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| author | Roger Frank <rfrank@pglaf.org> | 2025-10-14 20:04:45 -0700 |
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| committer | Roger Frank <rfrank@pglaf.org> | 2025-10-14 20:04:45 -0700 |
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diff --git a/35915-tei/35915-tei.tei b/35915-tei/35915-tei.tei new file mode 100644 index 0000000..4616b27 --- /dev/null +++ b/35915-tei/35915-tei.tei @@ -0,0 +1,12149 @@ +<?xml version="1.0" encoding="utf-8" ?> + +<!DOCTYPE TEI.2 SYSTEM "http://www.gutenberg.org/tei/marcello/0.4/dtd/pgtei.dtd" [ + +<!ENTITY u5 "http://www.tei-c.org/Lite/"> + +]> + +<TEI.2 lang="en"> +<teiHeader> + <fileDesc> + <titleStmt> + <title>American Indians</title> + <author><name reg="Starr, Frederick">Frederick Starr</name></author> + </titleStmt> + <editionStmt> + <edition n="1">Edition 1</edition> + </editionStmt> + <publicationStmt> + <publisher>Project Gutenberg</publisher> + <date>April 18, 2011</date> + <idno type="etext-no">35915</idno> + <availability> + <p>This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and + with almost no restrictions whatsoever. You may copy it, give it + away or re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg + License online at www.gutenberg.org/license</p> + </availability> + </publicationStmt> + <sourceDesc> + <bibl> + Created electronically. + </bibl> + </sourceDesc> + </fileDesc> + <encodingDesc> + </encodingDesc> + <profileDesc> + <langUsage> + <language id="en"></language> + <language id="fr"></language> + <language id="es"></language> + </langUsage> + </profileDesc> + <revisionDesc> + <change> + <date value="2011-04-18">April 18, 2011</date> + <respStmt> + <name> + Produced by the Online + Distributed Proofreading Team at <http://www.pgdp.net/>. + (This file was produced from images generously + made available by The Internet Archive/American Libraries.) + </name> + </respStmt> + <item>Project Gutenberg TEI edition 1</item> + </change> + </revisionDesc> +</teiHeader> + +<pgExtensions> + <pgStyleSheet> + .boxed { x-class: boxed } + .shaded { x-class: shaded } + .rules { x-class: rules; rules: all } + .indent { margin-left: 2 } + .bold { font-weight: bold } + .italic { font-style: italic } + .smallcaps { font-variant: small-caps } + </pgStyleSheet> + + <pgCharMap formats="txt.iso-8859-1"> + <char id="U0x2014"> + <charName>mdash</charName> + <desc>EM DASH</desc> + <mapping>--</mapping> + </char> + <char id="U0x2003"> + <charName>emsp</charName> + <desc>EM SPACE</desc> + <mapping> </mapping> + </char> + <char id="U0x2026"> + <charName>hellip</charName> + <desc>HORIZONTAL ELLIPSIS</desc> + <mapping>...</mapping> + </char> + </pgCharMap> +</pgExtensions> + +<text lang="en"> + <front> + <div> + <divGen type="pgheader" /> + </div> + <div> + <divGen type="encodingDesc" /> + </div> + + <div rend="page-break-before: always"> + <p rend="font-size: xx-large; text-align: center">American Indians</p> + <p rend="font-size: large; text-align: center">By</p> + <p rend="font-size: x-large; text-align: center">Frederick Starr</p> + <p rend="text-align: center">D. C. Heath & Co., Publishers</p> + <p rend="text-align: center">Boston, New York, Chicago</p> + <p rend="text-align: center">1898</p> + </div> + <div rend="page-break-before: always"> + <head>Contents</head> + <divGen type="toc" /> + </div> + + </front> +<body> + +<pb n="i"/><anchor id="Pgi"/> + +<div rend='page-break-before: always'> + +<p rend='text-align: center'> + <figure url='images/front-map-top.png' rend='width: 80%'> + <head>Map Showing Former Location of Important +Indian Groups of North America, North of Mexico: North.</head> + <figDesc>Illustration.</figDesc> + </figure> + <figure url='images/front-map-bottom.png' rend='width: 80%'> + <head>Map Showing Former Location of Important +Indian Groups of North America, North of Mexico: South.</head> + <figDesc>Illustration.</figDesc> + </figure> +</p> + +</div> + +<pb n="iii"/><anchor id="Pgiii"/> + +<div rend='page-break-before: always'> + +<lg> +<l>This Little Book About</l> +<l>American Indians</l> +<l>Is Dedicated To</l> +<l>Bedros Tatarian</l> +</lg> + +</div> + +<pb n="v"/><anchor id="Pgv"/> + +<div rend='page-break-before: always'> +<index index='toc'/> +<index index='pdf'/> +<head>Preface.</head> + +<p> +This book about American Indians is intended +as a reading book for boys and girls in school. +The native inhabitants of America are rapidly +dying off or changing. Certainly some knowledge +of them, their old location, and their old life +ought to be interesting to American children. +</p> + +<p> +Naturally the author has taken material from +many sources. He has himself known some +thirty different Indian tribes; still he could not +possibly secure all the matter herein presented +by personal observation. In a reading book for +children it is impossible to give reference acknowledgment +to those from whom he has drawn. +By a series of brief notes attention is called to +those to whom he is most indebted: no one is +intentionally omitted. +</p> + +<p> +While many of the pictures are new, being +drawn from objects or original photographs, some +have already appeared elsewhere. In each case, +their source is indicated. Special thanks for +assistance in illustration are due to the Bureau +of American Ethnology and to the Peabody +Museum of Ethnology at Cambridge, Mass. +</p> + +<pb n="vi"/><anchor id="Pg0vi"/> + +<p> +While intended for young people and written +with them only in mind, the author will be pleased +if the book shall interest some older readers. +Should it do so, may it enlarge their sympathy +with our native Americans. +</p> + +<p rend='text-align: center'> + <figure url='images/mandan-chief.png' rend='width: 80%'> + <head>Mandan Chief in Full Dress. (After Catlin.)</head> + <figDesc>Illustration.</figDesc> + </figure> +</p> + +</div> + +<pb n="001"/><anchor id="Pg001"/> + +<div rend='page-break-before: always'> +<index index='toc'/> +<index index='pdf'/> +<anchor id='Chapter_I'/> +<head>I. Some General Facts About Indians.</head> + +<p> +We all know how the native Americans found +here by the whites at their first arrival, came to +be called <hi rend='italic'>Indians</hi>. Columbus did not realize the +greatness of his discovery. He was seeking a +route to Asia and supposed that he had found it. +Believing that he had really reached the Indies, +for which he was looking, it was natural that the +people here should be called Indians. +</p> + +<p> +The American Indians are often classed as a +single type. They are described as being of a +coppery or reddish-brown color. They have +abundant, long, straight, black hair, and each +hair is found to be almost circular when cut +across. They have high cheek-bones, unusually +prominent, and wide faces. This description will +perhaps fit most Indians pretty well, but it would +be a great mistake to think that there are no differences +between tribes: there are many. There +are tribes of tall Indians and tribes of short ones; +some that are almost white, and others that are +nearly black. There are found among them all +<pb n="002"/><anchor id="Pg002"/> +shades of brown, some of which are reddish, +others yellowish. There are tribes where the +eyes appear as oblique or slanting as in the +Chinese, and others where they are as straight +as among ourselves. Some tribes have heads +that are long and narrow; the heads of others +are relatively short and wide. A little before the +World's Columbian Exposition thousands of Indians +of many different tribes were carefully +measured. Dr. Boas, on studying the figures, +decided that there were at least four different +types in the United States. +</p> + +<p> +There are now living many different tribes of +Indians. Formerly the number of tribes was still +greater. Each tribe has its own language, and +several hundred different Indian languages were +spoken. These languages sometimes so much +resemble each other that they seem to have been +derived from one single parent language. Thus, +when what is now New York State was first settled, +it was largely occupied by five tribes—the +Mohawks, Oneidas, Onondagas, Cayugas, Senecas—called +<q>the Five Nations.</q> While they were +distinct and each had its own language, these were +so much alike that all are believed to have grown +from one. When languages are so similar that +they may be believed to have come from one +parent language, they are said to belong to the +same <emph>language family</emph> or <emph>stock</emph>. +</p> + +<p> +The Indians of New England, the lower Hudson +region, Pennsylvania, New Jersey, and Virginia, +<pb n="003"/><anchor id="Pg003"/> +formed many different tribes, but they all +spoke languages of one family. These tribes are +called Algonkins. Indians speaking languages +belonging to one stock are generally related in +blood. Besides the area already named, Algonkin +tribes occupied New Brunswick, Nova Scotia, a +part of Canada, Ohio, Indiana, Illinois, Michigan, +and other districts farther west. The Blackfeet, +who were Algonkins, lived close to the Rocky +Mountains. So you see that one linguistic family +may occupy a great area. On the other hand, +sometimes a single tribe, small in numbers and +occupying only a little space, may have a language +entirely peculiar. Such a tribe would stand quite +alone and would be considered as unrelated to +any other. Its language would have to be considered +as a distinct family or stock. +</p> + +<p> +A few years ago Major Powell published a map +of America north of Mexico, to show the distribution +of the Indian language families at the time +of the white settlement of this country. In it he +represented the areas of fifty-eight different families +or stocks. Some of these families, like the +Algonquian and Athapascan, occupied great districts +and contained many languages; others, like +the Zuñian, took up only a few square miles of +space and contained a single tribe. At the front +of this book is a little map partly copied from +that of Major Powell. The large areas are nearly +as he gave them; many smaller areas of his map +are omitted, as we shall not speak of them. The +<pb n="004"/><anchor id="Pg004"/> +Indians of the Pueblos speak languages of at least +four stocks, which Major Powell indicates. We +have covered the whole Pueblo district with one +color patch. We have grouped the many Californian +tribes into one: so, too, with the tribes of +the Northwest Coast. There are many widely +differing languages spoken in each of these two +regions. This map will show you where the +Indians of whom we shall speak lived. +</p> + +<p> +Many persons seem to think that the Indian +was a perpetual rover,—always hunting, fishing, +and making war,—with no settled villages. This +is a great mistake: most tribes knew and practiced +some agriculture. Most of them had settled +villages, wherein they spent much of their +time. Sad indeed would it have been for the +early settlers of New England, if their Indian +neighbors had not had supplies of food stored +away—the result of their industry in the fields. +</p> + +<p> +The condition of the woman among Indians is +usually described as a sad one. It is true that she +was a worker—but so was the man. Each had +his or her own work to do, and neither would have +thought of doing that of the other; with us, men +rarely care to do women's work. The man built +the house, fortified the village, hunted, fished, +fought, and conducted the religious ceremonials +upon which the success and happiness of all +depended. The woman worked in the field, +gathered wood, tended the fire, cooked, dressed +skins, and cared for the children. When they +<pb n="005"/><anchor id="Pg005"/> +traveled, the woman carried the burdens, of course: +the man had to be ready for the attack of enemies +or for the killing of game in case any should +be seen. Among us hunting, fishing, and dancing +are sport. They were not so with the +Indians. When a man had to provide food for +a family by his hunting and fishing, it ceased to +be amusement and was hard work. When Indian +men danced, it was usually as part of a religious +ceremony which was to benefit the whole tribe; +it was often wearisome and difficult—not fun. +Woman was much of the time doing what we +consider work; man was often doing what <emph>we</emph> +consider play; there was not, however, really much +to choose between them. +</p> + +<p> +The woman was in most tribes the head of the +house. She exerted great influence in public +matters of the tribe. She frequently decided the +question of peace and war. To her the children +belonged. If she were dissatisfied with her husband, +she would drive him from the house and +bid him return to his mother. If a man were +lazy or failed to bring in plenty of game and fish, +he was quite sure to be cast off. +</p> + +<p> +While he lived his own life, the Indian was +always hospitable. The stranger who applied for +shelter or food was never refused; nor was he +expected to pay. Only after long contact with the +white man, who always wanted pay for everything, +did this hospitality disappear. In fact, among +some tribes it has not yet entirely gone. One time, +<pb n="006"/><anchor id="Pg006"/> +as we neared the pueblo of Santo Domingo, New +Mexico, the old governor of the pueblo rode out +to meet us and learn who we were and what we +wanted. On explaining that we were strangers, +who only wished to see the town, we were taken +directly to his house, on the town square. His +old wife hastened to put before us cakes and +coffee. After we had eaten we were given full +permission to look around. +</p> + +<p> +We shall consider many things together. Some +chapters will be general discussions of Indian life; +others will discuss special tribes; others will treat +of single incidents in customs or belief. Some +of the things mentioned in connection with one +particular tribe would be equally true of many +others. Thus, the modes of hunting buffalo and +conducting war, practiced by one Plains tribe, +were much the same among Plains tribes generally. +Some of the things in these lessons will +seem foolish; others are terrible. But remember +that foreigners who study <emph>us</emph> find that <emph>we</emph> have +many customs which they think strange and even +terrible. The life of the Indians was not, on the +whole, either foolish or bad; in many ways it was +wise and beautiful and good. But it will soon be +gone. In this book we shall try to give a picture +of it. +</p> + +<quote rend='display'> + +<p> +<hi rend='smallcaps'>Franz Boas.</hi>—Anthropologist. German, living in America. +Has made investigations among Eskimo and Indians. Is now +connected with the American Museum of Natural History, New +York. +</p> + +<pb n="007"/><anchor id="Pg007"/> + +<p> +<hi rend='smallcaps'>John Wesley Powell.</hi>—Teacher, soldier, explorer, scientist. +Conducted the first exploration of the Colorado River Cañon; +Director of the U. S. Geological Survey and of the Bureau of +American Ethnology. Has written many papers: among them +<hi rend='italic'>Indian Linguistic Families of America North of Mexico</hi>. +</p> + +</quote> + +</div> + +<div> +<index index='toc'/> +<index index='pdf'/> +<head>II. Houses.</head> + +<p> +The houses of Indians vary greatly. In some +tribes they are large and intended for several +families; in others they are small, and occupied +by few persons. Some are admirably constructed, +like the great Pueblo houses of the southwest, +made of stone and adobe mud; others are frail +structures of brush and thatch. The material +naturally varies with the district. +</p> + +<p rend='text-align: center'> + <figure url='images/iroquois-long-house.png' rend='width: 80%'> + <head>Iroquois Long House. (After Morgan.)</head> + <figDesc>Illustration.</figDesc> + </figure> +</p> + +<p> +An interesting house was the <q>long house</q> of +the Iroquois. From fifty to one hundred or more +feet in length and perhaps not more than fifteen +in width, it was of a long rectangular form. It +<pb n="008"/><anchor id="Pg008"/> +consisted of a light framework of poles tied together, +which was covered with long strips of +bark tied or pegged on. There was no window, +but there was a doorway at each end. Blankets +or skins hung at these served as doors. Through +the house from doorway to doorway ran a central +passage: the space +on either side of +this was divided +by partitions of +skins into a series +of stalls, each of +which was occupied +by a family. +In the central +passage was a series +of fireplaces +or hearths, each +one of which +served for four +families. A large +house of this kind +might have five or +even more hearths, and would be occupied by +twenty or more families. Indian houses contained +but little furniture. Some blankets or +skins served as a bed; there were no tables or +chairs; there were no stoves, as all cooking was +done over the open fire or the fireplace. +</p> + +<p rend='text-align: center'> + <figure url='images/algonkin-village.png' rend='width: 50%'> + <head>Algonkin Village of Pomeiock, on Albemarle +Sound, in 1585. (After John Wyth: Copied in Morgan.)</head> + <figDesc>Illustration.</figDesc> + </figure> +</p> + +<p> +The eastern Algonkins built houses like those +of the Iroquois, but usually much smaller. They, +<pb n="009"/><anchor id="Pg009"/> +too, were made of a light framework of poles over +which were hung sheets of rush matting which +could be easily removed and rolled up, for future +use in case of removal. There are pictures in old +books of some Algonkin villages. +</p> + +<p> +These villages were often inclosed by a line of +palisades to keep off enemies. Sometimes the +gardens and cornfields were inside this palisading, +sometimes outside. The houses in these pictures +usually have straight, vertical sides and queer +rounded roofs. Sometimes they were arranged +along streets, but at others they were placed in a +ring around a central open space, where games +and celebrations took place. +</p> + +<p> +Many tribes have two kinds of houses, one for +summer, the other for winter. The Sacs and +Foxes of Iowa, in summer, live in large, rectangular, +barn-like structures. These measure perhaps +twenty feet by thirty. They are bark-covered and +have two doorways and a central passage, somewhat +like the Iroquois house. But they are not +divided by partitions into sections. On each side, +a platform about three feet high and six feet wide +runs the full length of the house. Upon this the +people sleep, simply spreading out their blankets +when they wish to lie down. Each person has +his proper place upon the platform, and no one +thinks of trespassing upon another. At the back +of the platform, against the wall, are boxes, baskets, +and bundles containing the property of the different +members of the household. As these platforms +<pb n="010"/><anchor id="Pg010"/> +are rather high, there are little ladders +fastened into the earth floor, the tops of which +rest against the edge of the platform. These ladders +are simply logs of wood, with notches cut +into them for footholds. +</p> + +<p rend='text-align: center'> + <figure url='images/winter-house.png' rend='width: 80%'> + <head>Winter House of Sacs and Foxes, Iowa. (From Photograph.)</head> + <figDesc>Illustration.</figDesc> + </figure> +</p> + +<p> +The winter house is very different. In the +summer house there is plenty of room and air; +in the winter house space is precious. The framework +of the winter lodge is made of light poles +tied together with narrow strips of bark. It is an +oblong, dome-shaped affair about twenty feet long +and ten wide. Some are nearly circular and about +fifteen feet across. They are hardly six feet high. +Over this framework are fastened sheets of matting +made of cat-tail rushes. This matting is very +light and thin, but a layer or two of it keeps out +<pb n="011"/><anchor id="Pg011"/> +a great deal of cold. There is but one doorway, +usually at the middle of the side. There are no +platforms, but beds are made, close to the ground, +out of poles and branches. At the center is a +fireplace, over which hangs the pot in which food +is boiled. +</p> + +<p> +The Mandans used to build good houses almost +circular in form. The floor was sunk a foot or +more below the surface of the ground. The framework +was made of large and strong timbers. The +outside walls sloped inward and upward from the +ground to a height of about five feet. They were +composed of boards. The roof sloped from the +top of the wall up to a central point; it was made +of poles, covered with willow matting and then +with grass. The whole house, wall and roof, was +then covered over with a layer of earth a foot and +a half thick. When such a house contained a +fire sending out smoke, it must have looked like +a smooth, regularly sloping little volcano. +</p> + +<p> +In California, where there are so many different +sorts of climate and surroundings, the Indian tribes +differed much in their house building. Where +the climate was raw and foggy, down near the +coast, they dug a pit and erected a shelter of redwood +poles about it. In the snow belt, the house +was conical in form and built of great slabs of +bark. In warm low valleys, large round or oblong +houses were made of willow poles covered with +hay. At Clear Lake there were box-shaped houses; +the walls were built of vertical posts, with poles +<pb n="012"/><anchor id="Pg012"/> +lashed horizontally across them; these were not +always placed close together, but so as to leave +many little square holes in the walls; the flat roof +was made of poles covered with thatch. In the +great treeless plains of the Sacramento and San +Joaquin they made dome-shaped, earth-covered +houses, the doorway in which was sometimes on +top, sometimes near the ground on the side. In +the Kern and Tulare valleys, where the weather +is hot and almost rainless, the huts are made of +marsh rushes. +</p> + +<p rend='text-align: center'> + <figure url='images/skin-tents.png' rend='width: 80%'> + <head>Skin Tents. (From Photograph.)</head> + <figDesc>Illustration.</figDesc> + </figure> +</p> + +<p> +Many persons seem to think that the Indian +never changes; that he cannot invent or devise +new things. This is a mistake. Long ago the +Dakotas lived in houses much like those of the +Sacs and Foxes. At that time they lived in Minnesota, +near the headwaters of the Mississippi +River. From the white man they received horses, +<pb n="013"/><anchor id="Pg013"/> +and by him they were gradually crowded out of +their old home. After getting horses they had +a much better chance to hunt buffalo, and began +to move about much more than before. They +then invented the beautiful tent now so widely +used among Plains Indians. The framework consists +of thirteen poles from fifteen to eighteen feet +long. The smaller ends are tied together and +then raised and spread out so as to cover a circle +on the ground about ten feet across. Over this +framework of poles are spread buffalo skins which +have been sewed together so as to fit it. The +lower end of this skin covering is then pegged +down and the sides are laced together with cords, +so that everything is neat and tight. There is a +doorway below to creep through, over which hangs +a flap of skin as a door. The smoke-hole at the +top has a sort of collar-like flap, which can be +adjusted when the wind changes so as to insure +a good draught of air at all times. +</p> + +<p> +This sort of tent is easily put up and taken +down. It is also easily transported. The poles +are divided into two bunches, and these are +fastened by one end to the horse, near his neck—one +bunch on either side. The other ends are +left to drag upon the ground. The skin covering +is tied up into a bundle which may be fastened +to the dragging poles. Sometimes dogs, instead +of horses, were used to drag the tent poles. +</p> + +<p> +Among many tribes who used these tents, the +camp was made in a circle. If the space was too +<pb n="014"/><anchor id="Pg014"/> +small for one great circle, the tents might be +pitched in two or three smaller circles, one within +another. These camp circles were not chance +arrangements. Each group of persons who were +related had its own proper place in the circle. +Even the proper place for each tent was fixed. +Every woman knew, as soon as the place for a +camp was chosen, just where she must erect her +tent. She would never think of putting it elsewhere. +After the camp circle was complete, the +horses would be placed within it for the night to +prevent their being lost or stolen. +</p> + +<quote rend='display'> +<p> +<hi rend='smallcaps'>Lewis H. Morgan.</hi>—Lawyer. One of America's earliest +eminent ethnologists. A special student of society and institutions. +Author of important books, among them, <hi rend='italic'>Houses and +House-life of the American Aborigines</hi>, and <hi rend='italic'>The League of the +Iroquois</hi>. +</p> + +<p> +<hi rend='smallcaps'>Stephen Powers.</hi>—Author of <hi rend='italic'>The Indians of California</hi>. +</p> +</quote> + +</div> + +<div> +<index index='toc'/> +<index index='pdf'/> +<head>III. Dress.</head> + +<p> +In the eastern states and on the Plains the +dress of the Indians was largely composed of +tanned and dressed skins such as those of the +buffalo and the deer. Most of the Indians were +skilled in dressing skins. The hide when fresh +from the animal was laid on the ground, stretched +as tightly as possible and pegged down all around +the edges. As it dried it became still more taut. +<pb n="015"/><anchor id="Pg015"/> +A scraper was used to remove the fat and to +thin the skin. In old days this scraper was made +of a piece of bone cut to proper form, or of a +stone chipped to a sharp edge; in later times it +was a bone handle, with a blade of iron or steel +attached to it. Brains, livers, and fat of animals +were used to soften and dress the skin. These +materials were mixed together and spread over +the stretched skin, which was then rolled up and +laid aside. After several days, when the materials +had soaked in and somewhat softened the skin, +it was opened and washed: it was then rubbed, +twisted, and worked over until soft and fully +dressed. +</p> + +<p> +The men wore three or four different articles +of dress. First was the breech-clout, which consisted +of a strip of skin or cloth perhaps a foot +wide and several feet long; sometimes its ends +were decorated with beadwork or other ornamentation. +This cloth was passed between the legs +and brought up in front and behind. It was held +in place by a band or belt passing around the +waist, and the broad decorated ends hung down +from this something like aprons. Almost all +male Indians on the continent wore the breech-clout. +</p> + +<p> +The men also wore buckskin leggings. These +were made in pairs, but were not sewed together. +They fitted tightly over the whole length of the +leg, and sometimes were held up by a cord at the +outer upper corner, which was tied to the waist-string. +<pb n="016"/><anchor id="Pg016"/> +Leggings were usually fringed with +strips of buckskin sewed along the outer side. +Sometimes bands of beadwork were tied around +the leggings below the knees. +</p> + +<p rend='text-align: center'> + <figure url='images/skin-jacket.png' rend='width: 60%'> + <head>Skin Jacket. (From Original in Peabody Museum.)</head> + <figDesc>Illustration.</figDesc> + </figure> +</p> + + +<p> +A jacket or shirt +made of buckskin +and reaching to +the knees was generally +worn. It was +variously decorated. +Buckskin +strip fringes bordered +it; pictures +in black or red or other +colors were painted upon +it; handsome patterns +were worked into it with +beads or porcupine quills, +brightly dyed; tufts of +hair or true scalps might +be attached to it. +</p> + +<p> +Over all these came the +blanket or robe. Nowadays +these are got from +the whites, and are simple +flannel blankets; but in the old times they were +made of animal hides. In putting on a blanket, +the male Indian usually takes it by two corners, +one in each hand, and folds it around him with +the upper edge horizontal. Holding it thus a +moment with one hand, he catches the sides, a +<pb n="017"/><anchor id="Pg017"/> +little way down, with the fingers of the other +hand, and thus holds it. +</p> + +<p> +Even where the men have given up the old +style of dress the women often retain it. The +garments are usually made, however, of cloth instead +of buckskin. Thus among the Sacs and +Foxes the leggings of the women, which used +to be made of buckskin, are now of black broad-cloth. +They are made very broad or wide, and +reach only from the ankles to a little above the +knees. They are usually heavily beaded. The +woman's skirt, fastened at the waist, falls a little +below the knees; it is made of some bright cloth +and is generally banded near the bottom with +tape or narrow ribbon of a different color from +the skirt itself. Her jacket is of some bright +cloth and hangs to the waist. Often it is decorated +with brooches or fibulæ made of German +silver. I once saw a little girl ten years old +who was dancing, in a jacket adorned with nearly +three hundred of these ornaments placed close +together. +</p> + +<p> +All Indians, both men and women, are fond of +necklaces made of beads or other material. Men +love to wear such ornaments composed of trophies, +showing that they have been successful in war +or in hunting. They use elk teeth, badger claws, +or bear claws for this purpose. One very dreadful +necklace in Washington is made chiefly of +the dried fingers of human victims. Among the +Sacs and Foxes, the older men use a neck-ring +<pb n="018"/><anchor id="Pg018"/> +that looks like a rope of solid beads. It consists +of a central rope made of rags; beads are strung +on a thread and this is wrapped around and +around the rag ring, until when finished only +beads can be seen. +</p> + +<p> +Before the white man came, the Indians used +beads made of shell, stone, or bone. Nowadays +they are fond of the cheap glass beads which +they get from white traders. There are two kinds +of beadwork now made. The first is the simpler. +It is sewed work. Patterns of different colored +beads are worked upon a foundation of cloth. +Moccasins, leggings, and jackets are so decorated; +sometimes the whole article may be covered with +the bright beads. Almost every one has seen +tobacco-pouches or baby-frames covered with such +work. The other work is far more difficult. It +is used in making bands of beads for the arms, +legs, and waist. It is true woven work of the +same sort as the famous wampum belts, of which +we shall speak later. Such bands look like solid +beads and present the same patterns on both +sides. +</p> + +<p> +The porcupine is an animal that is covered +with spines or <q>quills.</q> These quills were formerly +much used in decorating clothing. They +were often dyed in bright colors. After being +colored they were flattened by pressure and were +worked into pretty geometrical designs, color-bands, +rosettes, etc., upon blankets, buckskin shirts, +leggings, and moccasins. Very little of this work +<pb n="019"/><anchor id="Pg019"/> +has been done of late years: beadwork has almost +crowded it out of use. +</p> + +<p rend='text-align: center'> + <figure url='images/blackfoot-moccasin.png' rend='width: 60%'> + <head>Blackfoot Moccasin. (From Original in Peabody Museum.)</head> + <figDesc>Illustration.</figDesc> + </figure> +</p> +<p rend='text-align: center'> + <figure url='images/sioux-moccasin-1.png' rend='width: 60%'> + <head>Sioux Moccasin. (From Original in Peabody Museum.)</head> + <figDesc>Illustration.</figDesc> + </figure> +</p> +<p rend='text-align: center'> + <figure url='images/sioux-moccasin-2.png' rend='width: 60%'> + <head>Sioux Moccasin. (From Original in Peabody Museum.)</head> + <figDesc>Illustration.</figDesc> + </figure> +</p> + +<p> +The moccasin is a real Indian invention, and it +bears an Indian name. It is the most comfortable +foot-wear that could be devised for the Indian +mode of life. It is made of buckskin and closely +fits the foot. Moccasins usually reach only to +the ankle, and are tied close with little thongs of +buckskin. They have no heels, and no part is +stiff or unpleasant to the foot. The exact shape +of the moccasin and its decoration varies with the +tribe. +</p> + +<p> +In some tribes there is much difference between +the moccasins of men and those of women. +Among the Sacs and Foxes the woman's moccasin +has two side flaps which turn down and nearly +reach the ground; these, as well as the part over +the foot, are covered with a mass of beading; the +man's moccasin has smaller side flaps, and the +<pb n="020"/><anchor id="Pg020"/> +only beading upon it is a narrow band running +lengthwise along the middle part above the foot. +</p> + +<p> +The women of the Pueblos are not content +with simple moccasins, but wrap the leg with +strips of buckskin. This wrapping covers the +leg from the ankles to the knees and is heavy and +thick, as the strips are wound time after time +around the leg. At first, this wrapping looks +awkward and ugly to a stranger, but he soon +becomes accustomed to it. +</p> + +<p rend='text-align: center'> + <figure url='images/omaha-moccasin.png' rend='width: 60%'> + <head>Omaha Moccasin. (From Original in Peabody Museum.)</head> + <figDesc>Illustration.</figDesc> + </figure> +</p> +<p rend='text-align: center'> + <figure url='images/iroquois-moccasin.png' rend='width: 60%'> + <head>Iroquois Moccasin. (From Original in Peabody Museum.)</head> + <figDesc>Illustration.</figDesc> + </figure> +</p> +<p rend='text-align: center'> + <figure url='images/kutchin-moccasin.png' rend='width: 60%'> + <head>Kutchin Moccasin. (From Original in Peabody Museum.)</head> + <figDesc>Illustration.</figDesc> + </figure> +</p> + +<p> +Not many of the tribes were real weavers. +Handsome cotton blankets and kilts were woven +by the Moki and other Pueblo Indians. Such +are still made by these tribes for their religious +ceremonies and dances. Nowadays these tribes +have flocks of sheep and know how to weave +good woollen blankets. Some of the Pueblos +also weave long, handsome belts, in pretty patterns +of bright colors. Their rude loom consists +of just a few sticks, but it serves its purpose +<pb n="021"/><anchor id="Pg021"/> +well, and the blankets and belts +are firm and close. +</p> + +<p rend='text-align: center'> + <figure url='images/pueblo-woman.png' rend='width: 60%'> + <head>A Pueblo Woman. (From Morgan.)</head> + <figDesc>Illustration.</figDesc> + </figure> +</p> + +<p> +The Navajo, who are neighbors +of the Pueblos, learned +how to weave from them, but +are to-day much better weavers +than their teachers. Every one +knows the Navajo blankets, +with their bright colors, +pretty designs, and texture so +close as to shed water. +</p> + +<p> +Some tribes of British +Columbia weave soft capes +or cloaks of cedar bark, +and in Alaska the Chilcat +Indians weave beautiful +blankets of mountain-sheep +wool and +mountain-goat hair. +These are a mass of +odd, strikingly colored, +and crowdedly +arranged symbolic +devices. +</p> + +<p> +Among some California +Indians the women wore dresses made of +grass. They were short skirts or kilts, consisting +of a waist-band from which hung a fringe of +grass cords. They had nuts and other objects +ornamentally inserted into the cords. They +reached about to the knees. +</p> + +</div> + +<pb n="022"/><anchor id="Pg022"/> + +<div rend='page-break-before: always'> +<index index='toc'/> +<index index='pdf'/> +<head>IV. The Baby And Child.</head> + +<p> +Indian babies are often pretty. Their big +black eyes, brown, soft skin, and their stiff, +strong, black hair form a pleasing combination. +Among many tribes their foreheads are covered +with a fine, downy growth of black hair, and +their eyes appear to slant, like those of the +Chinese. The little fellows hardly ever cry, +and an Indian parent rarely strikes a child, +even when it is naughty, which is not often. +</p> + +<p> +Most Indian babies are kept strapped or laid +on a papoose-board or cradle-board. While these +are widely used, they differ notably among the +tribes. Among the Sacs and Foxes the cradle +consists of a board two feet or two and a half +feet long and about ten inches wide. Near the +lower end is fastened, by means of thongs, a thin +board set edgewise and bent so as to form a +foot-rest and sides. Over the upper end is a +thin strip of board bent to form an arch. This +rises some eight inches above the cradle-board. +Upon the board, below this arch, is a little +cushion or pillow. The baby, wrapped in cloths +or small blankets, his arms often being bound +down to his sides, is laid down upon the cradle-board, +with his head lying on the pillow and +his feet reaching almost to the foot-board. He +<pb n="023"/><anchor id="Pg023"/> +is then fastened securely in place by bandages +of cloth decorated with beadwork or by laces +or thongs. There he lies <q>as snug as a bug +in a rug,</q> ready to be carried on his mother's +back, or to be set up against a wall, or to be +hung up in a tree. +</p> + +<p rend='text-align: center'> + <figure url='images/oregon-cradle.png' rend='width: 60%'> + <head>Cradle of Oregon Indians. (After Mason.)</head> + <figDesc>Illustration.</figDesc> + </figure> + <figure url='images/yukon-cradle.png' rend='width: 60%'> + <head>Birch-Bark Cradle from Yukon River, Alaska. (After Mason.)</head> + <figDesc>Illustration.</figDesc> + </figure> +</p> + +<p> +When his mother is busy at work, the little +one is unwrapped so as to set his arms and +hands free, and is then laid upon the blankets +and cloths, and left to squirm and amuse himself +as best he can. +</p> + +<p> +The mother hangs all sorts of beads and +bright and jingling things to the arch over the +baby's head. When he lies strapped down, the +<pb n="024"/><anchor id="Pg024"/> +mother sets all these things to jingling, and +the baby lies and blinks at them in great wonder. +When his little hands are free to move, +the baby himself tries to strike and handle the +bright and noisy things. +</p> + +<p rend='text-align: center'> + <figure url='images/blackfeet-cradle.png' rend='width: 60%'> + <head>Blackfeet Cradle, Made of Lattice-work and Leather. (After Mason.)</head> + <figDesc>Illustration.</figDesc> + </figure> + <figure url='images/noki-cradle.png' rend='width: 60%'> + <head>Noki Cradle: Frame of Fine Wicker. (After Mason.)</head> + <figDesc>Illustration.</figDesc> + </figure> +</p> + +<p> +In the far north the baby-board is made of +birch bark and has a protecting hood over the +head; among some tribes of British Columbia, +it is dug out of a single piece of wood in the +form of a trough or canoe; among the Chinooks +it has a head-flattening board hinged on, by +which the baby's head is changed in form; one +baby-board from Oregon was shaped like a great +<pb n="025"/><anchor id="Pg025"/> +arrowhead, covered with buckskin, with a sort of +pocket in front in which the little fellow was +laced up; among some tribes in California, the +cradle is made of basket work and is shaped +like a great moccasin; some tribes of the southwest +make the cradle of canes or slender sticks +set side by side and spliced together; among +some Sioux the cradle is covered completely at +the sides with pretty beadwork, and two slats +fixed at the edges project far beyond the upper +end of the cradle. +</p> + +<p rend='text-align: center'> + <figure url='images/apache-cradle.png' rend='width: 60%'> + <head>Apache Cradle. (After Mason.)</head> + <figDesc>Illustration.</figDesc> + </figure> + <figure url='images/hupa-cradle.png' rend='width: 60%'> + <head>Hupa Wicker Cradle. (After Mason.)</head> + <figDesc>Illustration.</figDesc> + </figure> +</p> + +<p> +But the baby is not always kept down on the +cradle-board. Sometimes among the Sacs and +Foxes he is slung in a little hammock, which +<pb n="026"/><anchor id="Pg026"/> +is quickly and easily made. Two cords are +stretched side by side from tree to tree. A +blanket is then folded until its width is little +more than the length of the baby; its ends are +then folded around the cords and made to overlap +<pb n="027"/><anchor id="Pg027"/> +midway between them. After the cords are +up, a half a minute is more than time enough +to make a hammock out of a blanket. And a +more comfortable little pouch for a baby could +not be found. +</p> + +<p rend='text-align: center'> + <figure url='images/cree-squaw.png' rend='width: 60%'> + <head>Cree Squaw and Papoose. (From Photograph.)</head> + <figDesc>Illustration.</figDesc> + </figure> +</p> + +<p> +Among the Pueblos they have a swinging +cradle. It consists of a circular or oval ring +made of a flexible stick bent and tied together +at the ends. Leather thongs are laced back and +forth across it so as to make an open netting. +The cradle is then hung from the rafters by cords. +In it the baby swings. +</p> + +<p> +The baby who is too large for his baby-board +is carried around on his mother's or sister's, or +even his brother's, back. The little wriggler is +laid upon the back, and then the blanket is bound +around him to hold him firmly, often leaving +only his head in sight, peering out above the +blanket. With her baby fastened upon her back +in this way the mother works in the fields or +walks to town. +</p> + +<p> +Among some tribes, particularly in the southern +states and in Mexico, the baby strides the +mother's back, and a little leg and foot hang out +on either side from the blanket that holds him +in place. Among some tribes in California the +women use great round baskets tapering to a +point below; these are carried by the help of +a carrying strap passing around the forehead. +During the season of the salmon fishing these +baskets are used in carrying fish; at such times +<pb n="028"/><anchor id="Pg028"/> +baby and fish are thrown into the basket together +and carried along. +</p> + +<p> +The Indian boys play many games. When I +used to meet Sac and Fox boys in the spring-time, +each one used to have with him little sticks +made of freshly cut branches of trees. These +had the bark peeled off so they would slip better. +They were cut square at one end, and bluntly +pointed at the other. Each boy had several of +these, so marked that he would know his own. +When two boys agreed to play, one held one of +his sticks, which was perhaps three feet long and +less than half an inch thick, between his thumb +and second finger, with the forefinger against the +squared end and the pointed end forward. He +then sent it sliding along on the grass as far as it +would go. Then the other boy took his turn, +trying of course to send his farther. +</p> + +<p> +The young men have a somewhat similar game, +but their sticks are carefully made of hickory and +have a blunt-pointed head and a long slender tail +or shaft. These will skim a long way over snow +when it has a crust upon it. +</p> + +<p> +One gambling game is much played by big +boys and young men among the Sacs and Foxes. +It is called moccasin. It is a very stupid game, +but the Indians are fond of it. Some moccasins +are turned upside down, and one player conceals +under one of them a small ball or other +object. Another tries then to guess where the +ball lies. +</p> + +<pb n="029"/><anchor id="Pg029"/> + +<p rend='text-align: center'> + <figure url='images/ball-sticks.png' rend='width: 80%'> + <head>Group of Ball Sticks.</head> + <figDesc>Illustration.</figDesc> + </figure> +</p> + +<p> +Many of the Indian tribes had some form of +ball game. Sometimes all the young men of a +town would take part. The game consisted in +driving the ball over a goal. The players on +both sides were much in earnest, and the games +were very exciting. In the play a racket was +used consisting of a stick frame and a netting of +thongs. The shape of this racket or ball stick +differed among different tribes. Sometimes one +racket was used by one player, sometimes two. +Among the Iroquois the game is called by the +French name of lacrosse. The young men of one +village often played against those of another. +They used a curious long racket consisting of a +curved stick with netting across the bend. The +<pb n="030"/><anchor id="Pg030"/> +Choctaws, Cherokees, and other tribes near them +have two rackets for each player. +</p> + +<p> +Catlin tells us that in their games there would +sometimes be six to eight hundred or a thousand +young men engaged. He says: <q>I have made +it an uniform rule, whilst in the Indian country, +to attend every ball-play I could hear of, if I could +do it by riding a distance of twenty or thirty +miles; and my usual custom has been on such +occasions to straddle the back of my horse and +look on to the best advantage. In this way I +have sat, and oftentimes reclined and almost +dropped from my horse's back, with irresistible +laughter at the succession of droll tricks and +kicks and scuffles which ensue, in the almost +superhuman struggles for the ball. Their plays +generally commence at about nine o'clock, or +near it, in the morning; and I have more than +once balanced myself on my pony from that +time till nearly sundown, without more than one +minute of intermission at a time, before the game +has been decided.</q> +</p> + +<p> +But these great games of ball with hundreds of +players are quite past, and the sport, where still +kept up, grows less and less each year. +</p> + +<quote rend='display'> + +<p> +<hi rend='smallcaps'>Otis T. Mason.</hi>—Ethnologist. In charge of the department +of Ethnology in the U. S. National Museum, Washington. +Has written some books and many articles. Among the last +is <hi rend='italic'>Cradles of the American Aborigines</hi>. +</p> + +<p> +<hi rend='smallcaps'>George Catlin.</hi>—Artist and traveler. See <ref target='Chapter_XXII'>XXII</ref>. +</p> + +</quote> + +</div> + +<pb n="031"/><anchor id="Pg031"/> + +<div rend='page-break-before: always'> +<index index='toc'/> +<index index='pdf'/> +<head>V. Stories Of Indians.</head> + +<p> +The Indians everywhere are fond of stories. +Some of their stories are about themselves and +their own deeds; others recount the past deeds +of the tribe; many are about some wise and good +man, who lived long ago, and who taught them +how they should live and what dances and ceremonies +they should perform; some are attempts +to explain why things are as they are; others tell +of the creation of the world. +</p> + +<p> +Of these many stories some may be told at any +time and anywhere, while others are sacred and +must only be told to certain persons on particular +occasions. Among some tribes the <q>old stories</q> +must not be told in the summer when the trees +are full of green leaves, for the spirits of the +leaves can listen; but when winter comes, and +snow lies on the ground, and the leaves have +fallen, and the trees appear to be dead, then +they may tell their stories about the camp-fire +in safety. We can give only a few of these +stories from three different tribes. +</p> + +<div> +<head>An Iroquois Story Of The Pleiades.</head> + +<p> +You all know the stars that are called the +Pleiades. Sometimes, but wrongly, they are +called the Little Dipper. They are a group of +<pb n="032"/><anchor id="Pg032"/> +seven little stars that look as if they were quite +close together. +</p> + +<p> +The Iroquois tell this story about them: +There were once seven little Indian boys who +were great friends. Every evening they used to +come to a little mound to dance and feast. +They would first eat their corn and beans, and +then one of their number would sit upon the +mound and sing, while the others danced around +the mound. One time they thought they would +have a much grander feast than usual, and each +agreed upon what he would bring for it. But +their parents would not give them what they +wanted, and the little lads met at the mound +without their feast. The singer took his place +and began his song, while his companions started +to dance. As they danced they forgot their sorrows +and "their heads and hearts grew lighter," +until at last they flew up into the air. Their +parents saw them as they rose, and cried out to +them to return; but up and up they went until +they were changed into the seven stars. Now, +one of the Pleiades is dimmer than the rest, and +they say that it is the little singer, who is homesick +and pale because he wants to return but +cannot. +</p> + +</div> + +<div> +<head>A Story Of Glooskap.</head> + +<p> +The Algonkin tribes of Nova Scotia, Canada, +and New England had a great many stories +about a great hero named Glooskap. They believed +<pb n="033"/><anchor id="Pg033"/> +he was a great magician and could do +wonders. In stories about him it is common to +have him strive with other magicians to see +which one can do the greatest wonders and overpower +the other. Glooskap always comes out +ahead in these strange contests. +</p> + +<p> +Usually Glooskap is good to men, but only +when they are true and honest. He used to +give people who visited him their wish. But +if they were bad, their wish would do them far +more harm than good. +</p> + +<p> +One of the Glooskap stories tells of how he +fought with some giant sorcerers at Saco. +There was an old man who had three sons +and a daughter. They were all giants and +great magicians. They did many wicked things, +and killed and ate every one they could get at. +It happened that when he was young, Glooskap +had lived in this family, but then they were not +bad. When he heard of their dreadful ways he +made up his mind to go and see if it was all +true, and if it were so, to punish them. So he +went to the house. The old man had only one +eye, and the hair on one half of his head was +gray. The first thing Glooskap did was to +change himself so that he looked exactly like +the old man; no one could tell which was which. +And they sat talking together. The sons, hearing +them, drew near to kill the stranger, but +could not tell which was their father, so they +said, <q>He must be a great magician, but we +<pb n="034"/><anchor id="Pg034"/> +will get the better of him.</q> So the sister giant +took a whale's tail, and cooking it, offered it to +the stranger. Glooskap took it. Then the eldest +brother came in, and seizing the food, said, <q>This +is too good for a beggar like you.</q> +</p> + +<p> +Glooskap said, <q>What is given to me is mine: +I will take it.</q> And he simply <emph>wished</emph> and it +returned. +</p> + +<p> +The brothers said, <q>Indeed he is a great +magician, but we will get the better of him.</q> +</p> + +<p> +So when he was through eating, the eldest +brother took up the mighty jawbone of a whale, +and to show that he was strong bent it a little. +But Glooskap took it and snapped it in two between +his thumb and finger. And the giant +brothers said again, <q>Indeed he is a great magician, +but we will get the better of him.</q> +</p> + +<p> +Then they tested him with strong tobacco +which no one but great magicians could possibly +smoke. Each took a puff and inhaled it and blew +the smoke out through his nose to show his +strength. But Glooskap took the great pipe and +filled it full, and at a single puff burnt all the +tobacco to ashes and inhaled all the smoke and +puffed it out through his nostrils. +</p> + +<p> +When they were beaten at smoking, the giants +proposed a game of ball and went out into the +sandy plain by the riverside. And the ball they +used was thrown upon the ground. It was really +a dreadful skull, that rolled and snapped at Glooskap's +heels, and if he had been a common man or +<pb n="035"/><anchor id="Pg035"/> +a weak magician it would have bitten his foot off. +But Glooskap laughed and broke off a tip of a +tree branch for <emph>his</emph> ball and set it to rolling. And +it turned into a skull ten times more dreadful +than the other, and it chased the wicked giants as +a lynx chases a rabbit. As they fled Glooskap +stamped upon the sand with his foot, and sang a +magic song. And the river rose like a mighty +flood, and the bad magicians, changed into fishes, +floated away in it and caused men no more +trouble. +</p> + +</div> + +<div> +<head>Scar-Face: A Blackfoot Story.</head> + +<p> +There was a man who had a beautiful daughter. +Each of the brave and handsome and rich +young men had asked her to marry him, but she +had always said No, that she did not want a husband. +When at last her father and mother asked +her why she would not marry some one, she told +them the sun had told her he loved her and that +she should marry no one without his consent. +</p> + +<p> +Now there was a poor young man in the +village, whose name was Scar-face. He was a +good-looking young man except for a dreadful +scar across his face. He had always been poor, +and had no relatives and no friends. One day +when all the rich young men had been refused +by the beautiful girl, they began to tease poor +Scar-face. They said to him:— +</p> + +<p> +<q>Why don't you ask that girl to marry you? +You are so rich and handsome.</q> +</p> + +<pb n="036"/><anchor id="Pg036"/> + +<p> +Scar-face did not laugh at their unkind joke, +but said, <q>I will go.</q> +</p> + +<p> +He asked the girl, and she liked him because +he was good; and she was willing to have him +for her husband. So she said: <q>I belong to the +sun. Go to him. If he says so, I will marry +you.</q> +</p> + +<p> +Then Scar-face was very sad, for who could +know the way to the sun? At last he went to +an old woman who was kind of heart. He asked +her to make him some moccasins, as he was going +on a long journey. So she made him seven pairs +and gave him a sack of food, and he started. +</p> + +<p> +Many days he traveled, keeping his food as +long as he could by eating berries and roots or +some animal that he killed. At last he came to +the house of a wolf. +</p> + +<p> +<q>Where are you going?</q> asked the wolf. +</p> + +<p> +<q>I seek the place where the sun lives,</q> said +Scar-face. +</p> + +<p> +<q>I know all the prairies, the valleys, and the +mountains, but I don't know the sun's home,</q> +said the wolf; <q>but ask the bear; he may know.</q> +</p> + +<p> +The next night the young man reached the +bear's house. <q>I know not where he stops. I +know much country, but I have never seen the +lodge. Ask the badger; he is smart,</q> said the +bear. +</p> + +<p> +The badger was in his hole and was rather +cross at being disturbed. He did not know the +sun's house, but said perhaps the wolverine would +<pb n="037"/><anchor id="Pg037"/> +know. Though Scar-face searched the woods, he +could not find the wolverine. +</p> + +<p> +In despair he sat down to rest. He cried to +the wolverine to pity him, that his moccasins +were worn out and his food gone. +</p> + +<p> +The wolverine appeared. <q>Ah, I know where +he lives; to-morrow you shall see: it is beyond +the great water.</q> +</p> + +<p> +The next morning the wolverine put the young +man on the trail, and at last he came to a great +water. Here his courage failed; he was in despair. +There was no way to cross. Just then +two swans appeared and asked him about himself. +</p> + +<p> +When he told his story, they took him safely +over. <q>Now,</q> said they, as he stepped ashore, +<q>you are close to the sun's house. Follow that +trail.</q> +</p> + +<p> +Scar-face soon saw some beautiful things in the +path,—a war-shirt, shield, bow, and arrow. But +he did not touch them. +</p> + +<p> +Soon he came upon a handsome young man +whose name was Morning Star. He was the +child of the sun and the moon. They became +great friends. +</p> + +<p> +Together they went to the house of the sun, +and there Morning Star's mother was kind to +Scar-face because her son told her that Scar-face +had not stolen his pretty things. When +the sun came home at night, the moon hid Scar-face +under some skins, but the sun knew at once +that some one was there. So they brought him +<pb n="038"/><anchor id="Pg038"/> +forth and told him he should always be with +Morning Star as his comrade. And one day he +saved his friend's life from an attack of long-beaked +birds down by the great water. +</p> + +<p> +Then the sun and moon were happy over what +he had done and asked what they could do for +him. And Scar-face told them his story, and the +sun told him he should marry his sweetheart. +And he took the scar from his face as a sign +to the girl. They gave him many beautiful +presents, and the sun taught him many things, +and how the medicine lodge should be built and +how the dance should be danced, and at last Scar-face +parted from them, and went home over the +Milky Way, which is a bridge connecting heaven +and earth. +</p> + +<p> +And he sat, as is the custom of strangers coming +to a town, on the hill outside the village. At +last the chief sent young men to invite him to the +village, and they did so. When he threw aside +his blanket, all were surprised, for they knew him. +But he wore rich clothing, he had a beautiful +bow and arrow, and his face no longer bore the +scar. And when he came into the village, he +found the girl, and she knew that he had been to +the sun, and she loved him, and they were married. +</p> + +<quote rend='display'> + +<p> +<hi rend='smallcaps'>Erminnie A. Smith.</hi>—A highly accomplished woman. +Shortly before her death she made a study for the Bureau of +American Ethnology upon <hi rend='italic'>Myths of the Iroquois</hi>. +</p> + +<p> +<hi rend='smallcaps'>Charles Godfrey Leland.</hi>—Poet, prose writer, and traveler. +His poems appear under the <foreign lang='fr' rend='italic'>nom de plume</foreign> of <q>Hans +<pb n="039"/><anchor id="Pg039"/> +Breitmann.</q> His <hi rend='italic'>Algonquin Legends of New England</hi> is +important. +</p> + +<p> +<hi rend='smallcaps'>George Bird Grinnell.</hi>—Writer. His <hi rend='italic'>Pawnee Hero Stories +and Folk-Tales</hi> and <hi rend='italic'>Blackfoot Lodge Tales</hi> are charming +works. We have drawn upon him for much material, especially +here and in <ref target='Chapter_XVI'>XVI.</ref> and <ref target='Chapter_XX'>XX.</ref> +</p> +</quote> + +</div> + +</div> + +<div> +<index index='toc'/> +<index index='pdf'/> +<head>VI. War.</head> + +<p> +All Indians were more or less warlike; a few +tribes, however, were eminent for their passion +for war. Such, among eastern tribes, were the +Iroquois; among southwestern tribes, the Apaches; +and in Mexico, the Aztecs. +</p> + +<p> +The purpose in Indian warfare was, everywhere, +to inflict as much harm upon the enemy, +and to receive as little as possible. +</p> + +<p> +The causes of war were numerous—trespassing +on tribal territory, stealing ponies, quarrels +between individuals. +</p> + +<p> +In their warfare stealthiness and craft were +most important. Sometimes a single warrior +crept silently to an unsuspecting camp that he +might kill defenseless women, or little children, +or sleeping warriors, and then as quietly he withdrew +with his trophies. +</p> + +<p rend='text-align: center'> + <figure url='images/spears-shield.png' rend='width: 60%'> + <head>Indian Spears, Shield, and Quiver of Arrows.</head> + <figDesc>Illustration.</figDesc> + </figure> +</p> + +<p> +In such approaches, it was necessary to use +every help in concealing oneself. Of the Apaches +it is said: <q>He can conceal his swart body +amidst the green grass, behind brown shrubs or +<pb n="040"/><anchor id="Pg040"/> +gray rocks, with +so much address +and judgment +that any +one but the +experienced +would pass him +by without detection +at the +distance of +three or four +yards. Sometimes +they will +envelop themselves +in a gray +blanket, and by +an artistic sprinkling +of earth +will so resemble +a granite bowlder +as to be +passed within +near range +without suspicion. +At others, +they will cover +their person +with freshly +gathered grass, +and lying prostrate, +appear as +<pb n="041"/><anchor id="Pg041"/> +a natural portion of the field. Again, they will plant +themselves among the yuccas, and so closely imitate +their appearance as to pass for one of them.</q> +</p> + +<p> +At another time the Indian warrior would depend +upon a sudden dash into the midst of the +enemy, whereby he might work destruction and +be away before his presence was fairly realized. +</p> + +<p> +Clark tells of an unexpected assault made upon +a camp by some white soldiers and Indian scouts. +One of these scouts, named Three Bears, rode a +horse that became unmanageable, and dashed with +his rider into the very midst of the now angry and +aroused enemy. Shots flew around him, and his +life was in great peril. At that moment his friend, +Feather-on-the-head, saw his danger. He dashed in +after Three Bears. As he rode, he dodged back and +forth, from side to side, in his saddle, to avoid shots. +At the very center of the village, Three Bears' +horse fell dead. Instantly, Feather-on-the-head, +sweeping past, caught up his friend behind him +on his own horse, and they were gone like a flash. +</p> + +<p> +A favorite device in war was to draw the enemy +into ambush. An attack would be made with a +small part of the force. This would seem to make +a brave assault, but would then fall back as if +beaten. The enemy would press on in pursuit +until some bit of woods, some little hollow, or +some narrow place beneath a height was reached. +Then suddenly the main body of attack, which +had been carefully concealed, would rise to view +on every side, and a massacre would ensue. +</p> + +<pb n="042"/><anchor id="Pg042"/> + +<p> +After the white man brought horses, the war +expeditions were usually trips for stealing ponies. +These, of course, were never common among +eastern tribes; they were frequent among Plains +Indians. Some man dreamed that he knew a +village of hostile Indians where he could steal +horses. If he were a brave and popular man, +companions would promptly join him, on his announcing +that he was going on an expedition. +When the party was formed, the women prepared +food, moccasins, and clothing. When ready, the +party gathered in the medicine lodge, where they +gashed themselves, took a sweat, and had prayers +and charms repeated by the medicine man. Then +they started. If they were to go far, at first they +might travel night and day. As they neared their +point of attack, they became more cautious, traveling +only at night, and remaining concealed during +the daylight. When they found a village or +camp with horses, their care was redoubled. Waiting +for night, they then approached rapidly but +silently. +</p> + +<p> +Each man worked by himself. Horses were +quickly loosed and quietly driven away. When +at a little distance from the village they gathered +together, mounted the stolen animals, and fled. +Once started, they pressed on as rapidly as +possible. +</p> + +<p> +It was the ambition of every Plains Indian to +count <foreign lang='fr' rend='italic'>coup</foreign>. <foreign lang='fr' rend='italic'>Coup</foreign> is a French word, meaning a +stroke or blow. It was considered an act of great +<pb n="043"/><anchor id="Pg043"/> +bravery to go so near to a live enemy as to touch +him with the hand, or to strike him with a short +stick, or a little whip. As soon as an enemy had +been shot and had fallen, three or four often would +rush upon him, anxious to be the first one to +touch him, and thus count <foreign lang='fr' rend='italic'>coup</foreign>. +</p> + +<p> +There was really great danger in this, for a +fallen enemy need not be badly injured, and may +kill one who closely approaches him. More than +this, when seriously injured and dying, a man in +his last struggles is particularly dangerous. It +was the ambition of every Indian youth to make +<foreign lang='fr' rend='italic'>coup</foreign> for the first time, for thereafter he was considered +brave, and greatly respected. Old men +never tired of telling of the times they had made +<foreign lang='fr' rend='italic'>coup</foreign>, and one who had thus touched dreaded enemies +many times was looked upon as a mighty +warrior. +</p> + +<p> +Among certain tribes it was the custom to +show the number of enemies killed by the wearing +of war feathers. These were usually feathers +of the eagle, and were cut or marked to show +how many enemies had been slain. Among the +Dakotas a war feather with a round spot of red +upon it indicated one enemy slain; a notch in +the edge showed that the throat of an enemy was +cut; other peculiarities in the cut, trim, or coloration +told other stories. Of course, such feathers +were highly prized. +</p> + +<p> +Every one has seen pictures of war bonnets +made of eagle feathers. These consisted of a +<pb n="044"/><anchor id="Pg044"/> +crown or band, fitting the head, from which rose +a circle of upright feathers; down the back hung +a long streamer, a band of cloth sometimes reaching +the ground, to which other feathers were attached +so as to make a great crest. As many as +sixty or seventy feathers might be used in such a +bonnet, and, as one eagle only supplies a dozen, +the bonnet represented the killing of five or six +birds. These bonnets were often really worn in +war, and were believed to protect the wearer from +the missiles of the enemy. +</p> + +<p> +The trophy prized above all others by American +Indians was the scalp. Those made in later +days by the Sioux consist of a small disk of +skin from the head, with the attached hair. It +was cut and torn from the head of wounded +or dead enemies. It was carefully cleaned and +stretched on a hoop; this was mounted on a stick +for carrying. The skin was painted red on the +inside, and the hair arranged naturally. If the +dead man was a brave wearing war feathers, these +were mounted on the hoop with the scalp. +</p> + +<p> +It is said that the Sioux anciently took a much +larger piece from the head, as the Pueblos always +did. Among the latter, the whole haired skin, +including the ears, was torn from the head. At +Cochiti might be seen, until lately, ancient scalps +with the ears, and in these there still remained +the green turquoise ornaments. +</p> + +<p rend='text-align: center'> + <figure url='images/scalps.png' rend='width: 60%'> + <head>Apache and Sioux Scalps.</head> + <figDesc>Illustration.</figDesc> + </figure> +</p> + +<p> +While enemies were generally slain outright, +such was not always the case. When prisoners, +<pb n="045"/><anchor id="Pg045"/> +one of three other fates might await them: they +might be adopted by some member of the tribe, +in place of a dead brother or son; they might +be made to run the gauntlet as +a last and desperate chance of +life. This was a severe test of +agility, strength, and endurance. +A man, given this chance, +was obliged to run between two +lines of Indians, all more or +less armed, who struck at him +as he passed. Usually the +poor wretch fell, covered with +wounds, long before he reached +the end of the lines; if he +passed through, however, his +life was spared. Lastly, prisoners +might be tortured to +death, and dreadful accounts +exist of such tortures among +Iroquois, Algonkin and others. One of the least +terrible was as follows: the unfortunate prisoner +was bound to the stake, and the men and women +picked open the flesh all over the body with knives; +splinters of pine were then driven into the wounds +and set on fire. The prisoner died in dreadful +agony. +</p> + +</div> + +<pb n="046"/><anchor id="Pg046"/> + +<div rend='page-break-before: always'> +<index index='toc'/> +<index index='pdf'/> +<head>VII. Hunting And Fishing.</head> + +<p> +To the Indian hunting and fishing were serious +business. Upon the man's success depended +the comfort and even the life of the household. +Game was needed as food. The Indians had to +learn the habits of the different animals so as to +be able to capture or kill them. Boys tried early +to learn how to hunt. +</p> + +<p> +Clark tells of an Indian, more than eighty +years old, who recalled with great delight the +pleasure caused by his first exploit in hunting. +<q>When I was eight years of age,</q> he said, <q>I +killed a goose with a bow and arrow and took +it to my father's lodge, leaving the arrow in it. +My father asked me if I had killed it, and I said, +<q>Yes; my arrow is in it.</q> My father examined +the bird, fired off his gun, turned to an old man +who was in the lodge, presented the gun to him +and said, <q>Go and harangue the camp; inform +them all what my boy has done.</q> When I killed +my first buffalo I was ten years old. My father +was right close, came to me and asked if I killed +it. I said I had. He called some old men who +were by to come over and look at the buffalo +his son had killed, gave one of them a pony, +and told him to inform the camp.</q> Such boyish +successes were always the occasion of family +rejoicing. +</p> + +<pb n="047"/><anchor id="Pg047"/> + +<p> +To the Indians of the Plains the important +game was buffalo; and for buffalo two great hunts +were made each year,—a summer and a winter +hunt. Sometimes whole villages together went +to these hunts. Few cared to stay behind, for +fear of attack by hostile Indians. Provisions and +valuables which were not needed on the journey +were carefully buried, to be dug up again on the +return. At times the people of a village went +hundreds of miles on these expeditions. Baggage +was carried on ponies in charge of the women. +At night it took but a few minutes to make camp, +and no more was necessary in the morning for +breaking camp and getting on the way. +</p> + +<p> +In journeying they went in single file. Scouts +constantly kept a lookout for herds. When a +herd was sighted, it was approached with the +greatest care: everything was done according to +fixed rules and under appointed leaders. When +ready for the attack, the hunters drawn up in a +single row approached as near as possible to the +herd and waited for the signal to attack. When +it was given, the whole company charged into the +herd, and each did his best to kill all he could. +All were on horseback, and armed with bows and +arrows. They tried to get abreast of the animal +and to discharge the weapon to a vital spot. +One arrow was enough to kill sometimes, but +usually more were necessary. A single successful +hunter might kill four or five in a half hour. +</p> + +<p> +After the killing a lively time ensued. The +<pb n="048"/><anchor id="Pg048"/> +dead animals were skinned, cut up, and carried +on ponies into camp. There the skins were +pegged out to dry, the meat was cut up into +strips or sheets for drying, or made up into +pemmican. Every one was busy and happy in +the prospect of plenty of food. +</p> + +<p> +Sometimes, however, no herds could be found. +Day after day passed without success. The +camp was well-nigh discouraged. Then a buffalo +dance was held. In this the hunters dressed +themselves in the skins and horns of buffalo, and +danced to the accompaniment of special music +and songs. +</p> + +<p> +In dancing, they imitated the movements of +the buffalo, believing that thus they could compel +the animals to appear. Hour after hour, even +day after day, passed in such dancing until some +scout hurrying in reported a herd in sight. Then +the dance would abruptly cease, its object being +gained. +</p> + +<p> +Of course many ingenious devices were employed +in hunting. Antelope were stalked; fur-bearing +animals were trapped or snared. Sometimes +all the animals in a considerable area were +driven into a central space where they were killed, +or from which they were driven between lines of +stones or brush, to some point where they would +fall over a cliff and be killed in the fall. Such +drives used to be common in the Pueblo district. +To-day deer are rarer there; so are the mountain +lion and the bear. Hunts there are more likely +<pb n="049"/><anchor id="Pg049"/> +nowadays to be for rabbits than for larger game. +These are caught in nets, but are more frequently +killed by rabbit sticks, which may be knot-ended +clubs or flat, curved throwing sticks, a little like +the boomerangs of Australia. +</p> + +<p rend='text-align: center'> + <figure url='images/group-weapons.png' rend='width: 80%'> + <head>Group of Weapons. (From Originals in Peabody Museum, Cambridge.)</head> + <figDesc>Illustration.</figDesc> + </figure> +</p> + +<p> +The great weapon for hunting was the bow and +arrow. Indian bows ranged from frail, weak +things, hardly suitable for a child, to the <q>strong +bow</q> of the Sioux and Crows, which would send +an arrow completely through a buffalo; the most +powerful Colt's revolver—so Clark says—will +not send a ball through the same animal. The +Crows sometimes made beautiful bows of elk +horn; such cost much labor and were highly +valued. Three months' time was spent in making +a single one. Arrows required much care +in their making. In some tribes each man +made all his arrows of precisely one length, +<pb n="050"/><anchor id="Pg050"/> +different from all others. This was an aid in +recognizing them. Many carried with them a +measure, the exact length of their arrows so as to +settle disputes. This was necessary to determine +who had killed a given animal: the carcass belonged +to the man whose arrow was found in it. +</p> + +<p> +Among some eastern tribes, and particularly +in the south, where fine canes grow near streams, +the blow-gun is used. This consists of a piece +of cane perhaps eight or ten feet long, which +is carefully pierced from end to end and then +smoothed inside. Arrows are made from slender +shafts of rather heavy and hard wood. They are +perhaps a foot and a half long and hardly more +than a quarter or an eighth of an inch thick. +They are cut square at one end and pointed at +the other; around the shaft, toward the blunt +end, a wrapping of thistle-down is firmly secured +with thread. This surrounds perhaps three or +four inches of the arrow's length, and has a +diameter such as to neatly fit the bore of the +blow-gun. The arrow is inserted in the tube, +and a sudden puff of breath sends it speeding +on its way. An animal the size of a rabbit or +woodchuck may be killed with this weapon at +an astonishing distance. +</p> + +<p> +Among inland tribes, fishing was usually a matter +of secondary importance. Fish pieced out the +food supply rather than formed its bulk. But +along some seacoasts fish is a very important +food. The tribes of the Northwest Coast live +<pb n="051"/><anchor id="Pg051"/> +almost entirely upon fish. The salmon is particularly +important among them. These tribes +have devised many kinds of lines, hooks, nets, +fish-baskets, traps, and wiers. Everywhere the +commonest mode of securing fish is and was by +spearing. +</p> + +<p rend='text-align: center'> + <figure url='images/birch-canoe.png' rend='width: 80%'> + <head>Birch-Bark Canoe.</head> + <figDesc>Illustration.</figDesc> + </figure> +</p> + +<p> +Once I went out at night with some Indian +boys of Gay Head, Martha's Vineyard, <q>neeskotting.</q> +These boys have a good deal of +Indian blood, but they dress, talk, and act in +most ways just like white boys. I think <foreign rend='italic'>neeskotting</foreign>, +however, is truly Indian. <q>We rode down +to the shore in an ox-cart, carrying lanterns with +us. Each boy had a pole, at the end of which +was firmly tied a cod-hook. The tide was falling, +and the wind was blowing in toward shore. +Walking along the beach, with lantern held in +one hand so as to see the shallow water's bottom, +and with the pole in the other hand ready for +use, the boys watched for fish. Hake, a foot or +more long, frost fish, lighter colored and more +slender, and eels, are the usual prey. The hake +and eels rarely come into water less than six +inches deep. Frost fish, on the contrary, come +<pb n="052"/><anchor id="Pg052"/> +close into shore, and on cold nights crowd out on +the very beach. When a fish has been seen, a +sudden stroke of the pole and a quick inpull are +given to impale the prey, and drag it in to shore. +It was an exciting scene. Hither and thither the +boys darted, with strokes and landings, with cries +of joy at success or despair at failure. Finally, +with perhaps fifty hake, twenty frost fish, and one +shining eel, the bottom of our cart was covered, +and we turned homeward.</q> +</p> + +<p rend='text-align: center'> + <figure url='images/bull-boat.png' rend='width: 80%'> + <head><q>Bull-Boat</q> or Coracle.</head> + <figDesc>Illustration.</figDesc> + </figure> +</p> + +<p> +In fishing, hunting, and journeying, the woodland +Indians needed some sort of water craft. +They had a number of different kinds of canoes. +The <q>dug-out,</q> cut from a single tree trunk, is +still used in many of our Southern streams; the +Cherokees in their lovely North Carolina home +have them. Along the Northwest Coast, magnificent +war-canoes, capable of carrying fifty or sixty +persons, were made from single giant logs; these +canoes often had decorative bow and stern pieces +carved from separate blocks. The birch-bark +canoes were made over light wooden frames with +<pb n="053"/><anchor id="Pg053"/> +pieces of birch bark neatly fitted, sewed, and +gummed, to keep out the water. Almost all the +Algonkin tribes and the Iroquois used them upon +their lakes and rivers; they were light enough +to be carried easily across the portages. A few +tribes, the Mandans among others, had the light +but awkward <q>bull-boat,</q> or coracle, nearly circular, +consisting of a light framework covered with +skin: such were chiefly used in ferrying across +rivers. +</p> + +</div> + +<div> +<index index='toc'/> +<index index='pdf'/> +<head>VIII. The Camp-Fire.</head> + +<p> +One of the first things after reaching camp +was to build the camp-fire. Among Indians the +camp-fire not only served for heat and cooking, +but for light, and to scare away animal foes and +bad spirits. You and I would probably have a +hard time making a fire without matches. The +Indian had no matches until he got them from +the whites. There are two ways in which the +Indians made fire. One was by striking two hard +pieces of stone—such as chert or pyrites—together, +which gave a spark, which was caught on +tinder and blown to a flame. Of course white +men used to make fire in much the same way—only +they had a flint and steel. When whites +first came into contact with Indians, they used +the flint and steel, and it was not long before the +<pb n="054"/><anchor id="Pg054"/> +Indians had secured them from the white traders. +Many Indians still use the old-fashioned flint and +steel. Some old Sac and Fox men always carry +them in their tobacco pouch, and use them for +lighting their pipes. +</p> + +<p> +Another Indian method of making fire was by +rubbing two pieces of wood together. It is said +that this is not difficult, but one needs to know +just how, in order to succeed. In the cliff ruins +of the southwest two little sticks are often found +together. One may be a foot or two long, and +the lower end is bluntly pointed, worn smooth, +and blackened as if it had been slightly burned. +The other stick is of the same thickness, but may +be only a few inches long; in it are several conical +hollows, which are charred, smooth, and usually +broken away at the edge. These two sticks +were used by the <q>cliff-dwellers</q> for making fire. +The second one was laid down flat on the ground; +the pointed end of the other was placed in one of +the holes in the lower piece, and the stick was +whirled between the hands by rubbing these back +and forth. While the upright stick was being +whirled, it was also pressed down with some little +force. By the whirling and pressure fine wood +dust was ground out which gathered at the broken +edge of the conical cavity. Soon, in the midst +of this fine wood dust, there appeared a spark. +Some dry, light stuff was at once applied to it, +and it was blown into a flame. +</p> + +<p> +Certainly this mode of making fire was hard +<pb n="055"/><anchor id="Pg055"/> +on the hands—it must soon have raised blisters. +Some tribes had learned how to grind out a spark +without this disadvantage. The lower stick was +as before. A little bow was taken, and its cord +was wrapped about the upright stick and tightened. +The two sticks were then put into position, +the top of the upright being steadied with +a small block held in the left hand; the bow +being moved back and forth with the right hand, +the upright was caused to whirl easily and rapidly. +This was used among many of our tribes. +</p> + +<p> +Although making it themselves, many Indians +think the fire made with the bow-drill is sacred, +and that it comes from heaven. Among the +Aztecs of Mexico there was a curious belief and +ceremony. The Aztecs counted their years in +groups of fifty-two, just as we count ours by hundreds +or centuries. They thought the world +would come to an end at the close of one of +these fifty-two year periods. Therefore, they were +much disturbed when such a time approached. +When the end of the cycle really came, all the +fires and lights in the houses had been put out; +not a spark remained anywhere. When it was +night, the people went out along the great causeway +to Itztapalapa, at the foot of the Hill of +the Star. On the summit of this hill was a small +temple. At the proper hour, determined by observing +the stars, the priests cast a victim on the +altar, tore out his heart as usual, and placed the +lower stick of the fire-sticks upon the wound. +<pb n="056"/><anchor id="Pg056"/> +The upright stick was adjusted and whirled. For +a moment all were in great anxiety. The will of +the gods was to be made known. If no spark +appeared, the world would at once be destroyed; +if there came a spark, the gods had decreed at +least one cycle more of existence to the world. +And when the spark appeared, how great was +the joy of the people! All had carried unlighted +torches in their hands, and now these were lighted +with the new fire, and with songs of rejoicing the +crowd hurried back to the city. +</p> + +<p> +Boys know pretty well how Indians cooked +their food. Most of us have roasted potatoes in +the hot ashes, and broiled meat or frogs' legs over +the open fire. The Indians did much the same. +Pieces of meat would be spitted on sharp sticks, +and set so as to hang over the fire. Clams, mussels, +and other things, were baked among the hot +coals or ashes. One time <q>Old Elsie,</q> a Lipan +woman, took a land turtle, which I brought her +alive, and thrust it head first into the fire. This +not only killed the turtle, but cooked it, and split +open the hard shell box so that she could get at +the meat inside. +</p> + +<p> +Over the fireplace the Indians usually have a +pot or kettle suspended in which various articles +may be boiling together. The Indians invented +succotash, which is a stew of corn and beans; we +have borrowed the thing and the name. At the +first meal I ate among the Sacs and Foxes, we +all squatted on the ground, outside the house +<pb n="057"/><anchor id="Pg057"/> +and near the fire, and took a tin of boiled fish +off the coals. We picked up bits of the fish with +our fingers, and passed the pan around for every +one to have a drink of the soup. +</p> + +<p> +All this is easy cooking; but how would you +go to work to boil buffalo meat if you had no +kettle, pot, nor pan of any kind? A great many +Indian tribes knew how. When a buffalo was +killed, the hide was carefully removed. A bowl-like +hole was scraped out in the ground and lined +with the buffalo skin, the clean side up. This +made a nice basin. Water was put into this and +the pieces of meat laid in. A hot fire was kindled +near by, and stones were heated in it, and then +dropped into the basin of water and meat. So +the food was boiled. A number of tribes cooked +meat in this way, but one was called by a name +that means <q>stone-boilers</q>—Assinaboines. +</p> + +<p> +Meat was often dried. In some districts where +the air is clear and dry and the sun hot, the meat +is cut into strips or sheets, and dried by hanging +it on lines near the house. At other places it +was dried and smoked over a fire. Where there +was buffalo meat, the Indian women made pemmican, +which was <emph>good</emph>. The buffalo meat was +first dried as usual. The dried meat was heated +through over a low fire, and then beaten with +sticks or mauls to shreds. Buffalo tallow was +melted and the shredded meat stirred up in it. +All was then put into a bag made of buffalo skin +and packed as tightly as possible; the bag was +<pb n="059"/><anchor id="Pg059"/> +then fastened up and sewed tight. Sometimes +the marrow-fat was also put into this pemmican, +and dried berries or choke-cherries. Pemmican +kept well a long time, and was such condensed +food that a little of it lasted a long time. It was +eaten dry or stewed up in water into a sort of +soup. +</p> + +<p rend='text-align: center'> + <figure url='images/smoke-signaling.png' rend='width: 60%'> + <head>Smoke Signaling. (After Mallery.)</head> + <figDesc>Illustration.</figDesc> + </figure> +</p> + +<p> +A curious use for fire among some Indians was +in giving signals. A place visible from a great +distance was selected. Upon it a little fire was +built with fuel which gave a dense smoke. Sometimes +the signal depended upon the number of fires +kindled side by side. Thus when Pima Indians +returned from a war-party against Apaches, they +gave smoke signals if they had been successful. +A single fire was built first; its one smoke column +meant success. Then a number of little +fires, kindled in a line side by side, indicated the +number of scalps taken. Sometimes messages +were given by puffs of smoke. When the fire +had been kindled, a blanket was so held as to +prevent the smoke rising. When a lot of smoke +had been imprisoned beneath it, the blanket was +suddenly raised so as to let it escape. It was +then lowered, held, and raised so as to cause a +new puff. These puffs of smoke rose regularly +in long, egg-shaped masses, and according to their +number the message to be sent varied. Such +signaling by smoke puffs was common among +Plains tribes. +</p> + +</div> + +<pb n="060"/><anchor id="Pg060"/> + +<div rend='page-break-before: always'> +<index index='toc'/> +<index index='pdf'/> +<head>IX. Sign Language On The Plains.</head> + +<p> +Every one talking with another person who +speaks a different language will, in his effort to +make himself understood, quite surely make some +use of signs. Often the signs so used will seem +naturally to express the desired idea. Once, a +Tonkaway Indian in trying to tell me that all +white men were untruthful, put the first two +fingers of his right hand, slightly separated, near +his mouth and then moved the hand downward +and outward, at the same time slightly spreading +the fingers. By this he meant to say that white +men had two tongues, or were liars. They say +one thing and mean another. +</p> + +<p> +While it is natural for all people to use signs +to convey meaning, the use of signs will be most +frequent where it is a common thing for several +people speaking different languages to come into +contact. While all American Indians use some +gestures, the Plains Indians, who were constantly +meeting other tribes, necessarily made much use +of them. In fact, a remarkable sign language had +grown up among them, whereby Sioux, Crows, Assinaboines, +Pani, Arapahoes, Cheyennes, Kiowas, +could readily converse upon any subject. +</p> + +<p> +It is not probable that the sign language was +invented by any one tribe. Many writers have +<pb n="061"/><anchor id="Pg061"/> +claimed that it was made by the Kiowas. Rather, +it grew up of itself among the tribes because +gesturing is natural to peoples everywhere. +</p> + +<p> +Deaf-mutes left to themselves always use signs. +These signs are of two kinds. They either picture +or copy some idea, thing, or action, or they +point out something. It is interesting to find +that the gestures made by deaf-mutes and Indians +are often the same. So true is this, that deaf-mutes +and Indians quite readily understand each +other's signs. Parties of Indians in Washington +for business are sometimes taken to the Deaf-Mute +College to see if the two—Indians and +deaf-mutes—can understand each other. While +they cannot understand every sign, they easily +get at each other's meaning. One time a professor +from a deaf-mute school, who knew little +of Indians and nothing at all of Indian languages, +had no difficulty while traveling through Indian +country in understanding and in making himself +understood by means of signs. +</p> + +<p rend='text-align: center'> + <figure url='images/sign-language.png' rend='width: 60%'> + <head>Sign Language on the Plains. (After Mallery.)</head> + <figDesc>Illustration.</figDesc> + </figure> +</p> + +<p> +We will look at a few examples of Indian +signs. Try and make them from the description, +and see whether you think they are natural +or not. The signs for animal names usually +describe or picture some peculiarity of the animal. +</p> + +<quote rend='display'> + +<p> +<hi rend='italic'>Badger</hi>.—The right hand is held with the back +up, fingers extended, touching and pointing to the +front, in front and to the right of the body. This +shows the height of the animal. Then the first and +<pb n="062"/><anchor id="Pg062"/> +second fingers are slightly separated (the rest of the +hand being closed) and drawn from the nose upward +over the top of the head. This shows the striped +face. The two +hands are then +held in front of +the body, with +fingers curved, +the backs up, +and drawn as if +pawing or +scratching. +This has reference +to the digging +of the +animal. The +complete sign +thus gives the +size, the most +striking mark, +and the habit +of the animal. +</p> + +<p> +<hi rend='italic'>Beaver</hi>.—Hold +out the +left hand, with +the back up, +pointing to the +right and front, +in front of the body, with the lower part of the arm +horizontal; cross the right hand under it so that the +back of the <emph>right hand</emph> is <emph>against</emph> the <emph>left palm</emph>. Then +leaving the right wrist <emph>all the time against</emph> the <emph>left +palm</emph>, briskly move the right hand up and down so it +shall <emph>slap</emph> against the left palm. The beaver has a +broad, flat tail, with which he strikes mud or water. +The sign imitates this action. +</p> + +<pb n="063"/><anchor id="Pg063"/> + +<p> +<hi rend='italic'>Buffalo</hi>.—Close the hands except the forefingers; +curve these; place the hands then against the sides +of the head, near the top and fairly forward. These +curved forefingers resemble the horns of the buffalo +and so suggest that animal. +</p> + +<p> +<hi rend='italic'>Dog</hi>.—Place the right hand, with the back up, +in front of and a little lower than the left breast: +the first and second fingers are extended, separated, +and point to the left. The hand is then drawn several +inches to the right, horizontally. I am sure you +never would guess how this came to mean dog. You +remember how the tent poles are dragged by ponies +when camp is moved? Well, before the Indians had +horses as now, the dogs used to have to drag the +poles. This sign represents the dragging of the +poles. +</p> + +<p> +<hi rend='italic'>Skunk</hi>.—The skunk is a little animal, but it has +rather a complicated sign. (<hi rend='italic'>a</hi>) The height is indicated +as in the case of the badger. (<hi rend='italic'>b</hi>) Raise the +right hand, with the back backward, a little to the +right of the right shoulder; all the fingers are closed +except the forefinger, which is curved; the hand is +then moved forward several inches by gentle jerks. +This represents the curious way in which the broad, +bushy tail is carried and the movement of the animal +in walking. (<hi rend='italic'>c</hi>) Raise right hand toward the +face, with the two first fingers somewhat separated, +to about the chin. Then move it upward until the +nose passes between the separated finger tips. This +means smell. (<hi rend='italic'>d</hi>) Hold both hands, closed with +backs up, in front of the body, the two being at the +same height. Move them down and outward, at +the same time opening them. This is done rather +briskly and vigorously. It means bad. Thus in the +sign for skunk we give size, character of tail and +movement, and bad smell. +</p> + +</quote> + +<pb n="064"/><anchor id="Pg064"/> + +<p> +There are of course signs for the various Indian +tribes, and some of these are interesting +because they usually present some striking characteristic +of the tribe named. +</p> + +<quote rend='display'> + +<p> +<hi rend='italic'>Crow</hi>.—Make with the arms the motion of flapping +wings. +</p> + +<p> +<hi rend='italic'>Arapaho</hi>.—The fingers of one hand touch the +breast in different parts to indicate the tattooing of +that part in points. +</p> + +<p> +<hi rend='italic'>Arikara</hi>.—often called <q>corn-eaters,</q> are represented +by imitating the shelling of corn, by holding +the left hand still, the shelling being done with the +right. +</p> + +<p> +<hi rend='italic'>Blackfeet</hi>.—Pass the flat hand over the outer edge +of the right foot from the heel to beyond the toe, as +if brushing off dust. +</p> + +<p> +<hi rend='italic'>Comanche</hi> and <hi rend='italic'>Shoshone</hi>.—Imitate with the hand +or forefinger the crawling motion of the snake. +</p> + +<p> +<hi rend='italic'>Flathead</hi>.—The hand is raised and placed against +the forehead. +</p> + +</quote> + +<p> +We will only give one more example. The +sign for crazy is as follows:— +</p> + +<quote rend='display'> +Slightly contract the fingers of the right hand without +closing it; bring it up to and close in front of the +forehead; turn the hand so that the finger tips describe +a little circle. +</quote> + +<p> +Bad boys sometimes speak of people having +wheels in their head. This Indian sign certainly +seems to show that the Indian idea of craziness is +about the same as the boys'. +</p> + +<p> +Captain Clark wrote a book on the Indian +<pb n="065"/><anchor id="Pg065"/> +sign language, in which he described great numbers +of these curious signs. Lieutenant Mallery, +too, made a great collection of signs and wrote +a long paper about them. A third gentleman +has tried to make type which shall print the +sign language. He made more than eight hundred +characters. With these he plans to teach +the old Indians to read papers and books printed +in the signs. He thinks that the Indian can take +such a paper, and making the signs which he +sees there pictured, he will understand the +meaning of the article. +</p> + +<quote rend='display'> + +<p> +<hi rend='smallcaps'>W. P. Clark.</hi>—Soldier. Author of <hi rend='italic'>Indian Sign Language</hi>, +which not only is a convenient dictionary of signs, but contains +much general information regarding Indians. +</p> + +<p> +<hi rend='smallcaps'>Garrick Mallery.</hi>—Soldier, ethnologist. Connected with +Bureau of Ethnology from its establishment until his death. +His most extended papers are: <hi rend='italic'>Sign Language among North +American Indians, Pictographs of the North American Indians, +Picture Writing of the American Indians</hi>. +</p> + +<p> +<hi rend='smallcaps'>Lewis Hadley.</hi>—Inventor of Indian Sign Language type. +</p> + +</quote> + +</div> + +<div> +<index index='toc'/> +<index index='pdf'/> +<head>X. Picture Writing.</head> + +<p> +The Indians did not know how to write words +by means of letters. There were, however, many +things which they wished to remember, and they +had found out several ways in which to record +these. +</p> + +<pb n="066"/><anchor id="Pg066"/> + +<p> +Thus among the Sacs and Foxes there is a +long legend with songs telling about their great +teacher, the good, wise, and kind Wisuka. It +is difficult to remember exactly such long narratives, +but with objects to remind the reciter of +each part, it is not so hard. So the persons who +are to repeat the legend have a <foreign rend='italic'>micäm</foreign>. This +is a wooden box, usually kept carefully wrapped +up in a piece of buckskin and tied with a leathern +thong; in it are a variety of curious objects, +each one of which reminds the singer or reciter +of one part of the narrative. Thus he is sure +not to leave out any part. In the same way +mystery men among other Algonkin tribes have +pieces of birch bark upon which they scratch +rude pictures, each of which reminds them of +the first words of the different verses in their +songs. Such reminders are great helps to the +memory. Among the Iroquois and some eastern +Algonkins, they used, as we shall see, wampum +belts to help remember the details of treaties +or of important events. +</p> + +<p> +Among many tribes pictures were used for +recording matters of importance. Many Sioux +chiefs have written the story of their life in pictures. +They took several large sheets of paper +and gummed the edges together so as to make +one long strip. Upon this they made pictures +representing the important incidents in their +lives. Thus in one picture was shown where, +as a boy, the artist shot his first deer; in another +<pb n="067"/><anchor id="Pg067"/> +was represented his first hunting party; in another, +how he went on the war-path to gain +the name of brave; in another, where he danced +the sun dance; again, how he went to Washington +to see the white men's officers, on business. +</p> + +<p> +The most important record made by the Sioux +is the <hi rend='italic'>Dakota Calendar</hi>. More than a century +ago a Sioux Indian determined to keep a count +of the years and of their happenings. So he +began a record which was called a <q>winter +count,</q> where the events of the different years +were shown by pictures. His idea became popular, +and a number of these winter counts were +begun by other Indians. The most important +of these is one which has been called the Dakota +Calendar. It belonged for a long time +to an Indian named Lone Dog. The one he +had was a copy on cloth from a still older one, +which had been made upon a buffalo skin. This +count appears to have begun about the year +1800. +</p> + +<p rend='text-align: center'> + <figure url='images/dakota-calendar.png' rend='width: 80%'> + <head>The Dakota Calendar. (After Mallery.)</head> + <figDesc>Illustration.</figDesc> + </figure> +</p> + +<p> +Each year its maker selected some important +event, by which the year was to be remembered, +and made a picture for it. The first five or six +pictures run in a nearly straight line to the left; +the line of pictures then coils around and around +this, the last picture always being added to the +end of the coiled line. The pictures are in +black and red, and while rudely drawn, most +of them can be easily recognized. In 1801 the +<pb n="069"/><anchor id="Pg069"/> +Sioux had a terrible attack of smallpox, and +many of them died; the picture for the year is +a man covered with red spots. Whooping-cough +is a disease of which white people have little +fear, but it is sometimes very destructive to +Indians; in 1813 it was among the Sioux, and +the picture for that year was a man coughing, +as shown by lines diverging from in front of his +mouth. In 1840 the Sioux made a treaty of +peace with the Cheyennes; the picture shows +two hands extended for a friendly grasp. In +1869 there was a total eclipse of the sun, which +is represented by a blackened sun and two stars +in red: <q>The stars were seen in the daytime.</q> +In 1833 was the famous display of meteors or +falling stars, which was witnessed in all parts of +the United States, causing great excitement; +many white people believed that it portended +the destruction of the world. This star shower +was noticed by the Sioux keeper of the winter +count, and is represented by a black moon and +a lot of red stars represented as falling. You +can pick out these different figures in the picture, +which represents Lone Dog's winter count, +or the Dakota Calendar as it would look on a +buffalo hide. +</p> + +<p rend='text-align: center'> + <figure url='images/indian-letter.png' rend='width: 80%'> + <head>Indian Letter on Birch Bark. (From Schoolcraft.)</head> + <figDesc>Illustration.</figDesc> + </figure> +</p> + +<p> +Probably you have all seen pictures of a birch-bark +letter written many years ago by an Ojibwa +Indian. It was written by one of Schoolcraft's +guides. Mr. Schoolcraft, with a party of assistants +and soldiers, was on a journey of exploration +<pb n="070"/><anchor id="Pg070"/> +in the Northwest. One morning as they were +leaving camp, Schoolcraft saw an Indian putting +a bit of birch bark, upon which he had drawn +some pictures in black, into a cleft at the end of +a pole. This pole was then stuck slantingly into +the ground and three notches were cut in it. +When Mr. Schoolcraft asked his guide for an +explanation, he said this letter would inform any +Ojibwa Indians who might pass, about their +party. The eagle in the upper corner showed +that they were from Washington—government +people. The other pictures showed that there +were eight common soldiers each with a gun; +that there were six officers, the duty of each being +indicated by something carried in the hand,—the +captain by his sword, the secretary by +his book, the geologist by his hammer, etc.; that +<pb n="071"/><anchor id="Pg071"/> +soldiers and officers were white men, as shown +by their wearing hats; that there were two +guides, Indians, as shown by their having no +hats and carrying spears; that the night before +there were three fires in the camp, soldiers, +officers, and guides, camping separately; that +during the day there had been secured a prairie +hen and a turtle, both of which had been taken +by the officers for supper. But other facts were +shown besides those told in the pictures. The +pole stuck into the ground pointed the direction +in which the party would journey; the three +notches on the pole told that they would journey +in that direction three days. +</p> + +<p> +Of all American Indians those who went +farthest in the direction of developing writing +were some of those living in Mexico and Central +America. The Aztecs had an extensive system +of picture writing. By means of pictures they +recorded their traditional history and gave full +directions regarding the worship of the gods. +They had real books written with these pictures. +These books were written sometimes on +skin, sometimes on paper. The Aztecs made +two kinds of paper, one of the soft inner bark of +a tree, the other from the maguey plant. The +latter sort was beaten out of the mass of leaf +fibres after they had been soaked in water. The +maguey plant is much like the century plant +which you have seen in parks and greenhouses. +The paper or dressed skin was made into long +<pb n="072"/><anchor id="Pg072"/> +narrow strips many feet in length. These strips +were folded back and forth like a screen, and the +ends were fastened to two thin boards which +served as covers for the book. Sometimes bits +of polished green stone were inlaid into these +covers to make them pretty. Some of these old +books are still in existence, though most of them +have long been destroyed. We cannot read any +of them very well because pictures are uncertain +means of conveying information. Still we can +tell something about their meaning. +</p> + +<p rend='text-align: center'> + <figure url='images/aztec-book.png' rend='width: 80%'> + <head>Page of Aztec Book. (From Photograph.)</head> + <figDesc>Illustration.</figDesc> + </figure> +</p> + +<p> +Charles V, to know about them, +and ordered three skilled painters of the Aztecs +to prepare a book to be sent to the Emperor. +Each artist took a different subject, so the book +<pb n="073"/><anchor id="Pg073"/> +consists of three parts. The first gives a picture-written +story of the Aztecs from the time when +they began their wanderings; the second gives a +list of the towns that paid tribute to the city of +Mexico and a statement of the kind and amount +of tribute each paid; the third shows how children +were trained, how they were punished when +they were naughty, and what kind of work they +were taught. Of course the Emperor would not +understand the meaning of all these queer pictures, +far different from anything he had ever +seen; so Mendoza had an explanation or translation +written with all the pictures. This is as +fortunate for us as it was for the Emperor: in +this way we can learn something about the use +and meaning of these characters. +</p> + +</div> + +<div> +<index index='toc'/> +<index index='pdf'/> +<head>XI. Money.</head> + +<p> +Indians have always been fond of beads and of +shells. Wampum is shell beads of an especial +shape—cylindrical, with square cut ends, and +with a length one and a half times their thickness +or more. This wampum was made from a thick +and heavy sea-shell. A piece was split off, and +then ground down until it was like a wheat straw +in shape and size. It was then cut into lengths +<pb n="074"/><anchor id="Pg074"/> +and drilled. The drilling was slow and tedious +work. A point of stone, or, after the whites +came, of metal, was struck into a cane or reed. +The bit of shell to be drilled was held in the left +hand; the drill was rolled on the thigh with the +right hand. There were two kinds of wampum—white +and purple. The purple was most +valued. Thomas Morton quaintly wrote in 1630—that +is, it sounds quaint to us now,—<q>White +with them is as silver with us, the other as our +gould.</q> +</p> + +<p> +Originally wampum was simply ornamental. +But it is always easy for things that are prized as +ornament to be used in trade. So wampum was +used as a medium of exchange; it was really the +money of the eastern Indians. Strings of it +passed from hand to hand as coin does with us. +Sometimes the ornamental string worn a moment +before would be removed to buy some object seen +and desired. The famous New England chief, +King Philip, is said to have had a coat <q>made +all of <foreign rend='italic'>wampampeog</foreign>, which when in need of +money, he cuts to pieces and distributes it plentifully.</q> +</p> + +<p> +Among the Algonkin and Iroquois tribes broad +belts or bands of wampum were neatly woven. +The work consisted, like all weaving, of two sets +of threads. The long warp threads were crossed +by threads laden with beads. These belts were +neat and handsome and often contained thousands +of beads. The differently colored beads +<pb n="075"/><anchor id="Pg075"/> +were so combined as to make striking designs +and figures. +</p> + +<p rend='text-align: center'> + <figure url='images/wampum-belt.png' rend='width: 80%'> + <head>Wampum Belt. (After Holmes.)</head> + <figDesc>Illustration.</figDesc> + </figure> +</p> + +<p> +These fine belts were often given as pledges of +faith and agreement at the making of treaties. +Some which were kept in the tribe were made +to help in remembering the terms of the treaty. +Thus, when an orator was speaking, he would +hold up a wampum belt, and in making a point +of special importance would call attention to +some figure in the belt, which would serve ever +after to remind every one present of what he had +said. Among the Onondagas (Iroquois) there +was an officer known as the <q>keeper of the belts,</q> +whose business it was to know all these figures +and the different ideas connected with them, and +to make them known to the people from time to +time. +</p> + +<p> +There is a common little sea-shell found in the +Pacific Ocean called the dentalium. It is pretty, +clear white, very smooth, and shaped much like +a wee elephant's tusk. The natives of the coast +are fond of it as ornament, and among them +strings of dentalium shells serve for money just +as wampum did in the east. They were secured +usually by a peculiar mode of fishing. Thus we +<pb n="076"/><anchor id="Pg076"/> +are told at Forward Inlet a number of split sticks +or twigs were tied together into a bunch; this was +tied to the end of several poles lashed together +so as to reach the bottom in deep water. It was +driven down into the mud, and then brought up +with the shells caught or tangled in it. The +value of the shells depended on their length. +Little ones were good enough to be worn as +ornaments, but the larger they were, the more +value they had as money. Powers, speaking of +the Hupa (California) Indians, says: <q>The standard +of measurement is a string of five shells. +Nearly every man has ten lines tattooed across +the inside of his left arm about half way between +the wrist and the elbow; and in measuring shell-money +he takes the string in his right hand, draws +one end over his left thumb-nail, and if the other +end reaches to the uppermost of the tattoo lines, +the five shells are worth $25 in gold, or $5 a +shell. Of course it is only one in ten thousand +that is long enough to reach this high value. +The longest ones usually seen are worth about +$2, that is $10 to the string. Single shells are +also measured on the creases on the inside of the +left middle finger, a $5 shell being one which will +reach between the two extreme creases. No shell +is treated as money at all unless it is long enough +to rate at 25 cents. Below that it degenerates +into <emph>squaw money</emph>, and goes to form part of a +woman's necklace.</q> +</p> + +<p> +Shell beads are much prized among the Pueblo +<pb n="077"/><anchor id="Pg077"/> +Indians, and are sometimes in size and shape very +like true wampum. At other times they are thin, +flat, rather broad pierced disks. These Indians +also delight in ornaments made out of haliotis or +<q>abalone</q> shell. This shell is a large single +valve, shaped a little like the ear of some large +animal, and hence sometimes called <q>ear-shell.</q> +The outside is rough and unattractive, but the +interior is pearly and of rich colors,—purple, +green, blue, red, crimson, often many of these +bright colors showing in a small space. Where +the rough outside of the shell is ground away the +whole material is found to be pearly and rich in +color. This shell is cut into elliptical, oblong, or +fancifully formed plates which are pierced and +hung by a cord. Men used to make long journeys +to the Pacific Coast to secure shells. Even +from the eastern pueblos on the Rio Grande such +journeys were customary, and many of the men +at Cochiti delight to tell of their journey, perhaps +the most important event of their lives. +They loaded their burros with things to trade +and with supplies, and then struck across a country, +desert and hostile, in the hope of bringing +back a great load of the precious shell material. +</p> + +<p> +For another precious material they had not far +to go. Turquoise was highly prized. This is a +hard, fine-grained blue, bluish green, or green +stone, that is found at several localities in New +Mexico. It has been mined for a long time near +<pb n="078"/><anchor id="Pg078"/> +Los Cerillos, and the old diggings and the old +stone tools with which they were worked may still +be seen. Modern Indians still work the same +precious veins, and bits of the rough stone may +pass from hand to hand in trade. In drilling the +shell and turquoise beads to-day a little drill is +used which is called a pump-drill. An upright +stick bears a point of hard stone or iron at the +bottom. This passes through a hole in a little +flat board an inch or so wide and six or eight +inches long; strings or thongs pass from the ends +of this board to the top of the upright stick. On +the upright stick, not far from the lower end, is +fastened a thin, wide disk of wood, three inches +across. This serves as a fly-wheel to regulate the +whirling of the stick. When this little machine +is properly adjusted, it is made to whirl by pressing +down on the crossbow, and then releasing +the pressure, pressing down again, etc. It +works very well, and drills the hard turquoise and +the softer shell neatly. These beads and ornaments +of shell or turquoise are so highly prized +that they easily serve the purposes of trade. So +much do the Navajo desire the turquoise that +they readily exchange for it their beautiful blankets, +neat silver-work, or finest ponies. +</p> + +<p> +Blankets have always been greatly prized by +all Indians, whether they be made out of skins, +bark, or wool. The white man has taken advantage +of this fact, and to-day his blankets are to be +found everywhere. In some places they have +<pb n="079"/><anchor id="Pg079"/> +become the real money and have regular set +values. In British Columbia, most of the tribes +reckon all values in Hudson Bay blankets. These +blankets are traded out by the Hudson Bay company +and are of various sizes. These sizes are +always indicated by some black lines worked into +the blanket along the edge. The largest size is +called a <q>four point,</q> the smallest a <q>one point</q> +blanket. One size is considered the standard; it +is the <q>two-and-a-half point</q> size. When any +one speaks of <q>a blanket,</q> a two-and-a-half point +blanket is meant. Skins of different animals are +said to be worth so many <q>blankets.</q> +</p> + +<p> +The Tlingit and Haida Indians of Alaska and +Queen Charlotte Islands used to feel very proud +if they were owners of <q>coppers.</q> They did not +smelt copper, but they used to beat it into various +forms. The form most prized, called <q>a copper,</q> +was of no use, but indicated wealth. <q>Coppers</q> +were flat sheets of equal thickness throughout +except at the edges, which were thicker than the +body; there was also upon them a raised pattern +something like a T; sometimes also a face was +scratched upon their upper part. Such coppers +were formerly worth ten slaves each. Lately, +however, the whites have taken to making them +for trade, and they have become so common that +they are much less prized. Still, until quite +lately, they were worth from forty to eighty +blankets, or from sixty to one hundred and twenty +dollars. +</p> + +<pb n="080"/><anchor id="Pg080"/> + +<quote rend='display'> + +<p> +<hi rend='smallcaps'>William Henry Holmes.</hi>—Geologist, archæologist, artist. +At present he is at the head of the anthropological work of the +United States National Museum. Has written important works: +among them, <hi rend='italic'>Art in Shell of the Ancient Americans</hi> and <hi rend='italic'>Archæological +Studies among the Ancient Cities of Mexico</hi>. +</p> + +</quote> + +</div> + +<div> +<index index='toc'/> +<index index='pdf'/> +<head>XII. Medicine Men And Secret Societies.</head> + +<p> +All Indians believe in spirits. Some are good +and help men who please them; others are bad +and always anxious to do harm. The spirits are +all about us. They are in plants, and trees, and +rustling leaves; they are in the wind and cloud +and rain; they are in the mountain and in the +brook. It is spirits that cause trouble, suffering, +and death. When a man is ill, some bad spirit +has taken away his soul or has entered into him. +</p> + +<p> +It is not strange, then, that the Indians should +wish to gain power over these spirits. If a man +knows some words, the saying of which will protect +him against them, he is fortunate; fortunate +is he, too, if he knows some object which, carried, +will disarm them, or if he can perform some trick +which will put them to flight. Such knowledge +is what the Indians mean by <q>medicine</q> or +<q>mystery.</q> Men who spend their lives in trying +to gain such knowledge are called medicine men, +mystery men, or Shamans. +</p> + +<p rend='text-align: center'> + <figure url='images/rattles-masks.png' rend='width: 80%'> + <head>Rattles and Masks: Alaska. (From Originals in Peabody Museum.)</head> + <figDesc>Illustration.</figDesc> + </figure> +</p> + +<p> +The Shaman among the tribes of the Northwest +<pb n="081"/><anchor id="Pg081"/> +Coast is an important person. He decided, when +a boy, that he would become a Shaman. He +selected some old Shaman for his teacher and +learned from him his secrets. By experiments, +by dreaming, and by trading with other Shamans +he got other secrets. To help him in his dealings +with spirits the Shaman makes use of many +devices. He sleeps upon a wooden pillow, which +is carved with otter heads; these are believed to +<pb n="082"/><anchor id="Pg082"/> +whisper wisdom to him while he sleeps. Upon +his dancing-dress little carved figures, in ivory, +are hung, which give him spirit influence, partly +by the forms into which they are cut, and partly +by the jingling noise they make when he dances. +He wears a mask, the animal carvings on which +control spirits. He uses a rattle and a tambourine +to summon spirits. He has a spirit pole or wand +quaintly carved, with which he fences, fighting +and warding off spirits which he alone can see. +The people sitting by see his brave fighting and +hear his shrieks and cries; in this way only they +can judge how many and how powerful are the +spirits against whom he is fighting, for their +good. +</p> + +<p> +Sometimes when dancing the Shaman becomes +so excited that he falls in a fit—quivering, gasping, +struggling. It is believed, at such times, +either that some mighty spirit has taken possession +of him, or that his own soul has gone to the +land of spirits. Sometimes when he comes to +himself he tells of his wonderful journeys and +battles. +</p> + +<p> +Among the Haida of the Queen Charlotte +Islands, when a sick man is to be cured, three or +four Shamans come together at his side. All +sing and rattle until they find out where the soul +of the sick man is. It may be in the possession +of the salmon or the oolachen fish, or it may be +held a prisoner by some dead Shaman. They go +to the place where it is supposed to be, and by +<pb n="083"/><anchor id="Pg083"/> +singing and charms succeed in getting it into a +carved hollow bone used only for this purpose. +Various precious things are then burned and the +soul bone held in the smoke. The bone is then +laid by the side of the patient's head that his soul +may return. +</p> + +<p> +Many astonishing stories are told of the powers +of medicine men. A missionary among the Crees, +Edgerton R. Young, told me of a white man who +was once out hunting. He came upon an old +medicine man, who begged him for game, as he +was hungry. The white man made sport of him, +saying, <q>You are a great medicine man; why not +get game for yourself?</q> The old man was enraged. +He cried out, <q>White man, see yonder +goose,</q> and pointed his finger into the air. The +goose fell fluttering at their feet, and the old man +picked it up and walked away. The white man +really thought this thing happened. Perhaps the +old medicine man had hypnotized him; if so, +the only goose anywhere around was probably the +white man. +</p> + +<p> +The eastern Algonkins were fond of medicine +or mystery. Two great medicine men would +have a contest to see which was more powerful. +Many of their stories tell of such contests. Two +powers, which they did seem to have, attracted +much attention and caused much terror. These +were screaming and sinking into the ground. +Leland quotes an Indian regarding these: <q>Two +or three weeks after, I was in another place, +<pb n="084"/><anchor id="Pg084"/> +we spoke of <foreign rend='italic'>m'teoulin</foreign> [mystery men]. The +white folks ridiculed them. I said there was +one in Fredericton, and I said I would bet ten +dollars that he would get the better of them. +And they bet that no Indian could do more than +they could. So the <foreign rend='italic'>m'teoulin</foreign> came, and first he +screamed so that no one could move. It was +dreadful. Then he took seven steps through +the ground up to his ankles, just as if it had been +light snow. When I asked for the ten dollars, +the white men paid.</q> +</p> + +<p> +Ojibwa medicine men have often been tested +by white men who doubted their powers. Thus +one old medicine man had two little houses built +at some distance apart. He was shut up in one, +and the whites built a ring of fire around it. +Then, no one could tell how, he appeared unharmed +walking out of the <emph>other</emph> house. These +things are no doubt tricks or delusions, but the +medicine man's apparent ability to do them +greatly increased his influence among the people. +</p> + +<p> +Much use is made of words as charms and of +sacred numbers. Four and seven are sacred +numbers among the Cherokees. Once, wishing +to see his method of curing disease, I asked the +old medicine man to treat my lame arm. He +sent out for four kinds of leaves, which were to +be fresh and young, and one other sort which +was to be dry and dead. The latter had little +thorns along its edges. The old man pounded +up the four kinds in warm water. He then +<pb n="085"/><anchor id="Pg085"/> +scratched the arm with the other, nearly drawing +blood. The arm was rubbed with the bruised +leaves. The medicine man then blew upon my +arm seven times. He went through this operation +of rubbing and blowing four times, thus +combining the numbers four and seven. He +repeated charms all the time as he rubbed. +</p> + +<p> +The Shaman does business as an individual. +He expects pay from those who employ him. +His knowledge and power over spirits is individual +and for individuals. Among some tribes +we find not single medicine men, but great secret +societies which have learned spirit wisdom to use +for the benefit of the society, or for the good of +the whole tribe. Such secret societies are notable +in the Southwest—and elsewhere. They +may work to cure disease in individuals; they +also work for the whole tribe. Among the Moki +Pueblos, the societies of the Snake and of the +Antelope carry on the snake dance, that the +whole people may have rain for their fields. +</p> + +</div> + +<div> +<index index='toc'/> +<index index='pdf'/> +<head>XIII. Dances And Ceremonials.</head> + +<p> +The dances of Indians are sometimes, like +our own, simply social and for pleasure. They +are more frequently religious or for some important +purpose. +</p> + +<pb n="086"/><anchor id="Pg086"/> + +<p> +They are always accompanied by music. Indian +music is in perfect swing or time. Most +Indian musical instruments are simply time +beaters. The commonest is the rattle. This +varies with place and tribe. Among Northwest +Coast tribes it is of wood, elaborately carved, +both in form and decoration. A common rattle +in that district is cut into the form of a bird—the +raven. Some of the old rattles, made and +used by Shamans a hundred years ago, are still +in existence: they were probably carved with +knives and chisels of stone, but they are better +done than most of the modern ones, which have +been cut out with metal tools. Some of the +Plains tribes had leather rattles,—balls of dried +skin fastened over the end of a little wooden +handle. Many tribes used gourds for rattles. +Some of these are round, about the size of an +apple; such were pierced and a wooden handle +thrust through. Others are flask or bottle +shaped; such need no handle beyond the one +supplied by nature. +</p> + +<p> +Drums and tambourines of various kinds are +used in time beating. The beaters usually take +no other part in the dance, but sit by themselves +at one side. Frequently each dancer has a rattle. +Sometimes a stick notched across with +deep notches is used. Across these notches a +thin bone, usually a shoulder-blade, is rubbed +with a good deal of force. Such rubbed sticks +are very good time beaters. They are used by +<pb n="087"/><anchor id="Pg087"/> +Apaches, Pueblos, and Tonkaways. Among the +old Aztecs, they had a similar instrument, but +made of a long bone instead of from a stick. +</p> + +<p> +Indians prepare for dances with much care. +The hair is combed and arranged. The face +and body are painted. A special dance dress +is frequently worn. This dress is often of ancient +form and decoration. Sometimes all this +preparation is just to make the dancers look +pretty; more frequently, however, the dress and +decoration have some meaning, and often they +mimic some creature or copy the dress worn by +some great person of their legends. Thus in +the buffalo and the bear dances, skins of buffalo, +with the head, skin, and horns attached, +or the skins of bears, were put on, to make the +dancers look like these animals. +</p> + +<p> +The meaning and uses of dances differ greatly. +The war dance, in which the men are painted +as if for war and have about them everything +that can make them think of war, is intended +to influence them for battle. The music, songs, +movements, prayers, and offerings all relate to +the coming conflict. The scalp dance is in +celebration of victory. The buffalo dance is +magical and is to compel the coming of herds +of that animal. At some dances the story told +by the tribe in regard to the creation of the +world and how man learned things is all acted +out; the dancers are dressed to represent the +spirits, or beings who made, helped, or taught +<pb n="088"/><anchor id="Pg088"/> +the tribe, and the dance is a real drama. Among +the Pueblos and some other southwestern tribes, +many dances are prayers for rain; the songs sung +and the movements made all have reference to the +rain so much desired. +</p> + +<p> +In one of these dances the drummers make +curious, beckoning gestures to bring up the +rain clouds. In some the dancers carry sticks +curiously jointed together so as to open and +shut in zigzag movements, which are meant to +look like lightning and are believed to bring +it; other dancers imitate the thunder. Sometimes +the dancers and others are drenched with +water thrown upon them, in order that the town +and its fields may be drenched with rain. +</p> + +<p> +Many dances are only a part of some great +religious ceremonial. Thus the sun dance follows +several days of fasting and prayer, and the +snake dance is but a small part of a nine days' +ceremonial. Indian religion abounds in such +long ceremonials with a vast number of minute +details. The songs, prayers, and significant actions +used in some of them must number many +hundreds. +</p> + +<p> +In order that the desired result of ceremonials +should be secured, it was necessary that the persons +performing it should be pure. There were +many ways to purify or cleanse oneself. Sometimes +a sweat bath was taken, after which the body +was rubbed with sweet-smelling plants. The person +might sit in smoke that came from burning +<pb n="089"/><anchor id="Pg089"/> +some sacred herb or wood. He might fast for +several days. He might refuse to touch or come +into contact with his friends, or with the objects +he was in the habit of using. Many times it was +thought necessary that the objects which he was +to use in the ceremony must be new, or must be +purified by being held in sacred smoke. +</p> + +<p> +In ceremonies, much attention is paid to sacred +numbers. The number most often sacred is four. +Four men are often concerned in one act; four +drums may be used; the men may fast four days; +an action may be repeated four times. If a thing +is done sixteen times, four times four, it might be +still better. In the snake-dance ceremonial there +are sixteen sacred songs, which are sung at one +sitting. +</p> + +<p> +Seven is a sacred number among the Cherokees; +it is less important than four, but the two +may be combined, and twenty-eight often occurs. +Thus the scratcher used upon the ball-players has +seven teeth and is drawn four times, making +twenty-eight scratches. +</p> + +<p> +Connected with the sacred number four, the +Indians give much importance to the cardinal +points—north, west, south, and east. They always +pay attention to these when they dance and +pray. Some tribes recognize more than four +world's points, adding the up and the down, or +the above and the below, making six in all. A +few think of the place where they themselves +are, and speak of seven points; so the Zuñi have +<pb n="090"/><anchor id="Pg090"/> +the north, west, south, east, above, below, and the +center. When they prepared their medicine lodge +for the sun dance, the Mandans put one of their +curious, turtle-shaped, skin water-drums at each +of the four world quarters. Usually in ceremonials, +Indians pray to each of these quarters, and +make an offering toward it. +</p> + +<p> +One of the commonest offerings made in ceremonials +is the smoke of tobacco. Gods and spirits +are believed to be fond of it. In smoking to their +honor, a puff is blown in turn to each of the +four points, and then perhaps up, and possibly +down. In the Pueblos, every religious act is +accompanied by the scattering of sacred meal. +This sacred meal is a mixture of corn meal and +pounded sea-shells. It is sprinkled everywhere to +secure kindly spirit influence. A pinch of it is +thrown to the north, west, south, east, up and +down. Frank Cushing once took a party of +Zuñi Indians to the Atlantic Ocean to get sea-water +for certain ceremonials. On the way, the +Indians saw many novel and strange things which +they did not understand. When they saw such, +they sprinkled sacred meal to render them harmless +and kindly. +</p> + +<p> +Prayer sticks are much used among the Pueblos. +They are bits of stick to which feathers are +attached. They are set up wherever it is desired +to have the good will of spirit powers. For +several days before the Moki snake dance, messengers +are sent out with prayer sticks to be set +<pb n="091"/><anchor id="Pg091"/> +up near springs and sacred places. Such prayer +sticks are put up near fields where corn is planted, +or buried in the earth in corrals where ponies or +<foreign rend='italic'>burros</foreign> are kept. Other offerings are made at especially +sacred spots. In mountain caves there +are often masses of prayer sticks, miniature bows +and arrows, and other tiny things meant as gifts +to the gods. +</p> + +<p> +Each of the cardinal points may have a color +that is proper to it. The use of sacred colors for +the cardinal points is found among the Pueblos, +Navajo, many Siouan tribes, the Pani, and others. +It was the custom also among the old Aztecs in +Mexico. A curious example of the use of these +colors is found in the sand altars of the Pueblos +and Navajo. They are made in many ceremonials. +They are made of different colored sands +produced by pounding up rocks. The sand altars +are rectangular in form, and are made on the +floor. A layer of one color of sand may be spread +out for a foundation; upon it may be put a sheet +of sand of a different color and of smaller size, so +that the margin of the first serves as a border of +the second; additional layers may be added, each +bordering the one that follows it. Finally, upon +the topmost layer, curious and interesting designs +may be made. One sand altar in the Moki snake +dance had an outer broad border of brownish +yellow sand; then followed broad borders of white +and black; upon this black border were four +snakes in red, green, yellow, and blue, one on each +<pb n="092"/><anchor id="Pg092"/> +side of the square; then came narrower borders +of white, red, green, yellow, one within the other; +within these was a central square of green, upon +which was a yellow mountain lion. +</p> + +<p> +You see that Indian ceremonials are often very +complex, with many dances, decorations, purifyings, +prayers, gifts, and altars. +</p> + +</div> + +<div> +<index index='toc'/> +<index index='pdf'/> +<head>XIV. Burial And Graves.</head> + +<p> +Almost all savage and barbarous peoples look +upon death as due to bad spirits, to witchcraft, or +to violence. They cannot realize that men should +die of old age. Disease is generally thought to +be due to bad spirits or to the influence of some +medicine man. +</p> + +<p> +After a man dies there are many ways of treating +the body. Usually the face is painted almost +as if the person were preparing for a feast or a +dance. The Otoes and many other tribes dress +out the body in its choicest clothing and finest +ornaments. +</p> + +<p> +Probably burial in the ground is the commonest +way of disposing of the dead body. The +exact method varies. The grave may be deep, or +it may be so shallow as hardly to be a grave at +all. The body may be laid in extended to its +full length, or it may be bent and folded together +<pb n="093"/><anchor id="Pg093"/> +into the smallest possible space, and tied securely +in this way. Great attention is frequently given +to the direction toward which the face or the body +is turned. Among some tribes it makes no difference +whether the earth touches the body; in +others the greatest care is taken to prevent this. +</p> + +<p> +The Sacs and Foxes in Iowa have their graveyards +on the side of a hill, high above the surrounding +country. The graves are shallow; the +body, wrapped in blankets, is laid out at full +length; little, if any, earth is thrown directly +upon the body, but a little arched covering made +of poles laid side by side, lengthwise of the body, +is built over it, and a little earth may be thrown +upon it. A pole is set at the head of the grave +to the top of which is hung a bit of rag or a little +cloth, the flapping of which, perhaps, keeps off +bad spirits. Various objects are laid upon the +grave: for men, bottles, and perhaps knives; for +women, buckets and pans, such as are used in +their daily work; for little children, the baby-boards +on which they used to lie, and the little +toys of which they were fond. +</p> + +<p> +Sometimes grave-boxes were made of slabs of +stone. Such are known in various parts of the +United States, but are most common in Tennessee, +where ancient cemeteries, with hundreds of +such graves, are known. (See <ref target='Chapter_XV'>XV.</ref> Mounds and +their Builders.) Sometimes the bodies of those +lately dead were buried in these, but sometimes +there were placed in them the dry bones of people +<pb n="094"/><anchor id="Pg094"/> +long dead, who had been buried elsewhere, or +whose bodies had been exposed for a time on +scaffolds or in dead-houses. Among several +northeastern tribes it was the custom to place the +bodies for some time in dead-houses, or temporary +graves, and at certain times to collect together all +the bones, and bury them at once in some great +trench or hole. +</p> + +<p> +Most tribes buried objects with the dead. +With a man were buried his bow and arrows, war-club, +and choicest treasures. The woman was +accompanied by her ornaments, tools, and utensils. +Even the child had with it its little toys +and cradle, as we have seen in connection with +the Sacs and Foxes. The Indians believed that +people have souls which live somewhere after the +men die. These souls hereafter delight to do the +same things the men did here. There they hunt, +and fish, and war, work and play, eat and drink. +So weapons and tools, food and drink, were placed +with the body in the grave. +</p> + +<p> +They knew perfectly well that the <emph>things</emph> do +not go away; they believed, however, that things +have souls, as men do, and that it is the soul of +the things that goes with the soul of the man into +the land of spirits. Among tribes that are great +horsemen, like the Comanches, a man's ponies +are killed at his death. His favorite horse, decked +out in all his trappings, is killed at the grave, so +that the master may go properly mounted. When +a little child among the Sacs and Foxes dies, a +<pb n="095"/><anchor id="Pg095"/> +little dog is killed at the grave to accompany the +child soul, and help the poor little one to find its +way to the spirit world. Such destruction or +burial of property may be very nice for the dead +man's soul, but it is not nice for the man's survivors, +who are sometimes quite beggared by it. +</p> + +<p> +Sometimes the objects put into or upon a grave +are broken, pierced, or bent. The purpose in +thus making the objects <q>dead</q> has sometimes +been said to be to set free the soul of the object; +far more frequently, it is likely that it is to prevent +bad persons robbing the grave for its treasures. +</p> + +<p> +Cremation or burning the dead body was found +among a number of Indian tribes, particularly +upon the Pacific Coast. The Senel in California +and some Oregon tribes are among these. So +are the Tlingit of Alaska and their near neighbors +and kin, the Haida of Queen Charlotte +Islands. Among the last two tribes all but the +Shamans were usually burned. The Shamans +were buried in boxes raised on tall posts. After +a Tlingit or Haida body was burned the ashes +were usually gathered and placed in a little box-like +cavity excavated in an upright post near its +base; at the top of this post was a cross-board on +which was carved or painted the <foreign rend='italic'>totem</foreign> or crest of +the dead man. +</p> + +<p> +Where there were great caves (as in Kentucky), +and where the people dwelt in caverns (as at one +time in the Southwest), the dead were often laid +<pb n="096"/><anchor id="Pg096"/> +away in some corner of the cave. In almost all +such cases the body was folded into the smallest +space, with the knees drawn up against the +chin; it was then wrapped up in blankets and +robes and corded. Such bodies were generally +not buried, but simply stowed away. These dried +bodies are sometimes called <q>mummies,</q> but that +name should only be used when something has +been done to the body with the definite purpose +of preserving it. +</p> + +<p rend='text-align: center'> + <figure url='images/scaffold-burial.png' rend='width: 80%'> + <head>Scaffold Burial. (After Yarrow.)</head> + <figDesc>Illustration.</figDesc> + </figure> +</p> + +<p> +Mention has already been made of box burial +in connection with the Tlingit and Haida Shamans. +Many Eskimos bury their dead in boxes +supported on posts. The weapons, tools, and +utensils of the dead are usually stuck upon the +posts or hung over the boxes. The Ponkas also +<pb n="097"/><anchor id="Pg097"/> +bury in raised boxes, and at their present reservation +in Oklahoma there are two extensive cemeteries +of this kind. +</p> + +<p> +Among some tribes in the extreme northwestern +part of the United States canoes are +used instead of boxes. They are supported +above ground by posts. Usually two canoes are +used; the body is placed in the lower, larger one; +the smaller one is turned upside down over the +corpse and fits within the larger. In the Mississippi +and Missouri valley region many Siouan +tribes placed their dead upon scaffolds, supported +by poles at a height of six or eight feet in the air. +Extensive cemeteries of this kind used to occupy +high points overlooking the rivers; they could +be seen—dreary sights—a long way across the +country. Some tribes in wooded districts placed +the dead in trees. Often scaffold and tree burial +were only temporary, the body being later taken +elsewhere for permanent burial. One time, visiting +a winter camp of the Sacs and Foxes, far +from their permanent village, we saw a strange +bundle in a tree. It was the blanketed corpse of +an old woman who had died a few days before; +the party took it with them when they returned +home in the spring. +</p> + +<p> +We should find some of the mourning customs +interesting. The friends of the dead wail and +scream fearfully; they cut off their hair; they +gash their bodies; they sometimes even chop off +their finger tips or whole joints. They watch by +<pb n="098"/><anchor id="Pg098"/> +the grave—this is particularly +true of women. Food and drink +are often carried to the grave +for some time after the burial. +Fires are kindled to supply light +or heat to the soul on its long +journey. +</p> + +<p rend='text-align: center'> + <figure url='images/ojibwa-gravepost.png' rend='width: 60%'> + <head>Ojibwa Gravepost. (From Schoolcraft.)</head> + <figDesc>Illustration.</figDesc> + </figure> +</p> + +<p> +Not many tribes have special +posts or marks at the grave. A +few do. The Ojibwa made +such with much care. Usually +they bore pictures or marks +telling about the dead man. +His totem animal was often +represented, usually upside +down to indicate that the +bearer of the emblem was +dead. +</p> + +<quote rend='display'> +<p> +<hi rend='smallcaps'>H. C. Yarrow.</hi>—Army physician, ethnologist. Wrote, among +other papers, <hi rend='italic'>A Further Contribution to the Study of the Mortuary +Customs of the North American Indians</hi>. +</p> +</quote> + +</div> + +<div> +<index index='toc'/> +<index index='pdf'/> +<anchor id='Chapter_XV'/> +<head>XV. Mounds And Their Builders.</head> + +<p> +In many parts of the United States, from +western New York to the Rocky Mountains and +even beyond, there are great numbers of artificial +heaps and extensive embankments of earth. +<pb n="099"/><anchor id="Pg099"/> +These show skill in construction, and from them +have been dug many relics of artistic merit and +good workmanship. At one time these earthworks +and relics were generally believed to be +the work of a single, highly civilized people, who +preceded the Indians, who were not related to +them, and who are now extinct. To this people +the name <q>mound-builders</q> was given. +</p> + +<p> +There are three ways in which we can learn +about these so-called <q>mound-builders.</q> We +may learn something from the mounds themselves, +from the relics found in the mounds, and +from the bones of persons who were buried in +them. +</p> + +<p> +Studying the mounds themselves, we find that +they differ in different areas. We will look at +three areas: +</p> + +<p> +(1) In Ohio there are thousands of mounds +and earthworks. Near every important modern +town there are groups of them. Cincinnati, +Chillicothe, Dayton, Xenia, are all near important +mounds. +</p> + +<p> +The regular enclosures are numerous in this +area: these are great embankments of earth inclosing +a regular space. Some are in the form +of circles; others are four-sided; in a few cases +they are eight-sided. Sometimes a square and a +circle are united. There is one such combination +at Hopeton; one of the embankments is a +nearly true circle containing twenty acres; joined +to it is a square of almost the same area. +</p> + +<pb n="100"/><anchor id="Pg100"/> + +<p> +At Newark there was a wonderful group of +enclosures. The group covered about two miles +square and consisted of three divisions, which +were connected with one another by long parallel +embankment walls. One circle in this group +contained more than thirty acres: the walls were +twelve feet high and fifty feet wide; a ditch seven +feet deep and thirty-five feet wide bordered it on +the inner side; a gap of eighty feet in the circle +served as an entrance. In the center of the area +enclosed by this great circle was a curious earth +heap somewhat like a bird in form. Northwest +from this great circle, nearly a mile distant, were +two connected enclosures, one octagonal, the +other circular: the former contained more than +fifty acres, the latter twenty. East from these +and northeast from the great circle was a fine +twenty-acre enclosure, nearly a square in form. +Besides these great walls, there were long parallel +lines of connecting embankment walls, small +circular enclosures, and little mounds in considerable +variety. This great mass of works represented +an enormous amount of time and labor. +</p> + +<p> +What was the purpose of these regular enclosures? +Some writers claim that they were +forts for protection; others consider them protections +for the corn-fields; others think they were +places for games or religious ceremonials; one +eminent man insists that they were foundations +upon which were built long and narrow houses. +</p> + +<p> +<q>Altar mounds</q> occur in Ohio. Professor +<pb n="101"/><anchor id="Pg101"/> +Putnam and his assistants opened a number of +these. They are small, rounded heaps of earth. +At their center is a basin-shaped mass of hard +clay showing the effect of fire. These basins are +a yard or four feet across and contain ashes and +charcoal. Upon these are found many curious +objects. On one altar were two bushels of ornaments +made of stone, copper, mica, shells, bears' +teeth, and sixty thousand pearls. Most of these +objects were pierced with a small hole and were +apparently strung as ornaments. These objects +had all been thrown into a fire blazing on the +altar and had been spoiled by the heat. After +the kindling of the fire, and the destruction of +these precious things, earth had been heaped up +over the altars, completing the mound. +</p> + +<p> +The most famous mound in Ohio is <hi rend='italic'>the great +serpent</hi> in Adams County. It lies upon a narrow +ridge between three streams, which unite. It is +a gigantic serpent form made in earth; across the +widely opened jaws it measures seventy-five feet; +the body, just behind the head, measures thirty +feet across and five feet high; following the curves +the length is thirteen hundred forty-eight feet. +The tail is thrown into a triple coil. In front of +the serpent is an elliptical enclosure with a heap +of stones at its center. Beyond this is a form, +somewhat indistinct, thought by some to be a frog. +Probably this wonderful earthwork was connected +with some old religion. While there are many +other earthworks of other forms in Ohio, the +<pb n="102"/><anchor id="Pg102"/> +<emph>sacred enclosures</emph>, the <emph>altar mounds</emph>, and the <emph>great +serpent</emph> are the most characteristic. +</p> + +<p rend='text-align: center'> + <figure url='images/serpent-mound.png' rend='width: 80%'> + <head>Great Serpent Mound: Ohio. (From The Century Magazine.)</head> + <figDesc>Illustration.</figDesc> + </figure> +</p> + +<p> +(2) In Wisconsin the most interesting mounds +are the <hi rend='italic'>effigy mounds</hi>. There are great numbers +of them in parts of this and a few adjoining states. +They are earthen forms of mammals, birds, and +reptiles. They are usually in groups; they are +generally well shaped and of gigantic size. Among +the quadrupeds represented are the buffalo, moose, +elk, deer, fox, wolf, panther, and lynx. Mr. Peet, +who has carefully studied them, shows that quadruped +<pb n="103"/><anchor id="Pg103"/> +mammals are always represented in profile +so that only two legs are shown; the birds have +their wings spread; reptiles sprawl, showing all +four legs; fish are mere bodies without limbs. +We have said these earth pictures are gigantic: +some panthers have tails three hundred and fifty +feet long, and some eagles measure one thousand +feet from tip to tip of the outspread wings. Not +only are these great animal and bird pictures found +in Wisconsin in relief; occasionally they are found +cut or sunken in the soil. With these curious +effigy mounds there occur hundreds of simple +burial mounds. +</p> + +<p> +The purpose of the effigy mounds is somewhat +uncertain. Some authors think they represent +the totem animals after which the families of +their builders were named, and that they served +as objects of worship or as guardians over the +villages. +</p> + +<p rend='text-align: center'> + <figure url='images/earthworks-plan.png' rend='width: 60%'> + <head>Ground Plan of Earthworks at Newark, Ohio. (After Squier and Davis.)</head> + <figDesc>Illustration.</figDesc> + </figure> +</p> + +<p> +(3) Farther south, in western Tennessee, another +class of mounds is common. These contain +graves made of slabs of stone set on edge. The +simplest of these stone graves consist of six +stones: two sides, two ends, one top, and one +bottom. There may be a single one of these +graves in a mound, or there may be many. In +one mound, about twelve miles from Nashville, +which was forty-five feet across and twelve feet +high, were found about one hundred skeletons, +mostly in stone graves, which were in ranges, one +above another. The upper graves contained the +<pb n="105"/><anchor id="Pg105"/> +bones of bodies, which had been buried stretched +at full length; the bones were found in their +natural positions. The lower graves were short +and square, and the bones in them had been +cleaned and piled up in little heaps. This mound +was very carefully made. The lids of the upper +graves were so arranged as to make a perfectly +smooth, rounded surface. Sometimes these stone +graves of Tennessee are not placed in mounds, +but in true graveyards in the level fields. In +these stone graves are found beautiful objects of +stone, shell, and pottery. The stone-grave men +were true artists in working these materials. +</p> + +<p> +In the same district are found many dirt rings +called <q>house-circles.</q> These occur in groups +and appear to mark the sites of ancient villages, +each being the ruin of a house. These rings are +nearly circular and from ten to fifty feet across, +and from a few inches to two or three feet high. +Excavation within them shows old floors made of +hard clay, with the fireplace or hearth. The stone-grave +people lived in these houses. They often +buried little children who died, under the floor. +Their stone coffins measured only from one to +four feet long. They contain the little skeletons +and all the childish treasures—pretty cups and +bowls of pottery, shell beads, pearls, and even the +leg bones of birds, on which the babies used to +cut their teeth as our babies do on rubber rings. +</p> + +<p> +These are but three of the areas where mounds +are found; there are several others. If the +<pb n="106"/><anchor id="Pg106"/> +<q>mound-builders</q> were a single people, with +one set of customs, one language, and one government, +it is strange that there should be such +great differences in the mounds they built. If +we had space to speak about the relics from the +mounds, they would tell a story. +</p> + +<p rend='text-align: center'> + <figure url='images/shell-gorgets.png' rend='width: 80%'> + <head>Shell Gorgets: Tennessee. (After Holmes.)</head> + <figDesc>Illustration.</figDesc> + </figure> +</p> + +<p> +They would show that the builders of the +mounds, while they made many beautiful things +of stone, shell, bone, beaten metals, could not +smelt ores. They were Stone Age men, not +civilized men. The objects from different areas +differ so much in kind, pattern, and material as +to suggest that their makers were not one people. +Study of skulls from mounds in one district—as +Ohio or Iowa—show that different types of +men built the mounds even of one area. +</p> + +<p> +So neither the mounds, the relics, nor the +remains prove that there was one people, the +<q>mound-builders,</q> but rather that the mounds +<pb n="107"/><anchor id="Pg107"/> +were built by many different tribes. These +tribes were not of civilized, but of barbarous, +Stone Age men. It is likely that some of the +tribes that built the mounds still live in the +United States. Thus the Shawnees may be +the descendants of the stone-grave people, the +Winnebagoes may have come from the effigy-builders +of Wisconsin, and the Cherokees may +be the old Ohio <q>mound-builders.</q> +</p> + +<quote rend='display'> + +<p> +<hi rend='smallcaps'>E. G. Squier</hi> and <hi rend='smallcaps'>E. H. Davis</hi>.—Authors of <hi rend='italic'>Ancient +Monuments of the Mississippi Valley</hi>, published in 1847. It +was the <emph>first</emph> great work on American Archæology. +</p> + +<p> +<hi rend='smallcaps'>Increase Allen Lapham.</hi>—Civil engineer, scientist. His +<hi rend='italic'>Antiquities of Wisconsin</hi> was published in 1855. +</p> + +<p> +<hi rend='smallcaps'>Stephen D. Peet.</hi>—Minister, antiquarian, editor. Established +<hi rend='italic'>The American Antiquarian</hi>, which he still conducts. +Wrote <hi rend='italic'>Emblematic Mounds</hi>. +</p> + +<p> +<hi rend='smallcaps'>Cyrus Thomas.</hi>—Minister, entomologist, archæologist. In +charge of the mound exploration of the Bureau of Ethnology. +Wrote <hi rend='italic'>Burial Mounds of the Northern Sections of the United +States</hi> and <hi rend='italic'>Report of the Mound Explorations of the Bureau +of Ethnology</hi>. +</p> + +<p> +<hi rend='smallcaps'>Frederic Ward Putnam.</hi>—Ichthyologist, archæologist, +teacher. For many years Curator of the Peabody Museum of +Ethnology, at Cambridge, Mass. Has organized much field +work upon mounds of Ohio and Tennessee. Also Curator in +Anthropology at the American Museum of Natural History in +New York. +</p> + +</quote> + +</div> + +<pb n="108"/><anchor id="Pg108"/> + +<div> +<index index='toc'/> +<index index='pdf'/> +<anchor id='Chapter_XVI'/> +<head>XVI. The Algonkins.</head> + +<p> +Algonkin tribes occupied the Atlantic seacoast +from Nova Scotia and New Brunswick south to +Virginia, and stretched west as far, at places, as +the Rocky Mountains. They also occupied a +large area in the interior of British America north +of the Great Lakes. Brinton names more than +thirty tribes of this great group. Among the +best known of these were the Lenape (Delawares), +Blackfeet, Ojibwas, and Crees. +</p> + +<p> +It was chiefly Algonkin tribes with whom the +first white settlers met. The Indians who supplied +the Pilgrims with corn in that first dreadful +winter were Algonkins; so were Powhatan +and Pocahontas, King Philip and Massasoit. Of +course whites came into contact with the Iroquois +in New York, and with the Cherokees, the +Creeks, and their kin in the south, but much the +larger part of their early Indian acquaintance was +Algonkin. +</p> + +<p> +There are a number of borrowed Indian words +in our English language of to-day. <foreign rend='italic'>Wigwam</foreign>, +<foreign rend='italic'>wampum</foreign>, <foreign rend='italic'>squaw</foreign>, <foreign rend='italic'>papoose</foreign>, <foreign rend='italic'>moccasin</foreign>, are examples. +These have been taken from the Indian languages +into our own, and most of them—all +of those mentioned—are Algonkin. They +soon became common to English speakers, and +<pb n="109"/><anchor id="Pg109"/> +were carried by them everywhere they went. All +the western tribes had their own names for all +these objects, but we have forced these upon +them, and to-day we may hear Utes speak of <foreign rend='italic'>wigwams</foreign> +and Navajo talk about <foreign rend='italic'>squaws</foreign> or <foreign rend='italic'>moccasins</foreign>. +</p> + +<p> +We shall speak of two Algonkin tribes. One—the +Lenape—is eastern; the other—the Blackfeet—is +western. The former are woodland, the +latter Plains Indians. The Lenape lived in settled +villages, and had a good deal of agriculture; they +were also hunters, fishermen, and warriors. Their +houses were like those of their Iroquois neighbors, +but each family had its own. They were +huts of poles and interwoven branches with a +thatching of corn leaves, the stalk of sweet-flag, +or the bark of trees. Sometimes at the center +of the village, surrounded by the houses, was a +sort of hillock or mound from which the country +around might be overlooked. The women made +good garments of deerskin with skillful beadwork. +In cooking they used soapstone vessels. For +pounding corn they had mortars of wood, dug +out of a section of a tree trunk, and long stone +pestles. +</p> + +<p> +In districts where the wild rice or <foreign rend='italic'>zizania</foreign> grew +abundantly great quantities of it were gathered. +The women in canoes paddled out among the +plants, bent the heads over the edge of the canoe +and beat out the grain. This was a food supply +of no importance to the Lenape, but the Ojibwas +and their neighbors used much of it. +</p> + +<pb n="110"/><anchor id="Pg110"/> + +<p rend='text-align: center'> + <figure url='images/gathering-rice.png' rend='width: 80%'> + <head>Ojibwa Women Gathering Wild Rice. (After Schoolcraft.)</head> + <figDesc>Illustration.</figDesc> + </figure> +</p> + +<pb n="111"/><anchor id="Pg111"/> + +<p> +In war, the men used the bow and arrows, spear +and tomahawk. They protected themselves with +round shields. They speared fish in the streams +and lakes or caught them in brush nets or with +hooks of bone or bird-claws. +</p> + +<p> +There were three totems of the Lenape. Every +man was either a wolf, turkey, or turtle. He had +one of these three animals for his emblem, and +was as fond of drawing or carving it as a boy +among us is of writing his name. This emblem +was signed to treaties, it was painted on the +houses, it was carved on stones. But only those +who were turtles drew their totem entire; usually +the wolf or the turkey were represented only by +one foot. Between a person and his totem there +was a curious friendship, and it was believed that +the animal was a sort of protector and friend of +those who bore his name. All who had the same +totem were blood-relations. +</p> + +<p> +All Algonkins were accustomed to draw pictures +to record events. The blankets of chiefs +were decorated with such pictures. The Ojibwas +were fond of writing birch-bark letters. One of +the most interesting Indian records known is the +<hi rend='italic'>Walam olum</hi>; this means the red score or red +record. Probably it at first consisted of a lot of +little sticks or boards with some quaint red pictures +upon them. These were probably kept tied +together into a little bundle. The original sticks +have long been lost, but the one hundred and +eighty-four pictures were copied and are still +<pb n="112"/><anchor id="Pg112"/> +preserved. They were intended to assist in remembering +a long poetical legend in which the +Algonkin ideas regarding the creation of the +world and their tribal history were told. +</p> + +<p> +At first everything was good. Animals and +men lived in peace. Then a wicked serpent +tried to drown the world. Only a few persons +escaped to the back of a great turtle. Their +great hero Nanabush helped them. The waters +subsided. As the land where they now found +themselves was cold, the people determined to +move southward. The story of their quarrels +and divisions on the journey is told, and also the +way in which they seized their new home, destroying +or driving out the original owners. +</p> + +<p> +The song in which this story is told is long +and full of old words difficult to understand. +The Indians themselves must have had difficulty +in remembering it. It was a great help to have +these little sticks with the red pictures to remind +them of its different parts. +</p> + +<p> +Far to the west, close against the base of +the Rocky Mountains, lived a famous Algonkin +tribe—the Blackfeet. They were great buffalo +hunters and warriors. We often think of Indians +as being stern and morose, never smiling, never +amused. Yet most tribes had sunny tempers +like children. Mr. Grinnell, to show this side +of Indian nature, describes a day in camp in the +olden, happy time. Two parts of his description +describe feasts and gambling. Feasts were in +<pb n="113"/><anchor id="Pg113"/> +constant progress: sometimes one man would +give three in a day; men who were favorites +might go from feast to feast all day long. If a man +wished to give a feast, he ordered the best food +he had to be cooked. Then, going outside, he +called out the list of invited guests: the name +of each one was cried three times. At the close +of his invitation he announced how many pipes +would be smoked: usually three. When the +guests came, each was given a dish, with his +share of the food; no one might have a second +help, but it was quite polite to carry away what +was not eaten. +</p> + +<p> +While the guests were feasting, the man of the +house prepared a pipe and tobacco. After the +eating was over, the pipe was lighted and passed +from hand to hand, each person giving it to the +one on his left. Meantime stories of hunting +and war were narrated and jokes cracked. Only +one man spoke at one time, the rest listening until +he was through. Thus they whiled away the time +until the last pipe was smoked out, when the +host, knocking the ashes from the pipe, told them +they might go. +</p> + +<p> +All Indians are gamblers, and they have many +gambling games. The Blackfeet played one +which was something like the famous game of +Chunkey, played among the Creeks. (See <ref target='Chapter_XIX'>XIX.</ref>) +A wheel about four inches in diameter with five +spokes on which were beads of different colors, +made of horn or bone, was used. It was rolled +<pb n="114"/><anchor id="Pg114"/> +along upon a smooth piece of ground at the ends +of which logs were laid to stop it. One player +stood at each end of the course. After a player +set the wheel to rolling, he hurled a dart after it. +This was done just before the wheel reached the +end of its journey. Points were counted according +to the way in which the wheel and dart fell +with reference to each other. Ten counts made +the game. This game always attracted great +crowds of spectators, who became greatly excited +and bet heavily on the result. +</p> + +<p rend='text-align: center'> + <figure url='images/squaw-traveling.png' rend='width: 80%'> + <head>Blackfoot Squaw Traveling.</head> + <figDesc>Illustration.</figDesc> + </figure> +</p> + +<p> +At night about their camp-fires the Blackfeet +delighted to tell their sacred stories, which they +did not dare repeat in daylight. In telling a +story of personal adventure, Indians, like white +people, were often tempted to make it larger than +it really was. +</p> + +<pb n="115"/><anchor id="Pg115"/> + +<p> +The Blackfeet and some other Indians had the +following mode of getting at the truth. When a +man told an improbable story some one handed +a pipe to the medicine man, who painted the stem +red and prayed over it, asking that the man's life +might be long if his story were true, but cut short +if the story were false. The pipe was then filled +and lighted and given to the man. The medicine +man said, as he handed it to him: <q>Accept +this pipe, but remember that if you smoke, your +story must be as sure as that there is a hole +through this pipe and as straight as the hole +through this stem. So your life shall be long +and you shall survive; but if you have spoken +falsely, your days are counted.</q> If he refused to +smoke, as he surely would if he had not spoken +true things, every one knew that he was a braggart +and a liar. +</p> + +<quote rend='display'> +<hi rend='smallcaps'>Daniel Garrison Brinton.</hi>—Physician, anthropologist. Has +written many books, mostly about American Indians. <hi rend='italic'>The +Lenape and their Legends</hi>, in which the <hi rend='italic'>Walam olum</hi> is given +in full, is a volume in his <hi rend='italic'>Library of Aboriginal American +Literature</hi>. +</quote> + +</div> + +<div> +<index index='toc'/> +<index index='pdf'/> +<head>XVII. The Six Nations.</head> + +<p> +When white men began to settle what is now +the state of New York, that part of it extending +from about the Hudson River west along the +<pb n="116"/><anchor id="Pg116"/> +Mohawk and on beyond it to the Niagara, was +occupied by the Iroquois or Five Nations. The +separate tribes, naming them from the east, were +the Mohawks, Oneidas, Onondagas, Cayugas, and +Senecas. These were flourishing tribes; they +had important villages and towns and large cornfields; +they were, however, also hunting tribes and +powerful in war. In fact, they were the terror +of their milder Algonkin neighbors. Personally, +Iroquois Indians were finely built, strong, +energetic, and active. +</p> + +<p> +They spoke languages much alike and probably +derived from one ancient language. This was +believed by them to prove that the five tribes +were related. Still they were at one time frequently +at war with each other. This was before +the white men came. Finally, a man named +Hayenwatha was a chief among the Onondagas. +He was wise, kind, and peaceable. There was at +this same time another Onondaga chief named +Atotarho, who was in character the opposite of +Hayenwatha. He was a bold warrior and the +dreaded foe of the Cayugas and Senecas, against +whom he led war-parties; he was feared and disliked +by his own people. When these two men +were chiefs among the Onondagas, the Mohawks +and the Oneidas were much harassed by their +Algonkin neighbors, the Mohicans. Hayenwatha +thought much over the sad condition of the +Iroquois tribes. Constantly warring with their +kindred in the west and troubled by outside foes +<pb n="117"/><anchor id="Pg117"/> +in the east, their future looked dark. He thought +of a plan of union which he believed would bring +peace and prosperity. +</p> + +<p> +Most Indian tribes consisted of a few great +groups of persons, the members of which were +related to each other and lived together. Such +groups of related persons are called <foreign rend='italic'>gentes</foreign>; the singular +of the word is <foreign rend='italic'>gens</foreign>. There were three gentes +among the Mohawks, three among the Oneidas, +and eight in each of the other three tribes. These +gentes usually bore the name of some animal; +thus the Oneida gentes were the wolf, bear, and +turtle. The people belonging to a gens were +called by the gens name. Thus an Oneida was +either a wolf, bear, or turtle. Every wolf was +related to every other wolf in his tribe; every +turtle to every other turtle; every bear to every +other bear. +</p> + +<p> +Each tribe was ruled by a council which contained +members elected from each gens. Each +gens had one or more councillors, according to +its size and importance. Each member of the +council watched with care to see that his gens +got all its rights and was not imposed upon by +others. Every tribe was independent of every +other tribe. +</p> + +<p> +Hayenwatha's idea was to unite the tribes into +a strong confederacy. Separately the tribes were +weak, and a foe could do them much harm; united +they would be so strong that no one could trouble +them. He did not wish to destroy the tribes; +<pb n="118"/><anchor id="Pg118"/> +he wished each to remain independent in managing +its own affairs; but he desired that together +they should be one great power which would help +all. Three times he called a council of his people, +the Onondagas, to lay his plan before them; three +times he failed because the dreaded Atotarho, who +did not desire peace, opposed his scheme. +</p> + +<p> +When he found he could not move his own +people, Hayenwatha went to the Mohawks, where +he found help; they agreed that such a union was +needed. Next the Oneidas were interested. Two +great chiefs, one Mohawk and one Oneida, then +went to the Onondagas to urge these to join with +them; again the plan failed because Atotarho +opposed it. The two chiefs went further westward +and had a council with the Cayugas, who +were pleased with their plan. With a Cayuga +chief to help them, they returned to the Onondagas. +Another council was held, and finally the +Onondagas were gained over by promising the +chieftaincy of the confederacy to Atotarho. There +was then no trouble in getting the consent of the +Senecas. Two chiefs were appointed by them to +talk over the plan with the others. Hayenwatha +met the six chiefs at Onondaga Lake, where the +whole plan was discussed and the new union was +made. +</p> + +<p> +It was at first <q>The Five Nations.</q> At that +time the Tuscaroras lived in the south. Later +on, perhaps more than two hundred years later, +they moved northward, and joined the confederacy, +<pb n="119"/><anchor id="Pg119"/> +making it <q>The Six Nations.</q> The Five Nations +formed one government under a great council. +This council consisted of fifty members—nine +Mohawks, nine Oneidas, fourteen Onondagas, ten +Cayugas, eight Senecas. The names of the first +councillors were kept alive by their successors +always assuming them when they entered the +council. The government did not interfere with +the rights of the different tribes. It was always +ready to receive new tribes into itself. Its purpose +was said to be to abolish war and bring +general peace. It did this by destroying tribes +that did not wish to unite with it. At times the +Iroquois Confederacy really did receive other +tribes, such, for example, as the Tuteloes, Saponies, +Tuscaroras, and fragments of the Eries and +Hurons. They themselves always called the confederacy +by a name meaning the <q>long house</q> +or the extended or drawn-out house. The confederacy +was thus likened <q>to a dwelling, which +was extended by additions made to the end, in +the manner in which their bark-built houses were +lengthened. When the number of families inhabiting +these long dwellings was increased by +marriage or adoption, and a new hearth was +required, the end wall was removed, an addition +of the required size was made to the edifice, and +the closing wall was restored.</q> +</p> + +<p> +The confederacy became a great power, and is +often mentioned in history. When the French +or English went to war, it was important for either +<pb n="120"/><anchor id="Pg120"/> +side to get the help of the Iroquois. In the council +meetings of the tribes, and in the meetings of the +great council of the confederacy, there were often +important discussions. We have spoken of the +warlike spirit of the Iroquois. A man who was a +great warrior had great influence. So, however, +had the man who was a great speaker. Oratory +was much cultivated, and the man who, at a +council, could move and sway his fellows, influencing +them to war or peace, was an important +person. +</p> + +<p> +There were a number of the Iroquois orators +whose names are remembered, but none is more +famous than Red Jacket. We will give a passage +from one of his speeches as an example of Indian +oratory. The speech was made in 1805, at a +council held at Buffalo. A missionary, named +Cram, had come to preach to them, and invited a +number of chiefs and important men to attend, +that he might explain his business to them. After +he had spoken, the old Seneca orator rose, and in +his speech said the following words: +</p> + +<p> +<q rend='pre'>Brother, listen to what we say. There was a +time when our forefathers owned this great island. +Their seats extended from the rising to the setting +sun. The Great Spirit had made it for the use +of Indians. He had created the buffalo, the deer, +and other animals, for food. He made the bear +and the beaver, and their skins served us for +clothing. He had scattered them over the country, +and taught us how to take them. He had +<pb n="121"/><anchor id="Pg121"/> +caused the earth to produce corn for bread. All +this he had done for his red children because he +loved them. If we had any disputes about hunting +grounds, they were generally settled without +the shedding of much blood, but an evil day came +upon us; your forefathers crossed the great water, +and landed on this island. Their numbers were +small; they found friends and not enemies; they +told us they had fled from their country for fear +of wicked men, and came here to enjoy their +religion. They asked for a small seat; we took +pity on them, granted their request, and they sat +down among us; we gave them corn and meal; +they gave us poison [whisky] in return. The +white people had now found our country; tidings +were carried back, and more came amongst us, +yet we did not fear them; we took them to be +friends; they called us brothers; we believed +them, and gave them a larger seat. At length +their numbers had greatly increased; they wanted +more land; they wanted our country. Our eyes +were opened, and our minds became uneasy. +Wars took place; Indians were hired to fight +against Indians, and many of our people were +destroyed. They also brought strong liquors +among us; it was strong and powerful, and has +slain thousands.</q> +</p> + +<p> +<q><hi rend='italic'>Brother</hi>, our seats were once large, and yours +were very small; you have now become a great +people, and we have scarcely a place left to spread +our blankets; you have got our country, but are +<pb n="122"/><anchor id="Pg122"/> +not satisfied; you want to force your religion +upon us.</q> +</p> + +<quote rend='display'> +<hi rend='smallcaps'>Horatio Hale.</hi>—Explorer, linguist, ethnologist. One of +the earliest prominent American ethnologists. Among his important +works is <hi rend='italic'>The Iroquois Book of Rites</hi>. +</quote> + +</div> + +<div> +<index index='toc'/> +<index index='pdf'/> +<head>XVIII. Story Of Mary Jemison.</head> + +<p> +Years ago, when I was a small boy, some one +pointed out to me the <q>old white woman's +spring,</q> and told me a part of the story of +Mary Jemison. +</p> + +<p> +In the year 1742 or 1743 an Irishman named +Thomas Jemison, with his wife and three children, +left his own country for America, on a +ship called the <hi rend='italic'>William and Mary</hi>. On the +voyage a little girl was born into the family, to +whom they gave the name of Mary. She had +a light, clear skin, blue eyes, and yellow or +golden hair. After landing at Philadelphia, the +family soon moved to Marsh Creek (Pennsylvania), +which was then in the far West and quite +in the Indian country. There Thomas Jemison +had a farm, built a comfortable house, and by +industry prospered. In the new home two +younger children were born, both boys. +</p> + +<p> +In 1754 they moved to a new farm, where +they lived in a log house. Here they spent +<pb n="123"/><anchor id="Pg123"/> +the winter. Spring came, and every one was +busy in the fields. It was the time of the +French and Indian wars against the English. +A number of attacks had been made upon settlers. +One day Mary was sent to a neighbor's +for a horse; she was to spend the night, returning +in the morning. At that time some +strangers were living at Mary's house—a man, +his sister-in-law, and her three little children. +Mary had secured the horse for which she had +been sent, and had ridden home in the early +morning. As she reached the house, the man +took the horse and rode off to get some grain, +taking with him his gun, in case he should see +some game. Every one about the house was +busy. Mary, years afterward, told the story of +what then took place: +</p> + +<p> +<q>Father was shaving an ax-helve at the side +of the house; mother was making preparations +for breakfast; my two oldest brothers were at +work near the barn; and the little ones, with +myself and the woman and her three children, +were in the house. Breakfast was not yet +ready, when we were alarmed by the discharge +of a number of guns that seemed to be near. +Mother and the woman before mentioned almost +fainted at the report, and every one trembled +with fear. On opening the door, the man and +horse lay dead near the house, having just been +shot by the Indians. I was afterward informed +that the Indians discovered him at his own +<pb n="124"/><anchor id="Pg124"/> +house with his gun, and pursued him to father's, +where they shot him as I have related. They +first secured my father, and then rushed into +the house and without the least resistance made +prisoners of my mother, brothers, and sister, the +woman, her three children, and myself.... My +two brothers Thomas and John, being at the +barn, escaped.</q> +</p> + +<p> +The party which had seized them was composed +of six Shawnee Indians and four Frenchmen. +The first day was terrible. They were +kept rapidly marching until night; they had no +food or water during the whole day. One Indian +went behind the party with a whip, with +which he lashed the little ones to make them +keep up with the party. At night there was +no fire and they had no covering. They were +afoot again before daylight, but as the sun rose, +stopped and ate breakfast. The second night +they camped near a dark and dreary swamp, and +here they were given supper, but were too tired +and sad to care much for food. After supper, +an Indian stripped off Mary's shoes and stockings +and began putting moccasins upon her. +The same thing was done to the woman's little +boy. Noticing this, Mary's mother believed the +Indians intended to spare the two children. She +said to the girl: +</p> + +<p> +<q>My dear little Mary, I fear the time has arrived +when we must be parted forever. Your +life, I think, will be spared; but we shall probably +<pb n="125"/><anchor id="Pg125"/> +be tomahawked here in this lonesome place, +by the Indians. Alas! my dear, my heart bleeds +at the thought of what awaits you; but if you +leave us, remember your name, and the names +of your father and mother. Be careful and not +forget your English tongue. If you shall have +an opportunity to get away from the Indians, +don't try to escape; for if you do, they will find +and destroy you. Don't forget, my little daughter, +the prayers that I have learned you; say +them often; be a good child, and God will bless +you. May God bless you, my child, and make +you comfortable and happy.</q> +</p> + +<p> +Just then an Indian took Mary and the little +boy by the hand and led them away. As they +parted, the mother called out to the child, who +was crying bitterly, <q>Don't cry, Mary! Don't cry, +my child! God will bless you! Farewell, farewell!</q> +</p> + +<p> +The Indian took the children into the woods, +where they lay down to sleep. The little boy +begged Mary to try to escape, but she remembered +her mother's warning. The next morning +the other Indians and the Frenchmen rejoined +them, but their white captives were not with them. +During the night, in that dark and dismal swamp, +Mary's father and mother, Robert, Matthew, and +Betsey, the woman, and two of her children had +been killed, scalped, and fearfully mangled. When +they camped again, Mary saw with horror the +Indians at work upon the scalps of her parents. +</p> + +<pb n="126"/><anchor id="Pg126"/> + +<p> +A fourth and fifth day the party journeyed on, +and then, driven by bad weather, camped for three +nights in one place. Finally the party came near +Fort Du Quesne, where Pittsburg now stands. +They had been joined by other Indians who had +a young white man prisoner. When they reached +this place, the Indians carefully combed the hair +of the three prisoners, and painted their faces and +hair with red as Indians do. +</p> + +<p> +The next morning after they reached the fort, +the little boy and young man were given to the +French. Mary was given to two young Seneca +women. By them she was taken to their town +some distance down the Ohio River. Here they +washed her and dressed her nicely in Indian +clothing. They publicly adopted her in place of +a brother who had just been killed. These women +and their brothers were kind to Mary, treating +her as their real sister, and she came to love them +dearly. She was with them for three winters +and two summers on the Ohio River, when, at +their wish, she married a Delaware Indian named +Shenanjie. He was a good husband, but died +when they had been married but two or three +years. +</p> + +<p> +We will tell but one more incident in Mary's +life. Not long after marrying Shenanjie, she +moved with her sisters and their brothers to the +Genesee Valley in New York. The wars were +now over. Mary was a young widow with a little +son. The King of England offered a bounty to +<pb n="127"/><anchor id="Pg127"/> +any one who would find white prisoners among +the Indians and bring them in to the forts to be +redeemed. A Dutchman named Van Sice, who +knew that Mary was a captive, determined to take +her to the fort and get his bounty. Mary learned +of his plan, but had no wish to leave the Indians. +She was afraid of the man. One day, when she +was working in the field alone, she saw him coming +to seize her. He chased her, but she escaped +and hid herself for three days and nights. The +Indian council then decided that she could not +be taken back against her wish, and her fear of +Van Sice ceased. +</p> + +<p> +But she had a more dangerous enemy. An old +chief of the tribe determined himself to return +her and get the bounty. He told one of Mary's +Indian brothers of his intention to take her to +Niagara to be redeemed. A quarrel took place +between the two men, and her brother declared +that he would kill her with his own hand before +he would allow the old man to carry her off +against her will. This threat he made known to +his own sister. She at once told Mary to flee +with her babe and hide in some weeds near the +house. She also told Mary that at night their +brother would return, informed of the old chief's +plans, and that if the sachem persisted in carrying +her off, he would surely kill her. The woman +told her, after it was dark to creep up to the +house, and if she found nothing near the door, to +come in, as all would be safe. Should she, however, +<pb n="128"/><anchor id="Pg128"/> +find a cake there, she must flee. Poor Mary +hid in the weeds with her baby boy; at night, +when all was still, she crept up to the house; the +little cake was there! Taking it, she fled to the +spring now called, for that reason, <q>the white +woman's spring.</q> Her sister had suggested the +place. That night the old chief came to the +house to get Mary, and her brother sought her +to kill her, but neither could find her. The old +sachem gave up the hunt and set out for Niagara +with his other prisoners. After he was gone, and +the excitement was past, Mary's sister told her +brother where Mary was hidden. He went there, +and at finding her, greeted her kindly and brought +her home. +</p> + +<quote rend='display'> +<hi rend='smallcaps'>James E. Seaver</hi> has written the story of Mary Jemison as +she told it to him in her old age. The name of the book is +<hi rend='italic'>The Life of Mary Jemison: the White Woman of the Genesee</hi>. +</quote> + +</div> + +<div> +<index index='toc'/> +<index index='pdf'/> +<anchor id='Chapter_XIX'/> +<head>XIX. The Creeks.</head> + +<p> +The Creeks or Muskoki were one of the strongest +tribes of the southern states. To them were +related in language a number of important tribes—the +Apalachi, Alibamu, Choctaw, Chicasaw, +and others. Several of these tribes were united +with the Creeks into a so-called confederacy. +This union was not to be compared with that of +<pb n="129"/><anchor id="Pg129"/> +the Iroquois or the Aztecs, but was a loose combination +against foes. +</p> + +<p> +The Creeks and their kindred tribes present a +number of points of rather peculiar interest. In +the olden time there were two kinds of Creek +towns—white towns and red towns. The red +towns were war towns, governed by warriors. +The white or peace towns were governed by +civil chiefs. It is said by some of the early +writers that the white towns were <q>cities of +refuge</q> to which those who were being pursued +for some crime or unfortunate accident could flee. +The red towns could be known as such as soon as +a stranger entered the public square, as the posts +of the <q>great house</q> were painted red. +</p> + +<p> +Warriors were the most honored of men among +the Creeks. Until a young man was successful +in battle he was treated hardly different from a +servant. The Creek boys had a pretty hard time. +They were made to swim in the coldest weather; +they were scratched with broken glass or fish teeth, +from head to foot till the blood ran; these things +were intended to toughen them to the endurance +of pain. When the boy was fifteen to seventeen +years old he was put through a test, after which +he was no longer a boy, but a man. At the proper +time he gathered an intoxicating plant. He ate +the bitter root of it for a whole day, and drank a +tea made of its leaves. When night came he ate +a little pounded corn. He kept this up for four +days. For four months he ate only pounded maize, +<pb n="130"/><anchor id="Pg130"/> +which could only be cooked for him by a little +girl. After that his food might be cooked by any +one. For twelve months from the time of his first +fast he ate no venison from young bucks, no turkeys +nor hens, no peas nor salt; nor was he permitted +to pick his ears or scratch his head with +his fingers, but used a splinter of wood for the +purpose. At the time of new moon he fasted four +days, excepting that he ate a little pounded maize +at night. When the last month of his twelve +months' test came, he kept four days' fast, then +burned some corncobs and rubbed his body with +the ashes. At the end of that month, he took a +heavy sweat and then plunged into cold water. +</p> + +<p> +Men who wished to become great warriors +selected some old conjurer to give them instruction. +Four months were spent with him alone. +The person desiring to learn fasted, ate bitter +herbs, and suffered many hardships. After he +had learned all the old conjurer could teach him, +it was believed that he could disarm the enemy +even at a distance, and if they were far away, +could bring them near, so that he might capture +them. +</p> + +<p> +In the center of every large Creek town there +was a public square. In this square there were +three interesting things,—the great house, the +council house, and the playground. The great +house consisted of four one-story buildings, each +about thirty feet long; they were arranged about +a square upon which all faced. The side of these +<pb n="131"/><anchor id="Pg131"/> +which opened on the central square was entirely +open. Each of the four houses was divided into +three rooms or compartments by low partitions of +clay. At the back of each compartment were +three platforms or seats, the lowest two feet high, +the second several feet higher, the third as much +higher than the second. These were covered +with cane matting, as if for carpeting. New mats +were put in each year, but the old ones were not +removed. Each of these four buildings was a +gathering-place for a different class of persons. +The one facing east was for the <foreign rend='italic'>miko</foreign> and people +of high rank; the northern building was for +warriors; the southern was for <q>the beloved +men</q>; and the eastern for the young people. +In the great house were kept the weapons, scalps, +and other trophies. Upon the supporting posts +and timbers were painted horned warriors, horned +alligators, horned rattlesnakes, etc. The central +court of the great house was dedicated ground, +and no woman might set foot in it. In the center +of it burned a perpetual fire of four logs. +</p> + +<p> +The council house was at the northeast corner +of the great house. It stood upon a circular +mound. It consisted of a great conical roof supported +on an octagonal frame about twelve feet +high. It was from twenty-five to thirty feet in +diameter. Its walls were made of posts set upright +and daubed with clay. A broad seat ran +around the house inside and was covered with +cane mats. A little hillock at the center formed +<pb n="132"/><anchor id="Pg132"/> +a fireplace. The fire kept burning upon this was +fed with dry cane or finely split pine wood which +was curiously arranged in a spiral line. +</p> + +<p> +The council house was used as a gathering or +meeting place, much as the great house, but it +was chiefly for bad weather, especially for winter. +Here, too, private meetings of importance were +held at all times. Here young men prepared for +war-parties, spending four days in drinking war-drink, +and counseling with the conjurers. This +council house was also the place for sweat baths. +Stones were heated very hot; water was thrown +upon them to give steam. Those desiring the +bath danced around this fire and then plunged +into cold water. +</p> + +<p> +The playground was in the northwest corner +of the public square; it was marked off by low +embankments. In the center, on a low, circular +mound, stood a four-sided pole, sometimes as +much as forty feet high. A mark at the top +served as a target for practice with the bow and +arrow. The floor of this yard was beaten hard +and level. The chief game played here was +called Chunkey. It was played with neatly polished +stone disks. These were set rolling along +on the ground, and the players hurled darts or +shafts at them to make the disk fall. (Compare +with the wheel game of the Blackfeet.) Ball +games and sometimes dances were also held upon +this playground. +</p> + +<p> +The great celebration of the Creeks was the +<pb n="133"/><anchor id="Pg133"/> +annual <foreign rend='italic'>busk</foreign>. They called it <foreign rend='italic'>puskita</foreign>, or fast. The +ceremony was chiefly held at the great house. +The time was determined by the condition of the +new corn and of a plant named cassine. The +ceremony lasted eight days and included many +details. Among them we can mention a few. +On the first day a spark of new fire was made +by rubbing two pieces of wood together. With +this a four days' fire was kindled; four logs of +wood were brought in and arranged so that one +end of each met one end of the others at the +middle, and the four formed a cross, the arms of +which pointed to the cardinal points; these were +fired with the spark of new fire. Bits of new fire, +at some time during the four days, were set outside +where the women could take them to kindle +fresh fires on their home hearths. +</p> + +<p> +At noon of the second day, the men took ashes +from the new fire and rubbed them over their +chin, neck, and body; they then ran and plunged +themselves into cold water. On their return, they +took the new corn of the year and rubbed it +between their hands and over their bodies. They +then feasted upon the new corn. On the last, +eighth day, of the busk, a medicinal liquid was +made from fourteen (or fifteen) different plants, +each of which had medicinal power; they were +steeped in water in two pots and were vigorously +stirred and beaten. The conjurers blew into the +liquid through a reed. The men all drank some +of this liquid and rubbed it over their joints. +</p> + +<pb n="134"/><anchor id="Pg134"/> + +<p> +They did other curious things during this day. +When night came, all went to the river. <q>Old +man's tobacco</q> was thrown into the stream by +each person, and then all the men plunged into +the river and picked up four stones from the +bottom. With these they crossed themselves +over the breast four times, each time throwing +back one stone into the river. +</p> + +<p> +Mr. Gatschet thinks that much good resulted +from the busk. After it all quarrels were forgotten; +crimes, except murder, were forgiven; +old utensils were broken and new ones procured. +Every one seemed to leave the past behind and +begin anew. +</p> + +<quote rend='display'> +<hi rend='smallcaps'>Albert S. Gatschet.</hi>—A Swiss, living in America: linguist, +ethnologist. Connected with Bureau of American Ethnology. +Edited <hi rend='italic'>A Migration Legend of the Creeks</hi>. +</quote> + +</div> + +<div> +<index index='toc'/> +<index index='pdf'/> +<anchor id='Chapter_XX'/> +<head>XX. The Pani.</head> + +<p> +All the Plains Indians were rovers, buffalo +hunters, and warriors; none of them were bolder +or braver than the Pani. This tribal name is +more frequently spelled Pawnee. The tribe belonged +to the Caddoan family, which includes +also the Caddoes and Wichitas and perhaps the +Lipans and Tonkaways. The Pani were formerly +numerous and occupied a large district in Nebraska. +<pb n="135"/><anchor id="Pg135"/> +To-day they are few, and rapidly diminishing. +In 1885 they numbered one thousand +forty-five; in 1886, nine hundred ninety-eight; in +1888, nine hundred eighteen; in 1889, eight hundred +sixty-nine. To-day they live upon a reservation +in Oklahoma. +</p> + +<p> +It is believed that the Pani came from the +south, perhaps from some part of Mexico. They +appear first to have gone to some portion of what +is now Louisiana; later they migrated northward +to the district where the whites first knew them. +The name Pani means wolves, and the sign language +name for the Pani consists of a representation +of the ears of a wolf. Several reasons have +been given for their bearing this name. Perhaps +it was because they were as tireless and enduring +as wolves; or it may be because they were skillful +scouts, trailers, and hunters. They were in the +habit of imitating wolves in order to get near +camp for stealing horses. They threw wolfskins +over themselves and crept cautiously near. +Wolves were too common to attract much attention. +</p> + +<p> +In the olden time the Pani hunted the buffalo +on foot. Choosing a quiet day, so that the wind +might not bear their scent to the herd, the +hunters in a long line began to surround a little +group of grazing buffalo. Some of the men were +dressed in wolfskins, and crept along on all +fours. When a circle had been formed around +the animals, the hunters began to close in. +<pb n="136"/><anchor id="Pg136"/> +Presently one man shouted and shook his blanket +to scare the buffalo nearest him. The others did +the same, and in a short time the excited herd +was running blindly, turning now here and now +there, but always terrified by one or another of +the men in the now ever smaller circle. Finally +the animals were tired out with their running and +were shot and killed. +</p> + +<p> +The way in which the Pani used to make +pottery vessels was simple and crude. The end +of a tree stump was smoothed for a mold. Clay +was mixed with burnt and pounded stone, to +give it a good texture, and was then molded over +this. The bowl when dry was lifted off and +baked in the fire. Sometimes, instead of thus +shaping bowls, they made a framework of twigs +which was lined with clay, and then burnt off, +leaving the lining as a baked vessel. +</p> + +<p> +As long as they have been known to the +Whites, the Pani have been an agricultural +people. They raised corn, beans, pumpkins, and +squashes, which they said Tirawa himself, whom +they most worshiped, gave them. Corn was +sacred, and they had ceremonials connected with +it, and called it <q>mother.</q> In cultivating their +fields they used hoes made of bone: these were +made by firmly fastening the shoulder-blade of a +buffalo to the end of a stick. +</p> + +<p> +Two practices in which the Pani differed from +most Plains Indians remind us of some Mexican +tribes: they kept a sort of servants and sacrificed +<pb n="137"/><anchor id="Pg137"/> +human beings. Young men or boys who were +growing up often attached themselves to men of +importance. They lived in their houses and +received support from them: in return, they +drove in and saddled the horses, made the fire, +ran errands, and made themselves useful in all +possible ways. +</p> + +<p> +The sacrifice of a human being to Tirawa—and +formerly to the morning star—was made +by one band of the Pani. When captives of +war were taken, all but one were adopted into +the tribe. That one was set apart for sacrifice. +He was selected for his beauty and strength. He +was kept by himself, fed on the best of everything, +and treated most kindly. +</p> + +<p> +Before the day fixed for the sacrifice, the people +danced four nights and feasted four days. +Each woman, as she rose from eating, said to +the captive: <q>I have finished eating, and I hope +I may be blessed from Tirawa; that he may +take pity on me; that when I put my seeds in +the ground they may grow, and that I may have +plenty of everything.</q> You must remember that +this sacrifice was not a merely cruel act, but was +done as a gift to Tirawa, that he might give good +crops to the people. On the last night, bows +and arrows were prepared for every man and +boy in the village, even for the very little boys; +every woman had ready a lance or stick. By +daybreak the whole village was assembled at +the western end of the town, where two stout +<pb n="138"/><anchor id="Pg138"/> +posts with four cross-poles had been set up. +To this framework the captive was tied. A fire +was built below, and then the warrior who had +captured the victim shot him through with an +arrow. The body was then shot full of arrows +by all the rest. These arrows were then removed, +and the dead man's breast was opened +and blood removed. All present touched the +body, after which it was consumed by the fire, +while the people prayed to Tirawa, and put +their hands in the smoke of the fire, and hoped +for success in war, and health, and good crops. +</p> + +<p> +Almost all these facts about the Pani are from +Mr. Grinnell's book. I shall quote from him +now the story of Crooked Hand. He was a +famous warrior. On one occasion the village +had gone on a buffalo hunt, and no one was +left behind except some sick, the old men, and +a few boys, women, and children. Crooked +Hand was among the sick. The Sioux planned +to attack the town and destroy all who had been +left behind. Six hundred of their warriors in all +their display rode down openly to secure their +expected easy victory. The town was in a panic. +But when the news was brought to Crooked +Hand lying sick in his lodge, he forgot his illness +and, rising, gave forth his orders. +</p> + +<p> +They were promptly obeyed. <q rend='pre'>The village +must fight. Tottering old men, whose sinews +were now too feeble to bend the bow, seized +their long-disused arms and clambered on their +<pb n="139"/><anchor id="Pg139"/> +horses. Boys too young to hunt grasped the +weapons that they had as yet used only on +rabbits and ground squirrels, flung themselves +on their ponies, and rode with the old men. +Even squaws, taking what weapons they could,—axes, +hoes, mauls, pestles,—mounted horses +and marshaled themselves for battle. The force +for the defense numbered two hundred superannuated +old men, boys, and women. Among +them all were not, perhaps, ten active warriors, +and these had just risen from sick-beds to take +their place in the line of battle.</q> +</p> + +<p> +<q rend='pre'>As the Pawnees passed out of the village +into the plain, the Sioux saw for the first time +the force they had to meet. They laughed in +derision, calling out bitter jibes, and telling what +they would do when they had made the charge; +and, as Crooked Hand heard their laughter, he +smiled too, but not mirthfully.</q> +</p> + +<p> +<q>The battle began. It seemed like an unequal +fight. Surely one charge would be enough +to overthrow this motley Pawnee throng, who +had ventured out to try to oppose the triumphal +march of the Sioux. But it was not ended so +quickly. The fight began about the middle of +the morning; and, to the amazement of the +Sioux, these old men with shrunken shanks and +piping voices, these children with their small, +white teeth and soft, round limbs, these women +clad in skirts and armed with hoes, held the +invaders where they were: they could make no +<pb n="140"/><anchor id="Pg140"/> +advance. A little later it became evident that +the Pawnees were driving the Sioux back. Presently +this backward movement became a retreat, +the retreat a rout, the rout a wild panic. Then +indeed the Pawnees made a great killing of their +enemies. Crooked Hand, with his own hand, +killed six of the Sioux, and had three horses +shot under him. His wounds were many, but +he laughed at them. He was content; he had +saved the village.</q> +</p> + +<p> +From 1864 until 1876 the famous Pani scouts +served our government faithfully. Those years +were terrible on the Plains. White settlers were +pressing westward. The Indians were desperate +over the encroachments of the newcomers. +Troubles constantly occurred between the pioneers +and the Indians. During that sad and +unsettled time, Lieutenant North and his Pani +scouts served as a police to keep order and to +punish violence. +</p> + +</div> + +<div> +<index index='toc'/> +<index index='pdf'/> +<anchor id='Chapter_XXI'/> +<head>XXI. The Cherokees.</head> + +<p> +The old home of the Cherokees was in the +beautiful mountain region of the South—in +Georgia, North Carolina, and Tennessee, but +especially in Georgia. They were Indians of +great strength of character, and ready for improvement +<pb n="141"/><anchor id="Pg141"/> +and progress. When Oglethorpe settled +Georgia, the Cherokees were his friends and +allies. But after our government was established, +the tribe, which had been so friendly to the whites, +began to suffer from our encroachments. Treaties +were made with them only to be broken. +Little by little, the Indians were crowded back: +sacred promises made by our government were +not fulfilled. +</p> + +<p> +Finally they refused to cede any more of their +land to the greedy white settlers, and demanded +that the United States protect them in their +rights. The quarrel was now one between the +United States and Georgia, and the central government +found itself unable to keep its pledges. +So orders were given that the Cherokees should +be removed, even against their wish, to a new +home. +</p> + +<p> +At this time the Cherokees were most happy +and prosperous. Their country was one of the +most lovely portions of our land. A writer says: +<q>The climate is delicious and healthy; the winters +are mild; the spring clothes the ground with the +richest scenery; flowers of exquisite beauty and variegated +hues meet and fascinate the eye in every +direction. In the plains and valleys the soil is +generally rich, producing Indian corn, wheat, oats, +indigo, and sweet and Irish potatoes. The natives +carry on considerable trade with the adjoining +states; some of them export cotton in boats +down the Tennessee to the Mississippi, and down +<pb n="142"/><anchor id="Pg142"/> +that river to New Orleans. Apple and peach +orchards are quite common, and gardens are cultivated, +and much attention paid to them. Butter +and cheese are seen on Cherokee tables. There +are many public roads in the nation, and houses +of entertainment kept by natives. Numerous +and flourishing villages are seen in every section +of the country. Cotton and woolen cloths are +manufactured; blankets of various dimensions, +manufactured by Cherokee hands, are very common. +Almost every family in the nation grows +cotton for its own consumption. Industry and +commercial enterprise are extending themselves +in every part. Nearly all the merchants in the +nation are native Cherokees. Agricultural pursuits +engage the chief attention of the people. +Different branches of mechanics are pursued. +The population is rapidly increasing.</q> +</p> + +<p> +This was written in 1825. Only about ten +years later, this happy, industrious, and prosperous +people were removed by force from their so +greatly loved home. Two years were allowed +in which they must vacate lands that belonged +to them, and which the United States had pledged +should be always theirs. Few of them were gone +when the two years had ended. In May, 1838, +General Winfield Scott was sent with an army to +remove them. He issued a proclamation which +began as follows:— +</p> + +<p> +<q><hi rend='smallcaps'>Cherokees</hi>,—The President of the United +States has sent me with a powerful army to cause +<pb n="143"/><anchor id="Pg143"/> +you, in accordance with the treaty of 1835, to join +that part of your people who are already established +on the other side of the Mississippi. Unhappily, +the two years which were allowed for the +purpose you have allowed to pass away without +following, and without making any preparations +to follow; and now, or by the time that this solemn +address reaches your distant settlements, the emigration +must be commenced in haste, but I hope +without disorder. I have no power, by granting +a further delay, to correct the error you have +committed. The full moon of May is already on +the wane, and before another shall have passed +away, every Cherokee man, woman, and child in +these states<note place='foot'>North Carolina, Georgia, Tennessee, Alabama.</note> must be in motion to join their +brethren in the West.</q> +</p> + +<p> +And so this harmless, helpless people left for +their long journey. Their only offense was that +they owned land which the whites wanted. +There are still old Indians who remember the +<q>great removal.</q> Most of them were little children +then, but the sad leaving their beloved +mountains and the sorrow and hardship of the +long journey is remembered after sixty years. +</p> + +<p> +A few years since, we visited the Eastern Cherokees. +Perhaps two thousand of them now live +in the mountains of North Carolina and Tennessee. +Some of these are persons who never +went to the Indian Territory, but hid themselves +<pb n="144"/><anchor id="Pg144"/> +in rocks and caves until the soldiers were gone; +some ran away from the great company as it +moved westward, trudging back a long and toilsome +journey; some are the children and grandchildren +of such refugees; some are persons who +drifted back in later years to the hills and forests, +the springs and brooks, which their fathers had +known and loved. They are mostly poor,—unlike +their relatives in the West,—but they are +industrious and happy. Their log houses are +scattered over the mountain slopes or perched +upon the tops of ridges or clustered together in +little villages in the pretty valleys. Their fields +are fenced and well cultivated. They work them +in companies of ten or twelve persons; such companies +are formed to work the fields of each +member in order. They dress like white people, +and most of the old Indian life is gone. +</p> + +<p> +Still there are some bits of it left. The women +are basket-makers, and make baskets of wide +splints of cane, plain or dyed black or red, which +are interwoven to make striking patterns. Some +old women weave artistically shaped baskets from +slender splints of oak. Old Catolsta, more than +ninety years old, still shapes pottery vessels and +marks them with ornamental patterns which are +cut upon a little paddle of wood, and stamped on +the soft clay by beating it with the paddle. They +still sometimes use the bow and arrow, though +more in sport than in earnest, as most of them +have white men's guns. The arrow race is still +<pb n="145"/><anchor id="Pg145"/> +sometimes run. Several young men start out +together, each with his bow and arrows. The +arrows are shot out over the course; they run as +fast as possible to where these fall and picking +them up shoot them on at once. +And so they go on over the whole +course, each trying to get through +first. Ball is largely +a thing of the +past, and great +games are not common. +Still there +are rackets at many houses. One +day we got a <q>scratcher</q> from +old Hoyoneta, once a great medicine +man for ball-players. This +scratcher consisted of seven splinters +of bone, sharpened at +one end and inserted into +a quill frame which held +them firmly, separated from +one another by about a +quarter of an inch or less. When a young man +was about to play his first great game of ball, he +went to Hoyoneta, or some other medicine man, +to be scratched. +</p> + +<p rend='text-align: center'> + <figure url='images/ball-player.png' rend='width: 70%'> + <head>Indian Ball-Player. (After Catlin.)</head> + <figDesc>Illustration.</figDesc> + </figure> +</p> + +<p> +He had already fasted and otherwise prepared +himself for the ordeal. The old man, after muttering +charms and incantations, drew the scratcher +four times the length of the young man's body, +burying the points each time deeply in the flesh. +<pb n="146"/><anchor id="Pg146"/> +Each time the instrument made seven scratches. +One set of these ran from the base of the left +thumb, up the arm, diagonally across the chest, +down the right leg to the right great toe; another, +from the base of the right thumb to the left +great toe; another, from the base of the left little +finger, up the back of the arm, across the back, +down the right leg to the base of the little toe; +the other, from the base of the right little finger, +to the left little toe. The young man then +plunged, with all these bleeding gashes, into a +cold running brook. He was then ready for the +morrow's ball play, for, had he not been scratched +twenty-eight times with the bones of swift running +creatures, and been prayed over by a great +medicine man? +</p> + +<p> +Every one should know of Sequoyah or George +Guess or Guest, as he was called in English. He +was a Cherokee who loved to work at machinery +and invent handy devices. He determined to +invent a system of writing his language. He saw +that the writing of the white men consisted in the +use of characters to represent sounds. At first +he thought of using one character for each word; +this was not convenient because there are so +many words. He finally concluded that there +were eighty-six syllables in Cherokee, and he +formed a series of eighty-six characters to represent +them. Some of these characters were borrowed +from the white man's alphabet; the rest +were specially invented. It took some little time +<pb n="147"/><anchor id="Pg147"/> +for the Cherokees to accept Sequoyah's great +invention, but by 1827 it was in use throughout +the nation. Types were made, and soon books +and papers were printed in the Cherokee language +in Sequoyah's characters. These are still +in use, and to-day in the Indian Territory, a +newspaper is regularly printed by the Cherokee +Nation, part of which is in English, part in the +Cherokee character. This newspaper is, by the +way, supplied free to each family by the Cherokee +government. +</p> + +<p rend='text-align: center'> + <figure url='images/character-examples.png' rend='width: 80%'> + <head>Examples of Sequoyah's Characters.</head> + <figDesc>Illustration.</figDesc> + </figure> +</p> + +<quote rend='display'> +<hi rend='smallcaps'>Helen Hunt Jackson.</hi>—Writer. Her <hi rend='italic'>nom de plume</hi> was +<q>H. H.</q> Wrote two books about Indians, <hi rend='italic'>A Century of +Dishonor</hi> and <hi rend='italic'>Ramona</hi>. Every American boy should read the +former. +</quote> + +</div> + +<div> +<index index='toc'/> +<index index='pdf'/> +<anchor id='Chapter_XXII'/> +<head>XXII. George Catlin And His Work.</head> + +<p> +A famous man in America fifty years ago was +George Catlin. He was born at Wyoming, Pennsylvania, +in 1796, and lived to a good old age, +<pb n="148"/><anchor id="Pg148"/> +dying in 1872. His father wished him to be a +lawyer, and he studied for that profession and +began its practice in Philadelphia. He was, however, +fond of excitement and adventure, and found +it hard to stick to his business. He was fond of +painting, though he considered it only an amusement. +While he was living in Philadelphia a +party of Indians from the <q>Far West</q> spent some +days in that city on their way to Washington. +Catlin saw them, and was delighted with their +fine forms and noble bearing. He determined to +give up law practice and to devote his life to +painting Indians, resolving to form a collection of +portraits which should show, after they were gone, +how they looked and how they lived. +</p> + +<p> +He made his first journey to the Indian country +for this purpose in 1832. For the next +eight years he devoted himself to the work. He +traveled many thousands of miles by canoe and +horse, among tribes some of which were still quite +wild. His life was full of excitement, difficulty, +and danger. He made paintings everywhere: +paintings of the scenery, of herds of buffalo, of +hunting life, Indian games, celebrations of ceremonies, +portraits—everything that would illustrate +the life and the country of the Indian. +</p> + +<p rend='text-align: center'> + <figure url='images/george-catlin.png' rend='width: 60%'> + <head>Portrait of George Catlin.</head> + <figDesc>Illustration.</figDesc> + </figure> +</p> + +<p> +Among the tribes he visited were the Mandans, +who lived along the Missouri River. Some of +his best pictures were painted among them. He +there witnessed the whole of their sun-dance +ceremony, and painted four remarkable pictures +<pb n="150"/><anchor id="Pg150"/> +of it. These represent the young men fasting in +the dance lodge, the buffalo dance outside, the +torture in the lodge, the almost equally horrible +treatment of the dancers outside after the torture. +Although a terrible picture, we have copied the +painting showing the torture in the lodge (see +next chapter) as an example of his work. Other +pictures by him are the ball-player (see <ref target='Chapter_XXI'>XXI.</ref>) +and the chief in war dress (see <ref target='Chapter_I'>I.</ref>). +</p> + +<p> +Sometimes the Indians did not wish to be +painted. They thought it would bring bad luck +or shorten life. At one Sioux village the head +chief was painted before any one knew it. When +the picture was done, some of the headmen were +invited to look at it. Then all the village wanted +to see it, and it was hung outside the tent. This +caused much excitement. Catlin says the medicine +men <q>took a decided and noisy stand against +the operations of my brush; haranguing the populace +and predicting bad luck and premature death +to all who submitted to so strange and unaccountable +an operation! My business for some days +was entirely at a stand for want of sitters; for the +doctors were opposing me with all their force; +and the women and children were crying with +their hands over their mouths, making most pitiful +and doleful laments.</q> +</p> + +<p> +At another town up the Missouri River, near +the Yellowstone, there was a still greater excitement +over one of Catlin's pictures. About six +hundred Sioux families were gathered at a trading +<pb n="151"/><anchor id="Pg151"/> +post from the several different sub-tribes +of that great people. There had been some +trouble over his painting, and the medicine men +threatened that those who were painted would +die or have great misfortune. An Uncpapa Sioux +chief named Little Bear offered to be painted. +He was a noble, fine-looking fellow, with a strong +face which Catlin painted in profile. The picture +was almost finished when a chief of a different +band, a surly, bad-tempered man whom no one +liked, came in. His name was Shonko, <q>The +Dog.</q> After looking at the picture some time, +he at last said in an insolent way, <q>Little Bear is +but half a man.</q> The two men had some words, +when finally The Dog said, <q>Ask the painter, he +can tell you; he knows you are but half a man—he +has painted but one half your face, and knows +the other half is good for nothing.</q> Again they +bandied words back and forth, Little Bear plainly +coming out ahead in the quarrel. The Dog +hurried from the room in a great rage. Little +Bear knew he was in danger; he hurried home, +and loaded his gun to be prepared. He then +threw himself on his face, praying to Wakanda +for help and protection. His wife, fearing that +he was bent on mischief, secretly removed the +ball from his gun. At that moment the insolent +voice of The Dog was heard. <q>If Little Bear is +a whole man, let him come out and prove it; it is +The Dog that speaks.</q> Little Bear seized his +gun and started to the door. His wife screamed +<pb n="152"/><anchor id="Pg152"/> +as she realized what she had done. It was too +late; the two men had fired, and Little Bear fell +mortally wounded in that side of his face which +had not been painted in the portrait. The Dog +fled. +</p> + +<p> +The death of Little Bear called for vengeance. +Such an excitement arose that Catlin soon left, +going further up the river. The warriors of the +two bands organized war-parties, the one to protect, +the other to destroy, The Dog. The Dog's +brother was killed. He was an excellent man, +and his death was greatly mourned. The Dog +kept out of reach. Councils were held. When +the matter was discussed, some things were said +which show the Indian ideas regarding portraits. +One man said: +</p> + +<p> +<q>He [Catlin] was the death of Little Bear! +He made only one side of his face; he would not +make the other; the side he made was alive, the +other was dead, and Shonko shot it off.</q> Another +said: <q>Father, this medicine man [Catlin] +has done us much harm. You told our chiefs +and warriors they must be painted—you said +he was a good man and we believed you! you +thought so, my father, but you see what he has +done! he looks at our chiefs and our women and +then makes them alive! In this way he has +taken our chief away, and he can trouble their +spirits when they are dead! they will be unhappy.</q> +On his return voyage Catlin had to be +cautious, and avoided the Uncpapa encampment. +<pb n="153"/><anchor id="Pg153"/> +Some months later The Dog was overtaken and +killed. +</p> + +<p> +Catlin's pictures varied much in quality. Some +were fine; others were poor. Often he made the +outlines and striking features wonderfully well. +</p> + +<p> +Catlin was among the Mandans in 1832. +Thirty-three years later Washington Matthews +was in the Upper Missouri country. He had +with him a copy of Catlin's book with line pictures +of more than three hundred of his paintings. +The Indians had completely forgotten Catlin and +his visit, but were much interested in his pictures. +</p> + +<p> +The news soon spread that the white man had +a book containing the <q>faces of their fathers.</q> +Many went up to Fort Stevenson to see them. +They recognized many of the portraits and expressed +great emotion. That is, the women did, +weeping readily on seeing them. The men +seemed little moved. One day there came from +the Mandan town, sixteen miles away, the chief, +Rushing Eagle, son of Four Bears, who had been +a favorite of Catlin's. Catlin painted him several +times (see opposite page <ref target='Pg001'>1</ref>). When the son saw +his father's picture, though he gazed at it long +and steadily, he showed no emotion. Dr. Matthews +was called away on some errand, and told +the chief that he would be away some time and +left him alone with the book. He was obliged, +however, to return for something, and was surprised +to find Rushing Eagle weeping and earnestly +addressing his father's portrait. +</p> + +<pb n="154"/><anchor id="Pg154"/> + +<p> +Catlin not only painted hundreds of pictures +among many tribes; he also secured many fine +Indian objects—dress, weapons, scalps, objects +used in games, painted blankets, etc. With his +pictures and curiosities, which had cost him +so much time, labor, and danger, he traveled +through the United States. +</p> + +<p> +He exhibited in Boston, New York, Philadelphia, +Washington, and many less important cities, +and everywhere attracted crowds. He went to +Europe and exhibited in France, Belgium, and +England. Every one spoke of him. He was the +guest of kings and prominent men everywhere. +Louis Philippe, King of France, was so much +interested in his work that he proposed to buy +the pictures and curiosities for the French nation. +But just then came the Revolution which dethroned +him, and the sale fell through. Many of +Catlin's pictures and some of his curiosities are +still in existence, and the greater part of these +are in the United States National Museum at +Washington. +</p> + +<quote rend='display'> +<hi rend='smallcaps'>Washington Matthews.</hi>—Physician, ethnologist. Author +of important works regarding the Hidatsa and Navajo Indians. +Wrote <hi rend='italic'>The Catlin Collection of Indian Paintings</hi>. +</quote> + +</div> + +<pb n="155"/><anchor id="Pg155"/> + +<div> +<index index='toc'/> +<index index='pdf'/> +<head>XXIII. The Sun Dance.</head> + +<p> +The Sioux or Dakota Indians are one of the +largest tribes left. They live at present chiefly +in the states of North and South Dakota. There +are a number of divisions or sub-tribes of them—the +Santee, Sisseton, Wahpeton, Yankton, +Yanktonnais, and Teton Sioux. The Tetons in +turn are divided into several bands each with its +own name. These are all Sioux proper, but there +are many other tribes that speak languages that +are related to the Sioux. Among these Siouan—but +not Sioux—tribes are the Winnebagoes, +Mandans, Ponkas, Assinaboines, Omahas, and +Otoes. +</p> + +<p> +The Sioux are tall, finely built Indians, with +large features and heavy, massive faces. They +are a good type of the Plains Indians who until +lately lived by hunting buffalo. There are now +nearly thirty thousand true Sioux and about ten +thousand Siouans of related tribes. +</p> + +<p> +Among all peoples of the Siouan family it is +probable that the terrible sun dance was practiced. +It differed somewhat from tribe to tribe. It was +seen and described by a number of whites, but +to-day it has been forbidden by the United States +government, and it is some years since it last took +place. +</p> + +<pb n="156"/><anchor id="Pg156"/> + +<p> +The sun dance was made to please Wakantanka, +the sun. If there were a famine or disease, +or if one wished success in war, or to have a good +crop, a young man would say, <q>I will pray to +Wakantanka early in the summer.</q> The man at +once began to prepare for the event. He took +sweat baths, drank herb teas, and gave feasts to +his friends, where herb teas were used. He had +to be careful of what things he touched; used a +new knife, which no one else might use; must +not touch any unclean thing. He could not go +in swimming. He and his friends gathered together +all the property they could, that he might +give many gifts at the time of the dance. +</p> + +<p> +At his house every one had to treat him kindly +and not vex him. An <foreign rend='italic'>umane</foreign> was made near the +back of the tent. This was a space dug down to +the lower soil. Red paint was strewn over it, and +no one might set foot upon it. Any of those who +were to take part in the dance, after he had +smoked would carefully empty the ashes from his +pipe upon this spot. The spot represented life +as belonging to the earth. +</p> + +<p> +Invitations to neighboring tribes were sent +early, and long before the dance parties began +to arrive. Some of these would spend several +weeks about the village. At first they pitched +their camps wherever it best suited them. A +little before the dance orders were given, and all +the visitors camped in one large camp circle, each +tribe occupying a special place. The space within +<pb n="157"/><anchor id="Pg157"/> +this circle was carefully leveled and prepared. A +special building was erected in the center of this +circle in which the young men made their preparations. +In it were buffalo skulls,—one for each +dancer,—a new knife and ax, and couches of +sage for the dancers to lie upon. +</p> + +<p> +A sacred tree was next secured and set up. +This was an important matter. Men of consequence +were first sent out to select it. When +they had found one they announced it in the village, +and a great crowd rode out on horseback to +the spot. Many strange things were done in getting +it, but at last it was cut down. A bundle +of wood, a blanket, a buffalo robe, and two pieces +of buffalo skin—one cut to the shape of a man, +the other to that of a buffalo—were fastened in +the tree. It was then carried in triumph back +to the camp and set up. +</p> + +<p> +A dance house was built around this tree. It +was like a great ring in shape, and the space +between it and the tree was not roofed. The +dance house was built of poles and leaves. In it +all the more important parts of the ceremony were +performed. After the tree was set up and the +dance house built, all the town was in excitement; +men, dressed in all their finery, went dashing on +horseback around the camp circle, shooting their +pistols and making a great noise. The old men +shot at the objects hung in the sacred tree. At +evening the young men and women rode around, +singing. +</p> + +<pb n="158"/><anchor id="Pg158"/> + +<p> +During all this time the young men had been +preparing for the dance. They were especially +dressed, they had sung, drummed, and smoked. +When the evening came that has been described, +the dance really began. The young men danced +from the lodge, where they had been making +preparation, to the dance lodge. +</p> + +<p> +The leader carried a buffalo skull painted red. +All cried as they went. On entering the dancing +house they saluted the four cardinal points and +seated themselves at the back of the lodge, singing. +A spot, shaped like a crescent, was then +cut in the ground, and the dancers placed in it +the buffalo skulls they carried. Shortly afterward +began the tortures, which have made this +dance so famous. They were intended to test +the bravery of the young men and to please the +sun. Sometimes a man stood between four posts +arranged in the form of a square. His flesh was +cut in two places in the back, and thongs were +passed through and tied to the post in front. +Another had a buffalo skull hung to the thong +passed through his back, and danced until the +weight of the skull tore out the thong. From a +pole hung eight thongs; one man took two of +these and passed them through his cuts and fastened +them; he then hung back and looked upward +at the sun. Other men, who did not take +part in the dance itself, sat near the sun pole, and +with new knives cut bits of flesh from their shoulders +and held them up to the sun pole. Sometimes +<pb n="159"/><anchor id="Pg159"/> +a man took his horse with him into the +dancing lodge. His chest was pierced in two +places and thongs from the pole were inserted; +he was then tied to his horse, and the animal +was whipped up. The thongs were thus suddenly +jerked and the flesh torn. +</p> + +<p rend='text-align: center'> + <figure url='images/mandan-tortures.png' rend='width: 80%'> + <head>Tortures of the Mandan Sun Dance. (After Catlin.)</head> + <figDesc>Illustration.</figDesc> + </figure> +</p> + +<p> +These are only a few of the dreadful things +that have been told of sun-dance tortures. They +are taken from a description given by an Indian +named George Bushotter. He not only described +the dance, but drew a curious lot of rude pictures +showing it. +</p> + +<p> +Years before, George Catlin saw the sun dance +of the Mandans, and left four terrible pictures of +<pb n="160"/><anchor id="Pg160"/> +it. The celebration at that time among the +Mandans exceeded in the horror of its tortures +that which we have described. +</p> + +<p> +While these tortures were going on in the +dancing lodge, all sorts of things were being done +outside. The old women danced. Songs were +sung in honor of the young men. Children were +gathered together and their ears were pierced. +Presents were given away. A double fence of +poles connected the house of preparation and the +dance house, and upon it objects of all kinds were +hung. These were free gifts to any one who chose +to take them. +</p> + +<p> +From the time the sacred tree was set up until +the dance was over, the young men taking part +fasted and took no drink. While they suffered, +and as they gazed at the sun or lifted up their +hands toward it, they continually prayed, saying, +<q>Please pity me; bring to pass the things I desire.</q> +When all was over, the young men were taken +home, and each was given four sips of water and a +bit of food. A little later they might eat all they +liked. Then they went into the sweat lodge. +They were now through, and ever after might +boast of having danced to Wakantanka. +</p> + +<quote rend='display'> +<hi rend='smallcaps'>J. Owen Dorsey.</hi>—Missionary, ethnologist. Was connected +with the Bureau of Ethnology. Wrote many papers, one of +which is <hi rend='italic'>Siouan Cults</hi>. +</quote> + +</div> + +<pb n="161"/><anchor id="Pg161"/> + +<div> +<index index='toc'/> +<index index='pdf'/> +<head>XXIV. The Pueblos.</head> + +<p> +The most interesting Indians of the Southwest +are the Pueblos, so called from their habit of living +in towns. The word Pueblo is Spanish, and +means a village or town. More than three hundred +years ago the Spaniards, exploring northward +from Mexico, found these clusters of industrious +Indians living in their quaint towns. They conquered +them and brought them missionaries. +They taught them their beautiful language, and +even to-day Spanish is spoken in all the pueblos +in addition to the native Indian tongue. When +the Spaniards entered New Mexico there were +more than one hundred pueblos; to-day there are +about twenty. Most of these are in New Mexico, +but seven, the Moki towns, are in Arizona. +</p> + +<p> +The home of the Pueblos is a wonderful land. +It is a country of desert, of flat-topped <foreign rend='italic'>mesas</foreign>, of +sharp-pinnacled crests, of broad valleys, and deep +and narrow cañons. It is a land where the sky +is almost always blue, and where the air is clear. +There are but few streams, and every spring is +precious. The people always built near water, +and selected some spot in a valley where there +was room for the corn-fields. +</p> + +<p> +The largest of the present pueblos is Zuñi, in +New Mexico. Some years ago a white man, +<pb n="162"/><anchor id="Pg162"/> +Frank Cushing, went to Zuñi and lived for a long +time there to learn about the life and customs of +the Pueblo Indians. They were kind to him, at +first taking him into their own houses, and later +allowing him a little house by himself. Since Mr. +Cushing went to live at Zuñi, a number of other +persons have lived at other pueblos, so that we +know a good deal about them now. +</p> + +<p rend='text-align: center'> + <figure url='images/taos-pueblo.png' rend='width: 80%'> + <head>View of Pueblo: Taos, N. M. (From Photograph.)</head> + <figDesc>Illustration.</figDesc> + </figure> +</p> + +<p> +In former times a pueblo consisted of one +great house, or, at most, of a few great houses, +each the home of a large number of people. +Taos, in northern New Mexico, is, perhaps, as old-fashioned +as any of the pueblos now occupied. +Even to-day it consists almost entirely of two +large houses, one on each side of the little Taos +River. The houses are so built that the flat roofs +<pb n="163"/><anchor id="Pg163"/> +of the different stories form a set of steps as one +looks at them from in front. In a three-story +building the lower floor would have three sets of +rooms, one in front of another. The roof of the +front line of rooms would form a flat platform in +front of the front rooms of the second story, +which consisted only of two lines of rooms. The +roof of the front line of these, in turn, was a +platform in front of the single line of third-story +rooms. Formerly there were no doors in the +lower rooms, but ladders were placed against the +wall, and persons climbed up on the roof; then +through a hole in the roof, by means of another +ladder they climbed down into the room. By +ladders from the roof of the first floor they climbed +to the top of the second story; there were doors +in the rooms of the second and third stories. +Nowadays there are usually doors into the lower +rooms, but they still use ladders for getting into +the upper stories. +</p> + +<p> +The people are fond of sitting on the house-tops +as they work. There they spin, shell corn, +cut and dry squashes, shape pottery vessels, etc. +There they gather in crowds when there are +dances in the pueblo, and when there are foot +races or pony races. +</p> + +<p> +The walls of these houses are built of stone +covered over with adobe mud, or of sun-dried adobe +bricks. They did not formerly have what we +would call windows, but there were small openings +in the walls for air, or for peepholes. In +<pb n="164"/><anchor id="Pg164"/> +the pueblos of to-day we find true sashes with +glass in a few of the houses. There are also some +rather old rooms that have windows made of +<q>isinglass</q> or gypsum, a mineral found in the +mountains, which can be split into thin sheets, +which are transparent. The chimneys in these +houses are made of broken water-jars laid up, one +on another, and the joints plastered with mud. +</p> + +<p rend='text-align: center'> + <figure url='images/pueblo-pottery.png' rend='width: 80%'> + <head>Pueblo Pottery. (From Originals in Peabody Museum.)</head> + <figDesc>Illustration.</figDesc> + </figure> +</p> + +<p> +The Pueblo Indians are industrious. The men +have to attend to their fields, their orchards of +peaches and apricots, and their flocks and herds. +The women tend the gardens, make pottery and +baskets, and prepare the food. Men are also +weavers of blankets and belts. The produce of +the fields is chiefly corn, but some wheat is also +raised. Considerable crops are made of watermelons, +muskmelons, squashes, and gourds. The +<pb n="165"/><anchor id="Pg165"/> +most important domestic animals are ponies, the +little donkeys called <foreign rend='italic'>burros</foreign>, and goats. Near +the pueblos are always several enclosures built of +poles set in the ground, called <foreign rend='italic'>corrals</foreign>. These +are for the animals, and one kind only is usually +kept in one corral. The Indian boys have great +fun at evening when the burros are brought +home from pasture and put into the corral. +They go in among them and play until dark +with the patient little beasts. They climb up +on to them and ride, push, pull, and tease them. +Early the next morning the whole herd is taken +out to pasture by two or three boys, whose work +it is to stay with them all day. +</p> + +<p rend='text-align: center'> + <figure url='images/cochiti-estufa.png' rend='width: 80%'> + <head>Estufa at Cochiti, N. M. (From Photograph.)</head> + <figDesc>Illustration.</figDesc> + </figure> +</p> + +<p> +A visitor to a pueblo would be sure to notice +the <foreign rend='italic'>estufas</foreign>. These differ with the pueblo, but +the characteristic Rio Grande pueblo type is a +large, round, single-roomed, flat-topped building. +<pb n="166"/><anchor id="Pg166"/> +They are smoothly coated outside with adobe +clay. A flight of steps leads to the roof, and a +long ladder projecting through a hole in the +roof leads down to the inside. The floor of the +estufa is considerably lower than the ground +outside. Years ago, before the Spanish priests +taught the Indians our ideas of family life, all +the men and large boys slept in the estufa at +night, while the women and little children slept +in the big houses. Nowadays the estufas are +somewhat mysterious places where the dancers +practice for the great dances, and where, on the +day of celebration, they dress and ornament for +the event. +</p> + +<p> +At the pueblos are many little round-topped +buildings of clay and stone. They have a small +opening or door at the bottom. They are the +ovens for baking bread. The women build a fine +fire of dry brush inside the oven until it is heated +thoroughly. The ashes and coals are then raked +out, and the loaves of bread, shaped like large +rolls, are put inside on the floor, and a sheepskin +is hung at the door. In about an hour the bread +is removed, well baked and piping hot. Some +years ago a lady visiting Taos wrote a description +of that pueblo. She mentioned these clay +ovens, and said, <q>When not in use for baking +bread, they make nice dog kennels.</q> We have +never seen any except such as had the doorway +carefully filled up with stones when they were +not in use for baking. +</p> + +<pb n="167"/><anchor id="Pg167"/> + +<p> +The bread baked in these ovens is made of +wheat flour. Another kind, called paper-bread, +is made of corn. The chief work of the Pueblo +woman is grinding corn meal. The grinding is +done upon a stone set slantingly on the ground. +This stone is called a <foreign rend='italic'>metaté</foreign>. The woman kneels +in front of it and holds a rubbing stone in her +hands. Throwing a handful of grains of corn +upon the metaté, she rubs it to meal with the +rubbing stone. It is hard work, and the woman's +body moves up and down, up and down, as she +grinds. Usually she sings in time to her movements. +Sometimes three or four grindstones are +set side by side, separated from each other by +boards. Several women grind together, each at +one of the stones. The first grinds the corn to +a coarse meal; she then passes it to the next, +who grinds it finer, and then passes it along to +be made still finer. +</p> + +<p> +In making paper-bread fine corn meal is mixed +with water into a dough or batter. A fire is +then built under a flat stone with a smooth top. +When this is hot, the woman spreads a thin sheet +of dough upon it with her hand; in a moment +this is turned, and then the sheet, which is almost +as thin as paper, is folded or rolled up and is ready +to eat. The color of paper-bread varies, but commonly +it is a dull bluish-green and tastes sweet +and good. +</p> + +<p> +For threshing wheat the Pueblos prepare a +clean, round spot of ground, perhaps twenty feet +<pb n="168"/><anchor id="Pg168"/> +across. It is smooth, with a hard, well-trodden +floor of clay. It is surrounded with a circle of +poles stuck in the ground, to which ropes are +fastened in order to make an enclosure. +</p> + +<p> +The grain, cut in the fields, is brought in and +heaped up on the clay floor. Ponies are driven +into the enclosure, and a boy with a whip keeps +them running around. They tread the grain +loose from the chaff or husk. In the afternoon, +when the wind has risen, men with wooden +shovels and pitchforks throw the grain and chaff +into the air. The wheat, being heavy, falls, +while the chaff is blown away. When the grain +has thus been nearly cleaned, the women come +with great bowl-shaped baskets. Spreading a +blanket or skin robe on the ground, a woman +takes a basketful of the grain, holds it up above +her head, and gently shakes it from side to side, +pouring out a little stream of the grain all the +time. As this falls, the wind blows out the last +of the chaff and dirt, and the grain is left clean, +ready for use. +</p> + +</div> + +<div> +<index index='toc'/> +<index index='pdf'/> +<head>XXV. The Snake Dance.</head> + +<p> +In northeastern Arizona, in a region of unusual +wildness, even for the Southwest, lies the +Moki Reservation. There are seven Moki pueblos +<pb n="169"/><anchor id="Pg169"/> +built on the crests of the mesas. All are +built of stone. The two largest are Walpi and +Oraibe. Six of these towns speak a language +related to that of the Shoshones; the seventh, +Hano, is a settlement of strangers from the east, +who speak the language of Taos on the Rio +Grande. The Moki pueblos are, in some ways, +particularly old-fashioned. Here the women do +their hair up curiously: it is parted in the middle, +and neatly smoothed out at the sides; behind +it is done up in two queer, rounded masses, +like horns. Formerly, perhaps, the women at +some other pueblos wore their hair in this same +way. In these Moki towns they weave the dark +blue or black woolen <foreign rend='italic'>mantas</foreign>, or dresses, which +are worn by women in all the other pueblos. +</p> + +<p> +In most respects the life of the Moki is like +that of other Pueblo Indians. There is, however, +among them a great religious ceremony, +which is famous, and is perhaps the wildest and +weirdest of all Indian rituals. This is the <hi rend='italic'>Snake +Dance</hi>. It is held at any one town only once +in two years, but it occurs at some town or other +every year. Thus it is held at Walpi in the +odd years—1899, 1901; it is held at Oraibe, +the even years—1900, 1902, etc. It is celebrated +about the middle of August, and always +attracts a crowd of Indian and white visitors. +</p> + +<p> +The whole ceremony, of which the snake +dance is a part, requires nine days or more, for +its celebration. Most of the things are done in +<pb n="170"/><anchor id="Pg170"/> +the <foreign rend='italic'>kiva</foreign>, or <foreign rend='italic'>estufa</foreign>, secretly. Dr. Fewkes has +given a full account of these, some of which are +very curious. During the earlier days runners +are sent out to place prayer sticks at the springs +and sacred places. The first days they are sent +out the messengers go to the more distant shrines, +but each day take in places nearer and nearer +home. During the fifth, sixth, seventh, and eighth +days snake hunts take place; the hunter priests +go out to capture living snakes. The first day +they go to the north, the second to the west, the +third to the south, the fourth to the east. All +kinds of snakes are taken, though perhaps the +rattlesnakes are most prized. Few white men +have ever seen the snake hunt. One who has +seen it writes: +</p> + +<p> +<q>In a short time a low call came from a man +who was thrusting his stick into a dense clump of +greasewood, and as the hunters gathered, there +was found to be a large rattlesnake, lying in the +heart of the thicket. Without hesitation they at +once proceeded to cut away the bushes with their +hoes, and strangely enough, although the snake +lay in coil and watching them, it made no rattling +or other display of anger. One of the twigs +fell upon it, and the man nearest stooped down +and deliberately lifted the branch away. Each one +then sprinkled a pinch of meal upon the snake, +and the man who had found it bent over and +tapped it lightly with the feathers of his snake +whip, and then it straightened out to make off, +<pb n="171"/><anchor id="Pg171"/> +but just as it relaxed from coil, the hunter, using +his right hand, in which he held his snake whip, +instantly seized it a few inches back of the head. +Holding it out, he gave it a quick shake, and then +proceeded to fold it up and put it in one of the +small bags carried for this purpose, showing no +more concern in its handling than if it had been +a ribbon.</q> All these snakes are cared for, being +put into jars or vessels in the kiva. +</p> + +<p> +We can speak of few things in the kiva. The +altars of colored sands, the dances, the songs, +the sacred vessels, and other objects used, the +dramatic representation of passages from their +legends, are all curious. We have not time to +speak of them. On the eighth day, the priests +of the antelope society dance, sing the sixteen +songs, and perform a drama, all in the kiva. +At last the ninth day arrives. +</p> + +<p> +The plaza, or square, in the middle of the +town has been prepared. In it is the <foreign rend='italic'>kisi</foreign>, built +of green boughs, intended as a shelter for the +snakes. In front of it is a board in which is a +hole, called the <foreign rend='italic'>sipapu</foreign>. This hole is supposed +to lead down into the lower world, where people +used to live. Early in the morning there was a +race between boys and girls. They went first +to the fields, and then raced in, each bringing a +load of melon vines, corn plants, or other vegetable +life. These they placed in the plaza. +</p> + +<p> +At noon the snakes are washed in the kiva. A +great bowl is brought in and carefully set down. +<pb n="172"/><anchor id="Pg172"/> +Into it liquid is poured from the north, west, +south, and east. The snakes, which have been +kept in jars at the corners of the room, are taken +and handed to certain priests near the washbowl. +All those in the kiva begin to shake their rattles +and to sing in a low, humming voice. The priests +holding the snakes begin to beat time with them +up and down above the liquid. The song increases, +becoming <q>louder and wilder, until it +bursts forth into a fierce, blood-curdling yell, or +war-cry. At this moment the heads of the snakes +were thrust several times into the liquid, so that +even parts of their bodies were submerged, and +were then drawn out, not having left the hands +of the priests, and forcibly thrown across the +room upon the sand mosaic.... As they fell +on the sand picture, three snake priests stood in +readiness, and while the reptiles squirmed about, +or coiled for defense, these men, with their snake +whips, brushed them back and forth in the sand +of the altar.... The low, weird song continued +while other rattlesnakes were taken in the hands +of the priests, and as the song rose again to the +wild war-cry, these snakes were also plunged into +the liquid and thrown upon the writhing mass, +which now occupied the place of the altar.... +Every snake in the collection was thus washed.</q> +</p> + +<p> +Late in the afternoon, near sunset, the antelope +priests in all their finery and paint appear +in a procession and circle four times around the +plaza, dancing as they go and thumping heavily +<pb n="173"/><anchor id="Pg173"/> +upon the board in front of the kisi as they pass +over it. Then they draw up in line before the +kisi. Then the snake priests come out of their +kiva, with bodies painted red and their chins black, +with white lines. They wear dark red kilts and +moccasins. They dance four times around the +plaza, but with more energy and wildness than +the antelope priests had done. They then draw +up in a line opposite the antelope priests and go +through with strange singing and movements. +</p> + +<p rend='text-align: center'> + <figure url='images/snake-dance.png' rend='width: 80%'> + <head>Moki Snake Dance. (After Fewkes.)</head> + <figDesc>Illustration.</figDesc> + </figure> +</p> + +<p> +Suddenly the party of snake priests divides +into bands of three persons. These little bands +approach the kisi, where the snakes have been +placed. One of the men kneels, and when +he rises holds a snake in his hand. This he +places squirming in his mouth, holding it at +about the middle of its body. One of his companions +throws an arm about the neck of the +snake carrier; in his other hand he holds a +feather wand or brush, with which he brushes at +the snake as if to attract his attention. The +third man of the band follows the other two. In +this way they go with the wriggling snake. Four +times these bands of three go around the plaza, +when the snakes are dropped. The followers +catch them up at once. When all the snakes +have been danced with and are gathered into the +arms of the followers, an old priest advances into +the center of the plaza and makes a ring of sacred +meal. Those holding the snakes run up and +throw them into one squirming, writhing mass +<pb n="175"/><anchor id="Pg175"/> +within this ring. All the priests then rush in, +seize what snakes they can, and dart with them, +down the trail, out into the open country, where +they release the snakes to go where they please. +Meantime, the antelope priests close the public +ceremony by marching gravely four times round +the plaza. +</p> + +<p> +This ceremony is a prayer for rain. It also +celebrates in a dramatic form the story of how +the great snake and antelope societies began. +The snakes gathered in the fields hear the prayers +of the people, and when they are loosed carry +them to the gods. +</p> + +<quote rend='display'> +<p> +<hi rend='smallcaps'>Jesse Walter Fewkes.</hi>—Naturalist, ethnologist. Now with +the Bureau of Ethnology, Washington, D.C. Has written a +number of papers about the snake dance. +</p> + +<p> +<hi rend='smallcaps'>John G. Bourke.</hi>—Soldier, ethnologist. Was the first +American ethnologist to describe the <hi rend='italic'>Snake Dance of the Moki</hi>. +</p> +</quote> + +</div> + +<div> +<index index='toc'/> +<index index='pdf'/> +<head>XXVI. Cliff Dwellings And Ruins Of The +Southwest.</head> + +<p> +Through a large area in Colorado, New Mexico, +Arizona, and Utah, also in parts of northern Mexico, +there are found several kinds of ancient ruins. +At some places they are pretty well preserved, and +walls still stand to a considerable height. At +others they are mere heaps of stone blocks or +crumbling adobe bricks. The three best defined +<pb n="176"/><anchor id="Pg176"/> +types of buildings found in these ruins are old +pueblos, cliff ruins, and cave houses. +</p> + +<p> +Zuñi is the largest inhabited pueblo. Not far +from it lies Old Zuñi; and under the ruins of +Old Zuñi lie the ruins of a yet older pueblo. +Such ruins of old pueblos number hundreds in +the Southwest. Sometimes the old walls were +built of stone, carefully laid, and with the cracks +neatly chinked with splinters of stone; sometimes +the stones of the walls were laid in adobe cement; +sometimes the walls were constructed of great +adobe bricks. These old pueblos were in style +and character like those now inhabited. They +were often three or four stories high and terraced +from in front back. Sometimes they were elliptical +or rounded in general form, but more commonly +they were built around the three sides of +a central court, upon which the buildings faced. +Some of these old pueblos were larger than any +now occupied, and many of them were better built. +</p> + +<p> +The cliff dwellings were built on ledges of rock +along the sides of cliffs. Many of the streams of +the Southwest flow through deep and narrow +gorges cut in the solid rock. Such gorges are there +called cañons. Among the famous cliff-dwellings +are those in the cañon of the Chelley River, +and those in Mancos Cañon. Here are houses +perched up on ledges or stowed away in natural +caverns. Some of them are hundreds of feet +above the stream, and have a perpendicular rock +wall for one hundred feet below them. These +<pb n="177"/><anchor id="Pg177"/> +houses are carefully built with stone laid in +cement. Besides houses of many rooms, and +of two or more stories, there are circular towers. +Plainly, the people who built these houses did it +to secure themselves from attack. Their gardens +and fields must have been far below in the valley. +</p> + +<p rend='text-align: center'> + <figure url='images/mancos-ruins.png' rend='width: 80%'> + <head>Cliff Ruins at Mancos Canyon. (After Photograph.)</head> + <figDesc>Illustration.</figDesc> + </figure> +</p> + +<p> +The cave houses were usually dug out in the +rocks by human beings. They were cut in the +soft rock with picks or axes of stone. Some of +these dwellings were cut out as simple open caves. +In such, there were walls erected at the front. +The cave might be so cut that the rock face remained +for the front wall of the house; a hole +was first cut for a doorway, and then the room or +rooms would be dug out from it behind the cliff +wall. +</p> + +<p> +Some persons believe these three kinds of +<pb n="178"/><anchor id="Pg178"/> +houses were built by three distinct peoples or +tribes. This is not likely, for sometimes two or +all three kinds are found together, so related as +to show that all were occupied at one time by the +people of one village. +</p> + +<p> +About twenty or twenty-five miles up the Rio +Grande from the pueblo of Cochiti, New Mexico, +is a brook called <hi rend='italic'>El Rito de los Frijoles</hi>, which +means <q>the brook of the beans.</q> It runs in a +fine gorge with rock banks; large pine trees grow +in the valley and cap the summits of the chasm. +In one of the side cliffs are hundreds of holes, +the remains of old dug cave rooms and houses. +In most of them the rock cliff face itself forms +the front wall of the house. We entered one +single-roomed house that looked almost as if it +had been used yesterday. +</p> + +<p> +We crept in through a little doorway about +a dozen feet up in the cliff and found ourselves +in a small room about fifteen feet square. We +could see the marks on the roof and the upper +part of the walls, where stone picks had been +used in cutting out the house. The floor was +neatly smoothed, and covered with hard clay. +The lower part of the wall was finished smooth +with clay, washed over with a thin coat of fine +cream-colored clay. The roof was black with +the smoke of ancient fires; a little smoke-hole +pierced the forward wall, near and above, but +at one side of, the door. There were niches +cut out in the wall, where little treasures used to +<pb n="179"/><anchor id="Pg179"/> +be kept. Ends of poles set in the rock seemed +to be pegs upon which objects were hung; their +unevenly cut ends showed the marks of stone +axes. In the floor we found a line of loops to +which the bottom pole of the old blanket-weaving +loom must have been fastened. +</p> + +<p> +But these cave houses are not the only ruins +at El Rito. Along certain parts of the cliff are +remains of ancient buildings of the true pueblo +type, which had been built against the base of the +cliff. They are often placed in such a way with +reference to cave rooms in the cliff as to show +that both were parts of one great building. Thus, +on the ground floor there might be two pueblo +rooms in front of a cave room, on the second +floor there might be one pueblo room in front of +one cave room, and on the third floor there might +be only cave rooms. Following up the cañon a +little way from this mass of ruins, passing other +cave houses, and heaped-up rubbish of old pueblo +walls, on the way, we see, perhaps a hundred feet +up the cliff, a great natural cavern. Climbing +to it, we find as genuine cliff houses constructed +therein as those of Mancos Cañon itself. It is +certain that at El Rito the people built at one +time the three kinds of houses,—the pueblo, the +cliff house, the cave house. +</p> + +<p> +At El Rito we find what is common near these +ruins in many places,—great numbers of pictures +cut in the rock wall. These pictures are sometimes +painted as well as cut in, and often represent +<pb n="180"/><anchor id="Pg180"/> +sent the sun, the moon, human beings, and animals. +</p> + +<p> +Many relics are found at these ruins. The +old <foreign rend='italic'>metatés</foreign> and rubbing stones for grinding +meal are common. Axes, adzes, and picks of +stone are not rare, and once in a while a specimen +is found with the old handle still attached. +These stone tools have a groove around the +blade. A flexible branch was bent around this +and tied, thus forming the handle. Many round +pebbles are found which are much battered; +these were hammers. Pieces of sandstone are +found with straight grooves worn across them; +they were used to straighten and smooth arrows +on. Arrow heads and spear heads made of chert, +jasper, chalcedony, and obsidian, are common. +Sometimes yarns of different colors, bits of cloth, +and objects made of hair are found. Sandals +neatly woven of yucca fiber are common. +</p> + +<p> +In many of these old caves dried bodies have +been found. They are usually called <q>mummies,</q> +but wrongly so. Sometimes sandals are found +still upon their feet, and not rarely the blankets +made of feather cloth, in which they were +wrapped, are preserved. This was made by +fastening feathers into a rather open-work cloth +of cords. +</p> + +<p> +The art of all arts, however, among the people +who built these ancient houses is the one in +which modern Pueblos excel,—pottery. Thousands +of whole vessels have been taken from +<pb n="181"/><anchor id="Pg181"/> +these ruins. There are many forms,—great +water-jars, flasks, cups, bowls, ladles,—and, in +ware and decoration, they are much better than +those made by modern Pueblos. The ware is +generally thinner, better baked, firmer, and gives +a better ring when struck. The decorations are +usually good geometrical designs. +</p> + +<p> +The ancient builders were, in culture, mode +of life, and architecture, much like the modern +Pueblos. It is probable that some of them +were the ancestors of the Pueblo Indians. The +Mokis claim that some of the ruins of the +McElmo Cañon were the old homes of their +people; and the inhabitants of Cochiti assert +that it was their forefathers who lived at <hi rend='italic'>El +Rito de los Frijoles</hi>. We cannot say of every +ruined building who built it, but certainly the +builders were Indians very like the Pueblos. +</p> + +<quote rend='display'> +<hi rend='smallcaps'>Adolf F. Bandelier.</hi>—Historian, archæologist; made an +extended study of the ruins of New Mexico, Arizona, and +northern Mexico. +</quote> + +</div> + +<div> +<index index='toc'/> +<index index='pdf'/> +<head>XXVII. Tribes Of The Northwest Coast.</head> + +<p> +A long and narrow strip of land stretches +from Vancouver Island northward to Alaska. It +is bounded on the east by the great mountains, +on the west by the Pacific Ocean. Its coast +<pb n="182"/><anchor id="Pg182"/> +line is irregular; narrow fiords run far into the +land. The climate is generally temperate, but +there is much rain. Dense forests of pine, cedar, +hemlock, and maple cover the mountain slopes. +Many kinds of berries grow there abundantly, +supplying food for man. In the mountain forests +are deer, elk, caribou; both black and grizzly +bears are found; wolves are not uncommon. In +the remoter mountains are mountain sheep and +mountain goats. Beaver and otter swim in the +fresh waters, while the seal, fur seal, sea-lion, and +whale are found in the sea. In the waters are +also many fish, such as halibut, cod, salmon, herring, +and oolachen; shell-fish are abundant. +</p> + +<p> +In this interesting land are many different +tribes of Indians, speaking languages which in +some cases are very unlike. Among the more +important tribes or group of tribes, are the Tlingit, +Haida, Tshimpshian, and Kwakiutl. While all +these tribes are plainly Indians, there are many +persons among them who are light-skinned and +brown-haired. The hair is also at times quite +wavy. The forms are good and the faces pleasing. +</p> + +<p> +But these Indians are not always satisfied with +the forms and faces nature gives them. They +have various fashions which change their appearance. +Among these is changing the shape of +the head. Formerly the Chinooks, living near +the Columbia River, changed the shape of all the +baby boys' heads. The bones of the head in a +little baby are soft and can be pressed out of +<pb n="183"/><anchor id="Pg183"/> +shape. As the child grows older, the bones become +harder and cannot be easily altered. The +Chinooks made the little head wedge-shaped in +a side view. This was +done by a board, which +was hinged to the cradle-board, +and brought down +upon the little boy's +forehead. It forced the +head to broaden in front +and the forehead to +slant sharply. After the +pressure had been kept +on for some months, +the shape of the head +was fixed for life. From +the strange shape of +their heads thus produced, +the Chinooks +were often called <q>Flat-heads.</q> +On Vancouver Island the head of the +Koskimo baby girl was forced by circular bandages +wrapped around it to grow long and +cylindrical. +</p> + +<p rend='text-align: center'> + <figure url='images/chinook-baby.png' rend='width: 60%'> + <head>Chinook Baby in Cradle. (From Mason.)</head> + <figDesc>Illustration.</figDesc> + </figure> +</p> + +<p> +Another fashion among the women of some +tribes was the piercing of the lower lip for the +wearing of a plug as an ornament. Thus, when +a little girl among the Haida was twelve or +thirteen years old, her aunt or grandmother took +her to some quiet place along the seashore; there +she pierced a little hole in the lower lip of the +<pb n="184"/><anchor id="Pg184"/> +child, using a bit of sharp shell or stone. To +keep the hole from closing when it healed, a bit +of grass stalk was put into it. For a few days +the place was sore, but it soon got well. The bit +of stalk was then removed, and a little peg of +wood put in. Later a larger peg or plug was +inserted. When the girl had grown to be an old +woman, she wore a large +plug in her lower lip, which +would hold it out flat almost +like a shelf. +</p> + +<p rend='text-align: center'> + <figure url='images/haida-tattooing.png' rend='width: 60%'> + <head>Tattooing on a Haida Man. (From Mallery.)</head> + <figDesc>Illustration.</figDesc> + </figure> +</p> + +<p> +Many of the Northwest +Coast tribes tattooed; generally +the men were more +marked with this than women. +The patterns were +usually animal figures, showing +the man's family. The +Haida were fond of having +these queer pictures pricked +into them. Upon their breasts +they had the totem animal; +on their arms other suitable +patterns. +</p> + +<p rend='text-align: center'> + <figure url='images/gold-chiefs-house.png' rend='width: 80%'> + <head>Gold Chief's House. Queen Charlotte's Island. (From Photograph.)</head> + <figDesc>Illustration.</figDesc> + </figure> +</p> + +<p> +The villages of these tribes are almost always +on the seashore. The houses were generally in +one long line, and all faced the sea. The houses +of the different tribes differed somewhat. The +house of the Haida was almost square, measuring +perhaps forty or fifty feet on a side. In +olden times they were sunk several feet into the +<pb n="185"/><anchor id="Pg185"/> +ground. On entering the house the visitor found +himself upon a platform several feet wide running +around the four sides; from it he stepped +down upon a second platform, and from it upon +a central square of dirt which contained the fireplace. +The eating place was around this hearth; +the place for lounging, visiting, and sleeping was +on the upper platform. There each person of the +household had his or her own place. At its rear +edge, near the wall, were boxes containing the person's +treasures and the household's food. There +was but one doorway and no windows in a Haida +house. Outside the house, at the middle of the +front, stood a curious, great, carved post of wood. +These were covered with queer animal and bird +<pb n="186"/><anchor id="Pg186"/> +patterns, each with some meaning (see <ref target='Chapter_XXIX'>XXIX.</ref>). +In Haida houses the doorway was cut in the +lower part of this great post or pole. +</p> + +<p> +The beach in front of the village used to be +covered with canoes dragged up on the sand. +These canoes were <q>dugouts</q> of single tree +trunks. The logs were cut in summer time, the +best wood being yellow cedar. The chief tool +used was the adze, made of stone or shell. Fire +was used to char the wood to be cut away. After +it had been partly cut out inside it was stretched +or shaped by steaming with water and hot stones, +and then putting in stretchers. Sometimes single-log +canoes were large enough to carry from thirty +to sixty people. They were often carved and +painted at the ends. The paddles used in driving +these canoes were rather slender and long-bladed, +often painted with designs. +</p> + +<p> +The present dress of these Indians is largely +the same as our own. In the days of the first +voyagers, they wore beautiful garments of native +manufacture. They had quantities of fine furs +of seals and sea-otters. These were worn as +blankets; when not in use they were carefully +folded and laid away in boxes. They wore close +and fine blankets of the wool of the mountain +sheep and the hair of the mountain goat. These +were closely woven and had a fine long fringe +along the lower border. They were covered with +patterns representing the totem animals. The +blanket itself was a dirty white in color, but +<pb n="187"/><anchor id="Pg187"/> +the designs were worked in black, yellow, or +brown. Further south, among the Tshimpshian +Indians of British Columbia, fine blankets were +woven of the soft and flexible inner bark of the +cedar; these were bordered with strips of fur. +</p> + +<p rend='text-align: center'> + <figure url='images/chilcat-blanket.png' rend='width: 80%'> + <head>Blanket: Chilcat Indians, Alaska. (From Niblack.)</head> + <figDesc>Illustration.</figDesc> + </figure> +</p> + +<p> +These Indians still wear the ancient hat. +Among the southern tribes it is made of cedar +bark, and is soft and flimsy. In the north it is +made of spruce or other roots, and is firm and +unyielding. The shape of the lower part of the +hat is a truncated cone. Among the Tlingit and +Haida this is surmounted by a curious, tall cylinder, +which is divided into several joints, or segments, +called <hi rend='italic'>skil</hi>. The number of these shows +the importance of the wearer. +</p> + +<pb n="188"/><anchor id="Pg188"/> + +<p rend='text-align: center'> + <figure url='images/halibut-hooks.png' rend='width: 70%'> + <head>Halibut Hooks of Wood. (From Originals in Peabody Museum.)</head> + <figDesc>Illustration.</figDesc> + </figure> +</p> + +<p> +The food of these tribes came largely from the +sea. Fish were speared, trapped, and caught with +hook and line. For halibut, queer, large, wooden +hooks were used. +When the fish had +been drawn to the +surface, they were +killed with wooden +clubs. Both hooks +and clubs were curiously +carved. Flesh +of larger fishes, like +halibut and salmon, +was dried in the sun +or over fire, and packed +away. Clams were +dried and strung on +sticks. Seaweed was +dried and pressed into +great, square flat +cakes; so were berries and scraped cedar bark. +The people were fond of oil, and got it from many +different fish. The most prized was that of the +oolachen or candle-fish. This fish is so greasy +that when put into a frying-pan, there is soon +nothing left but some bones and scales floating +about in the grease! To get this oil, the little fish +were thrown into a canoe full of water. This was +heated with stones made very hot in a fire, and +then dropped into it. The heat drove out the +oil, which floated on the top and was skimmed off +<pb n="189"/><anchor id="Pg189"/> +and put into natural bottles—tubes of hollow +seaweed stalk. At all meals a dish of oil stood +in the midst of the party, and bits of dried fish, +seaweed cake, or dried bark were dipped into it +before being eaten. +</p> + +</div> + +<div> +<index index='toc'/> +<index index='pdf'/> +<head>XXVIII. Some Raven Stories.</head> + +<p> +All the Northwest Coast tribes had many +stories. Some of these stories had been borrowed +from tribe to tribe, and were told at many different +places. Usually, however, the single tribes had +stories that were favorites with them and really belonged +to them. The favorite stories among the +Tlingit and Haida were about the raven, whom +they called <foreign rend='italic'>yetl</foreign>. There were many stories told of +him and his doings. It is difficult sometimes to +tell just what yetl was—whether bird or man. He +could take on many forms, and was usually the +friend of the Indians. In the olden time they +did not have fire, daylight, fresh water, or the +oolachen fish. It was yetl, the raven, called also +<hi rend='italic'>Nekilstlas</hi>, who got them these good things. +</p> + +<p> +All of these precious things belonged to a +great chief who had a lovely daughter. The +raven made love to this maiden. Once when at +their house he pretended to be thirsty and begged +her for a drink of water. The girl brought it to +<pb n="190"/><anchor id="Pg190"/> +him in a bucket. He drank a little and laid the +rest aside. By and by every one in the house +was fast asleep except the raven; he was watching. +He then got up quietly, put on his feather +coat, took up the bucket in his bill and flew away +with it. He was in such a hurry that he spilled +the water here and there, and where it fell there +have since been rivers and lakes. Never since +that time have the Indians been without water. +</p> + +<p> +But it was much harder to get the fire. Nekilstlas +no longer dared to go to the chief's house +or to make love to the maiden. He, however, +changed himself into a spruce needle and floated +on the water. He was thus got into the house +without any one's knowing it, and there he +changed into a little boy baby, whom the girl +treated like her own son. He stayed there a +long time, waiting his chance. At last, one day, +he seized a burning brand from the fire and flew +out of the smoke-hole in the roof with it. He +was so careless that he set fire to many things. +At the north end of Vancouver Island many of +the trees are black, almost as if they were burned, +and they say that was done by Nekilstlas when +he flew away with the fire. However that may +be, since then the Indians have had fire. +</p> + +<p> +The old chief had the sun and the moon, but +he kept them away from the people, and was very +proud to think that he alone had light. Nekilstlas +had to think a long time before he could make a +plan to secure these for the Indians. At last he +<pb n="191"/><anchor id="Pg191"/> +made himself an imitation sun and put on it +something which made it shine. He then taunted +the chief by telling him that he too had a light. +For a time the chief did not believe him. At last +Nekilstlas drew back his feather coat and let a +piece of his bogus sun be seen. The chief believed +it, and was so angry that he placed his real +sun and moon in the sky, where they have been +lights to the Indians ever since. +</p> + +<p> +The last of the four possessions which the +raven wanted to get from the old chief for his +human friends was the oolachen fish, which yields +the oil of which the Indians are so fond. The +shag is a dirty seaside bird that has the unpleasant +habit of vomiting up its food when it is +excited. He was, however, a special friend of the +chief, and one of the few whom he used to invite +to eat oolachen with him. One time the shag had +been eating pretty heartily at the chief's house, +and afterward the raven set him and the sea-gull +to fighting. In his excitement the shag threw +up the fish he had eaten. The raven took the +scales and smeared himself and his canoe all over +with them. Going then to the chief's house, he +asked if he might come in and rest, that he was +tired out from catching oolachen. The chief +thought at first that he was telling a lie, but when +he saw the scales, he thought there must be other +oolachen besides his, and in his rage he opened +the boxes in which he kept them and let them all +loose. Since then the Indians have had abundance +<pb n="192"/><anchor id="Pg192"/> +of the oolachen to give them the oil they +need. +</p> + +<p> +Besides these stories of the things the raven +got for them, there are others. The raven is not +always the friend of men, and sometimes he does +them harm and not good. There is a story of the +raven and the fisherman. This fisherman had +much trouble from some one stealing the bait and +fish from his fish-hook. The thief was no one +else than the raven. The fisherman finally put +a magic hook on his line and let it down. +When the raven tried to steal from this he was +caught. When he had been pulled up to the +surface of the water, he struggled fearfully, by +pressing against the canoe with his feet and his +wings. The fisherman, however, was too strong +for him. He pulled so hard that he tore the +raven's beak off, and then, seizing him, dragged +him in shore. When he pulled off the raven's +beak, the bird turned into a man, but he kept his +face so covered up with his feather garment that +only his eyes could be seen. The fisherman could +not make him uncover his face; but one young +man who stood by picked up a handful of dirt +and rubbed it into the raven's eyes. Smarting +with pain and taken by surprise, the raven threw +off his mantle, and the men saw who he was. +The raven was so angry, that ever since then +ravens and their friends, the crows, have constantly +troubled fishermen. +</p> + +<p> +The Tshimpshian, who live south of the Tlingit, +<pb n="193"/><anchor id="Pg193"/> +on the mainland, have a story of the raven. They +say that two boys lived in a village. One of them +was the son of a chief. One day the chief's son +said to the other, when they were playing, <q>Let +us take skins of birds and fly up to heaven.</q> +They did so, and found things up there quite like +this world. They found a house there, near a +pond of water; and in this house lived a chief, +who was a sort of deity. The daughters of this +deity caught the two boys and were finally married +to them, although the deity did not like them, and +tried in every way to do them harm. They always +escaped, however. They lived together there for +a long time, and at last the wife of the chief's son +had a little boy baby. One day, when she was +playing with the baby, the little one slipped out +of her hands, and fell down, down, from the sky +into the sea. It happened that it was found and +saved by the chief, who was really the baby's +grandfather, though no one knew it at the time. +When the little one had been taken to the village, +it would not, for some time, eat anything. They +offered it salmon and berry cake and hemlock +bark, but he would not touch any of them. At +last his grandfather said, <q>Feed him some fish +stomachs.</q> Then the little fellow began to eat +very greedily, and before he got through he had +eaten up all the food that the village had stored +away for use. Then he surprised every one by +saying, <q>Don't you know who I am? I am the +raven.</q> +</p> + +<pb n="194"/><anchor id="Pg194"/> + +<p rend='text-align: center'> + <figure url='images/indian-carrier.png' rend='width: 60%'> + <head>Indian Carrier: Alaska. (From Krause.)</head> + <figDesc>Illustration.</figDesc> + </figure> +</p> + +<pb n="195"/><anchor id="Pg195"/> + +<p> +But the stories of the raven, if they were all +written out, would make a large book. The +naughty, greedy, dirty bird was the great hero +of these peoples. They were anxious to explain +everything, and most of their stories are to tell +how things came to be. +</p> + +<quote rend='display'> +Many persons have made collections of the stories of the +Northwest Coast tribes. Boas, Chamberlain, Niblack, and +Deans are among them. +</quote> + +</div> + +<div> +<index index='toc'/> +<index index='pdf'/> +<anchor id='Chapter_XXIX'/> +<head>XXIX. Totem Posts.</head> + +<p> +On approaching villages of many tribes on +the Northwest Coast, the traveler sees great numbers +of carved wooden posts. The largest, most +striking, and most curious are no doubt those +of the Tlingit of Alaska, and the Haida of +Queen Charlotte Islands. Some of these posts +stand in front of the houses, or very near them; +others are set near the beach, beyond the village. +When old they are weather-beaten and gray. +They are sometimes compared to a forest of +tree trunks left after a fire has swept through +a wooded district. +</p> + +<p rend='text-align: center'> + <figure url='images/inlet-chiefs-house.png' rend='width: 60%'> + <head>Chief's House: Queen Charlotte's Inlet. (From Photograph.)</head> + <figDesc>Illustration.</figDesc> + </figure> +</p> + +<p> +There are three kinds of these carved posts,—totem +posts, commemorative posts, and death +posts. The death posts are the simplest of the +three. Among the Tlingit and Haida the dead +<pb n="196"/><anchor id="Pg196"/> +were usually burned. If the man had been important, +a display was made of his body. He was +dressed in his finest clothing, and +all his treasures were placed around +him. People came for some days +to see his riches. At last the day for +the burning of his body arrived. +Many persons were present. The +faces of the mourners were +blackened, their hair cut short, and +their heads were sprinkled with eagle-down. +After the body had been +burned, the ashes were gathered and +put into a box, which was placed in a cavity +hollowed out in the lower part of the death +post. This was the old custom; nowadays the +ashes may be put somewhere else. At the top +<pb n="197"/><anchor id="Pg197"/> +of the death post was a cross-board on which +was carved or painted the totem of the dead +man. +</p> + +<p> +The second kind of carved post is the commemorative +post, put up to celebrate some important +event. An old chief named Skowl once +erected a great post near his house. He had +erected it to commemorate the failure of the +Russian missionaries to convert his village to +Christianity. When the last missionary had +gone, he put it up to recall their failure and to +ridicule their religion. It was curiously carved. +At the top was an eagle; below it a man with +his right hand lifted, pointing to the sky; below +it an angel; then a priest with his hands +crossed upon his breast; then an eagle; lastly +a trader. +</p> + +<p> +The totem posts are, however, the most interesting. +They are taller, more carefully made, +and more elaborately carved than the others. +They stand in front of the houses; among Tlingit +at one side, among Haida at the very middle +and close to the house. In fact, among the +Haida the doorway of the house was a hole +cut through the lower end of the totem post. +The carvings on these posts refer to the people +living in the house. Thus, in one Haida totem +post there was a brown bear at the top—the +totem of the man of the house; next came four +<foreign rend='italic'>skil</foreign> or divisions of a hat; then came the great +raven; then the bear and the hunter; then a +<pb n="198"/><anchor id="Pg198"/> +bear—the last being the totem of the woman +of the house. +</p> + +<p> +Among the Tlingit and Haida every one bears +the name of some animal or bird. Thus, among +the Tlingit there are eighteen great families, +with the name of wolf, bear, eagle, whale, shark, +porpoise, puffin, orca, orca-bear; raven, frog, +goose, beaver, owl, sea-lion, salmon, dogfish, +crow. The first nine of these are considered +related to one another; so are the last nine +related. A man may not marry a woman of +his own animal name or totem; nor can he +marry one of the related families. Thus a wolf +man could not marry a woman who was a wolf, +or an eagle, or a shark, but he might marry a +raven or a frog. +</p> + +<p> +With us a child takes its father's name, but +with these people it takes its mother's name. +If a bear man married a raven woman, all the +children would be ravens. The animal whose +name a man bears is his <foreign rend='italic'>totem</foreign>. There is +always some story told by people as to how +they came to have their totem. Every one believes +that the animal that is his totem can help +him, and he pays much respect to it. +</p> + +<p> +One story of how the bear became a totem is +as follows: Long, long ago an Indian went into +the mountains to hunt mountain goats. When +far from home he met a black bear who took him +home with him, and taught him to build boats +and catch salmon. The man stayed two years +<pb n="199"/><anchor id="Pg199"/> +with the bear, and then went home to his village. +Every one feared him, for they thought him a +bear; he looked just like one. One man, however, +caught him and took him home to his house. +He could not speak, and could not eat cooked +food. A great medicine man advised that he +should be rubbed with magic herbs. When this +was done, he became a man again. After that, +whenever he wanted anything, he went out into +the woods and found his bear friend, who always +helped him. What the bear taught him was of +great use to him, and he caught plenty of salmon +in the winter time when the river was covered +with ice. The man built a fine new house, and +painted the picture of a bear upon it. His sister +made him a new dancing blanket, and into it she +wove a picture of a bear. Ever since then the +descendants of that man's sister have the bear for +their totem. +</p> + +<p> +Now you see something of the meaning of the +totem posts. Upon them are carved the totems +of the people living in the house. They are a +great doorplate, giving the names of the family. +This is important, because among Indians all the +persons who have the same totem must help one +another. If a man were in trouble, it was the +duty of his totem-fellows to aid him. If he were +a stranger, it was their duty to receive him. When +a Tlingit or Haida found himself in a strange +village, his first care would be to examine the +totem posts to find one that bore his own totem. +<pb n="200"/><anchor id="Pg200"/> +At the house marked by it he would surely be +welcome. +</p> + +<p rend='text-align: center'> + <figure url='images/northwest-hat.png' rend='width: 80%'> + <head>Hat of Northwest Coast, Top and Side View. (From Original in Peabody Museum.)</head> + <figDesc>Illustration.</figDesc> + </figure> +</p> + +<p> +But it was a rare thing for a totem post to have +only the figures of the totems of the man and his +wife. Other designs were carved in between +these. These other designs might tell of the +man's wealth or his importance, or they might +represent some family story. The people of every +totem had many stories which belonged only to +them. In the totem post, already described, probably +the great raven, and the bear, and the hunter, +represented such stories. The four <foreign rend='italic'>skil</foreign> probably +indicated that the man was important, for a man's +importance is shown by the number of <foreign rend='italic'>skil</foreign> in his +hat. The carving at the bottom, however, was +most significant, for it gave the name of the +woman and all her children. +</p> + +<pb n="201"/><anchor id="Pg201"/> + +<quote rend='display'> +<hi rend='smallcaps'>Albert P. Niblack</hi>, of the United States navy, has written +<hi rend='italic'>The Coast Indians of Southern Alaska and Northern British +Columbia.</hi> +</quote> + +</div> + +<div> +<index index='toc'/> +<index index='pdf'/> +<head>XXX. Indians Of California.</head> + +<p> +Nowhere among American Indians are more +languages found in a smaller space than in California. +Those spoken near the Coast, within +the area of the Missions, appear to belong to +at least nine language families or stocks. In +Powell's map the state looks like a piece of +patchwork, so many are the bits of color, which +represent different languages. These Coast Indians +of California were ugly to see. They were +of medium stature, awkwardly shaped, with +scrawny limbs; they had dull faces, with fat +and round noses, and looked much like negroes, +only their hair was straight. In disposition they +were said to be sluggish, indolent, cowardly, and +unenterprising. Some tribes in the interior were +better, but none of the California Indians seem +to have presented a high physical type or much +comfort in life. +</p> + +<p> +We shall say little about the life and customs +of the California Indians, and what we do say +will be chiefly about the Coahuilla tribe. These +Indians live in the beautiful high Coahuilla Valley +in Southern California. Formerly at least +part of the tribe were <q>Mission Indians.</q> Some +<pb n="202"/><anchor id="Pg202"/> +of them were connected with the San Gabriel +Mission near the present city of Los Angeles. +They appear to present a better type than many +of the Mission Indians, being larger, better built, +and stronger. Ramona, who was the heroine of +Helen Hunt Jackson's story, is a Coahuilla Indian, +still living. If she ever was beautiful, it +must have been long ago, although she is not +an old woman. These Indians live in little +houses, largely built of brush, scattered over +the valley. They have some ponies and cattle, +and cultivate some ground. Near every house, +perched upon big boulders, are quaint little +structures made of woven willows and like big +beehives in form; they are granaries for stowing +away acorns or grain. +</p> + +<p rend='text-align: center'> + <figure url='images/coahuilla-granary.png' rend='width: 80%'> + <head>Granary at Coahuilla. (From Photograph.)</head> + <figDesc>Illustration.</figDesc> + </figure> +</p> + +<pb n="203"/><anchor id="Pg203"/> + +<p> +Acorns are much used by California Indians. +They are bitter and need to be sweetened. +They are first pounded to a meal or flour. A +wide basket is filled with sand, which is carefully +scooped away so as to leave a basin-shaped +surface; the acorn meal is spread upon this, +and water is poured upon it. The bitterness is +soaked out, and the meal left sweet and good. +</p> + +<p rend='text-align: center'> + <figure url='images/coiled-baskets.png' rend='width: 80%'> + <head>Coiled Baskets: California. (From Photograph.)</head> + <figDesc>Illustration.</figDesc> + </figure> +</p> + +<p> +A fine art among most Californian tribes is the +making of baskets. Those made at Coahuilla +are mostly what is known as <q>coiled work.</q> +A bunch of fine, slender grass is taken and +treated as if it were a rope. It is coiled around +and around in a close coil. Long strips of reed +grass are then taken and wrapped like a thread +around the coiled rope, sewing the coil at each +<pb n="204"/><anchor id="Pg204"/> +wrapping to the next coil. In this way the +foundation coiled rope of grass is entirely covered +and concealed by the wrapping of reed +grass, and at the same time firmly united. By +using differently colored strips of the reed +grass, patterns are worked in. Horses, men, +geometrical patterns, and letters are common. +Among some Californian tribes such baskets +were covered with brilliant feathers, which were +woven in during the making. +</p> + +<p> +Among the delicacies of some south Californian +tribes was roasted mescal. Mescal is +a plant of the desert, with great, pointed, fleshy +leaves. At the proper time it throws up a +huge flower-stalk, which bears great numbers +of flowers. Mr. Lummis describes the roasting +of its leaves and stalks: <q>A pit was dug, and +a fire of the greasewood's crackling roots kept +up therein until the surroundings were well +heated. Upon the hot stones of the pit was +laid a layer of the pulpiest sections of the mescal; +upon this a layer of wet grass; then another +layer of mescal, and another of grass, and so on. +Finally the whole pile was banked over with +earth. The roasting—or, rather, steaming—takes +from two to four days.... When he +banks the pile with earth, he arranges a few long +bayonets of the mescal so that their tips shall +project. When it seems to him that the roast +should be done, he withdraws one of these plugs. +If the lower end is well done, he uncovers the +<pb n="205"/><anchor id="Pg205"/> +heap and proceeds to feast; if still too rare, he +possesses his soul in patience until a later experiment +proves the baking.</q> This method of +roasting mescal is about the same pursued farther +north with camas root. +</p> + +<p> +A gambling game common among Californian +tribes is called by the Spanish name <foreign lang='es' rend='italic'>peon</foreign>. It is +very similar to a game played in many other +parts of the United States by many Indian tribes. +It consists simply of guessing in which of two +hands the marked one of two sticks or objects +is held. The game is played by two parties, +one of which has the sticks, while the other +guesses. Each success is marked by a stick +or counter for the winner, and ten counts make +a game. Among the Coahuillas there are four +persons on a side. Songs are sung, which become +loud and wild; at times the players break into +fierce barking. Then the guess is made. Great +excitement arises, which grows wilder and wilder +toward the end of a close game. Violent movements +and gestures are made to deceive the carefully +watching guessers. Sometimes men will +bet on this game the last things they own, even +down to the clothes they wear. +</p> + +<p> +Mr. Barrows, who has described the game of +<foreign lang='es' rend='italic'>peon</foreign> tells of the bird dances of the Coahuillas. +These Indians highly regard certain birds. Of +all, the eagle is chief. In the eagle dance the +dancer wears a breech-clout; his face, body, and +limbs are painted in red, black, and white; his +<pb n="206"/><anchor id="Pg206"/> +dance skirt and dance bonnet are made of eagle +feathers. In his dancing and whirling he imitates +the circling and movements of the eagle. At +times he whirls about the great circle of spectators +so rapidly that his feather skirt stands up straight +below his arms. The music of this dance is so +old that the words are not understood even by +the singers. +</p> + +<p rend='text-align: center'> + <figure url='images/santa-barbara.png' rend='width: 80%'> + <head>Mission of Santa Barbara, California. (From Photograph.)</head> + <figDesc>Illustration.</figDesc> + </figure> +</p> + +<p> +They took possession in +1697 and built a Mission at San Dionisio, in +Lower California. By 1745, they had fourteen +Missions established, all in what is now Lower +California. The Jesuits gave way to the Franciscan +<pb n="207"/><anchor id="Pg207"/> +monks, and these began in 1769 their first +Mission in California proper, at San Diego. One +after another was added, until, in 1823, there were +twenty-one Franciscan Missions, stretching from +San Diego to San Francisco. Each mission had +a piece of ground fifteen miles square. The +center of the Mission was the church, with cloisters +where the monks lived. The houses of the +Indian converts—which were little huts—were +grouped together about the church, arranged in +rows. Unmarried men were housed in a separate +building or buildings, as were young women +also. During the sixty-five years of these Missions +about seventy-nine thousand converts were +made. Every one at these Missions was busy. +The men kept the flocks and herds, sheared the +sheep, and cared for the fields and vines. Women +cared for the houses and the church. There was +spinning, weaving, leather work, and plenty else +to be done. Still the Indians were not hard +worked, and they ought to have been happy. +Their time was regularly planned out for them. +At sunrise all rose and went to mass; soon after +mass breakfast was ready and sent to the houses +in baskets; then every one worked. At noon +dinner was sent around again from house to +house; then came the afternoon work. After +evening mass, there was a supper of sweet gruel. +There was a good deal of time left after the +services and work were through. The monks +allowed the Indians to keep up their native dances +<pb n="208"/><anchor id="Pg208"/> +and amusements so far as they believed them +harmless. +</p> + +<p> +Some persons seem to think that the monks +made slaves of the Indians. Rather they considered +them children, who needed oversight, direction, +and sometimes punishment. However, the +Indians were probably better dressed and housed +and fed than ever before, and, perhaps, happier. +But the Missions are now past. Their twenty-one +old churches still stand,—our most interesting +historical relics,—but the Indian converts have +scattered, and in time they will forget, if they +have not already forgotten, that they or their +people were ever Mission Indians. +</p> + +</div> + +<div> +<index index='toc'/> +<index index='pdf'/> +<head>XXXI. The Aztecs.</head> + +<p> +When the Spaniards reached Mexico, that +country was filled with Indians belonging to +many different tribes. These differed in language +and in customs. Perhaps the most powerful +and warlike tribe was that of the Aztecs, who +lived in the central high table-land, with a chief +city named Tenochtitlan. This city, occupying +the same site as the present city of Mexico, was +situated upon the shores of, and partly within, the +lake of Texcoco. The lake lay in a beautiful valley +which was occupied not only by the Aztecs, +but also by a number of other tribes related to +<pb n="209"/><anchor id="Pg209"/> +them in speech. Among these tribes were the +Acolhuas, with their chief city of Texcoco, and +the Tecpanecans, whose chief city was Tlacopan. +</p> + +<p> +These three tribes spoke about the same language, +and, after a great deal of quarreling among +themselves, they united in a league or confederacy +something like that of the Iroquois. Together, +they were so strong that they carried on successful +war against their neighbors. When they conquered +a tribe, they did not take its land away +nor interfere with its government, but compelled +the people to pay an annual tribute to the confederacy. +At the head of the confederacy was a +great war-chief, who was called by the title of the +Chief of Men. When Cortez conquered Mexico, +the name of this <q>Chief of Men</q> was Montezuma. +</p> + +<p> +The Aztecs raised crops of corn, beans, squashes, +and chili peppers. Still they got a considerable +amount of food from hunting, and they knew how +to make snares and traps for capturing animals. +Their lake used to be covered with ducks, and to +capture these they employed a clever trick. Calabashes +are large gourds. The Aztec hunters +left calabashes floating at places where ducks +were plenty so that the birds should be used to +seeing them, and pay no attention to them. When +a man wished to catch ducks, he placed a big calabash +over his head, and waded cautiously out +into the water until it was just deep enough for it +to look as if his calabash were floating. Little +by little, he moved over toward the swimming +<pb n="210"/><anchor id="Pg210"/> +ducks, and, when among them, he seized one by +the legs and dragged it under water; then another, +and another, and so on. Ducks were not the only +food taken from the lake. The scum or dirt floating +on the water was skimmed off, and pressed +into cakes; the eggs of a fly, which were laid in +bunches on the rushes, near, or in the water, were +gathered and eaten. These eggs are still a favorite +food with modern Mexicans. +</p> + +<p> +The Aztecs knew how to spin and weave. +They had cotton, and they also had a fine, stout +fiber from the maguey plant. From these they +made good cloths which they sometimes dyed in +bright colors. The dress of the men consisted of +a sort of blanket or cloak—worn knotted over +one shoulder—and the breech-clout. The women +wore a skirt, which was only a long strip of cloth +wrapped around the body, and held firmly in place +by a belt; they also wore a pretty sleeveless waist. +Men wore sandals on the feet, but usually went +bareheaded. Great officials, however, were finely +dressed, and one might tell from the clothing +what official he met. Men often wore lip-stones. +These were in idea like the lip-plugs of the Haida +women, but were different in shape and material. +Most of them were made of obsidian,—a fine-grained, +glassy, black mineral. Their shape was +that of a little stovepipe hat. The brim was +inside the lip and prevented the stone from slipping +out; the crown projected from the hole in +the lower lip. +</p> + +<pb n="211"/><anchor id="Pg211"/> + +<p> +The common people lived in huts made of mud +or other destructible material; but the buildings +intended for the government and for religion were +sometimes grand affairs, built of stone and covered +with plaster. This plastering was sometimes +white, sometimes red, and upon it were at times +pictures painted in brilliant colors. These pictures +generally represented warriors ready for +battle, or priests before the altar. Temples were +usually built upon flat-topped pyramids. These +were often large, and were terraced on one or +more sides. Sometimes they were coated with +plaster. Flights of steps, or sloping paths, led to +the summit. There would be found the temple +and the gods. The gods of the Aztecs were like +the Aztecs themselves, bloodthirsty and cruel. +</p> + +<p> +In war the Aztecs used clubs, wooden swords, +bows and arrows, spears or darts, slings and +stones. They had wooden swords with broad, +flat blades, grooved along the sides; into these +grooves were cemented sharp pieces of obsidian. +These were fearful weapons until dulled or broken +by use. Spears and darts were often thrown with +a wooden stick or hurler called an <foreign rend='italic'>atlatl</foreign>. Important +warriors carried round or rectangular shields +upon their left arms to ward off attack. These +shields often bore patterns worked in bright +feathers. Sometimes the whole dress of warriors +was covered with feathers, and famous braves +wore helmets of wood on their heads, from which +rose great masses of fine feathers. Often warriors +<pb n="212"/><anchor id="Pg212"/> +wore a sort of jacket covering the upper +part of the body and reaching the knees. This +was padded thickly with cotton, and arrows shot +with great force could hardly penetrate it. +</p> + +<p rend='text-align: center'> + <figure url='images/calendar-stone.png' rend='width: 70%'> + <head>Calendar Stone. (From Photograph.)</head> + <figDesc>Illustration.</figDesc> + </figure> +</p> + +<p> +In battle the Aztecs did not desire to kill the +enemy, but preferred to capture prisoners to sacrifice +to the gods. When a man was captured +he was very well treated until the day for his sacrifice +came. He was taken up to the temple on +the pyramid and thrown on his back upon a sacrificial +<pb n="213"/><anchor id="Pg213"/> +stone. He was held by several priests, +while the high priest, with a knife of stone, cut +open his breast. The heart was torn out, and +offered to the gods; some other parts were cut +off for them or for the priests. The rest of the +body was then thrown down to the soldier who +had captured the victim, +and who waited below. +He and his friends bore it +away and ate it, or parts +of it, as a religious duty. +All the time the sacrifices +were being made, the great +drum was beaten. It made +a mournful noise that could +be heard to a great distance. +In the National +Museum in the city of +Mexico is a great carved +stone which is believed by +many persons to be one of +these old sacrificial stones +upon which victims were +sacrificed. +</p> + +<p rend='text-align: center'> + <figure url='images/stone-idol.png' rend='width: 60%'> + <head>Stone Idol: Mexico. (From Photograph.)</head> + <figDesc>Illustration.</figDesc> + </figure> +</p> + +<p> +In the same museum is a great stone idol. It +was dug up about a hundred years ago in the +central square of the city of Mexico. It probably +stood in the great temple of the old Aztecs, which +was totally destroyed by Cortez and his soldiers +when they finally captured the city of Tenochtitlan. +What an ugly thing it is! It is more +<pb n="214"/><anchor id="Pg214"/> +than eight feet high and more than five feet across, +but is cut from a single block of stone. It has +a head in front, and another one behind; they +look something like serpent heads. While the +general form of this great idol is human, it has +neither the feet nor hands of a man. The skirt +it wears is made of an intertwined mass of rattlesnakes. +A human skull is at the front of the +belt. Four human hands apparently severed from +their bodies are displayed upon the chest. This +is only one of many curious and dreadful Aztec +gods. +</p> + +<p> +It would take a book larger than this to describe +the Aztecs properly. It would take another +to describe the conquest of Mexico by the Spaniards. +Cortez had only a handful of men to fight +against many thousands. But he had guns, +powder, and horses, all of which were unknown +before to the Aztecs and which they greatly +feared. Sometime you must read Bernal Diaz del +Castillo's story of the Conquest. He was one of +Cortez's soldiers. He tells us that he was present +in one hundred and nineteen battles and engagements. +He also says: <q>Of the five hundred and +fifty soldiers, who left the island of Cuba with +Cortez, at the moment I am writing this history +in the year one thousand five hundred and sixty-eight, +no more than five are living, the rest having +been killed in the wars, sacrificed to idols, or died +naturally.</q> +</p> + +</div> + +<pb n="215"/><anchor id="Pg215"/> + +<div> +<index index='toc'/> +<index index='pdf'/> +<head>XXXII. The Mayas And The Ruined Cities Of +Yucatan And Central America.</head> + +<p> +Of all North American tribes the Mayas were +perhaps the most advanced in culture, the nearest +to civilization. They lived in the peninsula of +Yucatan and in the adjacent states of Tabasco +and Chiapas in Mexico, and in Honduras and +Guatemala in Central America. While true +Mayas did <emph>not</emph> occupy the whole of this district, +it was practically occupied by them and peoples +speaking languages closely related to theirs. +</p> + +<p> +There are many Mayas now alive. It is a +common but serious mistake to imagine that +Aztecs, Mayas, and other tribes of Mexico and +Central America at the time of the Conquest are +extinct. Many tribes have died out; but the +famous Aztecs and Mayas are still numerous. +The Mayas to-day are short, well-built, broad-shouldered +peoples with unusually dark skin. +They have much energy and are notable for their +independent spirit. Within the last few years +they have given the Mexican government much +trouble. They have not given up their own language, +but have learned to write it, and a considerable +number of books and papers have been +printed in it. They retain their ancient dress to +some degree. Almost every one who sees the +<pb n="216"/><anchor id="Pg216"/> +modern Mayas speaks well of them,—as clean, +neat, straightforward, and reliable. +</p> + +<p> +It is not the Mayan peoples of to-day, but those +of the past, of whom we desire to speak. They +were the best builders in North America, and the +ruins of their cities testify to their skill. More +than fifty years ago, John L. Stephens, with an +artist named Catherwood, traveled in Honduras, +Guatamala, Chiapas, and Yucatan. Mr. Stephens +described their travels and the ruins they explored, +and Mr. Catherwood drew pictures of them. +Americans were astonished at these researches. +These travelers visited forty ruins of ancient +cities in Yucatan alone. Since that time many +other travelers have been there, and much is +known of Mayan architecture. +</p> + +<p> +Most of the ruins appear to be those of buildings +intended for governmental or religious purposes. +Few, if any, were houses for individuals. +Probably these fine, large buildings were at the +center of towns, the dwelling houses of which +were frail huts of poles, branches, canes, etc. +These have disappeared, leaving no sign of their +former existence. All through Mexico, to-day, in +Indian towns, the only permanent constructions +which would leave ruins are the church and the +town house. Everything else is frail hut. +</p> + +<p> +Nearly every one of these old towns presents +some peculiarity of interest. We can, however, +only briefly describe three. <hi rend='italic'>Palenque</hi> appears to +be one of the oldest. It is in the most southern +<pb n="217"/><anchor id="Pg217"/> +state of Mexico, Chiapas. The more important +ruins are those of the <q>palace</q> and five temples +near it. The buildings were all raised upon +terrace platforms; they were long and narrow; +the walls were thick, and built of stones and mud, +with cement. The walls were faced with slabs of +stone, often carved with figures of gods, hieroglyphic +characters, etc. Usually two long corridors +ran lengthwise, side by side, through the building. +These open upon the supporting platform by a line +of rectangular doorways of uniform size. There +were no true arches, but the corridors had pyramidal +arched vaultings. The roof went up from +all four sides, at a low and then at a sharper +angle. A curious crest or roof-comb surmounted +the roof. Much plastering was used in these +buildings; the walls were sometimes thickly and +smoothly covered. Stucco figures were worked +upon some of the walls. One temple, called the +<q>Temple of the Beau Relief,</q> had a great tablet +of stucco work, with the figure of a man seated +upon a sort of rounded stone seat; he wore a +coiled cap, with great waving plumes. His hands +were making some sort of signs; he wore a necklace +of beads, with a pendant carved with a human +face. The stone upon which he sits is supported +on a bench, the arms at the ends of which are +lion heads, and the supports of which are four +heavily carved, but well-made, lion feet. In other +temples there were tablets of carved stone. Two +of these are famous. One represents the sun, as +<pb n="218"/><anchor id="Pg218"/> +a human face, placed upon two crossed shafts; +on either side of this central object stands a profile +figure, one of which appears to represent a +priest, the other a worshiper. Both stand on +curiously bent human figures. In the second +tablet, two similar figures are shown, but they +stand at the two sides of a cross, upon which +perches a bird. On these tablets of the sun and +cross are many curious hieroglyphs forming an +inscription. +</p> + +<p> +<hi rend='italic'>Copan</hi> in Honduras is another famous location +of ruins left by some Mayan people. The most +interesting objects there are great stone statues +or figures with stone altars before them. These +statues are taller than a man and are cut from +single blocks of stone. They differ so much in +face and dress that they have been believed by +some writers to be portraits. The persons ate +usually beautifully dressed and ornamented. They +wear beads, pendants, tassels, belts, ear ornaments, +and headdresses. The headdresses are +usually composed of great feathers. The sides +and sometimes the back of these figures are covered +with hieroglyphics of the same kind as those +at Palenque. The <q>altars</q> in front of these +stone figures, differ in form and size, but are cut +from single blocks of stone. One which is +nearly square has at the sides a series of figures +of human beings sitting cross-legged; there are +four of these on each side, or sixteen in all. +</p> + +<p rend='text-align: center'> + <figure url='images/itza-building.png' rend='width: 80%'> + <head>Ruined Building at Chicken Itza. (After Stephens.)</head> + <figDesc>Illustration.</figDesc> + </figure> +</p> + +<p> +At <hi rend='italic'>Chichen Itza</hi>, the buildings are remarkable +<pb n="219"/><anchor id="Pg219"/> +for the mass of carved stone work with +which they are decorated, outside and inside. +Great horrid masks, geometrical patterns, intertwined +snakes, occur. At some corners of buildings +are curious hook-like projections, which +some persons have thought were meant to represent +elephant trunks. Mr. Holmes describes +carefully carved pillars resting upon gigantic +snake-head carvings. One room in the <q>Temple +of the Tigers</q> has the inside wall composed of +blocks of stone, each of which is sculptured. The +carvings represent persons richly dressed. When +<pb n="220"/><anchor id="Pg220"/> +the building was first made, these figures were +brightly painted and traces of the colors still +remain. +</p> + +<p> +We can tell a good deal about the lives of the +builders of these old buildings from a study of the +figures and carvings. These show their dress and +modes of worship. The ruins themselves show +how they built. Figures on tablets at Palenque +show that they changed their head forms by bandaging +like some tribes of whom we know. +</p> + +<p> +At Lorillard City, ruins explored by Mr. Charnay, +are some curious figures. Among them one +represents a person kneeling, with his tongue out, +and a cord passed through a-hole in it. The old +Mayas really used to torture themselves this way +to please their gods. They pierced their tongues +and passed a rough cord through the hole, and +drew it back and forward. +</p> + +<p rend='text-align: center'> + <figure url='images/reservation-map-west.png' rend='width: 80%'> + <head>Map Showing Indian Reservations of the United States in 1897. (West)</head> + <figDesc>Illustration.</figDesc> + </figure> + <figure url='images/reservation-map-east.png' rend='width: 80%'> + <head>Map Showing Indian Reservations of the United States in 1897. (East)</head> + <figDesc>Illustration.</figDesc> + </figure> +</p> + +<p> +No one can read the characters on the tablets +of Palenque and the stone figures at Copan. Similar +characters occur at other ruins. At Tikal +some were cut upon beautiful wooden panels. +They were carved on greenstone ornaments, +scratched upon shells, and painted upon pottery, +There were plenty of books among the Mayas, +Some of these still exist, and four have been quite +carefully studied. They contain many quaint pictures +of priests, gods, worshipers, etc. They also +contain many numbers and day names. There +are also in them many of the same strange hieroglyphs, +already mentioned. These are called +<pb n="221"/><anchor id="Pg221"/> +<q>calculiform</q> or <q>pebble-shaped</q> characters, because +they present a generally roundish outline, +as of a pebble cut through. It is plain that they +were at first simply pictures. Some of them, no +doubt, are still simple pictures of ideas; others +convey ideas different from those at first pictured; +many can no longer be seen to be pictures at all; +some, perhaps, represent sounds, and are not now +pictures for ideas. It is possible, in a general +way, to make out something of the sense of parts +of Mayan books and inscriptions, but it is quite +likely that they will never be exactly read as we +read our own written books. +</p> + +</div> + +<div> +<index index='toc'/> +<index index='pdf'/> +<head>XXXIII. Conclusion.</head> + +<p> +An old Pani, in speaking of what was perhaps +the first official visit by whites to his tribe, said: +</p> + +<p> +<q rend='pre'>I heard that long ago there was a time when +there were no people in this country except +Indians. After that the people began to hear of +men with white skins; they had been seen far to +the east. Before I was born they came to our +country and visited us. The man who came was +from the Government. He wanted to make a +treaty with us, and to give us presents—blankets +and guns and flint and steel and knives.</q> +</p> + +<p> +<q rend='pre'>The head chief told him that we needed none +<pb n="222"/><anchor id="Pg222"/> +of those things. He said, <q>We have our buffalo +and our corn. These things the Ruler gave us, +and they are all that we need. See this robe. +This keeps me warm in winter. I need no blanket.</q></q> +</p> + +<p> +<q rend='pre'>The white men had with them some cattle, +and the chief said, <q>Lead out a heifer here on +the prairie.</q> They led her out, and the chief, +stepping up to her, shot her through behind the +shoulder with his arrow, and she fell down and +died. Then the chief said, <q>Will not my arrow +kill? I do not need your guns.</q> Then he took +his stone knife and skinned the heifer, and cut off +a piece of fat meat. When he had done this, he +said, <q>Why should I take your knives? The +Ruler has given me something to cut with.</q></q> +</p> + +<p> +<q>Then, taking the firesticks, he kindled a fire +to roast the meat; and while it was cooking, he +spoke and said, <q>You see, my brother, that the +Ruler has given us all that we need: the buffalo +for food and clothing; the corn to eat with our +dried meat; bows, arrows, knives, and hoes—all +the implements that we need for killing meat or +for cultivating the ground. Now go back to the +country from whence you came. We do not want +your presents, and we do not want you to come +into our country.</q></q> +</p> + +<p> +And the old chief was right. The Indians +were supplied with all they needed; what the +white man offered them was unnecessary, often it +was harmful. They were happy and contented. +They were doing very well in their own way. +</p> + +<pb n="223"/><anchor id="Pg223"/> + +<p> +But the old times are gone. To-day the Indians +are few in number, and they are growing fewer. +There are many ingenious arguments to prove +the contrary. Three facts, however, are perfectly +plain. First, there were whole tribes that have +disappeared. The Beothuks and the Natchez +are but two tribes which are gone; such tribes +may be numbered by scores. Their names are +on record; their old locations are known; sometimes +we have some knowledge of their customs +and ways, but <emph>they</emph> are dead. Secondly, many +tribes are rapidly dwindling. The Pani, between +1885 and 1889, a period of five years, fell from +one thousand and forty-five to eight hundred and +sixty-nine. When I knew the Tonkaways in the +Indian Territory, they numbered but thirty-five +persons, and had been disappearing at the rate of +one-third of the population in eight years. The +Haidas of Queen Charlotte Islands are becoming +fewer. Dawson says: <q>One intelligent man +told me that he could remember the time—which +by his age could not have been more than +thirty years ago—when there was not room to +launch all the canoes of the village in a single +row, the whole length of the beach, when the +people set out on one of their periodical trading +expeditions to Port Simpson. The beach is about +half a mile long, and there must have been from +five to eight persons in each canoe.</q> There are +to-day less than five hundred people in that village, +Skidgate. Thirdly, there are some tribes, like +<pb n="224"/><anchor id="Pg224"/> +the Cherokees and Sioux, which are large, prosperous, +and wealthy. It is a money advantage to +belong to such tribes, and a great many men who +should be considered white men are counted with +such tribes and help to make them look as if they +were not dwindling. It is quite certain that true +Indians of pure blood are rapidly diminishing. +</p> + +<p> +The whites have brought them whisky, which +has killed thousands. They have brought vices +and diseases which have swept off thousands +more. They have put an end to the old free, +open-air life. They have taught them unwholesome +means of cookery that cause scrofula and +other diseases. They have taught them to build +close, stuffy houses, which cause consumption, +which is fearfully destructive to the Indians. It +seems to make little difference whether it is an +open foe with the whisky bottle, or an apparent +friend with money for a <q>civilized home</q> (<q>a nice, +comfortable, little house</q>) who comes; the white +man's touch destroys the Indians. +</p> + +<p> +Whether the Indians really die out or not, their +old life will surely disappear. One after another +many of the things we have here read of together +have, disappeared. Others will soon die out. The +houses, dress, weapons, games, dances, ceremonials, +will go. It is only a matter of time. But +they ought always to be interesting to us as +Americans. +</p> + +<p> +The condition of the Indians to-day is a sad +and pathetic one. They may all echo the words +<pb n="225"/><anchor id="Pg225"/> +of Red Jacket. They have been crowded upon +by the white man's hunger for land until now +they have little left. Not long ago they held the +continent; to-day they are almost prisoners upon +a few patches of land called reservations. They +are secure of these only until the white man +wants them. Time after time Indians have given +up their lands and removed to distant places because +their old homes were wanted by white men. +Every time they have been promised that in their +new homes they should be undisturbed. Yet +whenever, in their onward march, white men came +to be neighbors, the old troubles came again. +Encroachment, aggression, then perhaps open +warfare, and then, another removal. Helen Hunt +Jackson's <hi rend='italic'>Century of Dishonor</hi> tells only a part +of the story. Every boy and girl in the United +States should read it. +</p> + +<p> +Here on a map you see the present location of +most of the Indians. The reservations vary in +size and in quality. Some of them have little +that can attract the whites. In these the Indians +may be left in peace. The present idea of what +to do with the Indians is shown by the Dawes +Bill. This is apparently a benevolent scheme for +happily settling the Indians on individual farms. +Imagine a reservation belonging to some tribe. +A part of the reservation is cultivated by the +more progressive Indians. The rest is not used +except perhaps for hunting or fishing, or wandering +over. The whole belongs to the tribe absolutely, +<pb n="226"/><anchor id="Pg226"/> +and we have promised that it shall never +be taken away from them. But now the Dawes +Bill is passed. It is said, a little farm apiece is +all that is necessary for these Indians. It would +be much better to give each of them just what +he needs and then to buy the balance of the +land (cheap of course), and give it to white people. +Whenever the Indians agree to it, we will divide +up the land, allot each his land in severalty, and +the Indian problem is solved. All this sounds +very well, but it is enough to make one's heart +bleed to see the way in which it is carried out. +Many times the Indians do not wish to take their +land in severalty. Certainly they ought not to +be forced to do so against their will. Yet commission +after commission, special agent after +special agent, is sent to tribes to persuade, beg, +and harass them into accepting allotment. Many +times half threats are made; hints are vaguely +thrown out as to what may happen if they don't +take their little farms and sell the balance of their +reservation. Surveyors are hired to go and survey +within the reservation so as to make the +Indians think their land will be taken away anyway. +At last the poor harassed tribe yields. The +men take their farms; they give up the balance +of their land for a small price. Those who were +industrious before take care of their land as they +did before, no better, no worse. But the unprogressive +Indian is not made industrious. He +rents his land to some white man and spends his +<pb n="227"/><anchor id="Pg227"/> +money in strong drink. As long as they were +on the reservation there were laws to protect +them from bad neighbors and whisky. But on +his little farm the Indian may be next door to +bad white men who sell him liquor whenever it +is to their advantage. +</p> + +<p> +There are many persons who think that missions +and schools will make the Indians good and +happy. So far as schools are concerned there +are many. Some of them are simple day schools +at the agency. Others are boarding schools still +at the agency. Still others are great industrial +schools at a town more or less distant. Of +all these schools we think that those at the +agency are the best kind. Such schools, well +managed by thoroughly good teachers, ought to +do the most good. They ought not to try to +teach high branches, but to speak, read, and write +English, a little arithmetic and a little knowledge +of the great world. They ought to be industrial +schools to the extent of teaching handiness +in all the little things that need to be done about +the house or the farm. They ought to aim to +reach the parents and to interest them in their +work. Progress in such schools is slow, but it is +better for all to make a little progress, than for a +few to get a great mass of information that they +cannot use. +</p> + +</div> + +<pb n="229"/><anchor id="Pg229"/> + +<div> +<index index='toc'/> +<index index='pdf'/> +<head>Glossary Of Indian And Other Foreign Words Which May Not +Readily Be Found In The English Dictionary.</head> + +<p> +The spellings of Indian words vary much with different authors: +in the following list the word as spelled in this book is first given, +then the pronunciation, then the number of a page on which the +meaning of the word will be found. +</p> + +<p> +Single and combined consonants have their usual English +sounds except <hi rend='italic'>c</hi>, which is equal to <hi rend='italic'>sh</hi>; <hi rend='italic'>s</hi> is always as in <hi rend='italic'>s</hi>o; final +<hi rend='italic'>s</hi> as in gem<hi rend='italic'>s</hi> is represented by <hi rend='italic'>z</hi>; soft <hi rend='italic'>g</hi> is represented by <hi rend='italic'>j</hi>. +</p> + +<p> +Vowels are as follows:— +</p> + +<lg> +<l>a as in fat</l> +<l>ā " mane</l> +<l>ä " father</l> +<l>â " talk</l> +<l>e " met</l> +<l>ē as in meat</l> +<l>i " pin</l> +<l>ī " pine</l> +<l>o " not</l> +<l>ō as in note</l> +<l>u " tub</l> +<l>ū " oo in spoon</l> +<l>oi " boil</l> +</lg> + +<p> +Abalone [á-ba-lōn], <ref target='Pg077'>77</ref>. +</p> + +<p> +Acolhua [ā-kōl'-wā], <ref target='Pg209'>209</ref>. +</p> + +<p> +Adobé [a-dō'-bā], <ref target='Pg163'>163</ref>. +</p> + +<p> +Algonkin [al-gón-kin], <ref target='Pg108'>108</ref>. +</p> + +<p> +Alibamu [ál-i-ba-mū], <ref target='Pg128'>128</ref>. +</p> + +<p> +Apache [a-pá-chā], <ref target='Pg039'>39</ref>. +</p> + +<p> +Apalache [a-pā-lá-chā], <ref target='Pg128'>128</ref>. +</p> + +<p> +Arapaho [ä-rá-pä-ho], <ref target='Pg060'>60</ref>. +</p> + +<p> +Arickara [a-rí-kä-rä], <ref target='Pg064'>64</ref>. +</p> + +<p> +Assinaboin, [a-sí-nä-boin], <ref target='Pg057'>57</ref>. +</p> + +<p> +Athapaskan [āth'-ä-pás-kan], <ref target='Pg003'>3</ref>. +</p> + +<p> +Atlatl [át-la-tl], <ref target='Pg211'>211</ref>. +</p> + +<p> +Atotarho [át-ō-tä'r-hō], <ref target='Pg116'>116</ref>. +</p> + +<p> +Aztec [az-tek], <ref target='Pg208'>208</ref>. +</p> + +<p> +Beothuk [bē-ō'-thuk], <ref target='Pg223'>223</ref>. +</p> + +<p> +Burro [bū'r-o], <ref target='Pg091'>91</ref>. +</p> + +<p> +Busk [busk], <ref target='Pg133'>133</ref>. +</p> + +<p> +Caddo [ká-dō], <ref target='Pg134'>134</ref>. +</p> + +<p> +Cañon [kán-yun], <ref target='Pg176'>176</ref>. +</p> + +<p> +Cassine [kás-sēn], <ref target='Pg133'>133</ref>. +</p> + +<p> +Catolsta [ka-tō'l-stä], <ref target='Pg144'>144</ref>. +</p> + +<p> +Cayuga [kā-yū-gä], <ref target='Pg116'>116</ref>. +</p> + +<p> +Chelley [cā], <ref target='Pg176'>176</ref>. +</p> + +<p> +Cherokee [che-rō-kē], <ref target='Pg140'>140</ref>. +</p> + +<p> +Cheyenne [cī'-en], <ref target='Pg060'>60</ref>. +</p> + +<p> +Chiapas [chē-á-pas], <ref target='Pg215'>215</ref>. +</p> + +<pb n="230"/><anchor id="Pg230"/> + +<p> +Chicasaw [chi-kä-sâ], <ref target='Pg128'>128</ref>. +</p> + +<p> +Chichen Itza [chē'-chen ē'-tsu], <ref target='Pg218'>218</ref>. +</p> + +<p> +Chilkat [chíl-kat], <ref target='Pg021'>21</ref>. +</p> + +<p> +Chinook [chi-nū'k], <ref target='Pg182'>182</ref>. +</p> + +<p> +Choctaw [chók-tâ], <ref target='Pg128'>128</ref>. +</p> + +<p> +Chunkey [chún-kā], <ref target='Pg132'>132</ref>. +</p> + +<p> +Coahuilla [kō-wē'-yä], <ref target='Pg201'>201</ref>. +</p> + +<p> +Cochiti [kō'-chē-tē'], <ref target='Pg178'>178</ref>. +</p> + +<p> +Comanche [kō-mán-chē], <ref target='Pg094'>94</ref>. +</p> + +<p> +Copan [kō-pan'], <ref target='Pg218'>218</ref>. +</p> + +<p> +Corral [kō-rál], <ref target='Pg165'>165</ref>. +</p> + +<p> +Coup [kū], <ref target='Pg042'>42</ref>. +</p> + +<p> +Cree [krē], <ref target='Pg108'>108</ref>. +</p> + +<p> +Creek [krēk], <ref target='Pg128'>128</ref>. +</p> + +<p> +Estufa [es-tū-fä], <ref target='Pg165'>165</ref>. +</p> + +<p> +Frijoles [frē-hō-lāz], <ref target='Pg178'>178</ref> (means beans). +</p> + +<p> +Glooskap [glōs-kap], <ref target='Pg032'>32</ref>. +</p> + +<p> +Haida [hī-dä], <ref target='Pg182'>182</ref>. +</p> + +<p> +Haliotis [ha-lē-ō-tis], <ref target='Pg077'>77</ref>. +</p> + +<p> +Hano [hä-nō], <ref target='Pg169'>169</ref>. +</p> + +<p> +Hayenwatha [hī-en-wä-thä], <ref target='Pg116'>116</ref>. +</p> + +<p> +Hayoneta [hoi-ä-nā-tä], <ref target='Pg145'>145</ref>. +</p> + +<p> +Hupa [hū'-pä], <ref target='Pg076'>76</ref>. +</p> + +<p> +Itztapalapa [ēt's-tä-pä-lä'-pä], <ref target='Pg055'>55</ref>. +</p> + +<p> +Kiowa [kī'-ō-wä], <ref target='Pg060'>60</ref>. +</p> + +<p> +Kisi [kē'-sē], <ref target='Pg170'>170</ref>. +</p> + +<p> +Kwakiutl [kwä'-kē-ū'tl], <ref target='Pg182'>182</ref>. +</p> + +<p> +Lenape [le-nä'-pā], <ref target='Pg109'>109</ref>. +</p> + +<p> +Lipan [lē-pan'], <ref target='Pg056'>56</ref>. +</p> + +<p> +Maguey [ma-gā'], <ref target='Pg071'>71</ref>. +</p> + +<p> +Mandan [man'-dan], <ref target='Pg159'>159</ref>. +</p> + +<p> +Maya [mī'-yä], <ref target='Pg215'>215</ref>. +</p> + +<p> +Mendoza [men-dō'-zä], <ref target='Pg073'>73</ref>. +</p> + +<p> +Mesa [mā'-sä], <ref target='Pg161'>161</ref>. +</p> + +<p> +Mescal [mes-cal'], <ref target='Pg204'>204</ref>. +</p> + +<p> +Metate [mā-tä'-tā], <ref target='Pg180'>180</ref>. +</p> + +<p> +Micam [mē'-câm], <ref target='Pg066'>66</ref>. +</p> + +<p> +Miko [mē'-kō], <ref target='Pg131'>131</ref>. +</p> + +<p> +Moki [mō'-kē], <ref target='Pg168'>168</ref>. +</p> + +<p> +M'teoulin [m'tā-ū'-lin], <ref target='Pg084'>84</ref>. +</p> + +<p> +Muskoki [mus-kō'-kē], <ref target='Pg128'>128</ref>. +</p> + +<p> +Nanabush [na'-nä-būc], <ref target='Pg112'>112</ref>. +</p> + +<p> +Navajo [na'vä-hō], <ref target='Pg021'>21</ref>. +</p> + +<p> +Neeskotting [nē'-sko-ting], <ref target='Pg051'>51</ref>. +</p> + +<p> +Nekilstlas [ne-kils'-tläs], <ref target='Pg189'>189</ref>. +</p> + +<p> +Ojibwa [ō-jib'-wä], <ref target='Pg108'>108</ref>. +</p> + +<p> +Oneida [ō-nī'-dä], <ref target='Pg116'>116</ref>. +</p> + +<p> +Onondaga [on'-on-dä'-gä], <ref target='Pg116'>116</ref>. +</p> + +<p> +Oolachen [ū'-la-chen], <ref target='Pg191'>191</ref>. +</p> + +<p> +Oraibe [ō-rai'-bā], <ref target='Pg169'>169</ref>. +</p> + +<p> +Otoe [ō'-tō], <ref target='Pg092'>92</ref>. +</p> + +<p> +Pani [pâ-nē'], <ref target='Pg060'>60</ref>. +</p> + +<p> +Pemmican [pĕ'-mi-kan], <ref target='Pg057'>57</ref>. +</p> + +<p> +Pima [pē'-mä], <ref target='Pg059'>59</ref>. +</p> + +<p> +Plaza [pla'-zä], <ref target='Pg171'>171</ref>. +</p> + +<p> +Ponka [pon'-kä], <ref target='Pg096'>96</ref>. +</p> + +<p> +Pueblo [pweb'-lō], <ref target='Pg161'>161</ref>. +</p> + +<p> +Puskita [pus'-kē-tä], <ref target='Pg133'>133</ref>. +</p> + +<p> +Rito [rē'-tō], <ref target='Pg178'>178</ref> (means brook) +</p> + +<p> +Sac [säc], <ref target='Pg054'>54</ref>. +</p> + +<p> +Santee [San-tē'], <ref target='Pg155'>155</ref>. +</p> + +<p> +Saponie [sa'-pō-nā], <ref target='Pg119'>119</ref>. +</p> + +<p> +Seneca [se'-ne-kä], <ref target='Pg116'>116</ref>. +</p> + +<p> +Senel [sā'-nel], <ref target='Pg095'>95</ref>. +</p> + +<p> +Sequoyah [se-kwoi'-yä], <ref target='Pg146'>146</ref>. +</p> + +<p> +Shawnee [câ-nē'], <ref target='Pg107'>107</ref>. +</p> + +<p> +Shenanjie [ce-nan'-jā], <ref target='Pg126'>126</ref>. +</p> + +<p> +Shonko [con'-kō], <ref target='Pg151'>151</ref>. +</p> + +<p> +Shoshoné [co'-cō-nā'], <ref target='Pg169'>169</ref>. +</p> + +<p> +Sioux [sū], <ref target='Pg155'>155</ref>. +</p> + +<p> +Sipapu [sē-pä'-pū], <ref target='Pg171'>171</ref>. +</p> + +<p> +Sisseton [si'-se-ton], <ref target='Pg155'>155</ref>. +</p> + +<p> +Skil [skēl], <ref target='Pg187'>187</ref>. +</p> + +<p> +Skowl [skōl], <ref target='Pg197'>197</ref>. +</p> + +<p> +Succotash [su'-kō-tac], <ref target='Pg056'>56</ref>. +</p> + +<p> +Tabasco [ta-bas'-kō], <ref target='Pg215'>215</ref>. +</p> + +<p> +Taos [tows], <ref target='Pg162'>162</ref>. +</p> + +<p> +Tecpanecan [tek'-pan-ē'-kan], <ref target='Pg209'>209</ref>. +</p> + +<p> +Tenochtitlan [te-nōch'-tē-tlan'], <ref target='Pg208'>208</ref>. +</p> + +<p> +Teton [tē'-ton], <ref target='Pg155'>155</ref>. +</p> + +<p> +Texcoco [tec-kō'-kō], <ref target='Pg208'>208</ref>. +</p> + +<p> +Tikal [tē'-kal], <ref target='Pg220'>220</ref>. +</p> + +<p> +Tirawa [tē-rä'-wä], <ref target='Pg136'>136</ref>. +</p> + +<p> +Tlacopan [tla-kō'-pan], <ref target='Pg209'>209</ref>. +</p> + +<p> +Tlingit [tlin'-git], <ref target='Pg189'>189</ref>. +</p> + +<p> +Tonkaway [ton'-kä-wā], <ref target='Pg134'>134</ref>. +</p> + +<p> +Totem [tō'-tem], <ref target='Pg098'>98</ref>. +</p> + +<p> +Tshimpshian [tcim'-cē-an], <ref target='Pg182'>182</ref>. +</p> + +<p> +Tuscarora [tus'-kā-rō'-rä], <ref target='Pg118'>118</ref>. +</p> + +<p> +Tutelo [tū'-tu-lō], <ref target='Pg119'>119</ref>. +</p> + +<pb n="231"/><anchor id="Pg231"/> + +<p> +Umane [ū-mä'-nā], <ref target='Pg156'>156</ref>. +</p> + +<p> +Uncpapa [unk-pä'-pä], <ref target='Pg151'>151</ref>. +</p> + +<p> +Ute [yūt], <ref target='Pg109'>109</ref>. +</p> + +<p> +Wahpeton [wä'-pē'-ton], <ref target='Pg155'>155</ref>. +</p> + +<p> +Wakantanka [wä'-kän-tän'-kä], <ref target='Pg156'>156</ref>. +</p> + +<p> +Walam Olum [wä'-läm ōl'-um], <ref target='Pg111'>111</ref>. +</p> + +<p> +Walpi [wäl'-pē], <ref target='Pg169'>169</ref>. +</p> + +<p> +Wampampeog [wäm'-päm-pē-og], <ref target='Pg074'>74</ref>. +</p> + +<p> +Wichita [wi'-chi-tä], <ref target='Pg134'>134</ref>. +</p> + +<p> +Winnebago [wi'-nē-bā'-gō], <ref target='Pg155'>155</ref>. +</p> + +<p> +Yanktonnais [yank'-ton-ā], <ref target='Pg155'>155</ref>. +</p> + +<p> +Yētl [yātl], <ref target='Pg189'>189</ref>. +</p> + +<p> +Zizania [zē-zā-nē-ä], <ref target='Pg109'>109</ref>. +</p> + +<p> +Zuñi [zūn'-yē], <ref target='Pg089'>89</ref>. +</p> + +</div> + +<pb n="233"/><anchor id="Pg233"/> + +<div> +<index index='toc'/> +<index index='pdf'/> +<head>Index.</head> + +<p> +[Indian words are in italics; tribal names in small capitals.] +</p> + +<lg> +<l>Abalone, <ref target='Pg077'>77</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l><hi rend='smallcaps'>Acolhua</hi>, <ref target='Pg209'>209</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Acorns, <ref target='Pg202'>202</ref>, <ref target='Pg203'>203</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Adams Co., Ohio, <ref target='Pg101'>101</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Adobé, <ref target='Pg163'>163</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Adoption, <ref target='Pg126'>126</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Agriculture, <ref target='Pg004'>4</ref>, <ref target='Pg136'>136</ref>, <ref target='Pg164'>164</ref>, <ref target='Pg209'>209</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Alaska, <ref target='Pg021'>21</ref>, <ref target='Pg095'>95</ref>, <ref target='Pg181'>181</ref>, <ref target='Pg195'>195</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l><hi rend='italic'>Algonkin</hi>, <ref target='Pg003'>3</ref>, <ref target='Pg053'>53</ref>, <ref target='Pg066'>66</ref>, <ref target='Pg074'>74</ref>, <ref target='Pg083'>83</ref>, <ref target='Pg108'>108</ref> <hi rend='italic'>et seq.</hi>, <ref target='Pg116'>116</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>houses, <ref target='Pg008'>8</ref> <hi rend='italic'>et seq.</hi>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>story, <ref target='Pg032'>32</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>torture, <ref target='Pg045'>45</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>villages, <ref target='Pg009'>9</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Algonkin words, <ref target='Pg108'>108</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Algonquian, <ref target='Pg003'>3</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l><hi rend='smallcaps'>Alibamu</hi>, <ref target='Pg128'>128</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Altar Mounds, <ref target='Pg100'>100</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Altars, <ref target='Pg218'>218</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Ambuscade, <ref target='Pg041'>41</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Animal names, <ref target='Pg198'>198</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Antelope society, <ref target='Pg171'>171</ref>, <ref target='Pg172'>172</ref>, <ref target='Pg175'>175</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l><hi rend='smallcaps'>Apache</hi>, <ref target='Pg039'>39</ref>, <ref target='Pg059'>59</ref>, <ref target='Pg087'>87</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l><hi rend='smallcaps'>Apalache</hi>, <ref target='Pg128'>128</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l><hi rend='smallcaps'>Arapaho</hi>, <ref target='Pg060'>60</ref>; sign for, <ref target='Pg064'>64</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Architecture, <ref target='Pg216'>216</ref>; of Pueblos, <ref target='Pg162'>162</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l><hi rend='smallcaps'>Arickara</hi>, <ref target='Pg064'>64</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Arizona, <ref target='Pg161'>161</ref>, <ref target='Pg168'>168</ref>, <ref target='Pg175'>175</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Armor, quilted, <ref target='Pg212'>212</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Arrow racing, <ref target='Pg144'>144</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Arrows, <ref target='Pg046'>46</ref>, <ref target='Pg049'>49</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l><hi rend='smallcaps'>Assinaboin</hi>, <ref target='Pg057'>57</ref>, <ref target='Pg060'>60</ref>, <ref target='Pg155'>155</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Athapaskan, <ref target='Pg003'>3</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Atlantic Ocean, <ref target='Pg090'>90</ref>, <ref target='Pg108'>108</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l><hi rend='italic'>Atlatl</hi>—or spear-thrower, <ref target='Pg211'>211</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l><hi rend='italic'>Atotarho</hi>, <ref target='Pg116'>116</ref> <hi rend='italic'>et seq.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l><hi rend='smallcaps'>Aztec</hi>, <ref target='Pg039'>39</ref>, <ref target='Pg055'>55</ref>, <ref target='Pg087'>87</ref>, <ref target='Pg129'>129</ref>, <ref target='Pg208'>208</ref> <hi rend='italic'>et seq.</hi>, <ref target='Pg215'>215</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>books, <ref target='Pg071'>71</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>picture writing, <ref target='Pg071'>71</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Baby, <ref target='Pg022'>22</ref> <hi rend='italic'>et seq.</hi>, <ref target='Pg182'>182</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Badger, sign for, <ref target='Pg061'>61</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Ball, <ref target='Pg145'>145</ref> <hi rend='italic'>et seq.</hi>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>game, <ref target='Pg029'>29</ref>, <ref target='Pg034'>34</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>sticks, <ref target='Pg029'>29</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Bandelier, A. F., <ref target='Pg181'>181</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Barrows, D. P., <ref target='Pg205'>205</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Basket making, <ref target='Pg144'>144</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Baskets, <ref target='Pg027'>27</ref>, <ref target='Pg203'>203</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Beads, <ref target='Pg018'>18</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>shell, <ref target='Pg076'>76</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>turquoise, <ref target='Pg078'>78</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Bead-work, <ref target='Pg016'>16</ref>, <ref target='Pg017'>17</ref>, <ref target='Pg018'>18</ref>, <ref target='Pg025'>25</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Bear—Story of Hunter and, <ref target='Pg198'>198</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Beaver, sign for, <ref target='Pg062'>62</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Beloved men, <ref target='Pg131'>131</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Belts, <ref target='Pg020'>20</ref>, <ref target='Pg164'>164</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l><hi rend='smallcaps'>Beothuk</hi>, <ref target='Pg223'>223</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Bernal Diaz del Castillo, <ref target='Pg214'>214</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Berries, <ref target='Pg188'>188</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Biography, picture, <ref target='Pg066'>66</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Birch-bark, <ref target='Pg024'>24</ref>, <ref target='Pg053'>53</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>letter, <ref target='Pg059'>59</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>records, <ref target='Pg066'>66</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Bird Dances, <ref target='Pg205'>205</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Black drink, <ref target='Pg133'>133</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l><hi rend='smallcaps'>Black-foot</hi>, <ref target='Pg108'>108</ref>, <ref target='Pg109'>109</ref>, <ref target='Pg112'>112</ref> <hi rend='italic'>et seq.</hi>, <ref target='Pg132'>132</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>sign for, <ref target='Pg064'>64</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>story, <ref target='Pg035'>35</ref> <hi rend='italic'>et seq.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Blankets, <ref target='Pg016'>16</ref>, <ref target='Pg020'>20</ref>, <ref target='Pg021'>21</ref>, <ref target='Pg078'>78</ref>, <ref target='Pg186'>186</ref>, <ref target='Pg210'>210</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Blowgun, <ref target='Pg050'>50</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Boas, F., <ref target='Pg002'>2</ref>, <ref target='Pg006'>6</ref>, <ref target='Pg195'>195</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Bones, buried, <ref target='Pg093'>93</ref>, <ref target='Pg105'>105</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Books, <ref target='Pg071'>71</ref>, <ref target='Pg220'>220</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Bonnets—feather, <ref target='Pg044'>44</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Bottles of seaweed stalk, <ref target='Pg189'>189</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Bow drill, <ref target='Pg055'>55</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Bows, <ref target='Pg049'>49</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Box burial, <ref target='Pg096'>96</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Boys—training of, <ref target='Pg129'>129</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Bread, <ref target='Pg166'>166</ref>, <ref target='Pg167'>167</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Breech-clout, <ref target='Pg015'>15</ref>, <ref target='Pg210'>210</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Bricks, <ref target='Pg163'>163</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Brinton, D. G., <ref target='Pg108'>108</ref>, <ref target='Pg115'>115</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>British America, <ref target='Pg108'>108</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>British Columbia, <ref target='Pg021'>21</ref>, <ref target='Pg024'>24</ref>, <ref target='Pg079'>79</ref>, <ref target='Pg187'>187</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Brooch, <ref target='Pg017'>17</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Brook of the Beans, <ref target='Pg178'>178</ref> <hi rend='italic'>et seq.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Buffalo, N. Y., <ref target='Pg120'>120</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Buffalo, sign for, <ref target='Pg063'>63</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Buffalo dance, <ref target='Pg048'>48</ref>, <ref target='Pg087'>87</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Buffalo hunt, <ref target='Pg046'>46</ref>, <ref target='Pg047'>47</ref>, <ref target='Pg135'>135</ref> <hi rend='italic'>et seq.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<anchor id='Index-Bull-Boat'/> +<l>Bull-boat, <ref target='Pg053'>53</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Burial, <ref target='Pg092'>92</ref> <hi rend='italic'>et seq.</hi>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>in caves, <ref target='Pg095'>95</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Burros, <ref target='Pg091'>91</ref>, <ref target='Pg165'>165</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Bushotter, G., <ref target='Pg159'>159</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l><hi rend='italic'>Busk</hi>, <ref target='Pg133'>133</ref> <hi rend='italic'>et seq.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l><hi rend='smallcaps'>Caddo</hi>, <ref target='Pg134'>134</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Caddoan, <ref target='Pg134'>134</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Calabashes, <ref target='Pg209'>209</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Calculiform characters, <ref target='Pg221'>221</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Calendar, Dakota, <ref target='Pg067'>67</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>California, <ref target='Pg004'>4</ref>, <ref target='Pg076'>76</ref>, <ref target='Pg095'>95</ref>, <ref target='Pg201'>201</ref> <hi rend='italic'>et seq.</hi>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>baskets, <ref target='Pg027'>27</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>cradle, <ref target='Pg025'>25</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>dress, <ref target='Pg021'>21</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>houses, <ref target='Pg011'>11</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Camp circle, <ref target='Pg014'>14</ref>, <ref target='Pg156'>156</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Canada, <ref target='Pg032'>32</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Cannibalism, <ref target='Pg213'>213</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Canoe burial, <ref target='Pg097'>97</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Canoes, <ref target='Pg186'>186</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>birch-bark, <ref target='Pg052'>52</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>dugout, <ref target='Pg052'>52</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Cañons, <ref target='Pg176'>176</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Captives, <ref target='Pg045'>45</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Cardinal points, <ref target='Pg089'>89</ref>, <ref target='Pg090'>90</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Carrying babies, <ref target='Pg027'>27</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Carrying strap, <ref target='Pg027'>27</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Carving, <ref target='Pg185'>185</ref>, <ref target='Pg195'>195</ref>, <ref target='Pg217'>217</ref>, <ref target='Pg219'>219</ref>, <ref target='Pg220'>220</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Cassine, <ref target='Pg133'>133</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Catherwood, F., <ref target='Pg216'>216</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Catlin, G., <ref target='Pg030'>30</ref>, <ref target='Pg147'>147</ref> <hi rend='italic'>et seq.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Catolsta, old, <ref target='Pg144'>144</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Cave burial, <ref target='Pg095'>95</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Cave houses, <ref target='Pg176'>176</ref>, <ref target='Pg177'>177</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l><hi rend='smallcaps'>Cayuga</hi>, <ref target='Pg002'>2</ref>, <ref target='Pg116'>116</ref>, <ref target='Pg118'>118</ref>, <ref target='Pg119'>119</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Cedar bark, <ref target='Pg021'>21</ref>, <ref target='Pg187'>187</ref>, <ref target='Pg188'>188</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Central America, <ref target='Pg071'>71</ref>, <ref target='Pg215'>215</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Century of Dishonor, <ref target='Pg225'>225</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Chamberlain, A. F., <ref target='Pg195'>195</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Charles V., <ref target='Pg072'>72</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Charms, <ref target='Pg084'>84</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Charnay, <ref target='Pg220'>220</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Chelley River, <ref target='Pg176'>176</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l><hi rend='smallcaps'>Cherokees</hi>, <ref target='Pg030'>30</ref>, <ref target='Pg052'>52</ref>, <ref target='Pg084'>84</ref>, <ref target='Pg089'>89</ref>, <ref target='Pg107'>107</ref>, <ref target='Pg108'>108</ref>, <ref target='Pg140'>140</ref> <hi rend='italic'>et seq.</hi>, <ref target='Pg224'>224</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l><hi rend='smallcaps'>Cheyenne</hi>, <ref target='Pg060'>60</ref>, <ref target='Pg069'>69</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Chiapas, <ref target='Pg215'>215</ref>, <ref target='Pg216'>216</ref>, <ref target='Pg217'>217</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l><hi rend='smallcaps'>Chicasaw</hi>, <ref target='Pg128'>128</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Chichen Itza, <ref target='Pg218'>218</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Chief of Men, <ref target='Pg209'>209</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l><hi rend='smallcaps'>Chilkat</hi>, <ref target='Pg021'>21</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Chillicothe, Ohio, <ref target='Pg099'>99</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l><hi rend='smallcaps'>Chinook</hi>, <ref target='Pg182'>182</ref> <hi rend='italic'>et seq.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l><hi rend='smallcaps'>Choctaw</hi>, <ref target='Pg030'>30</ref>, <ref target='Pg128'>128</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l><hi rend='italic'>Chunkey</hi>, <ref target='Pg113'>113</ref>, <ref target='Pg132'>132</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Cincinnati, Ohio, <ref target='Pg099'>99</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Clams, <ref target='Pg188'>188</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Clark, W. P., <ref target='Pg041'>41</ref>, <ref target='Pg049'>49</ref>, <ref target='Pg064'>64</ref>, <ref target='Pg065'>65</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Cliff-dwellers, <ref target='Pg054'>54</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Cliff-dwellings, <ref target='Pg175'>175</ref> <hi rend='italic'>et seq.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Cliff-ruins, <ref target='Pg176'>176</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Cloths, <ref target='Pg180'>180</ref>, <ref target='Pg210'>210</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Clubs, <ref target='Pg188'>188</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l><hi rend='smallcaps'>Coahuilla</hi>, <ref target='Pg201'>201</ref> <hi rend='italic'>et seq.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Coahuilla Valley, <ref target='Pg201'>201</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l><hi rend='italic'>Cochiti</hi>, <ref target='Pg044'>44</ref>, <ref target='Pg077'>77</ref>, <ref target='Pg178'>178</ref>, <ref target='Pg181'>181</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Coffins, <ref target='Pg093'>93</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Coiled baskets, <ref target='Pg203'>203</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Colorado, <ref target='Pg175'>175</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Columbia River, <ref target='Pg182'>182</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l><hi rend='smallcaps'>Comanche</hi>, <ref target='Pg094'>94</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>sign for, <ref target='Pg064'>64</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Commemorative posts, <ref target='Pg195'>195</ref> <hi rend='italic'>et seq.</hi>, <ref target='Pg197'>197</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Companions for the dead, <ref target='Pg094'>94</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Condition of Indians, <ref target='Pg223'>223</ref> <hi rend='italic'>et seq.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Confederacy, <ref target='Pg117'>117</ref> <hi rend='italic'>et seq.</hi>, <ref target='Pg128'>128</ref>, <ref target='Pg209'>209</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Conjuring, <ref target='Pg130'>130</ref>, <ref target='Pg145'>145</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Conquest of Mexico, <ref target='Pg214'>214</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Cooking, <ref target='Pg056'>56</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Copan, <ref target='Pg218'>218</ref>, <ref target='Pg220'>220</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Copper, <ref target='Pg079'>79</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Coppers, <ref target='Pg079'>79</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Coracle (see <ref target='Index-Bull-Boat'>Bull-boat</ref>).</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Corpse:</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>displayed, <ref target='Pg196'>196</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>treatment of, <ref target='Pg092'>92</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Corral, <ref target='Pg091'>91</ref>, <ref target='Pg165'>165</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Cortez, <ref target='Pg209'>209</ref>, <ref target='Pg213'>213</ref>, <ref target='Pg214'>214</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Cotton, <ref target='Pg210'>210</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Council:</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>tribal, <ref target='Pg117'>117</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>confederacy, <ref target='Pg119'>119</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Council house, <ref target='Pg130'>130</ref>, <ref target='Pg131'>131</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Coup, <ref target='Pg042'>42</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Cradle, <ref target='Pg022'>22</ref>, <ref target='Pg183'>183</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Cram, Rev. Mr., <ref target='Pg120'>120</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Crazy, sign for, <ref target='Pg064'>64</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Creation legend, <ref target='Pg112'>112</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l><hi rend='smallcaps'>Cree</hi>, <ref target='Pg083'>83</ref>, <ref target='Pg108'>108</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<anchor id='Index-Creek'/> +<l><hi rend='smallcaps'>Creek</hi>, <ref target='Pg108'>108</ref>, <ref target='Pg113'>113</ref>, <ref target='Pg128'>128</ref> <hi rend='italic'>et seq.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Cremation, <ref target='Pg095'>95</ref>, <ref target='Pg196'>196</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Crooked Hand, <ref target='Pg138'>138</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Crow, <ref target='Pg192'>192</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l><hi rend='smallcaps'>Crow</hi>, <ref target='Pg049'>49</ref>, <ref target='Pg060'>60</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>sign for, <ref target='Pg064'>64</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Cushing, F. H., <ref target='Pg090'>90</ref>, <ref target='Pg162'>162</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Cycle festival, <ref target='Pg055'>55</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l><hi rend='smallcaps'>Dakota</hi>: (see also <ref target='Index-Sioux'><hi rend='smallcaps'>Sioux</hi></ref>) <ref target='Pg155'>155</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>tent, <ref target='Pg012'>12</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>war feathers, <ref target='Pg043'>43</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Dakota Calendar, <ref target='Pg067'>67</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Dances: <ref target='Pg085'>85</ref> <hi rend='italic'>et seq.</hi>, <ref target='Pg172'>172</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>bird, <ref target='Pg205'>205</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>buffalo, <ref target='Pg087'>87</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>rain, <ref target='Pg088'>88</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>scalp, <ref target='Pg087'>87</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>snake, <ref target='Pg085'>85</ref>, <ref target='Pg088'>88</ref>, <ref target='Pg168'>168</ref> <hi rend='italic'>et seq.</hi>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>sun, <ref target='Pg155'>155</ref> <hi rend='italic'>et seq.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Dancing, <ref target='Pg032'>32</ref>, <ref target='Pg048'>48</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Davis, E. H., <ref target='Pg107'>107</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Dawes Bill, <ref target='Pg225'>225</ref> <hi rend='italic'>et seq.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Dawson, G. M., <ref target='Pg223'>223</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Daylight, <ref target='Pg189'>189</ref>, <ref target='Pg190'>190</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Dayton, Ohio, <ref target='Pg099'>99</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Deaf-mutes, <ref target='Pg061'>61</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Deans, J., <ref target='Pg195'>195</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Death, <ref target='Pg092'>92</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>posts, <ref target='Pg195'>195</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>watch, <ref target='Pg098'>98</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Decreasing population, <ref target='Pg135'>135</ref>, <ref target='Pg223'>223</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Deformation of the head, <ref target='Pg183'>183</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l><hi rend='smallcaps'>Delaware</hi> (see also <ref target='Index-Lenape'><hi rend='smallcaps'>Lenape</hi></ref>) <ref target='Pg108'>108</ref>, <ref target='Pg126'>126</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Dentalium, <ref target='Pg075'>75</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Descent in female line, <ref target='Pg198'>198</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Destroying objects for the dead, <ref target='Pg095'>95</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Disease, <ref target='Pg080'>80</ref>, <ref target='Pg082'>82</ref>, <ref target='Pg084'>84</ref>, <ref target='Pg224'>224</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Display:</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>of corpse, <ref target='Pg196'>196</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>of property, <ref target='Pg196'>196</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Dog, sign for, <ref target='Pg063'>63</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Dog, The, <ref target='Pg151'>151</ref> <hi rend='italic'>et seq.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Dorsey, J. O., <ref target='Pg160'>160</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Dress, <ref target='Pg014'>14</ref> <hi rend='italic'>et seq.</hi>, <ref target='Pg169'>169</ref>, <ref target='Pg186'>186</ref>, <ref target='Pg210'>210</ref>, <ref target='Pg211'>211</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>dancing, <ref target='Pg087'>87</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Drum, <ref target='Pg086'>86</ref>, <ref target='Pg090'>90</ref>, <ref target='Pg213'>213</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Drying meat, <ref target='Pg057'>57</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Duck hunting, <ref target='Pg209'>209</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Dug-outs, <ref target='Pg052'>52</ref>, <ref target='Pg186'>186</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Eagle dance, <ref target='Pg205'>205</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Eastern Cherokees, <ref target='Pg143'>143</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Effigy mounds, <ref target='Pg102'>102</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Elephant-trunk decoration, <ref target='Pg219'>219</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>El Rito de los Frijoles, <ref target='Pg178'>178</ref> <hi rend='italic'>et seq.</hi>, <ref target='Pg181'>181</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Elsie, old, <ref target='Pg056'>56</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Enclosures, <ref target='Pg099'>99</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l><hi rend='smallcaps'>Erie</hi>, <ref target='Pg119'>119</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l><hi rend='smallcaps'>Eskimo</hi>, <ref target='Pg096'>96</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Estufa (see also <hi rend='italic'>Kiva</hi>), <ref target='Pg165'>165</ref>, <ref target='Pg170'>170</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Eyes, <ref target='Pg022'>22</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Families, <ref target='Pg198'>198</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Families of Language, <ref target='Pg002'>2</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Fast, <ref target='Pg130'>130</ref>, <ref target='Pg133'>133</ref>, <ref target='Pg160'>160</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Feasts, <ref target='Pg113'>113</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Feather-cloth, <ref target='Pg180'>180</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Feather-on-the-head, <ref target='Pg041'>41</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Feathers, <ref target='Pg043'>43</ref>, <ref target='Pg211'>211</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Female descent, <ref target='Pg198'>198</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Fewkes, J. W., <ref target='Pg170'>170</ref>, <ref target='Pg175'>175</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Fibulæ, <ref target='Pg017'>17</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Figures—stone, <ref target='Pg218'>218</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Fire:</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>secured, <ref target='Pg189'>189</ref>, <ref target='Pg190'>190</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>used, <ref target='Pg186'>186</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>drill, <ref target='Pg055'>55</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>making, <ref target='Pg053'>53</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>perpetual, <ref target='Pg131'>131</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>signals, <ref target='Pg059'>59</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>sticks, <ref target='Pg054'>54</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>for dead, <ref target='Pg098'>98</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Fisherman and Raven, story of, <ref target='Pg192'>192</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Fish hooks, <ref target='Pg188'>188</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Fishing, <ref target='Pg050'>50</ref> <hi rend='italic'>et seq.</hi>, <ref target='Pg188'>188</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>devices, <ref target='Pg051'>51</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Five Nations, <ref target='Pg188'>188</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l><hi rend='smallcaps'>Flathead</hi>, <ref target='Pg183'>183</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>sign for, <ref target='Pg064'>64</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Flint and steel, <ref target='Pg053'>53</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Fly's eggs, <ref target='Pg210'>210</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Food for dead, <ref target='Pg098'>98</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Foot race, <ref target='Pg171'>171</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Ft. Du Quesne, <ref target='Pg126'>126</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Ft. Stevenson, <ref target='Pg153'>153</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Forward Inlet, <ref target='Pg076'>76</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Four Bears, <ref target='Pg153'>153</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Franciscans, <ref target='Pg206'>206</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>French and Indian Wars, <ref target='Pg123'>123</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Fresh water secured, <ref target='Pg189'>189</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Friendship, <ref target='Pg041'>41</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Furs, <ref target='Pg186'>186</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Gambling, <ref target='Pg028'>28</ref>, <ref target='Pg113'>113</ref>, <ref target='Pg132'>132</ref>, <ref target='Pg204'>204</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Game drives, <ref target='Pg048'>48</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Games, <ref target='Pg028'>28</ref> <hi rend='italic'>et seq.</hi>, <ref target='Pg034'>34</ref>, <ref target='Pg113'>113</ref>, <ref target='Pg132'>132</ref>, <ref target='Pg144'>144</ref> <hi rend='italic'>et seq.</hi>, <ref target='Pg205'>205</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Gatschet, A. S., <ref target='Pg134'>134</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Gauntlet running, <ref target='Pg045'>45</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Gay Head, <ref target='Pg051'>51</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Genesee River, <ref target='Pg126'>126</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Gens, <ref target='Pg198'>198</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Georgia, <ref target='Pg140'>140</ref>, <ref target='Pg141'>141</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Gestures, calling rain, <ref target='Pg088'>88</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l><hi rend='italic'>Glooskap</hi>, <ref target='Pg032'>32</ref> <hi rend='italic'>et seq.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Gods, <ref target='Pg211'>211</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Granaries, <ref target='Pg202'>202</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Grass, dresses of, <ref target='Pg021'>21</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Grave posts, <ref target='Pg095'>95</ref>, <ref target='Pg098'>98</ref>, <ref target='Pg195'>195</ref> <hi rend='italic'>et seq.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Graves, <ref target='Pg092'>92</ref> <hi rend='italic'>et seq.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Great house, <ref target='Pg130'>130</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Great Lakes, <ref target='Pg108'>108</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Great removal, <ref target='Pg142'>142</ref> <hi rend='italic'>et seq.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Grinding meal, <ref target='Pg167'>167</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Grinnell, G. B., <ref target='Pg039'>39</ref>, <ref target='Pg112'>112</ref>, <ref target='Pg138'>138</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Guatemala, <ref target='Pg215'>215</ref>, <ref target='Pg216'>216</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Guessing games, <ref target='Pg028'>28</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Guess, or Guest, George, <ref target='Pg146'>146</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Hadley, L., <ref target='Pg065'>65</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Haida, <ref target='Pg079'>79</ref>, <ref target='Pg082'>82</ref>, <ref target='Pg095'>95</ref>, <ref target='Pg096'>96</ref>, <ref target='Pg182'>182</ref> <hi rend='italic'>et seq.</hi>, <ref target='Pg223'>223</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Hair, <ref target='Pg182'>182</ref>; forehead, <ref target='Pg022'>22</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Hair fabrics, <ref target='Pg180'>180</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Hale, H., <ref target='Pg122'>122</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Halibut, <ref target='Pg182'>182</ref>, <ref target='Pg188'>188</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Haliotis, <ref target='Pg077'>77</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Hammock, <ref target='Pg025'>25</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l><hi rend='italic'>Hano</hi>, <ref target='Pg169'>169</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Hat, <ref target='Pg187'>187</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l><hi rend='italic'>Hayenwatha</hi>, <ref target='Pg116'>116</ref> <hi rend='italic'>et seq.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Head deformation, <ref target='Pg182'>182</ref>, <ref target='Pg220'>220</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Head-dress, <ref target='Pg211'>211</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Helmet, <ref target='Pg211'>211</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Hieroglyphics, <ref target='Pg218'>218</ref>, <ref target='Pg220'>220</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Hoes, <ref target='Pg136'>136</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Holmes, W. H., <ref target='Pg080'>80</ref>, <ref target='Pg219'>219</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Honduras, <ref target='Pg215'>215</ref>, <ref target='Pg218'>218</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Hopeton, <ref target='Pg099'>99</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Horn bows, <ref target='Pg049'>49</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Horses—stealing, <ref target='Pg042'>42</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Hospitality, <ref target='Pg005'>5</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Houses, <ref target='Pg007'>7</ref> <hi rend='italic'>et seq.</hi>, <ref target='Pg184'>184</ref>, <ref target='Pg202'>202</ref>, <ref target='Pg211'>211</ref>, <ref target='Pg216'>216</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>Pueblo, <ref target='Pg162'>162</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>House circles, <ref target='Pg105'>105</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Housetops, life on, <ref target='Pg163'>163</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l><hi rend='italic'>Hoyoneta</hi>, <ref target='Pg145'>145</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Hudson Bay Co., <ref target='Pg079'>79</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Hudson River, <ref target='Pg115'>115</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Hunting, <ref target='Pg046'>46</ref> <hi rend='italic'>et seq.</hi>, <ref target='Pg135'>135</ref> <hi rend='italic'>et seq.</hi>, <ref target='Pg209'>209</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>ducks, <ref target='Pg209'>209</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>snakes, <ref target='Pg170'>170</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l><hi rend='smallcaps'>Hupa</hi>, <ref target='Pg076'>76</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l><hi rend='smallcaps'>Huron</hi>, <ref target='Pg119'>119</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Hut rings, <ref target='Pg105'>105</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Hypnotism, <ref target='Pg083'>83</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Idol, <ref target='Pg213'>213</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Indian, <ref target='Pg001'>1</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Indian Territory, <ref target='Pg143'>143</ref>, <ref target='Pg223'>223</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Initiation, <ref target='Pg129'>129</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Iowa, <ref target='Pg093'>93</ref>, <ref target='Pg106'>106</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l><hi rend='smallcaps'>Iroquois</hi>, <ref target='Pg039'>39</ref>, <ref target='Pg053'>53</ref>, <ref target='Pg066'>66</ref>, <ref target='Pg074'>74</ref>, <ref target='Pg108'>108</ref>, <ref target='Pg115'>115</ref> <hi rend='italic'>et seq.</hi>, <ref target='Pg129'>129</ref>, <ref target='Pg209'>209</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>ball play, <ref target='Pg029'>29</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>houses, <ref target='Pg007'>7</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>story, <ref target='Pg032'>32</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>torture, <ref target='Pg045'>45</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l><hi rend='italic'>Itztapalapa</hi>, <ref target='Pg055'>55</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Jacket, <ref target='Pg016'>16</ref>, <ref target='Pg017'>17</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Jackson, H. H., <ref target='Pg147'>147</ref>, <ref target='Pg202'>202</ref>, <ref target='Pg225'>225</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Jemison, Mary, <ref target='Pg122'>122</ref> <hi rend='italic'>et seq.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Jemison, T., <ref target='Pg122'>122</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Jesuits, <ref target='Pg206'>206</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Journeys of George Catlin, <ref target='Pg148'>148</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Keeper of the belts, <ref target='Pg075'>75</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Kentucky, <ref target='Pg095'>95</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Kilts, <ref target='Pg020'>20</ref>, <ref target='Pg021'>21</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>King Philip, <ref target='Pg074'>74</ref>, <ref target='Pg108'>108</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l><hi rend='smallcaps'>Kiowa</hi>, <ref target='Pg060'>60</ref>, <ref target='Pg061'>61</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l><hi rend='italic'>Kisi</hi>, <ref target='Pg170'>170</ref> <hi rend='italic'>et seq.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l><hi rend='smallcaps'>Koskimo</hi>, <ref target='Pg183'>183</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l><hi rend='smallcaps'>Kwakiutl</hi>, <ref target='Pg182'>182</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Lacrosse, <ref target='Pg029'>29</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Ladders, <ref target='Pg163'>163</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Land in severalty, <ref target='Pg225'>225</ref> <hi rend='italic'>et seq.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Languages, <ref target='Pg002'>2</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Lapham, I. A., <ref target='Pg107'>107</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Leggings, <ref target='Pg015'>15</ref>, <ref target='Pg017'>17</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Leland, C. G., <ref target='Pg038'>38</ref>, <ref target='Pg083'>83</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<anchor id='Index-Lenape'/> +<l><hi rend='smallcaps'>Lenape</hi>, <ref target='Pg108'>108</ref>, <ref target='Pg109'>109</ref> <hi rend='italic'>et seq.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Life:</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>of cliff-dwellers, etc., <ref target='Pg181'>181</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>Mayan peoples, <ref target='Pg220'>220</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l><hi rend='smallcaps'>Lipan</hi>, <ref target='Pg056'>56</ref>, <ref target='Pg134'>134</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Lip piercing, <ref target='Pg183'>183</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Lip plug, <ref target='Pg183'>183</ref>, <ref target='Pg210'>210</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Little Bear, <ref target='Pg151'>151</ref> <hi rend='italic'>et seq.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Lone Dog, <ref target='Pg067'>67</ref>, <ref target='Pg069'>69</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Long House, <ref target='Pg007'>7</ref>, <ref target='Pg119'>119</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Lorillard City, <ref target='Pg220'>220</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Los Angeles, Cal., <ref target='Pg207'>207</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Los Cerillos, N. M., <ref target='Pg077'>77</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Louisiana, <ref target='Pg135'>135</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Lower California, <ref target='Pg206'>206</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Lummis, C. F., <ref target='Pg204'>204</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Magicians (see <ref target='Index-Medicine-Man'>medicine men</ref>).</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Maguey, <ref target='Pg071'>71</ref>, <ref target='Pg210'>210</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Mallery, G., <ref target='Pg065'>65</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Mancos Cañon, <ref target='Pg176'>176</ref>, <ref target='Pg179'>179</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l><hi rend='smallcaps'>Mandan</hi>, <ref target='Pg090'>90</ref>, <ref target='Pg148'>148</ref>, <ref target='Pg153'>153</ref>, <ref target='Pg155'>155</ref>, <ref target='Pg159'>159</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>house, <ref target='Pg011'>11</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>bull-boat, <ref target='Pg053'>53</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Manta, <ref target='Pg169'>169</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Map, <ref target='Pg003'>3</ref>, <ref target='Pg201'>201</ref>, <ref target='Pg225'>225</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Martha's Vineyard, Mass., <ref target='Pg051'>51</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Mason, O. T., <ref target='Pg030'>30</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Massacre, <ref target='Pg125'>125</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l><hi rend='italic'>Massasoit</hi>, <ref target='Pg108'>108</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Matthews, W., <ref target='Pg153'>153</ref>, <ref target='Pg154'>154</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Matting, <ref target='Pg010'>10</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l><hi rend='smallcaps'>Maya</hi>, <ref target='Pg215'>215</ref> <hi rend='italic'>et seq.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>McElmo Cañon, <ref target='Pg181'>181</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Meal:</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>acorn, <ref target='Pg203'>203</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>sacred, <ref target='Pg090'>90</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Measure, arrow, <ref target='Pg050'>50</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Medicinal liquid, <ref target='Pg133'>133</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Medicine, <ref target='Pg080'>80</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<anchor id='Index-Medicine-Man'/> +<l>Medicine man, <ref target='Pg033'>33</ref>, <ref target='Pg080'>80</ref> <hi rend='italic'>et seq.</hi>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>performances, <ref target='Pg083'>83</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>tested, <ref target='Pg084'>84</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Memory helps, <ref target='Pg066'>66</ref>, <ref target='Pg075'>75</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Mendoza, <ref target='Pg073'>73</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Mesa, <ref target='Pg161'>161</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Mescal, <ref target='Pg204'>204</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l><hi rend='italic'>Metate</hi>, <ref target='Pg167'>167</ref>, <ref target='Pg180'>180</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Mexico, <ref target='Pg027'>27</ref>, <ref target='Pg039'>39</ref>, <ref target='Pg055'>55</ref>, <ref target='Pg071'>71</ref>, <ref target='Pg135'>135</ref>, <ref target='Pg136'>136</ref>, <ref target='Pg175'>175</ref>, <ref target='Pg206'>206</ref>, <ref target='Pg208'>208</ref> <hi rend='italic'>et seq.</hi>, <ref target='Pg215'>215</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l><hi rend='italic'>Micam</hi>, <ref target='Pg066'>66</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l><hi rend='italic'>Miko</hi>, <ref target='Pg131'>131</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Milky Way, <ref target='Pg038'>38</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Mission Indians, <ref target='Pg201'>201</ref>, <ref target='Pg206'>206</ref> <hi rend='italic'>et seq.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Mission work, <ref target='Pg227'>227</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Missionaries, <ref target='Pg197'>197</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Mississippi Valley, <ref target='Pg097'>97</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Missouri River, <ref target='Pg148'>148</ref>, <ref target='Pg150'>150</ref>, <ref target='Pg153'>153</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Missouri Valley, <ref target='Pg097'>97</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Moccasin game, <ref target='Pg028'>28</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l><hi rend='italic'>Moccasins</hi>, <ref target='Pg019'>19</ref>, <ref target='Pg108'>108</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l><hi rend='smallcaps'>Mohawk</hi>, <ref target='Pg002'>2</ref>, <ref target='Pg116'>116</ref>, <ref target='Pg118'>118</ref>, <ref target='Pg119'>119</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Mohawk River, <ref target='Pg116'>116</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l><hi rend='smallcaps'>Mohican</hi>, <ref target='Pg116'>116</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l><hi rend='smallcaps'>Moki</hi>, <ref target='Pg020'>20</ref>, <ref target='Pg085'>85</ref>, <ref target='Pg090'>90</ref>, <ref target='Pg091'>91</ref>, <ref target='Pg161'>161</ref>, <ref target='Pg168'>168</ref> <hi rend='italic'>et seq.</hi>, <ref target='Pg181'>181</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Money, <ref target='Pg073'>73</ref> <hi rend='italic'>et seq.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Monoliths, <ref target='Pg218'>218</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l><hi rend='italic'>Montezuma</hi>, <ref target='Pg209'>209</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Morgan, L. H., <ref target='Pg014'>14</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Morning Star, <ref target='Pg037'>37</ref>, <ref target='Pg137'>137</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Morton, T., <ref target='Pg074'>74</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Mound builders, <ref target='Pg099'>99</ref> <hi rend='italic'>et seq.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Mounds, <ref target='Pg098'>98</ref> <hi rend='italic'>et seq.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Mourning, <ref target='Pg097'>97</ref>, <ref target='Pg196'>196</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l><hi rend='italic'>M'teoulin</hi>, <ref target='Pg084'>84</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Mummies, <ref target='Pg096'>96</ref>, <ref target='Pg180'>180</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Museum, National—Mexico, <ref target='Pg213'>213</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Museum, National—United States, <ref target='Pg154'>154</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Music, <ref target='Pg086'>86</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Musical instruments, <ref target='Pg086'>86</ref>, <ref target='Pg213'>213</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l><hi rend='smallcaps'>Muskoki</hi> (see <ref target='Index-Creek'><hi rend='smallcaps'>Creek</hi></ref>).</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Mutilation—self, <ref target='Pg097'>97</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Mystery, <ref target='Pg080'>80</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Mystery men, <ref target='Pg066'>66</ref>, <ref target='Pg080'>80</ref>, <ref target='Pg084'>84</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l><hi rend='italic'>Nanabush</hi>, <ref target='Pg112'>112</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Nashville, <ref target='Pg103'>103</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l><hi rend='smallcaps'>Natchez</hi>, <ref target='Pg223'>223</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l><hi rend='smallcaps'>Navajo</hi>, <ref target='Pg021'>21</ref>, <ref target='Pg078'>78</ref>, <ref target='Pg091'>91</ref>, <ref target='Pg109'>109</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Neckrings, <ref target='Pg017'>17</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l><hi rend='italic'>Neeskotting</hi>, <ref target='Pg051'>51</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l><hi rend='italic'>Nekilstlas</hi>, <ref target='Pg189'>189</ref>, <ref target='Pg190'>190</ref>, <ref target='Pg191'>191</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Nets, for rabbits, <ref target='Pg049'>49</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Newark, Ohio, <ref target='Pg100'>100</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>New Brunswick, <ref target='Pg108'>108</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>New England, <ref target='Pg002'>2</ref>, <ref target='Pg004'>4</ref>, <ref target='Pg032'>32</ref>, <ref target='Pg074'>74</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>New Fire, <ref target='Pg133'>133</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>New Mexico, <ref target='Pg077'>77</ref>, <ref target='Pg161'>161</ref>, <ref target='Pg162'>162</ref>, <ref target='Pg175'>175</ref>, <ref target='Pg178'>178</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>New Spain, <ref target='Pg206'>206</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>New York, <ref target='Pg002'>2</ref>, <ref target='Pg108'>108</ref>, <ref target='Pg115'>115</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Niagara, <ref target='Pg127'>127</ref>, <ref target='Pg128'>128</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Niagara River, <ref target='Pg116'>116</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Niblack, A. P., <ref target='Pg195'>195</ref>, <ref target='Pg201'>201</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>North, Lieut., <ref target='Pg140'>140</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>North Carolina, <ref target='Pg052'>52</ref>, <ref target='Pg140'>140</ref>, <ref target='Pg143'>143</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Northwest Coast, <ref target='Pg004'>4</ref>, <ref target='Pg021'>21</ref>, <ref target='Pg050'>50</ref>, <ref target='Pg052'>52</ref>, <ref target='Pg080'>80</ref>, <ref target='Pg086'>86</ref>, <ref target='Pg181'>181</ref> <hi rend='italic'>et seq.</hi>, <ref target='Pg189'>189</ref> <hi rend='italic'>et seq.</hi>, <ref target='Pg195'>195</ref> <hi rend='italic'>et seq.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Notched rattles, <ref target='Pg086'>86</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Nova Scotia, <ref target='Pg032'>32</ref>, <ref target='Pg108'>108</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Objects buried with dead, <ref target='Pg093'>93</ref>, <ref target='Pg094'>94</ref>, <ref target='Pg105'>105</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Obsidian, <ref target='Pg210'>210</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Offerings to gods, <ref target='Pg091'>91</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Oglethorpe, <ref target='Pg141'>141</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Ohio, <ref target='Pg099'>99</ref>, <ref target='Pg101'>101</ref>, <ref target='Pg106'>106</ref>, <ref target='Pg107'>107</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Ohio River, <ref target='Pg126'>126</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Oil, <ref target='Pg188'>188</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l><hi rend='smallcaps'>Ojibwa</hi>, <ref target='Pg069'>69</ref>, <ref target='Pg084'>84</ref>, <ref target='Pg108'>108</ref>, <ref target='Pg109'>109</ref>, <ref target='Pg111'>111</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Oklahoma, <ref target='Pg097'>97</ref>, <ref target='Pg135'>135</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Old Pueblos, <ref target='Pg176'>176</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Old Zuñi, <ref target='Pg176'>176</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l><hi rend='smallcaps'>Omaha</hi>, <ref target='Pg155'>155</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l><hi rend='smallcaps'>Oneida</hi>, <ref target='Pg116'>116</ref>, <ref target='Pg117'>117</ref>, <ref target='Pg118'>118</ref>, <ref target='Pg119'>119</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l><hi rend='smallcaps'>Onondaga</hi>, <ref target='Pg002'>2</ref>, <ref target='Pg075'>75</ref>, <ref target='Pg116'>116</ref>, <ref target='Pg118'>118</ref>, <ref target='Pg119'>119</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Onondaga Lake, N. Y., <ref target='Pg118'>118</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l><hi rend='italic'>Oolachen</hi>, <ref target='Pg082'>82</ref>, <ref target='Pg182'>182</ref>, <ref target='Pg188'>188</ref>, <ref target='Pg189'>189</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>secured, <ref target='Pg191'>191</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l><hi rend='italic'>Oraibe</hi>, <ref target='Pg169'>169</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Orators, <ref target='Pg120'>120</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Oregon, <ref target='Pg095'>95</ref>; cradle, <ref target='Pg024'>24</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Ornaments, <ref target='Pg017'>17</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l><hi rend='smallcaps'>Otoe</hi>, <ref target='Pg092'>92</ref>, <ref target='Pg155'>155</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Ovens, <ref target='Pg166'>166</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Pacific Ocean, <ref target='Pg075'>75</ref>, <ref target='Pg077'>77</ref>, <ref target='Pg095'>95</ref>, <ref target='Pg181'>181</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Paddles, <ref target='Pg186'>186</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Paintings—Catlin's, <ref target='Pg148'>148</ref> <hi rend='italic'>et seq.</hi>, <ref target='Pg159'>159</ref>, <ref target='Pg160'>160</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Paintings on rocks, <ref target='Pg179'>179</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Palace at Palenque, <ref target='Pg217'>217</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Palenque, <ref target='Pg216'>216</ref> <hi rend='italic'>et seq.</hi>, <ref target='Pg220'>220</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l><hi rend='smallcaps'>Pani</hi> = <hi rend='smallcaps'>Pawnee</hi>, <ref target='Pg060'>60</ref>, <ref target='Pg091'>91</ref>, <ref target='Pg134'>134</ref>, <ref target='Pg223'>223</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Paper, <ref target='Pg071'>71</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Paper bread, <ref target='Pg167'>167</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l><hi rend='italic'>Papoose</hi>, <ref target='Pg108'>108</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Papoose board, <ref target='Pg022'>22</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Pebble-shaped characters, <ref target='Pg221'>221</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Peet, S. D., <ref target='Pg102'>102</ref>, <ref target='Pg107'>107</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l><hi rend='italic'>Pemmican</hi>, <ref target='Pg057'>57</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Pennsylvania, <ref target='Pg122'>122</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Peon, <ref target='Pg205'>205</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Physical type, <ref target='Pg182'>182</ref>, <ref target='Pg201'>201</ref>, <ref target='Pg215'>215</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Picture records, <ref target='Pg111'>111</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Picture writing, <ref target='Pg065'>65</ref> <hi rend='italic'>et seq.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Piercing lips, <ref target='Pg183'>183</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Pilgrims, <ref target='Pg108'>108</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Pillars, <ref target='Pg219'>219</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l><hi rend='smallcaps'>Pima</hi>, <ref target='Pg059'>59</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Pittsburg, Pa., <ref target='Pg126'>126</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Plains Indians, <ref target='Pg013'>13</ref>, <ref target='Pg042'>42</ref>, <ref target='Pg047'>47</ref>, <ref target='Pg059'>59</ref>, <ref target='Pg060'>60</ref>, <ref target='Pg109'>109</ref>, <ref target='Pg134'>134</ref>, <ref target='Pg136'>136</ref>, <ref target='Pg155'>155</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Plaster, <ref target='Pg211'>211</ref>, <ref target='Pg217'>217</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Playground, <ref target='Pg130'>130</ref>, <ref target='Pg132'>132</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Plaza, <ref target='Pg171'>171</ref>, <ref target='Pg172'>172</ref>, <ref target='Pg173'>173</ref>, <ref target='Pg175'>175</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Pleiades, story of, <ref target='Pg031'>31</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Pocahontas, <ref target='Pg108'>108</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Points, in blankets, <ref target='Pg079'>79</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Points of compass, <ref target='Pg089'>89</ref>, <ref target='Pg090'>90</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l><hi rend='smallcaps'>Ponka</hi>, <ref target='Pg096'>96</ref>, <ref target='Pg155'>155</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Port Simpson, <ref target='Pg223'>223</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Posts, carved, <ref target='Pg185'>185</ref>, <ref target='Pg195'>195</ref> <hi rend='italic'>et seq.</hi>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>kinds of, <ref target='Pg195'>195</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Pottery, <ref target='Pg136'>136</ref>, <ref target='Pg144'>144</ref>, <ref target='Pg180'>180</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Powell, J. W., <ref target='Pg003'>3</ref>, <ref target='Pg007'>7</ref>, <ref target='Pg210'>210</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Powell's Linguistic Map, <ref target='Pg003'>3</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Powers, S., <ref target='Pg014'>14</ref>, <ref target='Pg076'>76</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Powhatan, <ref target='Pg108'>108</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Prayer, <ref target='Pg160'>160</ref>, <ref target='Pg175'>175</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Prayer sticks, <ref target='Pg090'>90</ref>, <ref target='Pg170'>170</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Printed sign-language, <ref target='Pg065'>65</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Prisoners of war, <ref target='Pg045'>45</ref>, <ref target='Pg212'>212</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Proclamation of Gen. Scott, <ref target='Pg142'>142</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Public Square, <ref target='Pg130'>130</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l><hi rend='smallcaps'>Pueblos</hi>, <ref target='Pg006'>6</ref>, <ref target='Pg021'>21</ref>, <ref target='Pg076'>76</ref>, <ref target='Pg087'>87</ref>, <ref target='Pg088'>88</ref>, <ref target='Pg090'>90</ref>, <ref target='Pg091'>91</ref>, <ref target='Pg161'>161</ref> <hi rend='italic'>et seq.</hi>, <ref target='Pg168'>168</ref>, <ref target='Pg169'>169</ref>, <ref target='Pg176'>176</ref>, <ref target='Pg180'>180</ref>, <ref target='Pg181'>181</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>dress, <ref target='Pg020'>20</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>cradle, <ref target='Pg027'>27</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>game drives, <ref target='Pg048'>48</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>scalps, <ref target='Pg044'>44</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Pump drill, <ref target='Pg078'>78</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Purification, <ref target='Pg088'>88</ref>, <ref target='Pg156'>156</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l><hi rend='italic'>Puskita</hi>, <ref target='Pg133'>133</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Putnam, F. W., <ref target='Pg101'>101</ref>, <ref target='Pg107'>107</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Pyramids, <ref target='Pg211'>211</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Queen Charlotte Islands, <ref target='Pg079'>79</ref>, <ref target='Pg082'>82</ref>, <ref target='Pg095'>95</ref>, <ref target='Pg195'>195</ref>, <ref target='Pg223'>223</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Quills—porcupine, <ref target='Pg018'>18</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Rabbit sticks, <ref target='Pg049'>49</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Rackets (see Ball-sticks).</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Rain dances, <ref target='Pg088'>88</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l><hi rend='italic'>Ramona</hi>, <ref target='Pg202'>202</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Rattles, <ref target='Pg086'>86</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Rattlesnakes, <ref target='Pg170'>170</ref> <hi rend='italic'>et seq.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Raven stories, <ref target='Pg189'>189</ref> <hi rend='italic'>et seq.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Red Jacket, <ref target='Pg120'>120</ref>, <ref target='Pg225'>225</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Red Score, <ref target='Pg111'>111</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Relics, <ref target='Pg180'>180</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Reservations, <ref target='Pg225'>225</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Rio Grande, <ref target='Pg077'>77</ref>, <ref target='Pg165'>165</ref>, <ref target='Pg169'>169</ref>, <ref target='Pg178'>178</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Rock Paintings, <ref target='Pg179'>179</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Rocky Mountains, <ref target='Pg108'>108</ref>, <ref target='Pg112'>112</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Roof comb, <ref target='Pg217'>217</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Ruins, <ref target='Pg175'>175</ref> <hi rend='italic'>et seq.</hi>, <ref target='Pg216'>216</ref> <hi rend='italic'>et seq.</hi>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>types, <ref target='Pg176'>176</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Running the gauntlet, <ref target='Pg045'>45</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Rushing Eagle, <ref target='Pg153'>153</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Russians, <ref target='Pg197'>197</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Sacred colors, <ref target='Pg091'>91</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Sacred meal, <ref target='Pg090'>90</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Sacred numbers, <ref target='Pg084'>84</ref>, <ref target='Pg089'>89</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Sacred tree, <ref target='Pg157'>157</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Sacrifice, <ref target='Pg137'>137</ref>, <ref target='Pg213'>213</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Sacrificial stone, <ref target='Pg213'>213</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l><hi rend='smallcaps'>Sac and Fox</hi>, <ref target='Pg054'>54</ref>, <ref target='Pg056'>56</ref>, <ref target='Pg066'>66</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>cradle, <ref target='Pg022'>22</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>dress, <ref target='Pg017'>17</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>games, <ref target='Pg028'>28</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>graves, <ref target='Pg093'>93</ref>, <ref target='Pg094'>94</ref>, <ref target='Pg097'>97</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>hammock, <ref target='Pg025'>25</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>house, <ref target='Pg009'>9</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>moccasins, <ref target='Pg019'>19</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Salmon, <ref target='Pg051'>51</ref>, <ref target='Pg182'>182</ref>, <ref target='Pg188'>188</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Sand altar, <ref target='Pg091'>91</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Sandals, <ref target='Pg180'>180</ref>, <ref target='Pg210'>210</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>San Diego, Cal., <ref target='Pg207'>207</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>San Dionisio, Mex., <ref target='Pg206'>206</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>San Francisco, Cal., <ref target='Pg207'>207</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>San Gabriel, Cal., <ref target='Pg202'>202</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l><hi rend='smallcaps'>Santee</hi> (<hi rend='smallcaps'>Sioux</hi>), <ref target='Pg155'>155</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Santo Domingo, N. M., <ref target='Pg006'>6</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l><hi rend='smallcaps'>Saponie</hi>, <ref target='Pg119'>119</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Scaffold burial, <ref target='Pg097'>97</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Scalp, <ref target='Pg016'>16</ref>, <ref target='Pg044'>44</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Scalp dance, <ref target='Pg087'>87</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Scalping, <ref target='Pg044'>44</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Scar-face, story of, <ref target='Pg035'>35</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Schoolcraft, H. R., <ref target='Pg069'>69</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Schools, <ref target='Pg227'>227</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Scott, Gen. W., <ref target='Pg142'>142</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Scouts, Pani, <ref target='Pg140'>140</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Scraper for dressing skins, <ref target='Pg015'>15</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Scratcher, <ref target='Pg089'>89</ref>, <ref target='Pg145'>145</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Screaming of medicine man, <ref target='Pg083'>83</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Scum-cakes, <ref target='Pg210'>210</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Seaver, J. E., <ref target='Pg128'>128</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Seaweed, <ref target='Pg188'>188</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Secret Societies, <ref target='Pg085'>85</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l><hi rend='smallcaps'>Seneca</hi>, <ref target='Pg002'>2</ref>, <ref target='Pg116'>116</ref>, <ref target='Pg118'>118</ref>, <ref target='Pg119'>119</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l><hi rend='smallcaps'>Senel</hi>, <ref target='Pg095'>95</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l><hi rend='italic'>Sequoyah</hi>, <ref target='Pg146'>146</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Serpent mound, <ref target='Pg101'>101</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Servants, <ref target='Pg137'>137</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Shag, <ref target='Pg191'>191</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Shaman, <ref target='Pg080'>80</ref>, <ref target='Pg095'>95</ref>, <ref target='Pg096'>96</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l><hi rend='smallcaps'>Shawnee</hi>, <ref target='Pg107'>107</ref>, <ref target='Pg124'>124</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Shell money, <ref target='Pg075'>75</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l><hi rend='italic'>Shenanjie</hi>, <ref target='Pg126'>126</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Shields, <ref target='Pg211'>211</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l><hi rend='italic'>Shonko</hi>, <ref target='Pg151'>151</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l><hi rend='smallcaps'>Shoshone</hi>, <ref target='Pg169'>169</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>sign for, <ref target='Pg064'>64</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Signals, fire, <ref target='Pg059'>59</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Sign language, <ref target='Pg060'>60</ref> <hi rend='italic'>et seq.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Signs, examples of, <ref target='Pg060'>60</ref>, <ref target='Pg061'>61</ref>, <ref target='Pg062'>62</ref>, <ref target='Pg063'>63</ref>, <ref target='Pg064'>64</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Sinking into ground, <ref target='Pg083'>83</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Siouan, <ref target='Pg091'>91</ref>, <ref target='Pg097'>97</ref>, <ref target='Pg155'>155</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<anchor id='Index-Sioux'/> +<l><hi rend='smallcaps'>Sioux</hi>, <ref target='Pg025'>25</ref>, <ref target='Pg044'>44</ref>, <ref target='Pg049'>49</ref>, <ref target='Pg060'>60</ref>, <ref target='Pg066'>66</ref>, <ref target='Pg067'>67</ref>, <ref target='Pg069'>69</ref>, <ref target='Pg138'>138</ref> <hi rend='italic'>et seq.</hi>, <ref target='Pg150'>150</ref>, <ref target='Pg151'>151</ref>, <ref target='Pg155'>155</ref> <hi rend='italic'>et seq.</hi>, <ref target='Pg224'>224</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l><hi rend='italic'>Sipapu</hi>, <ref target='Pg171'>171</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l><hi rend='smallcaps'>Sisseton</hi> (<hi rend='smallcaps'>Sioux</hi>), <ref target='Pg155'>155</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Six Nations, <ref target='Pg119'>119</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Skidgate, <ref target='Pg223'>223</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l><hi rend='italic'>Skil</hi>, <ref target='Pg187'>187</ref>, <ref target='Pg197'>197</ref>, <ref target='Pg200'>200</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Skimming sticks, <ref target='Pg028'>28</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Skins, dressing, <ref target='Pg014'>14</ref>, <ref target='Pg048'>48</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Skirt, <ref target='Pg017'>17</ref>, <ref target='Pg021'>21</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l><hi rend='italic'>Skowl</hi>, <ref target='Pg197'>197</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Skunk, sign for, <ref target='Pg063'>63</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Smith, E. A., <ref target='Pg038'>38</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Smoke, <ref target='Pg090'>90</ref>, <ref target='Pg098'>98</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Smoking, <ref target='Pg034'>34</ref>, <ref target='Pg113'>113</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Smoke signals, <ref target='Pg059'>59</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Snake, <ref target='Pg170'>170</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Snake Dance, <ref target='Pg085'>85</ref>, <ref target='Pg088'>88</ref>, <ref target='Pg090'>90</ref>, <ref target='Pg091'>91</ref>, <ref target='Pg168'>168</ref> <hi rend='italic'>et seq.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Snake hunt, <ref target='Pg170'>170</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Snake society, <ref target='Pg173'>173</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Snake washing, <ref target='Pg171'>171</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Societies, secret:</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>antelope, <ref target='Pg085'>85</ref>, <ref target='Pg171'>171</ref>, <ref target='Pg172'>172</ref>, <ref target='Pg175'>175</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>snake, <ref target='Pg085'>85</ref>, <ref target='Pg173'>173</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Soul bone, <ref target='Pg083'>83</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Southern States, <ref target='Pg027'>27</ref>, <ref target='Pg030'>30</ref>, <ref target='Pg050'>50</ref>, <ref target='Pg052'>52</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Spain, <ref target='Pg206'>206</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Spear-thrower, <ref target='Pg211'>211</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Speech:</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>of Pani, <ref target='Pg221'>221</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>of Red Jacket, <ref target='Pg120'>120</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>of Sioux, <ref target='Pg152'>152</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Spinning, <ref target='Pg210'>210</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Spirits, <ref target='Pg080'>80</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l><hi rend='italic'>Squaw</hi>, <ref target='Pg108'>108</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Squaw money, <ref target='Pg076'>76</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Squier, E. G., <ref target='Pg107'>107</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Stalking animals, <ref target='Pg048'>48</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Star, Hill of the, <ref target='Pg055'>55</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Stephens, J. L., <ref target='Pg216'>216</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Stocks, linguistic, <ref target='Pg002'>2</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Stone Age Culture, <ref target='Pg106'>106</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Stone boiling, <ref target='Pg057'>57</ref>, <ref target='Pg186'>186</ref>, <ref target='Pg188'>188</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Stone graves, <ref target='Pg093'>93</ref>, <ref target='Pg103'>103</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Stone tools, <ref target='Pg086'>86</ref>, <ref target='Pg177'>177</ref>, <ref target='Pg180'>180</ref>, <ref target='Pg186'>186</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Stories, <ref target='Pg189'>189</ref> <hi rend='italic'>et seq.</hi>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>Algonkin, <ref target='Pg032'>32</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>Blackfoot, <ref target='Pg035'>35</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>Hunter and bears, <ref target='Pg198'>198</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>Iroquois, <ref target='Pg031'>31</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Story-telling, <ref target='Pg113'>113</ref>, <ref target='Pg114'>114</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Stucco, <ref target='Pg217'>217</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l><hi rend='italic'>Succotash</hi>, <ref target='Pg056'>56</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Sun, <ref target='Pg038'>38</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Sun dance, <ref target='Pg088'>88</ref>, <ref target='Pg150'>150</ref>, <ref target='Pg155'>155</ref> <hi rend='italic'>et seq.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Superstition regarding portraits, <ref target='Pg150'>150</ref> <hi rend='italic'>et seq.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Sweat baths, <ref target='Pg132'>132</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Syllabary, Cherokee, <ref target='Pg146'>146</ref> <hi rend='italic'>et seq.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Sympathetic magic, <ref target='Pg088'>88</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Tabasco, <ref target='Pg215'>215</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Tablet of the Cross, <ref target='Pg218'>218</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Tablet of the sun, <ref target='Pg218'>218</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Tablets—of stone, <ref target='Pg217'>217</ref>, <ref target='Pg220'>220</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Tambourines, <ref target='Pg086'>86</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Taos, <ref target='Pg162'>162</ref>, <ref target='Pg166'>166</ref>, <ref target='Pg169'>169</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Taos River, <ref target='Pg162'>162</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Tattooing, <ref target='Pg184'>184</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l><hi rend='smallcaps'>Tecpanecan</hi>, <ref target='Pg209'>209</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Temples, <ref target='Pg211'>211</ref>, <ref target='Pg217'>217</ref>, <ref target='Pg219'>219</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Temple of <hi rend='italic'>beau relief</hi>, <ref target='Pg217'>217</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Temple of Tigers, <ref target='Pg219'>219</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Tennessee, <ref target='Pg093'>93</ref>, <ref target='Pg103'>103</ref>, <ref target='Pg140'>140</ref>, <ref target='Pg143'>143</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l><hi rend='italic'>Tenochtitlan</hi>, <ref target='Pg208'>208</ref>, <ref target='Pg213'>213</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Tent, <ref target='Pg012'>12</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Terrace platforms, <ref target='Pg217'>217</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Test:</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>for bravery, <ref target='Pg158'>158</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>for liar, <ref target='Pg115'>115</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>for manhood, <ref target='Pg129'>129</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l><hi rend='smallcaps'>Teton</hi> (<hi rend='smallcaps'>Sioux</hi>), <ref target='Pg155'>155</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l><hi rend='italic'>Texcoco</hi>, <ref target='Pg208'>208</ref>, <ref target='Pg209'>209</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Thomas, C., <ref target='Pg107'>107</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Three Bears, <ref target='Pg041'>41</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Threshing, <ref target='Pg167'>167</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l><hi rend='italic'>Tikal</hi>, <ref target='Pg220'>220</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l><hi rend='italic'>Tirawa</hi>, <ref target='Pg136'>136</ref>, <ref target='Pg137'>137</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l><hi rend='italic'>Tlacopan</hi>, <ref target='Pg209'>209</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l><hi rend='smallcaps'>Tlingit</hi>, <ref target='Pg079'>79</ref>, <ref target='Pg095'>95</ref>, <ref target='Pg096'>96</ref>, <ref target='Pg182'>182</ref>, <ref target='Pg187'>187</ref>, <ref target='Pg189'>189</ref>, <ref target='Pg192'>192</ref>, <ref target='Pg195'>195</ref>, <ref target='Pg197'>197</ref>, <ref target='Pg198'>198</ref>, <ref target='Pg199'>199</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Tobacco, <ref target='Pg090'>90</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l><hi rend='smallcaps'>Tonkaway</hi>, <ref target='Pg060'>60</ref>, <ref target='Pg087'>87</ref>, <ref target='Pg134'>134</ref>, <ref target='Pg223'>223</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Torture:</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>of prisoners, <ref target='Pg045'>45</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>of self, <ref target='Pg159'>159</ref>, <ref target='Pg160'>160</ref>, <ref target='Pg220'>220</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l><hi rend='italic'>Totem</hi>, <ref target='Pg095'>95</ref>, <ref target='Pg098'>98</ref>, <ref target='Pg111'>111</ref>, <ref target='Pg184'>184</ref>, <ref target='Pg186'>186</ref>, <ref target='Pg197'>197</ref>, <ref target='Pg198'>198</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>rights and privileges, <ref target='Pg199'>199</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Totem posts, <ref target='Pg195'>195</ref> <hi rend='italic'>et seq.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Towns—white and red, <ref target='Pg129'>129</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>peace and war, <ref target='Pg129'>129</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Town square, <ref target='Pg171'>171</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Transformation, <ref target='Pg034'>34</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Trapping, <ref target='Pg048'>48</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Tree burial, <ref target='Pg097'>97</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Tribes of Indians, <ref target='Pg002'>2</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Tribute, <ref target='Pg209'>209</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l><hi rend='smallcaps'>Tshimpshian</hi>, <ref target='Pg182'>182</ref>, <ref target='Pg187'>187</ref>, <ref target='Pg192'>192</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Turquoise, <ref target='Pg077'>77</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l><hi rend='smallcaps'>Tuscarora</hi>, <ref target='Pg118'>118</ref>, <ref target='Pg119'>119</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l><hi rend='smallcaps'>Tutelo</hi>, <ref target='Pg119'>119</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Types of Indians, <ref target='Pg001'>1</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l><hi rend='italic'>Umane</hi>, <ref target='Pg156'>156</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l><hi rend='smallcaps'>Uncpapa</hi> (<hi rend='smallcaps'>Sioux</hi>), <ref target='Pg151'>151</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Utah, <ref target='Pg175'>175</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l><hi rend='smallcaps'>Ute</hi>, <ref target='Pg109'>109</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Vancouver Island, <ref target='Pg181'>181</ref>, <ref target='Pg183'>183</ref>, <ref target='Pg190'>190</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Van Syce, <ref target='Pg127'>127</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Vices, introduced, <ref target='Pg224'>224</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Villages, <ref target='Pg009'>9</ref>, <ref target='Pg184'>184</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Virginia, <ref target='Pg108'>108</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l><hi rend='smallcaps'>Wahpeton</hi> (<hi rend='smallcaps'>Sioux</hi>), <ref target='Pg155'>155</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Waist, <ref target='Pg210'>210</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Waiting outside a village, <ref target='Pg038'>38</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l><hi rend='italic'>Wakantanka</hi>, <ref target='Pg156'>156</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l><hi rend='italic'>Walum Olum</hi>, <ref target='Pg111'>111</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Wall decoration, <ref target='Pg211'>211</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l><hi rend='italic'>Walpi</hi>, <ref target='Pg169'>169</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l><hi rend='italic'>Wampampeog</hi>, <ref target='Pg074'>74</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l><hi rend='italic'>Wampum</hi>, <ref target='Pg073'>73</ref>, <ref target='Pg108'>108</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Wampum belts, <ref target='Pg066'>66</ref>, <ref target='Pg074'>74</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>War, <ref target='Pg039'>39</ref> <hi rend='italic'>et seq.</hi>, <ref target='Pg138'>138</ref> <hi rend='italic'>et seq.</hi>, <ref target='Pg211'>211</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>War drink, <ref target='Pg132'>132</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>War feathers, <ref target='Pg043'>43</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Warriors, <ref target='Pg211'>211</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>dress, <ref target='Pg211'>211</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Washing snakes, <ref target='Pg171'>171</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Water craft, <ref target='Pg052'>52</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Weapons, <ref target='Pg211'>211</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Weaving, <ref target='Pg020'>20</ref>, <ref target='Pg169'>169</ref>, <ref target='Pg179'>179</ref>, <ref target='Pg186'>186</ref>, <ref target='Pg210'>210</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l><hi rend='smallcaps'>Wichita</hi>, <ref target='Pg134'>134</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l><hi rend='italic'>Wigwam</hi>, <ref target='Pg108'>108</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Wild rice, <ref target='Pg109'>109</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>William and Mary, The, <ref target='Pg122'>122</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Windows, <ref target='Pg163'>163</ref>, <ref target='Pg164'>164</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l><hi rend='smallcaps'>Winnebago</hi>, <ref target='Pg107'>107</ref>, <ref target='Pg155'>155</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Winnowing, <ref target='Pg168'>168</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Wisconsin, <ref target='Pg102'>102</ref>, <ref target='Pg103'>103</ref>, <ref target='Pg107'>107</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Woman among Indians, <ref target='Pg004'>4</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Women, dress, <ref target='Pg017'>17</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Wyoming, Pa., <ref target='Pg147'>147</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Xenia, Ohio, <ref target='Pg099'>99</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l><hi rend='smallcaps'>Yankton</hi> (<hi rend='smallcaps'>Sioux</hi>), <ref target='Pg155'>155</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l><hi rend='smallcaps'>Yanktonnais</hi> (<hi rend='smallcaps'>Sioux</hi>), <ref target='Pg155'>155</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Yarn, <ref target='Pg180'>180</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Yarrow, H. C., <ref target='Pg098'>98</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Yellowstone River, <ref target='Pg150'>150</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l><hi rend='italic'>Yetl</hi>, <ref target='Pg189'>189</ref> <hi rend='italic'>et seq.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Young, E. R., <ref target='Pg083'>83</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Yucatan, <ref target='Pg215'>215</ref> <hi rend='italic'>et seq.</hi>, <ref target='Pg216'>216</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Zizania, <ref target='Pg109'>109</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l><hi rend='italic'>Zuñi</hi>, <ref target='Pg089'>89</ref>, <ref target='Pg090'>90</ref>, <ref target='Pg161'>161</ref>, <ref target='Pg162'>162</ref>, <ref target='Pg176'>176</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Zuñian, <ref target='Pg003'>3</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +</div> + +</body> +<back rend="page-break-before: right"> + <div id="footnotes"> + <index index="toc" /> + <index index="pdf" /> + <head>Footnotes</head> + <divGen type="footnotes"/> + </div> + <div rend="page-break-before: right"> + <divGen type="pgfooter" /> + </div> +</back> +</text> +</TEI.2> diff --git a/35915-tei/images/algonkin-village.png b/35915-tei/images/algonkin-village.png Binary files differnew file mode 100644 index 0000000..0cb8e35 --- /dev/null +++ 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