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| author | Roger Frank <rfrank@pglaf.org> | 2025-10-14 20:05:03 -0700 |
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| committer | Roger Frank <rfrank@pglaf.org> | 2025-10-14 20:05:03 -0700 |
| commit | 4ee12a3ef3fe098afe23e73ded81bd9f30659c67 (patch) | |
| tree | 7bf67313dcc2a58f9e560897c01cb258fb94d1d2 /36069-h | |
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Greely</p> +<div style='display:block; margin:1em 0'> +This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere in the United States and +most other parts of the world at no cost and with almost no restrictions +whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or re-use it under the terms +of the Project Gutenberg License included with this eBook or online +at <a href="https://www.gutenberg.org">www.gutenberg.org</a>. If you +are not located in the United States, you will have to check the laws of the +country where you are located before using this eBook. +</div> + +<div style='display:block; margin-top:1em; margin-bottom:1em; margin-left:2em; text-indent:-2em'>Title: Explorers and Travellers</div> +<div style='display:block; margin-top:1em; margin-bottom:1em; margin-left:2em; text-indent:-2em'>Author: Adolphus W. Greely</div> +<p style='display:block; text-indent:0; margin:1em 0'>Release Date: May 9, 2011 [eBook #36069]<br /> +[Most recently updated: April 22, 2023]</p> +<p style='display:block; text-indent:0; margin:1em 0'>Language: English</p> + <p style='display:block; margin-top:1em; margin-bottom:0; margin-left:2em; text-indent:-2em; text-align:left'>Produced by: + Marius Masi, Greg Bergquist and the Online Distributed Proofreading Team at http://www.pgdp.net (This + file was produced from images generously made available by The Internet Archive/American Libraries.)</p> +<div style='margin-top:2em; margin-bottom:4em'>*** START OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK EXPLORERS AND TRAVELLERS ***</div> + + +<table border="0" cellpadding="10" style="background-color: #dcdcdc; color: #696969; " summary="Transcriber's note"> +<tr> +<td style="width:25%; vertical-align:top"> +Transcriber’s note: +</td> +<td class="norm"> +A few typographical errors have been corrected. They +appear in the text <span class="correction" title="explanation will pop up">like this</span>, and the +explanation will appear when the mouse pointer is moved over the marked +passage. +</td> +</tr> +</table> + +<p class="pt2"> </p> +<div class="center pt2"><img style="width:468px; height:720px; vertical-align: middle;" src="images/img002.jpg" alt="" /></div> + +<p class="pt2"> </p> + +<p class="center f200" style="text-decoration: underline;">MEN OF ACHIEVEMENT</p> +<p class="pt2"> </p> + +<p class="center" style="color: #c11B17; font-size: 250%;">EXPLORERS AND<br /> +TRAVELLERS</p> +<p class="pt2"> </p> + +<p class="center f80">BY</p> +<p class="center">GENERAL A. W. GREELY, U.S.A.</p> + +<p class="center f80">GOLD MEDALLIST OF ROYAL GEOGRAPHICAL SOCIETY AND SOCIÉTÉ DE<br /> +GÉOGRAPHIE, PARIS</p> + +<div class="center pt2"><img style="width:200px; height:224px; vertical-align: middle;" src="images/img003.jpg" alt="" /></div> +<p class="pt2"> </p> + +<p class="center">NEW YORK</p> + +<p class="center" style="letter-spacing: 0.3em;">CHARLES SCRIBNER’S SONS</p> + +<p class="center">1894</p> +<p class="pt2"> </p> + +<p class="center f80"><span class="sc">Copyright, 1893, by</span></p> + +<p class="center f90">CHARLES SCRIBNER’S SONS</p> +<p class="pt2"> </p> + +<p class="center f80">TROW DIRECTORY<br /> +PRINTING AND BOOKBINDING COMPANY<br /> +NEW YORK</p> + +<hr class="art" /> +<p class="chap center">PREFACE</p> + +<p class="noind"><span class="chap1 sc">The</span> compiler of a series of sketches of American +Explorers and Travellers experiences at the +very outset a serious embarrassment from the +superabundant wealth of original material at his +command. The history of America for two +hundred years after the voyage of Joliet has +been the history of courageous, persistent, and +successful exploration, wherein the track of the +explorer, instantly serving as a trail for the pioneer, +has speedily broadened into the wagon-road +of invading immigrants.</p> + +<p>Explorations and journeys of such an extent +as in other and older lands would have excited +praise and merited reward have been so frequent +in this continent as to pass almost unnoticed. +Hence the scope of this modest volume +is necessarily confined to explorations of great +importance or peculiar interest, and when made +by men of American birth who are no longer +living.</p> + +<p>In deference to the author’s advisers, two exceptions +have been made—Du Chaillu and Stanley, +Americans by adoption—otherwise African +exploration, so wondrously successful in this +generation and so fruitful in its results, would +have been unrepresented. Again, the unparalleled +growth and progress of our American republic +owes no small debt to the wealth of physical +vigor and strong intellectuality contributed +by its sturdy emigrants. These men, American +in idea, purpose, and action, whose manhood +outgrew the slow evolution of freedom in their +natal country, merit recognition. What thousands +of other naturalized citizens have industrially +wrought of the wonderful and great in +this country, these selected representatives have +equalled in African exploration.</p> + +<p>A chronological arrangement appeared best +suited to these sketches, which from Joliet to +Frémont exhibit the initiation, growth, and development +of geographic discovery in the interior +and western portions of the United States. +Since the sketches rest very largely on original +narratives some current errors at least have +been avoided.</p> + +<p>Generalization and criticism have been made +always with reference to later exploration, which +necessarily enhances or diminishes the importance +of any original work.</p> + +<hr class="art" /> +<p class="chap center">CONTENTS</p> + +<table class="reg" style="width: 90%;" summary="Contents"> +<tr><td colspan="2"> </td> <td class="tcr f80">PAGE</td></tr> + +<tr><td class="tcr">I.</td> <td class="tcl"><span class="sc">Louis Joliet</span>, Re-discoverer of the Mississippi,</td> <td class="tcrb"><a href="#page9">9</a></td></tr> + +<tr><td class="tcr">II.</td> <td class="tcl"><span class="sc">Peter le Moyne, Sieur d’Iberville</span>, Founder of +Louisiana,</td> <td class="tcrb"><a href="#page41">41</a></td></tr> + +<tr><td class="tcr">III.</td> <td class="tcl"><span class="sc">Jonathan Carver</span>, the Explorer of Minnesota,</td> <td class="tcrb"><a href="#page71">71</a></td></tr> + +<tr><td class="tcr">IV.</td> <td class="tcl"><span class="sc">Captain Robert Gray</span>, the Discoverer of the Columbia +River,</td> <td class="tcrb"><a href="#page88">88</a></td></tr> + +<tr><td class="tcr">V.</td> <td class="tcl"><span class="sc">Captain Meriwether Lewis and Lieut. William +Clark</span>, First Trans-Continental Explorers of +the United States,</td> <td class="tcrb"><a href="#page105">105</a></td></tr> + +<tr><td class="tcr">VI.</td> <td class="tcl"><span class="sc">Zebulon Montgomery Pike</span>, Explorer of the Sources +of the Mississippi and Arkansas Rivers,</td> <td class="tcrb"><a href="#page163">163</a></td></tr> + +<tr><td class="tcr">VII.</td> <td class="tcl"><span class="sc">Charles Wilkes</span>, the Discoverer of the Antarctic +Continent,</td> <td class="tcrb"><a href="#page194">194</a></td></tr> + +<tr><td class="tcr">VIII.</td> <td class="tcl"><span class="sc">John Charles Frémont</span>, the Pathfinder,</td> <td class="tcrb"><a href="#page212">212</a></td></tr> + +<tr><td class="tcr">IX.</td> <td class="tcl"><span class="sc">Elisha Kent Kane</span>, Arctic Explorer,</td> <td class="tcrb"><a href="#page240">240</a></td></tr> + +<tr><td class="tcr">X.</td> <td class="tcl"><span class="sc">Isaac Israel Hayes</span>, and the Open Polar Sea,</td> <td class="tcrb"><a href="#page272">272</a></td></tr> + +<tr><td class="tcr">XI.</td> <td class="tcl"><span class="sc">Charles Francis Hall</span>, and the North Pole,</td> <td class="tcrb"><a href="#page293">293</a></td></tr> + +<tr><td class="tcr">XII.</td> <td class="tcl"><span class="sc">George Washington De Long</span>, and the Siberian +Arctic Ocean,</td> <td class="tcrb"><a href="#page312">312</a></td></tr> + +<tr><td class="tcr">XIII.</td> <td class="tcl"><span class="sc">Paul Belloni Du Chaillu</span>, Discoverer of the Dwarfs +and Gorillas,</td> <td class="tcrb"><a href="#page330">330</a></td></tr> + +<tr><td class="tcr">XIV.</td> <td class="tcl"><span class="sc">Stanley Africanus and the Congo Free State</span>,</td> <td class="tcrb"><a href="#page349">349</a></td></tr> +</table> + +<hr class="art" /> +<p class="chap center">LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS</p> + +<table class="reg" style="width: 90%;" summary="Contents"> +<tr><td class="tcc pt1" colspan="2">FULL-PAGE</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcr f80" colspan="2">FACING<br />PAGE </td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl" colspan="2"><span class="sc">General A. W. Greely, U. S. A.</span>,  (<i>Frontispiece.</i>)</td></tr> + +<tr><td class="tcl"><span class="sc">On the Shores of the Pacific</span>,</td> <td class="tcrb"><a href="#page96">96</a></td></tr> + +<tr><td class="tcl"><span class="sc">A Blackfoot Tepee</span>,</td> <td class="tcrb"><a href="#page112">112</a></td></tr> + +<tr><td class="tcl"><span class="sc">Castle Rock, on the Columbia River</span>,</td> <td class="tcrb"><a href="#page140">140</a></td></tr> + +<tr><td class="tcl"><span class="sc">Charles Wilkes</span>,</td> <td class="tcrb"><a href="#page194">194</a></td></tr> + +<tr><td class="tcl"><span class="sc">Paul Belloni du Chaillu</span>,</td> <td class="tcrb"><a href="#page330">330</a></td></tr> + +<tr><td class="tcl"><span class="sc">Henry M. Stanley</span>,</td> <td class="tcrb"><a href="#page349">349</a></td></tr> + +<tr><td class="tcc pt1" colspan="2">ILLUSTRATIONS IN THE TEXT</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcr f80" colspan="2">PAGE</td></tr> + +<tr><td class="tcl"><span class="sc">Signature of Jolliet</span> (<span class="sc">Old Spelling</span>),</td> <td class="tcrb"><a href="#page10">10</a></td></tr> + +<tr><td class="tcl">“<span class="sc">Marquette’s Map</span>,”</td> <td class="tcrb"><a href="#page15">15</a></td></tr> + +<tr><td class="tcl"><span class="sc">The Reception of Joliet and Marquette by the Illinois</span>,</td> <td class="tcrb"><a href="#page25">25</a></td></tr> + +<tr><td class="tcl"><span class="sc">De Soto</span>,</td> <td class="tcrb"><a href="#page34">34</a></td></tr> + +<tr><td class="tcl"><span class="sc">Signature of le Moyne</span>,</td> <td class="tcrb"><a href="#page42">42</a></td></tr> + +<tr><td class="tcl"><span class="sc">Bienville</span>,</td> <td class="tcrb"><a href="#page57">57</a></td></tr> + +<tr><td class="tcl"><span class="sc">Bienville’s Army on the River</span>,</td> <td class="tcrb"><a href="#page63">63</a></td></tr> + +<tr><td class="tcl"><span class="sc">New Orleans in 1719</span>,</td> <td class="tcrb"><a href="#page70">70</a></td></tr> + +<tr><td class="tcl"><span class="sc">Indian Tomahawk</span>,</td> <td class="tcrb"><a href="#page74">74</a></td></tr> + +<tr><td class="tcl"><span class="sc">The Falls of St. Anthony in the River Mississippi</span>,</td> <td class="tcrb"><a href="#page77">77</a></td></tr> + +<tr><td class="tcl"><span class="sc">A Calumet</span>,</td> <td class="tcrb"><a href="#page80">80</a></td></tr> + +<tr><td class="tcl"><span class="sc">Naudowessie Indians</span>,</td> <td class="tcrb"><a href="#page85">85</a></td></tr> + +<tr><td class="tcl"><span class="sc">Indian Maul</span>,</td> <td class="tcrb"><a href="#page93">93</a></td></tr> + +<tr><td class="tcl"><span class="sc">Captain Meriwether Lewis</span>,</td> <td class="tcrb"><a href="#page119">119</a></td></tr> + +<tr><td class="tcl"><span class="sc">Buffalo Head</span>,</td> <td class="tcrb"><a href="#page125">125</a></td></tr> + +<tr><td class="tcl"><span class="sc">Lieutenant William Clark</span>,</td> <td class="tcrb"><a href="#page132">132</a></td></tr> + +<tr><td class="tcl"><span class="sc">Buffalo Skull</span>,</td> <td class="tcrb"><a href="#page162">162</a></td></tr> + +<tr><td class="tcl"><span class="sc">General Z. M. Pike</span>,</td> <td class="tcrb"><a href="#page165">165</a></td></tr> + +<tr><td class="tcl"><span class="sc">Indian Snow-shoes</span>,</td> <td class="tcrb"><a href="#page172">172</a></td></tr> + +<tr><td class="tcl"><span class="sc">The Ice-barrier</span>,</td> <td class="tcrb"><a href="#page199">199</a></td></tr> + +<tr><td class="tcl"><span class="sc">The Vincennes in a Storm</span>,</td> <td class="tcrb"><a href="#page202">202</a></td></tr> + +<tr><td class="tcl"><span class="sc">View of the Antarctic Continent</span>,</td> <td class="tcrb"><a href="#page205">205</a></td></tr> + +<tr><td class="tcl"><span class="sc">In an Ice-field</span>,</td> <td class="tcrb"><a href="#page208">208</a></td></tr> + +<tr><td class="tcl"><span class="sc">John Charles Frémont</span>,</td> <td class="tcrb"><a href="#page214">214</a></td></tr> + +<tr><td class="tcl"><span class="sc">Jessie Benton Frémont</span>,</td> <td class="tcrb"><a href="#page215">215</a></td></tr> + +<tr><td class="tcl"><span class="sc">Ascending Frémont’s Peak</span>,</td> <td class="tcrb"><a href="#page218">218</a></td></tr> + +<tr><td class="tcl"><span class="sc">Kit Carson</span>,</td> <td class="tcrb"><a href="#page226">226</a></td></tr> + +<tr><td class="tcl"><span class="sc">Lake Klamath</span>,</td> <td class="tcrb"><a href="#page231">231</a></td></tr> + +<tr><td class="tcl"><span class="sc">Elisha Kent Kane</span>,</td> <td class="tcrb"><a href="#page242">242</a></td></tr> + +<tr><td class="tcl"><span class="sc">The Arctic Highway</span>,</td> <td class="tcrb"><a href="#page246">246</a></td></tr> + +<tr><td class="tcl"><span class="sc">A Sleeping-bag for Three Men</span>,</td> <td class="tcrb"><a href="#page251">251</a></td></tr> + +<tr><td class="tcl"><span class="sc">The Coming Arctic Night</span>,</td> <td class="tcrb"><a href="#page256">256</a></td></tr> + +<tr><td class="tcl"><span class="sc">Esquimau Boys Fishing</span>,</td> <td class="tcrb"><a href="#page260">260</a></td></tr> + +<tr><td class="tcl"><span class="sc">An Arctic Stream</span>,</td> <td class="tcrb"><a href="#page264">264</a></td></tr> + +<tr><td class="tcl"><span class="sc">Isaac Israel Hayes</span>,</td> <td class="tcrb"><a href="#page273">273</a></td></tr> + +<tr><td class="tcl"><span class="sc">Upernivik</span>,</td> <td class="tcrb"><a href="#page276">276</a></td></tr> + +<tr><td class="tcl"><span class="sc">Hayes’s Winter-quarters</span>,</td> <td class="tcrb"><a href="#page280">280</a></td></tr> + +<tr><td class="tcl"><span class="sc">Adrift on a Berg</span>,</td> <td class="tcrb"><a href="#page285">285</a></td></tr> + +<tr><td class="tcl"><span class="sc">Charles Francis Hall</span>,</td> <td class="tcrb"><a href="#page294">294</a></td></tr> + +<tr><td class="tcl"><span class="sc">Igloos, or Esquimau Huts</span>,</td> <td class="tcrb"><a href="#page299">299</a></td></tr> + +<tr><td class="tcl"><span class="sc">In Winter-quarters</span>,</td> <td class="tcrb"><a href="#page302">302</a></td></tr> + +<tr><td class="tcl"><span class="sc">An Arctic Fiord</span>,</td> <td class="tcrb"><a href="#page305">305</a></td></tr> + +<tr><td class="tcl"><span class="sc">A Woman of the Arctic Highlanders. Sketched from Life</span>,</td> <td class="tcrb"><a href="#page308">308</a></td></tr> + +<tr><td class="tcl"><span class="sc">Esquimau Woman. Sketched from Life</span>,</td> <td class="tcrb"><a href="#page310">310</a></td></tr> + +<tr><td class="tcl"><span class="sc">George Washington De Long</span>,</td> <td class="tcrb"><a href="#page313">313</a></td></tr> + +<tr><td class="tcl"><span class="sc">Herald Island</span>,</td> <td class="tcrb"><a href="#page317">317</a></td></tr> + +<tr><td class="tcl"><span class="sc">In the Pack</span>,</td> <td class="tcrb"><a href="#page321">321</a></td></tr> + +<tr><td class="tcl"><span class="sc">Where the Bodies were Found</span>,</td> <td class="tcrb"><a href="#page323">323</a></td></tr> + +<tr><td class="tcl"><span class="sc">Noros and Nindemann</span>,</td> <td class="tcrb"><a href="#page326">326</a></td></tr> + +<tr><td class="tcl"><span class="sc">Finding the Bodies</span>,</td> <td class="tcrb"><a href="#page328">328</a></td></tr> + +<tr><td class="tcl"><span class="sc">The Gorilla</span> (<span class="sc">Troglodytes Gorilla</span>),</td> <td class="tcrb"><a href="#page334">334</a></td></tr> + +<tr><td class="tcl"><span class="sc">A Village of Dwarfs</span>,</td> <td class="tcrb"><a href="#page339">339</a></td></tr> + +<tr><td class="tcl"><span class="sc">A Pigmy Warrior</span>,</td> <td class="tcrb"><a href="#page342">342</a></td></tr> + +<tr><td class="tcl"><span class="sc">A Dwarf Prisoner</span>,</td> <td class="tcrb"><a href="#page345">345</a></td></tr> + +<tr><td class="tcl"><span class="sc">Arrows of the African Pigmies</span>,</td> <td class="tcrb"><a href="#page348">348</a></td></tr> + +<tr><td class="tcl"><span class="sc">The Hut where Livingstone Died</span>,</td> <td class="tcrb"><a href="#page352">352</a></td></tr> + +<tr><td class="tcl"><span class="sc">Map showing Position and Boundaries of the Congo State</span>,</td> <td class="tcrb"><a href="#page355">355</a></td></tr> + +<tr><td class="tcl"><span class="sc">Tippu Tib</span>,</td> <td class="tcrb"><a href="#page359">359</a></td></tr> + +<tr><td class="tcl"><span class="sc">Emin Pasha</span>,</td> <td class="tcrb"><a href="#page363">363</a></td></tr> + +<tr><td class="tcl"><span class="sc">Finding Nelson in Distress at Starvation Camp</span>,</td> <td class="tcrb"><a href="#page366">366</a></td></tr> + +<tr><td class="tcl"><span class="sc">A Stockaded Camp</span>,</td> <td class="tcrb"><a href="#page370">370</a></td></tr> + +<tr><td class="tcl"><span class="sc">Ruwenzori (The Snowy Mountain), Identified by +Stanley with “The Mountains of the Moon,”</span></td> <td class="tcrb"><a href="#page372">372</a></td></tr> +</table> + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page9" id="page9"></a>9</span></p> + +<p class="center f200">EXPLORERS AND TRAVELLERS</p> + +<p class="pt2 center">I.</p> + +<p class="chap center">LOUIS JOLIET,</p> + +<p class="center sc">Re-discoverer of the Mississippi.</p> + +<p class="noind"><span class="chap1 sc">If</span> one should ask which is the most important +river basin in the world, there is no doubt that +the Mississippi would be named, with its million +and a quarter square miles of area and its twenty-five +or more billions of aggregated wealth. Favored +in climate, soil, and navigable streams, and +endowed with practically inexhaustible veins of +coal, copper, iron, and silver, feeding the world +with its hundreds of millions of bushels of corn and +wheat, and clothing it by other millions of bales +of cotton, it is hardly so astonishing that within +217 years from its discovery by Joliet this greatest +of river basins should be the abiding-place +of twenty-seven and a half millions of people.</p> + +<p>Speaking of Joliet, Bancroft wrote that his +short voyage brought him immortality; but in +the irony of fate his explorations have not even +given his name a place in the last edition of the +Encyclopædia Britannica. In writing on American +explorers, it seems most fitting that this series +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page10" id="page10"></a>10</span> +of sketches should be headed by this Canadian, +whose name is scarcely known by one in a +thousand. That aught is obtainable concerning +the details of his life is due to the investigations +of Shea, which +later were admirably +summed up by +Parkman.</p> + +<table class="flt" style="float: right; width: 250px;" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figright1"><img style="width:200px; height:94px" src="images/img012.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption">Signature of Jolliet (Old Spelling).</td></tr></table> + +<p>Louis Joliet, the +son of John Joliet +and Mary d’Abancour, +was born at Quebec, September 21, 1645. +His father was a wagon-maker, in the service of +the Company of One Hundred Associates, then +owners of Canada.</p> + +<p>The son in youth was imbued with devout +feelings, which, possibly fostered by the elder +Joliet as certain to bring station and influence in +manhood, led to his being educated in the Jesuit +College for the priesthood, in which indeed he +received the minor orders in 1662. Four years +later, in the debates on philosophy, which were +participated in by the Intendant and listened to +by the colonial dignitaries, Joliet showed such +skill as to elicit especial commendation from the +Fathers.</p> + +<p>His future career shows that his studies with +the Fathers were not lost on him, and doubtless +they contributed largely to make Joliet that +intelligent, well-poised leader who filled with +credit all duties and positions incident to his +varied and adventurous life.</p> + +<p>It is probable, however, that during all these +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page11" id="page11"></a>11</span> +years he was at heart a true voyageur, and that +his thoughts turned continually from the cloister +and books to the forest and its attractive life. +Be this as it may, he practically abandoned all +ideas of the priesthood at the age of twenty-two, +and turned to the most certain, and indeed, in +Canada, the only path to wealth, that of a trader +in furs with the Indians. In this trade only the +hardy, shrewd, intelligent, and tireless subordinate +could hope to thrive and rise. Success +meant long and hazardous journeys into the very +heart of the Indian country, where were needed +great physical courage and strength, perfect skill +with gun, paddle, axe, sledge, or snow-shoe, a +thorough knowledge of wood-craft, indomitable +will or casuistry and tact according to the occasion. +To paddle a canoe from sunrise to sunset +of a summer day, to follow the sledge or break a +snow-shoe path before it as far as a dog can +travel in a march, to track a moose or deer for +leagues without rest, to carry canoes and heavy +packs over long portages through an untravelled +country, were the ordinary experiences of +a voyageur, which were accomplished for the +great part on a diet of smoked meat and boiled +Indian corn, with no shelter in fair weather and +the cover of an upturned canoe or bark hut in +stress of storm.</p> + +<p>Joliet did not long remain in private adventure, +for in 1669 Talon, then Intendant of Canada, sent +him to discover and explore the copper-mines of +Lake Superior, in which quest he failed. It was +on his return trip that Joliet met with La Salle +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page12" id="page12"></a>12</span> +and the priests Dolier and Galinée, on September +24, 1669, near the present town of Hamilton, +in which direction Joliet’s Indian guide had misled +him when returning from Lake Erie, through +fear of meeting enemies at the Niagara portage.</p> + +<p>Joliet’s facility for map-making in the field is +evident from the fact that at this time he showed +to the priests with La Salle a copy of the map +that he had made of such parts of the upper +lakes as he had visited, and gave them a copy of +it. He moreover evidenced continued interest +in religious matters by telling them that the +Pottowattamies and other Indian tribes of that +region were in serious need of spiritual succor. +La Salle later, in November, 1680, repaid this +frank tender of information of the little-known +west by intimating his belief that Joliet never +went but little south of the mouth of the Illinois, +and is also stated to have declared that Joliet +was an impostor.</p> + +<p>In his account of La Salle’s last journey, +Father Douay, referring to Joliet’s discoveries as +related by Marquette, says: “I have brought +with me the printed book of this pretended discovery, +and I remarked all along my route that +there was not a word of truth in it.”</p> + +<p>The efforts to deprive Joliet of the credit of +the original discovery of the Mississippi falls before +the despatch of Count Frontenac to Colbert, +then Minister, dated Quebec, November 14, 1674: +“VI. Sieur Joliet, whom Monsieur Talon advised +me, on my arrival from France, to despatch for +the discovery of the South Sea, has returned +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page13" id="page13"></a>13</span> +three months ago, and discovered some very fine +country, and a navigation so easy through the +beautiful rivers he has found, that a person can +go from Lake Ontario and Fort Frontenac in a +bark to the Gulf of Mexico, there being only one +carrying-place, half a league in length, where +Lake Ontario communicates with Lake Erie.... +He has been within ten days of the Gulf +of Mexico.... I send you by my secretary +the map he has made of it.... He has lost +all his minutes and journals in the shipwreck he +suffered in sight of Montreal.... He left +with the Fathers at Sault St. Marie copies of his +journal.”</p> + +<p>But to return to the circumstances under +which Joliet made the voyage. Among other +orders of Louis XIV. regarding Canada was a +charge to discover the South Sea and Mississippi, +and Jean Talon, Intendant of Canada, lost +no chance of furthering this object. La Salle’s +journey of 1670 had failed to reach the great +river, though he descended the Ohio to the falls +at Louisville, and at his recall in 1672 Talon had +the subject of further exploration in hand. Joliet +had lately returned from his unsuccessful efforts +to discover copper mines on Lake Superior, +during which he had probably been the first +white man to pass through the Straits of Detroit. +Despite his late failure he had impressed Talon +as the man best fitted to lead such an expedition, +and so before sailing for France the Intendant +recommended Joliet for the work to Count +Frontenac, the new Governor.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page14" id="page14"></a>14</span></p> + +<p>In those days the Church and Government +went hand in hand, and but few French expeditions +went westward from Montreal without a +priest to carry the faith to such Indian tribes as +were allies of France or liable to be won over. +As Joliet’s priest-associate, James Marquette, a +young Jesuit, then a missionary at St. Esprit, La +Pointe, Lake Superior, was chosen.</p> + +<p>No better man could have been sent. Marquette +was in the prime of life, an expert linguist—as +he had learned in six years to speak fluently +six Indian languages—gentle, patient, and tactful +with the natives, devout in faith, singularly holy +in life, fearless, imaginative, nature-loving and +observant, as shown by his journal, which, owing +to Joliet’s shipwreck, is the only original story +of the voyage. His enthusiasm is shown by the +opening sentences of his journal: “I have obtained +from God the favor of being enabled to +visit the nations on the Mississippi River, ... +and find myself in the happy necessity of exposing +my life for the salvation of all these tribes, +especially the Illinois.”</p> + +<p>Joliet followed the St. Lawrence to Fort Frontenac, +at the entrance of Lake Ontario, and with +the exception of the portage at the Falls of +Niagara, skirted in his canoe the shores of the +Great Lakes until he reached the Straits of Mackinaw, +on the north side of which, at Point St. +Ignace, he found the enthusiastic Marquette devotedly +laboring for the spiritual welfare of the +Hurons and Ottawas there gathered.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page15" id="page15"></a>15</span></p> + +<table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:624px; height:750px" src="images/img017.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl f90">A Part of the Map Published in Paris by Thevenot as “Marquette’s Map.” It shows the route taken by +Joliet across Wisconsin from the Baie des Puans (now Green Bay) to the Mississippi River, also part +of the return journey, that is, from the present site of Chicago, northward along Lake Michigan.</td></tr></table> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page16" id="page16"></a>16</span></p> + +<p class="pt2">The contemplated line of travel was that of +Jean Nicollet, an interpreter who had spent many +years with the Indian tribes, who was sent in +1638 to bring about a peace between the Hurons +and Winnebagoes who lived near Green Bay. +After his negotiations he ascended the Fox River, +and making a portage to the Wisconsin, descended +that stream some distance, so that, as he +thought, from the designation of “the great +water” by the Indian guide to the Mississippi, he +was within three days of the South Sea.</p> + +<p>Joliet, however, was too practical to trust +entirely to tradition or oral description. He had +already carefully charted all that was definitely +known of the western lake regions, and now at +St. Ignace, with Marquette’s invaluable assistance, +gathered all possible information from such +Indians at the mission as had frequented the unknown +country. This information being duly +weighed and considered, Joliet extended his map +to cover all the new country, marking thereon +the navigable rivers, the names of nations and +villages along their proposed route, the course of +the great river, and other useful information.</p> + +<p>Their means of subsistence and travel were the +simplest imaginable, two canoes and as large +quantities of smoked meat and Indian corn as +could be conveniently carried. Their canoes +were of the usual Canadian pattern, of birch-bark +covering, stayed with spruce-root ribs and cedar-splint, +with white-pine pitch smeared over the +birch-bark joints so as to render them water-tight. +Such canoes were of astonishing strength +and carrying capacity, and of such lightness that +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page17" id="page17"></a>17</span> +four men could carry the largest across portages.</p> + +<p>On a bright spring morning, May 17th, Joliet +and Marquette, with five other men, left behind +them the palisaded post and chapel of St. Ignace. +Plying briskly their paddles from sunrise to sunset, +they made rapid progress, coasting the lake +shore until they turned aside to visit the Menominees, +or Wild-rice Indians, whose village was on +the river of that same name. Here inquiries for +information of the “great river” brought from +the savage allies strenuous efforts to dissuade +them from visiting this Mississippi, where, they +said, the unsparing ferocity of the tribes brought +unfailing death by the tomahawk to even inoffensive +strangers, and that war now raged among +the intervening nations. They further recited +the dangers of navigating the rapids of the Great +River, the presence of frightful water monsters +who swallowed up men and canoes, the roaring +demon who engulfed all travellers, and lastly the +existence of such excessive heat as to ensure certain +death. After religious instruction and service +the explorers embarked in their canoes and +soon reached the southern extremity of Green +Bay, where, says Marquette, “our fathers labor +successfully in the conversion of these tribes, having +baptized more than 2,000.”</p> + +<p>Joliet from Green Bay entered Fox River, +finding it a gentle, beautiful stream, promising +easy and pleasant passage and abounding in wildfowl. +Soon, however, these agreeable aspects +gave way to the sterner phases of exploration, +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page18" id="page18"></a>18</span> +for sharp rapids were fallen in with where the +strong and uncertain cross-currents often threatened +the total destruction of their frail canoes, +which would have proved fatal to their plans, by +dashing them against the sharp bowlders.</p> + +<p>A serious but lesser evil to these enduring voyagers +was the injury to their mocassin-shod feet, +which were cut and bruised by the sharp edges +of the rocky bed of the river over which they +slowly and painfully dragged their canoes for +long distances.</p> + +<p>The many rapids were safely passed, and on the +7th of June, 1673, our explorers reached an Indian +town which marked the extreme western limits +of French discoveries, being the farthest point +reached by Nicollet in his adventurous journey.</p> + +<p>In this town dwelt bands from three different +tribes, the Miamis, Maskoutens, or Fire Nation, +and Kickapoos. The latter two were inferior in +manners and appearance to the Miamis, who, more +civil, liberal, and well-made, wore two long ear-locks +that Marquette thought becoming; besides +they were reputed warriors, who rarely failed in +their forays. They proved docile, attentive, and +interested in religious matters, as was shown not +only by their talk with Father Allouez, but also +by a cross standing in the centre of the town, +which was adorned with votive offerings of skins, +belts, bows and arrows to the Great Manitou for +an abundance of game during the dreaded famine +time of winter.</p> + +<p>The Indians used for their beds mats, probably +made of rushes, which in default of bark also +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page19" id="page19"></a>19</span> +served as material for the walls and roofs of their +unsubstantial shelters. Since Marquette refers +to the advantage of such building material as +capable of being rolled up and easily moved +during hunts, it is probable that this town was +of a temporary character. It appears to have +been well located, being on an eminence, whence +the approach of an enemy or the presence of +game could be readily observed in the open +country. Marquette says of it: “The view is +beautiful and very picturesque, for from the +eminence on which it is perched are seen +stretching out on every side, as far as eye can +reach, prairies broken by thickets or groves of +lofty trees.” The Indians grew much corn, and +gathered wild plums and “grapes, from which,” +his thoughts turning to home, he says, “good +wine could be made if they chose.”</p> + +<p>Joliet lost no time, but immediately on arrival +assembled the sachems and told them that he +was sent by his Governor to discover new countries. +He made them a present and asked that +two guides be sent to show him the way, which +resulted in the gift to Joliet of a mat to serve as +a bed, and the sending of two Miamis as guides.</p> + +<p>The next day, June 10th, they proceeded, two +Miamis and seven Frenchmen in two canoes, up +the river to the portage, through a net-work of +marshes, little lakes, and meandering channels +so hidden by the wild rice that their guides were +very useful. Conducting Joliet to a portage of +2,700 paces, and assisting in the transportation of +the canoes across it, the Miamis then returned, +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page20" id="page20"></a>20</span> +leaving the explorers “alone in an unknown +country, in the hands of Providence.”</p> + +<p>Before launching their canoes into strange +waters, which were to bear them into unknown +lands, they knelt on the bank and offered up devout +aspirations to God for continued success. +The new river was the Weskousing (Wisconsin), +whose broad shallows and sandy bottom, while +rendering navigation slow and very laborious, +yet contrasted delightfully with the rocky rapids +of the Fox.</p> + +<p>Father Marquette sets forth delightfully the +ideal voyage down this stream, past vine-clad +islets, along sloping banks, now bordered by the +lovely prairie, with its sweet odors of fresh +grasses and blooming flowers, and anon fringed +by the primeval forest, beautiful with its tangle +of shrubbery and in its June foliage. The gnarled +oak, the straight walnut, the elegant whitewood, +and other stately trees of unknown species met +their vision at times, while again their eyes +scarcely separated from the heavens the distant +horizon of the green level plains, whose luxuriant +vegetation afforded the richest pasturage +for numerous herds of deer and moose, and in +spots showed the fertility of its alluvial soil by +the fields of Indian corn.</p> + +<p>Each morning, before they relaunched their +canoes, they attuned their voices to the praise of +God, and, in their unique joy of successful discovery, +must have felt on those delightful June +days that their devotions had not been uplifted in +vain. From sunrise to sunset they labored unceasingly, +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page21" id="page21"></a>21</span> +now paddling briskly along the deep +reaches, and then struggling stoutly through +mazes of shallows and sand-bars, where tedious +and frequent portages were patiently made.</p> + +<p>Each evening their hearts rejoiced and their +tired limbs found delightful repose at some spot +where Joliet’s judgment directed the canoes to +be drawn out, inspected, and upturned by some, +while others started the camp-fire and prepared +the evening meal. This camp was always so +placed that the approach of an enemy could be +seen from afar, and where fuel for fire and +branches for bedding were at hand. The best +hunter was told off for game, and rarely did the +meal lack fresh meat or fruit and berries in +season. After supper the soothing pipe, prayers +and songs of praise, and then under the over-arching +trees such sound slumber as only comes +to men sleeping under the open sky.</p> + +<p>As they advanced it was often possible to use +sail and relieve the men to some extent from the +fatigue of the paddle, and such rapid progress +was made that, on June 17th, they safely entered +the long-desired Mississippi, “with a joy,” writes +Marquette, “which I cannot express.” They +were then in latitude 43° 03´ N., opposite the +site of the present city of Prairie du Chien.</p> + +<p>Turning eagerly southward, their progress +facilitated by the gentle current of the Mississippi, +they journeyed more than a hundred +leagues without seeing on the land aught save +birds and beasts. The solitude of the great +river appalled them: a vast torrent of rolling +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page22" id="page22"></a>22</span> +water, bordered by forest and plain, so well fitted +for the happiness of man, and yet no human +being in all this land! What could it mean, and +what would be the outcome? Joliet, of long experience +with savage tribes, and astute in forest +craft, distrusted the silence and solitude, and +kept as keen guard as though on the war-path. +A tiny camp-fire was built only for meals, and +the nights were passed in the crowded canoes +as far from shore as it was possible to anchor +them in the deep river. Even then strict watch +was kept, and every strange or unusual noise +excited feelings of trepidation lest a hidden foe +be the cause.</p> + +<p>Their journey by day was not entirely devoid +of incident and excitement, says Marquette. +“From time to time we met monstrous +fishes, one of which struck the canoe so violently +I took it for a large tree. Another time we +perceived on the water a monster [probably an +American tiger-cat] with a head like a tiger and +a pointed snout like the wild-cat, with beard and +ears erect, a grayish head, and entirely black +neck.” They cast their nets successfully, and +once caught a spade-fish, whose appearance +caused much astonishment. In 41° 28´ N. latitude +(near Rock Island), wild turkeys took the +place of wild fowl; while as to animals, only +buffalo were seen, being so numerous and fearless +as to be easily killed, and thus offering a welcome +change of food. These new beasts presented +themselves to our explorers as hideous, especially +those with thick, long manes falling over their +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page23" id="page23"></a>23</span> +eyes in such tangles as to prevent their seeing +clearly. Marquette records that the Indians tan +buffalo-skins into beautiful robes, which they paint +into various colors; and further recites the ferocity +of the buffalo as yearly causing the death +of some Indian. When near the present city of +Keokuk, at the mouth of the Des Moines River, +on June 25th, they perceived the first signs of +man in all this solitude: foot-prints by the riverside, +and then a beaten path, which, entering a +beautiful prairie, impressed them as leading to +some Indian village.</p> + +<p>They had journeyed seventeen days without +seeing the face of man, and so, after deliberation, +they resolved to visit the village; this decision +doubtless being urged by Marquette, who for +years had sought by prayer “to obtain of God +the grace to be able to visit the nations on the +river Mississippi,” and who now would allow no +danger to deter him. Joliet was fully aware of +the great risk, and took most careful precautions +to ensure the safety of their canoes and people +by charging them strictly to beware of surprise, +while he and Marquette ventured to put +themselves at the discretion of an unknown +savage people. Cautiously following the little +path in silence across the beautiful prairie and +through the thickets for a distance of two +leagues, they suddenly came in view of an Indian +village, picturesquely placed on a river bank, +and overlooked by two others on a neighboring +hill; they pressed on with successful caution +and silence, but with much doubt and fear. +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page24" id="page24"></a>24</span> +Having, as Marquette says, “recommended ourselves +to God with all our hearts,” and “having +implored his help, we passed on undiscovered, +and came so near we even heard the Indians +talking.” Stepping into the open, they halted +and announced themselves by a loud cry; at +which the Indians rushed out of their cabins, and +recognizing them as French, and seeing a “Blackgown” +(the well-known Indian name for a Jesuit), +sent four of their chief warriors forward. Two +chiefs, carrying calumets, or tobacco-pipes, elaborately +trimmed with various feathers, advanced +very slowly and in silence, lifting their calumets +as if offering them for the sun to smoke. Marquette, +encouraged by their friendly attitude, and +still more on seeing that they wore French cloth, +broke the silence; to which the Indians answered +that they were Illinois, who, in token of peace, +presented their pipes to smoke and invited the +strangers to their village.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page25" id="page25"></a>25</span></p> + +<table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:700px; height:524px" src="images/img027.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption">The Reception of Joliet and Marquette by the Illinois.</td></tr></table> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page26" id="page26"></a>26</span></p> + +<p>Joliet and Marquette were received at the door +of a wigwam, as was usual for strangers, by an +old chief, who stood perfectly naked, with outstretched +hands raised toward the sun, as if to +screen himself from its rays, which nevertheless +passed through the open fingers to his face. As +they came near him, he said: “How beautiful is +the sun, O Frenchmen, when thou comest to visit +us. All our town awaits thee, and thou shalt +enter all our cabins in peace.” After smoking the +calumet, they went by invitation to visit the Great +Sachem of all Illinois, at a near village. With +good nature and childish curiosity, a throng of +Indians went along, and says Marquette, “could +not tire looking at us; they threw themselves on +the grass by the wayside; they ran ahead, then +turned and walked back to see us again, all in silence, +with marks of great respect.” They were +received by the Great Sachem and two old chiefs, +all naked and with their calumet turned to the +sun. After smoking the calumet, Marquette, +speaking in Algonquin, said that they marched in +peace to visit the nations on the river to the sea; +that God their Creator had pity, and had sent his +messenger to make him known as their Creator, +whom they should acknowledge and obey; that +Frontenac had spread peace everywhere; and +last asked for all the information they had of the +sea and the nations between them and it.</p> + +<p>The Sachem answered in a beautiful speech +worthy of the occasion:</p> + +<p>“I thank thee, Blackgown, and thee, Frenchman,” +addressing M. Joliet, “for taking so much +pains to come and visit us; never has the earth +been so beautiful, nor the sun so bright, as to-day; +never has our river been so calm, nor so free from +rocks, which your canoes have removed as they +passed; never has our tobacco had so fine a +flavor, nor our corn appeared so beautiful as we +behold it to day. Here is my son, that I give +thee, that thou mayst know my heart. I pray +thee to take pity on me and all my nation. Thou +knowest the Great Spirit, who has made us all; +thou speakest to him and hearest his words: ask +him to give me life and health, and come and +dwell with us, that we may know him.”</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page27" id="page27"></a>27</span></p> + +<p>It is interesting to note the condition of the +Illinois when first visited. Their chiefs wore +over the left shoulder a belt, ingeniously made +of the hair of bear and buffalo, which passed +around the waist and ended in a long fringe; +arm, knee, and wrist bands of deer or buffalo-skin, +and the rattles of deer hoofs were also worn, +and the face was painted with red ochre. In addition +to abundant game, they raised beans, melons, +squashes, and Indian corn. Their dishes were +of wood, their spoons of the bones of buffalo, +their knives stone, their arms, bows and arrows +with an occasional gun bought from other tribes.</p> + +<p>The word calumet is due to Father Marquette, +and his description of this interesting Indian +pipe and its uses among the Indians over two +hundred years ago is best given in his own words:</p> + +<p>“It now remains for me to speak of the calumet, +than which there is nothing among them +more mysterious or more esteemed. Men do +not pay to the crowns and sceptres of kings the +honor they pay to it. It seems to be the god of +peace and war, the arbiter of life and death. +Carry it about you and show it, and you can +march fearlessly amid enemies, who even in the +heat of battle lay down their arms when it is +shown. Hence the Illinois gave me one, to serve +as my safeguard amid all the nations that I had +to pass on my voyage. There is a calumet for +peace and one for war, distinguished only by the +color of the feathers with which they are adorned, +red being the sign of war. They use them +also for settling disputes, strengthening alliances, +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page28" id="page28"></a>28</span> +and speaking to strangers. It is made of a polished +red stone, like marble, so pierced that one +end serves to hold the tobacco, while the other +is fastened on the stem, which is a stick two feet +long, as thick as a common cane, and pierced in +the middle; it is ornamented with the head and +neck of different birds of beautiful plumage; +they also add large feathers of red and green +and other colors, with which it is all covered. +They esteem it peculiarly, because they regard +it as the calumet, or pipe, of the sun; and, in +fact, they present it to him to smoke when they +wish to obtain calm, or rain, or fair weather.”</p> + +<p>Leaving the Illinois one afternoon, about the +end of June, they embarked in sight of the whole +admiring tribe, and, following the river, reached +the mouth of the muddy Missouri. They were +the first white men who had ever gazed on the +turbulent waters of this mighty stream. Impressed +by the size and majesty of the Missouri +Marquette believed and hoped that later, by +making a prairie portage of twenty or thirty +leagues, he could reach a deep westerly running +river that would carry him to the Red Sea (the +Gulf of California).</p> + +<p>The Missouri, or Pekitanoui, as Marquette +called it, was evidently at the flood stage, for he +says: “A mass of large trees, entire with branches, +real floating islands, came rushing from the +mouth of the river so impetuously that we could +not pass across without exposing ourselves to +great danger. The agitation was so great that +the water was all muddy.”</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page29" id="page29"></a>29</span></p> + +<p>Immediately above the site of Alton, Ill., they +came in sight of the famous Piasa pictograph, +which was totally destroyed about fifty years +ago. Of it Marquette wrote: “As we coasted +along rocks, frightful for their height and length, +we saw painted thereon two monsters, which +startled us at first, and on which the boldest +Indian dare not gaze long. They have a +fearful look, are as large as a calf, have red eyes, +the horns of a deer, the beard of a tiger, and the +face of a man, while around the scale-covered +body was a fish’s tail twice encircling it. The +two monsters were very well painted in green, +red, and black colors, and so high upon the +rocks that they were apparently inaccessible to +man.”</p> + +<p>Later they discovered a very rich iron-mine of +many veins, one a foot thick, and large masses of +metal combined with pebbles; also purple, violet, +and red clay, which colored the water a blood +red. They now passed the dreaded home of the +Manitou, or demon, who devours all who pass; +which proved to be a frightful rapid where large +detached rocks and a narrow channel caused a +furious commotion of the waters tumbling over +each other, and a tremendous roaring, which +struck terror to the Indian’s heart. Passing +this, they reached the mouth of the Ohio, which +Marquette calls “Ouaboukidou,” on which there +were no less than thirty-eight villages of the +Chaouanons (Shawnees). A little beyond, Marquette’s +eye was delighted by the appearance of +breaks, wherein the canes were of an exquisite +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page30" id="page30"></a>30</span> +green, with knots crowned by long, narrow-pointed +leaves. At every landing the keen eyes +of the Canadian explorers searched out everything +that was new or that seemed suitable for +food; so we find the persimmon and the chicopin +and other fruits and nuts described in detail.</p> + +<p>By this time, in early July, they found themselves +suffering from the double annoyance of +mosquitoes and the excessive and insupportable +heat of the sun, from which they sheltered themselves +as best they could by making a kind of +cabin with their sails, while their canoes were +borne on by the current.</p> + +<p>Finally they perceived on the river-bank +Indians armed with guns, who awaited their +approach. Joliet, ready either for peace or war, +put Marquette forward with his feathered peace +calumet upraised, while the rest stood to arms, +ready to fire on the first volley of the savages. +Marquette hailed them in Huron, and the party +was not only peacefully received, but invited to +their village and presented with food of various +kinds. Joliet found among them guns, axes, +hoes, powder, etc., and was assured that they +bought cloth and other articles from Europeans +to the east, doubtless the Spaniards of Florida. +Marquette was troubled to find they had received +no instruction in the faith, which, as far as he +could, he gave them.</p> + +<p>Being assured that the sea was not more than +ten days’ journey distant, they were greatly +encouraged, and instead of drifting with the current, +took up their paddles with renewed ardor.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page31" id="page31"></a>31</span></p> + +<p>Passing beyond the prairie land, they found +both sides of the river lined with dense woods, +wherein the cottonwood, elm, and white-wood +were of such height and size as to excite their +admiration. That the forests were not dense +seemed evident from the bellowing of cattle behind +the fringe of trees, which were enlivened for +our travellers by flocks of quail along the water’s +edge and an occasional parrot with its brilliant +coloring of red, yellow, and green.</p> + +<p>Nearing the mouth of the Arkansas, they saw +on the river-bank an Indian village called Mithiganea, +near which Joliet and his party had an +exciting and fearful experience, which Marquette +thus describes:</p> + +<p>“We heard from afar the Indians exciting one +another to the combat by continual yells. They +were armed with bows, arrows, axes, war-clubs, +and bucklers, and prepared to attack us by land +and water. Some embarked in large wooden +canoes, a part to ascend, the rest to descend, the +river, so as to cut our way and surround us completely. +Those on shore kept going and coming, +as if about to begin the attack. In fact, some +young men sprang into the water to come and +seize my canoe, but the current having compelled +them to return to the shore, one of them threw +his war club at us, but it passed over our heads +without doing us any harm. In vain I showed +the calumet, and made gestures to explain that +we had not come as enemies. The alarm continued, +and they were about to pierce us from all +sides with their arrows, when God suddenly +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page32" id="page32"></a>32</span> +touched the hearts of the old men on the water +side, doubtless at the sight of our calumet, which +at the distance they had not distinguished; but +as I showed it continually, they were touched, +restrained the ardor of their youth, and two of +the chiefs, having thrown their bows and quivers +into our canoe, and as it were at our feet, entered +and brought us to the shore, where we disembarked, +not without fear on our part.”</p> + +<p>An old chief was at last found who spoke a +little Illinois, and through him they were told +that they could get full information regarding +the sea at another great village called Akamsea, +about ten leagues down the river. Presents were +exchanged and the night passed among them +with some uneasiness. The loving missionary +spirit of Marquette is shown here for, he says: +“I know not whether they understood what I +told them of God and the things which concerned +their salvation. It is a seed cast in the +earth which will bear its fruit in season.”</p> + +<p>At Akamsea (Arkansas) they were received by +the sachem holding up a peace calumet, after +which they had the customary smoke and a repast +of different dishes made of Indian corn. Presents +were interchanged and speeches made through +a young Indian who understood Illinois. The +whole day was spent in feasting, and the dishes +of Indian corn were continuously supplemented +by pieces of dog flesh.</p> + +<p>Joliet and Marquette learned from them that +the sea was only ten days’ journey distant for the +Indians, which meant five days for our explorers +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page33" id="page33"></a>33</span> +in their birch canoes. They further set forth the +very great danger of passing on, owing to the +continual war parties moving along the river. +A secret council of the sachems with a view to +killing the party for plunder was only broken +up through the influence of the chief, who, sending +for the explorers, danced a calumet dance as +a mark of perfect assurance, and then to remove +all fears, presented his peace calumet to Marquette +as a guarantee of safety.</p> + +<p>The famous calumet dance is performed only +on important occasions—to strengthen peace, for +a war assembly, at public rejoicings, and in honor +of important personages or invited strangers. +The principal features are, first, a dance; second, +a mock combat; third, a self-laudatory speech, +during all of which the pipe plays an important +part, being smoked and handled to the measured +cadence of voices and drums.</p> + +<p>Joliet and Marquette now took counsel together +as to whether they should continue their +voyage in face of such adverse conditions or +turn back. Finally, after long and careful consideration +it was decided to return.</p> + +<p>They realized that in their present latitude, +33° 40´ N., they could not be more than two +or three days from the sea, and that the Mississippi, +by its general course, undoubtedly +flowed into the Gulf of Mexico, and not into the +South Sea through California.</p> + +<p>Neglecting the dangers from warlike Indians +along the lower river, they considered, moreover, +that they risked losing the fruit of this +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page34" id="page34"></a>34</span> +voyage if they should throw themselves into the +hands of the Spaniards, who would at least imprison +them.</p> + +<table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:500px; height:530px" src="images/img036.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption">De Soto.</td></tr></table> + +<p>Joliet’s farthest was on the east bank, opposite +a river, probably the Arkansas, and could not +have been far from the point where De Soto more +than a hundred years before, in April, 1541, +reached the Mississippi. What a contrast between +the means and experiences of these two +explorers! De Soto, a noble Spaniard, with an +armament of ten vessels equipped with all the +paraphernalia of war, having, with three hundred +and fifty horsemen, a thousand picked men in +mail who had been chosen from the flower of +the Spanish and Portuguese nobility. His followers +were animated by ambition, eager seekers +for wealth and power, their track marked by fire +and sword, their action often treacherous and +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page35" id="page35"></a>35</span> +always characterized by the savageness of their +age. They reaped the natural harvest, and although +they reached the Mississippi, yet constant +warfare, continued privations, toil, and disasters +had sadly wasted their strength and numbers, +and finally not one man in four ever reached +again a Spanish settlement. Joliet, an American +of humble birth, with two frail canoes equipped +only with an ordinary hunting outfit, had six +followers who, inspired by neither hope of gold +nor desire of conquest other than that of a spiritual +kind, came with peace and confidence, +were received by all tribes with hospitality, +and returned to their own without harm or contumely.</p> + +<p>The result of De Soto’s work was an unprofitable, +soon-forgotten discovery, utterly +barren of results. Joliet reduced the fables of +the Indians to facts, discovered the muddy Missouri, +and what is more, gave definite knowledge +to the world of the fertile valleys of the Mississippi +basin, wherein he planted the first germs of +civilization, which speedily took the practical +form of missions and settlements.</p> + +<p>After a day’s rest, Joliet and his party left +Akamsea July 17th, and tediously retraced their +course against the strong currents of the Mississippi. +Through the advice of the Indians they +quitted the great river at the mouth of the Illinois, +which greatly shortened their way and +brought them with little trouble to the present +site of Chicago, they passing on the way through +an Illinois town, Kaskaskia, of seventy-four cabins, +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page36" id="page36"></a>36</span> +from which an escort of braves guided them +to Lake Michigan.</p> + +<p>Marquette appears to have had a prophetic eye +for the great future of the present State of Illinois, +for he says, “We have seen nothing like +this river for the fertility of the land, its prairies, +woods, wild cattle, deer, wild-cats, bustards, +swans, ducks, parrots, and even beaver; its many +little lakes and rivers.”</p> + +<p>Coasting the shores of Lake Michigan, the end +of September, 1673, brought them to Green Bay, +where the rude comforts of a frontier mission +and the solace of friendly intercourse were once +more theirs. They had been absent four months, +and in that time had paddled their frail canoes +more than twenty-five hundred miles. Here +Marquette remained to recruit his health, impaired +by physical hardships, continued exposure, +and lack of suitable food. The hardy Joliet lost +no time, however, but pressed on, too eager to +report his grand discoveries to Frontenac.</p> + +<p>As mentioned in Frontenac’s dispatch, the misfortunes +of Joliet began when his long and perilous +voyage was practically ended. In the rapids +of La Chine, near Montreal, his canoe overset; +three of his party were drowned, all his papers +lost, and he himself narrowly escaped. In a letter +to Frontenac he says: “I had escaped every +peril from the Indians; I had passed forty-two +rapids, and was on the point of disembarking, +full of joy at the success of so long and difficult +an enterprise, when my canoe capsized after all +danger seemed past. I lost two men, an Indian +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page37" id="page37"></a>37</span> +boy and my box of papers within sight of the first +French settlements, which I had left almost two +years before. Nothing now remains to me but +my life and the ardent desire to employ it on any +service which you may be pleased to direct.”</p> + +<p>We have to rest content with the graphic account +written by Marquette, as it was impossible +for Joliet to reproduce his lost journal. As regards +the map, his natural and acquired skill in +cartography was such that Joliet reproduced his +discoveries in the shape of a small map, which +he presented to Frontenac, by whom it was sent +to Colbert, with a despatch dated November 14, +1674, and now is in the famous Chart Office at +Paris. It is entitled, “Map of the Discovery of +Sieur Joliet,” etc., and has a brief explanatory +letter thereon, from which I have quoted above.</p> + +<p>Joliet’s discoveries were most joyfully received +in France, Colbert especially appreciating their +value and importance both as regards the extent +and fertility of the countries traversed and also +as to the easy water communication therewith. +It afforded an opportunity of extending the limits +of French possessions in America, which was +not neglected. It did not fall, however, to Joliet +to play any part in this great work, which was +the lot of his great rival, the energetic, persistent, +and far-seeing La Salle, who received in 1678 a +royal patent with seignorial rights over all lands +which he might discover and colonize within +twenty years, and who gave Louisiana to the +French crown.</p> + +<p>The natural despondency of Joliet over the +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page38" id="page38"></a>38</span> +loss of his maps and journals soon gave way to +happier experiences; for the following year, October +7, 1675, he married Clare Frances Bissot. +His father-in-law, a Canadian, was a wealthy Indian +trader, so Joliet naturally resumed his former +occupation, and in 1679 made a journey to +Hudson Bay by way of the Saguenay. He found +the English strongly intrenched in their successful +efforts to monopolize the Indian trade of +that quarter. The usual attempts to draw Canadians +into their service were made in Joliet’s +case. He not only declined service, but on his +return to Quebec made such representations of +the inevitable effect of English rivalry, if unopposed, +on the trade of Canada, that a competing +company was organized by French merchants.</p> + +<p>Joliet in the meantime had only received fair +words, but after strenuous efforts he succeeded +in 1679 in obtaining a grant of the Islands of +Mignan, and in the following year the French +Government granted him the Island of Anticosti, +in the Gulf of St. Lawrence. Here he established +himself with his family, and with six servants +engaged in fisheries.</p> + +<p>In the course of time he added to his buildings +and extended his interests, but his peaceful pursuits +were destined to interruption and devastation. +In 1690 an English fleet, under command +of Sir William Phipps, sailed to attack Quebec, +and in course of time anchored at Anticosti. In +those days war was waged with utter disregard +of the rights of private property. Joliet was +then absent. A detachment from the English +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page39" id="page39"></a>39</span> +fleet landed on the island, devastated Joliet’s establishment, +destroyed his buildings by fire, and +even carried away as prisoners his wife and +mother-in-law, who fortunately were soon exchanged.</p> + +<p>Deprived in a day of the accumulation of years, +his future actions showed that age and adversity +made but small inroads on his manly spirit. +Obliged to exertion for the support of his family, +he turned again in his fiftieth year to a voyage +of exploration and adventure. A Canadian +company contemplated the extension of its seal +and whale fisheries to the rugged and dangerous +coast of Labrador, then little known, and in +1694 Joliet explored the greater part of this ice-covered +and rock-bound coast under the auspices +and in the interest of this company.</p> + +<p>Some years earlier Joliet had shown his merits +as a skilful surveyor and navigator by charting +the waters of the St. Lawrence, and when, on his +return from Labrador, occupation failed, Frontenac +recognized his deserving abilities by naming +him for the post of royal pilot of the St. Lawrence, +still later appointing him hydrographer at +Quebec.</p> + +<p>The emoluments of his royal offices were a +mere pittance, and in 1695 he is found on Mignan +Islands, where, with his wife, he contracted with +his brother-in-law Bissot and other parties with a +view of developing his interests both on land and +at sea. In 1697 he was granted by the Crown +the Seignory of Joliet. This honor he did not +long enjoy, for he died, apparently a poor man, +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page40" id="page40"></a>40</span> +in 1699 or 1700. He was fortunate in his burial +place, one of the Mignan Islands, which is forever +associated with his fame, having been +granted him by the French Crown for that great +and dangerous voyage which gave to the world +its first definite knowledge of the location, extent, +and fertility of the great valley of the Mississippi.</p> + +<p>While Joliet followed the rugged and peaceful +pursuits of his island-home, ill fared it with his +vigorous Norman successor. The great La Salle +fell under the hand of a mutinous follower, while +his fated Texan colony perished totally by desertion, +betrayal, and massacre. So relapsed the +lower Mississippi into its primal savagery and +grandeur, until the domineering energy of the +great Canadian, Iberville, awakened it into a +vast dominion, to the glory, if not to the profit, +of France.</p> + +<table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:700px; height:225px" src="images/img042.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr></table> + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page41" id="page41"></a>41</span></p> + +<p class="center">II.</p> + +<p class="chap center">PETER LE MOYNE, SIEUR D’IBERVILLE,</p> + +<p class="center sc">Founder of Louisiana.</p> + +<p class="noind"><span class="chap1 sc">Among</span> the very earliest settlers of Hochelega, +now Montreal, was the son of a Norman innkeeper, +a young French lad of fifteen, Charles le +Moyne, who came to this Indian village in 1641. +Apt, strong, daring, and zealous, he soon became +one of the most efficient aids to French power. +The language, the wood-craft, the arts of the savage +soon became his, and added to these such +suavity of manner, clearness of perception, and +native kindness as made him loved equally by +French and savage. As interpreter, soldier, negotiator, +and captain of the guard, he rendered +such great service to the young and exposed +colony as caused him to be made captain of Montreal, +and later, in 1668, to be ennobled by Louis +XIV. under the title of Sieur of Longueuil. For +four years service in the country of the Hurons +he received for his entire pay the sum of twenty +crowns and his clothing, but he gained also such +a knowledge of the possibilities of the country, +such an insight into Indian character, and such a +wealth of vigorous manhood as enabled him to +acquire during his life an estate that was princely. +He did better than this, he married a woman +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page42" id="page42"></a>42</span> +worthy of him, whose family is scarcely known, +Catherine Tierry, an adopted daughter of Antoine +Primot.</p> + +<p>In all the history of American families there is +none that has as distinguished and brilliant a history +as the twelve sons and two daughters born +of this French peasant and the son of a Norman +innkeeper in the forests of Canada. The two +daughters married nobles, and of the twelve sons +nine live distinguished in history, three of them +were killed in the service of France, ten of them +were ennobled, and four, Iberville, Serigny, Chateauguay, +and Bienville the younger, played important +parts in the founding of Louisiana.</p> + +<table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:700px; height:118px" src="images/img044.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption">Signature of le Moyne.</td></tr></table> + +<p>There were many brilliant and picturesque +figures among the actors in the founding of a New +France in the wilds of North America, but among +them all there was scarcely one whose personality +and deeds excited more admiration among his +contemporaries, or whose services and career +are more deserving of recognition by posterity, +than Peter le Moyne, Sieur d’Iberville, third son +of Longueuil, who was born on the extreme frontier, +at the outpost of Montreal, July 16, 1661. +As a soldier he rose to be the leader and idol of +his fellow-Canadians; as a sailor he became an extremely +skilful navigator, who was acknowledged +as one of the greatest of French naval commanders; +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page43" id="page43"></a>43</span> +and as an explorer and administrator he so +successfully accomplished his plans as to merit +and receive the title of the Founder of Louisiana.</p> + +<p>The freedom, vigor, and wildness of Canadian +life developed men early, and Iberville entered +the French Navy as midshipman at the age of +fourteen. His first service of note, however, was +as a soldier in the wilds of his native land, in the +Canadian overland campaign to recover possession +of an Indian trading post on Hudson Bay, +which it was claimed the English had illegally +seized. Iberville volunteered for this campaign +under De Troye, and exhibited such judgment +and vigor as caused him to be put in command +of a small party of nine, some say twelve, men +with two canoes, wherewith he did not hesitate +to attack and compel the unconditional surrender +of an English ship manned by fourteen, including +the commander of Hudson Bay. St. Helene, his +brother, meantime captured another vessel, and +with the two as means of transport, the two +brothers pushed on to Fort Quitchitchouen, +which surrendered after withstanding a sharp +cannonade.</p> + +<p>These victories not only insured to the French +the command of the entire southern part of Hudson +Bay, but put them in possession of a vast +amount of stores. Indeed, so destructive to English +interests were the campaigns of Iberville in +1687-88, that the Hudson Bay Company declared +that their actual losses amounted to 108,520 pounds +sterling, an enormous sum in the young colonies +of that day. The consequential losses must have +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page44" id="page44"></a>44</span> +been very great, for we are told that the value of +furs obtained in the trade of one year amounted +to 400,000 livres (francs).</p> + +<p>Iberville remained in charge of the country +which his valor had recaptured, and in 1688, +while the Iroquois were ravaging Canada, waged +successful war in Hudson Bay. One of his +lieutenants, capturing an English official, found +on him an order from the London Company +to proclaim English sovereignty over the whole +bay. Later two ships, with twenty-eight cannon +and eight swivels, appeared before St. Anne in +order to expel the French. Eventually Iberville +compelled the surrender of the English ships, and +releasing the smaller vessel for the safe transport +of such prisoners as he paroled, himself navigated +the larger ship, with eleven Hudson Bay pilots +held prisoners, to Quebec through Hudson Strait.</p> + +<p>In 1690 Iberville volunteered, under his brother +St. Helene, for the retaliatory expedition in mid-winter +against Schenectady, wherein a large +number of the inhabitants of that unhappy town +were ruthlessly massacred by the French and +their Indian allies. Iberville seems to have exerted +his influence to restrain the savagery of the +Indians, and saved the life of at least one Englishman.</p> + +<p>It seems that the successes of the young Canadian +had attracted attention in France, and when +in 1691, through the efforts of the Northern +Company, Louis XIV. had decided to recover +Port Nelson, Hudson Bay, from the English, Du +Tast came to Quebec with fourteen sail, it was +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page45" id="page45"></a>45</span> +with express orders that Iberville should be entrusted +with a share of the work and glory. Du +Tast objected to such division of honor, and by +plausible objections as to the lateness of the +season, although it was only the 16th of July, +succeeded in delaying the departure of the expedition +for that year.</p> + +<p>Iberville seemed determined to show the +speciousness of the reasons, for he made a trip to +the bay and brought back in 1691 two ships +loaded with furs, much to the consolation of +Frontenac. He immediately went to France to +advance the expedition against Port Nelson, +which he knew was much favored at court. +Iberville found favor with the king, who gave +him two ships for the reduction of Port Nelson, +and orders to guard it after reduction.</p> + +<p>Delays in France and contrary winds on the +Atlantic brought Iberville to Quebec only in +October, far too late for the safe navigation of +Hudson Bay. To fill in his time he set forth to +take Pemaquid, but did not make an attack, this +being the only instance in his long career where +he failed to show extreme daring, even against +desperate odds. The delay of the vessels was +unfortunate for France as far as Hudson Bay +was concerned, for in 1693 three English vessels +attacked and captured St. Anne, with fifty thousand +peltries, and again the control of the bay +passed from France.</p> + +<p>In September, 1694, Iberville, with two ships, +la Poli and la Charante, the former commanded +by his brother, de Serigny, appeared before Port +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page46" id="page46"></a>46</span> +Nelson, which he was six weeks in approaching +owing to the heavy moving ice, which nearly +destroyed his vessel. The fort had a double +palisade, thirty-two cannon and swivels in the +main body, and fourteen cannon in outer works, +the whole manned by fifty-three men. Iberville +landed without hesitation, invested the fort with +forty Canadians, worked with his usual energy +and skill, and in fourteen days he had his outworks +established, his batteries placed and mortars +in position. His final summons for surrender +resulted in the capitulation of the fort, +on condition that personal property should be +spared and safe transport be given the garrison +to England the coming year. His success was +saddened for Iberville by the death of the elder +Chateauguay, the third of his brothers to fall in +the service of his king, who perished while gallantly +repelling a sortie of the beleaguered garrison. +The name of Port Nelson was changed +to Fort Bourbon, and the river was rechristened +St. Therese, because, says Jeremie, in his <i>Relation +de la Baie de Hudson</i>, the capitulation was made +on October 14th, the day of that holy saint.</p> + +<p>The victory did not prove to be cheap, for +scurvy, then the dreaded scourge of the sailor, +broke out during the long, dark, excessively cold +winter, and caused the death of twenty men. +Late the next summer, after waiting to the last +moment for the English ships he counted on +capturing, and leaving a garrison of sixty-seven +at Fort Bourbon, Iberville sailed for Quebec; +but the winds were so contrary and his crew so +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page47" id="page47"></a>47</span> +debilitated by scurvy, that he turned his prows +to France and fortunately arrived at Rochelle, +October 9, 1695.</p> + +<p>His victories in Hudson Bay so commended +him to the king that Iberville was charged with +the reduction and destruction of the strong fort +which James II. of England had erected at Pemaquid, +Maine. While on this cruise our Canadian +fell in with three English ships near the +mouth of the St. John. He unhesitatingly attacked +them, dismasted, fired, and captured the +flag-ship of the squadron, the Newport, a ship of +eighty men and twenty-four guns.</p> + +<p>Reinforced by several hundred Indians, as a +land and besieging force, Iberville arrived at +Pemaquid, August 13, 1696, and invested the +fort the next day. He summoned the commander, +Colonel Chubb, to capitulate, but that +officer replied that, “if the sea was covered with +French vessels and the land with Indians, he +would not surrender until compelled to do so.” +Iberville promptly landed, and used such expedition +that within the short space of thirteen +hours he established his batteries in position +and opened fire, when the garrison surrendered +on honorable terms. Iberville, doubtless mindful +of his experiences at Schenectady, took the +wise and humane precaution of quartering his +prisoners under the guns of the royal ships, so +as to secure them from the fury of his bloodthirsty +allies, the Indians, who desired to supplement +the entire destruction of the fort by the +slaughter of the garrison.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page48" id="page48"></a>48</span></p> + +<p>In withdrawing from the demolished post, +while doubling the island at the mouth of the +Penobscot, he had an opportunity of justifying +his reputation as the most skilful officer in the +French service; for, falling in with an English +squadron of seven sail, he successfully evaded +them by bold seamanship along the very coast +line of that dangerous and rock-bound shore.</p> + +<p>His capacity as a military commander was now +to be tested. Charged by the king to co-operate +in the reduction of Newfoundland to French +power, Iberville found himself viewed with jealousy +by his colleague, <span class="correction" title="amended from Brouillian">Brouillan</span>, governor of +Placentia, who assumed entire command, interfered +with Iberville’s contemplated movements, +and declared that his own troops, the Canadians, +should not accompany him on the opening campaign.</p> + +<p>Iberville realizing the necessity of zealous and +concerted action in an enterprise of such importance, +decided to leave the field free to Brouillan, +and so announced his intention of returning to +France. Immediately the Canadians declared to +a man that they were bound to him alone, that +Frontenac’s orders recognized Iberville as commander, +and finally, that they would return to +Quebec sooner than accept another. Brouillan +recognizing that Iberville was the idol of his +Canadian countrymen, and unable to deny that +the king had confided all the enterprises to be +undertaken during the winter to Iberville, made +such concessions as brought about reconciliation; +nevertheless the campaign undertaken against +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page49" id="page49"></a>49</span> +St. John’s was marked by dissension. Iberville +displayed his usual energy and gallantry in the +advance and subsequent skirmishes which ultimately +resulted in the surrender of St. John’s, +which was abandoned and destroyed by fire. +The campaign was pursued with such energy +and success that at the end of two months the +English had nothing left in Newfoundland except +Bona Vista and Carbonniere Island. During +these operations Iberville displayed marked +ability in handling troops, both in the field and +during siege operations. His eagerness to share +every danger, and willingness to undergo every +hardship in common with his troops, endeared +him to all and contributed much to the enthusiasm +with which his men followed him or obeyed +his orders.</p> + +<p>In May, 1697, his brother Serigny arrived at +Placentia with four vessels, destined for the +command of Iberville in a proposed attempt to +again reduce Hudson Bay. With these ships—le +Pelican, fifty guns; le Palmier, forty guns; le +Profond, le Vespe, and a brigantine—Iberville +entered the mouth of Hudson Strait on August +3d, and was immediately beset with heavy ice. +The floes were driven hither and thither with such +violence by the currents that Iberville directed, +as the best means of safety, that each vessel +should moor itself to the largest attainable iceberg. +This expedient saved four of the ships, but an unexpected +movement of two large bergs crushed +so completely the brigantine that she sank instantly, +the crew barely escaping with their lives.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page50" id="page50"></a>50</span></p> + +<p>After a besetment of twenty-four days, Iberville +succeeded in extricating his vessel from +the ice and passed into the bay. He was alone +and in utter ignorance of the fate of his consorts, +which had been hidden from view by the +ice for the past seventeen days. Iberville was +not the man to turn back, nor indeed to delay in +an expedition which demanded haste, so he +pushed on alone and reached Port Nelson on +September 4th.</p> + +<p>The next morning he discovered three ships +several leagues to the leeward, tacking to enter +the harbor. He hoped that they were his consorts, +and he at once made signals, which being +unanswered showed that the ships were English. +It was indeed an English squadron, consisting of +the Hampshire, fifty-two guns and two hundred +and thirty men; the Hudson Bay, thirty-two +guns, and the Deringue, also of thirty-two guns, +against which force Iberville had but one ship +of fifty guns. It was with reason that, as Jeremie +says, “they flattered themselves with the idea of +capturing Iberville, seeing that they were three +to one, and they were amazed at the boldness +with which he attacked them.”</p> + +<p>Indeed, almost any other officer in the French +navy would have considered an attack as simply +madness, but such desperate odds only served to +stimulate to the highest degree the known courage +and skill of Iberville. He cleared his decks +for action, and instantly quitting the shelter and +supposed advantage of the harbor, attacked the +English squadron in the open sea, where Iberville +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page51" id="page51"></a>51</span> +doubtless counted that his skill in handling ship +would inure to his benefit.</p> + +<p>Charlevoix thus describes this desperate fight:</p> + +<p>“The cannonade opened about half-past nine +in the morning and was kept up incessantly till +one with great vigor on both sides. Meanwhile +the Pelican had only one man killed and seventeen +wounded. Then Iberville, who had kept the +weather-gauge, bore down straight on the two +frigates, pouring in several broadsides at close +quarters in order to disable them. At that moment +he perceived the third, the Hampshire, +coming on with twenty-six guns in battery on each +side, with a crew of two hundred and thirty men.</p> + +<p>“He at once proceeded to meet her, all his guns +pointed to sink her, ran under her lee, yard-arm +to yard-arm, and having brought his ship to, +poured in his broadside. This was done so effectively +that the Hampshire, after keeping on +about her own length, went down. Iberville at +once wore and turned on the Hudson Bay, the +ship of the remaining two that could most easily +enter St. Teresa River; but as he was on the +point of boarding her, the commandant struck +his flag and surrendered.</p> + +<p>“Iberville then gave chase to the Deringue, the +third, which was escaping to the northeast, and +which was only a good cannon-shot off; but as +that vessel was as good a sailor as his own ship +he soon gave up the chase, not daring to crowd +sail, having had much of his rigging cut, two +pumps burst, his shrouds considerably injured, +hull cut up by seven cannon-balls and pierced at +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page52" id="page52"></a>52</span> +the water’s edge, with no way of stopping the +leak. He accordingly veered and sent the Sieur +de la Sale in his boat with twenty-five men to +man the prize. He then proceeded to repair +damage, and having done so with great expedition, +he renewed the chase of the enemy, who +was now three leagues off.</p> + +<p>“He began to gain on him when, in the evening, +the wind changed to the north, and a thick fog +suddenly rising, he lost sight of the Deringue. +This accident compelled him to rejoin the Hudson +Bay, and he anchored near the Hampshire, +now almost out of sight, and from which not a +soul had been saved.”</p> + +<p>In this fight with an enemy more than twice +his superior in guns and men Iberville had sunk +one ship, captured another, and put the third to +flight; but this was followed by other experiences, +which at the outset presented conditions +apparently not less desperate and discouraging. +Two days later, pending his siege operations +against Port Nelson, a violent gale arose, in +which, says Charlevoix, “In spite of all d’Iberville’s +efforts to ride it out—and there was not, +perhaps, in the French navy one more skilful in +handling a ship—he was driven ashore with his +vessel, the Pelican, and his prize, the Hudson Bay. +The misfortune happened at night, the darkness +increasing the horrors of the storm and preventing +them from beaching the vessels at a favorable +place and so saving them, and before the +break of day they broke up and filled.”</p> + +<p>Both vessels were crowded with wounded +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page53" id="page53"></a>53</span> +men and prisoners, who endeavored as best they +could to reach the shore in the storm and darkness. +Twenty-three perished in the attempt, but +fortunately the receding tide left such shallows +that the rest reached shore, and most of the +prisoners successfully sought the friendly shelter +of Fort Nelson.</p> + +<p>Iberville now found himself in most desperate +plight—shipwrecked on a barren coast, with a +hostile garrison on land, the return of the English +ship at sea possible, and destitute of provisions. +He turned to the wrecked vessels and +found that it was possible to obtain from them +cannon and other munitions of war, and, undismayed, +he set his cold, wet, and hungry crew at +this task, resolved to obtain food by carrying +the English fort by assault. At this juncture +his missing vessels, having extricated themselves +from the ice of Hudson Strait, appeared, and +the fort surrendered without putting Iberville +to the last proof of his courage.</p> + +<p>As might be expected, Iberville became the +hero of the day on his return to France in 1697; +but true to himself and his career, he sought the +influence of friends at court only to obtain other +difficult and dangerous service that might add to +the glory of France. He was now to enter on a +new career as an explorer, colonizer, and administrator, +where, if he was to perform less brilliant +deeds than in earlier life, he was destined to open +up to settlement by his countrymen the fertile +lands of Louisiana, and thus lay the foundations +of its future greatness.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page54" id="page54"></a>54</span></p> + +<p>It was now twelve years since the tragic fate +of La Salle’s colony on the coast of Texas had +spread dismay and terror among all who had +been especially interested in the scheme of French +colonization on the Mississippi River. The sentiment +seemed to be that the mouth of the great +river could never be found and that further effort +would only result in useless sacrifice of life and +vessels. With the march of time, however, these +impressions of doubt and disaster had faded out +of mind, and as now the attention of the ministry +was especially turned to that part of Louisiana +which could be reached from the St. Lawrence, +it appeared to Iberville to be a suitable season to +revive the project of discovering the mouth of +the Mississippi and of planting a colony.</p> + +<p>A plan for the colonization of Louisiana was +formally submitted to the French Government +by M. de Remonville, while Iberville for his +part pledged his reputation as a navigator both +to find the mouth of the Mississippi and to successfully +plant there a colony. The ministry +were easily persuaded that the scheme was practicable +and advantageous, their decision being +doubtless affected by the knowledge that both +Spain and England contemplated the early settlement +of the northern coasts of the Gulf of Mexico. +It was even reported, as afterward transpired to +be the truth, that colonizing expeditions were already +en route, and in order to insure protection +should Iberville first reach the ground, Count +Pontchartrain projected and arranged for the construction +of a fort at the mouth of the Mississippi.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page55" id="page55"></a>55</span></p> + +<p>As was always the case, schemes of trade were +interwoven with the policy of colonization and +extension of the royal domain. The principal +objects of the trade proved fanciful or chimerical, +being, first, the idea of making bison wool an +article of trade, a scheme fostered in France by +La Salle, and, second, in the hope that valuable +pearl fisheries might be found. In Iberville’s instructions +we find that “one of the great objects +proposed to the king, when he was urged to discover +the mouth of the Mississippi, was to obtain +wool from the cattle (buffalo) of that country, +and for this purpose these animals must be +tamed and parked and the calves sent to France.”</p> + +<p>Iberville worked with his usual energy, and the +expedition, consisting of two small frigates, the +Badine, the Marin, and two Norman fishing-boats, +sailed from Brest, October 4, 1698. It was +Friday, but Iberville no more than Columbus +minded the day, and in the reluctance of the +other vessels, himself led in the Badine.</p> + +<p>A storm off Madeira caused the disappearance +of one of the fishing-boats, but after a short search +Iberville tarried no more than he did in the Hudson +Straits for his missing consort, but pushed +on and reached San Domingo early in December. +Here the governor, Ducasse, was so impressed +with Iberville’s elucidation of his projects that +he expressed to the home government his opinion +that the views and genius of Iberville seemed to +equal his valor in war.</p> + +<p>English vessels had been cruising in the neighborhood +of San Domingo, which led Iberville to +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page56" id="page56"></a>56</span> +believe that it was a colonizing expedition, so he +worked day and night in completing his preparations, +and on January 1, 1699, sailed for the Gulf +of Mexico. On the afternoon of the twenty-third +day, Iberville as usual leading, land was sighted +in the northeast. It proved to be the harbor of +Pensacola, where Iberville was chagrined to find +himself preceded by a Spanish colony under +command of Don Andres de la Riola. There were +two frigates yet in the harbor, which four months +before had brought up three hundred colonists +from Vera Cruz. The half-finished fort, the dissatisfied +garrison, and the uncertainty of the +future explorations to the westward were so +many inducements for Iberville to drive out the +Spaniards and secure the harbor. Iberville made +arrangements to enter the harbor, but was notified +by the Spanish governor that he had formal +orders from Spain to permit no foreign ships to +enter the harbor. Under pretence that he feared +heavy weather the French fleet sounded the +entrance to the harbor and prepared to enter. +The Spanish commander, however, begged that +they would retire, and fortunately having been +given information by the Spanish pilot, Iberville +decided to sail to the west. Iberville, exploring +the coast, anchored at the eastern point of the +entrance to Mobile Bay, where violent gales +nearly destroyed the squadron.</p> + +<table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:450px; height:634px" src="images/img059.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr></table> + +<p class="pt2">Reconnoitring boats giving such unsatisfactory +reports of the depth of the channel, Iberville +determined, with his usual energy, to survey it +himself. Taking his younger brother Bienville +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page57" id="page57"></a>57</span> +and a crew of his faithful Canadians he started, +despite approaching darkness, so as to begin +work at day-light; the storm breaking with +great violence, Iberville’s efforts to make headway +over the billows were in vain. Finally, his +rowers exhausted, the boat was turned to the +nearest land, but the sea was so high and the +wind so violent that unceasing efforts were needful +to prevent the boat from swamping. It was +due to Iberville’s great skill that the boat was +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page58" id="page58"></a>58</span> +finally beached in a favorable spot on the sandy +beach, which the crew reached with difficulty, so +exhausted were they with their struggles. Here +they were weather-bound three days, and so had +an opportunity to explore the island. It was +with horror that they discovered in one place +ghastly piles of human bones and skulls, mute +witnesses of a scene of slaughter, which terrified +many of the crew until they found the island to +be uninhabited. The island, now known as +Dauphin, was called Massacre by Iberville, who, +undisturbed by the sight, visited the mainland +with a few of his men and made every effort to +discover the inhabitants, of whom he found recent +traces.</p> + +<p>Finally came good weather, and with it the +continued voyage to the west brought the fleet +to safe anchorage on a bright February morn off +Ship Island. The live-stock landed, Iberville +gave his freight consorts permission to return to +France, while he explored the mainland that now +lay fair and bright before him. The Indians +were communicated with, after many failures, +but, beyond the discovery of the Pascagoula and +reports of a larger river to the west, which the +Bayagoula Indians called Malbouchia, no valuable +information was obtained. Iberville planned +to reach the great river by one of its reported +outlets, and, following the main channel down, +thus learn the way for his vessel; but, the Indians +giving him the slip, it only remained to search +every foot of the coast until the river was gained. +He was thus thrown on his own resources, which +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page59" id="page59"></a>59</span> +had never failed and were not to do so now. +Iberville, with his brother Bienville and fifty +picked men, largely Canadians, and twenty days’ +provisions, started February 27th, on two Biscayennes +or barges, for his difficult task, the +discovery of the mouth of the Mississippi.</p> + +<p>It is useless to detail this journey of Iberville +through an apparently endless maze of islets, +mud-banks, sand-banks, reefs, and marshy shoals, +which go to make up the great level delta of the +Mississippi. It would, even to-day, be a difficult +search for most mariners without a chart, but +then well-nigh impossible. Iberville’s skill and +patience were tasked to the utmost, and, when he +did find the mouth of the great river, it almost +seemed to be by the intervention of Providence. +On the eve of March 3, 1699, while struggling +along the mainland, to which they persistently +clung, the violence of an increasing gale threatened +to swamp their barges, despite every effort, +if they kept off shore, while every approach to +watch the shore-line, and thus make certain of +the river-mouth, incurred danger of beaching +and destruction. Darkness came on and the gale +increased, making certain, as it seemed to them, +that they must choose death at sea or death on +land. Suddenly Iberville put his barge before +the wind, and into the face of death as his followers +thought, but it shot between huge piles +of interlaced drift-wood into a turbid stream of +whitish water. Iberville put out his hand and +tasted. The water was fresh, and the Mississippi +was rediscovered.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page60" id="page60"></a>60</span></p> + +<p>The Spaniards had spoken of the river as La +Palisada, which Iberville thought most appropriate +when he saw the bristling barricades of huge +jagged trees with outstretched limbs and contorted +roots borne incessantly onward by the +strong current.</p> + +<p>Iberville camped that night at the edge of the +dense rank sedge-growth, saying: “Stretched +on the sedges and sheltered from the gale, our +pleasure is so much the greater that we feel our +escape from a great peril. It is a very lively +business, this exploring the unknown shores of a +sea in shallops too small to carry sail in the open +sea, too tiny to anchor, and yet so large that they +strand and ground half a league from land.”</p> + +<p>The next morn was that of Mardi-Gras, when +our devout explorers celebrated mass, sang joyfully +the Te Deum and raised a commemorative +cross before voyaging further.</p> + +<p>Never in their wildest dreams could the hardy +Canadian explorers from their marshy camp in +the delta of the Mississippi ever have presaged, +that in the coming time, from the many millions +of future inhabitants in the Valley of the Mississippi +should be gathered tens of thousands to celebrate +the merry day of carnival in the metropolitan +city that was to spring up from their +memorable voyage.</p> + +<p>The Mississippi was near its high stage, so that +travel was tediously slow, mostly by oar. The +land rose somewhat, the sedge gave way first to +cane and willows, and later to richly foliaged +trees with graceful festoons pleasing to the eye +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page61" id="page61"></a>61</span> +and fruitful of promise in the coming autumn. +The country, largely flooded, would have seemed +uninhabited save for the Indian ferry-boats, bundles +of cane pointed at both ends and fastened +together by crossbars of wood, and an occasional +column of smoke rising in the distant blue. The +rapid current obliged the oarsmen to hug the +bank closely, while diminishing food and increasing +piles of drift-wood discouraged them; but the +indomitable Iberville cheered on his Canadians, +and on the fifth day, some thirty-five leagues from +the river’s mouth, six pirogues, or canoes, full +of Indians were seen. The savages fled, but one +was captured, and through him communication +and friendly overtures were established with the +Annochys. Through these Indians Iberville was +taken to the present site of New Orleans and was +shown the portage over which the Indians travelled +to Lake Pontchartrain, and thence to the +bay where the ship was at anchor. Farther up +the stream Iberville visited the village of the +Bayougoulas, which consisted of about two hundred +souls. The men, well made, with short hair +and painted faces, stalked around most unconcernedly +in a naked state. The women blackened +their teeth, tied up their hair in a top-knot, tattooed +their faces and breasts, and wore girdles +woven of bark fibre, dyed red or bleached white, +with pendulous fringes reaching to the knee. +The ornaments of the women were metal bracelets +and bangles and fancy articles made of +feathers, while the young braves wore sashes of +feathers, which, weighted with bits of metal, +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page62" id="page62"></a>62</span> +made merry sound as they danced. In short, +they were an inoffensive folk, content with the +simple fruits of the earth, which largely served +as their sustenance.</p> + +<p>Iberville visited one of their temples, a structure +some thirty feet in diameter, which Charlevoix +describes as follows: “In the centre were +slowly burning logs (keeping up a perpetual +fire), and at the end a platform on which lay +skins of deer, buffalo, and bear, offerings to the +Chouchouacha (the opossum), the god of the +Bayougoulas, which animal was painted in red +and black at various points in the temple. The +roof was decorated with the figures of various +animals, among which a red fox was conspicuous. +On either side of the entrance were other animal +figures, such as bears and wolves and also +various birds, but above all the Chouchouacha +(the opossum), an animal about the size and +having the head of the sucking pig, the white +and gray fur of the badger, the tail of the rat, +the paws of an ape, and a sack under its +stomach.”</p> + +<p>The great discrepancies between the topography +of the river and the descriptions given in +the accounts of the journeys of La Salle and +Tonti so impressed Iberville that he was really +doubtful if he was on the Mississippi, and so his +journey was pursued up the river to the Oumas, +a short distance below the mouth of the Red +River. Fortunately his brother, Bienville, obtained +from an Indian chief a letter, which the +savage had carried for thirteen years, given him +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page63" id="page63"></a>63</span> +by Tonti, who descended the river from Illinois +in 1686 and left this letter addressed to La Salle, +whose active and loyal assistant Tonti was.</p> + +<table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:500px; height:441px" src="images/img065.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption">Bienville’s Army on the River.</td></tr></table> + +<p>Iberville was now over seven hundred miles +distant from his ship, and his original stock of +provisions was exhausted, so that the men were +obliged to live on the corn of the Indians and +such meat or game as could be bought or killed. +Sending his men back by the delta with the +barges, Iberville decided to try himself the +route of portages to the Gulf. With an Indian +guide he entered the Ascantia, a narrow, winding +bayou, where with his four Canadians and two +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page64" id="page64"></a>64</span> +pirogues fifty portages over fallen trees and drift +were made the first day in a distance of seven +leagues. It is not surprising that the Indian +guide, unaccustomed to such tremendous labor +and fatigue, deserted the second day. Iberville +none the less pushed on undauntedly, confident +that he could reach his ship through this unknown +country, guide or no guide. Next, one +of his hardy Canadians fell sick, and Iberville +took his place and oar, and in the portages carried +his end of a pirogue. After eighty portages +they passed into Lake Maurepas and next +into Lake Pontchartrain, whence the way was +easy to the ship, which was reached eight hours +in advance of the barges from the delta.</p> + +<p>In his absence of six weeks Iberville had found +again the Mississippi, explored its shores almost +to the Red River, made friends with all its native +tribes, discovered the short route to the sea, travelled +about fifteen hundred miles, and had returned +to his ship with every man of his party. What volumes +these few facts speak for the energy, tact, +skill, and foresight of this wonderful Canadian!</p> + +<p>Casting about for a convenient spot Iberville +decided to build his fort at the head of Biloxi +Bay, and in this unfortunate location, under the +spurring supervision of the chief, Fort Biloxi soon +rose, and there on Easter Sunday mass was celebrated, +vespers sung, and a sermon preached. +On May 2, 1700, Iberville sailed for France, leaving +his lieutenant, Sauvole, as the first governor +of the province of Louisiana and Bienville second +in command.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page65" id="page65"></a>65</span></p> + +<p>The action of France and the desperate haste +of Iberville in occupying the mouth of the Mississippi +were most timely. The very month in +which our Canadian sailed from Brest an expedition +left England under the auspices of Mr. Cox, +who sent out three vessels loaded with emigrants. +They wintered in the Carolinas, where many +settled, but in 1700 two ships continued their +voyage to the Mississippi. One of these vessels +was commanded by a Captain Banks, who once +captured by Iberville in Hudson Bay now found +himself worsted by his rival in the peaceful work +of colonization. One of the English ships appeared +in the lower Mississippi, into which Banks +had found entrance, in September, 1700. Bienville, +with five men and two pirogues, met the +English vessel, and setting forth to the captain +that France was in possession of all the surrounding +country, succeeded either by argument or +cajolery in persuading the captain to withdraw +from the Mississippi.</p> + +<p>Iberville was not long delayed by the delights +and pleasures of the French court, but speedily +returned to Biloxi, where he arrived on the eve +of Twelfth Night with supplies, and more important +of all, with sixty hardy and energetic +Canadians, with whom he established a fort a short +distance below the present site of New Orleans. +The winter proved a very cold one, the drinking-water +freezing in the cups, but it did not delay the +rapid progress of the new fort. In the midst of +this work Chevalier de Tonti arrived with twenty +Canadians from their former settlement in Illinois.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page66" id="page66"></a>66</span></p> + +<p>Thus for the first time, with intercommunication +established between the permanent settlement +in Illinois, Tonti’s fort on the Arkansas, and +the new colony at the mouth of the Mississippi, +Iberville felt that France had indeed entered into +actual possession of its great province of Louisiana. +He realized, however, the necessity of +permanently connecting these settlements, many +hundred miles apart, and of facilitating intercommunication +through the establishment of intermediate +posts.</p> + +<p>Iberville contemplated an exploration of the +Red River, thinking it might afford access to the +gold and silver mines of New Spain, but abandoned +the project owing to the representations +of the Indians that the river was unnavigable +from the interlaced drift-wood, later known as +rafts. He turned his attention to the main river, +the Mississippi, and visited the Natchez, a brave +and powerful tribe of Indians, whose country +delighted his heart as resembling France, and +where he planned a city to be called Rosalie +(now Natchez), which, however, it was not his +fate to ever see take definite form, as it was only +built long after his death, in 1714, by his brother +Bienville. It was at this time that Le Sueur, +sent up the Mississippi by Iberville, discovered +the St. Peter River, in Minnesota, and attempting +mining operations, later brought back a +worthless cargo of green earth. To Iberville’s +credit, it may be said, he viewed this and many +other similar schemes of development with a +sceptical and practical eye.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page67" id="page67"></a>67</span></p> + +<p>Later he sent his brother Bienville across +country to explore the Red River, which was +done with good success. His priest Montigny +was also active in extending the faith, both +among the Natchez Indians and in the basin of +the Tensas River. Indeed, every effort was +made under Iberville’s sagacious direction to +obtain a knowledge of the possibilities of the +country, so that its resources might be properly +developed.</p> + +<p>Iberville returned to France ill with fever, but +despite his disease, he displayed extraordinary +energy in personally advancing the practical +affairs of his new colony. Moreover, he prepared +a memoir urging the cession of Pensacola by +Spain to France, which nation was to establish +forts and arm the Indians along the Mississippi +River, whereby the interior of America from +the Gulf of Mexico to Canada would be under +French domination, save the narrow strip along +the Atlantic coast already occupied by England. +It was a sagacious scheme which if it had been +properly supported by France would have entirely +changed the future of America. It received, +however, but a perfunctory support, and +only resulted in exciting the jealousy of Spain.</p> + +<p>Iberville’s last voyage to Louisiana was made +in 1701, when his health, undermined by the +climate, was impaired by the formation of an +abscess which confined him to his bed for two +months. His mind worked incessantly, and his +activity through other hands was wonderful. +He planned the royal magazines on Dauphine +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page68" id="page68"></a>68</span> +Island, located the new post on Mobile River, +told off the relief of workmen for the various enterprises, +planned flat-boats for lighters, extended +relief to the Spaniards at Vera Cruz, and sent +Tonti as an agent to make peace with the Choctaws +and Chickasaws and secure them as allies. +His sailor’s eye was particularly pleased with +the magnificent forests of Mobile Bay, where the +oaks and pines presented the finest timber for +ship-building he had ever seen.</p> + +<p>With Mobile commenced, the royal storehouses +erected, and the alliance of the Choctaws and +Chickasaws secured, Iberville felt that the colony +of Louisiana was on a secure foundation, and on +March 31st he sailed from Dauphine Island, then +the headquarters of that colony for which he +had done so much, and which he was destined +never again to see.</p> + +<p>The domain of Louisiana, obtained by so much +heroic endeavor and individual suffering on the +part of Joliet, Marquette, La Salle, Tonti, Iberville, +and their associates, passed at once, by an +edict of Louis XIV., into a monopoly and under +the control of a courtier, Anton Crozat, for trading +purposes, by the decree of September 14, +1712. In this decree the limits of Louisiana were +for the first time defined, including “all the +territories by us (France) possessed, and bounded +by New Mexico and by those of the English in +Carolina.... The river St. Louis, formerly +called the Mississippi, from the sea-shore to the +Illinois, together with the rivers St. Phillipe, formerly +called the Missouries, and the St. Jerome, +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page69" id="page69"></a>69</span> +formerly called the Wabash (the Ohio), with all +the countries, territories, lakes in the land, and +the rivers emptying directly or indirectly into +that part of the river St. Louis. All the said +territories, countries, rivers, streams, and islands +we will to be and remain comprised under the +name of the government of Louisiana.”</p> + +<p>There was another and blacker page to the +decree, whereby Crozat was further authorized +to introduce African slavery: “If the aforesaid +Sieur Crozat considers it advisable to have +negroes in the said country of Louisiana, for +agriculture or other use on plantations, he can +send a ship each year to trade directly with +the Guinea coast, ... and is further authorized +to sell negroes to the settlers of Louisiana.”</p> + +<p>But prior to this condition of affairs the great +Canadian naval commander had passed to his +final reward, having died of yellow fever at +Havana, July 9, 1706. The last leaf in his history +was, however, an effort, through his personal +bravery and skill, to secure French domination +in America by driving out of the Antilles +the determined English seamen whose successful +raids so often militated against the interests +of France. Despite his health, undermined by +fevers, Iberville left France with a fleet with +which he hoped to carry out this great plan. +Intending to make a descent upon Barbadoes, he +learned that the English, warned of his plans, +were prepared for him. He therefore seized on +the islands of Nevis and St. Christopher, where +his fleet captured an enormous amount of booty +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page70" id="page70"></a>70</span> +of all kinds. He decided next to ravage the +English colonies in the Carolinas, but stopping +at Havana for reinforcements he lost his own +life by the epidemic which destroyed eight hundred +others of his fleet.</p> + +<p>Among the qualities of this great Canadian all +must admire his intrepidity in war, his skill as a +navigator, and his capacity as an explorer; but +beyond these were the astonishing administrative +ability and political sagacity which he displayed +in such an eminent degree in the planning, +founding, and fostering of the great province of +Louisiana.</p> + +<table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:700px; height:302px" src="images/img072.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption">New Orleans in 1719.</td></tr></table> + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page71" id="page71"></a>71</span></p> + +<p class="center">III.</p> + +<p class="chap center">JONATHAN CARVER,</p> + +<p class="center sc">The Explorer of Minnesota.</p> + +<p class="noind"><span class="chap1 sc">Throughout</span> the bloody series of French and +Indian wars which ravaged the frontier settlements +of America during the first half of the +eighteenth century, France maintained secure +possession of the regions of the great lakes and +the basin of the upper Mississippi. The successful +campaign of the gallant Wolfe against the no +less gallant Montcalm ultimately resulted in the +termination of French supremacy in these sections, +and under the treaty of Paris, in 1763, +Canada with all other dominions of France east +of the Mississippi passed under the control of +Great Britain.</p> + +<p>To this time the English colonists had confined +their operations almost entirely to the region +of the Atlantic Coast, so when Great +Britain acquired her immense war-inheritance +the country to the west of the Appalachian +Mountain range was practically an unknown region +to its new masters. The extension of English +settlements toward the interior of the continent +was determined on by the English Government, +and the more accessible of the French +trading-posts in the northwest were immediately +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page72" id="page72"></a>72</span> +occupied. Maps were few and inaccurate, information +as to the Indians vague and exaggerated, +while nothing was known as to the +resources of the country except that furs were +obtainable in large numbers.</p> + +<p>Scarcely were the terms of the treaty promulgated +than the enterprising pioneers moved +westward and gradually pressed back the Indians +nearest the English settlements. A few +other men, however, undertook to penetrate the +valley of the Mississippi to the very frontier of +Louisiana, which remained a French possession.</p> + +<p>Among these hardy and adventurous Americans +the most enterprising was Captain Jonathan +Carver, who was born in Stillwater, N. Y., +in 1732. He was the grandson of William Joseph +Carver, one of the earliest of the royal appointments +in Connecticut, and his first public service +was at the age of eighteen, when he secured an +ensigncy in a Connecticut regiment. In 1757, +when Colonel Oliver Partridge raised a battalion +of infantry in Massachusetts to serve against +Canada, Carver was made a lieutenant therein. +Later he served as captain under Colonel Whitcomb, +in 1760, and under Colonel Saltonstall, in +1762, and participated in the taking of Crown +Point and other operations in northern New +York.</p> + +<p>Doubtless his association with scouts and +camp-followers, largely consisting of fur-traders +and frontiersmen, induced a lively interest in +their accounts of the western country held by +their enemies, the Indian and the Frenchman. +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page73" id="page73"></a>73</span> +Certain it is that Carver acquired such ideas of +the extent, fertility, natural wealth, and possibilities +of the great and unknown West as fired +his adventurous spirit with a firm determination +to solve the important geographical problems +connected therewith.</p> + +<p>His objects, he states, were to gain knowledge +concerning the Indian tribes to the west of the +Mississippi, to ascertain the natural resources of +the country, and to cross the American continent +between the forty-third and forty-sixth degrees +of north latitude. Ultimately he contemplated +the establishment of a trading-post at some suitable +point on the Pacific Coast.</p> + +<p>Carver was not ignorant of the great danger +involved in such an undertaking, where he was +obliged to intrust his life to the mercy of unknown +Indians for a prolonged time. Indeed, +considering his experiences at the massacre of +Englishmen and provincials at Fort Henry, it +seems surprising that he would ever trust a savage +or a Frenchman. In the campaign of 1757, Carver +volunteered to accompany the detachment of fifteen +hundred men which General Webb sent +forward to reinforce the garrison at Fort Henry, +then anticipating an attack from Montcalm. The +garrison, commanded by the gallant Monro, who +resisted until his guns burst and his ammunition +was nearly exhausted, surrendered to the combined +force of Indians and French under Montcalm, +who promised safe conduct and private +property. As the English force moved out the +next morning the Indians, inflamed by liquor, +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page74" id="page74"></a>74</span> +song, and dance, butchered the sick and wounded +and then fell upon the helpless captives, of +whom there were, according to French accounts, +about sixty killed and four hundred robbed and +maltreated. Montcalm and Levi, to their credit, +though too late, made heroic personal efforts +which mitigated the horrors of the situation.</p> + +<table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:700px; height:271px" src="images/img076.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption">Indian Tomahawk.<br /> +(From Carver’s Book.)</td></tr></table> + +<p>Among the unfortunates was Carver, who, +robbed and stripped by the savages, appealed to +a French sentry for protection only to be repelled +with abuse. Realizing finally that to remain +quiet was to meet certain death, Carver +and a few others attempted to escape by breaking +unarmed through the surrounding lines of +Indian fiends. In this desperate effort for life +Carver was twice wounded, badly beaten, seized +by two Indians, and led away to death, which +he escaped by the appearance of a British officer +in full uniform, who was such a prize that his +captors left Carver to secure a more valuable +victim. Profiting by the respite Carver fled to +the nearest woods, where, exhausted and nearly +naked, he concealed himself in a thicket until +night. For three days he wandered through the +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page75" id="page75"></a>75</span> +densest part of the forest, suffering tortures from +travel under such conditions, often in danger of +recapture, and without food until he reached, in +a nearly exhausted condition, the English settlements.</p> + +<p>An attempt at transcontinental exploration +was then looked on as foolhardy and visionary +in the extreme, even to those friends of Carver +who never deserted him. One of these, Dr. +Lettsom, wrote in the third edition of Carver’s +travels, fifteen years after the journey, as follows: +“He suggested an attempt by land across the +northwest parts of America, and actually drew a +chart of his proposed route for effecting his project, +which, however visionary it may now be +deemed, affords at least a proof of the enterprising +spirit of Carver.”</p> + +<p>Unmoved by the sneers of his critics, and undeterred +by recollections of Indian cruelty and +perfidy, Carver arranged the details of his journey +at his private expense, and in June, 1766, +he quitted Boston, and travelling by the way +of Albany and Niagara reached his headquarters, +Michillimackinac, now known as Mackinac. +Here he made definite arrangements for his serious +work of exploration. At this time English +traders extended their journeys to Prairie-du-Chien +for the purpose of purchasing furs from +Indians rendezvousing there, and with one of +these parties Carver was to travel, relying on the +Governor of Mackinaw to forward supplies to +St. Anthony. Leaving the Fort, September 3d, +and travelling by canoe, he reached the islands +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page76" id="page76"></a>76</span> +of the Grand Traverse, and there spent one night. +One of the chiefs, to whom a present was given, +made, on Carver’s departure, the following prayer, +which is worthy of reproduction as a specimen +of Indian eloquence: “May the Great Spirit +favor you with a prosperous voyage; may He +give you an unclouded sky and smooth waters +by day, and may you lay down by night on a +beaver blanket to uninterrupted sleep and pleasant +dreams, and may you find continual protection +under the calumet of peace.”</p> + +<p>Carver followed the route of Joliet and Marquette +through Green Bay and up Fox River +to the great town of the Winnebagoes, where he +found the Indians presided over by a queen instead +of a sachem. Carver speaks of the extreme +richness of soil and abundance of cultivated products +and wild game, mentioning grapes, plums, +Indian corn, beans, pumpkins, squashes, watermelons, +and tobacco from cultivation; fish from +the lake; wild fowl so abundant that frequently +the sun would be obscured by them for some +minutes together, while deer, bears, and beavers +were very numerous. The usual portage was +made by him from the Fox to the Wisconsin +River, into which his canoes were launched on +the 8th of October. Seven days carried him to +Prairie-du-Chien, at the junction of the Wisconsin +and Mississippi, which was at that time a +town of some three hundred families and had +become a great trading mart for the adjacent +tribes, who assembled in great numbers annually +in the latter part of May.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page77" id="page77"></a>77</span></p> + +<table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:700px; height:419px" src="images/img079.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption"><i>The falls of</i> St. Anthony <i>in the River</i> <span class="sc">Mississippi</span>,<br /> +<i>near 2400 Miles from its entrance into the Gulf of Mexico.</i><br /><br /> +<span class="f90">(From Carver’s Book.)</span></td></tr></table> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page78" id="page78"></a>78</span></p> + +<p>At Prairie-du-Chien Carver parted with the +traders, who were to winter at that point, and obtaining +a Canadian as interpreter and a Mohawk +Indian as a servant, he purchased a canoe, and +on October 19th, proceeding up the Mississippi, +he fell in with a straggling band of Indians which +barely failed of plundering him. November 1st +brought him to Lake Pepin, near which he discovered +what appeared to be the remains of +extended intrenchments, centuries old, as he +thought, but which are now known to be Indian +mounds, probably erected as sites for their wigwams, +so as to keep them above the annual overflow +and inundation.</p> + +<p>The coming of winter and the forming of river +ice obliged him to quit his canoe opposite the +mouth of the St. Peter, or Minnesota River, +whence by land he reached the Falls of St. Anthony +on November 17, 1766, probably the first +white American to visit them.</p> + +<p>The noise and appearance of the Falls of St. +Anthony impressed Carver very strongly, and +his account of them is worthy of reproduction in +view of the changes that have taken place within +the past one hundred and thirty years:</p> + +<p>“This amazing body of waters, which are +above 250 yards over, form a most pleasing cataract; +they fall perpendicularly about thirty feet, +and the rapids below, in the space of 300 yards +more, render the descent considerably greater; +so that when viewed at a distance, they appear +to be much higher than they really are.</p> + +<p>“In the middle of the Falls stands a small island +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page79" id="page79"></a>79</span> +about forty feet broad and somewhat longer, on +which grow a few cragged hemlock and spruce +trees; and about half way between this island +and the eastern shore is a rock lying at the very +edge of the Fall, in an oblique position, that appears +to be about five or six feet broad and thirty +or forty long.”</p> + +<p>Leaving the falls, Carver proceeded up the +Mississippi to the mouth of the St. Francis, the +farthest of Hennepin in 1680, discovering on the +way Rum and Goose Rivers. Warned by the +severity of the cold that winter was fast coming +on, Carver returned to his canoe at the mouth of +the Minnesota River and decided to explore that +stream, of which only the lower portion had ever +been visited—by Le Sueur in 1700.</p> + +<p>Following the Minnesota about two hundred +miles he reached, on December 7th, the winter +camp of a large tribe of Indians, about one thousand +in number, who were designated by Carver +as the Naudowessie (Santees). Advancing boldly, +with his calumet of peace fastened to the prow of +his canoe, he was received in a friendly manner. +After the usual smoking of the pipe of peace, +during which he says the tent was nearly broken +down by the crowd of savages, who, as a rule, +had never seen a white man, he was treated with +great respect.</p> + +<p>Among these Indians Carver passed the winter, +filling in his five months’ stay by hunting and +other Indian amusements. From the Indians he +learned that the St. Lawrence, the Mississippi, and +the Bourbon (the Red River of the North) had +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page80" id="page80"></a>80</span> +their sources within thirty miles of each other. +This led to the natural but erroneous opinion +that Carver had reached the highest land of +North America, when in reality he was at an elevation +of only twelve hundred feet.</p> + +<p>Carver also spoke of “the Oregon, or the River +of the West,” as having its sources somewhat +farther to the west. This is the first time that +the word Oregon appears in literature, and Carver +gives no account of its meaning.</p> + +<table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:700px; height:380px" src="images/img082.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption">A Calumet.<br /> +(From Carver’s Book.)</td></tr></table> + +<p>The Indians had traditions as to the extreme +plentifulness of gold to the west of the “Shining +Mountains,” of which our explorer says, on the +strength of Indian reports:</p> + +<p>“The mountains that lie to the west of St. +Peter are called the Shining Mountains, from an +infinite number of crystal stones of an amazing +size with which they are covered and which, +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page81" id="page81"></a>81</span> +when the sun shines full upon them, sparkle so +as to be seen at a very great distance.”</p> + +<p>Carver’s enthusiasm and interest in the West +led him to make the following striking prediction, +which time has fully justified. He says:</p> + +<p>“This extraordinary range of mountains is +calculated to be more than three thousand miles +in length, without any very considerable intervals, +which, I believe, surpasses anything of the +kind in the other quarters of the globe. Probably, +in future ages, they may be found to contain +more riches in their bowels than those of +Hindostan and Malabar, or than are produced +on the golden coast of Guinea, nor will I except +even the Peruvian mines. To the west of these +mountains, when explored by future Columbuses +or Raleighs, may be found other lakes, rivers, +and countries, full fraught with all the necessaries +or luxuries of life, and where future +generations may find an asylum, whether driven +from their country by the ravages of lawless +tyrants, or by religious persecutions, or reluctantly +leaving it to remedy the inconveniences +arising from a superabundant increase of inhabitants; +whether, I say, impelled by these or +allured by hopes of commercial advantages, +there is little doubt but their expectations will +be fully gratified in these rich and unexhausted +climes.”</p> + +<p>Carver described the valley of the Minnesota +as a most delightful country, abounding with all +the necessities of life, which grow spontaneously. +Fruit, vegetables, and nuts were represented as +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page82" id="page82"></a>82</span> +being particularly abundant, and the sugar-maple +grew in amazing numbers.</p> + +<p>In April, 1767, the Santees descended the +Minnesota in order, among other things, to bury +their dead near a remarkable cave on Lake Pepin, +known to the Indians as the “dwelling of the +Great Spirit.”</p> + +<p>Finding that supplies had not been sent to the +Falls of St. Anthony, Carver returned to Prairie-du-Chien +in order to get sufficient stores to +enable him to reach Lake Superior, whence he +hoped to be able to cross the continent from +Grand Portage. Obtaining such supplies, he +proceeded up the Mississippi to the Chippeway +River, and, after ascending to its head, made +portages to the St. Croix, and reached Lake +Superior, possibly by the river now known as +the Bois Brule.</p> + +<p>From this point Carver, in his canoe, skirted +the coast of Lake Superior to the Grand Portage, +where he awaited the arrival of the Hudson +Bay or northern traders, from whom he anxiously +hoped to obtain supplies that would enable him +to journey west; but he was destined to disappointment, +as nothing could be obtained from +them. Carver coasted around the north and east +borders of Lake Superior, and arrived at the Falls +of Ste. Marie the beginning of October, having +skirted nearly twelve hundred miles of the shores +of Lake Superior in a birch canoe.</p> + +<p>The Sault Ste. Marie was then the resort of the +Algonquin Indians, who frequented the falls on +account of the great numbers of whitefish that +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page83" id="page83"></a>83</span> +filled the waters, particularly in the autumn, +when that fish leaves the lakes in order to spawn +in shallow running waters.</p> + +<p>In November, 1767, Carver arrived at Mackinac, +having, as he says, “been sixteen months +on this extensive tour, travelled nearly four +thousand miles, and visited twelve nations of +Indians living to the west and north. His picture +of Detroit on his return, in 1768, is of retrospective +interest.</p> + +<p>“The town of Detroit contains upward of one +hundred houses. The streets are somewhat +regular, and have a range of very convenient +and handsome barracks with a spacious parade +at the south end. On the west side lies the +King’s Garden, belonging to the Governor, +which is very well laid out, and kept in good +order. The fortifications of the town consist of +a strong stockade, made of round piles, fixed +firmly in the ground, and lined with palisades. +These are defended by some small bastions, on +which are mounted a few indifferent cannon of an +inconsiderable size, just sufficient for its defence +against the Indians or an enemy not provided +with artillery. The garrison in time of peace +consists of two hundred men, commanded by +a field-officer, who acts as chief magistrate under +the Governor of Canada.</p> + +<p>“In the year 1762, in the month of July, it +rained on this town and the parts adjacent a +sulphurous water of the color and consistency of +ink, some of which being collected in bottles, +and wrote with, appeared perfectly intelligible +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page84" id="page84"></a>84</span> +on the paper, and answered every purpose for +that useful liquid. Soon after, the Indian wars +already spoken of broke out in these parts. I +mean not to say that this incident was ominous +of them, notwithstanding it is well known that +innumerable well-attested instances of extraordinary +phenomena, happening before extraordinary +events, have been recorded in almost every +age by historians of veracity; I only relate the +circumstance as a fact, of which I was informed +by many persons of undoubted probity, and +leave my readers, as I have heretofore done, to +draw their own conclusions from it.”</p> + +<p>It is beyond question that certain chapters of +Carver’s work, supplementary to his account of +his personal explorations, and especially devoted +to Indians and to the natural history of the +Northwest, are practically translations of the accounts +of Charlevoix, Hennepin, and particularly +of Lahontan. It does not appear from the +first part of the work that Carver was a man +endowed with those powers of observation and +assimilation which are essential traits for the +successful traveller and author.</p> + +<p>When the brief recital of his personal travels is +examined, it seems difficult to determine on what +grounds his truthfulness has been questioned by +a few hostile critics. His story is simple and +straightforward, devoid of boastfulness, free +from any exaggeration as to his personal prowess, +and the statement that he passed a winter of five +months in the valley of the Upper Minnesota is, +in my opinion, worthy of entire credence.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page85" id="page85"></a>85</span></p> + +<p>Fortunately, however, evidence of the most +convincing character exists as to Carver’s residence +among the Naudowessies or Santees. The +exhaustive bibliography of the Siouan languages, +by Mr. James C. Pilling, indicates that Carver +is the first author who ever published a vocabulary +of the Santee tongue, and its length, eight +pages, renders it evident that it was an original +compilation which must have required considerable +time and patience.</p> + +<table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:730px; height:454px" src="images/img087.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption">Naudowessie Indians.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl f90">Carver’s drawing of “A man and woman of the Naudowessie,” herewith reproduced, +if somewhat fanciful in its details, must be considered of historical value +as indicating in the main the costumes of the Santees when first visited by the whites.</td></tr></table> + +<p class="pt2">The importance of Carver’s charts and journals +at that time was evident to the Lords Commissioners +of Trade and Plantations in England +to whom Carver was referred when praying +for reimbursement of his expenses. Carver appeared +before the Board and, after an examination, +was granted authority to publish his papers. +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page86" id="page86"></a>86</span> +Later, after Carver had, as he says, disposed of +them and they were nearly ready for the press, +an order was issued from the Council Board requiring +him to immediately turn in all the originals +of his charts, journals, and other papers +relative to his discoveries.</p> + +<p>Meanwhile interest in the extension of English +influence into the interior of North America +was waning steadily with the growing conviction +that the colonies would establish their independence, +and the Government had no mind +to reimburse an enterprising American, even +though he remained loyal. Carver was reduced +gradually to the greatest straits, was compelled +to sell his book for a pittance, and finally, his +end hastened by lack of proper food and suitable +attendance, died in the direst poverty in London, +January 13, 1780.</p> + +<p>His own generation could best judge as to the +timeliness and importance of Carver’s exploration, +and as to the value of the information set +forth in his book of travels. Suffice it to say +that no less than twenty-three editions of this +book have appeared, in four languages. This, +too, at a time when the war of independence +naturally destroyed current interest in the extension +of English settlements in the interior of +North America.</p> + +<p>Explorations, however, are wisely esteemed +by posterity according to the results which flow +therefrom in the shape of definite additions to the +knowledge of the world or in the more important +direction of disclosing lands suitable for +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page87" id="page87"></a>87</span> +colonization. In this latter manner the exploration +of Jonathan Carver and the accounts of his +travels had an important influence. They first +brought into popular and accessible form information +and ideas concerning the interior +parts of North America which before had been +practically inaccessible to the general public of +England and America.</p> + +<p>Twenty-five years after this journey toward +the “Shining Mountains” and “Oregon, the +River of the West,” the ultimate scheme of +Carver found its justification in the success of +Alexander Mackenzie, a young Scotchman, who +was the first white man to cross the continent of +America to the north of Mexico; and yet ten +years later Lewis and Clark were despatched on +their famous expedition which explored the valley +of the Columbia, where in 1810, under the +energetic management of John Jacob Astor, +arose the trading-post of Astoria, thus turning +into reality the dreams and aspirations of Jonathan +Carver, the soldier and explorer.</p> + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page88" id="page88"></a>88</span></p> + +<p class="center">IV.</p> + +<p class="chap center">CAPTAIN ROBERT GRAY,</p> + +<p class="center sc">The Discoverer of the Columbia River.</p> + +<p class="noind"><span class="chap1 sc">Within</span> the past century no American explorer +has contributed more materially to the +welfare of the United States and to its maritime +glory than Captain Robert Gray, the discoverer +of the Columbia River and the first circumnavigator +who carried the flag of the United States +around the world.</p> + +<p>Robert Gray was born at Tiverton, R. I., in +May, 1757, and in early youth, inspired with +the spirit of independence which dominated the +American Colonies, entered the naval service +during the war of the Revolution, wherein he +served with credit as an officer.</p> + +<p>At the termination of the war it is probable +that he continued his natural or acquired vocation +as a seaman. At all events, we find him first +and foremost among that band of American citizens +whose courage, energy, and nautical skill +enabled them to attain unsurpassed success as +whalers and sealers in the Antarctic Ocean, as +traders dealing direct with China, or as explorers +and fur dealers on the unsurveyed and dangerous +coast of northwest America.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page89" id="page89"></a>89</span></p> + +<p>In 1787, J. Barrell, S. Brown, C. Bulfinch, J. +Darby, C. Hatch, and J, M. Pintard, merchants +of Boston, associated for the purpose of combining +the fur traffic of the northwest coast of +America with the silk and tea trade of China. +For this purpose they sent, under the command +of Captain John Kendrick, in 1787, the ship +Columbia and the sloop Washington with cargoes +of blankets, knives, iron bars, and other +articles suitable for the northwest trade. They +were provided with sea letters issued according +to a resolution of Congress, with passports from +the State of Massachusetts, and with commendatory +letters from the Spanish minister plenipotentiary +to the United States.</p> + +<p>Captain Kendrick, who commanded the Columbia, +was a man of marked ability and great +energy, who withal had most enthusiastic opinions +as to the future of the Pacific Coast region, +which he believed would in a few years +utterly dwarf the growing importance of the +Atlantic seaboard. Gray was the master of the +Washington, and his professional standing in +the eyes of the merchants of Boston was shown +by his designation as the most desirable officer +to assume command in case of death or injury to +Captain Kendrick.</p> + +<p>Many aspersions have been cast by English +writers on the policy pursued and methods followed +by Americans engaged in trading with +the Indians of the northwest coast of America. +Doubtless such reflections were justified in individual +cases of Americans, as of traders of other +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page90" id="page90"></a>90</span> +nationality; but the instructions given by the merchants +of Boston to Kendrick and Gray show +that fair, honest, and peaceful methods were +regarded as the true means of establishing a permanent +and profitable trade. Among other injunctions +were the following:</p> + +<p>“If you make any fort or any improvement of +land on the coast, be sure you purchase the soil +of the natives.... Let the instrument of +conveyance bear every authentic mark that circumstances +will admit.... We cannot forbear +to impress on your mind our will and expectation +that the most inviolable harmony and +friendship may subsist between you and the +natives, and that no advantage may be taken of +them in trading, but that you endeavor by +honest conduct to impress on their minds a friendship +for Americans.” While enjoining peace, it +was not to be a peace on any terms, for thus runs +the instructions: “The sea letters from Congress +and this State you will show on every +proper occasion, and although we expect you +will treat all nations with respect and civility, +yet we depend you will suffer insult and injury +from none without showing that spirit which +becomes a free and independent American.”</p> + +<p>The vessels sailed from Boston September 30, +1787, via the Cape Verde and Faulkland Islands, +and in January doubled Cape Horn, when they +thought the perils of storm were past. In latitude +59° S., however, a violent gale arose, which +not only separated them, but also seriously damaged +the Columbia. The storm over, Kendrick +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page91" id="page91"></a>91</span> +found himself in a sad plight, his consort gone, +perhaps lost, his ship in an unseaworthy condition, +and the nearest spot for repairs a thousand +miles distant. This port, that of the island +of Juan Fernandez, if now famous and delightful +to the adventurous mind through its associations +with the fascinating tale of Robinson +Crusoe, was then most objectionable from the +fact that it was under Spanish rule and so was +to be avoided by Kendrick, whose instructions +ran as follows:</p> + +<p>“You are strictly enjoined not to touch at any +port of the Spanish dominion on the western +continent of America, unless driven there by +unavoidable accident, in which case you are to +give no offence to any of the subjects of his +Catholic Majesty.”</p> + +<p>Kendrick, to his surprise, was received with +great kindness and aided in repairing his injured +vessel by Don Blas Gonzales, the humane +commandant of the Spanish garrison of Juan +Fernandez.</p> + +<p>Spain at this time claimed the right of exclusive +jurisdiction over the entire western continent +of America by virtue of the papal concession, +1493, and by right of discovery. It had failed to +colonize the northwest coast of America, but it +prohibited other nations from entering in possession. +It now illustrated its narrow and jealous +policy in its treatment of a subordinate who had +ventured to assist a vessel in distress and provided +with letters from the accredited minister +of Spain to the United States. Ambrose O’Higgins, +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page92" id="page92"></a>92</span> +then captain-general of Chili, under whom +Gonzales was serving, on hearing of this act recalled +him and put him in arrest, pending definite +orders from his own superior, Teodor Lacroix, +viceroy of Peru. After due consideration of +the case the unfortunate commandant, Gonzales, +was cashiered for his remissness in allowing a +strange ship to leave Juan Fernandez instead of +seizing her and her crew. The viceroy set forth +to the captain-general of Chili the legal opinion +that by the royal ordinance of November, 1692, +every foreign vessel found in those seas without +a license from the court of Spain was to be +treated as an enemy, even though belonging to a +friend or ally of the king, “seeing that no other +nation had, or ought to have, any territories, to +reach which its vessels should pass around Cape +Horn or through Magellan’s Straits.” The viceroy +therefore sent a ship from Callao to track or +intercept the Columbia; the authorities on the +coasts of Peru and Chili were especially enjoined +to be vigilant, and in case any foreign vessel +should appear in the country to seize her.</p> + +<p>Under Gray’s skilful handling the Washington +escaped unharmed from the hurricane, and +continuing his course toward King George +Sound, the concerted rendezvous, he made the +American coast, about 46° N., in August, 1788. +Here he barely escaped loss of his vessel in trying +to cross the bar of an unknown river, probably +the Columbia, when his ship grounded. He, +however, visited shore, and found that the sea +was perchance the less inhospitable of the two, +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page93" id="page93"></a>93</span> +for he was so savagely and violently attacked by +swarms of Indians that he was very glad to +escape therefrom with one seaman dead and the +mate wounded.</p> + +<p>Quitting this unfortunate place he sailed north +and entered Nootka Sound, Vancouver Island, +September 17, 1788, where he found two English +vessels, the Felice and Iphigenia, sailing under +the Portuguese flag and commanded by Captains +Meares and Douglass. There were no signs of +the Columbia, but her arrival a few days later relieved +Gray from further anxiety in this respect.</p> + +<table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:700px; height:246px" src="images/img095.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption">Indian Maul.</td></tr></table> + +<p>Douglass’s vessel, the Iphigenia, was in serious +need of supplies and assistance, which Gray generously +furnished. Later he not only made to +the northward a successful trading trip, but in +the following year, in June, 1789, explored the +whole east coast of Queen Charlotte Islands, to +which he gave the name of Washington Islands, +in honor of General Washington, then President +of the United States. In another trading excursion +from Nootka Sound, Vancouver Island, +Gray entered the broad opening southeast of the +island and sailed to the east-southeast fifty miles, +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page94" id="page94"></a>94</span> +where he found the passage still five leagues +wide. This opening was the Straits of Fuca, +and the first authentic exploration of the strait is +the account of Gray. The credit of first passing +through the entire length of the Straits of Fuca +is due to Kendrick, who made the passage in the +sloop Washington, after the departure of Gray +to China on the Columbia.</p> + +<p>The account of the passage of the Washington +through the Straits of Fuca was especially +called to Vancouver’s attention by the British +Admiralty on the occasion of his surveying +voyage of 1791, when he was particularly to +“examine the supposed Strait of Juan de Fuca, +said to be situated between the forty-eighth +and forty-ninth north latitude, and to lead to an +opening through which the sloop Washington +was reported to have passed in 1789, and to have +come out again to the northward of Nootka.” +Vancouver later denied to Americans the credit +of first sailing entirely through the Straits of +Fuca, resting his opinion on Gray’s statement +that he sailed only fifty miles within it, which +was true; the credit belonging to Kendrick in +his voyage with the Washington after Gray’s departure +from the coast in 1789.</p> + +<p>The efforts of Kendrick and Gray resulted in +the obtaining of a full cargo of furs, which in +accordance with their instructions were to be +sold in China. Kendrick, fascinated with the +prospects of fortune and success, and perhaps +reluctant to face his owners owing to his lack +of caution which resulted in the unfortunate killing +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page95" id="page95"></a>95</span> +of some thirty natives, decided to remain on +the northwest coast, his imaginary Eldorado.</p> + +<p>Gray consequently transferred to the Columbia +and set sail for Canton, then the great fur +mart of the world. His voyage across the +Pacific was prosperous, his furs were readily +sold, and after taking a cargo of tea on board, +Gray sailed for the Cape of Good Hope, and on +the 10th of August, 1790, the Columbia entered +the port of Boston, the first vessel to circumnavigate +the world under the flag of the United +States.</p> + +<p>His success and conduct so impressed the +owners of the ship that they immediately decided +upon sending Gray back to the northwest +coast, and seven weeks later, September +28, 1790, he sailed in the Columbia, which was +described as a ship of two hundred and twelve +tons, manned by thirty men, and equipped with +an armament of ten guns.</p> + +<p>Gray was also provided with a sea letter +signed by George Washington, then President, +which ran as follows:</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>“To all Emperors, Kings, Sovereign princes, +State and Regents and to their respective officers, +civil and military and to all others whom it may +concern.</p> + +<p>“I, George Washington, President of the +United States of America do make known that +Robert Gray, Captain of a ship called the Columbia +of the burden of about 230 tons, is a +citizen of the United States and that the said +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page96" id="page96"></a>96</span> +ship which he commands belongs to the citizens +of the United States; and as I wish that the said +Robert Gray may prosper in his lawful affairs, I +do request all the before mentioned, and of each +of them separately, when the said Robert Gray +shall arrive with his vessel and cargo, that they +will be pleased to receive him with kindness and +treat him in a becoming manner &c. and thereby +I shall consider myself obliged.</p> + +<p>“September 16, 1790—New York City</p> +<p> (Seal U. S.)</p> + +<p style="text-align: right; margin-right: 2em;">“<span class="sc">Geo. Washington</span>,</p> + +<p style="text-align: right; margin-right: 1em;"><i>President</i>.</p> + +<p>“<span class="sc">Thomas Jefferson</span>,</p> + +<p style="margin-left: 5em;">“<i>Secy of State</i>.”</p> + +</div> + +<p>He further was provided with a similar letter +from John Hancock, the Governor of Massachusetts.</p> + +<table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:503px; height:750px" src="images/img099.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption">On the Shores of the Pacific.</td></tr></table> + +<p>His letter of instructions from the owners, +signed by Joseph Barrell, enjoins, in similar and +even stronger terms than those given Kendrick +three years before, friendly treatment, strict +honesty, honorable conduct, and the avoidance +of unjust advantage in trade with the natives, +the shunning of Spanish ports, tender treatment +of his crew, urgency of despatch in reaching the +northwest coast, and the refraining from all unnecessary +connections with foreigners or Americans. +It further speaks of Gray’s rising reputation, +and expresses the belief that a regard for +his own honor, and a respect for the sea letter +with which the President had honored and indulged +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page97" id="page97"></a>97</span> +him, would cause Gray to doubly exert +himself for the success of the voyage.</p> + +<p>Gray used such despatch and was so fortunate +that he reached Cape Flattery, at the mouth of +the Straits of Fuca, June 5, 1791, his voyage of +eight months having been devoid of any occurrence +worthy of note. Proceeding northward +to Queen Charlotte Island for trade, he there +fell in with Ingraham, formerly mate of the +Columbia, but now, July 23, 1791, in command +of the Hope. The autumn was spent in trading +and exploring among the islands and along the +coast to the east and north of Queen Charlotte +Island. During one trip Gray penetrated an +inlet near 55° N. latitude, probably the northern +extension of Vancouver Strait, to a distance of +one hundred miles to the northeastward without +reaching the end of the passage, which he supposed +to be the Rio de Reyes of Admiral Fonte. +Gray’s visit was most unfortunate, for a portion +of his crew landing at a port on the mainland in +55° N., on August 22d, a large band of savages +fell on the party and killed Joshua Caswell, his +second mate, and seamen Joseph Barns and Job +Folgier. This fatal spot was therefore named +Massacre Cove.</p> + +<p>The attitude of the Indians was a matter of +constant anxiety, so that Gray and his crew +were obliged to exercise the greatest caution in +all their intercourse with such tribes as they fell +in with. In Pintard Sound, 51° 30´ N., near the +entrance, an attack was attempted on the Columbia, +which obliged Gray to fire on the Indians, +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page98" id="page98"></a>98</span> +whereby two of the chiefs were killed, +but it did not excite lasting resentment, as these +savages traded with him later as though nothing +had happened.</p> + +<p>Returning to Clyoquot, Port Cox, Vancouver +Island, with the Columbia, Gray went into +winter quarters. The owners had sent out the +frames for a sloop of about thirty tons, with +three carpenters to build the vessel. A fortified +habitation, called Fort Defiance, was constructed +for occupancy by the working party, which finished +and launched the sloop that winter, christening +her as the Adventurer.</p> + +<p>In the spring of 1792, while the crews of the +Columbia and Adventurer were preparing for +sea they were visited by many Indians, who, +through their chiefs, established such relations +with a Sandwich Islander, who was one of the +crew of the Columbia, as to excite Gray’s suspicions. +The Islander on being closely questioned +by Gray confessed that the Indians had +formed a plan to murder the whole party and +seize the vessels, the Hawaiian to aid them by +wetting the priming of all the guns, and in return +be made a chief among the Indians. Gray +took immediate steps to keep his crew on their +guard during their remaining stay, and thus +completely baffled the design of the savages +without bloodshed.</p> + +<p>In April, 1792, Gray, sending the Adventurer +northward under command of Haswell, his first +mate, turned himself southward, and on the 29th +fell in with Vancouver, who was approaching +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page99" id="page99"></a>99</span> +the northwest coast on a voyage of exploration +in the English ship Discovery, with the +Rambler under Broughton as a consort.</p> + +<p>Vancouver eagerly sought information from +Gray as to his knowledge of the coast, which the +American gave fully and cheerfully. Gray set +forth his voyages in the Straits of Fuca, around +Queen Charlotte Island, and further, that in 1788 +he had “been off the mouth of a river, in the +latitude of 46° 10´, where the outset or reflux +was so strong as to prevent his entering for nine +days.” This latter information was most surprising +and distasteful to Vancouver, who, fitted +out at great expense with two vessels for exploration +alone, found the accuracy of his own observations +of the coast, as recorded in his journal +two days earlier, thrown in doubt by the statements +of this American trader.</p> + +<p>Vancouver had written before meeting Gray: +“The several large rivers and capacious inlets that +have been described as discharging their contents +into the Pacific, between the fortieth and forty-eighth +degrees of north latitude, were reduced to +brooks insufficient for our vessels to navigate, or +to bays inaccessible as harbors. Under the most +fortunate and favorable circumstances of wind +and weather, so minutely has this extensive coast +been inspected, that the surf has been constantly +seen to break on its shores from the mast-head.” +After hearing Gray’s relation Vancouver wrote: +“If any inlet should be found, it must be a very +intricate one, and inaccessible to vessels of our +burden.... I was thoroughly convinced, +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page100" id="page100"></a>100</span> +as were also most persons of observation on +board, that we could not possibly have passed +any safe navigable opening harbor or place of +security for shipping on this coast.” Later +Broughton by Vancouver’s orders entered and +surveyed a part of the Columbia in the latter +part of October, 1792, when very much to his +surprise he found himself preceded by another +American trader, Captain Baker, master of the +brig Jenny, of Bristol, R.I. Vancouver’s report +of the Columbia is scarcely creditable to +that great navigator, for he attempted to prove +that the mouth of the Columbia is an inlet separate +from the main river, and that Gray is consequently +not entitled to the credit of discovering +the main river, a misstatement that cannot stand +either in light of Gray’s journal or the hydrography +of the river.</p> + +<p>Doubtless Gray was sufficiently irritated by +Vancouver’s doubts and criticisms as to the existence +and navigability of the unknown river, to +cause him to again venture the dangers which +had so nearly caused the loss of his vessel on his +previous visit. Of it Wilkes wrote: “Mere description +can give little idea of the terrors of the +bar of the Columbia. All who have seen it have +spoken of the wildness of the scene, the incessant +war of the waters, representing it as one of the +most fearful sights that can possibly meet the +eye of the sailor.”</p> + +<p>Gray pursued the even tenor of his way to the +southward, and within two weeks justified his +previous statements by not only entering and +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page101" id="page101"></a>101</span> +navigating the Columbia, but also discovered a +haven (Bulfinch or Gray Harbor) affording safe +anchorage and shelter for small vessels.</p> + +<p>The following extracts from the log-book of +the ship Columbia give the account of Gray’s +discoveries in his own words:</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>“1792, May 7. 10 <span class="sc">A.M.</span> Being within six +miles of the land, saw an entrance in land which +had a very good appearance of an harbour.... +At half-past three bore away and ran in +N.E. by E. sounding from 4 to 5 fathoms, sandy +bottom, and as we drew nearer in between the +bars had from 10 to 12 fathoms. Having a very +strong tide of ebb to stem, many canoes came +alongside, and at 5 <span class="sc">P.M.</span> came to in 5 fathoms +of water, sandy bottom, in a safe harbour well +sheltered from the sea by long sand-bars and +spits. Our latitude observed this day 46° 58´ N.” +This harbor, called Bulfinch by Gray, now properly +bears the name of its discoverer.</p> + +<p>“10 (May). Fresh breezes and pleasant +weather. Many natives alongside, at noon all +the canoes left. At 1 <span class="sc">P.M.</span> began to unmoor, took +up the best bower anchor and hove short on the +small anchor; at half-past four being high water +hove up the anchor and came to sail and a beating +down the harbour.</p> + +<p>“11. At half-past 7 we were out clear of the +bar and directed our course to the southward +along shore. At 8 <span class="sc">P.M.</span> the entrance of Bulfinch +harbour bore N., distant 4 miles, the S. one +extreme of the land, bore SSE. ½ E.: the N. ditto, +NNNW. Sent up the main top-gallant yard and +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page102" id="page102"></a>102</span> +set all sail. At 4 (?) <span class="sc">P.M.</span> saw the entrance of our +desired port, bearing ESE., distance 6 leagues, in +steering sails and hauled our wind in shore. At +8 <span class="sc">A. (P.?) M.</span> being a little to the windward of the +entrance to the harbour, bore away and run in +ENE between the breakers having from 5 to 7 +fathoms water. When we were over the bar <i>we +found this to be a large river of fresh water</i>, up +which we stood. Many canoes came alongside. +At 1 (11?) <span class="sc">P.M.</span> came to with the small bower in +10 fathoms, black and white sand; the entrance +between the bars bore WSW, distance 10 miles. +The north side of the river, a half mile distant +from the ship, the south side 2½ miles distance; a +village (Chinook) on the north side of the river, +W. by N., distance ¾ of a mile. Vast numbers +of natives came alongside. People employed in +pumping the salt water out of our water-casks in +order to fill with fresh water which the ship +floated in. So ends.</p> + +<p class="center" style="letter-spacing: 3em;">*********</p> + +<p>“(May) 14. Sailed upwards of 13 or 15 miles, +when the channel was so very narrow that it was +almost impossible to keep it.... Ship took +ground, but she did not lay long before she came +off without any assistance.</p> + +<p class="center" style="letter-spacing: 3em;">*********</p> + +<p>“The jolly-boat was sent to sound the channel +out but found it not navigable any farther up; +so, of course, we must have taken the wrong +channel.</p> + +<p class="center" style="letter-spacing: 3em;">*********</p> + +<p>“15 (May).... In the afternoon Capt. +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page103" id="page103"></a>103</span> +Gray and Mr. Hoskins in the jolly-boat went on +shore to take a short view of the country....</p> + +<p>“19 (May).... Capt. Gray gave this river +the name of Columbia’s river, and the north +side of the entrance Cape Hancock, the south +side of the entrance, Adams Point.”</p> +</div> + +<p>The day following (20th) Gray left the river, +crossing the bar after several attempts, and sailed +northward to rejoin the Adventurer.</p> + +<p>Completing his cargo of furs, Gray again visited +Canton, and by his former route returned +to Boston. He married on the 4th of February, +1794, and died, while in command of a coasting +vessel, in the summer of 1806, at Charleston, S. C., +leaving a wife and four daughters.</p> + +<p>On March 27, 1846, a committee of Congress +considered a petition of Martha Gray, his widow, +who applied for a pension for his services to the +United States in war and as an explorer. The +committee in question considered that the most +suitable return for Gray’s valuable services would +be the grant of a township in Oregon, but as surveys +had not yet been made it deferred such +action as then inexpedient. It recommended, +however, that Congress should pass a bill giving +Mrs. Gray the sum of five hundred dollars per +annum. In its report the committee said that +Gray was the first discoverer of the country; that +such discovery conferred on the United States +a title to the whole basin drained by the river, +known then as Oregon Territory; that the hazard +and labor of the journey were great, especially in +the unsurveyed bar of the Columbia.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page104" id="page104"></a>104</span></p> + +<p>Americans did not confine their title to the +valley of the Columbia to the mere right of discovery +without occupation and use, but they +proceeded to develop its capacities for trade and +settlement. From the year 1797 American vessels +regularly entered the Columbia and traded +with its natives.</p> + +<p>When in 1826 the rights of the United States +in regard to Oregon were formulated and made +the subject of consideration by plenipotentiaries +on the parts of Great Britain and the United +States, the claims of the latter were urged on +three grounds, the most important or first being +from their own proper right, which was founded +on Gray’s discovery of the Columbia River.</p> + +<p>If Vancouver had discovered the Columbia +prior to Gray, it is impossible to say what complications +and results would have arisen in connection +with the extension and development of +the United States. It is therefore a source of +endless gratification that Captain Robert Gray, +by his courage, enterprise, and seamanship, in +discovering and entering the Columbia, ultimately +secured to the United States this fertile +territory, almost twice as extensive in area as +Great Britian.</p> + +<p>With its six hundred and sixty thousand of inhabitants, +its great cities, its enormous accumulations +of wealth, the young empire added to the +United States through Robert Gray is fast shaping +into substance the golden visions of the enthusiastic +Kendrick.</p> + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page105" id="page105"></a>105</span></p> + +<p class="center">V.</p> + +<p class="chap center">CAPTAIN MERIWETHER LEWIS AND +LIEUT. WILLIAM CLARK.</p> + +<p class="center sc">First Trans-Continental Explorers of the +United States.</p> + +<p class="noind"><span class="chap1 sc">The</span> burning genius and intense patriotism +of Thomas Jefferson found their most brilliant +setting in his draft of the most famous paper +in the world, the Declaration of Independence. +If Jefferson thus struck the keynote of freedom +for America, he was not content with a free people +restricted in their habitat to the eastern half of +the continent, and in his ripest life gave no more +conspicuous evidence of his foresight and statesmanship +than in the inauguration of a policy +which comprehended in its scope the exploration +and settlement of the entire trans-Mississippi +region. He not only urged and completed +the purchase of Louisiana, but sought the extent +of its natural resources, appreciated the undeveloped +wealth of the great West, and drafted +a scheme of land divisions and settlement which +foreshadowed the beneficial homestead legislation +of later years.</p> + +<p>Jefferson was for years interested in the exploration +of the western parts of North America, +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page106" id="page106"></a>106</span> +which were absolutely unknown save the coast-line +of the Pacific. In 1784, while in Paris, he +met John Ledyard, who had made an unsuccessful +effort to organize a company for the fur trade +on the western coast of America. Ledyard, by +Jefferson’s advice and intercession, attempted to +cross by land to Kamschatka, and thence to the +west coast of America, and across country to +the Missouri River. Ledyard’s arrest in Siberia +and expulsion from the country by the Russian +Government ended this plan. In 1802 Jefferson +initiated, through the American Philosophical +Society, a subscription for the exploration of +the western parts of North America, by ascending +the Missouri River, crossing the Rocky +Mountains, and descending the nearest river to +the Pacific Ocean. Although only two persons +were to go, Meriwether Lewis urgently sought +the appointment, and with M. André Michaux +the voyage was commenced; but his companion +being recalled by the French minister at Washington, +the journey was abandoned.</p> + +<p>On January 18, 1803, Jefferson, then President, +recommended in a confidential message to Congress +modifications of the act regarding trade +with Indians, and with the view of extending its +provisions to the Indians on the Missouri, recommended +the exploration of the Missouri River to +its source, the crossing of the Rocky Mountains, +and descent to the Pacific Ocean by the best +water communication. Congress approved the +plan and voted money for its accomplishment. +Captain Meriwether Lewis, of the United States +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page107" id="page107"></a>107</span> +Army, who had been for nearly two years private +secretary to the President, renewed his solicitations +for command, which was given him.</p> + +<p>Jefferson showed his versatility in the instructions +to Captain Lewis, which are a model of fulness +and clearness. The route to be followed, +natural products and possibilities—animal, vegetable, +and mineral—climatic conditions, commercial +routes, the soil and face of the country, were +all dwelt on. The character, customs, disposition, +territory occupied, tribal relations, means of +subsistence, language, clothing, disease, moral +attributes, laws, traditions, religion, intellectuality, +extent and means of trade, war methods, with +respect to the Indian tribes visited, were to +be studied and reported. The topography of +the country was to be accurately determined, +astronomically and otherwise, and the maps and +notes multiplied to avoid total loss. The good-will +of the chiefs was to be sought, peaceful +methods pursued, and the inflexible opposition +of any extensive force promising bloodshed was +to be met by withdrawal and retreat. The country +then being outside the limits of the United +States, passports from the ministers of Great +Britain, Spain, and France were furnished.</p> + +<p>Meriwether Lewis was born August 17, 1774, +near Charlottesville, Va., being the son of John +Lewis and Miss Meriwether, and grand-nephew +of Fielding Lewis, who married a sister of +George Washington. Volunteering, at the age +of twenty, in the militia called out by Washington +to put down the Shay rising, he was made +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page108" id="page108"></a>108</span> +ensign of the Second Sub-Legion May 1, 1795, +and appointed in First Infantry November, 1796, +where he rose to be paymaster and captain in 1800. +He was a considerate and efficient officer, an expert +hunter, versed in natural history, familiar +with Indian character and customs. Appreciating +his deficiencies in certain branches of science important +in this expeditionary duty, he at once +sought instruction from competent professors.</p> + +<p>Jefferson describes Lewis as follows: “Of +courage undaunted, possessing a firmness and perseverance +of purpose which nothing but impossibilities +could divert from its direction, ... +honest, disinterested, liberal, of sound understanding +and a fidelity to truth so scrupulous +that whatever he should report would be as certain +as seen ourselves.” The management and +success of the expedition, it may here be said, +fully justified the selection by and encomiums of +Jefferson.</p> + +<p>Lewis, given his choice of associate, selected +William Clark, who was appointed by Jefferson +second lieutenant of artillery. Clark was a +brother of George Rogers Clark, by whose valor +and sagacity the Illinois or Northwest Territory +was secured to the United States, and this connection +made his selection for further extension +of the country seem most fitting. Moreover +young Clark had qualifications and experiences +which strongly commended him to Lewis. Born +in Virginia, August 1, 1770, William Clark had +a thorough knowledge of the privations and +conditions of frontier life. Skilful as a hunter, +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page109" id="page109"></a>109</span> +a keen observer, familiar with military life from +four years of service as a lieutenant of infantry, +and developed from his ill health, which caused +him to leave the army in 1796, into a magnificent +specimen of manhood, he proved so efficient a +coadjutor that his name will ever be inseparably +associated with that of Lewis.</p> + +<p>Lewis left Washington July 5, 1803, his mission +being enhanced in its importance by the formal +cession of Louisiana to the United States by +the treaty of Paris, April 30, 1803, which news +reached him July 1st. The rendezvous was at +St. Louis, which was reached via Pittsburgh +and the Ohio, recruits being selected at various +posts, while Lieutenant Clark joined at Louisville, +though he was not commissioned in the +army till the following March.</p> + +<p>When the party reached St. Louis, in December, +1803, formal notice of the transfer of Louisiana +had not reached the Spanish commandant, +who would not permit their passage westward. +They passed the winter in camp opposite the +mouth of the Missouri, where they built a barge +with sail-power and two smaller boats, with +which they started up the Missouri River on +May 14, 1804.</p> + +<p>The expedition, commanded by Captain Lewis, +with Lieutenant Clark as second, comprised +thirty-four selected men, eleven being watermen, +a negro servant, and a hunter, who was also an +interpreter.</p> + +<p>The valley of the lower Missouri was well +known to the French Canadians, who, pushed +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page110" id="page110"></a>110</span> +westward by the irruption of English settlers in +the Illinois region, sought isolation and freedom +from foreign restraint in the country west of the +Mississippi. St. Louis was their headquarters, +but the Missouri was their field of fortune. The +village of St. Charles, with its single street, had +about five hundred souls, who lived by hunting +and trade with the Indians, agriculture being +quite neglected; and an outpost of seven poverty-stricken +families existed at La Charrette, the +advance guard of civilization. But the typical +French trader and trapper disdained the shelter +of a roof and the restraint of communities. His +adventurous spirit pushed his frail bark into the +quiet waters of the upper Kansas, through the +shallows of the Platte, under the overshading +trees of the beautiful James, along the precipitous +red-clay cliffs of the Big Sioux, and, in search +of the beaver, even penetrated the winding narrows +of the Cheyenne and Little Missouri. They +did not even stop at transient visits, but, fascinated +by the roving, aimless life of the savage, +took up abode with him, shared his tepee and +wanderings, adopted his customs, took his squaw +to wife, until longings strange and uncontrollable +drew them back in old age to the home and religion +of their youth. One of these venturesome +wanderers named Durion, who had lived twenty +years among the Sioux, was picked up on the +river and accompanied Lewis to the mouth of +the James, as a much-needed interpreter.</p> + +<p>The mouth of the Platte was passed on July +21st, and on the next day Lewis camped on the +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page111" id="page111"></a>111</span> +site of the present city of Council Bluffs, thus +named by Lewis on account of his council with +the Ottoes and Missouri Indians at this point. +Here the first of a continuing series of presents +was given to the grand chief: an American flag, +a large medal, which was placed around his +neck as a mark of consideration, paint, garters, +cloth ornaments, a canister of powder, and the +indispensable bottle of whiskey. The subordinate +chiefs received inferior medals and presents +according to their importance. These presents +were made with much form and ceremony, +wherein an important part were speeches setting +forth the transfer of the territory to the United +States, the benefits of peace, and the advantages +of trade at the new post to be occupied by +Americans.</p> + +<p>Both Lewis and Clark had been accustomed +to Indian life on the Eastern frontiers, but they +found much that was strange and striking among +the denizens of the great interior plains. Beyond +the breech-cloth a loose buffalo robe usually +kept the savage from nudity. The necklace of +grizzly bear-claws, the ornaments of porcupine +and feathers, the scalp-poles, the conical teepes +covered with gayly-figured skins, the blue smoke +up-curling from the open tent-top, the hoop-tambourine +or half-drum, the queer whip-rattle +of the hoofs of goats and deer, the bladder-rattle +full of pebbles, the shaven heads of the men, the +white-dressed buffalo robe with its jingling rows +of porcupine quills and uncouth painted figures, +emblematic of the brave’s war-history, the hawk-feather +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page112" id="page112"></a>112</span> +or eagle-plume head-dress worked with +porcupine quills, the polecat skin trailing from +the young brave’s moccasins, the deer-paunch +tobacco-pouch, and a score of other novelties met +their observing eyes. Among the Rickarees the +octagonal earth-covered lodges, the picketed +villages, the cultivated patches of corn, beans, +and potatoes, the basket-like boats of interwoven +boughs covered with a single buffalo skin, in +which squaws paddled unconcernedly over high +waves, were unknown phases of savage life.</p> + +<p>Even the earth gave up its treasure, and they +found the first of the famous petrifactions of the +trans-Missouri region in the back-bone of a fish +forty-five feet long, in a perfect state.</p> + +<table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:700px; height:498px" src="images/img117.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption">A Blackfoot Tepee.</td></tr></table> + +<p>Game gradually grew plentiful as they ascended +the river. Buffalo was not seen till the +Big Sioux was reached, but later fifteen herds +and three bands of elk were visible at one time, +and near Mandan large flocks of goats were seen +crossing from their summer grazing grounds to +find west of the Missouri winter shelter in the +hilly regions. As they passed the Indians drove +large flocks of migrating goats into the river, +where even boys killed the helpless animals by +scores with sticks. Indeed, the Missouri then +appears to have been a hunter’s paradise, for +there are mentioned among the regular game +antelope, bear, beaver, buffalo, badger, deer, elk, +goats, and porcupine. Three thousand antelope +were seen at one time, and of this animal Lewis +accurately remarks: “The antelope possesses +most wonderful swiftness, the acuteness of their +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page113" id="page113"></a>113</span> +sight distinguishes the most distant danger, the +delicate sensibility of their smell defeats the precautions +of concealment, and when alarmed their +rapid career seems more like the flight of birds +than the movements of an earthly being.”</p> + +<p>The river furnished abundant supply of cat +and buffalo fish, and feathered game, such as +plover, grouse, geese, turkeys, ducks, and pelican, +also abounded; among the vegetable products +are enumerated several kinds of grapes, currants +and plums, wild apples, billberries, cherries, +gooseberries, mulberries, raspberries, acorns, +and hazel-nuts.</p> + +<p>As regards the voyage thus far, it was true +that the sail could rarely be used, that the labor +of propelling the boats by oar or pole was most +laborious, and that the shallows gave great +trouble; but the Indians, save a single threatening +occasion, were most friendly, and the only +death, that of Sergeant Floyd, was from acute +disease. Indeed, the journey had been most attractive +and free from special hazard, and when +rapidly advancing winter obliged them to go +into permanent quarters, on October 27th, it +seemed rather a long hunting excursion than a +dangerous voyage of discovery.</p> + +<p>Their winter quarters, called Fort Mandan, were +on the eastern side of the Missouri, sixteen hundred +miles from St. Louis, and in latitude 47° 22´ +N., a short distance above the present city of +Bismarck. The buildings were wooden huts, +which joined and formed two sides of a triangle, +while the third side was of pickets. As the huts +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page114" id="page114"></a>114</span> +opened inward, they had a stockaded place easy +of defence.</p> + +<p>On his arrival at Fort Mandan, Lewis found a +Mr. McCracken, of the Hudson Bay Company, +engaged in trading for horses and buffalo robes. +During the winter ten or twelve different traders +of this company visited Mandan, and although +one bore a letter from the chief factor, Mr. Charles +Chabouilles, offering any service in his power, yet +it was evident to Lewis that these traders were +cultivating sentiments unfriendly to Americans +among the Indians, and Chaboneau, the interpreter +was tampered with; but the prompt and +judicious action of Lewis resulted in apologies +and promises to refrain from such conduct in +future. Laroche, one of the Hudson Bay traders, +desired to go west with the expedition, but it +was thought best to decline the offer. At this +time the nearest English trading-post was at the +forks of the Assiniboin, about one hundred and +fifty miles distant by the way of Mouse River.</p> + +<p>The stay at Fort Mandan was marked by two +sad experiences for the Indians encamped near +the post: an autumnal prairie fire which burned +two Indians to death, and an attack of the Sioux, +wherein one Mandan was killed and two wounded. +A Frenchman, Jesseaume, living with the Indians, +served as interpreter, and they learned much of +the Mandans, Rickarees, and Minnetarees. The +Rickarees appeared in a very sensible light by refusing +spirits, with the remark that they did not +use it, and were surprised that their father should +present to them a liquor which would make them +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page115" id="page115"></a>115</span> +fools. The sensibilities of these Indians in their +peculiar way appeared in a chief who cried bitterly +at seeing a court-martial sentence of flogging +carried out on a soldier. The chief acknowledged +the necessity of exemplary punishment, +and said that for the same offence he had +killed his braves, but that he never whipped any +one, not even children.</p> + +<p>The Mandans, through intervention, made +peace with the Rickarees, and restored traps and +furs which they had taken from French hunters. +During the entire winter these Indian tribes were +most friendly, and their stores of corn, obtained +by the expeditionary force by trade or purchase, +were of material benefit to the party. The negro +was a constant source of wonder to the crowds +of Indians who visited them. The one-eyed +great chief of the Minnetarees said that some +foolish young men had told him there was a +person quite black. When York, the negro, appeared, +the one-eyed savage, much surprised, +examined the negro closely, and spitting on a +finger rubbed the skin in order to wash off the +paint, and it was not until the negro showed his +curly hair that the Indian could be persuaded he +was not a painted white man.</p> + +<p>Game, though at some distance, was abundant, +and seventy head of large animals were obtained +in a hunt of ten days. With regard to the Indians +Lewis says: “A camp of Mandans caught +within two days one hundred goats a short distance +below us. Their mode of hunting them is +to form a large strong pen or fold, from which +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page116" id="page116"></a>116</span> +a fence is made of bushes gradually widening +on each side; the animals are surrounded by the +hunters and gently driven toward this pen, in +which they imperceptibly find themselves enclosed, +and are then at the mercy of the hunters.</p> + +<p>“When the Indians engage in killing buffalo, +the hunters mount on horseback and, armed with +bows and arrows, encircle the herd and gradually +drive it into a plain or open place fit for the +movement of horse; they then ride in among +them, and singling out a buffalo, a female being +preferred, go as close as possible and wound +her with arrows till they think they have given +the mortal stroke; when they pursue another +till the quiver is exhausted. If, which rarely +happens, the wounded buffalo attacks the hunter, +he evades the blow by the agility of his horse, +which is trained for the combat with great dexterity.”</p> + +<p>The winter proved to be of unusual severity, +and several times the temperature fell to forty +degrees below zero, and proof spirits froze into +hard ice. The fortitude with which the hardy +savages withstood such extreme cold, half naked +as they often were, impressed our explorers.</p> + +<p>Spring opened early, and on April 7, 1805, +Fort Mandan was abandoned, one party of ten +with the barge going down the river with despatches +and specimens. Lewis and Clark with +their party of thirty started up the Missouri in +six canoes and two large open boats, which had +been constructed by them. They had three interpreters—Drewyer, +Chaboneau, and his wife. +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page117" id="page117"></a>117</span> +Drewyer was a Canadian half-breed who had +always lived in the woods, and while he had +inherited from his mother the intuitive sagacity +of the Indian in following the faintest trail, he +had also acquired to a wonderful degree that +knowledge of the shifts and expedients of camp +life which is the resource and pride of the +frontier huntsman. Chaboneau’s life had been +largely spent among the Blackfeet, by whom +his wife, a Snake Indian, had been taken in war +and enslaved when a young girl.</p> + +<p>At the mouth of the Little Missouri the three +French hunters, who had ventured to follow the +party, stopped for trapping, as they found beaver +very plentiful. Chaboneau Creek, the farthest +point on the Missouri yet visited by white men, +was passed, and on April 26th they arrived at +the mouth of the Yellowstone. Lewis was here +particularly pleased with the wide plains, interspersed +with forests of various trees, and expressed +his opinion that the situation was most +suitable for a trading establishment.</p> + +<p>Spring had now fairly opened, the trees were +in leaf, a flower was seen, and despite the scanty +verdure of the new grass, game was very abundant. +In many places, however, the barren banks +and sand-bars were covered with a white incrustation +of alkali salts, looking like frost or +newly fallen snow, which were present in such +quantities that all the small tributaries of the +Missouri proved to be bitter and unhealthy +water. Signs of human life became rarer, but +now and then they passed an old Indian camp, +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page118" id="page118"></a>118</span> +and near one saw the burial place of an Indian +woman. The body, carefully wrapped in dressed +buffalo robes, rested on a high scaffold, with two +sleds and harness over it. Nearby lay the remains +of a dog sacrificed to the shades of his +dead mistress. In a bag were articles fitting for +women—moccasins, red and blue paint, beavers’ +nails, scrapers for dressing hides, dried roots, +a little Mandan tobacco, and several plaits of +sweet-smelling grass.</p> + +<p>The oar was plied unceasingly save when a +favoring wind filled their sails and facilitated +their progress. In early May they drew up +their canoes for the night at the mouth of a bold, +beautiful stream, and in the abundant timber +found feeding on the young willows so many +clumsy porcupines that they called it Porcupine +River. Game was present in vast quantities; +the elk were tame, and the male buffalo would +scarcely quit grazing at the approach of man. +As Lewis remarks: “It has become an amusement +to supply the party with provisions.”</p> + +<p>On May 8th they dined at the mouth of a river +flowing from a level, well-watered, and beautiful +country. As the water had a peculiar whiteness +they were induced to call it Milk River. The +Missouri now turned to the southwest and south, +the country became more open, and timber, of +pine mostly, small and scanty.</p> + +<table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:400px; height:533px" src="images/img125.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption">Captain Meriwether Lewis.</td></tr></table> + +<p>Although the buffalo were so tame and harmless +that the men drove them out of their way +with sticks, yet the grizzly bear never failed to +be a dangerous and vicious visitor. One day six +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page119" id="page119"></a>119</span> +good hunters attacked a grizzly, and four firing +at forty paces, each lodged a ball in the body, +two going through the lungs. The animal ran +at them furiously, when the other hunters fired +two balls into him, breaking a shoulder. The +bear yet pursued them, driving two into a canoe +and the others into thickets, from which they +fired as fast as they could reload. Turning on +them, he drove two so closely that they dropped +their guns and sprang from a precipice twenty +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page120" id="page120"></a>120</span> +feet high into the river followed by the bear, +who finally succumbed to a shot through the +head after eight balls had passed completely +through his body. Another bear, shot through +the heart, ran a quarter of a mile with undiminished +speed before he fell dead.</p> + +<p>On the 20th, twenty-two hundred and seventy +miles from St. Louis, they came to the greenish-yellow +waters of the Musselshell, and a short +distance beyond Captain Lewis caught his first +glimpse of the Rocky Mountains, the object of +his hope and ambition. Beyond the Musselshell +their experiences were less pleasant: the country +became more barren, game and timber scarce, +mosquitoes annoying; the high dry winds, full of +sand, made their eyes sore; the sun of midday +burned, while almost every night ice or frost +chilled them.</p> + +<p>The clear waters of the Judith River and its +woods beautiful with multitudinous mountain +roses, the fragrant honeysuckle, and the tiny +red willows delighted their eyes; but the sight +of a hundred and twenty-six lately abandoned +lodge-fires caused some uneasiness, as indicating +a late camping-place of a war-party of vicious +northern Minnetarees or Blackfeet.</p> + +<p>A few miles farther, as they passed a precipice +a hundred and twenty feet high, they saw evidence +of the cunning and wasteful methods of +hunting by Indians, for the remains of over a +hundred buffalo were scattered around, though +the stream must have washed many away. +Lewis adds: “These buffaloes had been chased +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page121" id="page121"></a>121</span> +down the precipice in a way very common on +the Missouri, and by which vast herds are destroyed +in a moment. The mode of hunting is +to select one of the most active and fleet young +men, who is disguised in a buffalo skin round his +body. The skin of the head, with the ears and +horns, are fastened on his own head in such a +way as to deceive the buffalo. Thus dressed he +fixes himself at a convenient distance between a +herd of buffalo and any of the river precipices, +which sometimes extend for several miles. His +companions, in the meantime, get in the rear and +side of the herd, and at a given signal show themselves +and advance toward the buffalo. They +instantly take the alarm, and finding the hunters +beside them they run toward the disguised Indian +or decoy, who leads them on at full speed toward +the river, when suddenly securing himself in +some crevice of the cliff, which he had previously +fixed on, the herd is left on the brink of the precipice. +It is then in vain for the foremost to retreat +or even to stop; they are pressed on by the +hindmost ranks, who, seeing no danger but from +the hunters, goad on those before them till the +whole are precipitated and the shore is strewed +with their dead bodies. Sometimes in this perilous +seduction the Indian himself is either trodden +under foot or, missing his footing in the cliff, is +urged down the precipice by the falling herd.”</p> + +<p>The river now took the form of frequent +rapids, which made the work of dragging the +heavy canoes very painful, and the narrative +runs: “The banks are so slippery in some places, +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page122" id="page122"></a>122</span> +and the mud so adhesive, that the men are unable +to wear moccasins. One-fourth of the time +they are obliged to be up to their arm-pits in the +cold water, and sometimes walk for yards over +sharp fragments of rocks.”</p> + +<p>On June 3d they came to where the river divided +into two large streams, and it became of +vital importance to the expedition to determine +which was the Missouri or Ahmateahza, as the +Minnetarees called it, and which they said approached +very near to the Columbia. The success +of the expedition depended on the right +decision, so Captain Lewis concluded to encamp +until reconnoitering columns could examine the +two forks.</p> + +<p>Lewis following up the north branch, two days’ +march, decided that it was not the Missouri, and +named it Maria’s River. In returning he narrowly +escaped slipping over a precipice some +ninety feet high. Lewis had just reached a spot +of safety when, says the narrative,</p> + +<p>“He heard a voice behind him cry out, ‘Good +God, Captain, what shall I do?’ He turned instantly +and found it was Windsor, who had lost +his foothold about the middle of the narrow pass +and had slipped down to the very verge of the +precipice, where he lay on his belly, with his +right arm and leg over the precipice, while with +the other leg and arm he was with difficulty +holding on to keep himself from being dashed to +pieces below. His dreadful situation was instantly +perceived by Captain Lewis, who, stifling +his alarm, calmly told him that he was in no +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page123" id="page123"></a>123</span> +danger, that he should take his knife out of his +belt with the right hand and dig a hole in the +side of the bluff to receive his foot. With great +presence of mind he did this, and then raised +himself on his knees. Captain Lewis then told +him to take off his moccasins and come forward +on his hands and knees, holding the knife in one +hand and his rifle in the other. He immediately +crawled in this way till he came to a secure +spot.”</p> + +<p>One of Lieutenant Clark’s party, on the south +fork, at the same time, ran great danger from a +grizzly bear which attacked near camp a man +whose gun, being wet, would not go off. The +man took to a tree, so closely followed by the +animal that he struck the hunter’s foot as he was +climbing. The bear showed his intention of +waiting until the man should be forced to descend, +but fortunately alarmed by the cries and +signal-shots of a searching-party decamped.</p> + +<p>While Lewis and Clark concurred in believing +the south fork to be the true Missouri, the rest of +the party were unanimous in thinking the north +the right course. Finally caching their heaviest +boat and all the supplies which could well be +spared, the entire party followed the south fork.</p> + +<p>Lewis, pushing on confidently with four men, +confirmed his opinion by reaching, on June 13th, +the great falls of the Missouri, which by their +sublime majesty and stupendous magnitude fascinated +him. The description of these falls at +the time of their first view by civilized man is +worthy of reproduction. The river, three hundred +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page124" id="page124"></a>124</span> +yards wide, was shut in by precipitous +cliffs, and “for ninety yards from the left cliff +the water falls in one smooth sheet over a precipice +of eighty feet. The rest of the river precipitates +itself with a more rapid current, but received +as it falls by the irregular and projecting rocks +below, forms a splendid prospect of white foam +two hundred yards in length.... This spray +is dissipated in a thousand shapes.... As it +rises from the fall it beats with fury against a +ledge of rocks which extend across the river.” +On examination Lewis found that “the river for +three miles below was one continued succession +of rapids and cascades, overhung with perpendicular +bluffs from one hundred and fifty to two +hundred feet high; in short, it seems to have +worn itself a channel through the solid rock.” +At the main falls, five miles above the first, “the +whole Missouri is suddenly stopped by one +shelving rock, which without a single niche and +with an edge as straight and regular as if formed +by art, stretches itself from one side of the river +to the other for at least a quarter of a mile. Over +this the river precipitates itself in an even, uninterrupted +sheet to the perpendicular depth of +fifty feet, whence, dashing against the rocky bottom, +it rushes rapidly down, leaving behind it a +spray of the purest foam across the river. The +scene was singularly beautiful, without any of +the wild irregular sublimity of the lower falls.” +In a cottonwood tree, on a small island in the +middle of the rapids, an eagle had fixed its nest, +a solitary bird which had not escaped the observation +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page125" id="page125"></a>125</span> +of the Indians, who had previously described +it to Lewis.</p> + +<table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:500px; height:609px" src="images/img131.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr></table> + +<p class="pt2">On leaving the falls Lewis saw a herd of a +thousand buffalo, and killed one for supper. In +his eagerness he failed to reload his rifle, when +he beheld a grizzly bear stealing on him and not +over twenty paces distant. “He felt that there +was no safety but in flight. It was in the open, +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page126" id="page126"></a>126</span> +level plain, ... so that there was no possible +mode of concealment.... As soon as he +turned the bear ran, open mouthed and at full +speed, upon him. Captain Lewis ran about eighty +yards, but finding that the animal gained on him +fast ... he turned short, plunged into the +river about waist deep, and facing about presented +the point of his spontoon. The bear arrived at +the water’s edge within twenty feet of him, but as +soon as he put himself in this posture of defence, +the animal seemed frightened and retreated with +as much precipitation as he had pursued.”</p> + +<p>The means and route for portage presented +difficult problems for the exhausted party, as it +was clearly evident that the men could not carry +the boats on their shoulders such great distances. +Fortunately a creek was found at the foot of the +falls, where the banks afforded easy access to +the highlands. It was first necessary to cross +the Missouri, and here the party went into camp +while preparations were made for the portage.</p> + +<p>Lieut. Clark with a few men carefully surveyed +the trail to be followed, others engaged in hunting +in order to lay up a store of dried meat, +and the handy men of the party set to work on +a carriage for the transport of the boats. By +good fortune they found a large cottonwood-tree, +about twenty-two inches in diameter, large +enough to make the carriage-wheels, “perhaps +the only tree of that size within twenty miles.” +As they had decided to cache a part of their +stores and leave their largest boat behind, its +mast supplied them with two axle-trees.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page127" id="page127"></a>127</span></p> + +<p>In the meantime the survey of Clark showed +that the series of cataracts had an aggregate +descent of three hundred and sixty-three feet +in seventeen miles, and that a very difficult +portage of thirteen miles was necessary. The +country was barely practicable for travel, and +was covered with frequent patches of prickly +pear, against the tiny penetrating needles of +which the moccasins of the dragging men afforded +almost no protection. To add to their +misfortunes, when about five miles from their +destination the axle-trees, made of the old mast, +broke, and then the tongues of green cottonwood +gave way. After diligent search sweet-willow +trees were found with which they managed, +by shifts and expedients familiar to frontiersmen, +to patch up the carriage so as to go +on. It broke down so completely about a half +mile from the new camp that it was easier to +carry boat and baggage on their shoulders than +to build a new conveyance. The condition of +the party is evident from the narrative:</p> + +<p>“The men are loaded as heavily as their +strength will permit; the crossing is really painful; +some are limping with the soreness of +their feet, others are scarcely able to stand for +more than a few minutes from the heat and +fatigue; they are all obliged to halt and rest +frequently, and at almost every stopping-place +they fall, and many of them are asleep in an +instant.”</p> + +<p>Later it was needful to repair the carriage and +to travel over and over the portage until, after +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page128" id="page128"></a>128</span> +ten days of weary labor, all the equipage was +above the falls.</p> + +<p>In the meantime the hunters had accumulated +nearly half a ton of dried meat, buffalo being +plenty. The grizzly bear, however, was also present, +active, aggressive, and dangerous as usual. +They infested the camp at night, causing much +alarm, and once carried off buffalo-meat from +a pole within thirty yards of the men. A +hunter sent out to bring in meat was boldly attacked +by a bear and narrowly escaped death, +being pursued to within forty paces of the camp. +Another animal was killed when rushing up to +attack men who had to climb a tree, while making +sufficient noise to attract their rescuer, Drewyer, +the interpreter and hunter, who shot him through +the head. He proved to be the largest they had +seen, being eight feet seven and a half inches long, +while his fore feet measured nine inches and hind +feet seven inches across, and eleven and three-quarters +long exclusive of the talons. Another +hunter was attacked by a grizzly, fortunately +near the river, so that he was able to conceal +himself under a steep bank; otherwise he would +probably have lost his life.</p> + +<p>The perils of navigation and the chase were +not all, for a cloud-burst and hail-storm contributed +to their danger and suffering. The hail +was so large and driven so furiously by the high +wind that it knocked down several of the men, +one three times, bruising another very badly and +wounding some so that they bled freely. The +fallen hail lay in drifts, which in places completely +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page129" id="page129"></a>129</span> +covered the ground, and some of the stones +weighed three ounces and measured seven inches +in circumference. Clark, Chaboneau and his +wife took shelter under shelving rocks in a +deep ravine, congratulating themselves on their +protected position. Suddenly, however, the +rain fell in a solid mass, and instantly collecting +in the ravine, came rolling down in a dreadful +torrent, carrying rocks and everything before it.</p> + +<p>“But for Lieut. Clark, Chaboneau, his wife +and child would have been lost. So instantly +was the rise of the water, that as Lieut. Clark +had reached his gun and began to ascend the +bank, the water was up to his waist, and he could +scarce get up faster than it rose, till it reached +the height of fifteen feet, with a furious current +which, had they waited a moment longer, would +have swept them into the river just above the +Great Falls, down which they must have inevitably +been precipitated.”</p> + +<p>Though the phases of their daily life brought +much that was rough and hard, yet their privations +were not unmixed with pleasures, rude +though they may seem to the city dweller. Long +tramps and exciting rides after game, side +marches to commanding hill-tops for grateful +views of an unknown country—barren to the eye, +perhaps, but grateful to the soul, for were they +not the first men of their race who ever looked +upon it?—or pleasant journeys through upland +forests or the undergrowth of the intervale, to +search and gather whatever was beautiful to the +eye, novel to the mind, or a welcome addition to +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page130" id="page130"></a>130</span> +their scanty larder; such were their rare pleasures.</p> + +<p>Now they waded through waist-high patches +of wild rye, recalling with its fine soft beard the +waving fields of grain they had left in the far +East; again they pushed on in dense copses of +the sinuous redwood, whose delicate inner bark +furnished pleasant Indian tobacco to the Frenchman +and half-breed. Sometimes the trail lay +through an open wood with smaller undergrowth, +where beds of odorous mint recalled his Virginian +home to Lewis; where the delicate mountain-rose, +in countless thousands, was born to blush +unseen; where, if only one ripened berry to-day +invited the hunter, other kinds promised their +welcome fruit in due but later season.</p> + +<p>Rarely did the dull gray of the sky dim the +glory of a whole day, and the short summer +showers, freshening the beauty of the landscape +and abating the fervid heat of mid-summer, +seemed only too infrequent. And above all, the +pure, free, upland air, that gives vigor and health +to the body, joy and lightness to the heart, almost +annihilates distance to the eye; and in breathing +which, one drinks into the lungs the very wine +of life. Surely more than the heroes of Virgil’s +song did they feel that sweet in their memory +would abide these days forever.</p> + +<p>Of the mountains, now always in sight, and a +constant source of inspiration to the eager explorers, +those to the north and northwest were +yet snow-capped, and Lewis says: “They glisten +with great beauty when the sun shines on them +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page131" id="page131"></a>131</span> +in a particular direction, and most probably +from this glittering appearance have derived +the name of the Shining Mountains.”</p> + +<p>During his explorations of the country around +the falls Captain Lewis visited a remarkable and +beautiful spring, near the present city of Great +Falls, Montana. Of it he writes:</p> + +<p>“The fountain, which perhaps is the largest in +America, is situated in a pleasant level plain, +about twenty-five yards from the river, into +which it falls over some steep irregular rocks, +with a sudden descent of about six feet in one +part of its course. The water boils up from +among the rocks with such force near the centre, +that the surface seems higher than the earth on +the sides of the fountain, which is a handsome +turf of fine green grass.”</p> + +<p>While the main party was making the portage, +a detachment was “occupied in fitting up a boat +of skins, the iron frame of which, thirty-six feet +long, had been prepared for the purpose at Harper’s +Ferry. The iron frame is to be covered +with skins, and requires thin-shaved strips of +wood for lining. The skins necessary to cover +it have already been prepared—twenty-eight elk +and four buffalo skins.” This experimental boat +proved to be a total failure, and it was not till +Lewis’s long journey was nearly over that he +copied the skin boat of the Indian squaws, which +had excited his surprise, and found that the +methods of the locality could be followed with +advantage in navigation as well as otherwise.</p> + +<table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:400px; height:531px" src="images/img138.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption">Lieutenant William Clark.</td></tr></table> + +<p>As the six canoes were insufficient to carry +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page132" id="page132"></a>132</span> +all their men and supplies, Clark was sent ahead +to find suitable wood for two more, there being +no fit trees below the falls. With much difficulty +trees were found, and two canoes, three feet wide +and twenty-five and thirty-three feet long respectively, +were fashioned. Near here a deserted +Indian lodge or council house was seen. +It was two hundred and sixteen feet in circumference, +made of sixteen cottonwood poles, fifty +feet long, converging toward the centre, where +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page133" id="page133"></a>133</span> +they were united and secured by large withes of +sinewy willow.</p> + +<p>Although the swivel and some other articles had +been cached at the head of the falls, their loads +were yet very heavy, and all walked except those +engaged in working the canoe. The windings +of the river became very tortuous, and frequent +rapids made their progress correspondingly slow +and laborious.</p> + +<p>Game was less plentiful, and, as it was necessary +to save the dried and concentrated food for +the crossing of the mountains, it became somewhat +of a task to provide food for a party of +thirty-two which consumed a quantity of meat +daily equal to an elk and deer, four deer or one +buffalo. Fortunately, the berries were now ripening, +and, as they grew in great quantities, +proved a not inconsiderable contribution to their +food-supply. Of currants there were red, purple, +yellow, and black, all pleasant to the taste; +the yellow being thought superior to any other +known variety. The purple service-berry and +pinkish gooseberry were also favorites. Besides, +they made use of the very abundant and almost +omnipresent sunflower. Of it Lewis says: “The +Indians of the Missouri, more especially those +who do not cultivate maize, make great use +of the seed of this plant for bread or in thickening +their soup. They first parch and then +pound it between two stones until it is reduced +to a fine meal. Sometimes they add a portion +of water, and drink it thus diluted; at other +times they add a sufficient proportion of marrow +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page134" id="page134"></a>134</span> +grease to reduce it to the consistency of common +dough and eat it in that manner. This last +composition we preferred to all the rest, and +thought it at that time a very palatable dish.”</p> + +<p>The Missouri now took in general a southerly +course, and on July 18th they reached a bold +clear stream, which was named Dearborn River +for the then Secretary of War. They had intended +to send back a small party in canoes with +despatches, but as they had not met the Snake +Indians, and so were uncertain as to their friendliness, +it was thought best not to weaken their already +small party for hostilities. Lewis decided, +however, to send Clark, with three men, in advance +to open up communication with these Indians +and, if possible, to negotiate for horses. +Clark’s journey was a failure, for the Indians, +alarmed at the firing of a gun, fled into the +mountains.</p> + +<p>The mountains now closed in on the explorers +and they camped one night at a place named the +Gates of the Rocky Mountains. “For five and +three-quarter miles these rocks rise perpendicularly +from the water’s edge to the height of +nearly twelve hundred feet. They are composed +of black granite near the base, but ... we +suppose the upper part to be flint of a yellowish +brown and cream color. Nothing can be +imagined more tremendous than the frowning +blackness of these rocks, which project over the +river and threaten us with destruction.... +For the first three miles there is not a spot, except +one of a few yards, in which a man could +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page135" id="page135"></a>135</span> +stand between the water and the towering perpendicular +of the mountains.”</p> + +<p>On July 25th Clark, who was in advance, +reached the three forks of the Missouri, where he +had to camp, his party worn out, their feet full +of prickly pear needles and Chaboneau unable to +go farther. The forks were all clear pebbly +streams, discharging large amounts of water. +The southeast fork was named Gallatin, the middle +Madison, and the southwest Jefferson, the latter +two, of equal size, being larger branches than +the Gallatin.</p> + +<p>At the three forks Sacajawea, the wife of Chaboneau, +was encamped five years before, when +the Minnetarees of Knife River attacked the +Snakes, killed about a dozen and made prisoners +of her and others of her tribe. Strangely enough +Chaboneau nearly lost his life crossing the Madison, +where Clark saved him from drowning. +Lewis was struck with the seeming indifference +of the Snake woman on her return to the spot +and her own country.</p> + +<p>The party followed Jefferson River, their journey +being marked by the killing of a panther +seven and a half feet long, and the overturning +of a canoe, injuring one of the party, Whitehouse, +losing some articles, and wetting others, +but the all-important powder was so well packed +that it remained dry.</p> + +<p>“Persuaded,” says the narrative, “of the necessity +of securing horses to cross the mountains, it +was determined that one of us should proceed +... till he found the Shoshones, ... who could +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page136" id="page136"></a>136</span> +assist us in transporting our baggage.” Captain +Lewis with three men preceded, and on August 11, +saw “with the greatest delight a man on horseback, +at the distance of two miles, coming down +the plain toward them. On examining him with +the glass, Captain Lewis saw that he was armed +with a bow and a quiver of arrows; mounted on an +elegant horse without a saddle, and a small string +attached to the under jaw answered as a bridle. +Convinced that he was a Shoshonee, and knowing +how much of our success depended on the friendly +offices of that nation, Captain Lewis was full of +anxiety to approach without alarming him, and +endeavor to convince him that he was a white +man. He therefore proceeded on towards the +Indian at his usual pace; when they were within +a mile of each other the Indian suddenly stopped, +Captain Lewis immediately followed his example, +took his blanket from his knapsack, and holding +it with both hands at the four corners, threw it +above his head and unfolded it as he brought +it to the ground, as if in the act of spreading it. +This signal, which originates in the act of spreading +a robe or skin as a seat for guests to whom +they wish to show a distinguished kindness, is +the universal sign of friendship among the Indians +on the Missouri and Rocky Mountains.” Unfortunately, +the brave took alarm at the movement +of Lewis’s companions and fled. The next +day brought them to the head-waters of the Jefferson. +Here, “from the foot of one of the lowest +of these mountains, which rises with a gentle ascent +for about half a mile, issues the remotest +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page137" id="page137"></a>137</span> +water of the Missouri. They had now reached +the hidden sources of that river, which had never +yet been seen by civilized man; and as they +quenched their thirst at the chaste and icy fountain—as +they sat down by the brink of that little +rivulet, which yielded its distant and modest +tribute to the parent ocean, they felt themselves +rewarded for all their labors and all their difficulties.”</p> + +<p>Pushing on they soon saw, to the west, high, +snow-topped mountains.</p> + +<p>“The ridge on which they stood formed the +dividing line between the waters of the Atlantic +and Pacific Oceans. They followed a descent +much steeper than that on the eastern side, and +at the distance of three quarters of a mile reached +a handsome, bold creek of cold, clear water running +to the westward. They stopped to taste for +the first time the waters of the Columbia, and, +after a few minutes, followed the road across +steep hills and low hollows, till they reached a +spring on the side of a mountain. Here they +found a sufficient quantity of dry willow brush +for fuel, and therefore halted for the night, and, +having killed nothing in the course of the day, +supped on their last piece of pork, and trusted to +fortune for some other food to mix with a little +flour and parched meal, which was all that now +remained of their provisions.”</p> + +<p>In the early morn of August 13, Lewis hastened +impatiently forward without food, and after a few +hours of travel saw three Indians; but they fled. +A little later he surprised three women, and succeeded +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page138" id="page138"></a>138</span> +in reaching two, who covered their heads +and awaited in silence their expected death. +Showing them that he was a white man, and +giving them trinkets, they were reassured and +recalled their comrade, when he painted their +cheeks with vermilion, a Shoshone custom emblematic +of peace.</p> + +<p>The women pointed out the direction of camp, +and Lewis, marching on, soon saw a band of sixty +well-mounted Indian warriors riding full speed +toward him and his two companions. With +perfect composure and undaunted courage Lewis +laid down his rifle, and alone marched forward to +parley with this horde of unknown savages, relying +on the integrity and uprightness of his +mission. Received with the greatest cordiality, +Lewis at once smoked a pipe of peace with them, +and after giving them some blue beads and vermilion +went to their camp.</p> + +<p>On arrival he was inducted into a council lodge +and seated on a robe, when a fire was kindled. +“The chief then produced his pipe and tobacco, +the warriors pulled off their moccasins, and our +party were requested to take off their own. This +being done, the chief lighted his pipe at the fire +within the magic circle, and then retreating from +it, began a speech several minutes long, at the +end of which he pointed the stem toward the +four cardinal points of the heavens, beginning +with the east and concluding with the north.”</p> + +<p>By this time the day was well spent, and no +food of any kind had passed the lips of Lewis +and his men since the previous day. On learning +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page139" id="page139"></a>139</span> +this the chief told him that they only had +cakes made of sun-dried service- and choke-berries, +which served as a hearty meal to the +hungry men. Later an Indian gave Lewis a +piece of antelope and a bit of salmon, which satisfied +him that he was now on the waters of the +Columbia.</p> + +<p>The next day they had an experience of the +Indian mode of hunting, which is thus described: +“The chief game of the Shoshonees is the antelope, +which, when pursued, retreats to the +open plains, where the horses have full room +for the chase. But such is its extraordinary +fleetness and wind, that a single horse has +no chance of outrunning it or tiring it down, +and the hunters are therefore obliged to resort +to stratagem. About twenty Indians, mounted on +fine horses and armed with bows and arrows, +left camp. In a short time they descried a herd +of antelopes; they immediately separated into little +squads of two or three, and formed a scattered +circle round the herd for five or six miles, keeping +at a wary distance, so as not to alarm them till +they were perfectly enclosed, and usually selecting +some commanding eminence as a stand. +Having gained their positions, a small party rode +toward the herd, and with wonderful dexterity +the huntsman preserved his seat, and the horse +his footing, as he ran at full speed over the hills +and down the steep ravines and along the borders +of the precipices. They were soon outstripped +by the antelopes, which, on gaining +the other extremity of the circle, were driven +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page140" id="page140"></a>140</span> +back and pursued by the fresh hunters. They +turned and flew, rather than ran, in another +direction; but there, too, they found new enemies. +In this way they were alternately pursued +backward and forward, till at length, notwithstanding +the skill of the hunters, they all +escaped; and the party, after running for two +hours, returned without having caught anything, +and their horses foaming with sweat. This chase, +the greater part of which was seen from the camp, +formed a beautiful scene; but to the hunters +is exceedingly laborious, and so unproductive, +even when they are able to worry the animal +down and shoot him, that forty or fifty hunters +will sometimes be engaged for half a day +without obtaining more than two or three antelopes.”</p> + +<p>Captain Lewis succeeded with great difficulty +in persuading the band of Shoshones to pass +over the divide in order to assist in bringing +his impedimenta across. The presence of a +Shoshone woman, the monstrosity of a man entirely +black, favorable barter for their horses +were urged; in short he played on their avarice, +curiosity, tribal pride, and by questioning their +courage succeeded in stimulating them to make +the journey.</p> + +<p>It transpired that Cameahwait, the Shoshone +chief, was the brother of Sacajawea, and one of +the Shoshone women, now in camp, had been +for some time prisoner with her in the hands of +the Minnetarees. The meeting of these Indians +after long separation disclosed such emotion as +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page141" id="page141"></a>141</span> +proved their tender feelings and genuine interest +in each other.</p> + +<table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:500px; height:748px" src="images/img147.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption">Castle Rock, on the Columbia River.</td></tr></table> + +<p>A long and tedious council was held, with the +usual smoke and speeches. Lewis set forth in +lively terms the strength of the government, the +advantages of trade, and the importance of hastening +the day of fire-arms and supplies by facilitating +the journey. Meanwhile they were amused, +as the Indian must be, by the queer negro, the +sagacious and well-trained dog, the rifles, the air-gun, +clothing, canoes, etc. All game brought +in was divided; the Indians feasted on hulled +corn, and presents were liberally distributed.</p> + +<p>The good-will of the Shoshones was finally +secured, and four horses purchased by barter; +so that Lewis was to send Clark ahead to reconnoitre +the route along the Columbia, and build +canoes if possible, which the Indians declared to +be impracticable, as timber was wanting, and the +river and mountains impassable. They said that +for seven days the route lay over steep, rocky +mountains, with no game and only roots for food; +then for ten days an arid sandy desert, where +men and horses would perish for want of food +and water. On inquiry, Clark learned that Nez +Percés came from the west by a very bad road +towards the north, where they suffered excessively +from hunger and travel. Believing that +difficulties surmountable to Indians with women +and children could not be formidable, Clark +pushed on with a guide, but soon found that the +Indian accounts had not been exaggerated, as he +fell in with the points of four mountains, which +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page142" id="page142"></a>142</span> +were rocky, and so high that it seemed almost +impossible to cross them with horses. The road +lay over sharp fragments of broken rock which +had fallen from the mountains and were strewed +in heaps for miles together.</p> + +<p>Occasionally he met small parties of Indians, +who, in wretched plight themselves, yet acted +most generously, giving him, as he says, willingly +what little they possessed, which was usually +a few dried berries and a bit of salmon, never +enough to entirely appease the hunger of his +famished men. Clark says:</p> + +<p>“Our men, who are used to hardships, but have +been accustomed to have the first wants of nature +regularly supplied, feel very sensibly their +wretched situation; their strength is wasting +away; they begin to express an apprehension of +being without food in a country perfectly destitute +of any means of supporting life, except a +few fish.”</p> + +<p>Clark’s explorations showed that it was impossible +to follow the river, to which he gave the +name of Lewis, as he was the first white man +to visit its waters, either by canoe or along its +banks on horses. The mountains were one barren +surface of broken masses of rock which +crowded into the river, where the stream presented +either continuous rapids or series of +shoals.</p> + +<p>Meanwhile, Lewis moved his necessary baggage +to the Shoshone village, previously caching +his surplus baggage and sinking his canoes +for safety. As a rule the Indians were most +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page143" id="page143"></a>143</span> +friendly, but during a hunting expedition a young +brave snatched up his rifle and made off with it. +Drewyer pursued him ten miles, and overtaking +the women of the party, watched his opportunity, +and seeing the Indian off his guard, galloped up +to him and seized his rifle. The Indian struggled +for some time, but finding Drewyer getting too +strong for him, had the presence of mind to open +the pan and let the priming fall out; he then let +go his hold, and giving his horse the whip, +escaped at full speed, leaving the women at the +mercy of the conqueror.</p> + +<p>Considerable time was spent in making needful +preparations for crossing the mountains and +in negotiating for horses, of which they obtained +twenty-nine—young, vigorous animals, though in +poor flesh and with sore backs.</p> + +<p>This necessary delay gave Lewis ample opportunity +to observe the habits and modes of life of +the Shoshones, which are especially interesting as +the record of an Indian tribe before it had come +in contact with the white men. The Shoshones, +or Snakes, who here number four hundred souls, +lived a migratory, wretched existence, seeking +at one season the salmon of Lewis River, at another +the buffalo of the upper Missouri, and again +in the mountains barely maintaining life on roots. +They were, however, gay, frank, fair-dealing, honest, +fond of ornaments, amusements, and games +of chance, kind and obliging, and somewhat given +to boasting of their warlike exploits. The narrative +continues: “The mass of females are condemned, +as among all savage nations, to the lowest +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page144" id="page144"></a>144</span> +and most laborious drudgery. When the +tribe is stationary they collect the roots and +cook; they build the huts, dress the skins, and +make clothing, collect the wood, and assist in +taking care of the horses on the route; they load +the horses, and have charge of all the baggage. +The only business of the man is to fight: he therefore +takes on himself the care of his horse, the +companion of his warfare, but he will descend to +no other labor than to hunt and to fish.”</p> + +<p>Their inferior arms put them at the mercy of +the Minnetarees of Knife River, who mercilessly +stole their horses and killed their braves. They +seemed an adventurous and courageous people, +and Cameahwait’s vehement declaration that, +with guns, they would never fear to meet their +enemies, did not seem boastful.</p> + +<p>Their common arms are bow and arrow, +shield, lance, and a weapon called by the Chippeways, +by whom it was formerly used, the poggamoggon.</p> + +<p>Their method of producing fire was by an +arrow and a dry prepared stick, which, being +rubbed together vigorously and dexterously for a +few minutes, first creates a fine dust, then bursts +speedily into flame.</p> + +<p>The great wealth of the tribe consists in large +numbers of small, wiry, and hardy horses, capable +of great endurance, sure footed and fleet. +They were second in value to the women alone, +who carried the baggage when horses failed.</p> + +<p>The Shoshones were well dressed, with shirts, +leggings, and moccasins of dressed deer, antelope, +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page145" id="page145"></a>145</span> +etc., skins. A robe with the hair on served as a +cloak or as a bed-covering; the shirts were ornamented +with porcupine quills of different colors +and sometimes by beads, also the moccasins. +Elaborate tippets of elegant pattern were also +worn, made of otter and fringed with many +ermine skins; also collars of various kinds of +sea-shells, of the sweet-scented grass, of tusks of +the elk, and of the claws of the grizzly bear.</p> + +<p>“The names of the Indians vary in the course +of their life. Originally given in childhood from +the mere necessity of distinguishing objects, or +from some accidental resemblance to external +objects, the young warrior is impatient to change +it by something of his own achievement. Any +important event, the stealing of a horse, the +scalping of an enemy, or killing a brown bear, +entitles him at once to a new name, which he +then selects for himself, and it is confirmed by +the nation.”</p> + +<p>Everything ready, Lewis started on August +27, 1805, with twenty-nine pack-horses, to follow +Berry Creek and pass over the mountains to Indian +establishments on another branch of the +Columbia. In many places a road had to be cut, +and even then was barely practicable. Sure footed +as is the Indian pony, yet all of the horses were +very much injured in passing over the steep +rocky ridges. The way was so rough that the +horses fell repeatedly down the hillsides, often +capsizing with their load, and occasionally one +was crippled and disabled. The journey was +made yet more disagreeable by a fall of snow +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page146" id="page146"></a>146</span> +and by severe freezing weather, but the spirit of +the party is shown by the mention of a “serious +misfortune, the last of our thermometers being +broken.” On September 6th, however, they +were safely beyond the mountain in a wide valley +at the head of Clark’s Fork of the Columbia, +where they met about four hundred Ootlashoots, +who received them kindly and gave to them of +their only food, berries and roots. Following the +river they reached Travellers’ Rest Creek, where +they stopped for hunting, as they were told the +country before them had no game for a great +distance. Game proved to be so scanty that they +moved onward, crossing to the Kooskooskee, +where, being without animal food, they killed a +colt for supper. Snow fell again, which would +not have been so uncomfortable had not their +road fallen along steep hillsides, obstructed with +dead timber where not covered with living trees, +from which the snow fell on them as they passed, +keeping them continually wet while the weather +was freezing. The road continued difficult. +Game was wanting, and as they marched they +killed one after another of their colts for food. +Their horses were becoming rapidly disabled; +the allowance of food scarcely sufficed to check +their hunger; while the extreme bodily fatigue +of the march, and the dreary prospects before +them, began to dispirit the men.</p> + +<p>Lewis, appreciating the gravity of the situation, +sent Clark ahead, with six hunters, who the +next day was fortunate enough to kill a horse, on +which his party breakfasted and left the rest for +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page147" id="page147"></a>147</span> +the main expedition. The country continued +rugged, and in some places the only road was a +narrow rocky path at the edge of very high precipices. +One of their horses, slipping, rolled a +hundred feet, over and over, down a nearly perpendicular +hill strewed with large rocks. All +expected he was killed, but he proved to be little +injured. Their enforced fasting visibly affected +the health of the party; all lost flesh, grew weak, +and were troubled with skin eruptions, while +several were more seriously ill.</p> + +<p>On September 20th, Clark reached a village of +the Chopunish or Nez Percés, in a beautiful level +valley, where he was kindly received and well fed. +Fish, roots, and berries were also obtained, which, +sent to Lewis, reached him eight miles out of +the village at a time when his party had been +without food for more than a day. When the +village was reached, the party was in a deplorable +condition through long fasting and the exhausting +fatigue of the march.</p> + +<p>Purchasing from the Indians as much provisions +as their weakened horses could carry, they +moved on to the forks of the Snake, where +the party slowly recruited its health and +strength. They killed a horse for the sick, while +the party in general lived on dried fish and roots, +the latter causing violent pains in the stomach. +Five canoes were made, and as the men were +weak they adopted the Indian method of burning +them out. The twelfth day saw their canoes +finished and loaded for the final journey, which +was to lead them to the sea. Lewis cached his +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page148" id="page148"></a>148</span> +saddles, the extra powder and ball, and branding +his remaining horses, delivered them to three +Indians, the principal named Twisted-hair, who +agreed to take good care of them till the return +of the party, when additional presents were to be +given for this service.</p> + +<p>Their troubles now seemed to be over and they +were congratulating themselves on their safe +progress, when they struck a series of fifteen +rapids. When passing the last Sergeant Gass’s +“canoe struck, and a hole being made in her side +she immediately filled and sank. Several men +who could not swim clung to the boat until +one of our canoes could be unloaded, and with +the assistance of an Indian boat they were all +brought ashore. All the goods were so much +wetted that we were obliged to halt for the night +and spread them out to dry. While all this was +exhibited, it was necessary to place two sentinels +over the merchandise, for we found that the +Indians, though kind and disposed to give us aid +during our distress, could not resist the temptation +of pilfering small articles.” The Snake River +was in general very beautiful, but it was filled +with rapids, most of them difficult, and one +strewed with rocks, most hazardous.</p> + +<p>Food failing, except fish and roots, they concluded, +probably at the suggestion of their +Frenchmen, to change their diet, and being again +reduced to fish and roots, made an experiment to +vary their food by purchasing a few dogs, and +after having been accustomed to horseflesh, felt +no disrelish to this new dish. The Chopunish +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page149" id="page149"></a>149</span> +have great numbers of dogs, which they employ +for domestic purposes but never eat, and the +practice of using the flesh of that animal soon +brought the explorers into ridicule as dog-eaters. +“Fortunately, however,” says Clark, “the habit +of using this animal has completely overcome the +repugnance which we felt at first, and the dog, +if not a favorite dish, is always an acceptable +one.” Elsewhere he adds, “having been so long +accustomed to live on the flesh of dogs, the +greater part of us had acquired a fondness for +it, and our original aversion for it is overcome +by reflecting that on that food we were stronger +and in better health than at any period since +leaving the buffalo country.”</p> + +<p>They were now in Lewis River, a broad +greenish-blue stream filled with islands and dangerous +rapids, which were passed in canoes, except +one near the mouth, where a land portage +of a mile was necessary. This brought them to +the junction of the Lewis and Columbia Rivers on +October 17th, where they parted from the Nez +Percés. These Indians lead a painful, laborious +life, brightened by but few amusements; are +healthy, comely, and generally well dressed; given +to ornaments of beads, sea-shells, feathers, and +paints. In winter they collect roots and hunt the +deer on snow-shoes, toward spring cross the +mountains to buy buffalo robes, and in summer +and autumn catch salmon, usually by weirs at the +rapids, in the following manner: “About the centre +of each was placed a basket formed of willows, +eighteen or twenty feet in length, of a cylindrical +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page150" id="page150"></a>150</span> +form and terminating in a conic shape at +its lower extremity. This was situated with its +mouth upward opposite to an aperture in the +weir. The main channel of the water was conducted +to this weir, and as the fish entered it +they were so entangled with each other that they +could not move, and were taken out by untying +the small end of the willow basket.”</p> + +<p>Here Lewis began to lay in stores, and, fish being +out of season, purchased forty dogs, which +for weeks had proved to be the best food available. +On October 20th they again launched their +canoes in the Columbia, and pushed on through +the frequent rapids, looking forward with interest +not unmixed with anxiety to the great falls +of which the Indians told them. Arrived at the +head of the rapids, they made a portage of nearly +a mile, availing themselves of the assistance and +guidance of the Indians. Owing to the great +labor of portages they kept to the river when +possible, and “reached a pitch of the river, which, +being divided by two large rocks, descended +with great rapidity down a fall eight feet in +height. As the boats could not be navigated +down this steep descent, we were obliged to land +and let them down as slowly as possible by strong +ropes of elk-skin.” They all passed in safety except +one, which, being loosed by the breaking of +the rope, was driven down, but was recovered by +the Indians below.</p> + +<p>Finally they came to an extremely dangerous +place where a tremendous rock projected into +the river, leaving a channel of only forty-five +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page151" id="page151"></a>151</span> +yards, through which the Columbia passed, its +waters thrown into whirlpools and great waves +of the wildest and most dangerous character. +As the portage of boats over this high rock was +impossible in their situation, Lewis resolved on a +passage in boats, relying on dexterous steering, +which carried them through safely, much to the +astonishment of the Indians gathered to watch +them. Another rapid was so bad that all papers, +guns, ammunition, and such men as could not +swim made a land portage, while Lewis and +Clark took the canoes through safely, two at a +time. The 25th brought them to the most dangerous +part of the narrows, which they concluded +to hazard by canoe after using precautions +as to valuable articles and men. The first +three canoes escaped very well, the fourth nearly +filled, the fifth passed through with only a small +quantity of water.</p> + +<p>On the 28th Lewis was very much gratified by +seeing an Indian with a round hat and sailor’s +jacket, which had come up the river by traffic; +and as he went on similar articles became common. +They passed a number of different tribes +who behaved in a friendly manner, and among +others the Eneeshur, at the great falls, interested +them by their cooking utensils, which were +baskets so skilfully made of bark and grass as to +serve as vessels for boiling their provisions. +Some of the party were horrified, however, by +“the chief, who directed his wife to hand him his +medicine bag, from which he brought out fourteen +fore-fingers, which he told us had once belonged +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page152" id="page152"></a>152</span> +to the same number of his enemies whom +he had killed in fighting.”</p> + +<p>On the 31st they came to the lower falls, where +the river narrowed to one hundred and fifty yards +and fell twenty feet in a distance of four hundred +yards, while below was another exceedingly bad +rapid. The upper rapid was so filled with rocks +that Crusatte, the principal waterman, thought +it impracticable, so a portage of four miles was +made over the route followed by the Indians. +“After their example, we carried our small canoe +and all the baggage across the slippery rocks to +the foot of the shoot. The four large canoes +were then brought down by slipping them along +poles placed from one rock to another, and in +some places by using partially streams which escaped +alongside of the river. We were not, however, +able to bring them across without three of +them receiving injuries which obliged us to stop +at the end of the shoot to repair them.”</p> + +<p>On November 2d, Lewis was intensely gratified +by the first appearance of tide-water, and +pushed on with the greatest eagerness until he +reached Diamond Island, where “we met fifteen +Indians ascending the river in two canoes; but +the only information we could procure from +them was that they had seen three vessels, which +we presumed to be European, at the mouth of +the Columbia.”</p> + +<p>As he went on, small parties of Indians in +canoes were seen and many small villages, principally +of the Skilloots, who were friendly, well +disposed, desirous of traffic, and visited so frequently +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page153" id="page153"></a>153</span> +as to be troublesome. One Indian, speaking +a little English, said that he traded with a +Mr. Haley. The weather had become foggy +and rainy, but on November 7, 1805, while pushing +down the river below a village of the Wahkiacums, +the “fog cleared off and we enjoyed +the delightful prospect of the ocean—that ocean, +the object of all our labors, the reward of all our +anxieties. This cheering view exhilarated the +spirits of all the party, who were still more delighted +on hearing the distant roar of the breakers, +and went on with great cheerfulness.”</p> + +<p>Lewis, not content with a sight of the ocean, +went on, determined to winter on the coast. A +severe storm forced him to land under a high +rocky cliff, where the party had scarcely room to +lie level or secure their baggage. It “blew almost +a gale directly from the sea. The immense +waves now broke over the place where we were +encamped, and the large trees, some of them five +or six feet thick, which had lodged at the point, +were drifted over our camp, and the utmost vigilance +of every man could scarcely save our canoes +from being crushed to pieces. We remained +in the water and drenched with rain during the +rest of the day, our only food being some dried +fish and some rain-water which we caught. Yet, +though wet and cold and some of them sick +from using salt water, the men are cheerful and +full of anxiety to see more of the ocean.” Here +they were confined six days, and the rain +had lasted ten days, wetting their merchandise +through, spoiling their store of dried fish, +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page154" id="page154"></a>154</span> +destroying and rotting their robes and leather +dresses.</p> + +<p>A series of gales and long-continued rain did +not prevent Lewis and Clark from exploring the +country for a suitable place for winter quarters. +Lewis finally discovered a point of high land on +the river Neutel, where a permanent encampment +was established which was called Fort +Clatsop. It was situated in a thick grove of +lofty pines several miles from the sea and well +above the highest tide.</p> + +<p>The fort consisted of seven wooden huts, which +were covered in by the 20th of November and +later picketed, so as to afford ample security. +The party subsisted principally on elk, of which +they killed one hundred and thirty-one. Fish +and berries were much used in the early spring. +Salt was made in considerable quantities on the +sea-shore, and some blubber was secured from a +stranded whale, 105 feet in length. In general, +the winter passed without serious results, except +that the health of some of the men was impaired +by the almost constant rains, there being but +four days without rain in the first two months.</p> + +<p>The conduct of the many Indian tribes with +whom they had communication was almost always +friendly, and in only one or two cases did +even strange Indians from a distance show signs +of hostility. The northwest coast had been +visited so often that little could be added to the +knowledge of their customs and mode of life. +One comment of Lewis, is, however, worthy of +reproduction. “We have not observed any +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page155" id="page155"></a>155</span> +liquor of an intoxicating quality used among +these or any Indians west of the Rocky Mountains, +the universal beverage being pure water. +They sometimes almost intoxicate themselves by +smoking tobacco, of which they are excessively +fond, and the pleasure of which they prolong as +much as possible by retaining vast quantities at +a time, till after circulating through the lungs +and stomach, it issues in volumes from the +mouth and nostrils.”</p> + +<p>It appears surprising that Lewis was ignorant +of the discovery of the Columbia River by Captain +Robert Gray, for he says that the name +Point Adams was given by Vancouver. Further, +he was ignorant of the fact that the trade at the +mouth of the Columbia was conducted almost +entirely by vessels from New England. From +the English phrases of the Indian, he knew that +the traders must be “either English or American,” +and presumed “that they do not belong at any +establishment at Nootka Sound.”</p> + +<p>The original plan contemplated remaining at +Fort Clatsop until April, when Lewis expected to +renew his stock of merchandise from the traders +who yearly visited the Columbia by ship. Constant +rains, however, increased sickness among +his men, while game failed to such an extent that +they only lived from hand to mouth; and as merchandise +lacked wherewith to buy food from the +Indians, it became necessary to return. On +departing, he left among the Indians a number +of notices setting forth briefly the results of his +expedition; one of these, through an American +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page156" id="page156"></a>156</span> +trader, reached Boston via China in February, +1807, about six months after Lewis’s own return.</p> + +<p>On March 24, 1806, the party commenced to +retrace their long and dangerous route of 4,144 +miles to St. Louis. Their guns were in good +order and the stock of ammunition plentiful, but +their entire stock of trading goods could be tied +up in a single blanket.</p> + +<p>Detained by scarcity of fish, they discovered +the Multonah (Willamette) River which, hidden +by an island, was not seen on their downward +voyage. Lieutenant Clark went up the valley +some distance to Nechecole village, where he saw +an Indian house, all under one roof, 226 feet long.</p> + +<p>Of the valley of the Willamette, Lewis remarks +that it was the only desirable place of settlement +west of the Rocky Mountains, and it +was sufficiently fertile to support 50,000 souls. +He mentions its rich prairies, its fish, fowl, and +game, its useful plants and shrubs, its abundant +and valuable timber.</p> + +<p>The conditions of the rapids below The Dalles +was such that one boat, fortunately empty, was +lost, and the upper rapids being impracticable, +they broke up or traded all their boats and +canoes but two, which were carried to the upper +river. They proceeded with the horses, that had +been purchased with the greatest difficulty, Bratton, +too ill to walk, being on horseback, and on +April 27th reached a village of the Wallawallas, +near the mouth of Snake or Lewis River. Here +they were so well received that Lewis says: “Of +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page157" id="page157"></a>157</span> +all the Indians whom we have met since leaving +the United States, the Wallawallas were the +most hospitable, honest, and sincere.”</p> + +<p>Their horses recruited to twenty-three head, +cheered by information of a new route which +would save eighty miles, and with Wallawalla +guides, they moved in early May up the valley +of Snake or Lewis River, and finding it too early +to cross the mountains, encamped in the forks +of the Kooskoosky, having meanwhile received +back from their savage friend Twisted-hair their +thirty-eight horses intrusted to his care the previous +year. Their journey by land was marked +by great scarcity of food, which was roots or +dog, except when the officers, practicing medicine +for sick Indians, obtained horses for food. +The use of dog, which was now very palatable, +caused derision among the Indians. On one occasion +an Indian threw a half-starved puppy into +Lewis’s plate, with laughter, which turned to +chagrin when Lewis flung the animal with great +force into the savage’s face and threatened to +brain him with a tomahawk. The Indians lived +almost entirely on fish during the salmon season, +and on roots the rest of the year. Their houses +were collected under one roof, with many apartments, +and two were seen each about one hundred +and fifty feet long. The difficulties of +communicating with the <span class="correction" title="amended from Chopunnish">Chopunish</span> were very +great, and if errors occurred it was not astonishing. +Lewis spoke in English, which was translated +by one of the men in French to Chaboneau, +who repeated it in Minnetaree to his wife. She +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page158" id="page158"></a>158</span> +put it into Shoshonee to a prisoner, who translated +it into Chopunnish dialect.</p> + +<p>An attempt in early June to cross the mountains +failed, the snow being ten feet deep on a +level. On June 24th they started again, and with +great privations succeeded in following their +trail of the previous September across the Bitterroot +Mountains to Traveller’s-rest Creek, on +Clark Fork, which was reached June 30th.</p> + +<p>Here the party divided in order to thoroughly +explore different portions of the country. Lewis +took the most direct route to the great falls of +the Missouri, whence he was to explore Maria’s +River to 50° N. latitude. Clark proceeded to +the head of Jefferson River, down which Sergeant +Ordway was to go in the canoes cached +there. Clark himself was to cross by the shortest +route to the Yellowstone, and building canoes, +descend to its mouth and rejoin the main party +at that point.</p> + +<p>Lewis went into the Maria’s River country, +but was unable to proceed far through lack +of game. He there fell in with a band of Minnetarees, +who attempted to steal his arms and +horses, which resulted in a skirmish wherein two +Indians were killed, the only deaths by violence +during the expedition. Then turning to the +mouth of the Maria’s River, they were rejoined +by Ordway’s party, and on August 7th reached +the mouth of the Yellowstone, where a note from +Clark informed them of his safe arrival and camping +place a few miles below.</p> + +<p>Clark had explored portions of the valleys of +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page159" id="page159"></a>159</span> +the Jefferson, Gallatin, and Madison, and had +prescience of the wonders of the Yellowstone in +a boiling-hot spring discovered at the head of +Wisdom River. His journey to Clark’s fork of +the Yellowstone was made with comfort and +safety, but there an accident to one of his men +obliged him to make canoes, during which delay +the Indians stole twenty-four of his horses.</p> + +<p>As Lewis descended the Missouri he saw that +the tide of travel and adventure was already +following in his track, and two daring Illinoisans, +Dickson and Hancock, were at the mouth of the +Yellowstone on a hunting trip. Rapidly descending +the river the 23d of September saw the +party safe at St. Louis, the initial point of their +great and eventful expedition.</p> + +<p>The great continental journey to and fro, from +ocean to ocean, across barren deserts, through +dangerous waterways, over snow-clad mountains, +among savage and unknown tribes, had been +accomplished with a success unparalleled in the +world of modern adventure and exploration.</p> + +<p>This expedition was fraught with successful +results second to none other ever undertaken in +the United States. The extent, fertility, and +possibilities of the great trans-Mississippi were +made known, the possibility of crossing the +American continent was demonstrated, the location +of the great rivers and of the Rocky Mountains +determined, the general good-will of the interior +Indians proved, and the practicability of +trade and intercourse established. Furthermore, +conjoined with the discovery of the Columbia by +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page160" id="page160"></a>160</span> +Gray, it laid the foundations of a claim which, confirmed +by settlement and acknowledged by Great +Britain, gave the United States its first foothold +on the Pacific coast, and ultimately secured to +the American nation not only the magnificent +States of Oregon and Washington, but also the +golden vales and mountains of California.</p> + +<p>Well might Jefferson declare that “never did +a similar event (their successful return) excite +more joy through the United States. The humblest +of its citizens had taken a lively interest in +the issue of this journey.”</p> + +<p>Clark was an able and faithful assistant to the +unfortunate Lewis, who did not live to write the +full story of the expedition. It seems, however, +that the disposition in some quarters to regard +Clark as the man to whom the success of the expedition +was in greater part due, finds no justification +in a careful perusal of the narratives. +So great a work was enough glory for the two +men, the commander and the assistant.</p> + +<p>Clark’s future career must be considered somewhat +of a disappointment. During his absence +he was promoted to be a first lieutenant of artillery, +and on his return was nominated by +Jefferson to be lieutenant-colonel of the Second +Infantry; but the Senate, by a vote of twenty to +nine, declined to confirm him, and he resigned +his commission as lieutenant February 27, 1807. +Later he was an Indian agent and a brigadier-general +of the militia for the territory of upper +Louisiana, with station at St. Louis. In 1812 +he declined an appointment as brigadier-general, +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page161" id="page161"></a>161</span> +and the opportunity of having Hull’s command—a +declination which was an injury to his +country if he had the military ability attributed +to him. Madison appointed him Governor of +the Territory of Missouri, which office he filled +from 1813 to the admission of Missouri as a State +in 1821. Contrary to his wishes, he was nominated +for the first governor, but failed of election. +Monroe, in May, 1822, appointed him Superintendent +of Indian Affairs, with station at St. +Louis, which office he filled until his death, September +1, 1838.</p> + +<p>Captain Lewis did not live to long enjoy +the honors that he had so bravely won. He +reached Washington the middle of February, +1807, when Congress, which was in session, made +to both leaders and men the donation of lands +which they had been encouraged to expect as +some reward for their toil and danger.</p> + +<p>The President considered the discoveries of +sufficient importance to present them to Congress +in a special message, on February 19, 1806, +and in appreciation of Captain Lewis’s valuable +services, immediately appointed him to be Governor +of Louisiana, which office Lewis accepted, +resigning for that purpose from the army on +March 4, 1807.</p> + +<p>Of the civil services of Governor Lewis, Jefferson +says: “He found the Territory distracted +by feuds and contentions among the officers, and +the people divided into factions.... He +used every endeavor to conciliate and harmonize.... +The even-handed justice he administered +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page162" id="page162"></a>162</span> +to all soon established a respect for his +person and authority.”</p> + +<p>While on the way to Washington, in September, +1809, Governor Lewis, in a fit of derangement, +killed himself, thus, to quote again from Jefferson, +“depriving his country of one of her most +valued citizens,” who endeared himself to his +countrymen by “his sufferings and successes, in +endeavoring to extend for them the bounds of +science, and to present to their knowledge that +vast and fertile country, which their sons are +destined to fill with arts, with science, with freedom, +and happiness.” Surely posterity will declare +that Meriwether Lewis lived not in vain.</p> + +<table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:400px; height:352px" src="images/img170.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption">Buffalo Skull.</td></tr></table> + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page163" id="page163"></a>163</span></p> + +<p class="center">VI.</p> + +<p class="chap center">ZEBULON MONTGOMERY PIKE,</p> + +<p class="center sc">Explorer of the Sources of the Mississippi +and Arkansas Rivers.</p> + +<p class="noind"><span class="chap1 sc">The</span> trans-continental expedition of Captain +Lewis and Lieutenant Clark was only a part of the +comprehensive plan of Jefferson, which looked +to the acquiring of definite and precise information +concerning not only the extreme Northwest +Territory, but also of the entire trans-Mississippi +regions, whereon might be based intelligent action, +so as to insure to the citizens of the United +States the greatest benefits of internal trade and +commerce. It was surmised that the adventurous +and enterprising traders of the Hudson Bay, +or Northwest Company, had encroached on the +valuable hunting grounds near the sources of +the Missouri and Mississippi rivers; while to +the southwest the secretive and jealous policy of +Spain had so well guarded its limited geographical +knowledge, that the United States was in +such utter ignorance of its newly acquired territory +that it was impossible to even outline +a definite proposition for the determination of +exact boundary lines between Louisiana and the +province of New Spain.</p> + +<p>The obtaining of information for the solution +of these problems was intrusted, in the order +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page164" id="page164"></a>164</span> +named, to a young and promising officer of the +regular army, Zebulon Montgomery Pike, then a +first lieutenant and paymaster in the First regiment +of Infantry. Pike was of military stock, as +his father, Zebulon Pike, had served as a captain +in the war of the Revolution, and even then a +major of his son’s regiment was destined to live +to see that son fall as a general officer. The son, +born at Lamberton, N. J., aspired early to military +life, and from a cadet in the ranks rose +through the grades regularly.</p> + +<p class="pt2 center sc">I. The Sources of the Mississippi.</p> + +<p>In 1805 the governor of Louisiana was James +Wilkinson, a brigadier-general in, and commander-in-chief +of, the army of the United States, +who was then stationed at St. Louis. Pike appears +to have been considered by Wilkinson as +an officer well suited to obtain definite information +about this vast territory, and consequently +Lieutenant Pike, with twenty enlisted men, was +furnished provisions for four months, and, under +orders to visit the sources of the Mississippi, left +St. Louis in a large flat-boat, at about the worst +season of the year, on August 9, 1805.</p> + +<p>The first experiences were not encouraging, +for the crew, through inexperience or ill-luck, +developed a faculty of picking up sawyers, or +submerged trees, which on one occasion stove +the boat so badly that, half-sinking, she was +dragged with difficulty on a shoal where the +baggage could be dried and the boat repaired.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page165" id="page165"></a>165</span></p> + +<table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:400px; height:532px" src="images/img173.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption">General Z. M. Pike.</td></tr></table> + +<p>Here and there along the river were seen small +bands of Indians, and in due time the village of +the Sacs was reached at the head of the Des +Moines rapids. The Sac chiefs, assembled in +council, were told that their great and new father +had sent one of his young warriors to their nation, +in the lately acquired territory of Louisiana, +to inquire as to their wants, to give them +good advice, to make peace, and to locate, according +to their wishes and needs, trading establishments +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page166" id="page166"></a>166</span> +and posts. The Indians answered +acceptably, but appeared to appreciate the presents +of knives, whiskey, and tobacco more than +the speech. Vague rumors obtained as to the +value and importance of the lead mine near, below +Turkey River, but Mr. Dubuque, the proprietor, +was too shrewd for the young officer, and +to his inquiries said that information as to the +grant, etc., was in St. Louis, that he made from +ten to twenty tons of lead yearly, and gave +equally indefinite answers to other questions. +A journey of four weeks from St. Louis brought +Pike to Prairie-du-Chien, then the only place +settled by white men in the whole valley of the +Mississippi above St. Louis. Originally occupied +by three Frenchmen, Giard, Antaya, and Dubuque, +in 1783, it was now a scattered settlement +of thirty-seven houses, with about three hundred +and seventy whites. The Wisconsin River, +which here joins the Mississippi, was yet the +great line of communication between the great +lakes and the entire valley from St. Louis northward, +all goods and furs passing to and fro over +the route first traced by Joliet in his adventurous +voyage of discovery in 1673. At Prairie-du-Chien +the Indians assembled each autumn for +the annual trade or fair, and every spring the +Indian traders here paused in their western +journey before plunging into the savage wilderness. +Both these occasions, it is needless to say, +furnished frequent scenes of violence and dissipation.</p> + +<p>Unable to get his large barge above the rapids +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page167" id="page167"></a>167</span> +at Prairie-du-Chien, Pike hired other boats above +the falls and proceeded, his party augmented by +an interpreter, Pierre Roseau, and Mr. Fraser, a +trader who was going to the Falls of St. Anthony +on business.</p> + +<p>A short distance above Prairie-du-Chien, Pike +had a council with the Sioux, who evidently +were recovering from a feast, and here he saw a +religious puff dance, “the performance of which +was attended with many curious manœuvres. +Men and women danced indiscriminately. They +were all dressed in the gayest manner; all had +in their hands a small skin of some description, +and would frequently run up, point their skin, +and give a puff with their breath; when the +person blown at, whether man or woman, would +fall and appear to be almost lifeless, or in great +agony; but would recover slowly, rise, and join +in the dance. This they called their great medicine.”</p> + +<p>Tobacco, knives, vermilion, and whiskey cemented +the good feeling, the eight gallons of +whiskey being more show than reality; for it appears +from the context to have been three-fourths +water, and probably was of the kind which Pike +elsewhere called “made whiskey.”</p> + +<p>The uncertain weather of Lake Pepin nearly +shipwrecked the boats, which reached the Sioux +village at the junction of the Mississippi and St. +Peters, or Minnesota, on September 11th. Here +a council was held with the Sioux, wherein two of +the chiefs formally signed away a square league +of land at the Falls of St. Anthony. The true +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page168" id="page168"></a>168</span> +value of their signatures may be estimated from +Pike’s letter to General Wilkinson, wherein he +says: “I had to fee privately two (doubtless +the signers) of the chiefs, and besides that, to +make them presents at the council.” In addition +to the transfer of land Pike pledged to have a +trading post established there, and urged that +the Sioux maintain peaceful relations with the +Chippeways.</p> + +<p>It is somewhat amusing to read Pike’s address, +where in one breath he states that rum “occasions +quarrels, murders, etc., among yourselves. +For this reason your father has thought proper +to prohibit the traders from selling you any rum;” +and then accepting the situation, adds, “before +my departure I will give you some liquor to clear +your throats.” There were two hundred and +fifty warriors present, and it appears to have +taken sixty gallons of liquor to effect the clearing +operation, while peace with the Chippeways assumed +an indefinite phase.</p> + +<p>The Falls of St. Anthony were passed by land +portage. These being the first boats to make the +portage, as Pike claims, it was with no small feeling +of relief that he saw his boats in the upper +river, loaded for the journey, on September 30th. +His condition was at the best discouraging, for as +he says, “I had not accomplished more than half +my route; winter fast approaching; war existing +between the most savage nations in the course of +my route; my provisions greatly diminished, and +but a poor prospect of an additional supply. +Many of my men sick, and the others not a little +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page169" id="page169"></a>169</span> +disheartened; our success in this arduous undertaking +very doubtful, and about to launch into +an unknown wilderness.”</p> + +<p>Rapids and shoals impeded progress somewhat, +but the 10th of October brought them to an +island where the interpreter had wintered with +another Frenchman in 1797. Pike made every +exertion to hasten, for he was very desirous of +reaching Crow-wing River, the highest point +ever attained by trappers in birch canoes. The +bad weather, snow, injury to his boats, and the +breaking down of several of his men, combined +to render further advance impossible, and on +October 16th he fixed his winter quarters at the +mouth of Pine River, 233 miles above the Falls +of St. Anthony. Pike’s intentions were far from +passing the winter himself in a wretched cantonment, +for his was a nature foreign to such isolation +and inactivity as the place promised.</p> + +<p>Elsewhere he adds: “It appears to me that the +wealth of nations would not induce me to remain +secluded from the society of civilized mankind, +surrounded by a savage and unproductive wilderness, +without books or other sources of intellectual +enjoyment, or being blessed with the cultivated +and feeling mind of the civilized fair.”</p> + +<p>Huts were built, canoes made, game obtained, +all with great difficulty and hardship, for every +burden fell on Pike, without the aid of a doctor +or assistant as his second in command. In a +game country, and under conditions where his +insufficient food-supply must be eked out by the +rifle, he was such an indifferent hunter that he +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page170" id="page170"></a>170</span> +did the maximum of work with the minimum of +result. Unskilled in canoe-making and management, +he succeeded in building three canoes, of +which one sank, wetting and injuring his supply +of ammunition, with the result that finally he blew +up his tent in drying out the powder.</p> + +<p>Occasionally small hunting parties of Sioux or +of Menominees came to the camp, and on December +3d Mr. Dickson, who had a trading post +sixty miles to the south, visited Pike and cheered +him up. Dickson possessed much geographical +information about the western country, and in addition +to useful directions as to the best route +for Pike to follow, expressed his confidence in +its fullest success.</p> + +<p>It would seem doubtful if the men shared the +enthusiasm for a mid-winter trip through an unknown +country filled with savages and where +game must form a considerable part of their food. +At all events, they managed to split a canoe which +their commander relied on for the journey. Pike +was dissatisfied, but not discouraged, and on December +10th started northward with eleven men, +a boat, and five sleds.</p> + +<p>At the stockade there were nine men under +Sergeant Kennerman, who was given detailed +written instructions as to his duties. Mindful of +the possible dangers to his own party, Pike also +gave orders as to the course to be pursued if his +own party did not return to the cantonment by +a given date the following spring.</p> + +<p>A boat was taken along, which the freezing +river soon obliged Pike to abandon and intrust +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page171" id="page171"></a>171</span> +to a young Indian for the winter. The journey +was practically made by common sleds, dragged +by men harnessed up two abreast. Often the +sleds broke down, making necessary frequent +changes and portages of the baggage, but they +were greatly encouraged by camping at Crow-wing +River, the farthest point ever reached by +canoe.</p> + +<p>In early January they ran across four Chippeway +Indians, the tribe from which hostility was +possible. Their anxiety was speedily relieved by +finding that they were companions of Mr. Grant, +a trader from the post on Sandy Lake. Grant +turned back with them, and they reached the +trading-post on Red Cedar Lake on January 3, +1806. Pike’s satisfaction at seeing a house once +more was tinctured with chagrin at finding it +surmounted by a British flag. Here he tarried +only a few hours and then pushed on to Sandy +Lake, where he was later joined by his men, who +were delayed by their heavy sleds. He was +much surprised at the air of comfort at Sandy +Lake, where potatoes were grown in great quantities, +fish and game abundant, while the Indians +furnished in trade maple-sugar, wild oats, and +rice. The Sandy Lake trading-post had been +established in 1794, and might be considered the +headquarters of the Fond-du-Lac department, in +which, in 1805, there were one hundred and nine +employees, with fifty children and twenty-nine +women, who were all Indian or half-breed, there +not being at that time a single white woman +northwest of Lake Superior.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page172" id="page172"></a>172</span></p> + +<table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:400px; height:639px" src="images/img180.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption">Indian Snow-shoes.</td></tr></table> + +<p>Pike’s discerning mind noted that his methods +of travel were inferior to those followed in the +country, so he built sleds after the Hudson Bay +pattern, adopted the racket or snow-shoe for the +winter march, and hired local Indian guides. +Grant, the trader, accompanied him to Leech +Lake, which Pike believed to be the main source +of the Mississippi, but he could not consider it as +an original discovery, as the ubiquitous Northwest +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page173" id="page173"></a>173</span> +Company had an establishment on this lake, +under Hugh McGillis, in 47° 16´ N. latitude, +about twenty miles east of Lake Itasca, the true +source of the Mississippi. On February 14th +Pike visited Red Lake and passed to the north, +which carried him to the drainage-basin of the +Red River, in latitude 47° 43´ N. Evidently familiar +with Carver’s travels, he fell into the not +unreasonable error of thinking this land “to be +the most elevated part of the northeast continent +of America,” whereas the head of the Minnesota +is some four hundred feet higher.</p> + +<p>Pike held a council with the Chippeways at +Leech Lake on February 14th, when he persuaded +the chiefs to give up their British flags +and medals, to promise peace with the Sioux, +and to send two of their young chiefs with him +to St. Louis.</p> + +<p>As to the trading establishments, he generously +refrained from seizing the goods, but +hauled down the British flag; required the +agents of the Northwest Company to promise to +issue no more flags or medals to Indians, to have +no political dealings with them, but to refer them +to agents of the United States; to obtain licenses +for Indian trade from and pay duty to the +United States for all imported goods.</p> + +<p>On February 14th he turned his face toward +home, his mind free from anxiety, though he +knew the hard marches, extreme cold, and many +hardships before him. He now wore snow-shoes, +but on one long march the pressure of his racket-strings +brought the blood through his socks and +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page174" id="page174"></a>174</span> +moccasins, yet he marched on, keeping pace with +his guide despite the excruciating pain.</p> + +<p>March 5th found Pike back in his stockade at +Pine River, his adoption of local methods having +facilitated travel to such an extent that in his return +he nearly tripled the length of his outward +marches. He found the garrison well and safe, +but was greatly disturbed to find that his trusted +sergeant, Kennerman, had indulged in riotous +and extravagant living, having drank up, eaten, +given away, or traded off the best of the food +and the greater part of the liquor. The natural +sequence of such conduct appeared in an escapade +where the sentinel made a Sioux Indian +drunk and then ordered him out of the tent, +when the intoxicated savage fired on the sentinel, +fortunately without harm. On his return he was +fortunate enough, in a Menominee camp near the +stockade, to see a dance, called the feast of the +dead, at which “every three were served with a +panful of meat, and when all were ready there +was a prayer, after which the eating commenced. +It was expected we would eat up our portion entirely, +being careful not to drop a bone. We +were then treated with soup. After the eating +was finished the chief again gave an exhortation, +which finished the ceremony. They gather up +the fragments and threw them in the water, lest +the dogs should get them. Burning them is considered +sacreligious.”</p> + +<p>Leaving his cantonment at Pine River, by boat, +on April 7th he descended the Mississippi without +any strikingly new experiences, and on the last +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page175" id="page175"></a>175</span> +day of the month drew up his boat at St. Louis, +with undiminished numbers, after an absence of +nearly nine months.</p> + +<p>Pike had more than carried out his orders to +explore the sources of the great river, and did +something more than give to the world the first +definite and detailed information as to the upper +river and its tributaries. He discovered the extent +and importance of the British trade in that +country, brought the foreign traders under the +license and customs regulations of the United +States, and broke up for all time their political +influence over the Indians. He did much to restrain +the unlawful sale of liquor to Indians by domestic +traders, and not only inspired the Indians +with respect for Americans, but also induced +them to at least a temporary peace between themselves. +He replaced a foreign flag by the ensign +of his own country, and for the first time brought +into this great territory the semblance of national +authority and government.</p> + +<p class="pt2 center sc">II. The Upper Arkansas River and New +Spain.</p> + +<p>Pike returned to find his services in demand +for a second expedition to the head-waters of the +Arkansas and Red rivers. The original arrangements +contemplated the detail of another officer, +but Pike, at the solicitation of General Wilkinson, +consented to take command of the party, commenced +his preparations at once, and received +his formal orders on June 24, 1806, less than two +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page176" id="page176"></a>176</span> +months after his return from the north. In +accepting this long and dangerous service, he +indicates clearly the soldierly sense of duty +which actuated him. “The late dangers and +hardships I had undergone, together with the +idea of again leaving my family in a strange +country, distant from their connections, made +me hesitate; but the ambition of a soldier and +the spirit of enterprise which was inherent in +my breast induced me to agree.”</p> + +<p>The primary object of the expedition, according +to the letter of instructions, was to conduct +to Grand Osage a deputation of freed captives +of the Osage Nation, while the subordinate purposes +were the accomplishment of a permanent +peace between the Kaws and Osages and the +establishment of a good understanding with +the Comanches, which latter object, the letter +runs, “will probably lead you to the head +branches of the Arkansas and Red rivers, +approximated to the settlements of New +Mexico, and there you should move with great +circumspection, to keep clear of any reconnoitring +parties from that province, and to prevent +alarm or offence. The executive,” it was added, +“is much interested in ascertaining the direction, +extent, and navigation of the Arkansas and Red +rivers,” which Pike was charged to determine +by sending one party down the Arkansas, while +he should return by the Red.</p> + +<p>The written instructions were doubtless supplemented +by verbal orders, for Pike says: “The +great objects in view (as I conceived) were to +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page177" id="page177"></a>177</span> +attach the Indians to our Government and to acquire +such geographical knowledge of the south-western +boundary of Louisiana as to enable our +Government to enter into a definite arrangement +for a line of demarcation between that territory +and North Mexico.”</p> + +<p>Captain Pike’s<a name="fa1" id="fa1" href="#ft1"><span class="sp">1</span></a> force consisted of two officers, +an interpreter, and nineteen men of the army. +The officers were Lieutenant James B. Wilkinson, +son of and aide-de-camp to General Wilkinson, +and Doctor John H. Robinson, the latter a volunteer +without pay. The party, with fifty-one Osage +Indians, left Belle Fontaine, July 15, 1806, and +travelling by boat up the Missouri and Osage +rivers reached Grand Osage, near the head of +the river, August 18th, thus accomplishing the +“primary object.”</p> + +<p>Pike found no difficulty in obtaining an audience +for speeches, though he was somewhat dismayed +at the presence of one hundred and +eighty-six warriors at an assembly, to all of +whom he was obliged to give liquor. It was +quite different when men and horses were wanted, +and it was with the utmost endeavor that +he was able to start westward on September 1st, +with fifteen horses for his baggage, accompanied +by only three Pawnees and four Osages.</p> + +<p>Crossing the Grand and Verdigris he passed +through a beautiful country with abundant game, +but the Indians became restless, and despite his +presents and persuasions, only three accompanied +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page178" id="page178"></a>178</span> +him to the Pawnee village on the Republican +fork of the Kansas.</p> + +<p>The information here obtained and the stand +taken by the Pawnee chief would have deterred +a less courageous and determined man than Pike +from pushing beyond. A large Spanish force, +some six hundred men, had a few days before +visited the Pawnees, when they had turned back +on assurances from the chief that he would turn +back any American force.</p> + +<p>It appears that foreign emissaries at St. +Louis had sent word to the authorities of New +Spain of Pike’s contemplated expedition, and +steps were immediately taken to defeat its objects. +The command of the Spanish force was +assigned to Lieutenant Don Facundo Malgares, +an officer of reputation in Indian warfare, who +collected one hundred dragoons and five hundred +militia at Santa Fé, N. M. Each man +was mounted, had three led animals and six +months’ supply of ammunition. First they descended +the Red River about seven hundred +miles, with the expectation of meeting and turning +back Pike, but learned that no force had +passed that way. The Spanish commander, after +holding a council with the Comanches for the +purpose of winning them over to the interests +of New Spain, then turned north to the Arkansas. +Here Malgares put in camp two hundred +and forty of his men, with the worn-out and disabled +stock, and with the rest proceeded to the +Pawnee village, where he distributed medals, +Spanish flags, etc., and after prejudicing them +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page179" id="page179"></a>179</span> +against Americans and drawing the Pawnee +chiefs as closely to Spain as possible returned +to Santa Fé, arriving there in October. This +armed invasion of the acknowledged territory +of the United States and deliberate tampering +with the Indian tribes probably arose from the +strained relations between the two countries, +which nearly resulted in hostilities on the frontiers +of Texas and Orleans territory in 1806, +when the local forces tacitly agreed to regard +the Sabine River as the temporary boundary.</p> + +<p>Pike first made the Osage and Kaws smoke +the pipe of peace and then held a council with +the Pawnees. These latter Indians, strongly +impressed by the grand show made by the +Spanish cavalry, regarded with doubt the small +force of Americans. What Pike lacked in numbers +and display, he made up in boldness of demands +and in display of self-confidence. He +obliged them to take down the Spanish flag and +hoist the American ensign, but gave them permission +to retain the foreign flag for protection +if the Spaniards should return.</p> + +<p>The chief, however, insisted that the Americans +must turn back, and said that he would resist +any advance by force of arms. Captain +Pike, already indignant at the unauthorized raid +of the Spaniards into the territory of the United +States, listened with impatience to this threat, +and answered that so far he had not seen any +blood on his path, but the Pawnees must know +that the young warriors of their great American +father were not women, to be turned back by +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page180" id="page180"></a>180</span> +words; that they were men, well armed and prepared +as braves to sell their lives dearly; that +they should go on, and if the <span class="correction" title="amended from Pawness">Pawnees</span> opposed, +the great American father would send other warriors +to avenge the dead. This bold talk had +its effect, and the onward march met with no +active opposition.</p> + +<p>Striking southwest, and following as well as he +could the broad trail left by the Spaniards, Pike +reached Arkansas, where he stopped long enough +to build canoes, in which Lieutenant Wilkinson +with five soldiers and two Osages descended +the river. This officer reached the post of Arkansas +on January 6, 1807, after a journey +marked by many hardships, but no great dangers.</p> + +<p>Captain Pike and Doctor Robinson pursued +their route up the Arkansas with the party, now +reduced to fourteen soldiers and the interpreter, +Vasquez. On the 2d of November, they fell in +with a large herd of wild horses, beautiful bays, +blacks, and grays, whom they were unable to +capture even with their fleetest coursers. Here +also the buffalo were present in numbers beyond +imagination, as Pike thought.</p> + +<p>The 15th of November was a marked day, for +Pike records that “at two o’clock in the afternoon +I thought I could distinguish a mountain +to our right, which appeared like a small blue +cloud.... In half an hour they appeared in +full view before us. When our small party arrived +on the hill they with one accord gave three +cheers to the Mexican mountains.” The peak, +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page181" id="page181"></a>181</span> +first seen by Pike, remained in view from that +day to the 27th of January, and in eternal commemoration +of the hardships and dangers of the +discoverer in that journey fittingly bears in our +day the name of Pike’s Peak.</p> + +<p>Here they first strikingly realized the transparency +and purity of the mountain air, which +to the eye quite annihilates distance. He writes: +“Marched at our usual hour, pushed with an +idea of arriving at the mountains, but found at +night no visible difference in their appearance +from what we did yesterday.” It may be added +that eight days’ march brought the party only to +the base of the mountains.</p> + +<p>On November 22d he fell in with an unsuccessful +war-party, composed of sixty Pawnees, returning +from a foray on the Comanches. The +savages at first acted in a friendly manner, but +receiving some small presents, demanded ammunition, +corn, blankets, kettles, and indeed everything +they saw. Being refused they threw away +in contempt the articles given. Pike ordered +the horses packed, when the Pawnees encircled +the small party and commenced stealing everything +they could, when Pike commanded his +men to stand to arms, and to separate themselves +from the savages. This done an order was given +to kill the first Indian who touched any piece of +baggage, when the Pawnees, realizing that further +misconduct meant fight, filed off and allowed +them to depart.</p> + +<p>The party was now at the present city of Las +Animas, where the Arkansas forks, and as the +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page182" id="page182"></a>182</span> +Spanish troops followed the main stream instead +of the Purgatory, Pike took the same route. At +the Herfuano he decided to put the main party in +camp while he explored the surrounding country, +so he threw up a small breastwork, opening on the +river, somewhat to the east of the present city of +Pueblo. Starting to ascend the north fork (the +main Arkansas) to the high point of a blue +mountain, which he conceived would be one +day’s march, it took two days to reach the base +and more than another day to reach its summit. +He records that his men had no stockings, were +clad only in light summer overalls, in every way +unprovided for the inclement surroundings, the +snow to their hips, the temperature nine degrees +below freezing, while in forty-eight hours the +four men had for food only one partridge and +a piece of deer’s rib, but adds that they were +amply compensated for their toil and hardships +by the sublimity of the view—an unbounded +prairie overhung with clouds. The summit of +Grand (Pike’s) Peak, bare of vegetation, snow-covered, +and double the height of the peak +ascended, he thought no human being could then +have ascended, even had it been near instead of +a day’s march to its base.</p> + +<p>The December journey up the narrow, cliff-bound +valley of the Arkansas is a continuous record +of hardship and suffering. The horses with +difficulty found grazing in the snow-covered valley, +while the fearless ravens lighting on the men +seized meat from them, and, despite the kicking +and plunging of the horses swooped down on +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page183" id="page183"></a>183</span> +them and picked their sore backs till they bled. +The thermometer fell to thirty-eight degrees below +freezing, while the badness of the trail obliged +the party to cross and recross the ice-filled river, +from which several froze their feet badly. Had +the weather continued so cold “some of the men,” +says Pike, “must have perished, for they had no +winter clothing; I wore myself cotton overalls.”</p> + +<p>Here the returning Spanish expeditionary column +under Malgares had turned south, skirting +the mountains until it reached a practicable pass +through the Cimarron range to Taos; but the +main Spanish trail failing in the snow-covered +plain Pike pursued a side trail to the northwest, +and crossing a dividing ridge came on an ice-covered +stream, which, to his surprise, ran to the +northeast, and proved, as he thought, to be the +head-waters of the Platte, the south fork rising +in the South Park, where he then was. Here +he found evidences of the park having been +lately frequented by large parties of Indians. +Beyond this he doubtless crossed into the Middle +Park, and saw the head-waters of the Colorado +Grande, and so was the second party to reach +from the Atlantic tide-water the sources of +streams draining into the Pacific.</p> + +<p>Pike was now lost in the maze of snow-covered +mountains under most adverse circumstances, as +he recites: “Eight hundred miles from the frontiers +of our country; not one person clothed for +the winter, many without blankets, having been +obliged to cut them up for socks, etc.; laying +down at night on the snow or wet ground, one +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page184" id="page184"></a>184</span> +side burning, while the other was pierced with +cold; endeavoring to make of raw buffalo-hide a +miserable substitute for shoes;” the men falling +sick, and, finally, the country so broken and precipitous, +that even the Indian horse could not +carry a pack, and three animals were lost from +falls and bruises.</p> + +<p>Pike was disconsolate, but not discouraged. +He sent ahead the interpreter and two soldiers +travelling light to find a way out, while, making +five small sleds to carry the baggage and be +dragged by the men, he followed. Struggling +on, nearly perishing from cold, and almost famished +for food, the 5th of January found Pike, +greatly to his mortification, in the same old valley +of the Arkansas, in sight of his camp of December +10th. Realizing that he could expect +nothing further from his few worn-out horses, +and burning with mortification at his egregious +error in considering the Arkansas as the Red, +Pike decided to try on foot that journey which +had failed on horseback. He at once strengthened +the small fort, left therein heavy baggage, +horses, etc., with the interpreter and one man, +while with the rest he started to cross the mountains +with packs in search of the Red River, +where he intended to send back a party to guide +the pack-train to it. This in the belief that the +Red River had its sources to the southwest, instead +of in its true location hundreds of weary +miles to the southeast.</p> + +<p>Humboldt’s map of New Spain, compiled from +data in the City of Mexico in 1804, plainly indicates +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page185" id="page185"></a>185</span> +that the Spanish labored under the same +error as Pike, they also thinking the sources of +the Red River to be some two or three hundred +miles northwest of their true position. This map +shows that although the main Red was well +known, yet the head-waters of the Canadian were +believed to be, and were charted as, the northwest +extension of the Red to within fifty miles of +the place where Pike was later arrested. It may +be added, as showing the extent of geographical +knowledge in New Spain at that time, that the +upper Arkansas was known under the name Rio +Napestle, although its connection with the lower +Arkansas was only suspected. The Pecos, Colorado, +Trinity, and Sabine Rivers were also known, +but the Llano Estacado, of Texas, and the plains of +Colorado, Indian Territory, and Kansas, though +they had been crossed here and there prior to +1805, were practically unknown lands, given over +to the buffalo and savages, who were popularly +and correctly associated with them.</p> + +<p>Impressed with the belief that he finally was +on the right track, Captain Pike, on January 14, +1806, started on the eventful journey that was to +carry him into New Spain, and lead him into +the hands of the Spaniards he was charged to +avoid. They marched in heavy order, every one—man, +doctor, and commander—carrying forty-five +pounds of regular baggage, besides arms, +ammunition, and such food as he thought proper; +the average burden being seventy pounds per +man, to be carried over a snow-covered and +mountainous country.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page186" id="page186"></a>186</span></p> + +<p>The general direction followed was to the +southwest, and fifty miles were made good in +three days. The fourth day all wet their feet +crossing a stream, and before fire could be had +no less than nine of the men, including the two +hunters, had their feet badly frozen; the temperature +fell that night to forty-three degrees below +the freezing point, while the lack of game left +them without food. The next morning two men +went hunting in one direction, while Pike and +the doctor went in another. The latter two +wounded a buffalo three times, but he escaped, +when, says Pike: “We concluded it was useless +to go home to add to the general gloom, and +went among the rocks, where we encamped +and sat up all night; from intense cold it was +impossible to sleep, hungry and without cover.” +The next morning they struck a herd and +wounded several buffalo, all of which escaped. +“By this time,” continues Pike, “I had become +extremely weak and faint, being the fourth day +since we had received sustenance. We were inclining +our course to a point of woods, determined +to remain absent and die by ourselves +rather than to return to our camp and behold +the misery of our poor lads, when we discovered +a gang of buffalo.” Fortunately they killed one +and returned at once to camp with a heavy load +of meat, Pike arriving in such a state of exhaustion +that he almost fell fainting as he dropped +his burden. “The men,” he adds, had “not a +frown, nor a desponding eye—yet not a mouthful +had they ate for four days.” It was found +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page187" id="page187"></a>187</span> +that two soldiers were so badly frozen that it +was impossible for them to proceed, and indeed +it was probable that one would lose his feet. To +remain was apparent death for all, so Pike decided +to march, and left the two men, John +Sparks and Thomas Dougherty, provided with +ammunition, and given all the buffalo meat except +one meal for the marching column. It was +like parting with the dying. Pike bade them +face their possible fate with soldierly fortitude, +assured them that relief would be sent as soon as +possible, and then they parted, as we may well +believe such comrades would, with tears—more, +doubtless, from those who marched than from +those who remained behind.</p> + +<p>The main party under Pike struggled on over +the barren, snow-covered mountains, and after +nine days, two of which without food, a march of +ninety-five miles (from the vicinity of Saguache +to the neighborhood of Del Norte) brought them +quite exhausted to the banks of the Rio Grande, +which was, however, hailed as the long-expected +Red River.</p> + +<p>Descending the stream some distance, Pike +established a picketed stockade, surrounded it +by a water ditch and made it quite impregnable +to any ordinary attack. On February 7th Corporal +Jackson and four men were sent back +across the mountain, to bring in the baggage +and see if the frozen men were yet able to travel. +The same day Dr. Robinson left the expedition +to visit Santa Fé, ostensibly carrying the papers +in a Spanish claim, but in reality to gain a knowledge +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page188" id="page188"></a>188</span> +of the country, the prospects of trade, the +military force, etc.—in short, as a secret agent.</p> + +<p>While Pike was strengthening his position and +securing game, the party returned with word +that the frozen men could not yet travel, and +possibly might be crippled for life. Volunteers +were called for, as the only method now was to +send to the fort in the forks of the Arkansas, +(near Pueblo) where the recuperated horses and +the rear-guard were available to bring over the +snow-clad mountains the helpless soldiers.</p> + +<p>Regarding this last journey Pike writes: “I +must here remark the effect of habit, discipline, +and example in two soldiers (Sergeant William E. +Meek and private Theodore Miller). Soliciting a +command of more than one hundred and eighty +miles over two great ridges of mountains covered +with snow, inhabited by bands of unknown savages, +these men volunteered it, with others, and +were chosen; for which they thought themselves +highly honored.”</p> + +<p>The steadfast endurance and unfailing fortitude +which enabled Pike’s men to withstand and +overcome the horrors and hardships of famine, +frost, and fatigue, form but a single page of the +annals of our army. Rarely has the American +soldier failed, in war or peace, for military or +civic ends, to give to the accomplishment of any +important trust his utmost endeavor, subordinating +thereto comfort, health, and life, lavishing +thereon resources of helpfulness which have so +often crowned with success the most hopeless of +enterprises. If the American has individuality, +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page189" id="page189"></a>189</span> +assertiveness, and self-reliance, he has also, in its +good time and place, a spirit of obedience, +subordination, and solidarity which make him +the typical soldier.</p> + +<p>On February 16th, Pike was visited by a Spanish +dragoon and an Indian; and some ten days later +by a Spanish officer and fifty dragoons, by whom +he was escorted to Santa Fé, where he was examined +by the Spanish Governor, Don Allencaster, +on March 3d. Pike had been informed by +the Spanish lieutenant that he would be conducted +to the head-waters of the Red River, but +at Santa Fé he learned that there was no intention +of permitting a geographical exploration of +these unknown regions. Pike was astonished to +find in Santa Fé an American, a Kentuckian, +named James Pursley, from Bairdstown, who +had made a hunting trip to the head of the Osage +in 1802, and in 1803 made a journey up the Missouri +with a French trader. Sent on a trading +trip on the plains with a roving band of Kioways, +the hunting party was attacked and driven by +the Sioux into the parks of the Rocky Mountains, +at the head of the Platte and Arkansas, +where Pike had seen traces of the band and their +stock. From this point the Indians sent Pursley +and two of their number to Santa Fé to trade. +Here they arrived in June, 1805, eight months +before Pike, and Pursley decided to remain.</p> + +<p>Governor Allencaster decided to send Pike +and his party to Chihuahua. Accompanied by +Robinson, who rejoined him at Albuquerque, +Pike passed down the valley of the Rio Grande, +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page190" id="page190"></a>190</span> +through El Paso, under escort of the gallant and +courteous Malgares, and was taken before Salcedo, +the Commandant-General of Chihuahua, on +April 2d. Leaving here late that month, still +under escort, he crossed the Del Norte on June +1st, passed through San Antonio, and on July 1st +was within the United States, at Natchitoches, +when he exclaimed “Language cannot express +the gayety of my heart, when I once more beheld +the standard of my country!”</p> + +<p>It is astonishing what an amount of valuable +and accurate information concerning New Spain +was collected by Captain Pike during his journey +through the country. If he had been permitted +to return by the way of Red River his stock +of knowledge would have been vastly inferior. +His journey was tedious, unpleasant, and humiliating, +but Pike knew how to make the best of +the situation, and in so doing justified the confidence +of his superiors in sending him on so +dangerous and important a service.</p> + +<p>His field notes in New Spain were made by +Pike with great difficulty, as the Governor gave +orders to Malgares not to permit the making of +astronomical observations nor the taking of notes, +Pike was determined, however, to make the best +of his opportunities, and so recorded his observations +while making pretext to halt, and kept +his boy as a vedette while writing. Later he +feared the loss of such notes as he had already +made, when, he continues: “Finding that a new +species of discipline had taken place, and that the +suspicions of my friend Malgares were much +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page191" id="page191"></a>191</span> +more acute than ever, I conceived it necessary +to take some steps to secure the notes I had +taken, which were clandestinely acquired. In the +night I arose, and, after making all my men +clean their pieces well, I took my small books +and rolled them up in small rolls, and tore a fine +shirt to pieces, and wrapped it around the +papers and put them down in the barrels of the +guns, until we just left room for the tompions, +which were then carefully put in; the remainder +we secured about our bodies under our shirts. +This was effected without discovery and without +suspicions.”</p> + +<p>Pike draws a lively and striking picture of the +manners, morals, customs, and politics of the +people of New Spain, whom he characterized as +surprisingly brave, and in hospitality, generosity, +and sobriety unsurpassed by any other people, +but as lacking in patriotism, enterprise, and independence +of soul.</p> + +<p>The subsequent career of Captain Pike was +short and brilliant. He received the thanks of the +Government, had his zeal, perseverance, and intelligence +formally recognized by a committee of +the House of Representatives, rose to be major, +lieutenant-colonel, and deputy-quartermaster-general +in rapid succession; in the reorganization of +the army in 1812 was made colonel, and in the following +year was appointed brigadier-general a +few weeks before his death, at the capture of +York (Toronto), Canada.</p> + +<p>The day before he left for the attack on York +(Toronto), General Pike wrote to his father: “I +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page192" id="page192"></a>192</span> +embark to-morrow in the fleet at Sackett’s Harbor +at the head of 1,500 choice troops, on a +secret expedition. Should I be the happy mortal +destined to turn the scale of war, will you +not rejoice, oh my father? May Heaven be propitious, +and smile on the cause of my country. But +if I am destined to fall, may my fall be like +Wolfe’s—to sleep in the arms of victory.” His +wish was prophetic.</p> + +<p>The orders issued to his troops indicate the +high professional honor which ever characterized +Pike’s life. In part they ran thus: “It is +expected that every corps will be mindful of the +honor of American arms and the disgraces +which have recently tarnished our arms, and +endeavor, by a cool and determined discharge +of their duty, to support the one and wipe out +the other. The property of the unoffending citizens +of Canada,” he continues, “must be held +sacred; and any soldier who shall so far neglect +the honor of his profession as to be guilty of +plundering the inhabitants, shall, if convicted, +be punished with death. Courage and bravery +in the field do not more distinguish the soldier +than humanity after victory; and whatever examples +the savage allies of our enemies may +have given us, the general confidently hopes that +the blood of an unresisting enemy will never +stain the weapon of any soldier of his column.”</p> + +<p>Owing to the sickness of General Dearborn, +Pike took command of the land forces, and on +April 27, 1813, carried the outer battery by assault, +and having silenced the fire of the main +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page193" id="page193"></a>193</span> +work was awaiting a white flag when the main +magazine was exploded. Pike, who had a minute +before assisted in making a wounded soldier +comfortable, was fatally injured, but his martial +spirit impelled him to yet encourage his troops. +A soldier to the last, he smiled as the standard +of the enemy was handed to him, and, putting +it under his head, died serenely.</p> + +<p>Laboring under the disadvantage of insufficient +instruction in youth, Pike supplemented his +deficiencies by assiduous application, and his +journal shows him studying French and other +languages in the interludes of his desperate journeys +in the Northwest and Southwest. Simple-minded +and warm-hearted, he won the devotion +of his men without relaxing soldierly habits or +impairing discipline. He was intelligent, indefatigable, +brave, capable of great endurance, fertile +in expedients and never distrustful of his +own capabilities or of the ultimate success of his +undertakings. His early death precluded judgment +as to his qualities as a general, but certainly +he had the power of origination, organization, +and administration which are essentials to military +success.</p> + +<p>It should be recorded of his explorations that, +taking into consideration his small force, and almost +inadequate means, no other man ever contributed +to the geographical knowledge of the +United States an amount comparable to that +which the world owes to the heroic efforts and +indomitable perseverance of Zebulon Montgomery +Pike.</p> + +<hr class="foot" /> <div class="note"> + +<p><a name="ft1" id="ft1" href="#fa1"><span class="fn">1</span></a> He obtained his captaincy in August, 1806.</p> +</div> + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page194" id="page194"></a>194</span></p> + +<p class="center">VII.</p> + +<p class="chap center">CHARLES WILKES,</p> + +<p class="center sc">The Discoverer of the Antarctic Continent.</p> + +<p class="noind"><span class="chap1 sc">On</span> the colored and beautifully engraved map +of the world of Gulielmus Blaeuw (Amsterdam, +1642) are two side maps, one of the Arctic, the +other of the Antarctic, Circle. The latter represents +not only the entire Antarctic Circle as +unbroken land, but also extends this great supposititious +continent some distance to the northward +of the sixtieth parallel and gives to it +the name Magallanica Terra Australis Incognita. +This mythical Magellanic continent held its +place, a subject of mystery and interest to every +geographer, until Captain James Cook, the +greatest of navigators, either ancient or modern, +attempted its definition or solution. His +success here as elsewhere was marvellous, and +on January 17, 1773, in the Resolution, first of +all men, Cook penetrated the ice-bound wastes of +the Antarctic regions, reaching 67° 15´ S., on the +fortieth meridian E. In the following summer +he completed his circumnavigation of Southern +seas in high latitudes, and penetrating the Antarctic +Circle at three widely separated points, +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page195" id="page195"></a>195</span> +attained, in January, 1774, in 117° W., the extraordinary +high southern latitude of 71° 10´. +Cook thus “put an end to the search for a southern +continent, which had engrossed the attention +of maritime nations for two centuries.”</p> + +<table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:460px; height:589px" src="images/img203.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption">Charles Wilkes.<br /> +(From a portrait by T. Sully.)</td></tr></table> + +<p>Cook’s discoveries led to erroneous conclusions +as to the physical constituents of the Antarctic +regions. Although he had reached the +Great Southern Circle at four different places, +and nearly attained it at the fifth, yet no land +therein, either island or continent, met his eager +gaze; instead there everywhere met his view a +close pack of ice-floes of enormous height and +extent, with a few wind-caused breaks or channels. +Hence many geographers concluded that +the Antarctic regions were ice-covered seas, +either totally or in greater part. To-day, in the +light of modern science and discovery, the opinion +prevails that there is an extensive ice-clad +Antarctic land, possibly rising to the dignity of +a continent; and toward this conclusion no explorations +have more directly and largely contributed +than those of the American sailor and +explorer, Charles Wilkes, of the United States +Navy.</p> + +<p>The first Antarctic land ever discovered was by +an American sealer, Captain Palmer, from Connecticut. +Bellingshausen, of the Russian Imperial +Navy, in his voyage of 1821, that resulted in +the discovery of the islands of Peter and Alexander, +on the sixty-ninth parallel, fell in with the +Yankee skipper immediately after he had discovered +the land, to which Bellingshausen justly +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page196" id="page196"></a>196</span> +attached Palmer’s name. Palmer’s Land, extended +into the Antarctic Circle by Biscoe’s discoveries +of 1832, merges into Graham Land of +the latter explorer.</p> + +<p>Probably incited by these discoveries, France +sent forth an Antarctic expedition, under Dumont +d’Irville, in 1837, and England, under Sir James +Clark Ross, the discoverer of the northern magnetic +pole, in 1839. Simultaneously with these +expeditions was organized one by the United +States, for which the exceedingly liberal appropriation +of $300,000 was made.</p> + +<p>This last expedition was authorized by the act +of Congress of May 18, 1836, “for the purpose of +exploring and surveying in the Great Southern +Ocean in the important interests of our commerce +embarked in the whale fisheries and other +adventures in that ocean, as well as to determine +the existence of all doubtful islands and +shoals, and to discover and accurately fix the +position of those which lie in or near the track +pursued by our merchant vessels in that quarter.” +This expedition, the first of its character +undertaken by the United States, grew out of +the vast capital employed in whaling and trade.</p> + +<p>The expedition was first organized under +Commodore Thomas Ap Catesby Jones, United +State Navy, but finally the President of the +United States appointed Lieutenant Charles +Wilkes to command the squadron, and he was +formally assigned to this duty under instructions +of Secretary Paulding, dated August 11, 1838.</p> + +<p>Charles Wilkes was born in New York City, +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page197" id="page197"></a>197</span> +April 3, 1798, and entering the United States +Navy as a midshipman at the age of nineteen +was promoted to be lieutenant in 1826. He had +long served in the department of charts and instruments +and was especially qualified for the +proposed astronomical and surveying work connected +with the expedition.</p> + +<p>An anomalous feature of the expedition was +the acceptance of appointment as second in +command by Lieutenant William L. Hudson, +whose naval rank was above that of Wilkes’s. +The squadron, then consisting of the sloops of +war Vincennes and Peacock, the store-ship Relief, +the brig Porpoise, and tenders Sea Gull +and Flying Fish, left Norfolk, Va., August 13, +1838. Associated with Wilkes were a number +of lieutenants destined to later distinguish +themselves in their country’s service, +among whom may be mentioned T. P. Craven, +James Alden, S. P. Lee, G. F. Emmons, and A. +L. Case, all of whom afterward rose to be rear +admirals, and H. J. Harstene, later associated +with the relief of Kane. Under its instructions +the expedition was to visit Rio de Janeiro, Cape +Frio, the Rio Negro, Terra del Fuego, the Antarctic +Ocean southward of Powell’s group to +Cook’s farthest, Valparaiso, the Navigators’ +Group, the Feejee Islands, the Antarctic regions +south of Van Dieman’s Land, whence it would +return home by way of the Sandwich Islands, +San Francisco, Singapore, and the Cape +of Good Hope. No ship had steam-power, +nor was any vessel of the squadron fitted +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page198" id="page198"></a>198</span> +with appliances for protection in ice navigation; +indeed, the squadron was a makeshift, +ill-suited for so long and dangerous a voyage. +Eventually the Sea Gull was lost in a gale off the +coast of Chili, the Flying Fish proved of little +use, and the extreme slowness of the Relief delayed +the voyage.</p> + +<p>Wilkes sailed for the Antarctic regions from +Orange Bay, near Cape Horn, on February 24, +1839, but owing to the lateness of the summer +accomplished little, and spent thirty-six days in +attempting to visit Palmer’s Land, which was +only sighted.</p> + +<p>A second attempt at Antarctic exploration was +made by Wilkes from Sidney, N. S. W., which +was left December 21, 1839. A compact barrier +of field ice, with frequent large bergs, was fallen +in with on January 11, 1840, and from this time +on the ships were often in imminent danger owing +to continuous ice, impenetrable fog, bad weather, +and occasional embayment of the vessels in the +ice-pack. It is scarcely needful to enter into the +details of Wilkes’s perilous voyage from longitude +95° E. to 155° E. and in latitudes ranging from +the Antarctic Circle to the neighborhood of the +seventieth parallel. It may be mentioned, however, +that the Peacock narrowly escaped entire +destruction by collision with a heavy iceberg, +which seriously injured the ship. Fortunately +she cleared the berg in time to escape crushing +by the falling of detached ice masses from the +overhanging floe berg. Heavy gales and the bad +sanitary condition of the ship caused the medical +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page199" id="page199"></a>199</span> +officers of the Vincennes to specially report to +Wilkes that such continued exposure would so +weaken the crew by sickness as to hazard the ship +and the lives of all on board. Wilkes, however, +had sighted the long-looked-for Antarctic land, +and, disregarding the warning, followed the coast-line +eastward, keeping his squadron as near it as +the conditions would permit. The land was a +series of lofty mountain ranges, often snow-capped, +frequently broken by indentations, and, +worst of all, shut out from immediate approach +by an almost continuous ice-barrier, which in its +extent, height, and appearance struck every beholder +with admiration not unmixed with apprehension. +This barrier rose perpendicularly from +the deep sea to a height varying from one hundred +to two hundred feet above the level of the +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page200" id="page200"></a>200</span> +water, which gave no bottom in soundings ranging +from one hundred and fifty to two hundred +and fifty fathoms. Despite this great depth of +water, the perpendicular icy barrier was evidently +grounded, thus indicating ice of a thickness +of about one thousand feet.</p> + +<table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:700px; height:449px" src="images/img209.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption">The Ice-Barrier.<br /> +(From a sketch by Captain Wilkes.)</td></tr></table> + +<p>Regarding the land discovered the first reliable +observations were those of January 16th, when +land was seen by Lieutenant Ringgold, of the Porpoise, +and by Midshipmen Eld and Reynolds, of +the Peacock, their statement running as follows: +“The mountains could be distinctly seen stretching +over the ice to the southwest.” On the 19th +land was again visible from the Vincennes, Alden +reporting it twice to Wilkes, and on the same day +high land was seen by all the crew of the Peacock. +The ships were then in longitude 154° E., +66° 20´ S., practically on the Antarctic Circle. +On February 2d high bold land bordered by the +ice-barrier was visible to the Vincennes and Porpoise +in longitude 137° E., latitude 66° 12´ S. +Five days later the westerly trend of the land as +previously seen was confirmed by a well-defined +outline of high land rising above the perpendicular +ice-barrier, the Vincennes being in longitude +132° E., latitude 66° 8´ S. On February +9th, in longitude 123° E., latitude 65° 27´ S., the +land is spoken of as being indistinct. At 8 <span class="sc">A.M.</span> +of the 12th land was reported again, in longitude +112° E., latitude 64° 57´ S., the land being in about +65° 20´ S. and trending nearly east and west.</p> + +<p>Wilkes says of the land and of his efforts to +reach it: “The solid barrier prevented our further +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page201" id="page201"></a>201</span> +progress. Land was now distinctly seen from +eighteen to twenty miles distant, bearing from +S.S.E. to S.W., a lofty mountain range covered +with snow, though showing many ridges and indentations.” +Two days later he writes: “The +14th was remarkably clear and the land very distinct. +By measurement we made the extent of +coast of the Antarctic continent then in sight +seventy-five miles and by approximate measurement +three thousand feet high.”</p> + +<p>In longitude 97° E., Wilkes found the ice trending +to the northward, well out of the Antarctic +Circle, and after following it near to where Cook +was stopped in February, 1773, Wilkes took his +course for Sydney, where he learned that an English +sealer, Captain Balleny, had discovered land +in longitude 165° E., south of and near the point +where Wilkes found the ice-barrier, and had attained +a latitude of 69° S. in longitude 172° E. +Here Wilkes, hearing of the prospective arrival +of Sir James Clark Ross, forwarded for his benefit +a tracing of the chart prepared as the American +squadron had passed along the barrier, supplemented +by the discoveries of Balleny. Ross +publishes a copy of this chart in his “Voyage to +the Southern Seas,” together with Wilkes’s letter, +giving information not only as to discoveries, but +also as to winds, currents, and the probable position +of the magnetic pole.</p> + +<table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:700px; height:470px" src="images/img212.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption">The Vincennes in a Storm.<br /> +(From a sketch by Captain Wilkes)</td></tr></table> + +<p>Most unfortunately, on the chart transmitted +to Ross by Wilkes, he entered, without distinguishing +marks, land between longitudes 160° E. +and 165° E., near the sixty-sixth <span class="correction" title="amended from paralled">parallel</span>, which +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page202" id="page202"></a>202</span> +should have been marked with the legend of +“probable land,” it being most probably the supposed +land of Lieutenant Ringgold, of the Vincennes, +who on January 13, 1840, in longitude, +163° E., latitude 65° 8´ S., to use Ringgold’s own +words, “thought he could discern to the southeast +something like distant mountains.” As a +matter of fact, Ross found no bottom at six hundred +fathoms over this charted land, and naturally +enough pointed out that he had sailed over a +clear ocean where Wilkes had laid down land. +This lack of caution on the part of Wilkes led to +an acrimonious controversy which had no good +end, but tended to discredit among the ill-informed +the discoveries of land actually made by +the expedition. Ross, evidently somewhat nettled, +had the questionable taste to omit from his +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page203" id="page203"></a>203</span> +general South Polar Chart all of Wilkes’s discoveries. +This course, it is hardly necessary to +say, has not commended itself to the best geographers, +for in the standard atlas of Stieler, issued +by the famous publishing house of Justus +Purthes, the discoveries claimed by Wilkes are +entered, with the legend, “Wilkes Land,” extending +from longitude 95° E. to 160° E. It is +gratifying, moreover, to note as an evidence of +the impartial justice of the Royal Geographical +Society, that it acknowledged the accuracy and +extent of the discoveries of Wilkes and of the +value of his detailed narrative of the expedition, +and therefor that society awarded to him its +founders’ medal.</p> + +<p>Ross, it may be added, reached the highest +known latitude in the Antarctic Circle, 78° 11´ S., +where he discovered Victoria Land, tracing its +coast from 70° to 79° S. latitude, along the meridian +of 161° W., which proved to be a bold, +mountainous country, practically inaccessible +and having within its limits an active volcano +about twelve thousand feet high—Mount Erebus.</p> + +<p>On the subject of an Antarctic continent Ross +says: “There do not appear to me sufficient +grounds to justify the assertion that the various +patches of land recently discovered by the American, +French, and English navigators on the verge +of the Antarctic Circle unite to form a great +southern continent.”</p> + +<p>The investigations and deductions of a great +scientist, the late W. B. Carpenter, give the +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page204" id="page204"></a>204</span> +latest word on this subject. Carpenter says: +“The Antarctic ice-barrier is to be regarded +as the margin of a polar ice-cap whose thickness +at its edge is probably about two thousand +feet.... These vast masses have originally +formed part of a great ice-sheet formed by the +cumulative pressure of successive snow-falls +over a land area,” etc. Elsewhere he adds: +“That the circumpolar area is chiefly land and +not water seems to be farther indicated,” etc. +The periphery of the ice-cap is estimated to +be about ten thousand miles.</p> + +<p>Thus the ordinary man may safely believe in +the existence of an Antarctic continent whose +outer margins were first skirted and recognized +as part of a great land by Charles Wilkes, of the +United States Navy.</p> + +<p>After quitting the Southern seas, Wilkes voyaged +through the Pacific Ocean, in accordance +with his original orders. In the Feejee group, +however, his experiences were most unfortunate. +The pillaging of a grounded cutter by the natives +resulted in Wilkes destroying one of their +villages and capturing several of their chiefs, +causing ill-feeling which a few days later culminated +in an attack on a boat’s crew, whereby +Lieutenant Underwood and Midshipman Henry +were killed by the natives and others of the +party were severely wounded. An attack of a +retaliatory character was made by Wilkes, who +destroyed two native towns, laid waste plantations, +killed about sixty of the savages and +wounded many others.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page205" id="page205"></a>205</span></p> + +<table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:700px; height:428px" src="images/img215.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption">View of the Antarctic Continent.<br /> +(From a sketch by Captain Wilkes.)</td></tr></table> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page206" id="page206"></a>206</span></p> + +<p>At every port Wilkes and his staff of officers +and scientific assistants were most assiduous +in making surveys and in acquiring knowledge +of the countries and their inhabitants. Even +the most prolonged voyage must end, and with +pleasure officers and men saw again the shores +of their country, where Wilkes landed, at New +York, June 10, 1842, after four years of absence.</p> + +<p>As might be expected, there were officers of +the squadron who felt that their merits had not +been properly recognized by Lieutenant Wilkes +during this voyage of four years, and in consequence +charges of a voluminous character and +under a large number of heads were brought +against him. The court which considered them +acquitted Wilkes except as regards the punishment +of several of his men, which in some cases +appeared to have been more summary and severe +than the regulations of the navy justified, +for which action a reprimand was administered.</p> + +<p>The collections made by the expedition, and the +scientific volumes published in connection therewith, +were very important additions to the scientific +knowledge of the world. Professor Henry, +in 1871, says: “The basis of the National Museum +is a collection of the specimens of the United +States Exploring Expedition under Captain, now +Admiral, Wilkes.... The collections made +by the naval expeditions—1838 to 1842—are supposed +greatly to exceed those of any other similar +character fitted out by any government; no +published series of results compare in magnitude +with that issued under the direction of the +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page207" id="page207"></a>207</span> +joint Library Committees of Congress.” Sixteen +quarto volumes were issued, five of narrative +and eleven of a scientific character, while +other parts were unfortunately destroyed by fire.</p> + +<p>The beginning of the great civil war again +brought Wilkes into striking and international +prominence. Sent to the coast of Africa for the +United States steamship San Jacinto, Wilkes +promptly brought her into West Indies waters. +Here he learned that the Confederate Commissioners, +John Slidell and J. M. Mason, had run +the blockade and landed in Cuba, and he decided, +without consultation or orders, to capture them. +The San Jacinto was then cruising for the Confederate +privateer, the Sumter, but visited frequently +the Cuban ports. Wilkes apparently +accepted the prevailing opinion that Mason and +Slidell were safe from interference, but, keeping +his views to himself, he was frequently seen by +one of his subordinates to be deeply engaged in +perusing international law books, doubtless occupied +in seeking for precedents in justification +of his contemplated action.</p> + +<p>On November 1, 1861, Lieutenant J. A. Greer, +navigating officer, brought word that Mason and +Slidell were booked for England by the steamer +Trent, which was to leave Havana on the 7th. +On November 4th Wilkes took station in the narrow +channel of Old Bahama, through which the +Trent would naturally pass and where she could +not escape being seen by the lookout. Early on +the morning of the 8th Wilkes ordered the ship +cleared for action, and when the Trent was sighted +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page208" id="page208"></a>208</span> +at noon, Wilkes gave his executive officer, +Lieutenant D. M. Fairfax, written instructions to +board the steamer Trent, with two armed cutters, +when he was to make prisoners of Messrs. Mason, +Slidell, and their secretaries, and seize any despatches +which he might find. A round shot +failed to stop the Trent, but a shell exploding in +front of her bows brought her to. After protest, +Mason and Slidell accepted the arrest, went +on board the San Jacinto, whence they were +taken to New York and later confined as prisoners +at Fort Warren.</p> + +<table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:700px; height:616px" src="images/img218.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption">In an Ice-Field.</td></tr></table> + +<p>When Wilkes landed in New York he found +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page209" id="page209"></a>209</span> +himself again famous, the central figure toward +which, even in that time of war, the attention of +all was turned. He was lauded by almost every +citizen, praised by nearly every journal, and was +the recipient of most flattering attentions. Complimentary +banquets were given to him in New +York, Boston, and elsewhere.</p> + +<p>The Secretary of the Navy, in a letter dated +November 30, 1861, wrote: “Especially do I +congratulate you on the great public service +you have rendered in the capture of the rebel +emissaries.... Your conduct in seizing +these public enemies was marked by intelligence, +ability, decision, and firmness, and has +the emphatic approval of this Department.” +With reference to the omission of Wilkes to +capture the Trent, the Secretary says: “The forbearance +exercised in this instance must not be +permitted to constitute a precedent hereafter for +infractions of neutral obligations.”</p> + +<p>Congress was not then in session, but it met a +few weeks later, when almost the first act of the +House of Representatives was to pass a joint +resolution which declared that “the thanks of +Congress are due, and are hereby tendered, to +Captain Wilkes, of the United States Navy, for +his brave, adroit, and patriotic conduct in the +arrest and detention of the traitors, James M. +Mason and John Slidell.”</p> + +<p>The hostile attitude of Great Britain, which +country to many Americans appeared quite +ready on slight pretence to acknowledge the +Southern Confederacy, gave great anxiety to the +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page210" id="page210"></a>210</span> +administration. The astute Lincoln and the +diplomatic Seward, supported by the patriotic +Sumner in the Senate, and other conservative +men in the House of Representatives, after due +correspondence acceded to the demands of Great +Britain that the prisoners should be released. +Seward, however, justified Wilkes’s action in the +main as legal, but said that he erred in releasing +the Trent; and by constituting himself as a +court, and in not bringing the steamer before an +admiralty court as guilty of carrying articles +contraband of war, had acted irregularly. The +United States declined to apologize, as no offence +to Great Britain was intended, and forbore from +claiming against England the right of search +which that nation had so persistently exercised.</p> + +<p>The Naval Committee of the Senate reported +without amendment the resolution of thanks to +Wilkes, but deemed it best to postpone it indefinitely. +The ordinary citizen did not share the +conservative, and it may be said the very wise, +course of the administration, and the sentiment +throughout the country was very generally one +of national pride that under doubtful circumstances +an American sailor had dared rather too +much than too little for the dignity and safety of +his country. Wilkes, himself, when told that +possibly this act would cause him to lose his +commission, said that he deemed his seizure of +the commissioners simply a patriotic duty, and +if needs be was willing to be sacrificed for his +country. He continued to perform efficient service +during the war, despite his advancing years. +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page211" id="page211"></a>211</span> +In 1862, while in command of the Potomac flotilla, +he shelled and destroyed City Point, and in +command of a special squadron to maintain the +blockade, captured and destroyed many blockade-runners.</p> + +<p>With the closing of the war, and his retirement +from active service, Wilkes returned to the scientific +pursuits which had always engrossed his +mind, and full of years and honor, died at Washington, +February 8, 1877.</p> + +<p>Of his early scientific labors it may be said +that they had contributed in no small degree to +the establishment of a national institution of international +repute, the Naval Observatory.</p> + +<p>For his important additions to the knowledge +of the world, and especially for his ever-zealous +war services, the memory and life of Charles +Wilkes will ever abide fresh and honored in the +hearts of his countrymen.</p> + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page212" id="page212"></a>212</span></p> + +<p class="center">VIII.</p> + +<p class="chap center">JOHN CHARLES FRÉMONT,</p> + +<p class="center sc">The Pathfinder.</p> + +<p class="noind"><span class="chap1 sc">The</span> discovery and exploration of the trans-Mississippi +region had many phases, the outcome +of different conditions and varying individual +efforts to determine the extent, possibilities, and +resources of the undeveloped half of the American +continent. The seamanship of Gray, the enthusiasm +of Lewis, the courage of Clarke, the +assiduity of Pike, the enterprise of Ashley, +Wyeth, Sublette, Bonneville, and other trappers +and traders, had done much to make known to +the pioneer and settler the advantages and +promise of the great West, and had roughly +delineated the routes of travel best suited for +the emigrant in his westward march.</p> + +<p>In time many urged that the government of +the United States, so long shamefully negligent +of its magnificent acquisitions by purchase, discovery, +and settlement, should enter in and possess +its own. This, however, necessitated, first, +a systematic examination of the physical features +of the West to such an extent as to render possible +its general and authoritative description; +second, the granting of lands or homesteads to +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page213" id="page213"></a>213</span> +such of its daring citizens as might be willing to +venture their lives as settlers in these remote regions.</p> + +<p>Among public men who urged most strongly +such action was one of the most distinguished of +our Western statesmen, Thomas H. Benton, first +Senator from the new and growing State of Missouri. +He persistently advocated the settlement +of the lower Columbia by Americans, the enforcement +of the title of the United States to +the Pacific Coast region from California northward +to the forty-ninth parallel, and in 1825 he +presented in the Senate a bill authorizing the +use of the army and navy to protect American +interests in Oregon.</p> + +<p>In season and out of season Benton opposed +the joint occupation of Oregon by England and +America, unfailingly supporting every measure +which promised to fill its fertile valleys with +American settlers. So dominant was this idea in +Benton’s career that artistic skill has fittingly +shaped his statue in St. Louis with its bronze +hand pointing <i>west</i>, with his prophetic words +carved on the pedestal, “There is the <i>east</i>. +There is India.”</p> + +<p>In his efforts to put his ideas into practical +shape, Benton threw the great weight of his influence +as a Senator toward the employment in +such explorations of a member of his family by +marriage, John Charles Frémont, whose ability +and inclinations specially suited him for the scientific +examination and exploration of the trans-Mississippi +region.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page214" id="page214"></a>214</span></p> + +<table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:500px; height:531px" src="images/img224.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption">John Charles Frémont.</td></tr></table> + +<p>Born January 21, 1813, at Savannah, Ga., Frémont +entered Charleston College, where his +disregard of discipline prevented his graduating, +although the faculty later honored him with the +degrees of Bachelor and Master of Arts. Well +grounded in the classics and familiar with the +ordinary astronomical methods of determining +latitude and longitude, Frémont visited South +America on the United States ship Natchez, as a +teacher. Later, appointed a professor of mathematics +in the navy, he declined the position to +accept more congenial service as assistant engineer +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page215" id="page215"></a>215</span> +of the United States Topographic Corps, +where he had experience in preliminary surveys +of railroads and also in a military reconnoissance +among the Cherokees in Georgia. Commissioned +in the United States Army, in 1838, as +second lieutenant in the Topographic Corps, his +initial service was fortunately as principal assistant +to I. N. Nicolet, in the survey of the country +between the Mississippi and the Missouri. Nicolet, +an able and distinguished engineer, was the +first explorer in America who made general use +of the barometer for determining elevations of +the great interior country, and his map of this +region was one of the greatest contributions +ever made to American geography.</p> + +<table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:500px; height:471px" src="images/img225.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption">Jessie Benton Frémont.</td></tr></table> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page216" id="page216"></a>216</span></p> + +<p>In 1841 Frémont married Jessie Benton, a +daughter of Senator Benton, through whose influence +Frémont was assigned to the command of +the expedition ordered to explore the country between +the Missouri River and the Rocky Mountains +on the line of the Kansas and Platte Rivers.</p> + +<p>In May, 1842, while Frémont was on the frontier +making preparations for the journey, there +came, as Mrs. Frémont relates, an order recalling +him to Washington. Mrs. Frémont sent a +special messenger to her husband, advising him +to move immediately for good and sufficient +reasons, to be given later. Meanwhile, holding +the letter, she wrote the colonel who had given +the order for the recall that she had neither forwarded +the order nor informed Frémont of it, as +she knew that obedience thereto would ruin the +expedition. On such a small thread of circumstances +hung the fate of his first separate command, +which brought Frémont into such great +prominence in connection with the exploration +and development of the Pacific Coast region.</p> + +<p>The journey of Frémont lay up the North +Fork of the Platte, through South Pass, into +Wind River Valley, his march being marked by +the usual experiences of hardship and suffering +inseparable from the time and region. The most +notable event of the journey was the ascent of the +main and highest peak of the Wind River range, +now known as Frémont’s Peak. Their first attempts +were unsuccessful, the party suffering +from great cold, excessive fatigue, and mountain +fever resulting from the rarity of the air. Frémont, +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page217" id="page217"></a>217</span> +however, persevered and succeeded. He +describes the final ascent as follows:</p> + +<p>“We reached a point where the buttress was +overhanging, and there was no other way of surmounting +the difficulty than by passing around +one side of it, which was the face of a vertical +precipice of several hundred feet. Putting +hands and feet in the crevices between the +blocks I succeeded in getting over it, and when +I reached the top found my companions in a +small valley below. Descending to them, we +continued climbing and in a short time reached +the crest. I sprang upon the summit and another +step would have precipitated me into an immense +snow-field five hundred feet below. At +the edge of this field was a sheer icy precipice, +and then, with a gradual fall, the field sloped off +for about a mile until it struck the foot of another +lower ridge. I stood on a narrow crest about +three feet in width. As soon as I had gratified +the first feelings of curiosity I descended, and +each man ascended in turn, for I would only allow +one at a time to mount the unstable and precarious +slab, which it seemed a breath would +hurl into the abyss below. We mounted the +barometer in the snow at the summit, and fixing +a ramrod in the crevice, unfurled the national +flag to wave in the breeze where never flag +waved before.” The elevation of this summit, +as determined by Frémont, was 13,570 feet.</p> + +<p>His success on this expedition caused his most +favorable reception by the War Department on +his return to the States.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page218" id="page218"></a>218</span></p> + +<table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:570px; height:768px" src="images/img228.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption">Ascending Frémont’s Peak.</td></tr></table> + +<p>Frémont’s second expedition contemplated the +connection of his first explorations with those +made by Captain Wilkes on the Pacific Coast, so +as to give a connected survey across the interior +of North America. The party, which left Kansas +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page219" id="page219"></a>219</span> +City May 29, 1843, consisted of forty men, +equipped with twelve carts for transportation +and a light wagon for scientific instruments. The +route followed was up the valley of the Kansas +River, thence by the South Fork of the Platte to +the vicinity of the present city of Denver. After +considerable hesitation a northerly route was +taken, skirting the westerly limits of the great +Laramie plain, which brought Frémont to the +emigrant trail in the vicinity of the South Pass. +The volume of travel toward the Pacific Coast +even at that early date may be estimated from +his description of the Oregon trail as “a broad +smooth highway where the numerous heavy +wagons of the emigrants have entirely beaten and +crushed the mountain sage.”</p> + +<p>Crossing Green River and following up +Ham’s Fork, Frémont reached the valley of +Bear River, the principal tributary of Great Salt +Lake, which was filled with emigrants travelling +to the lower Columbia River. Frémont expressed +his surprise at the confidence and daring +of the emigrants as he met in one place “a family +of two men and women and several children +travelling alone through such a country so remote +from civilization.” Turning south from +this point and quitting the travelled road Frémont +visited the Great Salt Lake, of which he says: +“Hitherto this lake had been seen only by trappers, +who were wandering through the country +in search of new beaver streams, caring very +little for geography; its lands had never been +visited, and none were to be found who had +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page220" id="page220"></a>220</span> +entirely made the circuit of its shores, and no +instrumental observations or geographical survey +of any description had ever been made anywhere +in the neighboring region. It was generally supposed +that the lake had no visible outlet, but +among the trappers, including those in my own +camp, were many who believed that somewhere +on its surface was a terrible whirlpool, through +which its waters found their way to the ocean +by some subterranean communication.”</p> + +<p>The lake was eventually reached from the +lower part of Bear River in an india-rubber +canoe, by means of which Frémont also landed +on a mountainous island near the centre of the +lake, where from an elevation of eight hundred +feet he was able to determine with considerable +accuracy the contours and extent of this remarkable +body of water. Instead of a tangled wilderness +of shrubbery teeming with an abundance of +game, as the party expected, the island proved +to be broken, rocky land, some twelve miles in +circumference, on which there was neither water +nor trees; a few saline shrubs and other hardy +plants formed the only vegetation. The lake +is described as being enclosed in a basin of +rocky mountains, which sometimes leave grassy +fields and extensive bottoms between them and +the shore, while in other places they come directly +down to the water in bold and precipitous +bluffs. He speaks of the water of the lake being +at a low stage and the probabilities that the +marshes and low ground are overflowed in the +season of high water. Frémont says that “we +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page221" id="page221"></a>221</span> +felt pleasure in knowing that we were the first +who in the traditional annals of the country had +visited the island and broke with joyful sounds +the long solitude.” But in view of the dissipation +of his dream of fertility he named it Disappointment +Island.</p> + +<p>Turning northward Frémont reached, on September +18, 1843, Fort Hall, Idaho, then a post +under British control, whose original importance +as an Indian trading-post had been greatly enhanced +by its location on the emigrant route to +Oregon, at a distance of over one thousand three +hundred miles from the then frontier settlement +of Westport, Mo. Following closely the emigrant +trail Frémont, on October 8th, passed Fort Boisé, +then occupied by the Hudson Bay Company, and +on the 25th of the month arrived at another trading +establishment of this company, at the junction +of the Walla Walla and Columbia Rivers. This +was considered by emigrants as the practical termination +of their overland journey since navigation +down the river was rapid and convenient.</p> + +<p>Frémont found many American emigrants at +Fort Vancouver on his visit to that post and also +learned that others already occupied the adjacent +lowlands of the Willamette Valley. Moreover, +these pioneers were not confining their efforts to +Oregon, for while small parties were pushing +southward through that valley to settlements in +Northern California, still others, making detours +near Fort Hall, reached, by a more direct route +through passes in the Sierra Nevada, the banks +of the Sacramento.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page222" id="page222"></a>222</span></p> + +<p>On November 10, 1843, Frémont left Vancouver +to return to the United States, having in view +an entirely new route whereby he might be able +to complete the exploration of the great interior +basin between the Rocky Mountains and the +Sierra Nevada. His party then consisted of twenty-five. +Leaving the Columbia at a point above +The Dalles, Frémont followed Des Chutes River +to its source, and passing over to Lake Klamath, +contemplated a journey to and a winter camp on +either Mary’s Lake or the mythical Buenaventura +River. His trail brought him to Lake Klamath, +and later to Goose Lake, the source of the +Sacramento. Winter had now commenced; the +weather in the mountains proved to be extremely +cold, snow-storms became frequent, and his +search for Mary’s Lake and Buenaventura River +proved fruitless and dangerous.</p> + +<p>These mythical water-courses, which had been +eliminated from the domain of geography by +Bonneville’s map of 1837, proved indeed to be +veritable waters of the desert, mere mirages that +nearly led Frémont to an untimely fate. Frémont’s +frequent allusions in his field journal to +these imaginary streams show his then belief in +their existence, which appears extraordinary in +view of existing publications. In Bonneville’s +maps are charted with general accuracy the great +interior basins of the Great Salt, Mud, and Sevier +Lakes, the Humboldt and Sevier Rivers. The general +extent and direction of the Willamette, Sacramento, +and San Joaquin Rivers are indicated, +and the non-existence of the Buenaventura and +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page223" id="page223"></a>223</span> +other hypothetical streams was conclusively determined. +The existence of these maps was generally +known, and their absence from Frémont’s +topographic outfit is remarkable; a most unfortunate +omission, as Benton in his “Thirty Years’ +View” describes Frémont’s charts and geographic +information as “disastrously erroneous.”</p> + +<p>Struggling along in the snow through a forest +of unknown extent, Frémont halted, on December +16th, on the verge of a rocky precipice, from +which the party looked down more than one +thousand feet upon a broad lake, the most westerly +waters of the great interior basin, which, +from its pleasing contrast to the wintry weather +of the Sierra Nevada, they called Summer Lake. +Attempting to travel in an easterly direction +Frémont found himself beaten back by an impassable +country, there being rocky, sterile mountains +on either side which obliged him to keep to +the south through a wild, barren, and uninhabited +region. Frémont, describing the country, says: +“On both sides the mountains showed often stupendous +and curious-looking rocks, which at several +places so narrowed the valley that scarcely +a pass was left for the camp. It was a singular +place to travel through—shut up in the earth, a +sort of chasm, the little strip of grass under our +feet, the rough walls of bare rock on either hand, +and the narrow strip of sky above.”</p> + +<p>The year 1844 opened with the party in a forlorn +and dispirited condition, as they were practically +lost in the tangle of the valleys and +mountains. The grass had become so scanty +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page224" id="page224"></a>224</span> +and unwholesome that the overtaxed animals fell +ill; some died and others were stolen by Indians, +so that the party lost fifteen head of stock by the +time they reached Pyramid Lake, where they +camped from the 10th to the 16th of January. +Here they found grass abundant, fire-wood plentiful, +and from an Indian village they obtained +salmon trout, a feast to the famished men. The +Indians indicated the general direction of the +route out of the desolate country, but no one +would consent to accompany the party as guide. +The region traversed continued so rough and +lamed the animals so badly that on the 18th +Frémont determined to abandon the easterly +course, thinking it advisable to cross the Sierra +Nevada to the valley of the Sacramento by the +first practicable pass. Now and then a few Indians +were met, and finally a guide was obtained, who +led them to the southward, over a low range of +mountains through a snow-covered pass into +what proved to be Carson Valley. The snow +deepened and the country became so broken as +to make progress difficult, long, tedious detours +necessary, and soon travel was only possible +along high and exposed ridges, which were comparatively +snow free. Finally it became necessary +to abandon their mountain howitzer at an +impracticable cañon that led into a valley which +Frémont at first erroneously supposed to be to +the westward of the Sierra Nevada. Continuing +on without a guide they met other Indians, who +stated it was impossible to cross the mountains +on account of the deep snow, but after much persuasion, +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page225" id="page225"></a>225</span> +and by means of large presents, an Indian +guide was finally induced to undertake the journey. +Frémont, fully conscious of the desperate +conditions, which entailed the possible death of +all, endeavored to encourage his men by reminding +them of the contrast between the fast falling +snow of the surrounding Sierra Nevada and the +flower-clad meadows in the adjacent valley of the +Sacramento, and informed them that his astronomical +observations showed that they were only sixty +miles distant from Sutter’s great establishment.</p> + +<p>Their provisions were now practically exhausted; +neither tallow, grease, nor salt remained, +and even their hunting dogs were killed for food. +Making the best of the situation their clothing +and outfit were put in the best of order, and on +February 2d, crossing the frozen river on the ice, +the party commenced the ascent of the mountain, +the men, Frémont relates, being unusually +silent over the hazardous and doubtful enterprise. +Ten men, mounted on the strongest horses, +broke the road, each man in succession opening +the path, either on foot or on horseback, until +he and his horse became exhausted, when he +dropped to the rear. The very deep snow made +it impossible to follow the main valley, and they +necessarily worked along steep and difficult +mountain-sides. On the third day the snow had +become so deep that their best horses gave out +entirely, refusing to make further effort; the day +ended with the party at a stand-still and the camp +equipage strewed along the route. Too exhausted +to make huts, they camped that night +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page226" id="page226"></a>226</span> +without shelter and suffered bitterly from the unusual +cold, as the temperature fell to twenty-two +degrees below freezing. Two Indians who had +joined the party expatiated on the impossibility +of crossing at this point, and the guide, influenced +by them, deserted the party the next morning.</p> + +<table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:530px; height:791px" src="images/img236.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption">Kit Carson.</td></tr></table> + +<p>Having obtained snow-shoes from the Indians, +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page227" id="page227"></a>227</span> +on February 6th, Frémont, accompanied by Carson +and Fitzpatrick, made a reconnoissance and +reached a high peak, from which Carson saw a +little mountain to the westward which he recognized +as one seen by him fifteen years before, so +that confidence was somewhat restored. On examining +the general depth of the snow it was +found to be five feet, but in places it proved to +be twenty. As this snow was plainly impracticable +for the pack-train, sledges were made for +transporting the baggage, which was dragged +forward by the men with the expectation that the +horses without load could break a path for themselves. +Unfortunately the weather turned bitterly +cold, and the temperature falling thirty-five +degrees below the freezing-point, a number of +the men were frost-bitten.</p> + +<p>Frémont, and indeed the whole party, now +realized that the crossing of the mountains into +the valley of the Sacramento was a struggle for +life, but this in no wise disorganized the party. +This desperate march lasted during the whole of +February. Finally Frémont with the advance +party reached Sutter’s ranch on March 6th in a +state of complete exhaustion; help was immediately +sent to the main party, which arrived a +few days later. Frémont’s route across the +mountains was practically through the pass now +crossed by the Central Pacific Railway, the descent +into the Sacramento being through the +valley of the American River. In crossing the +Sierras not less than thirty-four out of the sixty-seven +horses died of exhaustion or were killed +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page228" id="page228"></a>228</span> +for food, the meat of these animals being the +only resource against starvation.</p> + +<p>One of the party, De Rossier, became insane on +March 1st, and Frémont says: “Hunger and +fatigue joined to weakness of body and fear of +perishing in the mountains had crazed him. The +times were severe when stout men lost their +minds from extremity of suffering, when horses +died, when mules and horses ready to die of +starvation were killed for food, yet there was no +murmuring or hesitation.”</p> + +<p>Sutter’s Fort, on the Sacramento, was then the +most important American establishment in California; +the fort itself was an adobe structure defended +by twelve pieces of artillery. Sutter had +a large force in his employ engaged in farming +his extensive wheat-fields, in milling operations, +in blacksmith- and other work-shops.</p> + +<p>One might have thought that Frémont would +have delayed long in the delightful climate and +conditions that obtained at Sutter’s, but such +was not the nature of the man. The entire party +were reunited at Sutter’s Fort on March 8th, and +under Frémont’s well-directed efforts, in the short +space of fourteen days the starving band was reorganized, +remounted, and equipped fully for +instant march. The return journey was to be +through the pass at the head of the San Joaquin +River, discovered by Walker, whose name was +affixed to it by Frémont. Crossing the Sierra +Nevada the party struck the Spanish trail, which +was then followed by all wagon-trains or mounted +parties travelling to and fro between Los +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page229" id="page229"></a>229</span> +Angeles and Santa Fé. The region over which +they passed was desolate in the extreme, the road +rough and rocky, grass scanty and poor, while +water was found only in holes and at long distances, +In pointing to it, Frémont’s Spanish +guide well states: “There are the great plains; +there is found neither water nor grass—nothing; +every animal which goes upon them dies.”</p> + +<p>The party had to undergo not only terrible discomforts +arising from the physical conditions of +the country, but was also harassed by hostile Indians, +who stole some of their stock. The expedition +fortunately escaped with the loss of only +one man, although parties in advance and in their +rear were plundered and slaughtered. Speaking +of their travelling alone in twenty-seven days a +distance of five hundred and fifty miles through +this inhospitable region, Frémont comments, that +although their lonely journey gave them the advantage +of more grass, yet they “had the disadvantage +of finding also the marauding savages +who had gathered down upon the trail, waiting +the approach of their prey. This greatly increased +our labors, besides costing us the life of +an excellent man. We had to move all day in +a state of watch and prepare for combat, scouts +and flankers out, a front and rear division of +our men, and baggage animals in the centre. +At night camp duty was severe; those who had +toiled all day had to guard by turns the camp +and horses all night. Frequently one-third of +the whole party were on guard at once, and +nothing but this vigilance saved us from attack. +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page230" id="page230"></a>230</span> +We were constantly dogged by bands and even +whole tribes of the marauders.”</p> + +<p>Reaching, in Southern Utah, the head-waters +of the Virgin River, where Santa Fé trains +usually halt to recruit the strength of their animals +in its grassy meadows, Frémont was joined +by the famous trapper, Joseph Walker, who consented +to serve as guide in the departure to the +northeastward, as they now quitted the Spanish +trail. Frémont then skirted the eastern edge of +the great interior basin and visiting Sevier and +Utah Lakes, thus completed practically the circuit +of the basin. He then turned eastward +through the valleys of the Du Chesne and Green +Rivers, tributaries to the Colorado, and pushing +through the very heart of the Rocky Mountains, +by the way of the pass near Leadville, +at an elevation of eleven thousand two hundred +feet, he reached the Arkansas Valley June 29, +1844.</p> + +<p>His journey eastward across the great Kansas +plains was of an easy character, and the 31st +of July, 1844, saw his expedition safe at Independence, +Mo. He had been absent fourteen +months, during which time he had travelled some +six thousand five hundred miles, the greater part +of his journey being through the most barren and +inhospitable regions of North America.</p> + +<table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:700px; height:602px" src="images/img241.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption">Lake Klamath.</td></tr></table> + +<p>The character and extent of Frémont’s astronomical +and other physical observations on this +long, arduous, and dangerous journey constituted +the great value of his exploring work. In few +instances did it fall to Frémont’s lot to first explore +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page231" id="page231"></a>231</span> +any section of the country, but it was his +good fortune, as it was his intent, to first contribute +systematic, extended, and reliable data as +to climate, elevation, physical conditions, and +geographical positions. The hypsometrical work +begun by Frémont culminated, indeed, in the unparalleled +collation of elevations +by Gannett; his +climatic observations have been perfected by the +Signal Corps; his astronomical and geological +data have been overwhelmed by the magnificent +collections and field work of the United States +Coast and Geodetic and Geological Surveys; but +it is to be noted that Frémont’s observations, +which he gave in detail, were so honest and +good that they have withstood successfully the +test of hostile examination. Frémont’s scientific +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page232" id="page232"></a>232</span> +spirit was strikingly exemplified in this terrible +mid-winter journey through the mountains of +Nevada, when observations for time, latitude, +elevation, or temperature were daily and regularly +made despite snow, extreme cold, and physical +weakness from semi-starvation.</p> + +<p>On the recommendation of General Winfield +Scott, in a special report, the unprecedented +honor of double brevets—of first lieutenant and +captain—was conferred on Frémont for gallant +and highly meritorious services in connection +with these two expeditions.</p> + +<p>Frémont’s third expedition consisted of sixty +men. They left Bent’s Fort, on the Arkansas, +August 16, 1845. Its object, as far as exploration +was concerned, included a survey of the +head-waters of the Arkansas, Rio Grande, and +Rio Colorado, the basin of the Great Salt Lake +and the practicable passes of the Cascade and +southern Sierra Nevada.</p> + +<p>It was during this journey that Frémont quite +fully surveyed the southern shores of Salt Lake. +The water was then at an unusually low—possibly +at its lowest known—level, and having been +informed by the Indians that it was fordable to +Antelope Island, Frémont with Kit Carson rode +to the island, the water nowhere reaching above +the saddle-girths of their horses.</p> + +<p>Dividing his party Frémont crossed the Utah +desert between the thirty-eighth and thirty-ninth +parallels, while his subordinate, Walker, explored +the valley and sink of the Humboldt. Rendezvousing +at Lake Walker and again separating, +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page233" id="page233"></a>233</span> +Frémont reached Sutter’s Fort through the +American River route, while Walker and the +main party crossed the Sierras into the extreme +southern part of the San Joaquin Valley, opposite +Tulare Lake. Of the survey and explorations +made by the expedition it may be briefly +said that they added very greatly to a knowledge +of Upper California, and resulted in the +publication in 1848 of the most accurate map of +that region extant.</p> + +<p>There was, however, another and more important +phase to the third expedition than that +of mere exploration. Frémont before leaving +Washington was informed that war with Mexico +was possible, and received general unwritten instructions +looking to such a contingency. The +forecast of trouble proved correct, and the preliminary +and extensive disturbances in California +interfered most materially with the progress of +his surveys. Frémont’s explorations westward +of the Arkansas River had been through and +over Mexican territory. In order to place himself +in proper position as a non-invader he proceeded +to Monterey, Cal., at the earliest practicable +moment and applied to the commanding +general, Don José Castro, for permission to extend, +in the interests of science and commerce, +the geographical survey of the nearest route +between the United States and the Pacific Ocean. +The request was granted promptly and courteously. +Scarcely had Frémont commenced his +survey in Northern California than he was peremptorily +ordered by General Castro, who later +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page234" id="page234"></a>234</span> +appears to have been acting under orders from +the Mexican Government, to quit the department; +the message being coupled with an intimation +that non-compliance would result in expulsion +by an armed force. The message was +delivered in such manner and language as incensed +Frémont and caused him to peremptorily +refuse. Withdrawing a short distance he erected +a stockade and awaited expulsion by arms. The +Mexican force made several forward movements, +but carefully avoided an attack. Frémont finally +judged it advisable to quit Mexican territory, +as his remaining might be detrimental to the +United States. He consequently withdrew slowly +toward Oregon, surveying and exploring as +he moved northward.</p> + +<p>On May 7, 1845, Frémont was overtaken in +the valley of the upper Sacramento by Lieutenant +Archibald H. Gillespie, of the marine +corps, who brought from Washington important +despatches which were destined to settle +the fate of California as a Mexican state. Frémont +was informed through Gillespie that war +with Mexico had been declared, that the government +counted upon him to ascertain and conciliate +the disposition of the people of California +toward the United States, and especially to conserve +American interests by ascertaining and +counteracting any scheme looking to the cession +of California to Great Britain. Frémont was +then surrounded by hostile Klamaths, who killed +several of his party and with whom he had +several engagements, which resulted in the destruction +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page235" id="page235"></a>235</span> +of the principal village, fishing appliances, +etc., of the offending tribe.</p> + +<p>Frémont, turning promptly southward, his +heart set on the important mission intrusted +to him, saved from ravage the American settlements +in the valley of the Sacramento, which +were in imminent danger of destruction between +the proclamation of the Mexican authorities +ordering confiscation and expulsion and the +threatening attitude of the Indian allies, incited +by unscrupulous officials to activity. Aided by +volunteers from the American settlers Frémont +freed California permanently from Mexican domination, +his actions receiving mention and approval +from the President in his Annual Message +to Congress, in December, 1846.</p> + +<p>Commodore Stockton, United States Navy, +charged with the control of affairs on the Pacific +Coast, appointed Frémont Governor and military +commander of California. When controversies +arose between Commodore Stockton, of the navy, +and General Kearney, of the army, each having +authority from Washington to conquer California +and organize its government, Frémont +adhered to Stockton, his first commander. In +consequence serious complications arose, which +finally resulted in the trial of Frémont, and, although +the findings of the court were partly disapproved +and the sentence remitted, he resigned +from the army.</p> + +<p>His courage, persistency, and success in these +expeditions gained for Frémont world-wide reputation. +At home he was named The Pathfinder; +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page236" id="page236"></a>236</span> +abroad he received the Founders’ Medal +from the Royal Geographical Society of England +and many other well-deserved marks of +appreciation from geographers.</p> + +<p>Devoted to California and to its exploration +Frémont immediately fitted out, at his own +expense, another expedition, the fourth. In +October, 1848, with thirty-three men and a +large train he crossed the Rocky Mountains, +undeterred by his fearful experiences in 1844, +and again attempted the passage of the snow-covered +Sierras in mid-winter. The snow was +deep, the guide inefficient, and the winter unusually +cold. One-third of his men and all his +animals perished after suffering cold, hunger, and +fatigue of the most appalling character, and the +remnant of the expedition returned to Santa Fé. +Unappalled by this overwhelming disaster Frémont +reorganized at Santa Fé a new party, and +after a long, perilous journey reached Sacramento +in the spring of 1849.</p> + +<p>Frémont’s experiences during his surveys of +the great valleys of the San Joaquin and Sacramento +caused him to fall under the fascinating +spell which California exercises over the greater +number of its Eastern settlers. The vast domain +of its virgin forests, the luxuriance of its vegetation, +the extent and fertility of its valley lands, +and its incomparable climate were speedily recognized +by Frémont as so many physical conditions +calculated to insure unparalleled prosperity +when once it should be occupied by Americans. +He saw this vast region practically a waste; its +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page237" id="page237"></a>237</span> +magnificent harbors unvexed, unbroken by the +keels of commerce; its unrivalled valleys awaiting +the hand of intelligent labor to transform +them from mere pastures for scattered herds of +cattle into fruitful granaries, orchards, and vineyards +capable of feeding a continent. Imbued +with these ideas he cast in his lot with California, +and was a potent power in making it a free +State, and was honored by election as its first +Senator, unfortunately, however, drawing the +short term in the United States Senate.</p> + +<p>Failing, through the defeat of his party, of +re-election, Frémont visited Europe for a brief +and well-earned rest, which was broken by +the authorization of Congress for a survey of +a trans-continental railway, which awoke his +dormant exploring spirit. Returning promptly +to the United States he organized an expedition +under private auspices, which started westward +in September, 1853. He travelled by the central +route through the mountains of Colorado, +passing over the Sierra Blanca, through the +Sandy Hill Pass and the valley of the Grand +River. Turning southward into Utah and crossing +the Sawatch Mountains, Frémont’s march +brought him to the Sierra Nevada near the +end of winter, and their passage was attempted +near the thirty-seventh parallel. Thereof he +writes: “I was prepared to find the Sierra here +broad, rugged, and blocked with snow, and was +not disappointed in my expectations.” The +snow being impassable and food failing he made a +detour of some seventy miles to the southward +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page238" id="page238"></a>238</span> +and reached the Kern River Valley through +Walker Pass. The march entailed endless suffering +and extreme privations on the party, +which was pushed to the direst extremities to +preserve life. They were often without food +of any kind for an entire day and for many +weeks had only the flesh of their emaciated and +exhausted horses. The disastrous outcome of +this expedition impaired Frémont’s reputation, +it appearing, then as now, surprising that, aware +by bitter experience of the impracticability of +such a journey, he should have so timed his +march as to be again overwhelmed by the dreadful +winter snow of the Nevada range.</p> + +<p>This sketch has in view the treatment neither +of Frémont’s career as a soldier nor as a politician, +which phases of his life, viewed by ordinary +circumstances, may be considered as unsuccessful. +It need not be here dwelt on that his name +became a watchword of the ever-growing spirit +of human freedom, and that as the standard-bearer +of an idea he astonished the country and +the world by obtaining the suffrages of nearly +one and a half millions of his countrymen for +the highest office in the gift of the people. His +unwavering, if impractical, devotion to freedom +was forcibly illustrated by his emancipation proclamation +in Missouri, which he declined to recall, +even at the request of the President who +revoked it.</p> + +<p>It is undoubted that Frémont’s non-success in +business and political ventures has tended to +diminish his reputation as an explorer, a reputation +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page239" id="page239"></a>239</span> +which, it is safe to say, must continue to +grow steadily in the future with the development +of the great trans-Rocky Mountain region +to which he gave the enthusiasm of his youth, +the maturity of his manhood, and for which he +sacrificed his profession and his private fortune. +While Frémont loved all the great West, it was +to California especially that he gave the best he +had of mind, heart, and body, never sparing +himself in any effort for the upbuilding of her +future. So it is that in the scene of his activities +on the shores of the golden Pacific, rather +than on the coast of the Atlantic, should be +more appreciated the labors and ever grow +brighter and brighter the name of John C. Frémont, +the Pathfinder.</p> + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page240" id="page240"></a>240</span></p> + +<p class="center">IX.</p> + +<p class="chap center">ELISHA KENT KANE,</p> + +<p class="center sc">Arctic Explorer.</p> + +<p class="noind"><span class="chap1 sc">Among</span> the picturesque and striking figures +of Arctic explorers none abides more firmly +in the minds of Americans than that of Elisha +Kent Kane, whose career and fame largely relate +to the fate of the lost explorer, Sir John Franklin.</p> + +<p>Kane was born in Philadelphia, February 3, +1820. In 1842 he graduated in medicine at the +University of Pennsylvania, and the following +year, while waiting for a vacancy in the medical +corps of the navy, for which he had passed +an examination, sailed on the frigate Brandywine, +as physician to the embassy, to China, under +Caleb Cushing, Minister Plenipotentiary. Later, +commissioned as an officer of the medical corps +of the United States Navy, he served on the +west coast of Africa, in Brazil, in the Mediterranean, +and on special duty with the army in +Mexico. This brief statement of his duties conveys, +however, no idea of the intense energy and +restless activity of Kane in his eager efforts to +acquire personal knowledge of the very ends of +the earth.</p> + +<p>Indeed, considering Kane’s very short life (he +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page241" id="page241"></a>241</span> +died at thirty-seven), there is no man of modern +times to whom the words of Tennyson, in his +strong poem of Ulysses, more fittingly apply:</p> + +<table class="reg f90" summary="poem"><tr><td> <div class="poemr"> +<p>“I cannot rest from travel, ...</p> +<p class="i05">For always roaming with a hungry heart</p> +<p class="i05">Much have I seen and known: cities of men</p> +<p class="i05">And manners, climates, councils, governments,</p> +<p class="i05">Myself not least but honored of them all.”</p> +</div> </td></tr></table> + +<p>Suffice it here to say that before Kane was +thirty he had visited in America the greater part +of the eastern half of the United States, the city +of Mexico, Cuba, and Brazil from Rio de Janeiro +to the eastern Andes; in Africa, along the Gold +and Slave Coasts, to Dahomey, Cape Colony, and +up the Nile to the Second Cataract; in Europe, +the eastern, southern, and central countries; in +Asia, the coast of China, Ceylon, India from +Bombay to the Himalayas, Persia, and Syria. +Elsewhere he had travelled in the islands of +Cape Verde, Singapore, Java, Sumatra, and Luzon +of the Philippines. This incessant travel is +the more remarkable as he was always sea-sick, +was a man of delicate physique, and nowhere +passed six months without being prostrated by +severe illness. As to personal experiences, he +had been wounded in Egypt by a Bedouin who +strove to rob him, narrowly escaped death in +saving captured Mexican officers from slaughter +at the hands of renegade irregulars, and barely +survived his unique experiences in the crater of +a volcano.</p> + +<table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:500px; height:626px" src="images/img252.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption">Elisha Kent Kane.</td></tr></table> + +<p>His descent into the volcano of Tael, in the +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page242" id="page242"></a>242</span> +Philippines, illustrates Kane’s utter disregard of +dangers whenever he desired to investigate any +phenomena. As related by Dr. Elder, Kane not +only was lowered two hundred feet below the +point usually visited, but descended to the very +surface of the burning lake and dipped his +specimen bottles into the steaming sulphur water. +This feat nearly cost him his life, for although +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page243" id="page243"></a>243</span> +he was able to crawl to and fasten the bamboo +ropes around his body, yet his boots were +charred in pieces on his feet, sulphurous air-currents +stifled him into insensibility, and he would +have perished had it not been for the strenuous +exertions of Baron Löe, his companion.</p> + +<p>The turning-point in Kane’s life came in 1850, +when, induced by the persistent petition of +Lady Franklin, President Taylor recommended +to Congress an appropriation for an expedition +in search of Sir John Franklin and his missing +ships. Kane immediately volunteered for Arctic +service, pressing and urging his application by +every means at his command. Congress acted +tardily, so that the whole expedition was fitted +out in eighteen days, and Kane at the last moment, +when his hopes had failed, received orders +as surgeon of the Advance, the flagship, which +he joined May 20, 1850.</p> + +<p>The expedition owed its existence to the enterprise +and generosity of Henry Grinnell, whose +philanthropic mind planned, practical energy +equipped, and munificence endowed it. Without +Grinnell’s action Congress would have failed to +fit out the expedition, and the grateful chapter +of American co-operation with England in its +Franklin search would have been unwritten. +Such practical displays of sympathy in matters +of general and national interest, now considered +the most hopeful signs of international fellowship, +may be said to have been inaugurated by +the despatch of the first Grinnell expedition on +its errand of humanity.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page244" id="page244"></a>244</span></p> + +<p>Under a joint resolution of Congress, passed +May 2, 1850, the President was authorized “to +accept and attach to the navy two vessels offered +by Henry Grinnell, Esq., to be sent to the Arctic +seas in search of Sir John Franklin and his companions.” +These vessels—two very small brigs, +the flagship Advance and the Rescue—were +placed under command of Lieutenant Edwin J. +DeHaven, an officer of Antarctic service under +Wilkes. The vessels had detachable rudders, +modern fittings, were admirably strengthened and +fully equipped; in short, they were thoroughly +adapted to the difficult navigation in prospect. +Where Grinnell’s forethought and liberality +ended there was, says Kane, another tale: the +strictly naval equipment could not be praised, +and the “crews consisted of man-of-war’s-men of +various climes and habitudes, with constitutions +most of them impaired by disease or temporarily +broken by the excesses of shore life;” but he commends +them as ever brave, willing, and reliable.</p> + +<p>The squadron touched at various Greenland +ports and then entered the dreaded ice-pack of +Melville Bay, in which the sailing vessels made +slow progress; but in their besetment of three +weeks the only dangerous experience was a +“nip,” which nearly destroyed the Advance. +The movement of the ice-floes is thus graphically +told by Kane: “The momentum of the assailing +floe was so irresistible that as it impinged +against the solid margin of the land ice there +was no recoil, no interruption to its progress. +The elastic material corrugated before the enormous +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page245" id="page245"></a>245</span> +pressure, then cracked, then crumbled, +and at last rose, the lesser over the greater, sliding +up in great inclined planes, and these again, +breaking by their weight and their continued +impulse, toppled over in long lines of fragmentary +ice.”</p> + +<p>DeHaven entered Lancaster Sound, near the +end of August, in company with half a dozen +English ships bound on the same humane errand, +and on the 24th Master Griffin, of the Rescue, +participated in the search with Captain +Ommaney, which resulted in the discovery, on +Beechy Island, of vestiges of an encampment. +Two days later DeHaven and Kane shared in +the joint search, wherein Captain Penny discovered +the graves of three of Franklin’s crew. +These discoveries proved that Franklin’s expedition +had wintered there during 1845-46, and +later innumerable traces of their stay were noted, +indicating the good condition and activity +of the expedition. On September 10th DeHaven’s +squadron was off Griffith Island in company +with eight English search ships. Consulting +with Griffin, DeHaven concluded that they +had not attained such a position as promised advantageous +operations in the season of 1851, and +so decided to extricate the vessels from the ice +and return home.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page246" id="page246"></a>246</span></p> + +<table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:750px; height:463px" src="images/img256.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption">The Arctic Highway.</td></tr></table> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page247" id="page247"></a>247</span></p> + +<p>Strong gales and an unusually early advance +of winter prevented such action and resulted in +the ships being frozen up in the pack, where +they drifted helplessly to and fro, a condition +they were destined to undergo for many months. +Beset in the middle of Wellington Channel, the +American squadron, with varying movements +to and fro, first drifted under the influence of +southerly gales to the north-northwest, attaining +latitude 75° 25´ N., longitude 93° 31´ W. In +this northerly drift the expedition discovered +Murdaugh Island and quite extensive masses of +land to the northwest of North Devon, to which +the name of Grinnell was given. This land was +further extended the following year by the discoveries +of Captain Penny, and most unwarrantable +efforts were made by ungenerous and unappreciating +officials in England to take from +the American squadron its ewe lamb of 1850, an +attempt that, properly refuted, failed of its purpose.</p> + +<p>October 2, 1860, the direction of the drift +changed to the south and later to the east. Their +involuntary course lay through Wellington +Channel, Barrow Strait, and Lancaster Sound +into Baffin Bay, where release came, near Cape +Walsingham, June 5, 1851. The drift covered +ten hundred and fifty miles and lasted eight and +a half months. The sun was absent twelve +weeks. It is impossible to adequately describe +the physical and mental sufferings of the party +during this protracted ice imprisonment. It was +a constant succession of harassing conditions, +each, if possible, seeming worse than the former. +Now the ships were so firmly imbedded in +the cemented ice-pack that extrication appeared +impossible; again the complete disruption of the +pack threatened, or the instant destruction of +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page248" id="page248"></a>248</span> +their vessels impended, with prospects of a winter +on the naked floe under such conditions of +darkness, sickness, lack of shelter, and suitable +nutrition as would render a lingering death unavoidable. +No single week passed with a feeling +of security; for days at a time there was no +hour free from terrible suspense as to what fate +might immediately befall, and four times in one +day the entire party prepared to abandon ship +at order. The cold became extreme, the mean +of one week in March being thirty-one degrees +below zero; seal and other fresh meat could be +got only in small quantities, and scurvy, the bane +of Arctic explorers, affected all save six of the +crew, DeHaven being put off duty by this disease. +In all these terrible experiences, which +were borne with a fortitude, courage, and patience +most creditable, Kane was first and foremost +in sustaining the heroic efforts of Griffin, +master of the Rescue, on whom the executive +duties devolved during DeHaven’s illness. It +may be said that not only Kane’s medical skill, +but also his cheeriness, activity, and ingenious +devices contributed largely to conserve the +health, spirits, and morale of the crew in these +dark hours when despair seemed justified.</p> + +<p>Released from the pack, DeHaven patched up +his injured ships and attempted to return and +prosecute further the Franklin search; but, +stopped in his return journey by ice in the +upper part of Melville Bay, he judiciously decided +to return to the United States, which +was safely reached September 30, 1851.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page249" id="page249"></a>249</span></p> + +<p>The following extracts from Kane’s very vivid +account of the expedition illustrate some of the +most striking phases of their experiences as recorded +in his journal.</p> + +<p>Of the conditions and experience of the Advance +in the moving ice-pack he says:</p> + +<p>“We were yet to be familiarized with the strife +of the ice-tables, now broken into tumbling +masses and piling themselves in angry confusion +against our sides; now fixed in chaotic disarray +by the fields of new ice that imbedded them in a +single night; again, perhaps, opening in treacherous +pools, only to close around us with a force +that threatened to grind our brig to powder.”</p> + +<p>“A level snow-covered surface was rising up +in inclined planes or rudely undulating curves. +These, breaking at their summits, fell off on each +side in masses of twenty tons’ weight. Tables of +six feet in thickness by twenty of perpendicular +height, and some of them fifteen yards in length, +surging up into the misty air, heaving, rolling, +tottering, and falling with a majestic deliberation +worthy of the forces that impelled them.”</p> + +<p>The following descriptions indicate the narrow +escapes of the ships from destruction during disruptions +of the ice-pack:</p> + +<p>“The separated sides would come together +with an explosion like a mortar, craunching the +newly formed field and driving it headlong in +fragments for fifty feet upon the floe till it piled +up against our bulwarks. Everything betokened +a crisis. Sledges, boats, packages of all sorts +were disposed in order; contingencies were met +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page250" id="page250"></a>250</span> +as they approached by new delegations of duty; +every man was at work, officers and seamen alike. +The Rescue, crippled and thrown away from us +to the further side of a chasm, was deserted, and +her company consolidated with ours. Our own +brig groaned and quivered under the pressure +against her sides.”</p> + +<p>“The ice came in with the momentum before +mentioned as irresistible, progressive, and grand. +All expected to betake ourselves sledgeless to the +ice, for the open space around the vessel barely +admits of a foot-board. The timbers and even +cross-beams protected by shores vibrated so as +to communicate to you the peculiar tremor of a +cotton-factory. Presently the stern of the brig, +by a succession of jerking leaps, began to rise, +while her bows dipped toward the last night’s ice +ahead. Everybody looked to see her fall upon +her beam-ends and rushed out upon the ice.”</p> + +<p>“On the 13th the hummock ridge astern advanced +with a steady march upon the vessel. +Twice it rested and advanced again—a dense wall +of ice, thirty feet broad at the base and twelve feet +high, tumbling huge fragments from its crest, yet +increasing in mass at every new effort. We had +ceased to hope, when a merciful interposition arrested +it, so close against our counter that there +was scarcely room for a man to pass between. +Half a minute of progress more and it would +have buried us all. As we drifted along five +months afterward this stupendous memento of +controlling power was still hanging over our +stern.”</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page251" id="page251"></a>251</span></p> + +<p>The discomfort of the prescribed out-of-door +exercise in extreme cold appears from the following:</p> + +<table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:450px; height:666px" src="images/img261.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption">A Sleeping-bag for Three Men.</td></tr></table> + +<p>“Close the lips for the first minute or two and +admit the air suspiciously through nostril and +mustache. Presently you breathe in a dry, +pungent but gracious and agreeable atmosphere. +The beard, eyebrows, eyelashes, and the downy +pubescence of the ears acquire a delicate white +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page252" id="page252"></a>252</span> +and perfectly enveloped cover of venerable hoar-frost. +The mustache and under lip form pendulous +beads of dangling ice. Put out your tongue +and it instantly freezes to this icy crusting, and a +rapid effort and some hand aid will be required +to liberate it. The less you talk the better. +Your chin has a trick of freezing to your upper +jaw by the luting aid of your beard; even my +eyes have often been so glued as to show that +even a wink may be unsafe.”</p> + +<p>The unfortunate physical condition of the +party made Kane’s duties most onerous and +wearing. In mid-winter he says:</p> + +<p>“Scurvy advanced steadily. This fearful disease, +so often warded off when in a direct attack, +now exhibited itself in a cachexy, a depraved condition +of system sad to encounter. Pains diffuse +and non-locatable were combined with an apathy +and lassitude which resisted all attempts at healthy +excitement. These, of course, were not confined +to the crew alone: out of twenty-four men but +five were without ulcerated gums and blotched +limbs. All the officers were assailed.”</p> + +<p class="pt2">The expedition safe in port, the recollection of +the horrors and privations of his mid-winter +drift through the polar pack did not deter +Kane from again braving the danger of Arctic +exploration, and he was soon busily engaged in +stimulating public opinion to the support of +another expedition. To this end he especially +addressed the American Geographic Society, of +which Henry Grinnell was president, presenting +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page253" id="page253"></a>253</span> +a well-intended but fallacious and illogical +plan for continuing the search for Franklin.</p> + +<p>Kane was personally aware, from the experiences +of his previous voyage with DeHaven, +that Franklin had wintered at Beechy Island, in +74° 43´ N., 91° 33´ W., and that his positive orders +from the admiralty required him to push southward +from the vicinity of Cape Walker to Behring +Strait. A search for him by the way of Smith +Sound, four degrees of latitude to the <i>northward</i> +and seventeen degrees of longitude to the <i>eastward</i> +of his last known position, rested on the +violent assumption that Franklin had not only +directly disobeyed his positive orders to go +<i>west</i> and <i>southwest</i>, but had done so after one-third +of the distance from Greenland to Behring +Strait had been accomplished.</p> + +<p>Again there had lately been made public in +England the last direct report from the Franklin +expedition—a letter from Captain Fitzjames—who +relates that Franklin showed him part of +his instructions, expressed his disbelief in an +open sea to the north, and gave “a pleasant account +of his expectations of being able to get +through the ice on the coast of America.” Dr. +Rae had also reported finding drift material on the +north coast of America, which, having the broad +arrow and red thread of the government, could +come from the quarter where Franklin’s orders +sent him, thus confirming the belief that he had +gone southwest from Cape Walker. Moreover, the +squadrons of Belcher and Collinson were actively +engaged in the search northward of America.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page254" id="page254"></a>254</span></p> + +<p>It was finally decided that a second expedition +should be sent, the United States co-operating, +as before, with private enterprise; and to the +command of this expedition Kane was assigned, +by orders from the Secretary of the Navy, in +November, 1852. The expedition was fitted out +through the liberality of two Americans, Henry +Grinnell, who again placed the brig Advance +at the disposal of the government, and George +Peabody, the American philanthropist, who contributed +$10,000, a sum that practically covered +all other expenses of the voyage.</p> + +<p>Kane’s faith in the existence of an open polar +sea and his intention of reaching it were clearly +asserted. Combined with the proposed search for +Franklin was a declared purpose to extend northward +the discoveries of Inglefield, in 1851, on the +west coast of Greenland, where, as Kane says, +he contemplated reaching “its most northern attainable +point, and thence pressing on toward +the Pole as far as boats or sledges could carry +us, examine the coast lines for vestiges of the +lost party.”</p> + +<p>The expedition sailed from New York May +30, 1853, consisting of eighteen men, all volunteers, +although ten belonged to the United +States Navy. Except as regards scientific instruments, +the equipment of the expedition was +in most respects inadequate and unsuitable for +Arctic service, the bulk of the provisions, for instance, +being hard bread, salt beef, and pork, +with no canned meats or vegetables.</p> + +<p>The Greenland ports were visited, where a +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page255" id="page255"></a>255</span> +moderate amount of fur clothing and fifty Esquimau +dogs were purchased. On June 27th the +Advance entered Melville Bay, and standing +boldly to the westward, although hindered by +the loose drifting ice, was favored by an offshore +gale, and in ten days passed into the +open sea west of Cape York, known to Arctic +voyagers as the “North Water,” the only misfortune +being the loss of a whaleboat. In order +to secure retreat Kane, fortunately for himself as +it afterward proved, cached his metallic life-boat, +filled with boat stores, on Littleton Island. Favored +by the conditions of the ice Kane rounded +Cape Hatherton, when the main pack setting +southward obliged him to seek shelter in Refuge +Harbor, a land-locked cove. Later the Advance +was able, as the ice opened, to make sail and pass +around Cairn Point, but a violent gale broke her +from her moorings and nearly wrecked her. The +ice conditions were now so adverse that seven of +his eight officers addressed to him written opinions +in favor of a return to a more southern harbor. +Such retrograde movement would have removed +them from the contemplated field of +operations, and Kane declined. Every favorable +opportunity of warping the brig—she could be +moved in no other way—was availed of, and despite +most difficult conditions of ice and water, +the brig being on her beam-ends at low tide and +jammed by floes at high water, she was moved a +number of miles to the eastward, and on September +9th was put into winter-quarters in Rensselaer +Harbor, 78° 37´ N., 71° 14´ W., which, says +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page256" id="page256"></a>256</span> +Kane, “we were fated never to leave together—a +long resting-place to her, for the same ice is +around her still.”</p> + +<table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:700px; height:531px" src="images/img266.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption">The Coming Arctic Night.</td></tr></table> + +<p>Scarcely were they moored than signs of coming +winter crowded fast one after another; the +flowers were blackened by frost; long lines of +flying water-fowl trended southward, leaving solitary +the hardy snow-bird; the sun grew lower +from day to day with startling rapidity, and the +young ice cemented the separated old floes into +one solid roadway for the sledgemen. Kane +set about exploring the country and travelled +some fifty miles to Mary Minturn River, whence +from adjoining high land he had a view of +Washington land, the vicinity of Cape Constitution. +During this journey he first observed +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page257" id="page257"></a>257</span> +the peculiar ice formation now known as the ice-foot, +but then novel. It is best described in his +words: “We were on a table or shelf of ice +which clung to the base of rocks overlooking +the sea, ... with huge angular blocks, some +many tons in weight, scattered over its surface.” +Hayes and Wilson travelled some fifty miles into +the interior till their further progress was +stopped by the edge of the inland ice. McGary +and Bonsall, with sledge party of seven, made +three caches to the northeast, the farthest being +in 79° 12´ N., 65° 25´ W., under the face of an +enormous glacier, to which the name of Humboldt +was given.</p> + +<p>The winter passed quietly, the officers making +tidal, astronomical, magnetic, and meteorological +observations, while the men, engaged in ordinary +pursuits, kept in health. Unfortunately fifty-seven, +nearly all, of the dogs died, thus depriving +Kane of his main reliance for field operations. +The extreme cold—the mean temperature for December +to March, inclusive, being thirty-two +degrees below zero—had reduced the fuel so +that the allowance was three buckets a day. +Other supplies commenced to show their need +or inadequacy; oil for lamps failed, as did fresh +meat from game, and unfortunately there was +no canned meat, only salted.</p> + +<p>Despite his loss of dogs Kane decided on laying +out new depots, and with the advance of +March he watched eagerly the temperature. +From the 10th to the 19th the cold averaged seventy-six +degrees below the freezing-point. He +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page258" id="page258"></a>258</span> +started his man-sledge on the 20th, under charge +of Brooks, first officer, with seven others at the +drag-ropes. Unfortunately the equipment was +either somewhat defective or some of the party +were inexperienced in the methods needful for +self-preservation in such extreme cold. Kane +gives no details of the causes of the calamity save +to say that “a heavy gale from the north-northeast +broke upon the party, and the temperature +fell to fifty-seven below zero.”</p> + +<p>The first news of the disaster came from Sontag, +Ohlsen, and Petersen, who suddenly appeared +in the cabin, at midnight of March 31st, swollen, +haggard, and hardly able to speak. Kane continues: +“They had left their companions in the +ice, risking their own lives to bring us the news; +Brooks, Baker, Wilson, and Pierre, were all lying +frozen and disabled. Where? They could not +tell; somewhere among the hummocks to the +northeast; it was drifting heavily around them. +Irish Tom had stayed to care for the others. It +was vain to question them, for they were sinking +with fatigue and hunger, and could hardly be +rallied enough to tell us the direction.”</p> + +<p>Kane instantly organized a relief party of ten +men, which, despite his delicate physique, he +headed himself. Taking Ohlsen, the most rational +of the sufferers, in a fur bag, and as lightly +equipped as was possible, the rescuers moved out +in a temperature seventy-eight degrees below +freezing. Ohlsen fell asleep, but on awakening +was of no use as guide owing to his delirious +condition. Reaching a large level floe Kane put +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page259" id="page259"></a>259</span> +up his tent and scattered his party to find traces +of the lost men. Eighteen hours had now elapsed +and Kane’s own party was in a deplorable state, +partly owing to the extreme cold and partly to +extreme nervousness arising from anxiety and +sympathy. He says: “McGary and Bonsall, who +had stood out our severest marches, were seized +with trembling fits and short breath, and in spite +of all my efforts I fainted twice on the snow.” +Fortunately Hans, the Esquimau, found a +sledge-track which led to the camp in a few +hours, where Kane found the four men on their +backs, whose welcome greeting, “We expected +you: we were sure you would come,” proved +how great was their confidence in their commander. +The day was extremely cold and most +providentially clear and sunny, but even with +these favoring conditions it was almost a miracle +that they were able to drag the frozen men to +the brig. “The tendency to sleep,” says Kane, +“could only be overcome by mechanical violence; +and when at last we got back to the brig, +still dragging the wounded men instinctively +behind us, there was not one whose mind was +found to be unimpaired.” Baker and Schubert +died; Wilson and Brooks finally recovered, losing, +however, part of their feet by amputation.</p> + +<table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:700px; height:780px" src="images/img270.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption">Esquimau Boys Fishing.</td></tr></table> + +<p>Kane determined to lead the next party himself, +and near the end of April, 1854, with seven +men he attempted to lay down an india-rubber +boat high up on the Greenland coast. He had, +however, sadly overrated the strength of his +men and of himself. About eighty miles from +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page260" id="page260"></a>260</span> +the brig, near Dallas Bay, one man broke down +entirely and four others were partly disabled, and +their cache was made at that point with many +misgivings, as bears had destroyed the stores +laid down the previous autumn. The troubles +of the party now commenced, for Kane, fainting +while making an observation, had to be hauled +back by the disabled men. Despite the moderate +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page261" id="page261"></a>261</span> +temperature Kane’s left foot froze, his limbs +became rigid and badly swollen, fainting spells +were more frequent, and he fell into alternate +spells of delirium and unconsciousness, in which +state his broken-down sledge crew conveyed +him by forced marches to the brig, where, says +Hayes, the surgeon, he arrived nearly insensible +and so swollen by scurvy as to be hardly +recognizable, and in such a debilitated state +that an exposure of a few more hours would +have terminated his life. Kane’s wonderful +recuperative powers speedily restored him from +his nearly helpless condition to a state of comparative +good health, but he could not conceal +his evident inability to personally attempt further +sledge journeys that spring.</p> + +<p>In this emergency he decided to send his surgeon, +Dr. I. I. Hayes, to explore the western +shore of Smith’s Strait, from Cape Sabine northward, +and for this purpose detailed Godfrey with +the seven best dogs available.</p> + +<p>The ice over Smith’s Sound was extremely +rough, so that progress was slow and tedious. +Finally, with his provisions nearly exhausted, +Hayes reached land in the vicinity of Dobbin +Bay and made his farthest at Cape Hayes, which, +according to his observations, was in about 79° +45´ N. Hayes was stricken with snow-blindness; +the journey was extremely exhausting; Godfrey +broke down, and the dogs were so nearly worn +out that at the last camp they abandoned sleeping-bags, +extra clothing, and everything except +arms and instruments. Kane says that both men +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page262" id="page262"></a>262</span> +were snow-blind on arrival at the brig, and the +doctor, in a state of exhaustion, had to be led to +his bedside to make his report.</p> + +<p>Impressed with Hayes’s success on the west +shore of Smith’s Sound, Kane decided to send +Morton northward on the Greenland side so +as to determine the extent of the frozen channel +seen by Hayes from his farthest. Morton was +supported by a sledge party of four men, who +reached Humboldt glacier after ten days’ travel, +and were here joined by Esquimau Hans with a +dog-sledge. On the 18th the supporting party +turned homeward, while Morton and Hans, with +a dog-sledge, started northward, travelling about +five miles distant from and parallel with the +face of Humboldt glacier.</p> + +<p>On June 24th Morton’s northward progress +was stopped by very high, perpendicular cliffs +washed by open water and free from the customary +ice-foot. All efforts to pass around the +projecting cliff, to which the name of Cape Constitution +was given, proved unavailing. Morton +says: “The knob to which I climbed was over +five hundred feet in height, and from it not a +speck of ice was to be seen as far as I could +observe; the sea was open, the swell came from +the northward, ... and the surf broke in on +the rocks below in regular breakers.”</p> + +<p>Morton, in his report, described two islands +opposite Cape Constitution; Kennedy Channel +as about thirty-five miles wide, running due +north and having an unbroken mountainous land +along its western limits. Twenty miles, estimated, +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page263" id="page263"></a>263</span> +due south of Cape Constitution, Morton +made the latitude, by meridian altitude of the +sun, 80° 41´ N., which by dead reckoning made +the cape 81° 1´. Kane gives its latitude, corrected +by triangulation, as 81° 22´ N.</p> + +<p>These discoveries, strengthening Kane’s belief +in an open polar sea, caused him to put forth on +his return such statements and generalizations as +drew forth sharp criticisms, wherein the correctness +and value of all the field work of his expedition +were impugned.</p> + +<p>It would be most gratifying to Americans if +adverse criticisms as to distances travelled and +astronomical positions determined could be refuted. +It is, however, a matter of fact, not of +opinion, that nearly all the given latitudes are +much too far to the north, while no considerable +distance was travelled which was not overestimated +from fifty to one hundred per cent. These +blemishes on Kane’s great work doubtless arose +from two causes: first, his implicit confidence in +the ability and accuracy of his subordinates, and, +second, to his poetic temperament, which transformed +into beauty the common things of life +and enhanced their interest by striking contrasts +of high lights and deep shadows.</p> + +<table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:700px; height:961px" src="images/img274.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption">An Arctic Stream.</td></tr></table> + +<p>Subsequent expeditions have surveyed and +charted Kennedy Channel with an accuracy +leaving little to be desired, and as a result it is +now known that the open “sea” seen by Morton +was simply the ice-free water of the southern +half of Kennedy Channel, which condition obtains +during a great part of each year. The descriptions +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page264" id="page264"></a>264</span> +of the region by Morton in his report, +though simple, are yet so accurate and free from +exaggeration as to prove conclusively his entire +honesty. When, however, his astronomical observations +and estimates of distances are considered, +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page265" id="page265"></a>265</span> +Morton’s incompetency is apparent, as they are, +in common with most of the other field work, +erroneous and misleading. The latitude of Cape +Constitution was overstated fifty-two geographic +miles by Kane and thirty-one miles by Morton, +while Kennedy Channel, instead of being thirty-five +miles wide, ranges only from seventeen to +twenty-five. The farthest mountain seen was +Mount Ross, on the north side of Carl Ritter +Bay, about 80° 58´ N., more than ninety miles to +the southward of its assumed position. Kane’s +personal knowledge of Morton’s honesty was +so complete that he placed equal confidence in +his ability and accuracy, an error of judgment +arising largely from Kane’s great affection for +his subordinate.</p> + +<p>In the meantime the Etah Esquimaux, most +fortunately for Kane, had discovered and visited +the Advance, and through their friendly offices +the expedition profited largely.</p> + +<p>The summer of 1854 disclosed the error of +wintering in Rensselaer Harbor, for it passed +without freeing the brig from ice. The situation, +Kane relates, was most unpromising, and near +the middle of July he determined on a desperate +attempt to communicate with the English expeditionary +vessels supposed to be at Beechy Island, +several hundred miles to the southwest. +Kane with five others started in a whaleboat, +but owing to the bad ice returned unsuccessful +after an absence of eighteen days.</p> + +<p>On August 18th Kane regards it as an obvious +fact that they must look another winter in the +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page266" id="page266"></a>266</span> +face, and says: “It is horrible—yes, that is the +word—to look forward to another year of disease +and darkness to be met without fresh food or +fuel. The physical energies of the party have +sensibly declined; resources are diminished; +there are but fifty gallons of oil saved from the +summer seal hunt; we are scant of fuel; our food +consists now of ordinary marine stores and is by +no means suited to dispel scurvy; our molasses is +reduced to forty gallons and our dried fruits +seem to have lost their efficiency.”</p> + +<p>Under these discouraging circumstances came +the most trying experiences of the expedition. +The majority of the party entertained the idea +that escape to the south by boats was still practicable +despite the lateness of the summer, although +Kane’s own experience in the previous month +had shown the futility of such an effort. Conscious, +however, that he could control only by +moral influence the majority who were of this +opinion, he decided to appeal to them. On August +24th he assembled the entire crew, set forth +eloquently that such an effort must be exceedingly +hazardous, escape southward almost improbable, +and strongly advised them to forego the +project. However, he ended by freely according +his permission to such as were desirous of +making the attempt, provided that they would organize +under an officer before starting and renounce +in writing all claims upon the expedition. +Nine out of the seventeen, headed by Petersen, +the Danish interpreter, and Dr. Hayes, the surgeon, +decided to attempt the boat journey and +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page267" id="page267"></a>267</span> +left the vessel August 28th. Kane fitted them out +liberally, provided every possible appliance to +facilitate and promote their success, and gave +them a written assurance of a hearty welcome +should they be driven to return. One of the party, +Riley, rejoined Kane within a few days, and well +into the Arctic winter, on December 7th, Bonsall +and Petersen returned through the aid of the +Esquimaux. They reported to Kane that their +associates were some two hundred miles distant, +their energies broken, provisions nearly gone, +divided in their counsel, and desirous of returning +to share again the fortunes of the Advance. +Kane immediately sent supplies to the +suffering party by the natives, and took active +measures to facilitate their return, and on December +12th had the great joy of seeing the entire +expedition reunited. In this connection Kane +properly notes the humane actions of the Esquimaux, +saying: “Whatever may have been their +motives, their conduct to our friends was certainly +full of humanity. They drove at flying +speed; every hut gave its welcome as they halted; +the women were ready without invitation +to dry and chafe their worn-out guests.”</p> + +<p>Kane, it may be added, did not allude in his +official report to the Secretary of the Navy to +this temporary division of his command, which, +however, is told, both in his own narrative and +in that of Dr. Hayes, in his “Arctic Boat Journey.”</p> + +<p>As winter went on they hunted unavailingly +for game, and the abundant supplies hitherto obtained +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page268" id="page268"></a>268</span> +from the Etah Esquimaux failed, owing +to the unfavorable ice conditions, which caused +a famine among the natives and reduced them +to the lowest stages of misery and emaciation. +Scurvy with its varying phases also sapped the +energies of the crew, while Hayes was disabled +from amputation of a portion of his frozen +foot.</p> + +<p>When practically the entire crew must be said +to have been on the sick-list, Blake and Godfrey +decided to desert and take their chances with the +Esquimaux. The plan being detected by Kane, +Blake remained, but Godfrey deserted, and with +Hans, the Esquimau, remained absent nearly a +month. Godfrey, however, contributed to the +support of the expedition by sending supplies of +meat, and later returned under duress.</p> + +<p>With the returning spring of 1855 the necessity +of abandoning the brig was apparent to all; the +ship was practically little more than a shell, as +everything that could possibly be used without +making her completely unseaworthy had been +consumed for fire-wood. There remained in +April only a few weeks’ supply of food and fuel, +while the solidity of the ice in the vicinity of +Rensselaer Harbor indicated the impossibility of +an escape by vessel. It was no slight task to +move the necessary stock of provisions and stores +to their boats and to the open water in the vicinity +of Cape Alexander. This was, however, safely +accomplished by the middle of June, the vessel +having been formally abandoned on May 17th. +The final casualty in the party occurred near +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page269" id="page269"></a>269</span> +Littleton Island, when Ohlsen, in a tremendous +and successful effort to save a loaded sledge from +loss in broken ice, so injured himself internally +that he died within three days. During this retreating +journey Kane records the invaluable assistance +of the Esquimaux, who “brought daily +supplies of birds, assisted in carrying boat-stores, +and invariably exhibited the kindliest feelings and +strictest honesty.” Leaving Cape Alexander on +June 15, 1854, Cape York was passed on July +21st, and, crossing Melville Bay along the margin +of its land ice in five days, Kane reached the +north coast of Greenland on August 3d, forty-seven +days from Cape Alexander.</p> + +<p>At Disco the party met Lieutenant Hartstene, +whose squadron, sent to relieve Kane, had already +visited Cape Alexander, and learning from +the natives of Kane’s retreat by boat to the +south turned promptly back to the Greenland +ports. Surrounded by all the comforts and luxuries +which the means or thoughtfulness of their +rescuing comrades of the navy could furnish, +Kane and his men made a happy journey southward +to meet the grand ovation that greeted +them from their appreciative countrymen in +New York, on October 11, 1855.</p> + +<p>Neither the anxiety of countless friends nor +the skill of his professional brethren could long +preserve to his family, to the navy, and to the +country the ebbing life of the gallant Kane. The +disease which for twenty years had threatened +his life now progressed with rapidity, and on +February 16, 1857, he died at Havana, Cuba.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page270" id="page270"></a>270</span></p> + +<p>No single Arctic expedition of his generation +added so greatly to the knowledge of the world +as did that of Kane’s. In ethnology it contributed +the first full account of the northernmost +inhabitants of the world, the Etah Esquimaux; in +natural history it supplied extensive and interesting +information as to the flora and fauna of +extreme western Greenland, especially valuable +from its isolation by the surrounding inland ice; +in physical sciences the magnetic, meteorological, +tidal, and glacier observations were extremely +valuable contributions; in geography it extended +to a higher northerly point than ever +before a knowledge of polar lands, and it opened +up a practical and safe route for Arctic exploration +which has been more persistently and successfully +extended poleward than any other.</p> + +<p>Of Kane’s conduct under the exceptionally +prolonged and adverse circumstances attendant +on his second Arctic voyage, it is to be said that +he displayed the characteristics of a high and +noble character. Considerate of his subordinates, +assiduous in performing his multifarious duties +as commander, studying ever to alleviate the +mental and physical ailments of his crew, and always +unsparing of himself whenever exposure to +danger, hardships, or privations promised definite +results. It is not astonishing that these qualities +won and charmed all his associates, equals or +subordinates, and that they followed him unhesitatingly +into the perils and dangers that Kane’s +enthusiastic and optimistic nature led him to +brave, with the belief that to will was to do.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page271" id="page271"></a>271</span></p> + +<p>The career of Kane cannot be more beautifully +and truthfully summarized than was done in the +funeral sermon over his bier: “He has traversed +the planet in its most inaccessible places; has +gathered here and there a laurel from every +walk of physical research in which he strayed; +has gone into the thick of perilous adventure, +abstracting in the spirit of philosophy, yet seeing +in the spirit of poesy; has returned to invest the +very story of his escape with the charms of literature +and art, and dying at length in the morning +of his fame, is now lamented with mingled affection +and pride by his country and the world.”</p> + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page272" id="page272"></a>272</span></p> + +<p class="center">X.</p> + +<p class="chap center">ISAAC ISRAEL HAYES,</p> + +<p class="center sc">And The Open Polar Sea.</p> + +<p class="noind"><span class="chap1 sc">History</span> affords many examples wherein +neither the originator nor the early advocate of +a striking idea has reaped fame therefrom, and +their names give way to some persistent, tireless +worker who forces the subject on public attention +by his ceaseless efforts. Among Arctic theories +none has more fully occupied and interested +the mind of the general public than that of an +open, navigable sea in the polar regions. In +connection with this theory the minds of Americans +turn naturally to Dr. I. I. Hayes, who, not +the originator, inherited his belief therein from +the well-known Professor Maury, through the +mediation of Kane, Hayes’s Arctic commander. +DeHaven thought he saw signs of Maury’s ice-free +sea to the northward of Wellington Strait, +Kane through Morton found it at Cape Constitution, +Hayes recognized it a few miles farther +up Kennedy Channel, but Markham turned it +into a frozen sea in 83° 20´ N. latitude, and Lockwood, +from Cape Kane, on the most northerly +land of all time, rolled the frozen waste yet to +the north, beyond the eighty-fourth parallel, to +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page273" id="page273"></a>273</span> +within some three hundred and fifty miles of the +geographical Pole.</p> + +<table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:450px; height:619px" src="images/img283.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption">Isaac Israel Hayes.</td></tr></table> + +<p>Isaac Israel Hayes was born in Chester County, +Pa., March 5, 1832. He gained the title of doctor +by graduation in the University of Pennsylvania, +in 1853, in which year, at twenty-four +hours’ notice, he accepted the appointment, procured +his outfit, and sailed as surgeon of Kane’s +Arctic expedition. An account of this voyage +appears in the sketch of Dr. Kane, but some further +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page274" id="page274"></a>274</span> +reference to it is now necessary. Hayes, it +will be remembered, was the surgeon, a position +which exempted him from field-work. However, +when Kane and others broke down, Hayes +volunteered, and was sent with Godfrey, a seaman, +and a team of seven dogs to explore the +west coast of Smith Sound. The journey lasted +from May 20 to June 1, 1853, and, all things +considered, such as defective equipment, rough +ice, and attacks of snow-blindness, the results +were unusually creditable.</p> + +<p>The rough ice travelled over is thus described +by Hayes: “We were brought to a halt by a +wall of broken ice ranging from five to thirty feet +in height.... We had not a foot of level +travelling. Huge masses of ice from twenty to +forty feet in height were heaped together; in +crossing these ridges our sledge would frequently +capsize and roll over and over—dogs, cargo, +and all.” Hayes finally reached land on May +27th, at a bluffy headland “to the north and east +of a little (Dobbin) bay, which seemed to terminate +about ten miles inland.” This point, called +later Cape Hayes, was placed by him by observations +in 79° 42´ N., 71° 17´ W. From his farthest +Hayes mentions the sea-floe as continuing in a +less rough condition to the northward, and correctly +describes the interior of Grinnell Land as +a great mountain-chain following the trend of +the coast.</p> + +<p>His broken sledge and nearly exhausted provisions +obliged Hayes to return, and in so doing +he crossed Dobbin Bay to, and passed under the +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page275" id="page275"></a>275</span> +shadow of, the noble headland of Cape Hawks, +where they gave their dogs the last scrap of +pemican. Hayes resolved to here abandon all +his extra clothing, sleeping-bags, etc., some forty +pounds, a rash act, as they must have been between +sixty and seventy miles from the brig, and +in case of a storm would have perished. The +first day’s return journey the dogs were fed with +seal-skin, from old boots, and a little lamp-lard, +and the day following with bread crumbs, lard +scrapings, and seal-skin off mittens and trousers. +The travellers got scanty rest, dozing in the sun +on the sledge, and finally reached Rensselaer +Harbor snow-blind and utterly exhausted.</p> + +<p>Hayes was thus the first white man to put +foot on the new land, to which Kane affixed the +name of Grinnell. It is impossible to understand +Kane’s failure to properly recognize this successful +and arduous journey of Hayes, and one looks +in vain for confirmation of Kane’s claim that he +“renewed and confirmed,” in April, 1854, the +work of Hayes and Godfrey, for his own account +shows that Kane’s April journey failed +completely to reach Grinnell Land.</p> + +<p>Two months after his journey to Grinnell +Land, Hayes was called on to decide whether he +would remain with Kane at Rensselaer Harbor, +where the unbroken ice plainly claimed the brig +Advance as its own for another year, sharing +the hardships and dangers of a second Arctic +winter, or, fleeing south without his commander, +seek safety and shelter through a boat journey +down Smith Sound, and across Melville Bay, to +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page276" id="page276"></a>276</span> +the northern Danish settlement, Upernivik, in +Greenland. Hayes, unfortunately for his reputation, +yielded to the majority, and nine of the +party, headed by Petersen, Sontag, and Hayes, +decided to go, while only six white men and Esquimau +Hans remained. It is true that Kane had +only two weeks before returned from an unsuccessful +attempt to reach Beechy Island, as difficult +a task as the voyage to Upernivik, which he +had quitted his brig to lead in person; but such +action should not have been viewed as a justification +for again separating the party.</p> + +<table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:700px; height:651px" src="images/img286.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption">Upernivik.</td></tr></table> + +<p>Hayes alleges in extenuation that Kane had +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page277" id="page277"></a>277</span> +previously announced to the crew that their +labors would thereafter be directed homeward, +that the attempted journey to Beechy Island was +solely to procure aid, that the “boat journey” +simply changed the direction of their efforts, +save that it was led by Petersen and not by +Kane. Further, that the departure of the majority +of the crew would give augmented health-conditions, +space, and food to those who remained.</p> + +<p>Accepting Kane’s permission, freely accorded, +as he says, to make the boat journey, liberally +equipped with such supplies as the brig had, and +assured of a hearty welcome should they return, +the boat party left Rensselaer Harbor, August +28, 1853, confident of its ability to succeed.</p> + +<p>Sudden cold, sledging accidents, and bad ice +soon caused Riley to return to the brig; but +despite sea-soaked bedding, injured limbs, and +exhausting labor, the rest of the boat party persevered +with sledge to the open water, and, launching +their whaleboat, proceeded rapidly till a +closed ice-pack stopped them at Littleton Island.</p> + +<p>It is unnecessary to detail despairing delays or +delusive hopes which changing conditions of ice +and weather alternately aroused, during their +southward journey, nor to recite the hardships +and perils arising from violent gales, drifting +snow, the disruption and closing of the pack, the +severe cold of a rapidly advancing winter, their +lack of shelter and insufficiency of proper food. +Suffice it to say that, confronted by impassable +ice-floes, they were finally forced, with damaged +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page278" id="page278"></a>278</span> +boat, depleted supplies, and impaired strength, +to establish winter quarters south of Cape Parry, +midway between Whale and Wostenholme +Sounds.</p> + +<p>The preservation of stores, construction of +shelter, and accumulation of means of subsistence +now engrossed their entire energies. The +construction of a hut, although facilitated by a +rocky cavern, proved to be exhausting in the extreme +from the difficulty of obtaining material +from the frozen soil. Their most skilful hunters +kept the field continually, but game failed, and +from day to day food supply diminished with, to +them, startling rapidity. Eventually reduced to +the verge of starvation, they would have perished +but for food obtained from the Esquimaux, which, +though scanty and irregular, yet sustained life.</p> + +<p>Affairs went from bad to worse, and with the increasing +cold and diminishing light of December +it was decided that they must either perish or +return to the brig; either alternative had its advocates. +To decide was to act. Petersen negotiated +with the Esquimaux, and by judicious +admixture of persuasion, command, and force, +succeeded in having the entire boat party transported +by sledge to the Advance, where they +were received with fraternal kindness. Hayes +relates, “Dr. Kane met us at the gangway and +grasped me warmly by the hand.... Ohlsen +folded me in his arms, and, kissing me, threw +me into his warm bed.”</p> + +<p>The boat journey to Upernivik, which proved +dangerous and impracticable to his small party +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page279" id="page279"></a>279</span> +in advancing winter, proved, with the returning +summer of 1855, not difficult to the reunited +party of Kane, and so ended the boat journey of +Hayes and his first Arctic service.</p> + +<p class="pt2">The loss of a portion of his foot, extreme sufferings +from exposure, and his great privations +in the Kane expedition failed to abate Hayes’s +enthusiasm in Arctic exploration. Immediately +on his return to the United States, in October, +1855, he advocated a second expedition, with the +object of completing the survey of the north +coast of Greenland and Grinnell Land, and to +make explorations toward the North Pole. His +strenuous efforts to excite public interest failed +at first; but Hayes devoted himself to lecturing +on Arctic subjects, and finally enlisted in his support +most of the scientific societies of the country. +The advocacy of Professors Bache and +Henry, and the support of Grinnell, gave an impulse +which finally resulted in the organization +of an expedition, under Hayes’s command, and +on July 6, 1860, he left Boston on the sailing +schooner United States, with a crew of fourteen.</p> + +<p>It is not needful to dwell on his outward voyage +farther than to say that, in addition to the +complement of dogs and stock of furs usually +obtained in Greenland, Hayes there recruited +dog-drivers, interpreters, and hunters. At Cape +York he also added Hans Hendrik, Kane’s dog-driver, +who, smitten with the dusky charms of +the daughter of Shang-hu, had chosen to remain +with the Etah Esquimaux rather than return to +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page280" id="page280"></a>280</span> +Danish Greenland with the Kane retreating +party in 1855. Now, five years later, he showed +an equal willingness to quit his adopted tribe for +expeditionary purposes.</p> + +<table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:700px; height:452px" src="images/img290.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption">Hayes’s Winter-Quarters.</td></tr></table> + +<p>Profiting by the experience of his predecessor, +Hayes was unwilling to push a sailing vessel +northward into Kane’s Basin, beyond the seventy-eighth +parallel, and wisely decided to establish +his winter-quarters in Foulke Fiord, near Littleton +Island, twenty miles to the south, and about +forty miles west, of Kane’s quarters. Game +proved abundant both at sea and on land, pleasant +relations were established with their neighbors, +the Etah Esquimaux, an observatory built, +and scientific observations inaugurated. Indeed +everything looked most promising for the future.</p> + +<p>An autumnal journey of special interest was +Hayes’s visit to “My Brother John Glacier,” +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page281" id="page281"></a>281</span> +near Port Foulke, which, up to that time, was the +most northerly and one of the most successful +attempts to penetrate the glacier-covering of +Greenland, known commonly as the “Inland +Ice.” With seven men he penetrated some forty +miles or more on the ice, when the temperature, +sinking to thirty-four degrees below zero, with +wind, compelled their immediate return. The +ice changed gradually, as they went inland, from +rough to smooth, and the angle of rise decreased +from six to two degrees at their highest, over +five thousand feet. A snow-storm broke on them, +and, as Hayes describes, “fitful clouds swept +over the face of the full-orbed moon, which, +descending toward the horizon, glimmered +through the drifting snow that hurled out of +the illimitable distance, and scudded over the +icy plains—to the eye, in undulating lines of +downy softness; to the flesh, in showers of piercing +darts.”</p> + +<p>Suddenly misfortunes came on them. Peter, +an Esquimau dog-driver, brought from Upernivik, +deserted. Hans Hendrik, in his interesting +“Memoirs,” says: “In the beginning of the winter +Peter turned a Kivigtok, that is, fled from +human society to live alone up the country. We +were unable to make out what might have induced +him to do so. Searching for him, at last +I found his footprints going to the hills.” The +poor native was never seen alive, but it eventually +transpired that he sought shelter in a remote +and rarely visited Esquimau hut, where +he died of starvation, his body being found in a +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page282" id="page282"></a>282</span> +very emaciated condition by an Etah native the +following spring.</p> + +<p>Next the dogs began to die of distemper, +which led up to the death of Sontag, the astronomer. +By the 21st of December only nine remained +of thirty fine dogs, and in this contingency +it was decided to open up communication +with the Esquimaux of Whale Sound, some one +hundred and fifty miles to the south, for the purchase +of dogs. For this journey Sontag volunteered, +and with him went Hans as dog-driver. +Hayes waited week after week, but no news +came from either Sontag or Hans. Then feelings +of uneasiness gave place to alarm and fear; +for a journey of Dodge, first mate, proved that +the travellers had gone outside Cape Alexander, +where the floe had broken, so that possibly they +had been lost on drifting ice. Hayes was projecting +a personal search on January 29th, when +two Esquimaux visited the ship and reported that +Sontag was dead. They proved to be advance-couriers +of Hans, who arrived a few days later, +with only five of his nine dogs remaining.</p> + +<p>In his “Memoirs” Hans relates as follows: “It +still blew a gale and the snow drifting dreadfully, +for which reason we resolved to return.... +The ice began breaking up, so we were forced to +go ashore and continue our drive over the ice-foot. +At one place the land became impassable, +and we were obliged to return to the ice again. +On descending here my companion (Sontag) fell +through the ice, which was nothing but a thick +sheet of snow and water. I stooped, but was unable +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page283" id="page283"></a>283</span> +to seize him, it being very low tide. As a +last resort I remembered a strap hanging on the +sledge-poles; this I threw to him, and when he +had tied it around his body I pulled, but found +it very difficult. At length I succeeded in drawing +him up, but he was at the point of freezing +to death, and now in the storm and drifting +snow he took off his clothes and slipped into the +sleeping-bag, whereupon I placed him on the +sledge and repaired to our last resting-place. +Our road being very rough, I cried for despair +from want of help; but I reached the snow-hut.” +He recites that Sontag remained unconscious to +his death, and that the breaking up of the ice +around Cape Alexander, confirmed by Dodge’s +journey, prevented his return to the ship at that +time. There was much talk about Sontag’s +death, but Hans’s account is doubtless correct.</p> + +<p>Sontag was the only trained scientific observer +in the party; and in addition, from his skill, experience, +and enthusiasm in Arctic work, was +almost indispensable to Hayes. His death was +a great blow to the party, socially as well as +professionally.</p> + +<p>In early spring Hayes succeeded in obtaining +the co-operation of the Etah Esquimaux in sledging, +and in a preliminary journey visited his old +winter-quarters, where he had served with Kane +six years before. Where they had abandoned the +Advance, surrounded by the solid pack, he found +ice nearly as high as were her mastheads; no +vestige of the vessel remained except a bit of +plank, and its fate was a matter of conjecture, +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page284" id="page284"></a>284</span> +though little doubt exists that she was ultimately +crushed by the disruption of the pack during +some violent gale. It was during this journey +that Hayes experienced an intense degree of +cold. Stating that the thermometer which hung +inside the hut against the snow-wall indicated +thirty-one degrees below zero, Hayes says: “We +crawled out in the open air to try the sunshine. +’I will give you the best buffalo skin in the ship, +Jansen, if the air outside is not warmer than in +that den which you have left so full of holes.’ +And it really seemed so. Human eye never lit +upon a more pure and glowing morning. The +sunlight was sparkling all over the landscape +and the great world of whiteness; and the frozen +plain, the hummocks, the icebergs, and the tall +mountains made a picture inviting to the eye. +Not a breath of air was stirring. Jansen gave in +without a murmur. I brought out the thermometer +and set it up in the shadow of an iceberg +near by. I really expected to see it rise; but no, +down sank the little red column of alcohol, down, +down almost to the bulb, until it touched sixty-eight +and a half degrees below zero, Fahrenheit, +equal to one hundred and a half degrees below +the freezing-point of water. It struck me as a +singular circumstance that this great depression +of temperature was not perceptible to the senses, +which utterly failed to give us even so much as +a hint that here in this blazing sunlight we were +experiencing about the coldest temperature ever +recorded.”</p> + +<table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:700px; height:544px" src="images/img295.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption">Adrift on a Berg.</td></tr></table> + +<p>After this preliminary journey Hayes laid +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page285" id="page285"></a>285</span> +down supplies at the nearest point on the Greenland +shore south of, and facing, Cape Hawks. +This place, called Cairn Point, was to be the base +of his summer’s campaign to the north. Finally +everything was ready for the main journey, and +the party started on the night of April 3, 1861. +Twelve men, the entire available force, were put +into the field: Jansen with an eight-dog sledge, +Knorr with a six-dog sledge, and a ten-man +sledge on which was mounted a twenty-foot metallic +life-boat, with which Hayes hoped to navigate +the Polar Sea. The journey lay directly to +the north over the frozen surface of Kane Sea, +where the difficulties of travel through the +broken hummocky ice were so great, and the +unfitness of some of the men for Arctic travel so +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page286" id="page286"></a>286</span> +speedily developed, that Hayes was forced to +abandon his efforts to get the boat across the +frozen sea, which, he says, “could not have been +done by one hundred men.” On April 24th +Hayes records that he had been twenty-two +days from the schooner, and was now distant +only thirty miles from Cairn Point. Four days +later, still struggling across the rough ice of +Kane Sea, the party was practically broken +down, being, as Hayes chronicles, “barely capable +of attending to their own immediate necessities +without harboring the thought of exerting +themselves to complete a journey to which they +can see no termination, and in the very outset of +which they feel that their lives are being sacrificed.”</p> + +<p>In this critical condition Hayes changed his +plans, and sent back the entire party to the brig, +except Knorr, Jansen, and McDonald, whom he +selected as best fitted to make the northern +journey, which he had decided to make with +fourteen dogs and two sledges. Turning northward +with renewed confidence and vigor, though +yet struggling with various misfortunes through a +tangle of broken hummocks, Hayes reached Cape +Hawks on May 11th. The condition of the ice +may be judged from the fact that he had been +thirty-one days in making a distance of eighty +miles, a little more than two miles a day. Three +days’ farther march took him to Cape Frazier, +where the flagstaff erected by him in 1853 yet +stood erect. At the end of the next march, where +they were driven to the sea ice owing to the impossibility +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page287" id="page287"></a>287</span> +of following the ice-foot, Hayes ascended +the hillside, whence, he says, “No land +was visible to the eastward. As it would not +have been difficult through such an atmosphere +to see a distance of fifty or sixty miles, it would +appear therefore that Kennedy Channel is somewhat +wider than heretofore supposed.”</p> + +<p>On May 15th Jansen was disabled for travelling +by a sprained back and injured leg, and the next +morning was scarcely able to move. Hayes decided +to leave the disabled man in charge of +McDonald and proceed with Knorr, his purpose +being “to make the best push I could and travel +as far as my provisions warranted, reach the +highest attainable latitude and secure such a +point of observation as would enable me to form +a definite opinion respecting the sea before me.”</p> + +<p>Rough ice and deep snow so impeded his progress +the first day that he only made nine miles +in as many hours. Ten hours’ march compelled +them to again camp, and four hours of the third +day brought them to the southern cape of a bay +which he determined to cross. After travelling +four miles the rotten ice and frequent water-channels +proved that the bay was impassable, and +therefore they went into camp. The next day +Hayes climbed to the top of the cliff, some eight +hundred feet high, whence, he says, “the sea beneath +me was a mottled sheet of white and dark +patches multiplied in size as they receded until +the belt of the water-sky blended them together.... +All the new evidence showed that I stood +upon the shores of the polar basin, and that the +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page288" id="page288"></a>288</span> +broad ocean lay at my feet.... There was +seen in dim outline the white sloping summit of a +noble head-land, the most northern known land +upon our globe. I judged it to be in latitude 82° +30´ N., or four hundred and fifty miles from the +North Pole.... There was no land visible +except the coast on which I stood.”</p> + +<p>Hayes, before returning to his ship, deposited +in a cairn a record, dated May 19, 1861, setting +forth his trip, stating that his observations placed +him in 81° 35´ N. latitude, and 70° 30´ W. longitude; +that his further progress was stopped by +rotten ice and cracks; that he believed the polar +basin was navigable during the months of July, +August, and September, and that he would make +an attempt to get through Smith’s Sound when +the ice broke that summer.</p> + +<p>The extent and scope of Hayes’s discoveries, +as set forth in his account of the expedition in +“The Open Polar Sea,” gave rise to persistent +and adverse criticism both as to the soundness of +his judgment and also as to the accuracy of his +observations. Three expeditions, by their later +surveys, have demonstrated that the astronomical +position assigned by Hayes to his “farthest” +on the east coast of Grinnell Land is impossible. +There is unmistakably an error either of latitude +or of longitude. Cape Joseph Goode, it is to be +remarked, is in the longitude assigned by Hayes, +while Cape Lieber is no less than six and a half +degrees to the eastward; reversely, Lieber corresponds +nearly to Hayes’s latitude, while Cape +Joseph Goode is a degree and a half to the +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page289" id="page289"></a>289</span> +south. Grave and undisputable errors in other +latitudes, all being too far to the north, indicate +that the mistake in this instance is also of latitude. +In justice to Hayes it should be said that +the latitude of his “farthest” depended solely +on a single observation with a small field sextant +of the meridian altitude of the sun. While +this is the common method on shipboard it is +exceedingly objectionable in Arctic land determinations. +It depends not only on the honesty +of the observer, but on the condition of the sextant +and also on the manner in which it is +handled; either of these three qualities being +faulty the observation is incorrect. The tendency +of the sextant to “slip,” as it is turned +over for reading, and the almost invariably benumbed +condition of the hands of the traveller, +indicate the extreme difficulty of making any +single reading with accuracy. Again, with haste +demanded so often by adverse circumstances, the +index of a very small sextant may be misread a +whole degree. It is unquestioned that one or +the other of these accidents happened to Hayes, +for the independent investigations of Bessels, +Schott, and others lead to the inevitable conclusion, +which any scientist may verify by examination +of Hayes’s widely separated data, that +his “farthest” is placed too far north. The <span class="correction" title="amended from concensus">consensus</span> +of opinion in the Lady Franklin expedition +pointed to Cape Joseph Goode, 80° 14´ N., +as Hayes’s “farthest,” as it agreed better with +Hayes’s description than any other point; it may +be added that from this cape Hayes could not +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page290" id="page290"></a>290</span> +see the Greenland coast above Cape Constitution, +which he leaves blank on his chart, and +again, here the unusually heavy spring tides, +of nearly twenty-five-foot range, break up the +southern half of the floes of Kennedy Channel, +thus forming early in the year large water-spaces—the +Open Polar Sea of Hayes and Morton.</p> + +<p>Even if Hayes’s sight of the Open Polar +Sea proved visionary, and certain unskilled observations +failed of verification, yet his adventurous +voyage was not barren of geographical +results. He was the first civilized man to land +on the shores of Ellesmere Land, along the coasts +of which, between the seventy-seventh and seventy-eighth +parallels, he made important discoveries; +while farther to the northward, Hayes +Sound, Bache Island, and other unknown lands +and waters were added to our maps through his +strenuous exertions.</p> + +<p>Breaking out his schooner on July 10, 1861, +an unprecedentedly early date for an Arctic ship, +he quickly decided that he could hope for no +further northing in a sailing vessel. However, +he crossed the strait to the unvisited shores of +Ellesmere Land, where he made such an examination +of the coast as was practicable, and then +turned his face homeward.</p> + +<p>Hayes was fully alive to the absolute necessity +of steam-power for complete Arctic success, but +strictly limited means obliged him to go in a +sailing vessel or not at all. He plainly foresaw +the magnificent success awaiting the first expedition +that should carry steam-power into Smith +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page291" id="page291"></a>291</span> +Sound, and full of dreams of future Arctic work +he impatiently returned to the United States. +It was not to be. Civil war raged, and the country +called its loyal sons to arms. Hayes was not +the man to falter at such a juncture. He at once +tendered his schooner to the government for +such use as was possible, and volunteered for +the war, where his activity as the head of a great +war hospital taxed to the utmost the mental and +physical powers which had so long been occupied +in arduous efforts to solve the riddle of the +ice-free sea.</p> + +<p>Hayes visited Greenland a third time, in 1869, +with the Arctic artist, William Bradford, in the +steam-sealer Panther. Arctic scenery was their +quest, and so they visited the fiord of Sermitsialik, +where the inland ice, which covers the +greater part of Greenland, pushes down into the +sea as an enormous glacier, with a front two and +a half miles wide.</p> + +<p>Here Hayes witnessed the birth of an iceberg, +of which he says: “It would be impossible for +mere words alone to convey an adequate idea of +the action of this new-born child of the Arctic +frosts. Think of a solid block of ice, a third of +a mile deep, and more than half a mile in lateral +diameter, hurled like a mere toy away into the +water, and set to rolling to and fro by the impetus +of the act. Picture this and you will have +an image of power not to be seen by the action +of any other forces upon the earth. The disturbance +of the water was inconceivably fine. +Waves of enormous magnitude were rolled up +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page292" id="page292"></a>292</span> +with great violence against the glacier, covering +it with spray; and billows came tearing down +the fiord, their progress marked by the crackling +and crumbling ice which was everywhere in a +state of the wildest agitation for the space of +several miles.”</p> + +<p>The famous mine of cryolite, the only valuable +mineral deposit in Greenland; the Hope Sanderson +of John Davis’s great voyage of 1587, with +its lofty crest and innumerable flocks of wildfowl; +Tessuissak, the most northerly settlement +of Greenland; Duck Islands, the haunts of the +eider, and the chosen rendezvous of ice-stayed +whalers; Devil’s Thumb, the great, wonderful +pillar, to the base of which Hayes struggled up +thirteen hundred feet above the ice-covered sea, +and Sabine Island, all saw the Panther, in its +pleasure-seeking journey. If no geographical +results sprang from this voyage, it had a literary +outcome in Hayes’s book, “The Land of Desolation,” +and in a series of detached sketches, +which in beauty and interest are unsurpassed as +regards life in Danish Greenland.</p> + +<p>Hayes died in New York City, December 17, +1881. To the last he maintained a lively interest +in Arctic exploration, and ever and again he +favored polar research, always with an alternative +scheme of his old harbor, Foulke fiord, as +the base of operations. He resented the appellation +“Great Frozen Sea” as properly characterizing +the Arctic Ocean to the north of Greenland, +and to the last held fast to the ideal of his youth, +the belief of his manhood, “The Open Polar Sea.”</p> + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page293" id="page293"></a>293</span></p> + +<p class="center">XI.</p> + +<p class="chap center">CHARLES FRANCIS HALL,</p> + +<p class="center sc">And the North Pole.</p> + +<p class="noind"><span class="chap1 sc">Among</span> the many exploring expeditions that +have crossed the Arctic Circle with the sole +view of reaching the North Pole, one only has +sailed entirely under the auspices of the United +States. This expedition was commanded neither +by an officer of one of the twin military services +nor by a sailor of the merchant marine, but its +control was intrusted to a born Arctic explorer, +Charles Francis Hall. Born in 1821, in Rochester, +N. H., Hall early quitted his native hills for +the freer fields of the West, as the Ohio Valley +was then called, and later settled in Cincinnati. +There was ever a spirit of change in him, and as +years rolled on he passed from blacksmith to +journalist, from stationer to engraver. Through +all these changes of trades he held fast to one +fancy, which in time became the dominating element +of his eventful career: in early youth, fascinated +with books of travel relating to exploration +in the icy zones, he eagerly improved every +opportunity to increase his Arctic library, which +steadily grew despite his very limited resources. +His interest in the fate of Franklin was so intense +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page294" id="page294"></a>294</span> +that he followed with impatience the slow and +uncertain efforts for the relief of the lost explorer. +Not content with mere sympathy he also +planned an American search, to be conducted in +Her Majesty’s ship Resolute. Learning in 1859 +that this Arctic ship was laid up and dismantled +he originated a petition asking that it be loaned +for such purpose. The return of McClintock +with definite news of the death of Franklin, and +the retreat and loss of his expeditionary force, +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page295" id="page295"></a>295</span> +put an end to the petition. Hall, however, despite +the admirable and convincing report of +McClintock, persisted in the belief that some +members of Franklin’s crew were yet alive, and +he determined to solve the problem by visiting +King William Land, the scene of the final disaster. +He issued circulars asking public aid, +diligently sought out whalers and explorers who +could give him their personal experiences, and +finally determined that he must go and live with +the Esquimaux, and, conforming to their modes +of travel and existence, work out his Arctic problem +on new lines.</p> + +<table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:450px; height:547px" src="images/img304.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption">Charles Francis Hall.</td></tr></table> + +<p>The inauguration of the plan presented difficulties, +for Hall was without means; but his persistent +action created confidence, and the modest +outfit for the voyage was procured through +friendly contributions, while passage on a whaler +for himself and baggage was tendered.</p> + +<p>On July 30, 1860, with a whaleboat and scanty +supplies, Hall landed alone on the west coast of +Davis Strait, in Frobisher Bay. His base of operations +was Rescue Harbor, 63° N., 65° W., whence +he made a series of sledge journeys during the +two years passed in this region. He re-examined +the coasts visited by Frobisher in his eventful +voyages of 1575 to 1579, and found the famous +gold mine on Meta Incognita, whence 1,300 tons +of ore were carried to England, where, as the +chronicles relate, “in the melting and refining 16 +tonnes whereof, proceeded 210 ounces of fine +silver mixed with gold.”</p> + +<p>An extensive collection of relics of Frobisher’s +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page296" id="page296"></a>296</span> +expedition was made, which later was given to +the Royal Geographical Society. The expedition +of Hall was mainly fruitful in training him +for other Arctic work, for though his knowledge +was self-acquired and instruments imperfect, yet +his indefatigable industry and practice in scientific +observations made him a reliable observer +by the time of his return. It may be added that +his careful and detailed description of the habits +and life of the Esquimaux of the west coast of +Davis Strait are of decided value from his rigid +truthfulness, which caused him to record what +he saw without exaggeration.</p> + +<p>Hall’s success in obtaining so many relics of +Frobisher’s voyage of three centuries previous, +and the fact that the Esquimaux yet had traditionary +knowledge of that voyage, encouraged Hall +and his friends to a confident belief that a voyage +to the shores of King William Land would result +in the discovery of records, relics, possibly survivors, +and in any event rescue the story of the +retreat of Crozier from oblivion by hearing it +from Esquimau eye-witnesses.</p> + +<p>Future search operations were to be promoted +through his Esquimau followers, commonly +known as Joe and Hannah, who returned with +him to the United States, and further, Hall relied +upon his knowledge of the Esquimau language, +in which he had acquired considerable +facility during his long sojourn with them.</p> + +<p>Hall’s return was in 1862, and in 1864 he was +ready for his second voyage. On August 20th he +was landed, with his two natives, a whaleboat, +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page297" id="page297"></a>297</span> +tent, and a moderate amount of provisions, on +Depot Island, in the extreme northern part of +Hudson Bay, in 63° 47´ N., 90° W., where Hall +began his life and quest that were to last five +weary years.</p> + +<p>Preliminary autumnal journeys extended his +knowledge, but they were marked by no definite +progress, and the summer of 1864 was spent by the +natives in securing game for the coming winter, +thus postponing Hall’s chances of a westward +sledge-trip to King William Land yet another +year. Despairing of assistance from natives near +the whaling rendezvous, Hall decided to make +his winter-quarters in Repulse Bay, at Fort +Hope, 60° 32´ N., 87° W., occupied, 1846-47, by +the famous explorer, Dr. Rae. Here he hoped +to secure the friendship of the neighboring Esquimaux +and lay up stores of game for the final expedition, +and there he wintered in 1865-66, during +which he secured about one hundred and fifty +reindeer, some salmon, and ptarmigan. With returning +spring the Esquimaux promised to make +the journey, and with quite a party and several +dog-sledges Hall’s heart was full of joy and expectation +as they moved northward across Rae +Peninsula, on March 30, 1866. His discouragements +commenced with the long halts and frequent +detours for hunts, and his disappointment +was complete when the natives decided to turn +back from Cape Weynton, 68° N., 89° W., after +having, in twenty-eight days, only travelled as +far with dogs as Rae had gone on foot in five +days. Hall simply records: “My King William +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page298" id="page298"></a>298</span> +party is ended for the present; disappointed but +not discouraged.”</p> + +<p>The journey and time were not fruitless, for +near Cape Weynton he fell in with four strange +Esquimaux, who gave him most valuable information +as to the subject nearest his heart. They +related that some of their people had visited the +search ships and had seen Franklin. What was +more to the point, they produced a considerable +number of articles that had once belonged to +members of Franklin’s party. The most important +were silver articles, such as spoons, forks, +etc., which bore the crest of Franklin and other +officers of the lost expedition. These veritable +evidences of the passage of Crozier and others +of Franklin’s expedition through this region +were fortunately secured by Hall, and were +later supplemented by many others.</p> + +<p>Unable to obtain Esquimau assistance the following +year, Hall made journeys here and there +wherever it was possible; one, in February, 1867, +to Igloolik, the winter-quarters of Parry in 1822, +on Boothia Felix Land, and a second, in 1868, to +the Strait of Fury and Hekla, discovered by +Parry in 1825; furthermore, he surveyed the +northwest coast of Melville Peninsula, and filled +in the broken line of the Admiralty chart for the +northwest of that peninsula.</p> + +<p>Visiting whalers urged on Hall the impossibility +of succeeding in reaching King William Land +by aid of natives, and more than one captain +offered to carry him and his party back to the +United States. Never despairing of final success, +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page299" id="page299"></a>299</span> +Hall determined to pass another winter at +Fort Hope, Repulse Bay. Here, learning by +experience, and acquiring food supplies during +the winter, he succeeded, in March, 1869, in +again starting westward with ten Esquimaux—men, +women, and children—with well-loaded +dog-sledges. Progress was slow and delays frequent, +but still the journey was continued.</p> + +<table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:700px; height:562px" src="images/img309.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption">Igloos, or Esquimau Huts.</td></tr></table> + +<p>Their course from Repulse Bay lay overland, +by nearly connecting lakes and rivers, across +Rae Peninsula to Committee Bay, thence by +another similar overland route over the south +end of Boothia Felix Land, to James Ross Strait, +where King William Land lies some sixty miles +to the west.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page300" id="page300"></a>300</span></p> + +<p>Hall, singularly enough, was never able to appreciate +the attitude of the natives in making +such a long, dangerous journey merely to please +him, for he quaintly complains that the Esquimaux +had no appreciation of his mission and +continually lost valuable time by stopping to +smoke and talk. They now objected to go west +of Pelly Bay, but by persuasion proceeded to +Simpson Island, 68° 30´ N., 91° 30´ W., where a +successful hunt for musk-oxen so restored their +spirits that they went on.</p> + +<p>At Point Ackland, on the eastern shore of +James Ross Strait, Hall fortunately fell in with +natives, with whom he remained nine days, and +from whom he obtained important information. +In-nook-poo-zhee-jook proved to be the chief +man of the party, and from him and others +were purchased relics, such as silver spoons, +plain and with the crest of Franklin. Hall was +told that these articles came from a large island +where a great many white men died, and that +five white men were buried on an island known +to the chief. This Esquimau finally agreed to +accompany Hall and guided him direct across +James Ross Strait to a group of small islets to +the east of King William Land, where, on Todd +Island, part of a human thigh-bone was found; +snow covering the ground to such a depth as +to make thorough search impossible without +long delay.</p> + +<p>On May 12, 1869, Hall had the supreme pleasure +of putting foot on King William Land, the +object and end of his five years’ life among the +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page301" id="page301"></a>301</span> +Esquimaux. The only tangible result of the +search thereon was the discovery of a human +skeleton, and he reluctantly set out on his return. +Esquimaux were fallen in with in Pelly +Bay, 68° 30´ N., 90° 30´ W., and an old man, Tungnuk, +on inquiry regarding Franklin relics in their +possession, told Hall that the natives had found +a ship beset near Ki-ki-tuk, King William Land, +and that in getting wood out of it they made a +hole in the ship, which soon after sank. Ko-big, +another native, said that all the white men perished, +except two at Ki-ki-tuk, whose fate was +unknown.</p> + +<p>Hall felt satisfied, from the stories of the Esquimaux +and other evidences, that he was able +to determine the fate of seventy-nine out of the +one hundred and five men of Crozier’s party, +which retreated in 1848 from the abandoned +ships. The Esquimaux told him that Crozier, +Franklin’s second in command, had passed near +their huts; that he had a gun in his hand and a +telescope around his neck, and that his men were +dragging two boats. Crozier told the natives +that they were going to Repulse Bay. The Esquimaux +admitted that they had deserted Crozier +owing to the fact that his party was in a +starving condition and their food was scarce.</p> + +<p>As far as Hall could make out, Crozier, late in +July, 1848, passed down the west coast of King +William Land with forty men dragging two +sledges, and near Cape Herschel fell in with four +Esquimaux families, who, after communicating +with Crozier, fled from the starving party during +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page302" id="page302"></a>302</span> +the night. From native accounts Hall was also +able to enumerate in detail the points at which +the retreating party had died and been buried.</p> + +<table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:700px; height:515px" src="images/img312.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption">In Winter-Quarters.</td></tr></table> + +<p>Among other relics collected by Hall were +portions of one of the boats, an oak sledge-runner, +a chronometer box with the Queen’s broad +arrow engraved thereon, Franklin’s mahogany +writing-desk, and many pieces of silver, forks, +spoons, knives, and parts of watches. It was +claimed by the natives that one of Franklin’s +ships made the northwest passage with five men +on board, and in the spring of 1849 was found +by them near O’Reilly Island (68° 30´ N., 99° W.).</p> + +<p>Hall had now passed five years among the Esquimaux, +in which time he had made sledge +journeys aggregating more than three thousand +miles; acquired a thorough knowledge of the +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page303" id="page303"></a>303</span> +language and methods of life of the natives, +and proved the possibility of a white man living +the same life and making the same sledge journeys +as the natives; but at the same time he became +conscious that no very extended sledge-work +could be done by Esquimau aid alone. +His five years of arduous Arctic life ended in +1869 by his returning home on an American +whaler, bringing with him his faithful Esquimaux, +Joe and Hannah.</p> + +<p>Hall’s return to the United States was simply, +however, to pursue another and greater voyage, +in which he believed he would be able to reach +the North Pole.</p> + +<p>After strenuous efforts he succeeded in interesting +the President, the Cabinet, and a large number +of Congressmen in his project, and on July +12, 1870, Congress appropriated $50,000 for the +purpose of the expedition; authorized the employment +of any suitable vessel in the navy, and +provided that the National Academy of Sciences +should prescribe the scope of the scientific observations. +An old tug of nearly four hundred +tons burden, rechristened under the name of Polaris, +was selected, overhauled, and strengthened.</p> + +<p>Hall sailed from New York June 29th, the +party consisting of Captain Buddington, sailing-master; +Dr. Emil Bessel, chief of the scientific +staff; R. W. D. Bryan, astronomer; Sergeant +Frederick Meyer, Signal Corps, meteorologist; +seven petty officers, and a crew of fourteen, together +with his faithful servants, Joe and Hannah.</p> + +<p>The Polaris was provisioned and equipped for +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page304" id="page304"></a>304</span> +an absence of two and a half years, and her voyage +was destined to be over the route made famous +by the expeditions of Kane and Hayes, +through Davis Strait and northward along the +west coast of Greenland, although Hall was at +first uncertain whether he would not enter +Jones’s Sound, instead of Smith’s Strait. The +usual visits to the Greenland ports were made, +with resulting stores of furs, dogs, sledges, and +other paraphernalia for exploration in the far +North. To this point the expedition was convoyed +by the man-of-war Congress, which bade +the Polaris Godspeed as she left Godhaven on +her lonely journey.</p> + +<p>Hans Hendrick, the Esquimau dog traveller, +whose services with Kane and Hayes commended +him to Hall, accompanied the expedition with +his wife and children. It was a strange meeting +between Morton, the second mate, and Hans, +the Esquimau, who, twenty years before, as +subordinates of Kane, had made together the +memorable sledge journey from Rensselaer Harbor, +along the Humboldt Glacier, to Cape Constitution.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page305" id="page305"></a>305</span></p> + +<table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:440px; height:750px" src="images/img315.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption">An Arctic Fiord.</td></tr></table> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page306" id="page306"></a>306</span></p> + +<p>The Polaris was favored by an unusually open +sea; Melville Bay was crossed in forty-eight +hours and the “North Water” beyond was so +free of ice that the Polaris kept her way unchecked +until she reached Hakluyt Island; even +here the ice-pack was so open that the Polaris +easily forced her way. Littleton Island was +passed on the evening of August 27, 1870, and +later, crossing the parallel of Rensselaer Harbor, +the Polaris attained a higher latitude than any +former vessel on this route. Kane Sea and +Kennedy Channel proved equally free of ice, so +that the Polaris, steaming uninterruptedly northward, +entered the Arctic Ocean, hitherto inaccessible, +where she was finally stopped by an impenetrable +pack, in 82° 26´ N. This point was +more than two hundred miles directly north of +the farthest reached by Kane’s vessel, the Advance. +From this vantage-ground it was seen +that the eastern coast-line of Grinnell Land extended +somewhat farther to the north before +turning to the west, and that, on the other hand, +the coast of Northern Greenland trended very +nearly eastward. Strenuous, though unavailing, +efforts were made to push the Polaris further +northward; failing this, attempts were then +made to find a safe harbor to the eastward, +but none was accessible. In the meantime the +main ice-pack of the Arctic Ocean, setting +southward to its normal position, carried the +Polaris steadily to the south, through Robinson +Channel, a distance of nearly fifty miles, and +nearly caused her destruction by forcing her +on the Greenland coast. Fortunately the pack +opened somewhat, so that the vessel was enabled +to change her position and secure safe +anchorage. This place, later named Thank God +Harbor, in 81° 37´ N., 61° 44´ W., was sheltered +by a bold cape to the north, while the +Polaris was protected from the polar pack by an +immense ice-floe, called Providence Berg. This +enormous floe-berg, grounded in a hundred +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page307" id="page307"></a>307</span> +fathoms of water, was by direct measurement +four hundred and fifty feet long, three hundred +feet broad, and towered sixty feet above the level +of the sea.</p> + +<p>Preparations were at once made to put the +crew in winter-quarters, and on shore an observatory +was built for scientific purposes. To the +surprise and delight of the party, seals proved to +be quite abundant, and a small herd of musk-oxen +was found, the first of these animals ever +seen on the west coast of Greenland.</p> + +<p>Leaving his chief of the scientific staff and his +sailing-master to their respective duties, Hall +decided on a preliminary sledge journey in order +to determine the best route for his contemplated +journey of the next spring toward the +pole. A heavy fall of snow insured good +sledging and enabled him to leave Thank God +Harbor on October 10th, he being accompanied +by the first mate, Chester, the Esquimaux, Joe and +Hans Hendrick, with two dog-sledges and fourteen +dogs. In a journey of six days he attained +Cape Brevoort, in 82° N., on the north side of +Newman Bay, a considerable distance to the +southward, however, of the point reached by the +Polaris in the Arctic Ocean. In a despatch +written at this point, Hall says, “From Cape +Brevoort we can see land extending on the +west side of the strait to the north, a distance +of about seventy miles, thus making land, as far +as we can discover, about 83° 5´ N.” To illustrate +the accuracy of Hall’s judgment and his +freedom from making extravagant claims, it may +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page308" id="page308"></a>308</span> +be stated that the detailed surveys of the British +Arctic expedition of 1876 show the most northerly +point on the east coast of Grinnell Land, +Cape Joseph Henry, which possibly could be +seen by Hall, was in 82° 55´, or within ten miles +of the position assigned it from a distance of +seventy miles.</p> + +<table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:420px; height:425px" src="images/img318.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption">A Woman of the Arctic Highlanders. Sketched from life.</td></tr></table> + +<p>Hall returned to the Polaris on October 24th, +speaking most encouragingly of his prospects +and planning another sledge journey for the autumn. +Within an hour, however, he was taken +violently ill, and upon examination, Dr. Bessels +announced that he had been stricken with apoplexy, +that his left side was paralyzed, and that +his sickness might prove fatal. After an illness, +with delirium, for several days, he improved materially, +and was even able, through his clerk, to +arrange the records of his late sledge journey, but +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page309" id="page309"></a>309</span> +a recurrence of the attack caused his death, on +November 8, 1871.</p> + +<p>The death of Hall left the expedition without +a head. However, Captain Buddington, the sailing-master, +and Dr. Bessels, the chief of the scientific +staff, signed an agreement to do all in +their power to fulfil the ultimate object of Hall’s +ambition. Desultory efforts to go northward by +boat were made without success the following +year, and the only expedition which had definite +result was one on foot by Sergeant Meyer, of +the Signal Corps of the United States Army, +during which he reached Repulse Harbor, 82° +9´ N., on the shores of the frozen Polar Sea, at +that time the most northerly land ever attained.</p> + +<p>The future of the Polaris expedition does not +strictly pertain to Hall. However, the winter +was marked by a series of valuable physical observations, +made by Dr. Bessels and Mr. Bryan, +the astronomer. In August, 1872, it was decided +to return to the United States. Pushed into an +impenetrable pack, anchored to a floe, the Polaris +drifted with the main ice-pack down Kennedy +Channel, through Kane Sea, and into Smith +Sound, where, on October 15, 1872, off Northumberland +Island, the pack was disrupted by a +violent gale, which freed the Polaris. Part of +her crew, left upon the ice-pack, experienced the +horrors of a mid-winter drift southward of thirteen +hundred miles, and were picked up off the +coast of Labrador by the sealer Tigress, in +the spring of 1872. The Polaris drifted to land +in Lifeboat Cove, near Littleton Island, where +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page310" id="page310"></a>310</span> +the party built winter-quarters on shore, known +as Polaris House. In the succeeding summer +they built boats from the remains of their ship, +by means of which they reached Cape York, +where their contemplated journey across Melville +Bay was rendered unnecessary by falling +in with the whaler Ravenscraig, which took +them to England.</p> + +<table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:430px; height:482px" src="images/img320.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption">Esquimau Woman. Sketched from life.</td></tr></table> + +<p>The geographical results of Hall’s last expedition +were extensive and valuable. Not only was +the Polaris navigated to the highest point then +ever attained by a vessel, but the very shores of +the Polar Sea were visited and explored. Hall +carried northward and completed the exploration +of Kennedy Channel; outlined the coast of +Hall Basin and Robinson Channel; extended +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page311" id="page311"></a>311</span> +Grinnell Land northward nearly two degrees of +latitude to practically its extreme limit; added +materially to the northern limits of Greenland, +and charted a very extensive portion of its +northern coast. Unfortunately for the general +credit of the expedition, the accurate observations +and conservative estimates of Hall were +not adhered to, and in their stead were published, +under government auspices, a chart of Hall’s +discoveries which proved misleading in many of +its details, extravagant and unreliable in its +claims of new northern lands.</p> + +<p>The fidelity, accuracy, and importance of Hall’s +Arctic work is recognized, especially by his +American and British successors in Smith Sound. +Nares, in his official report to Parliament, states +that the east coast-line of Grinnell Land agreed +“so well with Hall’s description that it was impossible +to mistake their identity. Their bearing +also, although differing upward of thirty degrees +from those of the published chart, agreed +precisely with his published report.” Thus Hall +merited the commemorative inscription on the +brass tablet which the British polar expedition +of 1875, with a generous appreciativeness creditable +to its own brave men, erected to Hall’s +memory over his lonely northern grave. It +recognizes Hall as one “who sacrificed his life +in the advancement of science,” and further +recites that they, “following in his footsteps, +have profited by his experience.”</p> + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page312" id="page312"></a>312</span></p> + +<p class="center">XII.</p> + +<p class="chap center">GEORGE WASHINGTON DE LONG,</p> + +<p class="center sc">And the Siberian Arctic Ocean.</p> + +<p class="noind"><span class="chap1 sc">Of</span> all the routes followed by explorers attempting +to extend northward our knowledge of +unknown lands, there is one which, more than +all others, seems to have been closed by nature to +the daring enterprise of man. While successful +voyages to the northward of America, and along +the meridian of Spitzbergen, have been of frequent +occurrence, yet it has been the fortune of +one expedition only to penetrate the vast ice-pack +that covers the Arctic Ocean to the north +of Siberia, and give an account thereof.</p> + +<p>This expedition, organized through the munificence +of James Gordon Bennett, Jr., and known +to the world as the Jeannette Expedition, was +commanded by De Long, then a lieutenant-commander +of the United States Navy.</p> + +<p>George Washington De Long was born in New +York City, March 22, 1844, and entered the United +States Navy, by graduation from the Naval +Academy, in 1865. He rose to be a lieutenant-commander +and rendered ordinary naval service +until 1873, when special duty fell to his lot which +turned his thoughts to Arctic research.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page313" id="page313"></a>313</span></p> + +<table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:450px; height:519px" src="images/img323.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption">George Washington De Long.</td></tr></table> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page314" id="page314"></a>314</span></p> + +<p>The rescue of the drift party of the Polaris +naturally caused great alarm as to the safety of +the remainder of her crew, and with the despatch +of the Tigress into the waters of Smith +Sound, came orders for the Juniata, to which De +Long was attached, to visit the coasts of western +Greenland for additional search for the missing +explorers. The Juniata proceeded to Upernivik, +as far as it was deemed safe for the man-of-war +to venture, but its brave and sagacious commander, +Captain D. L. Braine, of the Navy, +thought it most necessary to search the fast inshore +ice of Melville Bay, along which he correctly +surmised they would conduct a retreat by +boats. For this duty—novel, hazardous, and difficult—De +Long promptly volunteered. For +this dangerous trip the steam-launch Little Juniata, +some 32 feet long and 8 wide, was selected. +Her crew consisted of Lieutenant Chipp, Ensign +May, ice-pilot Dodge, who had served with +Hayes, and four others, while she was equipped +and provisioned for sixty days. In this small +craft De Long, following the fast ice, reached a +point immediately off Cape York, when he was +struck by a violent gale. The sea was so heavy +that his only chance of safety lay in carrying sail, +steam being useless, to keep the boat under control. +The violence of the wind disrupted the inshore +ice, threatening the launch continually; +owing to fog the presence of immense icebergs +made navigation more dangerous than ever; +high seas constantly broke over her, soaking +everything on board and harassing the crew +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page315" id="page315"></a>315</span> +with the imminent danger of swamping. Thirty +hours the gale lasted, leaving the party in the +last stages of exhaustion, wet to the skin and benumbed +with cold, with closed floes to the north +and east and the dangerous “middle pack” to +the west. Under these conditions De Long reluctantly +abandoned the search and returned.</p> + +<p>This brief experience created an interest in +northern work which never abated, and as a result, +De Long, the voyage ended, approached +James Gordon Bennett, Jr., who was favorable +to his projects. Nothing, however, was done +until November, 1876, after the return of the +Nares’s expedition, when the exploration was +decided on; but no vessel could be procured. +Eventually Sir Allen Young, an Arctic explorer +of note, was persuaded to sell the Pandora, in +which he had twice made polar voyages.</p> + +<p>The ship was, by Act of Congress, given an +American register under the name of Jeannette, +strengthened under naval supervision, and put in +commission under the orders and instructions of +the Secretary of the Navy, with full discipline in +force; but the expense of the expedition—repairs, +equipment, and pay—was met by Bennett.</p> + +<p>On July 8, 1879, the Jeannette sailed from San +Francisco, commanded by De Long, and officered +by Lieutenant Chipp, Master Danenhower, +Chief Engineer Melville, Doctor Ambler, an ice-pilot, +two scientists, twenty-four petty officers +and men. The route selected by De Long was +via Behring Strait, apparently under the impression +that Wrangel Land was continental in +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page316" id="page316"></a>316</span> +extent, an idea supported by the German geographer +Petermann, whose advice De Long had +sought, and along the shores of which coursed +the northern current that swept forever out of +the vision of man such whalers as were fully +beset by the ice-pack north of Asia.</p> + +<p>Before pursuing his own exploration De Long, +in compliance with instructions from the Navy +Department, made search for the Vega, in which +ship Nordenskiold, circumnavigating Europe +and Asia, had wintered at Cape Serdze Kamen, in +67° 12´ N. latitude, on the northwestern coast of +Asia. On reaching this point he learned that +the Vega had comfortably wintered and had +passed south, thus confirming the report he had +gained from the natives at St. Lawrence Bay.</p> + +<p>They at once steamed northward, thankful, as +De Long records, “that Nordenskiold was safe, +and we might proceed on our way toward Wrangel +Land.” Ice was soon fallen in with, and, +after preliminary efforts to proceed directly to +the north, which impenetrable floes prevented, +De Long, on September 5, 1879, “got up a full +head of steam and entered the pack through the +best-looking lead in the general direction of +Herald Island,” which was plainly visible at a +distance of forty miles.</p> + +<p>It was De Long’s intention on leaving San +Francisco to explore this land the first winter, +but completely beset by heavy floes, in 71° 35´ +N. latitude, 175° W. longitude, his ship never +escaped. In hopes that information of value +might be had from a visit to Herald Island, an +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page317" id="page317"></a>317</span> +unsuccessful attempt was made to reach it by +dog-sledge over the fast-cementing pack, but +the party was turned back by impassable leads.</p> + +<table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:700px; height:590px" src="images/img327.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption">Herald Island.</td></tr></table> + +<p>It soon became evident that the Jeannette was +drifting steadily with the entire pack. First, the +direction was to the north, taking the ship out +of sight of Herald Island, but next it changed +to the southwest, bringing that land again in +view. While the drift was by a devious and +very irregular course, yet it was in the general +direction of northwest, from 71° 35´ N., and 175° +W., at besetment, to 71° 15´ N., and 155° E., when +the ship was finally crushed by the pack. In +investigating the cause of the drift, De Long +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page318" id="page318"></a>318</span> +says: “As to the currents in this part of the +Arctic Ocean, I think our drift is demonstrating +that they are the local creation of the wind for +the time being. As our drift in resulting direction +has been northwest since our besetment, so +the greater amount of wind has been from the +southeast; our short and irregular side-drift east +and west, and occasionally to south, being due +to correspondingly short and irregular winds +from northwest or east.”</p> + +<p>The party settled down to their regular life, +which though very monotonous soon had an element +of excitement and danger introduced that +never passed away in entirety. This was the +threatened disruption of the pack, which, seemingly +without cause, would change its form and +position with such suddenness and violence as +to endanger the safety of the ship. On November +13, 1879, without warning, the pack separated +on a line with the ship’s keel, the port +snow-wall being carried with the pack one hundred +and fifty feet away, leaving open water, +that fortunately froze over before other violent +changes took place.</p> + +<p>De Long writes: “This steady strain is fearful; +seemingly we are not secure for a moment.... +Living over a powder-mill, waiting for +an explosion, would be a similar mode of existence.... +I sleep with my clothes on, and +start up anxiously at every crack ... of the +ship’s frame.”</p> + +<p>Almost by intervention of Providence, as it +seemed, the Jeannette escaped destruction from +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page319" id="page319"></a>319</span> +these violent disruptions, which, except that of +January 19, 1880, left her, during the first winter, +comparatively unharmed. On that day, with terrible +groaning and grinding, the main pack was +fearfully agitated; no large openings were seen +and the ice acted as though its entire periphery +was subjected to steady and irresistible pressure, +which being toward the centre caused the whole +surface to buckle up irregularly. Enormous +pieces of ice piling up under the stern of the +Jeannette brought a tremendous longitudinal +pressure on the ship and broke her fore-foot, +which caused a serious leak. It was only +through the indomitable energy and great professional +skill of Melville that the leak was got +under control, and later cared for, without taxing +greatly their precious stock of fuel.</p> + +<p>The winter passed with all in health save +Danenhower, whose eyes becoming diseased +necessitated several operations and permanently +placed him off duty for the voyage. The summer +of 1880 came, found them fast embedded in +the ice, and went without release. Autumn +passed, winter came, and even the opening year +of 1881 found them with conditions unchanged, +as De Long recites: “A disabled and leaking +ship, a seriously sick officer, an uneasy and terrible +pack, constantly diminishing coal-pile and +provisions, and far from the Siberian coast.” A +break came, however, with the discovery of new +land in May, along the north coast of which the +Jeannette drifted slowly. On May 31st a party +was sent to examine the island, for such it proved +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page320" id="page320"></a>320</span> +to be, Melville being in command, as Chipp was +then on the sick-list. Melville, despite the open +condition of the ice, succeeded in landing on +June 3, 1881, his third day out. He was obliged +to carry his instruments and provisions, at the +risk of his life, through the moving pack. It +proved to be a desolate, ice-capped, rocky islet, +almost destitute of vegetation and inhabited only +by dovekies, who nested in the inaccessible +cliffs adjoining the discharging glaciers. Another +island appearing, De Long named the two; +Jeannette, in 76° 47´ N., 159° E., and Henrietta, +in 77° 08´ N., 158° E.</p> + +<p>The end of the besetment came at last. On +June 12, 1881, in 77° 15´ N., 155° E., the pack +showed signs of great pressure, the immense floes +seeming to be alive in their motion, and despite +all efforts the Jeannette was terribly nipped, her +bows being thrown high in air. It was evident +that escape was hardly possible. Steps were immediately +taken to abandon ship, and everything +of value or use was speedily withdrawn, with +boats, sledges, etc., to a safe distance. Early the +next morning the ice opened a little, and the +Jeannette immediately sank, with colors flying, +in thirty-eight fathoms of water.</p> + +<p>De Long and his party thus found themselves +adrift in the Polar Sea, more than three hundred +miles from the nearest point of the mainland of +Asia, and about one hundred and fifty miles from +the New Siberian Islands. While the condition +of affairs seemed desperate, De Long never despaired. +Lieutenant Danenhower being disabled, +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page321" id="page321"></a>321</span> +and Chipp sick, De Long’s main dependence was +in his chief engineer, Melville, who was well, +strong, energetic, and fertile in expedients.</p> + +<table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:700px; height:765px" src="images/img331.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption">In the Pack.</td></tr></table> + +<p>They had five boats (two very small), nine sleds, +provisions for sixty days, ammunition, instruments +and records; a terrible load for the party, +as five men were off duty, and several others +too weak to do their share in the drag-ropes. +There remained, however, twenty dogs, whose +utility was questionable, as they soon consumed +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page322" id="page322"></a>322</span> +more in weight than they ever hauled. The ice +was very rough, large openings were frequent, +snow often impeded progress, roads had to be +made, and on occasion all the stores and men +had to be ferried across wide water-lanes. At +the beginning there was so much baggage +that seven separate loads were hauled, causing +the men to travel thirteen times over the same +road, but this was soon unnecessary, as weights +were gradually reduced.</p> + +<p>To add to De Long’s discouragement he discovered +that they were under the influence of a +northwest drift, and after six days’ travel due +south were twenty-eight miles further north than +when the ship sunk. He refrained from discouraging +the men by this information, but changing +his course to the southwest, got out of the drift.</p> + +<p>On July 11th land was discovered, and turning +toward it the shipwrecked and exhausted men +reached it July 28, 1881; it was in 76° 38´ N., 148° +E., and was called Bennett Island. Landing was +effected by ferrying and crossing heavy, fast-moving +floes, and the danger was greatly enhanced +by the low water, which made it extremely dangerous +work to attain the surface of the overhanging +ice-foot. The cliffs were alive with +birds, which was a welcome change of diet, to +the sick men especially. The island was quite +mountainous, with several grass-covered valleys; +a seam of coal was found and signs of considerable +animal life.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page323" id="page323"></a>323</span></p> + +<table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:750px; height:428px" src="images/img333.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption">Where the Bodies were Found.</td></tr></table> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page324" id="page324"></a>324</span></p> + +<p>Recuperated by their nine days’ rest, the party +started south on August 8th, and landed on +Thaddeus Island, of the New Siberian group, +August 20, 1881. It is unnecessary to dwell on +the dangers and hardships which this unprecedented +journey entailed on the members of this +party, which were met with fortitude, courage, +and energy that made its successful issue one of +the most notable efforts in the history of man, +overcoming obstacles almost insurmountable.</p> + +<p>This remarkable journey had been so far made +alternately by sledge and boat, owing to the +broken condition of the Polar pack; from Thaddeus +Island, however, an open sea enabled them +to proceed in boats, which were respectively +commanded by De Long, Chipp, and Melville. +On September 12th a severe storm separated the +boats off the Lena Delta; Chipp with eight men +were lost, while Melville, with nine others, +reached a small village through one of the eastern +mouths of the Lena.</p> + +<p>De Long landed, in 77° 15´ N., 155° E., September +17th, with Dr. Ambler and twelve men, +having been obliged to abandon his boat, owing +to the shallowness of the river. He took +with him the ship’s records, arms, ammunition, +medicines, necessary camp equipments, and four +days’ provisions, which were carried on the +men’s shoulders. Fuel proved abundant, and +Alexey, their interpreter, killed two deer, thus +improving the situation. Retarded by the presence +of sick men and by the weight of cumbersome +records, they followed slowly southward +the barren shores of the Lena, travelling through +snow and over ice which broke readily. Their +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page325" id="page325"></a>325</span> +feet were soon in terrible condition, and eventually +an ulcer on Ericksen’s foot rendered partial +amputation necessary on September 29th. De +Long then records the terrible situation: They +were confronted by a tributary of the Lena +which must freeze before they could cross, and +as to Ericksen, if forced along, he could not recover, +and “if I remained here and kept everybody +with me, Ericksen’s days would be lengthened +a little at the risk of our all dying from +starvation.” Ice formed in a couple of days, +and they proceeded, dragging Ericksen on a sled.</p> + +<p>October 3d, food entirely failing, their dog +was killed and cooked, giving them strength the +following day to reach a deserted hut large +enough to hold the party. Here they were +storm-stayed two days; Ericksen dying, Alexey +hunting unsuccessfully, the drifting snow and +piercing cold—all these served to plunge the +party into despair. De Long writes: “What, in +God’s name, is going to become of us?—fourteen +pounds of dog meat left and twenty-five miles to +a possible settlement.... Read the burial +service and carried our departed shipmate’s +body to the river, where he was buried.” Their +last food was eaten October 7th, and nothing +remained except old tea-leaves and two quarts of +alcohol; but Alexey shot a ptarmigan, of which +a thin soup was made.</p> + +<table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:640px; height:823px" src="images/img336.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption">Noros and Nindermann.</td></tr></table> + +<p>On October 9th the exhausted condition of +some of the men and an open, unfordable creek +debarred further progress of the party as a +whole. In this contingency De Long sent Nindermann +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page326" id="page326"></a>326</span> +and Noros ahead for relief, with orders +to keep the west bank of the Lena until they +reached a settlement. Later De Long advanced +a mile and camped in a hole in the bank; Alexey +killed four ptarmigans and the party resorted +to their deer-skin clothing for subsistence, but +without avail. The last entry in De Long’s +diary, October 30, 1881, records all dead except +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page327" id="page327"></a>327</span> +Collins, who was dying, Ah Sam and Dr. Ambler, +of whom no mention was made.</p> + +<p>Noros and Nindermann, after a march of one +hundred and twenty miles, reached Bulcour, +which they found deserted. Seeking shelter in +one of the vacant huts, they were discovered by +a native, who took them to an adjacent encampment. +The natives either did not understand Nindermann +or were unwilling to go northward, for +despite his incessant and urgent entreaties they +carried the two seamen southward to Bulun, +where they arrived on October 29th, and met +Melville and his party.</p> + +<p>This energetic officer, exhausting all practicable +means, pushed his relief parties northward +to the extremity of the Lena Delta, but without +success. He reached the Arctic Ocean, recovered +the log-books, chronometer, and other +articles on November 14th, when a severe storm +obliged him to abandon the search. Renewing +his efforts, in March, 1882, he discovered, on +the 23d of that month, the bodies of his companions.</p> + +<p>An official inquiry as to the general conduct of +the expedition caused the board of officers to express +their opinion that the general personnel +were entitled to great praise for their solidarity +and cheerfulness, their constancy and endurance. +The zeal, energy, and professional aptitude of +Melville were noticed, and special commendation +given to De Long for the high qualities displayed +by him in the conduct of the expedition.</p> + +<p>The scientific observations of the Jeannette +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page328" id="page328"></a>328</span> +expedition must be of considerable value, involving +as they do hydrographic, magnetic, and +meteorological observations over an extended +portion of the earth’s surface previously unknown, +and it appears surprising that after all +these years they remain undiscussed.</p> + +<table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:700px; height:700px" src="images/img338.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption">Finding the Bodies.</td></tr></table> + +<p>In addition may be noted the importance of +De Long’s hydrographic contributions, covering +some fifty thousand square miles of polar ocean, +which indicate with equal clearness the character +of fifty thousand other square miles of area to +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page329" id="page329"></a>329</span> +the south, and thus prove the Siberian Arctic +Ocean to be a shallow sea, dotted with islands.</p> + +<p>The geographic results are represented in part +by the attainment of the highest latitude ever +reached in Asiatic seas, and in the discovery of +Jeannette, Henrietta, and Bennett Islands. Discoveries, +however, are both direct and indirect, +and to positive results should be added successes +of an inferential though negative character. +Through De Long’s northwest drift the long-sought-for +Wrangel Land shrank from its assumed +dimensions as a continent, connecting, +under the Petermann hypothesis, Asia with +Greenland, to its reality—a small island.</p> + +<p>It is to be said that this reduction of Wrangel +Land into a little island doomed De Long’s expedition +to certain failure and closed Behring +Strait as a promising route to high latitudes; for +the arctic canon of Parry yet obtains, that without +a sheltering coast no vessel can hope to +navigate safely the Polar Ocean.</p> + +<p>With the march of time it is not to be expected +that geographic problems connected with the +vast ice-covered ocean to the north of Siberia +will be left unsolved. These coming explorers +may be more fortunate than was De Long, and +while profiting by his experiences they will +surpass his efforts, yet their successes cannot +make greater demands on the courage and constancy +of them and their subordinates than were +shown by the gallant De Long and his associates +in the fateful voyage of the Jeannette.</p> + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page330" id="page330"></a>330</span></p> + +<p class="center">XIII.</p> + +<p class="chap center">PAUL BELLONI DU CHAILLU,</p> + +<p class="center sc">Discoverer of the Dwarfs and Gorillas.</p> + +<p class="noind"><span class="chap1 sc">Among</span> the thousands of vigorous and adventurous +men whom chance brought to light in +foreign climes, but who by choice have cast +their lot with America, by becoming citizens of +the United States, there are few whose explorations +and discoveries have excited more popular +interest and discussion than have those of Du +Chaillu, the discoverer, in modern times, of the +dwarfs and the capturer of the gorilla.</p> + +<table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:450px; height:601px" src="images/img341.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption">Paul Belloni Du Chaillu.</td></tr></table> + +<p>Born in Paris, July 31, 1835, the early environments +of Paul Belloni Du Chaillu fostered and +forecast his taste for African exploration, for his +father was one of the adventurous Frenchmen +whose consular appointment and commercial enterprises +led him to settle at the mouth of the +Gaboon, on the west coast of Africa, where his +distinguished son passed his boyhood. While +young Du Chaillu was, doubtless, well grounded +in ordinary sciences by his instructors, the +learned Jesuit fathers, of Gaboon, yet apart from +regular educational institutions he imbibed other +wealth of learning by observation of the rich +tropical world around him, and also through +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page331" id="page331"></a>331</span> +familiar intercourse with neighboring tribes acquired +a knowledge of native tongues and craft, +of savage habits and character, which insured +his after-success in African exploration.</p> + +<p>Commercial pursuits brought Du Chaillu to +the United States, in 1852, when he was so +strongly impressed by American institutions +that he became a naturalized citizen of the +United States.</p> + +<p>Du Chaillu was brought prominently before +the American public by a series of striking and +interesting articles on the Gaboon country, which +from their favorable reception strengthened his +belief in the importance of thoroughly exploring +certain portions of the west coast of Africa. +The region selected for his investigations was +under the burning sun of the equator, somewhat +to the north of the Congo country, in the basins +drained by the Muni, Ogowe, and Rembo Rivers, +which, owing to difficulty of access, extreme heat, +prevailing fevers, and deadly climate, were practically +unknown. Between 1856 and 1859 Du +Chaillu journeyed upward of eight thousand +miles through this country, travelling on foot, +with no white companion, and, with the aid of +natives, cursorily explored nearly one hundred +thousand square miles of virgin territory. Working +with the ardent zeal of a naturalist, his enormous +ornithological collection aggregated thousands +of specimens, and in this collection alone +he added some sixty new species of birds to the +domain of science. Among the quadrupeds, he +discovered no less than twenty new species, and +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page332" id="page332"></a>332</span> +among the most important animals brought to +light were the very remarkable nest-building +ape, with its unknown and its almost equally extraordinary +brother the koo-loo-lamba, and his +observations of the almost unknown gorilla were +most interesting and valuable.</p> + +<p>In ethnology he accumulated a number of invaluable +native arms and implements, which +now adorn the British Museum. Space fails in +which to recite his intense sufferings, during +these explorations, from semi-starvation, the wild +beasts of the dense forests, the venomous reptiles +of the river valleys, the attacks of ferocious ants, +and other intolerable poisonous insects which +infest the interior.</p> + +<p>There are many interesting accounts of curious +quadrupeds in Du Chaillu’s book, “Adventures +in Equatorial Africa,” but none appeals +more strongly to most readers than that of the +gorilla. Traditions from antiquity, the relation +of Hanno, the Carthaginian navigator of 350 +<span class="sc">B.C.</span>, set forth the existence of such an animal, +but no white man had ever seen a gorilla, except +Andrew Battell, early in the seventeenth +century. Nearly ten years before the explorations +of Du Chaillu the gorilla had been, however, +brought to the notice of naturalists by Dr. +Savage, of Boston, who had received a skull from +the Rev. J. L. Wilson, an American missionary +on the Gaboon.</p> + +<p>From boyhood up Du Chaillu had heard from +the natives of Gaboon fearful stories of the cunning, +strength, and ferocity of this ape, which is +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page333" id="page333"></a>333</span> +the most dreaded animal on the west coast of +Africa. For years he had longed for an opportunity +to hunt the gorilla, and when he first saw +its tracks, which threw his native hunters into +alarm, he relates that his sensations were indescribable, +his feelings so intense as to be painful, +and his heart-throbs so violent that he actually +feared the animal would be alarmed by them.</p> + +<p>Du Chaillu chronicles the end of his first successful +hunt as follows:</p> + +<p>“Before us stood an immense male gorilla. +He had gone through the jungle on his all-fours; +but when he saw our party he erected himself +and looked us boldly in the face. He stood +about a dozen yards from us, and was a sight, I +think, never to forget. Nearly six feet high (he +proved two inches shorter), with immense body, +huge chest, and great muscular arms; with +fiercely glaring, large, deep-gray eyes, and a hellish +expression of face, which seemed to me like +some nightmare vision, thus stood before us +this king of the African forests. He was not +afraid of us. He stood there and beat his breast +with his huge fists till it resounded like an immense +bass-drum—which is their mode of offering +defiance—meantime giving vent to roar after +roar. The roar of the gorilla is the most singular +and awful noise heard in these African woods. +It begins with a sharp bark, like an angry dog, +then glides into a deep bass roll, which literally +and closely resembles the roll of distant thunder +along the sky, for which I have sometimes been +tempted to take it where I did not see the animal. +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page334" id="page334"></a>334</span> +So deep is it that it seems to proceed less +from the mouth and throat than from the deep +chest and vast paunch. He again sent forth a +thunderous roar, and now truly he reminded me +of nothing but some hellish dream-creature—a +being of that hideous order, half-man half-beast, +which we find pictured by old artists in some +representations of the infernal regions.”</p> + +<table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:550px; height:808px" src="images/img346.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption">The Gorilla. (<i>Troglodytes Gorilla.</i>)</td></tr></table> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page335" id="page335"></a>335</span></p> + +<p>The explorer relates that flying gorillas so resembled +men running for their lives, and their +discordant cries seemed so human, that he felt +almost like a murderer as he shot them.</p> + +<p>Having obtained a number of specimens, he +now used his utmost endeavors to obtain an +ape alive, and speaks of his success as “one of +the greatest pleasures of my life;” to his great +grief, however, the intractable and savage brute +soon died. Regarding it, Du Chaillu writes:</p> + +<p>“Some hunters who had been out on my account +brought in a young gorilla alive. I cannot +describe the emotions with which I saw the +struggling little brute dragged into the village. +All the hardships I had endured in Africa were +rewarded in that moment. It was a little fellow +of between two and three years old, two feet six +inches in height, and as fierce and stubborn as a +grown animal could have been.”</p> + +<p>Several were captured from time to time, but +all died after short confinement. Every effort to +subdue their ferocity, whether by force or by persistent +kindness, utterly failed; they were never +other than morose, bellicose, and treacherous.</p> + +<p>Another very interesting animal is the nest-building +ape, a before unknown species, which +was discovered by our explorer almost by accident. +Du Chaillu says:</p> + +<p>“As I was trudging along, rather tired of the +sport, I happened to look up at a high tree which +we were passing, and saw a most singular-looking +shelter built in its branches. I asked Aboko +whether the hunters here had this way to sleep +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page336" id="page336"></a>336</span> +in the woods, but was told, to my surprise, that +this very ingenious nest was built by the <i>nshiego +mbouve</i>, an ape. The material is leafy branches +with which to make the roof, and vines to tie +these branches to the tree. The tying is done +so neatly, and the roof is so well constructed +that, until I saw the nshiego actually occupying +his habitation I could scarce persuade myself +that human hands had not built all. It sheds +rain perfectly, being neatly rounded on top for +this purpose. The material being collected, the +male goes up and builds the nest, while the female +brings him the branches and vines.”</p> + +<p>Yet another member of the ape family, discovered +by our explorer, deserves passing notice in +his own words:</p> + +<p>“The koo-loo-lamba has for distinctive marks +a very round head; whiskers running quite +around the face and below the chin; the face is +round; the cheek-bones prominent; the cheeks +sunken; the jaws are not very prominent—less +so than in any of the apes; the hair is black, long +on the arm, which was, however, partly bare. +This ape, whose singular cry distinguishes it at +once from all its congeners in these wilds, is remarkable +as bearing a closer general resemblance +to man than any other ape yet known. It was +very rare, and I was able to obtain but one specimen +of it. This is smaller than the adult male +gorilla, and stouter than the female gorilla. The +head is its most remarkable point. This struck +me at once as having an expression curiously +like an Esquimau or Chinaman.”</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page337" id="page337"></a>337</span></p> + +<p>Among the worst pests of Africa are ants, +especially the bashikouay, which travel in a line +about two inches wide and often miles in length. +Du Chaillu says: “They devour and attack all +with irresistible fury. The elephant and gorilla +fly, the black men run for their lives. In an +incredibly short time a leopard or deer is overwhelmed, +killed, and eaten. They seem to travel +day and night. Often have I been awakened +out of sleep and obliged to rush from my hut and +into the water to save my life. A bashikouay +army makes a clean sweep, even ascending to +the tops of the highest trees in pursuit of their +prey.”</p> + +<p>The results of his four years of research in the +interests of ethnography, geography, and natural +history, were placed before the public in a valuable +work entitled “Explorations and Adventures +in Equatorial Africa.” The book gave rise +to bitter, harsh, unjust criticisms, and engendered +endless discussions. Du Chaillu’s journey +to the interior was entirely discredited, and his +accounts of the animals and natives were characterized +as mere fabrications. Discoveries necessarily +develop discrepancies between the realities +brought to light and existing beliefs produced +through inference or imagination; then, as has +many another discover in science or geography, +Du Chaillu learned how slow is the willingness +of a jealous mind to relinquish its favorite error +for a conflicting truth.</p> + +<p>Justification came speedily, for the explorations +of Serval and Bellay, of the very next year, +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page338" id="page338"></a>338</span> +proved the accuracy of Du Chaillu’s account of +the great Ogowe River, and indicated the general +correctness of his map of the Ashira country. +Burton confirmed his reports regarding the cannibalistic +habits of the Fans, and other statements +were speedily corroborated.</p> + +<p>Stung to the quick by the adverse criticisms, +Du Chaillu, although suffering from the effects +of fevers contracted in his long residence in +Western Africa, determined to repeat the journey +with such precautions regarding his observations +as would be absolutely convincing +as to their truthfulness; especially he determined +to capture and bring to Europe a living +gorilla. To ensure accuracy he went through a +course of instruction in the use of instruments, +learning to make, test, and reduce astronomical +and hypsometrical observations, and acquired +proficiency in the then difficult art of photography. +As regards geographical explorations +he had a vague hope that he might reach from +the west coast of Africa some unknown tributary +of the Nile, down which he might be able to +reach the main river and the Mediterranean Sea.</p> + +<p>Leaving England in August, 1863, Du Chaillu’s +first destination was the mouth of Fernand Vaz +River, about one hundred and ten miles south of +the Gaboon, this point being selected both because +he knew the natives and also because that +river valley being unknown afforded him virgin +ground from the beginning of his journey.</p> + +<p>In landing through the terrible surf that makes +entrance into the Fernand Vaz so dangerous, Du +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page339" id="page339"></a>339</span> +Chaillu was nearly drowned and all his astronomical +instruments and medicines were lost or +damaged. This necessitated his delay in that +region until other instruments could be had +from England; but the time was not lost, for he +had ample opportunity of further studying the +habits of the gorillas, which abound there; fortunately +he captured four, an adult and three +young, one of which he shipped alive to London, +but it died during the voyage.</p> + +<table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:700px; height:647px" src="images/img351.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption">A Village of Dwarfs.</td></tr></table> + +<p>Du Chaillu started on his journey with ten +Commi negroes, previous servitors, as his body-guard, +and fifty porters in place of the hundred +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page340" id="page340"></a>340</span> +needed, thus making double trips necessary for +a while. Following up the Fernand Vaz River +to its tributary, the Rembo, he left this latter +stream at Obindshi and travelled southeasterly +to Olenda. Here a council was held by the local +chief, who forbade him to enter the Apingi +country, but allowed him to proceed to the Ashira +region, where he was long delayed and robbed +by the natives. In crossing the Ngunie River, +on his way eastward to the Ishogo country, he +was surprised to obtain ferriage in a large, flat-bottomed +canoe, which carried baggage and +party across in seven journeys.</p> + +<p>Near the end of June, while traversing a tract +of wild forest near Yangue, Du Chaillu came +suddenly upon a cluster of most extraordinary +and diminutive huts, which he was told were occupied +by a tribe of dwarf negroes. In his previous +journey in the Apingi country he had +given no credence to exaggerated descriptions +and reports that had often come to his ears concerning +dwarf tribes, assuming the stories to be +fables. Now, however, with these curious huts +before him he pressed on eager to obtain personal +information concerning these little folks, +whose existence had been vouched for centuries +before by Pomponius Mela, Herodotus, and +Strabo, and who were described in a fairly accurate +way, by Andrew Battell, in 1625. In answer +to Du Chaillu’s inquiries the natives said +that there were many such villages in the adjacent +forests, and that the tiny men were called +the Obongos.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page341" id="page341"></a>341</span></p> + +<p>He found the huts entirely deserted, but from +scattered traces of recent household effects, it was +quite evident that the Obongos, alarmed at the +approach of strangers, had fled for safety to the +dense jungle of the neighboring forest. He thus +describes their habitations: “The huts were of +a low, oval shape, like a gypsy tent; the highest +part, that near the entrance, was about four feet +from the ground; the greatest breadth was about +four feet also. On each side were three or four +sticks for the man and woman to sleep on. The +huts were made of flexible branches of trees, +arched over and fixed into the ground at each +end, the longest branches being in the middle, +and the others successively shorter, the whole +being covered with heavy leaves.”</p> + +<p>On June 26, 1864, Du Chaillu entered Niembouai, +a large village in Ashango Land, in the +vicinity of which, he learned with great joy, was +situated an inhabited encampment of the Obongos, +or hairy dwarfs, as he terms them. The +Ashango natives offered to accompany him, at +the same time intimating that it was likely the +village would be found deserted; for, said they, +the Obongos (the dwarfs) are shy and timid as +the gazelle, and as wild as the antelope. To see +them, you must take them by surprise. They +are like to the beasts of the field. They feed on +the serpents, rats, and mice, and on the berries +and nuts of the forest.</p> + +<table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:500px; height:684px" src="images/img354.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption">A Pigmy Warrior.</td></tr></table> + +<p>Du Chaillu made his first visit to an Obongo +encampment with three Ashango guides, and +with great precaution they silently entered a +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page342" id="page342"></a>342</span> +village of twelve huts to find it long since deserted. +Fortune was more favorable at the second +village, where, however, no one was to be +seen on entrance. The curling smoke, calabashes +of fresh water, and a half-cooked snake on living +coals indicated that the alarmed inhabitants had +fled on their approach. A search of the huts +resulted in disclosing the presence of three old +women, a young man, and several children, who +were almost paralyzed with fear at the sight of +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page343" id="page343"></a>343</span> +an unknown monster—a white man. By judicious +distribution of bananas, and especially of +beads, Du Chaillu succeeded in allaying their +fears, and later made several visits, but confidence +was never firmly established, and it was +impossible to see the men except as they fled at +his approach, or at a distance when they visited +the Ashango village for purposes of barter.</p> + +<p>During his several visits he carefully measured +six dwarf women, whose average height proved +to be four feet six and one-eighth inches; the +shortest was four feet four and one-half inches, +and the tallest five feet and one-quarter of an +inch; the young man, possibly not full grown, +measured four feet six inches in height.</p> + +<p>Du Chaillu says: “The color of these people +was a dirty yellow, and their eyes had an untamable +wildness that struck me as very remarkable. +In appearance, physique, and color they are totally +unlike the Ashangos, who are very anxious +to disown kinship with them. They declare that +the Obongos intermarry among themselves, sisters +with brothers. The smallness and isolation +of their communities must necessitate close interbreeding; +and I think it very possible this +may cause the physical deterioration of their +race.”</p> + +<p>Their foreheads were very low and narrow, +cheek-bones prominent, legs proportionately +short, palms of hands quite white, and their hair +short, curly tufts, resembling little balls of wool, +which, according to the young man seen by +Du Chaillu, grew also, in plentiful, short, curly +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page344" id="page344"></a>344</span> +tufts on his legs and breast, a peculiarity which +the Ashangos declared was common to the Obongo +men.</p> + +<p>These dwarfs feed partly on roots, berries, and +nuts gathered in the forest, and partly on flesh +and fish. They are very expert in capturing +wild animals by traps and pitfalls, and in obtaining +fish from the streams; and the surplus of +flesh is exchanged for plantains and such simple +manufactured articles as they stand in need of.</p> + +<p>Concerning their settlements and range of migration +Du Chaillu adds: “The Obongos never +remain long in one place. They are eminently +a migratory people, moving whenever game becomes +scarce, but they do not wander very far. +These Obongos are called the Obongos of the +Ashangos; those who live among the Njavi are +called Obongo-Njavi, and the same with other +tribes. Obongos are said to exist very far to +the east, as far as the Ashangos have any knowledge.”</p> + +<p>In his “Journey to Ashango Land” Du Chaillu +gives quite a number of words of the Obongo +language; he considers their dialect to be a mixture +of their original language with that of the +tribe among whom they reside. It appeared +that none of the dwarf women could count more +than ten, probably the limit of their numerals. +Their weapons of offence and defence were usually +small bows and arrows, the latter at times +poisoned.</p> + +<table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:611px; height:750px" src="images/img357.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption">A Dwarf Prisoner.</td></tr></table> + +<p>Leaving Mobano, 1° 53´ S. latitude, and about +12° 27´ E. longitude, by dead reckoning, Du +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page345" id="page345"></a>345</span> +Chaillu passed due east to the village of Mouaou +Kombo, where, by accident, while firing +a salute, one of his body-guard unfortunately +killed a villager. An effort to atone for the accident +by presents would doubtless have been +successful, but, most unfortunately, and despite +Du Chaillu’s strict orders, his body-guards and +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page346" id="page346"></a>346</span> +porters had already irritated the Ashangos by +offensive conduct. Overtures for “blood-money” +were interrupted by an offended chief denouncing +the exploring party. Almost instantly the +natives commenced beating their war-drums, and +Du Chaillu, realizing the danger and loading his +men with his most valuable articles, retreated +westward toward the coast. Before they reached +the forest he and one of his men were wounded +by poisoned arrows. Pursued by the infuriated +savages Du Chaillu restrained his men from +shooting, when, demoralized by the situation, +many of his porters threw away their loads, +which consisted of note-books, maps, instruments, +photographs, and natural history collections. +Curiously enough the instruments and +goods thus abandoned by Du Chaillu in 1864, +were found in 1891, by an African trader, in the +jungle where they had been thrown down by the +retreating carriers, having remained all these +years untouched by the Ashangos, who believed +they were fetich and so regarded them with +superstitious dread.</p> + +<p>After retreating a few miles and finding that +inactivity and self-restraint meant self-destruction, +Du Chaillu took the offensive, and drawing +up his men in a favorable position, repelled his +pursuers with considerable loss. The wounds +from poisoned arrows being external, if subjected +to immediate treatment, healed in a few weeks.</p> + +<p>Further explorations under these circumstances +were impossible, for Du Chaillu depended +entirely for his success on friendly relations +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page347" id="page347"></a>347</span> +with the natives; in consequence he returned to +the sea-coast, and on September 27, 1865, quitted +the shores of Western Equatorial Africa.</p> + +<p>Although the second voyage of Du Chaillu +into the unknown regions of Western Equatorial +Africa rehabilitated his reputation as a reliable +observer, as far as related to geography and natural +history, yet his description of the Obongo +dwarfs gave rise to further discussion and aspersions. +It is needless to say that the discoveries +of Stanley in his last African expedition have definitely +settled this question in Du Chaillu’s favor, +and that the studies of Lenz, Marche, and Bastian, +in and near the region visited by Du Chaillu, +confirm the accuracy of his descriptions. Indeed +the Obongos of Ashango Land rise in proportion +to undersized negroes when compared +with the dwarf queen found by Stanley on the +eastern edge of the great equatorial forest, who +measures only two feet nine inches in height.</p> + +<p>Thus in time has come complete vindication +of all of Du Chaillu’s statements as to the wonders +of the Ashira and Ashango Lands, which +portions of Western Equatorial Africa he was the +first to explore. If the geographical extent of +his explorations give way to that of other African +travellers, yet it must be admitted that he +stands scarcely second to any in the number, importance, +and interest of his contributions and +collections in connection with ethnography and +natural history of Equatorial Africa.</p> + +<p>In later years Du Chaillu has devoted his +attention to the northern parts of Sweden, Norway, +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page348" id="page348"></a>348</span> +Lapland, and Finland, and although his +travels in these regions had no important geographical +outcome, yet they resulted in lately +placing the general public in possession of many +interesting details of these countries, as given in +his book called “The Land of the Midnight +Sun.” His important work, “The Viking Age,” +is an elaborate presentation of his theory that +the ancestors of the English-speaking races were +Vikings and not Anglo-Saxons, and has awakened +much comment in the scientific world. +“Ivar the Viking,” his latest book, is a popular +account of Viking life and manners in the third +and fourth centuries.</p> + +<table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:500px; height:507px" src="images/img360.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption">Arrows of the African Pigmies.</td></tr></table> + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page349" id="page349"></a>349</span></p> + +<table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:450px; height:684px" src="images/img362.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption">Henry M. Stanley.</td></tr></table> + +<p class="center">XIV.</p> + +<p class="chap center">STANLEY AFRICANUS AND THE +CONGO FREE STATE.</p> + +<p class="noind"><span class="chap1 sc">The</span> largest, the richest, and the least known +of the great continents is Africa. Despite its +vast area, numerous tribes, and complicated interests +it may be said that its potential influences +as regards the rest of the world have been alternately +retarded and advanced through the efforts +of four individuals. The jealousy of Rome, +excited to its highest pitch by the eloquence of +the elder Cato, resulted, 146 <span class="sc">B.C.</span>, in the annihilation +of Carthage, an industrial centre whence +for five centuries had radiated toward the interior +of Africa peaceful and commercial influences. +Eight centuries later the hordes of the +Arabian Caliph Omar in turn overwhelmed the +Roman colony at Alexandria, destroying forever +its literary influence by the burning of its great +library.</p> + +<p>Conversely the missionary labors of David +Livingstone, from 1849 to 1873, inculcated peaceful +methods and cultivated moral tendencies +destined to introduce Christianity and develop +civilization. Not only did Livingstone, in the +eloquent words of Stanley, “weave by his journeys +the figure of his Redeemer’s cross on the +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page350" id="page350"></a>350</span> +map of Africa, but, scattering ever his Master’s +words and patterning his life after the Master +stamped the story of the cross on the hearts of +every African tribe he visited.”</p> + +<p>Initiating routes of travel, suggesting new +commercial fields, and organizing stable forms +of government, came a man of harder metal, of +indomitable will and courage, Henry M. Stanley, +who merits the title of Stanley Africanus.</p> + +<p>A Welshman by nativity, born near Denbigh, +in 1840, he came to the United States at the age +of sixteen and thenceforth cast his lot with +America, and as a citizen of this country made +his explorations under its flag. It is reputed +that he exchanged his natal name of Rowlands +for that of Henry M. Stanley, for a merchant +of New Orleans who adopted him; but in any +event his early life was passed without the loving +and modifying influences of a home, his +youth almost equally destitute of those adventitious +surroundings that properly mould the character +and insure opportunities for success to +young men. Thus he stands forth a self-made +man to whom strength has been accorded to +develop the manhood that God implanted in his +soul.</p> + +<p>Stern experiences in the American civil war, +brief life in the far West, and special service in +Turkey had shaped Stanley into a reliant, self-contained +man when his first African journey +came to him, in 1868, through assignment as +newspaper correspondent to accompany the +British army in its invasion of Abyssinia. He +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page351" id="page351"></a>351</span> +participated in this wonderful campaign, which +led him four hundred miles through a country +of indescribable wildness and grandeur, across +rugged mountains, along deep valleys, up to the +fortress-crowned crest of Magdala, ten thousand +feet above the sea.</p> + +<p>Difficult as were the mountains of Abyssinia, +they were less dangerous than the African region +later to be traversed by him; a journey unsought, +but which came to him as the fittest man for the +time and service.</p> + +<p>A telegram and five hours’ preparation carried +Stanley from the blood-red fields of revolutionary +Spain into the famous search journey that gave +to an anxious world news of the long-lost Livingstone. +For twenty years this great Scotch +missionary had carried the gospel of Christ and +its civilizing influences from one end of Africa to +the other; once he had crossed the continent in +its greatest breadth, and now, vanished from the +sight of the civilized world in his renewed missionary +labors, for two years his very existence +had been problematical.</p> + +<table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:700px; height:527px" src="images/img366.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption">The Hut where Livingstone Died.</td></tr></table> + +<p>The search expedition owed its inception and +maintenance to James Gordon Bennett, Jr., whose +brief orders to Stanley were: “Find Livingstone +and bring news of his discoveries or proofs of +his death, regardless of expense.” The personnel, +methods, and arrangements devolved entirely on +Stanley, but his preliminary route was to lie +through certain countries. It thus occurred +that between Madrid, his starting point, and +Ujiji, on Lake Tanganyika, the camp of Livingstone, +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page352" id="page352"></a>352</span> +he saw the gayties of Paris; was present at +the eventful opening of the Suez Canal that revolutionized +Eastern commerce; ascended the Lower +Nile to scrutinize with interested eye Baker’s +prospective expedition to the Soudan; divined +under the mosques of the Bosphorus the political +riddles of Sultan and Khédive; examined the +uncovered foundations of Solomon’s Temple in +the Holy City; meditated over the historic +battle-grounds of the Crimea; penetrated the +Caucasus to Tiflis for news of the Russian expedition +to Khiva; and, traversing Persia through +the Euphratan cradle of the human race, entered +India, whence his route lay to Zanzibar and the +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page353" id="page353"></a>353</span> +dark beyond. What a contrast those preliminary +journeys afforded, across effete countries whose +varying and recorded phases of civilization are +contemporaneous with the history of the human +race, to the threshold of a vast region whose +barbaric freshness is such that its entire history +lies within the memory of living man.</p> + +<p>Stanley landed at Zanzibar, January 10, 1871, +and, fortunately, was at once impressed with his +ignorance of outfitting, which he thought he had +learned from books. Resorting to the Arab +traders he proved such an apt pupil and skilful +organizer that he enlisted twenty-seven soldiers, +gathered one hundred and fifty-seven carriers +and five special employees, which, with two +white assistants, Farquhar and Shaw, made his +aggregate force one hundred and ninety-two. +He had his African money—beads as copper +coins, cloth as silver, and brass rods as gold; +canvas-covered boats for navigation; asses and +horses for special work; fine cloth for tribute to +local chiefs, which, with tentage, medicine, etc., +made some six tons of freight.</p> + +<p>March 21, 1871, the rear guard marched out of +Bagamoyo, the town on the mainland opposite +Zanzibar, and taking a route never before travelled +by a white man, Stanley reached Simbamwenni +in fourteen marches, the journey of one +hundred and nineteen miles having occupied +twenty-nine days, during which the commander +came to fully realize the difficulty of his undertaking, +the inefficiency of unpractised subordinates, +and the uncertain loyalty of carriers.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page354" id="page354"></a>354</span></p> + +<p>The onward march resembled all in Africa: +thorns and jungle to wound the naked carriers, +rivers to be forded or crossed on almost impracticable +bridges, swamps many miles in length +and so miry as to tax the utmost strength and +energy of man and ass, insolence and exactions +of local potentates, thefts by natives, desertions +of carriers, the oft-recurring fever, and occasionally +a death.</p> + +<p>The 20th of May, Stanley was at Mpwapwa +(Mbambwa), delighted physically at its fair aspect +and upland picturesqueness, but mentally +anxious over Farquhar, whom he left here sick, +and the loss of his asses, which he fortunately +was able to replace by twelve carriers. He +reached, on June 22d, Unyanyembe, after a devious +journey of five hundred and twenty miles +to cover an air-line distance of one hundred and +fifty. Here had just arrived a relief caravan +for Livingstone, which had left Zanzibar four +months prior to Stanley’s. Near by, at Tabora, +the chief Arabian town of central Africa, Stanley +was surprised to find the Arabs at war with a +savage chief, Mirambo, thus barring the usually +travelled road to Ujiji.</p> + +<p>Here Stanley lost three months, and participated +in an unsuccessful campaign with the +Arabs against Mirambo, vainly hoping that thus +his road would be opened. Five of his men were +killed in the war, others deserted, so that only +eleven carriers remained, and altogether his +prospects of success steadily diminished.</p> + +<table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:450px; height:464px" src="images/img369.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption">Map showing Position and Boundaries of the Congo State.</td></tr></table> + +<p>Despairing of the old route, Stanley, having +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page355" id="page355"></a>355</span> +with great difficulty recruited his force of carriers, +decided to try a circuitous trail to the +south in order to reach Ujiji, which lay to the +northwest. Failure and destruction were predicted, +but with confidence in himself Stanley, +on September 20th, marched on with Shaw and +fifty-six others. Illness caused him to soon send +back Shaw, his only white companion; frequent +desertions weakened his force; an incipient mutiny +of his panic-stricken men on the Gombe +River threatened complete destruction to the +party; insolent chiefs exacted extortionate tribute; +desert marches without water and scant food +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page356" id="page356"></a>356</span> +discouraged and weakened the men; but the +leader pushed on with unflagging energy despite +every obstacle. His route lay through Igonda, +Itende, the beautiful country of Uvinsa, across +rocky Uhha to the Malagarazi River, where his +heart was gladdened by rumors from the natives +that a white man had lately arrived at Ujiji +from Manyuema.</p> + +<p>Pushing on with feverish haste, on November +9, 1871, he had the indescribable joy of looking +down on magnificent Lake Tanganyika, and on +the following day, with his gigantic guide, Asmani, +proudly striding in advance with the Stars +and Stripes as his standard, Stanley marched into +Ujiji, and there accomplished his mission by +meeting Livingstone and ascertaining the results +of his late labors. Livingstone’s primary mission—the +suppression of the slave trade by means of +civilizing influences—had not materially progressed, +but he had strong hopes of the future. +Geographically, however, he had been most successful, +having made important discoveries in +the water-sheds of Lakes Tanganyika and the Nyanzas, +and found an unknown river, the Lualaba, +which in a later exploration Stanley proved to +be the Upper Congo.</p> + +<p>Stanley found Livingstone with only five carriers +and without means of trade. Supplying all +deficiencies from his own stores, he assisted Livingstone +in his exploration of Lake Tanganyika, +and the twain returned together to Unyanyembe. +In the meantime both Farquhar and Shaw died, +and Stanley, turning over his surplus stores to +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page357" id="page357"></a>357</span> +Livingstone, bade him farewell and Godspeed, +and started for Zanzibar. On March 14, 1872, +eight weeks later, Stanley was again enjoying +civilization at Bagamoyo, while Livingstone was +awaiting means of returning to his life-task, soon +to be ended by his death among the tribes he +loved, for “Greater love hath no man than this, +that a man lay down his life for his friends.”</p> + +<p>Over four months of intercourse with Livingstone +steadily increased Stanley’s admiration for +this great man. He describes him as a high-spirited, +brave, impetuous, and enthusiastic man, +with these qualities so tempered by his deep, +abiding spirit of religion as to make him a most +extraordinary character. In all his relations with +his servants, with the natives, and with Mohammedans, +Christianity appeared in its loveliest +and most potent forms, constant, sincere, charitable, +loving, modest, and always practical. It +was this abiding faith in God which made Livingstone +a man of unfailing devotion to his sense +of present duty, of wondrous patience, unvarying +gentleness, constant hopefulness, and unwearied +fidelity—qualities which made his missionary +work in Africa unprecedentedly successful.</p> + +<p>Abuse, misrepresentation, and incredulity +from geographic societies, critics, and press +greeted Stanley’s account of his discovery of +Livingstone, and only gradually did his traducers +yield to the convincing evidences of his +astonishing success.</p> + +<p>Turning to his old work, Stanley, in the winter +of 1873-74, again entered Africa, accompanying +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page358" id="page358"></a>358</span> +as newspaper correspondent the British army, +which invaded to a distance of one hundred and +forty miles the deadly marshes of the Ashantee +Kingdom, and destroyed its capital city, Coomassie.</p> + +<p>When the death of Livingstone brought Africa +into prominence again, Stanley, believing +he could complete so much of the missionary’s +work as concerned exploration, turned thither at +the head of an expedition under the auspices of +the London <i>Telegraph</i> and the New York <i>Herald</i>, +the object being the survey of the lacustrine +system at the head of the White Nile and a +journey thence westward across the continent.</p> + +<p>Leaving Bagamoyo, November 17, 1874, Stanley +reached Lake Victoria Nyanza in March, +1875, his journey of seven hundred and twenty +miles being marked by pestilential fevers, struggles +through thorny jungles, and scant food and +water. Circumnavigating the lake, he found it +to be over four thousand feet above the ocean, +while its proportions—nearly twenty-two thousand +miles in area and in places over five hundred +feet deep—assumed those of an inland sea. +Here Mtesa, a powerful and able negro king, of +Mohammedan faith, proved most friendly and +greatly aided him, furnishing an escort, which +enabled Stanley to explore a part of the adjacent +mountain region. From Ujiji he then explored +Lake Tanganyika, finding it to be about half the +size of Victoria, with an elevation of about twenty-seven +hundred feet.</p> + +<table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:600px; height:700px" src="images/img373.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption">Tippu-Tib.</td></tr></table> + +<p>Important as were these discoveries they paled +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page359" id="page359"></a>359</span> +before others, made in following the Lualaba +River of Livingstone, which changed the map +of Central Africa and altered the destiny of +that vast and untraversed region. The journey +to Nyangwe, Livingstone’s “farthest,” entailed +horrible hardships on the carriers. This Arab +village was reached via the Luama, which, of +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page360" id="page360"></a>360</span> +hitherto unknown course, was found by Stanley +to be an affluent of the Lualaba. At Nyangwe +Stanley felt that his accomplished journey of +over eight hundred miles from the east coast +promised well for his coming voyage to a known +point on the other coast, nine hundred miles +due west. He made an agreement with an Arab, +Tippu-Tib, trader in human flesh or ivory as +chance offered, to escort the expedition about +six hundred miles west through the unknown +regions. The country proved to be primeval +forest, almost trackless, its tropical undergrowth +a veritable jungle of thorns and vines. Game +was scanty and other food equally so. Finally, +progress was so slow and the path so devious +that Stanley, yielding to his appeals, discharged +Tippu-Tib and decided to descend the river +by canoes and his frame boat. He embarked +at Vinya Njara, with one hundred and fifty +in his party, on December 28, 1876, intrusting +himself with sublime audacity to a river +flowing no one knew whither, save it was away +from civilization, and with the knowledge that +the country they were entering was peopled by +tribes entirely hostile and intractable, as the +slave-traders said. Day after day they drifted +steadily to the north. Was it or was it not the +Nile of Livingstone’s prediction? Then day by +day the course trended to the east. Yes, it could +only be the Nile. After two hundred and forty +miles the trend was to the northwest, whither, +week after week, for about three hundred miles it +kept its puzzling flow toward a point of the compass +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page361" id="page361"></a>361</span> +where it could join no river known to man. +It had, too, assumed proportions and volume truly +Amazonic, filled with islands and swollen from +one to seven miles in width. All efforts to gain +a knowledge of its final course were then fruitless, +for the few barbarous natives they could +win to speech answered in uncouth jargon, +scarcely intelligible to the interpreters: “It is +the river—the river!” The terrors of the silent +stream in its majestic solitude were almost +preferable to the presence of populous villages, +which here and there lined its banks, for the inhabitants, +ferociously hostile for the greater +part, refused trade and boldly assaulted them. +Skilful canoemen and good archers, the savages +slaughtered unwary stragglers, harassed the +rear and attacked the front, while their horrible +threats that the bodies of the slain should serve +as food at their cannibalistic repasts instilled +terror in the minds of many of Stanley’s followers. +Skirmishes were frequent, and now and +then a severe fight which taxed Stanley’s forces +to the utmost. Again the river had here and +there series of cataracts which caused no end of +trouble, delay, and danger to the party, nine men +being drowned in one day.</p> + +<p>Fortunately the river had turned to the south, +and then to southwest, where, after another +thousand miles, it flowed through a narrow +gorge, one hundred and fifty miles from the sea, +so that no doubt longer obtained as to it being +the Congo. The terrible falls near the gorge +entailed enormous labor to pass them, and barely +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page362" id="page362"></a>362</span> +failed of destroying the party. In all twenty-eight +cataracts were passed, and finally the river +became so precipitous, the falls so high, that they +had to abandon their boats and march overland +to Boma, an English trading-post, five days’ +journey distant. Fatigue, famine, and exposure +further enfeebled them and now made daily inroads +among the ranks of those who had so far +survived, and the entire party would have perished +on the very threshold of civilization and +plenty had not Stanley’s messengers, sent on +with urgent appeals, obtained help at Boma, +where the expeditionary force arrived August +12, 1877. They had made a river journey of +seven thousand miles, proved the Congo to be +second only to the Nile, and crossed Africa.</p> + +<p>When Stanley, in 1877, intrusting his life and +fortunes to a mighty and unknown stream, voyaged +toward the very heart of the Dark Continent, +even his wildest dreams could not have +foreshadowed results equal to the reality of a +near future. His voyage in its potentiality was +second only to that of Columbus, as the outcome +of the succeeding five years plainly indicates. +All Europe, alive to the commercial importance +of the Congo Basin, hastened to reach its borders +or encroach on its limits by means of enlarged +dependent colonies; commerce and religion, +hand in hand, traversed its rivers by steam and +lined its banks with beneficent settlements, while +the merciless Arab devastated its villages and +dragged its decimated natives into slavery. +Then came a political wonder—the peaceful +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page363" id="page363"></a>363</span> +creation of a vast tropical empire more than a +million square miles in area, the Congo Free +State, erected and admitted into the community +of nations by act of an international conference, +in which participated fourteen European powers +and the United States, our own country being +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page364" id="page364"></a>364</span> +fittingly the first to officially acknowledge the +existence of the new state its adventurous citizen +had given to the world.</p> + +<table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:504px; height:650px" src="images/img377.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption">Emin Pasha.</td></tr></table> + +<p>The voyage through the Dark Continent was +obviously potent of future results, and Gambetta, +in 1878, clearly forecast the effects of +Stanley’s journey. The great French statesman +said: “Not only have you opened up a new continent +to our view, but you have given influence +to scientific and philanthropic enterprises which +will have its effect on the progress of the world. +What you have done has interested governments—proverbially +so difficult to move—and the impulse +you have imparted, I am convinced, will +go on year after year.”</p> + +<p>Slowly recovering from the effects of famine +and fatigue incident to this arduous journey, +Stanley returned to Europe in January, 1878, +and was met, as he stepped out of the express +train at Marseilles, by two commissioners of +King Leopold of Belgium, who informed him +that his Majesty contemplated a new enterprise +in Africa and desired his assistance. While +heartily indorsing the proposed work of Leopold +his physical condition was such that active +co-operation was impossible, and he was even +unable to visit his Majesty. Five months later, +with physical energies renewed, after a visit +to Leopold, Stanley eventually agreed to the +proposition which contemplated the establishment +of a grand commercial enterprise for controlling +the trade of the valley of the Congo. It +involved the erection of commercial and military +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page365" id="page365"></a>365</span> +stations along the overland route and the +establishment of steam communication wherever +available. In short, a colony of Europeans was +to be founded in the Congo Basin, whose great +fertility, healthy climate, and enormous population +seemed to especially favor the development +of African civilization. The action of +Leopold evidently grew out of Stanley’s declarations +that “the question of this mighty waterway +(the Congo) will become a political one +in time,” and his conviction that any power +possessing the Congo would absorb the whole +enormous trade behind, as this river was and +must continue to be, the grand commercial highway +of West and Central Africa.</p> + +<p>Stanley accepted the mission, visited Zanzibar, +where he enlisted sixty-eight Zanzibari, +mostly his old soldiers, and by sea reached +Banana Point, on the west coast, August 14, +1879. Two years previous he had reached this +place after descending the newly discovered +Congo; now he was re-entering its fertile basin +in order to establish civilized settlements, with +the intention of subduing Central Africa by +peaceful ways and to remould it into harmony +with modern ideas, so that justice and order +should ever obtain, violence and the slave trade +forever cease.</p> + +<table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:600px; height:720px" src="images/img380.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption">Finding Nelson in Distress at Starvation Camp.</td></tr></table> + +<p>He returned to Europe in 1882, his success far +exceeding the expectations of the committee. +In this time, with the aid of sixty-eight Zanzibari +and a few Europeans, he had constructed three +trading-stations, launched a steamer on the Upper +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page366" id="page366"></a>366</span> +Congo, established steam communication between +Leopoldville and Stanley Pool, and also +constructed wagon-roads between Vivi and Isangila, +Manyanga and Stanley Pool. He pointed +out to the committee the imperative necessity of +a railroad between the Lower and Upper Congo +in order to preserve uninterrupted communication, +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page367" id="page367"></a>367</span> +which scheme was approved by the committee +provided Stanley would take charge of +the work. Although his health was impaired, +he agreed to return to the Congo and complete +the establishment of stations as far as Stanley +Falls, which he duly accomplished, not leaving +Africa until there were five promising trading-posts—Vivi, +Leopoldville, Kinshassa (Stanley +Pool), Equator, and Stanley Falls, the last about +two thousand miles inland from the west coast.</p> + +<p>On Stanley’s return to Europe the question of +organizing the basin of the Congo into an independent +state was agitated. As a result fourteen +of the European powers and the United States +united in a conference at Berlin and formally +agreed, on February 26, 1885, that the entire +Congo Basin should be erected into a nation to +be known as the Congo Free State. Thus less +than eight years after Stanley’s famous journey +he beheld the country that his genius had rescued +from oblivious darkness erected into a +new state and admitted into the community of +nations.</p> + +<p>The last journey of Stanley into Africa was +for the rescue of the Egyptian governor of +Equatoria, Edward Schnitzer, a German by +birth, better known as Emin Pasha. On the +death of General Gordon, by whom he was appointed +governor, Emin had been left to his fate +at Wadelai by the Egyptian authorities, from +which point he wrote on December 31, 1885, saying +that for nineteen months he had been forgotten +and abandoned. On July 6, 1886, he +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page368" id="page368"></a>368</span> +wrote beseeching help. In this contingency the +sum of £21,500 was raised—£10,000 from the +Egyptian Government, the rest subscribed in +England—for the expenses of a relief party, and +all eyes turned to Stanley as the natural leader. +He was engaged in a very profitable lecturing +tour in the United States when the expedition +was finally decided on. Three days after the +receipt of a cablegram that his plans were accepted, +Stanley sailed for Africa <i>via</i> England, +using such despatch that he had his expedition +of 680 men, 61 being Soudanese soldiers, ready +to leave Zanzibar on February 25, 1887.</p> + +<p>Stanley decided to make the journey by vessel +around the Cape of Good Hope to the Congo, +by which river he expected to get within 200 +miles of Lake Albert. The co-operation of the +infamous Arab trader, Tippu Tib, the most powerful +trader in Africa, was obtained by making +him governor of Stanley Falls, in the Congo +Free State.</p> + +<p>Following the Congo to the Aruwimi, Stanley +turned up that stream and camped at Yambuya, +about sixty miles above the mouth and over +one thousand three hundred miles from the sea. +To this point he had lost 57 men, and now divided +his forces as follows: Advance guard, +under himself, 389; Yambuya garrison, 129, +under Major Barttelot; other supporting guards +in rear, 131; original force, 706.</p> + +<p>On January 28, 1887, Stanley started for Lake +Albert, 330 miles distant in an air line, through +an entirely unknown country. It proved to be +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page369" id="page369"></a>369</span> +a virgin forest, the greatest of the world, +through which a path had to be cut almost the +entire distance. For one hundred and sixty days +they marched through an almost unbroken forest-bush, +jungle, marsh, and creek. The scattered +villages, filled with barbarous and hostile tribes, +were abandoned at their approach; poisoned +skewers, covered with green leaves, were planted +in the paths, and twice the party was attacked.</p> + +<p>On October 6th affairs came to a crisis, as provisions +had failed, save scanty wild plants; many, +stricken with disease, including Stairs, one of the +officers, could go no farther. No less than one +hundred and twenty-six men had been lost by +death and desertion, about half from each cause, +and all must perish unless the party divided. +Stanley left Nelson and 52 men in camp on Ituri +River, about 1° 5´ N., 28° 30´ E., and started +ahead for relief. After terrible privation, and +nearly perishing of starvation on the way, they +reached Ipoto, October 17th, where food was +purchased from the natives. As soon as possible +Jephson, Stanley’s able and loyal assistant, returned +to Nelson’s relief and brought him and +three men to Ipoto, nine carriers having died +and forty deserted. December 4th, Stanley with +175 men emerged from the forest and nine days +later reached Lake Albert, whence Wadelai, +Emin’s station, was distant four days’ journey +by water, or twenty-five by land.</p> + +<p>Finding no boats on Lake Albert, Stanley was +obliged to retreat from its desolate shores westward +to a fertile region, where he built Fort +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page370" id="page370"></a>370</span> +Bodo and planted crops, while a detachment +brought up his steel boat, in which Jephson +reached M’swa and was met, on April 26, 1888, +by Emin, who had been notified by Stanley’s native +courier. Two days later Emin and Stanley +met at Lake Albert, when propositions and plans +as to Emin’s movements were made and discussed +with no definite results.</p> + +<table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:700px; height:567px" src="images/img384.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption">A Stockaded Camp.<br /> +(From a photograph.)</td></tr></table> + +<p>The equation of Emin’s character seems to +have been best stated by Vita Hassan, his friendly +subordinate for twenty years, who considers +Emin’s many virtues as those of a missionary +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page371" id="page371"></a>371</span> +rather than of a governor or commander, and attributes +his infirmity of indecision to innate goodness +of heart. It was nine months before Emin, +his army mutinous, himself and Jephson imprisoned, +with death as an alternative, decided to return +with Stanley to Zanzibar.</p> + +<p>In the meanwhile Stanley, anxious as to his +rear guard, returned through the dreaded forest +hoping from day to day to meet it, but saw no +signs until he reached Banalya, on the Aruwimi, +a few miles from where he had left it. Here he +found it in a state of inactivity and disorganization, +its chief, Major Barttelot, murdered by a native, +Jameson and one hundred and two out of the +original two hundred and seventy-six dead, and +twenty-six deserted. Again the journey through +the forest and its hostile tribes to Lake Albert, +where Stanley with the hesitating Emin Pasha and +his followers started for Zanzibar on April 1, 1889.</p> + +<p>The return journey, made as far as Lake Victoria +Nyanza over unknown ground, resulted +in the discovery of Mount Ruwenzori, a snow-clad +peak under the Equator, estimated to be +seventeen thousand feet high. Moreover, of +vastly more importance, Stanley ascertained that +Lake Albert Nyanza through the Semliki River, +drained a large lake, named Albert Edward, thus +determining the secret of the long-sought and +ever retreating source of the White Nile. Small +streams feed Lake Albert Edward from the south, +whose extreme limit is placed by Stanley in 1° +10´ S. latitude.</p> + +<p>December 4, 1889, found the party arrived at +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page372" id="page372"></a>372</span> +Bagamoyo, the coast town opposite Zanzibar. +The work which Stanley was sent to do, as all +other tasks assumed by this great explorer, was +ended, and Emin Pasha once more looked on the +faces of his countrymen.</p> + +<table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:618px; height:700px" src="images/img386.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption">Ruwenzori (The Snowy Mountain) identified by Stanley with “the Mountains of +the Moon.”<br /> +Ascended 10,677 feet above sea-level by Lieutenant Stairs. Total height about +16,600 feet.<br /> +(From a drawing by Mr. Stanley, made at the time of the discovery.)</td></tr></table> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page373" id="page373"></a>373</span></p> + +<p>Crowned with highest honors from all the +powers of Europe, no tribute, as Stanley has +said, gave such gratification as that from the +United States, which, proud of the achievements +of its great citizen, extended to him the unprecedented +honors of its official, well-considered, and +merited commendation, wherein, under date of +February 7, 1878, it was “<i>Resolved</i>, by the Senate +and House of Representatives in Congress assembled, +That, regarding with just pride the +achievements of their countryman, Henry M. +Stanley, the distinguished explorer of Central +Africa, the thanks of the people of the United +States are eminently due and are hereby tendered +him as a tribute to his extraordinary patience, +prudence, fortitude, enterprise, courage, and +capacity in solving by his researches many of +the most important geographical problems of +our age and globe, problems of a continental +scope, involving the progress of our kind in commerce, +science, and civilization.”</p> + +<hr class="art" /> +<p class="center">THE END.</p> + +<hr class="art" /> + + +<div style='display:block; margin-top:4em'>*** END OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK EXPLORERS AND TRAVELLERS ***</div> +<div style='text-align:left'> + +<div style='display:block; margin:1em 0'> +Updated editions will replace the previous one—the old editions will +be renamed. +</div> + +<div style='display:block; margin:1em 0'> +Creating the works from print editions not protected by U.S. copyright +law means that no one owns a United States copyright in these works, +so the Foundation (and you!) can copy and distribute it in the United +States without permission and without paying copyright +royalties. 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