its +struggle with them by refusing to employ the Guards to keep order in the +capital when King Adolphus Frederick, driven to desperation by the +demands of the Caps, publicly abdicated, and a seven days' interregnum +ensued. At the ensuing diet of 1769, when the Hats returned to power, +Fersen was again elected marshal of the diet; but he made no attempt to +redeem his pledges to the crown prince Gustavus, as to a very necessary +reform of the constitution, which he had made before the elections, and +thus involuntarily contributed to the subsequent establishment of +absolutism. When Gustavus III. ascended the throne in 1772, and +attempted to reconcile the two factions by a composition which aimed at +dividing all political power between them, Fersen said he despaired of +bringing back, in a moment, to the path of virtue and patriotism a +people who had been running riot for more than half a century in the +wilderness of political licence and corruption. Nevertheless he +consented to open negotiations with the Caps, and was the principal Hat +representative on the abortive composition committee. During the +revolution of August 1772, Fersen remained a passive spectator of the +overthrow of the constitution, and was one of the first whom Gustavus +summoned to his side after his triumph. Yet his relations with the king +were never cordial. The old party-leader could never forget that he had +once been a power in the state, and it is evident, from his _Historiska +Skrifter_, how jealous he was of Gustavus's personal qualities. There +was a slight collision between them as early as the diet of 1778; but at +the diet of 1786 Fersen boldly led the opposition against the king's +financial measures (see GUSTAVUS III.) which were consequently rejected; +while in private interviews, if his own account of them is to be +trusted, he addressed his sovereign with outrageous insolence. At the +diet of 1789 Fersen marshalled the nobility around him for a combat _a +outrance_ against the throne and that, too, at a time when Sweden was +involved in two dangerous foreign wars, and national unity was +absolutely indispensable. This tactical blunder cost him his popularity +and materially assisted the secret operations of the king. Obstruction +was Fersen's chief weapon, and he continued to postpone the granting of +subsidies by the house of nobles for some weeks. But after frequent +stormy scenes in the diet, which were only prevented from becoming +melees by Fersen's moderation, or hesitation, at the critical moment, he +and twenty of his friends of the nobility were arrested (17th February +1789) and the opposition collapsed. Fersen was speedily released, but +henceforth kept aloof from politics, surviving the king two years. He +was a man of great natural talent, with an imposing presence, and he +always bore himself like the aristocrat he was. But his haughtiness and +love of power are undeniable, and he was perhaps too great a +party-leader to be a great statesman. Yet for seventeen years, with very +brief intervals, he controlled the destinies of Sweden, and his +influence in France was for some time pretty considerable. His +_Historiska Skrifter_, which are a record of Swedish history, mainly +autobiographical, during the greater part of the 18th century, is +excellent as literature, but somewhat unreliable as an historical +document, especially in the later parts. + + See C.G. Malmstrom, _Sveriges politiska Historia_ (Stockholm, + 1855-1865); R.N. Bain, _Gustavus III._ (London, 1895); C.T. Odhner, + _Sveriges politiska Historia under Gustaf III.'s Regering_ (Stockholm, + 1885, &c.); F.A. Fersen, _Historiska Skrifter_ (Stockholm, 1867-1872). + (R. N. B.) + + + + +FERSEN, HANS AXEL, COUNT VON (1755-1810), Swedish statesman, was +carefully educated at home, at the Carolinum at Brunswick and at Turin. +In 1779 he entered the French military service (_Royal-Baviere_), +accompanied General Rochambeau to America as his adjutant, distinguished +himself during the war with England, notably at the siege of Yorktown, +1781, and in 1785 was promoted to be _colonel proprietaire_ of the +regiment _Royal-Suedois_. The young nobleman was, from the first, a +prime favourite at the French court, owing, partly to the recollection +of his father's devotion to France, but principally because of his own +amiable and brilliant qualities. The queen, Marie Antoinette, was +especially attracted by the grace and wit of _le beau Fersen_, who had +inherited his full share of the striking handsomeness which was +hereditary in the family. + +It is possible that Fersen would have spent most of his life at +Versailles, but for a hint from his own sovereign, then at Pisa, that he +desired him to join his suite. He accompanied Gustavus III. in his +Italian tour and returned home with him in 1784. When the war with +Russia broke out, in 1788, Fersen accompanied his regiment to Finland, +but in the autumn of the same year was sent to France, where the +political horizon was already darkening. It was necessary for Gustavus +to have an agent thoroughly in the confidence of the French royal +family, and, at the same time, sufficiently able and audacious to help +them in their desperate straits, especially as he had lost all +confidence in his accredited minister, the baron de Stael. With his +usual acumen, he fixed upon Fersen, who was at his post early in 1790. +Before the end of the year he was forced to admit that the cause of the +French monarchy was hopeless so long as the king and queen of France +were nothing but captives in their own capital, at the mercy of an +irresponsible mob. He took a leading part in the flight to Varennes. He +found most of the requisite funds at the last moment. He ordered the +construction of the famous carriage for six, in the name of the baroness +von Korff, and kept it in his hotel grounds, rue Matignon, that all +Paris might get accustomed to the sight of it. He was the coachman of +the _fiacre_ which drove the royal family from the Carrousel to the +Porte Saint-Martin. He accompanied them to Bondy, the first stage of +their journey. + +In August 1791, Fersen was sent to Vienna to induce the emperor Leopold +to accede to a new coalition against revolutionary France, but he soon +came to the conclusion that the Austrian court meant to do nothing at +all. At his own request, therefore, he was transferred to Brussels, +where he could be of more service to the queen of France. In February +1792, at his own mortal peril, he once more succeeded in reaching Paris +with counterfeit credentials as minister plenipotentiary to Portugal. On +the 13th he arrived, and the same evening contrived to steal an +interview with the queen unobserved. On the following day he was with +the royal family from six o'clock in the evening till six o'clock the +next morning, and convinced himself that a second flight was physically +impossible. On the afternoon of the 21st he succeeded in paying a third +visit to the Tuileries, stayed there till midnight and succeeded, with +great difficulty, in regaining Brussels on the 27th. This perilous +expedition, a monumental instance of courage and loyalty, had no +substantial result. In 1797 Fersen was sent to the congress of Rastatt +as the Swedish delegate, but in consequence of a protest from the French +government, was not permitted to take part in it. + +During the regency of the duke of Sudermania (1792-1796) Fersen, like +all the other Gustavians, was in disgrace; but, on Gustavus IV. +attaining his majority in 1796, he was welcomed back to court with open +arms, and reinstated in all his offices and dignities. In 1801 he was +appointed _Riksmarskalk_ (= earl-marshal). On the outbreak of the war +with Napoleon, Fersen accompanied Gustavus IV. to Germany to assist him +in gaining fresh allies. He prevented Gustavus from invading Prussia in +revenge for the refusal of the king of Prussia to declare war against +France, and during the rest of the reign was in semi-disgrace, though +generally a member of the government when the king was abroad. + +Fersen stood quite aloof from the revolution of 1809. (See SWEDEN: +_History_.) His sympathies were entirely with Prince Gustavus, son of +the unfortunate Gustavus IV., and he was generally credited with the +desire to see him king. When the newly elected successor to the throne, +the highly popular prince Christian Augustus of Augustenburg, died +suddenly in Skane in May 1810, the report spread that he had been +poisoned, and that Fersen and his sister, the countess Piper, were +accessories. The source of this equally absurd and infamous libel has +never been discovered. But it was eagerly taken up by the anti-Gustavian +press, and popular suspicion was especially aroused by a fable called +"The Foxes" directed against the Fersens, which appeared in _Nya +Posten_. When, then, on the 20th of June 1810, the prince's body was +conveyed to Stockholm, and Fersen, in his official capacity as +_Riksmarskalk_, received it at the barrier and led the funeral cortege +into the city, his fine carriage and his splendid robes seemed to the +people an open derision of the general grief. The crowd began to murmur +and presently to fling stones and cry "murderer!" He sought refuge in a +house in the Riddarhus Square, but the mob rushed after him, brutally +maltreated him and tore his robes to pieces. To quiet the people and +save the unhappy victim, two officers volunteered to conduct him to the +senate house and there place him in arrest. But he had no sooner mounted +the steps leading to the entrance than the crowd, which had followed him +all the way beating him with sticks and umbrellas, made a rush at him, +knocked him down, and kicked and trampled him to death. This horrible +outrage, which lasted more than an hour, happened, too, in the presence +of numerous troops, drawn up in the Riddarhus Square, who made not the +slightest effort to rescue the Riksmarskalk from his tormentors. In the +circumstances, one must needs adopt the opinion of Fersen's +contemporary, Baron Gustavus Armfelt, "One is almost tempted to say that +the government wanted to give the people a victim to play with, just as +when one throws something to an irritated wild beast to distract its +attention. The more I consider it all, the more I am certain that the +mob had the least to do with it.... But in God's name what were the +troops about? How could such a thing happen in broad daylight during a +procession, when troops and a military escort were actually present?" +The responsibility certainly rests with the government of Charles XIII., +which apparently intended to intimidate the Gustavians by the removal of +one of their principal leaders. Armfelt escaped in time, so Fersen fell +the victim. + + See R.M. Klinckowstrom, _Le Comte de Fersen et la cour de France_ + (Paris, 1877; Eng. ed., London, 1902); _Historia om Axel von Fersens + mord_ (Stockholm, 1844); R.N. Bain, _Gustavus III._, vol. ii. (London, + 1895); P. Gaulot, _Un Ami de la reine_ (Paris, 1892); F.F. Flach, + _Grefve Hans Axel von Fersen_ (Stockholm, 1896); E. Tegner, _Gustaf + Mauritz Armfelt_, vol. iii. (Stockholm, 1883-1887). (R. N. B.) + + + + +FESCA, FREDERIC ERNEST (1789-1826), German violinist and composer of +instrumental music, was born on the 15th of February 1789 at Magdeburg, +where he received his early musical education. He completed his studies +at Leipzig under Eberhard Muller, and at the early age of fifteen +appeared before the public with several concerti for the violin, which +were received with general applause, and resulted in his being appointed +leading violinist of the Leipzig orchestra. This position he occupied +till 1806, when he became concert-master to the duke of Oldenburg. In +1808 he was appointed solo-violinist by King Jerome of Westphalia at +Cassel, and there he remained till the end of the French occupation +(1814), when he went to Vienna, and soon afterwards to Carlsruhe, having +been appointed concert-master to the grand-duke of Baden. His failing +health prevented him from enjoying the numerous and well-deserved +triumphs he owed to his art, and in 1826 he died of consumption at the +early age of thirty-seven. As a virtuoso Fesca ranks amongst the best +masters of the German school of violinists, the school subsequently of +Spohr and of Joachim. Especially as leader of a quartet he is said to +have been unrivalled with regard to classic dignity and simplicity of +style. Amongst his compositions, his quartets for stringed instruments +and other pieces of chamber music are the most remarkable. His two +operas, _Cantemira_ and _Omar and Leila_, were less successful, lacking +dramatic power and originality. He also wrote some sacred compositions, +and numerous songs and vocal quartets. + + + + +FESCENNIA, an ancient city of Etruria, which is probably to be placed +immediately to the N. of the modern Corchiano, 6 m. N.W. of Civita +Castellana (see FALERII). The Via Amerina traverses it. G. Dennis +(_Cities and Cemeteries of Etruria_, London, 1883, i. 115) proposed to +place it at the Riserva S. Silvestro, 3 m. E. of Corchiano, nearer the +Tiber, where remains of Etruscan walls exist. At Corchiano itself, +however, similar walls may be traced, and the site is a strong and +characteristic one--a triangle between two deep ravines, with the third +(west) side cut off by a ditch. Here, too, remains of two bridges may be +seen, and several rich tombs have been excavated. + + See A. Buglione, "Conte di Monale," in _Romische Mitteilungen_ (1887), + p. 21 seq. + + + + +FESCENNINE VERSES (_Fescennina carmina_), one of the earliest kinds of +Italian poetry, subsequently developed into the Satura and the Roman +comic drama. Originally sung at village harvest-home rejoicings, they +made their way into the towns, and became the fashion at religious +festivals and private gatherings--especially weddings, to which in later +times they were practically restricted. They were usually in the +Saturnian metre and took the form of a dialogue, consisting of an +interchange of extemporaneous raillery. Those who took part in them wore +masks made of the bark of trees. At first harmless and good-humoured, if +somewhat coarse, these songs gradually outstripped the bounds of +decency; malicious attacks were made upon both gods and men, and the +matter became so serious that the law intervened and scurrilous +personalities were forbidden by the Twelve Tables (Cicero, _De re +publica_, iv. 10). Specimens of the Fescennines used at weddings are the +Epithalamium of Manlius (Catullus, lxi. 122) and the four poems of +Claudian in honour of the marriage of Honorius and Maria; the first, +however, is distinguished by a licentiousness which is absent in the +latter. Ausonius in his _Cento nuptialis_ mentions the Fescennines of +Annianus Faliscus, who lived in the time of Hadrian. Various derivations +have been proposed for _Fescennine_. According to Festus, they were +introduced from Fescennia in Etruria, but there is no reason to assume +that any particular town was specially devoted to the use of such songs. +As an alternative Festus suggests a connexion with _fascinum_, either +because the Fescennina were regarded as a protection against evil +influences (see Munro, _Criticisms and Elucidations of Catullus_, p. 76) +or because _fascinum_ (= _phallus_), as the symbol of fertility, would +from early times have been naturally associated with harvest festivals. +H. Nettleship, in an article on "The Earliest Italian Literature" +(_Journal of Philology_, xi. 1882), in support of Munro's view, +translates the expression "verses used by charmers," assuming a noun +_fescennus_, connected with _fas fari_. + + The _locus classicus_ in ancient literature is Horace, _Epistles_, ii. + 1. 139; see also Virgil, _Georgics_, ii. 385; Tibullus ii. 1. 55; E. + Hoffmann, "Die Fescenninen," in _Rheinisches Museum_, li. p. 320 + (1896); art. LATIN LITERATURE. + + + + +FESCH, JOSEPH (1763-1839), cardinal, was born at Ajaccio on the 3rd of +January 1763. His father, a Swiss officer in the service of the Genoese +Republic, had married the mother of Laetitia Bonaparte, after the +decease of her first husband. Fesch therefore stood almost in the +relation of an uncle to the young Bonapartes, and after the death of +Lucien Bonaparte, archdeacon of Ajaccio, he became for a time the +protector and patron of the family. In the year 1789, when the French +Revolution broke out, he was archdeacon of Ajaccio, and, like the +majority of the Corsicans, he felt repugnance for many of the acts of +the French government during that period; in particular he protested +against the application to Corsica of the act known as the "Civil +Constitution of the Clergy" (July 1790). As provost of the "chapter" in +that city he directly felt the pressure of events; for on the +suppression of religious orders and corporations, he was constrained to +retire into private life. + +Thereafter he shared the fortunes of the Bonaparte family in the +intrigues and strifes which ensued. Drawn gradually by that family into +espousing the French cause against Paoli and the Anglophiles, he was +forced to leave Corsica and to proceed with Laetitia and her son to +Toulon, in the early part of the autumn of 1793. Failing to find +clerical duties at that time (the period of the Terror), he entered +civil life, and served in various capacities, until on the appointment +of Napoleon Bonaparte to the command of the French "Army of Italy" he +became a commissary attached to that army. This part of his career is +obscure and without importance. His fortunes rose rapidly on the +attainment of the dignity of First Consul by his former charge, +Napoleon, after the _coup d'etat_ of Brumaire (November 1799). +Thereafter, when the restoration of the Roman Catholic religion was in +the mind of the First Consul, Fesch resumed his clerical vocation and +took an active part in the complex negotiations which led to the signing +of the Concordat with the Holy See on the 15th of July 1801. His reward +came in the prize of the archbishopric of Lyons, on the duties of which +he entered in August 1802. Six months later he received a still more +signal reward for his past services, being raised to the dignity of +cardinal. + +In 1804 on the retirement of Cacault from the position of French +ambassador at Rome, Fesch received that important appointment. He was +assisted by Chateaubriand, but soon sharply differed with him on many +questions. Towards the close of the year 1804 Napoleon entrusted to +Fesch the difficult task of securing the presence of Pope Pius VII. at +the forthcoming coronation of the emperor at Notre Dame, Paris (Dec. +2nd, 1804). His tact in overcoming the reluctance of the pope to be +present at the coronation (it was only eight months after the execution +of the duc d'Enghien) received further recognition. He received the +grand cordon of the Legion of Honour, became grand-almoner of the empire +and had a seat in the French senate. He was to receive further honours. +In 1806 one of the most influential of the German clerics, Karl von +Dalberg, then prince bishop of Regensburg, chose him to be his coadjutor +and designated him as his successor. + +Events, however, now occurred which overclouded his prospects. In the +course of the years 1806-1807 Napoleon came into sharp collision with +the pope on various matters both political and religious. Fesch sought +in vain to reconcile the two potentates. Napoleon was inexorable in his +demands, and Pius VII. refused to give way where the discipline and +vital interests of the church seemed to be threatened. The emperor on +several occasions sharply rebuked Fesch for what he thought to be +weakness and ingratitude. It is clear, however, that the cardinal went +as far as possible in counselling the submission of the spiritual to the +civil power. For a time he was not on speaking terms with the pope; and +Napoleon recalled him from Rome. + +Affairs came to a crisis in the year 1809, when Napoleon issued at +Vienna the decree of the 17th of May, ordering the annexation of the +papal states to the French empire. In that year Napoleon conferred on +Fesch the archbishopric of Paris, but he refused the honour. He, +however, consented to take part in an ecclesiastical commission formed +by the emperor from among the dignitaries of the Gallican Church, but in +1810 the commission was dissolved. The hopes of Fesch with respect to +Regensburg were also damped by an arrangement of the year 1810 whereby +Regensburg was absorbed in Bavaria. + +In the year 1811 the emperor convoked a national council of Gallican +clerics for the discussion of church affairs, and Fesch was appointed to +preside over their deliberations. Here again, however, he failed to +satisfy the inflexible emperor and was dismissed to his diocese. The +friction between uncle and nephew became more acute in the following +year. In June 1812, Pius VII. was brought from his first place of +detention, Savona, to Fontainebleau, where he was kept under +surveillance in the hope that he would give way in certain matters +relating to the Concordat and in other clerical affairs. Fesch ventured +to write to the aged pontiff a letter which came into the hands of the +emperor. His anger against Fesch was such that he stopped the sum of +150,000 florins which had been accorded to him. The disasters of the +years 1812-1813 brought Napoleon to treat Pius VII. with more lenity and +the position of Fesch thus became for a time less difficult. On the +first abdication of Napoleon (April 11th, 1814) and the restoration of +the Bourbons, he, however, retired to Rome where he received a welcome. +The events of the Hundred Days (March-June, 1815) brought him back to +France; he resumed his archiepiscopal duties at Lyons and was further +named a member of the senate. On the second abdication of the emperor +(June 22nd, 1815) Fesch retired to Rome, where he spent the rest of his +days in dignified ease, surrounded by numerous masterpieces of art, many +of which he bequeathed to the city of Lyons. He died at Rome on the 13th +of May 1839. + + See J.B. Monseigneur Lyonnet, _Le Cardinal Fesch_ (2 vols., Lyons, + 1841); Ricard, _Le Cardinal Fesch_ (Paris, 1893); H. Welschinger, _Le + Pape et l'empereur_ (Paris, 1905); F. Masson, _Napoleon et sa famille_ + (4 vols., Paris, 1897-1900). + + + + +FESSA, a town and district of Persia in the province of Fars. The town +is situated in a fertile plain in 29 deg. N. and 90 m. from Shiraz, and +has a population of about 5000. The district has forty villages and +extends about 40 m. north-south from Runiz to Nassirabad and 16 m. +east-west from Vasilabad to Deh Dasteh (Dastajah); it produces much +grain, dates, tobacco, opium and good fruit. + + + + +FESSENDEN, WILLIAM PITT (1806-1869), American statesman and financier, +was born in Boscawen, New Hampshire, on the 16th of October 1806. After +graduating at Bowdoin College in 1823, he studied law, and in 1827 was +admitted to the bar, eventually settling in Portland, Maine, where for +two years he was associated in practice with his father, Samuel +Fessenden (1784-1869), a prominent lawyer and anti-slavery leader. In +1832 and in 1840 Fessenden was a representative in the Maine +legislature, and in 1841-1843 was a Whig member of the national House of +Representatives. When his term in this capacity was over, he devoted +himself unremittingly and with great success to the law. He became well +known, also, as an eloquent advocate of slavery restriction. In +1845-1846 and 1853-1854 he again served in the state House of +Representatives, and in 1854 was chosen by the combined votes of Whigs +and Anti-Slavery Democrats to the United States Senate. Within a +fortnight after taking his seat he delivered a speech in opposition to +the Kansas-Nebraska Bill, which at once made him a force in the +congressional anti-slavery contest. From then on he was one of the most +eloquent and frequent debaters among his colleagues, and in 1859, almost +without opposition, he was re-elected to the Senate as a member of the +Republican party, in the organization of which he had taken an +influential part. He was a delegate in 1861 to the Peace Congress, but +after the actual outbreak of hostilities he insisted that the war should +be prosecuted vigorously. As chairman of the Senate Committee on +Finance, his services were second in value only to those of President +Lincoln and Secretary Salmon P. Chase in efforts to provide funds for +the defence of the Union; and in July 1864 Fessenden succeeded Chase as +secretary of the treasury. The finances of the country in the early +summer of 1864 were in a critical condition; a few days before leaving +office Secretary Chase had been compelled to withdraw from the market +$32,000,000 of 6% bonds, on account of the lack of acceptable bids; gold +had reached 285 and was fluctuating between 225 and 250, while the value +of the paper dollar had sunk as low as 34 cents. It was Secretary +Fessenden's policy to avoid a further increase of the circulating +medium, and to redeem or consolidate the temporary obligations +outstanding. In spite of powerful pressure the paper currency was not +increased a dollar during his tenure of the office. As the sales of +bonds and treasury notes were not sufficient for the needs of the +Treasury, interest-bearing certificates of indebtedness were issued to +cover the deficits; but when these began to depreciate the secretary, +following the example of his predecessors, engaged the services of the +Philadelphia banker Jay Cooke (q.v.) and secured the consent of Congress +to raise the balance of the $400,000,000 loan authorized on the 30th of +June 1864 by the sale of the so-called "seven-thirty" treasury notes +(i.e. notes bearing interest at 7.3% payable in currency in three years +or convertible at the option of the holder into 6% 5-20 year gold +bonds). Through Cooke's activities the sales became enormous; the notes, +issued in denominations as low as $50, appealed to the patriotic +impulses of the people who could not subscribe for bonds of a higher +denomination. In the spring of 1865 Congress authorized an additional +loan of $600,000,000 to be raised in the same manner, and for the first +time in four years the Treasury was able to meet all its obligations. +After thus securing ample funds for the enormous expenditures of the +war, Fessenden resigned the treasury portfolio in March 1865, and again +took his seat in the Senate, serving till his death. In the Senate he +again became chairman of the finance committee, and also of the joint +committee on reconstruction. He was the author of the report of this +last committee (1866), in which the Congressional plan of reconstruction +was set forth and which has been considered a state paper of remarkable +power and cogency. He was not, however, entirely in accord with the more +radical members of his own party, and this difference was exemplified in +his opposition to the impeachment of President Johnson and subsequently +in his voting for Johnson's acquittal. He bore with calmness the storm +of reproach from his party associates which followed, and lived to +regain the esteem of those who had attacked him. He died at Portland, +Maine, on the 6th of September 1869. + + See Francis Fessenden, _Life and Public Services of William Pitt + Fessenden_ (2 vols., Boston, 1907). + + + + +FESSLER, IGNAZ AURELIUS (1756-1839), Hungarian ecclesiastic, historian +and freemason, was born on the 18th of May 1756 at the village of Zurany +in the county of Moson. In 1773 he joined the order of Capuchins, and in +1779 was ordained priest. He had meanwhile continued his classical and +philological studies, and his liberal views brought him into frequent +conflict with his superiors. In 1784, while at the monastery of Modling, +near Vienna, he wrote to the emperor Joseph II., making suggestions for +the better education of the clergy and drawing his attention to the +irregularities of the monasteries. The searching investigation which +followed raised up against him many implacable enemies. In 1784 he was +appointed professor of Oriental languages and hermeneutics in the +university of Lemberg, when he took the degree of doctor of divinity; +and shortly afterwards he was released from his monastic vows on the +intervention of the emperor. In 1788 he brought out his tragedy of +_Sidney_, an _expose_ of the tyranny of James II. and of the fanaticism +of the papists in England. This was attacked so violently as profane and +revolutionary that he was compelled to resign his office and seek refuge +in Silesia. In Breslau he met with a cordial reception from G.W. Korn +the publisher, and was, moreover, subsequently employed by the prince of +Carolath-Schonaich as tutor to his sons. In 1791 Fessler was converted +to Lutheranism and next year contracted an unhappy marriage, which was +dissolved in 1802, when he married again. In 1796 he went to Berlin, +where he founded a humanitarian society, and was commissioned by the +freemasons of that city to assist Fichte in reforming the statutes and +ritual of their lodge. He soon after this obtained a government +appointment in connexion with the newly-acquired Polish provinces, but +in consequence of the battle of Jena (1806) he lost this office, and +remained in very needy circumstances until 1809, when he was summoned to +St Petersburg by Alexander I., to fill the post of court councillor, and +the professorship of oriental languages and philosophy at the +Alexander-Nevski Academy. This office, however, he was soon obliged to +resign, owing to his alleged atheistic tendencies, but he was +subsequently nominated a member of the legislative commission. In 1815 +he went with his family to Sarepta, where he joined the Moravian +community and again became strongly orthodox. This cost him the loss of +his salary, but it was restored to him in 1817. In November 1820 he was +appointed consistorial president of the evangelical communities at +Saratov and subsequently became chief superintendent of the Lutheran +communities in St Petersburg. Fessler's numerous works are all written +in German. In recognition of his important services to Hungary as a +historian, he was in 1831 elected a corresponding member of the +Hungarian Academy of Sciences. He died at St Petersburg on the 15th of +December 1839. + +Fessler was a voluminous writer, and during his life exercised great +influence; but, with the possible exception of the history of Hungary, +none of his books has any value now. He did not pretend to any critical +treatment of his materials, and most of his historical works are +practically historical novels. He did much, however, to make the study +of history popular. His most important works are--_Die Geschichten der +Ungarn und ihrer Landsassen_ (10 vols. Leipzig, 1815-1825); _Marcus +Aurelius_ (3 vols., Breslau, 1790-1792; 3rd edition, 4 vols., 1799); +_Aristides und Themistokles_ (2 vols., Berlin, 1792; 3rd edition, 1818); +_Attila, Konig der Hunnen_ (Breslau, 1794); _Mathias Corvinus_ (2 vols., +Breslau, 1793-1794); and _Die drei grossen Konige der Hungarn aus dem +Arpadischen Stamme_ (Breslau, 1808). + + See Fessler's _Ruckblicke auf seine siebzigjahrige Pilgerschaft_ + (Breslau, 1824; 2nd edition, Leipzig, 1851). + + + + +FESTA, CONSTANZO (c. 1495-1545), Italian singer and musical composer, +became a member of the Pontifical choir in Rome in 1517, and soon +afterwards _maestro_ at the Vatican. His motets and madrigals (the first +book of which appeared in 1537) excited Dr Burney's warm praise in his +_History of Music_; and, among other church music, his _Te Deum_ +(published in 1596) is still sung at important services in Rome. His +madrigal, called in English "Down in a flow'ry vale," is well known. + + + + +FESTINIOG (or FFESTINIOG), a town of Merionethshire, North Wales, at the +head of the Festiniog valley, 600 ft. above the sea, in the midst of +rugged scenery, near the stream Dwyryd, 31 m. from Conway. Pop. of urban +district (1901), 11,435. There are many large slate quarries in this +parish, especially at Blaenau Festiniog, the junction of three railways, +London & North Western, Great Western and Festiniog, a narrow-gauge line +between Portmadoc and Duffws. This light railway runs at a considerable +elevation (some 700 ft.), commanding a view across the valley and lake +of Tan y Bwlch. Lord Lyttelton's letter to Mr Bower is a well-known +panegyric on Festiniog. Thousands of workmen are employed in the slate +quarries. The Cynfael falls are famous. Near are _Beddau gwyr Ardudwy_ +(the graves of the men of Ardudwy), memorials of a fight to recover +women of the Clwyd valley from the men of Ardudwy. Near, too, is a rock +named "Hugh Lloyd's pulpit" (Lloyd lived in the time of Charles I., +Cromwell and Charles II.). + + + + +FESTOON (from Fr. _feston_, Ital. _festone_, from a Late Lat. _festo_, +originally a "festal garland," Lat. _festum_, feast), a wreath or +garland, and so in architecture a conventional arrangement of flowers, +foliage or fruit bound together and suspended by ribbons, either from a +decorated knot, or held in the mouths of lions, or suspended across the +back of bulls' heads as in the Temple of Vesta at Tivoli. The "motif" is +sometimes known as a "swag." It was largely employed both by the Greeks +and Romans and formed the principal decoration of altars, friezes and +panels. The ends of the ribbons are sometimes formed into bows or +twisted curves; when in addition a group of foliage or flowers is +suspended it is called a "drop." Its origin is probably due to the +representation in stone of the garlands of natural flowers, &c., which +were hung up over an entrance doorway on fete days, or suspended round +the altar. + + + + +FESTUS (? RUFUS or RUFIUS), one of the Roman writers of _breviaria_ +(epitomes of Roman history). The reference to the defeat of the Goths at +Noviodunum (A.D. 369) by the emperor Valens, and the fact that the +author is unaware of the constitution of Valentia as a province (which +took place in the same year) are sufficient indication to fix the date +of composition. Mommsen identifies the author with Rufius Festus, +proconsul of Achaea (366), and both with Rufius Festus Avienus (q.v.), +the translator of Aratus. But the absence of the name Rufius in the best +MSS. is against this. Others take him to be Festus of Tridentum, +_magister memoriae_ (secretary) to Valens and proconsul of Asia, where +he was sent to punish those implicated in the conspiracy of Theodorus, a +commission which he executed with such merciless severity that his name +became a byword. The work itself (_Breviarium rerum gestarum populi +Romani_) is divided into two parts--one geographical, the other +historical. The chief authorities used are Livy, Eutropius and Florus. +It is extremely meagre, but the fact that the last part is based on the +writer's personal recollections makes it of some value for the history +of the 4th century. + + Editions by W. Forster (Vienna, 1873) and C. Wagener (Prague, 1886); + see also R. Jacobi, _De Festi breviarii fontibus_ (Bonn, 1874), and H. + Peter, _Die geschichtliche Litt. uber die romische Kaiserzeit_ ii. p. + 133 (1897), where the epitomes of Festus, Aurelius Victor and + Eutropius are compared. + + + + +FESTUS, SEXTUS POMPEIUS, Roman grammarian, probably flourished in the +2nd century A.D. He made an epitome of the celebrated work _De verborum +significatu_, a valuable treatise alphabetically arranged, written by M. +Verrius Flaccus, a freedman and celebrated grammarian who flourished in +the reign of Augustus. Festus gives the etymology as well as the meaning +of every word; and his work throws considerable light on the language, +mythology and antiquities of ancient Rome. He made a few alterations, +and inserted some critical remarks of his own. He also omitted such +ancient Latin words as had long been obsolete; these he discussed in a +separate work now lost, entitled _Priscorum verborum cum exemplis_. Of +Flaccus's work only a few fragments remain, and of Festus's epitome only +one original copy is in existence. This MS., the Codex Festi Farnesianus +at Naples, only contains the second half of the work (M-V) and that not +in a perfect condition. It has been published in facsimile by Thewrewk +de Ponor (1890). At the close of the 8th century Paulus Diaconus +abridged the abridgment. From his work and the solitary copy of the +original attempts have been made with the aid of conjecture to +reconstruct the treatise of Festus. + + Of the early editions the best are those of J. Scaliger (1565) and + Fulvius Ursinus (1581); in modern times, those of C.O. Muller (1839, + reprinted 1880) and de Ponor (1889); see J.E. Sandys, _History of + Classical Scholarship_, vol. i. (1906). + + + + +FETIS, FRANCOIS JOSEPH (1784-1871), Belgian composer and writer on +music, was born at Mons in Belgium on the 25th of March 1784, and was +trained as a musician by his father, who followed the same calling. His +talent for composition manifested itself at the age of seven, and at +nine years old he was an organist at Sainte-Waudru. In 1800 he went to +Paris and completed his studies at the conservatoire under such masters +as Boieldieu, Rey and Pradher. In 1806 he undertook the revision of the +Roman liturgical chants in the hope of discovering and establishing +their original form. In this year he married the granddaughter of the +Chevalier de Keralio, and also began his _Biographie universelle des +musiciens_, the most important of his works, which did not appear until +1834. In 1821 he was appointed professor at the conservatoire. In 1827 +he founded the _Revue musicale_, the first serious paper in France +devoted exclusively to musical matters. Fetis remained in the French +capital till in 1833, at the request of Leopold I., he became director +of the conservatoire of Brussels and the king's chapel-master. He also +was the founder, and, till his death, the conductor of the celebrated +concerts attached to the conservatoire of Brussels, and he inaugurated a +free series of lectures on musical history and philosophy. He produced a +large quantity of original compositions, from the opera and the oratorio +down to the simple _chanson_. But all these are doomed to oblivion. +Although not without traces of scholarship and technical ability, they +show total absence of genius. More important are his writings on music. +They are partly historical, such as the _Curiosites historiques de la +musique_ (Paris, 1850), and the _Histoire universelle de musique_ +(Paris, 1869-1876); partly theoretical, such as the _Methode des +methodes de piano_ (Paris, 1837), written in conjunction with Moscheles. +Fetis died at Brussels on the 26th of March 1871. His valuable library +was purchased by the Belgian government and presented to the Brussels +conservatoire. His work as a musical historian was prodigious in +quantity, and, in spite of many inaccuracies and some prejudice revealed +in it, there can be no question as to its value for the student. + + + + +FETISHISM, an ill-defined term, used in many different senses: (a) the +worship of inanimate objects, often regarded as peculiarly African; (b) +negro religion in general; (c) the worship of inanimate objects +conceived as the residence of spirits not inseparably bound up with, nor +originally connected with, such objects; (d) the doctrine of spirits +embodied in, or attached to, or conveying influence through, certain +material objects (Tylor); (e) the use of charms, which are not +worshipped, but derive their magical power from a god or spirit; (f) the +use as charms of objects regarded as magically potent in themselves. A +further extension is given by some writers, who use the term as +synonymous with the religions of primitive peoples, including under it +not only the worship of inanimate objects, such as the sun, moon or +stars, but even such phases of primitive philosophy as totemism. Comte +applied the term to denominate the view of nature more commonly termed +animism. + +_Derivation._--The word fetish (or fetich) was first used in connexion +with Africa by the Portuguese discoverers of the last half of the 15th +century; relics of saints, rosaries and images were then abundant all +over Europe and were regarded as possessing magical virtue; they were +termed by the Portuguese _feiticos_ (_i.e._ charms). Early voyagers to +West Africa applied this term to the wooden figures, stones, &c., +regarded as the temporary residence of gods or spirits, and to charms. +There is no reason to suppose that the word _feitico_ was applied either +to an animal or to the local spirit of a river, hill or forest. +_Feitico_ is sometimes interpreted to mean artificial, made by man, but +the original sense is more probably "magically active or artful." The +word was probably brought into general use by C. de Brosses, author of +_Du culte des dieux fetiches_ (1760), but it is frequently used by W. +Bosman in his _Description of Guinea_ (1705), in the sense of "the false +god, Bossum" or "Bohsum," properly a tutelary deity of an individual. + +_Definition._--The term fetish is commonly understood to mean the +worship of or respect for material, inanimate objects, conceived as +magically active from a virtue inherent in them, temporarily or +permanently, which does not arise from the fact that a god or spirit is +believed to reside in them or communicate virtue to them. Taken in this +sense fetishism is probably a mark of decadence. There is no evidence +of any such belief in Africa or elsewhere among primitive peoples. It is +only after a certain grade of culture has been attained that the belief +in luck appears; the fetish is essentially a mascot or object carried +for luck. + +_Ordinary Usage._--In the sense in which Dr Tylor uses the term the +fetish is (1) a "god-house" or (2) a charm derived from a tutelary deity +or spirit, and magically active in virtue of its association with such +deity or spirit. In the first of these senses the word is applied to +objects ranging from the unworked stone to the pot or the wooden figure, +and is thus hardly distinguishable from idolatry. (a) The _bohsum_ or +tutelary deity of a particular section of the community is derived from +the local gods through the priests by the performance of a certain +series of rites. The priest indicates into what object the _bohsum_ will +enter and proceeds to the abode of the local god to procure the object +in question. After making an offering the object is carried to an +appropriate spot and a "fetish" tree set up as a shade for it, which is +sacred so long as the _bohsum_ remains beneath it. The fall of the tree +is believed to mark the departure of the spirit. A _bohsum_ may also be +procured through a dream; but in this case, too, it is necessary to +apply to the priest to decide whether the dream was veridical. (b) The +_suhman_ or tutelary deity of an individual is not an object selected at +random to be the residence of the spirit. It is only procurable at the +residence of a Sasabonsum, a malicious non-human being. Various +ceremonies are performed, and a spirit connected with the Sasabonsum is +finally asked to enter an object. This is then kept for three days; if +no good fortune results it is concluded either that the spirit did not +enter the object selected, or that it is disinclined to extend its +protection. In either case the ceremonies must be commenced afresh. +Otherwise offerings and even human sacrifices in exceptional cases are +made to the _suhman_. It is commonly believed that the negro claims the +power of coercing his tutelary deity. This is denied by Colonel Ellis. +It is certain that coercion of deities is not unknown, but further +evidence is required that the negro uses it when his deity is +refractory. + +The _suhman_ can, it is believed, communicate a part of his powers to +various objects in which he does not dwell; these are also termed +_suhman_ by the natives and may have given rise to the belief that the +practices commonly termed fetishism are not animistic. These charms are +many in number; offerings of food and drink are made, _i.e._ to the +portion of the power of the _suhman_ which resides in them. These charms +can only be made by the possessor of the _suhman_. + +On the Guinea Coast the spirit implanted in the object is usually, if +not invariably, non-human. Farther south on the Congo the "fetish" is +inhabited by human souls also. The priest goes into the forest and cuts +an image; when a party enters a wood for this purpose they may not +mention the name of any living being unless they wish him to die and his +soul to enter the fetish. The right person having been selected, his +name is mentioned; and he is believed to die within ten days, his soul +passing into the _nkissi_. It is into these figures that the nails are +driven, in order to procure the vengeance of the indwelling spirit on +some enemy. + +In many cases the fetish spirit is believed to leave the "god-house" and +pass for the time being into the body of the priest, who manifests the +phenomena of possession (q.v.). It is a common error to suppose that the +whole of African religion is embraced in the practices connected with +these tutelary deities; so far from this being the case, belief in +higher gods, not necessarily accompanied with worship or propitiation, +is common in many parts of Africa, and there is no reason to suppose +that it had been derived in every case, perhaps not in any case, from +Christian or Mahommedan missionaries. + + See A.B. Ellis, _Tshi-speaking Peoples_, chs. vii., viii. and xii.; + Waitz, _Anthropologie der Naturvolker_, ii. 174; R.E. Dennett in + _Folklore_, vol. xvi.; R.H. Nassau, _Fetichism in West Africa_ (1904); + also Tylor, _Primitive Culture_, ii. 143, and M.H. Kingsley, _West + African Studies_ (2nd ed., 1901), where the term is used in a more + extended sense. (N. W. T.) + + + + +FETTERCAIRN, a burgh of barony of Kincardineshire, Scotland, 4-1/2 m. +N.W. of Laurencekirk. Pop. of parish (1901) 1390. The chief structures +include a public hall, library and reading-room, and the arch built to +commemorate the visit of Queen Victoria in 1861. The most interesting +relic, however, is the market cross, which originally belonged to the +extinct town of Kincardine. To the S.W. is Balbegno Castle, dating from +1509, and planned on a scale that threatened to ruin its projector. It +contains a lofty hall of fine proportions. Two miles N. is Fasque, the +estate of the Gladstones, which was acquired in 1831 by Sir John +Gladstone (1764-1851), the father of W.E. Gladstone. The castle, which +stands in beautiful grounds, was built in 1809. Sir John Gladstone's +tomb is in the Episcopal church of St Andrew, which he erected and +endowed. In the immediate vicinity are the ruins of the royal castle of +Kincardine, where, according to tradition, Kenneth III. was assassinated +in 1005, although he is more generally said to have been slain in battle +at Monzievaird, near Crieff in Perthshire. + + + + +FETTERS AND HANDCUFFS, instruments for securing the feet and hands of +prisoners under arrest, or as a means of punishment. The old names were +manacles, shackbolts or shackles, gyves and swivels. Until within recent +times handcuffs were of two kinds, the figure-8 ones which confined the +hands close together either in front or behind the prisoner, or the +rings from the wrists were connected by a short chain much on the model +of the handcuffs in use by the police forces of to-day. Much improvement +has been made in handcuffs of late. They are much lighter and they are +adjustable, fitting any wrist, and thus the one pair will serve a police +officer for any prisoner. For the removal of gangs of convicts an +arrangement of handcuffs connected by a light chain is used, the chain +running through a ring on each fetter and made fast at both ends by what +are known as _end-locks_. Several recently invented appliances are used +as handcuffs, e.g. snaps, nippers, twisters. They differ from handcuffs +in being intended for one wrist only, the other portion being held by +the captor. In the snap the smaller circlet is snapped to on the +prisoner's wrist. The nippers can be instantly fastened on the wrist. +The twister, not now used in England as being liable to injure prisoners +seriously, is a chain attached to two handles; the chain is put round +the wrist and the two handles twisted till the chain is tight enough. + +Leg-irons are anklets of steel connected by light chains long enough to +permit of the wearer walking with short steps. An obsolete form was an +anklet and chain to the end of which was attached a heavy weight, +usually a round shot. The Spanish used to secure prisoners in bilboes, +shackles round the ankles secured by a long bar of iron. This form of +leg-iron was adopted in England, and was much employed in the services +during the 17th and 18th centuries. An ancient example is preserved in +the Tower of London. The French marine still use a kind of leg-iron of +the bilbo type. + + + + +FEU, in Scotland, the commonest mode of land tenure. The word is the +Scots variant of "fee" (q.v.). The relics of the feudal system still +dominate Scots conveyancing. That system has recognized as many as seven +forms of tenure--ward, socage, mortification, feu, blench, burgage, +booking. Ward, the original military holding, was abolished in 1747 (20 +G. II. c. 20), as an effect of the rising of 1745. Socage and +mortification have long since disappeared. Booking is a conveyance +peculiar to the borough of Paisley, but does not differ essentially from +feu. Burgage is the system by which land is held in royal boroughs. +Blench holding is by a nominal payment, as of a penny Scots, or a red +rose, often only to be rendered upon demand. In feu holding there is a +substantial annual payment in money or in kind in return for the +enjoyment of the land. The crown is the first overlord or superior, and +land is held of it by crown vassals, but they in their turn may "feu" +their land, as it is called, to others who become _their_ vassals, +whilst they themselves are mediate overlords or superiors; and this +process of sub-infeudation may be repeated to an indefinite extent. The +Conveyancing Act of 1874 renders any clause in a disposition against +sub-infeudation null and void. In England on the other hand, since +1290, when the statute _Quia Emptores_ was passed, sub-infeudation is +impossible, as the new holder simply effaces the grantor, holding by the +same title as the grantor himself. Casualties, which are a feature of +land held in feu, are certain payments made to the superior, contingent +on the happening of certain events. The most important was the payment +of an amount equal to one year's feu-duty by a new holder, whether heir +or purchaser of the feu. The Conveyancing Act of 1874 abolished +casualties in all feus after that date, and power was given to redeem +this burden on feus already existing. If the vassal does not pay the +feu-duty for two years, the superior, among other remedies, may obtain +by legal process a decree of irritancy, whereupon _tinsel_ or forfeiture +of the feu follows. Previously to 1832 only the vassals of the crown had +votes in parliamentary elections for the Scots counties, and this made +in favour of sub-infeudation as against sale outright. In Orkney and +Shetland land is still largely possessed as udal property, a holding +derived or handed down from the time when these islands belonged to +Norway. Such lands may be converted into feus at the will of the +proprietor and held from the crown or Lord Dundas. At one time the +system of conveyancing by which the transfer of feus was effected was +curious and complicated, requiring the presence of parties on the land +itself and the symbolical handing over of the property, together with +the registration of various documents. But legislation since the middle +of the 19th century has changed all that. The system of feuing in +Scotland, as contrasted with that of long leaseholds in England, has +tended to secure greater solidity and firmness in the average buildings +of the northern country. + + See Erskine's _Principles_; Bell's _Principles_; Rankine, _Law of + Landownership in Scotland_. + + + + +FEUCHERES, SOPHIE, BARONNE DE (1795-1840), Anglo-French adventuress, was +born at St Helens, Isle of Wight, in 1795, the daughter of a drunken +fisherman named Dawes. She grew up in the workhouse, went up to London +as a servant, and became the mistress of the duc de Bourbon, afterwards +prince de Conde. She was ambitious, and he had her well educated not +only in modern languages but, as her exercise books--still extant--show, +in Greek and Latin. He took her to Paris and, to prevent scandal and to +qualify her to be received at court, had her married in 1818 to Adrien +Victor de Feucheres, a major in the Royal Guards. The prince provided +her dowry, made her husband his aide-de-camp and a baron. The baroness, +pretty and clever, became a person of consequence at the court of Louis +XVIII. De Feucheres, however, finally discovered the relations between +his wife and Conde, whom he had been assured was her father, left +her--he obtained a legal separation in 1827--and told the king, who +thereupon forbade her appearance at court. Thanks to her influence, +however, Conde was induced in 1829 to sign a will bequeathing about ten +million francs to her, and the rest of his estate--more than sixty-six +millions--to the duc d'Aumale, fourth son of Louis Philippe. Again she +was in high favour. Charles X. received her at court, Talleyrand visited +her, her niece married a marquis and her nephew was made a baron. Conde, +wearied by his mistress's importunities, and but half pleased by the +advances made him by the government of July, had made up his mind to +leave France secretly. When on the 27th of August 1830 he was found +hanging dead from his window, the baroness was suspected and an inquiry +was held, but the evidence of death being the result of any crime +appearing insufficient, she was not prosecuted. Hated as she was alike +by legitimatists and republicans, life in Paris was no longer agreeable +for her, and she returned to London, where she died in December 1840. + + + + +FEUCHTERSLEBEN, ERNST, FREIHERR VON (1806-1849), Austrian physician, +poet and philosopher, was born in Vienna on the 29th of April 1806; of +an old Saxon noble family. He attended the "Theresian Academy" in his +native city, and in 1825 entered its university as a student of +medicine. In 1833 he obtained the degree of doctor of medicine, settled +in Vienna as a practising surgeon, and in 1834 married. The young doctor +kept up his connexion with the university, where he lectured, and in +1844 was appointed dean of the faculty of medicine. He cultivated the +acquaintance of Franz Grillparzer, Heinrich Laube, and other +intellectual lights of the Viennese world, interested himself greatly in +educational matters, and in 1848, while refusing the presidency of the +ministry of education, accepted the appointment of under secretary of +state in that department. His health, however, gave way, and he died at +Vienna on the 3rd of September 1849. He was not only a clever physician, +but a poet of fine aesthetical taste and a philosopher. Among his +medical works may be mentioned: _Uber das Hippokratische erste Buch von +der Diat_ (Vienna, 1835), _Arzte und Publicum_ (Vienna, 1848) and +_Lehrbuch der arztlichen Seelenkunde_ (1845). His poetical works include +_Gedichte_ (Stutt. 1836), among which is the well-known beautiful hymn, +which Mendelssohn set to music. "_Es ist bestimmt in Gottes Rat._" As a +philosopher he is best known by his _Zur Diatetik der Seele_ [Dietetics +of the soul] (Vienna, 1838), which attained great popularity, and the +tendency of which, in contrast to Hufeland's _Makrobiotik_ (On the Art +of Prolonging Life), is to show the true way of rendering life +harmonious and lovely. This work had by 1906 gone into fifty editions. +Noteworthy also is his _Beitrage zur Litteratur-, Kunst- und +Lebenstheorie_ (Vienna, 1837-1841), and an anthology, _Geist der +deutschen_ Klassiker (Vienna, 1851; 3rd ed. 1865-1866). + + His collected works (with the exception of the purely medical ones) + were published in 7 vols. by Fr. Hebbel (Vienna, 1851-1853). See M. + Necker, "Ernst von Feuchtersleben, der Freund Grillparzers," in the + _Jahrbuch der Grillparzer Gesellschaft_, vol. iii. (Vienna, 1893). + + + + +FEUD, animosity, hatred, especially a permanent condition of hostilities +between persons, and hence applied to a state of private warfare between +tribes, clans or families, a "vendetta." The word appears in Mid. Eng. +as _fede_, which came through the O. Fr. from the O. High Ger. _fehida_, +modern _Fehde_. The O. Teutonic _faiho_, an adjective, the source of +_fehida_, gives the O. Eng. fah, foe. "Fiend," originally an enemy (cf. +Ger. _Feind_), hence the enemy of mankind, the devil, and so any evil +spirit, is probably connected with the same source. The word _fede_ was +of Scottish usage, but in the 16th century took the form _foode_, _fewd_ +in English. The _New English Dictionary_ points out that "feud, fee +(Lat. _feudum_) could not have influenced the change, for it appears +fifty years later than the first instances of _foode_, &c., and was only +used by writers on feudalism." For the etymology of "feud" (_feudum_) +see FEE, and for its history see FEUDALISM. + + + + +FEUDALISM (from Late Lat. _feodum_ or _feudum_, a fee or fiel; see FEE). +In every case of institutional growth in history two things are to be +clearly distinguished from the beginning for a correct understanding of +the process and its results. One of these is the change of conditions in +the political or social environment which made growth necessary. The +other is the already existing institutions which began to be transformed +to meet the new needs. In studying the origin and growth of political +feudalism, the distinction is easy to make. The all-prevailing need of +the later Roman and early medieval society was protection--protection +against the sudden attacks of invading tribes or revolted peasants, +against oppressive neighbours, against the unwarranted demands of +government officers, or even against the legal but too heavy exactions +of the government itself. In the days of the decaying empire and of the +chaotic German settlement, the weak freeman, the small landowner, was +exposed to attack in almost every relation of life and on every side. +The protection which normally it is the business of government to +furnish he could no longer obtain. He must seek protection elsewhere +wherever he could get it, and pay the price demanded for it. This is the +great social fact--the failure of government to perform one of its most +primary duties, the necessity of finding some substitute in private +life--extending in greater or less degree through the whole formative +period of feudalism, which explains the transformation of institutions +that brought it into existence. Similar conditions have produced an +organization which may be called feudal, in various countries, and in +widely separated periods of history. While these different feudal +systems have shown a general similarity of organization, there has been +also great variation in their details, because they have started from +different institutions and developed in different ways. The feudal +system with which history most concerns itself is that of medieval +western Europe, and it is that which will be here described. + + + Roman origins. + +The institutions which the need of protection seized upon when it first +began to turn away from the state were twofold. They had both long +existed in the private, not public, relations of the Romans, and they +had up to this time shown no tendency to grow. One of them related to +the person, to the man himself, without reference to property, the other +related to land. There are thus distinguished at the beginning those two +great sides of feudalism which remained to the end of its history more +or less distinct, the personal relation and the land relation. The +personal institution needs little description. It was the Roman patron +and client relationship which had remained in existence into the days of +the empire, in later times less important perhaps legally than socially, +and which had been reinforced in Gaul by very similar practices in use +among the Celts before their conquest. The description of this +institution which has come down to us from Roman sources of the days +when feudalism was beginning is not so detailed as we could wish, but we +can see plainly enough that it met a frequent need, that it was called +by a new name, the _patrocinium_, and that it was firmly enough +entrenched in usage to survive the German conquest, and to be taken up +and continued by the conquerors. In its new use, alike in the later +Roman and the early German state, the landless freeman who could not +support himself went to some powerful man, stated his need, and offered +his services, those proper to a freeman, in return for shelter and +support. This transaction, which was called commendation, gave rise in +the German state to a written contract which related the facts and +provided a penalty for its violation. It created a relationship of +protection and support on one side, and of free service on the other. + +The other institution, relating to land, was that known to the Roman law +as the _precarium_, a name derived from one of its essential features +through all its history, the prayer of the suppliant by which the +relationship was begun. The _precarium_ was a form of renting land not +intended primarily for income, but for use when the lease was made from +friendship for example, or as a reward, or to secure a debt. Legally its +characteristic feature was that the lessee had no right of any kind +against the grantor. The owner could call in his land and terminate the +relation at any time, for any reason, or for none at all. Even a +definite understanding at the outset that the lease might be enjoyed to +a specified date was no protection.[1] It followed of course that the +heir had no right in the land which his father held in this way, nor was +the heir of the donor bound by his father's act. The legal character of +this transaction is summed up in a well-known passage in the +_Digest:--Interdictum de precariis merito introductum est, quia nulla eo +nomine juris civilis actio esset, magis enim ad donationes et beneficii +causam, quam ad negotii contracti spectat precarii conditio._[2] This +may be paraphrased as follows:--The _precarium_ tenant may employ the +interdict against a third party, because he cannot use the ordinary +civil action, his holding being not a matter of business but rather of +favour and kindness. It should be noted that from its very beginning the +land relationship of feudalism was not created primarily for the +grantor's income, but that it emphasized in the most striking way his +continued ownership. + +As used for protection in later Roman days the _precarium_ gave rise to +what was called the commendation of lands, _patrocinium fundorum_. The +poor landowner, likely to lose all that he had from one kind of +oppression or another, went to the great landowner, his neighbour, whose +position gave him immunity from attack or the power to prevent official +abuses, and begged to be protected. The rich man answered, I can only +protect my own. Of necessity the poor man must surrender to his powerful +neighbour the ownership of his lands, which he then received back as a +_precarium_--gaining protection during his lifetime at the cost of his +children, who were left without legal claim and compelled to make the +best terms they could.[3] Applied to this use the _precarium_ found +extensive employment in the last age of the empire. The government +looked on the practice with great disfavour, because it transferred +large areas from the easy access of the state to an ownership beyond its +reach. The laws repeatedly forbade it under increasing penalties, but +clearly it could not be stopped. The motive was too strong on both +sides--the need of protection on one side, the natural desire to +increase large possessions and means of self-defence on the other. + + + Frankish development. + +These practices the Frankish conquerors of Gaul found in full possession +of society when they entered into that province. They seem to have +understood them at once, and, like much else Roman, to have made them +their own without material change. The _patrocinium_ they were made +ready to understand by the existence of a somewhat similar institution +among themselves, the _comitatus_, described by Tacitus. In this +institution the chief of the tribe, or of some plainly marked division +of the tribe, gathered about himself a band of chosen warriors, who +formed a kind of private military force and body-guard. The special +features of the institution were the strong tie of faith and service +which bound the man, the support and rewards given by the lord, and the +pride of both in the relationship. The _patrocinium_ might well seem to +the German only a form of the _comitatus_, but it was a form which +presented certain advantages in his actual situation. The chief of these +was perhaps the fact that it was not confined to king or tribal chief, +but that every noble was able in the Roman practice to surround himself +with his organized private army. Probably this fact, together with the +more general fact of the absorption in most things of the German in the +Roman, accounts for the substitution of the _patrocinium_ for the +_comitatus_ which took place under the Merovingians. + +This change did not occur, however, without some modification of the +Roman customs. The _comitatus_ made contributions of its own to future +feudalism, to some extent to its institutional side, largely to the +ideas and spirit which ruled in it. Probably the ceremony which grew +into feudal homage, and the oath of fealty, certainly the honourable +position of the vassal and his pride in the relationship, the strong tie +which bound lord and man together, and the idea that faith and service +were due on both sides in equal measure, we may trace to German sources. +But we must not forget that the origin of the vassal relationship, as an +institution, is to be found on Roman and not on German soil. The +_comitatus_ developed and modified, it did not originate. Nor was the +feudal system established in any sense by the settlement of the +_comitatus_ group on the conquered land. The uniting of the personal and +the land sides of feudalism came long after the conquest, and in a +different way. + +To the _precarium_ German institutions offered no close parallel. The +advantages, however, which it afforded were obvious, and this side of +feudalism developed as rapidly after the conquest as the personal. The +new German noble was as eager to extend the size of his lands and to +increase the numbers of his dependants as the Roman had been. The new +German government furnished no better protection from local violence, +nor was it able any more effectively to check the practices which were +creating feudalism; indeed for a long time it made no attempt to do so. +_Precarium_ and _patrocinium_ easily passed from the Roman empire to the +Frankish kingdom, and became as firmly rooted in the new society as they +had ever been in the old. Up to this point we have seen only the small +landowner and the landless man entering into these relations. Feudalism +could not be established, however, until the great of the land had +adopted them for themselves, and had begun to enter the clientage of +others and to hold lands by the _precarium_ tenure. The first step +towards this result was easily and quickly taken. The same class +continued to furnish the king's men, and to form his household and +body-guard whether the relation was that of the _patrocinium_ or the +_comitatus_, and to be made noble by entering into it. It was later that +they became clients of one another, and in part at least as a result of +their adoption of the _precarium_ tenure. In this latter step the +influence of the Church rather than of the king seems to have been +effective. The large estates which pious intentions had bestowed on the +Church it was not allowed to alienate. It could most easily make them +useful to gain the influence and support which it needed, and to provide +for the public functions which fell to its share, by employing the +_precarium_ tenure. On the other side, the great men coveted the wide +estates of bishop and abbot, and were ready without persuasion to annex +portions of them to their own on the easy terms of this tenure, not +always indeed observed by the holder, or able to be enforced by the +Church. The employment of the _precarium_ by the Church seems to have +been one of the surest means by which this form of landholding was +carried over from the Romans to the Frankish period and developed into +new forms. It came to be made by degrees the subject of written +contract, by which the rights of the holder were more definitely defined +and protected than had been the case in Roman law. The length of time +for which the holding should last came to be specified, at first for a +term of years and then for life, and some payment to the grantor was +provided for, not pretending to represent the economic value of the +land, but only to serve as a mark of his continued ownership. + +These changes characterize the Merovingian age of Frankish history. That +period had practically ended, however, before these two institutions +showed any tendency to join together as they were joined in later +feudalism. Nor had the king up to that time exerted any apparent +influence on the processes that were going forward. Grants of land of +the Merovingian kings had carried with them ownership and not a limited +right, and the king's _patrocinium_ had not widened in extent in the +direction of the later vassal relation. It was the advent of the +Carolingian princes and the difficulties which they had to overcome that +carried these institutions a stage further forward. Making their way up +from a position among the nobility to be the rulers of the land, and +finally to supplant the kings, the Carolingians had especial need of +resources from which to purchase and reward faithful support. This need +was greatly increased when the Arab attack on southern Gaul forced them +to transform a large part of the old Frankish foot army into cavalry.[4] +The fundamental principle of the Frankish military system, that the man +served at his own expense, was still unchanged. It had indeed begun to +break down under the strain of frequent and distant campaigns, but it +was long before it was changed as the recognized rule of medieval +service. If now, in addition to his own expenses, the soldier must +provide a horse and its keeping, the system was likely to break down +altogether. It was this problem which led to the next step. To solve it +the early Carolingian princes, especially Charles Martel, who found the +royal domains exhausted and their own inadequate, grasped at the land of +the Church. Here was enough to endow an army, if some means could be +devised to permit its use. This means was found in the _precarium_ +tenure. Keeping alive, as it did, the fact of the grantor's ownership, +it did not in form deprive the Church of the land. Recognizing that +ownership by a small payment only, not corresponding to the value of the +land, it left the larger part of the income to meet the need which had +arisen. At the same time undoubtedly the new holder of the land, if not +already the vassal of the prince, was obliged to become so and to assume +an obligation of service with a mounted force when called upon.[5] This +expedient seems to have solved the problem. It gave rise to the numerous +_precariae verbo regis_, of the Church records, and to the condemnation +of Charles Martel in the visions of the clergy to worse difficulties in +the future life than he had overcome in this. The most important +consequences of the expedient, however, were not intended or perceived +at the time. It brought together the two sides of feudalism, vassalage +and benefice, as they were now commonly called, and from this age their +union into what is really a single institution was rapid;[6] it +emphasized military service as an essential obligation of the vassal; +and it spread the vassal relation between individual proprietors and the +sovereign widely over the state. + +In the period that followed, the reign of Charlemagne and the later +Carolingian age, continued necessities, military and civil, forced the +kings to recognize these new institutions more fully, even when standing +in a position between the government and the subject, intercepting the +public duties of the latter. The incipient feudal baron had not been +slow to take advantage of the break-down of the old German military +system. As in the last days of the Roman empire the poor landowner had +found his only refuge from the exactions of the government in the +protection of the senator, who could in some way obtain exemptions, so +the poor Frank could escape the ruinous demands of military service only +by submitting himself and his lands to the count, who did not hesitate +on his side to force such submission. Charlemagne legislated with vigour +against this tendency, trying to make it easier for the poor freeman to +fulfil his military duties directly to the state, and to forbid the +misuse of power by the rich, but he was not more successful than the +Roman government had been in a like attempt. Finally the king found +himself compelled to recognize existing facts, to lay upon the lord the +duty of producing his men in the field and to allow him to appear as +their commander. This solved the difficulty of military service +apparently, but with decisive consequences. It completed the +transformation of the army into a vassal army; it completed the +recognition of feudalism by the state, as a legitimate relation between +different ranks of the people; and it recognized the transformation in a +great number of cases of a public duty into a private obligation. + +In the meantime another institution had grown up in this Franco-Roman +society, which probably began and certainly assisted in another +transformation of the same kind. This is the immunity. Suggested +probably by Roman practices, possibly developed directly from them, it +received a great extension in the Merovingian period, at first and +especially in the interest of the Church, but soon of lay land-holders. +By the grant of an immunity to a proprietor the royal officers, the +count and his representatives, were forbidden to enter his lands to +exercise any public function there. The duties which the count should +perform passed to the proprietor, who now represented the government for +all his tenants free and unfree. Apparently no modification of the royal +rights was intended by this arrangement, but the beginning of a great +change had really been made. The king might still receive the same +revenues and the same services from the district held by the lord as +formerly, but for their payment a private person in his capacity as +overlord was now responsible. In the course of a long period +characterized by a weak central government, it was not difficult to +enlarge the rights which the lord thus obtained, to exclude even the +king's personal authority from the immunity, and to translate the duties +and payments which the tenant had once owed to the state into +obligations which he owed to his lord, even finally into incidents of +his tenure. The most important public function whose transformation into +a private possession was assisted by the growth of the immunity was the +judicial. This process had probably already begun in a small way in the +growth of institutions which belong to the economic side of feudalism, +the organization of agriculture on the great estates. Even in Roman days +the proprietor had exercised a jurisdiction over the disputes of his +unfree tenants. Whether this could by its own growth have been extended +over his free tenants and carried so far as to absorb a local court, +like that of the hundred, into private possession, is not certain. It +seems probable that it could. But in any case, the immunity easily +carried the development of private jurisdiction through these stages. +The lord's court took the place of the public court in civil, and even +by degrees in criminal cases. The plaintiff, even if he were under +another lord, was obliged to sue in the court of the defendant's lord, +and the portion of the fine for a breach of the peace which should have +gone to the state went in the end to the lord. + +The transfer of the judicial process, and of the financial and +administrative sides of the government as well, into private possession, +was not, however, accomplished entirely by the road of the immunity. As +government weakened after the strong days of Charlemagne, and disorder, +invasion, and the difficulty of intercommunication tended to throw the +locality more and more upon its own resources, the officer who had once +been the means of centralization, the count, found success in the effort +for independence which even Charlemagne had scarcely overcome. He was +able to throw off responsibility to any central authority, and to +exercise the powers which had been committed to him as an agent of the +king, as if they were his own private possession. Nor was the king's aid +lacking to this method of dividing up the royal authority, any more than +to the immunity, for it became a frequent practice to make the +administrative office into a fief, and to grant it to be held in that +form of property by the count. In this way the feudal county, or duchy, +formed itself, corresponding in most cases only roughly to the old +administrative divisions of the state, for within the bounds of the +county there had often formed private feudal possessions too powerful to +be forced into dependence upon the count, sometimes the vice-comes had +followed the count's example, and often, on the other hand, the count +had attached to his county like private possessions of his own lying +outside its boundaries. In time the private lord, who had never been an +officer of the state, assumed the old administrative titles and called +himself count or viscount, and perhaps with some sort of right, for his +position in his territories, through the development of the immunity, +did not differ from that now held by the man who had been originally a +count. + +In these two ways then the feudal system was formed, and took possession +of the state territorially, and of its functions in government. Its +earliest stage of growth was that of the private possession only. Under +a government too weak to preserve order, the great landowner formed his +estate into a little territory which could defend itself. His smaller +neighbours who needed protection came to him for it. He forced them to +become his dependants in return under a great variety of forms, but +especially developing thereby the _precarium_ land tenure and the +_patrocinium_ personal service, and organizing a private jurisdiction +over his tenants, and a private army for defence. Finally he secured +from the king an immunity which excluded the royal officers from his +lands and made him a quasi-representative of the state. In the meantime +his neighbour the count had been following a similar process, and in +addition he had enjoyed considerable advantages of his own. His right to +exact military, financial and judicial duties for the state he had used +to force men to become his dependants, and then he had stood between +them and the state, freeing them from burdens which he threw with +increased weight upon those who still stood outside his personal +protection. In ignorance of their danger, and later in despair of +getting public services adequately performed in any other way, the kings +first adopted for themselves some of the forms and practices which had +thus grown up, and by degrees recognized them as legally proper for all +classes. It proved to be easier to hold the lord responsible for the +public duties of all his dependants because he was the king's vassal and +by attaching them as conditions to the benefices which he held, than to +enforce them directly upon every subject. + +When this stage was reached the formative age of feudalism may be +considered at an end. When the government of the state had entered into +feudalism, and the king was as much senior as king; when the vassal +relationship was recognized as a proper and legal foundation of public +duties; when the two separate sides of early feudalism were united as +the almost universal rule, so that a man received a fief because he owed +a vassal's duties, or looked at in the other and finally prevailing way, +that he owed a vassal's duties because he had received a fief; and +finally, when the old idea of the temporary character of the _precarium_ +tenure was lost sight of, and the right of the vassal's heir to receive +his father's holding was recognized as the general rule--then the feudal +system may be called full grown. Not that the age of growth was really +over. Feudal history was always a becoming, always a gradual passing +from one stage to another, so long as feudalism continued to form the +main organization of society. But we may say that the formative age was +over when these features of the system had combined to be its +characteristic marks. What follows is rather a perfection of details in +the direction of logical completeness. To assign any specific date to +the end of this formative age is of course impossible, but meaning by +the end what has just been stated, we shall not be far wrong if we place +it somewhere near the beginning of the 10th century. + +Before we leave the history of feudal origins another word is necessary. +We have traced a definite line of descent for feudal institutions from +Roman days through the Merovingian and Carolingian ages to the 10th +century. That line of descent can be made out with convincing clearness +and with no particular difficulty from epoch to epoch, from the +_precarium_ and the _patrocinium_, through the benefice and +commendation, to the fief and vassalage. But the definiteness of this +line should not cause us to overlook the fact that there was during +these centuries much confusion of custom and practice. All round and +about this line of descent there was a crowd of varying forms branching +off more or less widely from the main stem, different kinds of +commendation, different forms of _precarium_, some of which varied +greatly from that through which the fief descends, and some of which +survived in much the old character and under the old name for a long +time after later feudalism was definitely established.[7] The variety +and seeming confusion which reign in feudal society, under uniform +controlling principles, rule also in the ages of beginning. It is easy +to lose one's bearings by over-emphasizing the importance of variation +and exception. It is indeed true that what was the exception, the +temporary offshoot, might have become the main line. It would then have +produced a system which would have been feudal, in the wide sense of the +term, but it would have been marked by different characteristics, it +would have operated in a somewhat different way. The crowd of varying +forms should not prevent us from seeing that we can trace through their +confusion the line along which the characteristic traits and +institutions of European feudalism, as it actually was, were growing +constantly more distinct.[8] That is the line of the origin of the +feudal system. (See also FRANCE: _Law and Institutions_.) + + + Results in England. + +The growth which we have traced took place within the Frankish empire. +When we turn to Anglo-Saxon England we find a different situation and a +different result. There _precarium_ and _patrocinium_ were lacking. +Certain forms of personal commendation did develop, certain forms of +dependent land tenure came into use. These do not show, however, the +characteristic marks of the actual line of feudal descent. They belong +rather in the varying forms around that line. Scholars are not yet +agreed as to what would have been their result if their natural +development had not been cut off by the violent introduction of Frankish +feudalism with the Norman conquest, whether the historical feudal +system, or a feudal system in the general sense. To the writer it seems +clear that the latter is the most that can be asserted. They were forms +which may rightly be called feudal, but only in the wider meaning in +which we speak of the feudalism of Japan, or of Central Africa, not in +the sense of 12th-century European feudalism; Saxon commendation may +rightly be called vassalage, but only as looking back to the early +Frankish use of the term for many varying forms of practice, not as +looking forward to the later and more definite usage of completed +feudalism; and such use of the terms feudal and vassalage is sure to be +misleading. It is better to say that European feudalism is not to be +found in England before the Conquest, not even in its beginnings. If +these had really been in existence it would require no argument to show +the fact. There is no trace of the distinctive marks of Frankish +feudalism in Saxon England, not where military service may be thought to +rest upon the land, nor even in the rare cases where the tenant seems to +some to be made responsible for it, for between these cases as they are +described in the original accounts, legally interpreted, and the feudal +conception of the vassal's military service, there is a great gulf. + + + The completed system. + +In turning from the origin of feudalism to a description of the +completed system one is inevitably reminded of the words with which de +Quincey opens the second part of his essay on style. He says: "It is a +natural resource that whatsoever we find it difficult to investigate as +a result, we endeavour to follow as a growth. Failing analytically to +probe its nature, historically we seek relief to our perplexities by +tracing its origin.... Thus for instance when any feudal institution (be +it Gothic, Norman, or Anglo-Saxon) eludes our deciphering faculty from +the imperfect records of its use and operation, then we endeavour +conjecturally to amend our knowledge by watching the circumstances in +which that institution arose." The temptation to use the larger part of +any space allotted to the history of feudalism for a discussion of +origins does not arise alone from greater interest in that phase of the +subject. It is almost impossible even with the most discriminating care +to give a brief account of completed feudalism and convey no wrong +impression. We use the term "feudal system" for convenience sake, but +with a degree of impropriety if it conveys the meaning "systematic." +Feudalism in its most flourishing age was anything but systematic. It +was confusion roughly organized. Great diversity prevailed everywhere, +and we should not be surprised to find some different fact or custom in +every lordship. Anglo-Norman feudalism attained a logical completeness +and a uniformity of practice which, in the feudal age proper, can hardly +be found elsewhere through so large a territory; but in Anglo-Norman +feudalism the exception holds perhaps as large a place as the regular, +and the uniformity itself was due to the most serious of exceptions from +the feudal point of view--centralization under a powerful monarchy. + +But too great emphasis upon variation conveys also a wrong impression. +Underlying all the apparent confusion of fact and practice were certain +fundamental principles and relationships, which were alike everywhere, +and which really gave shape to everything that was feudal, no matter +what its form might be. The chief of these are the following: the +relation of vassal and lord; the principle that every holder of land is +a tenant and not an owner, until the highest rank is reached, sometimes +even the conception rules in that rank; that the tenure by which a thing +of value is held is one of honourable service, not intended to be +economic, but moral and political in character; the principle of mutual +obligations of loyalty, protection and service binding together all the +ranks of this society from the highest to the lowest; and the principle +of contract between lord and tenant, as determining all rights, +controlling their modification, and forming the foundation of all law. +There was actually in fact and practice a larger uniformity than this +short list implies, because these principles tended to express +themselves in similar forms, and because historical derivation from a +common source in Frankish feudalism tended to preserve some degree of +uniformity in the more important usages. + +The foundation of the feudal relationship proper was the fief, which was +usually land, but might be any desirable thing, as an office, a revenue +in money or kind, the right to collect a toll, or operate a mill. In +return for the fief, the man became the vassal of his lord; he knelt +before him, and, with his hands between his lord's hands, promised him +fealty and service; he rose to his feet and took the oath of fealty +which bound him to the obligations he had assumed in homage; he received +from his lord ceremonial investiture with the fief. The faithful +performance of all the duties he had assumed in homage constituted the +vassal's right and title to his fief. So long as they were fulfilled, +he, and his heir after him, held the fief as his property, practically +and in relation to all under tenants as if he were the owner. In the +ceremony of homage and investiture, which is the creative contract of +feudalism, the obligations assumed by the two parties were, as a rule, +not specified in exact terms. They were determined by local custom. What +they were, however, was as well known, as capable of proof, and as +adequate a check on innovation by either party, as if committed to +writing. In many points of detail the vassal's services differed widely +in different parts of the feudal world. We may say, however, that they +fall into two classes, general and specific. The general included all +that might come under the idea of loyalty, seeking the lord's interests, +keeping his secrets, betraying the plans of his enemies, protecting his +family, &c. The specific services are capable of more definite +statement, and they usually received exact definition in custom and +sometimes in written documents. The most characteristic of these was the +military service, which included appearance in the field on summons with +a certain force, often armed in a specified way, and remaining a +specified length of time. It often included also the duty of guarding +the lord's castle, and of holding one's own castle subject to the plans +of the lord for the defence of his fief. Hardly less characteristic was +court service, which included the duty of helping to form the court on +summons, of taking one's own cases to that court instead of to some +other, and of submitting to its judgments. The duty of giving the lord +advice was often demanded and fulfilled in sessions of the court, and in +these feudal courts the obligations of lord and vassal were enforced, +with an ultimate appeal to war. Under this head may be enumerated also +the financial duties of the vassal, though these were not regarded by +the feudal law as of the nature of the tenure, i.e. failure to pay them +did not lead to confiscation, but they were collected by suit and +distraint like any debt. They did not have their origin in economic +considerations, but were either intended to mark the vassal's tenant +relation, like the relief, or to be a part of his service, like the aid, +that is, he was held to come to the aid of his lord in a case of +financial as of military necessity. The relief was a sum paid by the +heir for the lord's recognition of his succession. The aids were paid on +a few occasions, determined by custom, where the lord was put to unusual +expense, as for his ransom when captured by the enemy, or for the +knighting of his eldest son. There was great variety regarding the +occasion and amount of these payments, and in some parts of the feudal +world they did not exist at all. The most lucrative of the lord's rights +were wardship and marriage, but the feudal theory of these also was +non-economic. The fief fell into the hands of the lord, and he enjoyed +its revenues during the minority of the heir, because the minor could +not perform the duties by which it was held. The heiress must marry as +the lord wished, because he had a right to know that the holder of the +fief could meet the obligations resting upon it. Both wardship and +marriage were, however, valuable rights which the lord could exercise +himself or sell to others. These were by no means the only rights and +duties which could be described as existing in feudalism, but they are +the most characteristic, and on them, or some of them, as a foundation, +the whole structure of feudal obligation was built, however detailed. + +Ideally regarded, feudalism covered Europe with a network of these +fiefs, rising in graded ranks one above the other from the smallest, the +knight's fee, at the bottom, to the king at the top, who was the supreme +landowner, or who held the kingdom from God. Actually not even in the +most regular of feudal countries, like England or Germany, was there any +fixed gradation of rank, titles or size. A knight might hold directly of +the king, a count of a viscount, a bishop of an abbot, or the king +himself of one of his own vassals, or even of a vassal's vassal, and in +return his vassal's vassal might hold another fief directly of him. The +case of the count of Champagne, one of the peers of France, is a famous +example. His great territory was held only in small part of the king of +France. He held a portion of a foreign sovereign, the emperor, and other +portions of the duke of Burgundy, of two archbishops, of four bishops, +and of the abbot of St Denis. Frequently did great lay lords, as in this +case, hold lands by feudal tenure of ecclesiastics. + +It is now possible perhaps to get some idea of the way in which the +government of a feudal country was operated. The early German +governments whose chief functions, military, judicial, financial, +legislative, were carried on by the freemen of the nation because they +were members of the body politic, and were performed as duties owed to +the community for its defence and sustenance, no longer existed. New +forms of organization had arisen in which indeed these conceptions had +not entirely disappeared, but in which the vast majority of cases a +wholly different idea of the ground of service and obligation prevailed. +Superficially, for example, the feudal court differed but little from +its Teutonic predecessor. It was still an assembly court. Its procedure +was almost the same as the earlier. It often included the same classes +of men. Saxon Witenagemot and Norman _Curia regis_ seem very much alike. +But the members of the feudal court met, not to fulfil a duty owed to +the community, but a private obligation which they had assumed in return +for the fiefs they held, and in the history of institutions it is +differences of this sort which are the determining principles. The +feudal state was one in which, as it has been said, private law had +usurped the place of public law. Public duty had become private +obligation. To understand the feudal state it is essential to make clear +to one's mind that all sorts of services, which men ordinarily owe to +the public or to one another, were translated into a form of rent paid +for the use of land, and defined and enforced by a private contract. In +every feudal country, however, something of the earlier conception +survived. A general military levy was occasionally made. Something like +taxation occasionally occurred, though the government was usually +sustained by the scanty feudal payments, by the proceeds of justice and +by the income of domain manors. About the office of king more of this +earlier conception gathered than elsewhere in the state, and gradually +grew, aided not merely by traditional ideas, but by the active influence +of the Bible, and soon of the Roman law. The kingship formed the nucleus +of new governments as the feudal system passed away. + +Actual government in the feudal age was primitive and undifferentiated. +Its chief and almost only organ, for kingdom and barony alike, was the +_curia_--a court formed of the vassals. This acted at once and without +any consciousness of difference of function, as judiciary, as +legislature, in so far as there was any in the feudal period, and as +council, and it exercised final supervision and control over revenue and +administration. Almost all the institutions of modern states go back to +the _curia regis_, branching off from it at different dates as the +growing complexity of business forced differentiation of function and +personnel. In action it was an assembly court, deciding all questions by +discussion and the weight of opinion, though its decisions obtained +their legal validity by the formal pronunciation of the presiding +member, i.e. of the lord whose court it was. It can readily be seen that +in a government of this kind the essential operative element was the +baron. So long as the government remained dependent on the baron, it +remained feudal in its character. When conditions so changed that +government could free itself from its dependence on the baron, feudalism +disappeared as the organization of society; when a professional class +arose to form the judiciary, when the increased circulation of money +made regular taxation possible and enabled the government to buy +military and other services, and when better means of intercommunication +and the growth of common ideas made a wide centralization possible and +likely to be permanent. Feudalism had performed a great service, during +an age of disintegration, by maintaining a general framework of +government, while allowing the locality to protect and care for itself. +When the function of protection and local supervision could be resumed +by the general government the feudal age ended. In nearly all the states +of Europe this end was reached during, or by the close of, the 13th +century. + + + Decline and survivals. + +At the moment, however, when feudalism was disappearing as the +organization of society, it gave rise to results which in a sense +continued it into after ages and even to our own day. One of these +results was the system of law which it created. As feudalism passed +from its age of supremacy into its age of decline, its customs tended to +crystallize into fixed forms. At the same time a class of men arose +interested in these forms for their own sake, professional lawyers or +judges, who wrote down for their own and others' use the feudal usages +with which they were familiar. The great age of these codes was the 13th +century, and especially the second half of it. The codes in their turn +tended still further to harden these usages into fixed forms, and we may +date from the end of the 13th century an age of feudal law regulating +especially the holding and transfer of land, and much more uniform in +character than the law of the feudal age proper. This was particularly +the case in parts of France and Germany where feudalism continued to +regulate the property relations of lords and vassals longer than +elsewhere, and where the underlying economic feudalism remained in large +part unchanged. In this later pseudo-feudalism, however, the political +had given way to the economic, and customs which had once had no +economic significance came to have that only. + +Feudalism formed the starting-point also of the later social nobilities +of Europe. They drew from it their titles and ranks and many of their +regulative ideas, though these were formed into more definite and +regular systems than ever existed in feudalism proper. It was often the +policy of kings to increase the social privileges and legal exemptions +of the nobility while taking away all political power, so that it is +necessary in the history of institutions to distinguish sharply between +these nobilities and the feudal baronage proper. It is only in certain +backward parts of Europe that the terms feudal and baronage in any +technical sense can be used of the nobility of the 15th century. + (G. B. A.) + + BIBLIOGRAPHY.--For more detailed information the reader is referred to + the articles ENGLISH LAW; FRANCE: _French Law and Institutions_, + VILLENAGE; MANOR; SCUTAGE; KNIGHT SERVICE; HIDE. For a general sketch + of Feudalism the chapters in tome ii. of the _Histoire generale_ of + Lavisse and Rambaud should be consulted. Other general works are J.T. + Abdy, _Feudalism_ (1890); Paul Roth, _Feudalitat und Unterthanverband_ + (Weimar, 1863); and _Geschichte des Beneficialwesens_ (1850); M.M. + Kovalevsky, _Okonomische Entwickelung Europas_ (1902); E. de Laveleye, + _De la propriete et de ses formes primitives_ (1891); and _The Origin + of Property in Land_, a translation by M. Ashley from the works of + N.D. Fustel de Coulanges, with an introductory chapter by Professor + W.J. Ashley. Two other works of value are Sir H.S. Maine, _Village + Communities in the East and West_ (1876); and Leon Gautier, _La + Chevalerie_ (Paris, 1884; Eng. trans. by Henry Frith, _Chivalry_, + London, 1891). + + For feudalism in England see the various constitutional histories, + especially W. Stubbs, _Constitutional History of England_, vol. i. + (ed. 1897). Very valuable also are the writings of Mr J.H. Round, of + Professor F.W. Maitland and of Professor P. Vinogradoff. Among Round's + works may be mentioned _Feudal England_ (1895); _Geoffrey de + Mandeville_ (1892); and _Studies on the Red Book of the Exchequer_ + (1898). Maitland's _Domesday Book and Beyond_ (Cambridge, 1897) is + indispensable; and the same remark applies to his _History of English + Law before the time of Edward I._ (Cambridge, 1895), written in + conjunction with Sir Frederick Pollock. Vinogradoff has illuminated + the subject in his _Villainage in England_ (1892) and his _English + Society in the 11th century_ (1908). See also J.F. Baldwin, _The + Scutage and Knight Service in England_ (Chicago, 1897); Rudolf Gneist, + _Adel und Ritterschaft in England_ (1853); and F. Seebohm, _The + English Village Community_ (1883). + + For feudalism in France see N.D. Fustel de Coulanges, _Histoire des + institutions politiques de l'ancienne France_ (_Les Origines du + systeme feodal_, 1890; _Les Transformations de la royaute pendant + l'epoque carolingienne_, 1892); A. Luchaire, _Histoire des + institutions monarchiques de la France sous les premiers Capetiens, + 987-1180_ (2nd ed., 1890); and _Manuel des institutions francaises: + periode des Capetiens directs_ (1892); J. Flach, _Les Origines de + l'ancienne France_ (1886-1893); Paul Viollet, _Droit public: Histoires + des institutions politiques et administratives de la France_ + (1890-1898); and Henri See, _Les classes rurales et le regime + domanial_ (1901). + + For Germany see G. Waitz, _Deutsche Verfassungsgeschichte_ (Kiel and + Berlin, 1844 foll.); H. Brunner, _Grundzuge der deutschen + Rechtsgeschichte_ (Leipzig, 1901); V. Menzel, _Die Entstehung des + Lebenswesens_ (Berlin, 1890); and G.L. von Maurer's works on the early + institutions of the Germans. + + +FOOTNOTES: + + [1] _Digest_, xliii. 26. 12. + + [2] _Ibid._ xliii. 26. 14, and cf. 17. + + [3] Salvian, _De gub. Dei_, v. 8, ed. Halm, p. 62. + + [4] H. Brunner, _Zeitschr. der sav. Stift. fur Rechtsgeschichte_, + Germ. Abth. viii. 1-38 (1887). Also in his Forschungen, 39-74 (1894). + + [5] See F. Dahn, _Konige der Germanen_, viii. 2, 90 ff. + + [6] F. Dahn, _Konige der Germanen_, viii. 2, 197. + + [7] G. Waitz, _Deutsche Verfassungsgeschichte_, vi. 112 ff. (1896). + Most fully described in G. Seeliger, _Die soziale u. politische + Bedeutung d. Grundherrschaft im fruheren Mittelalter_ (1903). + + [8] F. Dahn, _Konige_, viii. 2, 89-90; 95. + + + + +FEUERBACH, ANSELM (1829-1880), German painter, born at Spires, the son +of a well-known archaeologist, was the leading classicist painter of the +German 19th-century school. He was the first to realize the danger +arising from contempt of technique, that mastery of craftsmanship was +needed to express even the loftiest ideas, and that an ill-drawn +coloured cartoon can never be the supreme achievement in art. After +having passed through the art schools of Dusseldorf and Munich, he went +to Antwerp and subsequently to Paris, where he benefited by the teaching +of Couture, and produced his first masterpiece, "Hafiz at the Fountain" +in 1852. He subsequently worked at Karlsruhe, Venice (where he fell +under the spell of the greatest school of colourists), Rome and Vienna. +He was steeped in classic knowledge, and his figure compositions have +the statuesque dignity and simplicity of Greek art. Disappointed with +the reception given in Vienna to his design of "The Fall of the Titans" +for the ceiling of the Museum of Modelling, he went to live in Venice, +where he died in 1880. His works are to be found at the leading public +galleries of Germany; Stuttgart has his "Iphigenia"; Karlsruhe, the +"Dante at Ravenna"; Munich, the "Medea"; and Berlin, "The Concert," his +last important picture. Among his chief works are also "The Battle of +the Amazons," "Pieta," "The Symposium of Plato," "Orpheus and Eurydice" +and "Ariosto in the Park of Ferrara." + + + + +FEUERBACH, LUDWIG ANDREAS (1804-1872), German philosopher, fourth son of +the eminent jurist (see below), was born at Landshut in Bavaria on the +28th of July 1804. He matriculated at Heidelberg with the intention of +pursuing an ecclesiastical career. Through the influence of Prof. Daub +he was led to an interest in the then predominant philosophy of Hegel +and, in spite of his father's opposition, went to Berlin to study under +the master himself. After two years' discipleship the Hegelian influence +began to slacken. "Theology," he wrote to a friend, "I can bring myself +to study no more. I long to take nature to my heart, that nature before +whose depth the faint-hearted theologian shrinks back; and with nature +man, man in his entire quality." These words are a key to Feuerbach's +development. He completed his education at Erlangen with the study of +natural science. His first book, published anonymously, _Gedanken uber +Tod und Unsterblichkeit_ (1830, 3rd ed. 1876), contains an attack upon +personal immortality and an advocacy of the Spinozistic immortality of +reabsorption in nature. These principles, combined with his embarrassed +manner of public speaking, debarred him from academic advancement. After +some years of struggling, during which he published his_ Geschichte der +neueren Philosophie_ (2 vols., 1833-1837, 2nd ed. 1844), and _Abalard +und Heloise_ (1834, 3rd ed. 1877), he married in 1837 and lived a rural +existence at Bruckberg near Nuremberg, supported by his wife's share in +a small porcelain factory. In two works of this period, _Pierre Bayle_ +(1838) and _Philosophie und Christentum_ (1839), which deal largely with +theology, he held that he had proved "that Christianity has in fact long +vanished not only from the reason but from the life of mankind, that it +is nothing more than a fixed idea" in flagrant contradiction to the +distinctive features of contemporary civilization. This attack is +followed up in his most important work, _Das Wesen des Christentums_ +(1841), which was translated into English (_The Essence of Religion_, by +George Eliot, 1853, 2nd ed. 1881), French and Russian. Its aim may be +described shortly as an effort to humanize theology. He lays it down +that man, so far as he is rational, is to himself his own object of +thought. Religion is consciousness of the infinite. Religion therefore +is "nothing else than the consciousness of the infinity of the +consciousness; or, in the consciousness of the infinite, the conscious +subject has for his object the infinity of his own nature." Thus God is +nothing else than man: he is, so to speak, the outward projection of +man's inward nature. In part 1 of his book he develops what he calls the +"true or anthropological essence of religion." Treating of God in his +various aspects "as a being of the understanding," "as a moral being or +law," "as love" and so on, Feuerbach shows that in every aspect God +corresponds to some feature or need of human nature. "If man is to find +contentment in God, he must find himself in God." In part 2 he discusses +the "false or theological essence of religion," i.e. the view which +regards God as having a separate existence over against man. Hence arise +various mistaken beliefs, such as the belief in revelation which not +only injures the moral sence, but also "poisons, nay destroys, the +divinest feeling in man, the sense of truth," and the belief in +sacraments such as the Lord's Supper, a piece of religious materialism +of which "the necessary consequences are superstition and immorality." +In spite of many admirable qualities both of style and matter the +_Essence of Christianity_ has never made much impression upon British +thought. To treat the actual forms of religion as expressions of our +various human needs is a fruitful idea which deserves fuller development +than it has yet received; but Feuerbach's treatment of it is fatally +vitiated by his subjectivism. Feuerbach denied that he was rightly +called an atheist, but the denial is merely verbal: what he calls +"theism" is atheism in the ordinary sense. Feuerbach labours under the +same difficulty as Fichte; both thinkers strive in vain to reconcile the +religious consciousness with subjectivism. + +During the troubles of 1848-1849 Feuerbach's attack upon orthodoxy made +him something of a hero with the revolutionary party; but he never threw +himself into the political movement, and indeed had not the qualities of +a popular leader. During the period of the diet of Frankfort he had +given public lectures on religion at Heidelberg. When the diet closed he +withdrew to Bruckberg and occupied himself partly with scientific study, +partly with the composition of his _Theogonie_ (1857). In 1860 he was +compelled by the failure of the porcelain factory to leave Bruckberg, +and he would have suffered the extremity of want but for the assistance +of friends supplemented by a public subscription. His last book, +_Gottheit, Freiheit und Unsterblichkeit_, appeared in 1866 (2nd ed., +1890). After a long period of decay he died on the 13th of September +1872. + +Feuerbach's influence has been greatest upon the anti-Christian +theologians such as D.F. Strauss, the author of the _Leben Jesu_, and +Bruno Bauer, who like Feuerbach himself had passed over from Hegelianism +to a form of naturalism. But many of his ideas were taken up by those +who, like Arnold Ruge, had entered into the struggle between church and +state in Germany, and those who, like F. Engels and Karl Marx, were +leaders in the revolt of labour against the power of capital. His work +was too deliberately unsystematic ("keine Philosophie ist meine +Philosophie") ever to make him a power in philosophy. He expressed in an +eager, disjointed, but condensed and laboured fashion, certain +deep-lying convictions--that philosophy must come back from +unsubstantial metaphysics to the solid facts of human nature and natural +science, that the human body was no less important than the human spirit +("Der Mensch ist was er isst") and that Christianity was utterly out of +harmony with the age. His convictions gained weight from the simplicity, +uprightness and diligence of his character; but they need a more +effective justification than he was able to give them. + + His works appeared in 10 vols. (Leipzig, 1846-1866); his + correspondence has been edited with an indifferent biography by Karl + Grun (1874). See A. Levy, _La Philosophie de Feuerbach_ (1904); M. + Meyer, _L. Feuerbach's Moralphilosophie_ (Berlin, 1899); E. v. + Hartmann, _Geschichte d. Metaphysik_ (Leipzig, 1899-1900), ii. + 437-444: F. Engels, _L. Feuerbach und d. Ausgang d. class, deutsch. + Philos._ (2nd ed., 1895). (H. St.) + + + + +FEUERBACH, PAUL JOHANN ANSELM, RITTER VON (1775-1833), German jurist and +writer on criminal law, was born at Hainichen near Jena on the 14th of +November 1775. He received his early education at Frankfort on Main, +whither his family had removed soon after his birth. At the age of +sixteen, however, he ran away from home, and, going to Jena, was helped +by relations there to study at the university. In spite of poor health +and the most desperate poverty, he made rapid progress. He attended the +lectures of Karl Leonhard Reinhold and Gottlieb Hufeland, and soon +published some literary essays of more than ordinary merit. In 1795 he +took the degree of doctor in philosophy, and in the same year, though he +only possessed 150 thalers (L22: 10s.), he married. It was this step +which led him to success and fame, by forcing him to turn from his +favourite studies of philosophy and history to that of law, which was +repugnant to him, but which offered a prospect of more rapid +advancement. His success in this new and uncongenial sphere was soon +assured. In 1796 he published _Kritik des naturlichen Rechts als +Propadeutik zu einer Wissenschaft der naturlichen Rechte_, which was +followed, in 1798, by _Anti-Hobbes, oder uber die Grenzen der +burgerlichen Gewalt_, a dissertation on the limits of the civil power +and the right of resistance on the part of subjects against their +rulers, and by _Philosophische, juristische Untersuchungen uber das +Verbrechen des Hochverraths_. In 1799 he obtained the degree of doctor +of laws. Feuerbach, as the founder of a new theory of penal law, the +so-called "psychological-coercive or intimidation theory," occupied a +prominent place in the history of criminal science. His views, which he +first made known in his _Revision der Grundsatze und Grundbegriffe des +positiven peinlichen Rechts_ (1799), were further elucidated and +expounded in the _Bibliothek fur die peinliche Rechtswissenschaft_ +(1800-1801), an encyclopaedic work produced in conjunction with Karl +L.W.G. Grolmann and Ludwig Harscher von Almendingen, and in his famous +_Lehrbuch des gemeinen in Deutschland geltenden peinlichen Rechts_ +(1801). These works were a powerful protest against vindictive +punishment, and did much towards the reformation of the German criminal +law. The _Carolina_ (the penal code of the emperor Charles V.) had long +since ceased to be respected. What in 1532 was an inestimable blessing, +as a check upon the arbitrariness and violence of the effete German +procedure, had in the course of time outlived its usefulness and become +a source of evils similar to those it was enacted to combat. It availed +nothing that, at the commencement of the 18th century, a freer and more +scientific spirit had been breathed into Roman law; it failed to reach +the criminal law. The administration of justice was, before Feuerbach's +time, especially distinguished by two characteristics: the superiority +of the judge to all law, and the blending of the judicial and executive +offices, with the result that the individual was practically at the +mercy of his prosecutors. This state of things Feuerbach set himself to +reform, and using as his chief weapon the _Revision der Grundbegriffe_ +above referred to, was successful in his task. His achievement in the +struggle may be summed up as: _nullum crimen, nulla poena sine lege_ (no +wrong and no punishment without a remedy). In 1801 Feuerbach was +appointed extraordinary professor of law without salary, at the +university of Jena, and in the following year accepted a chair at Kiel, +where he remained two years. In 1804 he removed to the university of +Landshut; but on being commanded by King Maximilian Joseph to draft a +penal code for Bavaria (_Strafgesetzbuch fur das Konigreich Bayern_), he +removed in 1805 to Munich, where he was given a high appointment in the +ministry of justice and was ennobled in 1808. Meanwhile the practical +reform of penal legislation in Bavaria was begun under his influence in +1806 by the abolition of torture. In 1808 appeared the first volume of +his _Merkwurdige Criminalfalle_, completed in 1811--a work of deep +interest for its application of psychological considerations to cases Of +crime, and intended to illustrate the inevitable imperfection of human +laws in their application to individuals. In his _Betrachtungen uber das +Geschworenengericht_ (1811) Feuerbach declared against trial by jury, +maintaining that the verdict of a jury was not adequate legal proof of a +crime. Much controversy was aroused on the subject, and the author's +view was subsequently to some extent modified. The result of his labours +was promulgated in 1813 as the Bavarian penal code. The influence of +this code, the embodiment of Feuerbach's enlightened views, was immense. +It was at once made the basis for new codes in Wurttemberg and +Saxe-Weimar; it was adopted in its entirety in the grand-duchy of +Oldenburg; and it was translated into Swedish by order of the king. +Several of the Swiss cantons reformed their codes in conformity with it. +Feuerbach had also undertaken to prepare a civil code for Bavaria, to be +founded on the Code Napoleon. This was afterwards set aside, and the +Codex Maximilianus adopted as a basis. But the project did not become +law. During the war of liberation (1813-1814) Feuerbach showed himself +an ardent patriot, and published several political brochures which, from +the writer's position, had almost the weight of state manifestoes. One +of these is entitled _Uber deutsche Freiheit und Vertretung deutsche +Volker durch Landstande_ (1514). In 1814 Feuerbach was appointed second +president of the court of appeal at Bamberg, and three years later he +became first president of the court of appeal at Anspach. In 1821 he was +deputed by the government to visit France, Belgium, and the Rhine +provinces for the purpose of investigating their juridical institutions. +As the fruit of this visit, he published his treatises _Betrachtungen +uber Offentlichkeit und Mundigkeit der Gerechtigkeitspflege_ (1821) and +_Uber die Gerichtsverfassung und das gerichtliche Verfahren Frankreichs_ +(1825). In these he pleaded unconditionally for publicity in all legal +proceedings. In his later years he took a deep interest in the fate of +the strange foundling Kaspar Hauser (q.v.), which had excited so much +attention in Europe; and he was the first to publish a critical summary +of the ascertained facts, under the title of _Kaspar Hauser, ein +Beispiel eines Verbrechens am Seelenleben_ (1832). Shortly before his +death appeared a collection of his _Kleine Schriften_ (1833). Feuerbach, +still in the full enjoyment of his intellectual powers, died suddenly at +Frankfort, while on his way to the baths of Schwalbach, on the 29th of +May 1833. In 1853 was published the _Leben und Wirken Ans. von +Feuerbachs_, 2 vols., consisting of a selection of his letters and +journals, with occasional notes by his fourth son Ludwig, the +distinguished philosopher. + + See also, for an estimate of Feuerbach's life and work, Marquardtsen, + in _Allgemeine deutsche Biographie_, vol. vi.; and an "in memoriam" + notice in _Die allgemeine Zeitung_ (Augsburg), 15th Nov. 1875, by + Professor Dr Karl Binding of Leipzig University. + + + + +FEUILLANTS, CLUB OF THE, a political association which played a +prominent part during the French Revolution. It was founded on the 16th +of July 1791 by several members of the Jacobin Club, who refused to sign +a petition presented by this body, demanding the deposition of Louis +XVI. Among the dissident members were B. Barere; and E.J. Sieyes, who +were later joined by other politicians, among them being Dupont de +Nemours. The name of Feuillants was popularly given to this group of +men, because they met in the fine buildings which had been occupied by +the religious order bearing this name, in the rue Saint-Honore, near the +Place Vendome, in Paris. The members of the club preserved the title of +_Amis de la Constitution_, as being a sufficient indication of the line +they intended to pursue. This consisted in opposing everything not +contained in the Constitution; in their opinion, the latter was in need +of no modification, and they hated alike all those who were opposed to +it, whether _emigres_ or Jacobins; they affected to avoid all political +discussion, and called themselves merely a "conservative assembly." + +This attitude they maintained after the Constituent Assembly had been +succeeded by the Legislative, but not many of the new deputies became +members of the club. With the rapid growth of extreme democratic ideas +the Feuillants soon began to be looked upon as reactionaries, and to be +classed with "aristocrats." They did, indeed, represent the aristocracy +of wealth, for they had to pay a subscription of four louis, a large sum +at that time, besides six livres for attendance. Moreover, the luxury +with which they surrounded themselves, and the restaurant which they had +annexed to their club, seemed to mock the misery of the half-starved +proletariat, and added to the suspicion with which they were viewed, +especially after the popular triumphs of the 20th of June and the 10th +of August 1792 (see FRENCH REVOLUTION). A few days after the +insurrection of the 10th of August, the papers of the Feuillants were +seized, and a list was published containing the names of 841 members +proclaimed as suspects. This was the death-blow of the club. It had made +an attempt, though a weak one, to oppose the forward march of the +Revolution, but, unlike the Jacobins, had never sent out branches into +the provinces. The name of Feuillants, as a party designation, survived +the club. It was applied to those who advocated a policy of "cowardly +moderation," and _feuillantisme_ was associated with _aristocratie_ in +the mouths of the sansculottes. + + The act of separation of the Feuillants from the Jacobins was + published in a pamphlet dated the 16th of July 1791, beginning with + the words, _Les Membres de l'assemblee nationale_ ... (Paris, 1791). + The statutes of the club were also published in Paris. See also A. + Aulard, _Histoire politique de la Revolution francaise_ (Paris, 1903), + 2nd ed., p. 153. + + + + + +FEUILLET, OCTAVE (1821-1890), French novelist and dramatist, was born at +Saint-Lo, Manche, on the 11th of August 1821. He was the son of a Norman +gentleman of learning and distinction, who would have played a great +part in politics "sans ses diables de nerfs," as Guizot said. This +nervous excitability was inherited, though not to the same excess, by +Octave, whose mother died in his infancy and left him to the care of the +hyper-sensitive invalid. The boy was sent to the lycee Louis-le Grand, +in Paris, where he achieved high distinction, and was destined for the +diplomatic service. In 1840 he appeared before his father at Saint-Lo, +and announced that he had determined to adopt the profession of +literature. There was a stormy scene, and the elder Feuillet cut off his +son, who returned to Paris and lived as best he could by a scanty +journalism. In company with Paul Bocage he began to write for the stage, +and not without success; at all events, he continued to exist until, +three years after the quarrel, his father consented to forgive him. +Enjoying a liberal allowance, he now lived in Paris in comfort and +independence, and he published his early novels, none of which is quite +of sufficient value to retain the modern reader. The health and spirits +of the elder M. Feuillet, however, having still further declined, he +summoned his son to leave Paris and bury himself as his constant +attendant in the melancholy chateau at Saint-Lo. This was to demand a +great sacrifice, but Octave Feuillet cheerfully obeyed the summons. In +1851 he married his cousin, Mlle Valerie Feuillet, who helped him to +endure the mournful captivity to which his filial duty bound him. +Strangely enough, in this exile--rendered still more irksome by his +father's mania for solitude and by his tyrannical temper--the genius of +Octave Feuillet developed. His first definite success was gained in the +year 1852, when he published the novel _Bellah_ and produced the comedy +_La Crise_. Both were reprinted from the _Revue des deux mondes_, where +many of his later novels also appeared. He wrote books which have long +held their place, _La Petite Comtesse_ (1857), _Dalila_ (1857), and in +particular that universal favourite, _Le Roman d'un jeune homme pauvre_ +(1858). He himself fell into a nervous state in his "prison," but he was +sustained by the devotion and intelligence of his wife and her mother. +In 1857, having been persuaded to make a play of the novel of _Dalila_, +he brought out this piece at the Vaudeville, and enjoyed a brilliant +success; on this occasion he positively broke through the _consigne_ and +went up to Paris to see his play rehearsed. His father bore the shock of +his temporary absence, and the following year Octave ventured to make +the same experiment on occasion of the performance of _Un Jeune Homme +pauvre_. To his infinite chagrin, during this brief absence his father +died. Octave was now, however, free, and the family immediately moved to +Paris, where they took part in the splendid social existence of the +Second Empire. The elegant and distinguished young novelist became a +favourite at court; his pieces were performed at Compiegne before they +were given to the public, and on one occasion the empress Eugenie +deigned to play the part of Mme de Pons in _Les Portraits de la +Marquise_. Feuillet did not abandon the novel, and in 1862 he achieved a +great success with _Sibylle_. His health, however, had by this time +begun to decline, affected by the sad death of his eldest son. He +determined to quit Paris, where the life was far too exciting for his +nerves, and to regain the quietude of Normandy. The old chateau of the +family had been sold, but he bought a house called "Les Paillers" in the +suburbs of Saint-Lo, and there he lived, buried in his roses, for +fifteen years. He was elected to the French Academy in 1862, and in 1868 +he was made librarian of Fontainebleau palace, where he had to reside +for a month or two in each year. In 1867 he produced his masterpiece of +_Monsieur de Camors_, and in 1872 he wrote _Julia de Treoeur_, which is +hardly less admirable. His last years, after the sale of "Les Paillers," +were passed in a ceaseless wandering, the result of the agitation of his +nerves. He was broken by sorrow and by ill-health, and when he passed +away in Paris on the 29th of December 1890, his death was a release. His +last book was _Honneur d'artiste_ (1890). Among the too-numerous +writings of Feuillet, the novels have lasted longer than the dramas; of +the former three or four seem destined to retain their charm as +classics. He holds a place midway between the romanticists and the +realists, with a distinguished and lucid portraiture of life which is +entirely his own. He drew the women of the world whom he saw around him +with dignity, with indulgence, with extraordinary penetration and +clairvoyance. There is little description in his novels, which sometimes +seem to move on an almost bare and colourless stage, but, on the other +hand, the analysis of motives, of emotions, and of "the fine shades" has +rarely been carried further. Few have written French with greater purity +than Feuillet, and his style, reserved in form and never excessive in +ornament, but full of wit and delicate animation, is in admirable +uniformity with his subjects and his treatment. It is probably in +_Sibylle_ and in _Julia de Trecoeur_ that he can now be studied to most +advantage, though _Monsieur de Camors_ gives a greater sense of power, +and though _Le Roman d'un jeune homme pauvre_ still preserves its +popularity. + + See also Sainte-Beuve, _Nouveaux Lundis_, vol. v.; F. Brunetiere, + _Nouveaux Essais sur la litterature contemporaine_ (1895). (E. G.) + + + + +FEUILLETON (a diminutive of the Fr. _feuillet_, the leaf of a book), +originally a kind of supplement attached to the political portion of +French newspapers. Its inventor was Bertin the elder, editor of the +_Debats_. It was not usually printed on a separate sheet, but merely +separated from the political part of the newspaper by a line, and +printed in smaller type. In French newspapers it consists chiefly of +non-political news and gossip, literature and art criticism, a chronicle +of the fashions, and epigrams, charades and other literary trifles; and +its general characteristics are lightness, grace and sparkle. The +_feuilleton_ in its French sense has never been adopted by English +newspapers, though in various modern journals (in the United States +especially) the sort of matter represented by it is now included. But +the term itself has come into English use to indicate the instalment of +a serial story printed in one part of a newspaper. + + + + +FEUQUIERES, ISAAC MANASSES DE PAS, MARQUIS DE (1590-1640), French +soldier, came of a distinguished family of which many members held high +command in the civil wars of the 16th century. He entered the Royal army +at the age of thirty, and soon achieved distinction. In 1626 he served +in the Valtelline, and in 1628-1629 at the celebrated siege of La +Rochelle, where he was taken prisoner. In 1629 he was made _Marechal de +Camp_, and served in the fighting on the southern frontiers of France. +After occupying various military positions in Lorraine, he was sent as +an ambassador into Germany, where he rendered important services in +negotiations with Wallenstein. In 1636 he commanded the French corps +operating with the duke of Weimar's forces (afterwards Turenne's "Army +of Weimar"). With these troops he served in the campaigns of 1637 (in +which he became lieutenant-general), 1638 and 1639. At the siege of +Thionville (Diedenhofen) he received a mortal wound. His _lettres +inedites_ appeared (ed. Gallois) in Paris in 1845. + +His son ANTOINE MANASSES DE PAS, Marquis de Feuquieres (1648-1711), was +born at Paris in 1648, and entered the army at the age of eighteen. His +conduct at the siege of Lille in 1667, where he was wounded, won him +promotion to the rank of captain. In the campaigns of 1672 and 1673 he +served on the staff of Marshal Luxemburg, and at the siege of Oudenarde +in the following year the king gave him command of the Royal Marine +regiment, which he held until he obtained a regiment of his own in 1676. +In 1688 he served as a brigadier at the siege of Philipsburg, and +afterwards led a ravaging expedition into south Germany, where he +acquired much booty. Promoted _Marechal de Camp_, he served under +Catinat against the Waldenses, and in the course of the war won the +nickname of the "Wizard." In 1692 he made a brilliant defence of +Speierbach against greatly superior forces, and was rewarded with the +rank of lieutenant-general. He bore a distinguished part in Luxemburg's +great victory of Neerwinden or Landen in 1693. Marshal Villeroi +impressed him less favourably than his old commander Luxemburg, and the +resumption of war in 1701 found him in disfavour in consequence. The +rest of his life, embittered by the refusal of the marshal's baton, he +spent in compiling his celebrated memoirs, which, coloured as they were +by the personal animosities of the writer, were yet considered by +Frederick the Great and the soldiers of the 18th century as the standard +work on the art of war as a whole. He died in 1711. The _Memoires sur la +guerre_ appeared in the same year and new editions were frequently +published (Paris 1711, 1725, 1735, &c., London 1736, Amsterdam +subsequently). An English version appeared in London 1737, under the +title _Memoirs of the Marquis de Feuquieres_, and a German translation +(_Feuquieres geheime Nachrichten_) at Leipzig 1732, 1738, and Berlin +1786. They deal in detail with every branch of the art of war and of +military service. + + + + +FEVAL, PAUL HENRI CORENTIN (1817-1887), French novelist and dramatist, +was born on the 27th of September 1817, at Rennes in Brittany, and much +of his best work deals with the history of his native province. He was +educated for the bar, but after his first brief he went to Paris, where +he gained a footing by the publication of his "Club des phoques" (1841) +in the _Revue de Paris_. The _Mysteres de Londres_ (1844), in which an +Irishman tries to avenge the wrongs of his countrymen by seeking the +annihilation of England, was published under the ingenious pseudonym +"Sir Francis Trolopp." Others of his novels are: _Le Fils du diable_ +(1846); _Les Compagnons du silence_ (1857); _Le Bossu_ (1858); _Le +Poisson d'or_ (1863); _Les Habits noirs_ (1863); _Jean le diable_ +(1868), and _Les Compagnons du tresor_ (1872). Some of his novels were +dramatized, _Le Bossu_ (1863), in which he had M. Victorien Sardou for a +collaborator, being especially successful in dramatic form. His +chronicles of crime exercised an evil influence, eventually recognized +by the author himself. In his later years he became an ardent Catholic, +and occupied himself in revising his earlier works from his new +standpoint and in writing religious pamphlets. Reverses of fortune and +consequent overwork undermined his mental and bodily health, and he died +of paralysis in the monastery of the Brothers of Saint John in Paris on +the 8th of March 1887. + +His son, PAUL FEVAL (1860- ), became well known as a novelist and +dramatist. Among his works are _Nouvelles_ (1890), _Maria Laura_ (1891), +and _Chantepie_ (1896). + + + + +FEVER (Lat. _febris_, connected with _fervere_, to burn), a term +generally used to include all conditions in which the normal temperature +of the animal body is markedly exceeded for any length of time. When the +temperature reaches as high a point as 106 deg. F. the term hyperpyrexia +(excessive fever) is applied, and is regarded as indicating a condition +of danger; while, if it exceeds 107 deg. or 108 deg. for any length of +time, death almost always results. The diseases which are called +specific fevers, because of its being a predominant factor in them, are +discussed separately under their ordinary names. Occasionally in certain +specific fevers and febrile diseases the temperature may attain the +elevation of 110 deg.-112 deg. prior to the fatal issue. For the +treatment of fever in general, see THERAPEUTICS. + +_Pathology._--Every rise of temperature is due to a disturbance in the +heat-regulating mechanism, the chief variable in which is the action of +the skin in eliminating heat (see ANIMAL HEAT). Although for all +practical purposes this mechanism works satisfactorily, it is not by any +means perfect, and many physiological conditions cause a transient rise +of temperature; e.g. severe muscular exercise, in which the cutaneous +eliminating mechanism is unable at once to dispose of the increased +amount of heat produced in the muscles. Pathologically, the +heat-regulating mechanism may be disturbed in three different ways: 1st, +by mechanical interference with the nervous system; 2nd, by interference +with heat elimination; 3rd, by the action of various poisons. + +1. In the human subject, fever the result of _mechanical interference_ +with the nervous system rarely occurs, but it can readily be produced in +the lower animals by stimulating certain parts of the great brain, e.g. +the anterior portion of the corpus striatum. This leads to a rise of +temperature with increased heat production. The high temperature seems +to cause disintegration of cell protoplasm and increased excretion of +nitrogen and of carbonic acid. Possibly some of the cases of high +temperature recorded after injuries to the nervous system may be caused +in this way; but some may also be due to stimulation of vaso-constrictor +fibres to the cutaneous vessels diminishing heat elimination. So far the +pathology of this condition has not been studied with the same care that +has been devoted to the investigation of the third type of fever. + +2. Fever may readily be produced by _interference with heat +elimination_. This has been done by submitting dogs to a temperature +slightly below that of the rectum, and it is seen in man in _Sunstroke_. +The typical nervous symptoms of fever are thus produced, and the rate of +chemical change in the tissues is accelerated, as is shown by the +increased excretion of carbonic acid. The protoplasm is also injured and +the proteids are broken down, and thus an increased excretion of +nitrogen is produced and the cells undergo degenerative changes. + +3. The products of various micro-organisms have a toxic action on the +protoplasm of a large number of animals, and among the symptoms of this +toxic action one of the most frequent is a rise in temperature. While +this is by no means a necessary accompaniment, its occurrence is so +general that the term _Fever_ has been applied to the general reaction +of the organism to the microbial poison. Toxins which cause a marked +rise of temperature in men may cause a fall in other animals. It is not +the alteration of temperature which is the great index of the severity +of the struggle between the host and the parasite, but the death and +removal to a greater or lesser extent of the protoplasm of the host. In +this respect fever resembles poisoning with phosphorus and arsenic and +other similar substances. The true measure of the intensity of a fever +is the extent of disintegration of protoplasm, and this may be estimated +by the amount of nitrogen excreted in the urine. The increased +disintegration of protoplasm is also indicated by the rise in the +excretion of sulphur and phosphorus and by the appearance in the urine +of acetone, aceto-acetic and [beta]-oxybutyric acids (see NUTRITION). +Since the temperature is generally proportionate to the intensity of the +toxic action, its height is usually proportionate to the excretion of +nitrogen. But sometimes the rise of temperature is not marked, while the +excretion of nitrogen is very decidedly increased. When the temperature +is sufficiently elevated, the heat has of itself an injurious action on +the protoplasm, and tends to increase disintegration just as when heat +elimination is experimentally retarded. But the increase due to rise of +temperature is small compared to that produced by the destructive action +of the microbial products. In the beginning of a fever the activity of +the metabolism is not increased to any marked extent, and any increase +is necessarily largely due to the greater activity of the muscles of the +heart and respiratory mechanism, and to the muscular contractions which +produce the initial rigors. Thus the excretion of carbon dioxide--the +great measure of the _activity of metabolism_--is not usually increased, +and there is no evidence of an increased combustion. In the later stages +the increased temperature may bring about an acceleration in the rate of +chemical change; but this is comparatively slight, less in fact than the +increase observed on taking muscular exercise after rest. The _rise of +temperature_ is primarily due to diminished heat elimination. This +diminished giving off of heat was demonstrated by means of the +calorimeter by I. Rosenthal, while E. Maragliano showed that the +cutaneous vessels are contracted. Even in the later stages, until +defervescence occurs, heat elimination is inadequate to get rid of the +heat produced. + +The toxic action is manifested not only by the increased disintegration +of protoplasm, but also by disturbances in the functions of the various +organs. The activity of the _digestive glands_ is diminished and +appetite is lost. Food is therefore not taken, although when taken it +appears to be absorbed in undiminished quantities. As a result of this +the patient suffers from inanition, and lives largely on his own fats +and proteids, and for this reason rapidly emaciates. The functions of +the _liver_ are also diminished in activity. Glycogen is not stored in +the cells, and the bile secretion is modified, the essential +constituents disappearing almost entirely in some cases. The production +of urea is also interfered with, and the proportion of nitrogen in the +urine not in the urea increases. This is in part due to the increased +disintegration of proteids setting free sulphur and phosphorus, which, +oxidized into sulphuric and phosphoric acids, combine with the ammonia +which would otherwise have been changed to urea. Thus the proportion of +ammonia in the urine is increased. Concurrently with these alterations +in the functions of the liver-cells, a condition of granular +degeneration and probably a state of fatty degeneration makes its +appearance. That the functional activity of the _kidneys_ is modified, +is shown by the frequent appearance of proteoses or of albumen and +globulin in the urine. Frequently the toxin acts very markedly on the +protoplasm of the kidney epithelium, and causes a shedding of the cells +and sometimes inflammatory reaction. The _muscles_ are weakened, but so +far no satisfactory study has been made of the influence of microbial +poisons on muscular contraction. A granular and fatty degeneration +supervenes, and the fibres waste. The _nervous structures_, especially +the nerve-cells, are acted upon, and not only is their functional +activity modified, but they also undergo structural changes of a +chromatolytic nature. The _blood_ shows two important changes--first, a +fall in the alkalinity due to the products of disintegration of +protoplasm; and, secondly, an increase in the number of leucocytes, and +chiefly in the polymorpho-nuclear variety. This is best marked in +pneumonia, where the normal number is often increased twofold and +sometimes more than tenfold, while it is altogether absent in enteric +fever. + +An interesting general modification in the metabolism is the enormous +fall in the excretion of chlorine, a fall far in excess of what could be +accounted for by inanition, and out of all proportion to the fall in the +sodium and potassium with which the chlorine is usually combined in the +urine. The fevered animal in fact stores chlorine in its tissues, though +in what manner and for what reason is not at present known. + + AUTHORITIES.--Von Noorden, L_ehrbuch der Pathologie des Stoffwechsels_ + (Berlin, 1893); _Metabolism and Practical Medicine_, vol. ii., article + "Fever" by F. Kraus (1907); Dr A. Rabe, _Die modernen Fiebertheorien_ + (Berlin, 1894); Dr G.B. Ughetti, _Das Fieber_, trans. by Dr R. + Teuscher (Jena, 1895); Dr M. Lovit, "Die Lehre von Fieber," + _Vorlesungen uber allgemeine Pathologie_, erstes Heft (Jena, 1897); + Louis Guinon, "De la fievre," in Bouchard's _Traite de pathologie + generale_, t. iii. 2nd partie (Paris, 1899); Sir J.B. Sanderson, "The + Doctrine of Fever," in Allbutt's _System of Medicine_, vol. i. p. 139 + (London, 1896). (D. N. P.) + + + + +FEYDEAU, ERNEST-AIME (1821-1873), French author, was born in Paris, on +the 16th of March 1821. He began his literary career in 1844, by the +publication of a volume of poetry, _Les Nationales_. Either the partial +failure of this literary effort, or his marriage soon afterwards to a +daughter of the economist Blanqui, caused him to devote himself to +finance and to archaeology. He gained a great success with his novel +_Fanny_ (1858), a success due chiefly to the cleverness with which it +depicted and excused the corrupt manners of a certain portion of French +society. This was followed in rapid succession by a series of fictions, +similar in character, but wanting the attraction of novelty; none of +them enjoyed the same vogue as _Fanny_. Besides his novels Feydeau wrote +several plays, and he is also the author of _Histoire generale des +usages funebres et des sepultures des peuples anciens_ (3 vols., +1857-1861); _Le Secret du bonheur_ (sketches of Algerian life) (2 vols., +1864); and _L'Allemagne en 1871_ (1872), a clever caricature of German +life and manners. He died in Paris on the 27th of October 1873. + + See Sainte-Beuve, _Causeries du lundi_, vol. xiv., and Barbey + d'Aurevilly, _Les Oeuvres et les hommes au XIX^e siecle_. + + + + +FEZ (_Fas_), the chief city of Morocco, into which empire it was +incorporated in 1548. It lies in 34 deg. 6' 3" N., 4 deg. 38' 15" W., +about 230 m. N.E. of Marrakesh, 100 m. E. from the Atlantic and 85 m. S. +of the Mediterranean. It is beautifully situated in a deep valley on the +Wad Fas, an affluent of the Wad Sebu, which divides the town into two +parts--the ancient town, Fas el Bali, on the right bank, and the new, +Fas el Jadid, on the left. + +Like many other Oriental cities, Fez from a distance appears a very +attractive place. It stretches out between low hills, crowned by the +ruins of ancient fortresses, and though there is nothing imposing, +there is something particularly impressive in the sight of that +white-roofed conglomeration of habitations, broken only by occasional +mosque towers or, on the outskirts, by luxuriant foliage. Except on the +south side the city is surrounded by hills, interspersed with groves of +orange, pomegranate and other fruit trees, and large olive gardens. + +From its peculiar situation Fez has a drainage superior to that of most +Moorish towns. When the town becomes very dirty, the water is allowed to +run down the streets by opening lids for the purpose in the conduits and +closing the ordinary exits, so that it overflows and cleanses the +pavements. The Fasis as a rule prefer to drink the muddy river water +rather than that of the pure springs which abound in certain quarters of +the town. But the assertion that the supply and drainage system are one +is a libel, since the drainage system lies below the level of the fresh +river water, and was organized by a French renegade, under Mohammed +XVI., about the close of the 18th century. The general dampness of the +town renders it unhealthy, however, as the pallid faces of the +inhabitants betoken, but this is considered a mark of distinction and is +jealously guarded. + +Most of the streets are exceedingly narrow, and as the houses are high +and built in many cases over the thoroughfares these are often very dark +and gloomy, though, since wooden beams, rough stones and mortar are used +in building, there is less of that ruined, half-decayed appearance so +common in other Moorish towns where mud concrete is the material +employed. + +As a commercial town Fez is a great depot for the trade of Barbary and +wares brought from the east and south by caravans. The manufactures +still carried on are those of yellow slippers of the famous Morocco +leather, fine white woollen and silk haiks, of which it is justly proud, +women's embroidered sashes, various coarse woollen cloths and blankets, +cotton and silk handkerchiefs, silk cords and braids, swords and guns, +saddlery, brass trays, Moorish musical instruments, rude painted pottery +and coloured tiles. Until recent times the city had a monopoly of the +manufacture of Fez caps, for it was supposed that the dye which imparts +the dull crimson hue of these caps could not be procured elsewhere; they +are now, however, made both in France and Turkey. The dye is obtained +from the juice of a berry which grows in large quantities near the town, +and is also used in the dyeing of leather. Some gold ornaments are made, +the gold being brought from the interior by caravans which trade +regularly with Timbuktu. + +As in other capitals each trade has a district or street devoted chiefly +to its activities. Old Fez is the business portion of the town, new Fez +being occupied principally by government quarters and the Jews' mellah. +The tradesman usually sits cross-legged in a corner of his shop with his +goods so arranged that he can reach most of them without moving. + +In the early days of Mahommedan rule in Morocco, Fez was the seat of +learning and the empire's pride. Its schools of religion, philosophy and +astronomy enjoyed a great reputation in Africa and also in southern +Europe, and were even attended by Christians. On the expulsion of the +Moors from Spain, refugees of all kinds flocked to Fez, and brought with +them some knowledge of arts, sciences and manufactures, and thither +flocked students to make use of its extensive libraries. But its glories +were brief, and though still "the university town" of Morocco, it +retains but a shadow of its greatness. Its library, estimated by Gerhard +Rohlfs in 1861 to contain 5000 volumes, is open on Fridays, and any Moor +of known respectability may borrow volumes on getting an order and +signing a receipt for them. There are about 1500 students who read at +the Karueein. They pay no rents, but buy the keys of the rooms from the +last occupants, selling them again on leaving. + +The Karueein is celebrated as the largest mosque in Africa, but it is by +no means the most magnificent. On account of the vast area covered, the +roof, supported by three hundred and sixty-six pillars of stone, appears +very low. The side chapel for services for the dead contains twenty-four +pillars. All these columns support horse-shoe arches, on which the roof +is built, long vistas of arches being seen from each of the eighteen +doors of the mosque. The large lamp is stated to weigh 1763 lb. and to +have 509 lights, but it is very seldom lit. The total number of lights +in the Karueein is given as seventeen hundred, and they are said to +require 3-1/2 cwt. of oil for one filling. The mosque of Mulai Idris, +built by the founder of Fez about the year 810, is considered so sacred +that the streets which approach its entrance are forbidden to Jews, +Christians or four-footed beasts. The sanctity of the shrine in +particular is esteemed very great, and this accounts for the crowds +which daily flock to it. The Tumiat door leading to it was once very +fine, but is now much faded. Opposite to it is a refuge for friendless +sharifas--the female descendants of Mahomet--built by Mohammed XVII. + +It is believed that the foundation stone of Fez was laid in 808 by Idris +II. Since then its history has been chequered, as it was successfully +besieged no fewer than eight times in the first five hundred years of +its existence, yet only once knew foreign masters, when in 1554 the +Turks took possession of it without a siege and held it for a short +time. Fez became the chief residence of the Filali dynasty, who obtained +possession of the town in 1649 (see further MOROCCO: _History_). + +The population has been very varyingly estimated; probably the +inhabitants number under one hundred thousand, even when the court is in +residence. + + See H. Gaillard, _Une Ville de l'Islam. Fes_ (Paris, 1905); C. + Rene-Leclerc, "Le commerce et l'industrie a Fez" in _Renseignements + col. comite afrique francaise_ (1905). + + + + +FEZZAN (the ancient _Phazania_, or country of the Garamantes), a region +of the Sahara, forming a "kaimakamlik" of the Ottoman vilayet of Tripoli +(q.v.). Its frontiers, ill-defined, run from Bonjem, within 50 m. of the +Mediterranean on the north, south-westward to the Akakus range of hills, +which separates Fezzan from Ghat, thence eastward for over 400 m., and +then turn north and west to Bonjem again, embracing an area of about +156,000 sq. m. + +_Physical Features._--The general form of the country is determined by +the ranges of hills, including the Jebel-es-Suda (highest peak about +4000 ft.), the Haruj-el-Aswad and the Haruj-el-Abiad, which between 14 +deg. and 19 deg. E. and 27 deg. and 29 deg. N. form the northern edge of +a broad desert plateau, and shut off the northern region draining to the +Mediterranean from the depressions in which lie the oases of Fezzan +proper in the south. The central depression of Hofra ("ditch"), as it is +called, lies in about 26 deg. N. It does not form a continuous fertile +tract, but consists of a monotonous sandy expanse somewhat more thickly +studded with oases than the surrounding wastes. The Hofra at its lowest +part is not more than 600 ft. above the sea-level, and in this hollow is +situated the capital Murzuk. It has a general east to west direction. +North-west of the Hofra is a long narrow valley, the Wadi-el-Gharbi, +which trends north-east and is the most fertile district of Fezzan. It +contains several perennial springs and lake-like basins. One of these +basins, the saline Bahr-el-Dud ("Sea of Worms"), has an extent of 600 +sq. m., and is in places 26 ft. deep. Southwards the Hofra rises to a +height of 2000 ft., and in this direction lies the oasis of Gatron, +followed by Tejerri on the verge of the desert, which marks the southern +limit of the date and the northern of the dum palm. Beyond Tejerri the +Saharan plateau rises continuously to the Tibesti highlands. (See +further TRIPOLI.) + +_Climate._--The average temperature of Murzuk was found by Rohlfs to be +70 deg. F. Frost is not uncommon in the winter months. The climate is a +very regular one, and is in general healthy, the dryness of the air in +summer making the heat more bearable than on the sea coast. An almost +perpetual blue sky overhangs the desert, and the people of Fezzan are so +unaccustomed to and so ill-prepared for wet weather that, as in Tuat and +Tidikelt, they pray to be spared from rain. Water is found almost +everywhere at small depths. + +_Flora and Fauna._--The date-palm is the characteristic tree of Fezzan, +and constitutes the chief wealth of the land. Many different kinds of +date-palms are found in the oases: in that of Murzuk alone more than 30 +varieties are counted, the most esteemed being named the Tillis, Tuati +and Auregh. In all Fezzan the date is the staple food, not only for men, +but for camels, horses and dogs. Even the stones of the fruit are +softened and given to the cattle. The huts of the poorer classes are +entirely made of date-palm leaves, and the more substantial habitations +consist chiefly of the same material. The produce of the tree is small, +100 full-grown trees yielding only about 40 cwt. of dates. Besides the +date there are numerous olive, fig and almond trees. Various grains are +cultivated. Wheat and barley are sown in winter, and in spring, summer +and autumn several kinds of durra, especially ksob and gafoli. Cotton +flourishes, is perennial for six or seven years, and gives large pods of +moderate length of staple. + +There are no large carnivora in Fezzan. In the uninhabited oases +gazelles and antelopes are occasionally found. The most important animal +is the camel, of which there are two varieties, the Tebu or Sudan camel +and the Arabian, differing very much in size, form and capabilities. +Horses and cattle are not numerous. Among birds are ostriches, falcons, +vultures, swallows and ravens; in summer wild pigeons and ducks are +numerous, but in winter they seek a warmer climate. There are no +remarkable insects or snakes. A species of _Artemia_ or brine shrimp, +about a quarter of an inch in length, of a colour resembling the bright +hue of the gold fish, is fished for with cotton nets in the "Sea of +Worms," and mixed with dates and kneaded into a paste, which has the +taste and smell of salt herring, is considered a luxury by the people of +Fezzan. + +_Inhabitants._--The total population is estimated at between 50,000 and +80,000. The inhabitants are a mixed people, derived from the surrounding +Teda and Bornu on the south, Tuareg of the plateaus on the west, Berbers +and Arabs from the north. The primitive inhabitants, called by their +Arab conquerors Berauna, are believed to have been of Negro origin. They +no longer persist as a distinct people. In colour the present +inhabitants vary from black to white, but the prevailing hue of skin is +a Malay-like yellow, the features and woolly hair being Negro. The chief +languages are the Kanuri or Bornu language and Arabic. Many understand +Targish, the Teda and the Hausa tongues. If among such a mixed people +there can be said to be any national language, it is that of Bornu, +which is most widely understood and spoken. The people of Sokna, north +of the Jebel-es-Suda, have a peculiar Berber dialect which Rohlfs found +to be very closely allied to that of Ghadames. The men wear a haik or +barakan like those of Tripoli, and a fez; short hose, and a large loose +shirt called mansaria, with red or yellow slippers, complete their +toilet. Yet one often sees the large blue or white _tobe_ of Bornu, and +the _litham_ or shawl-muffler of the Tuareg, wound round the mouth to +keep out the blown sand of the desert. The women, who so long as they +are young have very plump forms, and who are generally small, are more +simply dressed, as a rule, in the barakan, wound round their bodies; +they seldom wear shoes, but generally have sandals made of palm leaf. +Like the Arab women they load arms and legs with heavy metal rings, +which are of silver among the more wealthy. The hair, thickly greased +with butter, soon catching the dust which forms a crust over it, is done +up in numberless little plaits round the head, in the same fashion as in +Bornu and the Hausa countries. Children run about naked until they +attain the age of puberty, which comes very early, for mothers of ten or +twelve years of age are not uncommon. The Fezzani are of a gay +disposition, much given to music and dancing. + +_Towns and Trade._--Murzuk, the present capital, which is in telegraphic +communication with the town of Tripoli, lies in the western corner of +the Hofra depression, in 25 deg. 55' N. and 14 deg. 10' E. It was +founded about 1310, about which time the _kasbah_ or citadel was built. +The Turks repaired it, as well as the town-wall, which has, however, +again fallen into a ruinous condition. Murzuk, which had in 1906 some +3000 inhabitants, is cut in two by a wide street, the _dendal_. The +citadel and most of the houses are built of salt-saturated dried mud. +Sokna, about midway between Tripoli and Murzuk, situated on a great +gravel plain north of the Suda range, has a population of about 2500. + +Garama (Jerma-el-Kedima), the capital under the Garamantes and the +Romans, was in the Wadi-el-Gharbi. It was a flourishing town at the time +of the Arab conquest but is now deserted. Among the ruins is a +well-preserved stone monument marking the southern limit of the Roman +dominions in this part of Africa. The modern Jerma is a small place a +little north of the site of Garama. Zuila, the capital under the Arabs, +lies in a depression called the Sherguia east of Murzuk on the most +direct caravan route to Barca and Egypt. Of Traghen, the capital under +the Nesur dynasty, which was on the same caravan route and between Zuila +and Murzuk, little besides the ruined kasbah remains. + +Placed roughly midway between the countries of the central Sudan and +Tripoli, Fezzan serves as a depot for caravans crossing the Sahara; its +commerce is unimportant. Its most important export is that of dates. +Slave dealing, formerly the most lucrative occupation of the people, is +moribund owing to the stoppage of slave raiding by the European +governments in their Sudan territories. + +_History._--The country formed part of the territory of the Garamantes, +described by Herodotus as a very powerful people. Attempts have been +made to identify the Garamantes with the Berauna of the Arabs of the 7th +century, and to the period of the Garamantes Duveyrier assigns the +remains of remarkable hydraulic works, and certain tombs and rock +sculptures--indications, it is held, of a Negro civilization of ancient +date which existed in the northern Sahara. The Garamantes, whether of +Libyan or Negro origin, had certainly a considerable degree of +civilization when in the year 19 B.C. they were conquered by the +proconsul L. Cornelius Balbus Minor and their country added to the Roman +empire. By the Romans it was called Phazania, whence the present name +Fezzan. After the Vandal invasion Phazania appears to have regained +independence and to have been ruled by a Berauna dynasty. At this time +the people were Christians, but in 666 the Arabs conquered the country +and all traces of Christianity seem speedily to have disappeared. +Subject at first to the caliphs, an independent Arab dynasty, that of +the Beni Khattab, obtained power early in the 10th century. In the 13th +century the country came under the rule of the king of Kanem (Bornu), +but soon afterwards the Nesur, said to have been a native or Berauna +dynasty, were in power. More probably the Nesur were hereditary +governors originally appointed by the rulers of Kanem. In the 14th +century the Nesur were conquered and dethroned by an Arab tribe, that of +Khorman, who reduced the people of Fezzan to a state of slavery, a +position from which they were rescued about the middle of the 16th +century by a sherif of Morocco, Montasir-b.-Mahommed, who founded the +dynasty of Beni Mahommed. This dynasty, which came into frequent +conflict with the Turks, who had about the same time that Montasir +secured Fezzan established themselves in Tripoli, gradually extended its +borders as far as Sokna in the north. It was the Beni Mahommed who chose +Murzuk as their capital. They became intermittently tributary to the +pasha of Tripoli, but within Fezzan the power of the sultans was +absolute. They maintained a body-guard of mamelukes, mostly +Europeans--Greeks, Genoese, or their immediate descendants. The annual +tribute was paid to the pasha either in money or in gold, senna or +slaves. The last of the Beni Mahommed sultans was killed in the vicinity +of Traghen in 1811 by El-Mukkeni, one of the lieutenants of Yusef Pasha, +the last sovereign but one of the independent Karamanli dynasty of +Tripoli. El-Mukkeni now made himself sultan of Fezzan, and became +notorious by his slaving expeditions into the central Sudan, in which he +advanced as far as Bagirmi. In 1831, Abd-el-Jelil, a chief of the +Walid-Sliman Arabs, usurped the sovereign authority. After a troublous +reign of ten years he was slain in battle by a Turkish force under Bakir +Bey, and Fezzan was added to the Turkish empire. Towards the end of the +19th century the Turks, alarmed at the increase of French influence in +the neighbouring countries, reinforced their garrison in Fezzan. The +kaimakamlik is said to yield an annual revenue of L6000 only to the +Tripolitan treasury. + + AUTHORITIES.--The most notable of the European travellers who have + visited Fezzan, and to whose works reference should be made for more + detailed information regarding it, are, taking them in the order of + date, as follows: F. Hornemann, 1798; G.F. Lyon, 1819; D. Denham, H. + Clapperton and W. Oudney, 1822; J. Richardson, 1845; H. Barth, + 1850-1855; E. Vogel, 1854; H. Duveyrier, 1859-1861; M. von Beurmann, + 1862; G. Rohlfs, 1865; G. Nachtigal, 1869; P.L. Monteil, 1892; H. + Vischer, 1906. Nachtigal's _Sahara and Sudan_, vol. i. (Berlin, 1879), + gathers up much of the information in earlier works, and a list of the + Beni Mahommed sovereigns is given in A.M.H.J. Stokvis, _Manuel + d'histoire_, vol. i. (Leiden, 1888), p. 471. Miss Tinne (q.v.), who + travelled with Nachtigal as far as Murzuk, was shortly afterwards + murdered at the Sharaba wells on the road to Ghat. + + + + +FIACRE, SAINT (Celt. _Fiachra_), an anchorite of the 7th century, of +noble Irish descent. We have no information concerning his life in his +native country. His _Acta_, which have scarcely any historical value, +relate that he left Ireland, and came to France with his companions. He +approached St Faro, the bishop of Meaux, to whom he made known his +desire to live a life of solitude in the forest. St Faro assigned him a +spot called Prodilus (Brodolium), the modern Breuil, in the province of +Brie. There St Fiacre built a monastery in honour of the Holy Virgin, +and to it added a small house for guests, to which he himself withdrew. +Here he received St Chillen (? Killian), who was returning from a +pilgrimage to Rome, and here he remained until his death, having +acquired a great reputation for miracles. His remains rested for a long +time in the place which he had sanctified. In 1568, at the time of the +religious troubles, they were transferred to the cathedral of Meaux, +where his shrine may still be seen in the sacristy. Various relics of St +Fiacre were given to princes and great personages. His festival is +celebrated on the 30th of August. He is the patron of Brie, and +gardeners invoke him as their protector. French hackney-coaches received +the name of _fiacre_ from the Hotel St Fiacre, in the rue St Martin, +Paris, where one Sauvage, who was the first to provide cabs for hire, +kept his vehicles. + + See _Acta Sanctorum_, Augusti vi. 598-620; J. O'Hanlon, _Lives of the + Irish Saints_, viii. 421-447 (Dublin, 1875-1904); J.C. O'Meagher, + "Saint Fiacre de la Brie," in _Proceedings of the Royal Irish + Academy_, 3rd series, ii. 173-176. (H. De.) + + + + +FIARS PRICES, in the law of Scotland, the average prices of each of the +different sorts of grain grown in each county, as fixed annually by the +sheriff, usually after the verdict of a jury; they serve as a rule for +ascertaining the value of the grain due to feudal superiors, to the +clergy or to lay proprietors of teinds, to landlords as a part or the +whole of their rents and in all cases where the price of grain has not +been fixed by the parties. It is not known when or how the practice of +"striking the fiars," as it is called, originated. It probably was first +used to determine the value of the grain rents and duties payable to the +crown. In confirmation of this view it seems that at first the duty of +the sheriffs was merely to make a return to the court of exchequer of +the prices of grain within their counties, the court itself striking the +fiars; and from an old case it appears that the fiars were struck above +the true prices, being regarded rather as punishments to force the +king's tenants to pay their rents than as the proper equivalent of the +grain they had to pay. Co-existent, however, with these fiars, which +were termed sheriffs' fiars, there was at an early period another class +called commissaries' fiars, by which the values of teinds were +regulated. They have been traced back to the Reformation, and were under +the management of the commissary or consistorial courts, which then took +the place of the bishops and their officials. They have now been long +out of use, but they were perhaps of greater antiquity than the +sheriffs' fiars, and the model upon which these were instituted. In 1723 +the court of session passed an Act of Sederunt for the purpose of +regulating the procedure in fiars courts. Down to that date the practice +of striking the fiars was by no means universal over Scotland; and even +in those counties into which it had been introduced, there was, as the +preamble of the act puts it, "a general complaint that the said fiars +are struck and given out by the sheriffs without due care and inquiry +into the current and just prices." The act in consequence provided that +all sheriffs should summon annually, between the 4th and the 20th of +February, a competent number of persons, living in the shire, of +experience in the prices of grain within its bounds, and that from these +they should choose a jury of fifteen, of whom at least eight were to be +heritors; that witnesses and other evidence as to the price of grain +grown in the county, especially since the 1st of November preceding +until the day of inquiry, were to be brought before the jury, who might +also proceed on "their own proper knowledge"; that the verdict was to be +returned and the sentence of the sheriff pronounced by the 1st of March; +and further, where custom or expediency recommended it, the sheriff was +empowered to fix fiars of different values according to the different +qualities of the grain. It cannot be said that this act has remedied all +the evils of which it complained. The propriety of some of its +provisions has been questioned, and the competency of the court to pass +it has been doubted, even by the court itself. Its authority has been +entirely disregarded in one county--Haddingtonshire--where the fiars are +struck by the sheriff alone, without a jury; and when this practice was +called in question the court declined to interfere, observing that the +fiars were better struck in Haddingtonshire than anywhere else. The +other sheriffs have in the main followed the act, but with much variety +of detail, and in many instances on principles the least calculated to +reach the true average prices. Thus in some counties the averages are +taken on the number of transactions, without regard to the quantities +sold. In one case, in 1838, the evidence was so carelessly collected +that the second or inferior barley fiars were 2s. 4d. higher than the +first. Formerly the price was struck by the boll, commonly the +Linlithgowshire boll; now the imperial quarter is always used. + + The origin of the plural word fiars (feors, feers, fiers) is + uncertain. Jamieson, in his _Dictionary_, says that it comes from the + Icelandic _fe_, wealth; Paterson derives it from an old French word + _feur_, an average; others connect it with the Latin _forum_ (i.e. + market). The _New English Dictionary_ accepts the two latter + connexions. On the general subject of fiars prices see Paterson's + _Historical Account of the Fiars in Scotland_ (Edin., 1852); Connell, + _On Tithes_; Hunter's _Landlord and Tenant_. + + + + +FIBRES (or FIBERS, in American spelling; from Lat. _fibra_, apparently +connected either with _filum_, thread, or _findere_, to split), the +general term for certain structural components of animal and vegetable +tissue utilized in manufactures, and in respect of such uses, divided +for the sake of classification into textile, papermaking, brush and +miscellaneous fibres. + +I. _Textile Fibres_ are mostly products of the organic world, elaborated +in their elongated form to subserve protective functions in animal life +(as wool and epidermal hairs, &c.) or as structural components of +vegetable tissues (flax, hemp and wood cells). It may be noted that the +inorganic world provides an exception to this general statement in the +fibrous mineral asbestos (q.v.), which is spun or twisted into coarse +textiles. Other silicates are also transformed by artificial processes +into fibrous forms, such as "glass," which is fused and drawn or spun to +a continuous fibre, and various "slags" which, in the fused state, are +transformed into "slag wool." Lastly, we note that a number of metals +are drawn down to the finest dimensions, in continuous lengths, and +these are woven into cloth or gauze, such metallic cloths finding +valuable applications in the arts. Certain metals in the form of fine +wire are woven into textile fabrics used as dress materials. Such +exceptional applications are of insignificant importance, and will not +be further considered in this article. + +The common characteristics of the various forms of matter comprised in +the widely diversified groups of textile fibres are those of the +colloids. Colloidal matter is intrinsically devoid of structure, and in +the mass may be regarded as homogeneous; whereas crystalline matter in +its proximate forms assumes definite and specific shapes which express a +complex of internal stresses. The properties of matter which condition +its adaptation to structural functions, first as a constituent of a +living individual, and afterwards as a textile fibre, are homogeneous +continuity of substance, with a high degree of interior cohesion, and +associated with an irreducible minimum of elasticity or extensibility. +The colloids show an infinite diversity of variations in these essential +properties: certain of them, and notably cellulose (q.v.), maintain +these characteristics throughout a cycle of transformations such as +permit of their being brought into a soluble plastic form, in which +condition they may be drawn into filaments in continuous length. The +artificial silks or lustra-celluloses are produced in this way, and have +already taken an established position as staple textiles. For a more +detailed account of these products see CELLULOSE. + +The animal fibres are composed of nitrogenous colloids of which the +typical representatives are the albumens, fibrines and gelatines. They +are of highly complex constitution and their characteristics have only +been generally investigated. The vegetable fibre substances are +celluloses and derivatives of celluloses, also typically colloidal +bodies. The broad distinction between the two groups is chiefly evident +in their relationship to alkalis. The former group are attacked, +resolved and finally dissolved, under conditions of action by no means +severe. The celluloses, on the other hand, and therefore the vegetable +fibres, are extraordinarily resistant to the action of alkalis. + +The animal fibres are relatively few in number but of great industrial +importance. They occur as detached units and are of varying dimensions; +sheep's wool having lengths up to 36 in., the fleeces being shorn for +textile uses at lengths of 2 to 16 in.; horse hair is used in lengths of +4 to 24 in., whereas the silks may be considered as being produced in +continuous length, "reeled silks" having lengths measured in hundreds of +yards, but "spun silks" are composed of silk fibres purposely broken up +into short lengths. + +The vegetable fibres are extremely numerous and of very diversified +characteristics. They are individualized units only in the case of seed +hairs, of which cotton is by far the most important; with this exception +they are elaborated as more or less complex aggregates. The bast tissues +of dicotyledonous annuals furnish such staple materials as flax, hemp, +rhea or ramie and jute. The bast occurs in a peripheral zone, external +to the wood and beneath the cortex, and is mechanically separated from +the stem, usually after steeping, followed by drying. + +The commercial forms of these fibres are elongated filaments composed of +the elementary bast cells (ultimate fibres) aggregated into bundles. The +number of these as any part of the filament may vary from 3 to 20 (see +figs.). In the processes of refinement preparatory to the spinning +(hackling, scutching) and in the spinning process itself, the +fibre-bundles are more or less subdivided, and the divisibility of the +bundles is an element in the textile value of the raw material. But the +value of the material is rather determined by the length of the ultimate +fibres (for, although not the spinning unit, the tensile strength of the +yarn is ultimately limited by the cohesion of these fibres), qualified +by the important factor of uniformity. + +Thus, the ultimate fibre of flax has a length of 25 to 35 mm.; jute, on +the other hand, 2 to 3 mm.; and this disparity is an essential condition +of the difference of values of these fibres. Rhea or ramie, to cite +another typical instance, has an ultimate fibre of extraordinary length, +but of equally conspicuous variability, viz. from 50 to 200 mm. The +variability is a serious impediment in the preparation of the material +for spinning and this defect, together with low drawing or spinning +quality, limits the applications of this fibre to the lower counts or +grades of yarn. + +The monocotyledons yield still more complex fibre aggregates, which are +the fibro-vascular bundles of leaves and stems. These complex structures +as a class do not yield to the mechanical treatment by which the bast +fibres are subdivided, nor is there any true spinning quality such as is +conditioned by bringing the ultimate fibres into play under the drawing +process, which immediately precedes the twisting into yarn. Such +materials are therefore only used for the coarsest textiles, such as +string or rope. An exception to be noted in passing is to be found in +the pine apple (_Ananassa Sativa_) the fibres of which are worked into +yarns and cloth of the finest quality. The more important fibres of this +class are manila, sisal, phormium. A heterogeneous mass of still more +complex fibre aggregates, in many cases the entire stem (cereal straws, +esparto), in addition to being used in plaited form, e.g. in hats, +chairs, mats, constitute the staple raw material for paper +manufacturers, requiring a severe chemical treatment for the separation +of the ultimate fibres. + +In this class we must include the woods which furnish wood pulps of +various classes and grades. Chemical processes of two types, (a) acid +and (b) alkaline, are also employed in resolving the wood, and the +resolution not only effects a complete isolation of the wood cells, but, +by attacking the hydrolysable constituents of the wood substance +(lignocellulose), the cells are obtained in the form of cellulose. These +cellulose pulps are known in commerce as "sulphite pulps" and "soda +pulps" respectively. In addition to these raw materials or "half stuffs" +the paper-maker employs the rejecta of the vegetable and textile +industries, scutching, spinning and cloth wastes of all kinds, which are +treated by chemical (boiling) and mechanical means (beating) to separate +the ultimate fibres and reduce them to the suitable dimensions (0.5-2.0 +mm.). These papermaking fibres have also to be reckoned with as textile +raw materials, in view of a new and growing industry in "pulp yarns" +(_Papierstoffgarn_), a coarse textile obtained by treating paper as +delivered in narrow strips from the paper machine; the strips are +reeled, dried to retain 30-40% moisture, and in this condition subjected +to the twisting operation, which confers the cylindrical form and adds +considerably to the strength of the fibrous strip. The following are the +essential characteristics of the economically important fibres. + +_Animal._--A. Silk. (a) The true silks are produced by the _Bombyx +Mori_, the worm feeding on the leaves of the mulberry. The fibre is +extruded as a viscous liquid from the glands of the worm, and solidifies +to a cylindrical thread. The cohesion of these threads in pairs gives to +raw silk the form of a dual cylinder (Plate I. fig. 2). For textile +purposes the thread is reeled from the cocoon, and several units, five +and upwards, are brought together and suitably twisted. (b) The "Wild" +silks are produced by a large variety of insects, of which the most +important are the various species of Antherea, which yield the Tussore +silks. These silks differ in form and composition from the true silks. +While they consist of a "dual" thread, each unit of these is complex, +being made up of a number of fibrillae. This unit thread is quadrangular +in section, and of larger diameter than the true silk, the mean breadth +being 0.052 mm., as compared with 0.018, the mean diameter of the true +silks. The variations in structure as well as in dimensions are, +however, very considerable. + +B. Epidermal hairs. Of these (a) wool, the epidermal protective covering +of sheep, is the most important. The varying species of the animal +produce wools of characteristic qualities, varying considerably in +fineness, in length of staple, in composition and in spinning quality. +Hence the classing of the fleeces or raw wool followed by the elaborate +processes of selection, i.e. "sorting" and preparation, which precede +the actual spinning or twisting of the yarn. These consist in entirely +freeing the fibres and sorting them mechanically (combing, &c.), +thereafter forming them into continuous lengths of parallelized units. +This is followed by the spinning process which consists in a +simultaneous drawing and twisting, and a continuous production of the +yarn with the structural characteristics of worsted yarns. The shorter +staple--from 5 to 25% of average fleeces--is prepared by the "carding" +process for the spinning operation, in which drawing and twisting are +simultaneous, the length spun being then wound up, and the process being +consequently intermittent. This section of the industry is known as +"woollen spinning" in contrast to the former or "_worsted_ spinning." + +(b) An important group of raw material closely allied to the wools are +the epidermal hairs of the Angora goat (mohair), the llama, alpaca. +Owing to their form and the nature of the substance of which they are +composed, they possess more lustre than the wools. They present +structural differences from sheep wools which influence the processes by +which they are prepared or spun, and the character of the yarns; but the +differences are only of subordinate moment. + +[Illustration: PLATE I. + + FIG. 1.--RAW SILK. _Bombyx mori_. Filament of bave, viewed in length. + X 110. + + FIG. 2.--RAW SILK. _Bombyx mori_. Single fibres in transverse section + showing each fibre or "bave" as dual cylinder. X 235. + + FIG. 3.--ARTIFICIAL "SILK." Lustra-cellulose viscose process, single + fibres in transverse section X 235. Normal type--polygon of 5 + sides--with concave sides due to contact of the component units of + textile filament. + + FIG. 4.--WOOL FIBRES. Australian merino viewed in length, X 235. + Surface imbrications--the structural cause of true felting properties. + + FIG. 5.--FLAX STEM. _Linum usitatissimum_. Transverse section of stem, + X 235, showing bast fibres occupying central zone. + + FIG. 6.--RAMIE. Section of bast region, X 235. Showing bast fibres + bundles but only slightly occurring as individuals.] + +[Illustration: PLATE II. + + FIG. 7.--JUTE. Bast bundles. Section of bast region, X 235, showing + agglomerated bundles of bast fibre, each bundle representing a + spinning unit or filament. + + FIG. 8.--MAIZE STEM. _Zea mais_. Fibro-vascular bundle in section. X + 110, typical of monocotyledonous structure. + + FIG. 9.--COTTON. FLAX. RAMIE. JUTE. Ultimate fibres in the length, X + 110. Portions selected to show typical structural characteristics. + + FIG. 10.--COTTON. FLAX. RAMIE. JUTE. Ultimate fibres--transverse + section, X 110. Note similarity of ramie to cotton and jute to flax. + + FIG. 11.--ESPARTO. Cellulose. Ultimate fibres of paper making pulp. + Typical fusiform bast fibres. X 65. + + FIG. 12.--SECTION OF HAND-MADE PAPER. X 110. Ultimate component fibres + disposed in every plane.] + +(c) Various animal hairs, such as those of the cow, camel and rabbit, +are also employed; the latter is largely worked into the class of +fabrics known as felts. In these the hairs are compacted together by +taking advantage of the peculiarity of structure which causes the +imbrications of the surface. + +(d) Horse hair is employed in its natural form as an individual filament +or monofil.[1] + +_Vegetable Fibres._--The subjoined scheme of classification sets out the +morphological structural characteristics of the vegetable fibres:-- + + Produced from + + _Dicotyledons._ _Monocotyledons._ + + A. Seed hairs. D. Fibro-vascular bundles. + B. Bast fibres. E. Entire leaves and stems. + C. Bast aggregates. + +In the list of the more important fibrous raw materials subjoined, the +capital letter immediately following the name refers the individual to +its position in this classification. In reference to the important +question of chemical composition and the actual nature of the fibre +substance, it may be premised that the vegetable fibres are composed of +cellulose, an important representative of the group of carbohydrates, of +which the cotton fibre substance is the chemical prototype, mixed and +combined with various derivatives belonging to the subgroups. (a) +Carbohydrates. (b) Unsaturated compounds of benzenoid and furfuroid +constitutions. (c) "Fat and wax" derivatives, i.e. groups belonging to +the fatty series, and of higher molecular dimensions--of such compound +celluloses the following are the prototypes:-- + +(a) Cellulose combined and mixed with "pectic" bodies (i.e. +pecto-celluloses), flax, rhea. + +(b) Cellulose combined with unsaturated groups or ligno-celluloses, jute +and the woods. + +(c) Cellulose combined and mixed with higher fatty acids, alcohols, +ethers, cuto-celluloses, protective epidermal covering of leaves. + +The letters a, b, c in the table below and following the capitals, which +have reference to the structural basis of classification, indicate the +main characteristics of the fibre substances. (See also CELLULOSE.) + +_Miscellaneous._--Various species of the family Palmaceae yield fibrous +products of value, of which mention must be made of the following. +_Raffia_, epidermal strips of the leaves of _Raphia ruffia_ +(Madagascar), _R. taedigera_ (Japan), largely employed as binder twine +in horticulture, replacing the "bast" (linden) formerly employed. +_Coir_, the fibrous envelope of the fruit of the _Cocos nucifera_, +extensively used for matting and other coarse textiles. _Carludovica +palmata_ (Central America) yields the raw material for Panama hats, the +_Corypha australis_ (Australia) yields a similar product. The leaves of +the date palm, _Phoenix dactylifera_, are employed locally in making +baskets and mats, and the fibro-vascular bundles are isolated for +working up into coarse twine and rope; similarly, the leaves of the +_Elaeis guineensis_, the fruit of which yields the "palm oil" of +commerce, yield a fibre which finds employment locally (Africa) for +special purposes. _Chamaerops humilis_, the dwarf palm, yields the +well-known "Crin d'Afrique." Locally (Algiers) it is twisted into ropes, +but its more general use, in Europe, is in upholstery as a stuffing +material. The cereal straws are used in the form of plait in the making +of hats and mats. Esparto grass is also used in the making of coarse +mats. + +The processes by which the fibres are transformed into textile fabrics +are in the main determined by their structural features. The following +are the distinctive types of treatment. + +A. The fibre is in virtually continuous lengths. The textile yarn is +produced by assembling together the unit threads, which are wound +together and suitably twisted (silk; artificial silk). + + + +----------------+-----------------+----------------------------+------------------------+-------------------------------------+ + | | Botanical | | | | + | | Identity. | Country of Origin. | Dimensions of Ultimate.| Textile Uses. | + | | Genus and Order.| | | | + +----------------+-----------------+----------------------------+------------------------+-------------------------------------+ + |Cotton, A.a. | Gossypium |Tropical and subtropical |12-40 mm. 0.019-0.025. | Universal. Also as a raw material | + | | Malvaceae | countries | Av. 28 mm. | in chemical industries, notably | + | | | | | explosives, celluloid. | + |Flax, B.a | Linum |Temperate (and subtropical) |6.60 mm. 0.011-0.025. | General. Special effects in lustre | + | | Linaceae | countries, chiefly | Av. 28 mm. | damasks. In India and America | + | | | European | | plants grown for seed (linseed). | + |Hemp, B.a | Cannabis |Temperate countries, chiefly|5-55 mm. 0.016-0.050. | Coarser textiles, sail-cloth, | + | | Cannabineae | Europe | Av. 22. mm. Av. 0.022 | rope and twine. | + |Ramie, B.a. | Boehmeria |Tropical countries (some |60-200 mm. 0.03-0.08. | Coarse textiles. Cost of preparation| + | | Urticaceae | temperate) | Av. 120 mm. Av. 0.050 | for fine textiles prohibitive. | + |Jute, B.b | Corchorus |Tropical countries, chiefly |1.5-5 mm. 0.020-0.025. | Coarse textiles, chiefly "Hessians" | + | | Tiliaceae | India | Av. 2.5 mm. Av. 0.022 | and sacking. "Line" spun yarns | + | | | | | used in cretonne and furniture | + | | | | | textiles. | + | B.b | Crotalaria |India |4.0-12.0. 0.025-0.050. | Twine and rope. Coarse textiles. | + | | Leguminosae | | Av. 7.5. Av. 0.022 | | + |Hibiscus, B.b | Hibiscus |Tropical, chiefly India |2-6 mm. 0.014-0.033. | Coarse textiles. H. Elams has been | + | | | | Av. 4 mm. Av. 0.021 | extensively used in making mats. | + |Sida, B.b | Sida |Tropical and subtropical |1.5-4 mm. 0.013-0.02. | Coarse textiles. Appears capable of | + | | Malvaceae | | Av. 2 mm. Av. 0.015 | substituting jute. | + |Lime or | Tilia |European countries, chiefly |1.5 mm. 0.014-0.020. | Matting and binder twine. | + | Linden,C.b | Tiliaceae | Russia | Av. 2 mm. Av. 0.016 | | + |Mulberry, C | Broussonetia |Far East |5-31 mm. 0.02-0.04. | Paper and paper cloths. | + | | Moraceae | | Av. 15 mm. Av. 0.03 | | + |Monocotyledons--| | | | | + | Manila, D. | Musa |Tropical countries, chiefly |3-12 mm. 0.016-0.032. | Twine and ropes. Produces papers | + | | Musaceae | Philippine Islands | Av. 6 mm. Av. 0.024 | of special quality. | + | Sisal, D | Agave |Tropical countries, chiefly |1.5-4 mm. 0.020-0.032. | Twine and ropes. | + | | Amaryllideae | Central America | Av. 2.5. Av. 0.024 | | + | | Yucca | do. |0.5-6 mm. 0.01-0.02. | do. | + | | Liliaceae | | | | + | | Sansevieria |East Indies, Ceylon, East |1.5-6 mm. 0.015-0.026. | do. | + | | Liliaceae | Africa | Av. 3 mm. Av. 0.020 | | + | Phormium, D. | Phormium tenax |New Zealand |5.0-15 mm. 0.010-0.020. | Twine and ropes. Distinguished by | + | | Liliaceae | | Av. 9 mm. Av. 0.016 | high yield of fibre from green | + | | | | | leaf. | + | Pine-apple, D.| Ananassa |Tropical East and West |3.0-9.0 mm. 0.004-0.008.| Textiles of remarkable fineness. | + | | Bromeliaceae | Indies | Av. 5. Av. 0.006 | Exceptional fineness of ultimate | + | | | | | fibre. | + +----------------+-----------------+----------------------------+------------------------+-------------------------------------+ + +B. The fibres in the form of units of variable short dimensions are +treated by more or less elaborate processes of scutching, hackling, +combing, with the aim of producing a mass of free parallelized units of +uniform dimensions; these are then laid together and drawn into +continuous bands of sliver and roving, which are finally drawn and +twisted into yarns. In this group are comprised the larger number of +textile products, such as cotton, wool, flax and jute, and it also +includes at the other extreme the production of coarse textiles, such as +twine and rope. + +C. The fibres of still shorter dimensions are treated in various ways +for the production of a fabric in continuous length. + +The distinction of type of manufacturing processes in which the +relatively short fibres are utilized, either as disintegrated units or +comminuted long fibres, follows the lines of division into long and +short fibres; the long fibres are worked into yarns by various +processes, whereas the shorter fibres are agglomerated by both dry and +wet processes to felted tissues or felts. It is obvious, however, that +these distinctions do not constitute rigid dividing lines. Thus the +principles involved in felting are also applied in the manipulation of +long fibre fabrics. For instance, woollen goods are closed or shrunk by +milling, the web being subjected to a beating or hammering treatment in +an apparatus known as "the Stocks," or is continuously run through +squeezing rollers, in weak alkaline liquids. Flax goods are "closed" by +the process of beetling, a long-continued process of hammering, under +which the ultimate fibres are more or less subdivided, and at the same +time welded or incorporated together. As already indicated, paper, which +is a web composed of units of short dimensions produced by deposition +from suspension in water and agglomerated by the interlacing of the +component fibres in all planes within the mass, is a species of textile. +Further, whereas the silks are mostly worked up in the extreme lengths +of the cocoon, there are various systems of spinning silk wastes of +variable short lengths, which are similar to those required for spinning +the fibres which occur naturally in the shorter lengths. + +The fibres thus enumerated as commercially and industrially important +have established themselves as the result of a struggle for survival, +and each embodies typical features of utility. There are innumerable +vegetable fibres, many of which are utilized in the locality or region +of their production, but are not available for the highly specialized +applications of modern competitive industry to qualify for which a very +complex range of requirements has to be met. These include primarily the +factors of production and transport summed up in cost of production, +together with the question of regularity of supply; structural +characteristics, form and dimensions, including uniformity of ultimate +unit and adaptability to standard methods of preparing and spinning, +together with tenacity and elasticity, lustre. Lastly, composition, +which determines the degree of resistance to chemical disintegrating +influences as well as subsidiary questions of colour and relationship to +colouring matters. The quest for new fibres, as well as modified methods +of production of those already known, require critical investigation +from the point of view of established practice. The present perspective +outline of the group will be found to contain the elements of a grammar +of the subject. But those who wish to pursue the matter will require to +amplify this outlined picture by a study of the special treatises which +deal with general principles, as well as the separate articles on the +various fibres. + +_Analysis and Identification._--For the analysis of textile fabrics and +the identification of component fibre, a special treatise must be +consulted. The following general facts are to be noted as of importance. + +All animal fibres are effectively dissolved by 10% solution of caustic +potash or soda. The fabric or material is boiled in this solution for 10 +minutes and exhaustively washed. Any residue will be vegetable or +cellulose fibre. It must not be forgotten that the chemical properties +of the fibre substances are modified more or less by association in +combination with colouring matters and mordants. These may, in many +cases, be removed by treatments which do not seriously modify the fibre +substances. + +Wool is distinguished from silk by its relative resistance to the action +of sulphuric acid. The cold concentrated acid rapidly dissolves silk as +well as the vegetable fibres. The attack on wool is slow, and the +epidermal scales of wool make their appearance. The true silks are +distinguished from the wild silks by the action of concentrated +hydrochloric acid in the cold, which reagent dissolves the former, but +has only a slight effect on Tussore silk. After preliminary resolution +by these group reagents, the fabric is subjected to microscopical +analysis for the final identification of its component fibres (see H. +Schlichter, _Journal Soc. Chem. Ind_., 1890, p. 241). + +A scheme for the commercial analysis or assay of vegetable fibres, +originally proposed by the author,[2] and now generally adopted, +includes the following operations:-- + + 1. Determination of moisture. + + 2. Determination of ash left after complete ignition. + + 3. Hydrolysis: + + (a) loss of weight after boiling the raw fibre with a 1% caustic + soda solution for five minutes; + (b) loss after boiling for one hour. + + 4. Determination of cellulose: the white residue after + + (a) boiling for five minutes with 1% caustic soda, + (b) exposure to chlorine gas for one hour, + (c) boiling with basic sodium sulphite solution. + + 5. Mercerizing: the loss of weight after digestion with a 20% solution + of sodium hydrate for one hour in the cold. + + 6. Nitration: the weight of the product obtained after digestion with + a mixture of equal volumes of sulphuric and nitric acids for one hour + in the cold. + + 7. Acid purification: treatment of the raw fibre with 20% acetic acid + for one minute, the product being washed with water and alcohol, and + then dried. + + 8. Determination of the total carbon by combustion. + +II. _Papermaking._--The papermaking industry (see PAPER) employs as raw +materials a large proportion of the vegetable fibre products already +enumerated, and, for the reasons incidentally mentioned, they may be, +and are, employed in a large variety of forms: in fact any fibrous +material containing over 30% "cellulose" and yielding ultimate fibres of +a length exceeding 1 mm. can be used in this industry. Most important +staples are cotton and flax; these are known to the paper-maker as "rag" +fibres, rags, i.e. cuttings of textile fabrics, new and old, being their +main source of supply. These are used for writing and drawing papers. In +the class of "printings" two of the most important staples are wood +pulp, prepared by chemical treatment from both pine and foliage woods, +and in England esparto cellulose, the cellulose obtained from esparto +grass by alkali treatment; the cereal straws are also used and are +resolved into cellulose by alkaline boiling followed by bleaching. In +the class of "wrappings" and miscellaneous papers a large number of +other materials find use, such as various residues of manufacturing and +preparing processes, scutching wastes, ends of rovings and yarns, flax, +hemp and manila rope waste, adansonia bast, and jute wastes, raw +(cuttings) and manufactured (bagging). Other materials have been +experimentally tried, and would no doubt come into use on their +papermaking merits, but as a matter of fact the actually suitable raw +materials are comprised in the list above enumerated, and are limited in +number, through the influence of a number of factors of value or +utility. + +III. _Brush Fibres, &c._--In addition to the textile industries there +are manufactures which utilize fibres of both animal and vegetable +character. The most important of these is brush-making. The familiar +brushes of everyday use are extremely diversified in form and texture. +The supplies of animal fibres are mainly drawn from the badger, hog, +bear, sable, squirrel and horse. These fibres and bristles cover a large +range of effects. Brushes required for cleansing purposes are composed +of fibres of a more or less hard and resilient character, such as horse +hairs, and other tail hairs and bristles. For painting work brushes of +soft quality are employed, graduating for fine work into the extreme +softness of the "camel hair" pencil. Of vegetable fibres the following +are used in this industry. The _Caryota urens_ furnishes the Kittul +fibre, obtained from the base of the leaf stalks. Piassava is obtained +from the _Attalea funifera_, also from the _Leopoldina piassaba_ +(Brazil). Palmyra fibre is obtained from the _Borassus flabellifer_. +These are all members of the natural order of the Palmaceae. Mexican +fibre, or Istle, is obtained from the agave. The fibre known as Whisk, +largely used for dusting brushes, is obtained from various species of +the Gramineae; the "Mexican Whisk" from _Epicampeas macroura_; and +"Italian Whisk" from _Andropogon_. The _coir_ fibre mentioned above in +connexion with coarse textiles is also extensively used in brush-making. +Aloe and Agave fibres in their softer forms are also used for +plasterers' brushes. Many of the whitewashes and cleansing solutions +used in house decoration are alkaline in character, and for such uses +advantage is taken of the specially resistant character of the cellulose +group of materials. + +_Stuffing and Upholstery._--Another important use for fibrous materials +is for filling or stuffing in connexion with the seats and cushions in +upholstery. In the large range of effects required, a corresponding +number and variety of products find employment. One of the most +important is the floss or seed-hair of the _Eriodendron anfractuosum_, +known as Kapok, the use of which in Europe was created by the Dutch +merchants who drew their supplies from Java. The fibre is soft, silky +and elastic, and maintains its elasticity in use. Many fibres when used +in the mass show, on the other hand, a tendency to become matted and +compressed in use, and to restore them to their original state the fibre +requires to be removed and subjected to a teasing or carding process. +This defect limits the use of other "flosses" or seed hairs in +competition with Kapok. Horse hair is extensively used in this industry, +as are also wool flocks and other short animal hairs and wastes. + +_Hats and Matting._--For these manufactures a large range of the fibrous +products above described are employed, chiefly in their natural or raw +state. + + BIBLIOGRAPHY.--The list of works appended comprises only a small + fraction of the standard literature of the subject, but they are + sufficiently representative to enable the specialist, by referring to + them, to cover the subject-matter. F.H. Bowman, _The Structure of the + Wood Fibre_ (1885), _The Structure of Cotton Fibre_ (1882); Cross, + Bevan and King, _Indian Fibres and Fibrous Substances_ (London, 1887); + C.F. Cross, _Report on Miscellaneous Fibres_, Colonial Indian + Exhibition, 1886 (London, 1887); Cross and Bevan, _Cellulose, + Researches on Cellulose_, i. and ii. (London, 1895-1905); C.R. Dodge, + _A Descriptive Catalogue of Useful Fibre Plants of the World_ (Report + No. 9, U.S. Dept. of Agriculture, Washington, 1897); von Hohmel, _Die + Mikroskopie der technisch verwendeten Faserstoffe_ (Leipzig, 1905); + J.J. Hummel, _The Dyeing of Textile Fabrics_ (London, 1885); J.M. + Matthews, _The Textile Fibres, their Physical, Microscopical and + Chemical Properties_ (New York, 1904); H. Muller, _Die Pflanzenfaser_ + (Braunschweig, 1877); H. Schlichter, "The Examination of Textile + Fibres and Fabrics" (_Jour. Soc. Chem. Ind._, 1890, 241); M. + Vetillart, _Etudes sur les fibres vegetales textiles_ (Paris, 1876); + Sir T.H. Wardle, _Silk and Wild Silks_, original memoirs in connexion + with Col. Ind. Ex., 1886, Jubilee Ex. Manchester, 1887; Sir G. Watt, + _Dictionary of Economic Products of India_ (London, 1891); Wiesner, + _Die Rohstoffe des Pflanzenreichs_ (Leipzig, 1873); O.N. Witt, + _Chemische Technologie der Gespinnstfasern_ (Braunschweig, 1888); _Kew + Bulletin_; _The Journal of the Imperial Institute_; _The Journal of + the Society of Arts_; W.I. Hannam, _The Textile Fibres of Commerce_ + (London, 1902); J. Jackson, _Commercial Botany_; J. Zipser, _Die + Textilen Rohmaterialien_ (Wien, 1895); F. Zetzsche, _Die wichtigsten + Faserstoffe der europaischen Industrie_ (Leipzig, 1895). + (C. F. C.) + + +FOOTNOTES: + + [1] See also ALPACA, FELT, MOHAIR, SHODDY and WOOL. + + [2] Col. Ind. Exhibition, 1886, _Miscellaneous Reports_. + + + + +FIBRIN, or FIBRINE, a protein formed by the action of the so-called +fibrin-ferment on fibrinogen, a constituent of the blood-plasma of all +vertebrates. This change takes place when blood leaves the arteries, and +the fibrin thus formed occasions the clotting which ensues (see BLOOD). +To obtain pure coagulated fibrin it is best to heat blood-plasma +(preferably that of the horse) to 56 deg. C. The usual method of beating +a blood-clot with twigs and removing the filamentous fibrin which +attaches itself to them yields a very impure product containing +haemoglobin and much globulin; moreover, it is very difficult to purify. +Fibrin is a very voluminous, tough, strongly elastic, jelly-like +substance; when denaturalized by heat, alcohol or salts, it behaves as +any other coagulated albumin. + + + + +FICHTE, IMMANUEL HERMANN (originally HARTMANN) VON (1797-1879), German +philosopher, son of J.G. Fichte, was born at Jena on the 18th of July +1797. Having held educational posts at Saarbrucken and Dusseldorf, in +1836 he became extraordinary professor of philosophy at Bonn, and in +1840 full professor. In 1842 he received a call to Tubingen, retired in +1867, and died at Stuttgart on the 8th of August 1879. The most +important of his comprehensive writings are: _System der Ethik_ +(1850-1853), _Anthropologie_ (1856, 3rd ed. 1876), _Psychologie_ +(1864-1873), _Die theistische Weltansicht_ (1873). In 1837 he had +founded the _Zeitschrift fur Philosophie_ as an organ of his views, more +especially on the subject of the philosophy of religion, where he was in +alliance with C.H. Weisse; but, whereas Weisse thought that the Hegelian +structure was sound in the main, and that its imperfections might be +mended, Fichte held it to be incurably defective, and spoke of it as a +"masterpiece of erroneous consistency or consistent error." Fichte's +general views on philosophy seem to have changed considerably as he +advanced in years, and his influence has been impaired by certain +inconsistencies and an appearance of eclecticism, which is strengthened +by his predominantly historical treatment of problems, his desire to +include divergent systems within his own, and his conciliatory tone. His +philosophy is an attempt to reconcile monism (Hegel) and individualism +(Herbart) by means of theism (Leibnitz). He attacks Hegelianism for its +pantheism, its lowering of human personality, and imperfect recognition +of the demands of the moral consciousness. God, he says, is to be +regarded not as an absolute but as an Infinite Person, whose nature it +is that he should realize himself in finite persons. These persons are +objects of God's love, and he arranges the world for their good. The +direct connecting link between God and man is the "genius," a higher +spiritual individuality existing in man by the side of his lower, +earthly individuality. Fichte, in short, advocates an ethical theism, +and his arguments might easily be turned to account by the apologist of +Christianity. In his conception of finite personality he recurs to +something like the monadism of Leibnitz. His insistence on moral +experience is connected with his insistence on personality. One of the +tests by which Fichte discriminates the value of previous systems is the +adequateness with which they interpret moral experience. The same reason +that made him depreciate Hegel made him praise Krause (panentheism) and +Schleiermacher, and speak respectfully of English philosophy. It is +characteristic of Fichte's almost excessive receptiveness that in his +latest published work, _Der neuere Spiritualismus_ (1878), he supports +his position by arguments of a somewhat occult or theosophical cast, not +unlike those adopted by F.W.H. Myers. He also edited the complete works +and literary correspondence of his father, including his life. + + See R. Eucken, "Zur Erinnerung I. H. F.," in _Zeitschrift fur + Philosophie_, ex. (1897); C.C. Scherer, _Die Gotteslehre von I. H. F._ + (1902); article by Karl Hartmann in _Allegemeine deutsche Biographie_ + xlviii. (1904). Some of his works were translated by J.D. Morell under + the title of _Contributions to Mental Philosophy_ (1860). + + + + +FICHTE, JOHANN GOTTLIEB (1762-1814), German philosopher, was born at +Rammenau in Upper Lusatia on the 19th of May 1762. His father, a +ribbon-weaver, was a descendant of a Swedish soldier who (in the service +of Gustavus Adolphus) was left wounded at Rammenau and settled there. +The family was distinguished for piety, uprightness, and solidity of +character. With these qualities Fichte himself combined a certain +impetuosity and impatience probably derived from his mother, a woman of +a somewhat querulous and jealous disposition. + +At a very early age the boy showed remarkable mental vigour and moral +independence. A fortunate accident which brought him under the notice of +a neighbouring nobleman, Freiherr von Miltitz, was the means of +procuring him a more excellent education than his father's circumstances +would have allowed. He was placed under the care of Pastor Krebel at +Niederau. After a short stay at Meissen he was entered at the celebrated +school at Pforta, near Naumburg. In 1780 he entered the university of +Jena as a student of theology. He supported himself mainly by private +teaching, and during the years 1784-1787 acted as tutor in various +families of Saxony. In 1787, after an unsuccessful application to the +consistory for pecuniary assistance, he seems to have been driven to +miscellaneous literary work. A tutorship at Zurich was, however, +obtained in the spring of 1788, and Fichte spent in Switzerland two of +the happiest years of his life. He made several valuable acquaintances, +among others Lavater and his brother-in-law Hartmann Rahn, to whose +daughter, Johanna Maria, he became engaged. + +Settling at Leipzig, still without any fixed means of livelihood, he was +again reduced to literary drudgery. In the midst of this work occurred +the most important event of his life, his introduction to the philosophy +of Kant. At Schulpforta he had read with delight Lessing's _Anti-Goeze_, +and during his Jena days had studied the relation between philosophy and +religion. The outcome of his speculations, _Aphorismen uber Religion und +Deismus_ (unpublished, date 1790; _Werke_, i. 1-8), was a species of +Spinozistic determinism, regarded, however, as lying altogether outside +the boundary of religion. It is remarkable that even for a time fatalism +should have been predominant in his reasoning, for in character he was +opposed to such a view, and, as he has said, "according to the man, so +is the system of philosophy he adopts." + +Fichte's _Letters_ of this period attest the influence exercised on him +by the study of Kant. It effected a revolution in his mode of thinking; +so completely did the Kantian doctrine of the inherent moral worth of +man harmonize with his own character, that his life becomes one effort +to perfect a true philosophy, and to make its principles practical +maxims. At first he seems to have thought that the best method for +accomplishing his object would be to expound Kantianism in a popular, +intelligible form. He rightly felt that the reception of Kant's +doctrines was impeded by their phraseology. An abridgment of the _Kritik +der Urtheilskraft_ was begun, but was left unfinished. + +Fichte's circumstances had not improved. It had been arranged that he +should return to Zurich and be married to Johanna Rahn, but the plan was +overthrown by a commercial disaster which affected the fortunes of the +Rahn family. Fichte accepted a post as private tutor in Warsaw, and +proceeded on foot to that town. The situation proved unsuitable; the +lady, as Kuno Fischer says, "required greater submission and better +French" than Fichte could yield, and after a fortnight's stay Fichte set +out for Konigsberg to see Kant. His first interview was disappointing; +the coldness and formality of the aged philosopher checked the +enthusiasm of the young disciple, though it did not diminish his +reverence. He resolved to bring himself before Kant's notice by +submitting to him a work in which the principles of the Kantian +philosophy should be applied. Such was the origin of the work, written +in four weeks, the _Versuch einer Kritik aller Offenbarung_ (Essay +towards a Critique of all Revelation). The problem which Fichte dealt +with in this essay was one not yet handled by Kant himself, the +relations of which to the critical philosophy furnished matter for +surmise. Indirectly, indeed, Kant had indicated a very definite opinion +on theology: from the _Critique of Pure Reason_ it was clear that for +him speculative theology must be purely negative, while the _Critique of +Practical Reason_ as clearly indicated the view that the moral law is +the absolute content or substance of any religion. A _critical_ +investigation of the conditions under which religious belief was +possible was still wanting. Fichte sent his essay to Kant, who approved +it highly, extended to the author a warm reception, and exerted his +influence to procure a publisher. After some delay, consequent on the +scruples of the theological censor of Halle, who did not like to see +miracles rejected, the book appeared (Easter, 1792). By an oversight +Fichte's name did not appear on the title-page, nor was the preface +given, in which the author spoke of himself as a beginner in philosophy. +Outsiders, not unnaturally, ascribed the work to Kant. The _Allgemeine +Literatur-Zeitung_ went so far as to say that no one who had read a line +of Kant's writings could fail to recognize the eminent author of this +new work. Kant himself corrected the mistake, at the same time highly +commending the work. Fichte's reputation was thus secured at a stroke. + +The _Critique of Revelation_ marks the culminating point of Fichte's +Kantian period. The exposition of the conditions under which revealed +religion is possible turns upon the absolute requirements of the moral +law in human nature. Religion itself is the belief in this moral law as +divine, and such belief is a practical postulate, necessary in order to +add force to the law. It follows that no revealed religion, so far as +matter or substance is concerned, can contain anything beyond this law; +nor can any fact in the world of experience be recognized by us as +supernatural. The supernatural element in religion can only be the +divine character of the moral law. Now, the revelation of this divine +character of morality is possible only to a being in whom the lower +impulses have been, or are, successful in overcoming reverence for the +law. In such a case it is conceivable that a revelation might be given +in order to add strength to the moral law. Religion ultimately then +rests upon the practical reason, and expresses some demand or want of +the pure ego. In this conclusion we can trace the prominence assigned by +Fichte to the practical element, and the tendency to make the +requirements of the ego the ground for all judgment on reality. It was +not possible that having reached this point he should not press forward +and leave the Kantian position. + +This success was coincident with an improvement in the fortunes of the +Rahn family, and the marriage took place at Zurich in October 1793. The +remainder of the year he spent at Zurich, slowly perfecting his thoughts +on the fundamental problems left for solution in the Kantian philosophy. +During this period he published anonymously two remarkable political +works, _Zuruckforderung der Denkfreiheit von den Fursten Europas_ and +_Beitrage zur Berichtigung der Urtheile des Publicums uber die +franzosische Revolution_. Of these the latter is much the more +important. The French Revolution seemed to many earnest thinkers the one +great outcry of modern times for the liberty of thought and action which +is the eternal heritage of every human being. Unfortunately the +political condition of Germany was unfavourable to the formation of an +unbiassed opinion on the great movement. The principles involved in it +were lost sight of under the mass of spurious maxims on social order +which had slowly grown up and stiffened into system. To direct attention +to the true nature of revolution, to demonstrate how inextricably the +right of liberty is interwoven with the very existence of man as an +intelligent agent, to point out the inherent progressiveness of state +arrangements, and the consequent necessity of reform or amendment, such +are the main objects of the _Beitrage_; and although, as is often the +case with Fichte, the arguments are too formal and the distinctions too +wire-drawn, yet the general idea is nobly conceived and carried out. As +in the _Critique of Revelation_ so here the rational nature of man and +the conditions necessary for its manifestation or realization become the +standard for critical judgment. + +Towards the close of 1793 Fichte received an invitation to succeed K.L. +Reinhold as extraordinary professor of philosophy at Jena. This chair, +not in the ordinary faculty, had become, through Reinhold, the most +important in the university, and great deliberation was exercised in +selecting his successor. It was desired to secure an exponent of +Kantianism, and none seemed so highly qualified as the author of the +_Critique of Revelation_. Fichte, while accepting the call, desired to +spend a year in preparation; but as this was deemed inexpedient he +rapidly drew out for his students an introductory outline of his system, +and began his lectures in May 1794. His success was instantaneous and +complete. The fame of his predecessor was altogether eclipsed. Much of +this success was due to Fichte's rare power as a lecturer. In oral +exposition the vigour of thought and moral intensity of the man were +most of all apparent, while his practical earnestness completely +captivated his hearers. He lectured not only to his own class, but on +general moral subjects to all students of the university. These general +addresses, published under the title _Bestimmung des Gelehrten_ +(Vocation of the Scholar), were on a subject dear to Fichte's heart, the +supreme importance of the highest intellectual culture and the duties +incumbent on those who had received it. Their tone is stimulating and +lofty. + +The years spent at Jena were unusually productive; indeed, the completed +Fichtean philosophy is contained in the writings of this period. A +general introduction to the system is given in the tractate _Uber den +Begriff der Wissenschaftslehre_ (On the Notion of the Theory of +Science), 1794, and the theoretical portion is worked out in the +_Grundlage der gesammten Wissenschaftslehre_ (Foundation of the whole +Theory of Science, 1794) and _Grundriss des Eigenthumlichen d. +Wissenschaftslehre_ (Outline of what is peculiar in the Theory of +Science, 1794). To these were added in 1797 a _First_ and a _Second +Introduction to the Theory of Science_, and an _Essay towards a new +Exposition of the Theory of Science_. The _Introductions_ are masterly +expositions. The practical philosophy was given in the _Grundlage des +Naturrechts_ (1796) and _System der Sittenlehre_ (1798). The last is +probably the most important of all Fichte's works; apart from it, his +theoretical philosophy is unintelligible. + +During this period Fichte's academic career had been troubled by various +storms, the last so violent as to put a close to his professorate at +Jena. The first of them, a complaint against the delivery of his general +addresses on Sundays, was easily settled. The second, arising from +Fichte's strong desire to suppress the _Landsmannschaften_ (students' +orders), which were productive of much harm, was more serious. Some +misunderstanding caused an outburst of ignorant ill-feeling on the part +of the students, who proceeded to such lengths that Fichte was compelled +to reside out of Jena. The third storm, however, was the most violent. +In 1798 Fichte, who, with F.I. Niethammer (1766-1848), had edited the +_Philosophical Journal_ since 1795, received from his friend F.K. +Forberg (1770-1848) an essay on the "Development of the Idea of +Religion." With much of the essay he entirely agreed, but he thought the +exposition in so many ways defective and calculated to create an +erroneous impression, that he prefaced it with a short paper _On the +Grounds of our Belief in a Divine Government of the Universe_, in which +God is defined as the moral order of the universe, the eternal law of +right which is the foundation of all our being. The cry of atheism was +raised, and the electoral government of Saxony, followed by all the +German states except Prussia, suppressed the _Journal_ and confiscated +the copies found in their universities. Pressure was put by the German +powers on Charles Augustus, grand-duke of Saxe-Weimar, in whose +dominions Jena university was situated, to reprove and dismiss the +offenders. Fichte's defences (_Appellation an das Publicum gegen die +Anklage des Atheismus_, and _Gerichtliche Verantwortung der Herausgeber +der phil. Zeitschrift_, 1799), though masterly, did not make it easier +for the liberal-minded grand-duke to pass the matter over, and an +unfortunate letter, in which he threatened to resign in case of +reprimand, turned the scale against him. The grand-duke accepted his +threat as a request to resign, passed censure, and extended to him +permission to withdraw from his chair at Jena; nor would he alter his +decision, even though Fichte himself endeavoured to explain away the +unfortunate letter. + +Berlin was the only town in Germany open to him. His residence there +from 1799 to 1806 was unbroken save for a course of lectures during the +summer of 1805 at Erlangen, where he had been named professor. +Surrounded by friends, including Schlegel and Schleiermacher, he +continued his literary work, perfecting the _Wissenschaftslehre_. The +most remarkable of the works from this period are--(1) the _Bestimmung +des Menschen_ (Vocation of Man, 1800), a book which, for beauty of +style, richness of content, and elevation of thought, may be ranked with +the Meditations of Descartes; (2) _Der geschlossene Handelsstaat_, 1800 +(The Exclusive or Isolated Commercial State), a very remarkable +treatise, intensely socialist in tone, and inculcating organized +protection; (3) _Sonnenklarer Bericht an das grossere Publicum uber die +neueste Philosophie_, 1801. In 1801 was also written the _Darstellung +der Wissenschaftslehre_, which was not published till after his death. +In 1804 a set of lectures on the _Wissenschaftslehre_ was given at +Berlin, the notes of which were published in the _Nachgelassene Werke_, +vol. ii. In 1804 were also delivered the noble lectures entitled +_Grundzuge des gegenwartigen Zeitalters_ (Characteristics of the Present +Age, 1804), containing a most admirable analysis of the _Aufklarung_, +tracing the position of such a movement of thought in the natural +evolution of the general human consciousness, pointing out its inherent +defects, and indicating as the ultimate goal of progress the life of +reason in its highest aspect as a belief in the divine order of the +universe. The philosophy of history sketched in this work has something +of value with much that is fantastic. In 1805 and 1806 appeared the +_Wesen des Gelehrten_ (Nature of the Scholar) and the _Anweisung zum +seligen Leben oder Religionslehre_ (Way to a Blessed Life), the latter +the most important work of this Berlin period. In it the union between +the finite self-consciousness and the infinite ego or God is handled in +an almost mystical manner. The knowledge and love of God is the end of +life; by this means only can we attain blessedness (_Seligkeit_), for in +God alone have we a permanent, enduring object of desire. The infinite +God is the all; the world of independent objects is the result of +reflection or self-consciousness, by which the infinite unity is broken +up. God is thus over and above the distinction of subject and object; +our knowledge is but a reflex or picture of the infinite essence. Being +is not thought. + +The disasters of Prussia in 1806 drove Fichte from Berlin. He retired +first to Stargard, then to Konigsberg (where he lectured for a time), +then to Copenhagen, whence he returned to the capital in August 1807. +From this time his published writings are practical in character; not +till after the appearance of the _Nachgelassene Werke_ was it known in +what shape his final speculations had been thrown out. We may here note +the order of these posthumous writings as being of importance for +tracing the development of Fichte's thought. From the year 1806 we have +the remarkable _Bericht uber die Wissenschaftslehre_ (_Werke_, vol. +viii.), with its sharp critique of Schelling; from 1810 we have the +_Thatsachen des Bewusstseyns_, published in 1817, of which another +treatment is given in lectures of 1813 (_Nachgel. Werke_, vol. i.). Of +the _Wissenschaftslehre_ we have, in 1812-1813, four separate treatments +contained in the _Nachgel Werke_. As these consist mainly of notes for +lectures, couched in uncouth phraseology, they cannot be held to throw +much light on Fichte's views. Perhaps the most interesting are the +lectures of 1812 on _Transcendental Logic_ (_Nach. Werke_, i. 106-400). + +From 1812 we have notes of two courses on practical philosophy, +_Rechtslehre_ (_Nach. Werke_, vol. ii.) and _Sittenlehre_ (_ib._ vol. +iii.). A finished work in the same department is the _Staatslehre_, +published in 1820. This gives the Fichtean utopia organized on +principles of pure reason; in too many cases the proposals are identical +with principles of pure despotism. + +During these years, however, Fichte was mainly occupied with public +affairs. In 1807 he drew up an elaborate and minute plan for the +proposed new university of Berlin. In 1507-1808 he delivered at Berlin, +amidst danger and discouragement, his noble addresses to the German +people (_Reden an die deutsche Nation_). Even if we think that in these +pure reason is sometimes overshadowed by patriotism, we cannot but +recognize the immense practical value of what he recommended as the only +true foundation for national prosperity. + +In 1810 he was elected rector of the new university founded in the +previous year. This post he resigned in 1812, mainly on account of the +difficulties he experienced in his endeavour to reform the student life +of the university. + +In 1813 began the great effort of Germany for national independence. +Debarred from taking an active part, Fichte made his contribution by way +of lectures. The addresses on the idea of a true war (_Uber den Begriff +eines wahrhaften Kriegs_, forming part of the _Staatslehre_) contain a +very subtle contrast between the positions of France and Germany in the +war. + +In the autumn of 1813 the hospitals of Berlin were filled with sick and +wounded from the campaign. Among the most devoted in her exertions was +Fichte's wife, who, in January 1814, was attacked with a virulent +hospital fever. On the day after she was pronounced out of danger Fichte +was struck down. He lingered for some days in an almost unconscious +state, and died on the 27th of January 1814. + + The philosophy of Fichte, worked out in a series of writings, and + falling chronologically into two distinct periods, that of Jena and + that of Berlin, seemed in the course of its development to undergo a + change so fundamental that many critics have sharply separated and + opposed to one another an earlier and a later phase. The ground of the + modification, further, has been sought and apparently found in quite + external influences, principally that of Schelling's + _Naturphilosophie_, to some extent that of Schleiermacher. But as a + rule most of those who have adopted this view have done so without the + full and patient examination which the matter demands; they have been + misled by the difference in tone and style between the earlier and + later writings, and have concluded that underlying this was a + fundamental difference of philosophic conception. One only, Erdmann, + in his _Entwicklung d. deut. Spek. seit Kant_, S 29, seems to give + full references to justify his opinion, and even he, in his later + work, _Grundriss der Gesch. der Philos._ (ed. 3), S 311, admits that + the difference is much less than he had at the first imagined. He + certainly retains his former opinion, but mainly on the ground, in + itself intelligible and legitimate, that, so far as Fichte's + philosophical reputation and influence are concerned, attention may be + limited to the earlier doctrines of the _Wissenschaftslehre_. This may + be so, but it can be admitted neither that Fichte's views underwent + radical change, nor that the _Wissenschaftslehre_ was ever regarded as + in itself complete, nor that Fichte was unconscious of the apparent + difference between his earlier and later utterances. It is + demonstrable by various passages in the works and letters that he + never looked upon the _Wissenschaftslehre_ as containing the whole + system; it is clear from the chronology of his writings that the + modifications supposed to be due to other thinkers were from the first + implicit in his theory; and if one fairly traces the course of thought + in the early writings, one can see how he was inevitably led on to the + statement of the later and, at first sight, divergent views. On only + one point, the position assigned in the _Wissenschaftslehre_ to the + absolute ego, is there any obscurity; but the relative passages are + far from decisive, and from the early work, _Neue Darstellung der + Wissenchaftslehre_, unquestionably to be included in the Jena period, + one can see that from the outset the doctrine of the absolute ego was + held in a form differing only in statement from the later theory. + + Fichte's system cannot be compressed with intelligibility. We shall + here note only three points:--(a) the origin in Kant; (b) the + fundamental principle and method of the _Wissenschaftslehre_; (c) the + connexion with the later writings. The most important works for (a) + are the "Review of Aenesidemus," and the _Second Introduction to the + Wissenschaftslehre_; for (b) the great treatises of the Jena period; + for (c) the _Thatsachen des Bewusstseyns_ of 1810. + + (a) The Kantian system had for the first time opened up a truly + fruitful line of philosophic speculation, the transcendental + consideration of knowledge, or the analysis of the conditions under + which cognition is possible. To Kant the fundamental condition was + given in the synthetical unity of consciousness. The primitive fact + under which might be gathered the special conditions of that synthesis + which we call cognition was this unity. But by Kant there was no + attempt made to show that the said special conditions were necessary + from the very nature of consciousness itself. Their necessity was + discovered and proved in a manner which might be called empirical. + Moreover, while Kant in a quite similar manner pointed out that + intuition had special conditions, space and time, he did not show any + link of connexion between these and the primitive conditions of pure + cognition. Closely connected with this remarkable defect in the + Kantian view--lying, indeed, at the foundation of it--was the doctrine + that the matter of cognition is altogether _given_, or thrown into the + _form_ of cognition from without. So strongly was this doctrine + emphasized by Kant, that he seemed to refer the _matter_ of knowledge + to the action upon us of a non-ego or _Ding-an-sich_, absolutely + beyond consciousness. While these hints towards a completely + intelligible account of cognition were given by Kant, they were not + reduced to system, and from the way in which the elements of cognition + were related, could not be so reduced. Only in the sphere of practical + reason, where the intelligible nature prescribed to itself its own + laws, was there the possibility of systematic deduction from a single + principle. + + The peculiar position in which Kant had left the theory of cognition + was assailed from many different sides and by many writers, specially + by Schultze (Aenesidemus) and Maimon. To the criticisms of the latter, + in particular, Fichte owed much, but his own activity went far beyond + what they supplied to him. To complete Kant's work, to demonstrate + that all the necessary conditions of knowledge can be deduced from a + single principle, and consequently to expound the complete system of + reason, that is the business of the _Wissenschaftslehre_. By it the + theoretical and practical reason shall be shown to coincide; for while + the categories of cognition and the whole system of pure thought can + be expounded from one principle, the ground of this principle is + scientifically, or to cognition, inexplicable, and is made conceivable + only in the practical philosophy. The ultimate basis for the activity + of cognition is given by the will. Even in the practical sphere, + however, Fichte found that the contradiction, insoluble to cognition, + was not completely suppressed, and he was thus driven to the higher + view, which is explicitly stated in the later writings though not, it + must be confessed, with the precision and scientific clearness of the + _Wissenschaftslehre_. + + (b) What, then, is this single principle, and how does it work itself + out into system? To answer this one must bear in mind what Fichte + intended by designating all philosophy _Wissenschaftslehre_, or theory + of science. Philosophy is to him the rethinking of actual cognition, + the _theory_ of knowledge, the complete, systematic exposition of the + principles which lie at the basis of all reasoned cognition. It + traces the necessary acts by which the cognitive consciousness comes + to be what it is, both in form and in content. Not that it is a + natural history, or even a _phenomenology_ of consciousness; only in + the later writings did Fichte adopt even the genetic method of + exposition; it is the complete statement of the pure principles of the + understanding in their rational or necessary order. But if complete, + this _Wissenschaftslehre_ must be able to deduce the whole organism of + cognition from certain fundamental axioms, themselves unproved and + incapable of proof; only thus can we have a _system_ of reason. From + these primary axioms the whole body of necessary thoughts must be + developed, and, as Socrates would say, the argument itself will + indicate the path of the development. + + Of such primitive principles, the absolutely necessary conditions of + possible cognition, only three are thinkable--one perfectly + unconditioned both in form and matter; a second, unconditioned in form + but not in matter; a third, unconditioned in matter but not in form. + Of these, evidently the first must be the fundamental; to some extent + it conditions the other two, though these cannot be deduced from it or + proved by it. The statement of these principles forms the introduction + to _Wissenschaftslehre_. + + The method which Fichte first adopted for stating these axioms is not + calculated to throw full light upon them, and tends to exaggerate the + apparent airiness and unsubstantiality of his deduction. They may be + explained thus. The primitive condition of all intelligence is that + the ego shall posit, affirm or be aware of itself. The ego is the ego; + such is the first pure act of conscious intelligence, that by which + alone consciousness can come to be what it is. It is what Fichte + called a Deed-act (_Thathandlung_); we cannot be aware of the + process,--the ego _is_ not until it has affirmed itself,--but we are + aware of the result, and can see the necessity of the act by which it + is brought about. The ego then posits itself, as real. What the ego + posits is real. But in consciousness there is equally given a + primitive act of op-positing, or contra-positing, formally distinct + from the act of position, but materially determined, in so far as what + is op-posited must be the negative of that which was posited. The + non-ego--not, be it noticed, the world as we know it--is op-posed in + consciousness to the ego. The ego is not the non-ego. How this act of + op-positing is possible and necessary, only becomes clear in the + practical philosophy, and even there the inherent difficulty leads to + a higher view. But third, we have now an absolute antithesis to our + original thesis. Only the ego is real, but the non-ego is posited in + the ego. The contradiction is solved in a higher synthesis, which + takes up into itself the two opposites. The ego and non-ego _limit_ + one another, or determine one another; and, as limitation is negation + of part of a divisible quantum, in this third act, the divisible ego + is op-posed to a divisible non-ego. + + From this point onwards the course proceeds by the method already made + clear. We progress by making explicit the oppositions contained in the + fundamental synthesis, by uniting these opposites, analysing the new + synthesis, and so on, until we reach an ultimate pair. Now, in the + synthesis of the third act two principles may be distinguished:--(1) + the non-ego determines the ego; (2) the ego determines the non-ego. As + determined the ego is theoretical, as determining it is practical; + ultimately the opposed principles must be united by showing how the + ego is both determining and determined. + + It is impossible to enter here on the steps by which the theoretical + ego is shown to develop into the complete system of cognitive + categories, or to trace the deduction of the processes (productive + imagination, intuition, sensation, understanding, judgment, reason) by + which the quite indefinite non-ego comes to assume the appearance of + definite objects in the forms of time and space. All this evolution is + the necessary consequence of the determination of the ego by the + non-ego. But it is clear that the non-ego cannot really determine the + ego. There is no reality beyond the ego itself. The contradiction can + only be suppressed if the ego itself opposes to itself the non-ego, + places it as an _Anstoss_ or plane on which its own activity breaks + and from which it is reflected. Now, this op-positing of the _Anstoss_ + is the necessary condition of the practical ego, of the will. If the + ego be a striving power, then of necessity a limit must be set by + which its striving is manifest. But how can the infinitely active ego + posit a limit to its own activity? Here we come to the _crux_ of + Fichte's system, which is only partly cleared up in the _Rechtslehre_ + and _Sittenlehre_. If the ego be pure activity, free activity, it can + only become aware of itself by positing some limit. We cannot possibly + have any cognition of how such an act is possible. But as it is a free + act, the ego cannot be determined to it by anything beyond itself; it + cannot be aware of its own freedom otherwise than as determined by + other free egos. Thus in the _Rechtslehre_ and _Sittenlehre_, the + multiplicity of egos is deduced, and with this deduction the first + form of the _Wissenschaftslehre_ appeared to end. + + (c) But in fact deeper questions remained. We have spoken of the ego + as becoming aware of its own freedom, and have shown how the existence + of other egos and of a world in which these egos may act are the + necessary conditions of consciousness of freedom. But all this is the + work of the ego. All that has been expounded follows if the ego comes + to consciousness. We have therefore to consider that the absolute ego, + from which spring all the individual egos, is not subject to these + conditions, but freely determines itself to them. How is this + absolute ego to be conceived? As early as 1797 Fichte had begun to see + that the ultimate basis of his system was the absolute ego, in which + is no difference of subject and object; in 1800 the _Bestimmung des + Menschen_ defined this absolute ego as the infinite moral will of the + universe, God, in whom are all the individual egos, from whom they + have sprung. It lay in the nature of the thing that more precise + utterances should be given on this subject, and these we find in the + _Thatsachen des Bewusstseyns_ and in all the later lectures. God in + them is the absolute Life, the absolute One, who becomes conscious of + himself by self-diremption into the individual egos. The individual + ego is only possible as opposed to a non-ego, to a world of the + senses; thus God, the infinite will, manifests himself in the + individual, and the individual has over against him the non-ego or + thing. "The individuals do not make part of the being of the one life, + but are a pure form of its absolute freedom." "The individual is not + conscious of himself, but the Life is conscious of itself in + individual form and as an individual." In order that the Life may act, + though it is not necessary that it _should act_, individualization is + necessary. "Thus," says Fichte, "we reach a final conclusion. + Knowledge is not mere knowledge of itself, but of being, and of the + one being that truly is, viz. God.... This one possible object of + knowledge is never known in its purity, but ever broken into the + various forms of knowledge which are and can be shown to be necessary. + The demonstration of the necessity of these forms is philosophy or + _Wissenschaftslehre_" (_Thats. des Bewuss. Werke_, ii. 685). This + ultimate view is expressed throughout the lectures (in the _Nachgel. + Werke_) in uncouth and mystical language. + + It will escape no one (1) how the idea and method of the + _Wissenschaftslehre_ prepare the way for the later Hegelian dialectic, + and (2) how completely the whole philosophy of Schopenhauer is + contained in the later writings of Fichte. It is not to the credit of + historians that Schopenhauer's debt should have been allowed to pass + with so little notice. + + BIBLIOGRAPHY.--Fichte's complete works were published by his son J.H. + Fichte, _Sammtliche Werke_ (8 vols., Berlin, 1845-1846), with + _Nachgelassene Werke_ (3 vols., Bonn, 1834-1835); also _Leben und + Briefwechsel_ (2 vols., 1830, ed. 1862). Among translations are those + of William Smith, _Popular Writings of Fichte, with Memoir_ (2 vols., + London, 1848-1849, 4th ed. 1889); A.E. Kroeger, portions of the + _Wissenschaftslehre_ (_Science of Knowledge_, Philadelphia, 1868; ed. + London, 1889), the _Naturrecht_ (_Science of Rights_, 1870; ed. + London, 1889); of the _Vorlesungen u. d. Bestimmung d. Gelehrten_ + (_The Vocation of the Scholar_, by W. Smith, 1847); _Destination of + Man_, by Mrs P. Sinnett; _Discours a la nation allemande_, French by + Leon Philippe (1895), with preface by F. Picavet, and a biographical + memoir. + + The number of critical works is very large. Besides the histories of + post-Kantian philosophy by Erdmann, Fortlage (whose account is + remarkably good), Michelet, Biedermann and others, see Wm. Busse, + _Fichte und seine Beziehung zur Gegenwart des deutschen Volkes_ + (Halle, 1848-1849); J.H. Lowe, _Die Philosophic Fichtes_ (Stuttgart, + 1862); Kuno Fischer, _Geschichte d. neueren Philosophie_ (1869, 1884, + 1890); Ludwig Noack, _Fichte nach seinem Leben, Lehren und Wirken_ + (Leipzig, 1862); R. Adamson, Fichte (1881, in Knight's "Philosophical + Classics"); Oscar Benzow, _Zu Fichtes Lekre von Nicht-Ich_ (Bern, + 1898); E.O. Burmann, _Die Transcendentalphilosophie Fichtes und + Schellings_ (Upsala, 1890-1892); M. Carriere, _Fichtes + Geistesentwickelung in die Reden uber d. Bestimmung des Gelehrten_ + (1894); C.C. Everett, _Fichte's Science of Knowledge_ (Chicago, 1884); + O. Pfleiderer, J.G. _Fichtes Lebensbild eines deutschen Denkers und + Patrioten_ (Stuttgart, 1877); T. Wotschke, _Fichte und Erigena_ + (1896); W. Kabitz, _Studien zur Entwickelungsgeschichte der Fichtehen + Wissenschaftslehre aus der Kantischen Philosophie_ (1902); E. Lask, + _Fichtes Idealismus und die Geschichte_ (1902); X. Leon, _La Philos. + de Fichte_ (1902); M. Wiener, J.G. _Fichtes Lehre vom Wesen und Inhalt + der Geschichte_ (1906). + + On Fichte's social philosophy see, e.g., F. Schmidt-Warneck, _Die + Sociologie Fichtes_ (Berlin, 1884); W. Windelband, _Fichtes Idee des + deutschen Staates_ (1890); M. Weber, _Fichtes Sozialismus und sein + Verhaltnis zur Marx'schen Doctrin_ (1900); S.H. Gutman, J.G. _Fichtes + Sozialpadogogik_ (1907); H. Lindau, _Johann G. Fichte und der neuere + Socialismus_ (1900). (R. Ad.; X.) + + + + +FICHTELGEBIRGE, a mountain group of Bavaria, forming the centre from which +various mountain ranges proceed,--the Elstergebirge, linking it to the +Erzgebirge, in a N.E., the Frankenwald in a N.W., and the Bohmerwald in a +S.E. direction. The streams to which it gives rise flow towards the four +cardinal points,--e.g. the Eger eastward and the Saale northward, both to +the Elbe; the Weisser Main westward to the Rhine, and the Naab southward +to the Danube. The chief points of the mass are the Schneeberg and the +Ochsenkopf, the former having a height of 3448, and the latter of 3356 ft. +The whole district is pretty thickly populated, and there is great +abundance of wood, as well as of iron, vitriol, sulphur, copper, lead and +many kinds of marble. The inhabitants are employed chiefly in the iron +mines, at forges and blast furnaces, and in charcoal burning and the +manufacture of blacking from firewood. Although surrounded by railways and +crossed by the lines Nuremberg-Eger and Regensburg-Oberkotzau, the +Fichtelgebirge, owing principally to its raw climate and bleakness, is not +much visited by strangers, the only important points of interest being +Alexandersbad (a delightfully situated watering-place) and the granite +labyrinth of Luisenburg. + + See A. Schmidt, _Fuhrer durch das Fichtelgebirge_ (1899); Daniel, + _Deutschland_; and Meyer, _Conversations-Lexikon_ (1904). + + + + +FICINO, MARSILIO (1433-1499), Italian philosopher and writer, was born +at Figline, in the upper Arno valley, in the year 1433. His father, a +physician of some eminence, settled in Florence, and attached himself to +the person of Cosimo de' Medici. Here the young Marsilio received his +elementary education in grammar and Latin literature at the high school +or studio pubblico. While still a boy, he showed promise of rare +literary gifts, and distinguished himself by his facility in the +acquisition of knowledge. Not only literature, but the physical +sciences, as then taught, had a charm for him; and he is said to have +made considerable progress in medicine under the tuition of his father. +He was of a tranquil temperament, sensitive to music and poetry, and +debarred by weak health from joining in the more active pleasures of his +fellow-students. When he had attained the age of eighteen or nineteen +years, Cosimo received him into his household, and determined to make +use of his rare disposition for scholarship in the development of a +long-cherished project. During the session of the council for the union +of the Greek and Latin churches at Florence in 1439, Cosimo had made +acquaintance with Gemistos Plethon, the Neo-Platonic sage of Mistra, +whose discourses upon Plato and the Alexandrian mystics so fascinated +the learned society of Florence that they named him the second Plato. It +had been the dream of this man's whole life to supersede both forms of +Christianity by a semi-pagan theosophy deduced from the writings of the +later Pythagoreans and Platonists. When, therefore, he perceived the +impression he had made upon the first citizen of Florence, Gemistos +suggested that the capital of modern culture would be a fit place for +the resuscitation of the once so famous Academy of Athens. Cosimo took +this hint. The second half of the 15th century was destined to be the +age of academies in Italy, and the regnant passion for antiquity +satisfied itself with any imitation, however grotesque, of Greek or +Roman institutions. In order to found his new academy upon a firm basis +Cosimo resolved not only to assemble men of letters for the purpose of +Platonic disputation at certain regular intervals, but also to appoint a +hierophant and official expositor of Platonic doctrine. He hoped by +these means to give a certain stability to his projected institution, +and to avoid the superficiality of mere enthusiasm. The plan was good; +and with the rare instinct for character which distinguished him, he +made choice of the right man for his purpose in the young Marsilio. + +Before he had begun to learn Greek, Marsilio entered upon the task of +studying and elucidating Plato. It is known that at this early period of +his life, while he was yet a novice, he wrote voluminous treatises on +the great philosopher, which he afterwards, however, gave to the flames. +In the year 1459 John Argyropoulos was lecturing on the Greek language +and literature at Florence, and Marsilio became his pupil. He was then +about twenty-three years of age. Seven years later he felt himself a +sufficiently ripe Greek scholar to begin the translation of Plato, by +which his name is famous in the history of scholarship, and which is +still the best translation of that author Italy can boast. The MSS. on +which he worked were supplied by this patron Cosimo de' Medici and by +Amerigo Benci. While the translation was still in progress Ficino from +time to time submitted its pages to the scholars, Angelo Poliziano, +Cristoforo Landino, Demetrios Chalchondylas and others; and since these +men were all members of the Platonic Academy, there can be no doubt that +the discussions raised upon the text and Latin version greatly served to +promote the purpose of Cosimo's foundation. At last the book appeared +in 1482, the expenses of the press being defrayed by the noble +Florentine, Filippo Valori. About the same time Marsilio completed and +published his treatise on the Platonic doctrine of immortality +(_Theologia Platonica de immortalitate animae_), the work by which his +claims to take rank as a philosopher must be estimated. This was shortly +followed by the translation of Plotinus into Latin, and by a voluminous +commentary, the former finished in 1486, the latter in 1491, and both +published at the cost of Lorenzo de' Medici just one month after his +death. As a supplement to these labours in the field of Platonic and +Alexandrian philosophy, Marsilio next devoted his energies to the +translation of Dionysius the Areopagite, whose work on the celestial +hierarchy, though recognized as spurious by the Neapolitan humanist, +Lorenzo Valla, had supreme attraction for the mystic and uncritical +intellect of Ficino. + +It is not easy to value the services of Marsilio Ficino at their proper +worth. As a philosopher, he can advance no claim to originality, his +laborious treatise on Platonic theology being little better than a mass +of ill-digested erudition. As a scholar, he failed to recognize the +distinctions between different periods of antiquity and various schools +of thought. As an exponent of Plato he suffered from the fatal error of +confounding Plato with the later Platonists. It is true that in this +respect he did not differ widely from the mass of his contemporaries. +Lorenzo Valla and Angelo Poliziano, almost alone among the scholars of +that age, showed a true critical perception. For the rest, it was enough +that an author should be ancient to secure their admiration. The whole +of antiquity seemed precious in the eyes of its discoverers; and even a +thinker so acute as Pico di Mirandola dreamed of the possibility of +extracting the essence of philosophical truth by indiscriminate +collation of the most divergent doctrines. Ficino was, moreover, a firm +believer in planetary influences. He could not separate his +philosophical from his astrological studies, and caught eagerly at any +fragment of antiquity which seemed to support his cherished delusions. +It may here be incidentally mentioned that this superstition brought him +into trouble with the Roman Church. In 1489 he was accused of magic +before Pope Innocent VIII., and had to secure the good offices of +Francesco Soderini, Ermolao Barbaro, and the archbishop Rinaldo Orsini, +in order to purge himself of a most perilous imputation. What Ficino +achieved of really solid, was his translation. The value of that work +cannot be denied; the impulse which it gave to Platonic studies in +Italy, and through them to the formation of the new philosophy in +Europe, is indisputable. Ficino differed from the majority of his +contemporaries in this that, while he felt the influence of antiquity no +less strongly than they did, he never lost his faith in Christianity, or +contaminated his morals by contact with paganism. For him, as for +Petrarch, St Augustine was the model of a Christian student. The +cardinal point of his doctrine was the identity of religion and +philosophy. He held that philosophy consists in the study of truth and +wisdom, and that God alone is truth and wisdom,--so that philosophy is +but religion, and true religion is genuine philosophy. Religion, indeed, +is common to all men, but its pure form is that revealed through Christ; +and the teaching of Christ is sufficient to a man in all circumstances +of life. Yet it cannot be expected that every man should accept the +faith without reasoning; and here Ficino found a place for Platonism. He +maintained that the Platonic doctrine was providentially made to +harmonize with Christianity, in order that by its means speculative +intellects might be led to Christ. The transition from this point of +view to an almost superstitious adoration of Plato was natural; and +Ficino, we know, joined in the hymns and celebrations with which the +Florentine Academy honoured their great master on the day of his birth +and death. Those famous festivals in which Lorenzo de' Medici delighted +had indeed a pagan tone appropriate to the sentiment of the Renaissance; +nor were all the worshippers of the Athenian sage so true to +Christianity as his devoted student. + +Of Ficino's personal life there is but little to be said. In order that +he might have leisure for uninterrupted study, Cosimo de' Medici gave +him a house near S. Maria Nuova in Florence, and a little farm at +Montevecchio, not far from the villa of Careggi. Ficino, like nearly all +the scholars of that age in Italy, delighted in country life. At +Montevecchio he lived contentedly among his books, in the neighbourhood +of his two friends, Pico at Querceto, and Poliziano at Fiesole, cheering +his solitude by playing on the lute, and corresponding with the most +illustrious men of Italy. His letters, extending over the years +1474-1494, have been published, both separately and in his collected +works. From these it may be gathered that nearly every living scholar of +note was included in the list of his friends, and that the subjects +which interested him were by no means confined to his Platonic studies. +As instances of his close intimacy with illustrious Florentine families, +it may be mentioned that he held the young Francesco Guicciardini at the +font, and that he helped to cast the horoscope of the Casa Strozzi in +the Via Tornabuoni. + +At the age of forty Ficino took orders, and was honoured with a canonry +of S. Lorenzo. He was henceforth assiduous in the performance of his +duties, preaching in his cure of Novoli, and also in the cathedral and +the church of the Angeli at Florence. He used to say that no man was +better than a good priest, and none worse than a bad one. His life +corresponded in all points to his principles. It was the life of a +sincere Christian and a real sage,--of one who found the best fruits of +philosophy in the practice of the Christian virtues. A more amiable and +a more harmless man never lived; and this was much in that age of +discordant passions and lawless licence. In spite of his weak health, he +was indefatigably industrious. His tastes were of the simplest; and +while scholars like Filelfo were intent on extracting money from their +patrons by flattery and threats, he remained so poor that he owed the +publication of all his many works to private munificence. For his old +patrons of the house of Medici Ficino always cherished sentiments of the +liveliest gratitude. Cosimo he called his second father, saying that +Ficino had given him life, but Cosimo new birth,--the one had devoted +him to Galen, the other to the divine Plato,--the one was physician of +the body, the other of the soul. With Lorenzo he lived on terms of +familiar, affectionate, almost parental intimacy. He had seen the young +prince grow up in the palace of the Via Larga, and had helped in the +development of his rare intellect. In later years he did not shrink from +uttering a word of warning and advice, when he thought that the master +of the Florentine republic was too much inclined to yield to pleasure. A +characteristic proof of his attachment to the house of Medici was +furnished by a yearly custom which he practised at his farm at +Montevecchio. He used to invite the contadini who had served Cosimo to a +banquet on the day of Saints Cosimo and Damiano (the patron saints of +the Medici), and entertained them with music and singing. This affection +was amply returned. Cosimo employed almost the last hours of his life in +listening to Ficino's reading of a treatise on the highest good; while +Lorenzo, in a poem on true happiness, described him as the mirror of the +world, the nursling of sacred muses, the harmonizer of wisdom and beauty +in complete accord. Ficino died at Florence in 1499. + +Besides the works already noticed, Ficino composed a treatise on the +Christian religion, which was first given to the world in 1476, a +translation into Italian of Dante's _De monarchia_, a life of Plato, and +numerous essays on ethical and semi-philosophical subjects. Vigour of +reasoning and originality of view were not his characteristics as a +writer; nor will the student who has raked these dust-heaps of +miscellaneous learning and old-fashioned mysticism discover more than a +few sentences of genuine enthusiasm and simple-hearted aspiration to +repay his trouble and reward his patience. Only in familiar letters, +prolegomena, and prefaces do we find the man Ficino, and learn to know +his thoughts and sentiments unclouded by a mist of citations; these +minor compositions have therefore a certain permanent value, and will +continually be studied for the light they throw upon the learned circle +gathered round Lorenzo in the golden age of humanism. + + The student may be referred for further information to the following + works:--_Marsilii Ficini opera_ (Basileae, 1576); _Marsilii Ficini + vita_, auctore Corsio (ed. Bandini, Pisa, 1771); Roscoe's _Life of + Lorenzo de' Medici_; Pasquale Villari, _La Storia di Girolamo + Savonarola_ (Firenze, Le Monnier, 1859); Von Reumont, _Lorenzo de' + Medici_ (Leipzig, 1874). (J. A. S.) + + + + +FICKSBURG, a town of Orange Free State 110 m. by rail E. by N. of +Bloemfontein. Pop. (1904) 1954, of whom 1021 were whites. The town is +situated near the north bank of the Caledon river and is the capital of +one of the finest agricultural and stock-raising regions of the +province. It has direct railway communication with Natal and an +extensive trade. In the neighbourhood are petroleum wells and a diamond +mine. In the fossilized ooze of the Wonderkop, a table mountain of the +adjacent Wittebergen, are quantities of petrified fish. + + + + +FICTIONS, or legal fictions, in law, the term used for false averments, +the truth of which is not permitted to be called in question. English +law as well as Roman law abounds in fictions. Sometimes they are merely +the condensed expression of a rule of law,--e.g., the fiction of English +law that husband and wife were one person, and the fiction of Roman law +that the wife was the daughter of the husband. Sometimes they must be +regarded as reasons invented in order to justify a rule of law according +to an implied ethical standard. Of this sort seems to be the fiction or +presumption that every one knows the law, which reconciles the rule that +ignorance is no excuse for crime with the moral commonplace that it is +unfair to punish a man for violating a law of whose existence he was +unaware. Again, some fictions are deliberate falsehoods, adopted as true +for the purpose of establishing a remedy not otherwise attainable. Of +this sort are the numerous fictions of English law by which the +different courts obtained jurisdiction in private business, removed +inconvenient restrictions in the law relating to land, &c. + +What to the scientific jurist is a stumbling-block is to the older +writers on English law a beautiful device for reconciling the strict +letter of the law with common sense and justice. Blackstone, in noticing +the well-known fiction by which the court of king's bench established +its jurisdiction in common pleas (viz. that the defendant was in custody +of the marshal of the court), says, "These fictions of law, though at +first they may startle the student, he will find upon further +consideration to be highly beneficial and useful; especially as this +maxim is ever invariably observed, that no fiction shall extend to work +an injury; its proper operation being to prevent a mischief or remedy an +inconvenience that might result from the general rule of law. So true it +is that _in fictione juris semper subsistit aequitas_." Austin, on the +other hand, while correctly assigning as the cause of many fictions the +desire to combine the necessary reform with some show of respect for the +abrogated law, makes the following harsh criticism as to others:--"Why +the plain meanings which I have now stated should be obscured by the +fictions to which I have just adverted I cannot conjecture. A wish on +the part of the authors of the fictions to render the law as +_uncognoscible_ as may be is probably the cause which Mr Bentham would +assign. I judge not, I confess, so uncharitably; I rather impute such +fictions to the sheer imbecility (or, if you will, to the active and +sportive fancies) of their grave and venerable authors, than to any +deliberate design, good or evil." Bentham, of course, saw in fictions +the instrument by which the great object of his abhorrence, _judiciary +law_, was produced. It was the means by which judges usurped the +functions of legislators. "A fiction of law." he says, "may be defined +as a wilful falsehood, having for its object the stealing legislative +powers by and for hands which could not or durst not openly claim it, +and but for the delusion thus produced could not exercise it." A +partnership, he says, was formed between the kings and the judges +against the interests of the people. "Monarchs found force, lawyers +fraud; thus was the capital found" (_Historical Preface to the second +edition of the Fragment on Government_).[1] + +Sir H. Maine (_Ancient Law_) supplies the historical element which is +always lacking in the explanations of Austin and Bentham. Fictions form +one of the agencies by which, in progressive societies, positive law is +brought into harmony with public opinion. The others are equity and +statutes. Fictions in this sense include, not merely the obvious +falsities of the English and Roman systems, but any assumption which +conceals a change of law by retaining the old formula after the change +has been made. It thus includes both the case law of the English and the +_Responsa Prudentum_ of the Romans. "At a particular stage of social +progress they are invaluable expedients for overcoming the rigidity of +law; and, indeed, without one of them, the fiction of adoption, which +permits the family tie to be artificially created, it is difficult to +understand how society would ever have escaped from its swaddling +clothes, and taken its first steps towards civilization." + +The bolder remedial fictions of English law have been to a large extent +removed by legislation, and one great obstacle to any reconstruction of +the legal system has thus been partially removed. Where the real remedy +stood in glaring contrast to the nominal rule, it has been openly +ratified by statute. In ejectment cases the mysterious sham litigants +have disappeared. The bond of entail can be broken without having +recourse to the collusive proceedings of fine and recovery. Fictions +have been almost entirely banished from the procedure of the courts. The +action for damages on account of seduction, which is still nominally an +action by the father for loss of his daughter's services, is perhaps the +only fictitious action now remaining. + +Fictions which appear in the form of principles are not so easily dealt +with by legislation. To expel them formally from the system would +require the re-enactment of vast portions of law. A change in legal +modes of speech and thought would be more effective. The legal mind +instinctively seizes upon concrete aids to abstract reasoning. Many hard +and revolting fictions must have begun their career as metaphors. In +some cases the history of the change may still almost be traced. The +conception that a man-of-war is a floating island, or that an +ambassador's house is beyond the territorial limits of the country in +which he resides, was originally a figure of speech designed to set a +rule of law in a striking light. It is then gravely accepted as true in +fact, and other rules of law are deduced from it. Its beginning is to be +compared with such phrases as "an Englishman's house is his castle," +which have had no legal offshoots and still remain mere figures of +speech. + +Constitutional law is of course honeycombed with fictions. Here there is +hardly ever anything like direct legislative change, and yet real change +is incessant. The rules defining the sovereign power and fixing the +authority of its various members are in most points the same as they +were at the last revolution,--in many points they have been the same +since the beginning of parliamentary government. But they have long +ceased to be true in fact; and it would hardly be too much to say that +the entire series of formal propositions called the constitution is +merely a series of fictions. The legal attributes of the king, and even +of the House of Lords, are fictions. If we could suppose that the +effects of the Reform Acts had been brought about, not by legislation, +but by the decisions of law courts and the practice of House of Commons +committees--by such assumptions as that freeholder includes lease-holder +and that ten means twenty--we should have in the legal constitution of +the House of Commons the same kind of fictions that we find in the legal +statement of the attributes of the crown and the House of Lords. Here, +too, fictions have been largely resorted to for the purpose of +supporting particular theories,--popular or monarchical,--and such have +flourished even more vigorously than purely legal fictions. + + +FOOTNOTE: + + [1] In the same essay Bentham notices the comparative rarity of + fictions in Scots law. As to fiction in particular, compared with the + work done by it in English law, the use made of it by the Scottish + lawyers is next to nothing. No need have they had of any such clumsy + instrument. They have two others "of their own making, by which + things of the same sort have been done with much less trouble. + _Nobile officium_ gives them the creative power of legislation; this + and the word desuetude together the annihilative." And he notices + aptly enough that, while the English lawyers declared that James II. + had abdicated the throne (which everybody knew to be false), the + Scottish lawyers boldly said he had forfeited it. + + + + +FIDDES, RICHARD (1671-1725), English divine and historian, was born at +Hunmanby and educated at Oxford. He took orders, and obtained the living +of Halsham in Holderness in 1696. Owing to ill-health he applied for +leave to reside at Wickham, and in 1712 he removed to London on the plea +of poverty, intending to pursue a literary career. In London he met +Swift, who procured him a chaplaincy at Hull. He also became chaplain to +the earl of Oxford. After losing the Hull chaplaincy through a change of +ministry in 1714, he devoted himself to writing. His best book is a +_Life of Cardinal Wolsey_ (London, 1724), containing documents which are +still valuable for reference; of his other writings the _Prefatory +Epistle containing some remarks to be published on Homer's Iliad_ +(London, 1714), was occasioned by Pope's proposed translation of the +_Iliad_, and his _Theologia speculativa_ (London, 1718), earned him the +degree of D.D. at Oxford. In his own day he had a considerable +reputation as an author and man of learning. + + + + +FIDDLE (O. Eng. _fithele_, _fidel_, &c., Fr. _viele_, viole, _violon_; +M. H. Ger. _videle_, mod. Ger. _Fiedel_), a popular term for the violin, +derived from the names of certain of its ancestors. The word fiddle +antedates the appearance of the violin by several centuries, and in +England did not always represent an instrument of the same type. The +word has first been traced in 1205 in Layamon's _Brut_ (7002), "of +harpe, of salteriun, of fithele and of coriun." In Chaucer's time the +fiddle was evidently a well-known instrument: + + "For him was lever have at his beddes hed + A twenty bokes, clothed in black or red. + Of Aristotle and his Philosophie, + Than robes riche or fidel or sautrie." + + (_Prologue_, v. 298.) + +The origin of the fiddle is of the greatest interest; it will be found +inseparable from that of the violin both as regards the instruments and +the etymology of the words; the remote common ancestor is the _ketharah_ +of the Assyrians, the parent of the Greek cithara. The Romans are +responsible for the word fiddle, having bestowed upon a kind of +cithara--probably then in its first transition--the name of _fidiculae_ +(more rarely _fidicula_), a diminutive form of _fides_. In Alain de +Lille's _De planctu naturae_ against the word _lira_ stands as +equivalent _vioel_, with the definition "Lira est quoddam genue citharae +vel fitola alioquin de reot. Hoc instrumentum est multum vulgare." This +is a marginal note in writing of the 13th century.[1] + +Some of the transitions from _fidicula_ to fiddle are made evident in +the accompanying table: + + Latin fidiculae + Medieval Latin vitula, fitola. + French viele, vielle, viole. + Provencal viula. + Spanish viguela, vihuela, vigolo. + Old High German fidula. + Middle High German videle. + German fiedel, violine. + Italian viola, violino. + Dutch vedel. + Danish fiddel. + Anglo-Saxon fithele. + Old English fithele, fythal, fithel, fythylle, fidel fidylle, + (south) vithele. + +For the descent of the guitar-fiddle, the first bowed ancestor of the +violin, through many transitions from the cithara, see CITHARA, GUITAR +and GUITAR-FIDDLE. + +In the minnesinger and troubadour fiddles, of which evidences abound +during the 12th, 13th and 14th centuries, are to be observed the +structural characteristics of the violin and its ancestors in the course +of evolution. The principal of these are first of all the shallow +sound-chest, composed of belly and back, almost flat, connected by ribs +(also present in the cithara), with incurvations more or less +pronounced, an arched bridge, a finger-board and strings (varying in +number), vibrated by means of a bow. The central rose sound-holes of +stringed instruments whose strings are plucked by fingers, or plectrum +have given place to smaller lateral sound-holes placed on each side of +the strings. It is in Germany,[2] where contemporary drawings of fiddles +of the 13th and 14th centuries furnish an authoritative clue, and in +France, that the development may best be followed. The German +minnesinger fiddle with sloping shoulders was the prototype of the +viols, whereas the guitar-fiddle produced the violin through the +intermediary of the Italian bowed _Lyra_. + +[Illustration: From Julius Ruhlmann's _Geschichte der Bogeninstrumente_. + +Minnesinger Fiddle. Germany, 13th Century, from the Manesse MSS.] + +The fiddle of the Carolingian epoch,--such, for instance, as that +mentioned by Otfrid of Weissenburg[3] in his _Harmony of the Gospels_ +(c. 868), + + "Sih thar ouch al ruarit + This organo fuarit + Lira joh fidula," &c.,-- + +was in all probability still an instrument whose strings were plucked by +the fingers, a cithara in transition. (K. S.) + + +FOOTNOTES: + + [1] See C.E.H. de Coussemaker, Memoire sur Hucbald (Paris, 1841). + + [2] See the Manesse MSS. reproduced in part by F.H. von der Hagen, + _Heldenbilder_ (Leipzig and Berlin, 1855) and _Bildersaal_. The + fiddles are reproduced in J. Ruhlmann's _Geschichte der + Bogeninstrumente_ (Brunswick, 1882), plates. + + [3] See Schiller's _Thesaurus antiq. Teut._ vol. i. p. 379. + + + + +FIDENAE, an ancient town of Latium, situated about 5 m. N. of Rome on +the Via Salaria, which ran between it and the Tiber. It was for some +while the frontier of the Roman territory and was often in the hands of +Veii. It appears to have fallen under the Roman sway after the capture +of this town, and is spoken of by classical authors as a place almost +deserted in their time. It seems, however, to have had some importance +as a post station. The site of the _arx_ of the ancient town is probably +to be sought on the hill on which lies the Villa Spada, though no traces +of early buildings or defences are to be seen: pre-Roman tombs are to be +found in the cliffs to the north. The later village lay at the foot of +the hill on the eastern edge of the high-road, and its _curia_, with a +dedicatory inscription to M. Aurelius by the _Senatus Fidenatium_, was +excavated in 1889. Remains of other buildings may also be seen. + + See T. Ashby in _Papers of the British School at Rome_, iii. 17. + + + + +FIDUCIARY (Lat. _fiduciaries_, one in whom trust, fiducia, is reposed), +of or belonging to a position of trust, especially of one who stands in +a particular relationship of confidence to another. Such relationships +are, in law, those of parent and child, guardian and ward, trustee and +_cestui que trust_, legal adviser and client, spiritual adviser, doctor +and patient, &c. In many of these the law has attached special +obligations in the case of gifts made to the "fiduciary," on whom is +laid the onus of proving that no "undue influence" has been exercised. +(See CONTRACT; CHILDREN, LAW RELATING TO; INFANT; TRUST.) + + + + +FIEF, a feudal estate in land, land held from a superior (see +FEUDALISM). The word is the French form, which is represented in +Medieval Latin as _feudum_ or _feodum_, and in English as "fee" or "feu" +(see FEE). The A. Fr. _feoffer_, to invest with a fief or fee, has given +the English law terms "feoffee" and "feoffment" (q.v.). + + + + +FIELD, CYRUS WEST (1819-1892), American capitalist, projector of the +first Atlantic cable, was born at Stockbridge, Massachusetts, on the +30th of November 1819. He was a brother of David Dudley Field. At +fifteen he became a clerk in the store of A.T. Stewart & Co., of New +York, and stayed there three years; then worked for two years with his +brother, Matthew Dickinson Field, in a paper-mill at Lee, Massachusetts; +and in 1840 went into the paper business for himself at Westfield, +Massachusetts, but almost immediately became a partner in E. Root & Co., +wholesale paper dealers in New York City, who failed in the following +year. Field soon afterwards formed with a brother-in-law the firm of +Cyrus W. Field & Co., and in 1853 had accumulated $250,000, paid off the +debts of the Root company and retired from active business, leaving his +name and $100,000 with the concern. In the same year he travelled with +Frederick E. Church, the artist, through South America. In 1854 he +became interested, through his brother Matthew, a civil engineer, in the +project of Frederick Newton Gisborne (1824-1892) for a telegraph across +Newfoundland; and he was attracted by the idea of a trans-Atlantic +telegraphic cable, as to which he consulted S.F.B. Morse and Matthew F. +Maury, head of the National Observatory at Washington. With Peter +Cooper, Moses Taylor (1806-1882), Marshall Owen Roberts (1814-1880) and +Chandler White, he formed the New York, Newfoundland & London Telegraph +Company, which procured a more favourable charter than Gisborne's, and +had a capital of $1,500,000. Having secured all the practicable landing +rights on the American side of the ocean, he and John W. Brett, who was +now his principal colleague, approached Sir Charles Bright (q.v.) in +London, and in December 1556 the Atlantic Telegraph Company was +organized by them in Great Britain, a government grant being secured of +L14,000 annually for government messages, to be reduced to L10,000 +annually when the cable should pay a 6% yearly dividend; similar grants +were made by the United States government. Unsuccessful attempts to lay +the cable were made in August 1857 and in June 1858, but the complete +cable was laid between the 7th of July and the 5th of August 1858; for a +time messages were transmitted, but in October the cable became useless, +owing to the failure of its electrical insulation. Field, however, did +not abandon the enterprise, and finally in July 1866, after a futile +attempt in the previous year, a cable was laid and brought successfully +into use. From the Congress of the United States he received a gold +medal and a vote of thanks, and he received many other honours both at +home and abroad. In 1877 he bought a controlling interest in the New +York Elevated Railroad Company, controlling the Third and Ninth Avenue +lines, of which he was president in 1877-1880. He worked with Jay Gould +for the completion of the Wabash railway, and at the time of his +greatest stock activity bought _The New York Evening Express_ and _The +Mail_ and combined them as _The Mail and Express_, which he controlled +for six years. In 1879 Field suffered financially by Samuel J. Tilden's +heavy sales (during Field's absence in Europe) of "Elevated" stock, +which forced the price down from 200 to 164; but Field lost much more in +the great "Manhattan squeeze" of the 24th of June 1887, when Jay Gould +and Russell Sage, who had been supposed to be his backers in an attempt +to bring the Elevated stock to 200, forsook him, and the price fell from +156-1/2 to 114 in half an hour. Field died in New York on the 12th of +July 1892. + + See the biography by his daughter, Isabella (Field) Judson, _Cyrus W. + Field, His Life and Work_ (New York, 1896); H.M. Field, _History of + the Atlantic Telegraph_ (New York, 1866); and Charles Bright, _The + Story of the Atlantic Cable_ (New York, 1903). + + + + +FIELD, DAVID DUDLEY (1805-1894), American lawyer and law reformer, was +born in Haddam, Connecticut, on the 13th of February 1805. He was the +oldest of the four sons of the Rev. David Dudley Field (1781-1867), a +well-known American clergyman and author. He graduated at Williams +College in 1825, and settled in New York City, where he studied law, was +admitted to the bar in 1828, and rapidly won a high position in his +profession. Becoming convinced that the common law in America, and +particularly in New York state, needed radical changes in respect to the +unification and simplification of its procedure, he visited Europe in +1836 and thoroughly investigated the courts, procedure and codes of +England, France and other countries, and then applied himself to the +task of bringing about in the United States a codification of the common +law procedure. For more than forty years every moment that he could +spare from his extensive practice was devoted to this end. He entered +upon his great work by a systematic publication of pamphlets and +articles in journals and magazines in behalf of his reform, but for some +years he met with a discouraging lack of interest. He appeared +personally before successive legislative committees, and in 1846 +published a pamphlet, "The Reorganization of the Judiciary," which had +its influence in persuading the New York State Constitutional Convention +of that year to report in favour of a codification of the laws. Finally +in 1847 he was appointed as the head of a state commission to revise the +practice and procedure. The first part of the commission's work, +consisting of a code of civil procedure, was reported and enacted in +1848, and by the 1st of January 1850 the complete code of civil and +criminal procedure was completed, and was subsequently enacted by the +legislature. The basis of the new system, which was almost entirely +Field's work, was the abolition of the existing distinction in forms of +procedure between suits in law and equity requiring separate actions, +and their unification and simplification in a single action. Eventually +the civil code with some changes was adopted in twenty-four states, and +the criminal code in eighteen, and the whole formed a basis of the +reform in procedure in England and several of her colonies. In 1857 +Field became chairman of a state commission for the reduction into a +written and systematic code of the whole body of law of the state, +excepting those portions already reported upon by the Commissioners of +Practice and Pleadings. In this work he personally prepared almost the +whole of the political and civil codes. The codification, which was +completed in February 1865, was adopted only in small part by the state, +but it has served as a model after which most of the law codes of the +United States have been constructed. In 1866 he proposed to the British +National Association for the Promotion of Social Science a revision and +codification of the laws of all nations. For an international commission +of lawyers he prepared _Draft Outlines of an International Code_ (1872), +the submission of which resulted in the organization of the +international Association for the Reform and Codification of the Laws of +Nations, of which he became president. In politics Field was originally +an anti-slavery Democrat, and he supported Van Buren in the Free Soil +campaign of 1848. He gave his support to the Republican party in 1856 +and to the Lincoln administration throughout the Civil War. After 1876, +however, he returned to the Democratic party, and from January to March +1877 served out in Congress the unexpired term of Smith Ely, elected +mayor of New York City. During his brief Congressional career he +delivered six speeches, all of which attracted attention, introduced a +bill in regard to the presidential succession, and appeared before the +Electoral Commission in Tilden's interest. He died in New York City on +the 13th of April 1894. + + Part of his numerous pamphlets and addresses were collected in his + _Speeches, Arguments and Miscellaneous Papers_ (3 vols., 1884-1890). + See also the _Life of David Dudley Field_ (New York, 1898), by Rev. + Henry Martyn Field. + + + + +FIELD, EUGENE (1850-1895), American poet, was born at St Louis, +Missouri, on the 2nd of September 1850. He spent his boyhood in Vermont +and Massachusetts; studied for short periods at Williams and Knox +Colleges and the University of Missouri, but without taking a degree; +and worked as a journalist on various papers, finally becoming connected +with the Chicago _News_. _A Little Book of Profitable Tales_ appeared in +Chicago in 1889 and in New York the next year; but Field's place in +later American literature chiefly depends upon his poems of +Christmas-time and childhood (of which "Little Boy Blue" and "A Dutch +Lullaby" are most widely known), because of their union of obvious +sentiment with fluent lyrical form. His principal collections of poems +are: _A Little Book of Western Verse_ (1889); _A Second Book of Verse_ +(1892); _With Trumpet and Drum_ (1892); and _Love Songs of Childhood_ +(1894). Field died at Chicago on the 4th of November 1895. + + His works were collected in ten volumes (1896), at New York. His prose + _Love-affairs of a Bibliomaniac_ (1896) contains a Memoir by his + brother Roswell Martin Field (b. 1851). See also Slason Thompson, + _Eugene Field: a study in heredity and contradictions_ (2 vols., New + York, 1901). + + + + +FIELD, FREDERICK (1801-1885), English divine and biblical scholar, was +born in London and educated at Christ's hospital and Trinity College, +Cambridge, where he obtained a fellowship in 1824. He took orders in +1828, and began a close study of patristic theology. Eventually he +published an emended and annotated text of Chrysostom's _Homiliae in +Matthaeum_ (Cambridge, 1839), and some years later he contributed to +Pusey's _Bibliotheca Patrum_ (Oxford, 1838-1870), a similarly treated +text of Chrysostom's homilies on Paul's epistles. The scholarship +displayed in both of these critical editions is of a very high order. In +1839 he had accepted the living of Great Saxham, in Suffolk, and in 1842 +he was presented by his college to the rectory of Reepham in Norfolk. He +resigned in 1863, and settled at Norwich, in order to devote his whole +time to study. Twelve years later he completed the _Origenis Hexaplorum +quae supersunt_ (Oxford, 1867-1875), now well known as _Field's +Hexapla_, a text reconstructed from the extant fragments of Origen's +work of that name, together with materials drawn from the +_Syro-hexaplar_ version and the _Septuagint_ of Holmes and Parsons +(Oxford, 1798-1827). Field was appointed a member of the Old Testament +revision company in 1870. + + + + +FIELD, HENRY MARTYN (1822-1907), American author and clergyman, brother +of Cyrus Field, was born at Stockbridge, Massachusetts, on the 3rd of +April 1822; he graduated at Williams College in 1838, and was pastor of +a Presbyterian church in St Louis, Missouri, from 1842 to 1847, and of a +Congregational church in West Springfield, Massachusetts, from 1850 to +1854. The interval between his two pastorates he spent in Europe. From +1854 to 1898 he was editor and for many years he was also sole +proprietor of _The Evangelist_, a New York periodical devoted to the +interests of the Presbyterian church. He spent the last years of his +life in retirement at Stockbridge, Mass., where he died on the 26th of +January 1907. He was the author of a series of books of travel, which +achieved unusual popularity. His two volumes descriptive of a trip round +the world in 1875-1876, entitled _From the Lakes of Killarney to the +Golden Horn_ (1876) and _From Egypt to Japan_ (1877), are almost classic +in their way, and have passed through more than twenty editions. Among +his other publications are _The Irish Confederates and the Rebellion of +1798_ (1850), _The History of the Atlantic Telegraph_ (1866), _Faith or +Agnosticism? the Field-Ingersoll Discussion_ (1888), _Old Spain and New +Spain_ (1888), and _Life of David Dudley Field_ (1898). + +He is not to be confused with another HENRY MARTYN FIELD, the +gynaecologist, who was born in 1837 at Brighton, Mass., and graduated at +Harvard in 1859 and at the College of Physicians and Surgeons in New +York City in 1862; he was professor of Materia Medica and therapeutics +at Dartmouth from 1871 to 1887 and of therapeutics from 1887 to 1893. + + + + +FIELD, JOHN (1782-1837), English musical composer and pianist, was born +at Dublin in 1782. He came of a musical family, his father being a +violinist, and his grandfather the organist in one of the churches of +Dublin. From the latter the boy received his first musical education. +When a few years later the family settled in London, Field became the +favourite pupil of the celebrated Clementi, whom he accompanied to +Paris, and later, in 1802, on his great concert tour through France, +Germany and Russia. Under the auspices of his master Field appeared in +public in most of the great European capitals, especially in St +Petersburg, and in that city he remained when Clementi returned to +England. During his stay with the great pianist Field had to suffer many +privations owing to Clementi's all but unexampled parsimony; but when +the latter left Russia his splendid connexion amongst the highest +circles of the capital became Field's inheritance. His marriage with a +French lady of the name of Charpentier was anything but happy, and had +soon to be dissolved. Field made frequent concert tours to the chief +cities of Russia, and in 1820 settled permanently in Moscow. In 1831 he +came to England for a short time, and for the next four years led a +migratory life in France, Germany and Italy, exciting the admiration of +amateurs wherever he appeared in public. In Naples he fell seriously +ill, and lay several months in the hospital, till a Russian family +discovered him and brought him back to Moscow. There he lingered for +several years till his death on the 11th of January 1837. Field's +training and the cast of his genius were not of a kind to enable him to +excel in the larger forms of instrumental music, and his seven concerti +for the pianoforte are now forgotten. Neither do his quartets for +strings and pianoforte hold their own by the side of those of the great +masters. But his "nocturnes," a form of music highly developed if not +actually created by him, remain all but unrivalled for their tenderness +and dreaminess of conception, combined with a continuous flow of +beautiful melody. They were indeed Chopin's models. Field's execution on +the pianoforte was nearly allied to the nature of his compositions, +beauty and poetical charm of touch being one of the chief +characteristics of his style. Moscheles, who heard Field in 1831, speaks +of his "enchanting legato, his tenderness and elegance and his beautiful +touch." + + + + +FIELD, MARSHALL (1835-1906), American merchant, was born at Conway, +Massachusetts, on the 18th of August 1835. Reared on a farm, he obtained +a common school and academy education, and at the age of seventeen +became a clerk in a dry goods store at Pittsfield, Mass. In 1856 he +removed to Chicago, where he became a clerk in the large mercantile +establishment of Cooley, Wadsworth & Company. In 1860 the firm was +reorganized as Cooley, Farwell & Company, and he was admitted to a +junior partnership. In 1865, with Potter Palmer (1826-1902) and Levi Z. +Leiter (1834-1904), he organized the firm of Field, Palmer & Leiter, +which subsequently became Field, Leiter & Company, and in 1881 on the +retirement of Leiter became Marshall Field & Company. Under Field's +management the annual business of the firm increased from $12,000,000 in +1871 to more than $40,000,000 in 1895, when it ranked as one of the two +or three largest mercantile establishments in the world. He died in New +York city on the 16th of January 1906. He had married, for the second +time, in the previous year. Field's public benefactions were numerous; +notable among them being his gift of land valued at $300,000 and of +$100,000 in cash to the University of Chicago, an endowment fund of +$1,000,000 to support the Field Columbian Museum at Chicago, and a +bequest of $8,000,000 to this museum. + + + + +FIELD, NATHAN (1587-1633), English dramatist and actor, was baptized on +the 17th of October 1587. His father, the rector of Cripplegate, was a +Puritan divine, author of a _Godly Exhortation_ directed against +play-acting, and his brother Theophilus became bishop of Hereford. Nat. +Field early became one of the children of Queen Elizabeth's chapel, and +in that capacity he played leading parts in Ben Jonson's _Cynthia's +Revels_ (in 1600), in the _Poetaster_ (in 1601), and in _Epicoene_ (in +1608), and the title role in Chapman's _Bussy d'Ambois_ (in 1606). Ben +Jonson was his dramatic model, and may have helped his career. The two +plays of which he was author were probably both written before 1611. +They are boisterous, but well-constructed comedies of contemporary +London life; the earlier one, _A Woman is a Weathercock_ (printed 1612), +dealing with the inconstancy of woman, while the second, _Amends for +Ladies_ (printed 1618), was written with the intention, as the title +indicates, of retracting the charge. From Henslowe's papers it appears +that Field collaborated with Robert Daborne and with Philip Massinger, +one letter from all three authors being a joint appeal for money to free +them from prison. In 1614 Field received L10 for playing before the king +in _Bartholomew Fair_, a play in which Jonson records his reputation as +an actor in the words "which is your Burbadge now?... Your best actor, +your Field?" He joined the King's Players some time before 1619, and his +name comes seventeenth on the list prefixed to the Shakespeare folio of +1623 of the "principal actors in all these plays." He retired from the +stage before 1625, and died on the 20th of February 1633. Field was part +author with Massinger in the _Fatal Dowry_ (printed 1632), and he +prefixed commendatory verses to Fletcher's _Faithful Shepherdess_. + + His two plays were reprinted in J.P. Collier's _Five Old Plays_ + (1833), in Hazlitt's edition of _Dodsley's Old Plays_, and in _Nero + and other Plays_ (Mermaid series, 1888), with an introduction by Mr + A.W. Verity. + + + + +FIELD, STEPHEN JOHNSON (1816-1899), American jurist, was born at Haddam, +Connecticut, on the 4th of November 1816. He was the brother of David +Dudley Field, Cyrus W. Field and Henry M. Field. At the age of thirteen +he accompanied his sister Emilia and her husband the Rev. Josiah Brewer +(the parents of the distinguished judge of the Supreme Court, David J. +Brewer) to Smyrna, Turkey, for the purpose of studying Oriental +languages, but after three years he returned to the United States, and +in 1837 graduated at Williams College at the head of his class. He then +studied law in his elder brother's office, and in 1841 he was admitted +to the New York bar. He was associated in practice there with his +brother until 1848, and early in 1849 removed to California, settling +soon afterward at Marysville, of which place, in 1850, he became the +first alcalde or mayor. In the same year he was chosen a member of the +first state legislature of California, in which he drew up and secured +the enactment of two bodies of law known as the Civil and Criminal +Practices Acts, based on the similar codes prepared by his brother David +Dudley for New York. In the former act he embodied a provision +regulating and giving authority to the peculiar customs, usages, and +regulations voluntarily adopted by the miners in various districts of +the state for the adjudication of disputed mining claims. This, as Judge +Field truly says, "was the foundation of the jurisprudence respecting +mines in the country," having greatly influenced legislation upon this +subject in other states and in the Congress of the United States. He was +elected, in 1857, a justice of the California Supreme Court, of which he +became chief justice in 1859, on the resignation of Judge David S. Terry +to fight the duel with the United States senator David C. Broderick +which ended fatally for the latter. Field held this position until 1863, +when he was appointed by President Lincoln a justice of the United +States Supreme Court. In this capacity he was conspicuous for fearless +independence of thought and action in his opinion in the test oath case, +and in his dissenting opinions in the legal tender, conscription and +"slaughter house" cases, which displayed unusual legal learning, and +gave powerful expression to his strict constructionist theory of the +implied powers of the Federal constitution. Originally a Democrat, and +always a believer in states' rights, his strong Union sentiments caused +him nevertheless to accept Lincoln's doctrine of coercion, and that, +together with his anti-slavery sympathies, led him to act with the +Republican party during the period of the Civil War. He was a member of +the commission which revised the California code in 1873 and of the +Electoral Commission in 1877, voting in favour of Tilden. In 1880 he +received sixty-five votes on the first ballot for the presidential +nomination at the Democratic National Convention at Cincinnati. In +August 1889, as a result of a ruling in the course of the Sharon-Hill +litigation, a notorious conspiracy case, he was assaulted in a +California railway station by Judge David S. Terry, who in turn was shot +and killed by a United States deputy marshall appointed to defend +Justice Field against the carrying out of Terry's often-expressed +threats. He retired from the Supreme Court on the 1st of December 1897 +after a service of thirty-four years and six months, the longest in the +court's history, and died in Washington on the 9th of April 1899. + + His _Personal Reminiscences of Early Days in California_, originally + privately printed in 1878, was republished in 1893 with George C. + Gorham's _Story of the Attempted Assassination of Justice Field_. + + + + +FIELD, WILLIAM VENTRIS FIELD, BARON (1813-1907), English judge, second +son of Thomas Flint Field, of Fielden, Bedfordshire, was born on the +21st of August 1813. He was educated at King's school, Bruton, +Somersetshire, and entered the legal profession as a solicitor. In 1843, +however, he ceased to practise as such, and entered at the Inner Temple, +being called to the bar in 1850, after having practised for some time as +a special pleader. He joined the Western circuit, but soon exchanged it +for the Midland. He obtained a large business as a junior, and became a +queen's counsel and bencher of his inn in 1864. As a Q.C. he had a very +extensive common law practice, and had for some time been the leader of +the Midland circuit, when in February 1875, on the retirement of Mr +Justice Keating, he was raised to the bench as a justice of the queen's +bench. Mr Justice Field was an excellent puisne judge of the type that +attracts but little public attention. He was a first-rate lawyer, had a +good knowledge of commercial matters, great shrewdness and a quick +intellect, while he was also painstaking and scrupulously fair. When the +rules of the Supreme Court 1883 came into force in the autumn of that +year, Mr Justice Field was so well recognized an authority upon all +questions of practice that the lord chancellor selected him to sit +continuously at Judges' Chambers, in order that a consistent practice +under the new rules might as far as possible be established. This he did +for nearly a year, and his name will always, to a large extent, be +associated with the settling of the details of the new procedure, which +finally did away with the former elaborate system of "special pleading." +In 1890 he retired from the bench and was raised to the peerage as Baron +Field of Bakeham, becoming at the same time a member of the privy +council. In the House of Lords he at first took part, not infrequently, +in the hearing of appeals, and notably delivered a carefully-reasoned +judgment in the case of the _Bank of England_ v. _Vagliano Brothers_ +(5th of March 1891), in which, with Lord Bramwell, he differed from the +majority of his brother peers. Before long, however, deafness and +advancing years rendered his attendances less frequent. Lord Field died +at Bognor on the 23rd of January 1907, and as he left no issue the +peerage became extinct. + + + + +FIELD (a word common to many West German languages, cf. Ger. _Feld_, +Dutch _veld_, possibly cognate with O.E. _folde_, the earth, and +ultimately with root of the Gr. [Greek: platos], broad), open country as +opposed to woodland or to the town, and particularly land for +cultivation divided up into separate portions by hedges, banks, stone +walls, &c.; also used in combination with words denoting the crop grown +on such a portion of land, such as corn-field, turnip-field, &c. The +word is similarly applied to a region with particular reference to its +products, as oil-field, gold-field, &c. For the "open" or "common field" +system of agriculture in village communities see COMMONS. Generally with +a reference to their "wild" as opposed to their "domestic" nature +"field" is applied to many animals, such as the "field-mouse." There are +many applications of the word; thus from the use of the term for the +place where a battle is fought, and widely of the whole theatre of war, +come such phrases as to "take the field" for the opening of a campaign, +"in the field" of troops that are engaged in the operations of a +campaign. It is frequently used figuratively in this sense, of the +subject matter of a controversy, and also appears in military usage, in +field-fortification, field-day and the like. A "field-officer" is one +who ranks above a captain and below a general (see OFFICERS); a field +marshal is the highest rank of general officer in the British and many +European armies (see MARSHAL). "Field" is used in many games, partly +with the idea of an enclosed space, partly with the idea of the ground +of military operations, for the ground in which such games as cricket, +football, baseball and the like are played. Hence it is applied to those +players in cricket and baseball who are not "in," and "to field" is to +perform the functions of such a player--to stop or catch the ball played +by the "in" side. "The field" is used in hunting, &c., for those taking +part in the sport, and in racing for all the horses entered for a race, +and, in such expressions as "to back the field," is confined to all the +horses with the exception of the "favourite." A common application of +the word is to a surface, more or less wide, as of the sky or sea, or of +such physical phenomena as ice or snow, and particularly of the ground, +of a special "tincture," on which armorial bearings are displayed (see +HERALDRY); it is thus used also of the "ground" of a flag, thus the +white ensign of the British navy has a red St George's cross on a white +"field." In scientific usage the word is also used of the sphere of +observation or of operations, and has come to be almost equivalent to a +department of knowledge. In physics, a particular application is that to +the area which is influenced by some agent, as in the magnetic or +electric field. The field of observation or view is the area within +which objects can be seen through any optical instrument at any one +position. A "field-glass" is the name given to a binocular glass used in +the field (see BINOCULAR INSTRUMENT); the older form of field-glass was +a small achromatic telescope with joints. This terms is also applied, in +an astronomical telescope or compound microscope, to that one of the +two lenses of the "eye-piece" which is next to the object-glass; the +other is called the "eye-glass." + + + + +FIELDFARE (O.E. _fealo-for_ = fallow-farer), a large species of thrush, +the _Turdus pilaris_ of Linnaeus--well known as a regular and common +autumnal visitor throughout the British Islands and a great part of +Europe, besides western Asia, and even reaching northern Africa. It is +the _Veldjakker_ and _Veld-lyster_ of the Dutch, the _Wachholderdrossel_ +and _Kramtsvogel_ of Germans, the _Litorne_ of the French, and the +_Cesena_ of Italians. This bird is of all thrushes the most gregarious +in. habit, not only migrating in large bands and keeping in flocks +during the winter, but even commonly breeding in society--200 nests or +more having been seen within a very small space. The birch-forests of +Norway, Sweden and Russia are its chief resorts in summer, but it is +known also to breed sparingly in some districts of Germany. Though its +nest has been many times reported to have been found in Scotland, there +is perhaps no record of such an incident that is not open to doubt; and +unquestionably the missel-thrush (_T. viscivorus_) has been often +mistaken for the fieldfare by indifferent observers. The head, neck, +upper part of the back and the rump are grey; the wings, wing-coverts +and middle of the back are rich hazel-brown; the throat is ochraceous; +and the breast reddish-brown--both being streaked or spotted with black, +while the belly and lower wing-coverts are white, and the legs and toes +very dark-brown. The nest and eggs resemble those of the blackbird (_T. +merula_), but the former is usually built high up in a tree. The +fieldfare's call-note is harsh and loud, sounding like _t'chatt'chat_: +its song is low, twittering and poor. It usually arrives in Britain +about the middle or end of October, but sometimes earlier, and often +remains till the middle of May before departing for its northern +breeding-places. In hard weather it throngs to the berry-bearing bushes +which then afford it sustenance, but in open winters the flocks spread +over the fields in search of animal food--worms, slugs and the larvae of +insects. In very severe seasons it will altogether leave the country, +and then return for a shorter or longer time as spring approaches. From +_William of Palerne_ (translated from the French c. 1350) to the writers +of our own day the fieldfare has occasionally been noticed by British +poets with varying propriety. Thus Chaucer's association Of its name +with frost is as happy as true, while Scott was more than unlucky in his +well-known reference to its "lowly nest" in the Highlands. + +Structurally very like the fieldfare, but differing greatly in many +other respects, is the bird known in North America as the "robin"--its +ruddy breast and familiar habits reminding the early British settlers in +the New World of the household favourite of their former homes. This +bird, the _Turdus migratorius_ of Linnaeus, has a wide geographical +range, extending from the Atlantic to the Pacific, and from Greenland to +Guatemala, and, except at its extreme limits, is almost everywhere a +very abundant species. As its scientific name imports, it is essentially +a migrant, and gathers in flocks to pass the winter in the south, though +a few remain in New England throughout the year. Yet its social +instincts point rather in the direction of man than of its own kind, and +it is not known to breed in companies, while it affects the homesteads, +villages and even the parks and gardens of the large cities, where its +fine song, its attractive plumage, and its great services as a destroyer +of noxious insects, combine to make it justly popular. (A. N.) + + + + +FIELDING, ANTHONY VANDYKE COPLEY (1787-1855), commonly called Copley +Fielding, English landscape painter (son of a portrait painter), became +at an early age a pupil of John Varley. He took to water-colour +painting, and to this he confined himself almost exclusively. In 1810 he +became an associate exhibitor in the Water-colour Society, in 1813 a +full member, and in 1831 president of that body. He also engaged largely +in teaching the art, and made ample profits. His death took place at +Worthing in March 1855. Copley Fielding was a painter of much elegance, +taste and accomplishment, and has always been highly popular with +purchasers, without reaching very high in originality of purpose or of +style: he painted in vast number all sorts of views (occasionally in +oil-colour) including marine subjects in large proportion. Specimens of +his work are to be seen in the water-colour gallery of the Victoria and +Albert Museum, of dates ranging from 1829 to 1850. Among the engraved +specimens of his art is the _Annual of British Landscape Scenery_, +published in 1839. (W. M. R.) + + + + +FIELDING, HENRY (1707-1754), English novelist and playwright, was born +at Sharpham Park, near Glastonbury, Somerset, on the 22nd of April 1707. +His father was Lieutenant Edmund Fielding, third son of John Fielding, +who was canon of Salisbury and fifth son of the earl of Desmond. The +earl of Desmond belonged to the younger branch of the Denbigh family, +who, until lately, were supposed to be connected with the Habsburgs. To +this claim, now discredited by the researches of Mr J. Horace Round +(_Studies in Peerage_, 1901, pp. 216-249), is to be attributed the +famous passage in Gibbon's _Autobiography_ which predicts for _Tom +Jones_--"that exquisite picture of human manners"--a diuturnity +exceeding that of the house of Austria. Henry Fielding's mother was +Sarah Gould, daughter of Sir Henry Gould, a judge of the king's bench. +It is probable that the marriage was not approved by her father, since, +though she remained at Sharpham Park for some time after that event, his +will provided that her husband should have nothing to do with a legacy +of L3000 left her in 1710. About this date the Fieldings moved to East +Stour in Dorset. Two girls, Catherine and Ursula, had apparently been +born at Sharpham Park; and three more, together with a son, Edmund, +followed at East Stour. Sarah, the third of the daughters, born November +1710, and afterwards the author of _David Simple_ and other works, +survived her brother. + +Fielding's education up to his mother's death, which took place in April +1718 at East Stour, seems to have been entrusted to a neighbouring +clergyman, Mr Oliver of Motcombe, in whom tradition traces the uncouth +lineaments of "Parson Trulliber" in _Joseph Andrews_. But he must have +contrived, nevertheless, to prepare his pupil for Eton, to which place +Fielding went about this date, probably as an oppidan. Little is known +of his schooldays. There is no record of his name in the college lists; +but, if we may believe his first biographer, Arthur Murphy, by no means +an unimpeachable authority, he left "uncommonly versed in the Greek +authors, and an early master of the Latin classics,"--a statement which +should perhaps be qualified by his own words to Sir Robert Walpole in +1730:-- + + "Tuscan and French are in my head; + Latin I write, and Greek--I read." + +But he certainly made friends among his class-fellows--some of whom +continued friends for life. Winnington and Hanbury-Williams were among +these. The chief, however, and the most faithful, was George, afterwards +Sir George, and later Baron Lyttelton of Frankley. + +When Fielding left Eton is unknown. But in November 1725 we hear of him +definitely in what seems like a characteristic escapade. He was staying +at Lyme (in company with a trusty retainer, ready to "beat, maim or +kill" in his young master's behalf), and apparently bent on carrying +off, if necessary by force, a local heiress, Miss Sarah Andrew, whose +fluttered guardians promptly hurried her away, and married her to some +one else (_Athenaeum_, 2nd June 1883). Her baffled admirer consoled +himself by translating part of Juvenal's sixth satire into verse as "all +the Revenge taken by an injured Lover." After this he must have lived +the usual life of a young man about town, and probably at this date +improved the acquaintance of his second cousin, Lady Mary Wortley +Montagu, to whom he inscribed his first comedy, _Love in Several +Masques_, produced at Drury Lane in February 1728. The moment was not +particularly favourable, since it succeeded Cibber's _Provok'd Husband_, +and was contemporary with Gay's popular _Beggar's Opera_. Almost +immediately afterwards (March 16th) Fielding entered himself as "Stud. +Lit." at Leiden University. He was still there in February 1729. But he +had apparently left before the annual registration of February 1730, +when his name is absent from the books (_Macmillan's Magazine_, April +1907); and in January 1730 he brought out a second comedy at the +newly-opened theatre in Goodman's Fields. Like its predecessor, the +_Temple Beau_ was an essay in the vein of Congreve and Wycherley, +though, in a measure, an advance on _Love in Several Masques_. + +With the _Temple Beau_ Fielding's dramatic career definitely begins. His +father had married again; and his Leiden career had been interrupted for +lack of funds. Nominally, he was entitled to an allowance of L200 a +year; but this (he was accustomed to say) "any body might pay that +would." Young, handsome, ardent and fond of pleasure, he began that +career as a hand-to-mouth playwright around which so much legend has +gathered--and gathers. Having--in his own words--no choice but to be a +hackney coachman or a hackney writer, he chose the pen; and his +inclinations, as well as his opportunities, led him to the stage. From +1730 to 1736 he rapidly brought out a large number of pieces, most of +which had merit enough to secure their being acted, but not sufficient +to earn a lasting reputation for their author. His chief successes, from +a critical point of view, the _Author's Farce_ (1730) and _Tom Thumb_ +(1730, 1731), were burlesques; and he also was fortunate in two +translations from Moliere, the _Mock Doctor_ (1732) and the _Miser_ +(1733). Of the rest (with one or two exceptions, to be mentioned +presently) the names need only be recorded. They are _The Coffee-House +Politician_, a comedy (1730); _The Letter Writers_, a farce (1731); _The +Grub-Street Opera_, a burlesque (1731); _The Lottery_, a farce (1732); +_The Modern Husband_, a comedy (1732); _The Covent Garden Tragedy_, a +burlesque (1732); _The Old Debauchees_, a comedy (1732); _Deborah; or, a +Wife for you all_, an after-piece (1733); _The Intriguing Chambermaid_ +(from Regnard), a two-act comedy (1734); and _Don Quixote in England_, a +comedy, which had been partly sketched at Leiden. + +_Don Quixote_ was produced in 1734, and the list of plays may be here +interrupted by an event of which the date has only recently been +ascertained, namely, Fielding's first marriage. This took place on the +28th of November 1734 at St Mary, Charlcornbe, near Bath (_Macmillan's +Magazine_, April 1907), the lady being a Salisbury beauty, Miss +Charlotte Cradock, of whom he had been an admirer, if not a suitor, as +far back as 1730. This is a fact which should be taken into +consideration in estimating the exact Bohemianism of his London life, +for there is no doubt that he was devotedly attached to her. After a +fresh farce entitled _An Old Man taught Wisdom_, and the comparative +failure of a new comedy, _The Universal Gallant_, both produced early in +1735, he seems for a time to have retired with his bride, who came into +L1500, to his old home at East Stour. Around this rural seclusion +fiction has freely accreted. He is supposed to have lived for three +years on the footing of a typical 18th-century country gentleman; to +have kept a pack of hounds; to have put his servants into impossible +yellow liveries; and generally, by profuse hospitality and reckless +expenditure, to have made rapid duck and drake of Mrs Fielding's modest +legacy. Something of this is demonstrably false; much, grossly +exaggerated. In any case, he was in London as late as February 1735 (the +date of the "Preface" to _The Universal Gallant_); and early in March +1736 he was back again managing the Haymarket theatre with a so-called +"_Great Mogul's_ Company of _English_ Comedians." + +Upon this new enterprise fortune, at the outset, seemed to smile. The +first piece (produced on the 5th of March) was _Pasquin, a Dramatick +Satire on the Times_ (a piece akin in its plan to Buckingham's +_Rehearsal_), which contained, in addition to much admirable burlesque, +a good deal of very direct criticism of the shameless political +corruption of the Walpole era. Its success was unmistakable; and when, +after bringing out the remarkable _Fatal Curiosity_ of George Lillo, its +author followed up _Pasquin_ by the _Historical Register for the Year +1736_, of which the effrontery was even more daring than that of its +predecessor, the ministry began to bethink themselves that matters were +going too far. How they actually effected their object is obscure: but +grounds were speedily concocted for the Licensing Act of 1737, which +restricted the number of theatres, rendered the lord chamberlain's +licence an indispensable preliminary to stage representation, and--in a +word--effectually put an end to Fielding's career as a dramatist. + +Whether, had that career been prolonged to its maturity, the result +would have enriched the theatrical repertoire with a new species of +burlesque, or reinforced it with fresh variations on the "wit-traps" of +Wycherley and Congreve, is one of those inquiries that are more academic +than, profitable. What may be affirmed is, that Fielding's plays, as we +have them, exhibit abundant invention and ingenuity; that they are full +of humour and high spirits; that, though they may have been hastily +written, they were by no means thoughtlessly constructed; and that, in +composing them, their author attentively considered either managerial +hints, or the conditions of the market. Against this, one must set the +fact that they are often immodest; and that, whatever their intrinsic +merit, they have failed to rival in permanent popularity the work of +inferior men. Fielding's own conclusion was, "that he left off writing +for the stage, when he ought to have begun"--which can only mean that he +himself regarded his plays as the outcome of imitation rather than +experience. They probably taught him how to construct _Tom Jones_; but +whether he could ever have written a comedy at the level of that novel, +can only be established by a comparison which it is impossible to make, +namely, a comparison with _Tom Jones_ of a comedy written at the same +age, and in similar circumstances. + +_Tumble-Down Dick; or, Phaeton in the Suds_, _Eurydice_ and _Eurydice +hissed_ are the names of three occasional pieces which belong to the +last months of Fielding's career as a Haymarket manager. By this date he +was thirty, with a wife and daughter. As a means of support, he reverted +to the profession of his maternal grandfather; and, in November 1737, he +entered the Middle Temple, being described in the books of the society +as "of East Stour in Dorset." That he set himself strenuously to master +his new profession, is admitted; though it is unlikely that he had +entirely discarded the irregular habits which had grown upon him in his +irresponsible bachelorhood. He also did a good deal of literary work, +the best known of which is contained in the _Champion_, a "News-Journal" +of the _Spectator_ type undertaken with James Ralph, whose poem of +"Night" is made notorious in the _Dunciad_. That the _Champion_ was not +without merit is undoubted; but the essay-type was for the moment +out-worn, and neither Fielding nor his coadjutor could lend it fresh +vitality. Fielding contributed papers from the 15th of November 1739 to +the 19th of June 1740. On the 20th of June he was called to the bar, and +occupied chambers in Pump Court. It is further related that, in the +diligent pursuit of his calling, he travelled the Western Circuit, and +attended the Wiltshire sessions. + +Although, with the _Champion_, he professed, for the time, to have +relinquished periodical literature, he still wrote at intervals, a fact +which, taken in connexion with his past reputation as an effective +satirist, probably led to his being "unjustly censured" for much that he +never produced. But he certainly wrote a poem "Of True Greatness" +(1741); a first book of a burlesque epic, the _Vernoniad_, prompted by +Vernon's expedition of 1739; a vision called the _Opposition_, and, +perhaps, a political sermon entitled the _Crisis_ (1741). Another piece, +now known to have been attributed to him by his contemporaries (_Hist. +MSS. Comm., Rept._ 12, App. Pt. ix., p. 204), is the pamphlet entitled +_An Apology for the Life of Mrs Shamela Andrews_, a clever but coarse +attack upon the prurient side of Richardson's _Pamela_, which had been +issued in 1740, and was at the height of its popularity. _Shamela_ +followed early in 1741. Richardson, who was well acquainted with +Fielding's four sisters, at that date his neighbours at Hammersmith, +confidently attributed it to Fielding (_Corr._ 1804, iv. 286, and +unpublished letter at South Kensington); and there are suggestive points +of internal evidence (such as the transformation of _Pamela's_ "MR B." +into "Mr Booby") which tend to connect it with the future _Joseph +Andrews_. Fielding, however, never acknowledged it, or referred to it; +and a great deal has been laid to his charge that he never deserved +("Preface" to _Miscellanies_, 1743). + +But whatever may be decided in regard to the authorship of _Shamela_, it +is quite possible that it prompted the more memorable _Joseph Andrews_, +which made its appearance in February 1742, and concerning which there +is no question. Professing, on his title-page, to imitate Cervantes, +Fielding set out to cover _Pamela_ with Homeric ridicule by transferring +the heroine's embarrassments to a hero, supposed to be her brother. +Allied to this purpose was a collateral attack upon the slipshod +_Apology_ of the playwright Colley Cibber, with whom, for obscure +reasons, Fielding had long been at war. But the avowed object of the +book fell speedily into the background as its author warmed to his +theme. His secondary speedily became his primary characters, and Lady +Booby and Joseph Andrews do not interest us now as much as Mrs Slipslop +and Parson Adams--the latter an invention that ranges in literature with +Sterne's "Uncle Toby" and Goldsmith's "Vicar." Yet more than these and +others equally admirable in their round veracity, is the writer's +penetrating outlook upon the frailties and failures of human nature. By +the time he had reached his second volume, he had convinced himself that +he had inaugurated a new fashion of fiction; and in a "Preface" of +exceptional ability, he announced his discovery. Postulating that the +epic might be "comic" or "tragic," prose or verse, he claimed to have +achieved what he termed the "Comic Epos in Prose," of which the action +was "ludicrous" rather than "sublime," and the personages selected from +society at large, rather than the restricted ranks of conventional high +life. His plan, it will be observed, was happily adapted to his gifts of +humour, satire, and above all, irony. That it was matured when it began +may perhaps be doubted, but it was certainly matured when it ended. +Indeed, except for the plot, which, in his picaresque first idea, had +not preceded the conception, _Joseph Andrews_ has all the +characteristics of _Tom Jones_, even (in part) to the initial chapters. + +_Joseph Andrews_ had considerable success, and the exact sum paid for it +by Andrew Millar, the publisher, according to the assignment now at +South Kensington, was L183:11s., one of the witnesses being the author's +friend, William Young, popularly supposed to be the original of Parson +Adams. It was with Young that Fielding undertook what, with exception of +"a very small share" in the farce of _Miss Lucy in Town_ (1742), +constituted his next work, a translation of the _Plutus_ of +Aristophanes, which never seems to have justified any similar +experiments. Another of his minor works was a _Vindication of the +Dowager Duchess of Marlborough_ (1742), then much before the public by +reason of the _Account of her Life_ which she had recently put forth. +Later in the same year, Garrick applied to Fielding for a play; and a +very early effort, _The Wedding Day_, was hastily patched together, and +produced at Drury Lane in February 1743 with no great success. It was, +however, included in Fielding's next important publication, the three +volumes of _Miscellanies_ issued by subscription in the succeeding +April. These also comprised some early poems, some essays, a Lucianic +fragment entitled a _Journey from this World to the Next_, and, last but +not least, occupying the entire final volume, the remarkable performance +entitled the _History of the Life of the late Mr Jonathan Wild the +Great_. + +It is probable that, in its composition, _Jonathan Wild_ preceded +_Joseph Andrews_. At all events it seems unlikely that Fielding would +have followed up a success in a new line by an effort so entirely +different in character. Taking for his ostensible hero a well-known +thief-taker, who had been hanged in 1725, he proceeds to illustrate, by +a mock-heroic account of his progress to Tyburn, the general proposition +that greatness without goodness is no better than badness. He will not +go so far as to say that all "Human Nature is Newgate with the Mask on"; +but he evidently regards the description as fairly applicable to a good +many so-called great people. Irony (and especially Irony neat) is not a +popular form of rhetoric; and the remorseless pertinacity with which +Fielding pursues his demonstration is to many readers discomforting and +even distasteful. Yet--in spite of Scott--_Jonathan Wild_ has its softer +pages; and as a purely intellectual conception it is not surpassed by +any of the author's works. + +His actual biography, both before and after _Jonathan Wild_, is +obscure. There are evidences that he laboured diligently at his +profession; there are also evidences of sickness and embarrassment. He +had become early a martyr to the malady of his century--gout, and the +uncertainties of a precarious livelihood told grievously upon his +beautiful wife, who eventually died of fever in his arms, leaving him +for the time so stunned and bewildered by grief that his friends feared +for his reason. For some years his published productions were +unimportant. He wrote "Prefaces" to the _David Simple_ of his sister +Sarah in 1744 and 1747; and, in 1745-1746 and 1747-1748, produced two +newspapers in the ministerial interest, the _True Patriot_ and the +_Jacobite's Journal_, both of which are connected with, or derive from, +the rebellion of 1745, and were doubtless, when they ceased, the pretext +of a pension from the public service money (_Journal of a Voyage to +Lisbon_, "Introduction"). In November 1747 he married his wife's maid, +Mary Daniel, at St Bene't's, Paul's Wharf; and in December 1748, by the +interest of his old school-fellow, Lyttelton, he was made a principal +justice of peace for Middlesex and Westminster, an office which put him +in possession of a house in Bow Street, and L300 per annum "of the +dirtiest money upon earth" (_ibid._), which might have been more had he +condescended to become what was known as a "trading" magistrate. + +For some time previously, while at Bath, Salisbury, Twickenham and other +temporary resting-places, he had intermittently occupied himself in +composing his second great novel, _Tom Jones; or, the History of a +Foundling_. For this, in June 1748, Millar had paid him L600, to which +he added L100 more in 1749. In the February of the latter year it was +published with a dedication to Lyttelton, to whose pecuniary assistance +to the author during the composition it plainly bears witness. In _Tom +Jones_ Fielding systematically developed the "new Province of Writing" +he had discovered incidentally in _Joseph Andrews_. He paid closer +attention to the construction and evolution of the plot; he elaborated +the initial essays to each book which he had partly employed before, and +he compressed into his work the flower and fruit of his forty years' +experience of life. He has, indeed, no character quite up to the level +of Parson Adams, but his Westerns and Partridges, his Allworthys and +Blifils, have the inestimable gift of life. He makes no pretence to +produce "models of perfection," but pictures of ordinary humanity, +rather perhaps in the rough than the polished, the natural than the +artificial, and his desire is to do this with absolute truthfulness, +neither extenuating nor disguising defects and shortcomings. One of the +results of this unvarnished naturalism has been to attract more +attention to certain of the episodes than their inventor ever intended. +But that, in the manners of his time, he had chapter and verse for +everything he drew is clear. His sincere purpose was, he declared, "to +recommend goodness and innocence," and his obvious aversions are vanity +and hypocrisy. The methods of fiction have grown more sophisticated +since his day, and other forms of literary egotism have taken the place +of his once famous introductory essays, but the traces of _Tom Jones_ +are still discernible in most of our manlier modern fiction. + +Meanwhile, its author was showing considerable activity in his +magisterial duties. In May 1749, he was chosen chairman of quarter +sessions for Westminster; and in June he delivered himself of a weighty +charge to the grand jury. Besides other pamphlets, he produced a careful +and still readable _Enquiry into the Causes of the late Increase of +Robbers_, &c. (1751), which, among its other merits, was not ineffectual +in helping on the famous Gin Act of that year, a practical result to +which the "Gin Lane" and "Beer Street" of his friend Hogarth also +materially contributed. These duties and preoccupations left their mark +on his next fiction, _Amelia_ (1752), which is rather more taken up with +social problems and popular grievances than its forerunners. But the +leading personage, in whom, as in the Sophia Western of _Tom Jones_, he +reproduced the traits of his first wife, is certainly, as even Johnson +admitted, "the most pleasing heroine of all the romances." The minor +characters, too, especially Dr Harrison and Colonel Bath, are equal to +any in _Tom Jones_. The book nevertheless shows signs, not of failure +but of fatigue, perhaps of haste--a circumstance heightened by the +absence of those "prolegomenous" chapters over which the author had +lingered so lovingly in _Tom Jones_. In 1749 he had been dangerously +ill, and his health was visibly breaking. The L1000 which Millar is said +to have given for _Amelia_ must have been painfully earned. + +Early in 1752 his still indomitable energy prompted him to start a third +newspaper, the _Covent Garden Journal_, which ran from the 4th of +January to the 25th of November. It is an interesting contemporary +record, and throws a good deal of light on his Bow Street duties. But it +has no great literary value, and it unhappily involved him in harassing +and undignified hostilities with Smollett, Dr John Hill, Bonnell +Thornton and other of his contemporaries. To the following year belong +pamphlets on "Provision for the Poor," and the case of the strange +impostor, Elizabeth Canning (1734-1773).[1] By 1754 his own case, as +regards health, had grown desperate; and he made matters worse by a +gallant and successful attempt to break up a "gang of villains and +cut-throats," who had become the terror of the metropolis. This +accomplished, he resigned his office to his half-brother John +(afterwards Sir John) Fielding. But it was now too late. After fruitless +essay both of Dr Ward's specifics and the tar-water of Bishop Berkeley, +it was felt that his sole chance of prolonging life lay in removal to a +warmer climate. On the 26th of June 1754 he accordingly left his little +country house at Fordhook, Ealing, for Lisbon, in the "Queen of +Portugal," Richard Veal master. The ship, as often, was tediously +wind-bound, and the protracted discomforts of the sick man and his +family are narrated at length in the touching posthumous tract entitled +the _Journal of a Voyage to Lisbon_, which, with a fragment of a comment +on Bolingbroke's then recently issued essays, was published in February +1755 "for the Benefit of his [Fielding's] Wife and Children." Reaching +Lisbon at last in August 1754, he died there two months later (8th +October), and was buried in the English cemetery, where a monument was +erected to him in 1830._ Luget Britannia gremio non dari fovere natum_ +is inscribed upon it. + +His estate, including the proceeds of a fair library, only covered his +just debts (_Athenaeum_, 25th Nov. 1905); but his family, a daughter by +his first, and two boys and a girl by his second wife, were faithfully +cared for by his brother John, and by his friend Ralph Allen of Prior +Park, Bath, the Squire Allworthy of _Tom Jones_. His will (undated) was +printed in the _Athenaeum_ for the 1st of February 1890. There is but +one absolutely authentic portrait of him, a familiar outline by Hogarth, +executed from memory for Andrew Millar's edition of his works in 1762. +It is the likeness of a man broken by ill-health, and affords but faint +indication of the handsome Harry Fielding who in his salad days "warmed +both hands before the fire of life." Far too much stress, it is now +held, has been laid by his first biographers upon the unworshipful side +of his early career. That he was always profuse, sanguine and more or +less improvident, is as probable as that he was always manly, generous +and sympathetic. But it is also plain that, in his later years, he did +much, as father, friend and magistrate, to redeem the errors, real and +imputed, of a too-youthful youth. + +As a playwright and essayist his rank is not elevated. But as a novelist +his place is a definite one. If the _Spectator_ is to be credited with +foreshadowing the characters of the novel, Defoe with its earliest form, +and Richardson with its first experiments in sentimental analysis, it is +to Henry Fielding that we owe its first accurate delineation of +contemporary manners. Neglecting, or practically neglecting, sentiment +as unmanly, and relying chiefly on humour and ridicule, he set out to +draw life precisely as he saw it around him, without blanks or dashes. +He was, it may be, for a judicial moralist, too indulgent to some of its +frailties, but he was merciless to its meaner vices. For reasons which +have been already given, his high-water mark is _Tom Jones_, which has +remained, and remains, a model in its way of the kind he inaugurated. + + An essay on Fielding's life and writings is prefixed to Arthur + Murphy's edition of his works (1762), and short biographies have been + written by Walter Scott and William Roscoe. There are also lives by + Watson (1807), Lawrence (1855), Austin Dobson ("Men of Letters," 1883, + 1907) and G.M. Godden (1909). An annotated edition of the _Journal of + a Voyage to Lisbon_ is included in the "World's Classics" (1907). + (A. D.) + + +FOOTNOTE: + + [1] For a full account of this celebrated case see Howell, _State + Trials_ (1813), vol. xix. + + + + +FIELDING, WILLIAM STEVENS (1848- ), Canadian journalist and statesman, +was born in Halifax, Nova Scotia, on the 24th of November 1848. From +1864 to 1884 he was one of the staff of the _Morning Chronicle_, the +chief Liberal paper of the province, and worked at all departments of +newspaper life. In 1882 he entered the local legislature as Liberal +member for Halifax, and from 1884 to 1896 was premier and provincial +secretary of the province, but in the latter year became finance +minister in the Dominion administration of Sir Wilfrid Laurier, and was +elected to the House of Commons for Shelburne and Queen's county. He +opposed Confederation in 1864-1867, and as late as 1886 won a provincial +election on the promise to advocate the repeal of the British North +America Act. His administration as finance minister of Canada was +important, since in 1897 he introduced a new tariff, granting to the +manufactures of Great Britain a preference, subsequently increased; and +later he imposed a special surtax on German imports owing to unfriendly +tariff legislation by that country. In 1902 he represented Canada at the +Colonial Conference in London. + + + + +FIELD-MOUSE, the popular designation of such mouse-like British rodents +as are not true or "house" mice. The term thus includes the long-tailed +field mouse, _Mus (Micromys) sylvaticus_, easily recognized by its white +belly, and sometimes called the wood-mouse; and the two species of +short-tailed field-mice, _Microtus agrestis_ and _Evotomys glareolus_, +together with their representatives in Skomer island and the Orkneys +(see MOUSE and VOLE). + + + + +FIELD OF THE CLOTH OF GOLD, the French _Camp du drap d'or_, the name +given to the place between Guines and Ardres where Henry VIII. of +England met Francis I. of France in June 1520. The most elaborate +arrangements were made for the accommodation of the two monarchs and +their large retinues; and on Henry's part especially no efforts were +spared to make a great impression in Europe by this meeting. Before the +castle of Guines a temporary palace, covering an area of nearly 12,000 +sq. yds., was erected for the reception of the English king. It was +decorated in the most sumptuous fashion, and like the chapel, served by +thirty-five priests, was furnished with a profusion of golden ornaments. +Some idea of the size of Henry's following may be gathered from the fact +that in one month 2200 sheep and other viands in a similar proportion +were consumed. In the fields beyond the castle, tents to the number of +2800 were erected for less distinguished visitors, and the whole scene +was one of the greatest animation. Ladies gorgeously clad, and knights, +showing by their dress and bearing their anxiety to revive the glories +and the follies of the age of chivalry, jostled mountebanks, mendicants +and vendors of all kinds. + +Journeying from Calais Henry reached his headquarters at Guines on the +4th of June 1520, and Francis took up his residence at Ardres. After +Cardinal Wolsey, with a splendid train had visited the French king, the +two monarchs met at the Val Dore, a spot midway between the two places, +on the 7th. The following days were taken up with tournaments, in which +both kings took part, banquets and other entertainments, and after +Wolsey had said mass the two sovereigns separated on the 24th. This +meeting made a great impression on contemporaries, but its political +results were very small. + + The _Ordonnance_ for the _Field_ is printed by J.S. Brewer in the + _Calendar of State Papers, Henry VIII_. vol. iii. (1867). See also + J.S. Brewer, _Reign of Henry VIII_. (1884). + + + + +FIELDS, JAMES THOMAS (1817-1881), American publisher and author, was +born in Portsmouth, New Hampshire, on the 31st of December 1817. At the +age of seventeen he went to Boston as clerk in a bookseller's shop. +Afterwards he wrote for the newspapers, and in 1835 he read an +anniversary poem entitled "Commerce" before the Boston Mercantile +Library Association. In 1839 he became junior partner in the publishing +and bookselling firm known after 1846 as Ticknor & Fields, and after +1868 as Fields, Osgood & Company. He was the publisher of the foremost +contemporary American writers, with whom he was on terms of close +personal friendship, and he was the American publisher of some of the +best-known British writers of his time, some of whom, also, he knew +intimately. The first collected edition of De Quincey's works (20 vols., +1850-1855) was published by his firm. As a publisher he was +characterized by a somewhat rare combination of keen business acumen and +sound, discriminating literary taste, and as a man he was known for his +geniality and charm of manner. In 1862-1870, as the successor of James +Russell Lowell, he edited the _Atlantic Monthly_. In 1871 Fields retired +from business and from his editorial duties, and devoted himself to +lecturing and to writing. Of his books the chief were the collection of +sketches and essays entitled _Underbrush_ (1877) and the chapters of +reminiscence composing _Yesterdays with Authors_ (1871), in which he +recorded his personal friendship with Wordsworth, Thackeray, Dickens, +Hawthorne and others. He died in Boston on the 24th of April 1881. + +His second wife, ANNIE ADAMS FIELDS (b. 1834), whom he married in 1854, +published _Under the Olive_ (1880), a book of verses; _James T. Fields: +Biographical Notes and Personal Sketches_ (1882); _Authors and Friends_ +(1896); _The Life and Letters of Harriet Beecher Stowe_ (1897); and +_Orpheus_ (1900). + + + + +FIENNES, NATHANIEL (c. 1608-1669) English politician, second son of +William, 1st Viscount Saye and Sele, by Elizabeth, daughter of John +Temple, of Stow in Buckinghamshire, was born in 1607 or 1608, and +educated at Winchester and at New College, Oxford, where as founder's +kin he was admitted a perpetual fellow in 1624. After about five years' +residence he left without taking a degree, travelled abroad, and in +Switzerland imbibed or strengthened those religious principles and that +hostility to the Laudian church which were to be the chief motive in his +future political career. He returned to Scotland in 1639, and +established communications with the Covenanters and the Opposition in +England, and as member for Banbury in both the Short and Long +Parliaments he took a prominent part in the attacks upon the church. He +spoke against the illegal canons on the 14th of December 1640, and again +on the 9th of February 1641 on the occasion of the reception of the +London petition, when he argued against episcopacy as constituting a +political as well as a religious danger and made a great impression on +the House, his name being added immediately to the committee appointed +to deal with church affairs. He took a leading part in the examination +into the army plot; was one of the commissioners appointed to attend the +king to Scotland in August 1641; and was nominated one of the committee +of safety in July 1642. On the outbreak of hostilities he took arms +immediately, commanded a troop of horse in the army of Lord Essex, was +present at the relief of Coventry in August, and at the fight at +Worcester in September, where he distinguished himself, and subsequently +at Edgehill. Of the last two engagements he wrote accounts, viz. _True +and Exact Relation of both the Battles fought by ... Earl of Essex ... +against the Bloudy Cavaliers_ (1642). (See also _A Narrative of the Late +Battle before Worcester taken by a Gentleman of the Inns of Court from +the mouth of Master Fiennes_, 1642). In February 1643 Fiennes was sent +down to Bristol, arrested Colonel Essex the governor, executed the two +leaders of a plot to deliver up the city, and received a commission +himself as governor on the 1st of May 1643. On the arrival, however, of +Prince Rupert on the 22nd of July the place was in no condition to +resist an attack, and Fiennes capitulated. He addressed to Essex a +letter in his defence (Thomason Tracts E. 65, 26), drew up for the +parliament a _Relation concerning the Surrender_ ... (1643), answered by +Prynne and Clement Walker accusing him of treachery and cowardice, to +which he opposed _Col. Fiennes his Reply_.... He was tried at St Albans +by the council of war in December, was pronounced guilty of having +surrendered the place improperly, and sentenced to death. He was, +however, pardoned, and the facility with which Bristol subsequently +capitulated to the parliamentary army induced Cromwell and the generals +to exonerate him completely. His military career nevertheless now came +to an end. He went abroad, and it was some time before he reappeared on +the political scene. In September 1647 he was included in the army +committee, and on the 3rd of January 1648 he became a member of the +committee of safety. He was, however, in favour of accepting the king's +terms at Newport in December, and in consequence was excluded from the +House by Pride's Purge. An opponent of church government in any form, he +was no friend to the rigid and tyrannical Presbyterianism of the day, +and inclined to Independency and Cromwell's party. He was a member of +the council of state in 1654, and in June 1655 he received the strange +appointment of commissioner for the custody of the great seal, for which +he was certainly in no way fitted. In the parliament of 1654 he was +returned for Oxford county and in that of 1656 for the university, while +in January 1658 he was included in Cromwell's House of Lords. He was in +favour of the Protector's assumption of the royal title and urged his +acceptance of it on several occasions. His public career closes with +addresses delivered in his capacity as chief commissioner of the great +seal at the beginning of the sessions of January 20, 1658, and January +2, 1659, in which the religious basis of Cromwell's government is +especially insisted upon, the feature to which Fiennes throughout his +career had attached most value. On the reassembling of the Long +Parliament he was superseded; he took no part in the Restoration, and +died at Newton Tony in Wiltshire on the 16th of December 1669. Fiennes +married (1), Elizabeth, daughter of the famous parliamentarian Sir John +Eliot, by whom he had one son, afterwards 3rd Viscount Saye and Sele; +and (2), Frances, daughter of Richard Whitehead of Tuderley, Hants, by +whom he had three daughters. + + Besides the pamphlets already cited, a number of his speeches and + other political tracts were published (see Gen. Catalogue, British + Museum). Wood also attributed to him _Monarchy Asserted_ (1666) + (reprinted in Somers Tracts, vi. 346 [ed. Scott]), but there seems no + reason to ascribe to him with Clement Walker the authorship of + Sprigge's _Anglia Rediviva_. + + + + +FIERI FACIAS, usually abbreviated _fi. fa._ (Lat. "that you cause to be +made"), in English law, a writ of execution after judgment obtained in +action of debt or damages. It is addressed to the sheriff, and commands +him to make good the amount out of the goods of the person against whom +judgment has been obtained. (See EXECUTION.) + + + + +FIESCHI, GIUSEPPE MARCO (1790-1836), the chief conspirator in the +attempt on the life of Louis Philippe in July 1835, was a native of +Murato in Corsica. He served under Murat, then returned to Corsica, +where he was condemned to ten years' imprisonment and perpetual +surveillance by the police for theft and forgery. After a period of +vagabondage he eluded the police and obtained a small post in Paris by +means of forged papers; but losing it on account of his suspicious +manner of living, he resolved to revenge himself on society. He took +lodgings on the Boulevard du Temple, and there, with two members of the +Societe des Droits de l'Homme, Morey and Pepin by name, contrived an +"infernal machine," constructed with twenty gun barrels, to be fired +simultaneously. On the 28th of July 1835, as Louis Philippe was passing +along the boulevard to the Bastille, accompanied by his three sons and a +numerous staff, the machine was exploded. A ball grazed the king's +forehead, and his horse, with those of the duke of Nemours and of the +prince de Joinville, was shot; Marshal Mortier was killed, with +seventeen other persons, and many were wounded; but the king and the +princes escaped as if by miracle. Fieschi himself was severely wounded +by the discharge of his machine, and vainly attempted to escape. The +attentions of the most skilful physicians were lavished upon him, and +his life was saved for the stroke of justice. On his trial he named his +accomplices, displayed much bravado, and expected or pretended to expect +ultimate pardon. He was condemned to death, and was guillotined on the +19th of February 1836. Morey and Pepin were also executed, another +accomplice was sentenced to twenty years' imprisonment and one was +acquitted. No less than seven plots against the life of Louis Philippe +had been discovered by the police within the year, and apologists were +not wanting in the revolutionary press for the crime of Fieschi. + + See _Proces de Fieschi, precede de sa vie privee, sa condamnation par + la Cour des Pairs et celles de ses complices_ (2 vols., 1836); also P. + Thureau-Dangin, _Hist, de la monarchie de Juillet_ (vol. iv. ch. xii., + 1884). + + + + +FIESCO (DE' FIESCHI), GIOVANNI LUIGI (c. 1523-1547), count of Lavagna, +was descended from one of the greatest families of Liguria, first +mentioned in the 10th century. Among his ancestors were two popes +(Innocent IV. and Adrian V.), many cardinals, a king of Sicily, three +saints, and many generals and admirals of Genoa and other states. +Sinibaldo Fiesco, his father, had been a close friend of Andrea Doria +(q.v.), and had rendered many important services to the Genoese +republic. On his death in 1532 Giovanni found himself at the age of nine +the head of the family and possessor of immense estates. He grew up to +be a handsome, intelligent youth, of attractive manners and very +ambitious. He married Eleonora Cibo, marchioness of Massa, in 1540, a +woman of great beauty and family influence. There were many reasons +which inspired his hatred of the Doria family; the almost absolute power +wielded by the aged admiral and the insolence of his nephew and heir +Giannettino Doria, the commander of the galleys, were galling to him as +to many other Genoese, and it is said that Giannettino was the lover of +Fiesco's wife. Moreover, the Fiesco belonged to the French or popular +party, while the Doria were aristocrats and Imperialists. When Fiesco +determined to conspire against Doria he found friends in many quarters. +Pope Paul III. was the first to encourage him, while both Pier Luigi +Farnese, duke of Parma, and Francis I. of France gave him much +assistance and promised him many advantages. Among his associates in +Genoa were his brothers Girolamo and Ottobuono, Verrina and R. Sacco. A +number of armed men from the Fiesco fiefs were secretly brought to +Genoa, and it was agreed that on the 2nd of January 1547, during the +interregnum before the election of the new doge, the galleys in the port +should be seized and the city gates held. The first part of the +programme was easily carried out, and Giannettino Doria, aroused by the +tumult, rushed down to the port and was killed, but Andrea escaped from +the city in time. The conspirators attempted to gain possession of the +government, but unfortunately for them Giovanni Luigi, while crossing a +plank from the quay to one of the galleys, fell into the water and was +drowned. The news spread consternation among the Fiesco faction, and +Girolamo Fiesco found few adherents. They came to terms with the senate +and were granted a general amnesty. Doria returned to Genoa on the 4th +thirsting for revenge, and in spite of the amnesty he confiscated the +Fiesco estates; Girolamo had shut himself up, with Verrina and Sacco and +other conspirators, in his castle of Montobbia, which the Genoese at +Doria's instigation besieged and captured. Girolamo Fiesco and Verrina +were tried, tortured and executed; all their estates were seized, some +of which, including Torriglia, Doria obtained for himself. Ottobuono +Fiesco, who had escaped, was captured eight years afterwards and put to +death by Doria's orders. + + There are many accounts of the conspiracy, of which perhaps the best + is contained in E. Petit's _Andre Doria_ (Paris, 1887), chs. xi. and + xii., where all the chief authorities are quoted; see also Calligari, + _La Congiura del Fiesco_ (Venice 1892), and Gavazzo, _Nuovi documenti + sulla congiura del conte Fiesco_ (Genoa, 1886); E. Bernabo-Brea, in + his _Sulla congiura di Giovanni Luigi Fieschi_, publishes many + important documents, while L. Capelloni's _Congiura del Fiesco_, + edited by Olivieri, and A. Mascardi's _Congiura del conte Giovanni + Luigi de' Fieschi_ (Antwerp, 1629) may be commended among the earlier + works. The Fiesco conspiracy has been the subject of many poems and + dramas, of which the most famous is that by Schiller. See also under + DORIA, ANDREA; FARNESE. (L. V.*) + + + + +FIESOLE (anc. _Faesulae_, q.v.), a town and episcopal see of Tuscany, +Italy, in the province of Florence, from which it is 3 m. N.E. by +electric tramway. Pop. (1901) town 4951, commune 16,816. It is situated +on a hill 970 ft. above sea-level, and commands a fine view. The +cathedral of S. Romolo is an early and simple example of the Tuscan +Romanesque style; it is a small basilica, begun in 1028 and restored in +1256. The picturesque battlemented campanile belongs to 1213. The tomb +of the bishop Leonardo Salutati (d. 1466). with a beautiful portrait +bust by the sculptor, Mino da Fiesole (1431-1484), is fine. The +13th-century Palazzo Pretorio contains a small museum of antiquities. +The Franciscan monastery commands a fine view. The church of S. Maria +Primerana has some works of art, and S. Alessandro, which is attributed +to the 6th century, contains fifteen ancient columns of cipollino. The +inhabitants of Fiesole are largely engaged in straw-plaiting. + +Below Fiesole, between it and Florence, lies San Domenico di Fiesole +(485 ft.); in the Dominican monastery the painter, Fra Giovanni Angelico +da Fiesole (1387-1455), lived until he went to S. Marco at Florence. +Here, too, is the Badia di Fiesole, founded in 1028 and re-erected about +1456-1466 by a follower of Brunelleschi. It is an irregular pile of +buildings, in fine and simple early Renaissance style; a small part of +the original facade of 1028 in black and white marble is preserved. The +interior of the Church is decorated with sculptures by pupils of +Desiderio da Settignano. The slopes of the hill on which Fiesole stands +are covered with fine villas. To the S.E. of Fiesole lies Monte Ceceri +(1453 ft.), with quarries of grey _pietra serena_, largely used in +Florence for building. To the E. of this lies the 14th-century castle of +Vincigliata restored and fitted up in the medieval style. + + + + +FIFE, an eastern county of Scotland, bounded N. by the Firth of Tay, E. +by the North Sea, S. by the Firth of Forth, and W. by the shires of +Perth, Kinross and Clackmannan. The Isle of May, Inchkeith, Inchcolm, +Inchgarvie and the islet of Oxcar belong to the shire. It has an area of +322,844, acres or 504 sq. m. Its coast-line measure 108 m. The Lomond +Hills to the S. and S.W. of Falkland, of which West Lomond is 1713 ft. +high and East Lomond 1471 ft., Saline Hill (1178 ft.) to the N.W. of +Dunfermline, and Benarty (1131 ft.) on the confines of Kinross are the +chief heights. Of the rivers the Eden is the longest; formed on the +borders of Kinross-shire by the confluence of Beattie Burn and Carmore +Burn, it pursues a wandering course for 25 m. N.E., partly through the +Howe, or Hollow of Fife, and empties into the North Sea. There is good +trout fishing in its upper waters, but weirs prevent salmon from +ascending it. The Leven drains the loch of that name and enters the +Forth at the town of Leven after flowing eastward for 15 m. There are +numerous factories at various points on its banks. The Ore, rising not +far from Roscobie Hills to the north of Dunfermline, follows a mainly +north-easterly course for 15 m. till it joins the Leven at Windygates. +The old loch of Ore which was an expansion of its water was long ago +reclaimed. Motray Water finds its source in the parish of Kilmany, a few +miles W. by N. of Cupar, makes a bold sweep towards the north-east, and +then, taking a southerly turn, enters the head-waters of St Andrews Bay, +after a course of 12 m. The principal lochs are Loch Fitty, Loch Gelly, +Loch Glow and Loch Lindores; they are small but afford some sport for +trout, perch and pike. "Freshwater mussels" occur in Loch Fitty. There +are no glens, and the only large valley is the fertile Stratheden, which +supplies part of the title of the combined baronies of Stratheden +(created 1836) and Campbell (created 1841). + + _Geology._--Between Damhead and Tayport on the northern side of the + low-lying Howe of Fife the higher ground is formed of Lower Old Red + Sandstone volcanic rocks, consisting of red and purple porphyrites and + andesites and some coarse agglomerates, which, in the neighbourhood of + Auchtermuchty, are rounded and conglomeratic. These rocks have a + gentle dip towards the S.S.E. They are overlaid unconformably by the + soft red sandstones of the Upper Old Red series which underlie the + Howe of Fife from Loch Leven to the coast. The quarries in these rocks + in Dura Den are famous for fossil fishes. Following the Old Red rocks + conformably are the Carboniferous formations which occupy the + remainder of the county, and are well exposed on the coast and in the + numerous quarries. The Carboniferous rocks include, at the base, the + Calciferous Sandstone series of dark shales with thin limestones, + sandstones and coals. They are best developed around Fife Ness, + between St Andrews and Elie, and again around Burntisland between + Kirkcaldy and Inverkeithing Bay. In the Carboniferous Limestone + series, which comes next in upward succession, are the valuable + gas-coals and ironstones worked in the coal-fields of Dunfermline, + Saline, Oakley, Torryburn, Kirkcaldy and Markinch. The true Coal + Measures lie in the district around Dysart and Leven, East Wemyss and + Kinglassie, and they are separated from the coal-bearing + Carboniferous Limestone series by the sandstones and conglomerates of + the Millstone Grit, Fourteen seams of coal are found in the Dysart + Coal Measures, associated with sandstones, shales and clay ironstones. + Fife is remarkably rich in evidences of former volcanic activity. + Besides the Old Red Sandstone volcanic rocks previously mentioned, + there are many beds of contemporaneous basaltic lavas and tuffs in the + Carboniferous rocks; Saline Hill and Knock Hill were the sites of + vents, which at that time threw out ashes; these interbedded rocks are + well exposed on the shore between Burntisland and and Seafield Tower. + There were also many intrusive sheets of dolerite and basalt forced + into the lower Carboniferous rocks, and these now play an important + part in the scenery of the county. They form the summits of the Lomond + Hills and Benarty, and they may be followed from Cult Hill by the + Cleish Hills to Blairadam; and again near Dunfermline, Burntisland, + Torryburn, Auchtertool and St Andrews. Later, in Permian times, + eastern Fife was the seat of further volcanic action, and great + numbers of "necks" or vents pierce the Carboniferous rocks; Largo Law + is a striking example. In one of these necks on the shore at Kincraig + Point is a fine example of columnar basalt; the "Rock and Spindle" + near St Andrews is another. Last of all in Tertiary times, east and + west rifts in the Old Red Sandstone were filled by basalt dikes. + Glacial deposits, ridges of gravel and sand, boulder clay, &c., + brought from the N. W., cover much of the older rocks, and traces of + old raised beaches are found round the coast and in the Howe cf Fife. + In the 25-ft. beach in the East Neuk of Fife is an island sea-cliff + with small caves. + +_Climate and Agriculture._--Since the higher hills all lie in the west, +most of the county is exposed to the full force of the east winds from +the North Sea, which often, save in the more sheltered areas, check the +progress of vegetation. At an elevation of 500 or 600 ft. above the sea +harvests are three or four weeks later than in the valleys and low-lying +coast-land. The climate, on the whole, is mild, proximity to the sea +qualifying the heat in summer and the cold in winter. The average annual +rainfall is 31 in., rather less in the East Neuk district and around St +Andrews, somewhat more as the hills are approached, late summer and +autumn being the wet season. The average temperature for January is 38 +deg. F., for July 59.5 deg., and for the year 47.6 deg. Four-fifths of +the total area is under cultivation, and though the acreage under grain +is smaller than it was, the yield of each crop is still extraordinarily +good, oats, barley, wheat being the order of acreage. Of the green crops +most attention is given to turnips. Potatoes also do well. The acreage +under permanent pasture and wood is very considerable. Cattle are mainly +kept for feeding purposes, and dairy farming, though attracting more +notice, has never been followed more than to supply local markets. +Sheep-farming, however, is on the increase, and the raising of horses, +especially farm horses, is an important pursuit. They are strong, active +and hardy, with a large admixture, or purely, of Clydesdale blood. The +ponies, hunters and carriage horses so bred are highly esteemed. The +strain of pigs has been improved by the introduction of Berkshires. +North of the Eden the soil, though generally thin, is fertile, but the +sandy waste of Tents Moor is beyond redemption. From St Andrews +southwards all along the coast the land is very productive. That +adjacent to the East Neuk consists chiefly of clay and rich loam. From +Leven to Inverkeithing it varies from a light sand to a rich clayey +loam. Excepting Stratheden and Strathleven, which are mostly rich, +fertile loam, the interior is principally cold and stiff clay or thin +loam with strong clayey subsoil. Part of the Howe of Fife is light and +shingly and covered with heather. Some small peat mosses still exist, +and near Lochgelly there is a tract of waste, partly moss and partly +heath. The character of the farm management may be judged by its +results. The best methods are pursued, and houses, steadings and +cottages are all in good order, commodious and comfortable. Rabbits, +hares, pheasants and partridges are common in certain districts; roe +deer are occasionally seen; wild geese, ducks and teal haunt the lochs; +pigeon-houses are fairly numerous; and grouse and blackcock are +plentiful on the Lomond moors. The shire is well suited for fox-hunting, +and there are packs in both the eastern and the western division of +Fife. + +_Mining._--Next to Lanarkshire, Fife is the largest coal-producing +county in Scotland. The coal-field may roughly be divided into the +Dunfermline basin (including Halbeath, Lochgelly and Kelty), where the +principal house coals are found, and the Wemyss or Dysart basin +(including Methil and the hinterland), where gas-coal of the best +quality is obtained. Coal is also extensively worked at Culross, +Carnock, Falfield, Donibristle, Ladybank, Kilconquhar and elsewhere. +Beds of ironstone, limestone, sandstone and shale lie in many places +contiguous to the coal. Blackband ironstone is worked at Lochgelly and +Oakley, where there are large smelting furnaces. Oil shale is worked at +Burntisland and Airdrie near Crail. Among the principal limestone +quarries are those at Charlestown, Burntisland and Cults. Freestone of +superior quality is quarried at Strathmiglo, Burntisland and +Dunfermline. Whinstone of unusual hardness and durability is obtained in +nearly every district. Lead has been worked in the Lomond Hills and +copper and zinc have been met with, though not in paying quantities. It +is of interest to note that in the trap tufa at Elie there have been +found pyropes (a variety of dark-red garnet), which are regarded as the +most valuable of Scottish precious stones and are sold under the name of +Elie rubies. + +_Other Industries._--The staple manufacture is linen, ranging from the +finest damasks to the coarsest ducks and sackings. Its chief seats are +at Kirkcaldy and Dunfermline, but it is carried on at many of the inland +towns and villages, especially those situated near the Eden and Leven, +on the banks of which rivers, as well as at Kirkcaldy, Dunfermline and +Ceres, are found the bleaching-greens. Kirkcaldy is famous for its +oil-cloth and linoleum. Most of the leading towns possess breweries and +tanneries, and the largest distilleries are at Cameron Bridge and +Burntisland. Woollen cloth is made to a small extent in several towns, +and fishing-net at Kirkcaldy, Largo and West Wemyss. Paper is +manufactured at Guardbridge, Markinch and Leslie; earthenware at +Kirkcaldy; tobacco at Dunfermline and Kirkcaldy; engineering works and +iron foundries are found at Kirkcaldy and Dunfermline; and shipbuilding +is carried on at Kinghorn, Dysart, Burntisland, Inverkeithing and +Tayport. From Inverkeithing all the way round the coast to Newburgh +there are harbours at different points. They are mostly of moderate +dimensions, the principal port being Kirkcaldy. The largest salmon +fisheries are conducted at Newburgh and the chief seat of the herring +fishery is Anstruther, but most of the coast towns take some part in the +fishing either off the shore, or at stations farther north, or in the +deep sea. + +_Communications._--The North British railway possesses a monopoly in the +shire. From the Forth Bridge the main line follows the coast as far as +Dysart and then turns northwards to Ladybank, where it diverges to the +north-east for Cupar and the Tay Bridge. From Thornton Junction a branch +runs to Dunfermline and another to Methil, and here begins also the +coast line for Leven, Crail and St Andrews which touches the main line +again at Leuchars Junction; at Markinch a branch runs to Leslie; at +Ladybank there are branches to Mawcarse Junction, and to Newburgh and +Perth; and at Leuchars Junction a loop line runs to Tayport and Newport, +joining the main at Wormit. From the Forth Bridge the system also +connects, via Dunfermline, with Alloa and Stirling in the W. and with +Kinross and Perth in the N. From Dunfermline there is a branch to +Charlestown, which on that account is sometimes called the port of +Dunfermline. + +_Population and Government._--The population was 190,365 in 1891, and +218,840 in 1901, when 844 persons spoke Gaelic and English and 3 Gaelic +only. The chief towns are the Anstruthers (pop. in 1901, 4233), +Buckhaven (8828), Burntisland (4846), Cowdenbeath (7908), Cupar (4511), +Dunfermline (25,250), Dysart (3562), Kelty (3986), Kirkcaldy (34,079), +Leslie (3587), Leven (5577), Lochgelly (5472), Lumphinnans (2071), +Newport (2869), St Andrews (7621), Tayport (3325) and Wemyss (2522). For +parliamentary purposes Fife is divided into an eastern and a western +division, each returning one member. It also includes the Kirkcaldy +district of parliamentary burghs (comprising Burntisland, Dysart, +Kinghorn and Kirkcaldy), and the St Andrews district (the two +Anstruthers, Crail, Cupar, Kilrenny, Pittenweem and St Andrews); while +Culross, Dunfermline and Inverkeithing are grouped with the Stirling +district. As regards education the county is under school-board +jurisdiction, and in respect of higher education its equipment is +effective. St Andrews contains several excellent schools; at Cupar there +is the Bell-Baxter school; at Dunfermline and Kirkcaldy there are high +schools and at Anstruther there is the Waid Academy. + +_History._--In remote times the term Fife was applied to the peninsula +lying between the estuaries of the Tay and Forth and separated from the +rest of the mainland by the Ochil Hills. Its earliest inhabitants were +Picts of the northern branch and their country was long known as +Pictavia. Doubtless it was owing to the fact that the territory was long +subject to the rule of an independent king that Fife itself came to be +called distinctively The Kingdom, a name of which the natives are still +proud. The Romans effected no settlement in the province, though it is +probable that they temporarily occupied points here and there. In any +case the Romans left no impression on the civilization of the natives. +With the arrival of the missionaries--especially St Serf, St Kenneth, St +Rule, St Adrian, St Moran and St Fillan--and conversion of the Picts +went on apace. Interesting memorials of these devout missionaries exist +in the numerous coast caves between Dysart and St Andrews and in the +crosses and sculptured stones, some doubtless of pre-Christian origin, +to be seen at various places. The word Fife, according to Skene, seems +to be identical with the Jutland _Fibh_ (pronounced _Fife_) meaning +"forest," and was probably first used by the Frisians to describe the +country behind the coasts of the Forth and Tay, where Frisian tribes are +supposed to have settled at the close of the 4th century. The next +immigration was Danish, which left lasting traces in many place-names +(such as the frequent use of _law_ for hill). An ancient division of the +Kingdom into Fife and Fothrif survived for a period for ecclesiastical +purposes. The line of demarcation ran from Leven to the east of Cults, +thence to the west of Collessie and thence to the east of Auchtermuchty. +To the east of this line lay Fife proper. In 1426 the first shire of +Kinross was formed, consisting of Kinross and Orwell, and was enlarged +to its present dimensions by the transference from Fife of the parishes +of Portmoak, Cleish and Tulliebole. Although the county has lain outside +of the main stream of Scottish history, its records are far from dull or +unimportant. During the reigns of the earlier Stuarts, Dunfermline, +Falkland and St Andrews were often the scene of solemn pageantry and +romantic episodes. Out of the seventy royal burghs in Scotland no fewer +than eighteen are situated in the shire. However, notwithstanding the +marked preference of the Stuarts, the Kingdom did not hesitate to play +the leading part in the momentous dramas of the Reformation and the +Covenant, and by the 18th century the people had ceased to regard the +old royal line with any but sentimental interest, and the Jacobite +risings of 1715 and 1745 evoked only the most lukewarm support. + + See Sir Robert Sibbald, _History of the Sheriffdoms of Fife and + Kinross_; Rev. J.W. Taylor, _Historical Antiquities of Fife_ (1875); + A.H. Millar, _Fife, Pictorial and Historical_ (Cupar, 1895); Sheriff + Aeneas Mackay, sketch of the _History of Fife_ (Edinburgh, 1890); + _History of Fife and Kinross_ (Scottish County History series) + (Edinburgh, 1896); John Geddie, _The Fringe of Fife_ (Edinburgh, + 1894). + + + + +FIFE (Fr. _fifre_; Med. Ger. _Schweizerpfeiff_, _Feldpfeiff_; Ital. +_ottavino_), originally the small primitive cylindrical transverse +flute, now the small B[flat] military flute, usually conoidal in bore, +used in a drum and fife band. The pitch of the fife lies between that of +the concert flute and piccolo. The fife, like the flute, is an open +pipe, for although the upper end is stopped by means of a cork, an +outlet is provided by the embouchure which is never entirely closed by +the lips. The six finger-holes of the primitive flute, with the open end +of the tube for a key-note, gave the diatonic scale of the fundamental +octave; the second octave was produced by overblowing the notes of the +fundamental scale an octave higher; part of a third octave was obtained +by means of the higher harmonics produced by using certain of the +finger-holes as vent-holes. The modern fife has, in addition to the six +finger-holes, 4, 5 or 6 keys. Mersenne describes and figures the fife, +which had in his day the compass of a fifteenth.[1] The fife, which, he +states, differed from the German flute only in having a louder and more +brilliant tone and a shorter and narrower bore, was the instrument used +by the Swiss with the drum. The sackbut, or serpent, was used as its +bass, for, as Mersenne explains, the bass instrument could not be made +long enough, nor could the hands reach the holes, although some flutes +were actually made with keys and had the tube doubled back as in the +bassoon.[2] + + The words _fife_ and the Fr. _fifre_ were undoubtedly derived from the + Ger. _Pfeiff_, the fife being called by Praetorius[3] + _Schweizerpfeiff_ and _Feldpfeiff_, while Martin Agricola,[4] writing + a century earlier (1529), mentions the transverse flute by the names + of _Querchpfeiff_ or _Schweizerpfeiff_, which Sebastian Virdung[5] + writes _Zwerchpfeiff_. The Old English spelling was _phife_, _phiphe_ + or _ffyffe_. The fife was in use in England in the middle of the 16th + century, for at a muster of the citizens of London in 1540, _droumes_ + and ffyffes are mentioned. At the battle of St Quentin (1557) the list + of the English army[6] employed states that one trumpet was allowed to + each cavalry troop of 100 men, and a drum and fife to each hundred of + foot. A drumme and _phife_ were also employed at one shilling per diem + for the "Trayne of Artillery."[7] This was the nucleus of the modern + military band, and may be regarded as the first step in its formation. + In England the adoption of the fife as a military instrument was due + to the initiative of Henry VIII., who sent to Vienna for ten good + drums and as many fifers.[8] Ralph Smith[9] gives rules for drummers + and fifers who, in addition to the duty of giving signals in peace and + war to the company, were expected to be brave, secret and ingenious, + and masters of several languages, for they were oft sent to parley + with the enemy and were entrusted with honourable but dangerous + missions. In 1585 the drum and fife formed part of the furniture for + war among the companies of the city of London.[10] Queen Elizabeth + (according to Michaud, _Biogr. universelle_, tome xiii. p. 60) had a + peculiar taste for noisy music, and during meals had a concert of + twelve trumpets, two kettledrums, with fifes and drums. The fife + became such a favourite military instrument during the 16th and 17th + centuries in England that it displaced the bagpipe; it was, however, + in turn superseded early in the 18th century by the hautboy (see + OBOE), introduced from France. In the middle of the 18th century the + fife was reintroduced into the British army band by the duke of + Cumberland[11] in the Guards in 1745, commemorated by William + Hogarth's picture of the "March of the Guards towards Scotland in + 1745," in which are seen a drummer and fifer; and by Colonel Bedford + into the royal regiment of artillery in 1748, at the end of the war, + when a Hanoverian fifer, John Ulrich, was brought over from Flanders + as instructor.[12] In 1747 the 19th regiment, known as Green Howards, + also had the advantage of a Hanoverian fifer as teacher, a youth + presented by his colonel to Lieutenant-Colonel Williams commanding the + regiment at Bois-le-Duc. Drum and fife bands in a short time became + common in all infantry regiments, while among the cavalry the trumpet + prevailed. + + For the acoustics, construction and origin of the fife see FLUTE. + Illustrations of the fife may be seen in Cowdray's picture of an + encampment at Portsmouth in 1548; in Sandford's "Coronation Procession + of James II.," and in C.R. Day's _Descriptive Catalogue_, pl. i. (F) + (description No. 42, p. 27). (K. S.) + + +FOOTNOTES: + + [1] _Harmonie universelle_ (Paris, 1636), bk. v. prop. 9, pp. + 241-244. + + [2] For an illustration of one of these bass flutes see article + FLUTE, Fig. 2. + + [3] _Syntagma musicum_ (Wolfenbuttel, 1618), pp. 40-41 of Reprint. + + [4] _Musica instrumentalis_ (Wittenberg, 1529). + + [5] _Musica getutscht und auszgezogen_ (Basel, 1511). + + [6] See Sir S.D. Scott, _The British Army_, vol. ii. p. 396. + + [7] See H.G. Farmer, _Memoirs of the Royal Artillery Band_ (London, + 1904). + + [8] _Id._ + + [9] _Id._ + + [10] Stowe's _Chronicles_, p. 702. + + [11] Grose, _Military Antiquities_ (London, 1801), vol. ii. + + [12] See Colonel P. Forbes Macbean, _Memoirs of the Royal Regiment of + Artillery_. + + + + +FIFTH MONARCHY MEN, the name of a Puritan sect in England which for a +time supported the government of Oliver Cromwell in the belief that it +was a preparation for the "fifth monarchy," that is for the monarchy +which should succeed the Assyrian, the Persian, the Greek and the Roman, +and during which Christ should reign on earth with His saints for a +thousand years. These sectaries aimed at bringing about the entire +abolition of the existing laws and institutions, and the substitution of +a simpler code based upon the law of Moses. Disappointed at the delay in +the fulfilment of their hopes, they soon began to agitate against the +government and to vilify Cromwell; but the arrest of their leaders and +preachers, Christopher Feake, John Rogers and others, cooled their +ardour, and they were, perforce, content to cherish their hopes in +secret until after the Restoration. Then, on the 6th of January 1661, a +band of fifth monarchy men, headed by a cooper named Thomas Venner, who +was one of their preachers, made an attempt to obtain possession of +London. Most of them were either killed or taken prisoners, and on the +19th and 21st of January Venner and ten others were executed for high +treason. From that time the special doctrines of the sect either died +out, or became merged in a milder form of millenarianism, similar to +that which exists at the present day. + + For the proceedings of the sect see S.R. Gardiner, _History of the + Commonwealth and Protectorate_, _passim_ (London, 1894-1901); and for + an account of the rising of 1661 see Sir John Reresby, _Memoirs_, + 1634-1689, edited by J.J. Cartwright (London, 1875). + + + + +FIG, the popular name given to plants of the genus _Ficus_, an extensive +group, included in the natural order Moraceae, and characterized by a +remarkable development of the pear-shaped receptacle, the edge of which +curves inwards, so as to form a nearly closed cavity, bearing the +numerous fertile and sterile flowers mingled on its surface. The figs +vary greatly in habit,--some being low trailing shrubs, others gigantic +trees, among the most striking forms of those tropical forests to which +they are chiefly indigenous. They have alternate leaves, and abound in a +milky juice, usually acrid, though in a few instances sufficiently mild +to be used for allaying thirst. This juice contains caoutchouc in large +quantity. + +[Illustration: FIGURE 1.--Fruiting Branch of Fig, _Ficus Carica_; about +2/7 nat. size. + +1. Unripe fruit cut lengthwise; about 1/2 nat. size. 2. Female flower +taken from 1; enlarged. 3. Ripe fruit cut lengthwise; about -1/2 nat. +size.] + +_Ficus Carica_ (figure 1), which yields the well-known figs of commerce, +is a bush or small tree--rarely more than 18 or 20 ft. high,--with +broad, rough, deciduous leaves, very deeply lobed in the cultivated +varieties, but in the wild plant sometimes nearly entire. The green, +rough branches bear the solitary, nearly sessile receptacles in the +axils of the leaves. The male flowers are placed chiefly in the upper +part of the cavity, and in most varieties are few in number. As it +ripens, the receptacle enlarges greatly, and the numerous single-seeded +pericarps or true fruits become imbedded in it. The fruit of the wild +fig never acquires the succulence of the cultivated kinds. The fig seems +to be indigenous to Asia Minor and Syria, but now occurs in a wild state +in most of the countries around the Mediterranean. From the ease with +which the nutritious fruit can be preserved, it was probably one of the +earliest objects of cultivation, as may be inferred from the frequent +allusions to it in the Hebrew Scriptures.[1] From a passage in +Herodotus the fig would seem to have been unknown to the Persians in the +days of the first Cyrus; but it must have spread in remote ages over all +the districts around the Aegean and Levant. The Greeks are said to have +received it from Caria (hence the specific name); but the fruit so +improved under Hellenic culture that Attic figs became celebrated +throughout the East, and special laws were made to regulate their +exportation. From the contemptuous name given to informers against the +violation of those enactments, [Greek: sukophantai (sukon, phaino)], our +word sycophant is usually derived. The fig was one of the principal +articles of sustenance among the Greeks; the Spartans especially used it +largely at their public tables. From Hellas, at some prehistoric period, +it was transplanted to Italy and the adjacent islands. Pliny enumerates +many varieties, and alludes to those from Ebusus (the modern Iviza) as +most esteemed by Roman epicures; while he describes those of home growth +as furnishing a large portion of the food of the slaves, particularly +those employed in agriculture, by whom great quantities were eaten in +the fresh state at the periods of fig-harvest. In Latin myths the plant +plays an important part. Held sacred to Bacchus, it was employed in +religious ceremonies; and the fig-tree that overshadowed the twin +founders of Rome in the wolf's cave, as an emblem of the future +prosperity of the race, testified to the high value set upon the fruit +by the nations of antiquity. The tree is now cultivated in all the +Mediterranean countries, but the larger portion of our supply of figs +comes from Asia Minor, the Spanish Peninsula and the south of France. +Those of Asiatic Turkey are considered the best. The varieties are +extremely numerous, and the fruit is of various colours, from deep +purple to yellow, or nearly white. The trees usually bear two +crops,--one in the early summer from the buds of the last year, the +other in the autumn from those on the spring growth; the latter forms +the chief harvest. Many of the immature receptacles drop off from +imperfect fertilization, which circumstance has led, from very ancient +times, to the practice of _caprification_.[2] Branches of the wild fig +in flower are placed over the cultivated bushes. Certain hymenopterous +insects, of the genera _Blastophaga_ and _Sycophaga_, which frequent the +wild fig, enter the minute orifice of the receptacle, apparently to +deposit their eggs; conveying thus the pollen more completely to the +stigmas, they ensure the fertilization and consequent ripening of the +fruit. By some the nature of the process has been questioned, and the +better maturation of the fruit attributed merely to the stimulus given +by the puncture of the insect, as in the case of the apple; but the +arrangement of the unisexual flowers in the fig renders the first theory +the more probable. In some districts a straw or small twig is thrust +into the receptacle with a similar object. When ripe the figs are +picked, and spread out to dry in the sun,--those of better quality being +much pulled and extended by hand during the process. Thus prepared, the +fruit is packed closely in barrels, rush baskets, or wooden boxes, for +commerce. The best kind, known as elemi, are shipped at Smyrna, where +the pulling and packing of figs form one of the most important +industries of the people. + +This fruit still constitutes a large part of the food of the natives of +western Asia and southern Europe, both in the fresh and dried state. A +sort of cake made by mashing up the inferior kinds serves in parts of +the Archipelago as a substitute for bread. Alcohol is obtained from +fermented figs in some southern countries; and a kind of wine, still +made from the ripe fruit, was known to the ancients, and mentioned by +Pliny under the name of _sycites_. Medicinally the fig is employed as a +gentle laxative, when eaten abundantly often proving useful in chronic +constipation; it forms a part of the well-known "confection of senna." +The milky juice of the stems and leaves is very acrid, and has been used +in some countries for raising blisters. The wood is porous and of little +value; though a piece, saturated with oil and spread with emery, is in +France a common substitute for a hone. + +The fig is grown for its fresh fruit (eaten as an article of dessert) in +all the milder parts of Europe, and in the United States, with +protection in winter, succeeds as far north as Pennsylvania. The fig was +introduced into England by Cardinal Pole, from Italy, early in the 16th +century. It lives to a great age, and along the southern coast of +England bears fruit abundantly as a standard; but in Scotland and in +many parts of England a south wall is indispensable for its successful +cultivation out of doors. + + Fig trees are propagated by cuttings, which should be put into pots, + and placed in a gentle hotbed. They may be obtained more speedily from + layers, which should consist of two or three years old shoots, and + these, when rooted, will form plants ready to bear fruit the first or + second year after planting. The best soil for a fig border is a + friable loam, not too rich, but well drained; a chalky subsoil is + congenial to the tree, and, to correct the tendency to over-luxuriance + of growth, the roots should be confined within spaces surrounded by a + wall enclosing an area of about a square yard. The sandy soil of + Argenteuil, near Paris, suits the fig remarkably well; but the best + trees are those which grow in old quarries, where their roots are free + from stagnant water, and where they are sheltered from cold, while + exposed to a very hot sun, which ripens the fruit perfectly. The fig + succeeds well planted in a paved court against a building with a south + aspect. + + The fig tree naturally produces two sets of shoots and two crops of + fruit in the season. The first shoots generally show young figs in + July and August, but these in the climate of England very seldom + ripen, and should therefore be rubbed off. The late or midsummer + shoots likewise put forth fruit-buds, which, however, do not develop + themselves till the following spring; and these form the only crop of + figs on which the British gardener can depend. + + The fig tree grown as a standard should get very little pruning, the + effect of cutting being to stimulate the buds to push shoots too + vigorous for bearing. When grown against a wall, it has been + recommended that a single stem should be trained to the height of a + foot. Above this a shoot should be trained to the right, and another + to the left; from these principals two other subdivisions should be + encouraged, and trained 15 in. apart; and along these branches, at + distances of about 8 in., shoots for bearing, as nearly as possible of + equal vigour, should be encouraged. The bearing shoots produced along + the leading branches should be trained in at full length, and in + autumn every alternate one should be cut back to one eye. In the + following summer the trained shoots should bear and ripen fruit, and + then be cut back in autumn to one eye, while shoots from the bases of + those cut back the previous autumn should be trained for succession. + In this way every leading branch will be furnished alternately with + bearing and successional shoots. + + When protection is necessary, as it may be in severe winters, though + it is too often provided in excess, spruce branches have been found to + answer the purpose exceedingly well, owing to the fact that their + leaves drop off gradually when the weather becomes milder in spring, + and when the trees require less protection and more light and air. The + principal part requiring protection is the main stem, which is more + tender than the young wood. + + In forcing, the fig requires more heat than the vine to bring it into + leaf. It may be subjected to a temperature of 50 deg. at night, and + from 60 deg. to 65 deg. C in the day, and this should afterwards be + increased to 60 deg. and 65 deg. by night, and 70 deg. to 75 deg. by + day, or even higher by sun heat, giving plenty of air at the same + time. In this temperature the evaporation from the leaves is very + great, and this must be replaced and the wants of the swelling fruit + supplied by daily watering, by syringing the foliage, and by + moistening the floor, this atmospheric moisture being also necessary + to keep down the red spider. When the crop begins to ripen, a + moderately dry atmosphere should be maintained, with abundant + ventilation when the weather permits. + + The fig tree is easily cultivated in pots, and by introducing the + plants into heat in succession the fruiting season may be + considerably extended. The plants should be potted in turfy loam mixed + with charcoal and old mortar rubbish, and in summer top-dressings of + rotten manure, with manure water two or three times a week, will be + beneficial. While the fruit is swelling, the pots should be plunged in + a bed of fermenting leaves. + + The following are a few of the best figs; those marked F, are good + forcing sorts, and those marked W. suitable for walls:-- + + Agen: brownish-green, turbinate. + + Brown Ischia, F.: chestnut-coloured, roundish-turbinate. + + Brown Turkey (Lee's Perpetual), F., W.: purplish-brown, turbinate. + + Brunswick, W.: brownish-green, pyriform. + + Col di Signora Bianca, F.: greenish-yellow, pyriform. + + Col di Signora Nero: dark chocolate, pyriform. + + Early Violet, F.: brownish-purple, roundish. + + Grizzly Bourjassotte: chocolate, round. + + Grosse Monstreuse de Lipari: pale chestnut, turbinate. + + Negro Largo, F.: black, long pyriform. + + White Ischia, F.: greenish-yellow, roundish-obovate. + + White Marseilles, F., W.: pale green, roundish-obovate. + +The sycamore fig, _Ficus Sycomorus_, is a tree of large size, with +heart-shaped leaves, which, from their fancied resemblance to those of +the mulberry, gave origin to the name [Greek: Sukomoros]. From the deep +shade cast by its spreading branches, it is a favourite tree in Egypt +and Syria, being often planted along roads and near houses. It bears a +sweet edible fruit, somewhat like that of the common fig, but produced +in racemes on the older boughs. The apex of the fruit is sometimes +removed, or an incision made in it, to induce earlier ripening. The +ancients, after soaking it in water, preserved it like the common fig. +The porous wood is only fit for fuel. + +[Illustration: FIGURE 2.--India-rubber Tree, _Ficus elastica_, showing +spreading woody roots.] + +The sacred fig, peepul, or bo, _Ficus religiosa_, a large tree with +heart-shaped, long-pointed leaves on slender footstalks, is much grown +in southern Asia. The leaves are used for tanning, and afford lac, and a +gum resembling caoutchouc is obtained from the juice; but in India it is +chiefly planted with a religious object, being regarded as sacred by +both Brahmans and Buddhists. The former believe that the last avatar of +Vishnu took place beneath its shade. A gigantic bo, described by Sir J. +Emerson Tennent as growing near Anarajapoora, in Ceylon, is, if +tradition may be trusted, one of the oldest trees in the world. It is +said to have been a branch of the tree under which Gautama Buddha became +endued with his divine powers, and has always been held in the greatest +veneration. The figs, however, hold as important a place in the +religious fables of the East as the ash in the myths of Scandinavia. + +_Ficus elastica_, the India-rubber tree (figure 2), the large, oblong, +glossy leaves, and pink buds of which are so familiar in our +greenhouses, furnishes most of the caoutchouc obtained from the East +Indies. It grows to a large size, and is remarkable for the snake-like +roots that extend in contorted masses around the base of the trunk. The +small fruit is unfit for food. + +_Ficus bengalensis_, or the Banyan, wild in parts of northern India, but +generally planted throughout the country, has a woody stem, branching to +a height of 70 to 100 ft. and of vast extent with heart-shaped entire +leaves terminating in acute points. Every branch from the main body +throws out its own roots, at first in small tender fibres, several yards +from the ground; but these continually grow thicker until they reach the +surface, when they strike in, increase to large trunks, and become +parent trees, shooting out new branches from the top, which again in +time suspend their roots, and these, swelling into trunks, produce other +branches, the growth continuing as long as the earth contributes her +sustenance. On the bank's of the Nerbudda stood a celebrated tree of +this kind, which is supposed to be that described by Nearchus, the +admiral of Alexander the Great. This tree once covered an area so +immense, that it was known to shelter no fewer than 7000 men, and though +much reduced in size by the destructive power of the floods, the +remainder was described by James Forbes (1749-1819), in his _Oriental +Memoirs_ (1813-1815) as nearly 2000 ft. in circumference, while the +trunks large and small exceeded 3000 in number. The tree usually grows +from seeds dropped by birds on other trees. The leaf-axil of a palm +forms a frequent receptacle for their growth, the palm becoming +ultimately strangled by the growth of the fig, which by this time has +developed numerous daughter stems which continue to expand and cover +ultimately a large area. The famous tree in the Royal Botanic Gardens, +Calcutta, began its growth at the end of the 18th century on a sacred +date-palm. In 1907 it had nearly 250 aerial roots, the parent trunk was +42 ft. in girth, and its leafy crown had a circumference of 857 ft.; and +it was still growing vigorously. Both this tree and _F. religiosa_ cause +destruction to buildings, especially in Bengal, from seeds dropped by +birds germinating on the walls. The tree yields an inferior rubber, and +a coarse rope is prepared from the bark and from the aerial roots. + + +FOOTNOTES: + + [1] Of these the case of the Barren Fig-tree (Mark. xi. 12-14, 20-21: + compare Matt. xxi. 18-20), which Jesus cursed and which then withered + away, has been much discussed among theologians. The difficulty is in + Mark xi. 13: "And seeing a fig-tree afar off having leaves, he came, + if haply he might find anything thereon; and when he came to it he + found nothing but leaves, for the time of figs was not yet." These + last words obviously raise the question whether the expectation of + Jesus of finding figs, and his cursing of the tree on finding none, + were not unreasonable. Many ingenious solutions have been propounded, + by suggested emendations of the text and otherwise, for which consult + M'Clintock and Strong's _Cyclopaedia of Biblical Literature_ (_sub_ + "Fig") and the _Encyclopaedia Biblica_ ("Fig-tree"); the former + demurs to the unreasonableness, and contends that the appearance of + the leaves at this season (March) indicated a pretentious precocity + in this particular fig-tree, so that Jesus was entitled to expect + that it would also have fruit, even though the season had not + arrived; the _Ency. Biblica_, on the other hand, supposes that some + "early Christian," confounding parable with history, has + misunderstood the parable in Luke xiii. 6-9, and, forgetting that the + season was not one for figs, has transformed it here into the + narrative of an act of Jesus. The probability seems to be that the + words "for the time of figs was not yet" are an unintelligent gloss + by an early reader, which has made its way into the text. For + authorities see the works mentioned above. + + [2] From Lat. _caprificus_, a wild fig; O. Eng. _caprifig_. + + + + +FIGARO, a famous dramatic character first introduced on the stage by +Beaumarchais in the _Barbier de Seville_, the _Mariage de Figaro_, and +the _Folle Journee_. The name is said to be an old Spanish and Italian +word for a wigmaker, connected with the verb _cigarrar_, to roll in +paper. Many of the traits of the character are to be found in earlier +comic types of the Roman and Italian stage, but as a whole the +conception was marked by great originality; and Figaro soon, seized the +popular imagination, and became the recognized representative of daring, +clever and nonchalant roguery and intrigue. Almost immediately after its +appearance, Mozart chose the _Marriage of Figaro_ as the subject of an +opera, and the _Barber of Seville_ was treated first by Paisiello, and +afterwards in 1816 by Rossini. In 1826 the name of the witty rogue was +taken by a journal which continued till 1833 to be one of the principal +Parisian periodicals, numbering among its contributors such men as Jules +Janin, Paul Lacroix, Leon Gozlan, Alphonse Karr, Dr Veron, Jules Sandeau +and George Sand. Various abortive attempts were made to restore the +_Figaro_ during the next twenty years; and in 1854 the efforts of M. de +Villemessant were crowned with success (see NEWSPAPERS: _France_). + + See Marc Monnier, _Les Aieux de Figaro_ (1868); H. de Villemessant, + _Memoires d'un journaliste_ (1867). + + + + +FIGEAC, a town of south-western France, capital of an arrondissement in +the department of Lot, 47 m. E.N.E. of Cahors on the Orleans railway. +Pop. (1906) 4330. It is enclosed by an amphitheatre of wooded and +vine-clad hills, on the right bank of the Cele, which is here crossed by +an old bridge. It is ill-built and the streets are narrow and dirty; on +the outskirts shady boulevards have taken the place of the ramparts by +which it was surrounded. The town is very rich in old houses of the 13th +and 14th centuries; among them may be mentioned the Hotel de Balene, of +the 14th century, used as a prison. Another house, dating from the 15th +century, was the birthplace of the Egyptologist J.F. Champollion, in +memory of whom the town has erected an obelisk. The principal church is +that of St Sauveur, which once belonged to the abbey of Figeac. It was +built at the beginning of the 12th century, but restored later; the +facade in particular is modern. Notre-Dame du Puy, in the highest part +of the town, belongs to the 12th and 13th centuries. It has no transept +and its aisles extend completely round the interior. The altar-screen is +a fine example of carved woodwork of the end of the 17th century. Of the +four obelisks which used to mark the limits of the authority of the +abbots of Figeac, those to the south and the west of the town remain. +Figeac is the seat of a subprefect and has a tribunal of first instance, +and a communal college. Brewing, tanning, printing, cloth-weaving and +the manufacture of agricultural implements are among the industries. +Trade is in cattle, leather, wool, plums, walnuts and grain, and there +are zinc mines in the neighbourhood. + +Figeac grew up round an abbey founded by Pippin the Short in the 8th +century, and throughout the middle ages it was the property of the +monks. At the end of the 16th century the lordship was acquired by King +Henry IV.'s minister, the duke of Sully, who sold it to Louis XIII. in +1622. + + + + +FIGUEIRA DA FOZ, or FIGUEIRA, a seaport of central Portugal, in the +district of Coimbra, formerly included in the province of Beira; on the +north bank of the river Mondego, at its mouth, and at the terminus of +the Lisbon-Figueira and Guarda-Figueira railways. Pop. (1900) 6221. +Figueira da Foz is an important fishing-station, and one of the +headquarters of the coasting trade in grain, fruit, wine, olive oil, +cork and coal; but owing to the bar at the mouth of the Mondego large +ships cannot enter. Glass is manufactured, and the city attracts many +visitors by its excellent climate and sea-bathing. A residential suburb, +the Bairro Novo, exists chiefly for their accommodation, to the +north-west of the old town. Figueira is connected by a tramway running 4 +m. N. W. with Buarcos (pop. 5033) and with the coal-mines of Cape +Mondego. Lavos (pop. 7939), on the south bank of the Mondego, was the +principal landing-place of the British troops which came, in 1808, to +take part in the Peninsular War. Figueira da Foz received the title and +privileges of city by a decree dated the 20th of September 1882. + + + + +FIGUERAS, a town of north-eastern Spain, in the province of Gerona, 14 +m. S. of the French frontier, on the Barcelona-Perpignan railway. Pop. +(1900) 10,714. Figueras is built at the foot of the Pyrenees, and on the +northern edge of El Ampurdan, a fertile and well-irrigated plain, which +produces wine, olives and rice, and derives its name from the seaport of +Ampurias, the ancient Emporiae. The castle of San Fernando, 1 m. N.W., +is an irregular pentagonal structure, built by order of Ferdinand VI. +(1746-1759), on the site of a Capuchin convent. Owing to its situation, +and the rocky nature of the ground over which a besieger must advance, +it is still serviceable as the key to the frontier. It affords +accommodation for 16,000 men and is well provided with bomb-proof cover. +In 1794 Figueras was surrendered to the French, but it was regained in +1795. During the Peninsular War it was taken by the French in 1808, +recaptured by the Spaniards in 1811, and retaken by the French in the +same year. In 1823, after a long defence, it was once more captured by +the French. An annual pilgrimage from Figueras to the chapel of Nuestra +Senora de Requesens, 15 m. N., commemorates the deliverance of the town +from a severe epidemic of fever in 1612. + + + + +FIGULUS, PUBLIUS NIGIDIUS (c. 98-45 B.C.), Roman savant, next to Varro +the most learned Roman of the age. He was a friend of Cicero, to whom he +gave his support at the time of the Catilinarian conspiracy (Plutarch, +_Cicero_, 20; Cicero, _Pro Sulla_, xiv. 42). In 58 he was praetor, sided +with Pompey in the Civil War, and after his defeat was banished by +Caesar, and died in exile. According to Cicero (_Timaeus_, 1), Figulus +endeavoured with some success to revive the doctrines of Pythagoreanism. +With this was included mathematics, astronomy and astrology, and even +the magic arts. According to Suetonius (_Augustus_, 94) he foretold the +greatness of the future emperor on the day of his birth, and Apuleius +(_Apologia_, 42) records that, by the employment of "magic boys" +(_magici pueri_), he helped to find a sum of money that had been lost. +Jerome (the authority for the date of his death) calls him _Pythagoricus +et magus_. The abstruse nature of his studies, the mystical character of +his writings, and the general indifference of the Romans to such +subjects, caused his works to be soon forgotten. Amongst his scientific, +theological and grammatical works mention may be made of _De diis_, +containing an examination of various cults and ceremonials; treatises on +divination and the interpretation of dreams; on the sphere, the winds +and animals. His _Commentarii grammatici_ in at least 29 books was an +ill-arranged collection of linguistic, grammatical and antiquarian +notes. In these he expressed the opinion that the meaning of words was +natural, not fixed by man. He paid especial attention to orthography, +and sought to differentiate the meanings of cases of like ending by +distinctive marks (the apex to indicate a long vowel is attributed to +him). In etymology he endeavoured to find a Roman explanation of words +where possible (according to him _frater_ was = _fere alter_). +Quintilian (_Instit. orat._ xi, 3. 143) speaks of a rhetorical treatise +_De gestu_ by him. + + See Cicero, _Ad Fam._ iv. 13; scholiast on Lucan i. 639; several + references in Aulus Gellius; Teuffel, _Hist. of Roman Literature_, + 170; M. Hertz, De N.F. _studiis atque operibus_ (1845); _Quaestiones + Nigidianae_ (1890), and edition of the fragments (1889) by A. Swoboda. + + + + +FIGURATE NUMBERS, in mathematics. If we take the sum of n terms of the +series 1 + 1 + 1 + ..., i.e. n, as the nth term of a new series, we +obtain the series 1 + 2 + 3 + ..., the sum of n terms of which is 1/2 +n(n + 1). Taking this sum as the nth term, we obtain the series 1 + 3 + +6 + 10 + ..., which has for the sum of n terms n(n + 1)(n + 2)/3![1] +This sum is taken as the nth term of the next series, and proceeding in +this way we obtain series having the following nth terms:--1, n, n(n + +1)/2!, n(n + 1) (n + 2)/3!, ... n(n + 1) ... (n + r - 2)/(r - 1)!. The +numbers obtained by giving n any value in these expressions are of the +first, second, third, ... or rth order of figurate numbers. + + 1 /| 1 /| 1 /| 1 /| 1 /| 1 /| 1 /| 1 + / | / | / | / | / | / | / | + 1 /| 2 /| 3 /| 4 /| 5 /| 6 /| 7 | + / | / | / | / | / | / | + 1 /| 3 /| 6 /| 10/| 15/| 21 | + / | / | / | / | / | + 1 /| 4 /| 10/| 20/| 35 | + / | / | / | / | + 1 /| 5 /| 15/| 35 | + / | / | / | + 1 /| 6 /| 21 | + / | / | + 1 /| 7 | + / | + 1 | + +Pascal treated these numbers in his _Traite du triangle arithmetique_ +(1665), using them to develop a theory of combinations and to solve +problems in probability. His table is here shown in its simplest form. +It is to be noticed that each number is the sum of the numbers +immediately above and to the left of it; and that the numbers along a +line, termed a _base_, which cuts off an equal number of units along the +top row and column are the coefficients in the binomial expansion of +(1 + x)^(r - 1), where r represents the number of units cut off. + + +FOOTNOTE: + + [1] The notation n! denotes the product 1 . 2 . 3.... n, and is + termed "factorial n." + + + + +FIJI (_Viti_), a British colony consisting of an archipelago in the +Pacific Ocean, the most important in Polynesia, between 15 deg. and 20 +deg. S., and on and about the meridian of 180 deg. The islands number +about 250, of which some 80 are inhabited. The total land area is 7435 +sq. m. (thus roughly equalling that of Wales), and the population is +about 121,000. The principal island is Viti Levu, 98 m. in length (E. to +W.) and 67 in extreme breadth, with an area of 4112 sq. m. Forty miles +N.E. lies Vanua Levu, measuring 117 m. by 30, with an area of 2432 sq. +m. Close off the south-eastern shore of Vanua Levu is Taviuni, 26 m. in +length by 10 in breadth; Kandavu or Kadavu, 36 m. long and very narrow, +is 41 m. S. of Viti Levu, and the three other main islands, lying east +of Viti Levu in the Koro Sea, are Koro, Ngau or Gau, and Ovalau. +South-east from Vanua Levu a loop of islets extends nearly to 20 deg. +S., enclosing the Koro Sea. North-west of Viti Levu lies another chain, +the Yasawa or western group; and, finally, the colony includes the +island of Rotumah (q.v.), 300 m. N.W. by N. of Vanua Levu. + +The formation of the larger islands is volcanic, their surface rugged, +their vegetation luxuriant, and their appearance very beautiful; their +hills rise often above 3000, and, in the case of a few summits, above +4000 ft., and they contrast strongly with the low coral formation of the +smaller members of the group. There is not much level country, except in +the coral islets, and certain rich tracts along the coasts of the two +large islands, especially near the mouths of the rivers. The large +islands have a considerable extent of undulating country, dry and open +on their lee sides. Streams and rivers are abundant, the latter very +large in proportion to the size of the islands, affording a waterway to +the rich districts along their banks. These and the extensive mud flats +and deltas at their mouths are often flooded, by which their fertility +is increased, though at a heavy cost to the cultivator. The Rewa, +debouching through a wide delta at the south-east of Viti Levu, is +navigable for small vessels for 40 m. There are also in this island the +Navua and Sigatoka (flowing S.), the Nandi (W.), and the Ba (N.W.). The +Dreketi, flowing W., is the chief stream of Vanua Levu. It breaches the +mountains in a fine valley; for this island consists practically of one +long range, whereas the main valleys and ranges separating them in Viti +Levu radiate for the most part from a common centre. With few exceptions +the islands are surrounded by barriers of coral, broken by openings +opposite the mouths of streams. Viti Levu is the most important island +not only from its size, but from its fertility, variety of surface, and +population, which is over one-third of that of the whole group. The town +of Suva lies on an excellent harbour at the south-east of the island, +and has been the capital of the colony since 1882, containing the +government buildings and other offices. Vanua Levu is less fertile than +Viti Levu; it has good anchorages along its entire southern coast. Of +the other islands, Taviuni, remarkable for a lake (presumably a +crater-lake) at the top of its lofty central ridge, is fertile, but +exceptionally devoid of harbours; whereas the well-timbered island of +Kandavu has an excellent one. On the eastern shore of Ovalau, an island +which contains in a small area a remarkable series of gorge-like valleys +between commanding hills, is the town of Levuka, the capital until 1882. +It stands partly upon the narrow shore, and partly climbs the rocky +slope behind. The chief islands on the west of the chain enclosing the +Koro Sea are Koro, Ngau, Moala and Totoya, all productive, affording +good anchorage, elevated and picturesque. The eastern islands of the +chain are smaller and more numerous, Vanua Batevu (one of the Exploring +Group) being a centre of trade. Among others, Mago is remarkable for a +subterranean outlet of the waters of the fertile valley in its midst. + +[Illustration: Map of Fiji.] + +The land is of recent geological formation, the principal ranges being +composed of igneous rock, and showing traces of much volcanic +disturbance. There are boiling springs in Vanua Levu and Ngau, and +slight shocks of earthquake are occasionally felt. The tops of many of +the mountains, from Kandavu in the S.W., through Nairai and Koro, to the +Ringgold group in the N.E., have distinct craters, but their activity +has long ceased. The various decomposing volcanic rocks--tufas, +conglomerates and basalts--mingled with decayed vegetable matter, and +abundantly watered, form a very fertile soil. Most of the high peaks on +the larger islands are basaltic, and the rocks generally are igneous, +with occasional upheaved coral found sometimes over 1000 ft. above the +sea; but certain sedimentary rocks observed on Viti Levu seem to imply a +nucleus of land of considerable age. Volcanic activity in the +neighbourhood is further shown by the quantities of pumice-stone drifted +on to the south coasts of Kandavu and Viti Levu; malachite, antimony and +graphite, gold in small quantities, and specular iron-sand occur. + +_Climate._--The colony is beyond the limits of the perpetual S.E. +trades, while not within the range of the N.W. monsoons. From April to +November the winds are steady between S.E. and E.N.E., and the climate +is cool and dry, after which the weather becomes uncertain and the winds +often northerly, this being the wet warm season. In February and March +heavy gales are frequent, and hurricanes sometimes occur, causing +scarcity by destroying the crops. The rainfall is much greater on the +windward than on the lee sides of the islands (about 110 in. at Suva), +but the mean temperature is much the same, viz., about 80 deg. F. In the +hills the temperature sometimes falls below 50 deg. The climate, +especially from November to April, is somewhat enervating to the +Englishman, but not unhealthy. Fevers are hardly known. Dysentery, which +is common, and the most serious disease in the islands, is said to have +been unknown before the advent of Europeans. + + _Fauna._--Besides the dog and the pig, which (with the domestic fowl) + must have been introduced in early times, the only land mammals are + certain species of rats and bats. Insects are numerous, but the + species few. Bees have been introduced. The avifauna is not + remarkable. Birds of prey are few; the parrot and pigeon tribes are + better represented. Fishes, of an Indo-Malay type, are numerous and + varied; Mollusca, especially marine, and Crustaceae are also very + numerous. These three form an important element in the food supply. + + _Flora._--The vegetation is mostly of a tropical Indo-Malayan + character--thick jungle with great trees covered with creepers and + epiphytes. The lee sides of the larger islands, however, have grassy + plains suitable for grazing, with scattered trees, chiefly _Pandanus_, + and ferns. The flora has also some Australian and New Zealand + affinities (resembling in this respect the New Caledonia and New + Hebrides groups), shown especially in these western districts by the + _Pandanus_, by certain acacias and others. At an elevation of about + 2000 ft. the vegetation assumes a more mountainous type. Among the + many valuable timber trees are the vesi (_Afzelia bijuga_); the dilo + (_Calophyllum Inophyllum_), the oil from its seeds being much used in + the islands, as in India, in the treatment of rheumatism; the dakua + (_Dammara Vitiensis_), allied to the New Zealand kauri, and others. + The dakua or Fiji pine, however, has become scarce. Most of the fruit + trees are also valuable as timber. The native cloth (_masi_) is beaten + out from the bark of the paper mulberry cultivated for the purpose. Of + the palms the cocoanut is by far the most important. The yasi or + sandal-wood was formerly a valuable product, but is now rarely found. + There are various useful drugs, spices and perfumes; and many plants + are cultivated for their beauty, to which the natives are keenly + alive. Among the plants used as pot-herbs are several ferns, and two + or three Solanums, one of which, _S. anthropophagorum_, was one of + certain plants always cooked with human flesh, which was said to be + otherwise difficult of digestion. The use of the kava root, here + called yanggona, from which the well-known national beverage is made, + is said to have been introduced from Tonga. Of fruit trees, besides + the cocoanut, there may be mentioned the many varieties of the + bread-fruit, of bananas and plantains, of sugar-cane and of lemon; the + wi (_Spondias dulcis_), the kavika (_Eugenia malaccensis_), the ivi or + Tahitian chestnut (_Inocarpus edulis_), the pine-apple and others + introduced in modern times. Edible roots are especially abundant. The + chief staple of life is the yam, the names of several months in the + calendar having reference to its cultivation and ripening. The natives + use no grain or pulse, but make a kind of bread (_mandrai_) from this, + the taro, and other roots, as well as from the banana (which is the + best), the bread-fruit, the ivi, the kavika, the arrowroot, and in + times of scarcity the mangrove. This bread is made by burying the + materials for months, till the mass is thoroughly fermented and + homogeneous, when it is dug up and cooked by baking or steaming. This + simple process, applicable to such a variety of substances, is a + valuable security against famine. + +_People._--The Fijians are a people of Melanesian (Papuan) stock much +crossed with Polynesians (Tongans and Samoans). They occupy the extreme +east limits of Papuan territory and are usually classified as +Melanesians; but they are physically superior to the pure examples of +that race, combining their dark colour, harsh hirsute skin, crisp hair, +which is bleached with lime and worn in an elaborately trained mop, and +muscular limbs, with the handsome features and well proportioned bodies +of the Polynesians. They are tall and well built. The features are +strongly marked, but not unpleasant, the eyes deep set, the beard thick +and bushy. The chiefs are fairer, much better-looking, and of a less +negroid type of face than the people. This negroid type is especially +marked on the west coasts, and still more in the interior of Viti Levu. +The Fijians have other characteristics of both Pacific races, e.g. the +quick intellect of the fairer, and the savagery and suspicion of the +dark. They wear a minimum of covering, but, unlike the Melanesians, are +strictly decent, while they are more moral than the Polynesians. They +are cleanly and particular about their personal appearance, though, +unlike other Melanesians, they care little for ornament, and only the +women are tattooed. A partial circumcision is practised, which is +exceptional with the Melanesians, nor have these usually an elaborate +political and social system like that of Fiji. The status of the women +is also somewhat better, those of the upper class having considerable +freedom and influence. If less readily amenable to civilizing influences +than their neighbours to the eastward, the Fijians show greater force of +character and ingenuity. Possessing the arts of both races they practise +them with greater skill than either. They understand the principle of +division of labour and production, and thus of commerce. They are +skilful cultivators and good boat-builders, the carpenters being an +hereditary caste; there are also tribes of fishermen and sailors; their +mats, baskets, nets, cordage and other fabrics are substantial and +tasteful; their pottery, made, like many of the above articles, by +women, is far superior to any other in the South Seas; but many native +manufactures have been supplanted by European goods. + +The Fijians were formerly notorious for cannibalism, which may have had +its origin in religion, but long before the first contact with Europeans +had degenerated into gluttony. The Fijian's chief table luxury was human +flesh, euphemistically called by him "long pig," and to satisfy his +appetite he would sacrifice even friends and relatives. The Fijians +combined with this greediness a savage and merciless nature. Human +sacrifices were of daily occurrence. On a chief's death wives and slaves +were buried alive with him. When building a chief's house a slave was +buried alive in the hole dug for each foundation post. At the launching +of a war-canoe living men were tied hand and foot between two plantain +stems making a human ladder over which the vessel was pushed down into +the water. The people acquiesced in these brutal customs, and willingly +met their deaths. Affection and a firm belief in a future state, in +which the exact condition of the dying is continued, are the Fijians' +own explanations of the custom, once universal, of killing sick or aged +relatives. Yet in spite of this savagery the Fijians have always been +remarkable for their hospitality, open-handedness and courtesy. They are +a sensitive, proud, if vindictive, and boastful people, with good +conversational and reasoning powers, much sense of humour, tact and +perception of character. Their code of social etiquette is minute and +elaborate, and the graduations of rank well marked. These are (1) +chiefs, greater and lesser; (2) priests; (3) _Mata ni Vanua_ (lit., eyes +of the land), employes, messengers or counsellors; (4) distinguished +warriors of low birth; (5) common people; (6) slaves. + +The family is the unit of political society. The families are grouped in +townships or otherwise (_qali_) under the lesser chiefs, who again owe +allegiance to the supreme chief of the _matanitu_ or tribe. The chiefs +are a real aristocracy, excelling the people in physique, skill, +intellect and acquirements of all sorts; and the reverence felt for +them, now gradually diminishing, was very great, and had something of a +religious character. All that a man had belonged to his chief. On the +other hand, the chief's property practically belonged to his people, +and they were as ready to give as to take. In a time of famine, a chief +would declare the contents of the plantations to be common property. A +system of feudal service-tenures (_lala_) is the institution on which +their social and political fabric mainly depended. It allowed the chief +to call for the labour of any district, and to employ it in planting, +house or canoe-building, supplying food on the occasion of another +chief's visit, &c. This power was often used with much discernment; thus +an unpopular chief would redeem his character by calling for some +customary service and rewarding it liberally, or a district would be +called on to supply labour or produce as a punishment. The privilege +might, of course, be abused by needy or unscrupulous chiefs, though they +generally deferred somewhat to public opinion; it has now, with similar +customary exactions of cloth, mats, salt, pottery, &c. been reduced +within definite limits. An allied custom, _solevu_, enabled a district +in want of any particular article to call on its neighbours to supply +it, giving labour or something else in exchange. Although, then, the +chief is lord of the soil, the inferior chiefs and individual families +have equally distinct rights in it, subject to payment of certain dues; +and the idea of permanent alienation of land by purchase was never +perhaps clearly realized. Another curious custom was that of _vasu_ +(lit. nephew). The son of a chief by a woman of rank had almost +unlimited rights over the property of his mother's family, or of her +people. In time of war the chief claimed absolute control over life and +property. Warfare was carried on with many courteous formalities, and +considerable skill was shown in the fortifications. There were +well-defined degrees of dependence among the different tribes or +districts: the first of these, _bati_, is an alliance between two nearly +equal tribes, but implying a sort of inferiority on one side, +acknowledged by military service; the second, _qali_, implies greater +subjection, and payment of tribute. Thus A, being bati to B, might hold +C in qali, in which case C was also reckoned subject to B, or might be +protected by B for political purposes. + +The former religion of the Fijians was a sort of ancestor-worship, had +much in common with the creeds of Polynesia, and included a belief in a +future existence. There were two classes of gods--the first immortal, of +whom Ndengei is the greatest, said to exist eternally in the form of a +serpent, but troubling himself little with human or other affairs, and +the others had usually only a local recognition. The second rank (who, +though far above mortals, are subject to their passions, and even to +death) comprised the spirits of chiefs, heroes and other ancestors. The +gods entered and spoke through their priests, who thus pronounced on the +issue of every enterprise, but they were not represented by idols; +certain groves and trees were held sacred, and stones which suggest +phallic associations. The priesthood usually was hereditary, and their +influence great, and they had generally a good understanding with the +chief. The institution of Taboo existed in full force. The _mbure_ or +temple was also the council chamber and place of assemblage for various +purposes. + +The weapons of the Fijians are spears, slings, throwing clubs and bows +and arrows. Their houses, of which the framework is timber and the rest +lattice and thatch, are ingeniously constructed, with great taste in +ornamentation, and are well furnished with mats, mosquito-curtains, +baskets, fans, nets and cooking and other utensils. Their canoes, +sometimes more than 100 ft. long, are well built. Ever excellent +agriculturists, their implements were formerly digging sticks and hoes +of turtlebone or flat oyster-shells. In irrigation they showed skill, +draining their fields with built watercourses and bamboo pipes. Tobacco, +maize, sweet potatoes, yams, kava, taro, beans and pumpkins, are the +principal crops. + +Fijians are fond of amusements. They have various games, and dancing, +story-telling and songs are especially popular. Their poetry has +well-defined metres, and a sort of rhyme. Their music is rude, and is +said to be always in the major key. They are clever cooks, and for their +feasts preparations are sometimes made months in advance, and enormous +waste results from them. Mourning is expressed by fasting, by shaving +the head and face, or by cutting off the little finger. This last is +sometimes done at the death of a rich man in the hope that his family +will reward the compliment; sometimes it is done vicariously, as when +one chief cuts off the little finger of his dependent in regret or in +atonement for the death of another. + +A steady, if not a very rapid, decrease in the native population set in +after 1875. A terrible epidemic of measles in that year swept away +40,000, or about one-third of the Fijians. Subsequent epidemics have not +been attended by anything like this mortality, but there has, however, +been a steady decrease, principally among young children, owing to +whooping-cough, tuberculosis and croup. Every Fijian child seems to +contract yaws at some time in its life, a mistaken notion existing on +the part of the parents that it strengthens the child's physique. +Elephantiasis, influenza; rheumatism, and a skin disease, _thoko_, also +occur. One per cent of the natives are lepers. A commission appointed in +1891 to inquire into the causes of the native decrease collected much +interesting anthropological information regarding native customs, and +provincial inspectors and medical officers were specially appointed to +compel the natives to carry out the sanitary reforms recommended by the +commission. A considerable sum was also spent in laying on good water to +the native villages. The Fijians show no disposition to intermarry with +the Indian coolies. The European half-castes are not prolific _inter +se_, and they are subject to a scrofulous taint. The most robust cross +in the islands is the offspring of the African negro and the Fijian. +Miscegenation with the Micronesians, the only race in the Pacific which +is rapidly increasing, is regarded as the most hopeful manner of +preserving the native Fijian population. There is a large Indian +immigrant population. + +_Trade, Administration, &c._--The principal industries are the +cultivation of sugar and fruits and the manufacture of sugar and copra, +and these three are the chief articles of export trade, which is carried +on almost entirely with Australia and New Zealand. The fruits chiefly +exported are bananas and pineapples. There are also exported maize, +vanilla and a variety of fruits in small quantities; pearl and other +shells and beche-de-mer. There is a manufacture of soap from coconut +oil; a fair quantity of tobacco is grown, and among other industries may +be included boat-building and saw-milling. Regular steamship +communications are maintained with Sydney, Auckland and Vancouver. Good +bridle-tracks exist in all the larger islands, and there are some +macadamized roads, principally in Viti Levu. There is an overland mail +service by native runners. The export trade is valued at nearly L600,000 +annually, and the imports at L500,000. The annual revenue of the colony +is about L140,000 and the expenditure about L125,000. The currency and +weights and measures are British. Besides the customs and stamp duties, +some L18,000 of the annual revenue is raised from native taxation. The +seventeen provinces of the colony (at the head of which is either a +European or a _roko tui_ or native official) are assessed annually by +the legislative council for a fixed tax in kind. The tax on each +province is distributed among districts under officials called _bulis_, +and further among villages within these districts. Any surplus of +produce over the assessment is sold to contractors, and the money +received is returned to the natives. + +Under a reconstruction made in 1904 there is an executive council +consisting of the governor and four official members. The legislative +council consists of the governor, ten official, six elected and two +native members. The native chiefs and provincial representatives meet +annually under the presidency of the governor, and their recommendations +are submitted for sanction to the legislative council. Suva and Levuka +have each a municipal government, and there are native district and +village councils. There is an armed native constabulary; and a volunteer +and cadet corps in Suva and Levuka. + +The majority of the natives are Wesleyan Methodists. The Roman Catholic +missionaries have about 3000 adherents; the Church of England is +confined to the Europeans and _kanakas_ in the towns; the Indian coolies +are divided between Mahommedans and Hindus. There are public schools for +Europeans and half-castes in the towns, but there is no provision for +the education of the children of settlers in the out-districts. By an +ordinance of 1890 provision was made for the constitution of school +boards, and the principle was first applied in Suva and Levuka. The +missions have established schools in every native village, and most +natives are able to read and write their own language. The government +has established a native technical school for the teaching of useful +handicrafts. The natives show themselves very slow in adopting European +habits in food, clothing and house-building. + +_History._--A few islands in the north-east of the group were first seen +by Abel Tasman in 1643. The southernmost of the group, Turtle Island, +was discovered by Cook in 1773. Lieutenant Bligh, approaching them in +the launch of the "Bounty," 1789, had a hostile encounter with natives. +In 1827 Dumont d'Urville in the "Astrolabe" surveyed them much more +accurately, but the first thorough survey was that of the United States +exploring expedition in 1840. Up to this time, owing to the evil +reputation of the islanders, European intercourse was very limited. The +labours of the Wesleyan missionaries, however, must always have a +prominent place in any history of Fiji. They came from Tonga in 1835 and +naturally settled first in the eastern islands, where the Tongan +element, already familiar to them, preponderated. They perhaps +identified themselves too closely with their Tongan friends, whose +dissolute, lawless, tyrannical conduct led to much mischief; but it +should not be forgotten that their position was difficult, and it was +mainly through their efforts that many terrible heathen practices were +stamped out. + +About 1804 some escaped convicts from Australia and runaway sailors +established themselves around the east part of Viti Levu, and by lending +their services to the neighbouring chiefs probably led to their +preponderance over the rest of the group. Na Ulivau, chief of the small +island of Mbau, established before his death in 1829 a sort of +supremacy, which was extended by his brother Tanoa, and by Tanoa's son +Thakombau, a ruler of considerable capacity. In his time, however, +difficulties thickened. The Tongans, who had long frequented Fiji +(especially for canoe-building, their own islands being deficient in +timber), now came in larger numbers, led by an able and ambitious chief, +Maafu, who, by adroitly taking part in Fijian quarrels, made himself +chief in the Windward group, threatening Thakombau's supremacy. He was +harassed, too, by an arbitrary demand for L9000 from the American +government, for alleged injuries to their consul. Several chiefs who +disputed his authority were crushed by the aid of King George of Tonga, +who (1855) had opportunely arrived on a visit; but he afterwards, taking +some offence, demanded L12,000 for his services. At last Thakombau, +disappointed in the hope that his acceptance of Christianity (1854) +would improve his position, offered the sovereignty to Great Britain +(1859) with the fee simple of 100,000 acres, on condition of her paying +the American claims. Colonel Smythe, R.A., was sent out to report on the +question, and decided against annexation, but advised that the British +consul should be invested with full magisterial powers over his +countrymen, a step which would have averted much subsequent difficulty. + +Meanwhile Dr B. Seemann's favourable report on the capabilities of the +islands, followed by a time of depression in Australia and New Zealand, +led to a rapid increase of settlers--from 200 in 1860 to 1800 in 1869. +This produced fresh complications, and an increasing desire among the +respectable settlers for a competent civil and criminal jurisdiction. +Attempts were made at self-government, and the sovereignty was again +offered, conditionally, to England, and to the United States. Finally, +in 1871, a "constitutional government" was formed by certain Englishmen +under King Thakombau; but this, after incurring heavy debt, and +promoting the welfare of neither whites nor natives, came after three +years to a deadlock, and the British government felt obliged, in the +interest of all parties, to accept the unconditional cession now offered +(1874). It had besides long been thought desirable to possess a station +on the route between Australia and Panama; it was also felt that the +Polynesian labour traffic, the abuses in which had caused much +indignation, could only be effectually regulated from a point contiguous +to the recruiting field, and the locality where that labour was +extensively employed. To this end the governor of Fiji was also created +"high commissioner for the western Pacific." Rotumah (q.v.) was annexed +in 1881. + +At the time of the British annexation the islands were suffering from +commercial depression, following a fall in the price of cotton after the +American Civil War. Coffee, tea, cinchona and sugar were tried in turn, +with limited success. The coffee was attacked by the leaf disease; the +tea could not compete with that grown by the cheap labour of the East; +the sugar machinery was too antiquated to withstand the fall in prices +consequent on the European sugar bounties. In 1878 the first coolies +were imported from India and the cultivation of sugar began to pass into +the hands of large companies working with modern machinery. With the +introduction of coolies the Fijians began to fall behind in the +development of their country. Many of the coolies chose to remain in the +colony after the termination of their indentures, and began to displace +the European country traders. With a regular and plentiful supply of +Indian coolies, the recruiting of _kanaka_ labourers practically ceased. +The settlement of European land claims, and the measures taken for the +protection of native institutions, caused lively dissatisfaction among +the colonists, who laid the blame of the commercial depression at the +door of the government; but with returning prosperity this feeling began +to disappear. In 1900 the government of New Zealand made overtures to +absorb Fiji. The Aborigines Society protested to the colonial office, +and the imperial government refused to sanction the proposal. + + See Smyth, _Ten Months in the Fiji Islands_ (London, 1864); B. + Seemann, _Flora Vitiensis_ (London, 1865); and _Viti: Account of a + Government Mission in the Vitian or Fijian Islands_ (1860-1861); W.T. + Pritchard, _Polynesian Reminiscences_ (London, 1866); H. Forbes, _Two + Years in Fiji_ (London, 1875); Commodore Goodenough, _Journal_ + (London, 1876); H.N. Moseley, _Notes of a Naturalist in the + "Challenger"_ (London, 1879); Sir A.H. Gordon, _Story of a Little War_ + (Edinburgh, privately printed, 1879); J.W. Anderson, _Fiji and New + Caledonia_ (London, 1880); C.F. Gordon-Cumming, _At Home in Fiji_ + (Edinburgh, 1881); John Horne, _A Year in Fiji_ (London, 1881); H.S. + Cooper, _Our New Colony, Fiji_ (London, 1882); S.E. Scholes, _Fiji and + the Friendly Islands_ (London, 1882); Princes Albert Victor and George + of Wales, _Cruise of H. M. S. "Bacchante"_ (London, 1886); A. Agassiz, + _The Islands and Coral Reefs of Fiji_ (Cambridge, Mass., U.S., 1899); + H.B. Guppy, _Observations of a Naturalist in the Pacific_ (1896-1899), + vol. i.; _Vanua Levu, Fiji_ (Phys. Geog. and Geology) (London, 1903); + Lorimer Fison, _Tales from Old Fiji_ (folk-lore, &c.) (London, 1904); + B. Thomson, _The Fijians_ (London, 1908). + + + + +FILANDER, the name by which the Aru Island wallaby (_Macropus brunii_) +was first described. It occurs in a translation of C. de Bruyn's +_Travels_ (ii. 101) published in 1737. + + + + +FILANGIERI, CARLO (1784-1867), prince of Satriano, Neapolitan soldier +and statesman, was the son of Gaetano Filangieri (1752-1788), a +celebrated philosopher and jurist. At the age of fifteen he decided on a +military career, and having obtained an introduction to Napoleon +Bonaparte, then first consul, was admitted to the Military Academy at +Paris. In 1803 he received a commission in an infantry regiment, and +took part in the campaign of 1805 under General Davoust, first in the +Low Countries, and later at Ulm, Maria Zell and Austerlitz, where he +fought with distinction, was wounded several times and promoted. He +returned to Naples as captain on Massena's staff to fight the Bourbons +and the Austrians in 1806, and subsequently went to Spain, where he +followed Jerome Bonaparte in his retreat from Madrid. In consequence of +a fatal duel he was sent back to Naples; there he served under Joachim +Murat with the rank of general, and fought against the Anglo-Sicilian +forces in Calabria and at Messina. On the fall of Napoleon he took part +in Murat's campaign against Eugene Beauharnais, and later in that +against Austria, and was severely wounded at the battle of the Panaro +(1815). On the restoration of the Bourbon king Ferdinand IV. (I.), +Filangieri retained his rank and command, but found the army utterly +disorganized and impregnated with Carbonarism. In the disturbances of +1820 he adhered to the Constitutionalist party, and fought under General +Pepe (q.v.) against the Austrians. On the reestablishment of the +autocracy he was dismissed from the service, and retired to Calabria +where he had inherited the princely title and estates of Satriano. In +1831 he was recalled by Ferdinand II. and entrusted with various +military reforms. On the outbreak of the troubles of 1848 Filangieri +advised the king to grant the constitution, which he did in February +1848, but when the Sicilians formally seceded from the Neapolitan +kingdom Filangieri was given the command of an armed force with which to +reduce the island to obedience. On the 3rd of September he landed near +Messina, and after very severe fighting captured the city. He then +advanced southwards, besieged and took Catania, where his troops +committed many atrocities, and by May 1849 he had conquered the whole of +Sicily, though not without much bloodshed. He remained in Sicily as +governor until 1855, when he retired into private life, as he could not +carry out the reforms he desired owing to the hostility of Giovanni +Cassisi, the minister for Sicily. On the death of Ferdinand II. (22nd of +May 1859) the new king Francis II. appointed Filangieri premier and +minister of war. He promoted good relations with France, then fighting +with Piedmont against the Austrians in Lombardy, and strongly urged on +the king the necessity of an alliance with Piedmont and a constitution +as the only means whereby the dynasty might be saved. These proposals +being rejected, Filangieri resigned office. In May 1860, Francis at last +promulgated the constitution, but it was too late, for Garibaldi was in +Sicily and Naples was seething with rebellion. On the advice of Liborio +Romano, the new prefect of police, Filangieri was ordered to leave +Naples. He went to Marseilles with his wife and subsequently to +Florence, where at the instance of General La Marmora he undertook to +write an account of the Italian army. Although he adhered to the new +government he refused to accept any dignity at its hands, and died at +his villa of San Giorgio a Cremano near Naples on the 9th of October +1867. + +Filangieri was a very distinguished soldier, and a man of great ability; +although he changed sides several times he became really attached to the +Bourbon dynasty, which he hoped to save by freeing it from its +reactionary tendencies and infusing a new spirit into it. His conduct in +Sicily was severe and harsh, but he was not without feelings of +humanity, and he was an honest man and a good administrator. + + His biography has been written by his daughter Teresa Filangieri + Fieschi-Ravaschieri, _Il Generale Carlo Filangieri_ (Milan, 1902), an + interesting, although somewhat too laudatory volume based on the + general's own unpublished memoirs; for the Sicilian expedition see V. + Finocchiaro, _La Rivoluzione siciliana del 1848-49_ (Catania, 1906, + with bibliography), in which Filangieri is bitterly attacked; see also + under NAPLES; FERDINAND IV.; FRANCIS I.; FERDINAND II.; FRANCIS II. + (L. V.*) + + + + +FILANGIERI, GAETANO (1752-1788), Italian publicist, was born at Naples +on the 18th of August 1752. His father, Caesar, prince of Arianiello, +intended him for a military career, which he commenced at the early age +of seven, but soon abandoned for the study of the law. At the bar his +knowledge and eloquence early secured his success, while his defence of +a royal decree reforming abuses in the administration of justice gained +him the favour of the king, Charles, afterwards Charles III. of Spain, +and led to several honourable appointments at court. The first two books +of his great work, _La Scienza della legislazione_, appeared in 1780. +The first book contained an exposition of the rules on which legislation +in general ought to proceed, while the second was devoted to economic +questions. These two books showed him an ardent reformer, and vehement +in denouncing the abuses of his time. He insisted on unlimited free +trade, and the abolition of the medieval institutions which impeded +production and national well-being. Its success was great and immediate +not only in Italy, but throughout Europe at large. In 1783 he married, +resigned his appointments at court, and retiring to Cava, devoted +himself steadily to the completion of his work. In the same year +appeared the third book, relating entirely to the principles of criminal +jurisprudence. The suggestion which he made in it as to the need for +reform in the Roman Catholic church brought upon him the censure of the +ecclesiastical authorities, and it was condemned by the congregation of +the Index in 1784. In 1785 he published three additional volumes, +making the fourth book of the projected work, and dealing with education +and morals. In 1787 he was appointed a member of the supreme treasury +council by Ferdinand IV., but his health, impaired by close study and +over-work in his new office, compelled his withdrawal to the country at +Vico Equense. He died somewhat suddenly on the 21st of July 1788, having +just completed the first part of the fifth book of his _Scienza_. He +left an outline of the remainder of the work, which was to have been +completed in six books. + + _La Scienza della legislazione_ has gone through many editions, and + has been translated into most of the languages of Europe. The best + Italian edition is in 5 vols. 8vo. (1807). The Milan edition (1822) + contains the _Opusculi scelti_ and a life by Donato Tommasi. A French + translation appeared in Paris in 7 vols. 8vo. (1786-1798); it was + republished in 1822-1824, with the addition of the _Opuscles_ and + notes by Benjamin Constant. _The Science of Legislation_ was + translated into English by Sir R. Clayton (London, 1806). + + + + +FILARIASIS, the name of a disease due to the nematode _Filaria sanguinis +hominis_. A milky appearance of the urine, due to the presence of a +substance like chyle, which forms a clot, had been observed from time to +time, especially in tropical and subtropical countries; and it was +proved by Dr Wucherer of Bahia, and by Dr Timothy Lewis, that this +peculiar condition is uniformly associated with the presence in the +blood of minute eel-like worms, visible only under the microscope, being +the embryo forms of a _Filaria_ (see NEMATODA). Sometimes the discharge +of lymph takes place at one or more points of the surface of the body, +and there is in other cases a condition of naevoid elephantiasis of the +scrotum, or lymph-scrotum. More or less of blood may occur along with +the chylous fluid in the urine. Both the chyluria and the presence of +filariae in the blood are curiously intermittent; it may happen that not +a single filaria is to be seen during the daytime, while they swarm in +the blood at night, and it has been ingeniously shown by Dr S. Mackenzie +that they may be made to disappear if the patient sits up all night, +reappearing while he sleeps through the day. + +Sir P. Manson proved that mosquitoes imbibe the embryo filariae from the +blood of man; and that many of these reach full development within the +mosquito, acquiring their freedom when the latter resorts to water, +where it dies after depositing its eggs. Mosquitoes would thus be the +intermediate host of the filariae, and their introduction into the human +body would be through the medium of water (see PARASITIC DISEASES). + + + + +FILDES, SIR LUKE (1844- ), English painter, was born at Liverpool, and +trained in the South Kensington and Royal Academy schools. At first a +highly successful illustrator, he took rank later among the ablest +English painters, with "The Casual Ward" (1874), "The Widower" (1876), +"The Village Wedding" (1883), "An Al-fresco Toilette" (1889); and "The +Doctor" (1891), now in the National Gallery of British Art. He also +painted a number of pictures of Venetian life and many notable +portraits, among them the coronation portraits of King Edward VII. and +Queen Alexandra. He was elected an associate of the Royal Academy in +1879, and academician in 1887; and was knighted in 1906. + + See David Croal Thomson, _The Life and Work of Luke Fildes, R.A._ + (1895). + + + + +FILE. 1. A bar of steel having sharp teeth on its surface, and used for +abrading or smoothing hard surfaces. (The O. Eng. word is _feol_, and +cognate forms appear in Dutch _vijl_, Ger. _Feile_, &c.; the ultimate +source is usually taken to be an Indo-European root meaning to mark or +scratch, and seen in the Lat. _pingere_, to paint.) Some uncivilized +tribes polish their weapons with such things as rough stones, pieces of +shark skin or fishes' teeth. The operation of filing is recorded in 1 +Sam. xiii. 21; and, among other facts, the similarity of the name for +the filing instrument among various European peoples points to an early +practice of the art. A file differs from a _rasp_ (which is chiefly used +for working wood, horn and the like) in having its teeth cut with a +chisel whose straight edge extends across its surface, while the teeth +of the rasp are formed by solitary indentations of a pointed chisel. +According to the form of their teeth, files may be _single-cut_ or +_double-cut_; the former have only one set of parallel ridges (either +at right angles or at some other angle with the length); the latter (and +more common) have a second set cut at an angle with the first. The +double-cut file presents sharp angles to the filed surface, and is +better suited for hard metals. Files are classed according to the +fineness of their teeth (see TOOL), and their shapes present almost +endless varieties. Common forms are--the _flat_ file, of parallelogram +section, with uniform breadth and thickness, or tapering, or "bellied"; +the _four-square_ file, of square section, sometimes with one side +"safe," or left smooth; and the so-called _three-square_ file, having +its cross section an equilateral triangle, the _half-round_ file, a +segment of a circle, the _round_ or _rat-tail_ file, a circle, which are +generally tapered. The _float_ file is like the _flat_, but single-cut. +There are many others. Files vary in length from three-quarters of an +inch (watchmakers') to 2 or 3 ft. and upwards (engineers'). The length +is reckoned exclusively of the spike or tang which enters the handle. +Most files are tapered; the _blunt_ are nearly parallel, with larger +section near the middle; a few are parallel. The _rifflers_ of sculptors +and a few other files are curvilinear in their central line. + +In manufacturing files, steel blanks are forged from bars which have +been sheared or rolled as nearly as possible to the sections required, +and after being carefully annealed are straightened, if necessary, and +then rendered clean and accurate by grinding or filing. The process of +cutting them used to be largely performed by hand, but machines are now +widely employed. The hand-cutter, holding in his left hand a short +chisel (the edge of which is wider than the width of the file), places +it on the blank with an inclination from the perpendicular of 12 deg. or +14 deg., and beginning near the farther end (the blank is placed with +the tang or handle end towards him) strikes it sharply with a hammer. An +indentation is thus made, and the steel, slightly thrown up on the side +next the tang, forms a ridge. The chisel is then transferred to the +uncut surface and slid away from the operator till it encounters the +ridge just made; the position of the next cut being thus determined, the +chisel is again struck, and so on. The workman seeks to strike the blows +as uniformly as possible, and he will make 60 or 80 cuts a minute. If +the file is to be single-cut, it is now ready to be hardened, but if it +is to be double-cut he proceeds to make the second series or course of +cuts, which are generally somewhat finer than the first. Thus the +surface is covered with teeth inclined towards the point of the file. If +the file is flat and is to be cut on the other side, it is turned over, +and a thin plate of pewter placed below it to protect the teeth. +Triangular and other files are supported in grooves in lead. In cutting +round and half-round files, a straight chisel is applied as tangent to +the curve. The round face of a half-round file requires eight, ten or +more courses to complete it. Numerous attempts were made, even so far +back as the 18th century, to invent machinery for cutting files, but +little success was attained till the latter part of the 19th century. In +most of the machines the idea was to arrange a metal arm and hand to +hold the chisel with a hammer to strike the blow, and so to imitate the +manual process as closely as possible. The general principle on which +the successful forms are constructed is that the blanks, laid on a +moving table, are slowly traversed forward under a rapidly reciprocating +chisel or knife. + +The filing of a flat surface perfectly true is the test of a good filer; +and this is no easy matter to the beginner. The piece to be operated +upon is generally fixed about the level of the elbow, the operator +standing, and, except in the case of small files, grasping the file with +both hands, the handle with the right, the farther end with the left. +The great point is to be able to move the file forward with pressure in +horizontal straight lines; from the tendency of the hands to move in +arcs of circles, the heel and point of the file are apt to be +alternately raised. This is partially compensated by the bellied form +given to many files (which also counteracts the frequent warping effect +of the hardening process, by which one side of a flat file may be +rendered concave and useless). In bringing back the file for the next +thrust it is nearly lifted off the work. Further, much delicacy and +skill are required in adapting the pressure and velocity, ascertaining +if foreign matters or filings remain interposed between the file and +the work, &c. Files can be cleaned with a piece of the so-called +_cotton-card_ (used in combing cotton wool) nailed to a piece of wood. +In _draw-filing_, which is sometimes resorted to to give a neat finish, +the file is drawn sideways to and fro over the work. New files are +generally used for a time on brass or cast-iron, and when partially worn +they are still available for filing wrought iron and steel. + +2. A string or thread (through the Fr. _fil_ and _file_, from Lat. +_filum_, a thread); hence used of a device, originally a cord, wire or +spike on which letters, receipts, papers, &c., may be strung for +convenient reference. The term has been extended to embrace various +methods for the preservation of papers in a particular order, such as +expanding books, cabinets, and ingenious improvements on the simple wire +file which enable any single document to be readily found and withdrawn +without removing the whole series. From the devices used for filing the +word is transferred to the documents filed, and thus is used of a +catalogue, list, or collection of papers, &c. File is also employed to +denote a row of persons or objects arranged one behind the other. In +military usage a "file" is the opposite of a "rank," that is, it is +composed of a (variable) number of men aligned from front to rear one +behind the other, while a rank contains a number of men aligned from +right to left abreast. Thus a British infantry company, in line two +deep, one hundred strong, has two ranks of fifty men each, and fifty +"files" of two men each. Up to about 1600 infantry companies or +battalions were often sixteen deep, one front rank man and the fifteen +"coverers" forming a file. The number of ranks and, therefore, of men in +the file diminished first to ten (1600), then to six (1630), then to +three (1700), and finally to two (about 1808 in the British army, 1888 +in the German). Denser formations when employed have been formed, not by +altering the order of men within the unit, but by placing several units, +one closely behind the other ("doubling" and "trebling" the line of +battle, as it used to be called). In the 17th century a file formed a +small command under the "file leader," the whole of the front rank +consisting therefore of old soldiers or non-commissioned officers. This +use of the word to express a unit of command gave rise to the +old-fashioned term "file firing," to imply a species of fire (equivalent +to the modern "independent") in which each man in the file fired in +succession after the file leader, and to-day a corporal or sergeant is +still ordered to take one or more files under his charge for independent +work. In the above it is to be understood that the men are facing to the +front or rear. If they are turned to the right or left so that the +company now stands two men broad and fifty deep, it is spoken of as +being "in file." From this come such phrases as "single file" or "Indian +file" (one man leading and the rest following singly behind him).[1] The +use of verbs "to file" and "to defile," implying the passage from +fighting to marching formation, is to be derived from this rather than +from the resemblance of a marching column to a long flexible thread, for +in the days when the word was first used the infantry company whether in +battle or on the march was a solid rectangle of men, a file often +containing even more men than a rank. + + +FOOTNOTE: + + [1] This may also be understood as meaning simply "a single file," + but the explanation given above is more probable, as it is + essentially a marching and not a fighting formation that is expressed + by the phrase. + + + + +FILE-FISH, or TRIGGER-FISH, the names given to fishes of the genus +_Balistes_ (and _Monacanthus_) inhabiting all tropical and subtropical +seas. Their body is compressed and not covered with ordinary scales, but +with small juxtaposed scutes. Their other principal characteristics +consist in the structure of their first dorsal fin (which consists of +three spines) and in their peculiar dentition. The first of the three +dorsal spines is very strong, roughened in front like a file, and +hollowed out behind to receive the second much smaller spine, which, +besides, has a projection in front, at its base, fitting into a notch of +the first. Thus these two spines can only be raised or depressed +simultaneously, in such a manner that the first cannot be forced down +unless the second has been previously depressed. The latter has been +compared to a trigger, hence the name of Trigger-fish. Also the generic +name _Balistes_ and the Italian name of "Pesce balistra" refer to this +structure. Both jaws are armed with eight strong incisor-like and +sometimes pointed teeth, by which these fishes are enabled, not only to +break off pieces of madrepores and other corals on which they feed, but +also to chisel a hole into the hard shells of Mollusca, in order to +extract the soft parts. In this way they destroy an immense number of +molluscs, and become most injurious to the pearl-fisheries. The gradual +failure of those fisheries in Ceylon has been ascribed to this cause, +although evidently other agencies must have been at work at the same +time. The _Monacanthi_ are distinguished from the _Balistes_ in having +only one dorsal spine and a velvety covering of the skin. Some 30 +different species are known of _Balistes_ and about 50 of _Monacanthus_. +Two species (_B. maculatus_ and _capriscus_), common in the Atlantic, +sometimes wander to the British coasts. + +[Illustration: _Balistes vidua_] + + + + +FILELFO, FRANCESCO (1398-1481), Italian humanist, was born in 1398 at +Tolentino, in the March of Ancona. When he appeared upon the scene of +human life, Petrarch and the students of Florence had already brought +the first act in the recovery of classic culture to conclusion. They had +created an eager appetite for the antique, had disinterred many +important Roman authors, and had freed Latin scholarship to some extent +from the barbarism of the middle ages. Filelfo was destined to carry on +their work in the field of Latin literature, and to be an important +agent in the still unaccomplished recovery of Greek culture. His +earliest studies in grammar, rhetoric and the Latin language were +conducted at Padua, where he acquired so great a reputation for learning +that in 1417 he was invited to teach eloquence and moral philosophy at +Venice. According to the custom of that age in Italy, it now became his +duty to explain the language, and to illustrate the beauties of the +principal Latin authors, Cicero and Virgil being considered the chief +masters of moral science and of elegant diction. Filelfo made his mark +at once in Venice. He was admitted to the society of the first scholars +and the most eminent nobles of that city; and in 1419 he received an +appointment from the state, which enabled him to reside as secretary to +the consul-general (_baylo_) of the Venetians in Constantinople. This +appointment was not only honourable to Filelfo as a man of trust and +general ability, but it also gave him the opportunity of acquiring the +most coveted of all possessions at that moment for a scholar--a +knowledge of the Greek language. Immediately after his arrival in +Constantinople, Filelfo placed himself under the tuition of John +Chrysoloras, whose name was already well known in Italy as relative of +Manuel, the first Greek to profess the literature of his ancestors in +Florence. At the recommendation of Chrysoloras he was employed in +several diplomatic missions by the emperor John Palaeologus. Before very +long the friendship between Filelfo and his tutor was cemented by the +marriage of the former to Theodora, the daughter of John Chrysoloras. He +had now acquired a thorough knowledge of the Greek language, and had +formed a large collection of Greek manuscripts. There was no reason why +he should not return to his native country. Accordingly, in 1427 he +accepted an invitation from the republic of Venice, and set sail for +Italy, intending to resume his professorial career. From this time +forward until the date of his death, Filelfo's history consists of a +record of the various towns in which he lectured, the masters whom he +served, the books he wrote, the authors he illustrated, the friendships +he contracted, and the wars he waged with rival scholars. He was a man +of vast physical energy, of inexhaustible mental activity, of quick +passions and violent appetites; vain, restless, greedy of gold and +pleasure and fame; unable to stay quiet in one place, and perpetually +engaged in quarrels with his compeers. + +When Filelfo arrived at Venice with his family in 1427, he found that +the city had almost been emptied by the plague, and that his scholars +would be few. He therefore removed to Bologna; but here also he was met +with drawbacks. The city was too much disturbed with political +dissensions to attend to him; so Filelfo crossed the Apennines and +settled in Florence. At Florence began one of the most brilliant and +eventful periods of his life. During the week he lectured to large +audiences of young and old on the principal Greek and Latin authors, and +on Sundays he explained Dante to the people in the Duomo. In addition to +these labours of the chair, he found time to translate portions of +Aristotle, Plutarch, Xenophon and Lysias from the Greek. Nor was he dead +to the claims of society. At first he seems to have lived with the +Florentine scholars on tolerably good terms; but his temper was so +arrogant that Cosimo de' Medici's friends were not long able to put up +with him. Filelfo hereupon broke out into open and violent animosity; +and when Cosimo was exiled by the Albizzi party in 1433, he urged the +signoria of Florence to pronounce upon him the sentence of death. On the +return of Cosimo to Florence, Filelfo's position in that city was no +longer tenable. His life, he asserted, had been already once attempted +by a cut-throat in the pay of the Medici; and now he readily accepted an +invitation from the state of Siena. In Siena, however, he was not +destined to remain more than four years. His fame as a professor had +grown great in Italy, and he daily received tempting offers from princes +and republics. The most alluring of these, made him by the duke of +Milan, Filippo Maria Visconti, he decided on accepting; and in 1440 he +was received with honour by his new master in the capital of Lombardy. + +Filelfo's life at Milan curiously illustrates the multifarious +importance of the scholars of that age in Italy. It was his duty to +celebrate his princely patrons in panegyrics and epics, to abuse their +enemies in libels and invectives, to salute them with encomiastic odes +on their birthdays, and to compose poems on their favourite themes. For +their courtiers he wrote epithalamial and funeral orations; ambassadors +and visitors from foreign states he greeted with the rhetorical +lucubrations then so much in vogue. The students of the university he +taught in daily lectures, passing in review the weightiest and lightest +authors of antiquity, and pouring forth a flood of miscellaneous +erudition. Not satisfied with these outlets for his mental energy, +Filelfo went on translating from the Greek, and prosecuted a paper +warfare with his enemies in Florence. He wrote, moreover, political +pamphlets on the great events of Italian history; and when +Constantinople was taken by the Turks, he procured the liberation of his +wife's mother by a message addressed in his own name to the sultan. In +addition to a fixed stipend of some 700 golden florins yearly, he was +continually in receipt of special payments for the orations and poems he +produced; so that, had he been a man of frugal habits or of moderate +economy, he might have amassed a considerable fortune. As it was, he +spent his money as fast as he received it, living in a style of +splendour ill befitting a simple scholar, and indulging his taste for +pleasure in more than questionable amusements. In consequence of this +prodigality, he was always poor. His letters and his poems abound in +impudent demands for money from patrons, some of them couched in +language of the lowest adulation, and others savouring of literary +brigandage. + +During the second year of his Milanese residence Filelfo lost his first +wife, Theodora. He soon married again; and this time he chose for his +bride a young lady of good Lombard family, called Orsina Osnaga. When +she died he took in wedlock for the third time a woman of Lombard +birth, Laura Magiolini. To all his three wives, in spite of numerous +infidelities, he seems to have been warmly attached; and this is perhaps +the best trait in a character otherwise more remarkable for arrogance +and heat than for any amiable qualities. + +On the death of Filippo Maria Visconti, Filelfo, after a short +hesitation, transferred his allegiance to Francesco Sforza, the new duke +of Milan; and in order to curry favour with this parvenu, he began his +ponderous epic, the _Sforziad_, of which 12,800 lines were written, but +which was never published. When Francesco Sforza died, Filelfo turned +his thoughts towards Rome. He was now an old man of seventy-seven years, +honoured with the friendship of princes, recognized as the most +distinguished of Italian humanists, courted by pontiffs, and decorated +with the laurel wreath and the order of knighthood by kings. Crossing +the Apennines and passing through Florence, he reached Rome in the +second week of 1475. The terrible Sixtus IV. now ruled in the Vatican; +and from this pope Filelfo had received an invitation to occupy the +chair of rhetoric with good emoluments. At first he was vastly pleased +with the city and court of Rome; but his satisfaction ere long turned to +discontent, and he gave vent to his ill-humour in a venomous satire on +the pope's treasurer, Milliardo Cicala. Sixtus himself soon fell under +the ban of his displeasure; and when a year had passed he left Rome +never to return. Filelfo reached Milan to find that his wife had died of +the plague in his absence, and was already buried. His own death +followed speedily. For some time past he had been desirous of displaying +his abilities and adding to his fame in Florence. Years had healed the +breach between him and the Medicean family; and on the occasion of the +Pazzi conspiracy against the life of Lorenzo de' Medici, he had sent +violent letters of abuse to his papal patron Sixtus, denouncing his +participation in a plot so dangerous to the security of Italy. Lorenzo +now invited him to profess Greek at Florence, and thither Filelfo +journeyed in 1481. But two weeks after his arrival he succumbed to +dysentery, and was buried at the age of eighty-three in the church of +the Annunziata. + +Filelfo deserves commemoration among the greatest humanists of the +Italian Renaissance, not for the beauty of his style, not for the +elevation of his genius, not for the accuracy of his learning, but for +his energy, and for his complete adaptation to the times in which he +lived. His erudition was large but ill-digested; his knowledge of the +ancient authors, if extensive, was superficial; his style was vulgar; he +had no brilliancy of imagination, no pungency of epigram, no grandeur of +rhetoric. Therefore he has left nothing to posterity which the world +would not very willingly let die. But in his own days he did excellent +service to learning by his untiring activity, and by the facility with +which he used his stores of knowledge. It was an age of accumulation and +preparation, when the world was still amassing and cataloguing the +fragments rescued from the wrecks of Greece and Rome. Men had to receive +the very rudiments of culture before they could appreciate its niceties. +And in this work of collection and instruction Filelfo excelled, passing +rapidly from place to place, stirring up the zeal for learning by the +passion of his own enthusiastic temperament, and acting as a pioneer for +men like Poliziano and Erasmus. + +All that is worth knowing about Filelfo is contained in Carlo de' +Rosmini's admirable _Vita di Filelfo_ (Milan, 1808); see also W. +Roscoe's _Life of Lorenzo de' Medici_, Vespasiano's _Vite di uomini +illustri_, and J.A. Symonds's _Renaissance in Italy_ (1877). (J. A. S.) + + A complete edition of Filelfo's Greek letters (based on the Codex + Trevulzianus) was published for the first time, with French + translation, notes and commentaries, by E. Legrand in 1892 at Paris + (C. xii. of _Publications de l'ecole des lang. orient._). For further + references, especially to monographs, &c., on Filelfo's life and work, + see Ulysse Chevalier, _Repertoire des sources hist., + bio-bibliographie_ (Paris, 1905), s.v. _Philelphe, Francois_. + + + + +FILEY, a seaside resort in the Buckrose parliamentary division of the +East Riding of Yorkshire, England, 9-1/2 m. S.E. of Scarborough by a +branch of the North Eastern railway. Pop. of urban district (1901) 3003. +It stands upon the slope and summit of the cliffs above Filey Bay, which +is fringed by a fine sandy beach. The northern horn of the bay is +formed by Filey Brigg, a narrow and abrupt promontory, continued seaward +by dangerous reefs. The coast-line sweeps hence south-eastward to the +finer promontory of Flamborough Head, beyond which is the watering-place +of Bridlington. The church of St Oswald at Filey is a fine cruciform +building with central tower, Transitional Norman and Early English in +date. There are pleasant promenades and good golf links, also a small +spa which has fallen into disuse. Filey is in favour with visitors who +desire a quiet resort without the accompaniment of entertainment common +to the larger watering-places. Roman remains have been discovered on the +cliff north of the town; the site was probably important, but nothing is +certainly known about it. + + + + +FILIBUSTER, a name originally given to the buccaneers (q.v.). The term +is derived most probably from the Dutch _vry buiter_, Ger. _Freibeuter_, +Eng. _freebooter_, the word changing first into _fribustier_, and then +into Fr. _flibustier_, Span. _filibustero_. _Flibustier_ has passed into +the French language, and _filibustero_ into the Spanish language, as a +general name for a pirate. The term "filibuster" was revived in America +to designate those adventurers who, after the termination of the war +between Mexico and the United States, organized expeditions within the +United States to take part in West Indian and Central American +revolutions. From this has sprung the modern use of the word to imply +one who engages in private, unauthorized and irregular warfare against +any state. In the United States it is colloquially applied to +legislators who practise obstruction. + + + + +FILICAJA, VINCENZO DA (1642-1707), Italian poet, sprung from an ancient +and noble family of Florence, was born in that city on the 30th of +December 1642. From an incidental notice in one of his letters, stating +the amount of house rent paid during his childhood, his parents must +have been in easy circumstances, and the supposition is confirmed by the +fact that he enjoyed all the advantages of a liberal education, first +under the Jesuits of Florence, and then in the university of Pisa. + +At Pisa his mind became stored, not only with the results of patient +study in various branches of letters, but with the great historical +associations linked with the former glory of the Pisan republic, and +with one remarkable institution of which Pisa was the seat. To the +tourist who now visits Pisa the banners and emblems of the order of St +Stephen are mere matter of curiosity, but they had a serious +significance two hundred years ago to the young Tuscan, who knew that +these naval crusaders formed the main defence of his country and +commerce against the Turkish, Algerine and Tunisian corsairs. After a +five years' residence in Pisa he returned to Florence, where he married +Anna, daughter of the senator and marquis Scipione Capponi, and withdrew +to a small villa at Figline, not far from the city. Abjuring the thought +of writing amatory poetry in consequence of the premature death of a +young lady to whom he had been attached, he occupied himself chiefly +with literary pursuits, above all the composition of Italian and Latin +poetry. His own literary eminence, the opportunities enjoyed by him as a +member of the celebrated Academy Della Crusca for making known his +critical taste and classical knowledge, and the social relations within +the reach of a noble Florentine so closely allied with the great house +of Capponi, sufficiently explain the intimate terms on which he stood +with such eminent men of letters as Magalotti, Menzini, Gori and Redi. +The last-named, the author of _Bacchus in Tuscany_, was not only one of +the most brilliant poets of his time, and a safe literary adviser; he +was the court physician, and his court influence was employed with zeal +and effect in his friend's favour. Filicaja's rural seclusion was owing +even more to his straitened means than to his rural tastes. If he ceased +at length to pine in obscurity, the change was owing not merely to the +fact that his poetical genius, fired by the deliverance of Vienna from +the Turks in 1683, poured forth the right strains at the right time, but +also to the influence of Redi, who not only laid Filicaja's verses +before his own sovereign, but had them transmitted with the least +possible delay to the foreign princes whose noble deeds they sung. The +first recompense came, however, not from those princes, but from +Christina, the ex-queen of Sweden, who, from her circle of savants and +courtiers at Rome, spontaneously and generously announced to Filicaja +her wish to bear the expense of educating his two sons, enhancing her +kindness by the delicate request that it should remain a secret. + +The tide of Filicaja's fortunes now turned. The grand-duke of Tuscany, +Cosmo III., conferred on him an important office, the commissionership +of official balloting. He was named governor of Volterra in 1696, where +he strenuously exerted himself to raise the tone of public morality. +Both there and at Pisa, where he was subsequently governor in 1700, his +popularity was so great that on his removal the inhabitants of both +cities petitioned for his recall. He passed the close of his life at +Florence; the grand-duke raised him to the rank of senator, and he died +in that city on the 24th of September 1707. He was buried in the family +vault in the church of St Peter, and a monument was erected to his +memory by his sole surviving son Scipione Filicaja. In the six +celebrated odes inspired by the great victory of Sobieski, Filicaja took +a lyrical flight which has placed him at moments on a level with the +greatest Italian poets. They are, however, unequal, like all his poetry, +reflecting in some passages the native vigour of his genius and purest +inspirations of his tastes, whilst in others they are deformed by the +affectations of the _Seicentisti_. When thoroughly natural and +spontaneous--as in the two sonnets "Italia, Italia, o tu cui feo la +sorte" and "Dov' e, Italia, il tuo braccio? e a che ti serve;" in the +verses "Alla beata Vergine," "Al divino amore;" in the sonnet "Sulla +fede nelle disgrazie"--the truth and beauty of thought and language +recall the verse of Petrarch. + + Besides the poems published in the complete Venice edition of 1762, + several other pieces appeared for the first time in the small Florence + edition brought out by Barbera in 1864. + + + + +FILIGREE (formerly written _filigrain_ or _filigrane_; the Ital. +_filigrana_, Fr. _filigrane_, Span, _filigrana_, Ger. _Drahtgeflecht_), +jewel work of a delicate kind made with twisted threads usually of gold +and silver. The word, which is usually derived from the Lat. _filum_, +thread, and _granum_, grain, is not found in Ducange, and is indeed of +modern origin. According to Prof. Skeat it is derived from the Span. +_filigrana_, from "_filar_, to spin, and _grano_, the grain or principal +fibre of the material." Though filigree has become a special branch of +jewel work in modern times it was anciently part of the ordinary work of +the jeweller. Signor A. Castellani states, in his _Memoir on the +Jewellery of the Ancients_ (1861), that all the jewelry of the Etruscans +and Greeks (other than that intended for the grave, and therefore of an +unsubstantial character) was made by soldering together and so building +up the gold rather than by chiselling or engraving the material. + +The art may be said to consist in curling, twisting and plaiting fine +pliable threads of metal, and uniting them at their points of contact +with each other, and with the ground, by means of gold or silver solder +and borax, by the help of the blowpipe. Small grains or beads of the +same metals are often set in the eyes of volutes, on the junctions, or +at intervals at which they will set off the wire-work effectively. The +more delicate work is generally protected by framework of stouter wire. +Brooches, crosses, earrings and other personal ornaments of modern +filigree are generally surrounded and subdivided by bands of square or +flat metal, giving consistency to the filling up, which would not +otherwise keep its proper shape. Some writers of repute have laid equal +stress on the _filum_ and the _granum_, and have extended the use of the +term filigree to include the granulated work of the ancients, even where +the twisted wire-work is entirely wanting. Such a wide application of +the term is not approved by current usage, according to which the +presence of the twisted threads is the predominant fact. + +The Egyptian jewellers employed wire, both to lay down on a background +and to plait or otherwise arrange _a jour_. But, with the exception of +chains, it cannot be said that filigree work was much practised by them. +Their strength lay rather in their cloisonne work and their moulded +ornaments. Many examples, however, remain of round plaited gold chains +of fine wire, such as are still made by the filigree workers of India, +and known as Trichinopoly chains. From some of these are hung smaller +chains of finer wire with minute fishes and other pendants fastened to +them. In ornaments derived from Phoenician sites, such as Cyprus and +Sardinia, patterns of gold wire are laid down with great delicacy on a +gold ground, but the art was advanced to its highest perfection in the +Greek and Etruscan filigree of the 6th to the 3rd centuries B.C. A +number of earrings and other personal ornaments found in central Italy +are preserved in the Louvre and in the British Museum. Almost all of +them are made of filigree work. Some earrings are in the form of flowers +of geometric design, bordered by one or more rims each made up of minute +volutes of gold wire, and this kind of ornament is varied by slight +differences in the way of disposing the number or arrangement of the +volutes. But the feathers and petals of modern Italian filigree are not +seen in these ancient designs. Instances occur, but only rarely, in +which filigree devices in wire are self-supporting and not applied to +metal plates. The museum of the Hermitage at St Petersburg contains an +amazingly rich collection of jewelry from the tombs of the Crimea. Many +bracelets and necklaces in that collection are made of twisted wire, +some in as many as seven rows of plaiting, with clasps in the shape of +heads of animals of beaten work. Others are strings of large beads of +gold, decorated with volutes, knots and other patterns of wire soldered +over the surfaces. (See the _Antiquites du Bosphore Cimmerien_, by +Gille, 1854; reissued by S. Reinach, 1892, in which will be found +careful engravings of these objects.) In the British Museum a sceptre, +probably that of a Greek priestess, is covered with plaited and netted +gold wire, finished with a sort of Corinthian capital and a boss of +green glass. + +It is probable that in India and various parts of central Asia filigree +has been worked from the most remote period without any change in the +designs. Whether the Asiatic jewellers were influenced by the Greeks +settled on that continent, or merely trained under traditions held in +common with them, it is certain that the Indian filigree workers retain +the same patterns as those of the ancient Greeks, and work them in the +same way, down to the present day. Wandering workmen are given so much +gold, coined or rough, which is weighed, heated in a pan of charcoal, +beaten into wire, and then worked in the courtyard or verandah of the +employer's house according to the designs of the artist, who weighs the +complete work on restoring it and is paid at a specified rate for his +labour. Very fine grains or beads and spines of gold, scarcely thicker +than coarse hair, projecting from plates of gold are methods of +ornamentation still used. + +Passing to later times we may notice in many collections of medieval +jewel work (such as that in the South Kensington Museum) reliquaries, +covers for the gospels, &c., made either in Constantinople from the 6th +to the 12th centuries, or in monasteries in Europe, in which Byzantine +goldsmiths' work was studied and imitated. These objects, besides being +enriched with precious stones, polished, but not cut into facets, and +with enamel, are often decorated with filigree. Large surfaces of gold +are sometimes covered with scrolls of filigree soldered on; and corner +pieces of the borders of book covers, or the panels of reliquaries, are +not unfrequently made up of complicated pieces of plaited work +alternating with spaces encrusted with enamel. Byzantine filigree work +occasionally has small stones set amongst the curves or knots. Examples +of such decoration can be seen in the South Kensington and British +Museums. + +In the north of Europe the Saxons, Britons and Celts were from an early +period skilful in several kinds of goldsmiths' work. Admirable examples +of filigree patterns laid down in wire on gold, from Anglo-Saxon tombs, +may be seen in the British Museum--notably a brooch from Dover, and a +sword-hilt from Cumberland. + +The Irish filigree work is more thoughtful in design and more varied in +pattern than that of any period or country that could be named. Its +highest perfection must be placed in the 10th and 11th centuries. The +Royal Irish Academy in Dublin contains a number of reliquaries and +personal jewels, of which filigree is the general and most remarkable +ornament. The "Tara" brooch has been copied and imitated, and the shape +and decoration of it are well known. Instead of fine curls or volutes +of gold thread, the Irish filigree is varied by numerous designs in +which one thread can be traced through curious knots and complications, +which, disposed over large surfaces, balance one another, but always +with special varieties and arrangements difficult to trace with the eye. +The long thread appears and disappears without breach of continuity, the +two ends generally worked into the head and the tail of a serpent or a +monster. The reliquary containing the "Bell of St Patrick" is covered +with knotted work in many varieties. A two-handled chalice, called the +"Ardagh cup," found near Limerick in 1868, is ornamented with work of +this kind of extraordinary fineness. Twelve plaques on a band round the +body of the vase, plaques on each handle and round the foot of the vase +have a series of different designs of characteristic patterns, in fine +filigree wire work wrought on the front of the repousse ground. (See a +paper by the 3rd earl of Dunraven in _Transactions of Royal Irish +Academy_, xxiv. pt. iii. 1873.) + +Much of the medieval jewel work all over Europe down to the 15th +century, on reliquaries, crosses, croziers and other ecclesiastical +goldsmiths' work, is set off with bosses and borders of filigree. +Filigree work in silver was practised by the Moors of Spain during the +middle ages with great skill, and was introduced by them and established +all over the Peninsula, whence it was carried to the Spanish colonies in +America. The Spanish filigree work of the 17th and 18th centuries is of +extraordinary complexity (examples in the Victoria and Albert Museum), +and silver filigree jewelry of delicate and artistic design is still +made in considerable quantities throughout the country. The manufacture +spread over the Balearic Islands, and among the populations that border +the Mediterranean. It is still made all over Italy, and in Malta, +Albania, the Ionian Islands and many other parts of Greece. That of the +Greeks is sometimes on a large scale, with several thicknesses of wires +alternating with larger and smaller bosses and beads, sometimes set with +turquoises, &c., and mounted on convex plates, making rich ornamental +headpieces, belts and breast ornaments. Filigree silver buttons of +wire-work and small bosses are worn by the peasants in most of the +countries that produce this kind of jewelry. Silver filigree brooches +and buttons are also made in Denmark, Norway and Sweden. Little chains +and pendants are added to much of this northern work. + +Some very curious filigree work was brought from Abyssinia after the +capture of Magdala--arm-guards, slippers, cups, &c., some of which are +now in the South Kensington Museum. They are made of thin plates of +silver, over which the wire-work is soldered. The filigree is subdivided +by narrow borders of simple pattern, and the intervening spaces are made +up of many patterns, some with grains set at intervals. + +A few words must be added as to the granulated work which, as stated +above, some writers have classed under the term of filigree, although +the twisted wires may be altogether wanting. Such decoration consists of +minute globules of gold, soldered to form patterns on a metal surface. +Its use is rare in Egypt. (See J. de Morgan, _Fouilles a Dahchour_, +1894-1895, pl. xii.) It occurs in Cyprus at an early period, as for +instance on a gold pendant in the British Museum from Enkomi in Cyprus +(10th century B.C.). The pendant is in the form of a pomegranate, and +has upon it a pattern of triangles, formed by more than 3000 minute +globules separately soldered on. It also occurs on ornaments of the 7th +century B.C. from Camirus in Rhodes. But these globules are large, +compared with those which are found on Etruscan jewelry. Signor +Castellani, who had made the antique jewelry of the Etruscans and Greeks +his special study, with the intention of reproducing the ancient models, +found it for a long time impossible to revive this particular process of +delicate soldering. He overcame the difficulty at last, by the discovery +of a traditional school of craftsmen at St Angelo in Vado, by whose help +his well-known reproductions were executed. + + For examples of antique work the student should examine the gold + ornament rooms of the British Museum, the Louvre and the collection + in the Victoria and Albert Museum. The last contains a large and very + varied assortment of modern Italian, Spanish, Greek and other jewelry + made for the peasants of various countries. It also possesses + interesting examples of the modern work in granulated gold by + Castellani and Giuliano. The Celtic work is well represented in the + Royal Irish Academy in Dublin. + + + + +FILLAN, SAINT, or FAELAN, the name of the two Scottish saints, of Irish +origin, whose lives are of a purely legendary character. The St Fillan +whose feast is kept on the 20th of June had churches dedicated to his +honour at Ballyheyland, Queen's county, Ireland, and at Loch Earn, +Perthshire. The other, who is commemorated on the 9th of January, was +specially venerated at Cluain Mavscua, Co. Westmeath, Ireland, and so +early as the 8th or 9th century at Strathfillan, Perthshire, Scotland, +where there was an ancient monastery dedicated to him, which, like most +of the religious houses of early times, was afterwards secularized. The +lay-abbot, who was its superior in the reign of William the Lion, held +high rank in the Scottish kingdom. This monastery was restored in the +reign of Robert Bruce, and became a cell of the abbey of canons regular +at Inchaffray. The new foundation received a grant from King Robert, in +gratitude for the aid which he was supposed to have obtained from a +relic of the saint on the eve of the great victory of Bannockburn. +Another relic was the saint's staff or crozier, which became known as +the coygerach or quigrich, and was long in the possession of a family of +the name of Jore or Dewar, who were its hereditary guardians. They +certainly had it in their custody in the year 1428, and their right was +formally recognized by King James III. in 1487. The head of the crozier, +which is of silver-gilt with a smaller crozier of bronze inclosed within +it, is now deposited in the National Museum of the Society of +Antiquaries of Scotland. + + The legend of the second of these saints is given in the Bollandist + _Acta SS._ (1643), 9th of January, i. 594-595; A.P. Forbes, _Kalendars + of Scottish Saints_ (Edinburgh, 1872), pp. 341-346; D. O'Hanlon's + _Lives of Irish Saints_ (Dublin), n.d. pp. 134-144. See also + _Historical Notices of St Fillan's Crozier_, by Dr John Stuart + (Aberdeen, 1877). + + + + +FILLET (through Fr. _filet_, from the med. Lat. _filettum_, diminutive +of _filum_, a thread), a band or ribbon used for tying the hair, the +Lat. _vitta_, which was used as a sacrificial emblem, and also worn by +vestal virgins, brides and poets. The word is thus applied to anything +in the shape of a band or strip, as, in coining, to the metal ribbon +from which the blanks are punched. In architecture, a "fillet" is a +narrow flat band, sometimes called a "listel," which is used to separate +mouldings one from the other, or to terminate a suite of mouldings as at +the top of a cornice. In the fluted column of the Ionic and Corinthian +Orders the fillet is employed between the flutes. It is a very important +feature in Gothic work, being frequently worked on large mouldings; when +placed on the front and sides of the moulding of a rib it has been +termed the "keel and wings" of the rib. + +In cooking, "fillet" is used of the "undercut" of a sirloin of beef, or +of a thick slice of fish or meat; more particularly of a boned and +rolled piece of veal or other meat, tied by a "fillet" or string. + + + + +FILLMORE, MILLARD (1800-1874), thirteenth president of the United States +of America, came of a family of English stock, which had early settled +in New England. His father, Nathaniel, in 1795, made a clearing within +the limits of what is now the town of Summerhill, Cayuga county, New +York, and there Millard Fillmore was born, on the 7th of January 1800. +Until he was fifteen he could have acquired only the simplest rudiments +of education, and those chiefly from his parents. At that age he was +apprenticed to a fuller and clothier, to card wool, and to dye and dress +the cloth. Two years before the close of his term, with a promissory +note for thirty dollars, he bought the remainder of his time from his +master, and at the age of nineteen began to study law. In 1820 he made +his way to Buffalo, then only a village, and supported himself by +teaching school and aiding the postmaster while continuing his studies. + +In 1823 he was admitted to the bar, and began practice at Aurora, New +York, to which place his father had removed. Hard study, temperance and +integrity gave him a good reputation and moderate success, and in 1827 +he was made an attorney and, in 1829, counsellor of the supreme court +of the state. Returning to Buffalo in 1830 he formed, in 1832, a +partnership with Nathan K. Hall (1810-1874), later a member of Congress +and postmaster-general in his cabinet. Solomon G. Haven (1810-1861), +member of Congress from 1851 to 1857, joined them in 1836. The firm met +with great success. From 1829 to 1832 Fillmore served in the state +assembly, and, in the single term of 1833-1835, the national House of +Representatives, coming in as anti-Jackson, or in opposition to the +administration. From 1837 to 1843, when he declined further service, he +again represented his district in the House, this time as a member of +the Whig party. In Congress he opposed the annexation of Texas as slave +territory, was an advocate of internal improvements and a protective +tariff, supported J.Q. Adams in maintaining the right of offering +anti-slavery petitions, advocated the prohibition by Congress of the +slave trade between the states, and favoured the exclusion of slavery +from the District of Columbia. His speech and tone, however, were +moderate on these exciting subjects, and he claimed the right to stand +free of pledges, and to adjust his opinions and his course by the +development of circumstances. The Whigs having the ascendancy in the +Twenty-Seventh Congress, he was made chairman of the House Committee of +Ways and Means. Against a strong opposition he carried an appropriation +of $30,000 to Morse's telegraph, and reported from his committee the +Tariff Bill of 1842. In 1844 he was the Whig candidate for the +governorship of New York, but was defeated. In November 1847 he was +elected comptroller of the state of New York, and in 1848 he was elected +vice-president of the United States on the ticket with Zachary Taylor as +president. Fillmore presided over the senate during the exciting debates +on the "Compromise Measures of 1850." + +President Taylor died on the 9th of July 1850, and on the next day +Fillmore took the oath of office as his successor. The cabinet which he +called around him contained Daniel Webster, Thomas Corwin and John J. +Crittenden. On the death of Webster in 1852, Edward Everett became +secretary of state. Unlike Taylor, Fillmore favoured the "Compromise +Measures," and his signing one of them, the Fugitive Slave Law, in spite +of the vigorous protests of anti-slavery men, lost him much of his +popularity in the North. Few of his opponents, however, questioned his +own full persuasion that the Compromise Measures were vitally necessary +to pacify the nation. In 1851 he interposed promptly but ineffectively +in thwarting the projects of the "filibusters," under Narciso Lopez for +the invasion of Cuba. Commodore Matthew Calbraith Perry's expedition, +which opened up diplomatic relations with Japan, and the exploration of +the valley of the Amazon by Lieutenants William L. Herndon (1813-1857) +and Lardner Gibbon also occurred during his term. In the autumn of 1852 +he was an unsuccessful candidate for nomination for the presidency by +the Whig National Convention, and he went out of office on the 4th of +March 1853. In February 1856, while he was travelling abroad, he was +nominated for the presidency by the American or Know Nothing party, and +later this nomination was also accepted by the Whigs; but in the ensuing +presidential election, the last in which the Know Nothings and the Whigs +as such took any part, he received the electoral votes of only one +state, Maryland. Thereafter he took no public share in political +affairs. Fillmore was twice married: in 1826 to Abigail Powers (who died +in 1853, leaving him with a son and daughter), and in 1858 to Mrs. +Caroline C. Mclntosh. He died at Buffalo on the 8th of March 1874. + + In 1907 the Buffalo Historical Society, of which Fillmore was one of + the founders and the first president, published the _Millard Fillmore + Papers_ (2 vols., vol. x. and xi. of the Society's publications; + edited by F.H. Severance), containing miscellaneous writings and + speeches, and official and private correspondence. Most of his + correspondence, however, was destroyed in pursuance of a direction in + his son's will. + + + + +FILMER, SIR RORERT (d. 1653), English political writer, was the son of +Sir Edward Filmer of East Sutton in Kent. He studied at Trinity College, +Cambridge, where he matriculated in 1604. Knighted by Charles I. at the +beginning of his reign, he was an ardent supporter of the king's cause, +and his house is said to have been plundered by the parliamentarians ten +times. He died on the 26th of May 1653. + +Filmer was already a middle-aged man when the great controversy between +the king and the Commons roused him into literary activity. His writings +afford an exceedingly curious example of the doctrines held by the most +extreme section of the Divine Right party. Filmer's theory is founded +upon the statement that the government of a family by the father is the +true original and model of all government. In the beginning of the world +God gave authority to Adam, who had complete control over his +descendants, even as to life and death. From Adam this authority was +inherited by Noah; and Filmer quotes as not unlikely the tradition that +Noah sailed up the Mediterranean and allotted the three continents of +the Old World to the rule of his three sons. From Shem, Ham and Japheth +the patriarchs inherited the absolute power which they exercised over +their families and servants; and from the patriarchs all kings and +governors (whether a single monarch or a governing assembly) derive +their authority, which is therefore absolute, and founded upon divine +right. The difficulty that a man "by the secret will of God may +unjustly" attain to power which he has not inherited appeared to Filmer +in no way to alter the nature of the power so obtained, for "there is, +and always shall be continued to the end of the world, a natural right +of a supreme father over every multitude." The king is perfectly free +from all human control. He cannot be bound by the acts of his +predecessors, for which he is not responsible; nor by his own, for +"impossible it is in nature that a man should give a law unto +himself"--a law must be imposed by another than the person bound by it. +With regard to the English constitution, he asserted, in his +_Freeholder's Grand Inquest touching our Sovereign Lord the King and his +Parliament_ (1648), that the Lords only give counsel to the king, the +Commons only "perform and consent to the ordinances of parliament," and +the king alone is the maker of laws, which proceed purely from his will. +It is monstrous that the people should judge or depose their king, for +they would then be judges in their own cause. + +The most complete expression of Filmer's opinions is given in the +_Patriarcha_, which was published in 1680, many years after his death. +His position, however, was sufficiently indicated by the works which he +published during his lifetime: the _Anarchy of a Limited and Mixed +Monarchy_ (1648), an attack upon a treatise on monarchy by Philip Hunton +(1604?-1682), who maintained that the king's prerogative is not superior +to the authority of the houses of parliament; the pamphlet entitled _The +Power of Kings, and in particular of the King of England_ (1648), first +published in 1680; and his _Observations upon Mr Hobbes's Leviathan, Mr +Milton against Salmasius, and H. Grotius De jure belli et pacis, +concerning the Originall of Government_ (1652). Filmer's theory, owing +to the circumstances of the time, obtained a recognition which it is now +difficult to understand. Nine years after the publication of the +_Patriarcha_, at the time of the Revolution which banished the Stuarts +from the throne, Locke singled out Filmer as the most remarkable of the +advocates of Divine Right, and thought it worth while to attack him +expressly in the first part of the _Treatise on Government_, going into +all his arguments _seriatim_, and especially pointing out that even if +the first steps of his argument be granted, the rights of the eldest +born have been so often set aside that modern kings can claim no such +inheritance of authority as he asserted. + + + + +FILMY FERNS, a general name for a group of ferns with delicate +much-divided leaves and often moss-like growth, belonging to the genera +_Hymenophyllum_, _Todea_ and _Trichomanes_. They require to be kept in +close cases in a cool fernery, and the stones and moss amongst which +they are grown must be kept continually moist so that the evaporated +water condenses on the very numerous divisions of the leaves. + + + + +FILON, PIERRE MARIE AUGUSTIN (1841- ), French man of letters, son of +the historian Charles Auguste Desire Filon (1800-1875), was born in +Paris in 1841. His father became professor of history at Douai, and +eventually "_inspecteur d'academie_" in Paris; his principal works were +_Histoire comparee de France et de l'Angleterre_ (1832), _Histoire de +l'Europe au XVI^e siecle_ (1838), _La Diplomatie francaise sous Louis +XV_ (1843), _Histoire de l'Italie meridionale_ (1849), _Histoire du +senat romain_ (1850), _Histoire de la democratie athenienne_ (1854). +Educated at the Ecole normale, Augustin Filon was appointed tutor to the +prince imperial and accompanied him to England, where he remained for +some years. He is the author of _Guy Patin, sa vie, sa correspondance_ +(1862); _Nos grands-peres_ (1887); _Prosper Merimee_ (1894); _Sous la +tyrannie_ (1900). On English subjects he has written chiefly under the +pseudonym of Pierre Sandrie, _Les Mariages de Londres_ (1875); _Histoire +de la litterature anglaise_ (1883); _Le Theatre anglais_ (1896), and _La +Caricature en Angleterre_ (1902). + + + + +FILOSA (A. Lang), one of the two divisions of Rhizopoda, characterized +by protoplasm granular at the surface, and fine pseudopodia branching +and usually acutely pointed at the tips. + + + + +FILTER (a word common in various forms to most European languages, +adapted from the medieval Lat. _filtrum_, felt, a material used as a +filtering agent), an arrangement for separating solid matter from +liquids. In some cases the operation of filtration is performed for the +sake of removing impurities from the filtrate or liquid filtered, as in +the purification of water for drinking purposes; in others the aim is to +recover and collect the solid matter, as when the chemist filters off a +precipitate from the liquid in which it is suspended. + +In regard to the purification of water, filtration was long looked upon +as merely a mechanical process of straining out the solid particles, +whereby a turbid water could be rendered clear. In the course of time it +was noticed that certain materials, such as charcoal, had the power to +some extent also of softening hard water and of removing organic matter, +and at the beginning of the 19th century charcoal, both animal and +vegetable, came into use for filtering purposes. Porous carbon blocks, +made by strongly heating a mixture of powdered charcoal with oil, resin, +&c., were introduced about a generation later, and subsequently various +preparations of iron (spongy iron, magnetic oxide) found favour. +Innumerable forms of filters made with these and other materials were +put on the market, and were extolled as removing impurities of every +kind from water, and as affording complete protection against the +communication of disease. But whatever merits they had as clarifiers of +turbid water, the advent of bacteriology, and the recognition of the +fact that the bacteria of certain diseases may be water-borne, +introduced a new criterion of effectiveness, and it was perceived that +the removal of solid particles, or even of organic impurities (which +were realized to be important not so much because they are dangerous to +health _per se_ as because their presence affords grounds for suspecting +that the water in which they occur has been exposed to circumstances +permitting contamination with infective disease), was not sufficient; +the filter must also prevent the passage of pathogenic organisms, and so +render the water sterile bacteriologically. Examined from this point of +view the majority of domestic filters were found to be gravely +defective, and even to be worse than useless, since unless they were +frequently and thoroughly cleansed, they were liable to become +favourable breeding-places for microbes. The first filter which was more +or less completely impermeable to bacteria was the Pasteur-Chamberland, +which was devised in Pasteur's laboratory, and is made of dense biscuit +porcelain. The filtering medium in this, as in other filters of the same +kind, takes the form of a hollow cylinder or "candle," through the walls +of which the water has to pass from the outside to the inside, the +candles often being arranged so that they may be directly attached to a +tap, whereby the rate of flow, which is apt to be slow, is accelerated +by the pressure of the main. But even filters of this type, if they are +to be fully relied upon, must be frequently cleaned and sterilized, and +great care must be taken that the joints and connexions are watertight, +and that the candles are without cracks or flaws. In cases where the +water supply is known to be infected, or even where it is merely +doubtful, it is wise to have recourse to sterilization by boiling, +rather than trust to any filter. Various machines have been constructed +to perform this operation, some of them specially designed for the use +of troops in the field; those in which economy of fuel is studied have +an exchange-heater, by means of which the incoming cold water receives +heat from the outgoing hot water, which thus arrives at the point of +outflow at a temperature nearly as low as that of the supply. Chemical +methods of sterilization have also been suggested, depending on the use +of iodine, chlorine, bromine, ozone, potassium permanganate, copper +sulphate or chloride and other substances. For the sand-filtration of +water on a large scale, in which the presence of a surface film +containing zooglaea of bacteria is an essential feature, see WATER +SUPPLY. + +Filtration in the chemical laboratory is commonly effected by the aid of +a special kind of unsized paper, which in the more expensive varieties +is practically pure cellulose, impurities like ferric oxide, alumina, +lime, magnesia and silica having been removed by treatment with +hydrochloric and hydrofluoric acids. A circular piece of this paper is +folded twice upon itself so as to form a quadrant, one of the folds is +pulled out, and the cone thus obtained is supported in a glass or +porcelain funnel having an apical angle of 60 deg. The liquid to be +filtered is poured into the cone, preferably down a glass rod upon the +sides of the funnel to prevent splashing and to preserve the apex of the +filter-paper, and passes through the paper, upon which the solid matter +is retained. In the case of liquids containing strong acids or alkalis, +which the paper cannot withstand, a plug of carefully purified asbestos +or glass-wool (spun glass) is often employed, contained in a bulb blown +as an enlargement on a narrow "filter-tube." To accelerate the rate of +filtration various devices are resorted to, such as lengthening the tube +below the filtering material, increasing the pressure on the liquid +being filtered, or decreasing it in the receiver of the filtrate. R.W. +Bunsen may be regarded as the originator of the second method, and it +was he who devised the small cone of platinum foil, sometimes replaced +by a cone of parchment perforated with pinholes, arranged at the apex of +the funnel to serve as a support for the paper, which is apt to burst +under the pressure differences. In the so-called "Buchner funnel," the +filtering vessel is cylindrical, and the paper receives support by being +laid upon its flat perforated bottom. In filtering into a vacuum the +flask receiving the filtrate should be connected to the exhaust through +a second flask. The suction may be derived from any form of air-pump; a +form often employed where water at fair pressure is available is the +jet-pump, which in consequence is known as a filter-pump. Another method +of filtering into a vacuum is to immerse a porous jar ("Pukall cell") in +the liquid to be filtered, and attach a suction-pipe to its interior. A +filtering arrangement devised by F.C. Gooch, which has come into common +use in quantitative analysis where the solid matter has to be submitted +to heating or ignition, consists of a crucible having a perforated +bottom. By means of a piece of stretched rubber tubing, this crucible is +supported in the mouth of an ordinary funnel which is connected with an +exhausting apparatus; and water holding in suspension fine scrapings of +asbestos, purified by boiling with strong hydrochloric acid and washing +with water, is run through it, so that the perforated bottom is covered +with a layer of felted asbestos. The crucible is then removed from the +rubber support, weighed and replaced; the liquid is filtered through in +the ordinary way; and the crucible with its contents is again removed, +dried, ignited and weighed. A perforated cone, similarly coated with +asbestos and fitted into a conical funnel, is sometimes employed. + +In many processes of chemical technology filtration plays an important +part. A crude method consists of straining the liquid through cotton or +other cloth, either stretched on wooden frames or formed into long +narrow bags ("bag-filters"). Occasionally filtration into a vacuum is +practised, but more often, as in filter-presses, the liquid is forced +under pressure, either hydrostatic or obtained from a force-pump or +compressed air, into a series of chambers partitioned off by cloth, +which arrests the solids, but permits the passage of the liquid +portions. For separating liquids from solids of a fibrous or crystalline +character "hydro-extractors" or "centrifugals" are frequently employed. +The material is placed in a perforated cage or "basket," which is +enclosed in an outer casing, and when the cage is rapidly rotated by +suitable gearing, the liquid portions are forced out into the external +casing. + + + + +FIMBRIA, GAIUS FLAVIUS (d. 84 B.C.), Roman soldier and a violent +partisan of Marius. He was sent to Asia in 86 B.C. as legate to L. +Valerius Flaccus, but quarrelled with him and was dismissed. Taking +advantage of the absence of Flaccus at Chalcedon and the discontent +aroused by his avarice and severity, Fimbria stirred up a revolt and +slew Flaccus at Nicomedia. He then assumed the command of the army and +obtained several successes against Mithradates, whom he shut up in +Pitane on the coast of Aeolis, and would undoubtedly have captured him +had Lucullus co-operated with the fleet. Fimbria treated most cruelly +all the people of Asia who had revolted from Rome or sided with Sulla. +Having gained admission to Ilium by declaring that, as a Roman, he was +friendly, he massacred the inhabitants and burnt the place to the +ground. But in 84 Sulla crossed over from Greece to Asia, made peace +with Mithradates, and turned his arms against Fimbria, who, seeing that +there was no chance of escape, committed suicide. His troops were made +to serve in Asia till the end of the third Mithradatic War. + + See ROME: HISTORY; and arts, on SULLA and MARIUS. + + + + +FIMBRIATE (from Lat. _fimbriae_, fringe), a zoological and botanical +term, meaning fringed. In heraldry, "fimbriate" or "fimbriated" refers +to a narrow edge or border running round a bearing. + + + + +FINALE (Ital. for "end"), a term in music for the concluding movement in +an instrumental composition, whether symphony, concerto or sonata, and, +in dramatic music, the concerted piece which ends each act. Of +instrumental finales, the great choral finale to Beethoven's 9th +symphony, and of operatic finales, that of Mozart's _Nozze di Figaro_, +to the second act, and to the last act of Verdi's _Falstaff_ may be +mentioned. In the Wagnerian opera the finale has no place. + + + + +FINANCE. The term "finance," which comes into English through French, in +its original meaning denoted a payment (_finatio_). In the later middle +ages, especially in Germany, it acquired the sense of usurious or +oppressive dealing with money and capital. The specialized use of the +word as equivalent to the management of the public expenditure and +receipts first became prominent in France during the 16th century and +quickly spread to other countries. The plural form (_Les Finances_) was +particularly reserved for this application, while the singular came to +denote business activity in respect to monetary dealings (as in the +expression _la haute finance_). For the Germans the phrase "science of +finance" (_Finanzwissenschaft_) refers exclusively to the economy of the +state. English and American writers are less definite in their +employment of the term, which varies with the convenience of the author. + +A work on "finance" may deal with the Money Market or the Stock +Exchange; it may treat of banking and credit organization, or it may be +devoted to state revenue and expenditure, which is on the whole the +prevailing sense. The expressions "science of finance" and "public +finance" have been suggested as suitable to delimit the last mentioned +application. At all events, the broad sense is quite intelligible. +"Financial" means what is concerned with business, and the idea of a +balance between effort and return is also prominent. In the present +article attention will be directed to "public finance"; for the other +aspects of the subject reference may be made (_inter alia_) to the +following:--BANKS AND BANKING; COMPANY; EXCHANGE; MARKET; STOCK +EXCHANGE. See also ENGLISH FINANCE, and the sections on finance under +headings of countries. + +Finance, regarded as state house-keeping, or "political economy" (see +ECONOMICS) in the older sense of the term, deals with (1) the +expenditure of the state; (2) state revenues; (3) the balance between +expenditure and receipts; (4) the organization which collects and +applies the public funds. Each of these large divisions presents a +series of problems of which the practical treatment is illustrated in +the financial history of the great nations of the world. Thus the amount +and character of public expenditure necessarily depends on the +functions that the state undertakes to perform--national defence, the +maintenance of internal order, and the efficient equipment of the state +organization; such are the tasks that all governments have to discharge, +and for their cost due provision has to be made. The widening sphere of +state activity, so marked a characteristic of modern civilization, +involves outlay for what may be best described as "developmental" +services. Education, relief of distress, regulation of labour and trade, +are duties now in great part performed by public agencies, and their +increasing prominence involves augmented expense. The first problem on +this side of expenditure is the due balancing of outlay by income. The +financier has to "cover" his outlay. There is, further, the duty of +establishing a proper proportion between the several forms of +expenditure. Not only has there to be a strict control over the total +national expense; supervision has to be carried into each department of +the state. No one branch of public activity is entitled to make +unlimited calls on the state's revenue. The claims of the "expert" +require to be carefully scrutinized. The great financiers have made +their reputation quite as much by rigorous control over extravagance in +expenditure as by dexterity in devising new forms of revenue. +Unfortunately they have not been able to reduce their methods to rule. +As yet no more definite principle has been discovered than the somewhat +obvious one of measuring the proposed items of outlay (1) against each +other, (2) against the sacrifice that additional taxation involves. Of +almost equal importance is the rule that the utmost return is to be +obtained for the given outlay. The canon of _economy_ is as fundamental +in regard to public expenditure as it will appear, later, to be in +respect to revenue. Just application of the outlay of the state, so that +no class receives undue advantage, and the use of public funds for +"reproductive," in preference to "unproductive" objects, are evident +general principles whose difficulty lies in their application to the +circumstances of each particular case. + +Far greater progress has been made in the formulation of general canons +as to the nature, growth and treatment of the public revenues. +Historically, there is, first, the tendency towards increase in state +income to balance the advance in outlay. A second general feature is the +relative decline of the receipts from state property and industries in +contrast to the expansion of taxation. Regarded as an organized system, +the body of receipts has to be made conformable to certain general +conditions. Thus there should be revenue sufficient to meet the public +requirements. Otherwise the financial organization has failed in one of +its essential purposes. In order continuously to attain this end, the +revenue must be flexible, or, as is often said, elastic enough to vary +in response to pressure. Frequently recurring deficits are, in +themselves, a condemnation of the methods under which they are found. +Again, the rule of "economy" in raising revenue, or, in other words, +taking as little as possible from the contributors over and above what +the state receives, holds good for the whole and for each part of public +revenue. In like manner the principle of formal justice has the same +claim in respect to revenue as to expenditure. No class of person should +bear more than his or its proper share. In fact the special maxims +usually placed under the head of taxation have really a wider scope as +governing the whole financial system. The recognition of even the most +elementary rules has been a very slow process, as the course of +financial history abundantly proves. Until the 18th century no +scientific treatment of financial problems was attained, though there +had been great advances on the administrative side. + +A brief description of the historical evolution of the earlier financial +forms will be the most effective illustration of this statement. The +theory of well-organized public finance is also discussed under TAXATION +and NATIONAL DEBT. + +The earliest forms of public revenue are those obtained from the +property of the chief or ruler. Land, cattle and slaves are the +principal kinds of wealth, and they are all constituents of the king's +revenue; enforced work contributed by members of the community, and the +furnishing commodities on requisition, further aid in the maintenance +of the primitive state. Financial organization makes its earliest +appearance in the great Eastern monarchies, in which tribute was +regularly collected and the oldest and most general form of +taxation--that levied on the produce of land--was established. In its +normal shape this impost consisted in a given proportion of the yield, +or of certain portions of the yield, of the soil; one-fourth as in +India, one-fifth as in Egypt, or two separate levies of a tenth as in +Palestine, are examples of what may from the last instance be called the +"tithe" system. Dues of various kinds were gradually added to the land +revenue, until, as in the later Egyptian monarchy, the forms of revenue +reached a bewildering complexity. But no Eastern state advanced beyond +the condition generally characterized as the "patrimonial," i.e. an +organization on the model of the household. The part played by money +economy was small, and it is noticeable that the revenues were collected +by the monarch's servants, the farming out of taxes being completely +unknown. Tribute, however, was paid by subject communities as a whole, +and was collected by them for transmission to the conquerors. + + + Ancient Greek. + +A much higher stage was reached in the financial methods of the Greek +states, or more correctly speaking of Athens, the best-known specimen of +the class. Instead of the comparatively simple expedients of the +barbarian monarchies, as indicated above, the Athenian city state by +degrees developed a rather complex revenue system. Some of the older +forms are retained. The city owned public land which was let on lease +and the rents were farmed out by auction. A specially valuable property +of Athens was the possession of the silver mines at Laurium, which were +worked on lease by slave labour. The produce, at first distributed +amongst the citizens, was later a part of the state income, and forms +the subject of some of the suggestions respecting the revenue in the +treatise formerly ascribed to Xenophon. The reverence that attached to +the precious metals caused undue exaltation of the services rendered by +this property. + +One of the characteristics of the ancient state was its extensive +control over the persons and property of its citizens. In respect to +finance this authority was strikingly manifested in the burdens imposed +on wealthy citizens by the requirements of the "liturgies" ([Greek: +leitourgiai]), which consisted in the provision of a chorus for +theatrical performances, or defraying the expenses of the public games, +or, finally, the equipment of a ship, "the trierarchy," which was +economically and politically the most important. Athenian statesmanship +in the time of Demosthenes was gravely exercised to make this form of +contribution more effective. The grouping into classes and the privilege +of exchanging property, granted to the contributor against any one whom +he believed entitled to take his place, are marks of the defective +economic and financial organization of the age. + +Amongst taxes strictly so called were the market dues or tolls, which in +some cases approximated to excise duties, though in their actual mode of +levy they were closely similar to the _octrois_ of modern times. Of +greater importance were the customs duties on imports and exports. These +at the great period of Athenian history were only 2%. The prohibition of +export of corn was an economic rather than a financial provision. In the +treatment of her subject allies Athens was more rigorous, general import +and export duties of 5% being imposed on their trade. The high cost of +carriage, and the need of encouraging commerce in a community relying on +external sources for its food supply, help to explain the comparatively +low rates adopted. Neither as financial nor as protective expedients +were the custom duties of classical societies of much importance. + +Direct taxation received much greater expansion. A special levy on the +class of resident aliens ([Greek: metoikton]), probably paralleled by a +duty on slaves, was in force. A far more important source of revenue was +the general tax on property ([Greek: eisphora]), which according to one +view existed as early as the time of Solon, who made it a part of his +constitutional system. Modern inquiry, however, tends towards the +conclusion that it was under the stress of the Peloponnesian War that +this impost was introduced (428 B.C.). At first it was only levied at +irregular intervals; afterwards, in 378 B.C., it became a permanent tax +based on elaborate valuation under which the richer members paid on a +larger quota of their capital; in the case of the wealthiest class the +taxable quota was taken as one-fifth, smaller fractions being adopted +for those belonging to the other divisions. The assessment ([Greek: +timema]) included all the property of the contributor, whose accuracy in +making full returns was safeguarded by the right given to other citizens +to proceed against him for fraudulent under-valuation. A further support +was provided in the reform of 378 B.C. by the establishment of the +symmories, or groups of tax-paying citizens; the wealthier members of +each group being responsible for the tax payments of all the members. + +The scanty and obscure references to finance, and to economic matters +generally, in classical literature do not elucidate all the details of +the system; but the analogies of other countries, e.g. the mode of +levying the _taille_ in 18th century France and the "tenth and +fifteenth" in medieval England, make it tolerably plain that in the 4th +century B.C. the Athenian state had developed a mode of taxation on +property which raised those questions of just distribution and effective +valuation that present themselves in the latest tax systems of the +modern world. Taken together with the liturgies, the "eisphora" placed a +very heavy burden on the wealthier citizens, and this financial pressure +accounts in great part for the hostility of the rich towards the +democratic constitution that facilitated the imposition of graduated +taxation and super-taxes--to use modern terms--on the larger incomes. +The normal yield of the property tax is reported as 60 talents +(L14,400); but on special occasions it reached 200 talents (L48,000), or +about one-sixth of the total receipts. + +On the administrative side also remarkable advances were made by the +entrusting of military expenditure to the "generals," and in the 4th +century B.C. by the appointment of an administrator whose duty it was to +distribute the revenue of the state under the directions of the +assembly. The absence of settled public law and the influence of direct +democracy made a complete ministry of finance impossible. + +The Athenian "hegemony" in its earlier and later phases had an important +financial side. The confederacy of Delos made provision for the +collection of a revenue ([Greek: phoros]) from the members of the +league, which was employed at first for defence against Persian +aggression, but afterwards was at the disposal of Athens as the ruling +state. The annual collection of 460 talents (L110,400) shows +sufficiently the magnitude of the league. + +Too little is known of the financial methods of the other Greek states +and of the Macedonian kingdoms to allow of any definite account of their +position. In the latter, particularly in Egypt, the methods of the +earlier rulers probably survived. Their finance, like their social life +generally, exhibited a blending of Hellenic and barbarian elements. The +older land-taxes were probably accompanied by import dues and taxes on +property. + + + Roman. + +In the infancy of the Roman republic its revenues were of the kind usual +in such communities. The public land yielded receipts which may +indifferently be regarded as rents or taxes; the citizens contributed +their services or commodities, and dues were raised on certain articles +coming to market. With the progress of the Roman dominion the financial +organization grew in extent. In order to meet the cost of the early wars +a special contribution from property (_tributum ex censu_) was levied at +times of emergency, though it was in some cases regarded as an advance +to be repaid when the occasion of expense was over. Owing to the great +military successes, and the consequent increase of the other sources of +revenue, it became feasible to suspend the _tributum_ in 167 B.C., and +it was not again levied till after the death of Julius Caesar. From this +date the expenses of the Roman state "were undisguisedly supported by +the taxation of the provinces." Neither the state monopolies nor the +public land in Italy afforded any appreciable revenue. The other charges +that affected Italy were the 5% duty on manumissions, and customs dues +on seaborne imports. But with the acquisition of the important provinces +of Sicily, Spain and Africa, the formation of a tax system based on the +tributes of the dependencies became possible. To a great extent the +pre-existing forms of revenue were retained, but were gradually +systematized. In legal theory the land of conquered communities passed +into the ownership of the Roman state; in practice a revenue was +obtained through land taxes in the form of either tithes (_decumae_) or +money payments (_stipendia_). To the latter were adjoined capitation and +trade taxes (the _tributum capitis_). For pasture land a special rent +was paid. In some provinces (e.g. Sicily) payment in produce was +preferred, as affording the supply needed for the free distribution of +corn at Rome. + +The great form of indirect taxation consisted in the customs dues +(_portoria_), which were collected at the provincial boundaries and +varied in amount, though the maximum did not exceed 5%. Under the same +head were included the town dues (or _octrois_). Further, the local +administration was charged on the district concerned, and requisitions +for the public service were frequently made on the provincial +communities. Supplies of grain, ships and timber for military use were +often demanded. + +The methods of levy may be regarded as an additional tax. "Vexation," as +Adam Smith remarks, "though not strictly speaking expense, is certainly +equivalent to the expense at which every man would be willing to redeem +himself from it"; and the Roman system was extraordinarily vexatious. +From an early date the collection of the taxes had been farmed out to +companies of contractors (_societates vectigales_), who became a by-word +for rapacity. Being bound to pay a stated sum to the public authorities +these _publicani_ naturally aimed at extracting the largest possible +amount from the unfortunate provincials, and, as they belonged to the +Roman capitalist class, they were able to influence the provincial +governors. Undue claims on the part of the tax collectors were +aggravated by the extortion of the public officials. The defects of the +financial organization were a serious influence in the complex of causes +that brought about the fall of the Republic. + +One of the reasons that induced the subject populations to accept with +pleasure the establishment of the Empire was the improvement in +financial treatment that it secured. The corrupt and uneconomical method +of farming out the collection of the revenue was, to a great extent, +replaced by collection through the officials of the imperial household. +The earlier Roman treasury (_aerarium_) was formally retained for the +receipt of revenue from the senatorial provinces, but the officials were +appointed by the Princeps and became gradually mere municipal officers. +The real centre of finance was the _fiscus_ or imperial treasury, which +was under the exclusive control of the ruler ("res fiscales," says +Ulpian, "quasi propriae et privatae principis sunt"), and was +administered by officials of his household. Under the Republic the +Senate had been the financial authority, with the Censors as finance +ministers and the Quaestors as secretaries of the treasury. Never very +precise, this system in the 1st century B.C. fell into extreme decay. By +means of his freedmen the emperor introduced the more rigorous economy +of the Roman household into public finance. The census as a method of +valuation was revived; the important and productive land taxes were +placed on a more definite footing; while, above all, the substitution of +direct collection by state officials for the letting out by auction of +the tax-collection to the companies of _publicani_ was made general. +Thus some of the most valuable lessons as to the normal evolution of a +system of finance are to be learned in this connexion. Of equal, or even +greater moment is the failure of the administrative reforms of the +Empire to secure lasting improvement, a result due to the absence of +constitutional guarantees. The close relation between finance and +general policy is most impressively illustrated in this failure of +benevolent autocracy. + +Viewed broadly, the financial resources of the earlier Empire were +obtained from (1) the public land alike of the state and the Princeps; +(2) the monopolies, principally of minerals; (3) the land tax; (4) the +customs; (5) the taxes on inheritances, on sales and on the purchase of +slaves (_vectigalia_). One result of the establishment of the Principate +was the consolidation of the public domain. The old "public land" in +Italy had nearly disappeared; but the royal possessions in the conquered +provinces and the private properties of the emperor became ultimately a +part of the property of the Fiscus. Such land was let either on +five-year leases or in perpetuity to coloni. Mines were also taken over +for public use and worked by slaves or, in later times, by convict +labour. The tendency towards state monopoly became more marked in the +closing days of the Empire, the 4th and 5th centuries A.D. Perhaps the +most comprehensive of the fiscal reforms of the Empire was the +reconstruction of the land tax, based on a census or (to use the French +term) _cadastre_, in which the area, the modes of cultivation and the +estimated productiveness of each holding were stated, the average of ten +preceding years being taken as the standard. After the reconstruction +under Diocletian at the end of the 3rd century A.D., fifteen years (the +_indictio_)--though probably used as early as the time of Hadrian--was +recognized as the period for revaluation. With the growing needs of the +state this taxation became more rigorous and was one of the great +grievances of the population, especially of the sections that were +declining in status and passing into the condition of villenage. The +_portoria_, or customs, received a better organization, though the +varying rates for different provinces continued. By degrees the older +maximum of 5% was exceeded, until in the 4th century 12-1/2% was in some +cases levied. Even at this higher rate the facilities for trade were +greater than in medieval or (until the revolution in transport) modern +times. In spite of certain prejudices against the import of luxuries and +the export of gold, there is little indication of the influence of +mercantilist or protectionist ideas. The nearest approach to excise was +the duty of 1% on all sales, a tax that in Gibbon's words "has ever been +the occasion of clamour and discontent." The higher charge of 4% on the +purchase of slaves, and the still heavier 5% on successions after death, +were likewise established at the beginning of the Empire and specially +applied to the full citizens. Escheats and lapsed legacies (_caduca_) +were further miscellaneous sources of gain to the state. + +Taken as a whole, the financial system of Imperial Rome shows a very +high elaboration in _form_. The _patrimonium_, the _tributa_ and the +_vectigalia_ are divisions parallel to the _domaine_, the _contributions +directes_ and the _contributions indirectes_ of modern French +administration; or the English "non-tax" revenue, inland revenue and +"customs and excise." The careful regulations given in the Codes and the +Digest show the observance of technical conditions as to assessment and +accounting. In substance and spirit, however, Roman finance was +essentially backward. Without altogether accepting Merivale's judgment +that "their principles of finance were to the last rude and +unphilosophical," it may be granted that Roman statesmen never seriously +faced the questions of just distribution and maximum productiveness in +the tax system. Still less did they perceive the connexion between these +two aspects of finance. Mechanical uniformity and minute regulation are +inadequate substitutes for observance of the canons of equality, +certainty and economy in the operation of the tax system. Whether (as +has been suggested) an Adam Smith in power could have saved the Empire +is doubtful; but he would certainly have remodelled its finance. The +most glaring fault was plainly the undue and increasing pressure on the +productive classes. Each century saw heavier burdens imposed on the +actual workers and on their employers, while expenditure was chiefly +devoted to unproductive purposes. The distribution was also unfair as +between the different territorial divisions. The capital and certain +provincial towns were favoured at the expense of the provinces and the +country districts. Again, the cost of collection, though less than under +the farming-out system, was far too great. Some alleviation was indeed +obtained by the apportionment of contributions amongst the districts +liable, leaving to the community to decide as it thought best between +its members. The allotment of the land-tax to units (_juga_) of equal +value whatever might be the area, was a contrivance similar in +character. + +The gradual way in which the several provinces were brought under the +general tax system, and the equally gradual extension of Roman +citizenship, account further for the irregularity and increased weight +of the taxes; as the absence of publicity and the growth of autocracy +explain the sense of oppression and the hopelessness of resistance so +vividly indicated in the literature of the later Empire. Exemptions at +first granted to the citizens were removed, while the cost of local +government which continually increased was placed on the middle-class of +the towns as represented by the _decuriones_, or members of the +municipalities. + +The fact that no ingenuity of modern research has been able to construct +a real budget of expenditure and receipt for any part of the long +centuries of the Empire is significant as to the secrecy that surrounded +the finances, especially in the later period. For at the beginning of +the principate Augustus seems to have aimed at a complete estimate of +the financial situation, though this may be regarded as due to the +influence of the freer republican traditions which the reverence that +soon attached to the emperor's dignity completely extinguished. + +In addition to its value as illustrating the difficulties and defects +that beset the development of a complex financial organization from the +simpler forms of the city and the province, Roman finance is of special +importance in consequence of its place as supplying a model or rather a +guide for the administration of the states that arose on its ruins. The +barbarian invaders, though they were accustomed to contributions to +their chiefs and to the payment of commodities as tributes or as +penalties, had no acquaintance with the working of a regular system of +taxation. The more astute rulers utilized the machinery that they +inherited from the Roman government. Under the Franks the land tax and +the provincial customs continued as forms of revenue, while beside them +the gifts and court fees of Teutonic origin took their place. Similar +conditions appear in Theodoric's administration of Italy. The +maintenance of Roman forms and terms is prominent in fiscal +administration. But institutions that have lost their life and animating +spirit can hardly be preserved for any length of time. All over western +Europe the elaborate devices of the _census_ and the stations for the +collection of customs crumbled away; taxation as such disappeared, +through the hostility of the clergy and the exemptions accorded to +powerful subjects. This process of disintegration spread out over +centuries. The efforts made from time to time by vigorous rulers to +enforce the charges that remained legally due, proved quite ineffectual +to restore the older fiscal system. The final result was a complete +transformation of the ingredients of revenue. The character of the +change may be best indicated as a substitution of private claims for +public rights. Thus, the land-tax disappears in the 7th century and only +comes into notice in the 9th century in the shape of private customary +dues. The customs duties become the tolls and transit charges levied by +local potentates on the diminishing trade of the earlier middle ages. +This revolution is in accordance with--indeed it is one side of--the +movement towards feudalism which was the great feature of this period. +Finance is essentially a part of _public_ law and administration. It +could, therefore, hold no prominent place in a condition of society +which hardly recognized the state, as distinct from the members of the +community, united by feudal ties. The same conception may be expressed +in another way, viz. by the statement that the kingdoms which succeeded +the Roman Empire were organized on the patrimonial basis (i.e. the +revenues passed into the hands of the king or, rather, his domestic +officials), and thus in fact returned to the condition of pre-classical +times. Notwithstanding the differing features in the several countries, +retrogression is the common characteristic of European history from the +5th to the 10th century, and it was from the ruder state that this +decline created that the rebuilding of social and political organization +had to be accomplished. On the financial side the work, as already +suggested, was aided by the ideas and institutions inherited from the +Roman Empire. This influence was common to all the continental states +and indirectly was felt even in England. Each of the great realms has, +however, worked out its financial system on lines suitable to its own +particular conditions, which are best considered in connexion with the +separate national histories. + +Running through the different national systems there are some common +elements the result not of inheritance merely but still more of +necessity, or at the lowest of similarity in environment. Over and above +the details of financial development there is a thread of connexion +which requires treatment under Finance taken as a whole. As the great +aim of this side of public activity is to secure funds for the +maintenance of the state's life and working, the administration which +operates for this end is the true nucleus of all national finance. The +first sign of revival from the catastrophe of the invasions is the +reorganization of the Imperial household under Charlemagne with the +intention of establishing a more exact collection of revenue. The later +German empire of Otto and the Frederics; the French Capetian monarchy +and, in a somewhat different sphere, the medieval Italian and German +cities show the same movement. The treasury is the centre towards which +the special receipts of the ruler or rulers should be brought, and from +it the public wants should be supplied. Feudalism, as the antithesis of +this orderly treatment, had to be overthrown before national finance +could become established. The development can be traced in the financial +history of England, France and the German states; but the advance in the +French financial organization of the 15th and 16th centuries affords the +best illustration. The gradual unification operates on all the branches +of finance,--expenditure, revenue, debt and methods of control. In +respect to the first head there is a well-marked "integration" of the +modes for meeting the cost of the public services. What were +semi-private duties become public tasks, which, with the growing +importance of "money-economy," have to be defrayed by state payments. +Thus, the creation of the standing army in France by Charles VII. marks +a financial change of the first order. The English navy, though more +gradually developed, is an equally good illustration of the movement. +All outlay by the state is brought into due co-ordination, and it +becomes possible for constitutional government to supervise and direct +it. This improvement, due to English initiative, has been adopted +amongst the essential forms of financial administration on the +continent. The immense importance of this view of public expenditure as +representing the consumption of the state in its unified condition is +obvious; it has affected, for the most part unconsciously, the +conception of all modern peoples as to the functions of the state and +the right of the people to direct them. + +On the side of receipts a similar unifying process has been +accomplished. The almost universal separation between "ordinary" and +"extraordinary" receipts, taxation being put under the latter head, has +completely ceased. It was, however, the fundamental division for the +early French writers on finance, and it survives for England as late as +Blackstone's _Commentaries_. The idea that the ruler possessed a normal +income in certain rents and dues of a quasi-private character, which on +emergency he might supplement by calls on the revenues of his subjects, +was a bequest of feudalism which gave way before the increasing power of +the state. In order to meet the unified public wants, an equally unified +public fund was requisite. The great economic changes which depreciated +the value of the king's domain contributed towards the result. Only by +well-adjusted taxation was it possible to meet the public necessities. +In respect to taxation also there has been a like course of +readjustment. Separate charges, assigned for distinct purposes, have +been taken into the national exchequer and come to form a part of the +general revenue. There has been--taking long periods--a steady +absorption of special taxes into more general categories. The +replacement of the four direct taxes by the income tax in France, as +proposed in 1909, is a very recent example. Equally important is the +growth of "direct" taxation. As tax contributions have taken the places +of the revenue from land and fees, so, it would seem, are the taxes on +commodities likely to be replaced or at least exceeded by the imposts +levied on income as such, in the shape either of income taxes proper or +of charges on accumulated wealth. The recent history of the several +financial systems of the world is decisive on this point. A clearer +perception of the conditions under which the effective attainment of +revenue is possible is another outcome of financial development. +Security, and in particular the absence of arbitrary impositions, +combined with convenient modes of collection, have come to be recognized +as indispensable auxiliaries in financial administration which further +aims at the selection of really productive forms of charge. +Unproductiveness is, according to modern standard, the cardinal fault of +any particular tax. How great has been the progress in these aspects is +best illustrated in the case of English finance, but both French and +German fiscal history can supply many instructive examples. + +In a third direction the co-ordination of finance has been just as +remarkable. Financial adjustment implies the conception of a balance, +and this should be found in the relation of outlay and income. Under the +pressure of war and other emergencies it has been found impossible to +maintain this desirable equilibrium. But the use of the system of +credit, and the general establishment of constitutional government, have +enabled the difficulty to be surmounted by the creation on a vast scale +of national debts. Apart from the special problems that this system of +borrowing raises, there is the general one of its aid in making national +finance continuous and orderly. Deficits can be transferred to the +capital account, and the country's resources employed most usefully by +repaying liabilities contracted in times of extreme need. The growth of +this department, parallel with the general progress of finance, is +significant of its function. + +Finally, in all countries though with diversities due to national +peculiarities, the modes of account and control have been brought into a +more effective condition. Previous legislative sanction for both +expenditure and receipts in all their particular forms is absolutely +necessary; so is thorough scrutiny of the actual application of the +funds provided. Either by administrative survey or by judicial +examination care is taken to see that there has been no improper +diversion from the designed purposes. It is only when the varied systems +of financial organization are studied in their general bearing, and with +regard to what may be called their frame-work, that their essential +resemblance is thoroughly realized. Such a real underlying unity is the +reason and justification for regarding "public finance" as a distinct +subject of study and as an independent division of political science. + +_Local Finance._--One of the most remarkable features of modern +financial development has been the growth of the complementary system of +local finance, which in extent and complication bids to rival that of +the central authority. Under the constraining power of the Roman Empire +the older city states were reduced to the position of municipalities, +and their financial administration became dependent on the control of +the Emperor--as is abundantly illustrated in the correspondence of Pliny +and Trajan. After the fall of the Western Empire, a partial revival of +city life, particularly in Italy and Germany, gave some scope for a +return to the type of finance presented by the Athenian state. Florence +affords an instructive specimen; but the passage from feudalism to the +national state under the authority of monarchy made the cities and +country districts parts of a larger whole. It is in this condition of +subordination that the finance of localities has been framed and +effectively organized. Though each great state has adopted its own +methods, influenced by historical circumstances and by ideas of policy, +there are general resemblances that furnish material for scientific +treatment and allow of important generalizations being made. + +Amongst these the first to be noticed is the essential _subordination_ +of local finance. Alike in expenditure, in forms of receipt, and in +methods of administration the central government has the right of +directing and supervising the work of municipal and provincial +agencies. The modes employed are various, but they all rest on the +sovereignty of the state, whether exercised by the central officials or +by the courts. A second characteristic is the predominance of the +_economic_ element in the several tasks that local administrations have +to perform, and the consequent tendency to treat the charges of local +finance as payments for services rendered, or, in the usual phrase, to +apply the "benefits" principle, in contrast to that of "ability," which +rightly prevails in national finance. Over a great part of municipal +administration--particularly that engaged in supplying the needs of the +individual citizens--the finance may be assimilated to that of the +joint-stock company, with of course the necessary differences, viz. +that the association is compulsory; and that dividends are paid, not in +money, but in social advantage. The great expansion in recent years of +what is known as _Municipal Trading_ has brought this aspect of local +finance into prominence. Water supply, transport and lighting have +become public services, requiring careful financial management, and +still retaining traces of their earlier private character. + +Corresponding to the mainly economic nature of local expenditure there +is the further limitation imposed on the side of revenue. Unlike the +state in this, localities are limited in respect to the amount and form +of their taxation. Several distinct influences combine to produce this +result. The needs of the central government lead to its retention of the +more profitable modes of procuring revenue. No modern country can +surrender the chief direct and indirect taxes to the local +administrations. Another limiting condition is found in the practical +impossibility of levying by local agencies such imposts as the customs +and the income-tax in their modern forms. The elaborate machinery that +is requisite for covering the national area and securing the revenue +against loss can only be provided by an authority that can deal with the +whole territory. Hence the very general limitation of local revenues to +certain typical forms. Though in some cases municipal taxation is +imposed on commodities in the form of _octrois_ or entry duties--as is +notably the case in France--yet the prevailing tendency is towards the +levy of direct charges on immovable property, which cannot escape by +removal outside the tax jurisdiction. In addition to these "land" and +"house" taxes, the employment of licence duties on trades, particularly +those that are in special need of supervision, is a favourite method. +Closely akin are the payments demanded for privileges to industrial +undertakings given as "franchises," very often in connexion with +monopolies, e.g. gas-works and tramways. Over and above the peculiar +revenues of local bodies there is the further resource--which emphasizes +the subordinate position of local finance--of obtaining supplemental +revenue from the central treasury, either by taxes additional to the +charges of the state, and collected at the same time; or by donations +from its funds, in the shape of grants for special services, or +assignments of certain parts of the state's receipts. Great Britain, +France and Prussia furnish good examples of these different modes of +preserving local administration from financial collapse. + +The broad resemblance between the two parts of the entire system of +public finance is seen in another direction. To national debts there has +been added a great mass of municipal and local indebtedness, which seems +likely to equal, or even exceed in magnitude the liabilities of the +central governments. But here also the essential limitations of the +newer form are easily perceptible. The sovereignty of the state enables +it to deal as it thinks best with the public creditor. In its methods of +borrowing, in its plans for repayment, or, in extremity, in its power of +repudiation it is independent of external control. Local debt on the +other hand can only be contracted under the sanction of the appropriate +administrative organ of the state. The creditor has the right of +claiming the aid of the law against the defaulting municipality; and the +amounts, the terms, and the time of duration of local debt are +supervised in order to prevent injustice to particular persons or +improvidence with regard to the revenue and property of the local units. +The chief reason for contracting local debt being the establishment of +works that are, directly or indirectly, reproductive, the governing +conditions are evidently to be found in the character and probable yield +of those businesses. The principles of company investments are fully +applicable: the creation of sinking-funds, the fixing the term of each +loan to the time at which the return from its employment ceases, and the +avoidance of the formation of fictitious capital, become guiding rules +from this part of finance, and indicate the connexion with what the +commercial world calls "financial operations." + +Finally, there is the same set of problems in respect to accounting and +control in local as in central finance. Though the materials are +simpler, the need for a well-prepared budget is existent in the case of +the city, county or department, if there is to be clear and accurate +financial management. Perhaps the greatest weakness of local finance +lies in this direction. The public opinion that affects the national +budget is unfortunately too often lacking in the most important towns, +not excluding those in which political life is highly developed. + + BIBLIOGRAPHY.--The English literature on finance is rather + unsatisfactory; for public finance the available text-books are: + Adams, _Science of Finance_ (New York, 1898); Bastable, _Public + Finance_ (London, 1892; 3rd ed., 1903); Daniels, _Public Finance_ (New + York, 1899), and Plehn, _Public Finance_ (3rd ed., New York, 1909). In + French, Leroy-Beaulieu, _Traite de la science des finances_ (1877; 3rd + ed., 1908), is the standard work. The German literature is abundant. + Roscher, 5th ed. (edited by Gerlach), 1901; Wagner (4 vols.), + incomplete; Cohn (1889) and Eheberg (9th ed., 1908) have published + works entitled _Finanzwissenschaft_, dealing with all the aspects of + state finance. For Greek financial history Boekh, _Staalshaushaltung + der Athenen_ (ed. Frankel, 1887), is still a standard work. For Rome, + Marquardt, _Romische Staatsverwaltung_, vol. ii., and Humbert, _Les + Finances et la comptabilite publique chez les Romains_, are valuable. + Clamageran, _Histoire de l'impot en France_ (1876), gives the earlier + development of French finance. R.H. Patterson, _Science of Finance_ + (London, 1868), C.S. Meade, _Trust Finance_ (1903), and E. Carroll, + _Principles and Practice of Finance_, deal with finance in the wider + sense of business transactions. (C. F. B.) + + + + +FINCH, FINCH-HATTON. This old English family has had many notable +members, and has contributed in no small degree to the peerage. Sir +Thomas Finch (d. 1563), who was knighted for his share in suppressing +Sir T. Wyatt's insurrection against Queen Mary, was a soldier of note, +and was the son and heir of Sir William Finch, who was knighted in 1513. +He was the father of Sir Moyle Finch (d. 1614), who was created a +baronet in 1611, and whose widow Elizabeth (daughter of Sir Thomas +Heneage) was created a peeress as countess of Maidstone in 1623 and +countess of Winchilsea in 1628; and also of Sir Henry Finch (1558-1625), +whose son John, Baron Finch of Fordwich (1584-1660), is separately +noticed. Thomas, eldest son of Sir Moyle, succeeded his mother as first +earl of Winchilsea; and Sir Heneage, the fourth son (d. 1631), was the +speaker of the House of Commons, whose son Heneage (1621-1682), lord +chancellor, was created earl of Nottingham in 1675. The latter's second +son Heneage (1649-1719) was created earl of Aylesford in 1714. The +earldoms of Winchilsea and Nottingham became united in 1729, when the +fifth earl of Winchilsea died, leaving no son, and the title passed to +his cousin the second earl of Nottingham, the earldom of Nottingham +having since then been held by the earl of Winchilsea. In 1826, on the +death of the ninth earl of Winchilsea and fifth of Nottingham, his +cousin George William Finch-Hatton succeeded to the titles, the +additional surname of Hatton (since held in this line) having been +assumed in 1764 by his father under the will of an aunt, a daughter of +Christopher, Viscount Hatton (1632-1706), whose father was related to +the famous Sir Christopher Hatton. + + + + +FINCH OF FORDWICH, JOHN FINCH, BARON (1584-1660), generally known as Sir +John Finch, English judge, a member of the old family of Finch, was born +on the 17th of September 1584, and was called to the bar in 1611. He was +returned to parliament for Canterbury in 1614, and became recorder of +the same place in 1617. Having attracted the notice of Charles I., who +visited Canterbury in 1625, and was received with an address by Finch in +his capacity as recorder, he was the following year appointed king's +counsel and attorney-general to the queen and was knighted. In 1628 he +was elected speaker of the House of Commons, a post which he retained +till its dissolution in 1629. He was the speaker who was held down in +his chair by Holles and others on the occasion of Sir John Eliot's +resolution on tonnage and poundage. In 1634 he was appointed chief +justice of the court of common pleas, and distinguished himself by the +active zeal with which he upheld the king's prerogative. Notable also +was the brutality which characterized his conduct as chief justice, +particularly in the cases of William Prynne and John Langton. He +presided over the trial of John Hampden, who resisted the payment of +ship-money, and he was chiefly responsible for the decision of the +judges that ship-money was constitutional. As a reward for his services +he was, in 1640, appointed lord keeper, and was also created Baron Finch +of Fordwich. He had, however, become so unpopular that one of the first +acts of the Long Parliament, which met in the same year was his +impeachment. He took refuge in Holland, but had to suffer the +sequestration of his estates. When he was allowed to return to England +is uncertain, but in 1660 he was one of the commissioners for the trial +of the regicides, though he does not appear to have taken much part in +the proceedings. He died on the 27th of November 1660 and was buried in +St Martin's church near Canterbury, his peerage becoming extinct. + + See Foss, _Lives of the Judges_; Campbell, _Lives of the Chief + Justices_. + + + + +FINCH (Ger. _Fink_, Lat. _Fringilla_), a name applied (but almost always +in composition--as bullfinch, chaffinch, goldfinch, hawfinch, &c.) to a +great many small birds of the order _Passeres_, and now pretty generally +accepted as that of a group or family--the _Fringillidae_ of most +ornithologists. Yet it is one the extent of which must be regarded as +being uncertain. Many writers have included in it the buntings +(_Emberizidae_), though these seem to be quite distinct, as well as the +larks (_Alaudidae_), the tanagers (_Tanagridae_), and the weaver-birds +(_Ploceidae_). Others have separated from it the crossbills, under the +title of _Loxiidae_, but without due cause. The difficulty which at this +time presents itself in regard to the limits of the _Fringillidae_ +arises from our ignorance of the anatomical features, especially those +of the head, possessed by many exotic forms. + +Taken as a whole, the finches, concerning which no reasonable doubt can +exist, are not only little birds with a hard bill, adapted in most cases +for shelling and eating the various seeds that form the chief portion of +their diet when adult, but they appear to be mainly forms which +predominate in and are highly characteristic of the Palaearctic Region; +moreover, though some are found elsewhere on the globe, the existence of +but very few in the Notogaean hemisphere can as yet be regarded as +certain. + +But even with this limitation, the separation of the undoubted +_Fringillidae_[1] into groups is a difficult task. Were we merely to +consider the superficial character of the form of the bill, the genus +_Loxia_ (in its modern sense) would be easily divided not only from the +other finches, but from all other birds. The birds of this genus--the +crossbills--when their other characters are taken into account, prove to +be intimately allied on the one hand to the grosbeaks (_Pinicola_) and +on the other through the redpolls (_Aegiothus_) to the linnets +(_Linota_)--if indeed these two can be properly separated. The linnets, +through the genus _Leucosticte_, lead to the mountain-finches +(_Montifringilla_), and the redpolls through the siskins +(_Chrysomitris_) to the goldfinches (_Carduelis_); and these last again +to the hawfinches, one group of which (_Coccothraustes_) is apparently +not far distant from the chaffinches (_Fringilla_ proper), and the other +(_Hesperiphona_) seems to be allied to the greenfinches (_Ligurinus_). +Then there is the group of serins (_Serinus_), to which the canary +belongs, that one is in doubt whether to refer to the vicinity of the +greenfinches or that of the redpolls. The mountain-finches may be +regarded as pointing first to the rock-sparrows (_Petronia_) and then to +the true sparrows (_Passer_); while the grosbeaks pass into many varied +forms and throw out a very well marked form--the bullfinches +(_Pyrrhula_). Some of the modifications of the family are very gradual, +and therefore conclusions founded on them are likely to be correct; +others are further apart, and the links which connect them, if not +altogether missing, can but be surmised. To avoid as much as possible +prejudicing the case, we shall therefore take the different groups of +_Fringillidae_ which it is convenient to consider in this article in an +alphabetical arrangement. + +Of the Bullfinches the best known is the familiar bird (_Pyrrhula_ +_europaea_). The varied plumage of the cock--his bright red breast and +his grey back, set off by his coal-black head and quills--is naturally +attractive; while the facility with which he is tamed, with his engaging +disposition in confinement, makes him a popular cage-bird,--to say +nothing of the fact (which in the opinion of so many adds to his charms) +of his readily learning to "pipe" a tune, or some bars of one. By +gardeners the bullfinch has long been regarded as a deadly enemy, from +its undoubted destruction of the buds of fruit-trees in spring-time, +though whether the destruction is really so much of a detriment is by no +means so undoubted. Northern and eastern Europe is inhabited by a larger +form (_P. major_), which differs in nothing but size and more vivid +tints from that which is common in the British Isles and western Europe. +A very distinct species (_P. murina_), remarkable for its dull +coloration, is peculiar to the Azores, and several others are found in +Asia from the Himalayas to Japan. A bullfinch (_P. cassini_) has been +discovered in Alaska, being the first recognition of this genus in the +New World. + +The Canary (_Serinus canarius_) is indigenous to the islands whence it +takes its name, as well, apparently, as to the neighbouring groups of +the Madeiras and Azores, in all of which it abounds. It seems to have +been imported into Europe at least as early as the first half of the +16th century,[2] and has since become the commonest of cage-birds. The +wild stock is of an olive-green, mottled with dark brown above, and +greenish-yellow beneath. All the bright-hued examples we now see in +captivity have been induced by carefully breeding from any chance +varieties that have shown themselves; and not only the colour, but the +build and stature of the bird have in this manner been greatly modified. +The ingenuity of "the fancy," which might seem to have exhausted itself +in the production of topknots, feathered feet, and so forth, has brought +about a still further change from the original type. It has been found +that by a particular treatment, in which the mixing of large quantities +of vegetable colouring agents with the food plays an important part, the +ordinary "canary yellow" may be intensified so as to verge upon a more +or less brilliant flame colour.[3] + +Very nearly resembling the canary, but smaller in size, is the Serin +(_Serinus hortulanus_), a species which not long since was very local in +Europe, and chiefly known to inhabit the countries bordering on the +Mediterranean. It has pushed its way towards the north, and has even +been several times taken in England (Yarrell's _Brit. Birds_, ed. 4, ii. +pp. 111-116). A closely allied species (_S. canonicus_) is peculiar to +Palestine. + +The Chaffinches are regarded as the type-form of _Fringillidae_. The +handsome and sprightly _Fringilla coelebs_[4] is common throughout the +whole of Europe. Conspicuous by his variegated plumage, his peculiar +call note[5] and his glad song, the cock is almost everywhere a +favourite. In Algeria the British chaffinch is replaced by a +closely-allied species (_F. spodogenia_), while in the Atlantic Islands +it is represented by two others (_F. tintillon_ and _F. teydea_)--all of +which, while possessing the general appearance of the European bird, are +clothed in soberer tints.[6] Another species of true _Fringilla_ is the +brambling (_F. montifringilla_), which has its home in the birch forests +of northern Europe and Asia, whence it yearly proceeds, often in flocks +of thousands, to pass the winter in more southern countries. This bird +is still more beautifully coloured than the chaffinch--especially in +summer, when, the brown edges of the feathers being shed, it presents a +rich combination of black, white and orange. Even in winter, however, +its diversified plumage is sufficiently striking. + +With the exception of the single species of bullfinch already noticed as +occurring in Alaska, all the above forms of finches are peculiar to the +Palaearctic Region. (A. N.) + + +FOOTNOTES: + + [1] About 200 species of these have been described, and perhaps 150 + may really exist. + + [2] The earliest published description seems to be that of Gesner in + 1555 (_Orn._ p. 234), but he had not seen the bird, an account of + which was communicated to him by Raphael Seiler of Augsburg, under + the name of _Suckeruogele_. + + [3] See also _The Canary Book_, by Robert L. Wallace; _Canaries and + Cage Birds_, by W.A. Blackston; and Darwin's _Animals and Plants + under Domestication_, vol. i. p. 295. An excellent monograph on the + wild bird is that by Dr Carl Bolle (_Journ. fur Orn._, 1858, pp. + 125-151). + + [4] This fanciful trivial name was given by Linnaeus on the + supposition (which later observations do not entirely confirm) that + in Sweden the hens of the species migrated southward in autumn, + leaving the cocks to lead a celibate life till spring. It is certain, + however, that in some localities the sexes live apart during the + winter. + + [5] This call-note, which to many ears sounds like "pink" or "spink," + not only gives the bird a name in many parts of Britain, but is also + obviously the origin of the German _Fink_ and the English _Finch_. + The similar Celtic form _Pinc_ is said to have given rise to the Low + Latin _Pincio_, and thence come the Italian _Pincione_, the Spanish + _Pinzon_, and the French _Pinson_. + + [6] This is especially the ease with _F. teydea_ of the Canary + Islands, which from its dark colouring and large size forms a kind of + parallel to the Azorean _Pyrrhula murina_. + + + + +FINCHLEY, an urban district in the Hornsey parliamentary division of +Middlesex, England, 7 m. N.W. of St Paul's cathedral, London, on a +branch of the Great Northern railway. Pop. (1891) 16,647; (1901) 22,126. +A part, adjoining Highgate on the north, lies at an elevation between +300 and 400 ft., while a portion in the Church End district lies lower, +in the valley of the Dollis Brook. The pleasant, healthy situation has +caused Finchley to become a populous residential district. Finchley +Common was formerly one of the most notorious resorts of highwaymen near +London; the Great North Road crossed it, and it was a haunt of Dick +Turpin and Jack Sheppard, and was still dangerous to cross at night at +the close of the 18th century. Sheppard was captured in this +neighbourhood in 1724. The Common has not been preserved from the +builder. In 1660 George Monk, marching on London immediately before the +Restoration, made his camp on the Common, and in 1745 a regular and +volunteer force encamped here, prepared to resist the Pretender, who was +at Derby. The gathering of this force inspired Hogarth's famous picture, +the "March of the Guards to Finchley." + + + + +FINCK, FRIEDRICH AUGUST VON (1718-1766), Prussian soldier, was born at +Strelitz in 1718. He first saw active service in 1734 on the Rhine, as a +member of the suite of Duke Anton Ulrich of Brunswick-Wolfenbuttel. Soon +after this he transferred to the Austrian service, and thence went to +Russia, where he served until the fall of his patron Marshal Munnich put +an end to his prospects of advancement. In 1742 he went to Berlin, and +Frederick the Great made him his aide-de-camp, with the rank of major. +Good service brought him rapid promotion in the Seven Years' War. After +the battle of Kolin (June 18th, 1757) he was made colonel, and at the +end of 1757 major-general. At the beginning of 1759 Finck became +lieutenant-general, and in this rank commanded a corps at the disastrous +battle of Kunersdorf, where he did good service both on the field of +battle and (Frederick having in despair handed over to him the command) +in the rallying of the beaten Prussians. Later in the year he fought in +concert with General Wunsch a widespread combat, called the action of +Korbitz (Sept. 21st) in which the Austrians and the contingents of the +minor states of the Empire were sharply defeated. For this action +Frederick gave Finck the Black Eagle (Seyfarth, _Beilagen_, ii. +621-630). But the subsequent catastrophe of Maxen (see SEVEN YEARS' WAR) +abruptly put an end to Finck's active career. Dangerously exposed, and +with inadequate forces, Finck received the king's positive order to +march upon Maxen (a village in the Pirna region of Saxony). +Unfortunately for himself the general dared not disobey his master, and, +cut off by greatly superior numbers, was forced to surrender with some +11,000 men (21st Nov. 1759). After the peace, Frederick sent him before +a court-martial, which sentenced him to be cashiered and to suffer a +term of imprisonment in a fortress. At the expiry of this term Finck +entered the Danish service as general of infantry. He died at Copenhagen +in 1766. + + He left a work called _Gedanken uber militarische Gegenstande_ + (Berlin, 1788). See _Denkwurdigkeiten der militarischen Gesellschaft_, + vol. ii. (Berlin, 1802-1805), and the report of the Finck + court-martial in _Zeitschrift fur Kunst, Wissenschaft und Geschichte + des Krieges_, pt. 81 (Berlin, 1851). There is a life of Finck in MS. + in the library of the Great General Staff. + + + + +FINCK, HEINRICH (d. c. 1519), German musical composer, was probably born +at Bamberg, but nothing is certainly known either of the place or date +of his birth. Between 1492 and 1506 he was a musician in, and later +possibly conductor of the court orchestra of successive kings of Poland +at Warsaw. He held the post of conductor at Stuttgart from 1510 till +about 1519, in which year he probably died. His works, mostly part songs +and other vocal compositions, show great musical knowledge, and amongst +the early masters of the German school he holds a high position. They +are found scattered amongst ancient and modern collections of songs and +other musical pieces (see R. Eitner, _Bibl. der Musiksammelwerke des 16. +und 17. Jahrh._, Berlin, 1877). The library of Zwickau possesses a work +containing a collection of fifty-five songs by Finck, printed about the +middle of the 16th century. + + + + +FINCK, HERMANN (1527-1558), German composer, the great-nephew of +Heinrich Finck, was born on the 21st of March 1527 in Pirna, and died at +Wittenberg on the 28th of December 1558. After 1553 he lived at +Wittenberg, where he was organist, and there, in 1555, was published his +collection of "wedding songs." Few details of his life have been +preserved. His theoretical writing was good, particularly his +observations on the art of singing and of making ornamentations in song. +His most celebrated work is entitled _Practica musica, exempla variorum +signorum, proportionum, et canonum, judicium de tonis ac quaedam de arte +suaviter et artificiose cantandi continens_ (Wittenberg, 1556). It is of +great historic value, but very rare. + + + + +FINDEN, WILLIAM (1787-1852), English line engraver, was born in 1787. He +served his apprenticeship to one James Mitan, but appears to have owed +far more to the influence of James Heath, whose works he privately and +earnestly studied. His first employment on his own account was engraving +illustrations for books, and among the most noteworthy of these early +plates were Smirke's illustrations to Don Quixote. His neat style and +smooth finish made his pictures very attractive and popular, and +although he executed several large plates, his chief work throughout his +life was book illustration. His younger brother, Edward Finden, worked +in conjunction with him, and so much demand arose for their productions +that ultimately a company of assistants was engaged, and plates were +produced in increasing numbers, their quality as works of art declining +as their quantity rose. The largest plate executed by William Finden was +the portrait of King George IV. seated on a sofa, after the painting by +Sir Thomas Lawrence. For this work he received two thousand guineas, a +sum larger than had ever before been paid for an engraved portrait. +Finden's next and happiest works on a large scale were the "Highlander's +Return" and the "Village Festival," after Wilkie. Later in life he +undertook, in co-operation with his brother, aided by their numerous +staff, the publication as well as the production of various galleries of +engravings. The first of these, a series of landscape and portrait +illustrations to the life and works of Byron, appeared in 1833 and +following years, and was very successful. But by his _Gallery of British +Art_ (in fifteen parts, 1838-1840), the most costly and best of these +ventures, he lost the fruits of all his former success. Finden's last +undertaking was an engraving on a large scale of Hilton's "Crucifixion." +The plate was bought by the Art Union for L1470. He died in London on +the 20th of September 1852. + + + + +FINDLATER, ANDREW (1810-1885), Scottish editor, was born in 1810 near +Aberdour, Aberdeenshire, the son of a small farmer. By hard study in the +evening, after his day's work on the farm was finished, he qualified +himself for entrance at Aberdeen University, and after graduating as +M.A. he attended the Divinity classes with the idea of entering the +ministry. In 1853 he began that connexion with the firm of W. & R. +Chambers which gave direction to his subsequent activity. His first +engagement was the editing of a revised edition of their _Information +for the People_ (1857). In this capacity he gave evidence of qualities +and acquirements that marked him as a suitable editor for _Chambers's +Encyclopaedia_, then projected, and his was the directing mind that gave +it its character. Many of the more important articles were written by +him. This work occupied him till 1868, and he afterwards edited a +revised edition (1874). He also had charge of other publications for the +same firm, and wrote regularly for the _Scotsman_. In 1864 he was made +LL.D. of Aberdeen University. In 1877 he gave up active work for +Chambers, but his services were retained as consulting editor. He died +in Edinburgh on the 1st of January 1885. + + + + +FINDLAY, SIR GEORGE (1829-1893), English railway manager, was of pure +Scottish descent, and was born at Rainhill, in Lancashire, on the 18th +of May 1829. For some time he attended Halifax grammar school, but left +at the age of fourteen, and began to learn practical masonry on the +Halifax railway, upon which his father was then employed. Two years +later he obtained a situation on the Trent Valley railway works, and +when that line was finished in 1847 went up to London. There he was for +a short time among the men employed in building locomotive sheds for the +London & North-Western railway at Camden Town, and years afterwards, +when he had become general manager of that railway, he was able to point +out stones which he had dressed with his own hands. For the next two or +three years he was engaged in a higher capacity as supervisor of the +mining and brickwork of the Harecastle tunnel on the North Staffordshire +line, and of the Walton tunnel on the Birkenhead, Lancashire & Cheshire +Junction railway. In 1850 the charge of the construction of a section of +the Shrewsbury & Hereford line was entrusted to him, and when the line +was opened for traffic T. Brassey, the contractor, having determined to +work it himself, installed him as manager. In the course of his duties +he was brought for the first time into official relations with the +London & North-Western railway, which had undertaken to work the +Newport, Abergavenny & Hereford line, and he ultimately passed into the +service of that company, when in 1862, jointly with the Great Western, +it leased the railway of which he was manager. In 1864 he was moved to +Euston as general goods manager, in 1872 he became chief traffic +manager, and in 1880 he was appointed full general manager; this last +post he retained until his death, which occurred on the 26th of March +1893 at Edgware, Middlesex. He was knighted in 1892. Sir George Findlay +was the author of a book on the _Working and Management of an English +Railway_ (London, 1889), which contains a great deal of information, +some of it not easily accessible to the general public, as to English +railway practice about the year 1890. + + + + +FINDLAY, JOHN RITCHIE (1824-1898), Scottish newspaper owner and +philanthropist, was born at Arbroath on the 21st of October 1824, and +was educated at Edinburgh University. He entered first the publishing +office and then the editorial department of the _Scotsman_, became a +partner in the paper in 1868, and in 1870 inherited the greater part of +the property from his great uncle, John Ritchie, the founder. The large +increase in the influence and circulation of the paper was in a great +measure due to his activity and direction, and it brought him a fortune, +which he spent during his lifetime in public benefaction. He presented +to the nation the Scottish National Portrait Gallery, opened in +Edinburgh in 1889, and costing over L70,000; and he contributed largely +to the collections of the Scottish National Gallery. He held numerous +offices in antiquarian, educational and charitable societies, showing +his keen interest in these matters, but he avoided political office and +refused the offer of a baronetcy. The freedom of Edinburgh was given him +in 1896. He died at Aberlour, Banffshire, on the 16th of October 1898. + + + + +FINDLAY, a city and the county-seat of Hancock county, Ohio, U.S.A., on +Blanchard's Fork of the Auglaize river, about 42 m. S. by W. of Toledo. +Pop. (1890) 18,553; (1900) 17,613, (1051 foreign-born); (1910) 14,858. +It is served by the Cleveland, Cincinnati, Chicago & St Louis, the +Cincinnati, Hamilton & Dayton, the Lake Erie & Western, and the Ohio +Central railways, and by three interurban electric railways. Findlay +lies about 780 ft. above sea-level on gently rolling ground. The city is +the seat of Findlay College (co-educational), an institution of the +Church of God, chartered in 1882 and opened in 1886; it has collegiate, +preparatory, normal, commercial and theological departments, a school of +expression, and a conservatory of music, and in 1907 had 588 students, +the majority of whom were in the conservatory of music. Findlay is the +centre of the Ohio natural gas and oil region, and lime and building +stone abound in the vicinity. Among manufactures are refined petroleum, +flour and grist-mill products, glass, boilers, bricks, tile, pottery, +bridges, ditching machines, carriages and furniture. The total value of +the factory product in 1905 was $2,925,309, an increase of 73.6% since +1900. The municipality owns and operates the water-works. Findlay was +laid out as a town in 1821, was incorporated as a village in 1838, and +was chartered as a city in 1890. The city was named in honour of Colonel +James Findlay (c. 1775-1835), who built a fort here during the war of +1812; he served in this war under General William Hull, and from 1825 to +1833 was a Democratic representative in Congress. + + + + +FINE, a word which in all its senses goes back to the Lat. _finire_, to +bring to an end (_finis_). Thus in the common adjectival meanings of +elegant, thin, subtle, excellent, reduced in size, &c., it is in origin +equivalent to "finished." In the various substantival meanings in law, +with which this article deals, the common idea underlying them is an end +or final settlement of a matter. + +A fine, in the ordinary sense, is a pecuniary penalty inflicted for the +less serious offences. Fines are necessarily discretionary as to amount; +but a maximum is generally fixed when the penalty is imposed by statute. +And it is an old constitutional maxim that fines must not be +unreasonable. In Magna Carta, c. 111, it is ordained "_Liber homo non +amercietur pro parvo delicto nisi secundum modum ipsius delicti, et pro +magno delicto secundum magnitudinem delicti._" + +The term is also applied to payments made to the lord of a manor on the +alienation of land held according to the custom of the manor, to +payments made by a lessee on a renewal of a lease, and to other similar +payments. + +Fine also denotes a fictitious suit at law, which played the part of a +conveyance of landed property. "A fine," says Blackstone, "may be +described to be an amicable composition or agreement of a suit, either +actual or fictitious, by leave of the king or his justices, whereby the +lands in question become or are acknowledged to be the right of one of +the parties. In its original it was founded on an actual suit commenced +at law for the recovery of the possession of land or other +hereditaments; and the possession thus gained by such composition was +found to be so sure and effectual that fictitious actions were and +continue to be every day commenced for the sake of obtaining the same +security." Freehold estates could thus be transferred from one person to +another without the formal delivery of possession which was generally +necessary to a feoffment. This is one of the oldest devices of the law. +A statute of 18 Edward I. describes it as the most solemn and +satisfactory of securities, and gives a reason for its name--"Qui quidem +finis sic vocatur, eo quod finis et consummatio omnium placitorum esse +debet, et hac de causa providebatur." The action was supposed to be +founded on a breach of covenant: the defendant, owning himself in the +wrong,[1] makes overtures of compromise, which are authorized by the +_licentia concordandi_; then followed the concord, or the compromise +itself. These, then were the essential parts of the performance, which +became efficient as soon as they were complete; the formal parts were +the _notes_, or abstract of the proceedings, and the _foot_ of the fine, +which recited the final agreement. Fines were said to be of four kinds, +according to the purpose they had in view, as, for instance, to convey +lands in pursuance of a covenant, to grant revisionary interest only, +&c. In addition to the formal record of the proceedings, various +statutes required other solemnities to be observed, the great object of +which was to give publicity to the transaction. Thus by statutes of +Richard III. and Henry VII. the fine had to be openly read and +proclaimed in court no less than sixteen times. A statute of Elizabeth +required a list of fines to be exposed in the court of common pleas and +at assizes. The reason for these formalities was the high and important +nature of the conveyance, which, according to the act of Edward I. above +mentioned, "precludes not only those which are parties and privies to +the fine and their heirs, but all other persons in the world who are of +full age, out of prison, of sound memory, and within the four seas, the +day of the fine levied, unless they put in their claim on the foot of +the fine within a year and a day." This barring by _non-claim_ was +abolished in the reign of Edward III., but restored with an extension of +the time to five years in the reign of Henry VII. The effect of this +statute, intentional according to Blackstone, unintended and brought +about by judicial construction according to others, was that a +tenant-in-tail could bar his issue by a fine. A statute of Henry VIII. +expressly declares this to be the law. Fines, along with the kindred +fiction of recoveries, were abolished by the Fines and Recoveries Act +1833, which substituted a deed enrolled in the court of chancery. + +Fines are so generally associated in legal phraseology with recoveries +that it may not be inconvenient to describe the latter in the present +place. A recovery was employed as a means for evading the strict law of +entail. The purchaser or alienee brought an action against the +tenant-in-tail, alleging that he had no legal title to the land. The +tenant-in-tail brought a third person into court, declaring that he had +warranted his title, and praying that he might be ordered to defend the +action. This person was called the _vouchee_, and he, after having +appeared to defend the action, takes himself out of the way. Judgment +for the lands is given in favour of the plaintiff; and judgment to +recover lands of equal value from the vouchee was given to the +defendant, the tenant-in-tail. In real action, such lands when recovered +would have fallen under the settlement of entail; but in the fictitious +recovery the vouchee was a man of straw, and nothing was really +recovered from him, while the lands of the tenant-in-tail were +effectually conveyed to the successful plaintiff. A recovery differed +from a fine, as to _form_, in being an action carried through to the +end, while a fine was settled by compromise, and as to effect, by +barring all reversions and remainders in estates tail, while a fine +barred the issue only of the tenant. (See also EJECTMENT; PROCLAMATION.) + + +FOOTNOTE: + + [1] Hence called _cognizor_; the other party, the purchaser, is the + _cognizee_. + + + + +FINE ARTS, the name given to a whole group of human activities, which +have for their result what is collectively known as Fine Art. The arts +which constitute the group are the five greater arts of architecture, +sculpture, painting, music and poetry, with a number of minor or +subsidiary arts, of which dancing and the drama are among the most +ancient and universal. In antiquity the fine arts were not explicitly +named, nor even distinctly recognized, as a separate class. In other +modern languages besides English they are called by the equivalent name +of the beautiful arts (_belle arti_, _beaux arts_, _schone Kunste_). The +fine or beautiful arts then, it is usually said, are those among the +arts of man which minister, not primarily to his material necessities or +conveniences, but to his love of beauty; and if any art fulfils both +these purposes at once, still as fulfilling the latter only is it called +a fine art. Thus architecture, in so far as it provides shelter and +accommodation, is one of the useful or mechanical arts, and one of the +fine arts only in so far as its structures impress or give pleasure by +the aspect of strength, fitness, harmony and proportion of parts, by +disposition and contrast of light and shade, by colour and enrichment, +by variety and relation of contours, surfaces and intervals. But this, +the commonly accepted account of the matter, does not really cover the +ground. The idea conveyed by the words "love of beauty," even stretched +to its widest, can hardly be made to include the love of caricature and +the grotesque; and these are admittedly modes of fine art. Even the +terrible, the painful, the squalid, the degraded, in a word every +variety of the significant, can be so handled and interpreted as to be +brought within the province of fine art. A juster and more inclusive, +although clumsier, account of the matter might put it that the fine arts +are those among the arts of man which spring from his impulse to do or +make certain things in certain ways for the sake, first, of a special +kind of pleasure, independent of direct utility, which it gives him so +to do or make them, and next for the sake of the kindred pleasure which +he derives from witnessing or contemplating them when they are so done +or made by others. + +The nature of this impulse, and the several grounds of these pleasures, +are subjects which have given rise to a formidable body of speculation +and discussion, the chief phases of which will be found summarized under +the heading AESTHETICS. In the present article we have only to attend to +the concrete processes and results of the artistic activities of man; in +other words, we shall submit (1) a definition of fine art in general, +(2) a definition and classification of the principal fine arts +severally, (3) some observations on their historical development. + + +I. _Of Fine Art in General._ + + Premeditation essential to art. + +According to the popular and established distinction between art and +nature, the idea of Art (q.v.) only includes phenomena of which man is +deliberately the cause; while the idea of Nature includes all phenomena, +both in man and in the world outside him, which take place without +forethought or studied initiative of his own. Art, accordingly, means +every regulated operation or dexterity whereby we pursue ends which we +know beforehand; and it means nothing but such operations and +dexterities. What is true of art generally is of course also true of the +special group of the fine arts. One of the essential qualities of all +art is premeditation; and when Shelley talks of the skylark's profuse +strains of "unpremeditated art," he in effect lays emphasis on the fact +that it is only by a metaphor that he uses the word art in this case at +all; he calls attention to that which (if the songs of birds are as +instinctive as we suppose) precisely makes the difference between the +skylark's outpourings and his own. We are slow to allow the title of +fine art to natural eloquence, to charm or dignity of manner, to +delicacy and tact in social intercourse, and other such graces of life +and conduct, since, although in any given case they may have been +deliberately cultivated in early life, or even through ancestral +generations, they do not produce their full effect until they are so +ingrained as to have become unreflecting and spontaneous. When the +exigencies of a philosophic scheme lead some writers on aesthetics to +include such acts or traits of beautiful and expressive behaviour among +the deliberate artistic activities of mankind, we feel that an essential +distinction is being sacrificed to the exigencies of a system. That +distinction common parlance very justly observes, with its opposition of +"art" to "nature" and its phrase of "second nature" for those graces +which have become so habitual as to seem instinctive, whether originally +the result of discipline or not. When we see a person in all whose +ordinary movements there are freedom and beauty, we put down the charm +of these with good reason to inherited and inbred aptitudes of which the +person has never thought or long since ceased to think, and could not +still be thinking without spoiling the charm by self-consciousness; and +we call the result a gift of nature. But when we go on to notice that +the same person is beautifully and appropriately dressed, since we know +that it is impossible to dress without thinking of it, we put down the +charm of this to judicious forethought and calculation and call the +result a work of art. + + + The active and the passive pleasures of fine art. + +The processes then of fine art, like those of all arts properly so +called, are premeditated, and the property of every fine art is to give +to the person exercising it a special kind of active pleasure, and a +special kind of passive or receptive pleasure to the person witnessing +the results of such exercise. This latter statement seems to imply that +there exist in human societies a separate class producing works of fine +art and another class enjoying them. Such an implication, in regard to +advanced societies, is near enough the truth to be theoretically +admitted (like the analogous assumption in political economy that there +exist separate classes of producers and consumers). In developed +communities the gifts and calling of the artist constitute in fact a +separate profession of the creators or purveyors of fine art, while the +rest of the community are its enjoyers or recipients. In the most +primitive societies, apparently, this cannot have been so, and we can go +back to an original or rudimentary stage of almost every fine art at +which the separation between a class of producers or performers and a +class of recipients hardly exists. Such an original or rudimentary stage +of the dramatic art is presented by children, who will occupy themselves +for ever with mimicry and make-believe for their own satisfaction, with +small regard or none to the presence or absence of witnesses. The +original or rudimentary type of the profession of imitative sculptors or +painters is the cave-dweller of prehistoric ages, who, when he rested +from his day's hunting, first took up the bone handle of his weapon, and +with a flint either carved it into the shape, or on its surface +scratched the outlines, of the animals of the chase. The original or +rudimentary type of the architect, considered not as a mere builder but +as an artist, is the savage who, when his tribe had taken to live in +tents or huts instead of caves, first arranged the skins and timbers of +his tent or hut in one way because it pleased his eye, rather than in +some other way which was as good for shelter. The original type of the +artificer or adorner of implements, considered in the same light, was +the other savage who first took it into his head to fashion his club or +spear in one way rather than another for the pleasure of the eye only +and not for any practical reason, and to ornament it with tufts or +markings. In none of these cases, it would seem, can the primitive +artist have had much reason for pleasing anybody but himself. Again, the +original or rudimentary type of lyric song and dancing arose when the +first reveller clapped hands and stamped or shouted in time, in honour +of his god, in commemoration of a victory, or in mere obedience to the +blind stirring of a rhythmic impulse within him. To some very remote and +solitary ancestral savage the presence or absence of witnesses at such a +display may in like manner have been indifferent; but very early in the +history of the race the primitive dancer and singer joined hands and +voices with others of his tribe, while others again sat apart and looked +on at the performance, and the rite thus became both choral and social. +A primitive type of the instrumental musician is the shepherd who first +notched a reed and drew sounds from it while his sheep were cropping. +The father of all artists in dress and personal adornment was the first +wild man who tattooed himself or bedecked himself with shells and +plumes. In both of these latter instances, it may be taken as certain, +the primitive artist had the motive of pleasing not himself only, but +his mate, or the female whom he desired to be his mate, and in the last +instance of all the further motive of impressing his fellow-tribesmen +and striking awe or envy into his enemies. The tendency of recent +speculation and research concerning the origins of art has been to +ascribe the primitive artistic activities of man less and less to +individual and solitary impulse, and more and more to social impulse and +the desire of sharing and communicating pleasure. (The writer who has +gone furthest in developing this view, and on grounds of the most +careful study of evidence, has been Dr Yrjo Hirn of Helsingfors.) +Whatever relative parts the individual and the social impulses may have +in fact played at the outset, it is clear that what any one can enjoy or +admire by himself, whether in the way of mimicry, of rhythmical +movements or utterances, of imitative or ornamental carving and drawing, +of the disposition and adornment of dwelling-places and utensils--the +same things, it is clear, others are able also to enjoy or admire with +him. And so, with the growth of societies, it came about that one class +of persons separated themselves and became the ministers or producers of +this kind of pleasures, while the rest became the persons ministered to, +the participators in or recipients of the pleasures. Artists are those +members of a society who are so constituted as to feel more acutely than +the rest certain classes of pleasures which all can feel in their +degree. By this fact of their constitution they are impelled to devote +their active powers to the production of such pleasures, to the making +or doing of some of those things which they enjoy so keenly when they +are made and done by others. At the same time the artist does not, by +assuming these ministering or creative functions, surrender his enjoying +or receptive functions. He continues to participate in the pleasures of +which he is himself the cause, and remains a conscious member of his own +public. The architect, sculptor, painter, are able respectively to +stand off from and appreciate the results of their own labours; the +singer enjoys the sound of his own voice, and the musician of his own +instrument; the poet, according to his temperament, furnishes the most +enthusiastic or the most fastidious reader for his own stanzas. Neither, +on the other hand, does the person who is a habitual recipient from +others of the pleasures of fine art forfeit the privilege of producing +them according to his capabilities, and of becoming, if he has the +power, an _amateur_ or occasional artist. + + + Pleasures of fine art disinterested. + +Most of the common properties which have been recognized by consent as +peculiar to the group of fine arts will be found on examination to be +implied in, or deducible from, the one fundamental character generally +claimed for them, namely, that they exist independently of direct +practical necessity or utility. Let us take, first, a point relating to +the frame of mind of the recipient, as distinguished from the producer, +of the pleasures of fine art. It is an observation as old as Aristotle +that such pleasures differ from most other pleasures of experience in +that they are disinterested, in the sense that they are not such as +nourish a man's body nor add to his riches; they are not such as can +gratify him, when he receives them, by the sense of advantage or +superiority over his fellow-creatures; they are not such as one human +being can in any sense receive exclusively from the object which bestows +them. Thus it is evidently characteristic of a beautiful building that +its beauty cannot be monopolized, but can be seen and admired by the +inhabitants of a whole city and by all visitors for all generations. The +same thing is true of a picture or a statue, except in so far as an +individual possessor may choose to keep such a possession to himself, in +which case his pride in exclusive ownership is a sentiment wholly +independent of his pleasure in artistic contemplation. Similarly, music +is composed to be sung or played for the enjoyment of many at a time, and +for such enjoyment a hundred years hence as much as to-day. Poetry is +written to be read by all readers for ever who care for the ideas and +feelings of the poet, and can apprehend the meaning and melody of his +language. Hence, though we can speak of a class of the producers of fine +art, we cannot speak of a class of its consumers, only of its recipients +or enjoyers. If we consider other pleasures which might seem to be +analogous to those of fine art, but to which common consent yet declines +to allow that character, we shall see that one reason is that such +pleasures are not in their nature thus disinterested. Thus the sense of +smell and taste have pleasures of their own like the senses of sight and +hearing, and pleasures neither less poignant nor very much less capable +of fine graduation and discrimination than those. Why, then, is the title +of fine art not claimed for any skill in arranging and combining them? +Why are there no recognized arts of savours and scents corresponding in +rank to the arts of forms, colours and sounds--or at least none among +Western nations, for in Japan, it seems, there is a recognized and finely +regulated social art of the combination and succession of perfumes? An +answer commonly given is that sight and hearing are intellectual and +therefore higher senses, that through them we have our avenues to all +knowledge and all ideas of things outside us; while taste and smell are +unintellectual and therefore lower senses, through which few such +impressions find their way to us as help to build up our knowledge and +our ideas. Perhaps a more satisfactory reason why there are no fine arts +of taste and smell--or let us in deference to Japanese modes leave out +smell, and say of taste only--is this, that savours yield only private +pleasures, which it is not possible to build up into separate and durable +schemes such that every one may have the benefit of them, and such as +cannot be monopolized or used up. If against this it is contended that +what the programme of a performance is in the musical art, the same is a +_menu_ in the culinary, and that practically it is no less possible to +serve up a thousand times and to a thousand different companies the same +dinner than the same symphony, we must fall back upon that still more +fundamental form of the distinction between the aesthetic and +non-aesthetic bodily senses, upon which the physiological psychologists +of the English school lay stress. We must say that the pleasures of +taste cannot be pleasures of fine art, because their enjoyment is too +closely associated with the most indispensable and the most strictly +personal of utilities, eating and drinking. To pass from these lower +pleasures to the highest; consider the nature of the delight derived from +the contemplation, by the person who is their object, of the signs and +manifestations of love. That at least is a beautiful experience; why is +the pleasure which it affords not an artistic pleasure either? Why, in +order to receive an artistic pleasure from human signs and manifestations +of this kind, are we compelled to go to the theatre and see them +exhibited in favour of a third person who is not really their object any +more than ourselves? This is so, for one reason, evidently, because of +the difference between art and nature. Not to art, but to nature and +life, belongs love where it is really felt, with its attendant train of +vivid hopes, fears, passions and contingencies. To art belongs love +displayed where it is not really felt; and in this sphere, along with +reality and spontaneousness of the display, and along with its momentous +bearings, there disappear all those elements of pleasure in its +contemplation which are not disinterested--the elements of personal +exultation and self-congratulation, the pride of exclusive possession or +acceptance, all these emotions, in short, which are summed up in the +lover's triumphant monosyllable, "Mine." Thus, from the lowest point of +the scale to the highest, we may observe that the element of personal +advantage or monopoly in human gratifications seems to exclude, them from +the kingdom of fine art. The pleasures of fine art, so far as concerns +their passive or receptive part, seem to define themselves as pleasures +of gratified contemplation, but of such contemplation only when it is +disinterested--which is simply another way of saying, when it is +unconcerned with ideas of utility. + + + An objection and its answer. + +Modern speculation has tended in some degree to modify and obscure this +old and established view of the pleasures of fine art by urging that the +hearer or spectator is not after all so free from self-interest as he +seems; that in the act of artistic contemplation he experiences an +enhancement or expansion of his being which is in truth a gain of the +egoistic kind; that in witnessing a play, for instance, a large part of +his enjoyment consists in sympathetically identifying himself with the +successful lover or the virtuous hero. All this may be true, but does +not really affect the argument, since at the same time he is well aware +that every other spectator or auditor present may be similarly engaged +with himself. At most the objection only requires us to define a little +more closely, and to say that the satisfactions of the ego excluded from +among the pleasures of fine art are not these ideal, sympathetic, +indirect satisfactions, which every one can share together, but only +those which arise from direct, private and incommunicable advantage to +the individual. + + + Fine arts cannot be practised by rule and precept. + +Next, let us consider another generally accepted observation concerning +the nature of the fine arts, and one, this time, relating to the +disposition and state of mind of the practising artist himself. While +for success in other arts it is only necessary to learn their rules and +to apply them until practice gives facility, in the fine arts, it is +commonly and justly said, rules and their application will carry but a +little way towards success. All that can depend on rules, on knowledge, +and on the application of knowledge by practice, the artist must indeed +acquire, and the acquisition is often very complicated and laborious. +But outside of and beyond such acquisitions he must trust to what is +called genius or imagination, that is, to the spontaneous working +together of an incalculably complex group of faculties, reminiscences, +preferences, emotions, instincts in his constitution. This +characteristic of the activities of the artist is a direct consequence +or corollary of the fundamental fact that the art he practices is +independent of utility. A utilitarian end is necessarily a determinate +and prescribed end, and to every end which is determinate and prescribed +there must be one road which is the best. Skill in any useful art means +knowing practically, by rules and the application of rules, the best +road to the particular ends of that art. Thus the farmer, the engineer, +the carpenter, the builder so far as he is not concerned with the look +of his buildings, the weaver so far as he is not concerned with the +designing of the patterns which he weaves, possesses each his peculiar +skill, but a skill to which fixed problems are set, and which, if it +indulges in new inventions and combinations at all, can indulge them +only for the sake of an improved solution of those particular problems. +The solution once found, the invention once made, its rules can be +written down, or at any rate its practice can be imparted to others who +will apply it in their turn. Whereas no man can write down, in a way +that others can act upon, how Beethoven conquered unknown kingdoms in +the world of harmony, or how Rembrandt turned the aspects of gloom, +squalor and affliction into pictures as worthy of contemplation as those +into which the Italians before him had turned the aspects of spiritual +exaltation and shadowless day. The reason why the operations of the +artist thus differ from the operations of the ordinary craftsman or +artificer is that his ends, being ends other than useful, are not +determinate nor fixed as theirs are. He has large liberty to choose his +own problems, and may solve each of them in a thousand different ways +according to the prompting of his own ordering or creating instincts. +The musical composer has the largest liberty of all. Having learned what +is learnable in his art, having mastered the complicated and laborious +rules of musical form, having next determined the particular class of +the work which he is about to compose, he has then before him the whole +inexhaustible world of appropriate successions and combinations of +emotional sound. He is merely directed and not fettered, in the case of +song, cantata, oratorio or opera, by the sense of the words which he has +to set. The value of the result depends absolutely on his possessing or +failing to possess powers which can neither be trained in nor +communicated to any man. And this double freedom, alike from practical +service and from the representation of definite objects, is what makes +music in a certain sense the typical fine art, or art of arts. +Architecture shares one-half of this freedom. It has not to copy or +represent natural objects; for this service it calls in sculpture to its +aid; but architecture is without the other half of freedom altogether. +The architect has a sphere of liberty in the disposition of his masses, +lines, colours, alternations of light and shadow, of plain and +ornamented surface, and the rest; but upon this sphere he can only enter +on condition that he at the same time fulfils the strict practical task +of supplying the required accommodation, and obeys the strict mechanical +necessities imposed by the laws of weight, thrust, support, resistance +and other properties of solid matter. The sculptor again, the painter, +the poet, has each in like manner his sphere of necessary facts, rules +and conditions corresponding to the nature of his task. The sculptor +must be intimately versed both in the surface aspects and the inner +mechanism of the human frame alike in rest and motion, and in the rules +and conditions for its representation in solid form; the painter in a +much more extended range of natural facts and appearances, and the rules +and conditions for representing them on a plane surface; the poet's art +of words has its own not inconsiderable basis of positive and +disciplined acquisition. So far as rules, precepts, formulas and other +communicable laws or secrets can carry the artist, so far also the +spectator can account for, analyse, and, so to speak, tabulate the +effects of his art. But the essential character of the artist's +operation, its very bloom and virtue, lies in those parts of it which +fall outside this range of regulation on the one hand and analysis on +the other. His merit varies according to the felicity with which he is +able, in that region, to exercise his free choice and frame his +individual ideal, and according to the tenacity with which he strives to +grasp and realize his choice, or to attain perfection according to that +ideal. + + + Fine arts and machinery: "art manufactures." + +In this connexion the question naturally arises, In what way do the +progress and expansion of mechanical art affect the power and province +of fine art? The great practical movement of the world in our age is a +movement for the development of mechanical inventions and multiplication +of mechanical products. So far as these inventions are applied to +purposes purely useful, and so far as their products to not profess to +offer anything delightful to contemplation, this movement in no way +concerns our argument. But there is a vast multitude of products which +do profess qualities of pleasantness, and upon which the ornaments +intended to make them pleasurable are bestowed by machinery; and in +speaking of these we are accustomed to the phrases art-industry, +industrial art, art manufactures and the like. In these cases the +industry or ingenuity which directs the machine is not fine art at all, +since the object of the machine is simply to multiply as easily and as +perfectly as possible a definite and prescribed impress or pattern. This +is equally true whether the machine is a simple one, like the engraver's +press, for producing and multiplying impressions from an engraved plate, +or a highly complex one, like the loom, in which elaborate patterns of +carpet or curtain are set for weaving. In both cases there exists behind +the mechanical industry an industry which is one of fine art in its +degree. In the case of the engraver's press, there exists behind the +industry of the printer the art of the engraver, which, if the engraver +is also the free inventor of the design, is then a fine art, or, if he +is but the interpreter of the invention of another, is then in its turn +a semi-mechanical skill applied in aid of the fine art of the first +inventor. In the case of the weaver's loom there is, behind the +mechanical industry which directs the loom at its given task, the fine +art, or what ought to be the fine art, of the designer who has contrived +the pattern. In the case of the engraving, the mechanical industry of +printing only exists for the sake of bringing out and disseminating +abroad the fine art employed upon the design. In the case of the carpet +or curtain, the fine art is often only called in to make the product of +the useful or mechanical industry of the loom acceptable, since the eye +of man is so constituted as to receive pleasure or the reverse of +pleasure from whatever it rests upon, and it is to the interest of the +manufacturer to have his product so made as to give pleasure if it can. +Whether the machine is thus a humble servant to the artist, or the +artist a kind of humble purveyor to the machine, the fine art in the +result is due to the former alone; and in any case it reaches the +recipient at second-hand, having been put in circulation by a medium not +artistic but mechanical. + + + Perfected machines: are they works of fine art? + +Again, with reference not to the application of mechanical contrivances +but to their invention; is not, it may be inquired, the title of artist +due to the inventor of some of the astonishingly complex and +astonishingly efficient machines of modern-times? Does he not spend as +much thought, labour, genius as any sculptor or musician in perfecting +his construction according to his ideal, and is not the construction +when it is done--so finished, so responsive in all its parts, so almost +human--is not that worthy to be called a work of fine art? The answer is +that the inventor has a definite and practical end before him; his ideal +is not _free_; he deserves all credit as the perfector of a particular +instrument for a prescribed function, but an artist, a free follower of +the fine arts, he is not; although we may perhaps have to concede him a +narrow sphere for the play of something like an artistic sense when he +contrives the proportion, arrangement, form or finish of the several +parts of his machine in one way rather than another, not because they +work better so but simply because their look pleases him better. + + + Fine arts called a kind of play. + +Returning from this digression, let us consider one common observation +more on the nature of the fine arts. They are activities, it is said, +which were put forth not because they need but because they like. They +have the activity to spare, and to put it forth in this way pleases +them. Fine art is to mankind what play is to the individual, a free and +arbitrary vent for energy which is not needed to be spent upon tasks +concerned with the conservation, perpetuation or protection of life. To +insist on the superfluous or optional character of the fine arts, to +call them the play or pastime of the human race as distinguished from +its inevitable and sterner tasks, is obviously only to reiterate our +fundamental distinction between the fine arts and the useful or +necessary. But the distinction, as expressed in this particular form, +has been interpreted in a great variety of ways and followed out to an +infinity of conclusions, conclusions regarding both the nature of the +activities themselves and the character and value of their results. + + + The play idea as worked out by the English associationists. + +For instance, starting from this saying that the aesthetic activities +are a kind of play, the English psychology of association goes back to +the spontaneous cries and movements of children, in which their +superfluous energies find a vent. It then enumerates pleasures of which +the human constitution is capable apart from direct advantage or +utility. Such are the primitive or organic pleasures of sight and +hearing, and the secondary or derivative pleasures of association or +unconscious reminiscence and inference that soon become mixed up with +these. Such are also the pleasures derived from following any kind of +mimicry, or representation of things real or like reality. The +association psychology describes the grouping within the mind of +predilections based upon these pleasures; it shows how the growing +organism learns to govern its play, or direct its superfluous energies, +in obedience to such predilections, till in mature individuals, and +still more in mature societies, a highly regulated and accomplished +group of leisure activities are habitually employed in supplying to a +not less highly cultivated group of disinterested sensibilities their +appropriate artistic pleasures. It is by Herbert Spencer that this view +has been most fully and systematically worked out. + + + By Plato. + +Again, in the views of an ancient philosopher, Plato, and a modern poet, +Schiller, the consideration that the artistic activities are in the +nature of play, and the manifestations in which they result independent +of realities and utilities, has led to judgments so differing as the +following. Plato held that the daily realities of things in experience +are not realities, indeed, but only far-off shows or reflections of the +true realities, that is, of certain ideal or essential forms which can +be apprehended as existing by the mind. Holding this, Plato saw in the +works of fine art but the reflections of reflections, the shows of +shows, and depreciated them according to their degree of remoteness from +the ideal, typical or sense-transcending existences. He sets the arts of +medicine, agriculture, shoemaking and the rest above the fine arts, +inasmuch as they produce something serious or useful ([Greek: +spoudaionti]). Fine art, he says, produces nothing useful, and makes +only semblances ([Greek: eidolopiike]), whereas what mechanical art +produces are utilities, and even in the ordinary sense realities +([Greek: autopoietike]). + + + By Schiller. + +In another age, and thinking according to another system, Schiller, so +far from holding thus cheap the kingdom of play and show, regarded his +sovereignty over that kingdom as the noblest prerogative of man. +Schiller wrote his famous _Letters on the Aesthetic Education of Man_ in +order to throw into popular currency, and at the same time to modify and +follow up in a particular direction, certain metaphysical doctrines +which had lately been launched upon the schools by Kant. The spirit of +man, said Schiller after Kant, is placed between two worlds, the +physical world or world of sense, and the moral world or world of will. +Both of these are worlds of constraint or necessity. In the sensible +world, the spirit of man submits to constraint from without; in the +moral world, it imposes constraint from within. So far as man yields to +the importunities of sense, in so far he is bound and passive, the +subject of outward shocks and victim of irrational forces. So far as he +asserts himself by the exercise of will, imposing upon sense and outward +things the dominion of the moral law within him, in so far he is free +and active, the rational lord of nature and not her slave. Corresponding +to these two worlds, he has within him two conflicting impulses or +impulsions of his nature, the one driving him towards one way of living, +the other towards another. The one, or sense-impulsion (_Stofftrieb_), +Schiller thinks of as that which enslaves the spirit of man as the +victim of matter, the other or moral impulsion (_Formtrieb_) as that +which enthrones it as the dictator of form. Between the two the +conflict at first seems inveterate. The kingdom of brute nature and +sense, the sphere of man's subjection and passivity, wages war against +the kingdom of will and moral law, the sphere of his activity and +control, and every conquest of the one is an encroachment upon the +other. Is there, then, no hope of truce between the two kingdoms, no +ground where the two contending impulses can be reconciled? Nay, the +answer comes, there is such a hope; such a neutral territory there +exists. Between the passive kingdom of matter and sense, where man is +compelled blindly to feel and be, and the active kingdom of law and +reason, where he is compelled sternly to will and act, there is a +kingdom where both sense and will may have their way, and where man may +give the rein to all his powers. But this middle kingdom does not lie in +the sphere of practical life and conduct. It lies in the sphere of those +activities which neither subserve any necessity of nature nor fulfil any +moral duty. Towards activities of this kind we are driven by a third +impulsion of our nature not less essential to it than the other two, the +impulsion, as Schiller calls it, of Play (_Spieltrieb_). Relatively to +real life and conduct, play is a kind of harmless show; it is that which +we are free to do or leave undone as we please, and which lies alike +outside the sphere of needs and duties. In play we may do as we like, +and no mischief will come of it. In this sphere man may put forth all +his powers without risk of conflict, and may invent activities which +will give a complete ideal satisfaction to the contending faculties of +sense and will at once, to the impulses which bid him feel and enjoy the +shocks of physical and outward things, and the impulse which bids him +master such things, control and regulate them. In play you may impose +upon Matter what Form you choose, and the two will not interfere with +one another or clash. The kingdom of Matter and the kingdom of Form thus +harmonized, thus reconciled by the activities of play and show, will in +other words be the kingdom of the Beautiful. Follow the impulsion of +play, and to the beautiful you will find your road; the activities you +will find yourself putting forth will be the activities of aesthetic +creation--you will have discovered or invented the fine arts. +"Midway"--these are Schiller's own words--"midway between the formidable +kingdom of natural forces and the hallowed kingdom of moral laws, the +impulse of aesthetic creation builds up a third kingdom unperceived, the +gladsome kingdom of play and show, wherein it emancipates man from all +compulsion alike of physical and of moral forces." Schiller, the poet +and enthusiast, thus making his own application of the Kantian +metaphysics, goes on to set forth how the fine arts, or activities of +play and show, are for him the typical, the ideal activities of the +race, since in them alone is it possible for man to put forth his whole, +that is his ideal self. "Only when he plays is man really and truly +man." "Man ought only to play with the beautiful, and he ought to play +with the beautiful only." "Education in taste and beauty has for its +object to train up in the utmost attainable harmony the whole sum of the +powers both of sense and spirit." And the rest of Schiller's argument is +addressed to show how the activities of artistic creation, once +invented, react upon other departments of human life, how the exercise +of the play impulse prepares men for an existence in which the +inevitable collision of the two other impulses shall be softened or +averted more and more. That harmony of the powers which clash so +violently in man's primitive nature, having first been found possible in +the sphere of the fine arts, reflects itself, in his judgment, upon the +whole composition of man, and attunes him, as an aesthetic being, into +new capabilities for the conduct of his social existence. + + + The strong points of Schiller's theory. + +Our reasons for dwelling on this wide and enthusiastic formula of +Schiller's are both its importance in the history of reflection--it +remained, indeed, for nearly a century a formula almost classical--and +the measure of positive value which it still retains. The notion of a +sphere of voluntary activity for the human spirit, in which, under no +compulsion of necessity or conscience, we order matters as we like them +apart from any practical end, seems coextensive with the widest +conception of fine art and the fine arts as they exist in civilized and +developed communities. It insists on and brings into the light the free +or optional character of these activities, as distinguished from others +to which we are compelled by necessity or duty, as well as the fact that +these activities, superfluous as they may be from the points of view of +necessity and of duty, spring nevertheless from an imperious and a +saving instinct of our nature. It does justice to the part which is, or +at any rate may be, filled in the world by pleasures which are apart +from profit, and by delights for the enjoyment of which men cannot +quarrel. It claims the dignity they deserve for those shows and pastimes +in which we have found a way to make permanent all the transitory +delights of life and nature, to turn even our griefs and yearnings, by +their artistic utterance, into sources of appeasing joy, to make amends +to ourselves for the confusion and imperfection of reality by conceiving +and imaging forth the semblances of things clearer and more complete, +since in contriving them we incorporate with the experiences we have had +the better experiences we have dreamed of and longed for. + + + Its weak points. + +One manifestly weak point of Schiller's theory is that though it asserts +that man ought only to play with the beautiful, and that he is his best +or ideal self only when he does so, yet it does not sufficiently +indicate what kinds of play are beautiful nor why we are moved to adopt +them. It does not show how the delights of the eye and spirit in +contemplating forms, colours and movements, of the ear and spirit in +apprehending musical and verbal sounds, or of the whole mind at once in +following the comprehensive current of images called up by poetry--it +does not clearly show how delights like these differ from those yielded +by other kinds of play or pastime, which are by common consent excluded +from the sphere of fine art. + + + Kinds of play which are not fine art. + +The chase, for instance, is a play or pastime which gives scope for any +amount of premeditated skill; it has pleasures, for those who take part +in it, which are in some degree analogous to the pleasures of the +artist; we all know the claims made on behalf of the noble art of +venerie (following true medieval precedent) by the knights and woodmen +of Sir Walter Scott's romances. It is an obvious reply to say that +though the chase is play to us, who in civilized communities follow it +on no plea of necessity, yet to a not remote ancestry it was earnest; in +primitive societies hunting does not belong to the class of optional +activities at all, but is among the most pressing of utilitarian needs. +But this reply loses much of its force since we have learnt how many of +the fine arts, however emancipated from direct utility now, have as a +matter of history been evolved out of activities primarily utilitarian. +It would be more to the point to remark that the pleasures of the +sportsman are the only pleasures arising from the chase; his exertions +afford pain to the victim, and no satisfaction to any class of +recipients but himself; or at least the sympathetic pleasures of the +lookers-on at a hunt or at a battle are hardly to be counted as +pleasures of artistic contemplation. The issue which they witness is a +real issue; the skilled endeavours with which they sympathize are put +forth for a definite practical result, and a result disastrous to one of +the parties concerned. + +What then, it may be asked, about athletic games and sports, which hurt +nobody, have no connexion with the chase, and give pleasure to thousands +of spectators? Here the difference is, that the event which excites the +spectator's interest and pleasure at a race or match or athletic contest +is not a wholly unreal or simulated event; it is less real than life, +but it is more real than art. The contest has no momentous practical +consequences, but it is a contest, an [Greek: athlos], all the same, in +which competitors put forth real strength, and one really wins and +others are defeated. Such a struggle, in which the exertions are real +and the issue uncertain, we follow with an excitement and a suspense +different in kind from the feelings with which we contemplate a +fictitious representation. For example, let the reader recall the +feelings with which he may have watched a real fencing bout, and compare +them with those with which he watches the simulated fencing bout in +Shakespeare's _Hamlet_. The instance is a crucial one, because in the +fictitious case the excitement is heightened by the introduction of the +poisoned foil, and by the tremendous consequences which we are aware +will turn, in the representation, on the issue. Yet because the fencing +scene in _Hamlet_ is a representation, and not real, we find ourselves +watching it in a mood quite different from that in which we watch the +most ordinary real fencing-match with vizors and blunt foils; a mood +more exalted, if the representation is good, but amid the aesthetic +emotions of which the fluctuations of strained, if trivial, suspense and +the eagerness of sympathetic participation find no place. "The delight +of tragedy," says Johnson, "proceeds from our consciousness of fiction; +if we thought murders and treasons real, they would please no more." So +does the peculiar quality of our pleasure in watching the fencing-match +in _Hamlet_, or the wrestling-match in _As You Like It_, depend on our +consciousness of fiction: if we thought the matches real they might +please us still, but please us in a different way. Again, of athletics +in general, they are pursuits to a considerable degree definitely +utilitarian, having for their specific end the training and +strengthening of individual human bodies. Nevertheless, in some systems +the title of fine arts has been consistently claimed, if not for +athletics technically so called, and involving the idea of competition +and defeat, at any rate for gymnastics, regarded simply as a display of +the physical frame of man cultivated by exercise--as, for instance, it +was cultivated by the ancient Greeks--to an ideal perfection of beauty +and strength. + + + The play theory in the light of anthropological research. + +But apart from criticisms like these on the theory of Schiller, the +Kantian doctrine of a metaphysical opposition between the senses and the +reason has for most minds of to-day lost its validity, and with it falls +away Schiller's derivative theory of a _Stofftrieb_ and a _Formtrieb_ +contending like enemies for dominion over the human spirit, with a +neutral or reconciling _Spieltrieb_ standing between them. Even taking +the existence of the _Spieltrieb_, or play-impulse, by itself as a plain +and indubitable fact in human nature, the theory that this impulse is +the general or universal source of the artistic activities of the race, +which seemed adequate to thinkers so far apart as Schiller and Herbert +Spencer, is found no longer to hold water. The tendency of recent +thought and study on these subjects has been to abandon the abstract or +dialectical method in favour of the methods of historical and +anthropological inquiry. In the light of these methods it is claimed +that the artistic activities of the race spring in point of fact from no +single source but from a number of different sources. It is admitted +that the play-impulse is one of these, and the allied and overlapping, +but not identical, impulse of mimicry or imitation another. But it is +urged at the same time that these twin impulses, rooted as they both are +among the primordial faculties both of men and animals, are far from +existing merely to provide a vent whereby the superfluous energies of +sentient beings may discharge themselves at pleasure, but are +indispensable utilitarian instincts, by which the young are led to +practise and rehearse in sport those activities the exercise of which in +earnest will be necessary to their preservation in the adult state. (The +researches of Professor Karl Groos in this field seem to be conclusive.) +A third impulse innate in man, though scarcely so primordial as the +other two, and one which the animals cannot share with him, is the +impulse of record or commemoration. Man instinctively desires, alike for +safety, use and pleasure, to perpetuate and hand on the memory of his +deeds and experiences whether by words or by works of his hands +contrived for permanence. This impulse of record is the most stimulating +ally of the impulse of mimicry or imitation, and perhaps a large part of +the arts usually put down as springing from the love of imitation ought +rather to be put down as springing from the commemorative or recording +impulse, using imitation as its necessary means. Granting the existence +in primitive man of these three allied impulses of play, of mimicry, and +of record, it is urged that they are so many distinct though contiguous +sources from which whole groups of the fine arts have sprung, and that +all three in their origin served ends primarily or in great part +utilitarian. Examining any of the rudimentary artistic activities of +primitive man already mentioned: the decoration of the person with +tattooings or strings of shells or teeth or feathers had primarily the +object of attracting or impressing the opposite sex, or terrifying an +enemy, or indicating the tribal relations of the person so adorned; some +of the same purposes were served by the scratches and tufts and markings +on weapons or utensils; the _graffiti_ or outline drawings of animals +incised by cave-dwellers on bones are surmised to have sprung in like +manner from the desire of conveying information, combined, probably, +sometimes with that of obtaining magic power over the things +represented; the erection of memorial shrines and images of all kinds, +from the rudest upwards, had among other purposes the highly practical +one of propitiating the spirits of the departed; and so on through the +whole range of kindred activities. It is contended, next, that such +activities only take on the character of rudimentary fine arts at a +certain stage of their evolution. Before they can assume that character, +they must come under the influence and control of yet another rooted and +imperious impulse in mankind. That is the impulse of emotional +self-expression, the instinct which compels us to seek relief under the +stimulus of pent-up feeling; an instinct, it is added, second only in +power to those which drive us to seek food, shelter, protection from +enemies, and satisfaction for-sexual desires. According to a law of our +constitution, the argument goes on, this need for emotional +self-expression finds itself fully satisfied only by certain modes of +activity; those, namely, which either have in themselves, or impress on +their products, the property of rhythm, that is, of regular interval and +recurrence, flow, order and proportion. Leaping, shouting, and clapping +hands is the human animal's most primitive way of seeking relief under +the pressure of emotion; so soon as one such animal found out that he +both expressed and relieved his emotions best, and communicated them +best to his fellows, when he moved in regular rhythm and shouted in +regular time and with regular changes of pitch, he ceased to be a mere +excited savage and became a primitive dancer, singer, musician--in a +word, artist. So soon as another found himself taking pleasure in +certain qualities of regular interval, pattern and arrangement of lines, +shapes, and colours, apart from all questions of purpose or utility, in +his tattooings and self-adornments, his decoration of tools or weapons +or structures for shelter or commemoration, he in like manner became a +primitive artist in ornamental and imitative design. + +The special qualities of pleasure felt and communicated by doing things +in one way rather than another, independently of direct utility, which +we indicated at the outset as characteristic of the whole range of the +fine arts, appear on this showing to be dependent primarily on the +response of our organic sensibilities of nerve and muscle, eye, ear and +brain to the stimulus of rhythm, (using the word in its widest sense) +imparted either to our own actions and utterances or to the works of our +hands. Such pleasures would seem to have been first experienced by man +directly, in the endeavour to find relief with limbs and voice from +states of emotional tension, and then incidentally, as a kind of +by-product arising and affording similar relief in the development of a +wide range of utilitarian activities. Into the nature of those organic +sensibilities, and the grounds of the relief they afford us when +gratified, it is the province of physiological and psychological +aesthetics to inquire: our business here is only with the activities +directed towards their satisfaction and the results of those activities +in the works of fine art. On the whole the account of the matter yielded +by the method of anthropological research, and here very briefly +summarized, may be accepted as answering more closely to the complex +nature of the facts than any of the accounts hitherto current; and so we +may expand our first tentative suggestion of a definition into one more +complete, which from the nature of the case cannot be very brief or +simple and must run somehow thus: _Fine art is everything which man does +or makes in one way rather than another, freely and with premeditation, +in order to express and arouse emotion, in obedience to laws of +rhythmic movement or utterance or regulated design, and with results +independent of direct utility and capable of affording to many permanent +and disinterested delight._ + + +II. _Of the Fine Arts severally._ + + Modes in which the five greater arts have been classified. + +_Architecture_, _sculpture_, _painting_, _music_ and _poetry_ are by +common consent, as has been said at the outset, the five principal or +greater fine arts practised among developed communities of men. It is +possible in thought to group these five arts in as many different orders +as there are among them different kinds of relation or affinity. One +thinker fixes his attention upon one kind of relations as the most +important, and arranges his group accordingly; another upon another; and +each, when he has done so, is very prone to claim for his arrangement +the virtue of being the sole essentially and fundamentally true. For +example, we may ascertain one kind of relations between the arts by +inquiring which is the simplest or most limited in its effects, which +next simplest, which another degree less simple, which least simple or +most complex of them all. This, the relation of progressive complexity +or comprehensiveness between the fine arts, is the relation upon which +Auguste Comte fixed his attention, and it yields in his judgment the +following order:--Architecture lowest in complexity, because both of the +kinds of effects which it produces and of the material conditions and +limitations under which it works; sculpture next; painting third; then +music; and poetry highest, as the most complex or comprehensive art of +all, both in its own special effects and in its resources for ideally +calling up the effects of all the other arts as well as all the +phenomena of nature and experiences of life. A somewhat similar grouping +was adopted, though from the consideration of a wholly different set of +relations, by Hegel. Hegel fixed his attention on the varying relations +borne by the idea, or spiritual element, to the embodiment of the idea, +or material element, in each art. Leaving aside that part of his +doctrine which concerns, not the phenomena of the arts themselves, but +their place in the dialectical world-plan or scheme of the universe, +Hegel said in effect something like this. In certain ages and among +certain races, as in Egypt and Assyria, and again in the Gothic age of +Europe, mankind has only dim ideas for art to express, ideas +insufficiently disengaged and realized, of which the expression cannot +be complete or lucid, but only adumbrated and imperfect; the +characteristic art of those ages is a symbolic art, with its material +element predominating over and keeping down its spiritual; and such a +symbolic art is architecture. In other ages, as in the Greek age, the +ideas of men have come to be definite, disengaged, and clear; the +characteristic art of such an age will be one in which the spiritual and +material elements are in equilibrium, and neither predominates over nor +keeps down the other, but a thoroughly realized idea is expressed in a +thoroughly adequate and lucid form; this is the mode of expression +called classic, and the classic art is sculpture. In other ages, again, +and such are the modern ages of Europe, the idea grows in power and +becomes importunate; the spiritual and material elements are no longer +in equilibrium, but the spiritual element predominates; the +characteristic arts of such an age will be those in which thought, +passion, sentiment, aspiration, emotion, emerge in freedom, dealing with +material form as masters or declining its shackles altogether; this is +the romantic mode of expression, and the romantic arts are painting, +music and poetry. A later systematizer, Lotze, fixed his attention on +the relative degrees of freedom or independence which the several arts +enjoy--their freedom, that is, from the necessity of either imitating +given facts of nature or ministering, as part of their task, to given +practical uses. In his grouping, instead of the order architecture, +sculpture, painting, music, poetry, music comes first, because it has +neither to imitate any natural facts nor to serve any practical end; +architecture next, because, though it is tied to useful ends and +material conditions, yet it is free from the task of imitation, and +pleases the eye in its degree, by pure form, light and shade, and the +rest, as music pleases the ear by pure sound; then, as arts all tied to +the task of imitation, sculpture, painting and poetry, taken in +progressive order according to the progressing comprehensiveness of +their several resources. + + + Place of the minor or subordinate fine arts. + +The thinker on these subjects has, moreover, to consider the enumeration +and classification of the lesser or subordinate fine arts. Whole +clusters or families of these occur to the mind at once; such as +_dancing_, an art subordinate to music, but quite different in kind; +_acting_, an art auxiliary to _poetry_, from which in kind it differs no +less; _eloquence_ in all kinds, so far as it is studied and not merely +spontaneous; and among the arts which fashion or dispose material +objects, _embroidery_ and the weaving of patterns, _pottery_, +_glassmaking_, _goldsmith's work_ and _jewelry_, _joiner's work_, +_gardening_ (according to the claim of some), and a score of other +dexterities and industries which are more than mere dexterities and +industries because they add elements of beauty and pleasure to elements +of serviceableness and use. To decide whether any given one of these has +a right to the title of fine art, and, if so, to which of the greater +fine arts it should be thought of as appended and subordinate, or +between which two of them intermediate, is often no easy task. + + + No one classification final or sufficient. + +The weak point of all classifications of the kind of which we have above +given examples is that each is intended to be final, and to serve +instead of any other. The truth is, that the relations between the +several fine arts are much too complex for any single classification to +bear this character. Every classification of the fine arts must +necessarily be provisional, according to the particular class of +relations which it keeps in view. And for practical purposes it is +requisite to bear in mind not one classification but several. Fixing our +attention, not upon complicated or problematical relations between the +various arts, but only upon their simple and undisputed relations, and +giving the first place in our consideration to the five greater arts of +architecture, sculpture, painting, music and poetry, we shall find at +least three principal modes in which every fine art either resembles or +differs from the rest. + + + First classification: the shaping and the speaking arts. + + 1. _The Shaping and the Speaking Arts_ (_or Arts of Form and Arts of + Utterance, or Arts of Space and Arts of Time)_.--Each of the greater + arts either makes something or not which can be seen and handled. The + arts which make something which can be seen and handled are + architecture, sculpture and painting. In the products or results of + all these arts external matter is in some way or another manually put + together, fashioned or disposed. But music and poetry do not produce + any results of this kind. What music produces is something that can be + heard, and what poetry produces is something that can be either heard + or read--which last is a kind of ideal hearing, having for its avenue + the eye instead of the ear, and for its material, written signs for + words instead of the spoken words themselves. Now what the eye sees + from any one point of view, it sees all at once; in other words, the + parts of anything we see fill or occupy not time but space, and reach + us from various points in space at a single simultaneous perception. + If we are at the proper distance we see at one glance a house from the + ground to the chimneys, a statue from head to foot, and in a picture + at once the foreground and background, and everything that is within + the four corners of the frame. There is, indeed, this distinction to + be drawn, that in walking round or through a temple, church, house or + any other building, new parts and proportions of the building unfold + themselves to view; and the same thing happens in walking round a + statue or turning it on a turntable: so that the spectator, by his own + motions and the time it takes to effect them, can impart to + architecture and sculpture something of the character of time arts. + But their products, as contemplated from any one point of view, are in + themselves solid, stationary and permanent in space. Whereas the parts + of anything we hear, or, reading, can imagine that we hear, fill or + occupy not space at all but time, and can only reach us from various + points in time through a continuous series of perceptions, or, in the + case of reading, of images raised by words in the mind. We have to + wait, in music, while one note follows another in a theme, and one + theme another in a movement; and in poetry, while one line with its + images follows another in a stanza, and one stanza another in a canto, + and so on. It is a convenient form of expressing both aspects of this + difference between the two groups of arts, to say that architecture, + sculpture and painting are arts which give shape to things in space, + or, more briefly, shaping arts; and music and poetry arts which give + utterance to things in time, or, more briefly, speaking arts. These + simple terms of the _shaping_ and the _speaking_ arts (the equivalent + of the Ger. _bildende und redende Kunste_) are not usual in English; + but they seem appropriate and clear; the simplest alternatives for + their use is to speak of the _manual_ and the _vocal_ arts, or the + arts of _space_ and the arts of _time_. This is practically, if not + logically, the most substantial and vital distinction upon which a + classification of the fine arts can be based. The arts which surround + us in space with stationary effects for the eye, as the house we live + in, the pictures on the walls, the marble figure in the vestibule, are + stationary, hold a different kind of place in our experience--not a + greater or a higher place, but essentially a different place--from the + arts which provide us with transitory effects in time, effects capable + of being awakened for the ear or mind at any moment, as a symphony is + awakened by playing and an ode by reading, but lying in abeyance until + we bid that moment come, and passing away when the performance or the + reading is over. Such, indeed, is the practical force of the + distinction that in modern usage the expression fine art, or even art, + is often used by itself in a sense which tacitly excludes music and + poetry, and signifies the group of manual or shaping arts alone. + + + Intermediate class of arts of motion. + + As between three of the five greater arts and the other two, the + distinction on which we are now dwelling is complete. Buildings, + statues, pictures, belong strictly to sight and space; to time and to + hearing, real through the ear, or ideal through the mind in reading, + belong music and poetry. Among the lesser or subordinate arts, + however, there are several in which this distinction finds no place, + and which produce, in space and time at once, effects midway between + the stationary or stable, and the transitory or fleeting. Such is the + _dramatic_ art, in which the actor makes with his actions and + gestures, or several actors make with the combination of their + different actions and gestures, a kind of shifting picture, which + appeals to the eyes of the witnesses while the sung or spoken words of + the drama appeal to their ears; thus making of them spectators and + auditors at once, and associating with the pure time art of words the + mixed time-and-space art of bodily movements. As all movement + whatsoever is necessarily movement through space, and takes time to + happen, so every other fine art which is wholly or in part an act of + movement partakes in like manner of this double character. Along with + acting thus comes _dancing_. Dancing, when it is of the mimic + character, may itself be a kind of acting; historically, indeed, the + dancer's art was the parent of the actor's; whether apart from or in + conjunction with the mimic element, dancing is an art in which bodily + movements obey, accompany, and, as it were, express or accentuate in + space the time effects of music. _Eloquence_ or oratory in like + manner, so far as its power depends on studied and premeditated + gesture, is also an art which to some extent enforces its primary + appeal through the ear in time by a secondary appeal through the eye + in space. So much for the first distinction, that between the shaping + or space arts and the speaking or time arts, with the intermediate and + subordinate class of arts which, like acting, dancing, oratory, add to + the pure time element a mixed time-and-space element. These last can + hardly be called shaping arts, because it is his own person, and not + anything outside himself, which the actor, the dancer, the orator + disposes or adjusts; they may perhaps best be called arts of motion, + or moving arts. + + + Second classification: the imitative and non-imitative arts. + + 2. _The Imitative and the Non-Imitative Arts._--Each art either does + or does not represent or imitate something which exists already in + nature. Of the five greater fine arts, those which thus represent + objects existing in nature are sculpture, painting and poetry. Those + which do not represent anything so existing are music and + architecture. On this principle we get a new grouping. Two shaping or + space arts and one speaking or time art now form the imitative group + of sculpture, painting and poetry; while one space art and one time + art form the non-imitative group of music and architecture. The mixed + space-and-time arts of the actor, and of the dancer, so far as he or + she is also a mimic, belong, of course, by their very name and nature, + to the imitative class. + + + The imitative functions of art according to Aristotle. + + It was the imitative character of the fine arts which chiefly occupied + the attention of Aristotle. But in order to understand the art + theories of Aristotle it is necessary to bear in mind the very + different meanings which the idea of imitation bore to his mind and + bears to ours. For Aristotle the idea of imitation or representation + (_mimesis_) was extended so as to denote the expressing, evoking or + making manifest of anything whatever, whether material objects or + ideas or feelings. Music and dancing, by which utterance or expression + is given to emotions that may be quite detached from all definite + ideas or images, are thus for him varieties of imitation. He says, + indeed, _most_ music and dancing, as if he was aware that there were + exceptions, but he does not indicate what the exceptions are; and + under the head of imitative music, he distinctly reckons some kinds of + instrumental music without words. But in our own more restricted + usage, to imitate means to copy, mimic or represent some existing + phenomenon, some definite reality of experience; and we can only call + those imitative arts which bring before us such things, either + directly by showing us their actual likeness, as sculpture does in + solid form, and as painting does by means of lines and colours on a + plane surface, or else indirectly, by calling up ideas or images of + them in the mind, as poetry and literature do by means of words. It is + by a stretch of ordinary usage that we apply the word imitation even + to this last way of representing things; since words are no true + likeness of, but only customary signs for, the thing they represent. + And those arts we cannot call imitative at all, which by combinations + of abstract sound or form express and arouse emotions unattended by + the recognizable likeness, idea or image of any definite thing. + + + Non-imitative character of music. + + Now the emotions of music when music goes along with words, whether in + the shape of actual song or even of the instrumental accompaniment of + song, are no doubt in a certain sense attended with definite ideas; + those, namely, which are expressed by the words themselves. But the + same ideas would be conveyed to the mind equally well by the same + words if they were simply spoken. What the music contributes is a + special element of its own, an element of pure emotion, aroused + through the sense of hearing, which heightens the effect of the words + upon the feelings without helping to elucidate them for the + understanding. Nay, it is well known that a song well sung produces + its intended effect upon the feelings almost as fully though we fail + to catch the words or are ignorant of the language to which they + belong. Thus the view of Aristotle cannot be defended on the ground + that he was familiar with music only in an elementary form, and + principally as the direct accompaniment of words, and that in his day + the modern development of the art, as an art for building up + constructions of independent sound, vast and intricate fabrics of + melody and harmony detached from words, was a thing not yet imagined. + That is perfectly true; the immense technical and intellectual + development of music, both in its resources and its capacities, is an + achievement of the modern world; but the essential character of + musical sound is the same in its most elementary as in its most + complicated stage. Its privilege is to give delight, not by + communicating definite ideas, or calling up particular images, but by + appealing to certain organic sensibilities in our nerves of hearing, + and through such appeal expressing on the one part and arousing on the + other a unique kind of emotion. The emotion caused by music may be + altogether independent of any ideas conveyable by words. Or it may + serve to intensify and enforce other emotions arising at the same time + in connexion with the ideas conveyed by words; and it was one of the + contentions of Richard Wagner that in the former phase the art is now + exhausted, and that only in the latter are new conquests in store for + it. But in either case the music is the music, and _is like nothing + else_; it is no representation or similitude of anything whatsoever. + + + An objection and its answer. + + But does not instrumental music, it will be said, sometimes really + imitate the sounds of nature, as the piping of birds, the whispering + of woods, the moaning of storms or explosion of thunder; or does it + not, at any rate, suggest these things by resemblances so close that + they almost amount in the strict sense to imitation? Occasionally, it + is true, music does allow itself these playful excursions into a + region of quasi-imitation or mimicry. It modifies the character of its + abstract sounds into something, so to speak, more concrete, and, + instead of sensations which are like nothing else, affords us + sensations which recognizably resemble those we receive from some of + the sounds of nature. But such excursions are hazardous, and to make + them often is the surest proof of vulgarity in a musician. Neither are + the successful effects of the great composers in evoking ideas of + particular natural phenomena generally in the nature of real + imitations or representations; although passages such as the notes of + the dove and nightingale in Haydn's _Creation_, and of the cuckoo in + Beethoven's _Pastoral Symphony_, the bleating of the sheep in the _Don + Quixote_ symphony of Richard Strauss, must be acknowledged to be + exceptions. Again, it is a recognized fact concerning the effect of + instrumental music on those of its hearers who try to translate such + effect into words, that they will all find themselves in tolerable + agreement as to the meaning of any passage so long as they only + attempt to describe it in terms of vague emotion, and to say such and + such a passage expresses, as the case may be, dejection or triumph, + effort or the relaxation of effort, eagerness or languor, suspense or + fruition, anguish or glee. But their agreement comes to an end the + moment they begin to associate, in their interpretation, definite + ideas with these vague emotions; then we find that what suggests in + idea to one hearer the vicissitudes of war will suggest to another, or + to the same at another time, the vicissitudes of love, to another + those of spiritual yearning and aspiration, to another, it may be, + those of changeful travel by forest, field and ocean, to another those + of life's practical struggle and ambition. The infinite variety of + ideas which may thus be called up in different minds by the same + strain of music is proof enough that the music is not _like_ any + particular thing. The torrent of varied and entrancing emotion which + it pours along the heart, emotion latent and undivined until the spell + of sound begins, that is music's achievement and its secret. It is + this effect, whether coupled or not with a trained intellectual + recognition of the highly abstract and elaborate nature of the laws of + the relation, succession and combinations of sounds on which the + effect depends, that has caused some thinkers, with Schopenhauer at + their head, to find in music the nearest approach we have to a voice + from behind the veil, a universal voice expressing the central purpose + and deepest essence of things, unconfused by fleeting actualities or + by the distracting duty of calling up images of particular and + perishable phenomena. "Music," in Schopenhauer's own words, "reveals + the innermost essential being of the world, and expresses the highest + wisdom in a language the reason does not understand." + + + Definition of music. + + Aristotle endeavoured to frame a classification of the arts, in their + several applications and developments, on two grounds--the nature of + the objects imitated by each, and the means or instruments employed in + the imitation. But in the case of music, as it exists in the modern + world, the first part of this endeavour falls to the ground, because + the object imitated has, in the sense in which we now use the word + imitation, no existence. The means employed by music are successions + and combinations of vocal or instrumental sounds regulated according + to the three conditions of time and pitch (which together make up + melody) and harmony, or the relations of different strains of time and + tone cooperant but not parallel. With these means, music either + creates her independent constructions, or else accompanies, adorns, + enforces the imitative art of speech--but herself imitates not; and + may be best defined simply as _a speaking or time art, of which the + business is to express and arouse emotion by successions and + combinations of regulated sound_. + + + Non-imitative character of architecture. + + That which music is thus among the speaking or time-arts, architecture + is among the shaping or space-arts. As music appeals to our faculties + for taking pleasure in non-imitative combinations of transitory sound, + so architecture appeals to our faculties for taking pleasure in + non-imitative combinations of stationary mass. Corresponding to the + system of ear-effects or combinations of time, tone and harmony with + which music works, architecture works with a system of eye-effects or + combinations of mass, contour, light and shade; colour, proportion, + interval, alternation of plain and decorated parts, regularity and + variety in regularity, apparent stability, vastness, appropriateness + and the rest. Only the materials of architecture are not volatile and + intangible like sound, but solid timber, brick, stone, metal and + mortar, and the laws of weight and force according to which these + materials have to be combined are much more severe and cramping than + the laws of melody and harmony which regulate the combinations of + music. The architect is further subject, unlike the musician, to the + dictates and precise prescriptions of utility. Even in structures + raised for purposes not of everyday use and necessity, but of + commemoration or worship, the rules for such commemoration and such + worship have prescribed a more or less fixed arrangement and + proportion of the parts or members, whether in the Egyptian temple or + temple-tomb, the Greek temple or heroon, or in the churches of the + middle ages and Renaissance in the West. + + + Analogies of architecture and music. + + Hence the effects of architecture are necessarily less full of + various, rapturous and unforeseen enchantment than the effects of + music. Yet for those who possess sensibility to the pleasures of the + eye and the perfections of shaping art, the architecture of the great + ages has yielded combinations which, so far as comparison is + permissible between things unlike in their materials, fall little + short of the achievements of music in those kinds of excellence which + are common to them both. In the virtues of lucidity, of just + proportion and organic interdependence of the several parts or + members, in the mathematic subtlety of their mutual relations, and of + the transitions from one part or member to another, in purity and + finish of individual forms, in the character of one thing growing + naturally out of another and everything serving to complete the + whole--in these qualities, no musical combination can well surpass a + typical Doric temple such as the Parthenon at Athens. None, again, can + well surpass some of the great cathedrals of the middle ages in the + qualities of sublimity, of complexity, in the power both of expressing + and suggesting spiritual aspiration, in the invention of intricate + developments and ramifications about a central plan, in the union of + majesty in the main conception with fertility of adornment in detail. + In fancifulness, in the unexpected, in capricious and far-sought + opulence, in filling the mind with mingled enchantments of east and + west and south and north, music can hardly do more than a building + like St Mark's at Venice does with its blending of Byzantine elements, + Italian elements, Gothic elements, each carried to the utmost pitch of + elaboration and each enriched with a hundred caprices of ornament, but + all working together, all in obedience to a law, and "all beginning + and ending with the Cross." + + + Exceptional and limited admission of imitative forms in architecture. + + In the case of architecture, however, as in the case of music, the + non-imitative character must not be stated quite without exception or + reserve. There have been styles of architecture in which forms + suggesting or imitating natural or other phenomena have held a place + among the abstract forms proper to the art. Often the mode of such + suggestions is rather symbolical to the mind than really imitative to + the eye; as when the number and relations of the heavenly planets were + imaged by that race of astronomers, the Babylonians, in the seven + concentric walls of their great temple, and in many other + architectural constructions; or as when the shape of the cross was + adopted, with innumerable slight varieties and modifications, for the + ground plan of the churches of Christendom. Passing to examples of + imitation more properly so called, it may be true, and was, at any + rate, long believed, that the aisles of Gothic churches, when once the + use of the pointed arch had been evolved as a principle of + construction, were partly designed to evoke the idea of the natural + aisles of the forest, and that the upsoaring forest trunks and + meeting branches were more or less consciously imaged in their piers + and vaultings. In the temple-palaces of Egypt, one of the regular + architectural members, the sustaining pier, is often systematically + wrought in the actual likeness of a conventionalized cluster of lotus + stems, with lotus flowers for the capital. When we come to the + fashion, not rare in Greek architecture, of carving this same + sustaining member, the column, in complete human likeness, and + employing caryatids, canephori, atlases or the like, to support the + entablature of a building, it then becomes difficult to say whether we + have to do with a work of architecture or of sculpture. The case, at + any rate, is different from that in which the sculptor is called in to + supply surface decoration to the various members of a building, or to + fill with the products of his own art spaces in the building specially + contrived and left vacant for that purpose. When the imitative feature + is in itself an indispensable member of the architectural + construction, to architecture rather than sculpture we shall probably + do best to assign it. + + + Definition of architecture. + + Defining architecture, then (apart from its utility, which for the + present we leave out of consideration), as _a shaping art, of which + the function is to express and arouse emotion by combinations of + ordered and decorated mass_, we pass from the characteristics of the + non-imitative to those of the imitative group of arts, namely + sculpture, painting and poetry. + + + The imitative arts are arts of record using imitation as their means. + + If we keep in mind the source and origin of these arts, we must + remember what has already been observed, that they spring by no means + from man's love of imitation alone, but from his desire to record and + commemorate experience, using the faculty of imitation as his means. + Mnemosyne (Memory) was in Greek tradition the mother of the Muses; + imitation, in the sense above defined, is but their instrument. Hence + we might think "arts of record" a better name for this group than arts + of imitation. The answer is--but a large part of pure architecture is + also commemorative; from the pyramids and obelisks of Egypt down there + are many monuments in which the impulse of men to perpetuate their own + or others' memories has worked without any aid of imitation. Hence as + the definition of a class of arts contrasted with architecture and + music the name "arts of record" would fail; and we have to fall back + on the current and established name of the "imitative arts." In + considering them we cannot do better than follow that Aristotelian + division which describes each art according, first, to the objects + which it imitates, and, secondly, to the means it employs. + + + Sculpture as an imitative art. + + Taking sculpture first, as imitating a smaller range of objects than + the other two, and imitating them more completely: sculpture may have + for the objects of its imitation the shapes of whatever things possess + length, breadth and magnitude. For its means or instruments it has + solid form, which the sculptor either carves out of a hard substance, + as in the case of wood and stone, or models in a yielding substance, + as in the case of clay and wax, or casts in a dissolved or molten + substance, as in the case of plaster and of metal in certain uses, or + beats, draws or chases in a malleable and ductile substance, as in the + case of metal in other uses, or stamps from dies or moulds, a method + sometimes used in all soft or fusible materials. Thus a statue or + statuette may either be carved straight out of a block of stone or + wood, or first modelled in clay or wax, then moulded in plaster or + some equivalent material, and then carved in stone or cast in bronze. + A gem is wrought in stone by cutting and grinding. Figures in + jeweller's work are wrought by beating and chasing; a medallion by + beating and chasing or else by stamping from a die; a coin by stamping + from a die; and so forth. The process of modelling (Gr. [Greek: + plattein]) in a soft substance being regarded as the typical process + of the sculptor, the name _plastic art_ has been given to his + operations in general. + + + Sculpture in the round and in relief. + + In general terms, the task of sculpture is to imitate solid form with + solid form. But sculptured form may be either completely or + incompletely solid. Sculpture in completely solid form exactly + reproduces, whether on the original or on a different scale, the + relations or proportions of the object imitated in the three + dimensions of length, breadth and depth or thickness. Sculpture in + incompletely solid form reproduces the proportions of the objects with + exactness only so far as concerns two of its dimensions, namely, those + of length and breadth; while the third dimension, that of depth or + thickness, it reproduces in a diminished proportion, leaving it to the + eye to infer, from the partial degree of projection given to the work, + the full projection of the object imitated. The former, or completely + solid kind of sculpture, is called sculpture in the round; its works + stand free, and can be walked round and seen from all points. The + latter, or incompletely solid kind of sculpture, is called sculpture + in relief; its works do not stand free, but are engaged in or attached + to a background, and can only be seen from in front. According, in the + latter kind of sculpture, to its degree of projection from the + background, a work is said to be in high or in low relief. Sculpture + in the round and sculpture in relief are alike in this, that the + properties of objects which they imitate are their external forms as + defined by their outlines--that is, by the boundaries and + circumscriptions of their masses--and their light and shade--the + lights and shadows, that is, which diversify the curved surfaces of + the masses in consequence of their alternations and gradations of + projection and recession. But the two kinds of sculpture differ in + this. A work of sculpture in the round imitates the whole of the + outlines by which the object imitated is circumscribed in the three + dimensions of space, and presents to the eye, as the object itself + would do, a new outline succeeding the last every moment as you walk + round it. Whereas a work of sculpture in relief imitates only one + outline of any object; it takes, so to speak, a section of the object + as seen from a particular point, and traces on the background the + boundary-line of that particular section, merely suggesting, by + modelling the surface within such boundary according to a regular, but + a diminished, ratio of projection, the other outlines which the object + would present if seen from all sides successively. + + + Subjects proper for sculpture in the round. + + As sculpture in the round reproduces the real relations of a solid + object in space, it follows that the only kind of object which it can + reproduce with pleasurable effect according to the laws of regulated + or rhythmical design must be one not too vast or complicated, one that + can afford to be detached and isolated from its surroundings, and of + which all the parts can easily be perceived and apprehended in their + organic relations. Further, it will need to be an object interesting + enough to mankind in general to make them take delight in seeing it + reproduced with all its parts in complete imitation. And again, it + must be such that some considerable part of the interest lies in those + particular properties of outline, play of surface, and light and shade + which it is the special function of sculpture to reproduce. Thus a + sculptured representation in the round, say, of a mountain with cities + on it, would hardly be a sculpture at all; it could only be a model, + and as a model might have value; but value as a work of fine art it + could not have, because the object imitated would lack organic + definiteness and completeness; it would lack universality of interest, + and of the interest which it did possess, a very inconsiderable part + would depend upon its properties of outline, surface, and light and + shade. Obviously there is no kind of object in the world that so well + unites the required conditions for pleasurable imitation in sculpture + as the human body. It is at once the most complete of organisms, and + the shape of all others the most subtle as well as the most + intelligible in its outlines; the most habitually detached in active + or stationary freedom; the most interesting to mankind, because its + own; the richest in those particular effects, contours and + modulations, contrasts, harmonies and transitions of modelled surface + and circumscribing line, which it is the prerogative of sculpture to + imitate. Accordingly the object of imitation for this art is + pre-eminently the body of man or woman. That it has not been for the + sake of representing men and women as such, but for the sake of + representing gods in the likeness of men and women, that the human + form has been most enthusiastically studied, does not affect this fact + in the theory of the art, though it is a consideration of great + importance in its history. Besides the human form, sculpture may + imitate the forms of those of the lower animals whose physical + endowments have something of a kindred perfection, with other natural + or artificial objects as may be needed merely by way of accessory or + symbol. The body must for the purposes of this art be divested of + covering, or covered only with such tissues as reveal, translate or + play about without concealing it. Chiefly in lands and ages where + climate and social use have given the sculptor the opportunity of + studying human forms so draped or undraped has this art attained + perfection, and become exemplary and enviable to that of other races. + + + Subjects proper for sculpture in relief. + + Relief sculpture is more closely connected with architecture than the + other kind, and indeed is commonly used in subordination to it. But if + its task is thus somewhat different from that of sculpture in the + round, its principal objects of imitation are the same. The human body + remains the principal theme of the sculptor in relief; but the nature + of his art allows, and sometimes compels, him to include other objects + in the range of his imitation. As he has not to represent the real + depth or projection of things, but only to suggest them according to a + ratio which he may fix himself, so he can introduce into the third or + depth dimension, thus arbitrarily reduced, a multitude of objects for + which the sculptor in the round, having to observe the real ratio of + the three dimensions, has no room. He cam place one figure in slightly + raised outline emerging from behind the more fully raised outline of + another, and by the same system can add to his representation rocks, + trees, nay mountains and cities and birds on the wing. But the more he + uses this liberty the less will he be truly a sculptor. Solid + modelling, and real light and shade, are the special means or + instrument of effect which the sculptor alone among imitative artists + enjoys. Single outlines and contours, the choice of one particular + section and the tracing of its circumscription, are means which the + sculptor enjoys in common with the painter or draughtsman. And indeed, + when we consider works executed wholly or in part in very low relief, + whether Assyrian battle-pieces and hunting-pieces in alabaster or + bronze, or the backgrounds carved in bronze, marble or wood by the + Italian sculptors who followed the example set by Ghiberti at the + Renaissance, we shall see that the principle of such work is not the + principle of sculpture at all. Its effect depends little on qualities + of surface-light and shadow, and mainly on qualities of contour, as + traced by a slight line of shadow on the side away from the light, and + a slight line of light on the side next to it. And we may fairly + hesitate whether we shall rank the artist who works on this principle, + which is properly a graphic rather than a plastic principle, among + sculptors or among draughtsmen. The above are cases in which the + relief sculptor exercises his liberty in the introduction of other + objects besides human figures into his sculptured compositions. But + there is another kind of relief sculpture in which the artist has less + choice. That is, the kind in which the sculptor is called in to + decorate with carved work parts of an architectural construction which + are not adapted for the introduction of figure subjects, or for their + introduction only as features in a scheme of ornament that comprises + many other elements. To this head belongs most of the carving of + capitals, mouldings, friezes (except the friezes of Greek temples), + bands, cornices, and, in the Gothic style, of doorway arches, niches, + canopies, pinnacles, brackets, spandrels and the thousand members and + parts of members which that style so exquisitely adorned with true or + conventionalized imitations of natural forms. This is no doubt a + subordinate function of the art; and it is impossible, as we have seen + already, to find a precise line of demarcation between carving, in + this decorative use, which is properly sculpture, and that which + belongs properly to architecture. + + + Definition of sculpture. + + Leaving such discussions, we may content ourselves with the definition + of sculpture as _a shaping art, of which the business is to express + and arouse emotion by the imitation of natural objects, and + principally the human body, in solid form, reproducing either their + true proportions in three dimensions, or their proportions in the two + dimensions of length and breadth only, with a diminished proportion in + the third dimension of depth or thickness._ + + + Painting as an imitative art. + + In considering bas-relief as a form of sculpture, we have found + ourselves approaching the confines of the second of the shaping + imitative arts, the graphic art or art of painting. Painting, as to + its means or instruments of imitation, dispenses with the third + dimension altogether. It imitates natural objects by representing them + as they are represented on the retina of the eye itself, simply as an + assemblage of variously shaped and variously shaded patches of colour + on a flat surface. Painting does not reproduce the third dimension of + reality by any third dimension of its own whatever; but leaves the eye + to infer the solidity of objects, their recession and projection, + their nearness and remoteness, by the same perspective signs by which + it also infers those facts in nature, namely, by the direction of + their several boundary lines, the incidence and distribution of their + lights and shadows, the strength or faintness of their tones of + colour. + + + Range of objects imitable by painting. + + Hence this art has an infinitely greater range and freedom than any + form of sculpture. Near and far is all the same to it, and whatever + comes into the field of vision can come also into the field of a + picture; trees as well as persons, and clouds as well as trees, and + stars as well as clouds; the remotest mountain snows, as well as the + violet of the foreground, and far-off multitudes of people as well as + one or two near the eye. Whatever any man has seen, or can imagine + himself as seeing, that he can also fix by painting, subject only to + one great limitation,--that of the range of brightness which he is + able to attain in imitating natural colour illuminated by light. In + this particular his art can but correspond according to a greatly + diminished ratio with the effects of nature. But excepting this it can + do for the eye almost all that nature herself does; or at least all + that nature would do if man had only one eye since the three + dimensions of space produce upon our binocular machinery of vision a + particular stereoscopic effect of which a picture, with its two + dimensions only, is incapable. The range of the art being thus almost + unbounded, its selections have naturally been dictated by the varying + interest felt in this or that subject of representation by the + societies among whom the art has at various times been practised. As + in sculpture, so in painting, the human form has always held the first + place. For the painter, the intervention of costume between man and + his environment is not a misfortune in the same degree as it is for + the sculptor. For him, clothes of whatever fashion or amplitude have + their own charm; they serve to diversify the aspect of the world, and + to express the characters and stations, if not the physical frames, of + his personages; and he is as happy or happier among the brocades of + Venice as among the bare limbs of the Spartan palaestra. Along with + man, there come into painting all animals and vegetation, all man's + furniture and belongings, his dwelling-places, fields and landscape; + and in modern times also landscape and nature for their own sakes, + skies, seas, mountains and wildernesses apart from man. + + + The chief forms or modes of painting: line, light-and-shade and + colour. + + Besides the two questions about any art, what objects does it imitate, + and by the use of what means or instruments, Aristotle proposes (in + the case of poetry) the further question, which of several possible + forms does the imitation in any given case assume? We may transfer + very nearly the same inquiry to painting, and may ask, concerning any + painter, according to which of three possible systems he works. The + three possible systems are (1) that which attends principally to the + configuration and relations of natural objects as indicated by the + direction of their boundaries, for defining which there is a + convention in universal use, the convention, that is, of line; this + may be called for short the system of _line_; (2) that which attends + chiefly to their configuration and relations as indicated by the + incidence and distribution of their lights and shadows--this is the + system of _light-and-shade_ or _chiaroscuro_; and (3) that which + attends chiefly, not to their configuration at all, but to the + distribution, qualities and relations of local colours upon their + surface--this is the system of _colour_. It is not possible for a + painter to imitate natural objects to the eye at all without either + defining their boundaries by outlines, or suggesting the shape of + their masses by juxtapositions of light and dark or of local colours. + In the complete art of painting, of course, all three methods are + employed at once. But in what is known as outline drawing and outline + engraving, one of the three methods only is employed, line; in + monochrome pictures, and in shaded drawings and engravings, two only, + line with light-and-shade; and in the various shadeless forms of + decorative painting and colour-printing, two only, line with colour. + Even in the most accomplished examples of the complete art of + painting, as was pointed out by Ruskin, we find that there almost + always prevails a predilection for some one of these three parts of + painting over the other two. Thus among the mature Italians of the + Renaissance, Titian is above all things a painter in colour, + Michelangelo in line, Leonardo in light-and-shade. Many academic + painters in their day tried to combine the three methods in equal + balance; to the impetuous spirit of the great Venetian, Tintoretto, it + was alone given to make the attempt with a great measure of success. A + great part of the effort of modern painting has been to get rid of the + linear convention altogether, to banish line and develop the resources + of the oil medium in imitating on canvas, more strictly than the early + masters attempted, the actual appearance of things on the retina as an + assemblage of coloured streaks and patches modified and toned in the + play of light-and-shade and atmosphere. + + + Technical varieties of the painter's craft. + + It remains to consider, for the purpose of our classification, what + are the technical varieties of the painter's craft. Since we gave the + generic name of painting to all imitation of natural objects by the + assemblage of lines, colours and lights and darks on a single plane, + we must logically include as varieties of painting not only the + ordinary crafts of spreading or laying pictures on an opaque surface + in fresco, oil, distemper or water-colour, but also the craft of + arranging a picture to be seen by the transmission of light through a + transparent substance, in glass painting; the craft of fitting + together a multitude of solid cubes or cylinders so that their united + surface forms a picture to the eye, as in mosaic; the craft of + spreading vitreous colours in a state of fusion so that they form a + picture when hardened, as in enamel; and even, it would seem, the + crafts of weaving, tapestry, and embroidery, since these also yield to + the eye a plane surface figured in imitation of nature. As drawing we + must also count incised or engraved work of all kinds representing + merely the outlines of objects and not their modellings, as for + instance the _graffiti_ on Greek and Etruscan mirror-backs and + dressing-cases; while raised work in low relief, in which outlines are + plainly marked and modellings neglected, furnishes, as we have seen, a + doubtful class between sculpture and painting. In all figures that are + first modelled in the solid and then variously coloured, sculpture and + painting bear a common share; and by far the greater part both of + ancient and medieval statuary was in fact tinted so as to imitate or + at least suggest the colours of life. But as the special + characteristic of sculpture, solidity in the third dimension, is in + these cases present, it is to that art and not to painting that we + shall still ascribe the resulting work. + + + Definition of painting. + + With these indications we may leave the art of painting defined in + general terms as a _shaping or space art, of which the business is to + express and arouse emotion by the imitation of all kinds of natural + objects, reproducing on a plane surface the relations of their + boundary lines, lights and shadows, or colours, or all three of these + appearances together_. + + + Poetry as an imitative art. + + The next and last of the imitative arts is the speaking art of poetry. + The transition from sculpture and painting to poetry is, from the + point of view not of our present but of our first division among the + fine arts, abrupt and absolute. It is a transition from space into + time, from the sphere of material forms to the sphere of immaterial + images. Following Aristotle's method, we may define the objects of + poetry's imitation or evocation, as everything of which the idea or + image can be called up by words, that is, every force and phenomenon + of nature, every operation and result of art, every fact of life and + history, or every imagination of such a fact, every thought and + feeling of the human spirit, for which mankind in the course of its + long evolution has been able to create in speech an explicit and + appropriate sign. The means or instruments of poetry's imitation are + these verbal signs or words, arranged in lines, strophes or stanzas, + so that their sounds have some of the regulated qualities and direct + emotional effect of music. + + + The chief forms or modes of poetry. + + The three chief modes or forms of the imitation may still be defined + as they were defined by Aristotle himself. First comes the _epic_ or + narrative form, in which the poet speaks alternately for himself and + his characters, now describing their situations and feelings in his + own words, and anon making each of them speak in the first person for + himself. Second comes the _lyric_ form, in which the poet speaks in + his own name exclusively, and gives expression to sentiments which are + purely personal. Third comes the _dramatic_ form, in which the poet + does not speak for himself at all, but only puts into the mouths of + each of his personages successively such discourse as he thinks + appropriate to the part. The last of these three forms of poetry, the + dramatic, calls, if it is merely read, on the imagination of the + reader to fill up those circumstances of situation, action and the + rest, which in the first or epic form are supplied by the narrative + between the speeches, and for which in the lyric or personal form + there is no occasion. To avoid making this call upon the imagination, + to bring home its effects with full vividness, dramatic poetry has to + call in the aid of several subordinate arts, the shaping or space art + of the scene-painter, the mixed time and space arts of the actor and + the dancer. Occasionally also, or in the case of opera throughout, + dramatic poetry heightens the emotional effect of its words with + music. A play or drama is thus, as performed upon the theatre, not a + poem merely, but a poem accompanied, interpreted, completed and + brought several degrees nearer to reality by a combination of + auxiliary effects of the other arts. Besides the narrative, the lyric + and dramatic forms of poetry, the _didactic_, that is the teaching or + expository form, has usually been recognized as a fourth. Aristotle + refused so to recognize it, regarding a didactic poem in the light not + so much of a poem as of a useful treatise. But from the _Works and + Days_ down to the _Loves of the Plants_ there has been too much + literature produced in this form for us to follow Aristotle here. We + shall do better to regard didactic poetry as a variety corresponding, + among the speaking arts, to architecture and the other manual arts of + which the first purpose is use, but which are capable of accompanying + and adorning use by a pleasurable appeal to the emotions. + + + Definition of poetry. + + We shall hardly make our definition of poetry, considered as an + imitative art, too extended if we say that it is _a speaking or time + art, of which the business is to express and arouse emotion by + imitating or evoking all or any of the phenomena of life and nature by + means of words arranged with musical regularity_. + + + Relation of poetry as an Imitative art to painting and sculpture. + + Neither the varieties of poetical form, however, nor the modes in + which the several forms have been mixed up and interchanged--as such + mixture and interchange are implied, for instance, by the very title + of a group of Robert Browning's poems, the _Dramatic Lyrics_,--the + observation of neither of these things concerns us here so much as the + observation of the relations of poetry in general, as an art of + representation or imitation, to the other arts of imitation, painting + and sculpture. Verbal signs have been invented for innumerable things + which cannot be imitated or represented at all either in solid form or + upon a coloured surface. You cannot carve or paint a sigh, or the + feeling which finds utterance in a sigh; you can only suggest the idea + of the feeling, and that in a somewhat imperfect and uncertain way, by + representing the physical aspect of a person in the act of breathing + the sigh. Similarly you cannot carve or paint any movement, but only + figures or groups in which the movement is represented as arrested in + some particular point of time; nor any abstract idea, but only figures + or groups in which the abstract idea, as for example release, + captivity, mercy, is symbolized in the concrete shape of allegorical + or illustrative figures. The whole field of thought, of propositions, + arguments, injunctions and exhortations is open to poetry but closed + to sculpture and painting. Poetry, by its command over the regions of + the understanding, of abstraction, of the movement and succession of + things in time, by its power of instantaneously associating one image + with another from the remotest regions of the mind, by its names for + every shade of feeling and experience, exercises a sovereignty a + hundred times more extended than that of either of the two arts of + manual imitation. But, on the other hand, words do not as a rule bear + any sensible resemblance to the things of which they are the signs. + There are few things that words do not stand for or cannot call up; + but they stand for things symbolically and at second hand, and call + them up only in idea, and not in actual presentment to the senses. In + strictness, the business of poetry should not be called imitation at + all, but rather evocation. The strength of painting and sculpture lies + in this, that though there are countless phenomena which they cannot + represent at all, and countless more which they can only represent by + symbolism and suggestion more or less ambiguous, yet there are a few + which each can represent more fully and directly than poetry can + represent any thing at all. These are, for sculpture, the forms or + configurations of things, which that art represents directly to the + senses both of sight and touch; and for painting the forms and colours + of things and their relations to each other in space, air and light, + which the art represents to the sense of sight, directly so far as + regards surface appearance, and indirectly so far as regards solidity. + For many delicate qualities and differences in these visible relations + of things there are no words at all--the vocabulary of colours, for + instance, is in all languages surprisingly scanty and primitive. And + those visible qualities, for which words exist, the words still call + up indistinctly and at second hand. Poetry is almost as powerless to + bring before the mind's eye with precision a particular shade of red + or blue, a particular linear arrangement or harmony of colour-tones, + as sculpture is to relate a continuous experience, or painting to + enforce an exhortation or embellish an abstract proposition. The wise + poet, as has been justly remarked, when he wants to produce a vivid + impression of a visible thing, does not attempt to catalogue or + describe its stationary beauties. Shakespeare, when he wants to make + us realize the perfections of Perdita, puts into the mouth of + Florizel, not, as a bad poet would have done, a description of her + lilies and carnations, and the other charms which a painter could + make us realize better, but the praises of her ways and movements; and + with the final touch, + + "When you do dance, I wish you + A wave o' the sea, that you might ever do + Nothing but that," + + he evokes a twofold image of beauty in motion, of which one half might + be the despair of those painters who designed the dancing maidens of + the walls of Herculaneum, and the other half the despair of all + artists who in modern times have tried to fix upon their canvas the + buoyancy and grace of dancing waves. In representing the perfections + of form in a bride's slender foot, the speaking art, poetry, would + find itself distanced by either of the shaping arts, painting or + sculpture. Suckling calls up the charm of such a foot by describing it + not at rest but in motion, and in the feet which + + "Beneath the petticoat, + Like little mice, went in and out," + + leaves us an image which baffles the power of the other arts. Keats, + when he tells of Madeline unclasping her jewels on St Agnes's Eve, + does not attempt to conjure up their lustre to the eye, as a painter + would have done, and a less poetical poet might have tried to do, but + in the words "her warmed jewels" evoked instead a quality, breathing + of the very life of the wearer, which painting could not even have + remotely suggested. + + + General law of the relative means and capacities of the several + imitative arts: sculpture. + + The differences between the means and capacities of representation + proper to the shaping arts of sculpture and painting and those proper + to the speaking art of poetry were for a long while overlooked or + misunderstood. The maxim of Simonides, that poetry is a kind of + articulate painting, and painting a kind of mute poetry, was vaguely + accepted until the days of Lessing, and first overthrown by the famous + treatise of that writer on the Laocoon. Following in the main the + lines laid down by Lessing, other writers have worked out the + conditions of representation or imitation proper not only to sculpture + and painting as distinguished from poetry, but to sculpture as + distinguished from painting. The chief points established may really + all be condensed under one simple law, _that the more direct and + complete the imitation effected by any art, the less is the range and + number of phenomena which that art can imitate_. Thus sculpture in the + round imitates its objects much more completely and directly than any + other single art, reproducing one whole set of their relations which + no other art attempts to reproduce at all, namely, their solid + relations in space. Precisely for this reason, such sculpture is + limited to a narrow class of objects. As we have seen, it must + represent human or animal figures; nothing else has enough either of + universal interest or of organic beauty and perfection. Sculpture in + the round must represent such figures standing free in full clearness + and detachment, in combinations and with accessories comparatively + simple, on pain of teasing the eye with a complexity and entanglement + of masses and lights and shadows; and in attitudes comparatively + quiet, on pain of violating, or appearing to violate, the conditions + of mechanical stability. Being a stationary or space-art, it can only + represent a single action, which it fixes and perpetuates for ever; + and it must therefore choose for that action one as significant and + full of interest as is consistent with due observation of the above + laws of simplicity and stability. Such actions, and the facial + expressions accompanying them, should not be those of sharp crisis or + transition, because sudden movement or flitting expression, thus + arrested and perpetuated in full and solid imitation by bronze or + marble, would be displeasing and not pleasing to the spectator. They + must be actions and expressions in some degree settled, collected and + capable of continuance, and in their collectedness must at the same + time suggest to the spectator as much as possible of the circumstances + which have led up to them and those which will next ensue. These + conditions evidently bring within a very narrow range the phenomena + with which this art can deal, and explain why, as a matter of fact, + the greater number of statues represent simply a single figure in + repose, with the addition of one or two symbolic or customary + attributes. Paint a statue (as the greater part both of Greek and + Gothic statuary was in fact painted), and you bring it to a still + further point of imitative completeness to the eye; but you do not + thereby lighten the restrictions laid upon the art by its material, so + long as it undertakes to reproduce in full the third or solid + dimension of bodies. You only begin to lighten its restrictions when + you begin to relieve it of that duty. We have traced how sculpture in + relief, which is satisfied with only a partial reproduction of the + third dimension, is free to introduce a larger range of objects, + bringing forward secondary figures and accessories, indicating distant + planes, indulging even in considerable violence and complexity of + motion, since limbs attached to a background do not alarm the + spectator by any idea of danger of fragility. But sculpture in the + round has not this licence. It is true that the art has at various + periods made efforts to escape from its natural limitations. Several + of the later schools of antiquity, especially that of Pergamus in the + 3rd and 2nd centuries B.C., strove hard both for violence of + expression and complexity of design, not only in relief-sculptures, + like the great altar-friezes now at Berlin, but in detached groups, + such as (_pace_ Lessing) the Laocoon itself. Many modern _virtuosi_ of + sculpture since Bernini have misspent their skill in trying to fix in + marble both the restlessness of momentary actions and the flimsiness + of fluttering tissues. In latter days Auguste Rodin, an innovating + master with a real genius for his art, has attacked many problems of + complicated grouping, more or less in the nature of the Greek + _symplegmata_, but keeps these interlocked or contorted actions + circumscribed within strict limiting lines, so that they do not by + jutting or straggling suggest a kind of acrobatic challenge to the + laws of gravity. The same artist and others inspired by him have + further sought to emancipate sculpture from the necessity of rendering + form in clear and complete definition, and to enrich it with a new + power of mysterious suggestion, by leaving his figures wrought in part + to the highest finish and vitality of surface, while other parts + (according to a precedent set in some unfinished works of + Michelangelo) remain scarcely emergent from the rough-hewn or unhewn + block. But it may be doubted whether such experiments and expedients + can permanently do much to enlarge the scope of the art. + + + Means and capacities of painting. + + Next we arrive at painting, in which the third dimension is dismissed + altogether, and nothing is actually reproduced, in full or partially, + except the effect made by the appearance of natural objects upon the + retina of the eye. The consequence is that this art can range over + distance and multitude, can represent complicated relations between + its various figures and groups of figures, extensive backgrounds, and + all those infinite subtleties of appearance in natural things which + depend upon local colours and their modification in the play of light + and shade and enveloping atmosphere. These last phenomena of natural + things are in our experience subject to change in a sense in which the + substantial or solid properties of things are not so subject. Colours, + shadows and atmospheric effects are naturally associated with ideas of + transition, mystery and evanescence. Hence painting is able to extend + its range to another kind of facts over which sculpture has no power. + It can suggest and perpetuate in its imitation, without breach of its + true laws, many classes of facts which are themselves fugitive and + transitory, as a smile, the glance of an eye, a gesture of horror or + of passion, the waving of hair in the wind, the rush of horses, the + strife of mobs, the whole drama of the clouds, the toss and gathering + of ocean waves, even the flashing of lightning across the sky. Still, + any long or continuous series of changes, actions or movements is + quite beyond the means of this art to represent. Painting remains, in + spite of its comparative width of range, tied down to the inevitable + conditions of a space-art: that is to say, it has to delight the mind + by a harmonious variety in its effects, but by a variety apprehended + not through various points of time successively, but from various + points in space at the same moment. The old convention which allowed + painters to indicate sequence in time by means of distribution in + space, dispersing the successive episodes of a story about the + different parts of a single picture, has been abandoned since the + early Renaissance; and Wordsworth sums up our modern view of the + matter when he says that it is the business of painting + + "to give + To one blest moment snatched from fleeting time + The appropriate calm of blest eternity." + + + Means and capacities of poetry. + + Lastly, a really unfettered range is only attained by the art which + does not give a full and complete reproduction of any natural fact at + all, but evokes or brings natural facts before the mind merely by the + images which words convey. The whole world of movement, of continuity, + of cause and effect, of the successions, alternations and interaction + of events, characters and passions of everything that takes time to + happen and time to declare, is open to poetry as it is open to no + other art. As an imitative or, more properly speaking, an evocative + art, then, poetry is subject to no limitations except those which + spring from the poverty of human language, and from the fact that its + means of imitation are indirect. Poetry's account of the visible + properties of things is from these causes much less full, accurate and + efficient than the reproduction or delineation of the same properties + by sculpture and painting. And this is the sum of the conditions + concerning the respective functions of the three arts of imitation + which had been overlooked, in theory at least, until the time of + Lessing. + + + The acted drama no real exception to the general law. + + To the above law, in the form in which we have expressed it, it may + perhaps be objected that the acted drama is at once the most full and + complete reproduction of nature which we owe to the fine arts, and + that at the same time the number of facts over which its imitation + ranges is the greatest. The answer is that our law applies to the + several arts only in that which we may call their pure or unmixed + state. Dramatic poetry is in that state only when it is read or spoken + like any other kind of verse. When it is witnessed on the stage, it is + in a mixed or impure state; the art of the actor has been called in to + give actual reproduction to the gestures and utterances of the + personages, that of the costumier to their appearances and attire, + that of the stage-decorator to their furniture and surroundings, that + of the scene-painter to imitate to the eye the dwelling-places and + landscapes among which they move; and only by the combination of all + these subordinate arts does the drama gain its character of imitative + completeness or reality. + + + Things unknown shadowed forth by imitation of things known. + + Throughout the above account of the imitative and non-imitative groups + of fine arts, we have so far followed Aristotle as to allow the name + of imitation to all recognizable representation or evocation of + realities,--using the word "realities" in no metaphysical sense, but + to signify the myriad phenomena of life and experience, whether as + they actually and literally exist to-day, or as they may have existed + in the past, or may be conceived to exist in some other world not too + unlike our own for us to conceive and realize in thought. When we find + among the ruins of a Greek temple the statue of a beautiful young man + at rest, or above the altar of a Christian church the painting of one + transfixed with arrows, we know that the statue is intended to bring + to our minds no mortal youth, but the god Hermes or Apollo, the + transfixed victim no simple captive, but Sebastian the holy saint. At + the same time we none the less know that the figures in either case + have been studied by the artist from living models before his eyes. In + like manner, in all the representations alike of sculpture, painting + and poetry the things and persons represented may bear symbolic + meanings and imaginary names and characters; they may be set in a land + of dreams, and grouped in relations and circumstances upon which the + sun of this world never shone; in point of fact, through many ages of + history they have been chiefly used to embody human ideas of + supernatural powers; but it is from real things and persons that their + lineaments and characters have been taken in the first instance, in + order to be attributed by the imagination to another and more exalted + order of existences. + + + Imitation by art necessarily an idealized imitation. + + The law which we have last laid down is a law defining the relations + of sculpture, painting and poetry, considered simply as arts having + their foundations at any rate in reality, and drawing from the + imitation of reality their indispensable elements and materials. It is + a law defining the range and character of those elements or materials + in nature which each art is best fitted, by its special means and + resources, to imitate. But we must remember that, even in this + fundamental part of its operations, none of these arts proceeds by + imitation or evocation pure and simple. None of them contents itself + with seeking to represent realities, however literally taken, exactly + as those realities are. A portrait in sculpture or painting, a + landscape in painting, a passage of local description in poetry, may + be representations of known things taken literally or for their own + sakes, and not for the sake of carrying out thoughts to the unknown; + but none of them ought to be, or indeed can possibly be, a + representation of all the observed parts and details of such a reality + on equal terms and without omissions. Such a representation, were it + possible, would be a mechanical inventory and not a work of fine art. + + + Completeness not the test of value in a pictorial imitation. + + Hence the value of a pictorial imitation is by no means necessarily in + proportion to the number of facts which it records. Many accomplished + pictures, in which all the resources of line, colour and + light-and-shade have been used to the utmost of the artist's power for + the imitation of all that he could see in nature, are dead and + worthless in comparison with a few faintly touched outlines or lightly + laid shadows or tints of another artist who could see nature more + vitally and better. Unless the painter knows how to choose and combine + the elements of his finished work so that it shall contain in every + part suggestions and delights over and above the mere imitation, it + will fall short, in that which is the essential charm of fine art, not + only of any scrap of a great master's handiwork, such as an outline + sketch of a child by Raphael or a colour sketch of a boat or a + mackerel by Turner, but even of any scrap of the merest journeyman's + handiwork produced by an artistic race, such as the first Japanese + drawing in which a water-flag and kingfisher, or a spray of peach or + almond blossom across the sky, is dashed in with a mere hint of + colour, but a hint that tells a whole tale to the imagination. That + only, we know, is fine art which affords keen and permanent delight to + contemplation. Such delight the artist can never communicate by the + display of a callous and pedantic impartiality in presence of the + facts of life and nature. His representation of realities will only + strike or impress others in so far as it concentrates their attention + on things by which he has been struck and impressed himself. To arouse + emotion, he must have felt emotion; and emotion is impossible without + partiality. The artist is one who instinctively tends to modify and + work upon every reality before him in conformity with some poignant + and sensitive principle of preference or selection in his mind. He + instinctively adds something to nature in one direction and takes away + something in another, overlooking this kind of fact and insisting on + that, suppressing many particulars which he holds irrelevant in order + to insist on and bring into prominence others by which he is attracted + and arrested. + + + Nature of the idealizing process. + + The instinct by which an artist thus prefers, selects and brings into + light one order of facts or aspects in the thing before him rather + than the rest, is part of what is called the _idealizing_ or _ideal_ + faculty. Interminable discussion has been spent on the + questions,--What is the ideal, and how do we idealize? The answer has + been given in one form by those thinkers (e.g. Vischer and Lotze) who + have pointed out that the process of aesthetic idealization carried on + by the artist is only the higher development of a process carried on + in an elementary fashion by all men, from the very nature of their + constitution. The physical organs of sense themselves do not retain or + put on record all the impressions made upon them. When the nerves of + the eye receive a multitude of different stimulations at once from + different points in space, the sense of eyesight, instead of being + aware of all these stimulations singly, only abstracts and retains a + total impression of them together. In like manner we are not made + aware by the sense of hearing of all the several waves of sound that + strike in a momentary succession upon the nerves of the ear; that + sense only abstracts and retains a total impression from the combined + effect of a number of such waves. And the office which each sense thus + performs singly for its own impressions, the mind performs in a higher + degree for the impressions of all the senses equally, and for all the + other parts of our experience. We are always dismissing or neglecting + a great part of our impressions, and abstracting and combining among + those which we retain. The ordinary human consciousness works like an + artist up to this point; and when we speak of the ordinary or + inartistic man as being impartial in the retention or registry of his + daily impressions, we mean, of course, in the retention or registry of + his impressions as already thus far abstracted and assorted in + consciousness. The artistic man, whose impressions affect him much + more strongly, has the faculty of carrying much farther these same + processes of abstraction, combination and selection among his + impressions. + + + Subjective and objective ideals. + + The possession of this faculty is the artist's most essential gift. To + attempt to carry farther the psychological analysis of the gift is + outside our present object; but it is worth while to consider somewhat + closely its modes of practical operation. One mode is this: the artist + grows up with certain innate or acquired predilections which become a + part of his constitution whether he will or no,--predilections, say, + if he is a dramatic poet, for certain types of plot, character and + situation; if he is a sculptor, for certain proportions and a certain + habitual carriage and disposition of the limbs; if he is a figure + painter, for certain schemes of composition and moulds of figure and + airs and expressions of countenance; if a landscape painter, for a + certain class of local character, sentiment and pictorial effect in + natural scenery. To such predilections he cannot choose but make his + representations of reality in large measure conform. This is one part + of the transmuting process which the data of life and experience have + to undergo at the hands of artists, and may be called the subjective + or purely personal mode of idealization. But there is another part of + that work which springs from an impulse in the artistic constitution + not less imperious than the last named, and in a certain sense + contrary to it. As an imitator or evoker of the facts of life and + nature, the artist must recognize and accept the character of those + facts with which he has in any given case to deal. All facts cannot be + of the cast he prefers, and in so far as he undertakes to deal with + those of an opposite cast he must submit to them; he must study them + as they actually are, must apprehend, enforce and bring into + prominence their own dominant tendencies. If he cannot find in them + what is most pleasing to himself, he will still be led by the + abstracting and discriminating powers of his observation to discern + what is most expressive and significant in _them_, he will emphasize + and put on record this, idealizing the facts before him not in his + direction but in their own. This is the second or objective half of + the artist's task of idealization. It is this half upon which Taine + dwelt almost exclusively, and on the whole with a just insight into + the principles of the operation, in his well-known treatise _On the + Ideal in Art_. Both these modes of idealization are legitimate; that + which springs from inborn and overmastering personal preference in the + artist for particular aspects of life and nature, and that which + springs from his insight into the dominant and significant character + of the phenomena actually before him, and his desire to emphasize and + disengage them. But there is a third mode of idealizing which is less + vital and genuine than either of these, and therefore less legitimate, + though unfortunately far more common. This mode consists in making + things conform to a borrowed and conventional standard of beauty and + taste, which corresponds neither to any strong inward predilection of + the artist nor to any vital characteristic in the objects of his + representation. Since the rediscovery of Greek and Roman sculpture in + the Renaissance, a great part of the efforts of artists have been + spent in falsifying their natural instincts and misrepresenting the + facts of nature in pursuit of a conventional ideal of abstract and + generalized beauty framed on a false conception and a shallow + knowledge of the antique. School after school from the 16th century + downwards has been confirmed in this practice by academic criticism + and theory, with resulting insipidities and insincerities of + performance which have commonly been acclaimed in their day, but from + which later generations have sooner or later turned away with a + wholesome reaction of distaste. + + + Examples of the two modes and of their reconciliation. + + The two genuine modes of idealization, the subjective and the + objective, are not always easy to be reconciled. The greatest artist + is no doubt he who can combine the strongest personal instincts of + preference with the keenest power of observing characteristics as they + are, yet in fact we find few in whom both these elements of the ideal + faculty have been equally developed. To take an example among + Florentine painters, Sandro Botticelli is usually thought of as one + who could never escape from the dictation of his own personal ideals, + in obedience to which he is supposed to have invested all the + creations of his art with nearly the same conformation of brows, lips, + cheeks and chin, nearly the same looks of wistful yearning and + dejection. There is some truth in this impression, though it is + largely based on the works not of the master himself, but of pupils + who exaggerated his mannerisms. Leonardo da Vinci was strong in both + directions; haunted in much of his work by a particular human ideal of + intellectual sweetness and alluring mystery, he has yet left us a vast + number of exercises which show him as an indefatigable student of + objective characteristics and psychological expressions of an order + the most opposed to this. And in this case again followers have + over-emphasized the master's predilections, Luini, Sodoma and the rest + borrowing and repeating the mysterious smile of Leonardo till it + becomes in their work an affectation cloying however lovely. Among + latter-day painters, Burne-Jones will occur to every reader as the + type of an artist always haunted and dominated by ideals of an + intensely personal cast partly engendered in his imagination by + sympathy with the early Florentines. If we seek for examples of the + opposite principle, of that idealism which idealizes above all things + objectively, and seeks to disengage the very inmost and individual + characters of the thing or person before it, we think naturally of + certain great masters of the northern schools, as Durer, Holbein and + Rembrandt. Durer's endeavour to express such characters by the most + searching intensity of linear definition was, however, hampered and + conditioned by his inherited national and Gothic predilection for the + strained in gesture and the knotted and the gnarled in structure, + against which his deliberate scholarly ambition to establish a canon + of ideal proportion contended for the most part in vain. And + Rembrandt's profound spiritual insight into human character and + personality did not prevent him from plunging his subjects, ever + deeper and deeper as his life advanced, into a mysterious shadow-world + of his own imagination, where all local colours were broken up and + crumbled, and where amid the struggle of gloom and gleam he could make + his intensely individualized men and women breathe more livingly than + in plain human daylight. + + + Caricature and the grotesque as modes of the ideal. + + It is by the second mode of operation chiefly, that is by + imaginatively discerning, disengaging and forcing into prominence + their inherent significance, that the idealizing faculty brings into + the sphere of fine art deformities and degeneracies to which the name + beautiful or sublime can by no stretch of usage be applied. Hence + arise creations like the Stryge of Notre-Dame and a thousand other + grotesques of Gothic architectural carving. Hence, although on a lower + plane and interpreted with a less transmuting intensity of insight and + emphasis, the snarling or jovial grossness of the peasants of Adrian + Brauwer and the best of his Dutch compeers. Hence Shakespeare's + Caliban and figures like those of Quilp and Quasimodo in the romances + of Dickens and Hugo; hence the cynic grimness of Goya's Caprices and + the profound and bitter impressiveness of Daumier's caricatures of + Parisian bourgeois life; or again, in an angrier and more insulting + and therefore less understanding temper, the brutal energy of the + political drawings of Gilray. + + + Unidealized imitation not fine art. + + Sculpture, painting and poetry, then, are among the greater fine arts + those which express and arouse emotion by imitating or evoking real + and known things, either for their own sakes literally, or for the + sake of shadowing forth things not known but imagined. In either case + they represent their originals, not indiscriminately as they are, but + sifted, simplified, enforced and enhanced to our apprehensions partly + by the artist's power of making things conform to his own instincts + and preferences, partly by his other power of interpreting and + emphasizing the significant characters of the facts before him. Any + imitation that does not do one or other or both of these things in + full measure fails in the quality of emotional expression and + emotional appeal, and in so failing falls short, taken merely as + imitation, of the standard of fine art. + + + The appeal of the imitative arts depends partly on non-imitative + elements. + + But we must remember that idealized imitation, as such, is not the + whole task of these arts nor their only means of appeal. There is + another part of their task, logically though not practically + independent of the relations borne by their imitations to the original + phenomena of nature, and dependent on the appeal made through the eye + and ear to our primal organic sensibilities by the properties of + rhythm, pattern and regulated design in the arrangement of sounds, + lines, masses, colours and light-and-shade. That appeal we noted as + lying at the root of the art impulse in its most elementary stage. In + its most developed stage every fine art is bound still to play upon + the same sensibilities. In a work of sculpture the contours and + interchanges of light and shadow are bound to be such as would please + the eye, whether the statue or relief represented the figure of + anything real in the world or not. The flow and balance of line, and + the distribution of colours and light-and-shade, in a picture are + bound to be such as would make an agreeable pattern although they bore + no resemblance to natural fact (as, indeed, many subordinate + applications of this art, in decorative painting and geometrical and + other ornaments, do, we know, give pleasure though they represent + nothing). The sound of a line or verse in poetry is bound to be such + as would thrill the physical ear in hearing, or the mental ear in + reading, with a delightful excitement even though the meaning went for + nothing. If the imitative arts are to touch and elevate the emotions, + if they are to afford permanent delight of the due pitch and volume, + it is not a more essential law that their imitation, merely as such, + should be of the order which we have defined as ideal, than that they + should at the same time exhibit these independent effects which they + share with the non-imitative group. + + + Necessity of due balance between conception and technique: the + non-imitative arts and their technique. + + So far we have assumed, without asserting, the necessity that the + artist in whatever kind should possess a power of execution, or + technique as it is called in modern phrase, adequate to the task of + embodying and giving shape to his ideals. In thought it is possible to + separate the conception of a work of art from its execution; in + practice it is not possible, and half the errors in criticism and + speculation about the fine arts spring from failing to realize that an + artistic conception can only be brought home to us through and by its + appropriate embodiment. Whatever the artist's cast of imagination or + degree of sensibility may be in presence of the materials of life, it + is essential that he should be able to express himself appropriately + in the material of his particular art. To quote the writer (R.A.M. + Stevenson) who has enforced this point most clearly and vividly, + perhaps with some pardonable measure of over-statement: "It is a + sensitiveness to the special qualities of some visible or audible + medium of art which distinguishes the species artist from the genus + man." And again: "There are as many separate faculties of imagination + as there are separate mediums in which to conceive an image--clay, + words, paint, notes of music." ... "Technique differs as the material + of each art differs--differs as marble, pigments, musical notes and + words differ." The artist who does not enjoy and has not with + delighted labour mastered the effects of his own chosen medium will + never be a master; the hearer, reader or spectator who cannot + appreciate the qualities of skill, vitality and charm in the handling + of the given material, or who fails to feel their absence when they + are lacking, or who looks in one material primarily for the qualities + appropriate to another, will never make a critic. The technique of the + space-arts differs radically from that of the time-arts. So again do + those of the imitative and the non-imitative arts differ among + themselves. The non-imitative arts of music and architecture are in a + certain degree alike in this, that the artist is in neither case his + own executant (this at least is true of music so far as concerns its + modern concerted and orchestral developments); the musical composer + and the architect each imagines and composes a design in the medium of + his own art which it is left for others to carry out under his + direction. The technique in each case consists not in mastery of an + instrument (though the musical composer may be, and often is, a master + of some one of the instruments whose effects he in his mind's ear + co-ordinates and combines); it lies in the power of knowing and + conjuring up all the emotional resources and effects of the various + materials at his command, and of conceiving and designing to their + last detail vast and ordered structures, to be raised by subordinate + executants from those materials, which shall adequately express his + temperament and embody his ideals. + + + The imitative arts and their technique: painting and sculpture. + + In the imitative arts, on the other hand, the sculptor, unless he is a + fraud, must be wholly his own executant in the original task of + modelling his design in the soft material of clay or wax, though he + must accept the aid of assistants whether in the casting of his work + in bronze or in first roughing it out from the block in marble. Too + many sculptors have been inclined further to trust to trained + mechanical help in finishing their work with the chisel; with the + result that the surface loses the touch which is the expression of + personal temperament and personal feeling for the relations of his + material to nature. The artist in love with the vital qualities of + form, or those of his own handiwork in expressing such qualities in + modelling-clay, will never stop until he learns how to translate them + for himself in marble. Proceeding to that imitative art which leaves + out the third dimension of nature, and by so doing enormously + increases the range of objects and effects which come within its + power--proceeding to the art of painting, the painter is in theory + exclusively his own executant, and in practice mainly so, though in + certain schools and periods the great artists have been accustomed to + surround themselves with pupils to whom they have imparted their + methods and who have helped them in the subordinate and preparatory + parts of their work. But the painter fit to teach and lead can by no + means escape the necessity of being himself a master of his material, + and his handling of it must needs bear the immediate impress of his + temperament. His emotional preferences among the visible facts of + nature, his feeling for the relative importance and charm of line, + colour, light and shade, used whether for the interpretation and + heightening of natural fact or for producing a pattern in itself + harmonious and suggestive to the eye, his sense of the special modes + of handling most effective for communicating the impression he + desires, all these together inevitably appear in, and constitute, his + style and technique. If he is careless or inexpert or conventional, or + cold or without delight, in technique, though he may be animated by + the noblest purposes and the loftiest ideas, he is a failure as a + painter. At certain periods in the history of painting, as in the 13th + and 14th centuries in Italy, the technique seems indeed to modern eyes + wholly immature; but that was because there were many aspects of + visible things which the art had not yet attempted or desired to + portray, not because it did not put forth with delight its best + traditional or newly acquired skill in portraying the special aspects + with which it had so far attempted to grapple. At certain other + periods, as in the later 16th and 17th centuries in the same country, + the elements of inherited technical facility and academic pride of + skill outweigh the sincerity and freshness of interest taken in the + aspects of things to be portrayed, and the true balance is lost. At + other times, as in much of the work of the 19th century, especially in + England, painters have been diverted from their true task, and lost + hold of intelligent and living technique altogether, in trying to + please a public blind to the special qualities of their art, and prone + to seek in it the effects, frivolous or serious, which are appropriate + not to paint and canvas but to literature. + + + Technique in poetry: the magic of words. + + Lastly, the poet and literary artist must obviously be the exclusive + master of his own technique. No one can help him: all depends on the + keenness of his double sensibility to the thrill of life and to that + of words, and to his power of maintaining a just balance between the + two. If he is truly and organically sensitive to words alone, and has + learnt life only through their medium and not through the energies of + his own imagination, nor through personal sensibility to the impact of + things and thoughts and passions and experience, then his work may be + a miracle of accomplished verbal music, and may entrance the ear for + the moment, but will never live to illuminate and sustain and console. + If, on the other hand, he has imagination and sensibility in full + measure, and lacks the inborn love of and gift for words and their + magic, he will be but a dumb or stammering poet all his days. There is + no better witness on this point than Wordsworth. His own prolonged + lapses from verbal felicity, and continual habit of solemn meditation + on themes not always inspiring, might make us hesitate to choose him + as an example of that particular love and gift. But Wordsworth could + never have risen to his best and greatest self had he not truly + possessed the sensibilities which he attributes to himself in the + Prelude: + + "Twice five years + Or less I might have seen, when first my mind + With conscious pleasure opened to the charm + Of words in tuneful order, found them sweet + For their own sakes, a passion, and a power; + And phrases pleased me chosen for delight, + For pomp, or love." + + And again, expressing better than any one else the relation which + words in true poetry hold to things, he writes: + + "Visionary power + Attends the motions of the viewless winds, + Embodied in the mystery of words; + There darkness makes abode, and all the host + Of shadowy things work endless changes,--there, + As in a mansion like their proper home, + Even forms and substances are circumfused + By that transparent veil with light divine, + And, through the turnings intricate of verse, + Present themselves as objects recognized, + In flashes, and with glory not their own." + + + Third classification: the serviceable and the non-serviceable arts. + + 3. _The Serviceable and the Non-Serviceable Arts._--It has been + established from the outset that, though the essential distinction of + fine art as such is to minister not to material necessity or practical + use, but to delight, yet there are some among the arts of men which do + both these things at once and are arts of direct use and of beauty or + emotional appeal together. Under this classification a survey of the + field of art at different periods of history would yield different + results. In ruder times, we have seen, the utilitarian aim was still + the predominant aim of art, and most of what we now call fine arts + served in the beginning to fulfil the practical needs of individual + and social life; and this not only among primitive or savage races. In + ancient Egypt and Assyria the primary purpose of the relief-sculptures + on palace and temple walls was the practical one of historical record + and commemoration. Even as late as the middle ages and early + Renaissance the primary business of the painter was to give + instruction to the unlearned in Bible history and in the lives of the + saints, and to rouse him to moods of religious and ethical exaltation. + The pleasures of fine art proper among the manual-imitative group--the + pleasures, namely, of producing and contemplating certain arrangements + rather than others of design, proportion, pattern, colour and light + and shade, and of putting forth and appreciating certain qualities of + skill, truth and significance in idealized imitation,--these were, + historically speaking, by-products that arose gradually in the course + of practice and development. As time went on, the conscious aim of + ministering to such pleasures displaced and threw into the background + the utilitarian ends for which the arts had originally been practised, + and the pleasures became ends in themselves. + + + Among the greater arts, architecture alone exist primarily for + service. + + But even in advanced societies the double qualities of use and beauty + still remain inseparable, among the five greater arts, in + architecture. We build in the first instance for the sake of necessary + shelter and accommodation, or for the commemoration, propitiation or + worship of spiritual powers on whom we believe our welfare to depend. + By and by we find out that the aspect of our constructions is + pleasurable or the reverse. Architecture is the art of building at + once as we need and as we like, and a practical treatise on + architecture must treat the beauty and the utility of buildings as + bound up together. But for our present purpose it has been proper to + take into account one half only of the vocation of architecture, the + half by which it impresses, gives delight and belongs to that which is + the subject of our study, to fine art; and to neglect the other half + of its vocation, by which it belongs to what is not the subject of our + study, to useful or mechanical art. It is plain, however, that the + presence or absence of this foreign element, the element of practical + utility, constitutes a fair ground for a new and separate + classification of the fine arts. If we took the five greater arts as + they exist in modern times by themselves, architecture would on this + ground stand alone in one division, as the directly useful or + serviceable fine art; with sculpture, painting, music and poetry + together in the other division, as fine arts unassociated with such + use or service. Not that the divisions would, even thus, be quite + sharply and absolutely separated. Didactic poetry, we have already + acknowledged, is a branch of the poetic art which aims at practice and + utility. Again, the hortatory and patriotic kinds of lyric poetry, + from the strains of Tyrtaeus to those of Arndt or Rouget de Lisle or + Wordsworth's sonnets written in war-time, may fairly be said to belong + to a phase of fine art which aims directly at one of the highest + utilities, the stimulation of patriotic feeling and self-devotion. So + may the strains of music which accompany such poetry. The same + practical character, as stimulating and attuning the mind to definite + ends and actions, might indeed have been claimed for the greater part + of the whole art of music as that art was practised in antiquity, when + each of several prescribed and highly elaborated moods, or modes, of + melody was supposed to have a known effect upon the courage and moral + temper of the hearer. Compare Milton, when he tells of the Dorian mood + of flutes and soft recorders which assuaged the sufferings and renewed + the courage of Satan and his legions as they marched through hell. In + modern music, of which the elements, much more complex in themselves + than those of ancient music, have the effect of stirring our fibres to + moods of rapturous contemplation rather than of action, military + strains in march time are in truth the only purely instrumental + variety of the art which may still be said to retain this character. + + + Other and minor arts of service subordinate to architecture. + + To reinforce, however, the serviceable or useful division of fine arts + in our present classification, it is not among the greater arts that + we must look. We must look among the lesser or auxiliary arts of the + manual or shaping group. The weaver, the joiner, the potter, the + smith, the goldsmith, the glass-maker, these and a hundred artificers + who produce wares primarily for use, produce them in a form or with + embellishments that have the secondary virtue of giving pleasure both + to the producer and the user. Much ingenuity has been spent to little + purpose in attempting to group and classify these lesser shaping arts + under one or other of the greater shaping arts, according to the + nature of the means employed in each. Thus the potter's art has been + classed under sculpture, because he moulds in solid form the shapes of + his cups, plates and ewers; the art of the joiner under that of the + architect, because his tables, seats and cupboards are fitted and + framed together, like the houses they furnish, out of solid materials + previously prepared and cut; and the weaver and embroiderer, from the + point of view of the effects produced by their art, among painters. + But the truth is, that each one of these auxiliary handicrafts has its + own materials and technical procedure, which cannot, without forcing + and confusion, be described by the name proper to the materials and + technical procedure of any of the greater arts. The only satisfactory + classification of these handicrafts is that now before us, according + to which we think of them all together in the same group with + architecture, not because any one or more of them may be technically + allied to that art, but because, like it, they all yield products + capable of being practically useful and beautiful at the same time. + Architecture is the art which fits and frames together, of stone, + brick, mortar, timber or iron, the abiding and assembling places of + man, all his houses, palaces, temples, monuments, museums, workshops, + roofed places of meeting and exchange, theatres for spectacle, + fortresses of defence, bridges, aqueducts, and ships for seafaring. + The wise architect having fashioned any one of these great + constructions at once for service and beauty in the highest degree, + the lesser or auxiliary manual arts (commonly called "industrial" or + "applied" arts) come in to fill, furnish and adorn it with things of + service and beauty in a lower degree, each according to its own + technical laws and capabilities; some, like pottery, delighting the + user at once by beauty of form, delicacy of substance, and + pleasantness of imitative or non-imitative ornament; some, like + embroidery, by richness of tissue, and by the same twofold + pleasantness of ornament; some, like goldsmith's work, by + exquisiteness of fancy and workmanship proportionate to the + exquisiteness of the material. To this vast group of workmen, whose + work is at the same time useful and fine in its degree, the ancient + Greek gave the place which is most just and convenient for thought, + when he classed them all together under the name of [Greek: tektones], + or artificers, and called the builder by the name of [Greek: + architekton], arch-artificer or artificer-in-chief. Modern usage has + adopted the phrase "arts and crafts" as a convenient general name for + their pursuits. + + +III. _Of the History of the Fine Arts._ + + Current generalizations on the history of fine art: Hegel. + +Students of human culture have concentrated a great deal of attentive +thought upon the history of fine art, and have put forth various +comprehensive generalizations intended at once to sum up and to account +for the phases and vicissitudes of that history. The most famous +formulae are those of Hegel, who regarded particular arts as being +characteristic of and appropriate to particular forms of civilization +and particular ages of history. For him, architecture was the symbolic +art appropriate to ages of obscure and struggling ideas, and +characteristic of the Egyptian and the Asiatic races of old and of the +medieval age in Europe. Sculpture was the classical art appropriate to +ages of lucid and self-possessed ideas, and characteristic of the Greek +and Roman period. Painting, music and poetry were the romantic arts, +appropriate to the ages of complicated and overmastering ideas, and +characteristic of modern humanity in general. In the working out of +these generalizations Hegel brought together a mass of judicious and +striking observations; and that they contain on the whole a +preponderance of truth may be admitted. It has been objected against +them, from the philosophical point of view, that they too much mix up +the definition of what the several arts theoretically are with +considerations of what in various historical circumstances they have +practically been. From the historical point of view there can be taken +what seems a more valid objection, that these formulae of Hegel tend too +much to fix the attention of the student upon the one dominant art +chosen as characteristic of any period, and to give him false ideas of +the proportions and relations of the several arts at the same period--of +the proportions and relations which poetry, say, really bore to +sculpture among the Greeks and Romans, or sculpture to architecture +among the Christian nations of the middle age. The truth is, that the +historic survey gained over any field of human activity from the height +of generalizations so vast in scope as these are must needs, in the +complexity of earthly affairs, be a survey too distant to give much +guidance until its omissions are filled up by a great deal of nearer +study; and such nearer study is apt to compel the student in the long +run to qualify the theories with which he has started until they are in +danger of disappearing altogether. + + + Herbert Spencer and the evolution theory. + +Another systematic exponent of the universe, whose system is very +different from that of Hegel, Herbert Spencer, brought the doctrine of +evolution to bear, not without interesting results, upon the history of +the fine arts and their development. Herbert Spencer set forth how the +manual group of fine arts, architecture, sculpture and painting, were in +their first rudiments bound up together, and how each of them in the +course of history has liberated itself from the rest by a gradual +process of separation. These arts did not at first exist in the distinct +and developed forms in which we have above described them. There were no +statues in the round, and no painted panels or canvases hung upon the +wall. Only the rudiments of sculpture and painting existed, and that +only as ornaments applied to architecture, in the shape of tiers of +tinted reliefs, representing in a kind of picture-writing the exploits +of kings upon the walls of their temple-palaces. Gradually sculpture +took greater salience and roundness, and tended to disengage itself from +the wall, while painting found out how to represent solidity by means of +its own, and dispensed with the raised surface upon which it was first +applied. But the old mixture and union of the three arts, with an +undeveloped art of painting and an undeveloped art of sculpture still +engaged in or applied to the works of architecture, continued on the +whole to prevail through the long cycles of Egyptian and Assyrian +history. In the Egyptian palace-temple we find a monument at once +political and religious, upon the production of which were concentrated +all the energies and faculties of all the artificers of the race. With +its incised and pictured walls, its half-detached colossi, its open and +its colonnaded chambers, the forms of the columns and their capitals +recalling the stems and blossoms of the lotus and papyrus, with its +architecture everywhere taking on the characters and covering itself +with the adornments of immature sculpture and painting--this structure +exhibits within its single fabric the origins of the whole subsequent +group of shaping arts. From hence it is a long way to the innumerable +artistic surroundings of later Greek and Roman life, the many temples +with their detached and their engaged statues, the theatres, the +porticoes, the baths, the training-schools, the stadiums, with free and +separate statues both of gods and men adorning every building and public +place, the frescoes upon the walls, the panel pictures hung in temples +and public and private galleries. In the terms of the Spencerian theory +of evolution, the advance from the early Egyptian to the later Greek +stage is an advance from the one to the manifold, from the simple to the +complex, from the homogeneous to the heterogeneous, and affords a +striking instance of that vast and ceaseless process of differentiation +and integration which it is the law of all things to undergo. In the +Christian monuments of the early middle age, again, the arts, owing to +the political and social cataclysm in which Roman civilization went +down, have gone back to the rudimentary stage, and are once more +attached to and combined with each other. The single monument, the one +great birth of art, in that age, is the Gothic church. In this we find +the art of applied sculpture exercised in fashions infinitely rich and +various, but entirely in the service and for the adornment of the +architecture; we find painting exercised in fashions more rudimentary +still, principally in the forms of translucent imagery in the chancel +windows and tinted decorations on the walls and vaultings. From this +stage again the process of the differentiation of the arts is repeated. +It is by a new evolution or unfolding, and by one carried to much +further and more complicated stages than the last had reached, that the +arts since the middle age have come to the point where we find them +to-day; when architecture is applied to a hundred secular and civil uses +with not less magnificence, or at least not less desire of magnificence, +than that with which it fulfilled its two only uses in the middle age, +the uses of worship and of defence; when detached sculptures adorn, or +are intended to adorn, all our streets and commemorate all our +likenesses; when the subjects of painting have been extended from +religion to all life and nature, until this one art has been divided +into the dozen branches of history, landscape, still life, genre, +anecdote and the rest. Such being in brief the successive stages, and +such the reiterated processes, of evolution among the shaping or space +arts, the action of the same law can be traced, it is urged, in the +growth of the speaking or time arts also. Originally poetry and music, +the two great speaking arts, were not separated from each other and from +the art of bodily motion, dancing. The father of song, music and +dancing, all three, was that primitive man of whom so much has already +been said, he who first clapped hands and leapt and shouted in time at +some festival of his tribe. From the clapping, or rudimentary rhythmical +noise, has been evolved the whole art of instrumental music, down to the +entrancing complexity of the modern symphony. From the shout, or +rudimentary emotional utterance, has proceeded by a kindred evolution +the whole art of vocal music down to the modern opera or oratorio. From +the leap, or rudimentary expression of emotion by rhythmical movements +of the body, has descended every variety of dancing, from the stately +figures of the tragic chorus of the Greeks to the _kordax_ of their +comedy or the complexities of the modern ballet. + + + Weak and strong points of Spencer's generalization. + +That the theory of evolution serves usefully to group and to interpret +many facts in the history of art we shall not deny, though it would be +easy to show that Herbert Spencer's instances and applications are not +sufficient to sustain all the conclusions that he seems to draw from +them. Thus, it is perfectly true that the Egyptian or Assyrian palace +wall is an instance of rudimentary painting and rudimentary sculpture in +subservience to architecture. But it is not less true that races who had +no architecture at all, but lived in caverns of the earth, exhibit, as +we have already had occasion to notice, excellent rudiments of the other +two shaping arts in a different form, in the carved or incised handles +of their weapons. And it is almost certain that, among the nations of +oriental antiquity themselves, the art of decorating solid walls so as +to please the eye with patterns and presentations of natural objects was +borrowed from the precedent of an older art which works in easier +materials, namely, the art of the weaver. It would be in the perished +textile fabrics of the earliest dwellers in the valleys of the Euphrates +and the Nile that we should find, if anywhere, the origins of the +systems of surface design, whether conventional or imitative, which +those races afterwards applied to the decoration of their solid +constructions. Not, therefore, in any one exclusive type of primitive +artistic activity, but in a score of such types equally, varying +according to race, region and circumstances, shall we find so many germs +or nuclei from which whole families of fine arts have in the course of +the world's history differentiated and unfolded themselves. And more +than once during that history, a cataclysm of political and social +forces has not only checked the process of the evolution of the fine +arts, but from an advanced stage of development has thrown them back +again to a primitive stage. Recent research has shown how the Minoan and +Mycenaean civilizations in the Mediterranean basin, with their developed +fine arts, must have perished and been effaced before the second growth +of art from new rudiments took place in Greece. The great instance of +the downfall of the Roman civilization need not be requoted. By +Spencer's application of the theory of evolution, not less than by +Hegel's theory of the historic periods, attention is called to the fact +that Christian Europe, during several centuries of the middle age, +presents to our study a civilization analogous to the civilization of +the old oriental empires in this respect, that its ruling and +characteristic manual art is architecture, to which sculpture and +painting are, as in the oriental empires, once more subjugated and +attached. It does not of course follow that such periods of fusion or +mutual dependence among the arts are periods of bad art. On the +contrary, each stage of the evolution of any art has its own +characteristic excellence. The arts can be employed in combination, and +yet be all severally excellent. When music, dancing, acting and singing +were combined in the performance of the Greek chorus, the combination no +doubt presented a relative perfection of each of the four elements +analogous to the combined perfection, in the contemporary Doric temple, +of pure architectural form, sculptured enrichment of spaces specially +contrived for sculpture in the pediments and frieze, and coloured +decoration over all. The extreme differentiation of any art from every +other art, and of the several branches of one art among themselves, does +not by any means tend to the perfection of that art. The process of +evolution among the fine arts may go, and indeed in the course of +history has gone, much too far for the health of the arts severally. +Thus an artist of our own day is usually either a painter only or a +sculptor only; but yet it is acknowledged that the painter who can model +a statue, or the sculptor who can paint a picture, is likely to be the +more efficient master of both arts; and in the best days of Florentine +art the greatest men were generally painters, sculptors, architects and +goldsmiths all at once. In like manner a landscape painter who paints +landscape only is apt not to paint it so well as one who paints the +figure too; and in recent times the craft of engraving had almost ceased +to be an art from the habit of allotting one part of the work, as skies, +to one hand, another part, as figures, to a second, and another part, as +landscape, to a third. This kind of continually progressing subdivision +of labour, which seems to be the necessary law of industrial processes, +is fatal to any skill which demands, as skill in the fine arts, we have +seen, demands, the free exercise and direction of a highly complex +cluster both of faculties and sensibilities. + + + Reaction against over-evolution amongst the fine arts. + +In the second half of the 19th century a reaction set in against such +over-differentiation of the several manual arts and crafts. This +reaction is chiefly identified in England with the name of William +Morris, who insisted by precept and example that one form of artistic +activity was as worthy as another, and himself both practised and +trained others in the practice of glass-painting, weaving, embroidery, +furniture and wall-paper designing, and book decoration alike. His +example has been to some extent followed in most European countries, and +efforts have been made to reunite the functions of artist and craftsman, +and to set a limit to the process of differentiation among the various +manual arts. In the vocal or time arts also, a reformer of high genius +and force of character, Richard Wagner, rose to contend that in music +the process of evolution and differentiation had gone much too far. +Music, he urged, as separated from words and actions, independent +orchestral and instrumental music, had reached its utmost development, +and its further advance could only be an advance into the inane; while +operatic music had broken itself up into a number of set and separate +forms, as aria, scena, recitative, which corresponded to no real +varieties of instinctive emotional utterance, and in the aimless +production of which the art was in danger of paralysing and stultifying +itself. This process, he declared, must be checked; music and words must +be brought back again into close connexion and mutual dependence; the +artificial opera forms must be abolished, and a new and homogeneous +music-drama be created, of which the author must combine in himself the +functions of poet, composer, inventor, and director of scenery and stage +appliances, so that the entire creation should bear the impress of a +single mind; to the creation of such a music-drama he accordingly +devoted all the energies of his being. + + + Taine's philosophy or natural history of the fine arts. + +It is thus evident that the evolution theory, though it furnishes us +with some instructive points of view for the history of the fine arts as +for other things, is far from being the whole key to that history. +Another key, employed with results perhaps less really luminous than +they are certainly showy and attractive, is that supplied by Taine. +Taine's philosophy, which might perhaps be better called a natural +history, of fine art consists in regarding the fine arts as the +necessary result of the general conditions under which they are at any +time produced--conditions of race and climate, of religion, civilization +and manners. Acquaint yourself with these conditions as they existed in +any given people at any given period, and you will be able to account +for the characters assumed by the arts of that people at that period, +and to reason from one to the other, as a botanist can account for the +flora of any given locality, and can reason from its soil, exposure and +temperature, to the orders of vegetation which it will produce. This +method of treating the history of the fine arts, again, is one which can +be pursued with profit in so far as it makes the student realize the +connexion of fine arts with human culture in general, and teaches him +how the arts of any age and country are not an independent or arbitrary +phenomenon, but are essentially an outcome, or efflorescence, to use a +phrase of Ruskin's, of deep-seated elements in the civilization which +produces them. But it is a method which, rashly used, is very apt to +lead to a hasty and one-sided handling both of history and of art. It is +easy to fasten on certain obvious relations of fine art to general +civilization when you know a few of the facts of both, and to say, the +cloudy skies and mongrel industrial population of Protestant Amsterdam +at such and such a date had their inevitable reflection in the art of +Rembrandt; the wealth and pomp of the full-fleshed burghers and +burgesses of Catholic Antwerp had theirs in the art of Rubens. But to do +this in the precise and conclusive manner of Taine's treatises on the +philosophy of art always means to ignore a large range of conditions or +causes for which no corresponding effect is on the surface apparent, and +generally also a large number of effects for which appropriate causes +cannot easily be discovered at all. + + + Criticisms and counter-criticisms on Taine's methods. + +These considerations have resulted in a reaction against Taine's +theories which goes probably too far. It is no complete confutation of +his philosophy of art-history to contend, as has been done somewhat +contemptuously by Professor Ernst Grosse and others, that the great +artist, so far from representing the general tendencies of his time and +environment, is commonly a solitary innovator and revolutionist, and has +to educate and create his own public, often through years of obloquy or +neglect. This is sometimes true when the traditions and ideals of art +are undergoing revolution or swift experimental change, but hardly ever +true in times of stable tradition and accepted ideals; and when true it +only shows that the tendencies the innovating genius represents are +tendencies which have till his time been working underground, and which +he is born to bring into light and evidence. A new and revolutionary +impulse in art, as in thought or politics, is like a yeast or ferment +working at first secretly, affecting for a while only a few spirits, as +a new epidemic may for a while only affect a few constitutions, and then +gradually ripening and strengthening till it communicates itself to +thousands. In its inception such a ferment is not, indeed, one of the +obvious phenomena of the society in which it takes root, but it is none +the less one of the most vital and significant phenomena. The truth is, +that this particular efflorescence of human culture depends for its +character at any given time upon combinations of causes which are by no +means simple, but generally highly complex, obscure and nicely balanced. +For instance, the student who should try to reason back from the holy +and beatified character which prevails in much of the devotional +painting of the Italian schools down to the Renaissance would be much +mistaken were he to conclude, "like art, like life, thoughts and +manners." He would not understand the relation of the art to the general +civilization of those days unless he were to remember that one of the +chief functions of the imagination is to make up for the shortcomings of +reality, and to supply to contemplation images of that which is most +lacking in actual life; so that the visions at once peaceful and ardent +embodied by the religious schools of art in the Italian cities are to be +explained, not by the peace, but rather in great part by the dispeace, +of contemporary existence, and by the longing of the human spirit to +escape into happier and more calm conditions. + + + Difficulty of combining the study of the manual with that of the vocal + group of fine arts. + +Any one of the three modes of generalization to which we have referred +might no doubt yield, however, supposing in the student the due gifts of +patience and of caution, a working clue to guide him through that +immense region of research, the history of the fine arts. But it is +hardly possible to pursue to any purpose the history of the two great +groups, the shaping group and the speaking group, together. At some +stages of the world's history the manual and the monumental arts have +flourished, as in Egypt and Assyria, when there was no fine art of words +at all, and the only literature was that of records cut in hieroglyph or +cuneiform on palace walls and temples, and on tablets, seals and +cylinders. At other times and in other communities there has existed a +great tradition and inheritance of poetry and song when the manual arts +were only beginning to emerge again from the wreck of an old +civilization, as in the Homeric age of Greece, or where they had never +flourished at all except by imitation and importation, as in Palestine. +In historic Greece all three divisions of the art of poetry, the epic, +lyric and the dramatic, had been perfected, and two of them had again +declined, before sculpture had reached maturity or painting had passed +beyond the stage of its early severity. The European poetry of the +middle ages, abundant and rich as it was alike in France and Provence, +in Germany and Scandinavia, can yet not take rank, among the creations +of human genius, beside the great masterpieces of Romanesque and Gothic +architecture; it was in Italy only that Dante, before the end of that +age, carried poetry to a place of equality if not of primacy among the +arts. Taking the England of the Elizabethan age, we find the great +outburst of our national genius in poetry contemporary with nothing more +interesting in the manual arts than the gradual and only +half-intelligent transformation of late Gothic architecture by the +adoption of Italian Renaissance forms imported principally by way of +Flanders or France, together with a fine native skill shown in the art +of miniature portrait-painting, and none at all worth mentioning in +other branches of painting or in sculpture. If the course of poetry and +that of the manual arts have thus run independently throughout almost +the whole field of history, those of music and the manual arts have been +more widely separated still. In ancient Greece music and poetry were, we +know, most intimately connected, but of the true nature of Greek music +we know but little, of that of the earlier middle ages less still, and +throughout the later middle ages and the earlier Renaissance the art +remained undeveloped, whether in the service of the church or in secular +and popular use, and in both cases in strict subservience to words. The +growth of independent music is entirely the work of the modern world, +and will probably rank in the esteem of posterity as its highest +spiritual achievement and claim to gratitude, when the mechanical +inventions and applications of applied science, which now occupy so +disproportionate a part of the attention of humanity, have become a +normal and unregarded part of its existence. + +Moments in history there have no doubt been when literature and the +manual arts, and even music, have been swept simultaneously along a +single stream of ideas and feelings. Such a moment was experienced in +France in 1830 and the following years, when (to choose only a few of +the greatest names) Hugo in poetry, Delacroix in painting, and Berlioz +in music were roused to a high pitch of consentaneous inspiration by the +new ideas and feelings of romanticism. But such moments are rare and +exceptional. On the other hand, it is very possible to take the whole of +the shaping or manual group of fine arts together and to pursue their +history connectedly throughout the course of civilization. By the +history of art what is usually meant is indeed the history of these +three arts with that of some of their subordinate and connected crafts. +Leaving aside the arts of the races of the farther East, which, +profoundly interesting as they are, have but gradually and late become +known to us, and the relations of which with the arts of the nearer East +and the Mediterranean are still quite obscure--leaving these aside, the +history of the manual arts of architecture, painting and sculpture falls +naturally into several great periods or divisions to some extent +overlapping each other but in the main consecutive. + + + Main divisions of the history of art. + +These periods are roughly as follows:-- + +1. The period of the great civilizations of Mesopotamia and the Nile, +beginning approximately about 5000 B.C. and ending, roughly speaking +(but some of them much earlier), with the spread of Greek power and +Greek ideas under Alexander. On the main characteristics of the art of +these empires we have already had occasion to touch. + +2. The Minoan and Mycenaean period, partly contemporary with the above +and dating probably from about 2500 to about 1000 B.C.; our knowledge of +this is due entirely to quite recent researches, confined at present to +certain points in Greece and Asia Minor, in Crete and other islands in +the Mediterranean basin; enough has already been revealed to prove the +existence of an original and highly developed palace-architecture and of +forms of relief-painting and of all the minor and decorative arts more +free and animated than anything known to Egypt or Assyria. (See CRETE +and AEGEAN CIVILIZATION.) + +3. The Greek and Roman period, from about 700 B.C. to the final triumph +of Christianity, say A.D. 400. During the first two or three centuries +of this period the Hellenic race, beginning again after the cataclysm +which had swallowed up the earlier Mediterranean civilizations, carried +to perfection its most characteristic art, that of sculpture, in the +endeavour to embody worthily its ideas of the supernatural powers +governing the world. Putting aside the monstrous gods of Egypt and the +East, it found its ideals in varieties of the human form as presented by +the most harmoniously developed specimens of the race under conditions +of the greatest health, activity and grace. In the figures of Greek +sculpture, both decorative and independent, and no doubt in Greek +painting also (but of that we can only judge from such specimens of the +minor handicrafts, chiefly vase-paintings, as have come down to us)--in +these were set for the whole Western world the types and standards of +human beauty, and in their grouping and arrangement the types and +standards of rhythmical composition and design. Gradually human +portraiture and themes of everyday life took their place beside +representations of the gods and heroes. New schools struck out new +tendencies within certain limits. But in the general standards of form +and design there was in the imitative arts relatively little change, +though towards the end there was much failure of skill, throughout the +whole period. The one great change was in architecture. Greece had been +content with the constructive system of columns and horizontal +entablature, and under that system had invented and perfected her three +successive modes or orders of architecture--the Doric, Ionic and +Corinthian. The genius of Rome invented the round arch, and by help of +that system erected throughout her subject world a thousand vast +constructions--temple, palace, bath, amphitheatre, forum, aqueduct, +triumphal gate and the rest--on a scale of monumental grandeur such as +Greece had never known. + +4. The Christian period, from about 400 to about 1400. The decay or +petrifaction of the imitative arts which had set in during the latter +days of Rome continued during all the earlier centuries of the Christian +period, while the Western world was in process of remaking. Free +painting and free sculpture practically ceased to exist. Roman +architecture underwent modifications under the influence of the church +and of the new conditions of life; the Byzantine form, touched at +certain times and places with oriental influences, developed itself +wherever the Eastern Empire still stood erect in decay; the Romanesque +form, as it is called, in the barbarian-conquered regions of the west +and north. Sculpture existed for centuries only in rudimentary and +subordinate forms as applied to architecture; painting only in forms of +rigid though sometimes impressive hieratic imagery, whether as mosaic in +the apses and vaults of churches, as rude illumination in MSS. and +service-books, or as still ruder altar-painting carried on according to +a frozen mechanical tradition. As time went on and medieval institutions +developed themselves, a gradual vitality dawned in all these arts. In +architecture the introduction of the pointed or Gothic arch at the +beginning of the 13th century led to almost as great a revolution as +that brought about by the use of the round or vaulted arch among the +Romans. The same vital impulse that informed the new Gothic architecture +breathed into the still quite subordinate arts of sculpture and painting +(the latter now including the craft of glass-painting for church +windows) a new spirit whether of devotional intensity or sweetness, or +of human pathos or rugged humour, with a new technical skill for its +embodiment. We have not set down, as is usually done, a specifically +Gothic period in art, for this reason. The characteristic of the whole +Christian period is that its dominant art is architecture, chiefly +employed in the service of the church, with painting and sculpture only +subordinately introduced for its enrichment. It makes no essential +difference that from the 5th to the 12th century the forms of this art +were derived with various modifications from the round-arched +architecture of the Empire, and that by the 13th century new forms both +of construction and decoration, in which the round arch was replaced by +the pointed, had been invented in France, and from thence spread abroad +to Germany and Scandinavia, Great Britain, Spain, and last and most +superficially to Italy. The essential difference only begins when the +imitative arts, sculpture and painting, begin to emancipate and detach +themselves, to exist and strive after perfection on their own account. +This happened first and very partially in Italy with the artificers of +the 13th and 14th centuries--with the sculptors Nicola, Giovanni, and +Andrea Pisano; the Sienese group of painters, Duccio, Simone Martini, +and the Lorenzetti; and the Florentine group, Cimabue (if Cimabue is not +a myth), Giotto and the Giotteschi. The development of the rapid and +flowing craft of fresco in place of the laborious and piecemeal craft of +mosaic (henceforth for several centuries almost lost) was a great aid to +this movement. After a period of something like stagnation, the movement +received a vigorous fresh impulse soon after 1400, at about which date +in Italy (not till near a century later in northern Europe) the +beginning of the Renaissance is usually fixed. + +5. The Renaissance period, from about 1400 to about 1600. The passion +for classic literature, stimulated by the influence of Greek scholars +into Italy after the fall of Constantinople; the enthusiastic revival of +classic forms of architecture by architects like Brunelleschi and +Alberti; the achievements in sculpture and painting of masters like +Donatello and Masaccio, based on a new and impassioned study of nature +and the antique together; these are the outstanding and universally +known symptoms of the Italian Renaissance in the second and third +quarters of the 15th century. Promptly and contemptuously in Italy, much +more gradually and incompletely in the north, Gothic principles of +construction and decoration were cast aside for classical principles, as +reformulated by eager spirits from a combined study of Roman remains and +of the text of Vitruvius. To the ideal types of devout and prayer-worn, +ascetic and spiritualized humanity (tempered in certain subjects with +elements of the homely and the grotesque), which the spirit of the +middle ages had dictated to the sculptor and the painter, succeeded +ideals of physical power, beauty and grace rivalling the Hellenic. The +personages of the Christian faith and story were brought into visible +kindred with those of ancient paganism. In the hands of certain artists +a fortunate blending of the two ideals yielded results of a poignant and +unique charm, which for us, who are the heirs both of antiquity and the +middle ages, is far from being yet exhausted. At the same time, the love +alike of republics, great princes, churchmen, nobles and merchants for +works of art gave employment to sculptors and painters on themes other +than ecclesiastical. The taste for civic or personal commemoration, for +portraiture, for illustrations of allegory, romance and classic fable, +covered with pictures the walls of council halls, of public and private +palaces, and of villas. The invention of the oil medium by the painters +of Flanders, and its gradual adoption by the Venetians and other schools +of Italy for all purposes except the external decorations of buildings, +added enormously to the resources of the art in rivalry with nature, and +to the splendour of its results as objects of pride and luxury. The +glories of matured Italian art reacted, not always favourably, on the +north. The great days of Flemish painting had been from about 1430 to +1500, before any appreciable influence of the Renaissance had touched +the schools of Brussels, of Bruges or of Antwerp. By about 1520 the +artists of those schools had begun, except in portraiture, to lose their +native vigour and originality by contact with the alien south. Among the +great artists of Germany in the first half of the 16th century the work +of one or two, like Burgkmair and Holbein, shows Italian influence +reconciled not unsuccessfully with native instinct; but Durer, the +greatest of them, remained in all essentials Gothic and German to the +end. During the last half of the century, the Netherlands and Germany +alike yielded little but work of mongrel Teutonized Italian or +Italianized Teutonic type, until towards its close Rubens accomplished, +in the fire of his prodigious temperament, a true fusion of Flemish and +Venetian qualities, at the same time closing gloriously the Renaissance +period properly so called, and handing on an example which irresistibly +affected a great part of modern painting. + +6. Modern period, from about 1600 to the present time. During this +period architecture remained in all European countries, until the 19th +century, more or less completely under the influence of the Italian +Renaissance. The principles of the classical revival had during a +century or more of transition been gradually absorbed, first by France, +then by Germany, the Low Countries, and Spain, and last by England, each +country modifying the style according to its degree of knowledge or +ignorance, its needs, instincts and traditions. Sculpture, which in the +hands of the great masters of the earlier and later Renaissance in +Italy had almost equalled its ancient glories, nay, in those of +Michelangelo had actually surpassed them in the qualities at least of +superhuman energy and intellectual expression--sculpture lost the sense +of its true limitations, and entered, with the work of Bernini and even +earlier, into an extravagant or "baroque" period of relaxed and bulging +line, of exaggerated and ostentatious virtuosity. In this it followed +the lead given by Italian architecture, by Jesuit church architecture +especially, at and after the height of the Catholic reaction. From the +monumental and memorial purposes which sculpture principally serves, it +remained still, except in purely iconic uses, attached to or dependent +on architecture. Not so painting, which asserted its independence more +and more. In Protestant countries the old ecclesiastical patronage of +the art had quite died out; in those that remained Catholic it +continued, and even received a new stimulus from the anti-Protestant +reaction. The demand for religious art was supplied with abundance of +traditional facility, of technical accomplishment and devotional +display, but with a loss of the old sincerity and inspiration. Almost +all painting, even for the most extensive and monumental phases of +decoration in church or palace or civic hall, was on canvas stretched +over or fitted into its allotted space in the architecture, and the art +of fresco, even in Venice, its last stronghold, was for a time neglected +or forgotten. Portable paintings for princely or private galleries and +cabinets became the chief and most characteristic products of the art. +The subjects of painting multiplied themselves. All manner of new +aspects of life and nature were brought within the technical compass of +the painter. Besides devotional and classical subjects and portraiture, +daily life in all its phases, down to the homeliest and grossest, the +life of the parlour and the tavern, of field and shore and sea, with +landscape in all its varieties, took their place as material for the +painter. The truths of indoor and outdoor atmosphere were translated on +canvas for the first time. The Dutchmen from about 1620 to 1670 were the +most active innovators and path-breakers of modern art along all these +lines. The greatest of them, Rembrandt, dealt, as has been said, like a +master and a magician with the problems of human individuality as +revealed in a mysterious colour and shadow world of his own invention. +At the same time a painter of no less power in Spain, Velazquez, viewing +the world in the natural light of every day, showed for the first time +how vitally and subtly paint could render the relief and mutual values +of figures and objects in space, the essential truth of their visible +relations and reactions in the enveloping atmosphere. The achievement of +these two victorious innovators has only come to be fully understood in +our own day. The simultaneous conquest of Claude le Lorrain, on the +other hand, over the atmospheric glow of summer and sunset on the Roman +Campagna and the adjacent hills and coasts, found acceptance instantly, +less perhaps for its own sake than because of the classical associations +of the scenery which he depicted. The vast widening of the field of the +painter's art and multiplication of its subjects, which thus took place +at the dawn of the modern period, were gains attended by one drawback, +the loss, namely, of the sense of high seriousness and universal appeal +which belonged to the art while its themes had been those of religion +and classic story almost exclusively. + + + Classical and romantic revivals. + +During the three hundred or so years of the modern period, academical +schools attempting, more or less unsuccessfully, to carry on the great +Italian and classical traditions of the Renaissance have not ceased to +exist side by side with those which have striven to express new ways of +seeing and feeling. Sometimes, as in France first under Louis XIV., and +again for forty years from the beginning of the Revolution to the dawn +of romanticism, such schools have succeeded in crushing out and +discrediting all efforts in other directions. Between these two epochs, +say from 1710 to 1780, French 18th-century ideals of social elegance and +brilliant frivolity expressed themselves in forms of great +accomplishment and vivacity both in poetry and sculpture, from the days +of Watteau to those of Fragonard and Clodion. At the same time England +produced one of the finest and at the same time most national and +downright masters of the brush in Hogarth; two of the greatest +aristocratic portrait-painters of the world in Reynolds and +Gainsborough, each of whom modified according to his own instincts the +tradition imported in the previous century by Van Dyck, the greatest +pupil of Rubens (Reynolds fusing with this influence those of Rembrandt +and the Venetians in almost equal shares). Pastoral landscape in the +hands of Gainsborough, classical, following Claude, in those of +Wilson--these together with the humble but wholesome discipline of +topographical illustration led on to the ambitious, wide-ranging and +often inspired experiments of Turner, and to the narrower but more +secure achievements of Constable in the same field, and made this +country the acknowledged pioneer of modern landscape art. In the +meantime the wave of classical enthusiasm which passed over Europe in +the later years of the 18th century had produced in architecture +generally a return to severer principles and purer lines, in reaction +from the baroque and the rococo Renaissance styles of the preceding +century and a half. In Italian sculpture, the same movement inspired +during the Napoleonic period the over-honeyed accomplishment of Canova +and his school; in northern sculpture, the more truly antique but almost +wholly imitative work of Thorwaldsen, and the pure and rhythmic grace of +the English Flaxman, a true master of design though scarcely of +sculpture strictly so called. The same movement again was partly +responsible in English painting and illustration from about 1770 to 1820 +for much pastoral and idyllic work of agreeable but shallow elegance. In +French painting the classic movement struck deeper. Along with much +would-be Roman attitudinizing there was much real, if rigid, power in +the work of David, much accomplished purity and sweetness in that of +Prud'hon. The last and truest classic of France, and at the same time in +portraiture the greatest realist, Ingres, held high the standard of his +cause even through and past the great romantic revival which began with +Gericault and culminated in Delacroix and the school of landscape +painters who had received their inspiration from Constable. The main +instincts embodied in the Romantic movement were the awakening of the +human spirit to an eager retrospective love of the past, and especially +of the medieval past, and simultaneously to a new passion for the +beauties of nature, and especially of wild nature. Germany and England +preceded France in this double awakening; in both countries the movement +inspired a fine literature, but in neither did it express itself so +fully and self-consciously through literature and the other arts +together as it did in France when the hour struck. The revival of +medieval sentiment in Germany had inspired comparatively early in the +century the learned but somewhat aridly ascetic and essentially +unpainterlike work of the group of artists who styled themselves +_Nazarener_. In England the same revival expressed itself during a great +part of the Victorian age in an enthusiastic return to the early Gothic +ecclesiastical styles of architecture, a return unsuccessful upon the +whole, because in pursuit of archaeological and grammatical detail the +root qualities of right proportion and organic design were too often +neglected. + + + The pre-Raphaelites. + +Allied with this Gothic revival, and stimulated like it by the +persuasive conviction and brilliant resource of Ruskin in criticism was +the pre-Raphaelite movement in painting. Among the artists identified +with this movement there was little really in common except in +impatience of the prevailing modes of empty academic convention or +anecdotic frivolity. The name covered for a while the essentially +divergent aims of a vigorous unintellectual craftsman like Millais, +fired for a few years in youth by contact with more imaginative +temperaments, of a strenuous imitator of unharmonized local colours and +unsubordinated natural facts like Holman Hunt, and of born poets and +impassioned medievalists like Rossetti and after him Burne-Jones. +Meantime in France, putting aside the work of the great Delacroix, the +impulse of 1830 expressed itself best and most lastingly in the +monumental work of Daumier both in caricature and romance, the +impressive and significant treatment of peasant life and labour by J.F. +Millet, the vitally truthful pastoral and landscape work of Troyon, +Corot, Daubigny and the rest. + + + Contemporary tendencies. + +Since the exhaustion of the Romantic movement, the other movements that +have been taking place in European art have been too numerous and too +rapid to be touched on here to any purpose. Both in sculpture and +painting France has taken and held the lead. Mention has already been +made of the special tendency in recent sculpture identified with the +name and influence of Rodin. In painting there has been the fertilizing +and transforming influence of Japan on the decorative ideals of the +West; there have been successively the Realist movement, the movements +of the Impressionists, the Luminists, the Neo-impressionists, the +Independents, movements initiated almost always in Paris, and in other +countries eagerly adopted and absorbed, or angrily controverted and +denounced, or simply neglected and ignored according to the predilection +of this or that group of artists and critics; there has been a vast +amount of heterogeneous, hurried, confident and clamant innovating +activity in this direction and in that, much of it perhaps doomed to +futility in the eyes of posterity, but at any rate there has not been +stagnation. + + BIBLIOGRAPHY.--To attempt in this place anything like a full + bibliography covering so vast a field would be idle. Many of the books + necessary to a first-hand study of the subject are cited in the + article AESTHETICS. The following are some of the most important + writings actually referred to in the text, English translations being + mentioned where they exist: Aristotle, _Poetics_, edited with critical + notes and a translation by S.H. Butcher (1898); S.H. Butcher, + _Aristotle's Theory of Poetry and Fine Art_, with a critical text and + a translation of the _Poetics_ (1902); Plato, _Republic_, bk. x. 596 + ff., 600 ff. (Grote, iii. 117 ff.; Jowett, iii. 489 ff.); B. + Bosanquet, _Introduction to Hegel's Philosophy of Fine Art_ + (_Asthetik_), translation with notes and prefatory essay (1896); _The + Philosophy of Art, an Introduction to the Science of Aesthetics_, by + Hegel and C.L. Michelet, trans. Hastie (1886); Schiller, _Briefe uber + die asthetische Erziehung des Menschen_ (trans, by G.J. Weiss, with + preface by J. Chapman, 1845; also in Bohn's Standard Library, 1846); + Herbert Spencer, _First Principles_, ch. xxii.; Gottfried Semper, _Der + Stil_ (1860-1863); Hippolyte Taine, _De l'ideal dans l'art_ (1867), + _Philosophie de l'art en Grece_ (1869), _Philosophie de l'art en + Italie_, _Philosophic de l'art dans les Pays-Bas_ (translations in 5 + vols. by J. Durand, New York, 1889); Karl Groos, _Die Spiele der + Menschen_ (1899; trans, by E.L. Baldwin, 1901), and _Die Spiele der + Tiere_ (2nd ed., 1907; trans, by E.L. Baldwin, 1898); Ernst Grosse, + _Die Anfange der Kunst_ (1894; trans, in the Anthropological Series, + 1894); Yrjo Hirn, _The Origins of Art_ (1900); G. Baldwin Brown, _The + Fine Arts_ (2nd ed., 1902); Felix Clay, _The Origins of the Sense of + Beauty_ (1908). For a general history of the manual or shaping group + of arts, C.J.F. Schnasse, _Geschichte der bildenden Kunste_ (2nd ed., + 1866-1879), though in parts obsolete, is still unsuperseded. A very + summary general view is given in Salomon Reinach, _The Story of Art + through the Ages_ (trans. by Florence Simmonds, 1904); a general + history of the same group was undertaken by Giulio Carotti (English + translation by Alice Todd, 1909). (S. C.) + + + + +FINGER, one of the five members with which the hand is terminated, a +digit; sometimes the word is restricted to the four digits other than +the thumb. The word is common to Teutonic languages, cf. Dutch _vinger_ +and Ger. _Finger_; probably the ultimate origin is to be found in the +root of the words appearing in Greek [Greek: pente], Lat. quinque, +_five_. (See SKELETON: _Appendicular_.) + + + + +FINGER-AND-TOE, CLUB ROOT or ANBURY, a destructive plant-disease known +botanically as _Plasmodiophora Brassicae_, which attacks cabbages, +turnips, radishes and other cultivated and wild members of the order +Cruciferae. It is one of the so-called Slime-fungi or Myxogastres. The +presence of the disease is indicated by nodules or warty outgrowths on +the root, which sometimes becomes much swollen and ultimately rots, +emitting an unpleasant smell. The disease is contracted from spores +present in the soil, which enter the root. The parasite develops within +the living cells of the plant, forming a glairy mass of protoplasm known +as the plasmodium, the form of which alters from time to time. The cells +which have been attacked increase enormously in size and the disease +spreads from cell to cell. Ultimately the _plasmodium_ becomes resolved +into numerous minute round spores which, on the decay of the root, are +set free in the soil. A preventive is quicklime, the application of +which destroys the spores in the soil. It is important that diseased +plants should be burned, also that cruciferous weeds, such as shepherd's +purse, charlock, &c., should not be allowed to grow in places where +plants of the same order are in cultivation. + +[Illustration: Finger-and-Toe (_Plasmodiophora Brassicae_). + + 1, Turnip attacked by the disease, reduced. + 2, A cell of the tissue containing the plasmodium; the smaller cells + at the sides are unaffected. + 3, Infected cell, showing spore formation. 2, 3, highly magnified.] + + + + +FINGER-PRINTS. The use of finger-prints as a system of identification +(q.v.) is of very ancient origin, and was known from the earliest days +in the East when the impression of his thumb was the monarch's +sign-manual. A relic of this practice is still preserved in the formal +confirmation of a legal document by "delivering" it as one's "act and +deed." The permanent character of the finger-print was first put forward +scientifically in 1823 by J.E. Purkinje, an eminent professor of +physiology, who read a paper before the university of Breslau, adducing +nine standard types of impressions and advocating a system of +classification which attracted no great attention. Bewick, the English +draughtsman, struck with the delicate qualities of the lineation, made +engravings of the impression of two of his finger-tips and used them as +signatures for his work. Sir Francis Galton, who laboured to introduce +finger-prints, points out that they were proposed for the identification +of Chinese immigrants when registering their arrival in the United +States. In India, Sir William Herschel desired to use finger-prints in +the courts of the Hugli district to prevent false personation and fix +the identity upon the executants of documents. The Bengal police under +the wise administration of Sir E.R. Henry, afterwards chief commissioner +of the London metropolitan police, usefully adopted finger-prints for +the detection of crime, an example followed in many public departments +in India. A transfer of property is attested by the thumb-mark, so are +documents when registered, and advances made to opium-growers or to +labourers on account of wages, or to contracts signed under the +emigration law, or medical certificates to vouch for the persons +examined, all tending to check the frauds and impostures constantly +attempted. + +The prints depend upon a peculiarity seen in the human hand and to some +extent in the human foot. The skin is traversed in all directions by +creases and ridges, which are ineradicable and show no change from +childhood to extreme old age. The persistence of the markings of the +finger-tips has been proved beyond all question, and this universally +accepted quality has been the basis of the present system of +identification. The impressions, when examined, show that the ridges +appear in certain fixed patterns, from which an alphabet of signs or a +system of notation has been arrived at for convenience of record. As +the result of much experiment a fourfold scheme of classification has +been evolved, and the various types employed are styled "arches," +"loops," "whorls" and "composites." There are seven subclasses, and all +are perfectly distinguishable by an expert, who can describe each by its +particular symbol in the code arranged, so that the whole "print" can be +read as a distinct and separate expression. Very few, and the simplest, +appliances are required for taking the print--a sheet of white paper, a +tin slab, and some printer's ink. Scars or malformations do not +interfere with the result. + +The unchanging character of the finger-prints has repeatedly helped in +the detection of crime. We may quote the case of the thief who broke +into a residence and among other things helped himself to a glass of +wine, leaving two finger-prints upon the tumbler which were subsequently +found to be identical with those of a notorious criminal who was +arrested, pleaded guilty and was convicted. Another burglar effected +entrance by removing a pane of glass from a basement window, but, +unhappily for him, left his imprints, which were referred to the +registry and found to agree exactly with those of a convict at large; +his address was known, and when visited some of the stolen property was +found in his possession. In India a murderer was identified by the brown +mark of a blood-stained thumb he had left when rummaging amongst the +papers of the deceased. This man was convicted of theft but not of the +murder. + +The keystone to the whole system is the central office where the +register or index of all criminals is kept for ready reference. The +operators need no special gifts or lengthy training; method and accuracy +suffice, and abundant checks exist to obviate incorrect classification +and reduce the liability to error. + + AUTHORITIES.--F. Galton, _Finger Prints_ (1892), _Fingerprint + Directories_ (1895); E.R. Henry, _Classification and Uses of Finger + Prints_; A. Yvert, _L'Identification par les empreintes digitales + palmaires_ (1905); K. Windt, R.S. Kodicek, _Daktyloskopie. Verwertung + von Fingerabdrucken zu Identifizierungszwecken_ (Vienna, 1904); E. + Loeard, _La Dactyloscopie. Identification des recidivistes par les + empreintes digitales_ (1904); H. Faulds, _Guide to Finger-Print + Identification_ (1905); H. Gross, _Criminal Investigation_ (trans. J. + and J.C. Adam, 1907). (A. G.) + + + + +FINGO, or FENGU (_Ama-Fengu_, "wanderers"), a Bantu-Negro people, allied +to the Zulu family, who have given their name to the district of +Fingoland, the S.W. portion of the Transkei division of the Cape +province. The Fingo tribes were formed from the nations broken up by +Chaka and his Zulu; after some years of oppression by the Xosa they +appealed to the Cape government in 1835, and were permitted by Sir +Benjamin D'Urban to settle on the banks of the Great Fish river. They +have been always loyal to the British, and have steadily advanced in +social respects. They have largely adapted themselves to western +culture, wearing European clothes, supporting their schools by voluntary +contributions, editing newspapers, translating English poetry, and +setting their national songs to correct music. The majority call +themselves Christians and many of them have intermarried with Europeans. +(See KAFFIRS.) + + + + +FINIAL (a variant of "final"; Lat. _finis_, end), an architectural term +for the termination of a pinnacle, gable end, buttress, or canopy, +consisting of a bunch of foliage, which bears a close affinity to the +crockets (q.v.) running up the gables, turrets or spires, and in some +cases may be formed by uniting four or more crockets together. Sometimes +the term is incorrectly applied to a small pinnacle of which it is only +the termination (see EPI). + + + + +FINIGUERRA, MASO [i.e. TOMMASO] (1426-1464), Florentine goldsmith, +draughtsman, and engraver, whose name is distinguished in the history of +art and craftsmanship for reasons which are partly mythical. Vasari +represents him as having been the first inventor of the art of engraving +(using that word in its popular sense of taking impressions on paper +from designs engraved on metal plates), and Vasari's account was +universally accepted and repeated until recent research proved it +erroneous. What we actually know from contemporary documents of +Finiguerra, his origin, his life, and his work, is as follows. He was +the son of Antonio, and grandson of Tommaso Finiguerra or Finiguerri, +both goldsmiths of Florence, and was born in Sta Lucia d'Ognissanti in +1426. He was brought up to the hereditary profession of goldsmith and +was early distinguished for his work in niello. In his twenty-third year +(1449) we find note of a sulphur cast from a niello of his workmanship +being handed over by the painter Alessio Baldovinetti to a customer in +payment or exchange for a dagger received. In 1452 Maso delivered and +was paid for a niellated silver pax commissioned for the baptistery of +St John by the consuls of the gild of merchants or Calimara. By this +time he seems to have left his father's workshop: and we know that he +was in partnership with Piero di Bartolommeo di Sali and the great +Antonio Pollaiuolo in 1457, when the firm had an order for a pair of +fine silver candlesticks for the church of San Jacopo at Pistoia. In +1459 we find Finiguerra noted in the house-book of Giovanni Rucellai as +one of several distinguished artists with whose works the Casa Rucellai +was adorned. In 1462 he is recorded as having supplied another wealthy +Florentine, Cino di Filippo Rinuccini, with waist-buckles, and in the +years next following with forks and spoons for christening presents. In +1463 he drew cartoons, the heads of which were coloured by Alessio +Baldovinetti, for five or more figures for the sacristy of the duomo, +which was being decorated in wood inlay by a group of artists with +Giuliano da Maiano at their head. On the 14th of December 1464 Maso +Finiguerra made his will, and died shortly afterwards. + +These documentary facts are supplemented by several writers of the next +generation with statements more or less authoritative. Thus Baccio +Bandinelli says that Maso was among the young artists who worked under +Ghiberti on the famous gates of the baptistery; Benvenuto Cellini that +he was the finest master of his day in the art of niello engraving, and +that his masterpiece was a pax of the Crucifixion in the baptistery of +St John; that being no great draughtsman, he in most cases, including +that of the above-mentioned pax, worked from drawings by Antonio +Pollaiuolo. Vasari, on the other hand, allowing that Maso was a much +inferior draughtsman to Pollaiuolo, mentions nevertheless a number of +original drawings by him as existing in his own collection, "with +figures both draped and nude, and histories drawn in water-colour." +Vasari's account was confirmed and amplified in the next century by +Baldinucci, who says that he has seen many drawings by Finiguerra much +in the manner of Masaccio; adding that Maso was beaten by Pollaiuolo in +competition for the reliefs of the great silver altar-table commission +by the merchants' gild for the baptistery of St John (this famous work +is now preserved in the Opera del Duomo). But the paragraph of Vasari +which has chiefly held the attention of posterity is that in which he +gives this craftsman the credit of having been the first to print off +impressions from niello plates on sulphur casts and afterwards on sheets +of paper, and of having followed up this invention by engraving +copper-plates for the express purpose of printing impressions from them, +and thus became the inventor and father of the art of engraving in +general. Finiguerra, adds Vasari, was succeeded in the practice of +engraving at Florence by a goldsmith called Baccio Baldini, who, not +having much invention of his own, borrowed his designs from other +artists and especially from Botticelli. In the last years of the 18th +century Vasari's account of Finiguerra's invention was held to have +received a decisive and startling confirmation under the following +circumstances. There was in the baptistery at Florence (now in the +Bargello) a beautiful 15th-century niello pax of the Coronation of the +Virgin. The Abate Gori, a savant and connoisseur of the mid-century, had +claimed this conjecturally for the work of Finiguerra; a later and still +more enthusiastic virtuoso, the Abate Zani, discovered first, in the +collection of Count Seratti at Leghorn, a sulphur cast from the very +same niello (this cast is now in the British Museum), and then, in the +National library at Paris, a paper impression corresponding to both. +Here, then, he proclaimed, was the actual material first-fruit of +Finiguerra's invention and proof positive of Vasari's accuracy. + +Zani's famous discovery, though still accepted in popular art histories +and museum guides, is now discredited among serious students. For one +thing, it has been proved that the art of printing from engraved +copper-plates had been known in Germany, and probably in Italy also, for +years before the date of Finiguerra's alleged invention. For another, +Maso's pax for the baptistery, if Cellini is to be trusted, represented +not a Coronation of the Virgin but a Crucifixion. In the next place, its +recorded weight does not at all agree with that of the pax claimed by +Gori and Zani to be his. Again, and perhaps this is the strongest +argument of any, all authentic records agree in representing Finiguerra +as a close associate in art and business of Antonio Pollaiuolo. Now +nothing is more marked than the special style of Pollaiuolo and his +group; and nothing is more unlike it than the style of the Coronation +pax, the designer of which must obviously have been trained in quite a +different school, namely that of Filippo Lippi. So this seductive +identification has to be abandoned, and we have to look elsewhere for +traces of the real work of Finiguerra. The only fully authenticated +specimens which exist are the above-mentioned tarsia figures, over half +life-size, executed from his cartoons for the sacristy of the duomo. But +his hand has lately been conjecturally recognized in a number of other +things: first in a set of drawings of the school of Pollaiuolo at the +Uffizi, some of which are actually inscribed "Maso Finiguerra" in a +17th-century writing, probably that of Baldinucci himself; and secondly +in a very curious and important book of nearly a hundred drawings by the +same hand, acquired in 1888 for the British Museum. The Florence series +depicts for the most part figures of the studio and the street, to all +appearance members of the artist's own family and workshop, drawn direct +from life. The museum volume, on the other hand, is a picture-chronicle, +drawn from imagination, and representing parallel figures of sacred and +profane history, in a chronological series from the Creation to Julius +Caesar, dressed and accoutred with inordinate richness according to the +quaint pictures which Tuscan popular fancy in the mid-15th century +conjured up to itself of the ancient world. Except for the differences +naturally resulting from the difference of subject, and that the one +series are done from life and the other from imagination, the technical +style and handling of the two are identical and betray unmistakably a +common origin. Both can be dated with certainty, from their style, +costumes, &c., within a few years of 1460. Both agree strictly with the +accounts of Finiguerra's drawings left us by Vasari and Baldinucci, and +disagree in no respect with the character of the inlaid figures of the +sacristy. That the draughtsman was a goldsmith is proved on every page of +the picture-chronicle by his skill and extravagant delight in the +ornamental parts of design--chased and jewelled cups, helmets, shields, +breastplates, scabbards and the like,--as well as by the symmetrical +metallic forms into which he instinctively conventionalizes plants and +flowers. That he was probably also an engraver in niello appears from the +fact that figures from the Uffizi series of drawings are repeated among +the rare anonymous Florentine niello prints of the time (the chief +collection of which, formerly belonging to the marquis of Salamanca, is +now in the cabinet of M. Edmond de Rothschild in Paris). That he was +furthermore an engraver on copper seems certain from the fact that the +general style and many particular figures and features of the British +Museum chronicle drawings are exactly repeated in some of those primitive +15th-century Florentine prints which used to be catalogued loosely under +the names of Baldini or Botticelli, but have of late years been classed +more cautiously as anonymous prints in the "fine manner" (in +contradistinction to another contemporary group of prints in the "broad +manner"). The fine-manner group of primitive Florentine engravings itself +falls into two divisions, one more archaic, more vigorous and original +than the other, and consisting for the most part of larger and more +important prints. It is this division which the drawings of the Chronicle +series most closely resemble; so closely as almost to compel the +conclusion that drawings and engravings are by the same hand. The later +division of fine-manner prints represent a certain degree of technical +advance from the earlier, and are softer in style, with elements of more +classic grace and playfulness; their motives moreover are seldom +original, but are borrowed from various sources, some from German +engravings, some from Botticelli or a designer closely akin to him, some +from the pages of the British Museum Chronicle-book itself, with a +certain softening and attenuating of their rugged spirit; as though the +book, after the death of the original draughtsman-engraver, had remained +in his workshop and continued to be used by his successors. We thus find +ourselves in presence of a draughtsman of the school of Pollaiuolo, some +of whose drawings bear an ancient attribution to Finiguerra, while all +agree with what is otherwise known of him, and one or two are exactly +repeated in extant works of niello, the craft which was peculiarly his +own; others being intimately related to the earliest or all but the +earliest works of Florentine engraving, the kindred craft which tradition +avers him to have practised, and which Vasari erroneously believed him to +have invented. Surely, it has been confidently argued, this draughtsman +must be no other than the true Finiguerra himself. The argument has not +yet been universally accepted, but neither has any competent criticism +appeared to shake it; so that it may be regarded for the present as +holding the field. + + BIBLIOGRAPHY.--See Bandinelli in Bottari, _Raccolta di lettere_ + (1754), i. p. 75; Vasari (ed. Milanesi), i. p. 209, iii. p. 206; + Benvenuto Cellini, _I Trattati dell' orificeria_, &c. (ed. Lemonnier), + pp. 7, 12, 13, 14; Baldinucci, _Notizie dei professori di disegno_ + (1845), i. pp. 518, 519, 533; Zani, _Materiali per servire_, &c. + (1802); Duchesne, _Essai sur les nielles_ (1824); Dutuit, _Manuel de + l'amateur d'estampes_, vol. i. pref. and vol. ii.; and for a full + discussion of the whole question, with quotations from earlier + authorities and reproductions of the works discussed, Sidney Colvin, + _A Florentine Picture Chronicle_ (1898). (S. C.) + + + + +FINISHING. The term _finishing_, as specially applied in the textile +industries, embraces the process or processes to which bleached, dyed or +printed fabrics of any description are subjected, with the object of +imparting a characteristic appearance to the surface of the fabric, or +of influencing its handle or feel. Strictly speaking, certain operations +might be classed under this heading which are conducted previous to +bleaching, dyeing, &c; e.g. mercerizing (q.v.), stretching and crabbing, +singeing (see BLEACHING); but as these are not undertaken by the +finisher, only those will be dealt with here which are not mentioned +under other headings. By the various treatments to which the fabric is +subjected in finishing, it is often so altered in appearance that it is +impossible to recognize in it the same material that came from the loom +or from the bleacher or dyer. On the other hand, one and the same +fabric, subjected to different processes of finishing, may be made to +represent totally different classes of material. In other cases, +however, the appearance of the finished article differs but slightly +from that of the piece on leaving the loom. + +All processes of finishing are purely mechanical in character, and the +most important of them depend upon the fact that in their ordinary +condition (i.e. containing their normal amount of moisture), or better +still in a damp state, the textile fibres are plastic, and consequently +yield to pressure or tension, ultimately assuming the shape imparted to +them. The old-fashioned box press, formerly largely used for household +linen, owed its efficacy to this principle. At elevated temperatures the +damp fibres become very much more plastic than at the ordinary +temperature, the simplest form of finishing appliance based on this fact +being the ordinary flat iron. Indeed it may safely be stated that most +of the modern finishing processes have been evolved from the household +operations of washing (milling), brushing, starching, mangling, ironing +and pressing. + +_Cotton Pieces._--In the ordinary process of bleaching, cotton goods are +subjected during the various operations to more or less continual +longitudinal tension, and while becoming elongated, shrink more or less +considerably in width. In order to bring them back to their original +width, they are stretched or "stentered" by means of specially +constructed machines. The most effective of these is the so-called +stentering frame, which consists essentially of two slightly diverging +endless chains carrying clips or pins which hold the piece in position +as it traverses the machine. The length of a frame may vary from 20 to +30 yds. On the upper part of the frame the chains run in slots, and by +means of set screws the distance between the two chains can be set +within the required limits. The pieces are fed on to one end of the +machine in the damp state by hand and are then naturally slack. But +before they have travelled many yards they become taut, the stretching +increasing as they travel along. Simultaneously with the stretching, the +pieces are dried by a current of hot air which is blown through from +below, so that on arriving at the end of the machine they are not only +stretched to the required degree but are also dry. The machine used for +stentering is more fully described under MERCERIZING (q.v.). In case the +goods come straight from the loom to be finished, stentering is not +necessary. + +Pieces intended to receive a "pure" finish pass on without further +treatment to the ordinary finishing processes such as calendering, hot +pressing, raising, &c. But in the majority of cases they are previously +impregnated, according to the finish desired, with stiffening or +softening agents, weighting materials, &c. Usually, starch constitutes +the main stiffening agent, with additions of china clay, barium +compounds, &c., for weighting purposes, and Turkey red oil, with or +without the addition of some vegetable oil or fat, as the softening +agent. Magnesium sulphate is also largely used in order to give "body" +to the cloth, which it does by virtue of its property of crystallizing +in fine felted needle-shaped crystals throughout the mass of the fabric. +When starch is used in filling, it is advisable to add some anti-septic, +such as zinc chloride, sodium silicofluoride, phenol or salicylic acid, +in order to prevent or retard subsequent development of mildew. The +impregnation of the pieces with the filling is effected in two ways, +viz. either throughout the thickness of the cloth or on one surface only +(back starching). When the whole piece is to be impregnated the +operation is conducted in a starching mangle, which is similar in +construction to an ordinary household mangle, though naturally larger +and more elaborate in construction. The pieces run at full width through +a trough situated immediately below the bowls and containing the filling +(starch paste, &c.), then between the bowls, the pressure ("nip") of +which regulates the amount of filling taken up, and thence over a range +of steam-heated drying cylinders (see BLEACHING). In case one side only +of the goods is to be stiffened--and this is usually necessary in the +case of printed goods,--a so-called back-starching mangle is employed. + +[Illustration: FIG. 1.--Principle of Back-Starching Machine.] + + The construction of the machine varies, but the simplest form consists + essentially of a wooden bowl a (Fig. 1) which runs in the starch paste + contained in trough t. The pieces pass from the batch-roller B, + through scrimp rails S and over the bowl under tension, touching the + surface from which they gather the starch paste. By means of the fixed + "doctor" blade d, which extends across the piece, the paste is + levelled on the surface of the fabric and excess scraped off, falling + back into the trough. The goods are then dried with the face side to + the cylinders. + +Some goods come into the market with no further treatment after +starching other than running through a mangle with a little softening +and then drying, but in the great majority of cases they are subjected +to further operations. + +_Damping._--When deprived of their natural moisture by drying on the +cylinder drying machine, cotton goods are not in a fit condition to +undergo the subsequent operations of calendering, beetling, &c., since +the fibres in the dry state have lost their plasticity. The pieces are +consequently damped to the desired degree, and this is usually effected +in a damping machine in passing through which they meet with a fine +spray of water. + +[Illustration: FIG. 2.--Principle of Damping Machine.] + + A simple and effective device for this purpose is shown in section in + Fig. 2. It consists essentially of a brass roller r running in water + contained in a trough or box t. Touching the brass roller is a brush + roller b which revolves at a high speed, thus spraying the water, + which it takes up continuously from the wet revolving brass roller in + all directions, and consequently also against the piece which passes + in a stretched condition over the top of the box, being drawn from the + batch roller B, over scrimp rails S, and batched again on the other + side on roller R. The level of the water in the trough is kept + constant. + +_Calendering._--The calender may be regarded as an elaboration of the +ordinary mangle, from which, however, it differs essentially inasmuch as +one or more of the rollers or bowls are made of steel or iron and can be +treated either by gas or steam; the other bowls are made of compressed +cotton or paper. Three distinct forms of calender are in use, viz. the +ordinary calender, the friction calender and the embossing calender. + +The number of bowls in an ordinary calender varies between two and six +according to the character of the finish for which it is intended. In a +modern five-bowl calender the bottom bowl is made of cast iron, the +second of compressed cotton or paper, the third of iron being hollow and +fitted with steam heating apparatus. The fourth bowl is made of +compressed cotton, and the fifth of cast iron. The pieces are simply +passed through for "swissing," i.e. for the production of an ordinary +plain finish. The same calender may also be used for "chasing," in which +two pieces are passed through, face to face, in order to produce an +imitation linen finish. Moire or "watered" effects are produced in a +similar way, but these effects are frequently imitated in the embossing +calender. + +The friction calender, the object of which is to produce a high gloss on +the fabric, differs from the ordinary calender inasmuch as one of the +bowls is caused to revolve at a greater speed than the others. In an +ordinary three-bowl friction calender the bottom bowl is made of cast +iron, the middle one of compressed cotton or paper, and the top one (the +friction bowl) of highly polished chilled iron. The last-named bowl, +which has a greater peripheral speed than the others, is hollow and can +be heated either by steam or gas. + +The embossing calender is usually constructed of two bowls, one of which +is of steel and the other of compressed cotton or paper. The steel +roller, which is hollow and can be heated either by steam or gas, is +engraved with the pattern which it is desired to impart to the piece. If +the pattern is deep, as is the case in the production of book cloths, it +is necessary to run the machine empty under pressure until the pattern +of the steel bowl has impressed itself into the cotton or paper bowls, +but if the effect desired only consists of very fine lines, this is not +necessary; for instance, in the production of the Schreiner finish, +which is intended to give the pieces (especially after mercerizing) the +appearance of silk, the steel roller is engraved with fine diagonal +lines which are so close together (about 250 to the in.) as to be +undistinguishable by the naked eye. + +_Beetling_ is a process by which a peculiar linen-like appearance and a +leathery feel or handle are imparted to cotton fabrics, the process +being also employed for improving the appearance of linen goods. For the +best class of beetle finish, the pieces are first impregnated with sago +starch and the other necessary ingredients (softening, &c.) and are +dried on cylinders. They are then damped on a water mangle, and beamed +on to the heavy iron bowl of the beetling machine. + + A beetling machine of the kind, with four sets of "fallers," is shown + in Fig. 3. The fallers are made of beech wood, are about 8 ft. long, + 5-1/2 in. deep and 4 in. wide, and are kept in their vertical position + by two pairs of guide rails. Each faller is provided with a tappet or + wooden peg driven in at one side, which engages with the teeth or + "wipers" of the revolving shaft in the front of the machine. The + effect of this mechanism is to lift the faller a distance of about 13 + in. and then let it drop on to the cloth wound on the beam. This + lifting and dropping of the fallers on to the beam takes place in + rhythmical and rapid succession. To ensure even treatment the beam + turns slowly round and also has a to-and-fro movement imparted to it. + The treatment may last, according to the finish which it is desired to + obtain, from one to sixty hours. + +[Illustration: FIG. 3.--Beetling Machine (Edmeston & Sons).] + +Beetling was originally used for linen goods, but to-day is almost +entirely applied to cotton for the production of so-called _linenettes_. + +_Hot-pressing_ is used to a limited extent in order to obtain a soft +finish on cotton goods, but as this operation is more used for wool, it +will be described below. + +_Raising._--This operation, which was formerly only used for woollen +goods (teasing), has come largely into use for cotton pieces, partly in +consequence of the introduction of the direct cotton colours by which +the cotton is dyed evenly throughout (see DYEING), and partly in +consequence of new and improved machinery having been devised for the +purpose. Starting with a plain bleached, dyed or printed fabric, the +process consists in principle in raising or drawing out the ends of +individual fibres from the body of the cloth, so as to produce a nap or +soft woolly surface on the face. + +[Illustration: FIG. 4.--Raising.] + + This is effected by passing the fabric slowly round a large drum D, + which is surrounded, as shown in the diagram, (Fig. 4), by a number of + small cylinders or rollers, r, covered with steel wire brushes or + "carding," such as is used in carding engines (see COTTON-SPINNING + MACHINERY). + + The rollers r, which are all driven by one and the same belt (not + shown in the figure), revolve at a high rate of speed, and can be made + to do so either in the same direction as that followed by the piece as + it travels through the machine or in the opposite one. In addition to + their revolving round their own axes, the raising rollers may be + either kept stationary or may be moved round the drum D in either + direction. + + In the more modern machines there are two sets of raising rollers, of + which each alternate one is caused to revolve in the direction + followed by the piece, while the other is made to revolve in the + opposite direction. By passing through an arrangement of this kind + several times, or through several such machines in succession, the + ends of the fibres are gradually drawn out to the desired extent. + +After raising, the pieces are sheared (for better class work) in order +to produce greater regularity in the length of the nap. The raised style +of finishing is used chiefly for the production of uniformly white or +coloured flannelettes but is also used for such as are dyed in the yarn, +and to a limited extent for printed fabrics. + +_Woollen and Worsted Pieces._--Although both of these classes of +material are made from wool, their treatment in finishing differs so +materially that it is necessary to deal with them separately. _Unions_ +or fabrics consisting of a cotton warp with a worsted weft are in +general treated like worsteds. + +In the finishing of woollen pieces the most important operation is that +of _milling_, which consists in subjecting the pieces to mechanical +friction, usually in an alkaline medium (soap or soap and soda) but +sometimes in an acid (sulphuric acid) medium, in order to bring about +felting and consequent "fulling" of the fabric. This felting of the wool +is due to the peculiar structure of the fibre, the scales of which all +protrude in one direction, so that the individual fibres can slip past +each other in one direction more readily than in the opposite one and +thus become more and more interlocked as the milling proceeds. If the +pieces contain _burrs_ these are usually removed by a process known as +"carbonizing," which generally, but not necessarily, precedes the +milling. Their removal depends upon the fact that the burrs, which +consist in the main of cellulose, are disintegrated at elevated +temperatures by dilute mineral acids. The pieces are run through +sulphuric acid of from 4 deg. to 6 deg. Tw., squeezed or +hydro-extracted, and dried over cylinders and then in stoves. The acid +is thus concentrated and attacks the burrs, which fall to dust, while +leaving the wool intact. For the removal of the acid the fabric is first +washed in water and then in weak soda. Carbonizing is also sometimes +used for worsteds. + +[Illustration: FIG. 5.--Milling Stocks.] + +Milling was formerly all done in milling or fulling stocks (see Fig. 5), +in which the cloth saturated with a strong solution of soap (with or +without other additions such as stale urine, potash, fuller's earth, +&c.) is subjected to the action of heavy wooden hammers, which are +raised by the cams attached to the wheel (E) on the revolving shaft, and +fall with their own weight on to the bundles of cloth. The shape of the +hammer-head causes the cloth to turn slowly in the cavity in which the +milling takes place. Occasionally, the cloth is taken out, straightened, +washed if necessary, and then returned to the stocks to undergo further +treatment, the process being continued until the material is uniformly +shrunk or milled to the desired degree. + +In the more modern forms of milling machines the principle adopted is to +draw the pieces in rope form, saturated with soap solution and sewn +together end to end so as to form an endless band, between two or more +rollers, on leaving which they are forced down a closed trough ending in +an aperture the size of which can be varied, but which in any case is +sufficiently small to cause a certain amount of force to be necessary to +push the pieces through. A machine of this kind is shown in Fig. 6. It +is evident that for coloured goods which have to be milled only such +colouring matters must be chosen for dyeing that are absolutely fast to +soap. + +[Illustration: From Ganswindt, _Technologie der Appretur_. + +FIG. 6.--Roller Milling Machine.] + +After the pieces have been milled down to the desired degree, they +present an uneven and, undesirable appearance on the surface, the ends +of many of the fibres which previously projected having been turned and +thus become embedded in the body of the cloth. In order to bring these +hairs to the surface again, the fabric is subjected to _teasing_ or +_raising_, an operation identical in principle with one which has +already been noticed under the finishing of cotton. In place of the +steel wire brushes it is the usual practice to employ teasels for the +treatment of woollen goods. + + The teasel (see Fig. 7) is the dried head (fruit) of a kind of thistle + (_Dipsacus fullorum_), the horny sharp spikes of which turn downwards + at their extremity, and, while possessing the necessary sharpness and + strength for raising the fibres, are not sufficiently rigid to cause + any material damage to the cloth. For raising, the teasels are fixed + in rows on a large revolving drum, and the piece to be treated is + drawn lengthways underneath the drum, being guided by rollers or rods + so as to just touch the teasels as they sweep past. In the raising of + woollen goods it is necessary that the pieces should be damp or moist + while undergoing this treatment. + +After teasing, the pieces are stretched and dried. At this stage they +still have an irregular appearance, for although the raising has brought +all the loose ends of the fibres to the surface, these vary considerably +in length and thus give rise to an uneven nap. + +[Illustration: From Ganswindt, _Technologie der Appretur_. + +FIG. 7.--Teasel used for Raising.] + +By the next operation of _shearing_ or _cropping_, the long hairs are +cut off arid a uniform surface is thus obtained. Shearing was in former +times done by hand, by means of shears, but is to-day universally +effected by means of a cutting device which works on the same principle +as an ordinary lawn-mower, in which a number of spiral blades set on the +surface of a rapidly revolving roller pass continuously over a straight +fixed blade underneath, the roller being set so that the spiral blades +just touch the fixed blade. Before the piece comes to the shearing +device the nap is raised by means of a rotary brush. Shearing may be +effected either transversely, in which case the fixed blade is parallel +to the warp, or longitudinally with the fixed blade parallel to the +weft. In the first case, the piece being stretched on a table, over +which the cutter, carried on rails, travels from selvedge to selvedge. +The length of the piece that can be shorn in one operation will +naturally depend upon the length of the blade, but in any case the +process is necessarily intermittent, many operations being required +before the whole piece is shorn. In the longitudinal shearing machines +the process is continuous, the pieces passing from the beam in the +stretched condition over the rotary brush, under the fixed blade, and +then being again brushed before being beamed on the other side of the +machine. Shearing once is generally insufficient, and for this reason +many of the modern machines are constructed with duplicate arrangements +so as to effect the shearing twice in the same operation. In the +finishing of certain woollen goods the pieces, after having been milled, +raised and sheared, go through these operations again in the same +sequence. + +After these operations the goods are pressed either in the hydraulic +press or in the continuous press, and according to the character of the +material and the finish desired may or may not be steamed under +pressure, all of which operations are described below. + +New cloth, as it comes into the hands of the tailor, frequently shows an +undesirable gloss or sheen, which is removed before making up by a +process known as shrinking, in which the material is simply damped or +steamed. + +_Worsteds and Unions._--The pieces are first singed by gas or hot plate +(see BLEACHING), and are then usually subjected to a process known as +"crabbing," the object of which is to "set" the wool fibres. If this +operation is omitted, especially in the case of unions, the fabric will +"cockle," or assume an uneven surface on being wetted. In crabbing the +pieces are drawn at full breadth and under as much tension as they will +stand through boiling water, and are wound or beamed on to a roller +under the pressure of a superposed heavy iron roller, the operation +being conducted two or three times as required. From the crabbing +machine the pieces are wound on to a perforated shell or steel cylinder +which is closed at one end. The open end is then attached to a steam +pipe, and steam, at a pressure of 30 to 45 lb., is allowed to enter +until it makes its way through all the layers of cloth to the outside, +when the steam is turned off and the whole allowed to cool. Since those +layers of the cloth which are nearest the shell are acted upon for a +longer period than those at the outside, it is necessary to re-wind and +repeat the operation, the outside portions coming this time nearest to +the shell. The principle of the process depends upon the fact that at +elevated temperatures moist wool becomes plastic, and then easily +assumes the shape imparted to it by the great tension under which the +pieces are wound. On cooling the shape is retained, and since the +temperature at which the pieces were steamed under tension exceeds any +to which they are submitted in the subsequent processes, the "setting" +of the fibres is permanent. After crabbing, the pieces are washed or +"scoured" in soap either on the winch or at full width. In some cases +the crabbing precedes the scouring. The goods are then dyed and +finished. + +The nature of the finishing process will vary considerably according to +the special character of the goods under treatment. Thus, for certain +classes of goods cold pressing is sufficient, while in other cases the +pieces are steamed under pressure in a manner analogous to the treatment +after crabbing ("decatizing"). The treatment in most common use for +worsteds and unions is hot pressing, which may be effected either in the +hydraulic press or in the continuous press, but in most cases in the +former. + +In pressing in the hydraulic press the pieces are folded down by hand on +a table, a piece of press paper (thin hand-made cardboard with a glossed +and extremely hard surface) being inserted between each lap. After a +certain number of laps, a steel or iron press plate is inserted, and the +folding proceeds in this way until the pile is sufficiently high, when +it is placed in the press. The press being filled, the hydraulic ram is +set in motion until the reading on the gauge shows that the desired +amount of pressure has been obtained. The heating of the press plates +was formerly done in ovens, previous to their insertion in the piece, +but although this practice is still in vogue in rare instances, the +heating is now effected either by means of steam which is caused to +circulate through the hollow steel plates, or in the more modern forms +of presses by means of an electric current. After the pieces have thus +been subjected to the combined effects of heat and pressure for the +desired length of time, they are allowed to cool in the press. It is +evident that portions of the pieces, viz. the folds, thus escape the +finishing process, and for this reason it is necessary to repeat the +process, the folds now being made to lie in the middle of the press +papers. + +[Illustration: From Ganswindt,' _Technologie der Appretur_. + +FIG. 8.--Continuous Press.] + + The continuous press, which is used for certain classes of worsteds, + but more especially for woollen goods, consists in principle of a + polished steam-heated steel cylinder against which either one or two + steam-heated chilled iron cheeks are set by means of levers and + adjusting screws. The pieces to be pressed are drawn slowly between + the cheeks and the bowl. A machine of the kind is shown in section in + Fig. 8. In working, the cheeks C, C_1 are pressed against the bowl B. + The course followed by the cloth to be finished is shown by the dotted + line, the finished material being mechanically folded down on the + left-hand side of the machine. The pieces thus acquire a certain + amount of finish which is, however, not comparable with that produced + in the hydraulic press. + +_Pile Fabrics_, such as velvets, velveteens, corduroys, plushes, +sealskins, &c., require a special treatment in finishing, and great care +must be taken in all operations to prevent the pile being crushed or +otherwise damaged. Velveteens and corduroys are singed before boiling or +bleaching. Velveteens dyed in black or in dark shades are brushed with +an oil colour (e.g. Prussian blue for blacks), and dried over-night in a +hot stove in order to give them a characteristic bloom. Regularity in +the pile and gloss are obtained by shearing and brushing. Corduroys are +stiffened at the back by the application of "bone-size" (practically an +impure form of glue) in a machine similar to that used for +back-starching. The face of the fabric is waxed with beeswax by passing +the piece under a revolving drum, on the surface of which bars of this +material are fixed parallel to the axis. The bars just touch the surface +of the fabric as it passes through the machine. The gloss is then +obtained by brushing with circular brushes which run partly in the +direction of the piece and partly diagonally. In the finishing of +velvets, shearing and brushing are the most important operations. The +same applies to sealskins and other long pile fabrics, but with these an +additional operation, viz. that of "batting," is employed after dyeing +and before shearing and brushing, which consists in beating the back of +the stretched fabric with sticks in order to shake out the pile and +cause it to stand erect. + +For the finishing of silk pieces the operations and machinery employed +are similar in character to some of those used for cotton and worsteds. +Most high-class silks require no further treatment other than simple +damping and pressing after they leave the loom. Inferior qualities are +frequently filled or back-filled with glue, sugar, gum tragacanth, +dextrin, &c., after which they are dried, damped and given a light +calender finish. Moire or watered effects are produced by running two +pieces face to face through a calender or by means of an embossing +calender. In the latter case the pattern repeats itself. For the +production of silk crape the dyed (generally black) piece is impregnated +with a solution of shellac in methylated spirit and dried. It is then +"goffered," an operation which is practically identical with embossing +(see above), and may either be done on an embossing calender or by means +of heated brass plates in which the design is engraved to the desired +depth and pattern. + +The measuring, wrapping, doubling, folding, &c., of piece goods previous +to making up are done in the works by specially constructed machinery. + +_Finishing of Yarn._--The finishing of yarn is not nearly so important +as the finishing of textiles in the piece, and it will suffice to draw +attention to the main operations. Cotton yarns are frequently "gassed," +i.e. drawn through a gas flame, in order to burn or singe off the +projecting fibres and thus to produce a clean thread which is required +for the manufacture of certain classes of fabrics. The most important +finishing process for cotton yarn is "mercerizing" (q.v.), by means of +which a permanent silk-like gloss is obtained. The "polishing" of cotton +yarn, by means of which a highly glazed product, similar in appearance +to horsehair, is obtained, is effected by impregnating the yarn with a +paste consisting essentially of starch, beeswax or paraffin wax and +soap, and then subjecting the damp material to the action of revolving +brushes until dry. Woollen yarn is not subjected to any treatment, but +worsted yarns (especially twofold) have to be "set" before scouring and +dyeing in order to prevent curling. This is effected by stretching the +yarn tight on a frame, which is immersed in boiling water and then +allowing it to cool in this condition. + +A peculiar silk-like gloss and feel is sometimes imparted to yarns made +from lustre wool by a treatment with a weak solution of chlorine +(bleaching powder and hydrochloric acid) followed by a treatment with +soap. + +Worsted and mohair yarns intended for the manufacture of braids are +singed by gas, a process technically known as "Genapping." + +Silk yarn is subjected to various mechanical processes before weaving. +The most important of these are stretching, shaking, lustreing and +glossing. Stretching and shaking are simple operations the nature of +which is sufficiently indicated by their names, and by these means the +hanks are stretched to their original length and straightened out by +hand or on a specially devised machine. In _lustreing_, the yarn is +stretched slightly beyond its original length between two polished +revolving cylinders (one of which is steam heated) contained in a box or +chest into which steam is admitted. In _glossing_, the yarn is twisted +tight, first in one direction and then in the other, on a machine, this +alternating action being continued until the maximum gloss is obtained. + +The so-called "scrooping" process, which gives to silk a peculiar feel +and causes it to crackle or crunch when compressed by the hand, is a +very simple operation, and consists in treating the yarn after dyeing in +a bath of dilute acid (acetic, tartaric or sulphuric) and then drying +without washing. Heavily weighted black silks are passed after dyeing +through an emulsion of olive oil in soap and dried without washing, in +order to give additional lustre to the material or rather to restore +some of the lustre which has been lost in weighting. (E. K.) + + + + +FINISTERE, or FINISTERRE, the most western department of France, formed +from part of the old province of Brittany. Pop. (1906) 795,103. Area, +2713 sq. m. It is bounded W. and S. by the Atlantic Ocean, E. by the +departments of Cotes-du-Nord and Morbihan, and N. by the English +Channel. Two converging chains of hills run from the west towards the +east of the department and divide it into three zones conveying the +waters in three different directions. North of the Arree, or more +northern of the two chains, the waters of the Douron, Penze and Fleche +flow northward to the sea. The Elorn, however, after a short northerly +course, turns westward and empties into the Brest roads. South of the +Montagnes Noires, the Odet, Aven, Isole and Elle flow southward; while +the waters of the Aulne, flowing through a region enclosed by the two +chains with a westward declination, discharge into the Brest roads. The +rivers are all small, and none of the hills attain a height of 1300 ft. +The coast is generally steep and rocky and at some points dangerous, +notably off Cape Raz and the Ile de Sein; it is indented with numerous +bays and inlets, the chief of which--the roadstead of Brest and the Bays +of Douarnenez and Audierne--are on the west. The principal harbours are +those of Brest, Concarneau, Morlaix, Landerneau, Quimper and Douarnenez. +Off the coast lie a number of islands and rocks, the principal of which +are Ushant (q.v.) N.W. of Cape St Mathieu, and Batz off Roscoff. The +climate is temperate and equable, but humid; the prevailing winds are +the W., S.W. and N.W. Though more than a third of the department is +covered by heath, waste land and forest, it produces oats, wheat, +buckwheat, rye and barley in quantities more than sufficient for its +population. In the extreme north the neighbourhood of Roscoff, and +farther south the borders of the Brest roadstead, are extremely fertile +and yield large quantities of asparagus, artichokes and onions, besides +melons and other fruits. The cider apple is abundant and furnishes the +chief drink of the inhabitants. Hemp and flax are also grown. The farm +and dairy produce is plentiful, and great attention is paid to the +breeding and feeding of cattle and horses. The production of honey and +wax is considerable. The fisheries of the coast, particularly the +pilchard fishery, employ a great many hands and render this department +an excellent nursery of seamen for the French navy. Coal, though found +in Finistere, is not mined; there are quarries of granite, slate, +potter's clay, &c. The lead mines of Poullaouen and Huelgoat, which for +several centuries yielded a considerable quantity of silver, are no +longer worked. The preparation of sardines is carried on on a large +scale at several of the coast-towns. The manufactures include linens, +woollens, sail-cloth, ropes, agricultural implements, paper, leather, +earthenware, soda, soap, candles, and fertilizers and chemicals derived +from seaweed. Brest has important foundries and engineering works; and +shipbuilding is carried on there and at other seaports. Brest and +Morlaix are the most important commercial ports. Trade is in fish, +vegetables and fruit. Coal is the chief import. The department is served +by the Orleans and Western railways. The canal from Nantes to Brest has +51 m. of its length in the department. The Aulne is navigable for 17 m., +and many of the smaller rivers for short distances. + +Finistere is divided into the arrondissements of Quimperle, Brest, +Chateaulin, Morlaix and Quimper (43 cantons, 294 communes), the town of +Quimper being the capital of the department and the seat of a bishopric. +The department belongs to the region of the XI. army corps and to the +archiepiscopal province and academie (educational division) of Rennes, +where its court of appeal is also situated. + +The more important places are Quimper, Brest, Morlaix, Quimperle, St +Pol-de-Leon, Douarnenez, Concarneau, Roscoff, Penmarc'h and Pont-l'Abbe. +Finistere abounds in menhirs and other megalithic monuments, of which +those of Penmarc'h, Plouarzal and Crozon are noted. The two religious +structures characteristic of Brittany--calvaries and charnel-houses--are +frequently met with. The calvaries of Plougastel-Daoulas, Pleyben, St +Thegonnec, Lampaul-Guimiliau, which date from the 17th century, and that +of Guimiliau (16th century), and the charnel-houses of Sizun and St +Thegonnec (16th century) and of Guimiliau (17th century) may be +instanced as the most remarkable. Daoulas has the remains of a fine +church and cloister in the Romanesque style. The chapel of St Herbot +(16th century) near Loqueffret, the churches of St Jean-du-Doigt and +Locronan, which belong to the 15th and 16th centuries, those of Ploare, +Roscoff, Penmarc'h and Pleyben of the 16th century, that of Le Folgoet +(14th and 16th centuries), and the huge chateau of Kerjean (16th +century) are of architectural interest. Religious festivals, and +processions known as "pardons," are held in many places, notably at +Locronan, St Jean-du-Doigt, St Herbot and Le Faou. + + + + + + + + +End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of Encyclopaedia Britannica, 11th +Edition, Volume 10, Slice 3, by Various + +*** END OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK ENCYC. BRITANNICA, VOL 10 SL 3 *** + +***** This file should be named 35561.txt or 35561.zip ***** +This and all associated files of various formats will be found in: + https://www.gutenberg.org/3/5/5/6/35561/ + +Produced by Marius Masi, Don Kretz and the Online +Distributed Proofreading Team at https://www.pgdp.net + + +Updated editions will replace the previous one--the old editions +will be renamed. + +Creating the works from public domain print editions means that no +one owns a United States copyright in these works, so the Foundation +(and you!) can copy and distribute it in the United States without +permission and without paying copyright royalties. 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